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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. 52

Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4

Price Rs. 5-0-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1958

o —

Va WAIT HSO Ny ha

‘ty \

| DEC 291958

eee wy

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these four parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound:

Title page ae

Errata

Contents of Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4 of Vol. 52

List of contributors a

List of plates ree

Index to illustrations

Index to species

To follow frontis-

piece in this order.

To go at the end of

the four numbers.

iia PH

JOURNAL

OF THE

BomMBAY NATURAL HisTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SALIM ALI, and H. SANTAPAU, s.J,

VOL, 52

Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4

Containing 1 coloured, 59 black-and-white plates, 5

photographs in text, 5 maps, and 111 text figures

; Dates of Publication

Part 1 (Pages 1 to 232) ... April 1954

Parts 2&3 (Pages 233 te 686) — .., August-December 1954

Part 4 (Pages 687 to 962) ... April 1955

AGENTS IN ENGLAND

WHELDON & WESLEY LTD.,

Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin,

Herts, England

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1958

ERRATA

Vol. 52, Nos. 2 & 3, page 519, in the fifteenth line from top in

place of types fallen off, please read ‘70, Nerium indicum,’

Vol. 52, No. 4, Plate I (coloured) facing page 687, please read

‘The Chestnut Bittern (Lrobrychus cinnamomeus)’ in place of the

printed caption ‘ The Yellow Bittern (/xobrychus sinensis)’.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 5?

No. 1

2 a We gee sii wives PAGE

“WILD LirE PRESERVATION—KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN

EXAMPLE, By A. St. J. Macdonald.. (With six plates)... 1

CaN ae ON THE DiET OF FLAMINGOES. By M. W.

Ridley... Bee ee ene cs hater seperate odes sates 5

A New Bae ec FROM Pees. pea (Saonasures).

By C. Vaurie and K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... 8

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF Ephedra 1% THE INprAN. eee

By M. M. Bhandari. (With one photograph)... cs Ses 10

SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE. PART Ill. “By W. T.

Loke. (With tive plates)... er eventos cuclesayestarnieess ve 14

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE opEpAe OF THE DARJEELING

ArBA. By M.D. Lister.. St A CAC Ayer 20

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE Wurst Bee OF anne INDIA.

--e By Sri.C. Rajasekhara. Mudaliar, m.A., and H. Sunanda

Kamath, B.sc. (With a text Ee te Go

A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF

Burma (1953). By U Tun Yin... ae 83

PoIsONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA. Part I. By s. ibe Sesmle 88

A ConTRIBUTION TO THE -Frora OF Mussoortz. By IN Ae

Watts... Pie os cu ery osesiscd cac nce cmaz eta ee aor: 106

ee OF THE PLANKTON Driatoms OF THE se

LAKE FOR THE YEARS 1950 AND 1951. By J.C. Roy.

(With two maps and two text figures)iiicreorrieseeeree 112

GROWTH-RATE OF THE Peart Oyster, Pinctada pinctada in

THE GuLF OF KUTCH WITH A NOTRE ON THE PEARL

FISHERY OF 1953. By S. V. Gokhale, Car: Haswaran

and R. Narsimhan. (With five text figures)... 124

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND nea eee OF

soME Bompay Pcrants. IIL. Murdannia scaptitlorune

_ (Roxb.) Royle. By R. Fernandes, B.sc.,and H. Santapau,

BEE CLIZZOEEC ON DULCE aON ccm ceac yet GuRuhekiecisdteeissvecssy-as, ) LOZ

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’s FISHING INDUSTRY. By

Hi Tee ENCE GYAN Mera sincviae sas sed y15 cag rssicts «oo ves veo 142

SMITHSON AN

ANSTAT UTION DES

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

THE GENUS Cymbopogon SPRENG. IN INDIA; BURMA AND

CEYLON. ParTII. By N. L. Bor. (With 27 text figures).

NATURAL History OF THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE Jatlera

indica cuvierti (WATERHOUSE). By M.R.N. Prasad......

NEw SPECIES OF INDIAN PLANTS. au R. Seenee Rao:

REVIEWS :—

1. Animal Wonderland—Essays in Natural History.

By Frank W.° Lane. (DE. Ri) i.) co. 0s. see oe ete

2. Leopard of the Hills. By James Temple. (P.AG s2\5)

3. The Birds of Burma. By B. E. Smythies. (C.E.H.)

4. Hoofed Mammals of the World. By Ugo Mochi

and T. Donald Carter. (S. Thomas Satyamurti).

5. The Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs. Series],

No;..2. (H: ‘Santapatt, S.J.) saa seat een carers

6. The Indian Pharmaceutical Codex. Volume I.

(Hi. Santapatl, \S:d2) on ssese ease seteteneec a eceee

7. The Birds of the British Isles. By David A. Ban-

nerman and George b. Lodge. Volume I and

II. (H. G. A.):.. een Ae, Sty

& The Birds of West. aa qdatorial “Abies, 2

volumes. By David A. Bannerman. (H.G.A.)

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY ....5..0. cee tiitcersce sees see

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

Man-eating Heer in South India. By R. C.

MOrris. cece De Bee

Panther killed ie domestic Bawalece. By J. M.

POWCE cee eee coe

Mote notes on peed Tadian: ‘Buffalo. ait R. P,

Noronha... noO0 Bao 686 JO8BHbhO 506 06. Hotontoks.o&

Gaur ces “Han By R. C. Morris... e

Thamin or Eld’s Deer Panolia eldt thamin (Thomas.

By Tun Yin.. nf oa .

Stride of ee a crossing trench. ne R. c.

Motris.. ean Sun cetiae tae weet s cone

Death of wild ieenaie yes suspected ae

poisoning, in Travancore-Cochin State. By

Birds eating the poisonous fruit of the Yellow

Oleander (7 hevetia nerizfolia). By S. M. Krishnan,

PaGr

149

184

190

192

193

195

196

197

198

199

201

202

204

205

206

207

10.

18.

19;

20.

21.

a2.

(seh

24.

(go %

26.

raf

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

Migration of insectivorous Birds in Madhya

Pradesh in 1953. By C. E. Hewetson.............

Strange behaviour of a House Crow. By C. H.

Biddulph... ee sae HR ona

Possible association between the dan Yellow-

naped Woodpecker and the Large Racket-tailed

Drongor. By C,H. Biddullphiecii5 4.25. 30085. .00- 00

Cuculus canorus bakert in Bombay. By Humayun

Abdulali .. ar eee das des

Occurrence of ea: Crested Onde (Cla-

mator coromandus) in Madras. By §. M. Krishnan.

Goshawk (Astur genttlis) in Bhavnagar (Saurashtra).

By Os DharmakiwimarSinbjis: .5..0.4-e6 <6. 00s

Occurrence of the Banded Crake [Rallus eurtzon-

oides amuroptera a. in Travancore. By

M. C. A. Jackson.. Sel eee aoe aera de

Food of the Bull Frog. Be a Gay Sete eg eee

The record Indian Crocodile. By Humayun

PCa aE ce Ghceata os Rice Secanaeas See Race roere

An addition to the list of Snakes of Bombay and

Salsette— Uvropeltzs macrolepis Coe ei we

tidae. By V. K. Chari.. Be aes ne

Further comment on the “Maniial of the Chilka

Lake—A special Net for Beloniform fishes. By

S. Jones and K. H. Sujansinghani...........0seces.

Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By

IDG: SevastOpulo, FsR.EiS..-ascccesucedoreek coo sectes

Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By

Cree MCC a ihe cee arcana na Meawaaneacrad dees doses see deercanes

“Occurrence of Danais chrysippus var. dorippus at

Dum Dum air port. By A. E.G. Best............

Punters’ ‘Sugar: iBy WwW. S) Thom... 066 eis. sch dc

Occurrence of Corymorpha (fydrozoa) in Indian

Waters. By M. R. Ranade, M.sc. ane (With

a text figure)... Be cietatot Stor loetione

A six-locular Cpaus on the eation Plant. By

G. W. Deodhar.. Lea RNA cent yet ade 6 30

Occurrence of a retin Leaf i in Gina: aurantium L.

By S. Kalyanasundaram. (With a sketch)......

Proliferation in Grass, By R. B, Majumdar.........

213

214

215

216

218

219

221

222

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

i PAGE

28. The flowering of Strobilanthes auriculatus Nees.

By -Mrs, Jamal: Atia.c3.- cMee seston tacedqe-os5+0- eee

29. Abnormalities in the fruit of Aveca calechu ia - By.

T. S. Ramakrishnan. (With a text figure)...... 224

30. Effect of Margosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves on-

the rotting of Potato tubers during storage. By

5.20. Sandon. Bo uddliva chin Mech oEe a: ween poe eS

31. Variation in the floral parts of Solanum melongena

L. By G. P. Argikar and M. S. Solanki Sa a

text figure)... Fe iddwak. eal geake el na ne, eee oe

' 32, Chapters on the eee of Botany in India, e EE,

Burkill, in this Journal 51: 846-878. A Correc-

tion.: By°S.'P*Aghatkar, Phin, FN. ee ee

Gleanings 7 Eons coe dete ees ee eee ene elie AS =)

Notes-and N6wWsie. es acd eo vcoced dae dace eee an eee ere eee eee Zo

Gorrigenda, Viol. Sk; INO: 4..:..20..: ae eee 236

Nos. 2 & 3

WiLp Lirez PRESERVATION IN INDIA. Annual Report for —

1953 on ‘the Eek Region. By ©. ©. Gee us,

COMMENTS ON THR BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA WITH PARTI- —

CULAR REFERENCE TO Birps. By S. Dillon Ripley.

CW 2th 2200, 21 GDS) on nics smapiins cusiens «ocho nets ose cnet sass ec lice aes ae

OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF TWO SPIDER Mimics OF

THE RED ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina (FABR.). By A. P.

Mathew, M.A., Ph.D. (With five text FLL UTES) soe eee sar ceeses 249

WILD LifE PRESERVATION AND SANCTUARIES INTHE UNION —

or Burma. By U Tun Yin, B.A.,B.C.s. (Witha map)... 264

ABORIGINAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN KILLING AND CAPTUR-

ING GAmE. By K. M. Kirkpatrick. (With six text

Li QUres)... sop eSee otieiauee ne ds suaiee sites ssceseBaeuee ir cces | Oe

A ee ae 3 NOTE ON THE STATUS OF RHINOCEROS

AND THAMIN (Panolia eldi thamin) IN THE UNION OF .

Burma, 1953. By U- Tum Van; wiciss Geet eit On

REPORT ON THE FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE,

KACHIN STATE, NORTH BuRMA. By F. Kingdon-Ward,

B.A, (Cantab,), O.8.58., PeL.Sl, Wall. Has, sceaes-geouteetey).gue, S04

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52:

Roan OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE TZalera indica cuvieri

We eee ee By M. R. N. Prasad. OE one histo-

BS UMA) Mensa s Sit es earls Site Nematnentlastiea sons slehiiegédaSi eset asace ule sodses

THE WHALE SHARK, &hincodon he (Sum. Bee Charles

McCann, F.L.s. (With two plates)...

PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER OCEANIc BIRDS IN THE

NORTH INDIAN OcEAN. By W. W. A. Phillips........0+0.

OBSERVATIONS ON Zilapia mossambica PETERS IN MADRAS.

By P. I. Chacko and B. Krishnamurthi. (With six text

LIE IAS oir Bee eA SE Sa CEE EE ae en

ON THE STRUCTURE AND POPULATION OF THE NEST OF THE

COMMON INDIAN TREE ANT, Cvematogaster dohrni

vogenhoferi MAYR (HYMENOPTERA, FORMICIDAE). By

M. L. Roonwal. m.sc., Php. (Cantab.), F.N.L, F.Z.S.1

(With one table, one text tigure and three plates).......00..

NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS,

_ EASTERN GHATS. By A, E. G. Best... ...cce censor seesceeeeees

THE Birps oF GUJARAT. Part I. By Sdlim Ali. (With a

MAP ANA L1VE PLALES) 0. can seececsersae verses snscences san sessonseraee

BioLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES (ISOPTERA).

No. 1.—Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg.

severely damaging the bark and contributing to the death

of standing Teak trees in Uttar Pradesh, India. By

M. L. Roonwal, m.sc., ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., ¥F.Z.S.1.

MVE CERRO LADIES! 200A PIDTE\siomeis ea scat esaidec socecdsdssa0'ese.ese

BroLoGy AND EcoLoGy oF INDIAN TERMITES (ISOPTERA).

No. 2.—On Ecological Adjustment in Nature between

two species of Termites Coplotermes heimi (Wasm.) and

Odontotermes vedemannz (Wasm.) in Madhya Pradesh,

India. By M. L. Roonwal, m.sc., Ph.D. (Cantab), F.N.1.,

F.Z.S.1. (With a plate and 1 text-figure).

Notes on LAND LEncHss. By J. L. Harrison..........cic...s..

A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES UF THE GENUS Ozobranchus (DE

QUATREFAGES 1852) HtRuDINEA-ANNELIDA. By P. J.

SMe vice lNati Mp Ale- Gaal wtb coeen doeecd has Cisiee Reseesvdetevetiens

A NEW SPECIES OF Arvthraxon FROM PURANDHAR (BOMBAY

STATE). By F. R. Bharucha and Y. Satyanarayan.

FIDL SUN TITS ees she tern Es i Se

- Tur VEGETATION OF PILANI AND 1TS NEIGHBOURHOOD. By.

T.S. Bakshi. (With a MUAP) ue raregesarcee sense 100 seeeenseeees

vii

PAGER

321

326

334

one

354

365

374

459

463

468

473

481

484

viii "CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

Porsonous SEEDS OF INDIA. Part II. By S. L. Nayar......

THe GENUus Cyathula Lour. IN INpDIA, By T.S. Bakshi......

Tur EcoLoGy AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION Palam- |

naeus bengalensis C. Koca. By M. S. Kanungo, M.Sc.

(Wath two text fig Ures).orcecsarceccenssetercnevee cos vestecsescenens

CHECKLIST OF THE ‘TRIDACTYLIDAE AND GRYLLIDAE

(INSECTA, ORTHOPTERA) OF CEYLON, WITH RECORDS OF

DISTRIBUTION. By T. R. Sandrasagar, F.R.E.S....---s0: ++

OBITUARIES :—

Sir Peter Clutterburele gy, ce. «1 at seticeiebaate eh ve ae este citieae! vache

Charles M. Inglis (Wthia photo)... .:).2 oe apices

REVIEWS :—

l... Jungle Gore; By Jim'Corbett(@iRS'C.).) on

2. The Snakes of India and Pakistan. By Lieut-Col.

K.0G,, Gharpurey, 1.M-S, (Gs yees aceon ceases

3. A Field Guide to the Birds of Britainand Europe.

By Roger Peterson, Guy Mountfort and P.A.D.

Flollom: (S.A. )icv. ate vsckeegr gue nte wince ee eee eneees

4. Poisonous Plants of India. By Sir Ram Nath

Chopra, Rattan Lall Badhwar and Sudhamoy

Ghosh. (H.Santapat,sS.3.)..aeeah sees ee eee

5. The Birds of Travancore and Cochin. By Salim

Alt. (Be Biswas).< 2.) .c.deusenen do antes tas omekeeennas

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

«coovevneeeeceeasecesee res cee vee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Swimming and locomotion of captive Hedgehogs.

By Ishwar Prakash..

Effect of a ae on > Bibenahee = Frank

Nicholls..

3. Rorqual Whale near pee aan ‘ont By

P. I; Chacko and M. 3.7 Mathewsaes.. facden.catee

A large Tiger... By PT Be awikins renee

5. Habits of the Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarctos

thibetanus thibetanus G. Cuvier). By U Tun Yin.

6. Longevity of the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose (/er-

pestes smitht zeylanicus) in captivity. By

W, W. A. Phillips

La)

Ceo ceeegseeeseserse tae eestor sere eBeeee 280

536

540

563

565

569

570

19,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 51

Record Sambar for the Nilgiris. By Lt.-Col. E.G.

Phy thian= AGatSeccte. sat cesscesccs ons sccsses cecesenee vss

Malformation in antlers of the Malayan Sambar.

By H.J. Kitchener. (With a photo).............

Shikar in India. By K. M. Kirkpatrick...............

Intelligence of the Indian JBlephant. By

KORACI AMIN Es avsc sek w-ckcen eh seaaee sock ce sebles-sietet ss

The Abominable Snowman. Pa Editors. (Wit

a photo)... Sika ubndectcsadasesatectaten sasenecevelees

The occurrence of the Crested ephntide aeons

lathamz) in Saurashtra. By Y. 8S. Shivrajkumar.

An intelligent Myna. By Mrs. Syamala Murthy......

Bayas and Fireflies. By P. G. S. Hall...

More notes on Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus).

Bye Elumaay lin: AUDOUIAll 020.2 c0t.s 0c: se. see ees ccsemsee

Sparrows nesting in colonies in Trees. By

Humaytn Abdulali.. ai

A Display of the Rouemeea ‘Bush. an (Miratra

erythroptera Blyth). By K. M. Kirkpatrick......

The courtship display of the Large Pied Wagtail

(Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin). By K. M.

ASHE KAD AERC Kites tenn cctaceise ate eee nel sac va selec sia cba amare:

The occurrence of Franklin’s Nightjar (Caprimulgus

monticolus monticolus) in Travancore-Cochin. By

INTIS? PA ACK SONG ease eek ee cece detec censdtreueee

Occurrence of spurs in the temale Junglefowl

(Gallus sonneratz). “By “SGditors.-...3 02:02, 26. cn

The Great Indian Bustard. By Editors............

Occurrence of the Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigri-

collzs) in Indian limits. By F. N. Betts............

The status of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydro-

pbhasianus chirurgus) in South India. By C. H.

Byrclal wip eeeecrecice ce ce cosas s: cancae cpakecece

Occurrence of Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal

(Zunetta falcata) near Calcutta. By J. N. Taylor.

Birds associating Natural Phenomena with Food

Supply. By Charles McCann, F.L.S...........00.

Some bird notes from Chingleput District, Madras.

By-Rev: BO} Shaw) 022 i.cec0c. vee

eeoeege eee

PAGE

588

589

590

594

598

599

Sug

601

602

603

604

605

606

607

609

27:

28,

oo:

34.

35. .

536.

37,

38.

39),

40.

41.

42.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

Birds seen above the tree-line in Tehri-Garhwal, in

the Central Himalayas. By H. F. Lamprey.

(With two plates)...

The secondary song of pa By & K. K. Mecia:

» Kantan,:.sc.ccaes « adotd anv tae aetemmeeiee

Pythons, By “Frank Reet, Reels

Notes on the Frog Rana ee Schneider. By

J.L. Bhaduri and Mira Kirpalani. ey

sketch)... uatieeetcass aes seals pea Neaieeniocs waise ner

A record of the Whale Suet ee typus

Smith) from the Malabar Coast. By P. I.

Chacko and’M..J. Mathew... cdees--.ceae. sec. eee

Food Organisms of Gadusia chafra (Ham.) from

certain ponds with thick Auglena blooms. By

Ps" Migha patra cc. avccssacuatecn se ceerenie Catena

The relations of total length to furcal length for

five eee By P. arcane Res five

graphs... we dane seolos s cawiteniasteiies Genesis sep enees ced

Effect of jaggery on Fish Life. Be P. I. Chacko

and R,. Srinivasan 2: ...cdasesceancs es esctmoneadesceneee

Spawning of Rohu at Powai Lake. By F. R. pole

Distribution ane Rana letthit Bouleng.—A Correc-

tion. By Humayun Abdulali and J.C. Daniel...

Extension of range of Rana temporalis Giinth. By

Humayun Abdulali.. un ala ease oes aes

Extension of range of the ee Uetiee ‘oon ie

sum Giinth. By Humayun Abdulali and J. C.

Danttel sec secssea ten Gye scene cos te tecleme Game cent ae settee

Food of the Bull-Frog e ang elias): i ee

Aruna Banerji... 4 otis oalefue cies omen mentee ne

Distribution and habits of the Beene Tee

phis glutinosus Linn. By Humayun Abdulali...

A note on the courtship in the Sand Crab [Phzlyra

scabriuscula ap ic bie By ae K.. 4G.

Raja Bai Naidu.. Retains ie axtue tite

Gon ratio and Bh hes of Sere segments in

Apus (Phyllopoda: Crustacea). By Krishna

Want Await.) cescese0= sessepkes Aeecddscepnar neh voctee

PAGE

610

615

620

- 623

624

626

629

634

635

636

637

639

640

641

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

PAGE

644

645

647

647,

650

652

655

656

657

658

659

660 —

661

663 _

665

43, Occurrence of the Mantis Gongylus gongyloides

Linn. in Junagadh (Saurashtra). By I, H. Kachhi.

44, On some unrecorded Host Plants of the Lac Insect, -

Laccifer lacca (Kerr), (Homoptera: Lacci-

feridae), ..By A. P: Kaptur, M.se.j; Ph.p.

) (CWonds) SDE Crreeeera act eaeaals deter Cc cens vskawe mites’

45, gee ae fatal sting of the common House

Wasp, Polistes hebraeus. yin J. N. Onial, P.F.s.

- CRetdh).acccs En teen PT ocd copia ttt tae’ fal

46. Some Insects attracted to Light, a S. Usman...

47. _Leeches. By R. N, Champion-Jones...............s0

48. Land Leeches.. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey............

49. Land Leeches. By J. L. H. Williams... seu

50,. Land Leeches. By R.S. Mathews...... sesscscessaceee

51, ‘Nwe-Shin’ or ‘ Live Creeper’. By H. G. Hundley.

32. Identity and taxonomical status of Sesamum

ckhambaramtt Naidu, By S. a and

A. B. Joshi.. blarics. tee ee Seeene. |

53. The Genus Mirdannie in Bombe: “Stata. By

H. Santapau, s.J.. Ey acct oiee caewer dou me cescees

54, The Genus ea in te Sa gee Correc-

tions. By H. Santapau, s.J..

55. Some recently introduced or Sah ace iat

from Patna District and its neighbourhood, By

| Vs Ge) SEVASLAVA. comes (ce 3Seskes paeesat

56. A note on Ventilego eae Merrill By M. 3B,

Raizada... oe a

57. New plant aaa for es By I R. ae andes:

B.sc., A. Randeria, B.sc., and H. Santapau, s.J.

VRC LICOe D1 G1 ES) estate Meee stresses siyecs) 12) vieeese

58, E, J. Woodhouse—His contribution to our know- .

ledge of the Flora of Bihar. By J. G. Srivastava.

GLEANINGS.. |

NoTES AND Noes. BGs we se

Annual Report of the Banna Naiveal Bate ie teh the

year ending 3lst December 1953.. Rar clara

Minutes of the Annual Genera! Magen a ae cee

Natural History Society held inthe Conference Hall of

the B.E.S. and T. Undertaking, Electric House, Ormiston

Road, Bombay, on Monday the 231d August 1954, at 6 p.m.

668

669

684

xii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

No. 4

Two BITTERNS IN A PENANG Mars. PART I. By Loke Wan

Tho. (With one coloured and three black and white plates).

Tectonic History oF INDIA AND ITS BEARING ON FISH

GrocGrapHy. By S. L. Hora, psc, FN. (With 7 text

LIZULES) an caw necissocascadied coer eae vse see bade memento Sete maen teen

SOME STUDIES ON TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS,

Uca marionis nitidus (Dana) and U. annulipes (Latr.).

By R. Altevogt. (With 13 figures and one table)... ....00 +

THE MANAGEMENT OF InpIA’s WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

AND NATIONAL PARKS. PART II. By E. P. Gee, M.A.,

c.M.z.s. (With tour plates)...

THs BIRDS OF GUJARAT. Part II. By Salim a (wan

one plate)...cccececes aerraeaene BPE Te Ais te Phir Sinlosl Mitomycin

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. By D. F;

SanGensisssctas tesco a seiediesshaiseencc ae eee Adee Pe

COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLACENTA AND

FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS AND MAMMALS.

By P. N.Sarangdhar, m.sc., Ph.p. (With two plates)......

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS. By Bernhard

Rensch and K. W. Harde. (Wath eleven figures)...0....0.0

Nyctibatrachus humayuniz, A NEW FROG FROM THE WESTERN

GHATS, BomBAy. By J. L. Bhaduri, D.Sc., F.N.I., F.A.S.,

F.z.S.I.. and Miss M. B. Kripalani, m.sc. With Field

Notes by Humayun Abdulali. (W7th @ platé)...cccccccecseeues

Ixodes kerri, A NEW SPECIES OF TICK FROM A FLYING

SQUIRREL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA (ACARINA: IXODIDAE).

By T. Ramachandra Rao, p.sc. (With two plates).........

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA. Annual Report for

1953 on the Western Region. ek kK. S. Dharmakumar-

Si] isc aeeracteetoes eee eee Pap At yest pd oa ea weaaee oe

HABITS AND HABITAT OF SOME COMMON SPIDERS FOUND IN

WESTERN InprA. By T. V. Subrahmaniam. (With

SEx16602 tél EG UHES) cette se SN AL ae ES SARE ONE PEO

SoME BIRDS COLLECTEDIN LANGTANG KHOLA, RASUA GARHI

DIsTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL, By O. Polunin, M.A., F.L.S.

A NEW SPECIES OF Chlorophytum from SALSETTE ISLAND.

By H. Santapau, sJ., F.N.L, and R. R. Fernandes, s.sc.

CWE DP RTIO) GE cece vines eee esc eEe Cee eNeeeee Ae ak

PAGE

687

692

702

717

735

803

831

841

852

860

874

886

897

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 53 xiii

PaGE

A NEW FORM OF THE. BURROWING SNAKE, Urofeltis

macrolepis (PETERS) FROM MAHABLESHWAR. oie V. K.

Chavtivcn.o2.04.. SEAN LR Ri are R WS ean Ree ees von 5 901

REVIEWS :—

1. Indian Journal of Fisheries....... Be en ness ivicdeere.:- 902

2. Common Indian Herbs. By N. A. Watts

3. Flora of Agra District. A descriptive\| (H. Santapau,

Key to the Flora of Agra District. By{ SJ.) .. 903

N. A. Watts.

4. A Coloured Atlas of some Vertebrates from

Ceylon, Vol. II. Tetrapod Reptilia. By Ee:

Werantyagalastci( VKGC2). cs vetlstassccens:dercssseres 904

5. Bird Life. By Niko Tinbergen. (S.A.) esate 905

6. The Waterfowl of the World. By Jean Delacour.

Vole tL. (.A.) .. 906

7. The Temple ‘Tiger and more Man-eaters of

Kumaon. By Jim Corbett. (L.F.) rat 907

8. Birds of Arabia. By Col. R. Meinertzhagen, D.s.o.

(S.A.) | «- 908

9, The Birds of the British Isles. Vol. II]. By David

A. Bannerman and George E. Lodge. (S.A.)... 910

10, A Wanderer in the Wind: The Odyssey of an

Animal Collector. By CeciiS. Webb. (H.A.)... 911

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY....seces cesses cee 20 cos sieess 912

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :=—

1. Strange behaviour of Monkeys in the presence of

a Panther. By Sirdar Bhupendra Kumatr......... 913

2, Unrecorded sounds made by the Tiger. By

Bi-Col: Re Wa burton, 1A. (Retd®):c,.23;..5..2680s 915

34 (Gat and Mongoose, By Ts Gay ciccesasicce cas sciscsses 916

4, Extraordinary behaviour of a solitary Bull Bison

(Garr) aby ke Com Monts: <. ciecses sees nerisonesen ss 916

5. The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldt MacClelland).

By ee GCC. CIEL GUPIAI6)nascsssccssceste. O17

6. Thamin or Brow-antlered Deer in the Zoological

Gardens, Rangoon. By Tun Yin. (With a plate). 919

7. Abnormal horns of a Blackbuck (Antzlope cervt-

capra) By C. H. Biddulph. (With a photo)... 920

xiv

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52

ace

8. Notes onthe Desert Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auri- a

/ tus collaris Gray). By Ishwar Prakash... ™ O21

9. Cannibalism in Hedgehogs. By Ishwar Prakash: 922

10. Wild Life Preservation in India. The Area of the -.

former Gilgit Agency. By Lt.-Col. R. W. -Bur-

ton, LA. CREE) 52.5 ler cocuees nerenenes tee tei Coser ees

11. New light upon the Natural History of BA hs

c By C. H. Biddutph...... Se ncsisadeens eine meet

12, A Bird answering its own ais By 1 T. ‘Ga es tia bitele = 925

13. Another bird-watching pilgrimage to SW. Tibet.

, By K.S. Lavkumar. (With amap).ciaerocseees 925

14. ries the Cucxoo a protrusible Ovipositor? By

| Charles. McCann, F.L.S.. bo MR ARES ain ee)!

1S. Mating of Partridges. By Edis. ee. = aoe

16, The bone-dropping habit of the aa 2%

Robert L. 2B leming, php tercee? Re ee oo

17. Heron-keeping on the Indus River. By | Ps As ee

Maclaren. (With a photo)... Sie ines cas 935

18. Trapping Birds for ringing. a Zafar Fétehally,

(With ai PROUT esi ses Gel tote ee ee

19... The record Indian Crocodile. By | Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton; tas CREM] 47. 002 Gla tessee ee. Aine eee Oe

20. Some notes on Rava beddomii Gunther with an ex-

tension of its range. By Humayun Abdulali,. -«,

and J. C: Daniel eect oeccersetaesersseceoaroee bVebsebscobenecce 938

21 Presamplze eating of a Krait by- Scorpions. Bye

. 202 Ishwar-Prakash and‘K.C. Daves. ssi .si devises Bdees ge 1989

22, A grateful Skink. By T. Gay....clesoe WEL ce 940

23, Hunting the Land Crab [Paratelphusa . guerini (Mo <

. Edw.)]. By Jabir A. Ali, B.A. (Cantab.), C.D.,

Ag. (With a textfigure)ece ecco Gitectacie eu dees 941

24. Apus (Crustacea : Phyllopoda), ' a new host for

parasitic Nematodes. By Reo ike Tiwati...... Rota aheeS

25. An unusual Crab Fishery in the sea off. Ennut,

; near Madras. By P. I. Chacko and E Palani.

(With a text a7 Ca breretic ce pncerey madd icant nee 2 tag 40

26, A new species of Antrocephalus Kirby. | By BR,

Subba Rao, B.Sc. (Hons.), assoc. LA. RI. (With

a text-L gure) he ea aor MEENA Rod 6 » 948

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52 eit

; PAGE

27. Some Insects attracted to Light—II. By S. Usman. 950

28. Notes on Thrips palmi Karny, attacking Sesamum —

indicum. By T.N. Ananthakrishnan, B.sc. (Hons.),

F.Z.S., F.R.E.S. (With a plate and a text-figure),.. 951

29. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By

DiiGeSevastOmumlO- FR BiG ciiccatsssmsdresis cis clivese ces 953

.. 80, A four-leaved Oleander. By G. W. Deodhar, Ns

M. SCiews OOTCO RAH OT HDOTHE OO FAEL HDHD F HHH DO FOROS ses tneveeeee’ @neee aM 954

31. On the occurrence of Marstlea aegy pliaca Willd. in

| Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India). By K.M.Gupta, .

, (With @ plate)escivcrcscssersseseses ih a er 954

32. Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br., var. erecta Mart. —

_—A new record for Bombay State. By G. P,

Shrivastava, M.sc., and H. Santapau,. s.3,.

(With a plate). Meticteutesncr ces Serer wes niooe comes: besccte O57

33, Abnormalities in the ‘Ear’ of Zea mays si By 4

| Sle andon: CIV 72h. a PIA) tas oe .sssaseacsosace 958

34, The introduction of 72lapia mossambica into India

— A Correction. By cditOrs: ee seo 959

GePAN INGER isl cas0h ve eelsctls doves reseeds Nie fess ee 959

NotTEs AND NEWS oo a s.c a Ge cane, en a si eat aed - 961

PBRRATAs.56c1ic.c0thho0es 0 Siecasbvcuttparesesersrovectécetseses¥iuisssctsiastesse OG2

AN pk eee Phe a eh es SoG meena aie % 962

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME 52

Nos. 1, 2 & 3, and 4

AspuLaLi, Humayun, Cuculus

canorus bakeri in Bombay ..

—+-—__—__-—--, The re-

cord Indian Crocodile

‘ More

Notes on Finn's Baya (Ploceus

megarhynchus)

, Sparrows

nesting in colonies in Trees,

—- —, Exten-

sion of range of Rana tempo-

valis Gtinth,. ... ev cae

——— , Distribu-

tion anid habits of the Batra-

chian, chihyophis glutinosus

Linn: . 2c: eee ny wae

, and DAn-

IEL, J. C.,.Distributian of Rana

ee SS

PAGE

210

213

599

601

636

639

leithia Bouleng.—A Correction. 635

—— >— —, Exten-

sion of range of the Frog

Uperodon globulosum Gunth.

-—- : Some

notes on Rana beddomit

Giinther, with an extension of

its range ace eee coe

, SEE BHA-

DURT, Joule § ce re

AGHARKAR;S. P., Ph.D., F.N.L,

Chapters on the preren

of Botany in India, by I. H.

Burkill, in this Journal 51:

846-878. <A Correction

ALI, JABIR A., B.A. (Cantab.),

c.p., Ag., Hunting the Land

Crab Faratelphusa guerini

(M.-Edw.)

Ai, SALIM, The Birds a Guia:

fat. Parel..<x,. oe ae

-—— Partll. 4.

ALTEVOGT, R., Some Studies

on two Species of Indian Fid-

637

938

228

94}

374

735

PAGE

dler Crabs, Uca marionis

nitidus (Dana) and U. annu-

lipes (Latr.) ... Be we de

ANANTHAKRISHNAN, T.N., B.SC

(Hons.),> B. ZiSh F WR. BS),

Notes on Thrips palmi Karny,

attacking Sesamum imnii-

cum i. af 506 ue) ak

ArA, Mrs, JAMAL, The flower-

ing of Strobilanthes auricu-

latus Nees ate — 223

ARGIKAR, G.P., and Suan

M. 8; Wabiation in the floral

parts of Solanum melon-

gena La aan 226

BAILEY, F. M., Lt Poon and

Leeches ars 6 P5652

BaxksHI, T. S.,; The Vesetation

of Pilani and its Neighbour-

hood ane ee 484

— +-—--——.,, The Genus Cya-

thula Lour. in India 2z, 533

BaNERJI, (Mrs.) Aruna, Food of

the Bull-Frog (ana tigirina) 639

Brest, A. E. G., Occurrence of

Danats chrysippus var. dorip-

pus at Dum Dum air port ... 218

—, Notes on the

Butterflies of the Nagala-

puram Hills, Eastern Ghats... 365

Betts, F. N., Occurrence of

the Blacknecked Crane (Grus

nigvicollis) in Indian limits. 605

BuapurI, J.L., and KIRPALANI,

Mira, Notes on the Frog

kana breviceps Schneider ... 620

~—- ————, and KiRPALANI,

Miss M. B. With Field Notes

by Abdulali, Humayun. Vycfi-

batrachus humayuni, a new

Frog from the Western Ghats,

Bombay aaa sas jie uO’

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

BHANDARI, M. M., On the

Occurrence of Fphedra in

the Indian Desert “ae

ByHarucHa, F.R., and Satyva-

NARAYAN, Y., A new Species

of Arthraxon from Purandhar

(Bombay State) ace aus

BIDDULPH, C. H., Strange be-

haviour of a House Crow

, Possible as-

sociation between the Large

Yellow-naped Woodpecker

and the Large Racket-tailed

Drongo iy oes ae as

, The status

of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana

(Hydrophasianus chirurgus)

in South India ae onG

, Abnormal

horns of a Blackbuck (dAnti-

lope cervicapra)

» New light

upon the Natural History of

Malabar “os

Bor, N. L., The Gans Ges

pogon Serene: in India,

Burmaand Ceylon. Part II.

Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.4

(Retd.), Unrecorded sounds

made by the Tiger

—_— , Wild

Life Preservation in radia)

The Area of the former Gilgit

Agency ... aes cae

record Indian Crocodile

CHacko, P. I., and KrisHna-

MURTHI, B., Observations on

Tilapia mossambica Peters in

Madras

——_

—, aaa MizuEws:

M.J:; econ of the Whale

Shark (Rhineodon typus

Smith) from the Malabar

Coast eee

—,and Pabanl, E.,

An unusual Crab Fishery in

the sea off Ennur, near

Madras

ee Se

» and SRINIVA-

SAN, R., Effect of aoe i on

Fish Life

PAGE

481

208

209

606

920

924

149

915

923

349

623

946

269

CHAMPION-JONES, R, N., Lee-

ches eee sae

CuHari, V. K., Ba addition to

the list of Shute of Bombay

and Salsette—Uvopeltis mac-

volepis (Peters) —Uropeltidae.

———, A new form of

the Burrowing Snake, Uropei-

tis macrolepis is from

Mahableshwar ..

DANIEL, J. C., see emery

. HUMAYUN

Davgz, K. C.,,

ISHWAR

DEODHAR, G. W., A six-locular

Capsule on the Cotton Plant...

—-—-, A four-leaved

Oleander ene

Srna sana, kK, S.,

Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in

Bhavnagar (Saurashtra) ...

a meee Se —

Wild Life Preservation in

India. Annual report for 1953

on the Western Region sas

see PRAKASH,

seé VAURIE, C.

DE Zytva, E. R. A., The

Development of Ceylon’s

Fishing Industry aise

EASWARAN, C. R., see Gort

HALE, S. V.

Epitors, The Abominable

Snowman sets oe

~————————, Occurrence

of spurs in the female Jungle-

fowl (Gallus sonneratt)

—--, The Great

Indian Bustard ... -, eee

—_—————-——, Mating of

Partridges 50 es

————__——--, The Intro-

duction of 7ilapia mossambica

into India—A Correction

FERNANDES, R., B.Sc., RAN-

DERIA, A., B.SC.. AND SAN-

TAPAU, H., S.s.. New plant

Records for Bombay

, and SANTAPAU,

H.,S.J., Critical Notes on the

Identity and Nomenclature

of some Bombay Plants III.

Murdanniascapttlorum

(Roxb.) Royle one caer

XVil

PAGE

650

901

221

954

211

865

142

959

661

137

xviii

FERNANDES, R., B.Sc., RAN-

DERIA, A., B.SC., Seé SANTA-

PAU, H,, S.J., F.N.I.

FLEMING, ROBERT L., Ph.D.,

The bone-dropping habit of

-the Lammergeier as

PuTEaeET. ZAFAR, Trapping

Birds for ringing eae

Gay, T., Food of the Bull Frog.

te -—, Cat and Mongoose

——-~—, A Bird answering its:

own Echo re ae oh

GEE, 2° P53 > M.A.; “SC.MiZ.Sa

Wild Life Preservation in

India ¢ Auoual Report for 1953

~ on the Eastern Region —

The Management

of India’s Wild Life Sanctu-

aries and National Parks.

Part II

—, The Brow ander

ed Deer (Cervus

Clelland) ae

-GOKHALE, S. V., EASWARAN,

C. R., and N&RSIEAN, R.,

Growth-rate of the Pearl

Oyster, Pinctada pinctada in

the Gulf of Kutch with a

_note on the Pearl Fishery of

1953

GOLDSCHMIDT, F.R., Spawiing

of Rohu at Powai Lake

Gupta, K. M,, pD.Ssc., On the

occurrence of Marsilea

aegyptiaca Willd. in Jodhpur,

Rajasthan (India)

HALL, P.G.S. ae and Fines

flies

HARDE, K, W., seé Range,

BERNHARD

Harrison, J. L., Notes on

Land Leeches ... iirc fic

Hawkins, T. B., A large

Tiger occ

HEWETSON, C. E,, Putiorstion of

insectivorous Birds in Madhya

Pradesh in 1953 ee eee

Hora, ©. L.,;° D.Sc, FN,

Tectonic History of India and

its bearing on Fish Geogra-

phy. obs ode

eldi Mac- |

917

PAGE |

77,

124

634

954

599

468

586

-207

692

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

HuNDLEy, H. G.;

or ‘Live Creeper’ “

JACKson, M.C. A,, Ossuiranees

‘“Nwe-Shin’ ~

of the Banded Crake. [Rallus

eurizonoiles amuroptera (Jer-

don)] in Travancore .. *

—— The occur-

rence of Franklin? s Nightjar

(Caprimulgus monticolus mon- -

ticolus) in Travancore-Cochin

JONES, S., and SUJANSINGHANI,

K. H., Further comment on.

the Mani-jal of the Chilka -

Lake—A special Net for Bel-

loniform fishes

Josut, A. B., see RAMANUJAM,; ‘Ss.

Kacuul, I, H., Occurrence of -

the Mantis Gorgylus gon-

gyloides Linn. in Junagadh

(Saurashtra)

_Kapampsi, K., Intelligence of

the Indian Elephant - 5

KALYANASUNDARAM, S., Occur-

rence of .a bi-foliate leaf in

Citrus aurantium L. :

KamaAtTH, H. SUNANDA, B.Sc.,

seé MUDALIAR, Sri C. RAJASE-

KHARA, M.A.

KaNnuNnco, M. S., m.sc., The

Ecology and Behaviour of the

Scorpion Palamnaeus benga-

leusis C. Koch aes

Kapur, A, P., -M.SC,,. Ph.D.,

D.1.C., On some unrecorded

Host Plants of the Lac Insect,

Lacctfer lacca (Kerr), (Homo-

petera: Lacciferidae) see

KINGDON-WARD, F., B.A, (Can-

tab;), 0,3.2.)).F.1.S., wv.veE*

Report on the Forests of the

North Triangle, ~ Kachin

State, North Burma .., aes

KIRKPATRICK, K. M., Abori-

ginal methods employed in

killing and capturing Game...

— —— —————, Shikai

in India ane

————-—~—-~, A Dis.

play of the Redwinged Bush- __

211

603

214

64-4

590

- 221

936:

. 645

304

Lark (Miratra erythroplera “a ;

Blyth)... aR rer

.. 601

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

KIRKPATRICK K. M,, The court-

ship Display of the Large

Pied Wagtail (Motacilla ma-

deraspatensis Gmelin)

KIRPALANI, MIRA, seé BHADU-

Ris Le

KITCHENER, H. J., Malforma-

tion in antlers of the cae

Sambar

KRIPALANI, MISS MSB.,

see BHADURI, J. L.

KRISHNAMURTHI, B., see CHA-

CKO E. i;

KRISHNAN, S. M., Birds eating

the poisonous fruit of the

M.SC.,

Yellow Oleander ( Thevetia

nerittolia) ros dee sas

—=- , Occurrence

of Redwinged Crested Cuckoo

(Clamator coromandus) in

' Madras coe ee

KUMAR, SIRDAR Eoneenoes

Strange behaviour of Monkeys

in the presence of a Panther.

LampREY, H. F., Birds seen

~ above the tree-line in Tehri-

Garhwal, in the Central

Himalayas “9 ae se

LavkKumMaR, K. S., Another

bird-watching pilgrimage to

SW. Tibet ais oes ate

Lister, M. D., A contribution

to the Ornithology of the Dar-

jeeling area .., = des

|,0KE, WAN THO, Some roca:

ing Birds of. Singapore.

Part III.

—_——-———, Two Bitterns

in a Penang Marsh, Part I.

MACDONALD, AW ted... Wald

_ Life Proseryation = Kraeer

- National Park, An example.

Mac LAREN, P.I.R., Heron-keep-

ing on the Indus River ~

MajumMpaR, R. B., Proliferation

in Grasde eo sac Fest) thaws

MatHew, A. P., M.A., Ph. D.,

Observations on the Habits of

two Spider Mimics of the Red

Ant, Ocecophylla smaragdina

: (Fabri) ~ eee eco ooo

PAGE

602

588

207

210

925

E720

687

MaTHEWw, M. J.,

ids )

MATHEWS, R.S., Land Leeches,

McCann, CHARLES, Apose-

matic Insects and their Food-

plants

seéé CHACKO,

; The

Whale Shark Rhineodon typus

(Smith) oaela Ter ce

so oe es

ciating Natural Bhevenans

with Food Suply

~—-—————-——, Has the

Cuckoo a ea Oviposi-

tor?

MoHAPATRA, P,, Roa ‘Oren

isms of Gadusia chapra (Ham.)

from certain ponds with thick

Euglena blooms vee

, The Relauion!

ships of otal length to furcal

length for five Cyprinids

Morris, R. C.,,

Gaur attack-

ee ee ee

eS —, Stride — of

Elephant crossing trench...

Bull Bison (Gaur)

MUDALIAR, SRI

KHARA, M.A., and KAMATH,

H. SUNANDA, - B.Sc., Back-

water Flora of the West Coast

of South India ...

Mourtuy, MRs. SYAMALA, ne -

intelligent Myna

Naipu, (Miss) K. G. RAJA BAL,

A note on the courtship in

the Sand Crab [Philyva- scab-

riuscula (Fabricius)]

NARSIMHAN, R., Seé GOKHALE,

S. V.

NAVAR,\S.

of India.

L., Poisonous Seeds

Part I. ae aa

= Bees Part IT,

NEELAKANTAN, K. K.,,

secondary song of Birds

NicHOLLS, FRANK, Effect of

Earthquake on Elephants ..

Man-eating _

Tiger in, South Indiat...., , c<...

: Extraordi-

nary behaviour of a solitary

C. RAJASE- .

xix

PAGE

665

607

931

624

916

598

640

NICHCOLS FRANK, Pythons

Noronua, 'R. P., More notes

on the Indian Buffalo

OnIAL, J. N., v.F.s. (Retd.),

Presumptive fatal sting of the

common House Wasp, /olistes

hebraeus ;

PALANI, E., Seé Onis, P. it.

PHILLIPS, W. W. A., Petrels,

Shearwaters and other Oce-

anic Birds in the north Indian

Ocean

——— ————,, Longe-

vity of the Ceylon Ruddy

Mongoose (Herpestes smitht

zeylanicus) in captivity

PHYTHIAN-AD AMS, Lt.-Col.,

E.G., Record Sambar for the

Nilgiris ae

Pitvar, N: G.; Death: a: wild

Elephants, from suspected

food-poisoning in Travan-

core-Cochin State .. os

PoLUNIN, O., M.A., F.L.S., SOme

Birds collected in Langtang

Khola, Rasua Garhi District,

Central Nepal aes

Power, J. M., Panther killed oF

domestic Butalees

PRAKASH, ISHWAR, Swimming

and locomotion of captive

Hedgehogs

—_——, Notes on the

Desert Hedgehog ( Hemiechi-

nus auritus collaris Gray) ...

——-———, Cannibalism

in Hedgehogs : ore

~—, and DAvE,

K. C., Presumptive eating of a

Krait’ by Scorpions

Prasap, M. R. N., Natural

History of the South Indian

Gerbille Zatera indica cuvieri

(Waterhouse)

; Food of

the Indian Gerbille TZatera

indica curtert (Waterhouse).

Rarzapa, M. B., .A Note on

Ventilago gamblei Merrill ...

Raj, P. Je SANJEEVA, A Synop-

Sis of the Species of the Gen-

PAGE |

620

647

334

587

588

206

886

201

584

921

922

939

184

321

660

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

us Ozobranchus (De Quatre-

fages, 1852) Hirudinea—Anne-

lida ore a aed

eee TOT, 7. S., Abnor-

malities in the fruit of Areca

catechu L. . ae

RAMANUJAM, S., and JoSHI,

A. B., Identity and taxono-

mical Status «

ehambaramiu Naidu .

RANADE, M.R., M.Sc. (Hons.),

Occurrence of Corymorpha

(Hydrozoa) in Indian Waters.

RANDERIA, A., B.Sc., seé FER-

NANDES, R., B.Sc.

Rao, B. R. SuBBA, B.SC.

(Hons.), A new species of

Antrocephalus Kirby ae

Rao, R. SEsHAGrIRI, New Spe-

cies of Indian Plants a

Rao, T. RAMACHANDRA, Jxo-

des kerri, a new species of

Tick from a Flying Squirrel

from Southern India (Aca-

rina; Ixodidae) aa

RENSCH, BERNHARD, and

HARDE, K. W., Growth-gradi-

ents of Indian Elephants ...

RIDLEY, M. W., Observations

on the Diet of Flamingoes ...

RIPLEY, S. DILLON, Comments

on the Biogeography of Ara-

bia with particular reference

to Birds

RoonwaL, M.L., On te Siri -

ture and Population of the

Nest of the common Indian

Tree Ant, Cvrematogaster

dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr (Hy-

menoptera, Formicidae)

» Biology and

Ecology of Oriental Termites

(Isoptera). No. 1. Odonto-

termes parvidens Holmg. &

Holmg. severely damaging the

bark and contributing — to

the death of standing Teak

trees in Uttar Pradesh,

India... Ane 0 aT

of Sesamum

PAGE

473

224

657

219

948

190

860

241

354

458

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

RoonwatL, M.L., No. 2. On

Ecological Adjustment in

Nature between two species of

Termites, Coptotermes hein

(Wasm.) and Odontoter-

mes vedemanni (Wasm.)—in

Madhya Pradesh, India

Roy, J. C., Periodicity of the

Plankton Diatoms of the Chil-

ka Lake for the years 1950

and 1951

SANDERS, D. F., Migceltuiedas

Notes on Indian Butterflies ...

SANDRASAGARA, T.B., F.R.E.S.,

Checklist of the Tridac-

tylidae andGryllidae (Insecta,

Orthoptera) of Ceylon, with

records of Distribution wee

ANTAPAU, H., 8.J., The Genus

Murdannia in Bombay State

— —, The Genus

Murdannia in Borne sate

ther Corrections

_-_—)

eo e

and

FERNANDES, R. R., B.Sc., A

new Species of Chlorophytum

from Salsette Island

- —, See

FERNANDES, R., B.Sc.

—, See

SHRIVASTAVA, G. P., M.Sc.

SARANGDHAR, P. N., M.ScC.,

ph.D., Comparative Observa-

tions on the Placenta and Foe-

tal Nutrition in Elasmobranchs

and Mammals see sae

SATYANARAYAN, Y., Seé BHA-

RucHA, F.R.

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R. oe

Aposematic Insects and their

Food-plants.... aoe

——_—--———,_ Apose-

matic Insects and their Food-

plants... eos eee

SHAw, Rev. E, O., Some bird

notes from eiinsiceit District,

Madras ... oe

SHIVRAJKUMAR, Y.5., The Oe:

currence of the Crested Bunt-

ing (Melophus lathami) in

Saurashtra eae Ae cae

PAGE

463

112

803

540

658

897

831

219

953

609

598

SHRIVASTAVA, G. P., M.Sc., and

SANTAPAU, H., s.J., Alternan-

thera polygonoides R, Br. var.

erecta Mart.—a new record for

Bombay State

SOLANKI, M.§.,

G. P,

SRINIVASAN,

Pele

SRIVASTAVA, J. G., Some recent-

ly introduced or newly recorded

Plants from Patna District and

its neighbourhood

=< —— — ——— Fe Ape I Wood.

house— His Senrapeen to

our knowledge of the Flora of

Bihar %

SUBRAHMANIAM, T. v., “Habits

and Habitat of some common

See ARGIKAR,

R., seé alas Se

Spiders found in Western India.

SUJANSINGHANI, See

JONEs, S.

TANDON, S. L., Effect of Mar-

gosa (Azadirachta indica)

leaves on the rotting of Pota-

to tubers during storage

— — —- —__ — , Abnormalities

in the ‘ Ear’ of Zea mays L.

Tavtior, J. N., Occurrence of

Bronzecapped or Falcated

Teal (Zunetta ace near

Calcutta

Tuo, W. S., unter Sue

TIWARI, fnawe Kant, Sex

ratio and variability of apo-

dous segments in 4 pus (Phyl-

lopoda: Crustacea)

—-—-—, Apus (Crus-

tacea: Phyllopoda), a new

host for parasitic Nematodes.

USMAN, S., Some Insects attrac-

ted to Light=1 3

—~_——-—, Some Insects attiae:

K, H.,

ted to Light—II f

VAURIE, C., and DHARMA-

KUMARSINHJI, K. S., A new

Sand Lark from Western

India (Saurashtra)

Watts, N. A, A Conioation

to the Flora of Mussoorie ...

Xxi ¢

PAGE

957

629

663

874

225

958

607

218

641

106

’ xxil LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE tiie PAGE

Witiiams, J. L. H., Land Lee- | Yin, U Tun, A Supplementary . -

CHES “ig eulgncee abs aoe, 7 52 Note. on the status. of = .:

Yin, U-Tun, A Note on the Rhinoceros and Thamin,( Pano-

Position of Rhinoceros in the lia eldi thamin) in the Union

‘Union of Burma (1953) .. 83 of Burma, 1953 ot? Wes. WOOL

—— —, Thamin or Eld’s —————, Habits of the

Deer [Panolia eldi thamin _ Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarc-

(Thomas)] in Burma .. 205| tos thibetanus thibetanus -

, Wild Life Preser- G. Cuvier) pivaiate ERI topo B6.

vation and Sanctuariesin the = | ——————, Thamin or Brow-

Union jof .Byrma.» -.;-- sgerend antlered Deer in the Zoolo-—

gical Gsrdens, Rangoon ., ... 917.

_ LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME 52

Nos. 1,2 & 3, and 4

; 235 See Senet te +E PAGH

Wild Life Preservation — Kruger National Park. An Example

Plate I. Lion and Lioness in road cee 2

“Plate IG - Lions and Cars «2° °° a ; between ... 2/3

Plate III.” Elephant crossing read) 2 2 5 amen io

Plate lV. Buffalo - | aes §

Plate V. Kudu Bull pi pies He pie ag) ae

Plate VI... Giratie crossing road - | See Sempra

~ Some Breeding eae of Singapore. Part III :

Plate I. Longtailed Tailor-bird (Orthotomus - sutorius maculir

m4 coulis). | S09 14

Plate II. Malay Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis) Bice gui ae iG:

Plate III. Yellowbreasted Sunbird (Leptocoma 7, microleuca) on new-* —-

YY, ~sly completed nest Ss. EG

Plate IV, -Yellowbredsted. Sunbird : (Leptocoma jugularis micro-

so leuca)* me 17

Plate -V. ° Yellowbreasted Suibird- ( Leptocoma 7. ipoleLen):

Lower nest, partly completed, was abandoned when

bird was frightened by flash. Another nest at once

started above it _ ees eae Oe

Critical Notes on the Identity and Nomenclature of some Bombay Plants IIES

Murdannia scapitlorum (Roxb. ) Royle at a

Plate I. Murdannia scapiflorum Royle 4. 138:

Plate Il, Murdannia scapiflorum Royle | hee cece oO)

The Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus (Smith)

Plate I. The Basking Shark (Cetorhinus maximus) ee urOOO

Plate Il. A. Showing gill arches and reduced tongue es

B. Gill arch with gill and gill rakers \ 331

On the Structure and Population of the Nest of the common Indian Tree

Ant, Crematogaster dohrn AS Mayr (Hymenoptera, oun

cidae)

~ Plate’ I. Photographs of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhotert Mayr

B collected in New Forest, Dehra Dun, U.P. sce + 956"

Plate II. Photographs of young nest of Cyvrematogaster dohrni

| rogenhotert Mayr, from the Kankramari char (Island), |

Muriganga R., the Sunderbans, Lower Bengal sen) COU

Plate III. Photographs of nest of Cees eae Sp. -- . sas ty JOM

The Birds of Gujarat, Part I.

Plate? Ie 1s Moist deciduous forest, REMipie, Ss, Gujarat

a) 2. Deciduous biotope, Surat Dangs, March oa \ 374

RX1V LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

Plate II. 1. Moist deciduous secondary jungle, Surat Dangs

2. Looking towards- Salher Fort, Navsari Dist. } 37a

Ss. Gujarat

Plate III, 1. Country about Balaram, Palanpur, N. Gujarat. Abu)

hills in the distance sc oe

2. Lesser Flamingos at Banas River mouth, Little Rana | oe

of Kutch eae

Plate IV. 1. The Bannicountry, N. Kutch ae

. 2. ‘Typical coastal sand-dunes, Mandvi, Kutch BE a

Plate V. 1. Portion of ‘ Flamingo City ’ — Great Rann of Kuteh,

April 1945 1

2, Exhausted immigrating Grey Quail sheltering qadeet eke

old flamingo nest-mound, Great Rann of Kutch ... J

Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (lsoptera), No. 1.

Plate I, Portions of teak trees (Zectona grandis Linn. f,) from

the West Lehra Block, Pharenda Range, Gorakhpur

Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh, damaged by the ter-

mite Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg.,

during 1951-52 os OO

Biology and Ecology of Oriental Termites (Isoptera), No. 2.

Plate I. Photographs of the lower portions of the trunk and of the

rvot-stock of a recently dead, standing tree of salai,

Boswellia serrata Roxb., showing damage by two

species of termites, viz. Coptolermes heimi (Wasmann)

and Odontotermes redemannit (Wasmann) .. 464

A new Species of Arthraxon from Purandhar (Bombay State).

Plate. Arthraxon purandharensts sp. nov. a aD

Charles M, Inglis.

Plate. 566

Birds seen above the tree-line in Tehri-Garhwal, in the Central Hima-

layas.

Plate I. A view of the Alpine Meadow io enol?

Plate II. A view of the meadow showing typical rock outcrops .. 613

New Plant Records for Bombay.

Plate I. Jpomoea triloba Linn. ee - 662

Plate II. Commelina suffruticosa Blume .. 663

Two Bitterns in a Penang Marsh.

Plate I. (Coloured). The Yellow Bittern (Jxobrychus sinensis).

Female o- 687

[For the above caption, printed erroneously under the plate, read, ‘The

Chestnut Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus)].

Plate II. The Swamp area of Ginting, Penang ‘ poe eee like a

bandit with a Bren-gun stand ’. «- 688

Plate III. The Yellow Bittern, Male. Female ‘... raised her

crest in threat’. ene ;- 689

Plate IV. The Yellow Bittern. ‘...kept butting father in his

belly.....’. Emptying the Larder cenngge

LIST OF PLATES XXV

PAGE

Some Studies on two Species of Indian Fiddler Crabs, Uca marionis

nitidus (Dana) and U. annulipes (Latr.).

Plate I. Figs. 2and3, Major cheliped of a small (upper) and

large (lower) specimen of Uca annu-

lipes 702

Plate II. Figs. 4-6. Major cheliped of a small, medium and ieee

specimen of Uca marionis nitidus vere hO3

Plate III, Fig. 7. Uca marionis nitidus, habitat and hole |

Fig. 8. Refused mud-pellets of Uca iu linear arrange- } 704

ment radiating from entrance of crab’s hole. J

Plate IV. Spoontipped hairs of merus of second mazsilliped in Uca

marionis nitidus (Fig. 91) and U. annulipes (Fig.10) ... 705

Plate V. Fig,11. Spoontipped hairs in natural arrangement |

Uca annulipes

Fig, 13, Male of Uca marionts nitidus in display eqieure| 710

ation waving at (feeding) female (from a |

16 mm. motion-picture) deel)

The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and National Parks,

Part II.

Plate i. Wild elephant (#aknua). Kaziranga Sanctuary 7

Wild buffalo bull, Kaziranga Sanctuary ay 718

Plate II. Barasingha (Aucervus duvaucelli) Kanha Wild Lie

Sanctuary, Madhya l’radesh 719

Plate III. One ofthe mazdans in Kanha Sanctuary, Madhya Pa

desh y

Chita! stag (Axis axis) in sal forest, Kanha Sane Le

tuary

Plate IV. Barasinga or Swamp Deer. Master stag and hinds.

Kanha Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh

Barasinga Stags. Kanha Sanctuary

Plate V. A herd of Gaur (Bzdos gaurus), Bandipur Wild Life

Sanctuary, Mysore

Young bull Gaur, Bandipur Sanctuary, Mysore See

Plate VI. Forest Rest House, Dhikala. Hailey National Park

Uttar Pradesh as

View across Ramganga River from above rest house,

Himalayan foothills in distance

727

e e e

Lp]

The Birds of Gujarat. Part II. 7

Plate I. Deciduous forest, Dediapada, Rajpipla (late March). }

Favourite haunt of the Spotted Tree Creeper Bee |

nis Spilonotus) . 785

Whitewinged Black Tit (Parus nuchalis) at nest-hole in|

babultrunk. Chaduva, Kutch ofr

Comparative Observations on the Placenta and Foetal Nutrition in Elas-

mobranchs and Mammals.

Plate I. Foetal placentae in Bombay elasmobranchs Wal Soe

Plate Il. Appendicula in Bombay elasmobranchs .. 833

Nyctibatrachus humayuni, a new Frog from the Western Ghats, Bom-

bay.

Plate. Nyctibatrachus humayuni, new species neo OOS

xEVi LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

lxodes kerri, anew Species of Tick from a Flying Squirrel from south-

ern India (Acarina : Ixodidae).

Plate’ I. S%xodes kervi, new species. Female ve > 860

Plate II. Jwvodes kerri, new species. Male ee

A new Species of Chlorophytum from Salsette Island.

Plate. Chlorophytum borivilianum sp. nov. es UE

‘The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi MacClelland).

- Plate I. Brow-antlered Deer stag. Vincennes Zoo, Paris

Stag with four of the five hinds, in Vincennes Zoo, Patis- I

- Plate Il. Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldithamin) in Rangoon Zoo, 919

Notes on Zhrips palmi Karny, attacking Sesamum indicum.

Plate. Fig. 1. A. — Attacked sesamum plant showing fruits with

ré ; . dark pigment, ‘ os) iy

-a.— Thrips palmar, female 4 |

On the Occurence of Marsilea aegypliaca Willd, in Jodhpur, Rajasthan

(India).

Plate. “Marsilee acgyptiaca Willd. from Jodhpur, Rajasthan so, So

Alternanthera poly sonodtes R. Br., var. evecta Mart. — A new record

for Bombay State. _ |

Plate, | , ee. 2057

Abnormalities in the ‘Ear’ of Zea mays L,

Plate. 2088

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

.~ VOLUME 52

Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4

PAGE

Achnanthes sp.

Plate II. Fig. 10 117

Alternanthera polygonoides var. —

erecta :

Plate © A 957

Amyciaea forticeps pea So eae

Figs. land2 ... - 251

Fig. 3 22,

Fig. 4 253

Fig. 5 3 258

Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis

Plate II ee aS Eo

Antilope cervicapra

Photo oe 920

Antrocephalus galleriae

Text-fig. eee 948

Arabia, Comments on Biogeo-

graphy with particular re-

ference to Birds :

Map... ee on 242

Map ... ae 243

Araneus bilunifer

Text-fig. 883

Ardea cinerea

IPHOEO 935

Areca catechu

Fig. Abnormal Fruit 224

Argiope pulchella

Fig. 9 a 880

Arthraxon mecboldii, cl

Plate be 482

——_—— purandharensis :

Plate 482

Axis axis

Plate III ree

Barbus stigma

Graph "G27

Bibos gaurus

Plate V 726

Biddulphia sp.

= Plate IE, Figs. 13-15 .. ws

PAGE

Birds of Cian The BID

Map» %.. ean Secerron OS4

Plate I uae between 374/5

Plate ea aw svers Vokes 375

- Plate III ia = 376

Plate IV Rag PROS eK,

—~ Plate V eae ~ 338

Birds seen above the een ne

- in Tehri-Garhwal, in Central

Himalayas webs

Rudugaira Valley . 2° _.610

-- Diagram of altitude zones, 611

Plate I ee sits 612

Plate IL ere Fit EOS

Bird Trap : E

>| “Photo: i 937

Bitterns in a Penang Are Two ai

Plate I Sh fa noe 687

Plate II sae eee 688

Plate III ee See 689

Plate IV ieee avs -§90

Boswellia. serrata-

Showing attacks by Coftotermes

hermt and Odontotermes rede-

manne - ae é

SEH oc ace St 464

Plate I ears ae 464

Buffalo bull Wild

Plate I one ae 718

Cervus eldi oe

Plate I ee ta 918

Plate II oeah es S19

—— —-unicolor

Photo Meee BES 588

Cetorhinus maximus

Plate I pee Ae dee 330

- Plate Il ee es 331

Chaetoceros laevis .

Plate I, Fig. 5. Ne 116

Chela bacaila a

Graph ase es =. Oes

XXViii

PAGE

Chela gora

Graph <n r 626

Chlorophytum borivilianun

Plate 897

Citrus aurantium

Fig. Bi-foliate leaf 221

Commelina suttruticosa

Plate IL eee 6€3

Corymorptha sp.

Fig, 220

Crab Fishery in thet sea of

Ennour, near Madras

Text-fig. oe 917

Crematogaster dohrni va peunorters

Plate I 356

Text-Figure 357

Plate II 360

—— sp.

Plate III Aaa 361

Cyclosa confraga

Figs. 11 and 12... 882

Cymbopogon caesius

Fig. 6 152

—- —citratus

Fig. 4 152

———-clandestinus

Fig. 9 158

—-——-coloratus

Fig. 23 177

——-distans

Fig. 21 166

—— —exserlus

Fig. 18 166

— —_flexuosus

Fig. 16 166

——- — gidarba

Fig. 13 158

——_ hookeri

Fig. 11 158

—- —- 7 warantusa

Fig. 25 177

khasianus

Fig. 20 166

— — martini

Fig. 5 152

—>-——- mer otheca

Fig. 14 158

———— nardus

152

Fig. 2 nae

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Cymbopogon nardus var. con-

fertiflorus

Fig. 1

Cymbopogon nervatus

Fig. 10

——— osmastonit

Fig. 8

—_—_ par keri

Fig. 27

—_ —-pendulus

Fig. 17

————-polyneuros

Fig, 7

—— schoenanthus

Fig. 26

-—-—— stvacheyt

Fig. 15

——— —thwaitesii

Fig. 22

—_— —tibeticus

Fig. 12

——— tyavancorensis

Fig. 24 oe

—vir gatus

Fig.19

—_——— winterianus

Fig. 3

Cyrtophara ciecatrosa

Fig. 10

Diatoms: of the Chilka Pete

for the years 1950 and 1951,

Periodicity of the Plankton

Map Be

Map

Elasmobranchs

Plate I

Plate II ,

Elephant (makna), Wild

Plate I FOB

Elephants, Growin erimentes

of Indian

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Figs. 3 and 4

Fig. 5

Figs. 6 and 7

Figs. 8 and 9

Figs. 10 and ia

Ephedra

Photo

Eutta javana

Fig. 2

PAGE

158

166

152

881

112

120

832

833

718

843

845

846

847

848

849

850

877

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Fish Geography, Tectonic

History of India and its

bearing on

Text-fig.

Text: fig.

Text-fig. 7

Flora of the West Coast of

South India, Back-water

Map

Gasteracantha avout

Fig. 15

— —-— br evispina

Fig, 16

Fig. 14

Grammatophora sp.

Plate Il, lig. 9 oo

Gyrosigma sp.

Plate II, Figs. 11-12

Hailey National Park, Uttar

Pradesh

SO nee

vemitera

Plate VI as

Hare, Oriyas hunting

Sketch § oie oe

Hemiaulus sp.

Plate II, Figs. 7=8 nes

Ho trap for wild pig

Sketch 6 eae wae

Inglis, Charles M,

Plate

Ipomoea triloba

Plate I

Ixodes kervi

Plate I sare ves

Plate II Po 600

Kanha Sanctuary °

Plate III Br

Kruger National Park, South

Africa

PAGE

693

695

696

698

699

700

Plate I ee ee 2

Plate II «.- between 2 & 3

Plate III ap 2&3

Plate 1V Ay 7404,

Plate V set 4

Plate VI Be 5

Leptocoma jugularis microleuca

Plate III 16

Leprocoma jugularis microleuca

Plate IV

Plate V

Leucauge bengalensis

Fig. 5 (b)

—culta

Fig. 5 (a)

decorata

Fig. 3 & 4

Marsilea aegyptiaca

Plate ...

Melosira sp. (?)

Plate I, Fig. 6 ..

Murdannia scapitlorum

Plate I

Plate II

Nephila maculata

Figs.6 & 7

— malabarensis

Fig. 8 a on

Nyctibatrachus humayuni

Plate ... see

Odontotermes parvidens

Plate I avs “se

Orthotomus sutorius micalcoles

Plate I sae

Palamnaeus bengalensis

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Panther Trap

Sketch 2

Paratelphusa guerint

Text-fig.

Parus nuchahis

Plate I

Pilani and its Neighbourhood,

Vegetation of

Map ya.

Pinctada pinciada

Fig. I aa bp

Fig, ll sai iss

Fig. II 453 ace

Fig. LV

Fig. V

Rana breviceps

Fig. 1. Right foot

Rhizosolenia ber gontt

Plate I, Figs. 2-3

delicatula

Plate I, Fig. 4... any

&Xix

PAGE

XEX INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Rohtee cotio

_ Graph

Rohtee vigorsii

Graph :

Rucervus duvancrllt

Plate II

Plate 1V

Salbornis spilonotus

Plate 1. Favourite haunt. --—-~

Sesamum. indicum

Plate. Fig. JA

Text-fig, 2.

Snow man’s Scalp, Abominable

Photo aah LOS Slee

Solanum melongena .

Lior.

Senne Trap seo) cer aia

cats, foxes, hares and pea-

fowl .

Sketeh 3 Siuis

Tatera indica cuviert

Histogram showing sea- —

sonal Food Constituents

of : sae

Tetvagnatha Prats

Fig. 1

Thrips palmt

Plate, Fig. tear; ate

PAGE

697

290

PAGE

Tiger Trap |

Sketch 1 Rae oan 287

Tilapia mossambica / |

Fig. 1 i cof 350

Figs. 2, 3 and 4 enon

Migs. p andio |... hs 352

Uca annulipes

Plate 1, Bigs, 2 3 see 702

Plate IV, Fig. 10 ne 705

Plate V, Fig. 11 soe cael

——iarionis nitidus

Plate II, Figs. 4-6 Bae 703

Plate Ill, Fig. 7 ee 704

Plate IV, Fig. 9 a 705

Plate V, Fig. 13 a 710

Fig. 12 nee or 710

Ucasp. _ aa

Plate III, Fig. 8 sas 704

Urang Rat Trap

Sketch 4 uss 291

Wild Life Preservation a

Sanctuaries in the Union

of Burma

Map eoo ece ece 264

Yungipicus nanus semicoronatus

‘Text-figure Am a: 60

Zea mays

Plate «.: Wee tee 958

{INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Abies ey! tee, bak » 31, 315, 317 | Acridotheres ginginianus tristis 796, 797

——-fargesii ... aes aes ws 315 | Acrocephalus agricola agricola nese Oe

me webbiana ..° ... © -. © ««. -- 886 - Gumetorum: “4. 1, 762

Abisara echerius prunosa be, Dee OOO trees —‘stentoreus a eae a5)

- ———— suffusa eae eee CLO - ——-——brunnescens 762

Abrus precatorius pase se JOy cea Actinastriim 9 Pua) Want en 840

Abutilon Selgin ge eal . 488 | Actitis hypoleucos cic aad eae OG

Acacia eae ves 875, 487, 754 | Adina cordifolia Sega eee ti MOTO

- arabica ... beh ... 185, 375, 497 | Aecanthus ee Ses ee 557

- auriculiformis ... fre 645, 646 | Aegiceras ae P ace see 69, 78

- catechu... eat so 376, 743 | ————- corniculatum vas oa 69, 78

- concinna var. fulva ... .. 664 | Aegithaliscus concinnus eee 26

- farnesiana bs ae we = 497 | ———— -——— —_-—_. itedater ia OOS

——-—v-leucocephalia ... fas .. 185 | Aegithina nigrolutea ... Late ULE C43

——- modesta oa 360 a 407) — tiphia humei ele 742, 743

-senegal ... +) oes 488, 497 | Aegle marmelos Set asd shee SHO

Acalypha brachystachya .. ... 110! Aegypius monachus ... ... .. 399

Acanthias ae aes see .. 833 | Aeromachus dubius... ae See RES:

Acanthocephalus kadamba (?) eon SHOU me Neruanjavanicay cn cts i sen) aso UL

Acantholipes circumdata eae op RRL) oo ES rereyes ieane ae ee cee OF

——_——_——. circumflueta eee jer | Goll, | a LOMentOSaA iat mie enc OUT.

_ + Acanthus Gee aoe ont ase 80 | Aesculus assamica fe Pe ee ee O07

———- ilicifolius ae .. 69, 80, 664 — punduana (?) .. a ee OUs,

——-——- maderaspatanus .. me. 905

Accipiter badius dussumieri ... ea ood

——-—— nisusnisosimilis ... -... 394

—_——_-- Sp. as oae wee ve. 900

——-——- virgatus ssf.... ae tea OOE

Acer ace wide ese ice OL G, O14, 316

——- campbelli (?) see a Saipan) <0)!

——- sikkimensis Sie ict «. 31d

——- wardii nae aes oat woe Ole

Acheata “oe ‘as aes pene)

Acheta aoe afr ae ee O40

——— bimaculata sis see . 544

Achnanthes en das yes Ree OE LG

Achyranthes des =, ve .. 488

———-—— aspera... aa Ss nenerns U

Aconitum Toi dee ist ou 90

——-—— napellus ae ae nat 99

-Acraeaviolae... ie ise SZ I

Acridotheres ginginianus ... ... 796

——_ — —_—- tristis a ean JO), 207,019

Aethopyga ignicauda iGnicauda «. 894

————— nepalensis nepalensis .., 894

——_——-— nipalensis ... oe aa 57

———saturata .. es jay 8

———-— siparaja vigorsi «> 377, 788

Aetobatus aa Wes sae ae 4500S

Agapetes sae one oe Aegan) is:

Agave verarcruz ... 00d ane oe SOLU

Ageratum conyzoides 5 aus 108, 499

Agrobates AA Ses ew /Gts

—--——. galactodes farpiliatis ee eae

Agyneia bacciformis ... .. «. 659

Alaemon alaudipes dofiae .. ae 400

Alangiumlamarckli .. «. .. 789

Alauda gulgula 505 as ww. 458

—— _— — gulgula was so 408

—— ——-—jnconspicua ... ws 458

——._- —— = — punjaubi vee Sty ele:

Albizzia .. ie wus is a2

— — indicum nae ee .. 492 | Adhatoda vasica Yee seh ea 5¢5

ae vs lebbeck 200 spe eee 497, 646

Xxxil

Albizzia procera...

—-— stipulata

Albunea

Alcedo atthis beneienets

——-— — - taprobana

Alcemerops athertoni

Alcimandra cathcartii

Alcippe ene

——-— nepalensis

poioicephala brucei ...

Alcurus striatus |

Alectoris

— graeca

—-—— melanocephala

Alhagi camelorum

maurorum

Allium cepa

rubellum

sativum

Alnus nepalensis

Alstonia venenatum «.

Alternanthera

Alternanthera echinata

——— - pungens

sessilis

Althea rosea es

Alticola roylei ae aoe

Altinga excelJsa

Alysicarpus monilifer ... ons

Amarantus blitum ase

-—— paniculatus oO

polygamous sis

--———«-—— spinosus

viridis Ape

Amaurornis akool akool ens

+—— phoenicurus spp.

Ambassis ranga cae eae

Amblypodia ees

adriana ..

-————-——- ? agesilaus ane

——- ———. amantes amantes

-—-: areste arestina

nn ae floribunda e000

————~ rotala

Ammomanes

curtis Bur aiaes

polygonoides war. erecta

-—— adatha ae aes

centaurus pirithous

Ammania dentelloides ... nc

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

213576

947

444

377

307

747

750

246

G15);

246

496

772

510

111

510

312

664

957

uw. 665

957

507 659

507, 957

ee a

eee G15

307, 312

496

pees O7

507

664

mee Sy

507

410

411

ey ise

803, 826

fae S26

826

a 9835

372, 826

e827

826

«664

938

665

JO46

496,

we —- 456

PAGE

Amorphophallus sylvaticus ae 90

Amphilophis odorata €59

Ampittia diascorides poKorS

Amphora 349, 625

Amsacta lineola 649

Amusurgus Jo3

-—— fulvus 553

—- oedemeroides B09

-—— speculifer 553

Amyciaea « 252,203 1259)

258, "259, 260, 261, 262, 263

Amyciaea forticeps 249, 250, 251, 253, 262

Anabaena ; 349, 629

—- flosaque 629

Anagallis arvensis vay. coerulea 500

Anamirta cocculus 91

-— paniculata 91

Anapheis mesentina 3638

Anaptygus sp. 615

Anas acuta acuta 399

—- angustirostris 389

——- crecca crecca 390

——- falcata 390

——- penelope 390

—-—- platyrhyncha 390

——.- poecilorhyncha poeciloriymenn 390

——- querquedula 390)

— strepera 390

——-- streperus 931

Anastomus oscitans 3&5

Anaxipha : 504

——--—— henryi Se 2s 555

—-—- longipennis .. 554

—— -—— pubescens 554

Ancylolomia sf, 649

Andropogon ah 512

annulatus Si

— carocpsis ees til

ae clandestinus ss 149, 150

— coloratus 172, 173

—— contortus 311

——_——_-=+= (Cymb.) caesius

elatior bonus

a distans 169, 177

———_——- flexuosus 161, 162

—~- ——- gidarba 156, 157, 160

—_——. himalayensis 178

-_— - hookeri 153

_—_—— jwarancusa 178, 179

S aEEEEEEEEREEnEeneeeime SUOSp.

laniger «we - 189

INDEX OF SPECIES

i PAGE

Andropogon laniger 180, 182, 183

—-—__——- microtheca 175, 159

—— — nardus 166, 174

—_— —_— — —— mr.

coloratus 172

— ———— — ——— subsp.

flexuosus 161

— subsp.

glomeratus 172

—_— —_—_ —. —_ — wr

khasianus 168, 169

+ subsp.

marginatus var.

exsertus 165

— var.

microstachys 162, 163

ee var.

stracheyi 159, 160

——— pendulus <eeeLOS

————— schoenanthus 180, 183

——_— 07.

nervatus 150

—————- sorghum ... ; 135.323

-—-——_-—— thwaitesii one aya

Androsace 310

Aneilema tee 137, 138

————dimorphum ... ae ee O55

———— giganteum .. as sae, » OOS

———— herbaceum se 658

——_—— lanuginosum 658

———-— malabarica 658

— nudiflorum 658

— ochraceuim ee 658

———— paniculatum Dee Sets)

———— pauciflorum 0 658

———— scapiflorum . 137, 138, 658

———— sinicum ase oe 658

———— spiratum 658

———— tuberosa 138

————. tuberosum 138

——_—— vaginatum 55 658

———— versicolor 658

Anemone obtusiloba 9]

Anhinga melanogaster ey) wits)!

Aniseia aoe 79

—-—wunifora «. ane 79

Anisephyra ocularis 649

Anisochilus carnosus 534

————— erljocephalus 534

Anisomeles sé. eae ee a 2 185

Ankistrodesmus ans ... 349, 625, 629

XxXxlli

PAGE

Annona reticulata aa 91

——-— squamosa 91

Avogeissus latifolia eS ee

————— pendula 488, 497

Anona squamosa * 489

Anormogoniphus ne teroptenic 567

Anotis wightiana : 665

Anser albifrons [albifrons] 388

—-— anser [rubrirostris} 388

—-— indicus ae 388, 931

Antarchaea munsueta ... 649

Anthericum 898

Anthropoides virgo 410

Anthus campestris griseus 777

——— cervinus fe 777

re berezouekti ses 575

——— hodgsoni 56

_—— —_—— Rod esont 775

———pelops .. . 894

——— novaeseelandiae cablavensis a. 15

——— richardi godlewskii 776

——— rufulus nee ae, 7446

—— waitei 777

——— roseatus 57, 975, O14, 770

——— rufogularis aoe eso HE

——— sordidus decaptus wwe cn. AL0

——— ——-— jerdoni 776

——— spinoletta ass 778

——— striolata godlewskii .. .. 894

—~—— trivialisharingtoni ... 776

—-—— ——-— trivialis 775, 776

Anticarsia irrorata uae 649

Antigastra catalaunalis ses ss 049

Antilope cervicapta ase 867, 870

Antrocephalus ae Pehl)

Antrocephalus galleriae 948, 950

—--———— renalis ses G50

Anuraea ... Reka isec: we oe BAI

Anurogryllus tenellus ... 543

Aphanocapsa 625, 629

Apharitis lilacinus 372

Aphodius carinulatus ... . ee. +~=— 649

reichei be Syd ESET

Apis indica 950

Aponogeton crispum ... 664

—- monostachyum 664

Aporia agathon ariaca ... 808

Appias albina ... os 367

indra indra = vs 809

libythea - ES ; 366

——— -—-— libythea AS meet Sea.)

EXXIV

PAGE

Aprionodon acutidens 832

Apus see 641, 643, 946

Apus affinis affinis 442

——-- asiaticus aa 641

——- australiensis .. 641, 643, 644

-——- cancriformis .. 641, 642, 644

——- mavliensis 644

——- melba ssp. es Pe ace; 442

orientalis 641, 642, 644, 945, 946

Aguila clanga 398

heliaca 6 398

heliaca’ :.. eae 397

nipalensis a. aes 67, 398

——— ——-— nipalensis Baie meee is)

rapax sic 5c 396, 398

——- vindhiana ... ana 392, 397

Arachis hypogaea Be 323,070

- hypogea Das Ae 185

Arachnomimus as 5 558

Arachnomimus annulicornis ... 558

— bicolor ... 558

——— nietneri ace ses 0

Arachnopsis ae ses ae cant SS

Arachnothera magna oon 58

Araneus ... 874, 879, 880, 881, 883

Araneus (Epeira) Ses 883

Araucaria cunninghami 512

Arborophila torqueola ... ore 68

Ardea cinerea... ae Ae 935

[Rectirostaisi| Me. Beet OGL

purpurea [manilensis] .. 381

Ardeola ... oA ae 383

Ardeola grayii ..,382, 396, 707

Ardisia se : 78

Ardisia littoralis ... dd At se 78

Areca catechu ... Ae aa 92, 224

Arenaria ss. a ae S54 seen een)

Arenaria interpres interpres ... 419

Argemone aes Are ons 483

Argemone mexicana 92 489

Argiope 874, 879, 880, 884

Argiope catenulata “00 500 Tp teh!)

— pulchella See ese ios EO OU.

Argya caudata os. 403, 433

Argynnis hyperbius yperbiced 819

Argyroepeira ae 877

Ariamnes similans eee 4o8 876

Aristida hystrix ... ae ess tee ROU

Aristolochia At ai : 81

Aristolochia bracteata... — ... 508

——— indica sas. see 390 ro

INDEX OF SPECIES

| PAGE

Artamus fuscus 1B Gone ap ale

Artemisia scoparia 500

Arthraxon 481

Arthraxon inermis 481

—— jubatus 481

—_—— lancifolius .. 481

—————. meeboldii 481, 483

——— —— purandharensis 481, 483

———— quartinianus 481

——-——— _ serrulatus bee ach eo

Arthrospira ane wae os ose 7

Aruncus sylvester ae ous aes 33

Arundinaria se, ate 309, 315

Asio flammeus papier ere an, SOO

— otus sah ms, Me a. 440

Asparagus adscendens S06 510 |

Aspermytes khandalensis 859

Asphanchna ... 00 ven e029

Asphodelus tenuifolius ee 111, 510

Aspidopterys sp.... an ae 312

Assystasia gangetica ... a wo JOSE =

—-—— macrocarpa ... ose 6S

Astacus fluviatilis at ee seem

Asterionella japonica 116, 118, 119, 120, 122

Astilbe ... at ae eee ee ko

Astur badius ace 67, 404, 437, 800

Astycus pythias lanka .., 373

Asystasia cn aes sh as et OO

Asystasia gangetica ... eee 80, 659

Atella phalanta ... 370, 819

Athene brama ... ee “ch 297, 929

———— —=--—— Drama os a: 439, 895

——— - indica 439

—-— noctua ... ee 929

Atherigona sp. ( pa Sry ses 000

Atropa acuminata one eee aes 93

——— belladonna eo He 93

Atrophaneura aristolochiae afiatoleaniee 804

—__—_—_--—— Jatreillei latreillei coe §©=«.-: O04.

-—_——-- —— priapus egertoni 804

Atylosia barbata see ete 665

Aularches aes vas 216, 935

Aulocera brahminus brant 810

Avena eee Ree ae nae ee Pont

Avicennia ... aoe ae 81

Avicennia alba... iS ie A 69

—--—— marina x he se 69

—--—— officinalis... eae 81, 361

-— Sp. Se ae. sat ses eo

Axis axis ene ace 867, 870

——porcinus ... aes oes see) | OOF

LNDEX OF SPECIES

KXXV

PAGE PAGE

Aythya ferina... ak: ch «+ 391 | Blythipicus pyrrhotis 60

—--fuligula ... ci one -» 391 | Boehmeria platyphylla 110

——-- marila marila ... She .- 391 | Boerhaavia diffusa 487, 506

——--nyroca .. oe ane w 391 | ————— repanda 2 = '306

Azadirachta indica ate »» 93, 494, 518 | —— — repans 506

Bacillaris paradoxa ... 116, 118, 119, 123 | Boerhavia verticillata ... 11

Bacteriastrum hyalinum ae 113, 118 | Bolboceras quadridens ... 951

Badamia exclamationis mat «| 372 | Bombax Be A 788

Balaenoptera sp. fag Soe .. 4585 | Bombax malabaricum . week O10

Balanites aegyptiaca .. is .. 493 | Borassus flabellifer 375, 442

———— roxburghii... ae =o 403) |) Borreria ie: va

Baleria prionities 50K oe .. 664 | Borreria hispida... 77

Baliospermum axillare ... Aes doc 94 | Bos gaurus ; nee 653

- montanum Nee ae 94 | Boselaphus tragocamellus 867

Balsamodendron cae as .. 488 | Bosmina Se ae cae 349

Balsamodendron mukul 5-2 743, 200, 790 | Bostra sp: 649

Bambusa arundinacea ... rr .. 376 | Boswellia 488

Baoris kumara kumara Ae .. 3/3 | Boswellia serrata ee 463, 466

—— Zellericinnara ... ae .. 9373 | Botaurus stellaris [stellaris] 385

Barbus carnaticus AP so .. 350 | Bougainvillea spectablis 509

-——— sarana ... Les 350, 634 Brachiaria distachya ... So 185; 322

r——-— Stigma ... 350, 626, 627, 628, 631 | Brachionus a ay, w» 349, 625, 629

Barringtonia ee ve ae an 76 | Brachydanio rerio tye 350, 361

Barringtonia peneeaeale ane ce 94 | Brachypternus bengalensis 61

——_—__-____ asiatica .., oe .. 941 Brachytrypes orientalis Bs 542

— racemosa Fey 76,95 | Branchellion ... ee ».. 473, 474, 479

SPECIOSA |...” tu. ces .. 94] Branchellion pinnatus ... 473, 475

Bassia an ee ie on, .. 439 | Branchiobdella we 474

Bassia latifolia... es jad 375, 376 | Branchiobdella menziesi Ae ye

Bayadera longicauda ... aa .» 967 | Brassica campestris var, rapa 499

Begonia eee ee toe eee 309, 314 — cernua ... ny 490

Belone Sredely lure fee aos . 214 | ————- napus... 228 490

Strongylurus «0s we 214 -— oleracea Petien care tes 490

Bergenia ... ee see ae «» 310] Bruguiera ta 76

Bergiaammanioides .., sag .- 664 | Bruguiera conjugata ae 76

BeROCOTALA: er ne ast ven AOL} eylindricar: ws: is gaa e176

Berberis .. 9... + as 310, 314,887 | Bubalus bubalis ep Bia. 1 202,2800

Beta vulgaris... ... «. .. 598 | Bubo bubo bengalensis ... 436

Betula sp, soe tee ewe 814 | ~ ——~ coromandus coromandus 437

Betula alnoides ... eee 500 oo00 2 zeylonensis hardwickii ... ne 437

utilis Sea ads eee wee |= B07 | ~ ———- ——-———--- leschenault 437, 438

Biddulphia mobiliensis 116,118, 119, 123 | Bubulcus ... cn Aarc a Ls 383

———— - sinensis... 116, 118,119,123 | Bubulcusibis ... i 707

———— sp. nus Nee ies 117, J19 | ————- —- coromandus sae 4 Pap iste

Bibliailythea ane Bie «. 3/0 | Bucklandia populnea ». 307, 312, 313

Bibos gaurus _,.. he AP . 870] Budorcas taxicolor ~ at 598

Mercabetularia sks 215, 953 | Buettneria jakiana 665

Blainvillea latifolia aa nos .» 200 | Bulbostylis ae oe Sis 82

~— rhomboidea as ... 000] Bulbostylis puberula ... ase see 82

Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia _... «» $05 | Bungarus caeruleus... ee 939

———— mollugenifolia +» «a» 664 { Bupleurum tenue Bet «FP oe OK

XXXVi

PAGE

Burhinus oedicnemus ... 299, 423

-_—--——— -—— indicus 423

—- saharae 423

Butastur teesa ay A chp)

Butea 5 O/0n 74a 708

Butea frondosa . 95, 375, 495

——-~ monosperma 95, 495, 646

Buteo lagopus 930

—- rufinus 394, 929

Buthus ae 5375038

Buthus sp. aoe af 940

Butorides striatus jauanicee) 382

Cacomantis merulinus ... tes nee 64

——- sonnerati sonnerati 434

Cajanus cajan 08 459

--- indicus... ; 185, 7323,) 499

Calaenorrhinus ambareesa 372

— letucocera leucocera 372

Calamintha umbrosa ... 664

Calamus os 313

Calandrella seativosthia 929

-—— brachydactylalongipennis 377

————-——- cinerea longipennis 456

——-—— raytal aes nae Bac 8

— -——— ---—- ada msi 33,0) 407

—— -—— krishnakumarsinhji . 8, 457

-—— raytal “an ons 5c 8

Calceolaria mexicana ... aoe eee OG

Calendula officinalis .., 500

Calidris alpinus alpinus 421

- minutus minutus 420

- temminckii 421

- testaceus ets : 421

Calligonum Be aa Ss 12

Calligonum soleannice eo MO liZ goles

Calliope pectoralis ae 928

— tschebaiewi ... 928

Calophyllum sn Me 60 at Tas

Calophyllum decir ves sine 71

—— - inonuuiiin sas be 71

Calotes — ae a 398

Calotropis .. 216, 488, 788

Calotropis gigantea 185, 501

Calotropis procera ea 487, 501

Caltha 315

Camallanus sp. ; oss

Camalus sweetei dev vel eed 5S

Camellia ... bes cee lee 308, 309

Camellia sinensis ‘ee Yer ls

thea nae hae Sire seis 21

Canavalia ensiformis 95, 49

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Canavalia ensiformis var. virosa ass 95

——- >— virosa ve ae sn 95

Canna indica 510

Cannabis sativa ... 520

Canscora diffusa 502

Cauthelea lateritalis ae Na wae

649

Canthium sf. “hs 185

Capella gallinago Salinger 420

—minima ... sol at 420

-stenura. <a» 420

capensis, [Ramphalevon cameras) ee, OD

402, 424,487, 745, 765, 772, 773,

788, 792

Capparis aphylla 375, 487, 488, 490, 496, 512,

742, 744, 755, 757, 758, 792, 793

——-——— spinosa “e 490

————_ sp. ate vets ene sas, lOO

Capparis

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus 441

——_——_-—— europaeus unwini 377, 440

————_—— indicus indicus .. 440

—_——_-——- mabhrattensis 44]

—---—_—— monticolus monticolus 441, 603

Caprona agama pelias ... a 373

ransonetti ransonetti RYE)

Capsella bursa- pastoris aad 490

Capsicum 904

Caragana aes ; 928, 929

Carcharinus dussumieri ait Dy ici)

-—limbatus .. 55 832

—--—— melanopterus ae os eee

———— -——— menisorrah 832

———-—— sorrah sp sae Resa oaE

--—— temminckii 832

Carcinobdella ... apt aes 474

Cardamineoxycarpa .. os ese. 4) 208

Cardina nilotica ... 900 ace Pape re)

Cardiodactylus .:. ape eee 560

Cardiodactylus praecipuus 060

Cardiophorus formosus 649

ona sen igo

Cardiospermum halicacabum 494

Carduelis caniceps 928

Carica papaya .. “as op an0 96

Carissa carandas sist aes ono) OOH

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus vast SOG

——- pulcherrimus pulcher-

rimus ea ane “03 893

—— -—— rhodochrous bc sen) O09

——_———— rhodopeplus sue peg

—-——-— rubicilla... sie wsei 2 EO

—- SP iiees ae Ae eee 01a,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Carpodacus thura thura 893

Caryopteris wallichiana 109

Casarca ferruginea aes 931

Cassia auriculata 185, 496

eastulay_ sc 496

occidentalis 496

— — sophora ... wee 496

Castalius deleta decidea 6/5 ose oel

—- rosimon rosimon Or

Castanopsis 312, 313

Catachrysops strabo Soy Late!

Catla catla Si ses 350, 629

Catopsilia crocale 367

— -—— florella Zo

—_--— gnoma 810

—— -—— nerissa 366

——-—— pomona 366, 367

——-—— ——_— f. catilla 367

——-—— pyranthe a 367

= — pyranthe ... 810

Caylusea ... ces 245

Cedrela toona Zu

Celama tzxenista ... «. 649

Celastrus senegalensis ... 487, 494

Celosia argentea 506

- cristata 506

Celsia coromandelina ... wa 664

Cenchrus ... 488, 511

Cenchrus pidorus. pial

—-— ciliaris ok

——-— setigerus opal

Eentella ... AE

Centella asiatica .. i 77

Centratherum Sathemninticum 96

Centrophorus nee 883

Centropus sinensis parroti 435

Cephalandra indica 498

Cephalotaxus 311, 312

Cephalotaxus manii 311

Cepora nadina remba 809

—-—— merossa phrynne 368, 809

Ceratophylum demersum 664

Ceratium ... 625

Cerbera ... yA dee af 78

Cerbera Paaaetas a (hee ee

—-— odollam ... : 96

Cerchneis tinnunculus 67, 929

Cercomela fusca 774

Ceriodaphnia re 340

Ceriops j... £695 '75

Ceriops ee coliesna 75

a A ELE EE

XXXVii

PAGE

Ceriops roxburghiana .., aes Sei) SOL

Cerithium Ss Pee nde ste 6

Cermanthodium ... 310

Ceropegia bulbosa A 502

Certhia’ §..: abe ae PAN aes,

Certhia familiaris mandelii 890

Cervulus aureus ... 860

— —— (= Maitacus eae

aureus) 860

Cervus eldi eldi ... "917, 918

—-——— —--sjamensis 918, 919

—— -—-thamin see bee 918, 919

unicolor 588

Ceryle rudis Tereomeiners 443

Cestrum nocturnum 109

Cetorhinus S3lp o32

Cethosia spp. 953

Chaetoceros affinis 116, 119, 122

——-——--— compressus 116, 122

————- -—. curvisetus ...

— ——_-—_ eibenii

ee ACV 1S eee

——— ——- lorenzianus

116, 118, 119, 122

193, 179, 422

. 116, 118, 129

113, 116, 117, 118

119, 122

——_——--— peruvianus 113, 118 119, 122

-—— subtilis oe 1n6, 117! 129

Chaetophora ee 629

Chaetoprocta odata Sat see Pee 1345,

Chaetornis striatus eee 761

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala 613, 891

—— ——-——-— _ leucocephalus 38

Chalcophaps indica SREY Die 4)

—— —__ — ——- indica bee oeaesaal

Chanos chanos ... BN aes 350, 629

Chaoborus sp. ase see a eo. 649

Chaptia aenea 50

Chara zeylanica ... 349

Charadrius alexandrinus 416

—_ —_— ———— -— alexandrinus 415

———_——._ —_—— ——_ seebohmi 416

————— dubius 415, 416

————- - ——- curonicus 415

—_— -—— jerdoni 415

—-——--— leschenaultileschenaulti... 415

—-— mongolus atrifrons... 416

Charana cepheis... 828

——-—- jalindra indra 828

——-—- mandarinus 828

Charaxes fabius fabius ... 369

— — polyxima imna 369

Cheiranthus cheiri a 97

EXXVIii INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Chelone mydas 474,475 | Cicer arietinum 185, 323, 496

Chenopodium album ... 508 | Cinclus cinclus 613, 895, 927

-ambrosioides 97 | ————- pallasii : 365613

-———— murale i 508 | Cinnyris asiatica eat ce 3 eS

Chela bacaila ». 626, 627,628 | ———— -- asiatica 788

vora 626, 627, 628 | Cimicifuga ‘ 315

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum 45, 892 | Circaétus gallicus gallieus eee .. 401

Chettusia gregaria 414 | Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus ooo OD

-— leucura 413 macrourus 400

Chibia hottentotta 51 pygareus 400

Chiladeslaius laius ... 371 | Cirrepedesmus mongolus 931

Chilasa clytia clytia 366 | Cirrhina cirrhosa ast “S50

- ——-- dissimilis SOG)4) tere mrigala 350, 629

Chilo zonellus G49 | ai reba 350, 629

Chilomonas 629 | Cissa chinensis 25

Chirita 309 | Cistanche tubulosa be 504

Chironomus (?) . 388 | Cisticola 14, 15, 763, 765

Chlamydomonas... 349, 629 | Cisticola juncidis adiess 767

Chlamydotis undulata ciaeeueeni 412 | Citrullus vulgaris 498

Chliaria othona ... 829 Citrus 4) 229

Chlidonias hybrida indica es A) Citrus auranhum 222, 493

Chlorella ae 349, 625 ——- medica bee 493

Chioms witgata \... sue Clamator coromandus G5, 212

Chlorophytum 897,893 | ae jacobinns & 756

Chlorophytum Fechaaten 897 [pica] ee eee

- borivilianum 898 Clemons ; 212

——-- malabaricum 897 ; ae x

Cleome felina ... 97

cag ns SEH tH ~ icosandra 5g oan CeO

Chloropsis aurifrons tron talis 9 743 eee _ 98, 487, 490

oe cochinchinensis jerdoni ... 743

Me, a a er 33 Clerodendron ee 80

Chonemorpha pedicellata Sil peneee nds on Deak ++ 73, 80

Choriotis nigriceps 411, 865 phlomidis 505

Chroococcus 405 625 Clethra delavayi (?) 315

Chrozophora plicata ... g7 | Clitoria ternatea 495

matter g7 | Closterium H .. 349, 625, 629

Hactoria ee 97 | Cnaphalocrocis aetna 649

Chrysanthemum sf.

Chrysocolaptes festivus festivus

— guttacristatus...

———_—_ ——— — lucidus

Chrysomma

Chrysomma sinense

— sinense

Chrysophlegma flavinucha

Ciconia ciconia ssp.

——— ciconia

— episcopa episcopa

———-— nigra

- chersonesus ...

—- —— hypoleuca.

500 Coccinia

453 Coccinia indica

Cocconeis placentula

454 | Cocculus villosus

458 | Coelastrum ~

763 | Coiblemmus

192, f03

753 | Coladenia dan dan

58 —- indrana indrana

385 Colchicum autumnale

377 —— luteum

385 | Colias alpherakii chitralensis ...

electo fieldii

385 |

———— compactus

: 488

sae Rees

136,417, 118;

119, 123

349, 625

sonny 547;

547

373

ee iy 98

ne 8

811

812

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Colias wiskotti wiskotti ‘es eh “Sel

Colotis amata amata ... 368

- etrida 368

= - faustia fulvia 368

-modesta modesta 368

Colpodes ruficeps tes .. 649

Colquhounia aoe ae A) Pew ste

Columba leuconota aie “es veil O15

—_—_ —- leuconota sie!

——-— livia - is nese 297

——— miermedia fy rete eo

~———-— —~- neglecta 429

——_— — ssp. 428

- rupestris 930

Commelina ar 488

Commelina perepitensey Ane ison pC OLO

——-nudiflora... om 510, 658

———- obliqua Ses oe 510, 662

——— scapiflora ... wee soe edlete:

- — suffruticosa ee 667

Convolvulus arvensis ... ne cae Ue

—- dentatus ... a soc weislonl

—— ——- microphyllus var. “wor

seri Nae 659, 665

—- pluricaulis wes at 002

Conyza stricta... iF, Bc - 108

Cophogryllus ... ee ime canny O47

Mmantind 2. OAS,

Copsychus macrourus molenanices ee ew)

—— saularis See ant ee 39, 616

— -saularis ... i ee LOU

Coptis teeta S19

Coptotermes wee scan 406

Coptotermes heimi .. 463, 465, 466

Coracias benghalensis ... aoe ve - 208

— -benghalensis... 447

garrula semenowi 377, 440

Coracina melanoptera sykesi ... -. 749

novaehollandiae macei rey £0

Corchorus acutangulus a we vy AOZ

- aestuans oe ee RES

- tridens ate Sue eee 402

-trilocularis ... eas con 492

Cordia myxa 502

rothii aA 502

Coriaria nepalensis ae oe B50 98

————. myrtifolia sie ae are 98

Coriandrum sativum 499

Corvus corax laurenci sag soon eee

tibetanus aes A BRE

macrorhynchos ... “9 wet 24

b 0.4: 4b: ¢

PAGE

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus ... 802

_—_— —————-—- intermedius. 612, 887

rhipidurus ius ae fy ULES

——— splendens 24, 297, 434,

707, 802

ee Splendens ... aera OUL

__— —— Zugmeyeri 802

Coscinodiscus centralis DIS 1G, 7,

118, 119, 122

Cosmarium ; “as Fe 349

Cosmophila flava ry ter “ant 6 O49

Cosmos bipinnalus A 500

Cotoneaster ave 310, 314, 886

Coturnix cen ane ee OOS

Coturnix Sor eimondeticn eee ea SUG

— coromandelicus re Aree eS)

———— coturnix ase at Sve wee

— —= coturnix 406

Crataeva religiosa 490

Cremanthodium 310

Cremastus spp. , 649

Crematogaster auberti ... bez seu OOO

- contenta Be ‘ke OOO

——————- dohrni .., . 363

——_—_—_——- ——--- artifex , 356, 357, 360

363

——— - rogenhoferi. 354, 355,

356, 357, 359, 360, 361,

362, 363, 364

——————-- ebeninus see AP at o)

—~ physothorax 3595. 506

a rongenhoferi 355

———————- rothneyi are ese 3G

— soror : ste POO

—————__—- sp. 355, 356, 361,

362, 363

Crinum amoenum Be He se 665

Criotettix grandis a ti: eae A OU)

Crocodilus palustris ae 2135 GO5I 95S

——- porosus 213, 937

Crocopus phoenicopterus bs sa 008

Crotalaria act se 7A Peat fs)

Crotalaria burhia ae oa 487, 495

————- medicaginea bee we. «= 495

—_———_- — ——- var. neglecta. 664

————- quinquefolia 664

— ~ striata sos sa wae 73

—_———- verrucosa ... aus wel 73

Croton oblongifolius ... sae Pees 98

———sparsiflorous... ae dee § O04

——— tiglium 94, 98, 99

PAGE

Crucigenia eas 625, 629

Crypsirina hus 747, 800

Crypsirina vagabunda ... “oe 438, 756

—— — pallida... 754, 801

——_—__—- ——_——— vagabunda, 754, 801

a vernayi ve O01

Cryptocoryne 308

Cryptomeria ; 21

Cryptoplectron Me iptrensie inolisi... 29067

Cryptoptilum 556

Cryptoxipha oak O02

Cryptoxipha ritsemae .. 554

Cuculus canorus 62

——- ——— bakeri 210

——— — canorus 895

——— — SSP. ne fe RE

—_—- — telephonus 434

micropterus 63

optatus 62

———- poliocephalus ... 63

— - varius varius ... 433

Cucumis melo 498

Cucurbita maxima 498

Culicicapa ceylonensis .. wee 43

——— Galognimeee ee rad

———_—- ———— ceylonensis 748

— = —— pallidior 747

Cuminum cyminum 499

Curetis thetis 372

Cursorius cOremanaciene

cursor

766, 772

424

-— clirsor cursor 423

Curimosphena fasciculatus .. 649

Cuscuta hyalina aes 502

Cutia nipalensis ase 32

Cyanops asiatica 62, 895

— franklinii 62

Cyanosylvlia 768

Cyathula =: 534

—-—- capitata 3s O93;.0 345.080

—-—— ceylonica «2 (533) 0544025

—-—— prostrata 533, §34

———— tomentosa 3. 1033,094,1059

Cyclops hyalinus =e 945

— leuckarti 945

——_— 5p, 945

———— vermifer aa 945

Cycloptiloides ; 555

= ceylonicus df; Pe i scolsh

=- orientalis SES

Cyclosa

oo aes 874, 882

INDEX OF SPECIES

159 |

182

PAGE

Cyclotella se 349, 625

Cygnus bewickii jankowskii 389

Cymbopogon 159, 174

——— caesius ae 176, 177

——-— citratus : deo a b4

—_—_—- ——— clandestinus os LAO. 524183

—— ——_—— coloratus... 152, 172, 175,

174, 178

—_——__ -—-~ distans 160, 161, 169

———_ ——--——- exsertus can 165, 166

———— ——- flexuoso ; 174

— flexuosus... 161, 162, 163, 164,

174, 175,176, 177, 178

— forma

albescens|.:. W163;

176, 177

— -——— var. flexuosus. 162

microstachys, 162

—_-—_- —— var.

sikkimensis... 162

gidarba .. 156, 157

—_-—— —— var.

burmanicus 157

——_—— hookeri ... 153

——__—— —— jwarancusa ain Zd, 178, 18S

— khasianus 168, 169

ee var.

nagensis 169

——_——-—— martinii ... sas 152, 180

—-— microtheca 15/8

————-—__—_- ————_-—-— var. samesh-

warensis ...

——— ——-— nervatus ... 150, 153

—————— parkeri

——_————— pendulus... _... 162, 163, 164}

ee cchoenanthusieet 180 |

——_— - — stracheyi 159, 160 |

= it hiwaitecil 171}

—____—_-— — tibeticus AS Bary eS):

—_—— travancorensis ... 163, 174, 175, |

(176, 1781

———--—— virgatus .. 166, 167, 1685)

Cynictis pencillata = 587 |

Cynodon dactylon 184, 185, 186, 322 |

Cyornis melanoleuca 892 |

——

poliogenys vernayi

rubeculoides

tricolor tricolor

Cyperus difformis

——-— niveus ate ae

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Cyperus rotundus 510

Cypridopsis : 349

Cyprinus carpio TH 350, 629

Cypselus sp. 895

Cypsiurus parvus (oaracicasis\t 442

Cyrtophora 874, 880, 881, 882

ciccatrosa 881

Cyrtoxiphus pusillus.... So 554

Dactyloctenium aegyptium ... 511

Daemia extensa 501

Dahlia variabilis on 108, 590

Dalbergia nen wae 73, 452

: — candenatensis 73

—- sissoo 496

’ Danais chrysippus cae 216, 368

- ———-— var. dorippus 218

—- limniace mutina 358

plexippus ies aes és G08

Danio aequipinnatus 631

Danaus aglea aglea 812

- limniace 216

—-- melanippus indicus 812

Dasyatis 833

Dasychira georgiana 215

Datura fastuosa 99, 504

metel vee deh 99, 100

—— —__- yoy, fastuosa ... 99, 109

——— stramonium | aa 99

Daucus carota a 100, 499

Davidius zallorensis aetitestas 567

Decaisnea 313

Delias 808

——- acalis pyramus 808

——— agostina agostina 809

eucharis ‘e as. O0/

\—— hyparete ethire ... 809, 810

——- sanaca sanaca form confusa ... 808

—-— singhapura singhapura 808

Delichon nipalensis “ue 56

— urbica 614, 896

——_—_—._ ——— urbica 738

Delima sarmentosa 665

Delphacodes porpinqua 951

Delphinium Sie 100

Delphinium ajacis 489

—— elatum 100

Demiegretta asha 383, 384

Dendrocalamus strictus 376, 432

Dendrocitta formosae ... ee 25

Dendrocygna bicolor .. ses 389

xli

PAGE

Dendrocygna javanica ... eas 389

Dendronanthus indicus 610

Derectaotus das 556

—- ceylonicus ... 556

—- palpatus ane ee O00

Derris eae se Ay wae 74

Derris canarensis ane ane wae 74

—— uliginosa : ». /4, 80

Desmodium polycarpum 107

Deudorix epijarbas epijarbas 829

Deutzia stamina 665

Dianthus chinensis 491

Diapensia ves see a Olw)

Diaptomus bee ave seo O29

Dicaeum agile agile 786

concolor 787

erythrorhynchos 786

—— —_—-— eavnrortaiis

chos 787

-— ignipectus ignipectus Ses Oot

Dicentra thalictrifolis 665

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 83, “84, 85,

87, 264, 266, 273, 275, 276,

Dichanthium es ase eeoul

Dichanthium sane sce OE

caricosum S11

Dichromia orosia 649

Dicrurus fe ze 608

Dicrurus caerulescens ... «. 800

— —-—— caerulescens... 799

——_—~—— leucophaeus bs 49

—_——— —-- longicaudatus... 799

——— macrocercus 49, 208

—_—_— ——- peninsularis ... 798

————— paradiseus seri LO

——— ————- malabaricus ... 800

Didymocarpus send pa Gue

Didymocarpus tomentosa 109

Digera ane : 488

Digera arvensis sae ane 487, 506

Digitalis purpurea 100

Digitaria marginata 3 ot

Dinopium benghalense benghalense... 450

——_———- ————— dilutum 451

Diospyros os 78,5, 312

Diospyros melanoxylon ae scoieslo

— peregringd 9... | sy, feel) 40

Dipterocarpus ase nae cee oi2

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (?) 307

Diplatys sinuatus is es vos) ea goU,

xlii

PAGE

Diplatys sp. ee Sa 648

Discophora sondaica zal 817

—— timora timora 817

Dissemurus “ies 747

Dissemurus paradiseus 438

Ditylum sol 116, 118, 122

Diurella 629

Dobinea * 313

Dodona henrici needa 820

———- ——— longicaudata 803, 819

Dodonea Ss. 185

— = ViSCOSa *... 494

Dolichandrone 80

—— - eantnates aes 80

Dolichos biflorus 185, 323

———— lablab a; 80, 023, 290

Dorylus sp. : : 608, 609

Dracunculus medinensis 556 945

Dromas ardeola spp 422

Dryobates auriceps 895

—— cathpharius ... 59

—_———- darjelliensis ... 59

————- macei 59

Dryocopus javensis O77

oo —- hodgsoni ... 451

Dryonastes caerulatus ... 28

—— — ruficollis 27

Duabanga sonneratioides

.. 307, 312, 459

Dumasia villosa 107

Dumetia hyperythra 762

— — ————- albogularis 152

——— ————- phillipsi ... ee Oe

Duranta plumieri 505

Dysticus 437

Echinocarpus a12

Echinochloa crus-galli Sil

Eclipta erecta 500

Ectatoderus enn ae Dov

Ectatoderus ceylonicus ... 557

Eeretta alba modesta 36 GO 25 300; 004

—_ — garzetta garzetta : 383

————— intermedia 382, 383

— —— —- uatermediay! 383, 384

Elaeocarpus noe 312, 316

Elanus caeruleus ioitorts 391

Elatostemma sessile 110

Elephas maximus indicus 590

Elephus maximus 294, 851

Eleusine aegyptiaca Spur

—-— coracana

SS ee verticillata eee age

1485; G220828

51l

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Elsholtzia strobilifera ... = 110

Elymnias casiphone malelas ... 816

— ————- saueri 816

—— —— peali 816

——- crenata bah : soc) 0S

Emberiza buchanani_ 37/, 777, 789,

790, 791

= DEUNnICepS ac. +. 790

—_-_— melanocephala 1.377, 790, 791

———— Striolata striolata .. 790

Eneoptera wa 550, 553

Eneoptera Ahora 551

— lateralis Sol

Enicospilus sp. es 649

Enicurus maculatus =e ne jo 37

Enkianthus ree a 314, 315

Entada pursaetha ceo On

> scandens ... eas aes Soe |

Epeira re hee.

Ephedra 10, ‘UL, 12, 13, 488

Ephedra foliata dO; Lipi2

- var. Ciliata 487, 512

- peduncularis dee oe 10

- vulgaris ... A aise ae 11

Epimuta ... wes Bac 825

Epimys (= Rattus) pureeees mee 860

Epipagis cancellalis ... ces oo ©6049

Epistylis ... soe ee Ps «» 629

Equus hemionus ... vet ces 798

———— khur 871

Eragrostis... aaet RAGS

Eragrostis bifaria 185, 322

——-——- nutans ol”

— -—— plumosa cee vee sell

oa stenophylla ... coe 511

——-—— viscosa Spel

Eremopterix grisea eee 560 455

-_—— siccata 455

Ergolis ariadne 370

- - merione Eieronann 370

Erebia hyagriva ... 815

Eriboea athamas... 369

Erinaceus oe go BENGE

Eriobotrya ae O12, Ito

Eriophorum comosum 159

Erithacus rubecula 45

-— sveCicus abbotti aco Od

ee - pallidowularis 767

-— ——- saturatior 767

Erythrina of 448, 788

Erythrina erythrina enya wie ae ON

re ates

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Erythrina erythrina roseatus ... 791

——-— indica ... oe 312

——— —- stricta 451, 755

Erythropygia galactotes 768

Ervatamia dichotoma 101

Esacus recurvirostris see 423

Estrilda amandava amandava... 794

——-— formosa ; “pn ee)

Etroplus suratensis cee see 350, 629

Euastrum ee ase 625, 629

Eublemma anachoresis sess . 649

Eubranchella as 473, 475

Eubranchella branchiata 473

Euchloe ausonia daphalis 810

Euchrysops cnejus aa 3/1

—_——_— contracta contracta 823

—_—__—__-—-—- pandava pandava 823

Eucosmetus sp. . 648

Eucta 874, 876

Eucta javana 876

Eudynamis nce eee as 575

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus ... 434

Eudynamys ia 575

Eugenia ses 308, 312, 347

Eugenia Perarolana 497, 789

Euglena 624, 629

Euglena acus 625

——-— oxyrius ... 625

—-——— Spirogyra 625

——-— viridis 625

Eulophia bicarinata 661

Eumyias thalassina 42

Eunetta falcata 607

Euonymus 308, 315, 316, 320

Eupagurus prideauxii + 714

Euphorbia 450, 452, 488

Euphorbia clarkeana 509

————— geniculata 110 |

—-— helioscopia ... 659

——_——— hirta 509

————-— hypericifolia 665

————-— microphylla 509

_——_— neriifolia 509

——-——— pilosa 665 |

—_—— prostrata 665

=—-———froyleana ... 508

_————— royleiana 11

_-—_—_— splendens 509

————-—. thymifolia ... 509

Euploea core core 369

———-coretacoreta ... 396

Sliii

PAGE

Euploea mulciber kalinga 812

Eurema blanda silhetana a see BULL

— hecabe simulata <p OOS

libythea : 367

—simulatrix sarinoides ... 803, 811

Eurystomus orientalis 65

Euscelis indicus e . 648

Euscyrtus : he side Site Aolet |

Euscyrtus concinnus 561

———— hemelytrus dea sen, OO)

———— laminifer vee ae see O02

———— necydaloides 562

——-——- perforatus 562

? Eustrongyloides sp. 945

Euthalia dunya vs 818

——--— evelina derma 818

———-— garuda garuda 818

——--— kandaelicius .., es 818

——~--— mahadeva binghami ... cos EGLS

———-— merta eriphyle 818

——- — nais 369

Euxoa sagetum 322, 324

——--spinifera ... nae 049)

Hiveres parrhasius pamiacite fae ee 820

Evolvulus alsinoides 502

-—— nummularis ... 665

Exacaecaria agallocha .., ce «=. 61

Excoecaria 69, 81

Excoecaria agallocha 81

Exelastes atomosa : 324

Fagonia cretica ... se ae we — 493

Fagopyrum esculentum 110

Falco chicquera chicquera 403

——~ jugger 402

——-~ peregrinus 403, 929

——- ————--——- babylonicus... 403

——- severus Y 67

-~—— subbuteo 403, 929

—-~ tinnunculus es 615

~~ —-—— objurgatus 404

—- ——-—— tinnunculus 404

Farsetia jacquemontii . - 487, 489, 495

Felis chaus 290

Feronia limonia ... 370

Ficus eile 312, 316, 400

Ficus bengalensis 375, 408, 428, 448, 509

—-—- betjamina... occ «= 07

—- glomerata... 408

——- pyriformis ... . 308

—-— religiosa 428, “448, 646, 787

Fimbristylis dichotoma oe S10

xliy

Firmiana colorata ie das

Flacourtia sp.

Flemingia fruticulosa

—- lineata

Fluggea sp.

Foeniculum vulgare

Fragilaria

Francolinus francolinus Rennie!

————— -—— ssp.

——-—— pictus

—_ -——. -- — _ pallidus

Franklinia buchanani

Fregetta :

Fregetta grallaria

-- tropica ...

Fringillauda brandtii

Fritillaria

Fritillaria roylei

Fulica atra [atra]

Fumaria parviflora

Funambulus pennanti ...

Gadusia chapra

Galathea strigosa

Galeocerdo tigrinus

Galerida ... ae Sch —

Galerida cristata eee

—_ — chendoola

———— deva

— malabarica

Galleria mellonella

Gallicrex cinerea ; ae

Gallinula chloropus [indica] ..

Galloperdix spadicea

-_—— ———-— caurina...

—-— Spadicea

Gallus gallus

sonnerati ...

Gamblea aus

Gambusia affinis

Gandaca harina assamica

Gangara thyrsis thyrsis...

Gardenia tubifera

Garrulax albogularis

lee eee alboculatic

——-—— moniliger

———— pectoralis

Gasteracantha ...

Gasteracantha arcuata ...

—————— brevispina

-—— pondicerianus interpositus

-—— nemoricola ae ae

454, 458

on. 884

PAGE

743, 756

185

107

665

185

499

349, 625

404

405

793

355

334, 347

324, 347

928

894

310

319

411

489

799

624, 625

714

835

454

458

457

457, 458

948, 950

411

867

407

298

408, 603

314, 315

350, 631

810

373

888

iy games

874, 884

884

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Gasteracantha remifera 884

Gaultheria sf, 315

Gavialis gangeticus 865

Gazella bennetti 867, 870

Gecinulus grantia 59

Gelasimus annulipes 703

——-—-— cultrimanus ek 705

————— marionis .. bis 705

———-— ———— var, nitidus 705

———--— nitidus 705

——-—-— vocans oa 705

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica sas, 20

Gennaeus lathami 269

——-—— melanotus 68

Genosia obeditalis 951

Gentiana .. BG 310

Geokichla citrina 618

-— citrina ane

Geranium wallichii 665

Gerydus boisduvali assamensis 820

Ginkgo biloba 101

Girardinia zeylanica ... aaa 664

Gisekia pharnaceoides ... Sod 487, 499

Glaucidium 800

Glaucidium brodiei A 66

—— —— cuculoides ... eae 0 66

————— radiatum radiatum smi) 40a

Glossocardia boswallia 53 pon 000

—_—-——__— linearifolia 500

Glyphodes bivitralis 649

Gmelina arborea ad see 312

Gnaphalium luteo-album var. multiceps 500

Gnathostoma spinigerum ee se 2 O45

Gomphornema ae 349

Gomphrena celosiodes ... 508

—- globosa 507

Gonatozygon, 55 629

Gongylus gongyloides ... 644

Goniopteris

Gonium .. cee Pe ore « «349

Gordonia axillaris 313

Gossypium 375

Gossypium hirsuta var. ipresillence oo ecal

Grammatophora cee

Grammatoptila striata

~_— striata 889 |

Grangea .. AGA

Grangea maderaspatana eo 77

Graphium agamemnon menides 3677)

-—- euryplus f. jason 367

——--— etlkypylus jason... uae

610

308 |

1165)

29 Ii

‘79

366 |

PAGE

Graphium nomius 366

—- --— ———- nomius 367

——--— teredon sarpedon 367

Grewia betulaefolia 492

- populifolia 492, 743, 785

- tiliaefolia 376

Grus antigone antigone 410

—- grus lilfordi 409

——- nigricollis 605, 930

Gryllodes : SG 545, 546

Gryllodes berthellus Hes 547

--—-—- greeni 546

— -— sigillatus 545

=—-—— supplicans ... 546

Gryllopsis OF sare 346

Gryllopsis falconneti 546

Gryllotalpa africana... 542

—-- orientalis 542

-—- ornata ‘ ne 542

Gryllus 542, 543, 544, 545, 547, 549, 561

Gryllus berthellus 547

-bimaculatus ... BP ences

- bucharicus 945

=-confirmatus sae Cer)

- consobrinus ~ $45

- flavipes eee ane Hees)

—-—— flavus bee 044

occipitalis aes O44

——- parviceps semen We tees Paroee

punctulipes 545

———- quadristrigatus 544

——- supplicans ... ase 546

Gryllulus blennus 545

———— brevicauda 545

———— configuratus ... ww. 44

———— mitratus Ace cas we «=: 044

———— pallipes Sos eat tee pu OED

———— testaceus 044

gurial, (Ramphalcyon capensis) 07/5

Gymnanthelia nervata ... 150

Gymnodinium ee) Ou

Gymnogryllus Pe erocethalts apo OES)

—_——_——— humeralis ee Oa

Gymnorhis re wah 394

Gymnorhis xanthocollis ads 746

Gymnospcria 185, 375, 488

Gymnosporia montana . 11, 375, 494

Gynandropsis gynandra 101, 490

——-——.— pentaphylla 101, 490

Speciosa ... aoe 6€5

Gynocardia odorata 102

INDEX OF SPECIES

xlv

PAGE

Gynura pseudochina i 665

Gypaétus barbatus 67, 614, 929, 923

Gyps fulvus ssp. : SS

—-— himalayensis Ree .- 67, 400, 644

—-— indicus ssp. 400

Gyrosigma .. 116, 117, 349

Haemadipsa ane ves 468, 469

? Haemadipsa eee 468

Haemadipsa montana ... 468, 469

a ornata 468, 469, 471

ee picta 468, 469, 471

a zeylanica ... 468, 469

Haematopus ostralegus [ostralegus]... 413

Haematornis cheela ... nee 67

Haematospiza sipahi A)

Halcyon pileata ... ive 445

——--— smyrnensis 65, 398, 445, 608

Haliaétus leucogaster 339

———-— leucoryphus ave 399, 929

Haliastur indus 67, 396

Haliastur indus indus ... 393

Hamiltonia suaveolens LOL

Haraldus chelaka lenya ap we ieee el

Harpactes erythrocephalus Sis 65

-— fasciatus tee eae Ae ae

——-—— malabaricus legerli vee «= 443

——— ——-malabaricus... 443.

Hasora alexis alexis ... a6 372

Hedera helix we See ae 02

Hedotettix costatus ... Bs sae G00

Hedychium ap Py er ey)

Heleochloa schoenoides ean OOU

Helianthus annus een 000

Helica Ae ary on 313, 316

Helica excelsa 2 se 313

Heliocopris bucephalis aa 649

Heliophorus androcles moorei 824

—_—-—— brahma mogoka... 824

Heliothis obsoleta cue ocd

Heliotropium eichwaldi oe OUe

———_——— marifolium var, walli-

Cities >see wee 665

———— strigosum a ee O02

— zeylanicum 502

Hemerocallis soe) 09

Hemiaulus sas ae sor 1G

Hemichelidon ferruginea 41

—— —— sibirica ... ose 4i

—— cacabata 891

Hemicircus a: Ale ane 451

xlvi

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Hemicircus canente 877,453

———_—_— ——-— cordatus ... atime: ot)

Hemiechinus auritus collaris ... 584, 921, 922

—_——_—-—-— collaris 971

Hemigaleus balfouri 832, 839

Hemigraphis hirta woe =: 664

Hemilandreva ons ee V8)

——_———--— lamellipennis .. 549

Hemipristis elongatus ... 832, 839

Hemiprocne longipennis coronata 442

Hemipus sn eS

———— picatus . 46, 377, 741

— ——— picatus niet 738

Hemitragus Fee dG)

Heptagenia sf. Ae ets)

Herennia 874, 883

— ornatissima 883

Heritiera baen 5; 361

Herodias alba ase ee ok EIS

Herpestes on ese 187, 188

Herpestes smithi zeylanicus 587, 860

vitticollis ro csv

Heterogamus SA. 649

— — — ar. percurrens 951

Heteropogon contortus eee L

Heterotrypus elegans 960

—— ——vicinus .. aa 559

Heteroxenicus cruralis ... ay 36

Hibiscus 4h Ese 72

— esculentus 492

—_ gibsoni 492

———— hirtus eae Sh 664

rosa-sinensis ... 5 492

———— tiliaceus ee 72

———— Vitifolius ore dae R004

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ... 395

———— ———— grandis 396

— pennatus eer 092, 390,07

—_——— — milvoides ... 396

—-—— —— pennatus ... 396

Hierococcyx sparverioides 63

———-——_-— varius des eee 64

Himantopus himantopus himantopus 422

Hippa sat aie sett nd?

Hipparchia actaea magna 814

va boloricus : 815

————-—— —— chitralica 815

————— moorei : ee)

—-—-—— — ——— gilgitica ... 815

-— ——— moorei : 815

Hipparchia persephone enervata

regeli

Hippolais caligata caligata

rama

———

——<<2 ns

Hirudo

branchiata

Hirundapus caudacutus

Hirundinaria manillensis

Hirundo concolor

— concolor

daurica ene

——_——_ ——_--—- erythropygia

— —— -—— — hyperythra ...

—_—_- ——_-— nipalensis

——— fluvicola Sup AAG

rupestris

rustica ;

——_— ——-— ambigua

—_—__—_-—- ———- gutturalis ...

rustica

smithii filifera

a eee

PAGE

814

815

756

473, 474

473, 475

56, 442

470

736

737

607

737

736

96, 737

736

345, 736

Hodgsonius phoenicuroides phoeni-

curoides

Holcus sorghum

spicatus

Homaloblemmus aoe i

Homaloblemmus cavifrons ...

Homalocenchrus hexandrus ...

——

Homalogryllus ats 49

-— depressus 505

Homo ane

Homochlamys fortipes

Homoeoxipha

— histrio

—_ lycoides

Homoeoxiphus

Homonoia riparia

Hoplopterus indicus indicus

—— malabarica

Horaga amethystus

—=

—-—-— moulmeina

-— onyx

Hordeum

Horeites brunnifrons

Horsfielcia anita dina

Hura crepitans ANG

Hyboella latifrons se

Hydnocarpus kurzii

———-—-—-—- laurifolia

== Wightiana

purpurascens.

736

737

890

184, 324

347

O47

659

507

557 4

598 |

554

594

552

308

414

828

803, 828

828

oll

372

102

950 |

102 |

103

INDEX OF SPECIES slvii

. PAGE | PAGE

Mite yerticillata. ...... 349,509) Iriss®, tee ee cs ae 809

Hydrillodes morosa__.... He ... 649 | —- wattii Soe re be fey Ue.

Hydrophasianus chirurgus... 413, 606 | Itaropsis parviceps aa, Bid Se Das

Hydroprogne tschegrava tsche- — fenellusy..: ace oa se One

grava ee oi ... 425 | Ixias marianne ... aes ae ce eal ots)

Hylobates hoolock te ee .. 269 | —— pyrene frequens ... one Bie Siete:

Hymenia recurvalis ... Eo .. 649 | Ixobrychus cinnamomeus eee 687, 689

Hyoscyamus muticus ... ant 103, 665 | —-—-—-— sinensis sie aaa Ar (oto, 7/

—-— niger 366 aa gome OS -—— —--—-— sinensis] ... eo Oe:

Hypacanthis spincides ... es Ae oo)|| Lxodes:) .... ais eae ee O61, 863, 864

ee — spinoides ... 893 | Ixodes acutitarsus sie swe 860, 861

Hypena strigata wes vas .. 649 | —--— ceylonensis Dae ae 860, 861

Hypolimnas missipus ... isle .. 370 | —--— gigas nie “ee she oy aol!

Hypoprion macloti sie’ 6ue .. 832 | —--— granulatus ane ... 860, S61, 864

Hypothymis oe a 747,800 | —--— holocyclus Be ye 860, 861

Hypothymisazurea ... wep .. 706 | —+-— japonensis er er 860, 851

— ——-———styani .. . (/49 | —--—kempi ... wes oa ves OOS

Hystrix leucura ee Pee we « «292 | —-— kerri me ae .. 861, 862, 863

Ianthia cyanura rufilata ee .. oOgl | —--—radfordi ... ae o 860, 861

Ianthocincla ¢cellata ocellata ... ». 088; —--—ricinus ... sae sit S60, 861

Ibidorhyncha struthersii a8 ... 896 | Ixora parviflora var. zeylanica ». 665

Ibis leucocephalus ee. +, 399 | Ixulus favicollis . aos ues oo: 31

——- acsecpialus Bio 385 === cS Hay eoliis 550 aos 889

Ichthyobdella ... .. we eee = «474 | Lynx torquilla chinensis er teh cen Lodo

Ichthyophaga cent neactue [ichthyaetus] 399 | —— ———— S50. ove coe we 449

Ichthyophis glutinosus w= awe-~—«639 | Jacaranda mimosifolia a 646, 647

——-—— monochrous ... 649 | Jamides celeno celeno ... as on On

Ictinaétus malayensis [perniger] ... 399 | Jasminum wre tee tee wee S12

Ilex as .. 313, 314, 316 Jasminum humile Br ae UU

Ilex crenata we wwe 814 | Jatropha curcas se vos ve 108

= pethofagifolia Ae ae 314 SS glandulifera ... ooo 200 104

—-sikkimense ... sar ae) ge eee OUay Ni verry gossypifolia .... .. .. 104

Illicium sf. Be tM es ieee eesk O14) Mee ey ote? cee Ci gee "205

Hlysanthes i. a P , 79 en ten ov see as ive secre

Ilysanthes tenuifolia ... sie as 79 eters we we sie ve 285

Impatiens re ee pe 0G) DOSHCla gs ate a) ste ecenhyy ee 488

Indigofera argentea... a2 ... 495 | Justicia adhatoda ie te ct O09

—articulata... ae see 405) Sara e Giftusa... vee ae 2» 505

) —cordifolia .. .. 4. 495 | ——-— Quinqueangularis .., ..., 505

Ipomea pilosa... bes Seat) 2 ste 1p) O04 sr. a es Oy Cniana see aes ww» 659

ae — Wightii ... nee wae »» 665 | ——-— simplex tee aes Ane wea) a)

| ———— batatas ... ocr cP 503, 661 | Kachuga donghoka zee oe 474, 476

| —— biloba ... ace wee ov. 003 | — — intermedia... bes scam 270

——- blancoi ae ies .. €61 | ———— smithi ana see ees 470

| ——_—— hederacea sie als 104,503) == — tectum : aes 474, 477

——-—leari... et ee .. 503 | Kallima inachus huegelii aes oe OLS

———pes-tigridis ... BAe 503, 664 | Kandelia ... a an see ae 79

| pileata a oe .. 661 | Kandelia rheedi ... oan oe can 79

| — pulchella A ae .. 503 | Katelysia apima ... See aN 125, 129

1 ___ triloba ve ou ... 661 | Kirchneriella ane aes Ks Ty es)

Traota timoleon timoleon " .. 825 | Kleinhovia hospita fF ‘ae ca S28

xlvili

PAGE

Kochia indica... aes ane 508

Labeo aoe best cee 629

Labeo fimbriatus . 300, 629, 634

——— rohita 350, 635

Laccifer (= eras sea communis 646

——-— (= Tachardia) lacca ... 645

Lacerta sh. 615

Laelia litura 649

Lagascea mollis 659

Lagenaria siceraria 105

————— vulgaris 105, 498

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 105

wee speciosa ae eo 0S

Laiscopus collaris 928

Lalage melaschista 48

——— sykesi 975

Lammna . sae ae Oe

Lampides Loeticus 371, 807

Landreva ... 9 a. eee 549

Landreva anegustiformis 949

——-—— clara ... 949

——-—-— insignis ¥ 949

-—-— subaptera 049

Lanius cae Bris 608

Lanius caniceps caniceps ane 782

collurio 781, 783

—_—_ —-—_-— bogdanowi 782

—— cristatus ... 618

— cristatus 783

——— erythronotus erythronotus 782

—— excubitor lahtora

——— jsabellinus

.. 779, 780, 782

.. 768, 780, 782

——— lahtora 782

——-— nigriceps 32, 45

a nigticeps e 892

——— phoenicuroides 768, 780, 781, 782, 783

—_—_—__ ——___—__——_ isabellinus 782

schach 46, 6.8, 782

Lanius schach caniceps 781, 782

—-— -— erythronotus 781, 782

SS kathiawarensis ... 782

—-— ——-— hnepalensis Se OOe

vittatus 780, 781, 782, 783

Lantana camara var. aculeata 185

——— crenulata 665

-— indica 505

Laphygma exigua 322, 324

Laponicum otis 310

Larix Me ve Splat

Larvivora penned ase ae 36, 890

Larus argentatus cachinnans 425

INDEX OF SPECIES

Larus brunnicephalus ...

—-+— fuscus 930

a Putenets 425

—-— ridibundus 424, 425

Lasioderma sericorne ase wi $649

Lathyrus aphaca ...496, 515, 664

———— sativus 515

——-—-— sphericus 664

Launaea nudicaulis 590

lLawsonia alba 497

Leea woe “5 73

Leea sambucina ... ees 73

Leioptila capistrata Jas wee? (AO

—-—_ - -— capistrata 889

Leiothrix lutea % sf)

Leonotis nepetaefolia ... 506

Lepidagathis trinervis 505

Lepidium sativum 490

Lepidogathis sp. woe!

Lepocinclis oe OSS

Leptadenia 765

Leptadenia spartium 412, 487, "502, 788, 775

Leptocoma jugularis 16 |

—— —-— microleuca .. 16

Leptoptilos dubius 386

a javanicus ... 386

Leptosia nina nina an 367 |

Lepus ruficaudatus oat «- 29a

Lethe ae Ole

Lethe dura Site 813

—-— margaritae ane os > Ole

-—— rohria nilgiriensis vate 369

—-— rorhia neilgheriensis 813

—-— sinorix aaa ° 813

—-— yama yama . Sloe

Leucas aspera 506 |

Leucauge bce 500 874 |

Leucauge (Argyroepeira) ae 877 |

Leucauge bengalensis ... 877 |

——- celebesiana ... 877 |

june Culta |<. 2 Ome |

——-—— decorata . S7ml

—— fastigata see 2 877 |

a tesscllata 877 |

y= ventralis 877 |

Leu cocerca albicollis 45

Libythea myrhha myrhha |

Licocoris Sp. re : 648 |

Ligustrum Ors ae 308

Limenitis procris procris 369 |

Limicola falcinellus : 421

Liminitis procris procris

424,425, 930

PAGE

Linninitis procris undifragus 818

Limnanthemum 2 79

Limnanthemum parvifolium 79

Limnophila oe oat 79

Limnophila gratissima 79

Limosa limosa limosa ... 417

—- lapponica lapponica ... 417

Lindenbergia macrostachya 665

—-—— urticaefolia .. 664

Linum usitatissimum 493, 515

Liogryllus ee 544

Liorhyssus rubicundus ... 648

Liphoplus 556

Liphoplus ceylonicus 556

Litsaea polyantha 459

Lloydia a ee 310

Lobelia nicotianaefolia . 516

Locustella naevia eerie = 761

Lolium perenne ... a 659

——— temulentum ee 659

Lonchura malabarica ... 794

——-—— punctulata feeoventer 795

ee striata striata : .. 494

Lonicera 310, 312, 315, 881

Lophobdella : ww. = 474

Lophophorus apenas 615, 895

Loranthus an be .. 187, 788, 789

Loranthus ampullaceous ue 605

--—-— spp. 743, 744

Loxoblemmus ie 5 848

Loxoblemmus equestris 548

— longipalpis 548

Loxura Benes atymnus S02,

Luffa acutangula 498, 516

cylindrica 516

Lumnitzera oe 69, 76

Lumnitzera racemosa ... 76

Luzara 559

Luzaropsis ve 559

Luzaropsis ferruginea ... 559

— -— cutee 559

Luzula : : 315

Lycaena Eee aera var. Paraepa 824

Lycaenesthes dubiosa indica 824

-—_—__ —-—--—. sivoka 824

———-+—- emolus emolus an 823

—— — lycaenina lycaenina 371, 824

Lycaenopsis Ae SaeetOa

Lycaenopsis argiolus jynteana 803, 822

— sikkima .. 803, 822

———_-——. ceyx cerima 803, 821

ES eR ES SS a

INDEX OF SPECIES

SHS

PAGE

Lycaenopsis ceyx ceyx 821

i a — — tanarata 821

——- lavendularis limbatus 821

———_-——- lilacea : 822

—_—-— musina ean 822

Sess ee PeSpa 822

—— gisca 371,822

Lycium ae 11

Lycium europaeum 11

Lycopersicum esculentum 504

Mabuya sf. 940

Macaca nemestrina 269

Macropygia unchall 68

Madasumma ee 560

Madasumma albonetatay 560

—————— egreeni 560

———_—_—-— incerta : 561

~—-——_-—-—-—- marginipennis ... 560

—_——__—_-—-—_ praecipua 960

———-—-—-— valida 561

———— varipennis 561

Madhuca indica 517

-——_—— longifolia 517

Maerua arenaria on, te eo0

Magnolia 9 oe 312, 314, 316

Magnolia eareppellti (diolltesmatay. 314

——_—— rostrata 314

Malachra capitata Rae 664

Malus sylvestris 517

Malva verticillata 106, 491

Malvastrum spicatum Secu) OO

Mangifera indica eee 399, 3/3

Manglietia ee

— caveana eer

Maniola ee » 814

Maniola davendra aiitralica 814

—- hilaris 807, 814

——-——- tenuistigma 814

—-——- laspura 814

Marsilea bee 954, 956

———.- aegyptiaca 954, 955

———- brachycarpa ... 955

———-— brachypus 955

———- condensata 955, 956

———-~ coromandelica ... 955

-- gracilenta et eee lake

——_—~ minuta 955, 956

————- poonensis 955

———- quadrifolia 955, 950

Martynia diandra 504

Mastogloia a eke 629

] INDEX OF SPECIES

Mesocyclops _ 349, 629, 632.

Mesua ferrea REP pase}

Metasequoia _ : 311, 312.

Metioche fee wae Se 5

Metiochodes ian 552

_ Metiochodes greeti _... 552,

—— - trilineatus — fe 253!

. Metochus uniguttatus see 648)

-Metopidius indicus 413, 423

- Michelia 307, 312, 314, 316

Michelia bailloni 307

_ Microbracon hebetor 649

» Microcichla scouleri aes 37

ee eS CORIET . 890

PAGE |

Meconopsis : 310

Megalaima Hacmneconete eaten 449

—_————__—__— ——_—_——- indica | 449

——-—-——-—- virens 61

——-————— viridis 449

wee zeylanicus ... 575

Megalestes irma ... és 566

Megisba malaya sikkima | 820

———- ——— thwaitesi 820

Melanitis ledaismene ... 369, 816

Melanochlora sultanea 26

Melanocorypha maxima 929

Melanorrhoea glabra ae w. 4099

Melia azadirachta ... 93, 375, 494

azedarach 494, 517

Melilotus alba 495

-_— — indica 495

— officinalis 518

— parvinlora 495

Melochia Bee 72

Melochia corchorifolia ... Ae

Melophts lathami 598

— melanicterus -~ Aho sac OG4

Melosira ? «. -L16, 117,629

Melursus ursinus ; an 869

Mentha aes sa ee 506

Mergus albellus aes eee basta OOL

Meriones hurrianae ane Om 504 .

Merismopedia 349, 625

Merops oae 565 608

Merops orientalis Pe odk , 208

—- —- biludschicus 446

——- ——__-——- orientalis 446

——-—- superciliosus persicus 445

Merremia hastata 503

Mesia argentauris 34.

SSS ee ey

67 FI

29. |

561 |

“3501

PacEg

Microcystis ee cee 349, 629

Microcystis aeruginosa ... 629

Microhyla ornata 637, 638

Micropternus brachyurus jerdoni 450

Micropus affinis sano eee 66, 208

Microscelis flavala

— macclellandi 34

—— psaroides 34, 889

Milvus migrans . . 297

—-—— govinda

———. —_______ lineatus 67

— milvus sie 392

—— govinda ... 393

Mimosa ~ dd 78

Mimosa hamata van QO

—- pudica 71, 96

———- rubicaulis a gut

Mimusops elengi 301

Minla ignotincta 32

Mirabilis jalapa ee — §06

Mirafra erythroptera ... sa0 601

erythroptera 455

——-— —————- sindiana . 445

—-—~ javanica cantillans 454, 458

Mixornis gularis one ans «Se ote

Mnesibulus oar 561

Mnesibulus pallipes_

Mobula 833 |

Mocis frugalis ae “ 649

Moghania macrophylla var. viridis .... 665 |

Moina Be ace . . 349%

Mola mola ae ain AM «. 323mm

Mollugo iy 488

Mollugo cerviana .. 487, 499, 664 }

——- hirta 499 |

== Nudicanlis 499

Molpastes cafer me |

————- leucogenys : ;

—- —-———— leucogenys ... 889

Momordica charantia 4935)

- Monotheca es .... 24am

Monsonia senegalensis ... ae 493 |

Monticola cinclorhyncha 40, 771, 891 |

—- rufiventris 40

-solitaria -.. : AT |

————- solitarius fon apescne wre |

-— pandoo ... 771m

—- —— transcaspica 771

Montifringilla nivalis 928

—— ruficollis ore 928 |

Montifringilla taczanowski

Moringa 368

Moringa pterigosperma

Morus alba

—-— laevigata

Moschiola memina

Motacilla alba

pee alboides

—— baicalensis

—_—_———- —— dukhunensis

leucopsis

personata

cinerea aes

— caspica

———— melanope

—_—_——_— citreola

————. citreola

— —— werae

——_—— flava beema

melanogriseus

thunbergi

———— jndica

— maderaspatensis

Mougeotia anc

Mundulea sericea

————-- suberosa

Muntiacus muntjac ove

- muntjak aureus

—— — —__—-———

— ———— _ ——

~~ et

—

Murdannia aa eee

Murdannia dimorphum

————— elatum

———_—— giganteum

— lanuginosum

malabaricum

——_—_——. nudiflorum

ochraceum

pauciflorum

scapiflorum

semiteres

——_—_——- sinicum

— spiratum

— vaginatum

——_—_—— versicolor

_Murraya exotica

; koenigii

Musca vomitoria

Muscicapa latirostris

i — parva parva ...

—___—_- striata neumanni

——

—

- vaginalis ... was

3 137138;

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

614,

. 56, 614,

ceo

—_—_—__—— thalassina thalassina

894,

138,

614

488

494

509

312

294 |

614

894

779

614

619

929

779

929

778

779

349

518

870

860

658

493

382

746

377

747

PAGE

Muscicapa tickelliae 756

———_—__- ———— tickelliae 747

Muscicapula hodgsoni 43

ee eaves cae hyperythra 43

——__—____—_- magnirostris 43

—___—__—_- melanoleuca 42

—_—____—_—-- rubeculoides 43

SS sapphira 43

——_—_—_—_-. superciliaris ws 43

—-____-——-- tickelliae ... 43

Muscisylvia leucura ss... be ic 38

Mussaenda . 308

Mustelus antarcticus 834

—_ — laevis 843

—— vulgaris 834

Mycalesis igilia igilia 812

—— malsara 813

— perseus ees ee 369

——-—-—. suavolens suavolens... 812, 813

eee ty tient 812, 813

— — visala visala ... 812

Myiophoneus coeruleus 41

ee eaeruleus temminckii ... 891

= horshieldi STA Teo

Myliobatis 833

Myllocerus cardoni 951

Myrica nagi vie bead Sede 6307

Myristica fragrans 518

—___—-—. malabarica : sie ong

Myrmarachne , 251, 254, 255

Myrmarachne manducator 260

__.—.—-— plataleoides ..249, 250,:253,

254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261,

262, 263,

_————— ramunni - 260

———— spissus - 260

Myrmecophila 595

Myrmecophila dubia 559

= Eschernicht ae wees sy)

Myrmecophilus “$55

Myrmegryllus ee ooo

Myroinophilellus sve 909

_ — pilipes 555

Nabis capsiformis See 648

Nacaduba noreia noreia 824

Navicula 7, 116, 349, 625

Nectarinia es 247

Nectarinia asiatica Paice 787, 788

ee 2S brevirostris 787

—-— lotenia " 788

ES ZF EVIOMICAD sche watts! a ner 787

iii INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Nemachilus rupicola var. inglisi 567

Nemobiodes a 546

Nemobiodes ceylonicus 546

-—— laeviceps ... 546

——_- —— nigrocephalus 546

Nemobius 551

Nemobius ceylonicus 550

—~— histrio 551

= infemalis 551

——_—-— javanus 551

—- nigrosignatus 551

Neodiaptomus ica te 349

Neotermes assmuthi ... Phe 648

Neophron percnopterus ssp... ve 7 A400

Nephila aes Ac 874, 8738, 879

Nephila maculata 874, 879

-- malabarensis 879

Nephopteryx 5p. 649

Nephotettix apicalis 648

-—— bipunctatus 648

Neptis columella 369

- = ~ nilgirica 818

hylas varmona ... 370

yerburii sikkima 818

Neptunia oleracea 659

Neptunus pelagicus 946

-— sanguinolentus 946

Nerium odorum : 501, 954

Netelia sf. ise eae ae 649

Netrium is8 ii 349

Netta rufina a: Ae 391

Nettapus coromandelianus 391

Nicofia trijuga 474

Nicotiana ciamibaeumieatia wa 664

Nigella sativa .e ‘ 519

Niltava grandis et ae ue 44

——-— macerigoriae ... ke be 45

——-— sundara Ana sare sae 44

Ninox scutulata ssp.? Sy ps

Nitzschia 349, 629

Nitzschia closterium 116, 117, 118, 119,

22023

——-=—— longissima 116, 119, 123

—— -——. pugens ; 118, 119

=—-—— ——~— - war. atlantica 116

Nodaria cornhicalis PB 7 we. 1649

Nomocharis 310, 315, 316

- Notholirion : 310

Notocrypta paralysos algaia an 373

Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila ... 887

PaGE

Numenius arquata orientalis ... ies ALG

-— phaeopus : 707

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 501

Nyctibatrachus 855, 856, 857,

Nyctibatrachus humayuni 853, 855, 857,

939

—_——-— major 852, 855

———___-—_——. pygmaeus 855, 856

——_——____——- sanctipalustris ... 855, 857

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax 384

Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni w. 446

Nymphaea ee an oe a8 71

Nymphaea stellata ae PA a ie

Nymphula diminutalis 649

—— --- —~ stagnalis 649

Oceanites oceanicus 334, 338, 343, 347

——-—— ———--— exasperatus .. 348

———-— ——-—— magellanicus 347

———-— —-——— oceanicus 348

——_—__—— —-—_-— Parvus s- 347, 348

Ocimum ns 487

Ocimum sanctum 506

Ocypode arenaria 715

Odontotermes 465, 466

Odontotermes obesus Bs 459, 951

aa parvidens ... 459, 460, 461

- redemanni .. 463, 465, 466

Oecanthus 557, 562, 939

Oecanthus henryi 558

—— — AGicus 957

———---— rufescens she 558

Oecophylla 251, 292253, 254, 255,

256, 262

Oecophylla smaragdina.,., 249, 262

Oedogonium one an es vase COO

Oenanthe capistrata hone iS

————- deserti 772, 927

———-— ——— atrogularis ... Pike 6

———— isabellina 716; 771

——-—— opistholetica Vi2,d13

——-—— picata UPR 773

——-—— xanthoprymna chrysopygia 772

Ohiopogon ee 45 Se ey)

Oldenlandia es 85 ee ve Vd,

-——pruinosa ... ter a 77

Oligotoma saundersi 951

Omphallogramma 310

Ophiocytium 625

Opuntia dillenii a5 - 498

Ordgarius ic sa 874, 884

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Ordgarius hobsoni 884

——»—-— sexspinosus 884

Oreicola ferrea ferrea 870

Oreocincla mollissima ase wae 40

Oreocorys sylvanus ... 57, 894

Oreosolen ae 310

Oriolus oriolus kundoo 797

—-——traillii ... ine Jos mae 54

——-— xanthornus ; S4

— —_—— COA ERTS 797

—-———— — xanthornus 798

Ornebius Re a a Geo O00

Ornebius guerini SoG

— varipennis 556

Orobanche cernua 664

Orsinome i 874, 876

Orsinome marmorea 876

Orthomiella pontis pontis 824

Orthotomus 761

Orthotomus sutorius a2

—_— —~- ———-- guzurata 763

——-—- —-— maculicollis ... 14

Oryctes rhinoceros 649

Oryzias melastigma 350 , 631

Oscillatoria 7, 349, 625, 629

Oscillatoria tenuis 629

Osphronemus goramy ... 350

—_——-———. gourami ~ 146

Otocoris alpestris elwesi 929

Otus bakkamoena ssp. 66, 436

Ougeinia dalbergiodes 376

Ovis ammon poli 923

Oxalis corniculata 493

——— latifolia 659

Ozarba hemiphaea 649

Sp. oe 649

— ar. lepida # se rooL

Ozobranchus 473, 474, 475, |

. 479

Ozobranchus branchiata hat AT5

—-—--—— — branchiatus 473, 474,

475, 477, 478, 479

———-—-—-— jantseanus 474, 476,

477, 478, 479

—————-— margoi ... 474, 476, 477, 478,

479

———-—-—— menziesi 473

———\——— papillatus 473, 474,

776, 477, 478, 479

=<--=c—-— polybranchus ... 474, 477,

LB? 478, 479

liii

PAGE

Ozobranchus shipleyi 474, 476,

477, 478, 479

Paeonia emodi 520

—-—— officinalis one 520

Palamnaeus bengalensis .. 536, 537, $38

Pandion haliaétus haliaétus seenit AUB

Pandorina 349, 629

Panicum - ae 82

| Panicum crus-galli 511

———— repens 82

———— trypheron 222

Panolia eldi thamin 264, 278, 302

Panthera leo persica 867

———~— pardus 288, 870

———— tigris 286, 870

Papaver rhoeas ... 489, 520

Papilio : ose oS

Papilio arcturus arcturus 804

——— aristolochiae set 365

——— crino Ste woe str 366, 805

——— demoleus 366

——— ——-—— demoleus .., 366

——— dravidarum sce OUD

——— hector oe 365, 366

——— krishna eroniiel 804, 805

——— memnon agenor 804

—— — polyctor stockleyi 803, 804

—— — polymnestor 366

——— polytes 365

——_— ——— cyrus 805

—S polytes ... 366

ee romulus 805

es form stichius 365, 366

Paraechinus micropus micropus 584, 921

Paragrewia poilanei 190

Paranaxipha nee 553

pe eileen ornatipes ... 553

Paratelphusa guerini 94]

Parnassia... 310

Parnassius : sae ate 806

—_—_—_—-— charltonius ° deckerti 806

ONS ee eee ——— ducalis. 807, 808

a delphius ; 807

wah OS -— enitrelicn: 807

—--—-—-— —---—-— hunza 807

——_-_——-— epaphus im O06

SS shinduchicieas 806, 807

——____—_— hardwickei hardwickei ... 806

—__—_—-— jacquemontii chitralensis, 807

Ae ee ——— jacquemontii, 806

ee STG ae nee -- 806

liv -

PaGE

Parnassius stoliczkanus nicevillei 806

—__ —-—_-- —-—- Saserensis 806

— — thianschanica 807

—— tianschanica binghami -806

Paranemobius pictus 550

Parkinsonia aculeata 495

Parsonia spiralis 79

Parus ater aemodius 888

—~-— dichrous dichrous 888

—~— major 446 25

—-— —-— stupae 785, 786

—-— monticolus a sis 26

—-— ——— monticolus ... hee isistel

—-— nuchalis 784, 786

—-— rubidiventris 888

—-— xanthogenys aplonotus 786

Pasania 312

Paspalum aeons shal

———-— scrobiculatum 207

— vaginatum 659

Passer domesticus 56, 403, 601

pete biblicus 601

—_—_—_. ——-——— indicus 792

montanus : 500 56

—— —— malaccensis... dea OO:

Pastor roseus dds OTT

Patiscus 562

Patiscus aceanpanerine 562

Pavetta ... aes Ac6 77

Pavettaindica ... eee tis 77

Pavo cristatus ... ‘ne 297, 408

Pecten sp. Bs 125

Pedicularis a due eas 319

Pediastrum aes 349, 625, 629

Peganum harmala 493, 520

Pelargopsis capensis gurial] 444

Pelecanus onocrotalus 380

—— ——- philippensis crispus 380

—.-—_ ——_——-—— philippenis 380, 381

Pellorneum ruficeps : 29

ee — mandelli... 889

-—— —-——ruficeps ... 5) AY

Pelochelys bibroni 400 474, 477

Peltophorum ferrugineum 646

Pennisetum Bo Es AO 512

Pennisetum cenchroides ital

-—— ciliar 659

——-——— typhoideum 375

Pentacentrus aise 557

Pentacentrus pulchellus 557

Pentaneura sp, ... ee vee dOO0

ee EERE

INDEX OF SPECIES.

PAGE

Pentapterygium... 3130

Perdicula 398

Perdicula argoondah 406

-— asiatica asiatica 406

—-—— ——- meinertzhageni 407

Pericrocotus brevirostris st 47

a -———- previnaie 892

=—_- cinnamomeus cinnamo-

meus oe ~~ GAL:

—_—-——- -_—— — pallleeee ws 741

——-——--—. erythropygius 785

———-—__-— ——-—__ -_——- erythro-

pygius... 741

—_—-—--—-— flammeus 47, 377

ee flammeus 740

—_————-— —— semiruber 741

————-—- —-———-_ speciosus 741

— -—— peregrinus dharmakumari 741

Peridinum... 349, 625

Perigeaserva... we zee 649

Perigrinus maidis 951

Periopthalmus 384

Perkinsiella fascialis 648

-—— insignis 648

Pernis orientalis ; ase loge

ptilorhynchus ruficollis 392, 393

Perotis indica 311

- latifolia ... : és BO

Petaurista petaurista philippensis 861, 863

Petinia nyctaginiflora ... 504

Petronia xanthocollis transfuga 792

— -—— xanthocollis 792

Phacus cos . 349, 625, 629

Phaeneilema foe nee Br ioe D7,

Phaethon indicus 335, 336, 337, 339

-— Sp. oe and 335

Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis] co ood

-- fuscicollis 381

-- niger 381

Phalaris minor ... fe ease, OOo

Phalaropus aa aes “08 336, 347

Phalaropus fulicarius 337

-—— lobatus iver pune Or:

Phaseolus mungo 185, 323

-— radiatus dee 323

Philautus ane 939.5

Philautus bombayensis ace 852, 939

—- (Ixalus) variabilis ... £56

Philodina 629

Philomachus pugnax ... 421

Philyra scabriuscula 640, 641

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Phlogacanthus aes enn ces 3903

Phoeniconaias minor 5,7, 388

Phoenicurus frontalis ... 38, 613, 891

i= grandis en 92H

= - ochrurus ... a 38

--—— ——-- ochruros winocmennaties — 768,

769

—_— - -—— - -——— rufiventris 768, 891,

O27,

Phoenicopterus ruber 376, 388

— —--- antiquorum ... 871

——— — ——- — -—— roseus fe Once

— —-ruber ... si 6

Phragamaticola ... $75

Phragmaticola 575

Phycita sp. ase 95]

Phyllanthus 308

Phyllanthus Padercontension 509

—-— niruri 509

a reticulatus 759

Phyllognathus dionysius .. 649

Phylloscopus .. 004, 756, £92

Phylloscopus affinis ose 928

a — collybita tristis ... 759

—_—_—_—— — griseolus... 759

————— — inornatus humei 759, 761

-——-— — --= maculipennis 892

—————— occipitalis occipitalis ... 760

-———— — pulcher pulcher 892

——— reguloides 892

————— — trochiloides nitidis 760

——_———— — ——viridanus... 760 |

————-—— trochilus acredula 760

——_ = tytleri 761

Physalis minima... 503

-— peruviana 503

Physis carbonariella 262

Phytobdella aes 469

Phytobdella cantenifera 469

Picea ue Sit

Picoides auriceps 246

——— dorae 246

— mahrattensis 246

——-— —————— aurocristatus... 452

——-— —————— mahrattensis ... 45?

——-— nanus 783

——-— —- hardwickil 452

Picus canus gyldenstolpei tes 58

—-chloropus ... he “0 as 59

chlorolophus chlorigaster 450

——- Squamatus squamatus eee ene

895 |

PAGE

Pieris ae aee 312; 313

Pieris aqupermard? chara biensis 809

—-- krueperi devta ... 809

—- napi melaena 810

Piestoxiphus ; 552

Pilea microphylla aes 664

——- peploides ‘ s 665

Pinctada martensii au eee 125; 130

— pinctada ee 124, 129, 130, 135

— vulgaris ake 125

Pinnularia eae ae 349

Pinusinsularis ... oa Se 169

——- longifolia ... = 459

—-— wallichianum 886

Piprisoma agile agile .., 895

Piscicola ... See see : 474

Pisum sativum ... nee owe 496

Pithecellobium bigeminum 520

Pithecolobium saman oi 292

Pitta brachyura [brachyura] ... 454

Pittosporum eriocarpum 665

Planktonema ose : 349

Platalea leucorodia [major] ses ase POOF,

Platydactylus ... aoe 561

Plectranthus rugosus 110

Plegadis falcinellus [falcinelius? 387

Plesmonium margaritiferum ... 521

Pleurococcus 625

Pleurogyne : 310, 349

Pleurosigma cee ses see 625

Ploceus benghalensis Tome)

~— megarhynchus ... 599, 600

ee rutledgii 600

——-— philippinus philippinus 793

——-— sardarpateli 793

Pluchea lanceolata son) 000

Pluvialis dominica fulva 415

— squatarola 414

Pnoepyga albiventer aIbiventer 890

Poa me vs 222

Podiceps ee hicas caspicus oe 380

—_—— cristatus cristatus 380

———— nigricollis 380

———v— ruficollis capensis 380

Podoces humilis 927

Poecilocerus 216

Polistes hebraeus 647

Polyalthia longifolia ... 489

Polycarpae corymbosa... 491

Polydora ae hc 474

Polydora testudinum 473, 479

lvi INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Polydorus aristolochiae aristolochiae 366

Polygala 488

Polygala erioptera

Polygonum .. 315, 488, 291

Polygonum aviculare ... 521

SEE hydropiper 521

———-—— nepalense ... cose etO

————— plebejum 487, 508, 512

Polyommatus icarus chitralensis 823 |

—————— loewiisanoga ... oe 244

——_———— orbitulus ie 822

ne ellisi 4. ‘ey, eee

—_-——— jaloka 822

—_— —— —— wa lli <a pOle

—————— poseidion florenciae 823

Polypedilum sf. ... 650

Pclytela gloriosae oon 649

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys 29

—————— ————-— harinetoni 889

—————— horsfieldi horsfieldi 751, 752

——_——_——— ———— obscurus 751, 752

———-——— ruficollis ruficollis 889

———— schisticeps 751

Pongainia nee a in 74

Pongamia glabra 741, 521, 522

pinnata 521

Pontobdella oe we «= 474

Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus 41]

Portulaca oleracea aes ; 491

—--- quadrifida 491

Porzana porzana oe 410

———- pusilla [pusilla] 410

Potamogeton aie 81

Potamogeton javanicus... 81

Potentilla 887

Potentilla fruticosa 310, 887

——_—— fulgens 665

Pottingera 313

Pouzolzia indica var. oes 665

———-— -+--—— angustifolia 665

—_———-— pentandra var, ramoissis-

sima 665

Pratapa deva deva aa 827

ae —— lila 828

Precis almana almana .. 370

———- hierta hierta 585 370

—-— iphita iphita eee 819

—:— —— pluviatalis 370, 819

Soe siccata 819

—-— lemonias vaisya ... 370

rip mr Qrithiya (co es ces ee ee

490

PAGE

Premna racemosa 665

Prenolepis 260, 262

Presbytis ... 598

Primula 310

Primula petiolares 314

Prinia af 246

Prinia penenen ate 763, 766

——— gracilis... a0 sae ss. #06

—--— ——-— eracilis 765

—-—- inornata 753, 766

——— inornata terricolor 764

——- lepida . 765

——socialis ... ace Pi Jus, Ao

-———- inglisi ... He ae.

—— sylvatica gangetica 764

—_— —— sylvatica 764

——— valida 764

Prionailurus bengalensis awe we 7 eOU

Pristarthria minutella 649

Procarduelis nepalensis 893

— rubescens ea 893

Prodenia litura ... 649

397 , 450, 452, 487, 754

757, 758, 788, 793

486, 496

Prosopis

Prosopis juliflora

— spicigera 312, 375, 403, 488,

496, 512, 741, 742, 743,

758, 785

Prothoe calydonia belisama 817

— franckii angelica _... Sen OLD.

Proxenus melanospila .. 649

Prunella immaculata ... Sie ee 41

— modularis 42, 613

———— rubeculoides .. 613, 614, 928

————- strophiata strophiata 891

Prunus 560 355 <a O08

Prunus amyedalus 522

——— var, amara 522

——— ——— —- dulcis ssee Ee

armeniaca Bes ae: woe 7 wee

avium Ses 522

cerasoides he oe ey)

— —-—- rubella 307

—-—— cerasus ae re Pare,

mahalab 523

padus eee ben ee dao

persica 535 Sa 206, hae

puddum 523

Psammogeton Dee 499

Psara licarsisalis 649

Psarisomus dalhousiae..,. SAS ek 58

SKS

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Pseudibis papillosus 386

Pseudobranchellion margoi 474, 475

Pseudogyps bengalensis ae tee 67

Pseudoraphis aspera 659

Psidium guayava 497

Psittacula cyanocephala bengalens’s... 433

——~—— eupatria nipalensis... 432

————- krameri borealis 432

Psychoda alternata 649

Pterocarpus marsupium 376

Pterocles exustus ellioti 427

——_—— indicus oes 427

—-—- orientalis 427

—-— senegallus ... aes ee = 428

Pterodroma aterrima 334, 339, 343, 347

Pteronemobius a. 550

— -—— bicolor ... 551

—--——_-—— birmanus 550

—— ——--—— concolor 550

—_—-—-——- cesikii 95, 648

—_— --—_---- fascipes 551

———— -—-— gravelyi 456 550

= -______— taprobanensis ... 551

——_—- vagus 550

Pteroplatea He fee OOOO

Pteruthius erythropterus sa hie 33

Ptyas mucosus ae 609

Ptyon oprogne rupestirs 928

Puffinus assimilis 337

w. 342, 344, 346

— - carneipes

= |herminieri persica ... 336, 337, 339

—-—— pacificus OOO S074 OF,

344, 345

——-— ——--:— chlororhynchus 343

346

—-—— sp, 336, 342

Punica granatum 497

Pupalia lappacea 487, 507

Pycnarmoncribrata .. 649

Pycnonctus cafer humayuni 744

— —— —-— pallidus 744

——_———— ——- pusillus 744

———-—— —-— vicinus 744

————— jocosus (fuscicaudata) 745

————— leucotis leucotis 745

——_—_____ luteolus 616

——_——_— —--——_ luteolus 745

Pygeum gardneri 524

Pyralis manihotalis reyes O49

Pyrrhocorax graculus ... 612, 927

a ——— pyrrhocorax 612, 927

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himala-

yanus

Pyrrhula erythrocephala

———-— subhimachala

Pyrus

—-—- aucuparia wae :

Quercus mere a5

——--— lamellosa

———- pachyphylia

Rahinda hordonia

Rallus striatus (albiventer)

Ramphalcyon capensis capensis

a mei 24 BIST | ee

Rana aes sh

Rana beddomii ... 635,) S08)

—- breviceps ... 620, 623,

——- leithii

—- leptodactyla

semipalmata

—- temporalis

-—— tigrina ass

Ranunculus cabulicus ...

—— muricatus...

Rapala abnormig...

——— dieneces dieneces

——— imelampus

— - — pheretimus petosiris

——— varuna lazulina

——— ——— orseis

——— schistacea

Raphanus sativus :

Raphimetops ablutella ...

Rathinda amor

Rattulus :

Rattus mulleri ...

rajah eee :

-——— rattus kandianus

—— —- rufescens

—— sabanus

whiteheadi

Rauwolffia canescens

Recurvirostra avocetta avocetta

Rehderodendron

Reseda odorata

Rhabdia lycioides

Rhabdochona uca

Rhineodon

Rhineodon typus a

Rhinoceros sondaicus ...83, 85, 273,

-—— sumatrensis see

Rhipidura Sc gee ae

os: O90,

lvii

PAGE

887

893

314, 315

duns 506

313, 316

314

370

410

575

938

938, 939

637, 638

635, 636, 852, 938, 939

856, 857

858, 939

637, 639

489

.. 489

803, 829

oe ee)

373, 829

829

490

649

372

625

470

860

470

660

42?

316

490

308

945

Sa iegae

326, 623

274, 502

274, 302

758

Iviii

Rhipidura aureola aureola

~ compressirostris

——--- pectoralis 2

-— pectoralis

-— vernayi ...

ee ee

Rhizoclonium

Rhizophora He

—— candelaria ...

mucronata ...

Rhizosolenia alata Res

——— -

PAGER

748, 749

748

749

349

.. 69, 75

113, 118, 119, 122

——-- bergonii ... 113, 119

——- calcar-avis eos 113,119, 122

—_—— delicatula 113, 119

—— —— --— imbricata 113, 122

——___——__—. robusta .. 113, 119, 122

—— — setigera yl 35119, 122

——— stolterfothii .. 123; 118,119)

122

-—_— — —— styliformis pb ie

Rhododendron 309, 310, 313, 314,

315, 316, 886

Rhododendron anthopogon

arboreum

arizelum

barbatum

campunulatum...

—__—__—_-——— chryseum

dendricola

falconeri

genesterianum ...

— grande

— polyandrum

simsii

sino-grande

— stenaulum

——_—__—_-— telopeum (?)

tephropeplum

trichocladum

Rhodoleia forrestii

Rhodophila ferrea

Rhopodytes tristis

viridirostris

——- ——

——. ——_—__.

Rhus 500

punjabensis

Rhyacornis fuliginosa

conn - fuliginosa

Rhynchina pervulgaris

Rhynchoglossum obliquum

Ricinus communis

Riparia paludicola chinensis

Rivea ornata aoe

aoe 65

887

886, 888

315, 316

886

887

Sec auOLO

312

314

313

314

315

305, 316

314, 316

313

315

313

435

312,.488

106

.. 38, 613

891

649

“s6 LOO

185, 323, 509, 524

735

see gc OUd

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Rivula biocularis... eee eds 964

Rodgersia aes aA ae she HLS

Rohtee cotio .. 626, 627, 628

— vigorsii .. 625, 627, 628

Rosa a 308, 886

Rosa damascena ... 497

involucrata ... 308

—— omeiensis 310

Rostratula benghalensis ben whatensia 422

Rotifer.., iss : 625

Rucervus aeuarectli les aad 870

Rumex hastatus Bs nan wo 008

Ruppia aus aA ae 6

Rusa unicolor 867, 870

Rynchospora “hd 82

aa — wallichiana 82

Saccharum 512

Saccolepis indica... 222

—— myosuroides 222

Salix ec ase 310

Salix tetrasperma 308

Salpina ... ace 629

Salpornis spilonotus rasniianee 783

—— —-— spilonotus 783

Saluenense 310

14, 375, 762, 765

375, 487, 50i, 742

743, 785, 792

Salvadora... Seis

Salvadora oleoides

——-—— persica 375, 488, 501, 745,

785

Salvia aegyptiaca 206

Samadera 72

Samadera indica 72

Samanea (Pithecolobium) saman 645

Sanicula europaea ; 107

Sapium indicum = ioe ee

Saponaria vaccaria 491

Sarcogyps calvus 66, 399, 795

Sarkidiornis melanotus melanotus’... 391

Sasia ochracea : 61

Saxicola caprata Ae 774

— —-— bicolor 774, 890

———— torquata 37, 890, 927 |

—_—— —_—_—_— indica 775

Saxicoloides 768

Saxicoloides fulicata 618

—-— ———— cambayensis 769

Saxifraga 310

Scapsipedoides 548

— — apterus 548

——~— —-—— macrocephalus 548

= ————

—

Soak

ee tee

Re RR at A te

—o

—

INDEX OF SPECIES

a. PAGE

Scapsipedus 547

Scapsipedus asperus 547

——--——- ceylonicus 547

——--—— mandibularis 547

Scenedesmus : 349, 625

Schima ... ee ae 5. 312, 313, 314

Schleichera oleosa 524

—! trijuga 376, 524

Schoenobius bipunctifer 649

Sciara sp. 650

Sciurus (= Saleen erythraeus

intermedius 860

- variabilis 860

Sclerostachya fusca 660

Scoliodon sae 338, 839

Scoliodon acutus Ae 832

——- —— palasorrah .. 832, 834, 838

———-—— sorrakowah ... 832, 833, 834, 835,

838, 839

—-—— walbeehmi ... 832, 838

Scolopax rusticola rusticola ... 420

Scopula cleoraria 951

-— idearia 649

———-- octuaria 649

Scottia a, 551

Scottia ceylonica 551

Scutellaria 308

Scylla serrata 946

Scyllium canicula 833

Seicercus burkii burkii... 89?

——-—— castaniceps o)8)

——-—— xanthoschistos 52

——-— Sane Honehid:

tos ses see ONS

Selenastrum 349, 629

Semnopithecus sas 598

Semnopithecus entellus 285

Senebiera pinnatifida 490, 660

Setinus canarius ... 59

Sesamia inferens ... 649

Sesamum alatum 657

———— ekambaramii... ait fi O57

———— indicum 185, 323, 504, 525

———— laciniatum 657

——— orientale 5255 057

=———— prostratum 657

Sesbania aegyptiaca 495

———— cannabina 660

———— paludosa 664

———— uliginosa 664

Seseli indicum F a 664

lix

PAGE

Sesuvium portulacastrum 665

Setaria 700) OO

Setaria infermedin 185,322

- verticillata 511

Seychellesia a 559

Seychellesia ceylonica ... 559

Shorea . 312

Shorea assamica he a ey

robusta -- 460, 461, 462

Siccia guttulosana 649

Sida acuta 492

— carpinifolia ... 492

— cordifolia 492

rhombifolia var. Hom bogey 492

—— veronicaefolia 491

Siegesbeckia orientalis 108

Sinapis dichotoma 490

Siphia parva 42

—--— strophiata strophinte 892

Sisymbrium orientale 660

Sitta a 783

Sitta castanea diaanaGenee 26

frontalis ‘ 27

— -— frontalis ... 787

—— himalayensis 888

Siva strigula strigula 889

Smilax Sn2

Solanum auieaniare a oie P25

aa melongena th 2204 228, O04

a nigrum 503

——--— tuberosum 504

——--— xanthocarpum 503

Solenopsis 260

Sonchus asper 664

———— oleraceus 500

Sonneratia 69, 76

Sonneratia apetala 69, 361

——-—— caseolaris 76

sophora mollis 526

——-— tomentosa $26

Sopubia sp. 185

Sorbus ae 309, 314

Sorbus aucuparia 526

——— harroviana? 315

—— — insignis 315

——— microphylla 887

——— pygmea (?) Ste ir. ORO

Sorghum re os OL) 7625791

Sorghum vulgare 375

Sorgum 222

Spaligis epius 371

vo Eire Os ge

Ix INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Spatula clypeata ste aed = 390 | Stern® melanocaster, 3, oe vw 20

Spergula arvensis are coe ... 491 | Sterrha lineata ..,. nee ree ... 649

—-—-- pentandra... _... .. 491 | Stoparola melanopsstyani .. ... 892

Spermacoce te e i ... 488 | Streptopelia chinensis ... a 68, 297

Spermacoce hispida... a ee (SS) -—— —~—— suratensis w. “431.

Sphaeroderma sf. Ae x .. 859 | —————-—— orientalis ... 297, 896, 930

Sphenarches caffer “fe o ve A824 —meena... ... 429

Sphenocercus apicaudus at Be 68 | ————-— risoria ae ne spleen OF/

Sphenoclea zeylanica ... ae .. 664 | —~—- risoria rosoria apt ... 430

Sphyrna sae ae bak .. 839 | ———--—— senegalensis sat sue. \:) 207) aa

Sphyrna blochii aoe see -- 832 | ___. ___- senegalensis cambayensis 431 |

-- zygaena | tee te eo tranquebarica tranque- |

Spilanthes acmella A An nego OO barica ... is = - 430

Spilornis cheela cheela ee . 402 | Striga densiflora wy a . 664 @

—_ minor “se 401 | —-—orobanchoides ... _... . 904 8

Spinacia oleracea eee = .. 9008 | Strix ocellata ocellata ... oe wae 1 A389 |

Spindasis ictis ictiss s:2 7 4 ie i. 3/2 )| Strobilanthes .... ws fe BOSE

— lohita lazularia ow ... 62/7 | Strobilanthes neuraipatae ase odin OS

— -vulcanus vulcanus fee OV Cre) pe anes auriculatus me wien eee

Spiraea ike Hae “08 310, 887 | ———_—. —- _____-____ edgewor-

Spiraea auruncus on ae on 93 thiana... fs are 720)

Spirogyra ne a 34936200200) see eee dyerianus se eAlmees

Spirulina oe i es 4 OCS) ee — jeyporensis ee Hc e281

Spizaétus Girrhatus ciated .. 3985 | Stromateus cinereus ~ ... co toe ues

-—nipalensis .. ... 4. 67 | Strychnoscolubrina .. ... ... 526

Spodoptera mauritia ... 14., .¥,0p O49 —— nux-vomica emer): |

Spondias ses. tee toe ees Se Les USirymon mackweod ln a. ae) a anne es |

Sporobolus 5p. 1. ee nee 185,322 | Sturniamalabarica ... «.. 2 «= 5

Stachyridopsis ruficeps ue ase 29 | Sturnus malabaricus [blythii] . 7957

Stachyris nigriceps a Re i 29) | | pagodanim mee Bt sie ANG i

Stachys sericea a ae 0907). Toseus ie yi wwe | 9

Stachytarpheta indica an a OS) —— vulgaris poll aetesen . 796

Staphoblemmus humbertiellus eeu feoee? | (Sty naq usta oar ... 312, 313, 314

Staurastrum eas ze . 349, 625, 629 | Styrax aqengilane a eae .. _ 312 ae

Staurogyne glauca a re .. 660 | Sueda nudifiora ... ... a 9 H

Stauroneis ae § ae .. 625 | Sula leucogaster ee or . 344

Streblus sp. a ae aa .. 185 | Surendra amisena ve ae . 8273

Stellaria media Pen ra Net Sos quercetorum biplagiata. ... 372 |

Stenachria elongella_... a .. 824 | Surniculuslugubris ... da; . 64a

Stephanopyxis turris ... 113, 119, 122 | Suastus gremius gremius state «ott (ht ONS }

Stephoblemmus ea a .. 548 | Sus cristatus oe dod bats 296, 867 |

-Sterculia me sie ae .. 812 | Suya atrogularis a tee ne 54 |

Sterculia coccinea ee As .. 312 | —-—criniger ... gs oo Re 53 4

Sterna albifrons “58 aa .. 426 | —-———-— criniger Be «n> -)-O0n

— albifrons ae .. 426 | Swertia angustifolia... iB toe

——— = SAUNGETS! « ) nelne wai eet ZO —— lurida. 2.) _«..:oaege eee |

anaethetus “iit ... 335, 338, 344 | Sylvia althoea... es be .. 758mm

aurantia ie sa . 426 | —--— borin tan ae as sea 3198

beroraae re. act ae .. 338 | —— communis icterops eae 377, 737 le

fuiseata,. st. ome ae .. 844 | ———curruca blythii ... me . 7S

hirundo ... as ae .. 390 | ————-—minpula ..,. te i OS

INDEX OF SPECIES

\x1

PAGE | PAGE

Sylvia hortensis jerdoni 757 | Tephrosia candida ale 52S

—-—— nana nana eas 757 | Tephrosia purpurea 495

Symplocos 313, 314, 315, 316 | ———-—- tenuis 495, 664

Synantherias sylvatica 90 | ——-——- villosa 495

Synciera traducalis 649 | Yerminalia ae ately

Synedra ... ae 349, 625 | Terminalia arjuna 375, 497

Synedrella nodiflora 660 | ————— glabra 497

Syntarucus plinius : 371 | ———\—- myriocarpa 3u7, 312

Syntomis passalis ase 649 | —-—_—--— tomentosa 376

Sypheotides indica 412 | Teramnus libialis var. mollis 665

Syrichtus galba 373 | Terpsiphone paradisi leucogaster 750

Syrrhaptes tibetanus ... 930 | ———-—— ———-- paradisi 750

Tabellaria seh vie ee 349, 625 | ‘Lesia castaneocoronata castaneo-

Tabernaemontana dichotoma 101 coronata 890

Taccocua .. 435 | Tetracentron sp. ab 314

‘Taccocua ceched aeiti eeeienaelii 435 | Tetraceros quadricornis i 870

— -—— sirkee ... 435 | Tetragnatha i) 874, 875, 877

_ Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa 373 ) Tetragnatha cochinensis 875, 876

Tagetes erecta ... om S004| ea gracilis tag aS

——-— patula LC a ga mackenzieii 875, 876

Taiwania SI ol8s | == = mandibulata 875, 876

eeonla Pe piemenordes 318 | —————__—. viridorufa 875

Tajuria cippus cippus 372 | ‘Petraogallus 896

Talicada nyseus 371 | Tetraogallus efnetPeysat sis 615

Tamarindus indica 375, 496 | ——______—_ tibetanus... ye 98)

Tamarix ... 503 55 nie 487 | Tetrapedia 349, 625

Tamarix aphylla woe ate 491 Tetrastichus sp. ... 649

—-—-—— articulata ok ad 491 | Teucrinum sp. 185

Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni ... 373 | Thalasseus bergii spp. ... arene 148)

Taractocera ceramus ceramus 373. Thalassionema nitzschioides PES e119). 123

Taraktogenos kurzii 102 Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii 116, 118, 119, 125

Tadorna ferruginea 389 | ——__—____ longissima 116,123

Tadorna tadorna "6 389 | Thalassochelys corticata 474, 476

‘Tarsiger chrysaeus chrysaeus... 891 | Thalictrum rostellatum 106

Tatera indica cuvieri ... 184, 189, 321 | Thauria aliris intermedia 817

Taxus aes bee ae ASE Stl, oLS | Thelca duma duma 825

Taxus baccata ... 927 |, ——— vittata 825

Tecomella undulata 504 | Thevetia neriifolia 501, 528

Tectona grandis ... eee 2@ 499, 461 | ———_— peruviana 528

Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis 805 | Threskiornis melanocephalus 386

Teichinia violae ane 370 | Thrips gossypicola 951

Telmatoscopus albipunctatus.. 649 | ——— palmi 951, 952

Temenuchus pagodarum 618 | Thuja orientalis ue ie DL

Tephrodornis gularis .., 47, 377 | Tichodroma muraria ... 613, 890, 927

— pondicerianus pallidus 739 | Tilapia 7 147

a pondi- Tilapia OSeeennica 146, 349, 959

cerianus ... 739.| Tinospora cordifolia 489, 528

—— — virgatus... 743 | Tockus birostris 207, 399, 448, 868

or — pelvica 739 | Toddalia aculeata 312

——__—_— -———— sylvicola 738, 739 | ‘Lofieldia 310

Mephrosia... ... sxe 487,483 | Trachelobdella 474

{xii

PAGE

Trachypithecus phayrei phayrei 269

"= = pileatus shortsidgen... 3. 269

Tradesc tia malabarica 658

Treron curvirostra nepalensis ... 895

——— phoenicoptera chlorigaster 428

Trianthema “the 488, 498

Trianthema crystallina 487, 498 |

——-—-—— monogyna 487, 498

————-— pentandra vane 408

Tribulus terrestris 437, 493,

S12 4

Trichodesma amplexicaule 660

——— -~-—-- indicum 502

Trichogaster pectoralis 147

Trichosanthes anguina... 493 |

—— ——-——. cucumerina 498

Tridactylus Se 540

Tridactylus ceylonicus ... 542

—— — curtus 541 |

————— flavimaculatus 541 |

—_—_——_—— japonicus ... “541

—_——_——— nigripennis 541

——__——-—. nigroaenus 541

—_———_—— nitobae 542

——_—_—— opacus 947

——_—_—— quadrimaculata 941

a pAaLbus 541

—_—_—_——— thoracius ... 942

————— variegatus ... 541

Tridax procumbens 487, 500

Trifolium pratense 107

Trigonella corniculata ... 495, 664

Trigonidium . 551, wae, 004

Trigonidium cicindeloides ‘ Set SEY

—_—__—-—-——- humbertianum ... 552, 950

Trigonidomorpha 554

Tigonidomorpha fuscifrons 504

Trigonotylus dohertyi ... 648

Trilocha fieicola 951

———— varians 649

Tringa cinerea [cinerea] 419

erythropus 417, 931

——— glareola 418

——— hypoleucos 419

——— nebularia vega OS

-——— ochropus 418, 931

stagnatilis eae 418

totanus eurhinus 417

_ Triticum Sol

Tritetrabdeila 469

-ens scand

469

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Triumfetta rotundifolia 492

Trochalopteron affine affine ... 883

—_—_—_—— erythrocephalum 28

———= phoeniceum ...

—_—_—_—__ — —- setifer 885

—_-—_— = yaticsatuin evanie-

gatum 888

Troglodytes troglodytes nipeleeee 890

Tropaeolum majus 493

Tropidonatus stolatus ... 395

Trygon 833

Tryphactothrips pguero: di 951

Tsuga ae 500 311

Tubiflora acaulis 505

Turdoides Cees 7 246

——_——-- caudata re a 7954, 761

—_——_- - caudata 794

= malcolm 794, 755

= — somerville 433

—_—_—_- —— orientalis a SA

Behe i oie! aioe wee =

sindianus 753

—-—— - ———-—- sindianus 754

ae ——- somervillei

Turdus atrogularis 40

——— boulboul — ?

——— citrina cyanotus 770

——— ericetorum 46, 51

——— merula © 40

——_— ——— albocinctus

——— ruficollis oe 40

——— simillimus ercens 770

Turnix maculatus tanki 409

sylvatica dussumier 409

——— ———— taigoor ~ 408

Tylophora 2 19

Tylophora tenuis

Tyto alba stertens

Uca 702, 703, 705, 706 707, 708,

710, 711, 714, 715, 716 |

Uca annulipes 703, 704, 705, 708, 710,

712, 713, 714, 7159]

—— beebei ioe ee eet |

——— consobrinus 711, 7125)

—— manii | feet icc we ©6945

—_-— marionis 705, 706, 707, 708, 709,

711, 712, 713, 718

—_—- ——__——. nitidus 705, ‘711, 715, 716

—— pugillator 706, 713 |

——>+ pugnax 707, 712)

753 |

Uca signatus

—— stenodactyla

—— stylifera

—— tangeri

Udaspes folus

Udea martialis

Uperodon aoe

Uperodon globulosum ...

Upupa epops

——_— ——- eeylonencis:

ep Ops

——— ——- orientalis

Urena lebata

Urochloa sacs

Urochloa mosambicensis

aa Le ptans

Urocissa flavirostris

———— ————- flavirostris

Uroloncha malabarica ...

mata Dunctata. ~ <<,

———— striata

———— ——— acuticauda

Uromastix

Ursus

Ursus arctos

Uropeltis macrolepis

——— mabeblesh:

warensis

Utethesia pulchella

Vaccinium a

Vaccinium glauco- tliyeise

-——-—— modestum

Valeiia ceylonica

——— valeria hippia

Valeriana hardwickij

Vanessa antiopa yendanula

———— cardui bee

Vangueria spinosa var. mollis

Ventilago gamblei

———— lanceolata

Veratrum ?

Verbascum thapsus

Verbena officinalis

Vernonia a “6a

Vernonia anthelmintica

———— cinerea

Veronica agrestis

Rao

——=—=— anagallis

Viburnum xe ae

Vicia sativa var. angustifolia ....

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

65,

447,

185,

109,

660,

314,

529,

.../06, 711, 712

713

712

373

649

638

637

614

447

895

447

492

153

322

887

399

893

397

598

, 901

901

649

312

315

310

368

108

810

370

665

660

310

529

109

312

499

660

664

315

660

Vigna catiang

Vinca rosea

Viola

Viola biflora

——- cinerea

Vipera russelli

Viscum album

Vitadenia australis

Vitis

Vitis heyneana

—— lanceolaria ...

Vivia innominata

Volvox

Vulpes beneaicakia

Waltheria

Waltheria indica

Withania somnifera

Woodfordia =

W oodfordia fruticosa

Xanthium strumarium ..

Xenorhynchus asiaticus asiaticus

“.iphirhynchus ...

Xya japonica

--— obscura

Ypthima baldus madvasd

_—-—-— hubneri

Yuhina gularis

occipitalis

Yungipicus nanus semicoronatus

Zamenis mucosus

Zanthoxylum

—— Sp,

Zea Ae

Zea mays ..

zeylanicus (Megalaima)

eylonicus (——

Zephyranthes carinata

Zesius chrysomallus

Zizeeria lysimon

—— otis decreta

Zizyphus

Zizyphus jujuba

———-— oenoplia

— rotundifolia

——-—-—- rugosa

— xylopyrus

gularis ...

trochilus putli ...

nummularia ...

Lxiti

PAGE

185, 323

501

309, 310

106

490

397

665

108

312

w. «494

wo. 664

661

fe. 349

290

wes 72

72, 492

503, 529

pee aihste)

743, 789

108, 500

386

788

541

815

369

w. 809

30, 889

bao 59

187, 189

312

314

511

222, 958

575

979

110

827

376

371

: 371

375, 428, 487, 743,

754, 765, 792

11, 375, 494, 761

.. 494

cet ae | RE

oes . 494

494

lxiv

Zoothera marginata

Zosterops palpebrosa ... eee

—-— —— occidentis

—_—-—- ————— salimalii

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS— 1958: C10000

Wee's. (57

PAGE

789

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Zygaena blochii ies a a” ASBD

Zyras bicolor spp. ihe Ae «. 649

—-— indorum Bae ae .. 649 -@

SOCIETY

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 32, NO. 1

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION—KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN EXAMPLE. By

A. St. J. Macdonald. (With six plates) SOE sah

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIET OF FLAMINGOES. By M, W. RIDLEY we

A NEw SANDLARK FROM WESTERN INDIA (SAURASHTRA). By C. Vaurie

and K. 8. Dharmakumarsinhji as BA id

ON THE OcCURRENCE OF EPHEDRA IN THE INDIAN DESERT. By M. M.

Bhandari. (With one photograph) at ae

SomME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE, PART III, By W. T. Loke. (With

five plates) us os ee 256 aa

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARIEELING ARBA,

By M. D. Lister. (With a text figure) a tee

BACKWATER FLORA OF THE WEST COAST OF SoutTH INDIA. By C. Raja-

sekhara Mudaliar, M.A., and H. Sunanda Kamath. (With a text figure)

A Notes on THE PosITION OF RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION oF BURMA. By

U. Tun Yin eco cece eon 2e0e eae eao

Poisonous SEEDS OF INDIA, PART I. ByS. L. Nayar

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF Mussooriz. By N. A. Watts

PERIODICITY OF THE PLANKTON DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA LAKE FOR THE

YEARS 1950 AND cnet By J. C. Roy. (With two maps and two text

figures) ase as aH =a Lo

GROWTH-RATE OF THE PEARL OvSTER (FPinctada pinctada) IN THE GULF

OF CUTCH WITH A NOTE ON THE PEARL FISHERY OF 1953. By S. V.

Gokhale, C. R. Easwaran and R. Narsimhan. (With five text figures)...

CRITICAL Nores ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME

BoMBAY PrLants. By R. Fernandes, B.Sc. and H. Santapau, S.J.

(With two plates) fs ne ae A ‘4

‘THe DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY. By E. R. A. de

Zylva,

THE GENUS Cymbopogon Setens IN INDIA, BURMA AND aaa

ParTII. By N. L. Bor. (Wath 27 text figures)

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE (Zalera indica cuviert

WATERHOUSE). By M.R.N. Prasad .. Bee OE

NEw SPECIES OF INDIAN PLANTS. By R. Seshagiri Rao

REVIEWS :—

1, Animal Wonderland—Essays in Natural ares ae Frank

W. Lane. (D.E.R.)...

2. Leopard of the Hills. By James ‘Recaps. (P, A.G.E. he

3. The Birds of Burma. By B. E. Smythies. (C.E.H.) .

4, Hoofed Mammals of the World. By Ugo Mochi a 7, Donald

Carter. (S. Thomas Satyamurti) bee ee

PAGE

106

112

124

137

142

149

184

190

192

193

195

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 42, NOW

5. The Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs. Series 1, No. 2.

Published by the Central Research Institute, University of

Travancore, Trivandrum, (H. Santapau, S.J.) ete :

6. The Indian Pharmaceutical Codex, Vol. 1. By Dr. B. Mukerji.

(H. Santapau, S.J.) «. ;

7. The Birds of the British Isles, Vols. 1&2. By David A. Banner-

man and George E. Lodge. (H.G.A.) ... :

8. The Birds of West and Equatorial Africa, 2 volumes. By David

A. Bannerman. (H.G.A.) a se ac oe

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Man-eating Tiger in South India. By R. C. Morris (p. 201). 2. Pan-

ther killed by Domestic Buffaloes. By J. M. Power (p. 201). 3. More

notes on the Indian Buffalo. By R. P. Noronha (p. 202). 4. Gaur

attacking man. By R. C. Morris (p. 204). 5. Thamin or Eld’s Deer

(Panolia eldi thamin, Thomas) in Burma. By Tun Yin. (p. 205). 6. Stride

of Elephant crossing trench. By R.C. Morris (p. 206). 7. Death of Wild

Elephants from suspected food-poisoning in Travancore-Cochin State. By

N. G. Pillai (p. 206). 8. Birds eating the poisonous fruit of the Yellow

Oleander (Zhevetia neriifolia). By S. M. Krishnan (p, 207). 9. Migration

of Insectivorous Birds in Madhya Pradesh in 1953. By C. E. Hewetson

(p. 207). 10. Strange behaviour of a House Crow. By C. H. Biddulph

(p 208). 11. Possible association between the Large Yellow-naped Wood-

pecker and the Large Racket-tailed Drongo. By C. H. Biddulph (p. 209).

12. Cuculus canorus bakeri in Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 210).

13. Occurrence of Redwinged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) in

Madras. By S. M. Krishnan (p. 210). 14. Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in

Bhavnagar (Saurashtra). By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 211). 15. Occur-

rence of the Banded Crake (Aallus eurizonoides amuroptera, Jerdon) in

Travancore. By M. C. A. Jackson (p. 211). 16. Food of the Bull frog. By

T. Gay (p. 212), 17. The Record Indian Crocodile. By Humayun Abdulali

(p. 213). 18. Au addition to the list of snakes of Bombay and Salsette—

Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters)—Uropeltidae. By V. K. Chari (p. 213),

19. Further comments on the Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake—A special net

for Beloniform Fishes. By S. Jones and K. H, Sujansinghani (p. 214).

20. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By D. G. Sevastopulo,

F.R.E.S. (p. 215). 21. Aposematic Insects and their Food-plants. By C.

McCann (p. 216). 22. Occurrence of Danais chrysippus var. dorippus at Dum

Dum Airport. By A. E. G. Best (p. 218). 23. Hunters’ Sugar. By W. S.

Thom (p. 218). 24. Occurrence of Corymorpha (A/ydrozoa) in Indian

waters, (With a text figure). By M. R. Ranade, (p. 219). 25. A Six-

locular Capsule on the Cotton Plant. By G. W. Deodhar (p. 221).

26. Occurrence of a Bi-foliate Leaf in Citrus aurantium L. (With a

sketch). By S. Kalyanasundaram (p. 221). 27. Proliferation in grass. By

R. B. Majumdar (p. 222). 28. The flowering of Strobilanthes auriculatus

Nees. By Mrs. Jamal Ara (p. 223). 29. Abnormalities in the fruit of Areca

catechu lL. (With a text figure). By T. S. Ramakrishnan (p. 224).

30. Effect of margosa (Azadirachta indica) leaves on the rotting of potato

tubers during storage. By S. L. Tandon (p. 225). 31. Variation in the floral

parts of Solanum melongena L. (With a text figure). By G. P. Argikar and

M. S. Solanki (p. 226). 32. Chapters on the History of Botany in India, by

CH. Burkill, in this Journal 51: 846-878. A correction. By S. P. Agharkar,

(p. 228). 33. Gleanings (p. 228).

NotTES AND NEWS aS. oe Ae: Teer

CoRRIGENDA

PAGE

196

197

198

199

231

232

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1954 VoL, 52 No. l

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION—

KRUGER NATIONAL PARK, AN EXAMPLE

A. St. J. MACDONALD

(With six plates)

With wild life preservation gaining more attention by both

Government and public opinion in India, I feel that my observations

on a recent visit to the KRUGER NATIONAL PaRK in South Africa

may be of interest to those sponsors who have strived so hard in

the past, and present, to improve our own Game Sanctuaries.

The Park owes its existence to the foresight of President

Kruger, who as far back as 1884 foresaw the destruction that would

take place in the Transvaal and other parts of South Africa. It was

not, however, until 1898 that part of the present park (the Sabie

Game Reserve) received full protection, and in fact the present

boundaries covering nearly 8,000 sq. miles from the Limpopo River

in the North, to the Crocodile River in the South, and bordering

Portuguese territory in the East, extending some 200 miles long

with an average width of go miles, only emerged with the passing

of an Act in 1926, which may be assumed to be the birthday of this

great, and now, world popular enterprise and sanctuary of wild life.

I toured nearly 4,500 miles by road through the Union, and it

is no small wonder Kruger saw the necessity of this venture. You

can travel 500 miles from Durban to Pretoria, or 800 miles from

Johannesburg to Cape Town and not see a wild creature of any kind.

The few natural trees, and the occasional bird stress the destruction

in the march of man’s needs, and impel us in this country to take

timely warning.

The Reserve.—This is the world’s largest wild life sanctuary and

is intersected with 1,000 miles of motor roads, and has 14 rest camps

varying in size from SKUKUZA with 750 beds, to the smaller camps

of GORGE and OLIFANTSRIVIER of only 20 beds, but the average accom-

modation is 200 beds. Camps are a collection of thatched rondavals

ac 23 1994

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCGl ERY Vols 52

surrounded by a stockade with gates which are shut after dark, and

visitors must all be in half an hour before sun-set and gates do-

not reopen until half an hour after daylight. Every car entering the

Reserve (no one is allowed to enter on foot, bicycle, or horse-.

back), 1s stopped and briefed in the simple rules to be followed.

These are: ‘You must not carry firearms or shoot animals; you.

must not leave the roads; and you must not get out of your car’.

Game Wardens are there to see these rules are kept, and the public

themselves adhere strictly to the conditions. It is a credit both to.

the public and the officials, inasmuch as some 14 million visitors have

been through the Park since 1926 and there has not been a single

accident or attack by wild animals. Some 30,000 visitors from all

parts of the world, come vearly to visit the place and it is now run.

on the takings, without any Government subsidy.

Accommodation.—Besides the indigenous rondavals, the larger

camps have small huts and cottages to take families for long periods.

Spring mattresses and comfortable beds are provided with camp

furniture in all places. Hot and cold water is provided, day and

night, bathrooms and showers, and boys to wash up and clean out

the huts, with cooking places for the traditional meal in the open

of a dry grill, termed braaivleis. The larger camps have Post and

Telegraph Offices, Stores, well-provided with provisions, fresh meat,

eges and vegetables, etc., Restaurants, Garages with petrol pumps.

and Tourist Bureaus.

Communications.—The main roads serving the Park are all of

excellent quality, and distances of 4co miles are covered in 8 to 10

hours. In the Reserve itself some 1,000 miles of dirt track form

a network of communications, traversing all the natural haunts of

game, along rivers, swamps, water holes, etc. The maximum speed

allowed is 25 miles per hour, but all roads are signed with caution

and speed restrictions, where elephants are likely to be encountered

and in fact have ridges across the road to stop speed-racing. Any

infringement of the law is punishable by fine, and the offender is.

black-listed and escorted out of the reserve immediately; but this is

very, rarely necessary, and I was informed by a Game Warden that

hardly a case occurred in a season.

Tourist Bureau.—Excellent maps are available, giving the distances

between camps, the accommodation available, and illustrating the

game likely to be seen. A handbook is also issued with illustrations

of the animal on one page and its description, colour, habits, and

size on the opposite.

Wild Life.—I have myself done a good deal of big game shooting

in my thirty odd years in India and Burma, but this watchful

expectancy from a car, compares with any thrill I experienced—

awaiting a driven tiger, a rogue elephant, or closing in with a tracked

bison or tsine. Should you think that the feeling of peril and risk

is absent, I can only assure ‘you that the analysis of feeling is

the same, but even more beautiful and thrilling, to see at close

quarters, the immutable and blood-red law of nature prevailing, and

man is in his car but a spectator, and regarded as no more than

some other form of life in the Reserve by the denizens in their count-

less thousands.

=) “BOLIFY YyNOS ‘yIeg [eUOTJeN JoSNIyY

‘peol UT SsouOoT’yT pure UuOolT

shvaywoy uvoiefy Ynos | _ | ee — 3 Asapnog

SAS

J aLVIg ‘00S ‘ISI “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof

"eOLIJY YINOS ‘yIeq [CUOIJEN JosNAy]{ ;

‘sIeyQ pure suOrTT

stomwy uvaiafy yinos saj4no

II aLVvV1g ‘90S ‘LSIF] “LVN AvawWwog ‘Nunof

*eOLIpY YyNOS ‘yIeg [euOoTzeN sJ9sNIyY

*peol sutsso19 yueydoly

stomiwy uvnafpy yinos Asaq4noy

BORE:

Ilf aLv1g

"LSIH “LVN AVaWOosT *‘NYNO

: . i eka u y " eS

SSS STE SSS SS = ————-— = = = — =

PLATE IV

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ie:

fp: ey

‘ge

South African Railways

Courtesy

Buffalo.

WILD*~ LIFE PRESERVATION IN K. N. PARK 3

It appeared to me fantastic, that a pride of lions sprawled over

the dirt track, accepted conditions as their own, and only moved

because they wished, and not because they, were disturbed, to let 30

odd cars through.

I spent four days in the Reserve touring the southern portion,

and saw countless thousands of Impala, so like our beautiful spotted

deer in habit and numbers, in the Hailey Park, and South Mandla,

but they are antelope, and like black buck in appearance and size.

Stately giraffe look down upon the car from 30 ft. away with the same

unconcern and confidence, as kudu, eland, wildebeest, zebra, water-

buck, and the beautiful sable antelope; besides, are many of the

smaller species, duiker, stein-buck, and those comedians of the

Reserve, wart-hog, who trot alongside the moving car with tail erect

and the head held high, or dig up roots by the roadside and do not

as much as look up at passing cars, so much have animals become

accustomed to visitors. 5

Lions.—To all intents and purposes, lions strike one as domesticated ;.

they will lie on the roads; walk in and out of standing cars; will

lie asleep 5 it. from a car pulled up besides them; feed on a

kill and show no resentment to a car alongside packed with

chattering women and children; lionesses with young cubs tolerate

the same treatment and show no alarm; it is almost unbelievable

unless witnessed. Of the 17 lions I saw on one day, one came_

up through some 30 cars and smelt the boot of the car, then walked

by the window of the car from where I could have extended my

arm and touched her. At another place we saw two lionesses with

very young cubs enjoy a meal off a freshly killed Impala with no

concern at the 4o odd cars drawn up three deep on the road beside

them.

Elephant.—I saw 88 in two hours, but here one is advised to

show caution; and one is left with no doubt in mind, as signs appear

everywhere, warning the visitor to drive slowly and carefully because

of elephants, and not to approach too close to them. I saw herds

-of 44; single bulis; and mothers with calves, at distances up to

Be Sine

Buffalo.—Huge herds will cross in ‘follow the leader’ fashion

foadse with cars packed on either side of the. gap, with the same

confidence of right of way.

Rhino.—In the Hluhluwe Reserve in Zululand, Rhino behave in

the same way, and accept motorcars as something new in their world,

though one is warned not to approach too close to them.

Water-hole.—Here I saw the code of nature at its best, and

communication of thought transmitted from one species to the next,

of danger. Some 30 cars were parked in line, facing a jungle tank

as we would know it, but in.Africa water is very scarce, and special

tubewells have been installed in parts of the Reserve to provide water

by windmill pumps feeding into depressions. <A lion had taken up

his position in some reeds, which we could all see, awaiting his

Opportunity to kill—We saw Impala come down and drink down

wind of him, with sentry posted and beating her front feet on the

ground in alarm, until relieved by one that had been to water, then

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

came wart-hog, wildebeest, sable, kudu, and zebra. It was all a

simple reading of nature; no creature except some yellow-bill duck

and teal were up wind of the lion, for as soon as they approached

the waterhole, scent warned them of danger and they moved excitedly

to the ‘down-wind’ approach, placed their sentries, and then took of

nature’s beverage and moved oft. But there are suckers in all walks

of life, and the zebra is, I think, the best conditioned and most

foolish of all Africa game. When the other game were alarmed

they all ran up wind, but the zebra herds scatter to all points of

the compass, and so fall easy prey; this is what happened on this

occasion.

Visitors.—The fellowship and friendliness among visitors, struck

me even more than the behaviour of the animals themselves: with

some 300 Cars passing in a day, never once did we have anyone butting

in, or try to jockey for position; a passing car would stop and give

information of lions or elephant ahead; ask if they may pass should you

be stopped to view some animal, and so on were a host of delighiful

road manners experienced, sometimes in French or the broken English

of a foreigner, or perhaps in broad American or Australian, for there

were people in the camp from all parts of the world. This is I

think the background of success in this great enterprise, and why

the animals have become so tame and accustomed to cars with

humans.

Baboons will be seen at places, like beggars, standing on their

ajaunches in some parts of the Reserve, and will walk up to a car

if stopped and take from the hand, oranges or biscuits. We had

in fact one get into the car through the window, and seat himself

behind the driver to enjoy bits of nougat I was cutting up and giving

him—I had to open the door and entice him out to get rid of him.

He did not snatch but took his fare gently, a big male of 120 pounds

appeared quite at home with four of us in the car!! The day is

not far distant when antelope will also approach cars to be fed—they

already do almost everything else.

_ Conclusion.—We can only hope that the day is not far distant

when our own great potential of wild life will receive the same

measure of security, and our Sanctuaries are organised on similar

lines, for there is no country in the world that can boast of the

variety of fauna, in such abundance and variety, or forests

as extensive and beautiful. Africa has no deer as beautiful as the

spotted deer, gond, or sambhur, and the lion does not in my opinion

compare with the majestic tiger in beauty or grace, and our elephants

are gentlemen compared with his evil tempered African cousin.

I have gone into some length of detail to show the immeasurable

charm such a reserve provides, and the softening effect it has on

the lust to kill, and the scope for coloured or movie pictures which

are far better souvenirs than any trophy hung on a wall.

"eoLapyY YyNos ‘yIeq [eUuOoTJeN Josn1iy

Te DUST

stony uvoifp Yyinos Asaj4nog

A aLVIg "00S ‘LSIF] ‘LVN AvawWog ‘Nunof[

PLATE VI

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

South African Railways

Courtesy

Giraffe crossing road.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIET OF FLAMINGOES

M. W. RIDLEY

The following observations were made by the author in Kenya

Colony between 1951 and 1953. During these years all the lakes

inhabited by flamingoes were visited and specimens collected with

a view to the collection of data on the habits, occurrence and natural

history of one of East Africa’s most colourful, yet least known birds.

In Kenya flamingoes are found on the lakes of the Great Rift valley.

The ‘Soda’ lakes are their real home, and they only seem to occur

spasmodically on those lakes with a normal fresh water fauna, e.g. fish

and higher plants which (with exceptions such as the small Tilapia

found in Lake Magadi), cannot exist in the concentrated alkali of the

former class of lake. Their headquarters are on Lakes Hannington,

Nakuru, Magadi and Elmenteita, which are generally shallow and almost

barren of life other than flamingoes. On drying these lakes deposit

a layer of white soda (Na,CO,), which forms an unpleasant dust. As

Africa becomes more arid, these lakes are much lower in level than

formerly and, having no outlets, the concentration of salts has in many

cases. reached saturation point—for example, Lake Magadi where the

soda and also Common Salt (NaCl) are mined commercially, and Lake

Nakuru which is now dry except during the rains. There is evidence

that the lower level of water and thus the greater concentration of salts,

has resulted in a greatly increased population of flamingoes in Lake

Elmenteita.

The most numerous of the two species occurring is the Lesser

Flamingo [Pheeniconaias minor (Geoffroy)|. In Lake Hannington, in

July 1953, out of a total population of over 2 million, more than

99% were of this species, but when their characteristic food is absent,

as it was at Lake Elmenteita in December 1951, the only birds seen

are the Greater Flamingo [Pheenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas)]}.

These appear to be largely migratory, spending only the palzarctic

winter in Kenya, yet individuals are to be seen throughout the year

even as far south as the Union of South Africa. There is, however,

no proof of breeding anywhere in the African continent, but it may

yet be found to breed somewhere. The lesser species undoubtedly

does so but apparently at intervals and only spasmodically, but the

author believes that their main breeding place has yet to be dis-

covered.

Observations of the feeding habits and occurrence of the two

Species were made at most of the lakes, and the gut contents of

some forty individuals were examined under the microscope. The

results of these examinations are given in detail in a table following

this paper.

This table makes it clear that the two different species have

substantially different diets, as is borne out by the differences in

bill structure, and also in the methods of feeding employed.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY. (Volar

The Greater Flamingo’s bill is much less highly specialised than

the Lesser’s and consists of a smaller area of ‘straining surface’.

These surfaces, chiefly on the upper mandible, (which becomes the

lower when the bird is feeding) are composed of parallel rows of

‘ridges’ or laminae which are visible to the naked eye. Without,

in this note, going too deeply into the function of this structure

it may be said that the bill of the Greater Flamingo is only cap-

able of straining comparatively large objects out of the water or

mud and in this sense may be regarded as analagous to that of a

typical duck.

The lesser species, on the other hand, not only possesses a much

greater area of straining surfaces but is also much more capable

of straining the finer organisms on which the bird feeds, because

the laminae or ridges are equipped with fine hairs protruding from

them which can effectively sieve objects as small as diatoms.”

In feeding, the Greater Flamingo generally though not invariably

immerses the whole head and the bill is buried in the mud on the

floor of the lake. The head is then swung from side to side with

the bill inverted, while the bird walks slowly forwards. The Lesser

Flamingo, however, does not normally immerse its head but skims

the surface of the water with a semicircular motion, with the bill

inverted and the ‘upper’ mandible just beneath the surface. Either

species swims freely in deep water when feeding, and Greater

Flamingoes sometimes ‘up-end’ like swans.

A significant difference in the average size of the grit, which

forms a large proportion of the stomach contents. has also been noticed,

that in the Greater Flamingo being much larger. The function of

the grit is to grind the food in the gizzard.

It is concluded from these examinations that the Lesser Flamingo

feeds more or less exclusively on blue-green algae and diatoms—and

it 1s noteworthy that the only cases where this does not hold good are

those of two birds secured at Lake Elmenteita in 1951, which were

both damaged birds unable to fly and therefore left behind by the

vast flocks of their species which are normally to be seen there. At

this time blue-green algae were noticeably absent from the lake.

The Greater Flamingo, on the other hand, feeds on a great variety

of foods, animal as well as vegetable, and from the small number

collected it is difficult at this stage to say more. The published

literature on the food of this species emphasises the diversity of the

diet ;—In India, Salim Ali (1945) recorded the seeds of plants (e.g.

Ruppia). In France, Gallet suggested that the organic content of

the mud in the lagoons of the Camargue might constitute a food supply.

In America, the subspecies Ph. ruber ruber feeds on the marine snail

Cerithium (F. Chapman, 1908), but not exclusively so (Zahl, 1953).

In the Red Sea the old world subspecies has been recorded feeding on a

similar mollusc (Lord W. Percy, in litt.). It seems, therefore, that

the Greater Flamingo is much less specialised in its diet than the

lesser species.

Several observers have commented on the inadequate food supply

in the barren, highly alkaline waters of the known breeding grounds

of the Greater Flamingo, such as the Camargue, the Guadalquivir

delta and the Rann of Cutch. As the author has never visited

OBSERVATIONS ON THE DIET OF FLAMINGOES 7

these places it is dangerous to eave an opinion, but it is perhaps

worthy of note that:

(1) Flamingoes feed for relatively long periods during the day.

(2) The Flamingo has the longest Meikel’s tract of any bird,

({Meikel’s tract is the absorptive part of the alimentary canal).

(3) There is an immense quantity of rich orange fat, containing

carotine, on healthy flamingoes which might act as a reserve of food

during the breeding season. Definite conclusions, however, are not

attempted here.

The author is hoping to prepare a further paper on flamingoes

and would be particularly interested in any observations by members

of the Natural History Society of Bombay. Any information about

these birds in India—particularly as to diet, breeding and migration

—would be most welcome.

Diet. OF FLAMINGOES

Table showing results of examination of stomachs

(a) Greater Flamingo

Date Place Gut contents,

Dec. 1951 Elmenteita Chiefly Chironomid larvee ; a trace of Corixids.

Dees ol . Chironomid larve ; a few sedge seeds.

Dec. 51 a Chironomid larvee ; a few Copepods.

Noy, 52 } Small quantities of Chironomid larve,

Bec. 52, | a Copepods, Corixids, Sedge Seeds.

pT .co0 Sedge Seeds. Algze and Diatoms. Various Insect larvee.

July 53 Hannington Higher plant remains (leaves). Insect larve.

July 53 $4 Ditto.

(b) Lesser Flamingo

Dec. 51 Elmenteita Abundant Corixids ; Some Chironomids and Seeds.

Dec ol if Seeds only.

Dec, 52 Blue-Green Algze (Myxophycee) (4 Birds examined).

Mar. 53 Naivasha Diatoms (Bacillariophycee) (4 Birds examined).

Apr. 53 Elmentcita Blue-Green Alge.

June 53 " Blue-Green Algze, (4 Birds examined).

July 53 Hannington Blue-Green Algae. (11 Birds examined).

Sep. 53 Rudolf. Blue-Green Algz.

From this it appears fairly conclusively that the staple food of

minor is: Algae. - The exact specific determination of the Algae

has not yet been completed, but the genera Arthrospira and

Oscillatoria have been identified, among the Blue-Green Algae, and

Navicula among the Diatoms.

REE ER EN @ES

Chapman, F. M. (1908): Camps and cruises of an ornithologist. London.

Gallet, E. (1949): Les Flamants Rosés de Camargue. Lausanne. (English

‘translation, 1950, Oxford).

McCann, C. (1939): The Flamingo. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 12-38.

Ridley, M. W. & Percy, Lord R. (1953): Notes on the birds of lake Elmenteita,

Kenya Colony, Proc. Phil. Soc. University of Durham, 12: 103-118.

Salim Ali, (1945): More about the Flamingo in Cutch. Journ., Bombay Nat.

FTist. Soc., 45: 586-593.

Yeats, G. K. (1950): Flamingo City. London.

Zahl, P. A. (1953): Flamingo Hunt. London.

A NEW SAND LARK FROM WESTERN INDIA

(SAURASHTRA)

C. VAURIE

AND

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

On April 26 and June 17, 1953, Dharmakumarsinhji collected five

specimens of Calandrella raytal at Bhavnagar, Saurashtra, four in April

and one in June, which did not correspond in their coloration with.

the published descriptions of any known populations of this species.

These specimens were sent for critical comparison to the Bombay

Natural History Society and forwarded by the Society to the American

Museum of Natural History in New York. They were examined by

Vaurie who could not match them with any specimens in this insti-

tution of nominate raytal from the Gangetic Plain or of C. r. adamsi

from the Punjab and Sind. The four specimens collected in April

were in very worn plumage and the specimen from June about half

way through the moult. Vaurie suggested that, if possible, additional

specimens in fresh or unworn plumage be collected. These have now

been received, consisting of two specimens in very fresh plumage

collected on August 8 and four specimens in relatively little worn

plumage collected on November 24. These six additional specimens,

like the former, were also collected at Bhavnagar by Dharmakumarsinhji.

The series of eleven specimens which shows, therefore, all stages of

plumage, indicates clearly that the population of Bhavnagar constitutes

a new and very distinct race of Calandrella raytal which is described

as follows :—

Calandrella raytal krishnakumarsinhji, new subspecies.

Type: Adult female; Bhavnagar, Saurashtra; November 24, 1953,

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, collector. Deposited in the American

Museum of Natural History, New York.

Subspecific characters: Differs from any known populations of the

species by being more heavily streaked and much darker in all plumages,

dark gray above, not sandy as in nominate raytal or adamsi, the

latter showing occasionally a faint vinous tinge. The dark shaft

streaks are broader throughout and the lower throat and breast is

more heavily and more abundantly streaked; flanks greyish and faintly

streaked, not whitish or buffy and unstreaked as in the other two

races. Bill short and thick as in C. r. adamsi but blackish above

and below, not horn color above, and yellow at the base of the

mandible as in specimens of adamsi or nominate raytal collected in

recent years.

Measurements: Type, adult female, wing 78.5, tail 45, bill from

skull 13. Other specimens: Wing, tail, and bill respectively, males,

A NEW SAND LARK FROM WESTERN INDIA 9

82, 45, 13; 82+, 47 +, 135 females, 76+, 43, 12.5; 78, 42, 12.8; 78+,

42+, 13; unsexed, 79, 45, 13 (very fresh), 85, 50, broken (very fresh),

Si+, 44+, 13-53 $2+, 47+, broken; 83, 44+, 13. Range, 11 adults,

wing 76-85 (80+), tail 42-50 (47+), bill (9 specimens) 12.5-13.5

13-0).

ee. Known so far only from the type locality.

Ecology and Field Notes: These notes, given below, are observa-

tions made by Dharmakumarsinhji.

We take great pleasure in dedicating this new lark in honour

of His Highness Raol Shri Krishnakumarsinhji, the Maharaja Saheb

of Bhavnagar.

Field Notes

This bird is common at Bhavnagar where it is found on the marine

mud flats which extend 14 miles each way from Bhavnagar. The

soil of these flats varies from brown to dark muddy-brown and becomes

very dark when wet by the tide (Vaurie finds that the correlation in

coloration is very good between a sample of this soil and the plumage

of the birds). The vegetation, where present, consists of marine

grasses and of the small ‘Morad’ plant (Sueda nudiflora). The bird is

very confiding, allows close approach, and tolerates human and railway

traffic to the extent of nesting close to the rails. During the breeding

season it is found in twos or threes and at other times in flocks of 10

or 20 birds. It makes short flights and walks easily.

The nesting season lasts from March to September, the principal

months being June to September during the onset of the monsoon.

The nest is a fairly neat cup, made of grasses, string, or other such

material and is placed on the ground often under the protection of the

small ‘Morad’ plant. Some nests were hidden under discarded and

dried husks of coconuts. Most of the nests found had been built on the

railway embankment which faces to the northwest but in spite of their

greater protection from the southwest monsoon, many were destroyed

by the heavy rains. The clutch consists of two to three eggs which

are whitish, spotted with light or dark brown markings, more heavily

so on the broad end.

The male, when giving its courtship song, which is sweet and

melodious, sings on the ground and while he sings erects his crown

feathers and flutters his wings sideways. At other times he flies a

little way up and descends after a short song. Occasionally, males

may be seen sparring with wings outstretched and crown feathers

erected. The common call note is a cheruk-cheruk which is so charac-

teristic of the bird that it immediately identifies it at any distance.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF 2PHEDRA Ny iin

INDIAN DESERT |

M. M. BHANDARI

(With one photograph)

Much confusion exists as regards the occurrence of Ephedra in

the Indian Desert. In the following brief note the occurrence of

E. foliata Boiss. has been reported in many diverse habitats, in different

parts of the Indian Desert. Reasons have been enumerated for the

incorrect identification of the climbing ‘specimens of Calligonum

polygonoides Linn. by Blatter and Hallberg which most probably

were the E. foliata Boiss. plants.

Ephedra is a small low-growing, xerophytic shrub, belonging to

the family Gnetaceae. Many species of this plant have been reported

to occur in India. Watt (1890) describes three species; according to

him only Ephedra peduncularis Boiss. ‘a tall scandent shrub, with

slender branches, grows on the stony grounds in Rajputana.’ Brandis

(1906) recognised five species occurring in India, but he does not

mention any one of them occurring in Rajputana. Blatter and Hallberg

(1918) in their ‘Flora of the Indian Desert’ mention that King (1879)

reported FE. foliata Boiss. from Jaisalmer in his ‘Sketch of the Flora

of Rajputana’. They also mention Miss Macadam (1890) having

reported E. foliata Boiss. from this area (no definite locality given).

According to her the Marwari name is Lana. According to Talbot

(1949) E. peduncularis Boiss. occurs in the plains of Rajputana often

growing gregariously, forming dense clumps of brushwood, in very

EPHEDRA IN THE INDIAN DESERT HU

dry and arid situations. Ramchandra Rao (1941) reported the occurrence

of E. vulgaris Rich. in the desert areas of Rajputana, where it is

called ‘Lana’.

Recently, I found many plants of E. foliata Boiss. growing in

different habitats in many parts of the Indian Desert. I first discovered

this plant growing as a large climber with thick stem and pendulous

branches, on Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. at the village Bapini (27°3'N.

lat, and, 72°90. E. long.). It was next recorded at Tapu,-a village

nearly 15 miles to the south of Bapini, growing along with Mimosa

rubicaulis Lamk. and Lycium europaeum Linn. on large sand dunes.

At Bhikamkor (26°78’N. lat. and 72°68’E. long.) six plants were

noticed. Some of them growing as the Bapini specimen and others

were like the Tapu specimen but climbing on Gymnosporia montana

Benth. This occurrence of the plants at the diverse places led me

to believe of the wider occurrence of this plant. Naturally on my

return to Jodhpur I explored the environs of Jodhpur, and twenty

plants, growing miles apart, were located. The first plant observed

was growing gregariously in a stone quarry of the ‘Massuria Hill’

2 miles west of Jodhpur. Several new offshoots were noticed, coming

out all round the main rhizomatous stalk, which itself was covered

with small stones and pebbles. Near Balsamand 4 miles north of

Jodhpur and at Chopasani Bund 5 miles west of Jodhpur the plants

observed were large climbers with pendulous branches, growing

along with Cocculus villosus DC. and Boerhavia verticillata Poir, etc.

on Gymnosporia montana Benth. Out of the 5-6 plants later observed

near Akhey Rajji’s Tank, one of them was climbing on Euphorbia

voyleiana Boiss. while others were on Gymnosporia montana Benth.

The habits of the various specimens observed so far have been recorded

in the table below, along with localities, their supports if any and

the nature of substratum, for comparison :—

es ; ’ | Nature of

». No. | Localities | Habit Support | Substratum

1 Bapini ...| Large climber Zizyphus jujuba Gravel

2 Tapu a Gregarious With Mimosa rubica- | Sand dunes

ulis & Lycium

europaeuim

3 Bhikamkor ...| Climber and Gre- Gymnosporia montana | Gravel and

garious & Mimosa & sand dunes

Lycium sps.

4 \Jodhpur—

Massuria __....| Gregarious No support Rocky

Balsamand .. | Climber Gymnosporia montana| Gravel

Umed Bund ...| Climber Gymunosporia montana | Gravel

Akhey Rajji’s; Climber Gymnosporia montana | Gravel

Tank. & Huphorbia

royletana

Ephedra grows in association with thorny plants. Out of these

Gymnosporia montana Benth. being the most thorny offers a nice

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

anchorage, as well as protects the Ephedra plants from camels, which

are very fond of it.

Blatter and party who visited this area in 1917 did not report

Ephedra, even though they probably visited almost all these localities.

Such a keen and critical observer as Blatter could have hardly missed

Ephedra. <A very interesting fact which may be correlated with this

omission by Blatter and party is their record of two climbing

specimens of Calligonum polygonoides Linn. which in their own words

‘is a habit quite different from the usual appearance of the plant

when growing on sand dunes’. I also visited at least one out of

the two spots (sand dunes near railway station at Bhikamkor), where

Blatter and Hallberg found the so-called climbing specimen of

Calligonum polygonoides Linn. and I found no such climbing

Calligonum plant. Mcreover the inquiries made from the local

villagers, convinced me that Calligonum polygonoides Linn. is never

a climber. Naturally the so-called climbing specimens of Calligonum

polygonoides Linn. reported by Blatter and Hallberg, were Ephedra

plants. The following arguments support this assumption :—

1. The local Marwari name of Calligonum polygonoides Linn. is

‘Phogro’ whereas that of Ephedra is Suvo Phogro (Phogro with dull

green colour; in Marwari suvo is the colour of the parrot). It can

therefore well be imagined that the local name which probably Blatter

and Hallberg were given, might have been the cause of this incorrect

identification, since there is only a difference of degree rather than of

kind in the two local names.

2. Both these plants have many similarities: Leafless stems,

articulated and jointed branches with a characteristic dull green

colour and similarities of ochreate stipules and dried scale leaves..

When only the vegetative morphology is studied, one may be easily

mistaken for the other.

3. Blatter and party visited this place in the month of November

when neither of the two plants is in the reproductive phase. In

vegetative morphology they are not very different from each other

as has been pointed out above. In both these plants flowering sets

in January and fruits remain up to March in this area.

4. The rainfall in the area is scanty and precarious. Generally

the rains fail. Fruits and flowers of both these plants are eaten by

the natives in the lean years. Even in ordinary seasons they

are consumed as human food. This information itself might have

led to incorrect identification.

5- It seems improbable that the plant is a recent introduction.

Ephedra is a slow grower and almost all the plants found are very

old. Some of the plants are more than a century old.

It therefore appears that the plants noted by Blatter and Hallberg

were really Ephedra plants. These plants have been identified with the

help of the key given by Gupta and Bal (1952).

It is a prevalent view that Ephedra foliata Boiss. has either no

alkaloid contents at all, or only in negligible quantities; but according

to Chopra (1933) the greater the rainfall of the place where Ephedra

grows, the smaller is the alkaloid content, and which would imply that

on the contrary, the drier the place the higher the content. For this

EPHEDRA IN THE INDIAN DESERT 13

reason since the Indian Desert is a very dry place and Ephedra is

common there, it may be of interest to re-analyse the plant; the

preliminary qualitative analysis performed in the Botany Department

of this College by Prof. Shanti Sarup, (unpublished) has shown

encouraging results.

I am very grateful to Prof. Shanti Sarup, M.a., M.sc., for his keen

interest and encouragement in the preparation of this note. I am

also indebted to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., for kindly going through

the manuscript and making valuable suggestions.

Bre kilo G RAP HY.

Brandis, D. (1906): Indian Trees.

Blatter, E. & F. Hallberg (1918-22): The Flora of the Indian Desert. Journ.,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 26: 218-246, pl. 1-12.

Chopra, R. N. (1933): Indigenous Drugs of India. Calcutta.

Gupta, B. & Bal, S. N. (1952): Pharmacognosy of Indian Ephedras. Journ., Sci.

Ind) “Resi. 2) 3.6.

King, G. (1879): Sketch of the Flora of Rajputana. Ind. For., 4: 226-236.

Macadam, Miss (1890): Introductory Notes to the Jodhpur and Jaisalmer Plants.

(As quoted by Blatter & Hallberg; not seen in original).

Ramchandra Rao (1941): A List of some more common plants of the desert areas.

Misc. Bull. Imp. Counc. Agric. Res., 43: 15.

Shanti Sarup (Ined): A Pharmacognostical Study of E. foliata Boiss.

Talbot, W. A. (1949): Trees, Shrubs and Woody Climbers of the Bombay

Presidency. Poona, third ed.

Watt, G. (1890): Dictionary of Economic Products of India. Vol. 3: 251 seq.

Calcutta.

SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE

Wi? LOKE

Para Ed

(With five plates)

[Continued from page 800 of Volume 51 (4)]

The Longtailed Tailor-bird (Orthotomus sutorius maculicollis)

Gibson-Hill, in his ‘Checklist of the Birds of Singapore Island’,

calls the Longtailed Tailor-bird ‘ . the commonest tailor-bird in

our area.’ In the breeding season, the nest. is easily found, the

birds giving away its location by the excited scolding which greets

anyone who goes near. Usually placed close to the ground, it presents

no great problems for the photographer. The problem, rather, is

how to ‘freeze’ the rapid movements of the birds when they visit it.

Only once have I found a nest more than 5 ft. high; it was placed

in a young tree Gardenia (Gardenia tubifera), and was about 12

ft. high; two large leaves had been sewn together and formed a

very stiff-looking, purse-shaped nest.

The neat little olive-green bird, with the red head, and the long

tail’ which is constantly raised stiffly above its back, is easily recog-

nised; and if not, its noisy ways will soon betray its presence. The

Tailor-bird is well named for, as we all know, the nest is made

by sewing together a single large leaf, or several leaves, to form a

kind of funnel into which the cup-shaped nest is placed. I had

always believed that the funnel was made first, after which the bowl

of the nest would be formed inside; a nest which I found at Loyang,

however, first had the completed cup stitched to the underside of a large

leaf, and only afterwards were the sides of the leaf drawn down and

around it.

In places where large-leafed plants are scarce, the Tailor-bird

will make do with only the cup, and will construct a nest like that

of the Fantail Warbler (Cisticola). Salim Ali, noticing the presence

of Tailor-birds in the arid country of Kutch, drew the conclusion

that, because of the ‘scarcity of suitable large-leafed plants, the Tailor-

bird may be obliged to build a different type of nest also—a purse of

woven fibres as its relations the Wren-Warblers usually do’. Con-

firmation of this deduction came in a manner which cannot fail to

delight the heart of the admirers of Eha. One day, after Salim’s

book on Kutch had been written, Eha’s son generously presented a

copy of Barnes’ ‘Birds of Bombay Presidency’ to the Bombay Natural

History Society. Looking through the volume, I came upon a note,

in the master’s own handwriting, which said,

‘Found a pair building their. nest at the end of a pendent branch

of the narrow-leafed Salvadora so common in this sand-hill country.

=<.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Longtailed Tailor-bird.

(Orthotomus sutorius maculicolilis),

a40T “I'M

‘90S ‘LSIE[ ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nanof

SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 15

It was woven, like the nest of a Cisticola, of various kinds of vegetable

down, a number of leaves being sewed to it at the sides as supports.

It was about 2 ft. above the ground. Dilyar in Sind. 28-2-1904..

‘I have got a nest in a rose bush. Ten leaves are more or

less sewn to it, but the nest is an independent structure woven of

something very like ordinary cotton wool and bound about with white

fibrous threads, some of which pass from one leaf to another, being

sewn into both. There were eggs in the nest when found. Kurrachee

22-4-1904.’

This quite unexpected confirmation of Salim Ali’s theory delighted

both Salim and myself, and a reference to it was added to the ‘Birds

of Kutch’ in the form of a footnote.

The Longtailed Tailor-bird usually lays a clutch of three or four

eggs, and these are deposited at intervals of one day. The eggs are

of a pale blue ground-colour, heavily marked with reddish-brown.

The incubation period is 12 days, and the young birds leave the nest

14 days after they are hatched. My data concerning incubation and

length of stay in the nest is derived from observation at only one

nest, so that it must not be taken as the final word for all Tailor-birds

of this species.

Any bush,'or tree, with a large leaf seems to be suitable for

nesting. I have, for instance, found a nest in a canna plant: the

stalk had been damaged so that it was bent over until it touched

the ground, and the Tailor-bird’s nest suddenly found itself a mere

6 inches above the earth. We put a ring of little stakes round to

protect it, and had the satisfaction of seeing the entire brood reared

to maturity.

Both parents feed the young, and meals are served frequently,

sometimes as often as every 2 or 3 minutes.. The watcher is not

always able to identify the nature of the food, but I have noticed

small caterpillars, grasshoppers and once, so I thought, an ant. Some-

times, an insect too big to be easily swallowed is brought, and the

parent bird finds it difficult to push it down the throat of the immature

bird. When this happens, the adult will make soft, anxious, chirrup-

ing noises, at the same time giving the morsel a good hard shove.

Somehow or other, this camel of a morsel always manages to force

its way through the needle-eye of the little bird’s mouth.

The nests I have seen have all been found in the months of july

and August.

Malay Pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae malayensis Eyton)

Singapore possesses only one species of Pipit, and it is a resident

bird which haunts open country where the grass is not too long.

Like other citizens of this island, the Pipit is very fond of a golf

course where, during unsuccessful tussles with Colonel Bogey, I have

had many opportunities to observe him.

Pipits are usually quiet little birds which do not fly more than

is neceSsary, enjoying, as a rule, taking to their heels as much as

to their wings. Their long legs are admirably suited to a quick

scuttle through the grass, and the upright carriage of the body well

adapted to a good view across open country. In the mating season,

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

however, they will take to the air and fly for hours on end, uttering

at the same time a monotonous and quickly-repeated ‘Pit-pit-pit-pit’

as they show off to their mates on the ground.

The display flight resembles that of the Wagtail, except that the

Pipit flies much higher. The wings are fluttered quickly as the

bird climbs upwards. At the top of the climb, which may be fifty

to one hundred feet in the air, height is maintained for a short time,

then the bird dives suddenly earthwards, executing many deft turns

and changes of direction as it rushes headlong towards the ground.

A variation of this display was once seen by me in the month of

February (24-2-1946) when a bird flew into the air with tail raised

high, and the wings arched and beating rapidly. It was very worried

by our presence and, had we looked for it, a nest would in all proba-

bility have been found nearby.

Notes quoted in the ‘Checklist of the Birds of Singapore Island’,

record ‘eggs from March to June, with nests found under construction

in February and a fledgling seen in July’. On March and, I found

a nest containing a fully-fledged young, with another of the same

brood discovered in the grass close by. Their parents were feeding

them with grasshoppers which indeed appeared to be the principal

diet for all Pipits in that neighbourhood.

I have found most nests in the months of March, April and May.

Three eggs formed the usual clutch, but I have also seen nests

containing two eggs. The latest breeding record I possess is a note

of a bird seen in a display flight on the 12th of May.

The majority of nests are made in the form of a round cup but

I have, on several occasions, also seen domed nests. The Island

Club’s golf course is a favourite breeding place where, at the height

of the nesting season in April, nests may be found at roughly 100

yds. apart. The grass face of a bunker, or the side of a raised tee,

are often chosen as nest sites.

The Yellowbreasted Sunbird (Leptocoma jugularis microleuca)

The Old-world version of that New-world wonder, the Humming

Bird, is the Sunbird. The birds belong to two different families and

are in fact not related, but their small size, bright colours. and active

movements, and the superficial resemblance they bear to one another,

makes it easy for the layman to confuse the two. I once won a

prize in an American photographic competition with a picture of a

Sunbird in flight. When the editor of the magazine published the.

photograph; he drew his readers’ attention to the mistake in nomen-

clature which had been made. Mr. Loke, said the editor, had called

his bird a Sunbird when in reality it was quite clear that it could

not be anything else but a Humming Bird.

Of the good things that come in small packages, surely one of

the most charming and attractive must be Leptocoma jugularis.

Singapore is fortunate to have as a regular inhabitant this bundle

of vibrant energy. IJ have a specially soft spot in my heart for it

because, every year since I have lived in my house, ‘Mallaig’, in-

Gallop Road, Singapore, a pair of Yellowbreasted Sunbirds have

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEATEs

W.T. Loke

Yellowbreasted Sunbird

(Leptocoma 7. microleuca)

on newly completed nest.

"(DINAJOAIVUL SIADINAGNL DULOILAG 2 |)

‘pliquns po}seoIqMOT[O A

(ysvi{paadsS) a40T * T° M

AI d1ivig ‘90S ‘LSIH ‘IVN Avawog ‘Nunof[

SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 17

never failed to hang their nest in a clump of bamboos which grows

outside my bedroom window.

_ The Sunbird nests early. By the end of December, or early January,

a pair of them will be seen inspecting the bamboo clump, and chattering

to each other as if this desirable residence were an entirely new find:

(I have no evidence to prove it, but it is not unreasonable to assume

that the same pair return to nest for several consecutive years). The

first hint that my old friends are paying me another visit is when

their voices are heard outside; and I know that plans for a family are

well under, way when they begin to collect cobwebs from the corner

of the building next to the large airconditioning machine. The hen

does most of the hard Jabour, now as later, and she makes a cheerful

‘chick-chick-chick’ as she proceeds about her work.

Sometimes she will collect cobwebs, and at other times will fly down

to the ground and tear a_ beakful foun the soft, white, cottonwool

seed- head of the lallang.

Her movements are rapid, and once work has begun in earnest

on the nest, it takes shape quickly. A spot near the end of a bamboo

twig, on the sheltered and shady side of the clump, is chosen. The

elongated pear-shaped nest, (Hume in a fit of utilitarian phraseology

once called it a ‘pendent elongated egg’), is securely anchored by a

thick, woven rope of grass. The bird spends a lot of time on this

part of the structure, tying it tightly so that it will remain secure

even in the strongest wind. The rest of the nest is then added,

and some ten days after the first beginnings, the form which it

will finally assume is clearly visible. The long ‘tail’, disguised with

leaves, flakes of tree bark and caterpillar droppings, is already attached,

and the canopy over the entrance has begun to take shape. By this

time, the bottom of the nest chamber is beginning to look quite solid,

although its upper part appears tenuous and frail, and daylight may

be seen through it.

The bird spends a great deal of her time now bringing materials

for the lining. Much of it consists of the soft, downy seed of the

lallang. Every so often, she will sit inside and turn in a circle

with the object of rounding out the lower half of the nest chamber.

Sometimes she will sit with her beak projecting out of the entrance,

and with wings slightly opened will move vigorously from side to

side, pushing out the walls of the nest, and shaking it so unmerci-

fully that the human watcher begins to wonder if it will stand the

strain. No doubt this rough treatment is her method of testing

the stress end joad factors of a structure which must endure for many

months, and which may sce the raising within it of as many as four

families in one season.

The bird works with great concentration. An entry in my diary

fone tne n27th fantiary,, 1952, reads, “10.06: hours: ~.Q° returns with

material for interior of nest. Shows no hesitation, but with a quick

jab puts the material in place. Bird seems to have decided before-

hand where to put the next beakful.’

January 27th, 1952, incidentally, was Chinese New Year day, and

my diary records that at 10.25 I went downstairs to take a quick look

at the preparations to receive the morning’s guests, but at 10.39 was

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

back at my post. At 11.13, a sad note records, ‘Session ends here.

First New Year guests arrive’, The tiny bird, working so busily

outside my bedroom window was having to keep an eye on her affairs,

as indeed I was having to keep an eye on mine, but little did she

realise that no new year gift has ever been more welcome than the

one she gave me that day.

The cock bird, at this stage, takes little part in the proceedings,

but he is not far away, and hangs around to admire his wife’s industry.

He stands sentry, and when a pair of Yellowvented Bulbuls who, on

occasion, have built their nest in this same hamboo clump, visit it with

a squatter look in their eyes, the male scolds them loudly. And who

is to say that the cock is not serving a useful function? After all, in

any scheme of defence, the sentry is a very important person.

Before the nest is completed, ‘decorations’ are added. Flakes of

bark, leaves, a string of caterpillar dropping, are bound to the outside

by a liberal use of cobwebs. One of the last jobs to be done is the

canopy over the entrance, so giving to the entire structure that little

extra touch of artistry which makes this ‘pendent elongated egg’

a thing of beauty and a joy for ever.

No doubt, the ‘decorations’ are, (to lapse once more into military

phraseoigy), no more than an attempt at camouflage. It is difficult

to believe that the bird’s enemies are deceived by it. To human eyes,

especially when the nesting site is so often in an exposed position,

(for example, any bit of wire hanging under the eaves of a house,

a low bush, the chicks on a verandah, overhead telephone wires), the

nest seems to stand out so much from its surroundings that perfunctory

attempts at camouflage would appear to serve no useful purpose.

One nest I observed was begun on January 17th, and was probably

finished on the 1st February. By the 8th February two eggs had

been laid, this being the normal clutch. As far as I am able to

ascertain, a period of about 48 hours separates the laying of the first

and a second egg. A note I have for 1950 shows that, in a nest

containing 2 young, the first hatched on February 8th, and the second.

two days later. From this piece of evidence I base my conclusion.

that eggs are laid 2 days apart.

The period of incubation is some 14 days, and another 17 days.

later will see the young out of the nest’. <A total of one month,

therefore, sees the completion of the cycle of egg to fully-fledged young.

Soon after, a second family is started, and after that a third, and

even a fourth. The hen is kept very busy during the breeding season,

and in that year when she attempted to raise four broods—the eggs

of the fourth were abandoned—she looked a wreck by the end of

the season, with unkempt feathers and a ragged tail. Together with

her oriental sisters of the human race, she too, no doubt, could have

done with a little family planning.

——

‘ My notes for 1950 give the following data :—

27-1-1950: Two eggs in nest (first presumably laid on the 25th).

8-2-1950: First young hatched.

10-2-1950 : Second young hatched.

23-2-1950: Nest accidentally disturbed by me. One juvenile flew out.

24-2-1950: Both juveniles left the nest.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

Photo W. T. Loke

Yellowbreasted Sunbird.

(Leptocoma 7. microleuca).

Lower nest, partly completed, was abandoned when bird was frightened by flash. Another

nest at once started above it.

SOME BREEDING BIRDS OF SINGAPORE 19

When the young are being fed, the cock bird descends trom his

pinnacle of masculine detachment and helps his\wife to keep the

voracious hunger of his offspring satisfied. Even then, it is. still

she who does most of the work. Trips to the nest are frequent; on

the r9th January 1950, I recorded to separate visits in the first hour,

13 in the second, and 12 in the third. It is not always easy to

see the nature of the food brought, but on this day, the greater part

consisted of a ‘translucent white pill’ which was probably, the egg-case

of some spider.

The parent birds are in such a great hurry to get on with the

job of raising a second family, no sooner finished with the first,

that the young of the first brood are given short shrift when they

leave the nest. I once witnessed a poignant scene through that self-

same bedroom window which has given me so many glimpses of

the joys and sorrows of the Sunbird’s world. At 7.20 one March

morning, I heard excited bird voices coming from the bamboo clump.

I hurried to the window and looked out. The excited chattering

came from a fledging which was leaning out of its nest. Clearly,

this was going to be a first flight, and the youngster was trying to

pluck up courage to leave its home. The little bird leaned so far out

that it nearly fell, but its courage failed at the last moment and it

withdrew. Nothing daunted it tried again, and this time, with a

supreme effort and one great convulsive movement, launched itself

out into the world. The cock bird which had been standing close

by and watching the proceedings with some interest, now suddenly

took no more notice and began, in a detached manner, to preen

his breast and wing feathers. The youngster flew straight to him,

and sidling up began to beg for food. Then a strange thing happened.

The cock without warning, dropped his pose of indifference and

attacked his offspring viciously, making five or six quick jabs at

the young bird, and nearly knocking it off its perch. The latter

fell back before this unexpected attack and, for some time, sat crest-

fallen and disconsolate, on another branch. Then the hen returned

with food and flew straight to the nest. Finding it empty she looked

around outside, and seeing junior, the very picture of dejection on his

branch, flew to him and fed him. By this time, the cock had

disappeared.

It is certain that the hen, before long, would, under the com-

pulsion of a will greater than her own, have also adopted the same

methods as the cock and driven her offspring away. And so, emerg-

ing into a pitiless world, the young Sunbird learned a lesson which

all young animals learn, although in this case, sooner than most,

namely the harsh truth of what the poet has called, ‘the sorrow of

each day’s growing’.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORNITHOLOGY OF

THE DARJEELING AREA

Me 1D! LESTER

This paper gives a short account of some of the birds of the

Darjeeling area as they appeared to me during a series of bird-

watching holidays spent on tea-gardens there in the years 1943-45.

Thése holidays were of irregular occurrence as they consisted of

either ordinary or sick leave from the R.A.F.; they usually lasted

about a fortnight, except in 31945 when I stayed near Darjeeling

for most of April, May and June. Details of these visits are as

follows :—

1. 21 Feb.- 4 March 1943. Pandam T. E. Manager: W. Cooksey, Esq:

2. 18 -30 May 1943. do. do.

Sei 172-26 Jan. 1944. Vah-TukvarT. E. Manager: the late Mr.

E. H. Dobson.

4. 27 May -10 June 1944. Soom T. E. | Manager: D. Smythe

5. 21 Oct. - 1 Nov. 1944. do. Osborne, Esq.

6. 17 April- 2 May 1945. do. _ Asst. Manager : Ww.

7. 24 May -30 June 1945. do. Cooksey, Esq.

My thanks are due to the Managers of these gardens and their

assistants, in particular to Mr. and Mrs. Cooksey, for so generously

welcoming me into their homes and for allowing me to wander about

where 1 would. ;

The foothills of the Himalayas must surely possess one of the

richest avifaunas in the world. It is certainly the most exciting

bird-watching country I have found; you never know what you are

going to see next and the possibilities are endless. At the same

time the very diversity of the bird life creates an obstacle that is

not easy for the casual visitor to overcome. No sooner has he

become familiar with the birds most frequently met with during a

day on the hillside than his visit is over, and by the time he returns

he has lost much of what he had learned about the hill birds. And

the very nature of the country makes accurate observation difficult,

especially the study of particular problems. Definite identification is

often impossible without shooting the bird in question and comparing

its skin with specimens in a museum, in view of the bewildering

variety of small birds to be found in the district, many of which

look very similar to each other in the field. However, by dint of

constant reference to all the books available to me, and visits to

the Darjeeling Natural History Museum, where Mr. C. M. Inglis

gave me unstinted help, I succeeded in identifying many of the birds

I came across beyond any reasonable doubt. Where any doubt as

to the identity exists in my mind I have made this clear in the

appropriate place in these notes. 7

Apart from the three tea gardens on which I stayed, I visited

very few others, and my notes are confined to these three alone.

Although they were basically similar in that they consisted of blocks

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 2i

of Tea bushes [Camellia thea (Link)| of varying extent planted on

land from which the original jungle had been cleared, and set in

a matrix of mixed jungle on the steep hillsides, which were broken

in many places by small jungle-clad ravines, these three gardens

exhibited certain points of difference, of which the main ones are

shown on the next page. The jungle was for the most part a widely

varied mixture of deciduous trees and it was difficult to say just what

species predominated. Utis (Betula alnoides) and Toon (Cedrela toona)

were usually well represented, but there were many others and here

and there were small patches of bamboos (? species). In some places

Cryptomerias were growing in groves or clumps or as isolated trees.

Undergrowth varied from barely any to a dense covering of bushes

and brambles, with here and there a tree-fern, and luxuriant herbage

sprang up during the rainy season.

The jungle and the tea blocks. were so intermixed as to be almost

inseparable as distinct habitats with any degree of accuracy, and

most of the birds to be seen in the one could also be seen, at any

rate at times, in the other. The chief shade trees interplanted among

the tea were Sau or Black Siris (Albizzia stipulata) and Koroi or White

Siris (A. procera). The principal Leguminosae interplanted were

Indigofera (I. dosua), Boga Medeloa (Tephrosia candida) and in some

places Cvrotalaria. z

Although ihese three gardens ranged between about 1,800-6,500

ft. A.S.L., the preponderance of my observations were made between

3,000 ft. and: 6,000 - ft.

MOVEMENTS OF BIRDS

The rhythm of bird life in a district of high hills is inevitably

more complicated than that of the plains, where there ts no upward

and downward movement. Darjeeling lies in a ‘migration area’ and

can count in its avifauna a considerable number of winter and summer

visitors as well as birds occurring only on migration. :

In addition to this full-scale migration, however, the rhythm of

bird life here is complicated by various more local movements and

trends. I cannot pretend to have unravelled these complications

during my few visits to the district, but it is just possible that some

of my notes may help others in this task and I give them for what

they are worth. Periodical visits do have the advantage that any

gradual movement or change is often more apparent to the occasional

visitor than to the man under whose eyes it has been taking’ place.

One of the most interesting features of bird life here is the mixed

hunting parties of small birds* These were especially in evidence

on my visits in January, February, March, April and October, though

I found a few such parties on every visit. Some of these parties

were only quite small, but some (e.g. October, 1944) must have

comprised 200-300 small birds of numerous species. In April, 1944,

the parties I saw were all smaller than those seen on the previous visit

(January) and seemed to be more loosely knit. In some cases smaller

parties broke off from the main party and moved off on their own;

this was particularly the case with the Shortbilled Minivets, and

I feel certain that often. at this season the Grevheaded Flvcatchers

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ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 23

foraged with the mixed party only because and while it happened

to be passing through their particular territory.

In October, 1944, I identified the following species among these

mixed hunting parties, and no doubt other species were also

present: :——

Greenbacked Tit Brownbacked Pied Shrike

Indian Grey Tit Black Drongo ~

Redheaded Tit Grey Drongo

Velvetfronted Nuthatck Haircrested Drongo

Cinnamonbellied Nuthatch Yellowbacked Sunbird

Nepal Babbler Blackbreasted Yellowbacked

Redbilled Leiothrix Sunbird

Redtailed Minla White-eye

Yellownaped Ixulus Speckled Piculet

Stripethroated Yuhina Darjeeling Pygmy Woodpecker

Orangebellied Chloropsis Large Yellownaped Woodpecker

Whitetailed Blue Robin Lesser Yellownaped Woodpecker

Grayheaded Flycatcher Lesser Pied Woodpecker

Whitethroated Fantazs!

Flycatcher Numerous Willow and Fly-

Yellowbellied Flycatcher catcher Warblers, most of which

‘= - I could not identify with: any

: ex} £ certainty.

In April, 1945, I identified only the following among mixed

hunting parties :—

Greenbacked Tit Browneared Bulbul

Redheaded Tit Silvereared Mesia

Redbilled Leiothrix Greyheaded Flycatcher

Redtailed Minla White-eye

Yellownaped Ixulus Shortbilled Minivet

A fair number of Willow and Flycatcher Warblers.

That there is a good deal of seasonal movement up and down

the hillside is, of course, well known. A frequent comment in Messrs.

W. H. Matthews’ and V. S. Edwards’ ‘List of Birds of Darjeeling

and Neighbourhood’ (1944) is ‘Lower in winter’. I doubt, however,

whether the extent and details of this vertical movement have been

fully worked out yet, or whether the controlling factors are fully

understood. The effect of the weather on the food supply is probably

the governing factor, but there may well be other factors, e.g. the

earliness or lateness of the Monsoon, the amount of rain, the relative

amounts of sunshine and cloud, which exercise some accelerating or

retarding influence on the movement.

No doubt the dispersal in all directions of fledged young birds,

which has been found to take place with some species in Europe,

also plays its part in complicating still further the existing complexity

of all these movements. I myself saw some evidence of an upward

movement in October above the usual limits given by Matthews and

Edwards (see Sultan Tit and Haircrested Drongo). This is a point

which invites further study.

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Another point which might be studied with profit is the effect on

bird life of the relative amounts of sunshine and shade due to the

configuration of the hillsides. Some slopes are so placed that they

obtain the maximum available amount of sunlight, while others are

in sunshine for only limited periods each day. Whether the seasonal!

variation in the amount of sunlight falling on a given hillside, which

can be very marked, causes any change in the incidence of bird life

there is a question which would be very difficult to answer with

complete certainty, as any such movement would clearly be very

gradual and would probably be overshadowed by the other major

seasonal movements. My own observations were not extensive or

continuous enough to cover these points.

A factor which. may well have some small effect on the bird

population of a tea garden is the forestry methods practised there. Purely

local changes of population may also be caused by the practice of

hard-pruning the tea bushes every fourth year or so, thus destroying

a good deal of cover until new growth has again got well started.

I believe only certain blocks of tea are treated in this way each year,

and that on each garden these are well scattered.

Messrs. Matthews’ and Edwards’ ‘List of Birds of Darjeeling

and Neighbourhood’ gives the general status of nearly all the birds.

occurring there and is a great help to a visiting bird watcher. The

authors admit, however, that the list is probably not completely

exhaustive and in 1945, not much more than a year after its publication,

Mr. Edwards himself told me that no less than seven further species.

had been identified in Darjeeling itself. I hope, therefore, that the

following notes, which I believe to be accurate as far as they go,

may add something to the stock of knowledge being accumulated

about the birds of Sikkim, and that they may perhaps be of some

help to others in the work of interpreting the rhythm of bird life on:

these fascinating hillsides.

For the sake of brevity I have referred in the following pages to:

Pandam T.E as “A’ =o Vah-Pikvar* i -Ee as (Bb: and 10; scout.

as AG:

In making my own records of bird sounds I used the method

devised by W. Rowan (1924), but as this entails the use of various

symbols which are difficult and expensive to print, I have used

another, and rather less accurate, method in the following notes.

Jungle Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos)

Status: A few usually about on all three gardens, in the shade

trees almost as much as in the jungle. No seasonal variation in

status noticed.

House Crow (Corvus splendens)

Status: 1 saw none on A or B, but there were usually a few

to be seen on C about buildings, ‘in the forest, and in the shade

trees. Papeete i

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 2.

Yellowbilled Blue Magpie (Uvrocissa flavirostris)

Status: I saw them only irregularly on all three gardens in

January (a party of 7-8), February, May and October (1-2 cach), in

both jungle and shade trees.

Voice: 28-2-1943. A rather hollow-sounding k-k-k-ok-ok-ok the

bird rising and stretching upwards on its perch and then bowing

slightly. Tail frequently flirted with a little upward jerk, but most

of the time it was merely waved indefinitely about. This bird flew

away with a heavy, though quite powerful flight, giving a loud, rather

mellow ko-we-wak (low-high-low) as it went.

Green Magpie (Cissa chinensis)

Siaius: Not seen on A or B;-1-2 seen and, heard on C in, April,

June and October, all in jungle.

Voice: 6-6-1944. One called several times with a kik-wee (high-

falling). The more usual call seemed to be a rather raucous mewing

note. 29-4-1945. One gave a loud, penetrating, and rather tinny

courlye-tva (high, rising-low) several times.

Tree Pie (Dendrocitla formosc)

Status: Seen on A and C only, mostly in jungle but not infre-.

quently in shade trees. Usually there were only a few about, but

they seemed more numerous on my visits in May and June, wher

they were often in small parties.

Voice: 28-2-1943. <A frequent wokuwak’awk with strong emphasis

on the penultimate note. This was followed by some higher, fairly

rounded, chattering notes of which I was unable to make any

record.

22-10-1943. One was working through fairly dense tree jungle,

calling at fairly frequent intervals, each time with the same call: kak’l-

ik’l-aa-kaa (low-high-low-low).

25-4-1945. The calls heard included the following: k-k-k-k-t-t-kok

(high-low, slurred); kawelu-ja (low/high, slurred-low) repeated several

times; kik’kala’ka-loi-u (falling /ris-ing-low) with variations.

Grey Tit (Purus major)

Staius: In October, 1944, 1 am quite convinced that 1 saw on

Soom, |.E. at least one, and JI believe 2-3 others, of this Species,

with which I was very familiar from the plains of Bengal. Un-

fortunately I did not at the time realise the unusualness of their

presence in this district and did not take down a full description,

Or even an exact note of the height. In spite of an urgent exhortation

later on to borrow a gun and go out there and then to shoot one,

I was unable to produce a corpse, and I am afraid, therefore, that

if the old maxim ‘What’s shot is history, what’s missed is mystery’

is still accepted as the guiding principle, my record will not be

admitted, though I know my identification to have been correct.

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Greenbacked Tit (Parus monticolus)

Status: Seemed fairly plentiful on all three gardens, though |

saw fewer on my autumn and winter visits than in the spring and

summer. I quite often found them foraging among the tea bushes

and shade trees.

Redheaded Tit (Aegithaliscus concinnus)

Status: A few parties seen on all three gardens at all seasons,

always in jungle. I could detect no real change in status.

Recognition: Continually on the move, picking about among the

leaves high up in the trees, or perhaps among dense bushes on the

side of a ravine, hanging upside down and clinging sideways to the

twigs, though often remaining still for a second or two. When

one flew to another clump of bushes the others would follow in a

straggling crowd, the movement, although one of only a few yards,

taking perhaps a minute to complete.

Voice: Various dates: A soft trr-trr-trr or tz-tz-tz, difficult to

describe phonetically, was given continually. Another party called

almost continuously with little, almost bell-like notes while they

foraged. Also a very frequent, soft, rustling prrri-prrri.

Sultan Fit (Melanochlorva sultanea)

Status: A single bird seen 30 October, 1944, near a mixed party

of tits and other small birds (mostly warblers) about some Boga

Medeloa bushes among tea at 4,500 ft. Later seen following a mixed

party of Shortbilled Minivets and Pied Shrikes with several Drongos

in mixed deciduous jungle with thick undergrowth, also at 4,500 ft.

Recognition: The first time I sighted it the sun was almost

directly behind it, so that details of its colouration were not discernible,

and it struck me in silhouette as being rather like a small Oriole.

Later I got good views. This bird flew to a clump of bushes where

it clung upside down near the top of a spray, apparently extracting

seeds or insects, and also climbing about. Once it caught a large

winged insect—probably a grasshopper of which thousands. were then

present.

Voice: Now and again it would give a soft, high-pitched tyu.

I also heard a single phrase of fairly rounded, though rather strident

notes, which J think was given by this bird; but of this I could

not be absolutely certain.

Cinnamonbellied Nuthatch (Sitia castanea cinnamoveniris )

Status: One seen on A and two on B, while on C in October

some were present among nearly every mixed hunting party. Seen only

in jungle, with one possible in tea and shade trees on C. I saw

none on C in April, May or June.

Voice: 25-2-1943. One gave a quiet ti-ti-ti continually while

foraging, also a fairly loud, prolonged tsip. I also heard a much

louder, more raucous note given in alarm on _ discovering my

presence.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 27

Behaviour: 25-2-1943. One worked over a large siris tree, start-

ing near the bottom of the main trunk and working upwards,

spiralling irregularly and sometimes stopping and turning completely

round so that its head was downwards while it exptored some

crevice. It worked over the main branches more or less systematically

and then gave its attention to the thinner branches towards the top

of the tree, where it seemed equally at home. Sometimes it worked

downwards as well as upwards, and often hammered vigorously.

Flight bounding.

Velvetironted Nuthatch (Sztta frontalis)

Status: One party reported by a competent observer on C in

June, and I saw one in October 1944, both in jungle. I saw no

others for certain.

Rufousnecked Laughing Thrush (Dryonasies ruficollis)

Status: Fairly plentiful on all visits on each garden except B

(January) where I saw none. I found them equally among the tea

bushes and the edges of (though never far inside) the jungle near

the tea. On C in June 1944 I found that they often emerged from

the tea to the edge of the jungle towards dusk, possibly for roosting

purposes.

Recognition: They spend most of their time among and under

the tea bushes-and undergrowth, but often they will flutter up into

a larger bush and stand flirting their tails, which seem cumbersome

and disproportionately large and floppy, gradually hopping further

and further up towards the top of the bush and then flying down among

the lower bushes again. They frequently indulge in what seems

to be calling and answering each other, and I have heard as many as

-four birds join in, though they may all be invisible to the watcher.

Flight rather heavy and ungainly.

Voice: 24-5-1943. 2-3 were foraging together among tea.

One flew up into a small siris tree and sang. The song was varied,

but one or two phrases formed the basis of the theme, upon which

many apparently impromptu variations were grafted. The general

effect was quite pleasing, though perhaps a little uninteresting, and

not to be compared with the song of, say, a Whistling Thrush, which

it in no way resembled, being altogether much fuller in tone, more

broken and the whole timbre different. Specimens of the basic

phrases were as follows:—

Pouki-wurki-pouki-wurki (rising in ‘steps’)

Prrurti-witeu-witeu (the second syllable of the first note being

high, and the two last notes falling).

Witeu-sprutsita-pretuu (the last syllable of each note being

pitched lower than the penultimate one).

These rotes and their variations, with a fair number of extraneous

notes and groups of notes, were often combined into phrases of fair

length ; but the effect was rather detracted from by the interpolation of

single notes, much in the same manner as a Common Myna sings.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Among other calls I have at various times recorded — —

(1) A loud prut-prui.

(2) Chre-chre-che-chui-chi starting high and falling.

(3) A clear, loud, pwe-tyu—se-pwe-tyu—se-pwe-tyu—se-pwe the

first syllable of each note being higher than the others.

(4) A clear, loud, ringing peuklu-peuklu (high/low) rather like

a staccato version of the word ‘bugler’.

(5) A loud, powerful kwik-kokoiu (high-low/high/low) repeated

several times as a phrase, and sometimes broken when bits of it were

given separately.

(6) One would call with a loud, clear kyu-wa-kyi (high-low-

high) and another would at once answer with the same call. Then

a third bird joined in and answered each call with a sharp kvi.

Greysided Laughing Thrush (Dryvonastes carulatus)

Status: Two believed seen in jungle on C on 19-4-1945 at 4,500

ft., but I-caught mo*amore than asvelintpse:

Blackgorgetted Laughing Thrush (Garrulax pectoralis)

Status: 2-3 believed seen among tea on A on 20-5-1943 (alti-

tude not noted), but I was too far away for certainty. The general

colouring was: head and chest black; remainder dark brown with

a touch of yellowish in the wings. They were very noisy and called

continually with a variety of notes, of which the predominant ones

were S’prepa-prepra-prepa . .. S’pre . . . wou-wou . . . wou-pi—sik

(the first syllable of all the double notes being high and the second

lower, and the last note being low-high—high).

Necklaced Laughing Thrush (Gurrulax moniliger)

Status: Several believed seen on C on 6-6-1944 in thick jungle

with tall trees close to the Little Rangit River (approximately 2,000

ft.). Flight very awkward and the birds glided a good part of the

way from one tree to another with outstretched wings and tail. Once

in a tree, however, their movements were much surer and less

cumbersome and they turned actively this way and that, flirting their

big tails and calling (no record of call). Identity almost but not quite

certain. Crown and nape rufous yellow; forehead and sides of head

medium grey; throat and. neck white, bordered with a fairly broad

blackish necklace; rest of upper parts grey-brown; rest of lower

parts pale grey-white.

Whitethroated Laughing Thrush (Garrulax albogularis)

Status: Believed seen on all three gardens in both tea and jungle.

One believed seen on C at 5,000 ft. on 27-5-1945. The only certain

identification was on A on 28-2-1943 (altitude not noted).

Voice: 28-2-1943. Wauk-waakawa (high—low /high /low).

Redheaded Laughing Thrush (Trochalopteron erythrocephalum)

Status: Seen in small numbers on all three gardens in February,

April, May and June in both tea and jungle.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 29

Voice: One of the most striking and insistent calls I heard was

a’ loud towit . .-. towit (low/high . . . low /high) sometimes given

Separately, sometimes several times running, less often mixed in among

other calls.

Another call was a liquid pwi or poui (all one syllable), and a

harsh, not very loud che-che-che-che-che all on the same note.

Another bird called repeatedly with a loud preuri (falling /rising

and slurred), often repeated more than once.

Crimsonwinged Laughing Thrush (Lrochalopteron phoeniceum)

Status: One believed seen in tea on 17-4-1945 and two in jungle

at 4,500 ft. on 26-5-1945, both on C.

Striated Laughing Thrush (Grammualoptila striata

Status: Believed not infrequently seen in jungle and one probable

one in tea in May, 1943 on A. I saw no recognisable sign of this

species On my other visits.

Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler (Pomutorhinus erythrogenys)

Status: Identified with certainty only on C in June 1945, in jungle

at 4,500 ft., but strongly suspected on C in October, 1944 and April

1945. I think I probably overlooked this species on other visits,

through never having seen it, and I suspect that it was better

represented than its occasional appearances in public seemed to

suggest.

Voice: The only note | managed to record was a fairly loud

qrrp.

Spotted Babbler (Pellorneum ruficeps)

Status: Several seen in tea with other babblers (not identified)

on A on 25-2-1943. Altitude not noted.

Blackthroated Babbler (Stachyris nigriceps)

Status: In tea: One seen on C at 4,500 ft. on 20-4-1945. In jungle:

3-4 on A on 28-2-1943. 3 or more on C in June 1945.

Voice: 28-2-1943. An explosive chhrrri, repeated several times

when my presence was discovered.

20-4-1945. A repeated, loud, insistent tweeye-t’twa (rising—low)

with very little variation.

Redheaded Babbler (Stuchyridopsis ruficeps)

Status: 1-2 parties seen in jungle on A in February, 1943.

Voice: Called continually with a single, high, thin note.

Yellowbreasted Babbler (Wixornis gularis)

Status: A party of 12-20 believed seen on A on 26-2-1943. Upper

parts a mondescript brown; wings and tail blackish; lower parts lemon

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

yellow, brighter on abdomen. They worked along under the tea

bushes. As I approached, some of them flew over the tops of the

bushes, perching for a few seconds on a protruding stump of wood

en voute. All the time I was near they kept up a quiet, rustling

calling, rather like shr-shr-shr, but impossible to describe exactly.

Exact altitude not noted, but I believe it was about 3,000-3,500 ft.

White-eyed Quaker Babbler (dicippe nepalensis) =

Status: I saw this species only on C, always in jungle or

secondary bush growth. On 9-6-1944 at 4,800 ft. I found a family

of parents and several fledged young ones. In May-June, 1945 I saw

several birds. On 26-10-1944 I found several in a mixed hunting

party of small birds in dense bushes in a ravine at 4,500 ft. |

Behaviour and Voice: 9-6-1944. My attention was first drawn

to the birds by a sudden movement in the undergrowth only a few

feet away, followed by a low, rustling, whispering calling. (Then

suddenly the whole party of parents and youngsters flew past me

to the bushes at the other side of the path. The parents were very

perturbed and darted hither and thither among the undergrowth; they

kept very well under cover themselves, though I could often catch

clear glimpses of them, when the white ring round the eye was

conspicuous. One of the young birds perched on an exposed branch

and gave a quiet dzi-dzi, which provoked a fresh outburst of activity

and calling on the part of the other birds. Their calls consisted

chiefly of a rapid, high-pitched dzi-dzi-dzi-dzi-dzi, and a very soft,

whispered, high-pitched pi-pi-pi-pi-pi-pi-pi-pi-p1.

Blackheaded Sibia (Lezoptila capistrata)

Status: Seemed fairly plentiful on all visits, though in April 1945

there did not seem so many on C (2,000-6,000 ft.) as higher up about

Darjeeling itself. In January, 1944, I found them only just above

the Little Rangit River among tea bushes, but otherwise I saw them

only in jungle. In January they often seemed to be in company with .

Yellownaped [xuius.

Voice: The only calls I have identified from this: species are :—

(1) A harsh, rasping chrai-chrai-chrai-chrai-chrai, the a being

pitched low, the z hig.

(2) <A very soft, low-pitched tyip.: . tyip .-2. ty1p or tsi 2% = ‘tsi,

scarcely audible 15 yds. away.

Stripethroated Yuhina (Yuhina gularis)

Status: 1-2 seen in jungle on A in May, and a few seen in jungle,

usually in mixed parties, on C in October.

Slatyheaded Yuhina (Yuhina occipitalis)

Status: 30-5-1945. Soom T.E. A party of half a dozen or so

small birds was foraging among herbage and bush undergrowth

growing among dense mixed jungle at 4,500 ft. My attention was

first attracted to them by a low, soft, rustling calling which seemed

to be coming from the herbage almost at my feet. This was con-

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 31

firmed by a slight movement, but the birds were adepts at keeping

under cover, though several times they came up and perched on

exposed branches where I got a good view of their upper parts.

Size: about the same, or possibly slightly smaller than a Redbilled

Leiothrix (Letothrix lutea). Forehead and crown greyish brown, fairly

heavily streaked bluish-white ; streaks ill-defined, but the general effect

was that they ran from front to back. Nape plain, warm brown.

A narrow white half-ring round upper half of eye was conspicuous ;

I could see no sign of the lower half of this ring, but this might

have been due to a trick of the light. Rest of upper parts warm

brown. Lower parts (I had little more than a glimpse) seemed fairly

bright orange brown. Tail short, broad, square, warm brown. Bill

horny brown. Legs yellow-brown. _ oy

Yellownaped Ixulus ([xulus flavicollis)

Status: At least one party seen in tea bushes just above the Little

Rangit River on B in January 1943; otherwise seen only in jungle.

Some seen on every visit except the first, but they seemed more

numerous in October and January, when some were with almost every

mixed hunting party I found.

Recognition: Movements rather more leisurely than many small

birds, though their examination of the foliage seemed very thorough.

The orange collar round the hinder neck and the brown crest are usually

easily seen.

Voice: Various dates.

(1) A soft high-pitched tyuk ... tyuk, the k being slurred.

(2) A soft tyityi-tyuk (high/high-low, slurred).

(3) Tyup-tyup... tyu (high-high . . . low, slurred).

(4) One party kept up a continual pigzicato twittering which

rose, when one section of the party detached itself and flew to another

clump of bushes, into a much louder, raucous note.

(5) On 26-10-1944 several birds of this species were with a

large mixed hunting party. While these birds were present a loud

song was continually given. I never managed to see any bird in the

act of singing, but this song seemed so frequently to emanate from

just about the same spot as these birds were foraging that I very

strongly suspect it was given by them. The basis of the song was

a: Twe-tyurwi-tyawi-tyawa (high-low/high-low/high fall-ing/low).

This basis was frequently varied, but its general character could always

be recognised in the variations. a

Redbilled Leiothrix (Leiothrix lutea)

Status: Seen in tea only on first visit, otherwise only in jungle.

Noted as plentiful on all visits except in January, when I saw none.

In October some were with almost every mixed hunting party.

Recognition: The orange breast and the red and yellow in the

wings are usually conspicuous.

Voice: Various dates. Song: A full and rounded warbling, not

unlike that of the Garden Warbler [Sylvia borin (Bodd.)]. Wings

frequently flirted while singing.

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INNATURAL VEIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Other notes:—

(2) .«\ continual and unvaried pe-pe-pe-pa (high-ris-ing-lower),

clear and fairly loud, but rather wistful and piping. On another

occasion [I recorded this note as a pt-pii-pt-pii-pti, all on the same

note, clear and piping and given rapidly.

(2) <A continual, soft muttering che-che-che, fairly high-pitched.

(3) <A loud, rustling call of which I made no phonetic record.

(4) When disturbed, a somewhat explosive k’d’k-cha-jéjii (the

last note higher than the second), followed by a call sounding some-

thing like pile-pile-pile, each ‘word’ consisting of the same two notes

the second of which was pitched higher than the first.

Redtailed Minla (Minla ignotincta)

Status: Noted as fairly plentiful on every visit, very often in

mixed parties. Fewer seen in May and June. Seen only in jungle.

Behaviour: Their behaviour varied, possibly according to whether

my presence was known or not. At times they would hop about

and perch quite openly on the upper parts of the bushes. At other

times they would dash helter-skelter for the deeper cover of the centres

and lower parts of the bushes, where they would creep about, giving

a low murmuring note. I saw one bird ascend a sloping branch in a

series of small hops and sidling movements.

Voice: Various dates.

1) <A continuous, rather scolding calling, fairly varied, but of

which the burden was choi-choi-choi-chu-chi-choi-choi-chu-choi-chi-

chi-chu (the first three notes low, the fourth and fifth rising, the sixth

and seventh low, the eighth high, the ninth low, the tenth high,

then falling).

(2) A rather sharp, high-pitched wi-wi-wi while flying from one

bush to another.

(3) A loud chik (slurred and high-pitched) repeated 7-8 times.

(4) A fairly loud twiyi-twiyuwi (high-high/low/high).

(5) A ringing se-tyewi-tyewu-tyewu (high-high/falling-higher/

) A very rapid p’tyityityi pitched high.

} A frequent, high-pitched tsi .. . tsi.

)

7 leper le: Bea eye ce.

high-low-low).

(ro) <A loud, clear tye-tye-a-tyil.

Nepal Cutia (Cutia nipulensis)

Status: 29-4-1945. Soom T.E. Two believed seen flying between

trees in a large ravine at 4,500 ft., though I had only a glimpse of -

them. In general appearance, seen from above, they were not unlike

shrikes. Head black on sides, slaty-blue on crown. Back seemed

entirely chestnut. Tai! black, not so long as in many birds of a

similar size. Wings sljaty-blue, black and white. Lower parts

appeared whitish, but I did not get a good view. Size roughly the

same, or perhaps a little smaller than a Blackheaded shrike (Lanius

nNIGvICeps).

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 33

Redwinged Shrike-Babbler (Pieruthius erythropterus)

Status: Seen only on C in jungle, where I found several pairs

in April, and noted them in May and June as fairly plentiful.

Recognition: Rather clumsily built; movements often somewhat

ungainly and jerky. Always on the move, exploring leaves and crevices

for food, hopping and clambering about among the twigs, now and

again flying with hurried, weak wing-beats to a new perch. The

shortness of the tail was very. striking.

Voice: 27, 29-4-1945. A low, liquid pik ... puk was given when

two were foraging together.

A single ¢ kept giving a variety of calls as it foraged, some soft,

but mostly fairly loud. My attention was first attracted by what appeared

to be the song, as it was repeated frequently and loudly and had

fair carrying power: Pu-sitsiteu (low-high/high/low) .. . pu-sitsiteu

(low-high/high/low) - . . pu-sitsiteu-sitsiteu (low-high/high/low-high/

high/low) . . . su-teutu (low-high/falling).

The most characteristic and frequently used phrase was the first,

but now and again the double version was given. This combination

was occasionally varied by giving the last phrase on its own, repeated

rather rapidly several times. Now and again the song was interspersed

with, alow, Chrrris. .| . .chrrei.

Orangebellied Chioropsis (Chloropsis hardwickit)

Status: I found this species only on C, as follows :—

June 1944, ene believed seen in jungle at 5,000 ft. October

1944, several seen in-jungle. April 1945, one seen once in shade trees

among tea. May and June 1945, seen occasionally in shade trees,

but always 1-2 in evidence about same place in jungle, 4,500 ft.

Voice: October 1944 and May 1945. The song was varied and

included many notes which could easily be mistaken for those of other

birds, including the Bulbuls, Drongos and Tits, and the usual call

of the Crested Serpent Eagle, if one did not see the singer. I was

unable to distinguish any particular phrase or combination of notes -

which always formed part of every song, but the following were

among those I recorded :—

(1) Tshiwatshishi—watshishi—watshishi (high/low/high/high—

low /high/high—low/high/high), with many rambling variations.

(2) A soft tit-like titu-titu-titu-titu-ti the first note in each pair

being pitched high, the second low.

(3) A low tp-tp-tp-tp-tp-tp-tp.

(4) A loud, rapid ti-ti-tsyi, the latter note repeated 7 times and

followed by a prolonged hoarse, scolding note.

(5) Pitu-pitya-pitya (high/low-rising-lower/high) repeated twice

and followed by pitu (falling).

(6) Tyawit-tyatyawi (repeated 3 times)—tya (low/high-low/high/

high-low).

(7) Tsitsawaitsei-tsawaitsei (twice) (falling /low/rising—low/

rising),

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

(3) Siu-siu-pse-sitsitse-psi-psi-seu-siui-siu-siu-psiui — (high-high-

higher-low /low /high—high-high-falling—rising in middle—lower-low-

rising in middle).

On one occasion so many different notes were given that I thought

a mixed hunting party of small birds was present, but no other birds

appeared.

Silver-eared Mesia (Mesia argentauris)

Status: Only one seen, on 23-4-1945, on C, in a small mixed

hunting party in secondary jungle growth at 3,500-4,000 ft.

Black Bulbul (Microscelis psarvides)

Status: Plentiful on A and C, but I saw none on B in January,

and only a few on C in October. Plentiful in April, rather fewer

in May, and towards the end of June there were several small parties

about, which I think contained young birds. Seen mostly in tree

jungle, but I found them foraging freely among shade trees among

the tea in April, May and June.

Voice: Generally rather noisy. Notes harsher and less varied

than those of the Striated Green Bulbul. The ‘song’ seemed to consist

of a long series of mostly monosyllables of varying tone and pitch,

punctuated at frequent intervals by a single, high conspicuous, rather

bell-like note. I also heard a fairly loud, rapid wurkiyu (rising/low)

repeated several times at fairly short intervals.

Behaviour: At any rate in the breeding season they were inclined

to be very aggressive, and I saw them attack and drive off a Large

Hawk Cuckoo, and on another occasion a Whistling Thrush. In

one case a pair of Bulbuls followed the Cuckoo into a tree and perched

only a foot or so away from it. They made frequent pecking attacks

on it and I saw some pale breast feathers dislodged, the Cuckoo

flinching, turning to face its attackers, fanning out its tail and

raising its wings.

Brown-eared Bulbul (Microscelis flavala)

Status; Seen only once, on 20-4-1945 on C, in fairly dense mixed

tree jungle at 4,500 ft., among a mixed hunting party of small

birds.

Rufousbellied Bulbul (Microscelis macclellandi)

Status: One seen once for certain, on 25-4-1945 on C, in. trees

in fairly open mixed forest at 4,800 ft. 1-2 believed seen on C in

May and June 1945. }

Recognition: General colour brown, tinged green on the back,

wings and tail. <A lighter-coloured stripe on each side of the neck.

A short, rough crest, not very conspicuous. Flight rapid and

powerful. |

Voice: My attention was attracted by ifs loud, clear, rather

sharp calls, usually a double tsyi-tsyi, pitched high and sometimes

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA BO

given three times. This call was repeated numerous times in

succession, at first with very little variation, but later with a good

deal.

Striated Green Bulbul (Alcurus striatus)

Status: A few seen on all visits, but only in May and June 1945

did I find them at all plentiful. I saw them only very occasionally

in tea or shade trees as they kept almost entirely to tree jungle,

where they usually seemed to keep to the upper branches.

Voice: Various dates. A party would often keep up a continuous

series of full, clear, pleasant warbling notes, rather disjointed but

even so of the warbling type. One or other of them was almost

always Singing or calling. The only specific calls I recorded were :—

(1) Tyiwut (high/low, slurred), rather sharp and_= given

continually.

(2) A loud pyik . . . pyik (high and slurred) given several

times and followed after a pause by several more of the same notes,

merged with a rapid string of variations thereon.

Redvented Bulbul (Molpastes cafer)

Status: Plentiful on all three gardens, where they foraged in

the tea, the shade trees and leguminous shade plants, and less often

in the jungle. In January (B, 1944) they were well represented in

one or two mixed parties of Bulbuls and there were also a few by

themselves. In February (A, 1943) I found them mostly in pairs,

though there were still several flocks. In April (C, 1945), and May

(A, 1943 and C, 1945} they were mostly in pairs, and in June (C,

1944 and 1945) the position was the same, though there were signs

of family parties beginning to form. In October (C, 1944) I found

them mostly tending to be in flocks.

Voice: As none of my notes refers to birds in the Darjeeling area

I have not included them here.

Behaviour: 24-5-1943. A pair was clinging to the main trunk

of a Siris tree, probing into the patches of green lichen growing

there. Normally I saw them only on the less vertical twigs and

branches.

27-5-1943. _A pair mobbed a Tree Pie.

Whitecheeked Bulbul (Molpastes leucogenys)

Status: The annual cycle appeared to be similar to that of the

Red-vented Bulbuls (q.v.), though I think this species was on the

whole a little less plentiful. In May 1943, on A, I noted a tendency

to keep towards the edge of the tea blocks where the jungle

undergrowth gave additional cover.

Voice: 25-2-1943.. A party of about 30 was feeding among tea

bushes; one gave a soft, creaking ky4a-ya-ya, pitched low. My other

notes do not. refer to Darjeeling birds.

Behaviour: 26-2-1943. A Black-headed Shrike flew onto a branch

on which two Bulbuls were perched, and about 2 ft. from them.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EST sw SOCLE TY « Vol og

At the time they were standing about 18 in. apart, but on its arrival

they hopped close together and stood facing it and scolding hard.

They did not actually mob or attack it, as I have seen them do to

a Black Drongo, and as soon as it flew away they took so further

notice.

26-10-1944. Several were foraging among the tea bushes. They

repeatedly made steep sorties into the air, apparently after insects,

returning just as steeply to the bushes, or else to a neighbouring

tree from which the next flight was made. In these flights the

white tips to the tail feathers showed up conspicuously as a black

and white check pattern.

Brown Dipper (Cinclus palasii)

25-5-1943, A. A single bird seen, well down the valley, which

I think was probably a young one.

Blue Chat (Larvivora brunnea)

Status: January, 1944, B. A single ¢ seen among fairly dense

bushes and brambles at the edge of a small ravine, on 23rd January.

My attention was first attracted by a soft robin-lke tt-tt-tt and

after several minutes the bird came up on to an upper spray of

the bush in full view, and then dived back under cover with a some-

what louder call of alarm. The following day a ¢ suddenly flew down

the hillside at tremendous speed, making a real whizzing sound and

passing close to my head before diving into the cover of dense bushes.

I saw it again a few seconds later, but after that the only indication

of its presence was the rather soft tt-tt-tt. I believe this species

was well represented there at that time, though more often heard

than‘ seen,

26-10-1944, C. Ao perched.jin a trée in mixed jungle above

dense undergrowth at 4,500 ft. The tail was flirted and the bird

gave a soft tit. . . tit now and again. Later I saw what I believe

was a Q@ in almost the same place.

Whitebrowed Shortwing (Heleroxenicus cruralis)

Status: June, 1945, (©. The identity of the birds in/vquestean

was never established beyond every possible doubt. At one time

I thought they must be Red-flanked Bush Robins, but later, after

a better view and a visit to the Darjeeling Natural History Museum,

I came to the conclusion that they were of this species. I therefore

give these notes for what they are worth. I found several birds of the

same species scattered over this garden, but I do not remember seeing

them on any other visits or either of the other gardens.

The ¢ was entirely deep indigo blue, though I believe more blue-

grey on the underparts, and in some lights the blue of the fore-crown

looked lighter and brighter. <A suspicion of a black mark near the

eye. I could never decide whether or not there was a faint white

eye-stripe. The general colour of the Q was tawny olive-brown,

rather greyer on the bead. Most of my views were from above,

among fairly dense bushes where the light was poor.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA ; 37

Voice: I heard these calls:—

(1) A rather thin, very highly-pitched ‘song’ of two notes, the

second one pitched about a quarter-tone lower than the first. Always

to be heard at frequent intervals. |

(2)- A broken succession of very soft, very high-pitched notes

in no recognisable pattern, just a broken, inconsequential rambling

Seer (rising)... sree .. ..sree-ce (nising).

(3) A very Robin-like tt-tt-tt-t-t-t-t.

Behaviour: They usually kept either among the heads of saplings

(Utis, etc.) and bamboos, or among low bushes, or on the ground

itself, and were difficult to watch satisfactorily. I found them at

various places on the Soom T.E., usually between about 4,000 ft.

and 5,500 ft. In some ways their movements were very like those

of a flycatcher. The bird would make short sorties from its perch,

apparently after passing insects, returning either to the same or

another perch and waiting, singing at intervals. Although they might

remain in much the same spot for minutes on end, the particular

pair I was watching would keep moving about through the jungle

over an area of perhaps two acres, where the song could always be

heard.

Indian Stonechat (Saxicola torquata)

Status: Curiously enough I saw only one of these birds on all

my visits, on 24-1-1944 on B, among tea and leguminous shade

plants.

Dark Gray Bush Chat (Rhodophila ferrea)

Status: I found them to be rather thinly, though fairly evenly

distributed over all three gardens. ‘In January 1944, I found

few at the edge of the jungle, but otherwise they were always in

the teae ,

Voice: (1) Various dates. A rasping prrei (rising).

(2) 28-5-1943. The basis of the song was a wisachisawisaseu

(high/low/high/low/rising/low) with variations. The basis of a

song of another bird, which was given very quietly and not at all

obtrusively, was slightly different: swetiswetiwtrrwe (rising . . ./low/

high). The first two groups of syllables were pitched the same, i.e.

the first two syllables were practically repeated.

(3) 23-1-1944. A fairly sharp tak-tak-tak-tak.

(4) 22-4-1945. One gave a short song, typically chat-like in

character, but perhaps rather sweeter than most, and with fewer

wheezing, grating notes than the songs of most of the chats with

which I am familiar.

Spotted Forktail (Enicurus maculatus)

Status: 1-2 seen on each garden.

Voice: The only notes I heard were a loud, rasping jeer and a

harsh, grating krrreeet.

Little Forktail (Microcichla scouleri)

Status: One reported on Pandam T.E., February 1943, though I

saw none myself.

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Blueironted Redstart (Phoenicurus frontalis)

Status: In February and March 1943 on A I found both sexes

plentiful throughout the tea and cultivated terraces, sometimes both

seen together, sometimes alone. In January 1944 on B, I found only

a few, well scattered over the blocks, slightly more plentiful than

the Black Redstarts.

Voice: 25-2-1943. The first intimation of their presence was

usually the soft call tt-tt-tt-tt-tt, which sounds rather like a noisy

watch being wound up a few cogs at a time (less than a complete

turn of the winding knob). This call is given in flight as well as

from a perch.

One bird gave a low, warbling song, much less wheezy than that

of a Black Redstart, and quite quiet—almost inaudible ten yards

away.

Black Redstart (Phoenicurus ochrurus)

Status: In January 1944, on B, I found a rat well scattered

in both tea and jungle. In April 1945 on C at least one was regularly

to be seen about a block of tea with shade trees at 4,500 ft., but I

have no record of it after 25th April.

Whitecapped Redstart (Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus)

Status: One seen near bottom of valley on A on 28-2-1943, about

stream in ravine. In January 1944 I found them fairly numerous

about the Little Rangit River below B.

Voice: 28-2-1943. The call was a loud, clear, penetrating seei

» . + seei (rising), which was clearly audible above the sound of the

waterfall. I believe the bird also gave a throbbing yibibibibibibib,

but as I did not have it actually in sight at the time this call was

given I cannot be absolutely certain.

Behaviour: Tail flirted in the usual Redstart manner. When

perching on the boulders in the stream they often flew into the air,

with quick twists and turns, presumably after insects.

Plumbeous Redstart (Rhyacornis fuliginosa)

Status: One believed seen on 26-5-1943 on A in jungle: olin

January 1944 I found them slightly more numerous than the White-

capped Redstarts about the Little Rangit River about B.

Voice: 18-1-1944. One sang while perched on a boulder only a

few inches above the swirling water of the river. The noise of

the water prevented my hearing all the notes, and all I could tell

was that the song lasted for perhaps 7-8 seconds, and that most of

the notes were fairly strident.

Behaviour: They often flew into the air, flycatcher fashion, from

the boulders on which they were perching, presumably after insects.

Tail frequently fanned and flirted, when the chestnut colour was

conspicuous.

Whitetailed Blue Robin (Muscisylvia leucura)

Status: I became familiar with this species only on C, where

I first saw one among bamboos at 4,500 ft. on 31-10-1944. In April,

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 39

May and June 1945, I found them fairly plentiful, though rather

thinly distributed from about 4,000 ft. upwards, and the song wa3.

to be heard from many of the ravines and patches of jungle.

Voice: 20-4-1945. The song was clear and sweet, with a definite

Robin-like flavour about it, and consisted of several phrases ‘each

given separately with varying, but considerable, pauses between. The

only phrases I was able to record were a te-tle-i-ta—we-i (high-lower,

slurred-high-low—rising-high), and a flowing tl’yei-ya-wei (high-higher-

low-high—rising). The first of these two phrases was given a good

deal more frequently than any of the others.

Behaviour: 20-4-1943. The bird would perch on a twig while

singing and lean forwards, at the same time spreading the tail; but

curiously enough the white in the tail was hardly ever visible when

it did this, though it was conspicuous in flight.

2-5-1945. One which was singing continually raised and depressed

its tail quite slowly and at the same time expanded and contracted it.

From my position on the path above it the narrow white lozenges

in the tail were very conspicuous.

Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularis) |

Status: I saw none on B, and only a few on A (February, March

and May) and C (all visits), where I found them bath in tea and

jungle. 7

Behaviour: 27-5-1943. One was attacked and driven away by

a Blackheaded Shrike and a Grey Drongo, which flew at it

simultaneously.

Whitecollared Blackbird (Turdus merula albocinctus)

Status: One ‘believed seen on B in jungle at. 4,000° ft. on

25-I-1944.

Greywinged Blackbird (Turdus boulboul)

Status: There seems to be a good deal of seasonal movement

in this species. In January on B I saw none. In February on A,

I saw only one, though I believe a few others were present. In

April on C I found only a few. In May 1944 on C I saw only

1-2, though in May and June 1945 on C I found them plentiful. ° In

October on C, again, I found only a few. Sometimes they foraged

in the tea and shade trees, but for the most part they kept to the

jungle. Some were no doubt overlooked on those visits when they

were not in full song.

Voice: Various dates. The song consists of one soft note

introducing four high-pitched notes on a descending scale, which at

various times I recorded as pee-pee-pee-pa (German 4), si-tse-te-eye-

tyu, and cha-tee-tee-tee-tee. |

The introductory note is very soft, but the four main notes have

considerable carrying power. Heard from a distance they are pure

and fluting, but from a few yards away they have a slight edge to

them, almost a vibration, as though it were the note and its echo

heard together. They can be heard at all hours of the day in May

and June (? also in other months}. The fall between the first three

40 JOURNAL, .BOMBAY, NATURAL EHEST. SOCTETY ) Val. (52

of the four main notes is very slight, scarcely more than half-tones,

while the drop between the last two is rather greater.

One bird I watched gave a low warbling subsong immediately

after the ordinary loud song, lasting only a few seconds, with a

slight pause in the middle. In quality it was not unlike the sub-

sone of a European Blackbird (Turdus merula), but less rounded

and finished, and rather flatter and more insipid. This bird then

flew away giving a true Blackbird chuckle as it went.

Redthroated Thrush (Turdus ruficollis)

Status: One believed seen in shade trees 24-2-1943 and another

on 1-3-1943 on A, but identity not proved.

Blackthroated Thrush (Turdus atrogularis)

Status: Several seen on C in October 1944, mostly Qs, though

at least one ¢, usually foraging on main estate road where it ran

through thin mixed jungle at about 4,500-5,000 ft.

Plainbacked Mountain Thrush (Oreocincla mollissima)

Status: One believed seen 25-10-1944 on C, foraging on the

main estate road where it ran through thin mixed jungle at 5,000

ft. Comparison with specimens in the Darjeeling Museum suggested

that the bird was of this species, but identity not proved beyond

all doubt.

Lesser Brown Thrush (Zoothera marginata)

Status: One possibly seen on A on 23-5-1943 in both shade trees.

and jungle, but identity not proved.

Chestnutbeilied Rock Thrush (Monticola rufiventris)

Status: One seen twice in tea and shade trees on A in February

1943. In October 1944 on C I found several, including a ¢ and 9?

seen together several times, in both tea and jungle, though not often

in the ravines.

Blueheaded Rock Thrush (Monticola cinclorhyncha)

Status: J saw none on A or B, but on’ C-J found them fairly

plentiful, though rathér thinly distributed, in jungle only, in April,

May and June, mostly in pairs.

Voice: 29-5-1945. The song had a recognisable thrush-like quality

about it, though the notes were not very clear-cut. It sounded roughly

as follows, though the lack of definition, or rather the slight slurring

of the notes, made it difficult to make an exact phonetic record :—

Tra-trree-trrea-tre-prua-tritri-prua-tri and so on (low-high-high/

lower-high-low /high-higher-low/high-higher). This was the basis on

to which were grafted variations,

Between bursts of the ‘normal’ loud song, the bird also gave several

other: much softer notes, though they were still just audible some

50-60-yds. away. As far as I could tell these were exactly similar

to the ordinary loud notes, but they were much softer and were not

flung out with such abandon for all the world to hear. They were

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING. AREA 4}

not quiet enough, however, to be considered as Whispering Song

or Subsong.

Behaviour: A bird, perched im a tree, wagged its. tail slowly

and deliberately up and down.

- Blae Rock Thrush (Monticola solitaria)

Status: Matthews and Edwards (op. cit.) give this species as.

a not uncommon winter visitor and say nothing about its occurrence

in this district in summer. On 9-6-1944 I found a single bird at

4,500 ft. on Soom T.E., about some creepers and herbage growing

on a stall chi some so ft. high. I have no doubts, at. all. as. to

the identity of this bird.

Whistling Thrush (Myiophoneus coeruleus)

Status: Plentiful on all three gardens on all visits, though less.

in evidence on C in April, May and June 1945. Not infrequently seen

in the tea blocks and shade trees, though they kept more to the

hillside jungle and ravines.

Voice: (1) 15-2-1943. A usual note was a loud, rather rasping

chrei (rising), given both when in flight and when perching.

(2) 26-2-1943. The song (at dawn) was a very sweet, rather thin,

reedy whistle, which followed a definite pattern with slight variations.

The notes could have been set to music by anyone with a musical

training, as the majority corresponded to the notes on a piano.

(3) 22-10-1944. As one bird chased another through a patch

of bamboos, one, or possibly both, gave a peculiar low spluttering

noise, something like the noise that is produced by pressing the lips

to the back of the hand and blowing, but more sustained and quite

impossible to render phonetically. )

(4) The usual call, [as in (1) above] can also be described as.

ty’rree . . . ty’rree (rising), the y not being pronounced as a vowel.

(5) I also heard the subsong. -[See Lister (1953}].

Maroonbacked Accentor (Prunella immaculata)

Status: One believed seen among fairly dense bramble-type bushes.

and herbage in mixed jungle at 4,000 ft. on B on 20-1-1944, but

identity not proved beyond all doubt.

Sooty Flycatcher ({femichelidon sibirica)

Status: A few seen on A and:-G-in February and October. In

May and June I found a few on C at about 5,000 ft. and over.

Voice: 31-5-1944. Song: A very high-pitched, thin, reedy little

song, usually of three notes tsee-see-see in descending-scale in half

or quarter tones or even less, with occasional variations. Not unlike

a thin edition of the song of a Greywinged Blackbird.

Ferruginous Flycatcher (Hemichelidon ferruginea)

Status: One believed ‘seen in mixed jungle (? about 5,500 ft.)

on A on 24-2-1943, but identity not proved.

42 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL WIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Redbreasted Flycatcher (Siphia parva)

Status: One, possibly two, seen in mixed jungle in April 1945

on C, but I saw no others.

Little Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapula melanoleuca)

Status: In May and June I saw at least two in a mixed hunting ~

party on A, among a dense patch of tall trees in a small deep ravine

atuis;oo0 ft.; and ‘on C 42-3 ina mixed thunting (partyaapcheoe ltt:

Possibly these were unmated birds. In October on C I found a

‘family’ of 7-8 in a large mixed. hunting party at 4,500 ft. in

jungle.

Voice: 26-10-1944. One bird, foraging with a party of 8-10

others, gave some very soft warbling notes interspersed fairly

frequently by equally quiet grating notes. It was so quiet that I

could only just hear it 10 yds. away, without being able to distinguish

its exact pattern or phraseology.

Behaviour: They kept for the most part among the heads of the

trees and seemed to get most of their food inside the trees themselves,

rather than from outside the canopies. The birds I watched spent

most of their time making little fluttering flights from one branch

to another and made few sorties outside the canopy of the tree. They

also took some of their food from the crevices of the bark and from

the leaves. The flight was easy but less agile than that of many

flycatchers.

Verditer Flycatcher (Eumyias thallassina)

Status: In January on B I saw none; in February on A I saw

only two; in April, May and June on A and C they were numerous,

while in October on C I saw only a few again. They often foraged

from the shade trees among the tea, though I think there was a

tendency to keep more to the jungle. They seemed on the whole to

prefer the rather more open parts, but I several times found them

in quite thick jungle. JI do not remember ever seeing any of this

species with the mixed hunting parties of small birds.

Voice: (1) 28-2-1043. One repeatedly gave a tze-ju-jui (high—

falling—low /high).

(2) 20-5-1943. A song given frequently at intervals of several

minutes, sometimes in groups of 2-3 repetitions, was a pe-tititi-wu-

pititi-weu (low—high—lower—rising /falling—low).

(3) 26-5-1943. One gave a very soft, high-pitched p’p’pwe. .

p’p’pwe . . . p’p’pwe before giving the usual trundling little song.

On more than one occasion the ordinary song reminded me strongly

of that of the Europear Hedge Sparrow (Prunella modularis).

Behaviour: (1) 18-5-1944. One caught a fairly large brown moth

or butterfly on the wing and retired to a perch to eat it.

(2) 25-5-1945. One kept flying to the lichen-covered face of a

large vertical rock and clinging there, turning this way and that

for a minute or so, and then returning to a perch on a nearby creeper.

Whether this action was connected with nesting or foraging I could

not tell.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 43

Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher (Muscicapula tickelliae)

I give this record for what it is worth.

8-6-1944. Soom T.E. A flycatcher of medium size (about 6-7 in.)

was in a grove of bamboos and deciduous trees growing on the

steep hillside at about 4,o00 ft. I had it under observation for only

a few minutes, but during that time I had several good views. This

bird sang continually with a song very like a sharper, shorter and more

staccato song of the European Robin (Erithacus vubecula). One of

the phrases, the only one I managed to note down was tsea-sea-si-e-

e-e-e (high/low-high/low-higher-very high).

Upper parts dark blue, tinged greyish. Chest, throat and chin

orange. Rest of lower parts white. The bird was very sprightly

in its movements and kept flying up from its perch to catch insects

in the usual flycatcher manner.

I puzzled a lot over the identity of this bird and eventually reached

the tentative conclusion that it must have been of this species, The

Largebilled Blue Flycatcher (Muscicapula magnirostris) is stated in

the F.B.I. to be ‘essentially a bird of evergreen, humid forests’. The

absence of blue on the throat and chest seems to rule out the Blue-

throated Flycatcher (M. rubeculoides), the White-eyebrowed Blue

Flycatcher (M. superciliaris) and the Sapphireheaded Blue Flycatcher

(M. sapphira). ‘The white of the abdomen, etc. seems to rule out

the Rustybreasted Blue Flycatcher (M. hodgsont), and this same

feature and also the size suggests that it was not a Rufuousbreasted

Blue Flycatcher (M. hyperythra). 1 was not familiar with any of

these’species and a visit to the Darjeeling Museum did not enable me

to clinch the matter:

Grey headed Flycatcher (Culicicapa ceylonensis)

Status: Fairly plentiful on all three gardens on all visits,

especially on C in April, May and June. Usually among mixed

hunting parties in February and October. Fewest seen in January

on B. Mostly in jungle, especially the steeper parts and _ ravines,

but I saw a few in tea.

Voice: (1) 26-5-1943. A quiet chichictrrr (high) with variations.

(2) 29-5-1943. A not very loud pu-pi-pi-pi-pui (low-rising-ris-

ing-rising-high).

(3) 23-11-1944. <A very frequent call, clear and almost ringing,

was a kitwik . . . kitwik (high/low .. . high/low). One also gave

a series of longer three-syllabled notes kui-whi-whi (rising-low-low).

(4) 8-6-1944. The ‘song’ consisted of variations on a theme of

se-tyissi-a—tyissi-a-tyi (high-high-low—high-low-high).

(5) 7-4-1945. Several in a mixed hunting party gave a tyi-

ti-wi-tyi (low-high-low-high), and now and then a tye-ta-wi (low, |

slurred-lower-high).

(6) 25-4-1945. One foraging alone; the only note I heard was

a very soft pit... pit... .-pit, high-pitched and the consonants

indistinct.

(7) 29-4-1945. ‘I have at last managed definitely to track

down the song, which is loud and can be heard almost everywhere

just now. It sounds like a tee-tata-tei (high-low-rising) or pee-sata-

tei (high-low-rising), the consonant sounds being indistinct. There

44, JOURNAL, - BOMBAY NATURAL HEST..SOCIETY. Vol. 52

is a second phrase, too, that is often given: p’sita-i (high/low-high).

Dewar’s rendering of the song as ‘‘Think-of-me’’ I found sometimes

recognisable.’ And see below.

Behaviour: 29-4-1945. ‘I found two birds engaged in a

performance, which I[ think must clearly have been the courtship,

above a large ravine at 4,500 ft. This ravine is more open than

most just here, and has one or two small rocky precipices flanking

it. Elsewhere its face is covered with a dense secondary growth

of bushes and brambles and a small stream rushes down its centre.

The chief performer I assume to have been the ¢@ and will call

‘‘A’’, though I had no means of definitely identifying its sex. Its

companion I assume to have been a Q and will call ‘‘B’’.

‘A kept flying without ceasing for nearly ten minutes, going

round and round in a rough circle of some 30 yds. diameter. B

would perch on a twig on the face of one of the small cliffs and A

would deliberately fly just.in front of her and then turn and fly out

over the ravine. As soon as he was over the middle of the ravine

he would hover for a moment on rapidly vibrating wings, dropping

perhaps a few feet. B would then fly straight at him and miss

him by only a few inches. She would then fly back to a perch on

the cliff and he would circle and again fly just in front of her, when

the whole performance was repeated.

‘B usually left her perch almost immediately after A had passed

her, though now and again she waited until he was actually hover-

ing before she left it; and once or twice she missed her cue com-

pletely and did not leave her perch at all until A came round again,

having hovered for a second or two unavailingly over the ravine.

The whole performance must have been repeated at least 15-20

times while I was there, and I cannot tell how many times Desert

{-“arrived.

‘When A was hovering the grey of his head and the pure biehe

yellow-green of his rump were very conspicuous. His flight was.

surprisingly swift and he would often shoot off at a tangent to his

previous line of flight. Their wing-beats were very rapid, almost

flickering, and A at times almost seemed to dance in the air.

Throughout the whole performance both birds called continuously

with both the phrases mentioned in paragraph (7) above. I believe,

but cannot be certain beyond all doubt, that the longer phrase was

given almost entirely by A, while the shorter phrase was ae almost

exclusively by B.

‘Eventually B remained on her perch and A settled on a small

bush growing on the side of the ravine and began making short

foraging sorties, still calling persistently with the longer of the two:

phrases.’

Large Sikkim Niltava (Niltava grandis)

One believed seen among bushes in mixed jungle on A in May

1943, but identity not proved.

-Rufousbellied Niltava (Niltava sundara) .

Status: I saw 1-2 in May and June on A and C, but no others

for -ceftain. . Fakes | aT

—Se-

ORNITHOLOGY OF THETDARIEELING AREA 45

Voice: 23-5-1943: (1) A note sounding like a rather soft cha

cha, low-pitched and insistent.

(2) »Acsoft pea. . . pea (high/low... . high/low).

Behaviour: A og made no attempt to catch passing insects, but

simply stood quietly on the stump of a dead bough for some minutes,

bobbing the body forwards and its tail up every few seconds. y

Small Niltava (Niliava magrigoriae)

Status: Two seen on C on 17-4-1945 in mixed jungle.

Voice: The only note I heard was a very high-pitched, thin

see-see, the second note being pitched about a quarter tone lower

than the first.

Yellowbellied Flycatcher (Chelidorhynx hypoxanihum)

Status: I saw this bird only during the winter—two or more

in January on B, and in October on C some were in almost every

mixed hunting party. In both cases I saw them only in jungle. —

Whitethroated Fantail Flycatcher (Leucocerca albicollis)

Status: I saw only very few on A in February and May and

on C in October (all in jungle), and none on B. On 27 February

two were among a large mixed hunting party. ;

Voice: 23-1-1944. One while foraging gave a fairly soft dj

dji.

Behaviour: 27-2-1943. They would flutter up to a branch,

usually close to the main trunk, and posture and bow and turn this

way and that, continually fanning and closing the tail, and to a

lesser extent flirting it. Now and then they would make a sortie

away from the tree, but they never went very far. The tail was

often fanned in flight. Often they would move rapidly out along

one of the main branches. The flight from one tree to another

was fairly direct and slightly dipping. They would ‘swing’ over

a lateral branch almost as though vaulting it, and sometimes they

hung upside down. They. worked down the main trunk as often as

(or even more often than) up it. In any direction progress was

never direct, but consisted of a series of rapid, jerky twists and turns.

I have several times. seen one apparently turn head over heels, and

at others appear to throw itself sideways or backwards. I have

also seen one working over the bank of a ravine, which was well

covered with a tangle of roots, ferns and other plants.

23-1-1944. <A bird kept to a great extent to the tops and outsides

of the bushes, almost tumbling about them as it turned this way

and that, continually fanning its tail.

Blackheaded Shrike (Lanius nigriceps)

Status: There “seemed to be a fair seasonal fluctuation in

numbers. In January 1944, on B only a few were seen, all in

tea. February 1943, A, numerous, most singly but a few in pairs.

April 1945, C, fairly plentiful, though rather thinly distributed. May

1943, A, seemed slightly less numerous than on this garden in

February; a nest with one egg in a small sapling among tea at

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

about 3,500 ft. on 20th May; a single fledged young one seen on

27th May. May 1944, C, a few seen, but they did not appear to

be so numerous as on A in May, and much less so than on A in

February. May 1945, C, fairly plentiful, though rather thinly

distributed. June 1945, C, fairly plentiful, though rather thinly

distributed. October 1944, C, only 1-2 seen. In May 1943 and

1945 I found a number in jungle, though the majority kept to the

more open ground under tea; apart from this I saw them only in

the tea blocks.

Voice: 27-2-1943. One perched on top of a low tree and sang.

It started with the usual rasping tj6 .. . tj6 . . . tj6 and gradually

this call become shorter and more explosive in quality and the

intervals between got shorter. Then came a whole variety of notes,

harsh in quality at first but becoming sweeter and fuller as the song

progressed. Some of them were repeated 3-4 times in phrases and

the general effect was very similar to an inferior and more varied

song of the European Song Thrush (Turdus ericetorum). This sing-

ing was kept up with no appreciable pause for at least five minutes,

when it died down and was continued spasmodically with a

greater proportion of harsh notes for another 2-3 minutes. The song

was surprisingly good for a shrike.

27-5-1943. A (?) young bird was perched on an exposed branch,

continually flapping (rather than shivering) its wings and giving a

soft harsh ja-ja-j4 (rising) at frequent intervals.

Behaviour: 24-5-1943. One attacked and drove off a Black Drongo

by flying straight at it, without actually striking it.

25-5-1943. One attacked and drove off a Maroon Oriole out of

a small tree by flying rapidly at it.

Greybacked Shrike (Lanius schach)

Status: January 1944, on B, one among tea at 4,500-5,000 ft.

On 29 May 1943 (A) among bushes in mixed jungle at 6,200 ft.

I saw a shrike which I can only think was of this species, though

I had it in view for only a minute. On 20-4-1944, (C) I had good

views of one in a Boga Medeloa bush among tea and heard it sing-

ing (altitude not noted), while I have a further note of seeing ‘one

or two’ in tea during May and June 1945 on C, though no other

details. ’

Voice: 20-4-1945. The song was fairly soft and consisted of a

sustained rambling, a mixture of warbling and twittering notes. Its

quality was fairly good, many of the notes being well rounded and

quite mellow, but it did not strike me as being nearly so fine a song

as that of the Blackheaded Shrike. I did not hear it imitate the

calls of any other birds.

Behaviour: 19-1-1944. One caught a small moth or butterfly,

which it held in its beak for several minutes before eating.

Brownbacke d Pied Shrike (Hemipus picatus)

Status: I found this species only on C in April, when at least

one party was with other small birds, and in May and June on C

when I saw a single bird; and on 30-10-1944 a party of 7-8 on C.

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 47

Voice: 30-10-1944. A party of 7-8, foraging, kept up an almost

continuous calling, sometimes with a tsit-it-it-it-it-it (pitched high), and

sometimes with a call sounding more like the one mentioned by

Whistler (1941) as whi-ri-ri—whi-ri-ri—whi-ri-ri.

17-6-1945. One gave a sharp, high-pitched sisisisisisi or tsisisisi-

sisisi.

Behaviour: 30-10-1944. A party of 7-8 was foraging in company

with some Shortbilled Minivets in mixed deciduous jungle and its bush

and bramble undergrowth. Their behaviour was more suggestive of a

flycatcher than a shrike, as they perched in all parts of the bushes

and lower trees, and made short sorties into the air after passing

insects. They did not remain long on any one perch, but kept moving

from one place to another.

Nepal Wood Shrike (Tephrodornis gularts)

Status: I saw one only, on 26-10-1944 on C, in mixed trees

growing among tea bushes.

Behaviour: It moved slowly along the branches of the trees,

working along them in a series of rather clumsy hops. Its whole

bearing was somewhat furtive. Its progress from tree to tree was

slow, and it spent some time apparently examining the twigs and

branches for food.

Scarlet Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus)

Status: Matthews and Edwards (0p. cit.) give this species as

common, but on all my visits I found it much less plentiful than the

Shortbilled Minivets. In May 1943, on A, I saw at least one pair,

and at the end of May 1945 on C a single ¢ was about for a few

days and then disappeared.

Shortbilled Minivet (Pericrocotus brevirostris) ~

Status: I found this species much more plentiful than the Scarlet

Minivet on all my visits. They were to be seen in the shade trees

among the tea as much as in the jungle.

Voice: 26-2-1943. Several pairs together . . . the first intimation

of their presence was invariable the shrill ‘song’ tiwiwiwi, (low/high/

high/high) which was given persistently by both sexes. One I

watched kept giving a really churring shrrrri (high) . . . shrrrei

(high-rising) . . . twi-wi-wi (high-high-low) . . . shrrrrei (high-rising)

. . . twi-wi-wi (high-high-low) all mixed up together,

24-5-1943. A Q on her own was, until I approached, continually

giving a loud shi-chiwit-chiwit-chewau (high-rising-rising-lower /low).

25-5-1943. Iwo ds were flying round in company. At least one

kept giving a twee-twi-twi—switiswee (high-low-low/rising—rising/high)

with variations, as they flew. A little later one ¢ was alone at

the top of a bush and two of the @s flew to the same bush. At

the same time the ¢ started singing a more complicated song (too

involved and too rapid for me to be able to record phonetically). The

basis was a fairly loud switi (pitched fairly high) with many variations,

and often run together to form phrases.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBA YUNATURAL THIST S SOCIETY. Vola

27-5-1943- A o and 9 were together among trees. Both gave

a soft’ wr. i. wvi,) pitched=tairly hiro hn.

21-1-1944. A party of 2-3 ds and 4-5 Qs. .... kept calling with

a fairly high-pitched se-sei while foraging: When they flew. to

another group of trees with the typical, rather hesitating flight, they

gave a series of calls, rather like a se-wa-wa-wui—se-wa-wa-wui (each

phrase high-low-low-rising) with several modifications and variations.

30-10-1944. The basis of the calls given was a whi-whi-whi-si-wee

(high-high-low-high-lower).

Dark Grey Cuckoo Shrike (Lalage melaschista)

Status: Plentiful on both A and C in April and May, though I

saw fewer in evidence in June.

Voice: 9-6-1944. One gave a song consisting of four notes in

descending-scale, which I heard often on this visit.

Behaviour: The text-books all say that the Cuckoo Shrikes never

descend to the ground, but on at least one occasion I saw birds

hopping about on the ground among tea bushes. For the most part

they kept well up in the trees, though I have also seen them working

rather surreptitiously through rough undergrowth under trees.

Ashy Swallow Shrike (dvtamus fuscus)

Status: Fairly plentiful on A and C in April, May and June,

and 1-2 still left in October. A pair with fledged young found in

May on A; they seemed to have an extensive territory, covering several

hundred yards of the hillside.

Field Recognition: Flight very swallow- or martin-like, with

something of a Starling’s flight in it, continually turning this way

and that in a long glde on extended wings, interspersed with short

periods of rapid, flickering wing-beats. Tail fairly large and square.

Wings tapered sharply on both edges. When seen in flight from

above the white on the rump is conspicuous. When perched, they

frequently turn the head from side to side.

Voie: 18-25-1943. "A rather *harsh at . evil.

19-5-1943. The song was introduced by several of the usual rather

harsh notes jupjupjupjup-jiji (pitched low, the 7 being soft as in the

French ‘je’), followed’ by a series of trilling, warbling notes. The

bursts of song were never very long, lasting perhaps 10 seconds;

nor were the pauses in between very long, either. The bird frequently

turned about on its perch and its tail was continually wagged up

and down.

I7-4-1945. Several were hawking for insects high above the hill-

side, calling continually. The calls were somewhat ill-defined and

difficult to record phonetically, but as far as I was able to record

them they were as follows: wrik-wrik-wrik-wrik-wrik (high-pitched). . .

wri—wra (low) . . . wrikik—wra (high—-low) with variations.

Behaviour: 19-5-1943. One caught what looked like a large

dragonfly and carried it to an upper branch of a tree, where it dis-

membered it, holding it down on the branch with its feet and pulling

the wings off with its beak—a process which lasted some two minutes.

It then carried the remains to another tree where a youngster was

shivering its wings, but I did not see it feed it.

eta th

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA ‘ 49:

- 20-5-1943. A bird with fledged young in the, vicinity. made a

diving attack on a Great Himalayan Barbet, which was presuming:

to ‘sing’ in a neighbouring tree. The attack failed to dislodge the

Barbet and the Shrike then desisted. But when the Barbet flew off

down the valley in a steep glide, the Shrike followed at really

tremendous speed in a kind of ‘power dive’ for at least 1oo ft. and

pulled out when only a foot or so above the Barbet.

24-5-1943. One dived down on a Maroon Oriole, pulling out of

the dive when only a few feet above its head, and driving it out of

the: tree.

27-5-1943. Two attacked a Jungle Crow at the same time as a

pair of Grey Drongos were attacking it. The Shrikes’ attack

consisted of shallow dives, while those of the Drongos were very

much steeper and more spectacular. After a few minutes the Crow

flew off and after a parting dive the Drongos desisted, but the Shrikes

continued to harass the Crow until it was at least 50 yds. away..,

Later a Great Himalayan Barbet was perching in a tree. I saw

it look upwards and it apparently caught sight of a Swallow Shrike

gliding some 4o ft. above, for it at once dived away down the hillside,

obviously scared, though the Shrike took no notice of it.

All these records relate to the same pair of Swallow Shrikes, which

had fledged young ones not far off.

Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus)

Status: As suggested by Matthews and Edwards (op. cit.), the

status of this species deserves further study. I found some unaccount-

able fluctuations and I will therefore give a summary of my detailed

notes :—

January (1944, B): A few seen in both shade trees and jungle.

Pebruary |(1943, A): “None: noted.

- April (1945,-C): A few only seen in jungle.

May (1943, A): Fairly numerous in both shade trees and jungle.

May (1944, C): A few in shade trees and jungle (but fewer than

Bronzed Drongos).

May (1945, C): A few believed seen in jungle, but identity not

certain.

June (1944, C): A few in both shade-trees and jungle.

June (1945, C): A few believed seen, but identity not beyond

doubt.

October (1944, C): Numerous in jungle and more open ravines.

This was easily the least well represented of the four Drongos I

saw.

Voice: 30-10-1944. Two, chasing each other, gave a querulous

wee-wee-e—wee (high-higher—high), and a wewiwiwiwiwi (low/h-i-g-h),

while flying.

Grey Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus)

Status: Although this species seemed to me to be much better

represented than the Black Drongo, I. did not usually find it very

numerous. |

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY: Vol. 52

January (1943, B): A> few—I think slightly more than. Black

Drongos. ae

February (1943, A): A few seen, some in pairs.

April (1945, ©); 4 Plentiful.

May (1943, A): Rather more numerous than Blacks.

May (1944, C): A few—many fewer than the Bronzed Drongos..

May 1945, ©): )-Plentiiul:

June (1944, C): A few—many fewer than Bronzed Drongos.

June +(1945, ©) 3. Plentiul,

October (1944, C): Only a few believed seen, but none certainly.

They were to be seen both in the forest (especially the more oper

parts) and also the shade trees among the tea, and in May 1943, L

have a note that they seemed to prefer the latter.

Voice: 20-5-1943. One was singing from the upper branches of.

a large Siris tree. It was the usual type of song with a large number

of cheeki notes in it, but there was a large proportion of pure notes,

some of them so sweet as to be almost fluting, yet powerful. ‘Tail

frequently moved about while singing.

27-5-1943. The song was far better, more complicated and more

finished than the usual song of the Black Drongo. It started with

a loud, rather grating, metallic se-tuk-tyuk (high-low-high) repeated

Several times and then went on after a pause into a much more

complicated, rambling song, including a kotukakekea (high/low/

high/low) with variations. At times the notes were given so closely

after one another that the song assumed the nature of a rough

warbling. It was all very loud and rather ringing in quality.

28-5-1943. One gave a very good and varied song from a tree.

It began with a loud, rapid call switswitswitswit (pitched high) not

unlike one of the calls of a Tailor Bird. Then after a pause it began.

to sing. The song was far more varied and of a better, fuller quality

than the usual song of a Black Drongo. Some of the phrases were

repeated 2-3 times, while others were more warbling, and others

again were rather sharp, short and grating.

2I-1-1944. 4-5 foraging together gave a wipwipipip-yurjiu (high-

low/high, falling).

Field Recognition: They gave me the impression of being ever

more agile on the wing than the Black Drongo. In flight the grey

of the chest is fairly conspicuous against a dark background, and they

seem to me to have rather more gloss on the back than the Black

Drongo, but this may be illusory.

Behaviour: 27-5-1943. See under Ashy Swallow Shrike,

Bronzed Drongo (Chaptia aenca)

Status: When present this seemed to me to be by far the most

umerous of the four Drongos I saw.

January (1944, B): None seen.

February (1943, A): None identified, but presence suspected.

Aprilai(regs, (©) <= -Plentiful: -

May" (1643 70A)i= oA: ew seen

May (1944j"@)<" Very smumerous:

May (1945, C): Fairly plentiful.

ORNITHOLOGY. OF .THE: DARJEELING AREA 51

June (1944, C): Very numerous.

June (1945, C): | Fairly plentiful.

October (1944, C): Numerous.

_I found them equally in the forest and in the shade trees among

imer teas

Voice: 21-10-1944. 3-4 together, singing. The song seemed to

me to contain a higher proportion of throaty noises than the songs

of the other Drongos. with which I was acquainted, combined with

other high-pitched chirruping notes.

30-10-1944. 3-4 together, singing loudly and persistently between

their foraging sorties. Among other notes, one particular bird gave

the following :—

Tp-chiwik-chiwik-chiwik (low-high/low-high /low-high /low)

kyipkyipkyipkyipkyip (high) . . . kyawip-ip-i—chirra—kyirra—kyirra

(low /h-i-g-h—low /high—low /high—low/high) .. . kya—tzit-tzit—kyir-

ra-kyirra (low—high-high, slurred—high/low-high/low). All the notes

were staccato and almost all were very clear-cut. At a distance the

song sounded not unlike a poorly-finished song of a European Song

Thrush (Turdus ericetorum).

Behaviour: 4-6-1944. One flew to a deciduous tree growing on

the edge of mixed jungle and tea at about 4,500 ft. It perched there

for a few minutes and then flew down and clung upside down to a

small spray of leaves, apparently searching for insects. It remained

like that for perhaps five seconds, then let go with its feet and clung

for .a split second with its beak only, and then flew up to perch

again in the normal way. Throughout the performance the wings

were fluttered for balance.

30-10-1944. 3-4 were in company with 1-2 Black (?) Drongos

and 3-4 Haircrested Drongos. All of them spent a good deal of

time, in the intervals between foraging and singing, in chasing each

other. This they did freely and I think playfully.

Haircrested Drongo (Chibia hottentotta)

Status; I identified thts species only in May 1943 on A, when

they were numerous—rather more so than the Bronzed, though

fewer than the Grey Drongos, in both shade trees and jungle; in

May 1944 (C) wnen I found only about one pair; and in October

1944 on C when they were fairly numerous in the jungle (though not

much in the ravines), usually in company with other birds and I

found 2-3 parties in which this seemed to be the predominant species.

Matthews and Edwards say that this species breeds up to 4,000 ft.

and is seen lower in winter, but most of my October observations

- were made between 4,000 ft. and 5,000 ft., so it would appear that

these birds had come up the hill. Seen in company with a party of

Longtailed Broadbills, and also Shortbilled Minivets and other small

birds.

Field Recognition: They are masters of aerobatics, but their

heavier build makes them seem rather less agile than most of the other

members of the Drongo family that I met. You can nearly always

hear their thudding wing-beats.

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Voice: 27-5-1943. The usual call was a very clear weeeee-tyik

(rising-low) the first note long drawn out and rising, and the emphasis

on the second, lower note. Sometimes a syllable ya (low) was added

a good deal more softly than the other notes. Occasionally a single

tyuuuuuu (rising) was given by itself.

One bird gave a fairly typical Drongo note, though in some

indefinable way it was rather different, and the usual cheeki type of

note did not enter into it at all. |

23-10-1944. About a dozen were foraging in mixed tree jungle

in company with about the same number of Long-tailed Broadbills.

They called very frequently with a varied assortment of notes, all

loud and powerful, some harsher than the calls of other Drongos,

others fairly sweet. Once or twice when they were chasing each

other I heard a low-pitched, almost grunting call, which was not

made by the wings.

30-10-1944. 3-4 In cOmpany with some Bronzed Drongos. Ili

the intervals of foraging they perched in the branches of the trees

and sang. One bird, which I was watching in particular gave among

others the following notes: zér-si (low-high) . . . z6r-swi-swi-zaza-

sue-sya (low-high-high-low/low-high, rising-low). The z was rounded

like the soft French j in ‘je’. These notes were followed by a loud,

rather clear-cut rambling warbling, not unlike the everyday song of

the Common Myna, and this was followed by tsye-tyse-tsye—wewei—

tsyi-tsyi—we—wai = (high-high-high—lower /rising—high-high—high—

low/rising).

Behaviour: 6-6-1944. One chased a Tree Pie, diving at it very

fast and then sheering off and shrieking at it, while the Tree Pie

dived for cover into the leafy part of a tree. :

Tailor Bird (Orthotomus sutorius)

Status: Seemed plentiful on all three gardens on all my visits.

In October they were often in twos and threes. I found them both

in the jungle and in the tea bushes, though they showed a definite

preference for the latter in April, May and June. fie

Voice: 24-11-1944. 3-4 foraging together called continually with

a titaweet (high/low/high), usually repeated several times with no

appreciable pause between. A little later they gave another loud clear

call tyeea (high/low). One particular bird gave this call in quick

succession with barely any pause between. The number of repetitions

throughout a period of about two minutes was 19, 4, 8, 7, 8, 3, 5, 5;

? ee me here confess that most of the numerous small warblers,

which occur so often among the mixed hunting parties and on their

own, quite defeated me. I had left my Zeiss glasses at home and

had only a rather inferior pair of non-prismatic glasses with me,

which did not make identification of these difficult little birds any

easier. I managed to identify only a very few of the Willow and

Flycatcher Warblers I saw with certainty.

Greyheaded Flycatcher Warbier (Seicercus xanthoschistos)

Status: I saw none in January on B, but otherwise they seemed

fairly plentiful. Seen among mixed hunting parties in February and

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 53

October. They were not shy, though very active, and fluttered about

the branches, sometimes: perching only a few yards from me,

Chestnutheaded Flycatcher Warbler (Seicercus castaniceps)

Status: I saw only one to identify positively, on 22-10- 1944 on

C among a large mixed party of small birds at 5,000 ft.

Strongfooted Warbler (Homochlamys fortipes)

Status: I found none in January or October, but this may merely,

have been due to their silence, as they are more often heard than

seen. On A I found them fairly plentiful in both tea and bush jungle

in. May, and also in February (though I did not identify them until

later). On C they seemed to be more thinly distributed in April

(when I heard only one, in bush jungle, and saw none), May and

June from about 4,700 ft. upwards. This bird is very difficult to

watch as it keeps out of sight among the tea bushes and undergrowth,

but with the assistance of Mr. Inglis, of the Darjeeling Museum,

and later of Mr. V. S. Edwards, then of Darjeeling, I succeeded in

identifying it beyond any doubt.

Voice: 1-3-1943. The call was given persistently every minute

or so for some minutes, and was answered by another. It was a

loud and penetrating, clear though thin tyiiti—tweet-weu (rising,

prolonged—high-falling), the tytiii being an invariable introduction,

beginning so low as to be only just audible 30-4o yds. away, and

rising, and then followed after a tiny pause by the main phrase,

which is pitched much higher and louder. On many occasions this_

phrase has reminded me very strongly of ‘tit-willow’, and until I

discovered the bird’s identity I used to think of it as ‘the tit willow:

bird’. Another. phrase, which alternated with the above fairly

regularly, was roughly the same phrase reversed, with slight variety

in it: tyee—tyit-weei (rising—high-low/high) or sometimes tyii—teu-

tewe (low—high/low-rising). Once heard these calls would not easily

be forgotten; they are ringing in my ears as I write this today in.

England, ten years afterwards.

20-5-1943. —Tweeeeeee—titwuiu (rising—high/lower/low) or tweee-

eeee—tyewiu (rising—high/lower/low) and _ also tiwwuuuti —tuwui-i

(rising—low /low-rising).

This bird also has another note, a loud, rather staccato tyit (high)

. tyutyu (low/low) . .. tyit (high) . . . tyutyu (low/low), which

appears to be given while feeding. It also has a soft, rather churring

alarm note.

Rufouscapped Bush Warbler (Horeites brunnifrons)

Status: 19-1-1944 (B). One believed definitely identified among

low bushes and herbage in mixed jungle at 5,000 ft., and several

other probables seen. The only call I heard was a soft tsik . .. tsik

(somewhat slurred).

Brown Hill Warbler (Suya_ criniger)

Status: Some seen on all visits on all three gardens. In May

1943 on A they seemed to me to be less numerous than in February, and

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL, HIST. “SOCIETY:. Vol. $2

in October 1944 on C, they: seemed a good deal less plentiful than

in the spring and summer, but this may have been due to their silence.

I saw them only in the tea.

Voice: 20-5-1943. A wheezy, almost rustling double note, like

a knife being sharpened: t’ zeetu-t’zeetu-t’zeetu (high /low-high /low-

high/low), usually given in series of 3-4 repetitions.

Biackthroated Hill Warbler (Suya atrogularis)

Status: May 1943, A, a pair at about. 6,800 ft. in tea, believed

with a nest.

April 1945, C, two seen in low brambly bushes among secondary

growth at about 5,000 ft. ,

May-June 1945; C, 2-3 seen together, but exact date and height

not noted.

Voice: 28-5-1943. A soft tp-tp-tp-tp-tp while foraging, and when

disturbed a soft, scolding chrrrr-chrrrr-chrrrr.

29-5-1943- <A fairly soft prri-prri-prri-prri, high-pitched and

rather slurred.

25-4-1945. On my appearance one bird gave a soft, fairly high-

pitched prri. .; piri; |... prri, which was. answered™ byatnewormer

bird with an equally soft, high-pitched tyip . . . tyip.

Behaviour: 28-5-1945. The bird was never still, turning this way

and that all the time, twitching its long tail up and down and

occasionally vibrating it up and down very rapidly for a moment. It

worked its way in little spurts to the top of a bush and then flew

down to the cover of the tea bushes. This performance was

repeated.

Maroon Oriole (Oriolus traillii)

Status: None seen in January .1944, on B, or February 1943, on

A, and in October 1944 on C I found only very few. In April, May and

June on A and C they were plentiful and vociferous, keeping mostly

to the jungle, though sometimes seen in the shade trees among the

tea.

Voice: 19-5-1943. A loud, clear, rounded typical call pelelu-luiulu

(high/low-rising/low) was given fairly continuously. .

20-5-1943. (a) A rich, full pelulu (high/low).

(b) Teu-pweu .. . pulelulu (high/lower-lower/low . . . low/

high /low/low).

(c). A single, rounded tyou . . . tyou (fairly low-pitched) very

similar to one of the calls of the Blackheaded Oriole (O. xanthornus).

(d) Tyupeu (rising/low).

(e) A harsh scream for which I could find no, phonetic

rendering. J think this may have been an alarm call, as it was given

when I appeared round a bluff which had concealed my approach.

21-5-1943. One gave a rather rasping waeiae (rising/low/high)

or re-aje (high, slurred-low/higher, slurred) in addition to the usual.

fluting calls. ‘This call was given when the birds. came fairly close

to me and shortly afterwards.

31-5-1944. The general pattern of the song seemed to be based

on a phrase something like this: pe-leulu-loo (high-falling /low-

higher). “ Lack et ett aitheriaae, yeekinees

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE .DARJEELING AREA 5O

30-10-1944. One perched for some minutes on the top of a small

tree growing among tea bushes and gave every few seconds a harsh

kwei-eir . . . kyeir pitched very low.

24-5-1943. A good example of secondary song, which I have

described in detail elsewhere (Lister, 1953).

Greyheaded Myna (Sturnia malabarica)

Status: I saw 1-2 on A in May 1943 only, including a pair

believed to be breeding.

Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis)

Status: Always a few about the coolie lines, and not infre-

quently seen foraging among the tea bushes.

Whitebacked (Hodgson’s) Munia (Uroloncha striata)

Status: May 1944, C, at least one large flock always to be found

about the same part of the hillside at about 4,700-4,800 ft.

October 1944, C. <A few seen in forest.

May-june 1944, C. Two believed seen, but identity not certain.

Voice: 31-5-1944. Two birds together now and again gave a

low ‘chittering’ call; on seeing me they gave a low prik.

4-6-1944. A party of 30-40. The whole time they kept up a

rather quiet twittering, which varied a good deal in pitch and modula-

tion from time to time.

Spotted Munia (Uroloncha punctulata)

Status: January 1944, B, one party of 12 or so believed seen

in company with White-eyes (Zosterops palebrosa) among fairly dense

‘bushes at 4,000 ft., but identity not certain beyond all doubt. May

1944, C, 1-2 in a mixed party in jungle just above the Little Rangit

River.

Scarlet Finch (Haematospiza sipahi)

_ Status: 24-1-1944, B, 2 dis and several Qs at 4,000 ft.

21-10-1944, C, a single ¢ at 4,500 ft.

19-4-1945, C, one od and about six 9s were among a fairly large

mixed hunting party of small birds, and another single ¢ was by

itself not far away. ‘

Voice: 21-10-1944. One alone, I believe, gave a rather fluting

peye ... peye-e (all high-pitched), but I am not absolutely sure that

- the call came from this bird.

19-4-1945. A rather creaky kwee-i-u (high-fall-ing), not unlike

the notes of a Canary (Serinus canarius)

Himalayan Greenfinch (Hypacanthis spinoides) .

Status: My only record of this species. was at the end of April,

1945 on C, when a small party was seen several times among shade trees

in the tea at about 4,500 ft., and foraging among hard-pruned tea-

‘bush stools. I saw them only in late afternoon and early evening. _,

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Tree Sparrow (Passer montanus)

Status: Fairly plentiful on A and B, but I think rather fewer

on C. Present on all visits, usually about. buildings, coolie lines, etc.

In April, 1945, I occasionally, saw 1-2 foraging in the tea and no

doubt this was a general practice.

Voice: Their note seemed to me to be more musical and rather

more varied than that of the House Sparrow (P. domesticus).

Nepal (Hodgson’s) House Martin (Delichon nipalensis)

Status: I saw this species only on my one visit to B in January

1944, when I found them numerous, with their headquarters apparently

about some coolie lines. |

Voice: 21-1-1944. The great majority of them were completely

silent, but just occasionally one would give a soft, short high-pitched

chi-i as it flew.

Behaviour: From about 2,000 ft. to 6;000 ft. they were

continually flying round, often low over the tea bushes. One

favourite form of aerobatics seemed to be to climb suddenly almost,.

vertically for some 20-30 ft. and then dive and flatten out when quite

near the bushes again. The flight was fast and even, swooping

and gliding continually in a smooth flowing flight that reminded me

of skating. Often they would fly past no more than 2-3 ft. fromé

where I was standing, and then twist and double in almost incredibly

‘tight’ turns. If it were not for the white on them one would sometimes.

never see them until they were right on top of one.

Eastern Swallow (Hirundo rustica)

Status: Seen on all three gardens on all visits except October:

when I saw none. Seemed more plentiful on C than either A or B.

Signs of breeding about the factory on C (about 4,500 ft.).

Striated Swallow (Hirundo daurica) 7 a 3

Status: Exactly as for Eastern Swallow, except that I saw more

of this species on B in January 1944, and there semed rather fewer

on {C.

Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea)

Status: One believed seen at least twice on B in January 1944,.

flying about tea, but identity not proved.

One seen once by stream on C at 5,000 ft. in April 1945.

Indian Tree Pipit (Anthus hodgsoni)

Status: January 1944, on B, numerous in small parties among

the tea and about ravines, rather less so in forest.

February 1943, on A, very plentiful in fairly large parties in tea,

and rather smaller parties not infrequently seen in forest.

April 1945, on C, fairly plentiful, especially in jungle, but also.

in tea. My note does not mention whether they were still in flocks,

but at one place mentions 2-3 birds.

Voice: 21-2-1943. A rather weak tze-e—tze-e.

25-2-1943. A soft, high-pitched tsi—tsi... tse... tse-e... tse-€

(prolonged): pepe at : eri

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 57

Vinousbreasted (Hodgson’s) Pipit (Anthus roseatus)

Status: 19-1-1944, B. I believe 1-2 were among tea bushes at

5,000 ft. I had a gocd view of one for 3-4 minutes and as it flew

away, and I think I caught a glimpse of the characteristic pale yellow

on the underside of the wing. In another bird, also flushed from

among the tea, the touch of pale yellow under the wing was quite

distinct and easy to see against the dark background of the hillside.

The only call I heard was a soft tsi . . . tsi, possibly rather shorter

than, but otherwise indistinguishable from the call of the Indian Tree

Pipit. I feel fairly sure in my own mind that these birds were of

this species, but cannot regard their identity as proved.

Upland Pipit (Oreocorys sylvanus)

Status: I believe I saw a single bird of this species at about

6,500 ft. above A on 28-5-1943, but the identity must remain unproven.

I give my record for what it is worth.

‘A large pipit attracted my attention by gliding down, singing,

on outstretched wings with tail spread. It landed on a small culti-

vated terrace cut into the hillside (6,500 ft.) and walked about, proving

the grass at its edge for food. The song was a fairly loud sityu-

sityu-sityu-sityu-sityu on descending notes, when I first noticed it,

and this was given while planing down. These notes were also given

several times from the ground, but only 2-3 at a time and the inter-

vals between were longer. Later, when I had passed round the corner

of the path out of sight, I heard a typically Pipit-like p’se-p’se-p’se-

p’se-p’se. I strongly suspect that it was given by this bird and

that it was the introductory portion of the song, though I did not

hear any more of the song given at the time.

Head: Pale earthy brown; greyish-white supercilium above a

darkish brown eye-stripe. Upper parts: Pale earthy brown with

darker brown markings. Lower parts: Greyish white, with slight

darker striations across the breast.’

White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa)

Status: Seemed fairly plentiful in jungle on all visits except

February 1943 (A), when I probably overlooked them; no doubt they

sometimes foraged among the tea bushes.

Voice: 20-5-1943. One, foraging, kept ‘singing’. Some of the

phrases were as follows: t’ts’ituts-itsusi (high’low-higher) . . . tu’tufi-

ssitu—tafissitu (low’high /low—low/high/low) and a low sit-tyawississi

(high-low /h-i-g-h).

29-5-1943. A not very loud sisifesife (high/falling).

23-1-1944. A continual prrree-u (slightly falling).

Nepal Yellowbacked Sunbird (Aethopyga nipalensis)

Siatus: “ Kebruary ‘1943; A, 1-2 seen. April 1945, C,.1°3 and

2 Qs seen on separate occasions. May-June 1945, C, at least 2 seen.

October 1944, C, 1-2 seen. All in jungle.

Voice: 26-5-1943. A small, rather quiet, high-pitched si .. . si.

25-4-1945. Each short flight of a 9 toa fresh perch was preceded

by a sharp, high dczit.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WALURAL HIST SOCIETY “Vol. a2

27-4-1945. A 6, foraging, frequently gave a loud, metallic dzit

dzit, and very often this was extended into a kind of short

song, something like this: tchiss (high) . . . tchiss—iss-iss-iss (low—

ris-ing—high).

Nepal Blackbreasted Sunbird (Acthopvga saturata)

Status: 24-10-1944... C. One believed seen in a large mixed

hunting party in jungle at about 4,500 ft., but identity not proved.

Streaked Spider Hunter (Avachnothera magna)

Status: 30-5-1945. C. A single one seen in fairly dense mixed

jungle with thick bush and bramble undergrowth at about 4,500 ft.

Voice: The call was loud, with considerable carrying power.

The basis was a rather sharp tyik (high), sometimes softened into

a tchik, and it was given either once, twice or three times in quick

succession, though more usually twice when it sounded like tyikik

or tchikik. Sometimes there was a very slight space between the

repetitions.

Behaviour: I saw one several times during the morning and,

assuming, as I think, that it was the same bird on each cccasion,

it moved about the hillside quite a lot. The first time I saw it, it

was feeding among the seed-heads of a smallish tree (? species),

in which a Grey Drongo and a pair of Orangebellied Chloropsis

were also feeding. I saw no sign of any real antagonism between

these birds, though the Spider Hunter had a slight brush with one

of the Chloropsis when they both landed on the same perch. Later

I saw it foraging among some low bush undergrowth growing among

tree jungle several hundred yards further along the hillside. After

a minute or two it flew to the canopy of a fairly large tree. and

then I lost it. :

When feeding its movements were inclined to be rather rapid and

perhaps a little jerky, though they certainly gave no impression of

nervous haste and the impression I got was rather one of deftness

in its actions. It explored the leaves in which it was interested from

all angles, though I never saw it hanging actually upside down. The

flight was surprisingly strong and rapid, with fairly fast wing-beats

and slight undulations. It called in flight as well as while foraging. —

Longtailed Broadbill (Psarisomus dalhousiae)

Status: May 1943, A, a single bird seen at 3,500 ft. in jungle.

October 1944, C, 2-3 parties seen between 4,000 ft. and 5,500 ft.

in jungle, though not much in ravines.

Voice: 23-10-1944. A party of about 12 in company with a

dozen or so Haircrested Drongos, called continually with a single

note tse:. . . tse dr pwe .. .... pwe, high-pitched,’ soft .and. fairly

loud. ‘ :

Assam Blacknaped Green Woodpecker (Picus canus gyldenstolpei)

Status: One seen on 25-2-1943 on A in shade trees among tea.

Voice: A rather weak, not very loud kip... kip. ©

’ ORNITHOLOGY OF -THE: DARJEELING: AREA | 59

‘Small Yellownaped Woodpecker (Picus chloropus) ”

Sigius. A few seen in Apri May, June and October, on C,

usually only in jungle, but once in a shade tree.

Voice: 247-4-1945. <A loud kyerk.

Large Yellownaped Woodpecker (Chrysophlegma flavinucha)

- Status: Several seen in May. and June 1944 and 1-2 in October

1944, both on C in jungle. |

Voice: 27-5-1944. A fairly loud, plaintive pee-u . . . pee-u (high/

fall-ing). 3

9-6-1944. One, apparently alone, gave a sort of yelp, sounding

something like kyow . . . kyow.

Paleheaded Woodpecker (Gecinulus grantia)

Status; 27-5-1943. One believed seen in dense tall trees in a

ravine at 5,000 ft. on A, but identity not proved.

Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates darjelliensis)

StatuS: 22-10-1944.. C. One seen in mixed tree jungle at

5,000 ft.

Voice: Called occasionally with a low puk .. . puk.

Himalayan Lesser Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates cathpharius\

Status: 22-10-1944. C. One seen in mixed tree jungle at

5,000 ft.

Voice: Called occasionally with a rather soft, clear pwik.

Fulvousbreasted Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates macei)

Status: 1-2 seen in February and May 1943 on A, in both jungle

and shade trees.

Voice: 26-2-1943. An occasional low tak . . . tak.

1-3-1943. The call was a not very, powerful pik . . . pik at intervals

while feeding, but when the bird was excited at my presence it twice

low). Once as it was -flying from one tree to another it gave a

curious, soft, rasping kuier-kuier (low/high/low-low/high/low).

Darjeeling Pygmy Woodpecker (Yungipicus nanus semicoronatus)

Status: 27-5-1943. A. T:wo seen in shade trees at 5,000 ft.

May 1944, C. Two in mixed jungle above Little Rangit River,

and three in mixed jungle at about 4,700 ft.

October 1944, ©. 1-2 seen in mixed jungle (height not noted).

Voice: 22-10-1944. Now and then one gave a low puk... puk.

Behaviour: 27-5-1943. One was feeding in the branches of a

Siris tree. It moved along them-with a rather jerky motion, stopping

to examine a bit of bark and then advancing with little hopping

movements. A few minutes later another bird arrived and they

started ‘formalising’ (to use Edmund Selous’ word). This consisted

of repeatedly flying over each other for a few feet, changing places

as it were, first one moving then the other, though not always

alternately. There was no real evidence of enmity or antagonism.

The performance struck me as more in the nature of a courtship

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

display than a ‘fight’ in any sense of the word, but I could not be

certain of their sexes though I saw no red on their heads. During

the pauses between the little flights both birds as a rule adopted

a strangely stiff upright attitude, with the body well away from

the branch (though the tail was pressed close against it), and often

the head pointing upwards (see fig. below). While in this attitude they

kept very still and hardly made any movement. The whole performance

continued for about ten minutes without a break. In the end one

of the birds flew to another tree some yards away and drummed

lightly.

t are ps OD etre

Fob ens ai te IOS Ce ete Do CANOE Teme cee ccna doata el

Redeared Bay Woodpecker (Blythipicus pyrrhotis)

Status: 2-2-1943, 4. One seen in both shade trees and mixed jungle

at about 3,000 ft.

Recognition: Its movements seemed to me to be rather heavier

than in the case of most other Woodpeckers, perhaps partly because

of its size. Flight rather heavy and bounding.

Voice: One, foraging alone, called several times with a loud,

chattering, rhythmic call p’t’a-a-a-a—p’t’a-a-a-a—p’t’a-a-a-a—p’t’a-a-

a-a, pitched fairly high and all the notes the same. This phonetic

rendering is a poor one, but it was the nearest I could get to it and

it does give fairly accurate general description of the call, which.

was given rapidly with very little pause between the phrases. The

a sound was short and sharp and not a pure a; it might almost have

been rendered by a short staccato e.

Tickell’s Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus)

Status: I found this species onty once during all my visits—on

25-5-1945, on C, when two were present.

Voice: By answering and repeating the call of one of these

birds I attracted it from 2-300 yds. away until it was in a tree almost

above my head. After it had called I could see it turn its head while

I answered, obviously listening, as it came nearer and nearer, When

it had arrived almost above me it gave a much lower, sweeter call

of a single note repeated about four times. I replied in a similar

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING: AREA 61

way and we kept this up for about a minute. Then another bird

started calling further down the valley and my bird replied, though

not so loudly as before. I too joined in, but by then I think it

was realising that my calls were spoofs, and it took no further notice

of me. }

The normal call consisted of a repetition of a single note in

series of varying length. The spacings: between the repetitions of

this note were sufficient to keep each repetition quite separate, but

the note itself was very similar to the basis of the ordinary call of

the Northern Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Brachypternus bengalensis).

The note itself was a sharp twe-twe-tyu-tyu-tii-tii-tu usually dropping

slightly in pitch after the first few repetitions. When heard close

to the concentrated sharpness of the note could be heard as a sort

of sudden shutting off of the sound, making it sound like tyu-ck.

The love note, if such it really was, consisted of a soft, rather sweet

twui-twui-twe-twe, fairly high-pitched.

Speckled Piculet (Vivia innominata)

Status: I saw only one, on 28-10-1944 on C, among a large

mixed party of small birds in mixed deciduous trees and undergrowth

at about 4,300 ft.

Rufous Piculet (Sasia ochracea)

Status: 22-4-1945. ©. One on a clump of bamboos at 4,500 ft.

One also seen in May-June 1945 on C, but details not noted.

Behaviour: 22-4-1945. My attention was first attracted by quite

a loud hammering. The bird was hammering hard—almost drumming

—on a stem of bamboo some 3 in. in diameter and about 20 ft. above

the base. The blows were surprisingly powerful and determined for

the size of the bird. After a few minutes of this it flew to another

bamboo at about the same level, and then after only a short pause

to another and another. Then it settled down to a fairly thorough

exploration of the stem, this time not drumming, but proving the

stem with a series of short, irregular but powerful taps which

produced a more muffled, less ringing sound. The flight from one

stem to another was in short hurried bursts, almost a scrambling

flight but very swift considering the short distance covered. All}

its movements were quick and jerky, and I got the impression that

the bird was full of compressed power, as though it were being driven

by a powerful spring.

Great Himalayan Barbet (Megalaima virens)

Status: Plentiful on all visits, though less vociferous in October

and January. It kept rather more to the jungle, but was quite

often seen in the shade trees.

Voice: 18-5-1943. A-low, harsh, falling kryeeeu.

19-5-1943. A continual, rather windy peaweu (high/low) every

2-3 seconds. Great carrying power.

20-5-1943. The calls today sounded more like a pilaweu (high/

low/higher). With a little imagination this call might be described

as ‘Idhar-ao’.

G2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL FIST. SOGLETY,) Vol. 52

~ 27-421945. One perched awkwardly on a bough high above my

head :and gave a loud, sharp, metallic kit-tt-tt-tt—kitt-tt, fairly,

high-pitched.

-30-5-1945. Another note sounds very like the call of a sea-gull,

and this likeness is emphasised when a lot of birds are calling

together.

3-6-1945. Two together called loudly with a note quite unlike

any other calls I have heard. This was a very harsh grating note,

starting quite softly and growing rapidly in volume until it became

a loud, grating screech, very strongly suggestive of the call of some

gigantic cicada. This call was given several times by both birds. )

Behaviour: 27-5-1943. See under Ashy Swallow Shrike.

29-10-1944. One made a short flight from the top of a tree and

caught an insect (I suspect a cicada, but could not be sure). It

held it for a minute or two in its beak and then slowly swallowed it. —

Bluethroat ed Barbet (Cyanops asiatica)

Status: The only time I came across this species was in April .

1945 on C, when there were several about’in jungle.

Goldenthroated Barbet (Cyanops franklinii)

Status: -A few seen on all visits except May 1944 (when

I must surely have forgotten to note it), but they were not nearly

as plentiful as the Great Himalayan Barbet. They usually, kept to

the jungle and ravines, but now and again I saw one in a shade

ECC:

_Asiatic Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)

Status: May 1943, A, 1-2 heard continually, usually from about

6,o00 ft. upwards. I estimated the density at probably one or a pair

to 1,500 acres. I found it more usually in forest, less often in ravines

or tea blocks.

May 1944, C, one heard most days at about 5,000 ft.

April 1945, C, 1-2 always to be heard.

May-June 1945, C, always a few about, but seemed more thinly

distributed than the other cuckoos. :

Himalayan Cuckoo (Cuculus optatus)

Status: * January 1944, B; 1-2 heard..

February 1943, A, not recorded, but probably overlooked.

April 1945, C, numerous. ) |

May 1943, A, fairly numerous. I estimated their density at pro-

bably one or a pair to 400-500 acres. I found them more in the ravines

than the other cuckoos.

May 1944, C, plentiful all over the jungle, chiefly above 4,o00 ft.

May-June 1945, C, fairly plentiful, but less vociferous than in

April.

October 1944, C, 1-2 about, but apparently fewer and certainly less

vociferous than in summer.

I found this species only in the jungle and ravines, and have no

note of seeing them in the: shade trees or tea.

' ORNITHOLOGY: OF “FRE (DAR JBEDING AREA:+*«: 63

Voice: 22-5-1943. Cuk-coo-coo-coo-coo (high—l- o-w) the prelimi-

nary cuk being quite soft and slightly higher in tone than the rest

of the call, which was low and dull and had something of a booming

quality about it. When singing the throat swelled up just like a

pouter pigeon’s.

- 28-4-1945. I have several times recently heard a low, gruff, bark-

ing prelude to the usual song. One bird I particularly listened to

today introduced the song by the following phrases at various

times :—

(a) Kyakakak (low-pitched) and some other notes which I was

unable to record. |

(b) Kakawkuku--kakakawkoku — (high/low /high—high/low/ris-

ing).

Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus)

Status: April 1945, C, 1-2 to be heard now and again, but did

not seem to be as well represented as the other cuckoos.

May 1943, A, fairly numerous. I estimated their density at one

or a pair to 700-800 acres; much in ravines.

May, 1944, C, one heard most days 4,500-5,000 ft.

May-June 1945, C, usually 1-2 to be heard, generally below

4,500 ft.

I usually found this species in the jungle and ravines, but I

occasionally saw one in the shade trees. Not recorded on my other

visits.

Small Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus)

Status: February 1943, A, one believed heard once in shade trees

but identity not proved.

April 1945, ©, one heard once.

May 1943, A, density estimated at one or a pair to 700-800 acres.

May 1944, C, several noted, scattered chiefly above 4,o00 ft.

May-June 1945, C, 1-2 noted in jungle, fairly plentiful in shade

LECES’.

Not recorded on my other visits. I found this species quite often

in the shade trees as well as the jungle.

Voice: 30-5-1945. I watched one singing from only a few yards

away. The song was loud and had great carrying power. The notes

were measured and unhurried, and there was a roughly equal interval

between them. Pik-tyik-tyi-wi-wa (high-high-higher-higher-lower)—

pik-tyik-tyi-wi-wi-wa (nigh-high-higher-higher-lower-lower)—puk-tyuk-

tyu-wu-wu-wa = (low-low-high-high-high-low)—puk-tyuk-tyu-wu-wu-wa

(low-low-high-high-high-low)—puk-tyuk-tyu-wa_ (low-low-high-low). I

have heard this song given repeatedly at night as well as in the day

time in May.

Large Hawk Cuckoo (Hierococcyx sparveroides)

Status: January 1944, B, none noted, But possibly overlooked.

February 1943, A, only one’seen:

April 1945, C, numerous and vociferous.

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

May 1943, A, very numerous. Density estimated at one ora pair

to 200-300 acres. Not found much in ravines. !

May 1944, C, Several heard, chiefly above 4,000 ft.

May-June 1945, C, numerous and vociferous.

I found this species mostly in jungle and only occasionally in noha

LEEES.

Voice: 20-5-1943. The. call of the birds here strikes me as

being slightly different from that of the plains bird (H. varius), in

the Delta region. Here the call sounds to me lke pwe-pwuwit (high-

lower /high).

25-4-1945. The birds often call many times in succession on the

same note, with no crescendo and much less vehemence than when

the song rises. I heard one bird today give the song at least 20

times in this way. Later I heard what I believe was the same bird

fairly screaming its song from the top of a tall tree, repeating the

series crescendo time after time.

3-6-1945. One gave the low, shrill introduction to the usual

‘Brain-fever’ song twice alone, and once was answered with the same

call by another bird a few yards away. .

Behaviour: See under Black Bulbul.

Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus)

Status: I found none on A or B, but I may well have overlooked

them through unfamiliarity. On C I found them fairly plentiful in

April, May and June and only a few in October. This species often

seems to keep to the shade trees in preference to the jungle.

Voice: 8-6-1944. This species seems to have two principal calls:

(a) a rather mournful kiweer—kiweer—ka-ka-ka (low/high—low/high

—l-o-w), the final kas being usually much quieter than the rest of the

call; and (b) a call on an ascending scale, each repetition being

pitched slightly higher; it usually seems to be repeated three times

or occasionally four. Twe-tya-tyui—twe-tya-tyui—twe-tya-tyui (each

phrase high-lower-high-rising ; the second and third phrases each rather

higher than the preceding one).

1-6-1945. Two in the upper branches of a large tree. At least

one of them was calling continually with very loud, clear calls, most

of which were as follows: k’leeu-wa-wa . . . Cawur-wa-wa-wa (high-

low-er . . . low/high—l-o-w-e-r). It also gave a single loud wei (fairly

high-pitched) fairly frequently. Several times it also gave rudiments

of the other usual call we-wa-wui (high-low-higher), but it never finished

this call.

Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris)

Status: January 1944, B, none noted.

February 1943, A, none noted:

April 1945, C, numerous and vociferous.

May 1943, A, 2 or more seen.

May 1944, C, fairly plentiful.

May-June 1945, C, numerous and vociferous.

October 1944, C, none noted..

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE DARJEELING AREA 65

Although seen quite often in shade trees I think they kept rather

more to the jungle, : |

Voice: 9-6-1944. Its song can be heard all day long from almost

any of the patches of jungle in the tea garden (C)—an ascending

series of 6-7 notes pe-pe-pe-pe-pe-pe. ;

17-4-1945. I watched one singing for some time. It repeated

the simple song with only short pauses) between and then ‘rested’

for 3-4 minutes before singing again. It usually began the song

with only four notes, then increased to five, and now and again to

six. The notes were clear and regularly spaced, both in time

interval and ascent of the scale, and they were invariably equally

emphasised: pu-pu-pe-pe-pi. The first two notes were very slightly

slurred, but the others were clear and rounded, the slight difference

in inflection no doubt being produced by their approach to the upper

limits of the bird’s compass.

Redwinged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus)

Status: A single bird seen in jungle on B by the Little Rangit

River in May 1944.

Field Recognition: 6-6-1944. The flight was slow and leisurely,

only a foot or two above the ground. In flight the bird looked,

from the side, rather like a small Crow Pheasant (Centropus sinensis),

with red-brown wings and blackish-brown body; but seen from

the front the difference was at once apparent as the bird had some

white on the chest..

Large Greenbilled Malkoha (Rhopodytes tristis)

Status: A single bird believed seen among tea at 4,500 ft. on

3-6-1945 on C, but identity not proved.

Broadbilled Roller (Eurystomus orientalis)

_ Status: Two seen on 6-6-1944 on C, near bottom of valley (about

2,500-3,000 ft.). In the period May-June a bird was reported (but

not seen by me) from near the bottom of the valley on C, which could —

only have been of this species.

Voice: 6-6-1944. The only call I have heard is a persistent, short,

harsh kkr. . . kkr, given all the time I had the birds under observation

{and they could see me).

Whitebreasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis)

Status: <A single bird seen about the Little Rangit River on C

in May 1944.

Hoopoe (Upupa epops)

Status: April 1945, C, single birds seen twice at about 4,500

ft. on a path. 7 | )

Redheaded Trogon (Harpactes erythrocephalus)

Status : One party. believed seen on several occasions in fairly

dense mixed jungle at about 4,500 ft. on C in June 1945, but the

identity of these birds was not established with certainty.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Nepal House Swift (Micropus_affinis) Ye ¢ ea ;

Status: Seemed fairly plentiful on all visits to all - three

gardens.

Voice: 25-5-1943. A nesting ices at the tea Macey | on A.

The principal calls I heard were as follows:—

(a) A very rapid siksiksiksik—sik—sik—siksiksik all pitched on

about the same note.

(b) A harder, much more metallic Siesvile syik-syik and a suk-

suk-suk-suk, pitched fairly high, which usually seemed to be given

when the bird was near ee wall, flying up towards the TOSI

site.

r-r, and falling; very similar to a cau of the Common Indian House

Swift.

(d) I also heard one bird give a very low muttering, quite unlike

any of the other notes, as it passed a foot or two above my head.

28-5-1943. Of about 50 birds flying round just above the hillside,

one or two of them gave a low chitr once or twice, which could have

been audible only a few yards away.

Whitethroated Spinetail Swift (Hirundapus caudacutus)

Status: 24-4-1945 to 2-5-1945. Two, sometimes three, seen above

the valley almost every day.

Collared Scops Owl (Otus bakkamoena)

Status: 6-6-1945. C. One believed seen in a tree in dense bush

and trea jungle at 4,500 ft. Beyond the fact that it was small (smaller

than a Barred Owlet), that it had ear-tufts and that its general colour-

ing was a light, rather yellowish brown, I could see no details. It

kept giving a broken series of low notes, which at once reminded me

of the softer notes sometimes given by the Common House Crow,

and could be likened to a series of quiet soft coughs.

Barred Owlet (Glaucidium cuculoides)

Status: A single bird seen on 26-10- 1944 on C at 4,500 ft.,

perched on a bamboo stump in a small ravine.

Collared Pygmy Owlet (Glaucidium brodiei)

Status: A single bird seen on 25 and 26-2-1943 on A at close

quarters in jungle. Others believed heard calling at night in April

1945 on C, May 1943 on A, May 1944 on C, May and June 1945

on C, and October 1944 on C, but birds not seen and identity not

proved.

Voice: . The call which I thought to be given by this bird was

a Sho PU Ss PUL pu (timed at every 9 seconds im one

case) and kept up for many minutes without a break.

Black (King) Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) °-

- Status: Usually 1-2 to be seen in the course of a visit. —

ORNITHOLOGY OF THE .DARJEELING AREA. - 67

Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis)

Status: One believed seen soaring several times April-June 1945-

Whitebacked Vulture (Pseudogyps bengalensis) - ze

Status: One or two seen April 1945, May 1944 and 1945, and

June 1945. 3 |

Lammergeier (Gypactus barbatus)

Status: Single birds believed seen February 1943, May 1944, and

April, May and June 1945.

Hobby (Falco severus)

Status: One believed seen in dense mixed jungle at 5,500 ft. on

A on 28-5-1943, but identity not proved.

Kestrel (Cerchnets tinnunculus )

Status: At least one seen January 1944 on A, and two seen in

October 1944 on C.

Eastern Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis)

Status: One believed seen soaring in May: 1944.

Hodgson’s Hawk Eagle (Spizaétus nipalensis)

Status: One believed seen in May 1943 On A; one soaring ee

above the jungle at 5,000 ft. on C in April, 1945.

Crested Serpent Eagle (Haematornis cheela)

Status: Generally 1-2 about, sometimes soaring high, more often

quite low.

Voice: 23-4-1945. The loud, clear call k’lee-leu-leu is audible

for a great distance. : Saar see

Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus)

Status: Always one pany about on c at 4,500 ft. in aaa 1944,

but no others noticed. .

Pariah Kite (Milvus rierane govinda)

Status: A few occasionally about, but not numerous and. not

mentioned in my records for January .or October. Some birds: -may

have been’ confused: with: the ‘next:species:: : Up ght agree’

Blackeared Kite (Milvus migrans lineatus)

Status: Several identified for the first time in April 1945, on C,

and 1-2 believed seen in May and June. No doubt overlooked on

previous visits and possibly confused with the last-mentioned species.

Shikra (Astur badius)

Status: 1-2 seen in April-June 1945 on C, but none on other

visits..

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Voice: 2-6-1945. One gave a fairly loud, clear kiteu (high/

falling) repeated three times, while carrying out aerobatics high above

the hillside.

29-5-1945. One gave a Rena: far-reaching kee . . . kee-kee, pitched

fairly high, ; 3

Pintailed Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus apicaudus)

Status: May 1944, C. A pair reliably reported as ae in

a shooting box just above the Little Rangit River, tise I did not

see them myself.

Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis)

Status: Plentiful in April, May and June on A and C, and a

few still about in October on C. I found them almost as often in

the shade trees growing among the tea as in the jungle.

Bartailed Cuckoo-Dove (Macropygia unchall)

Status: A single bird believed seen on 29-5-1945 on C at about

4,500 ft., but identity not proved.

Blackbacked Kalij Pheasant (Gennaeus melanotus)

Status: 1-2 seen on most visits, as often in tea as in jungle.

Voice: 19-1-1944. One was flushed by a dog, and as it flew

down the hillside it gave a whistling psee-psee-psee-psee not at all

the sort of noise one would normally expect from a pheasant.

Common Hill Partrid ge (Arborophila torqueola)

Status: Two believed seen in October 1944 on C and others

believed heard; at least two believed seen in April 1945 on C, all

in jungle. Although I think this identification was correct, I do

not regard it as proved; it is just possible that these birds were another

species of Hill Partridge.

is REFERENCES

Dewar, D. (1923): ‘Himalayan and Kashmiri Birds’, London.

Lister, M. D. (1953): ‘Secondary Song of Some Indian Birds’, J.B.N.H.S., Vol.

54 (3).

Viator W. H. and Edwards, V. S. (1944): ‘List of Birds of Darjeeling and

Neighbourhood’.

Rowan, W. (1924): British Birds, xviii, p. 14.

Whistler, H. (1941): ‘A Popular Handbook of Indian Birds’, London.

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE WEST COAST OF

SOUTH INDIA

: Srt C. RajASEKHARA MUDALIAR, M.A.

AND

H. SuUNANDA KAMATH, B.SC.

(With a text figure)

INTRODUCTION

The study of the flora of the back+waters of the West Coast of

Madras State was first started with a view to find out plants of

economic value, if any, and incidentally to write up the flora for

students of Botany in general, and Agriculture in particular. Almost

all the back-water areas from Chetwayi of Ponnani (Malabar) to

Baindur in Coondapur (South Kanara) have been surveyed and a

general study of the type of vegetation in these tracts was made.

For more intensive study, back-waters of Chetwayi, Andathode

(Ponnani, Malabar) Nileshwar, Kasaragod and Coondapur (South

Kanara) were surveyed. In some back-waters like Karingote River

of Nileshwar, Conolly canal of Ponnani and Coondapur River, in

Coondapur, a distance of 5 to 1o miles from the Sea Coast was

surveyed. In this note the vegetation occurring along the foreshore

of the sea and the sides and edges of the back-waters are recorded.

Venkateswaralu (1944) and Blatter (1905) have given elaborate

accounts of the estuarine flora of the Godavari and the Mangrove of

the Bombay Presidency respectively. The former mentions that the

pioneer species occurring in the Mangrove forests are Avicennia alba

Bl., A. marina Vierh., Ceriops Arn., Sonneratia L.f., and Aegiceras

Gaertn, Excoecaria L., Lumnitzera Willd., etc., towards shallow

waters. Blatter however gives detailed account of mangrove in his

above work.

The distribution of the species is almost similar and the same

species are repeated throughout the back-waters. To mention a

few, Rhizophora’ mucronata Lamk, Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco,

Acanthus ilicifolius L., Sonneratia apetala Buch & Ham., are among

the most common species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Important back-waters of Malabar and South Kanara Districts

were surveyed, which comprised the back-waters of Chetwayi in the

southernmost part of Malabar and those of Baindur which form the

northernmost boundary of South Kanara District. Usually 4 to

5 miles of the back+water from the sea-coast, were surveyed. The

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

K PaO D

eMANGALORE X

7 A

B. BAINDUR ; :

G. GANGOLL! :

Cc. COONBAPUR

UDR . UBYAVAR

UDP. UDIP!

KK. KASARAGOD

N. NILESHWAR

CN -CANNANORE

T. TELICHERRY

P. PONNANI

CH .CHETWAYI

BACK-WATER FLORA‘ OF ‘THE W, COAST OF S. INDIA 71

plants collected were identified and their vernacular names and

economic importance if any, have been recorded.

Gamble (1915) and Hooker (1875) have recorded some of these

plants mentioned in this paper and these have been incorporated at

appropriate places.

Chandrasekhara Ayyar, et al. (1949) have given a list of plants

found in these back-waters that can be grown for green manure

purposes in saline areas; the collections already made in the Madras

Herbarium by previous workers have also been taken -into account.

The details for the latter include the date and place of collection,

collector’s name and the Madras Herbarium sheet numbers. ~

In the list of Bote alee ‘below the plants are arranged ACCORGINE

to their, families: ;

ee cage praia

UNG PLEA Linn.

1. Nymphaea stellata Willd.

Gamble:—Along back-waters in West Coast.

A large aquatic perennial herb with floating peltate leaves.

GUTTIF ERAE

_.CALOPHYLLUM Linn.

2. Cabana decipiens Wight.

Mal: Cherupinna.

Kan: Irai.

Gamble:—Occurs on banks of rivers and back-waters in West

Coast.

A moderate-sized tree with reddish-brown useful wood.

Smee Calophyllum inophyllum L.

“Tam: Pinnai.

Mal: Pinna.

ihel> Puna.

Kan: Honna.

Grows wild in the back+waters of Nileshwar and Kasaragod in

South Kanara and also along sand. banks (C.R.M.?).

A moderate-sized very ornamental tree with a reddish-brown very

useful wood. The fruits yield an oil and are often collected and sold

for the extraction of oil. | )

rith March 1916. (M.H.? 3106 & 3107) Wondse back-waters

(South anaes) Fruits.

ag, Rajasekhara Mudaliar.

* Madras Herbarium. *

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

- MALVACEAE

Hisiscus Medik.

Hibiscus tiliaceus Linn.

Tam: Malaipuvarsu.

Mal: Nirparathi.

Tel: Erragogu.

Gamble :—West Coast districts

forests from South Kanara southwards.

In both districts of Malabar and South Kanara from Eanpoilg

(S. Kanara, southwards usually near the Coast (C.R.M.).

A ae branched tree with handsome flowers and soft wood.

along back-waters and tidat

STERCULIACEAE

Mevocnuia Linn,

5. Melochia corchorifolia Linn.

Tam: Pinnak Kuppundu.

Mal: Ceruvuram.

Tel: Ganuga Pindikura.

Kasaragod sand banks of back-waters (C.R.M.).

A weed of waste places. A herk with stellate pubescence.

WaALTHERIA Linn,

6. Waltheria indica Linn.

Tel: Nalla Benda.

Kasaragod in South Kanara on sand banks on the sides of back-

waters (C.R.M.).

An undershrub with soft pubescence, ovate leaves and small yellow

flowers in globose axillary clusters.

SIMARUBACEAE

SAMADERA Gaertn.

>, Samadera indica Gaertn.

Mal: Karingotta.

Gamble :--West Coast along back-waters in Malabar.

A small tree with elliptic oblong shining leaves reaching ro in

by 3-4 in. and large smooth red fruit.

1850 Cleghorn (M.H. 8628) Ponnani and Karingota Back-waters Fr.

(M.H. 8629) Ponnani Back-waters (Malabar) Fr. _

i a) i.

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W..COAST OF S. INDIA 73:

VITACEAE .

Leea Linn.

8. Leea sambucina Willd.

Tam: Nyekki.

Mal: Maniporandi.

Tel: Ankadosa.

Kan: Andilu.

This plant is found growing in back-waters at Kasaragod (S.

Kanara) though Gamble records this plant only on the Hills (C.R.M.).

Usually a large shrub but occasionally growing into a small tree

up to 30 ft. high, producing thick foliage suitable for green manure.

11th March, 1916 (M.H. 11350 & 11351) Wondse Back-waters.

(S. Kanara) Fr. |

LEGUMINOSAE

CROTALARIA Linn.

9. Crotalaria verrucosa L.

Tam: Vutlei Khillo.

Tel: Ghele Gherumta.

Occurs right near the edge of the sea-shore. Found mixed with

Clerodendron inerme. Also in back-waters of Nileshwar (C.R.M.).

This is found growing very near the tidal waves also. Grows to a

height of 2 to 3 ft.

A much _ branched, herbaceous, usually Labial plant with blue

or white flowers. It is a plant recommended as a green manure for

saline rice fields.

10. Crotalaria striata DC.

Tel: Munga.

Occurs in low lying areas and sandy tracts. It was also observed

in the back-waters of Nileshwar (S.K.) and under extreme saline

conditions on the sea-sand near the junction of the back-waters and

sea in Nileshwar (C.R.M.).

An erect herbaceous shrub reaching 4 ft. in height.

This is recommended as green manure for saline tracts.’

DavsBercia Lin. f.

11. Dalbergia candenatensis Prain.

Gamble:—Coast of Malabar, in mangrove swamps.

A stout climbing shrub with twigs often twisted into spiral Rogie:

with white flowers.

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

PONGAMIA Vent.

12. Pongamia glabra Vent.

Tam: Ponga.

Mal: Punna. fi

Tel: Kanuga.

Kan: Huligili, Honge.

Gamble :—Coastal forests and on tidal river. banks. |

This has been noticed on the sand banks a little distance away

from back-waters. (C.R.M.)

A moderate-sized ‘nearly ever-green tree, wood moderately hard

used for cart wheels and other purposes. Plant is useful as’ green

manure for saline rice fields. The seeds give an oil used for burning

and‘ in medicine. tr, his

| 28th July, 1887. (M.H. 7263) Beypoor back-waters. © (Malabar)

Veg... « da Sisneet oC)

Derris Lour.

13. Derris uliginosa Benth.

Tel: Nallatiga.

Gamble :—Jn sea coast forests and tidal river banks on the sides

of the Peninsula.

It occurs in the sea coast forest and tidal river banks of Niechoen

Coondapur and Udipi (C.R.M. & H.S.K.*). It is found climbing

over trees growing along muddy salt water creeks.

A large evergreen climbing shrub with rose-coloured flowers and

rather large leaflets. The leaves are poisonous and not relished

by cattle. Recommended as‘a green manure plant for planung along

the sides of the back-waters. :

August, 1887. (M.H. 17341) Calicut Back-waters. (Malabar) Fr:

rith March, 1916 (M.H. 7349, 7351 & 7358). Wondse_back-

waters (S.K.) Fr. :

14. Dervis canarensis Baker. eg

Gamble :—In evergreen forests and along back-waters of West

Coast.

A large climbing shrub with pink flowers.

Mimosa Linn.

1k, Mimosa pudica Linn.

Tam: Total nadi

Kan: Nachigai mullu. _ |

This plant is found as an neRe OWA in large masses at the

junction of Kasaragod River and sea and also in the back-waters of

Nileshwar (C.R.M.)

‘A diffuse undershrub with very. sensitive leaves, pink flowers and

bristly pods. It spreads very fast and. is most troublesome and

difficult to eradicate.

1H. Sunanda Kamath.

‘BACK- WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA | 75

RHIZOPHORACEAE

RHIZOPHORA Linn.

16. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.

Tam: Kandal.

Mal: Venkatal.

Tel: Uppo-pooma.

i+: Kan::: Kandali. :

Gamble :—Tidal forests on both East and West Coasts. |

The Mangrove: A very common tree of both the Districts found

in the back-waters of Chetwayi, Udyavar, Malpe, Coondapur, Basrur

and Nileshwar (C.R.M. & H.S.K.).

A very glabrous tree often appearing buttressed by the mud being

washed away from the branching aerial roots, the lower part of the

stem dying off. The bark is a valuable tanning material. Wood

is dark red, very hard and excellent fuel. The fruits are viviparous

and as soon as they fall from the trees on the miry soil, strike root.

27th October, 1900. C. A. Barber (M.H. 19787 & 19784) Bada-

gara (Malabar) Veg. |

17. Rhizophora candelaria DC.

Tam: Kandal.

Gamble:—Tidal forests on both Coasts; more scarce than the

preceding.

A glabrous: small evergreen tree similar to the above.

CERIOPS Arn.

18. Ceriops candolleana Arn.

Tam: Pavrikutti.

Mal: Ann Kandal.

Tel: Gedera.

Gamble:—Tidal forests of the West Coast.

A small evergreen tree with many buttresses at the base one root

excrescences as in Rhizophora. Bark dark red giving a good tanning

material. Wood orange-red, hard and excellent fuel.

oa - 4 KANDELIA W. & A.

19. Kandelia rheedi W. & A.

Tam: Pukkandal.

Mal: Cerukandal.

Fel: Thuvar kandal.

Kan: Kandale.

Gamble:—Tidal forests of the West Gost.

Back-waters of Coondapur (C.R.M.). <7

A small tree with reddish-brown bark; wood soft, reddish-brown,

used only for firewood. Also recommended for planting along the

side of back-waters for green manure purposes.

(M.H. 19812) Coondapur B.W. (S.K.) Flowers.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol -52

BRUGUIERA Lam.

20. Bruguiera conjugata Merr.

Tam: Cigappukkandal.

Mal: Kandal.

Tel: Thudder poona.

Gamble:-—Tidal Forests of both coasts.

A rather large evergreen tree; wood red extremely hard used for

building and fuel. Recommended for planting along the sides of. the

back-waters for green manure. ;

21. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A.

Tel: Veerada.

Gamble :—Tidal forests of West Coast. oa

A small tree with dark brown bark and red, close-grained wood. |

COMBRETACEAE

LUMNITZERA Willd.

22. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd.

Tam: Tipparathi.

Mal: Katakantal.

Tel: Kadivi.

Gamble :—In Mangrove swamps of East and West Coast.

An evergreen tree of shrubby growth with rather small leaves-

Wood used for posts and fuel. |

LECYTHIDACEAE

BARRINGTONIA Forst.

23. Barringtonia racemosa Roxb.

Tam: Samuthram.

Mal: Samuthraccham.

Gamble :—West Coast in Malabar, along back-waters oftef

planted for ornament.

A medium-sized ornamental tree with large flowers and large

brownish-red fruits.

SONNERATIACEAE

SONNERATIA Linn.

24. Sonneratia caseolaris Engl.

Tam: Kinnai.

Mal: Blatti, Thirata.

“Kan: Kandale.

“Gamble: —West Coast along pace were ae ‘South Kanara

southwards. Oe 3 ae SAL

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA 77

Few trees were observed in the interior of back-waters of

Kasaragod. The trees reached a height of 20-30 ft. Also observed

at Malpe and Coondapur (C.R.M. and H.S.K.).

A small evergreen tree with large showy flowers and large

depressed-globose fruit.

rith March, 1916 (M.H. oe Wondse (S.K.) Fl.

(M.H. 22044) Hey) S. Kanara Back-waters, FL

UMBELLIFERAE

CENTELLA Linn.

25. Centella asiatica Urban.

Common in rice fields in wet places and along pada banks of

back-waters in Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

A common trailing and rooting weed.

RUBIACEAE

' OLDENLANDIA PLUM

(26. Oldenlandia pruinosa O.Kze.

Gamble :—West Coast, in Malabar along paneawatee

A shrub with thin leaves and spreading flower panicles.

PaveETtTa Linn.

27. Pavetta indica Linn.

Tam: Karanai Pavattai.

Mal: Pavatta.

Tel: Nunepatala.

‘Kan; Pavate.

Growing along the junction of the sea and os water in Nileshwar

and Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

A small tree or large shrub and very variable leaves. T he roots |

and leaves are used as medicine by ayurvedic doctors. ‘The fruits

are sometimes eaten.

Borreria G.F.W. Mey.

28. Borreria hispida K. Sch.

Tam: Nutti choori.

Tel: Madana.

On sand banks of back-waters in Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

A hispid procumbent herb with long branches, pale mauve usually

long tubular flowers and hard fruits.

COMPOSITAE

GRANGEA Forsk

| 29. aie, maderaspatana Poir.

A herb usually growing prostrate on mney soils of backew. aters

in Kasaragod and Udipi (C.R.M. and H.S.K.).

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 58

MYRSINACEAE -

Arpisia Swartz.

30. Ardisia littoralis Andr. Repos.

Gamble :—West Coast along back-waters. ere

A somewhat succulent shrub reaching about 3. ft. in height.

AEGICERAS Gaertn.

31. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco.

Tam: Narikandal.

Tel: Dudumara.

Gamble :—Sea Coasts East and West. In Mangrove forests

especially and along tidal creeks. |

Along tidal creeks of Coondapur, Basrur, Nileshwar and Kasaragod

(C.R.M. & H.S.K.).

A small tree growing to 5-6 ft. high; wood mostly used for fuel.

(M.H. 29595) Salt swamps of South Kanara FI.

7th December, 1919. {(M.H. 29601 to 29604) Nileshwar Back-

waters (S.K.) Veg. FI. :

EBENACEAE

Diospyros L.

32. Diospyros peregrina Gurke.

Tam: Tumbika.

Mal: Paniccha.

Tel: Tunika.

Gamble :—West Coast; on river banks and aN often

cultivated.

-A- branching evergreen tree with large coriaceous leaves wane

are bright red when young; wood red with darker streaks.

APOCYNACEAE

CERBERA Linn.

33. Cerbera manghas Linn.

‘Tam: Kadama.

Mal: Othalam.

Gamble:—East and West Coast, in salt swamps and back-waters.

A large area of the back-waters was found covered with these

trees in Kasaragod (C.R.M.). | A

A moderate-sized or small tree with fReeaiNte or ob-lanceolate

bright green fleshy leaves and large green fruit with fibrous pericarp.

_>..21st February, os on H- eee, See Cs Aad oe Ee

(S.K.) FL. :

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE .W. COAST OF S, INDIA 79

Parsonia R. Br.

34. Parsonia spiralis Wall.

Gamble:—West Coast, mostly along tee arr es in Travancore.

A glabrous twining shen, with large leaves up to 6 in. long

3 in. broad, the flowers white.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

TyYLOPHORA R. Br.

35. Tylophora tenuis Blume. ‘

. Gamble :—West Coast along back-waters in Travancore.

_ A slender twining undershrub, the follicles linear lanceolate,

2-3 inches long.

GENTIANACEAE

LIMNANTHEMUM Gmel.

36. Limnanthemum parvifolium Griseb.

Gamble:—West Coast, back-waters of Travancore.

A delicate plant with many radical leaves and very long slender

stems with small floating leaves under 1 in. diameter.

CONVOLVULACEAE

ANISEIA Choisy.

37. Antseia uniflora Choisy.

Gamble:—West Coast, in Travancore, margins of oe and

back-waters.

A prostrate herb with many fibrous roots from the stems copie

in mud. Leaves long-petioled, elliptic oblong, flowers white.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Limnopuita R,. Br.

38. Limnophila gratissima Bl.

Gamble:—West Coast, margins of Bottle and Bactearer!

A tall glabrous plant, decumbent at base and rooting at the lower

nodes and then erect, flowers purple. Usually in terminal panicles

of racemes with small bracts.

ILYSANTHES Raf.

39. Ilysanthes tenuifolia Urb.

.. Gamble: West Coast, Malabar and Travancore. _

Has. been observed in back-waters of Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

“(A small’ very slender tufted weak marsh herb with pale blue

flowers.

‘80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

BIGNONIACEAE

DOLICHANDRONE Fenzl.

40. Dolichandrone spathacea K. Schum.

Tam: Vilpadri.

Mal: Nipongilium.

Gamble:—West Coast, South Kanara to Travancore on the banks

of rivers and back-waters.

A fairly big tree rather scarce. Found on the edge of the back-

waters at Kasaragod. Solitary tree also found along back-waters of

Nileshwar (C.R.M.).

A big-sized deciduous tree producing abundant leaves and with

white flowers which open at night and then fall off. A tree recom-

mended to be grown along back-waters for green manure purposes.

ACANTH ACEAE

ACANTHUS i.

41. Acanthus ilicifolius Linn.

Tel: Alisi, Alchi.

_ Gamble :—East and West ca in tidal freee:

The Sea Holly. Large formations on the edge of the back-waters

at Ponnani, Chirakkal, Tellichery (Malabar) and Nileswar, Kasara-

god, Udipi, Basrur to Coondopur (S.K.), (C.R.M. & H.S.K.).

A gregarious shrub reaching 5 ft. in height with large blue flowers-

and spinous holly-like leaves, sharp spines also at the bases of the

petioles.

AsystTasiA Blume

42. Asystasia gangetica T. And.

Observed growing in the back-waters of Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

A straggling often somewhat climbing perennial herb with

smallish leaves and variable flowers white, blue, purple or yellow.

VERBENACEAE

CLERODENDRON Linn.

43. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn.

Fam: Pinchil.

Mal: Nirnocci.

Ter: Pisune.

Kan: Kundali.

Gamble :—Sea Coast on both sides in tidal forests often planted in

gardens and so perhaps run wild in land.

At the junction of the back-waters and sea at Kasaragod. Covers

a large area on the shore of the river at Nileshwar. Also on the

edges of back-waters at Udyavar, Malpe and, Uliaragoli near Udipi.

Often, Derris ‘uliginosa is found climbing on, these shrubs (C. R, M. &

H.S. K. ). mn

A straggling shrub with a brown drupe.

BACK-WATER FLORA OF THE W. COAST OF S. INDIA Sl

AVICENNIA Linn.

44. Avicennia officinalis Linn.

Tam: Upatham.

Mal: Orei.

Tel: Mada.

Kan: Uppoti.

Gamble :—West Coast, in South Kanara, Malabar, Cochin and

Travancore along the Coast in Creeks and tidal marshes.

The White Mangrove. Back-waters of, Malpe, Udyavar and

Coondapur (C.R.M. & H.S.K.).

A smail tree, wood grey, hard used only for fuel when others and

better kinds are not available.

27th July, 1887 (M.H. 40314) Beypore (Malabar) FI.

20th October, 1938 A.D. Calicut (M.H. 83620) Calicut (Malabar)

Root.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

ARISTOLOCHIA L.

45. Aristolochia indica L.

Tam: Icuraver.

Mal: Iswaramalli.

Bel=isara.

Kan: Iswarballi.

On the sand banks of back-waters at Kasaragod (C.R.M. &

EL bey. z

A perennial twiner with greenish white stem; a bitter plant said

to be an antidote for snakerbite.

EKUPHORBIACEAE

EXCOECARIA L.

46. Excoecaria agallocha Linn.

@am-s — ila.

Mal: Komatti.

Mele: “Eillae

Gamble :—Tidal forests and swamps of both coasts.

Tidal shores of Kasaragod, Udyavar, Nileshwar and Coondapur

(CURSE. & F.SiK,).

An evergreen tree with poisonous milky juice. Wood, white very

soft but apparently little used.

POTAMOGE TONACEAE

POTAMOGETON L.

47. Potamogeton javanicus Hassk.

Gamble :—In back-waters, Travancore.

Floating herbs with a few submerged leaves.

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY 'NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

: CYPERACEAE

BuLBostytis Kunth

48. Bulbostylis puberula Kunth.

On the edges of back-waters at Kasaragod (C.R.M.).

An annual herb, leaves very narrow. Stems very slender;

puberulous leaves sometimes longer than the stems.

RYNCHOSPORA Vahl.

49. Rynchospora wallichiana Kunth.

Gamble:—In back-waters; at Travancore.

Erect herb without rhizome.

GRAMINEAE

PANICcUM L.

50. Panicum repens L.

Tam: Tine: Pillu.

Tel: Ladda gaddi.

Kan: Santi hullu.

In sandy soils of back-waters at Udipi and at the edge of waters

at Kasaragod (C.R.M. & H.S.K.).

Culms creeping at the base with distichous leaves.

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

(1) The back-waters of Malabar and South Kanara districts from

Chetwayi to Baindur were surveyed up to a distance of about 4 to

5 miles from the sea-coast.

(2) The flora has been compiled, taking into account those plants

already recorded by other workers.

(3) The vernacular names of plants are also given with their

economic importance wherever possible.

REFERENCES

1. Blatter, E. (1905): The Mangrove of the Bombay Presidency and its Biology.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 16: 644-656.

2. Chandrasekharan, S. N. & C. Rajasekhara Mudaliar (1949): Some useful

plants for green manure purposes for the saline tracts of the Presidency. Madras

Agric. Journ., 36: 568-572.

3. Gamble, J. S. (1915-1931): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. London.

4. Hooker, J. D. (1875-1897): The Flora of British India. London.

5. Venkateswaralu, J. (1944): The Estuarine Flora of the Godavari. Journ.,

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 481-435.

—

A NOTE ON THE POSITION OF RHINOCEROS

IN THE UNION OF BURMA (1953)

US Tun: YIN

In the course of official duties in the Kachin State from March

1951 to February 1952, the writer had occasion to visit Putao (Fort

Hertz), Lonkhin and Hapkan in the Uyu drainage, Bhamo, Sinlum,

Sadon and Lauk Naung, and collected information about the position

of Rhino in the Kachin State. The writer also received information

in respect of the Rhino in the Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary.

In August 1953, Mr. E. P. Gee inquired about the Rhino population

and the places where they existed. The Chief Conservator of Forests

very kindly permitted the writer to go through the Annual Reports

on Forest Administration 1945-46 to 1950-51, received in his office

from the Conservators of Forests of the various Circles and Principal

Forest Officer, Shan States..

The present note is an attempt to supplement the note prepared

bynes Week. He Ansell in 1947 (/.B.N..83, Volz 47— No. 2; page

258 et seq.) and to bring it up to date.

The writer would like to express gratitude to the Chief

Conservator of Forests (U Kyaw Kine), Silviculturist (U Aung Din),

all the Forest Officers and Members of Parliament who have helped

him in the compilation of this note.

The following is a summary of information:

Rhinoceros sondaicus The Smaller One-Horned or Javan Rhinoceros.

In 1939-40 the Game Warden (F. J, Mustell) received information

‘that a Rhinoceros with calf was seen by Karen villagers in their

taungyas at the foot of the Kyaiktiyo Hill which is situated on the

border of Thaton and Pegu Districts. The villagers’ description of

the animal closely corresponds to that of the Javan Rhinoceros.’

These two animals were reported to be frequenting the environs

of Kyaiktiyo Pogoda up to the end of the year ending the 3oth

September, 1949. The area has since been under occupation by the

Karen insurgents, and no attempt could therefore be made to identify

the species and no further information is available.

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis The Sumatran Two-Horned Rhinoceros.

(a) The Shwe-U-Daung Sanctuary.

The Divisional Forest Officer, Mong Mit Division, visited the

Sanctuary in April 1948. He did not actually see one, but came

across fresh tracks of rhinoceros and also a month-old spoor of a

cow rhinoceros with a calf at heel. The Range Officer saw a rhinoceros

in a mud wallow in May 1948. The Divisional Forest Officer, after

sifting available evidence, came to the conclusion ‘that despite poaching

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SAIST SOCIETY V olsun

there are approximately 4-5 rhinoceros in the Mong Mit sector of

the Sanctuary.’

The Range Officer, Thabeitkyin, reported (1950-51) one male, one

cow and one calf rhinoceros in Katha East (Burma) sector. But in

1952 the writer learnt that three of these rare animals had been shot

in the Sanctuary, one under a special licence issued to the Mahadevi

of Mong Mit, for medicinal purposes, and two illicitly by the Shan

hunters.

If any D. sumatrensis still exist in the Sanctuary, there cannot

be more than two to three individuals. |

The report of the Divisional Forest Officers; Mong Mit Division,

and the case of the two D. sumatrensis referred to above should

dispel the doubts of all people who are inclined to believe in the legend

that the mountain spirits of Shwe-U-Daung do not like poaching.

(b) Avakan Yoma.

Thiri Pyanchi U Son Nein, M.P. Chin Hills, informed the writer

(September 1953) that he saw fresh tracks of a rhino on Lontin Hill

between Matupi and Kanpetlet, and that a villager from Paletwa

also saw a rhino in Bigon forests between Matupi and Paletwa in

May 1953. If not idertical, this area probably adjoins the areas where

during the Arakan campaign, the special patrols saw a rhino about

15 miles north-east of Paletwa in January 1944 and a second rhino

about 25 miles east of Paletwa in April 1944. See the areas marked

by Gen. Christison on his map. (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.,

45 (2) 1945).

The writer crossed over the Arakan Yoma from Padaung to

Taungup and back to Padaung in February 1946, when he was

informed of an area where rhino then existed. It may be the area

marked almost midway between Sandoway and =~Prome by Gen.

Christison on his map.

{c)) Pegu Yoma,

In paragraph 55. of the Annual Report on Game Preservation in

Burma for the year ending 31st March 1940, it is stated that the

Divisional Forest Officer, Tharrawaddy Division, found fresh

rhinoceros tracks on Sanwingan Hill. The Divisional Forest Officer,

Tharrawaddy, referred to is U Aung Din, who is now Silviculturist,

Burma. A Karen forester who was down in Rangoon recently informed

me that there are two rhinoceros surviving in the Zamayi Reserve,

Pegu Forest Division. The animals were seen in 1952. Zamayi Forest

Reserve is in the upper reaches of the Pegu River.

U Aung Din informed the writer (September 1953) that he found

tracks of two rhino at the source of Thounze chaung on the Pegu

Yoma. U Aung Din on his revisit to the same area in 1945, took

pains to enquire about the two rhino and was informed that one

of the two rhino had been shot by the Karens.

Shwelaung chaung, referred to by Mr. Ansell, is a feeder of the

Pegu River. The source is in the Pegu Yoma. So is Saing chaung

where Messrs. Vernay and Percy Smith shot a specimen for the South

Asiatic Hall of the American Museum of Natural History.

RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA 85

Between 1922 and 1926, the writer made several trips after bison

and tsaing up Shwelaung chaung, Kawliya chaung and Baingda

chaungs. The writer met a Karen hunter (Nauk To) who had shot

four rhino, and was irformed of a pocket on the Pegu Yoma where

there were at least 4 to 6 rhino. The area is somewhere west. of

Penwegon on the Rargoon Mandalay line. It is possible that the

area referred by Mr. Ansell ‘exact locality not stated but probably

north-west of Pegu’, is the same area of which the writer received

information in 1926. There may still be few specimens surviving in

this area.

(d) Uyu River Drainage Area.

The Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, estimated that there

were about 5 rhinoceros in Nan-Ka-Za and Nan-Yoke-Chaungs,

unclaimed forests, Uyu drainage, Katha West Forest Division in

1950-51.

The writer visited Lonkhin and Hpakan, in the Jade Mines in

August 1951. Both the villages are on the bank of the Uyu River.

At Hpakan the writer met the headman of Lassai Tract and learnt

that a rhino was shot in the dense jungles near Kungsai in November

1949, that a few rhinoceros had been shot in the past and that some

3 or 4 specimens still exist in the area. As the centre for jade mining,

the population of Hpakan is predominantly Chinese. The Laisai

Chins often visit Hpakan to sell rhino horn and blood to the Chinese.

In December 1949 when the Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina, was

camping at Haungpa on the Chindwin River, the Laisai Duwa

presented the Deputy Commissioner with a rhino horn. It is possible

that this horn is from the rhino shot in November 1949.

The rhino in the Uyu drainage area would eventually be shot out.

(e) Kahilu Sanctuary.

In 1948 ‘Rhinoceros sumatrensis were reported seen occasionally’.

The area has been under occupation of Karen insurgents and no report

has been received since.

(f) Tenasserim Peninsula.

Annual Report on Forest Administration for the year ending 31st

September 1951 from the Conservator of Forests, Marinetine Circle,

merely mentions that rhinoceros are reported to exist in the unclassed

forests, Victoria Point Range. The writer has not been able to

obtain any information from the area. It is doubtful whether any

rhino now exist in Tavoy-Mergui Forest Division. Some of the

wolfram mines are situated in the areas which were once the habitat

of both Rhinoceros sondaicus and Dicerorhinus sumatrensis. There has

also been extensive poaching by Thais. The areas in Tavoy-Mergui

Forest Division are at present under occupation by underground

communists and Karen insurgents.

In the Yechaung Reserves of Ataran Division mentioned in para-

graph 55 of the Annual! Report on Game Preservation for the year

ending 31st March 1940, there may still be an isolated specimen or

two if they have not already been poached by the Thais.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The writer was at the source of Yechaung when he was urgently

recalled on 2nd December 1941. The writer was then informed of a

large rhino on the Tenasserim Yoma. .

A statement in Mr. Ansell’s note may be corrected: Mt. Mulayit

is in Ataran Forest Division, Amherst District, and not in Mergui

District which is in Tavoy-Mergui Forest Division.

(g) Bhamo Area. Rhino shot in early 1946.

Duwa Zau Lun, Head of the Kachin State, very kindly furnished

the writer with a sketch map showing the track of the rhino. The

rhino first seen in the Kauk-Nwa valley, crossed the Irrawaddy River,

Wilatha Hills, the Taping River, a feeder of the Irrawaddy, and was

eventually shot in the Maubin tract by the Shans. U Hla

Pe, Lecturer, Faculty of Forests, University College, was assistant

to the Divisional Forest Officer, Bhamo Division (Mr. Maxwell) in

1945-46. U Hla Pe informed the writer that the case was burked

by the villagers and that he began to hear whispers long after the

rhino had been shot, and was informed that the villagers did not

know that the strange animal which charged the village buffaloes

was a rhino, and that the rhino was shot only when the villagers

came to know that the strange animal was the rare and valuable

animal.

From Duwa Zau Lun’s account, two facts are disclosed :—

(1) The rhino was not a wanderer from the Shwe-U-Daung

Sanctuary.

(2) A rhino could swim across a river as wide asi the Irrawaddy.

U Gyi Htein Nan, Finance Minister, Kachin State, was in charge

of the range before his retirement from Service in the Forest Depart-

ment of the Union Government. He informed the writer that a rhino

had previously been shot in the Sadon Area in 1927. This area is

on the east bank of the Irrawaddy and adjoins the Bhamo area. In

1931 a rhinoceros crossed the Uyu drainage, came within five miles

of the railway line near Nansiaung in the Katha West Forest Division.

and was shot by a Kachin. In 1932, another rhinoceros came over

from the Uyu drainage into the Nami and Ledan valleys, Mansi-

Katha Division, during the cold weather, crossed the Indaw Banmauk

road in the south and headed for the Meza chaung.

In 1936 an assistant of Messrs. The Bombay Burma Trading

Corporation Limited saw a rhinoceros on the left bank of the Uyu

stream in Katha West Forest Division. In the same year a rhinoceros

was shot by Kachins in Nanyin Kha Reserves, Myitkina Forest

Division.

During December 1939 a rhinoceros was reported in the lower Uyu

valley, Katha West Forest Division. U Gyi Htein Nan is definite

that all these animals came from Taungthonlon, an extinct volcano

North of Mansi, Katha West Forest Division. Very little is known

of this region and its fauna.

RHINOCEROS IN THE UNION OF BURMA 37

(h) Myitkyina Area.

‘Peacock mentions parts of Myitkyina as locations (or former

locations) of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis’ (fourn., Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Wole 47 (2)-p. 260, 1947).

The nite: has no idea of the locations eiencubed by Peacock.

When the writer visited Putao in December 1951, he was informed

of a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis shot by a Lishu hunter on Mansi Likun

Hills in 1943.

The Manse Sawbwa received the posterior horn and some dried

blood.

Mr. Sanhta Seng, Parliamentary Secretary, informed the writer

(September 1953) that the Kachins believe the posterior horn alone to

be efficacious, the anterior horn is only a protection to the posterior

horn and is of no value to Kachins.

Mr. Sanhta Seng estimated from 4 to 6 species of D. sumatrensis

still surviving in the Nam Lang Valley.

REFERENCES

Annual Report on Game Preservation in Burma, (1928-29 to 1940-41).

Report on Forest Administration in Burma, (1945-46 to 1950-51).

Report on Forest Administration in the Shan State, (1948-49 and 1950-51).

Christison, Lt.-Gen. Philip (1945): The present distribution of Dicerorhinus

sumatrensis in Arakan. Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 45 (4) A: 603.

5. Ansell, W. F. H. (1947): A Note on the Position of Rhinoceros in Burma.

Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., ¥T (2) A: 249.

Ss Nice

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA

S. L. Nayar

(Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow)

ParT I

INTRODUCTION

India possesses a _ variety of soils, climatic conditions and

altitudes and these have naturally made the country a _ veritable

nursery for medicinal, poisonous and food plants of ali descriptions.

Many of these are native to India, while others are exotics, which

have been introduced and got naturalized in course of time. More

than 2,000 such plants have been enumerated in the literature of

indigenous medicine which are alleged to have medicinal properties

of some description or other and many of these are still in use in

some form or other. The majority of these plants have not yet been

fully investigated.

By the metabolic activity of plants are produced not only the

food materials so essential for life, but also certain other substances,

such as alkaloids, glucosides, toxalbumins, essential oils, resins,

bitter principles etc. Some of these principles are so powerful and

toxic that death may ensue when these enter the human or animal

system in sufficient strength.

Whatever be the significance of toxic substances found in the

vegetable kingdom, the fact must be remembered that they are

associated with plants which manufacture food for man and animals,

without which it would be impossible to live. It should be borne

in mind that they are at once our friends and our enemies. Most

of the plants which are harmful to man and livestock in large

quantities, produce remarkably beneficial effects in small and re-

gulated doses. The potent properties of these poisonous plants or

their parts are utilized in the treatment of diseases to alleviate the

sufferings of man and animals. From the economic point of view,

therefore, this group of plants is of very great importance in as

much as it provides .us with medicinal agents of every description.

The destruction of insects, those great enemies of social and economic

progress, by means of vegetable resources is becoming increasingly

important in the economy of the civilized world. The poisonous

plants have also been used by man for fighting his enemies and for

procuring. his food by killing animals by their use. To catch fish

as an article of diet, man has from time immemorial utilized poisonous

plants. Of great use as the poisonous plants are to mankind, their

presence in our midst is also a menace to man and livestock, pro-

ducing death or illness through accident, ignorance or intention.

The study of poisonous plants of any country with a view to assessing

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 82

their harmful properties is, therefore, of prime importance, and

increased knowledge in this direction and judicious utilization of the

same is bound to be of immense benefit both from the scientific,

toxicological, and economic points of view.

Our knowledge of the chemical constituents of plants or their

parts has advanced rapidly in recent years, and the constituents res-

ponsible for the specific physiological action of the plant or its parts

have in many cases been isolated, purified, and identified as definite

chemical compounds. The pharmacological action of many of these

has been studied by modern methods and we are now in possession

of more exact knowledge of the action of the drugs containing these

constituents. A good deal of work, however, has yet to be done in

connection with the isolation and elucidation of the chemical nature

of many other toxic or physiologically active constituents known to

be present in various plants. Quite a large number of plants known

or suspected to be toxic remain uninvestigated and this is particularly

the case with the Indian flora.

It is well known that different parts of a plant vary considerably

in the amount of toxic principles contained in them. Thus the

toxicity of the seeds, fruits, flowers, leaves, stems and roots varies

considerably in almost every plant, even at the same stage of its

growth. All parts of the plants are not necessarily poisonous. One

Or more parts of a plant may be poisonous, while the remaining ones

may be quite harmless and may even form a part of the human or

animal diet. The seeds of several members of the family Rosaceae

contain dangerous amounts of prussic acid, while the outer fleshy

portion of the fruit is commonly eaten. As an example may be cited

the common instances of peach, plum, and some forms of apricots,

the kernels of which may contain dangerous quantities of hydrocyanic

acid but the outer portions of their fruits are quite safe and edible.

In this paper it is intended to discuss the poisonous seeds of

India, and in the following pages are dealt with the names of such

seed-bearing plants i.e. the source plants, their families, their English

and some important Indian names, their distribution in India; the

chemical constituents of the seeds, their poisonous properties and

other general information so far as these are known are also indicated

in each case. In addition to very careful and up-to-date library

work, effort has been made to supplement already available data by

additional data collected personally by the author during field work

and in the course.of botanical explorations in different parts of India

extending over a period of several years. The information contained

herein is primarily of scientific interest and will serve as a basis for

future work, and it is believed will be useful as a reference work and

guide for all those interested and engaged in research work on the

Indian indigenous drugs, particularly the poisonous seed drugs.

The following are the abbreviations used for the vernacular

names :— 5

Be. Bengali; Bo. Bombay; Hi. Hindi; Kash. Kashmir ; Kum.

Kumaon; Lep. Lepcha; Mal. Malayalam; Mar. Marathi; Nep. Nepali;

Pers. Persian; Pun. Punjabi; Sans. Sanskrit; Tam. Tamil; Tel.

Telugu. |

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY GNATURAL WAIST SOCIETY “Viol ms2

1. Abrus precatorius Linn. (Leguminosae),

English names.—Crabs Eyes, Jequirity, Prayer Beads.

Indian names.—Be. Gunch; Bo. Gungchi; Hi. Rati; Sans. Gunja;

Tam. Gunduman; Tel. Guriginja.

Distribution.—A beautiful climbing shrub found throughout the

greater part of India ascending the outer Himalayas to an altitude

of 3,500 ft., and is sometimes planted in gardens.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the toxalbumin, ‘abrin’

consisting of a globulin and a proteose (1). Seeds also contain a

crystalline nitrogenous compound called abrine and an amorphous

glucosidic substance abraline with a mild bitter taste (2, 3, 4).

Remarks.—The seeds are intensely poisonous, their toxicity

depending on the manner in which they are administered. The

whole seed may be swallowed with impunity, because the outer

covering is so hard that the seeds escape disintegration and the

toxin is not freed. If chewed before it is swallowed half a seed may

cause poisoning in man (5). Simpson and ‘Bannerji (123) fed the

seeds. to horses, goats, cattle and dogs in the form of a bolus. The

horses showed symptoms of poisoning after having received 4 oz.

of the seed, while 2 oz. sufficed to produce death within 18 hours.

If eaten uncooked, they have purgative and emetic properties and,

in large doses, give rise to symptoms resembling those of cholera

(7). When taken internally by women they are said to disturb the

uterine functions, and to prevent conception. The seeds ground into

a paste and the mass made into sharp pointed needles are used to

procure criminal abortion. When powdered and introduced into the

system by subcutaneous route the seeds produce fatal results. In

India they are especially employed for poisoning cattle, for procuring

criminal abortion and occasionally also for homicidal purposes.

Abrin is highly toxic, the lethal dose for animals being claimed

to be 0.01 mg. per kilo of weight.

2. Aconitum (Ranunculaceae).

English names.—Aconite, Monkshood.

Distribution.—Biennial, perennial, rarely annual herbs confined to

the subalpine and alpine zones of the Himalayas from Kashmir to

Nepal, and extending to the hills of Assam.

Constituents.—Aconites contain a number of alkaloids of which the

most important are aconitine, indaconitine, pseudaconitine, bikha-

conitine, etc., besides atisine and palmatisine which are considered

nonpoisonous. ‘

Remarks.—All parts of the aconite plant are poisonous. In the

case of A. napellus Linn. which is a foreign plant, roots, seeds and

leaves are poisonous in a descending order (8). It is possible that a

number of Indian aconites also behave in the same way, but this has

not been definitely ascertained.

3. Amorphophallus sylvaticus (Roxb.) Kunth syn. Synantherias

sylvatica Schott (Araceae).

Indian names.—Mar. Wajramuta; Sans. Vanja, Vanakanda.

Distribution.—A tuberous herb found in the Madras State in the

Circars, Nilgiris and Coorg. Its occurrence in the Bombay State as

POISONGUS SERDS OF INDIA 91

reported by the Flora of British India and some other works has

been doubted by Cooke (9).

Remarks.—The crushed seeds when applied locally produce

numbness. When swallowed it instantaneously produces a most

painful irritation of the tongue and lips which lasts for a long time

and causes much salivation and subsequent numbness (10).

4. Anamirta cocculus (Linn.) Wight & Arn. syn. 4. paniculata

Colebr. (Menispermaceae).

English names.—Crow Killer, Poison Berry.

Indian names.—Be., Hi., Sans. & Tel. Kakamari; Bo. Kakaphala;

Mal. Pola.

Distribution.—A large climbing shrub found in Assam, Eastern

Bengal, Oudh, Orissa, and Konkan southwards to Ceylon.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain picrotoxin, a crystallizable

nonalkaloidal compound of definite chemical composition, to the

extent Of about 1.5 per cent (11, 12).

Remarks.—The fruits which are highly poisonous owe _ their

activity to the presence of picrotoxin which is contained in the seeds

but not in the pericarp. In fact the pericarp is non-poisonous and

an entire drupe might, therefore, pass through the body without

producing untoward symptoms (14). The fruits are used in India to

poison fish and crows, and. rarely for poisoning cattle. Picrotoxin

is a stimulant to apparently all the emissive centers of the cerebro-

spinal axis affecting the cerebrum, the medulla and spinal cord. It

causes in all vertebrates, when given in sufficient dose, violent convul-

sions which are sometimes cerebral, sometimes spinal and sometimes

medullary, according to the species of the animal.

5. Anemone obtusiloba D. Don (Ranunculaceae).

Indian names.—Kum. Kakriva, Ratanjota; Pun. Padar, Ratan-

jota.

Distribution.—A densely tufted perennial herb found in the tem-

perate and alpine Himalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudes

of 7,000 to 15,000 ft. above sea level.

Remarks.—The seeds, if given internally, produce vomiting and

purging.

6. Annona reticulata Linn. (Annonaceae).

English names.—Bullocks Heart, Common Custardapple.

Indian names.—Be. Nona; Bo. & Hi. Ramphal; Sans. Ramphala ;

Tam. Ramachita; Tel. Ramphalamu.

Disiribution.—A small tree naturalized in Bengal and elsewhere.

It is cultivated but not so extensively as A. squamosa Linn.

_ Remarks.—Most of the information given under A. squamosa also

holds good in the case of this plant.

7, Annona squamosa Linn. (Annonaceae).

English names.—Custard Apple, Sugar-Apple, Sweet Sop.

Indian names.—Be. Luna; Hi. Shariphal, Sitaphal; Sans.

Sitaphala, Suda; Tam. Sitapalam; Tel. Sitaphalamu.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Distribution.—A tree about 20 ft. high naturalized in several

parts of India. It is met with under cultivation and also as an

escape. ;

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds yield an oil and a resin which

contains an acrid principle (7). Seeds also contain an amorphous

alkaloid but no glucoside (15).

Remarks.—Subramaniam (16) has studied the plant and has con-

cluded that the powdered seeds are fatal to insects. The powdered

seeds are also powerfully irritant to the conjunctiva; a case has been

reported of a life convict who, in order to escape from being sent to the

Andamans, put the seed powder into his eyes and destroyed both his

cornea, resulting in total blindness (17). When applied to osuter:

the powdered seeds are irritant and said to produce abortion. The

seeds are also used to kill lice.

8. Areca catechu Linn. (Palmae).

English names.—Areca Nut, Betel Nut.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Supari; Sans. Akota, Ghonta; Tam.

Kugagam; Tel. Kolapoka.

Distribution.—A slender graceful palm extensively cultivated within

the moist tropical tracts that fringe the coast of India, and practically

within the belt of land that, with a few exceptions, does not extend

inland for more than 200 miles and generally not above 3,000 ft. in

altitude. There are large scale cultivations in southern and western

India, Assam and Bengal and it flourishes well in Malabar, Kanara

and Mysore. Often found in gardens where it is grown for orna-

mental purposes.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain the alkaloid arecoline

to the extent of about 0.1 per cent which is a highly toxic subr

stance. Other alkaloids present are guvacine, guvacoline, arecaidine

and arecolidine. ;

Remarks.—There are various kinds of the seeds. When chewed

in excess the young and undried seeds of some give rise to temporary

giddiness and large doses produce griping and irritation followed by

loose motions. The symptoms of poisoning resemble those of fungus

poisoning (muscarine).

9. Argemone mexicana Linn. (Papaveraceae).

English names.—Mexican Poppy, Yellow Mexican Poppy.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Shialkanta; Sans. Rukmini, Srigala-

Rana; Tam. Kurukkum; Tel. Brahmadandi.

Distribution.—A robust prickly herbaceous annual of American

origin which has become completely naturalized in India and grows

wild all over the country in waste lands and along road sides.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds as well as the herb contain

two alkaloids, herbetine and protopine. Dragendroff found the seeds

to contain an alkaloid which gave reactions closely resembling those

given by morphine (14), but this plant has been shown to contain no

morphine. The presence of traces of alkaloids in the expressed oil

reported by earlier workers was confirmed some years back by

investigations carried out at the School of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta.

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 93

Remarks.—The seeds which bear a superficial resemblance to

ihe black mustard seeds are stated by many authors to possess narcotic

properties. Moodeen Sheriff, however, claims that even in doses of

two drachms and a half they are not narcotic (7). On expression

the seeds yield a pale-yellow clear limpid oil to the extent of about '

36 per cent which is known as ‘Katakar oil’ or the Argemone oil and

is occasionally found as an adulterant of mustard oil in India. The

adulterated oil produces a condition which is clinically indistinguish-

able from the disease called Epidemic Dropsy. During the course

of work on the aetiology of epidemic dropsy at the School of Tropical

Medicine and All India Institute of Hygiene and Public Health at

Calcutta, it was found that Argemone oil was present in mustard

oils incriminated in the outbreaks of this disease in many places (18).

10. Aruncus sylvester Kostel. syn. Spiraea’ auruncus Linn.

(Rosaceae).

Distribution.—A_ shrub-like dioecious herb found in the Western

and Central Temperate Himalayas.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds are stated to contain a

saponin (10).

Remarks.—The seeds are stated to be poisonous.

11. Atropa acuminata Royle (Solanaceae).

English names.—Indian Atropa, Indian belladonna.

Indian names.—Be. Yebruj; Hi. Angur shefa; Kash. Mait brand.

Distribution.—A tall straight herb growing wild in the Western

Himalayas from Kagan and Kashmir to Simla at altitudes of 6,000

to 11,000 ft. above sea level.

Gonstiients of the seeds.—Seeds contain enone and hyoscya-

mine, chiefly hyoscyamine.

Remarks.—Same as for next species.

12. Atropa belladonna Linn. (Solanaceae).

English names.—Belladonna, Deadly Nightshade.

Indian names.—Kash. Mait brand.

Distribution.—An erect herb cultivated to a small extent in

Kashmir.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain atropine and hyoscya-

mine, the total alkaloidal content being about 0.8 per cent chiefly

hyoscyamine (11). In the fresh condition, the seeds, ripe fruits and

leaves contain the largest amount of alkal oids (72).

Remarks.—The whole fruit including the seeds are _ intensely

poisonous and cases of poisoning are reported from all parts of the

world where the belladonna plant grows and are usually accidental,

due to eating the berries through ignorance. Ingestion of a few

berries is sufficient to cause death.

13. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. syn. Melia azadirachta Linn.

(Meliaceae).

English names.—Margosa Tree, Neem Tree.

Indian names.—Be., Hi. & Bo. Nim; Sans. Nimba; Tam. Vembu;

Tel. Vemu.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Distribution.—A medium-sized evergreen tree planted all over

India; grows wild in the dry forests of the Deccan.

Constituents of the seeds.—Amorphous bitter principle and a

crystalline substance, margosopicrin. Seeds also contain a _ bitter

fixed oil with objectionable odour due to the presence of sulphur

compounds and some fatty acids (20). The oil from seeds contain

two bitter substances (21). Seeds are reported to contain up to 45

per cent of oil.

Remarks.—Seeds are poisonous in large doses to man and some

animals, producing gastro-intestinal irritation and~ severe purgation.

14, Baliospermum montanum Muell. Arg. syn. B avxillare Blume

(Euphourbiaceae).

Indian names.—Be., Hi. & Sans. Danti; Bo. Dantimul; Tam.

Nivadimutta; Tel. Nelajidi.

Distribution.—A stout leafy undershrub found in the outer ranges

of the Himalayas from Kashmir to Bhutan up to an altitude of 3,000

ft., also in Assam, Khasia hills, Northern and Eastern Bengal, Bihar

and from Central and Western India to Travancore.

Remarks.—The seeds are used as a drastic purgative, but in large

doses are an acronarcotic poison. They are sometimes used as a

substitute for croton seeds (Croton tiglium Linn.) and are often sold

in the bazaars under the vernacular name of ‘Jamalgota’. The oil

expressed from the seeds is also a powerful hydragogue cathartic (7).

15. Barringtonia acutangula (Linn.) Gaertn. (Lecythidaceae).

English names.—Indian Oak; Small Indian Oak. :

Indian names.—Be. Hijal; Bo. Ijal; Hi. Hijgal; Sans. Hijjala;

Tam. Aram; Tel. Kadamu.

Distribution.—A small or medium-sized tree most plentiful in

Bengal, especially near the coast beyond the tidal range. Also fre-

quently found in Kanara and Bombay along the banks of streams.

It is fairly common in the Sub-Himalayan tracts, east of the Jumna,

in Bihar, Orissa, Bengal, Assam, the Madhya Pradesh and South

India.

Remarks.—The seeds are said to be used to stupefy fish in many

parts of India {10). _

16, Barringtonia asiatica (Linn.) Kurz syn. B. speciosa Forst.

(Lecythidaceae).

Indian names.—Tam. Semmuli; Tel. Suvaponna.

Distribution.—A rather small or moderate-sized tree, native of

the Andaman Islands, Singapore and Ceylon. Also occurs~-on the

southern Deccan Peninsula, but not in a wild state.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 3.27 per cent of a

elucosidic saponin, barringtonin, and 1 per cent of a substance de-

signated as barringtogenetin (22). Seeds contain HCN in high

concentration (23).

Remarks.—The seeds are said to be a fish poison. Kernel is used

as a fish poison and for homicide and suicide (23),

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 95

17. Barringtonia racemosa (Linn.) Roxb. (Lecythidaceae).

English names.—Indian Oak. :

Indian names.—Be. Kunda; Hi. Ijjul; Mar. Nivar; Sans. Nipa;

Tam. Isudaru; Tel. Kanapa.

Distribution.—An evergreen ornamental tree common along the

Western Coast from Konkan to Travancore and from the Sunderbans.

eastwards.

Remarks.—The seed is used as a _ household vermifuge in

Madagascar and is stated to be a fish poison (24).

18. Butea monosperma ({Lam.) Kuntze syn. B. frondosa Koen.

ex Roxb. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Bengal Kino, Butea Gum.

Indian names.—Be. Palas; Bo. Palasa; Hi. Dhak, Palas; Sans.

Palasha; Tam. Puppalasu; Tel. Palasomu.

Distribution._-A small or medium-sized tree common throughout

ihe greater part of India up to 3,000 ft., sometimes up to 4,000 ft.

Constituents of the seeds.—Fixed oil, a small quantity of a resin

and a large quantity of a water-soluble albuminoid in the seeds (25).

The seeds contain 18 per cent of a yellow, tasteless oil (26). Fresh

seeds contain proteolytic and lypolytic enzymes (27).

Remarks.—Magegots are killed by sprinkling the powdered seeds

over them (17). The native practitioners in India use the seeds as.

a vermifuge against both the tapeworm and round worm. ‘The seeds

when pounded with lemon juice and applied to the skin, act as a

rubefacient; when made into a paste, they are used as a remedy

against ring worm (7).

19, Canavalia ensiformis (Linn.) DC. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Broad Bean, Sword Bean.

Indian names.—Be. Mekhun; Bo. Gaivara; Hi. Kadsambu, Sema;

sans. Shimbi; Tam. Kattuttambattan; Tel. Karutamina.

Distribution.—A perennial or biennial herb cultivated throughout

India for its young tender pods and seeds which are used as

vegetables.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain three globulins, con-

canavalin A, concanavalin B and concanavalin (28, 29), of which con-

canavalin A has been shown to be toxic to rabbits when a sufficiently

large dose is injected (30).

Remarks.—According to Haines (31) the plant is usually grown as.

an annual as ‘the natives say that subsequent crops of seeds are more

or less poisonous.’ .

20. Canavalia virosa Wight & Arn. syn. C. ensiformis (Linn.)

DC., var. virosa Baker. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Wild Sword Bean.

Indian names.—Be. Kathshim; Bo. Assambal; Hi. Sem; Mal.

Kattuvalamara; Sans. Shimbi; Tel. Karutamma.

Distribution.—A climbing perennial found wild in Bundelkhand,

Purnea, Puri, Angul and the other parts of India.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST SOCIETY. Vol. 52

Remarks.—According to Haines (31) the seeds are reputed

poisonous, but the young pods are sometimes eaten, the former are

said to havea bitter taste.

21. Carica papaya Linn. (Caricaceae).

English names.—-Papaya, Papeta.

Indian names.—Be. Papeyva; Bo. Papar; Wi.-. Papaya,” Papiia ;

Sans. Ciirbiuia; Tam. Pappayi;> Vel Boppanz.

Distribution.—An almost branchless, soft-wooded, small tree

cultivated and more or less naturalized throughout India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain only traces of carpaine

(32,33). The seeds contain 0.35 per cent alkaloid carpasemine (34).

The seeds are stated to contain a glucoside and a ferment.. The

glucoside resembles sinigrin, and on hydrolysis yields a_ volatile

pungent body in the same way as mustard (13}. The seeds are also

stated to yield an essential oil containing sulphur and nitrogenous

compounds (IT).

Remarks.—Seeds anthelmintic and emmenagogue. A_ belief in

their powerful emmenagogue properties prevails among all classes of

women in southern India, who assert that if a pregnant woman

partakes of them even in moderate quantities, abortion will result (10).

22. Centratherum anthelminticum Willd.) Kuntze syn. Vernonia

anthelmintica Willd. (Compositae).

English name.—Purple Fleabane.

Indian names.—Be. Babchi; Bo. Kalenjin; Hi. Somrajz; Kum.

Kaliivi; Sans. Somraji; Tam. Sittilat; Tel. Nelavavilt.

Distribuiion.—A tali annual met with throughout India up to 5,coo

ft. on the Himalayas and Khasia hills.

Constituents of the seeds.—Bitter principle in the seeds (35). The

seeds contain the bitter resin (36).

Remarks.—In Travancore, the bruised seeds ground up into a

paste with lime juice are largely employed for destroying pediculi in

the head and body. 60 and go per cent alcoholic extracts of the seed

resin have good anthelmintic action against thread worms (36).

23. Cerbera manghas Linn. syn. C. odollam Gaertn. (Apocynaceae)

Indian names.—Be. Dhakur; Mal. Utalam; Mar. Sukanu; Tam.

Udalat.

Distribution.—A small tree or a large shrub found throughout

India in the salt swamps or on the sea coast. Abundant on the

Malabar Coast but not very common in the Bombay State and else-

where.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a glucoside named

cerberin. Kernels contain cerberin and cerberoside (37).

Remarks.—Cerberin has a digitalis-like action and is very poison-

ous. In dogs, cats and rabbits subcutaneous injection produces

vomiting, diarrhoea, paralysis of the heart and rise of blood

pressure. Lethal dose for dog is 1.8 mg., for cats 3.1 mg. and for

rabbits 50 mg. per kgm. (38). Cerberin and cerberoside both have

a digitalis-like action, the former several times more potent in cats

and frogs (37).

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA — 97

24. Cheiranthus cheiri Linn. (Cruciferae).

English names.—Banwort, Gilli-flower.

Indian names.—Be. Khueri; Hi. Todrisurkh.

Distribution.—A foreign shrub-like herb, cultivated in gardens all

over India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Contains the glucoside cheiranthin

which is present in the largest amount in the seeds. The seeds

‘contain a highly active cardiac glycoside, called cheiro-toxin, which

yielded strophanthidin as the aglycone (124). |

Remarks.—The glucoside is a violent cardiac poison.

25. Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. (Chenopodiaceae).

English name.—American Wormseed.

Indian name.—Mal. Katuayamodakam.

Distribution.—An erect aromatic herb found in Kashmir, the

Central Punjab, Bihar, Bengal, Sylhet, Bombay State, the Deccan

and in the Western Ghats of the Madras State up to 7,000 ft. above

sea level.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain an essential oil and

saponins. The yield of oil is 0.24 per cent (39), and is found in the

largest quantity in the seeds.

Remarks.—Poisoning from the plant is not likely as it is not

eaten by animals under ordinary circumstances. Cases of poisoning

have, however, been recorded due to the use of the oil in medicine or

by accident.

26. Chrozophora rottleri A. Juss ex. Spreng. syn. C. _ plicata

Hook. {5 nonvA. jJuss., in Fl. Brit. Ind., in part; C.-tinctona

Hook. f. non'A. Juss., in Fl, Brit. Ind., in part (Euphorbiaceae).

“English name.—Turnsole.

Indian names.—Hi. Sonballi; Mar. Suravarta; Pun. Nilan; Sans.

Suryavarta.

Distribution.—An erect annual or sometimes perennial found in

avaste places, fields and by the roadside in northern, central, southern

and western India. In the plains of the Punjab it is somewhat rare,

but is common from Sind and the Upper Gangetic Plain southwards

to Coromandel; it is not found in Malabar. From the Upper Gangetic

Plain it extends to the Lower Gangetic Plain, thence into the valleys

of the Brahamaputra and the Surma.

Remarks.—The seeds possess cathartic properties.

27. Cleome felina Linn. f. (Capparidaceae).

Indian name.—Mal. Ariavila.

Distribution.—An erect much branched annual found in the dry

districts of the Deccan and Carnatic, especially on black cotton soil.

Constituents of the seeds.—It is probable that the seeds contain a

sharp essential oil which is present in other members of this genus,

Remarks.—The seeds are rubifacient and vesicant.

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

28. Cleome icosandra Linn. syn. C. viscosa Linn. (Capparidaceae).

Indian names.—Be. Hurhuria; Hi. Hurhureh; Mar. Harhuria;

Sans. Suryalata; Tam. Nayikkadugu; Tel. Kukhavominta.

Distribution.—An erect annual herb commonly met with as a

weed throughout the greater part of India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a sharp essential oil (11)

and 0.1 per cent viscosic acid and 0.04 per cent viscosin (40).

Remarks.—The seeds which are often used to adulterate mustard

seeds in India are rubifacient and vesicant and according to Moodeen

Sheriff (7) are much superior to mustard seeds in these respects. —

29. Colchicum luteum Baker (Liliaceae).

Indian names.—Hi. Hirantutiya; Sans. Hiranyatutha.

Distribution.—A small plant ‘found in the Western Temperate

Himalayas from Kagan and Kashmir to Chamba at altitudes of 3,000

to 8,o00 ft., usually in open grassy places. Grows abundantly near

Srinagar and on roadsides from Garhi to Baramulla.

Constituents of the seeds.—Chopra and his collaborators obtained

0.41 to 0.43 per cent of an alkaloid from the seeds which has the same

properties as colchicine obtained from the foreign plant C. autumnale

Linn. and could be used thereapeutically for the same purpose (41, 42).

dkemarks.—The seeds are intensely poisonous and several cases

of poisoning have been reported. A few children were reported to

have been poisoned at Kuldana in Rawalpindi through eating the

seeds. The seeds on analysis yielded colchicine of which the

hundredth part of a grain proved fatal to cats (43).

30. Coriaria nepalensis Wall. {Coriariaceae).

English name.—Mussoorie Berry.

Indian names.—Hi. Masuri; Kum. Ayar; Nep. Bhojinsi; Simla.

Archarru.

Distribution.—A large shrub found in the outer Himalayas from

the Indus to Bhutan, ascending to an altitude of 8,000 ft: in the

North-West and to 11,000 ft. in Sikkim. It is also found in

Manipore.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds of the foreign species C. myrtifolia

Linn. contain the glucoside, coriamyrtin, which is a tetanic poison

(11). It is possible that the Indian species also contains the identical

glucoside.

Remarks.—Seeds stated to produce, sometimes, symptoms re-

sembling tetanus (7).

31. Croton oblongifolius Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae).

Indian names.—Be. Baragach; Mar. Gunsur; Nep. Ach; Sans.

Bhutankusa; Tam. Milgunari; Tel. Bhutankusumu.

Distribution.—A small deciduous tree found in the Sub-Himalayan

tract from Oudh eastwards, also in Bengal, Sylhet, Chota Nagpur and

in Central, Westera and Southern India. It is also sometimes

employed for making fences.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain the same drastic

purgative oil as is found in Croton tiglium Linn, (11).

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 99

Remarks.—The seeds act as a strong purgative and in large

quantities are poisonous. They resemble in properties those of

Croton tiglium Linn. for which they are frequently substituted.

32. Datura metel Linn. (Solanaceae).

English name.—Downy Datura.

Indian names.—Mal. Ummam; Sans. Dhustura; Tam. Vellum-

nattt; Tel. Tellavummetta.

Distribution.—A coarse herb found in the North-Western

Himalayas of the Punjab and about Madras, but is not common.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain hyoscine (average 0.5.

per cent) and very small amounts of hyoscyamine and atropine (44)

besides. minute quantities of nor-hyoscyamine (45). Seeds contain

0.462 per cent of alkaloids, mainly hyoscyamine (46).

Remarks.—The poisonous properties and uses are the same as

those of the next species.

33. Datura metel Linn. var. fastuosa (Linn.) Narayanaswami

& Badhwar, syn. D. fastuwosa Linn. (Solanaceae).

English names.—Black Datura, Purple Datura.

Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Kaladhutura; Sans. Dhurta; Tam.

Madumattai; Tel. Dutturamu.

Distribution.—The variety fastwosa is the common datura of the

Indian plains often met with on waste lands and roadsides and in

gardens.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 0.24 per -cent of

hyoscine (l-scopolamine) and small quantities of hyoscyamine and

atropine (47). The seeds from China contain the highest amount

(0.561 per cent) of the alkaloids (48).

Remarks.—The main interest of these Indian daturas is from the

point of view of poisoning and for this purpose the seeds constitute the

favourite narcotic poison used by criminals. The seeds have a bitter

acrid taste followed by a burning sensation in the mouth and throat.

They are generally parched and reduced to a fine powder, as in this

way it is easy to mix them with sugar, flour, tobacco, etc. In the

great majority of cases the motive of administration is the facilitation

of theft. In India when an individua! has been first drugged and

then robbed, it is usually found that datura has been employed. A

common form of crime with the aid of datura is road or rail robbery

by professional highwaymen. Cases are also on record where by

a judicious use of datura the miscreants have drugged a whole house-

hold in such a manner that they could ransack the entire house at

their leisure. In all such cases the drug is administered along with

betel-leaf or some other foodstuffs or even in the form of a smoke

depending upon what a miscreant can manage to offer to the prospec-

tive victim. Accidental poisoning among children is not infrequently

met with, but homicidal cases are rare.

34, Datura stramonium Linn. (Solanaceae).

English names.—Devils’ Apple, Thorn Apple.

Indian names.—Be. Sadadhutura; Pers. Tatulah; Sans. Dhattura,

Kanaka; Tam. Emanamam; Tel. Dutturamu.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Distribution.—A coarse annual found on the Himalayas from

Kashmir to Sikkim up to an altitude of 9,ooo ft. Also met with in

hilly tracts of central and southern India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds do not contain any atropine but

chiefly hyoscyamine (11). The percentage of alkaloids in the seeds

varies from 0.46 to 0.52 per cent (49). Dry seeds contain 0.33 and

fruit 0.38 per cent of total alkaloids of which 25 per cent is se es

and 75 per cent hyoscyamine (50).

Remarks.—The poisonous properties of the seeds and the uses they

are put to are the same as those of D. metel Linn. and its variety

fastuosa. In addition it may be stated that the seeds have been

known to contaminate maize, wheat and beans and have given rise

to such symptoms as delirium, trachycardia, mydriasis, dryness of

mouth and throat and generalized flush over the skin, etc. (51).

35. Daucus carota Linn. (Umbelliferae).

English name.—Carrot.

Indian names.—Be. Gajar; Hi. & Pun. Gajar; Sans. Gajara;

Tam. Gajjarakkilangu; Tel. Pitakanda.

Distribution.—A hispid biennial with tuberous root cultivated

throughout India as an article of food.

Remarks.—The seeds are popularly regarded as a _ powerful

abortifacient and numerous cases of abortion, following their internal

administration, are on record. More precise information is, however,

wanted with regard to their alleged abortifacient properties.

36. Delphinium elatum Linn. (Ranunculaceae).

Distribution.—A_ sparingly branched herb found in the West

Temperate Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon and in the inner

Tibetan valleys at altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 ft. above sea level.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain about 1 per cent of

alkaloids, one of which was obtained in a crystalline form and at least

two other bases were present in the uncrystallized portion (52). Seeds

contain alkaloid lelatine, delpheline, methyllycaconitine (53).

Remarks.—In Europe the seeds are used as insecticides. Most

of the Indian species of Delphinium have not been properly investigated

but some of the popular uses in India and the beliefs and experiences

of local people strongly indicate that they are poisonous. Generally

speaking, the seeds are emetic, cathartic, anthelmintic and insecticidal.

37, Digitalis purpurea Linn. (Scrophulariaceae).

English name.—Common Foxglove.

Distribution.—A biennial herb now grown in most gardens in

Indian hill stations for ornamental purposes and also cultivated in

Kashmir, Kagan Valley, the Nilgiris, etc. on a commercial scale for

medicinal purposes.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain three glucosides, Viz.

digitalinum verum, digitonin and gitonin (54). |

Remarks.—Like the leaves and roots, the seeds are also poisonous

and poisoning may occur due to accidental use"ofithem:. te) 6 ye

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 101

33. Entada pursaetha DC. syn. E. scandens Benth. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Giants’ Rattle, Mackay Bean.

Indian names.—Be. Pangra; Bo. Garambi; Lep. Kulhokrik; Pun.

Kastorikaman; Tam. Sillu; Tel. Gilatige.

Distribution.—A gigantic woody climber found in the Central and

Eastern Himalayas ascending to 4,000 ft. above sea level in Sikkim ;

also in Eastern Bengal, Bihar and Orissa especially in damp forests

situated at higher altitudes; also in the forests along the Ghats of the

Bombay State. In the Madras State it is found in the hill forests of

the Northern Circars, the Deccan and on the Western Ghats from

South Kanara to Travancore in evergreen forests.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain two toxic saponins

which were biologically tested with regard to their poisonous pro-

perties on fishes (55); they are also said to contain a eullewcrsls which

is hydrolyzed by emulsion (56).

Remarks.—The seeds are emetic, but the white erro on being

steeped in water and after roasting are sometimes eaten by local

people. The author is informed that absence of this precaution pro-

duces deleterious effects of a narcotic nature. The seeds are used as

a fish poison in some parts of India, South Africa and in the

Philippine Islands.

39. Ervatamia dichotoma (Roxb.) Blatter syn. Tabernaemontana

dichotoma Roxb. (Apocynaceae). ?

English names.—Eves Apple, Forbidden Fruit.

Indian names.—Mal. Utalam; Pun. Kanerzad; Tam. Kattalari.

Distribution.—A small dichotomously branched tree found in the

Western Ghats, in Malabar, at low levels and is occasionally grown

in gardens for ornamental purposes. ion

Remarks.—The seeds are said to be powerfully narcotic and

poisonous producing delirium and other symptoms similar to those

caused by Datura; they are said by Lindley to be purgative (7).

40. Ginkgo biloba Linn. (Ginkgoaceae).

English names.—Ginkgo, Maidenhair Tree.

Disbation. —A tree with deciduous leaves resembling those. of

the maiden-hair fern found rarely in some gardens in Northern India,

such as Amritsar.

Remarks.—According to Muenscher {57) severe cases of dermatitis,

resulting from handling the broken or crushed seeds, have been fre-

quently reported. According to him cases of poisoning have also

occurred from contact when the seeds were cleaned of pulp.

41. Gynandropsis gynandra (Linn.) Merr. syn. G.. pentaphylla

DC. (Capparidaceae).

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Hurhur; Bo. Mabli; Sans. Hulhul ;

Tam. Velai; Tel. Velakura.

Distribution —A strong smelling, somewhat foetid weed, abundant

throughout the warmer parts of India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a sharp essential oil

similar to the essential oil of mustard (11). Cleomin isolated from

the seeds (58).

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “AIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Remarks.—The seeds have anthelmintic and rubifacient pro-

perties ; rubbed with oil they are used to destroy head lice. According

to Watt (7) they are employed to poison fish, but this statement needs

confirmation.

4 2. Qynocardia odorata R. Br. (Flacourtiaceae).

Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Chaulmogra; Lep. Tukking; Pers.

Brinjmogra; Sans. Kushthapa.

Distribution.—A glabrous tree common in the evergreen forests

of Sikkim and Assam, extending eastwards across Chittagong as

far as Tenasserim.

Constituents of the seeds. The seeds freed from the shell yield

about 65 per cent of a fatty oil known as gynocardia oil, which does

not contain chaulmoogric acid or its homologues but consists of

glycerides of linolic, palmitic, linolenic, isolinolenic and oleic acids.

They also contain a cyanogenetic glucoside, gynocardin ;5 per

cent of shell-free seeds (59) |.

Remarks.—The seed pulp is employed in Sikkim to poison fish.

43. Hedera helix Linn. (Araliaceae).

English names.—Barren Ivy, Bentwood.

Indian names.—Kash. Karmora; Kum. Banda; Mal. Maravala;

Tam. Maravalai.

Distribution.—An_ evergreen climbing shrub found in _ the

Himalayas from 6,000 to 10,000 ft. above sea level and in the Khasia

hills from 4,000 to 6,000 ft.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the glucoside e{-hederin

and probably certain other glucosides (61, 62).

Remarks.—The seeds are poisonous. The glucoside hedeen is

intensely haemolytic and acts as an irritant to the alimentary canal ;

causes vaso-constriction; lowers the blood-pressure; slows the heart

and increases its tonus, and causes death by a paralysis of the respira-

tion (63). For warm blooded animals 2-3 cgm. per kgm. of body

weight are lethal. Cold blooded animals appear to be less susceptible

(64).

44, Hura crepitans Linn. (Euphorbiaceae).

English name.—West Indian Sand-box Tree.

Indian names.—Tam. Mullarasanam; Tel. Simaburuga.

Distribution.—A tree indigenous o Tropical America, but now

grown in many Indian gardens.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a powerful purgative oil

and also a toxalbumin resembling abrin and ricin from Abrus

Precatorious Linn., and Ricinus communis Linn. respectively (66).

Remarks.—The seeds of this plant are emetic, and when fresh,

violently purgative.

45. Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb. syn. Taraktogenos kurzit

King (Flacourtiaceae).

Indian names.—Assam Lemtam; Burma Kalawaso; Lep. Tuka-

Rkunga. |

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 103

Distribution.—A tree up to 50 ft. high growing abundantly in

Eastern Bengal, Tippera, Chittagong and in the evergreen forests

throughout upper Assam.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain hydrocyanic acid,

the yield being about 0.036 per cent of the kernels. The seeds yield

the oil of chaulmoogra amounting to 38 per cent of the entire seeds

and consisting of the glycerides of chaulmoogric acid, hydnocarpic

acid and their lower homologues together with some palmitic acid

{67). Seeds contain 30.9 per cent fixed oil (68).

Remarks.—Chaulmoogra oil is extremely irritating by whichever

route it is administered. Oral administration of 3 to 4 drops pro-

duces nausea and vomiting.

46. Hydnocarpus laurifolia {Dennst.) Sleumer syn. H. wightiana

Blume (Flacourtiaceae).

Indian names,—Bo. Kowti; Mal. Koti; Sans. Garndaphala; Tam.

Nivadimmutiu; Tel. Niradi. ;

Distribution.—A tree 30-50 ft. high common in the Western

Peninsula; endemic in tropical forests along the Western Ghats

from the Konkan southwards and below the Ghats in Kanara

and Malabar, in damp situations especially near water. In Travancore

it is found up to an altitude of 2,000 ft.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain about 44 per cent of an

oil which consists of the glyceryl esters of chaulmoogric acid, hydno-

carpic acid and some of their lower homologues (7). They have not

been found to contain any cyanogenetic compounds (60).

Remarks.—The seed or the oil if taken internally acts as a gastro-

intestinal irritant, producing vomiting and purging (7).

47, Hyoscyamus muticus Linn. (Solanaceae).

English name.—Indian Henbane.

Indian name.—Baluchistan Kohibhang.

Distribution.—A herbaceous plant found in the Western Punjab,

Waziristan, Sind and Baluchistan. Experimentally being cultivated

‘in Kashmir. x

Constituents of the seeds.—Leaves, seeds, capsules, stems and

roots contain the alkaloids consisting chiefly of hyoscyamine, the

leaves and the seeds being comparatively rich (70, 71).

Remarks.—Same as for next species.

48. Hyoscyamus niger Linn. (Solanaceae).

English name.—Henbane.

Indian names.—Be. Khorasaniajowan; Bo. Khorasaniowa; Hi.

Khorasani-jamani; Pun. Bazrbang; Tam. Kurasaniyoman; Tel.

KSurashanivaman.

Distribution.—A more or less hairy and viscid herb with a

disagreeable odour frequently found from Kashmir to Garhwal at

altitudes of 5,000 to 11,000 ft.

Constituents of the soos. —Seeds contain the alkaloid hy oscyamine

and also yield a poisonous oil (72).

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Remarks.—The seeds are powerfully narcotic. and cases of live-

stock poisoning due to them have been reported. Poisoning. among”

children on account of eating the seeds, is also on record. It is

believed that H. pusillus Linn. of Western Tibet and Ladakh is also

poisonous.

49. Ipomoea hederacea (Linn.) Jacq. (Convolvulaceae).

English names.—Indian Jalap, Morning Glory.

Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Kaladanah; Kash. Hybilnil; Sans-~

Shyamabija; Tam. Kakkatan; Tel. Kochu.

Distribution.—A slender twiner found ‘throughout India, both

cultivated and apparently wild, up to 6,000 ft. above sea level.on the

Himalayas.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a resin from which the

resin glucoside, pharbitin, has been isolated (73, 74). The resin con-

tent varies from 14.2 to 15.3 per cent (75).

Remarks.—The seeds act as a drastic purgative and occasionally

produce vomiting as well.

50, Jatropha curcas Linn. (Euphorbiaceae).

English names.—Poison Nut, Purging Nut.

Indian names.—Be. Bagbherenda; Bo. Yerand; Hi. Bagberenda ;

Sans. Dravanti; Tam. Kattukkottai; Tel. Nepalemu.

Distribution.—A shrub or small tree grown in various parts of

India as a field barrier. Also found in a semi-wild condition in the

vicinity of villages.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 29 to 40 per cent of a

pale-yellow acrid and irritant oil consisting of the glycerides of

stearic, palmatic, myristic, oleic and linoleic acids but no hydroxy

acids. The oil also contains a toxic principle which is resinolipoid

in character. The seeds contain a toxalbumin known as curcin (76).

Seed kernels gave fatty oil, 2 phytosterols, a phytosterlin (glucoside

of phytosterol), large amount of sucrose and some resinous matter

having nauseating, purging and griping effect (77).

Remarks.—‘The acrid, emetic and drastic principle appears to

reside chiefly in the embryo. It has been stated that if the embryo

be wholly removed, four or five seeds may be used as a gentle and

safe purgative’ (7).

It is advisable to regard the seeds and the oil as unsafe thera-

peutic agents on account of their highly irritant properties.

51. Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. (Euphorbiaceae).

Indian names.—Be. Lalbherenda; Bo. & Hi. Undarbibi; Sans.

Nikumbha; Tam. Kattamanaku; Tel. Nepalemu.

Distribution.—A small evergreen tree found in the Deccan and

Carnatic, from the Kistna river southwards, often on black cotton

soil.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a fatty oil similar to

Castor oil (11).

Remarks.—The seeds and the oil obtained from them are stated

to be just as poisonous and are used for the same purposes as those

of Jatropha curcas Linn.

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 105

52. Jatropha gossypifolia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae).

Indian names.—Mal. Simayavanakku; Tam. Simaiyamanakku ;

Tel. Simanepalemu.

Distribution.—A shrub occurring as a roadside weed in several

States of India. Often also cultivated in gardens.

Remarks.—The seeds possess drastic purgative and emetic pro-

perties, and are almost as potent in action as those of Jatropha curcas

Linn.

53. Jatropha multifida Linn. (Euphorbiaceae).

English name.—Coral Plant. 7

Indian names.—Sans. Bhadradanti; Tam. Kattunervalam.

Distribution.—A beautiful glabrous shrub native of South America

and is commonly grown in gardens and near temples.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds yield 28-30 per cent of an oil

which is similar to that obtained from Jatropha curcas Linn.

Remarks.—The seeds are just as poisonous as those of Jatropha

curcas Linn.

54. Lagenaria siceraria Standil. syn. L. vulgaris Ser. (Cucurbi-

taceae). |

_ English names.—Bottle Gourd, White-Flowered Gourd.

Indian names.—Be. Kodulau; Hi. Kaddu, Kashiphal; Mar.

Kadubhopla; Pun. Lauki; Sans. Tumba; Tam. Shorakkai; Tel.

Sorakaya. |

Distribution.—A large climbing or trailing herb found wild in

India and also extensively cultivated for the sake of its young fruits.

- Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds are said to contain saponins (11).

Remarks.—The seeds are suspected to be poisonous. :

55, Lagerstroemia speciosa (Linn.) Pers. syn. L. flos-reginae

Retz. (Lythraceae).

English name.—Queen Crape-Myrtle.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Jarul; Bo. Bondara; Sans. Arjuna;

Tam. Pumarudu; Tel. Varagogu.

Distribution.—A tree found in Eastern Bengal, Assam and in the

deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of the Eastern and Western

Ghats. Much cultivated for ornamental and shade purposes in other

places.

Remarks.—Seeds are believed to have narcotic properties (7).

(To be continued)

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF’ MUSSOORIE

Nit AY Vines

The number of plants that comprise the Flora of Mussoorie lie

between 700 and 750 species. '

From among the hundreds of specimens collected by me, the

following are now here recorded as belonging to the Flora of Mussoorie

for the first time. They .have been checked at the Forest Research

Institute by Mr. Raizada, to whom I am indebted.

Plants that have received no mention in Collet’s ‘Flora Simlensis’

have been marked by an asterisk.

RANUNCULACEAE

Thalictrum rostellatum Hook. f. & Th.

A herb growing up to 3 ft. off walls. Flowers in panicles, with

white petals. Flowering time: July to..September. | Locality:

Barlowgan}.

CRUCIFERAE

Cardamine oxycarpa Hook. f. & Anders.

A weak-stemmed herb with white flowers and long pointed pods.

Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Union Church.

VIOLACEAE

Viola biflora Linn. |

A small pubescent herb with yellow flowers, and black honey

guides. Flowering time: July to September. Locality: Oak Grove

School.

MALVACEAE

Malva verticillata Linn.

An erect herb up to 4 ft. with pink sessile flowers. Flowering

time: June to September. Locality : along roadways, and the margins

of ditches.

ANACARDIACEAE

Rhus punjabensis Stew.

A tree up to 30 ft. with juice that raises blisters on the skin.

The flowers are yellowish-green. The leaves are pinnate with

glabrous, sessile leaflets. Flowering time: April to May. Locality:

Woodstock.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE 107

PAPILIONACEAE

Trifolium pratense Linn. Purple Clover.

A herb with a decumbent stem. Heads. of dark red flowers up

to 14 in. in diameter. The pods are one-seeded. Flowering time:

April to July. Locality: Botanical Garden lawns.

Flemingia fruticulosa Wall.

A herb with procumbent branches. The pink flowers are enclosed

in a bract. The simple leaves are up to 3 in. long. Locality:

‘Mossy Falls’.

Desmodium polycarpum DC.

A large undershrub with spreading branches. The flowers are

purple, up to + in. long. The leaves are tri-foliate. The pod has

5 to 8 joints. Flowering time: July to August. Locality: Cart

Road.

Dumasia villosa DC.

A hairy herb with yellow flowers up to ? in. long. The leaves

are 3-foliolate. Flowering time: July to August. Locality :

Barlowgan}j.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurum tenue Don.

A herb up to 3 ft. with yellowish-green flowers. The leaves

are sessile up? to 32 °in.~ Flowering time: June to September.

Locality: Balla Hissar.

Sanicula eurcpaea Linn.

A herb up to 3 ft. with minute white flowers. The leaves are

palmately divided with 3 to 5 segments. Flowering time: June to

Aueust. -Locality: “Happy Valley’.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

*Viburnum acuminatum DC.

A small tree with leaves up to 5 in. long. Flowers are white

with purple centres and stamens, in congested corymbs. Flowering

time: August to October. Locality: Balla Hissar.

RUBIACEAE

Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb.

A shrub with leaves up to 8 in. long, fetid when crushed. Flowers

are blue, in panicles. Flowering time: August to November. Locality:

On walls and along roadsides.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

‘VALERIANACEAE

Valeriana hardwickii Wall. Hardwick’s WValerian..

A herb growing up to 1% ft. with undivided leaves. Flowers are

white in terminal corymbs. Flowering time: July to August.

Locality: St. George’s School.

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Floss Flower.

An erect herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are pale blue. The leaves

are opposite. Flowering time: May to September. Locality: along

roadsides and the edges of drains.

Conyza stricta Willd. ;

“A rough herb up to 24 ft. The yellow flower heads are } in.

in diameter. The leaves are pinnately lobed. Flowering time: June

to: October.. ~Locality : (Seven Oaks mestate:

Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn. ;

An erect herb up to 3 ft. The yellow flowers are in leafy panicles.

Outer 5. bracts are spreading and glandular-pubescent. The leaves

are opposite, coarsely toothed up to 5 in. long. Flowering time:

August to October. Locality: Camel’s Back Road.

*Dahlia variabilis Desf.

A very large type of ‘Tree Dahlia’, growing up to to to 12 ft.

The flowers are pink. The leaves are compound. Flowering time:

September to November. Locality: Balla Hissar. , |

*Vitadenia australis Wt.

An erect herb growing up to 10 in. The flowers are white turning

to pink. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: March

to November. Locality: Along roadsides, everywhere. |

Xanthium strumarium Linn. Cocklebur.

An erect coarse herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are yellowish-green

in axillary clusters. The leaves are alternate, rough and triangular.

Flowering time: April to November. Locality: Balla Hissar.

GENTIANACEAE

*Swertia lurida Royle.

A herb growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are pink with green

honey guides. The leaves are opposite. Flowering time: August to

October. Locality: Waverley Convent.

Swertia angustifolia Buch-Ham. |

A herb growing up fo 3 ft. The flowers are white, purple dotted,

with one green gland on each petal. The leaves are lanceolate,

up to 2 in. long. Flowering time: August to October. Locality:

Kincraig. |

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE 109

SOLANACEAE

*Cestrum nocturnum Linn. Lady of the Night.

An evergreen shrub up to 6 ft. high. The flowers are > greenish-

white in panicles. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time :

April to July. Locality: Wynberg School.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

*Calceolaria mexicana Benth. Ladies Slipper.

A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are lemon-yellow and

bladdery. The leaves are compound. Flowering time: August to

October. Locality: Arundell.

Veronica agrestis Linn. Speedwell.

A procumbent much branched herb. The flowers are nie in terminal

racemes. The ovate leaves are up to 1 in. long. Flowering time:

March to October. Locality: On the banks of wet ditches.

GESNERACEAE

*Didymocarpus tomentosa Wt.

A herb growing up to 1 ft. The upper part of the flowering

stalk is glandular-pubescent. The flowers are mauve pink. The

leaves are elliptic. Flowering time: July to October. Locality:

Church of the Ressurection. |

*Rhynchoglossum obiiquum Bl.

A herb growing up to 8 in., with dark blue flowers and one or

two elliptic leaves. Flowering time: July to September. Locality:

Barlowgan}.

VERBENACEAE

Verbena officinalis Linn. Vervein.

A herb up to 3 ft. The flowers are light purple in spikes. The leaves

are pinnatifid. Flowering time: April to July. Locality: Vincent

Hill. a3

Caryopteris wallichiana Schauer.

A shrub growing up to 8 ft. The flowers are white tinged with

blue, in terminal panicles. The leaves are lanceolate, opposite up

to 4 in. long. Flowering time: March to April; September to

November. Locality: Kincraig. r

LABIATAE

Stachys sericea Wall.

A herb growing up to 4 ft. and covered with hairs. The flowers

are pink with purple honey guides. The leaves are up to 4 in. long.

Flowering time: June to September. Locality: Camel’s' Back

Road.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL, AIST! SOCIETY, . Viol. 152

Elsholtzia strobilifera Benth.

A herb growing up to 1 ft. The flowers are white. The leaves

are up to 1 in. long. Flowering time: July to September. Locality:

Woodstock.

Plectranthus rugosus Wall.

An undershrub growing up to 4 ft. The flowers are in axillary

racemes, white with a purple tinge. The leaves are opposite, the

lower surface being white. Flowering time: July to September.

Locality: Manor House.

POLYGONACEAE

Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Common Buckwheat.

A herb growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are faintly pink in

panicles. The leaves are up to 4 in. long. Flowering time: July

to September. Locality: Mossy Falls.

*Polygonum nepalense Linn. Pepper grass.

A diffuse herb up to 1 ft. The flowers are pink. The leaves are

up to 2 in. long. Flowering time: July ,to-September. | Vocality:

Cart Road.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Acalypha brachystachya Hornem.

A herb growing up to 1 ft. The flower spikes are green. _The

leaves are alternate up to 3 in. long. Flowering time: July to Octo-

ber. Locality: Wynberg.

*Euphorbia geniculata Orteg.

A herb growing up to 3 ft. Umbellate inflorescence. The leaves

are alternate, sessile up to 3 in. long. The upper leaves are whorled.

Flowering time: April to June. Locality: Whimple’s pool.

URTICACEAE

Boehmeria platyphylla Don.

A shrub growing up to 3 ft. The flowers are white in interrupted

spikes. The leaves are ovate. Flowering time: April to June.

Locality: Balla Hissar.

Elatostemma sessile Forst.

A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are in heads with no

involucral bracts. The leaves) are ovate up to 6 in. long. Flowering

time: June to October. Locality: Church of the Ressurection.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

* Zephyranthes carinata Herb. Wind flower.

A herb with radical leaves and pink flowers. Flowering time:

June to August. Locality: Balla Hissar. ‘Mossy Falls’.

rege eel

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE LLL

LILIACEAE

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

A herb growing up to 2 ft. The flowers are white with brown

guides. The leaves are radical. Flowering time: July to October.

Locality: Vincent Hill.

Allium rubellum Bieb.

A herb growing up to 14 ft. The flowers are pink. The leaves

are radical, up to 6 in. long. Flowering time: June to August.

Locality : Cart Road.

REFERENCES

Collet, H. (1921): Flora Simlensis.

Hooker, J. D. (1875): Flora of British India.

Kanjlal, UW. (1901): Forest: Flora of the School Circle N.-W.P.

Marten, J. (1909): Plants gathered in and about Mussoorie during 1908. Journ.,

Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 19: 475-501.

Royle, J. F. (1839): [lustrations of the Botany and other branches of the Natural

History of the Himalayan Mountains and the Flora of Cashmere.

PERIODICITY OF THE PLANKTON DIATOMS OF

THE CHILKA LAKE FOR THE YEARS 1950 AND 1951

J. C.. Roy

(Chilka Biological Station, Balugan)

(With two maps and two text figures)

INTRODUCTION

In India, literature on the diatoms of brackish and estuarine waters is

very meagre. However, Iyengar and Venkataraman (1951) have made

detailed analysis of the ecology and seasonal succession of diatoms in the

river Cooum. Casual references to the distribution of diatoms have also’

been made by Biswas (1932), Venkataraman (1939), Subrahmanyan (1946)

and Chacko and Ganapati (1949).

The Chilka Lake (Fig. 1), in the words of Annandale and Kemp

(1915), is ‘a lagoon situated on the east coast of Peninsular India and con-

nected with the Bay of Bengal’, with ‘an area of about 350 sq. miles’.

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BAY OF BENGAL

Fig. 1.—Showing the map of the Chilka Lake with five places of

collection.

Biswas (op. cit.) is the pioneer to study the diatoms of the lake but his

account contains merely a list of a few diatoms in their generic aspect.

PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 113

Devasundaram and Roy (in press) have presented a full account of the dia-

toms as they occur every month during the years 1950 and 1951. Since it

was a preliminary report they could not go into the details of analysis, and

in the present paper an attempt is being made to give a fuller account of

the diatoms, species by species, giving an emphasis on their periodicity of

occurrence.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The places of collection, materials and methods were the same as des-

cribed by Devasundaram and Roy (op. cit.).

For the purpose of this paper the five places of collection have been

grouped into three zones which will cover the entire lake. Each zone is

characterised by a particular cycle of salinity variation (Table I).

Zone No. 1: Kaluparaghat—Balugan.

2: Rambha

3: Satpara—Arkhakuda or Outer Channel.

The first two zones represent the main area of the lake where the tidal

effect is scarcely felt. ‘The third zone is about 12 miles long and

a mile broad connecting the lake to the sea through a narrow passage

near Arkhakuda. In this zone the tidal effect is strongly felt.

CHEMICAL DATA

In addition to salinity and surface temperature given by the above-

mentioned authors, pH value of water was also recorded during each

collection. In 1950 the pH varied between 8 and 9°5 and in 1951 it was

between 7 and 10 (Table IT).

GENERA AND SPECIES OF DIATOMS

More than forty species of diatoms spread over nineteen genera were

observed in the lake. The majority of them were of marine origin and

the rest were of brackishwater types. A list of the diatoms of the lake

along with their usual habitat as described by Cupp (1943), Subrahmanyan

(op. cit.) and Venkataraman (op. cit.) is given below.

(z) Marine diatoms observed in the lake Habitat in the sea

Stephanopyxis turrts (Grev.&Arn.) Ralfs .. Neritic

Coscinodiscus centralis Ehrenberg Oceanic

Rhizosolenta bergonii H. Péragallo (Figs. 2-3) Oceanic

delicatula Cleve (Fig. 4) Neritic

stolterfothit H. Péragallo --» Oceanic

robusta Norman abe Neritic

tmobricata Brightwell see Neritic

stylttormis Brightwell a Oceanic

setigeva Brightwell -- Neritic

calcar-avis M. Schultze Oceanic

alata Brightwell Oceanic

Bacteriastrum hyalinum Lauder Neritic

Chaetoceros eibentt Grunow .-» Neritic

peruvianus Brightwell --- Oceanic

lorenzianus Grunow 4. _. Neritic

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116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

compressus Lauder 1... Neritic

atftinis Lauder .. Neritic

laevis Leuduger-Fortmorel (Fig. 5) .. Neritic

curvisetus Cleve ... Neritic

subtilis Cleve ... Neritic

Ditylum sol Grunow ... Neritic

Biddulphia sinensis Greville s.. —Laittoral

mobiliensis Bailey .. Neritic

Thalassionema nitzschioides Grunow ... Neritic

Thalassiothrix longissima Cleve and Grunow iE. Oceanic

frauenteldit Grunow ... Oceanic

Nitzschia longissima (Brebisson) Raifs ... Littoral

pungens var. atlantica Cleve ... Neritic

(iz) Brackishwater diatoms observed in the lake :

Asterionella japonica cleve

Cocconeis placentula Ehr. var. euglypta (Ehr.) Cleve

Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin

Nitzschia closterium (Ehrenberg) W. Smith

Besides these, one specimen each of Melosiva? (Fig. 6), Hemiaulus

(Figs. 7-8), Grammatophora (Fig. 9), Achnanthes (Fig. 10), Gyrosigma

(Figs. 11-12) and a few species of Vavicula also occurred in traces.

Some of the species given in the list above do not appear in Table III

as their numerical value was very insignificant.

Of all the species Asterzonella japonica stood out very prominently

over the others in both the years.

ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF DIATOMS IN THE LAKE

Table III shows the zonal distribution of diatoms in the lake and

Table IV shows the previous record of distribution in India of the species

of diatoms found in the Chilka Lake.

Kaluparaghat-Balugan Zone

Biddulphia mobiliensis, Cocconeis placentula var. euglypta, Nuiteschia

closterium were the major species of this zone in both the years. Of them

Niteschia clostertum stood out prominently in the year 1951. It appear-

ed in the month of February and had its maximum in April to undergo

a sharp fallin May. ‘This species, in the words of Iyengar and Venkata-

raman (op. cit.), ‘is a halophilous mesohalobous form’. In conformity

with their observation its numerical growth was augmented by the rise of

salinity (from 7.04%, to 9.05%.) but it could not be sustained due, per-

haps, to the excessively high pH (from 9.5 to 10) which was constantly

having an inhibitory effect on it as a result of which it had a sharp fall

in May.

The other species which occurred next in importance is Cocconeis pla-

centula. It appeared in the month of November, 1950 and May and

December, 1951.

Coscinodiscus centralis, Chaetoceros lorenzianus and Chaetoceros subtilis

occurred only once in the months of June, March, and December respectively

in the year 1951 but they were not at all present in the year 1950. Absence

——

]

(=X

(_\

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE [

Figs. 2-6

Figs. 2-3. Rhizosolenia bergoni H. Pér. Fig. 2. Part of a cell showing inter-

calary bands; diameter, 60 ft. Fig. 3. Apex of a cell. Fig. 4.

Rhizosolenia delicatula Cleve, part of a chain ; diameter, 20/4; show-

ing intercalary bands. Fig. 5. Chaetoceros laevis ‘Leud-Fort. A

chain in broad girdle view ; width, 12ft.. Fig. 6. Melosira sp. (?),

part of a chain in girdle view; diameter,24/.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

15,

Figs. 7-15.—Figs.—7-8.—Hemiaulus sp. Fig. 7.—Part of chain in broad

girdle view showing sculpturing on valve. mantle, processes and claws,

width 50/4. Fig. 8.—Part of a chain in narrow girdle view. Fig. 9.

Grammatophora sp. Cell in broad girdle view showing intercalary bands,

length 87/. Fig. 10. Achnanthes sp. Cell in girdle view. Figs. 11-12.

Gyrosigma sp. Fig. 11. Part of a cell, length 470/4, breadth Sof. Fig.

12. Section of the centre a cell showing striations. Figs. 13-15. Biddulphia

sp. Fig. 13. A cell in broad girdle view showing chromatophores, width

goft. Fig. 14. Part of a cell showing sculpturing, width 75. Fig. 15.

Sculpturing highly magnified.

PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 117

of these species in the other months may go to show that this zone was not

suitable for the growth and development of those species. Also, Cosctno-

discus centralis is an oceanic species, i¢., it thrives well in such areas.

where there is much higher degree of salinity compared to that of this zone

(11.22%,); hence it could not flourish although it occurred accidentally in

this area. Perhaps the same reason holds good in the case of Chaetoceros

lorenzianus and it is yet to be seen whether Chaetoceros subtilis will be

represented in the subsequent year, i.e., 1952.

Besides these, Gyrosigma sp., Melosira sp. (?) were sparsely distributed

in the plankton collections.

An unidentified species of Biddulphia (Figs. 13-15) aiso occurred in

the month of October, 1951.

Rambha Zone

In both the years Cocconets placentula occurred more frequently than

the only other species Nztzschia closterium. It first appeared in May, 1950,

had good growth in June, then disappeared completely to reappear again

in September ; it reached its maximum in November although it was absent

in October. But in the year 1951 it was first seen in May and had its

maximum in July. It was not represented in the subsequent months.

except in November when it had appreciable increase in quantity. There

appears to be aclose similarity in the occurrence of this species in the two

years under review but its absence from August to October may be due to

the fact that this is a fresh and slightly brackishwater species (Venkata-

raman, op. cit.) and the upward trend of salinity maintained in the Rambha

zone upto June, instead of falling down shot up suddenly from July to

August thus preventing the prospect of good growth of this species. But

in November, due to the prevalence of lesser salinity, it might have re-

appeared.

The water was alkaline in both the years as the pH ranged between

8 and 9.5.

Satpara-Arkhakuda Zone

In this zone there was a casual sprinkling of various species of diatoms

in both the years. Quantitatively June formed the peak month of occur-

rence of diatoms in the two years. The maximum number of species

occurred in June, 1950 and in May, 1951. Thus it appears that the

months of May and June formed the period of greatest incidence of dia-

toms. During this period the level of the lake is lower than that of the

sea and the surface current in the Bay of Bengal (Fig. 16) helps the

pelagic diatoms to reach the coastal waters, thus enabling the entrance of

various marine species into the lake through the mouth that connects it to

the sea. Perhaps that may be the only possible reason for the sudden appear-

ance of a large number of marine specimens in the plankton catches of

these two months. In the year 1950 some of them had still persisted in

the month of July, although salinity had gone down from 30.91%, to

23.51%, but they disappeared in the next month when the salinity fell

steeply to 8.13%. ,

There are several swamps along the northern side of the Outer Channel

and probably during the period of May-June maxima some of the diatoms

SOCIETY; : Vol.

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OF. THE DIATOMS

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120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- 52

found their way into them and in the month of August a few of them

were banked up by the sudden onrush of floodwater from the main body

80 —~ 90 100°

one

Fig. 16. Showing the surface current of the Bay of Bengal

(modified after Sewell) from March to May.

of the lake but were subsequently released. ‘That may be the reason for

the occurrence of the marine forms in the month of September, 1950.

The Satpara-Arkhakuda zone, situated near the mouth of the lake, is

subject to strong tidal effects. As a consequence some of the marine

species might have found entrance into the lake along with the tide during

January to April, although they were meagre in quantity.

One notable feature in both the years is the predominance of Asterio-

nella japonica over the other species. It was first observed in profuse

quantity in the month of March, 1950, persisted in appearing in June and

July, although it was mysteriously absent in May, But in the year 1951 it

first occurred in the month of May and went suddenly higher up in June..

In the Trivandrum coast the periodicity of this diatom is from April to

September with its maximum in July (Menon, 1945). It is quite likely

that in the Orissa coast some such seasonal distribution of this diatom with

its numerical superiority over others is in existence. That may be one of

the reasons for its numerical preponderance in the lake. Venkataraman

(op. cit.) described this species as a marine form. Subrahmanyan (op.

cit.) recorded its existence in the brackishwater and it was also found in the

river Cooum by Iyengar and Venkataraman (Table IV). All these tend to

PERIODICITY OF THE DIATOMS OF THE CHILKA 121

show that this diatom is capable of wide adaptation to variations of salinity.

Besides, high sunshine value and ample availability of nutrient material

during the summer months probably helped this diatom to thrive well in

the lake.

PROBABLE CAUSES OF DIATOM SCARCITY

During the winter millions of migratory ducks settle down in the lake

and their excreta together with the detritus brought by the northern rivers

help to increase phosphate, nitrate, and silica content of the water. These

factors combined with the possibility of regular influx of marine diatoms.

from the Bay of Bengal ought to give a more healthy picture of diatom

occurrence than what had actually been observed during the years under

review. The marine diatoms which appeared in the summer months had

very short span of life in the lake. The probable causes for such meagre

and spurious occurrence may be as follows :

1. They are unable to withstand the sudden change from saline to:

freshwater at the advent of monsoon.

2. Theless number of sunshine hours during the monsoon and

winter may not be conducive for the production of diatom.

3. High range of pH (8 to 10) in seasons other than summer may

also inhibit their natural growth. Within the range of 7.8 to 8.8 the pH

age not act as a limiting factor according to Lucas and Hutchinson

1927).*

4. The grazing effect of zooplankton and fish fauna, especially

since the lake is very shallow, is likely to affect the reproduction of

diatoms.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Sri M. Peter Devasundaram, Assistant Director of

Fisheries (Marine), Orissa, for the pains he took in improving the paper

and to Sri G. N. Mitra, Director of Industries, Orissa, for having kindly

sanctioned the publication of it.

REFERENCES

Annandale, N, & Kemp, S. (1915): Introduction to the Fauna of the Chilka

Lake. Mem, Ind. Mus., 5 (1): 1-20.

Gane (1932) : Algal Flora of the Chilka Lake. Mem, Asiat. Soc. Bengal, 9

Chacko, P. I. (1950): Marine Plankton from waters around the Krusadai

Island. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 31 (3) : 162-174,

& Ganapati, S. V. (1949): Some Observations on the Adyar

BiG eee reference to its Hydrobiological conditions. Imd. Geog. Journ.

24 (3); 1-15.

Cupp, E. E. (1943): Marine Plankton Diatoms of the West Coast of North

America, Bull, Scripps Inst, Oceanog., § (1) : 1-238.

Devasundaram, M. P. & Roy, J. C. (In the press): A Preliminary Study of

the Plankton of the Chilka Lake, Orissa, India, for the years 1950 & 1951.

Hornell, J. & Nayudu, M. R. (1924): A Contribution to the life-history of the

Indian Sardine with notes on the Plankton of the Malabar Coast. Mad, Fish

Bull., XVII: 129-197. - .

ee es,

—— >

-* Not consulted in original.

422 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

. lyengar, M. O. P. & Venkataraman, G.-(1951) : The Ecology and Seasonal Suc-

cession of the Algal Flora of the River. Cooum at Madras with special teference to

the Diatomaceae., Journ: Madras Univ., 2x : 140-192. © -

''Metfon, R.'S. (1931): A Prelirninary Account. of the. Madras Plankton, ‘Rec.

Indian Mus., 33, Pt. IV: 489-516.

Menon, M. A. S. (1945) : Observaiion on the Seasonal Distribution of the Plank-

ton of the Trivandrum Coast. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 22 (2) : 31-62.

Sewell, R. B. S: (1929) : Geographic and Oceanic Research in Indian Waters.

Mem. Roy. Asiat. Soc., Bengal, g (50): 280-298. (Not consulted in original).

> Subrahmanyan, R. (1946): A Systematic Account of the Marine Plankton

Diatoms of the Madras Coast. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 24 (4) : 85-197.

_ Venkataraman, G. (1939): A Systematic Account of some _ South Indian

Diatoms. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sct., 10 (6): 293-368.

TABLE IV

erat Showing previous record of distribution in India of the species of diatoms -

found ia the Chilka Lake in. the years 1950 and 1951

| / |

: , | 4 ; |

- Species of diatoms _ Places of occurrence |

Author and year of

| description

= J ac oe

Siephanopyxis turris (Grev, &|

' Arn.) Ralfs. ree Malabar coast | Hornell and Nevuee

i 4 H ; ot | (1924) »

Trivandrum coast Menon (1945).

| Madras coast | Subrahmanyan oe

Coscinodiscus centralis Ebr. .... Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946)

Rhizosolenia stolterfothii H. Pér.| Madras coast — | Menon (1931)

OTS ‘Trivandrum coast .|Menon:(1945y) oor.

_ Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946)

_Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950)

R. robusta Norman .... Madras coast Menon (1931)

' Trivandrum coast 'Menon (1945)

' Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946)

#. imbricata Brightwell . .... Madras coast | Subrahmanyan (1946)

ere + nae Around Krusadai Island Chacko (1950)... :

AR. stylitormis Brightwell ...| Madras coast _Subrahmanyan (1946)

Net aonia ni a ~~ Around Krusadai Island; Chacko (1950) :

R. setigera Brightwell .«., Madras coast Menon (1931)

Trivandrum coast ' Menon (1945)

| Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

ecaaa Krusadailsland! Chacko (1950)

&. calcar-ai 4s M. Schultze ... Madras coast | Menon (1931)

plidc | | ‘Trivandrum coast Menon. (1945)

| Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950)

R..alata Brightwell .... Madras coast Menon (1931)

Trivandrum coast Menon (1945)

Madras coast |Subrahmanyan (1946)

_Around Krusadai Island) Chacko (1950)

Bacteriastruum hyalinm Lauder. | Madras coast Subrahmanyan (i946)

Chaetoceros eibeniz Grunow ... Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

C. peruvianus Brightwell ..., Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

aviovl ios _ Around Krusadai IsJand| Chacko (1950)

‘C. lorenzianus Grunow .... Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

A Around Krusadai Island! Chacko (1950)

C. compressus Lauder +7. 51) } «a. Madnas coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

C. ‘attinis eee - o,7....) Madras coast, - Subrahmanyan (1946)

Ak 45.9? | Around Krusadai Island, Chacko..(1950)

GC. eupinerte Clever ..., Madras coast Subrahmanyan: (1946)

Ditylum sol Grunow .. Madras coast Subrahmanyan (1946)

Around Krusadai Island} Chacko (1950) -

! he Py Pale t Z 3

Ee a A RS ESS SS SS

PERIODICITY

LE ee a ay

Species « _ ALOT

AAA

OF THE DIATOMS OF

“ip ivi oe © ih

Bidduiphia sinensis : Greville

AN Rha el ee

Visine ate

B. mobiliensis Bailey

' ‘

Thalassionema nitzschioides

Grunow

Thalassiothrix longissima Cleve

. and Grunow .

T. frauenteldii Grunow

Asterionella japonica Cleve

Ceconeis placenitula Ehr,

euglypta (Ehr.) Cleve

Bacillaria paradoxa Gmelin

Nitzschia

-W. Smith.

clostevium (Ehr.)

NV. longissima (Brebisson) Ralfs ...

.| Malabar coast

.... Madras coast

.| Madras coast

...| Trivandrum coast.

.| Malabar. coast

Vat. icu ese

.| Freshwater

...| Madras coast

.| Madras coast

Ss i aa) 5 BRA8 \

Madras coast

Trivandrum coast

Madras coast

' Around Krusadai ieland

Madras coast

Trivandrum coast

Madras coast

-Around Krusadai Island

Trivandrum coast

Madras coast

Around Krusadai Island)

Around Krusadai Island

Madras coast ;

Around Krusadai Island

{

Madras coast

Trivandrum coast

Madras coast

| Around Krusadai Island

Cooum river mouth

streams,

- ponds. and. pools of}

Madras

River Cooum

Adyar estuary, Madras

Madras coast

Around Krusadai Island

River Cooum, Madras

Trivandrum coast

| Madras coast

| Around Krusadai Island

Madras coast

EHE

Places of occurrence |. |

CHILKA 123

Author and year o

‘description —

| Horaell and Nagtes

(1924)

Menon (1931)

Menon (1945)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

Hornell and Nayudu

(1924)

Menon (1931)

Menon (1945)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

| Menon (1931)

| Menon (1945)

Subrahmanyan ( 1946)

Chacko (1950).

Subraimanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950).

Menon (1945) |

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

Hornell and Nayudu

(1924)

| Menon (1931)

Menon (1945)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

‘Iyengar and Venkata-

raman (1951)

Venkataraman (1939)

Iyengar and Venkata-

raman, (1951)

| Menon (1931)

Venkataraman (1939)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

Menon (1931)

Venkataraman (1939)

Menon (1945)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

Chacko (1950)

Subrahmanyan (1946)

oe Around eon Chacko (1950)

GROWTH-RATE OF THE PEARL OYSTER, PINCTADA

PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH WITH A NOTE

ON THE PEARL FISHERY OF 1953'

S. V. GOKHALE, C. R. EASWARAN AND R. NARSIMHAN

Directorate of Marine Products, Saurashira

Government, Jamnagar

(With five text figures)

C OT EB NaEtsS

1. INTRODUCTION can ae ae ee one ee if:

2. Previous Work ae Re =e a >, 125.

38. MATERIAL AND METHODS ah he e om noe, aoe

4. AGE-ANALYSIS af at be a ae seme I-73

(a) Growth-Rings ba es = ... 126

(b) Period of Ring-Formation a ee ae ... 197

(d) Growth-Rate ue ae _., 129

(e) Agreement with Petersen's Method es a ... 130:

5. PopuLaTION STUDY Ce ae of the Stock) ee. coe ww. 131

6. SUMMARY a : ae en ACE Be 5)

ve ACKNOWLEDGMENTS» er a = ABI ee oD

8. REFERENCES os me oe ae ea ... 136

9. ADDENDUM ie ae ay cee Mee ... 186

INTRODUCTION

Pearl Oysters are commonly found off the Northern Coast of the

Halar District (Saurashtra) in the Gulf of Kutch. The species has

been recorded in the Directorate of Marine Products, Saurashtra as

Pinctada pinctada and for the sake of convenience it has been referred

to by the same name in this paper but this identification is not final

yet. These oysters are found attached to coral reefs (known locally

as ‘kadda’) of which 42 have been charted off the Halar Coast. Some

of the important reefs are shown in the accompanying map. These

reefs are situated in the inter-tidal zones and get completely exposed

during the low tides. Collection of these oysters is, therefore, a

comparatively simple operation and does not entail any diving, etc.

Pearls have been obtained fairly regularly from these waters for the last

two hundred years at least and are well-known for their lustre and

brilliance. We are not aware of any systematic work that has been

carried out on the bionomics of these oysters in the Gulf of Kutch.

It was decided to undertake the study of its growth-rate and find

1 Communicated by Mr. K. R. Srivatsa, the Director of Marine Products,

Government of Saurashtra.

The investigations described here were conducted doder the Pearl Oyster Research

Scheme of the Government of Saurashtra.

GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH 125

out the approximate age at which the pearl-formation starts, for which

purpose a Pearl Oyster Research Scheme was sanctioned by the

Government of Saurashtra. Such studies have both commercial as

well as scientific importance which cannot be over-emphasized.

PREVIOUS WORK

In his paper on K. apima, Rao (1951) has surveyed some of the

work that has been carried out on the bivalve molluscs in the tropical

seas. According to him, Herdman (1903) and Malpas (1933) have

studied the growth-rate of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster, Pinctada vulgaris.

Hornell (1922) and Cahn (1949) are other workers not mentioned by

Rao. Hornell studied the growth-rate of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster

while Cahn has traced the entire life-history of the Japanese Pearl

Oyster, Pinctada martensti. None of these authors mention the use

of annular growth- rings in their studies. Rao (1951) has himself used

-such rings for ascertaining the age of K. apima and has shown that

his readings agree with the length-frequency measurements. According

to him the rings are ‘disturbance rings’ caused by the cessation of

growth which, in itself, may be due to a drop in the salinity of

‘the sea-water. He finds sufficient regularity in the occurrence of

these ‘disturbance rings’ to justify assumption that they indicate the

approximate age of the animal. Growth-rings are known to occur

annually in the skeletal structures of fishes and on the shells of

bivaives such as Pecten sp., etc. in the temperate seas. From our

observations on the pearl oysters kept in cages at Sikka from 1951

we found that such rings are formed annually on their shells and

hence we have used them in our studies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Other material for these investigations was collected mainly

from the pearl fishery of 1953. It was not possible to examine each

and every oyster fished during this period and we had to content

ourselves with random samples taken from this stock. Under the

existing regulations the fishermen employed for collection could not

bring in oysters below a certain size-limit. Consequently the stock fished

was itself bias towards the older animals and this was also reflected

in the random samples obtained by us. We were unable to get

specimens of age-groups ‘o’ and ‘r’. Even the number of animals

belonging to age-group 2 was very small making it difficult to

calculate the average size of that group accurately. On the other

hand, seven-year old animals, though not affected by this selection

were a few in number while only three eight-year animals were

obtained. The total number of oysters fished during the Pearl fishery

of 1953 was 11,519 of which 1,353 constituted the random samples

and were examined in detail. Apart from these, 334 oysters kept in

cages in the Pearl Oyster Park at Sikka were measured regularly every

month for a period of two years and formed the main source for

observing the formation of ‘growth-rings’.

In the beginning three different types of feos measurements were

recorded—the length, the depth and the thickness. The lines of these

126 \ JOWRNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol, 52:.°5

measurements are shown in Fig. 1. It was, however, soon apparent

that the thickness gave: more consistent data than the rest: .and

hence in later studies only the thickness. was measured. This

incidentally made it. possible to measure a large number of animals.

A, Seen it the Left side.

Hings

TAN NAA pt

EAN :

Growth Rings.

Fingerelike |

Projections. .

a h-b's The Length.

‘a-a'2Tho Depth

B, Seen from the Hinge.

tet 's Thicknsss.

Fig. I

Diagrammatic Sketch of P. pinctada

Thickness can be defined as the maximum distance between the exter-

nal surfaces of the two valves of the oyster. These measurements

could easily~-be made with a pair of callipers and were recorded

to’ the nearest millimeter. The number of ‘rings’ on the valves

were also observed and recorded against the particular individual for

correlation studies. , |

AGE-ANALYSIS ~

(a) Grawtheiares

Fig. 1m shows a ‘photograph of the right valve of an oyster ‘fve

years old. There are a number of concentric rings on ie valve but

out of them five are: séen better miarked than: the “rést’*-These: are

GROWTH-RATE OF P. -PINCTADA IN THE GULF. OF ‘KUTCH 127

referred to in the following pages as ‘growth-rings” or merely as “rings”.

The formation of these rings appears to be as follows :—

Towards the free edge of a young oyster are always seen‘ small

finger-like projections. These are particularly better marked during

winter when the growth is quite fast. During summer when thé

[Photo by Jamnagar Photo Co.

lane fl

Photograph of the right valve of a five-year old P. pinctada silhouetted against

powerful artificial light. The black portion towards the straight margin is the

point of maximum thickness. (Reduced to five-eighth of the original size.)

growth slows down these projections disappear and instead there

appears a continuous line—the growth-ring. Later on fresh projections

appear which will give rise to the next year’s ring. <A real ring is

one which is continuous from the anterior to the posterior end ‘and

is much deeper than the rest. The rings are better seen on the

deeper left valve than the right but it is safer to see carefully both

the valves before coming to any conclusion. In case of doubt the

valves may be separated and each seen silhouetted against the sunlight

when the true rings appear very clear. Even so the differentiation

of true rings from the ‘false’ rings is difficult and it is only after

some experience that it becomes possible to identify the age correctly...

About 5% of the oysters had to be discarded because no pEOpes

eesti 8 of the lines could be made.

(b) Period of ring-formation :

‘ That these rings are annual features (ioemed once in a year) ane

represent a year’ s growth was. proved by our observations on the

oystefs kept in cages at Sikka. It was found that in a majority:

of “cases the rings” were formed during the summer months when:

the growth ceased. It was also ascertained from these records that

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

these rings were permanent features and once formed never diminished

in size.

To avoid any mistake occurring through the subconscious each

oyster in our Park was given a serial number and its rings were

counted every month without referring to the previous records. So

far only four oysters have been found incorrectly read. This in itself

is a proof that the method is quite valid and reliable in the age-

analysis of these oysters.

As regards the causative factors of the periodic growth of the

oysters and the formation of the rings, nothing can be said with

certainty. Cahn (1949) finds two distinct periods each year—one of

faster growth and the other of comparative rest—in the Japanese

oyster and attributes the slower rate chiefly to the drop in the sea-

temperature during December to April when oysters hibernate. Fig.

tir shows the mean sea-temperatures (taken near the bottom) at the

Sea-temperature in °C.

I Ti roWSE NEIL IK OX ade

I 9 56 &.

Fig. III

Mean Sea-temperatures from the Pearl Oyster Park at Sikka

Pearl Oyster Park at Sikka. Also shown on the graph are the periods

of active growth and rest as observed at Sikka. It will be seen

| from this data that the oysters in the Gulf of Kutch grow vigorously

between November and February when the temperature of the sea

varies between 23°C. and 27°C. while during the summer months,

when the temperature is higher, the growth ceases. However the

difference between the summer and winter temperatures is not’ so

high as to justify the assumption that this physical factor is mainly

responsible for the cessation of the growth; especially so, when one

considers that these temperatures represent only the means. In day-

to-day temperatures there was too much. of. variation and even over-

GROWTH-RATE OF P..PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH 129

lapping. Rao (1951) finds that growth in K. apima seems to be

arrested during August to December when there is a fall in salinity

of the sea-water. Salinity in the Gulf of Kutch does not show appreciable

fluctuations and we have no evidence to presume that it has anything

to do with the retardation of growth. Cessation of growth due to

metabolic strains such as caused by low feeding or spawning is known

to occur amongst some of the marine fishes particularly those of the

temperate seas. Enough data on the biology of these oysters are

not yet available and hence it would be too premature to comment

on these factors but it is likely that they are more hkely causes

of the cessation of the growth amongst the oysters than the

sea-temperature.

(d) Growth-rate:

In studies on age-analysis with the help of annual rings it is

very essential to know the approximate age of the individual at the

time when the first ring is laid down. Since we do not know the

exact extent of the spawning season of P. pinctada nor do we have enough

Specimens of age-groups ‘o’ and ‘1’, we are not in a position to

say when the first ring is laid down and consequently our readings

are likely to be wrong by six months on either side. Thus when

we say that the oyster is 4 years old, it may be anything between

3 years 6 months and 4 years 6 months.

As stated previously the thickness was correlated with the rings

and the data thus obtained is shown in table 1. The average thickness

(weighted means) of oysters at various ages calculated from this

data are given below:—

A ge Thickness tn mm.

io os a 21:8

NTO U1 BB GO LO

SN)

1S)

“NI

sce ae hi 37°2 (?)

The number of two-year old animals is very small in table 1 and

hence their average may not be correct. Moreover, oysters lesser

than 15 mm. thick were not collected. If these could have been included

in this data, the average thickness of that age group would have

gone down. Similarly, only 19 specimens of age group 7 were obtained

and: the ‘average thickness may, therefore, not be reliable. This

data shows that the oyster grows quite fast till its fourth year but

after that age the growth-rate slows down. These findings are similar

to those of Hornell (1922) who observes that ‘the growth of the

Indian oyster is distinctly retarded after the third year’. We, however,

feel that this slowing down of the growth-rate is not so much due

to the ‘abundance of encrusting organisms’ suggested by Hornell as

due to a drop in the general metabolism with the advancing age.

Marine fishes are known to grow fast till they attain sexual maturity

after which their growth-rate falls. It is likely that the pearl

oyster reaches sexual maturity towards its 3rd or 4th year which may

explain the drop in the growth-rate after that age.

©)

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The life-span of P. pinctada in the Gulf of Kutch seems to be

seven years though a few individuals survive to the eighth year.

According to Hornell (1922) the pearl oyster in the Gulf of Manaar

TABLE 1

Correlation between the thickness and the age of P. pinctada.

Thickness 2 3 4 5 6 Zz |

in mm. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. yrs. =

18 ik ce a an ite

19 | 4 ve os —_ ra on i

20 13; 4 — = = = 17

21 | 14 9 1 = = = 24

22 12 14 a = a uns 26

23 11 28 Aside 2 ud = 45.

24 8 52 6 4 a lary tea

25 4 €6 18 5 1 Be hh sin 0)

26 fp 53 33 2 i = 90

27 = 30 50 5 1 wt 86

28 ae 13 58 | 4 1 = 76

29 = 10 97 13 2 = 122

30 faa Z 124 42 5 = 173

31 as | i 42 56 2 == 101

32 = —— 31 67 3 — 101

33 = | — 10 35 7 2 54

34 — — Soh pleieOe i] 2 79

35 ee Ss 13 57 18 2 C0

36 ae UE ake 2 14 21 3 40

57 me es 2 6 8 2 18.

38 ete a 1 7 3 2 13

39 3! | a ae | 2 2 1 5

40 > = — Bee 7 1 8.

4) pe ae ae eee 5 2 7

42 te oa, a e 3 2 5

43 _ — — = 2 c= 2

44 ie os us = 2 = 2

Total es: 68 282 500 383 101 19 1 353.

NN Css... =e

lives to about five years of age, while according to Cahn (1949) P.

martensii lives to about eight years. Hornell has not given’ any

basis of his age-assessment but Cahn has summarised the studies.

of Mr. M. Yanagonchi of the Japan Institute of Scientific Research

on Pearls. Mr. Yanagonchi has traced the entire developmental

history of P. martensti and hence his findings are more reliable than

those of Hornell. Comparing Cahn’s data with ours it seems that

there is not much difference between the life-spans of P. pinctada and

P. martensit.

(e) Agreement with Petersen’s Method:

Petersen’s method essentially consists in measuring a very large

number of individuals of a species and finding out the ‘peaks’ or the

‘modes’ which represent various age-groups. This method gives good

results particularly for the young growing animals when the growth-

rate is quite fast and distinct modes are seen; but with the advanc-

GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE. GULF OF KUTCH 131

ing age the growth-rate falls and very often Petersen’s curve does

not show any peak at all.

In fig. Iv is shown a histogram of the thickness-frequencies of the

pearl oyster. Superimposed on this are the lines indicating the

average thicknesses of various age-groups as deduced from the rings.

Except for the age-group 7 there is a fairly good agreement between

the peaks of Petersen’s method and the thickness claculated from

the rings. The number of seven-year old animals was small

which may be responsible for the disagreement. Moreover, as

stated earlier the growth-rate at this age falls considerably and

consequently Petersen’s method cannot be solely relied upon; but

the agreement which exists amongst other age-groups is ample proof

of the reliability of the method of age-analysis with the help of

annular rings.

POPULATION STUDY (ANALYsIS OF THE STOCK)

A total of 11,519 oysters were fished during the Pearl Fishery

1953... During, the pearl! fishery of; 1950 -we= had, obtained 33,720

oysters and on an average about 17,000 oysters have been fished in

each of the previous fisheries since 1913. The drop in the output

this year is primarily due to shortage of fishermen who volunteered

for the fishery. Per capita production, however, has remained the

same.

When random samples were studied from this stock, some

interesting information was obtained ‘and which is summarized

below :—

(i) The stock is a normal population. The various year-broods

were represented as follows :—

1951 brood oe ee ge ey

1950 brood oe ee 2s

1949 brood Me eG

1948 brood es eemeeou

1947 brood a Spiess. Ss

1946 brood ars + ER

These figures are represented in histogram in figure v. The

population does not show any signs of over-fishing. The fact that

1950 brood forms about one-fifth of the stock and that the 1949 and

1948 broods form the bulk of the population today, prove that fishing

conducted during 1950 was restricted to the older animals only and

that too perhaps after spawning. A proper survey of animals belong-

ing to 1951 brood will give a definite answer to this problem, but

that two of us (C.R.E. and R.N.) collected twenty-five such animals

within a search of two hours lends supports to this belief.

(ii) Growth-rate of the oysters was not the same on all the beds.

Amongst the oysters collected from Movada and Deda, a majority

were older oysters and even the rate was faster. Movada also pro-

vided the youngsters mentioned above. It is likely that these beds

have probably the optimum conditions for the growth and propagation

of the pearl oysters.

132

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

NUMBER OF OF.S°T BRS.

a : ss Ce Re eT ee eT ee ee ee Agé- group ae

(80)

ate :

ie)

oa = BE Xe, soot akg ;

pl 5° oes : na ae a of FOO TPS OOOH OOS DS We Age-group 3e

(oe)

| cond aes ai a rica) re

Sy oD me eb ot we Ob a wn a es oe oe ce ws Agé6-groun Ge

e ee : =

toe ae : Soa aa

7 ek Dat DP DP Ok os Ew ae OP OP BS uperes 2 op ew =< Age-groun 5.

L°eo

me ye col ze. te

g°ce

H ‘

ob 1) OF 6c o tus of

O26 2282202842 C2E 8 OF WO FOE BSE OPCS Sea canoe Ageé-group fd e

o° Le

Fig. IV

Histogram showing the frequency of thickness

GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH | 133

100

90]

80 | % of the various

| Year broods in the

Stock.

70 |

Po Bok ob Ne AVG Ee .

10 |

*51 °50 %49 °48 "47 °*46

Wao a KR Bie OO DP Ss

Fig.eV

(iii) When the growth-rate of these ‘wild’ oysters (i.e. collected

during the pearl fishery) was compared with that of oysters kept in

cages at the Sikka Park, it was found that the latter showed a

distinct retardation of growth after the third year. Since the number

measured in the Sikka Park is rather small (334) we do not commit

ourselves on this point but there is an indication that the growth

in the Park is not very satisfactory. At present we are keeping

the oysters in cages with wire meshes on one side and wood on

the other three. Obviously these are not suitable for healthy growth.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Perhaps bamboo-fence enclosing a few acres of the oyster bed will serve

the purpose better, although this will be more expensive.

(iv) On an average 15 to 20% oysters bear pearls. Narada

bed differed in this respect in that about 30% oysters had pearls in

them. Even the quality of the pearls produced in this bed was decidedly

better. This is borne out by the fact that the total number of oysters

collected from this bed in the sample survey was only 741 while the

value of pearls was Rs. 2,380, a much higher average than that

usually obtained.

(v) When the pearl bearing oysters were classified into their

respective age-groups, the following data was obtained :—

2s a Ce Daa

Number of

Age-group oysters Percentage

2 3 —

3 35 16+9%

+ 68 328%

5 76 36:7%

6 25 NOS

7 4 ic

It appears from this data that the optimum conditions for the

formation of pearls exist in the oyster when it is between three and

six years old. Pearl formation starts at the age of three and rarely

at two. It has already been shown that six-year old animals. form

only 8% of the stock. Looking from this point of view it seems

that chances of pearl formation are more in 6-year old animals than

in other age-groups. Cahn (1949) points out that three-year old

animals are chosen for inserting the nucleus in the oyster for cultured

pearls in Japan and that the harvesting age is between 6 and 7.

Our data also points in the same direction and culture experiments,

if and when started, should be attempted when the oysters are three

years old.

A point worth considering in this respect is whether the present

system of conducting pearl fisheries every third year is scientifically

correct. From the above data it would appear that conducting a

fishery every fourth or even fifth year should be more beneficial than

in the third. ~ There ~is, “of scourse, the. danger ot Josie

the older oysters altogether but if fishing is done intensively and the

old oysters removed this difficulty can be overcome. Moreover, the

number of 6- and 7-year old animals is small and they can be

removed by the departmental staff during their inspection tours.

(vi) Majority of the pearls were found near about the adductor

muscle, mostly towards the hinge. We could not give proper

attention to the study of location of pearls, etc., but mostly they were

muscle pearls and smaller cyst pearls as defined by Hornell (1922).

GROWTH-RATE OF P. PINCTADA IN THE GULF OF KUTCH § 135

Usually the muscle pearls appeared in clusters. Most of the pearl-

bearing oysters contained more than three or four pearls each. It

was exceptional to find only one pearl in an oyster. The highest

number of pearls so far recorded from a single oyster is 68. Fusion

of two or more pearls to form a bunch was not uncommon, It may

be mentioned here that pearls of high values have been obtained

from these waters. During the pearl fishery of 1950 one pearl was

valued at Rs. 1,000 while the records show that during 1943-44 one

pearl valued at Rs. 12,000 was collected from an oyster from the

Narada Bed.

SUMMARY

(i) The growth-rate of the adult pearl oyster, Pinctada pinctada

in the Gulf of Kutch has been worked out with the help of annual

rings. As the samples were bias, the growth-rate of two-year old and

younger animals could not be calculated.

(ii) Two distinct periods—one of active growth and the other

of rest—were observed in a year but no cause could be traced.

It is likely that some internal biological factor is responsible for this

cessation of growth.

(iii) It has been shown that the oysters grow fast till they attain

their fourth year after which the growth rate falls. It has been

presumed from this that the animal reaches sexual maturity at the

age: Of three Or for.

(iv) Life-span of these oysters seems to be seven years, though

a few survive to the eighth.

(v) From sample-surveys of the pearl fishery in 1953 it has been

ascertained that there are no signs of overfishing. On the contrary

there is every reason to believe that this year the beds have been

much underexploited due to labour shortage.

(vi) On an average 15 to 20% oysters bear pearls. Amongst the

pearl-bearing oysters, age-groups of 4, 5, and 6 years predominate. It

is likely that the pearl formation starts when the oyster is 2-3 years

old. It has been suggested that conducting the fishery every fourth

year would be more beneficial.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors wish to express their gratitude to Sri. K. R. Srivatsa,

the Director of Marine Products, Saurashtra, for offering all the help

and for suggesting these investigations. They are also indebted to

Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey of India for kindly going

firoush= the manuscript, —Phey are grateful to Sri. K. V. Rao of

the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station, Mandapam, for

favouring us with a reprint of his paper on K. apima. Sincere

thanks are also due to the members of this Directorate, especially Sri.

ie Ce Wakumbeand sri. MY. Nathan for their help in the collection

of data.

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

REFERENCES

1. Cahn, A. R. (1949): Pearl Culture in Japan. U.S. Department of Interior.

Fish and Wild Life Service Fishery Leaflet 357, November, 1949. .

2*. Herdman, W. A, (1903): Observations and Experiments on the Life-History

and Habits of the Pearl Oyster. Rep. Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar.

Royal Soc., London, 1: 125-146.

3. Hornell, J. (1922): The Indian Pearl Fishery of the Gulf of Manaar and:

Palk Bay. Madras Fisheries Department Bulletin, No. 16.

4*. Malpas, A. H. (1933): Further Observations on the Age and Growth-Rate

of the Ceylon Pearl Oyster, Margaritifera vulgaris, with Special Reference in

Oysters of Dorman’s Muthuvarathu Paar. Ceylon Journ. Sci., 8 (c): 21-48.

5. Rao, K. V. (1951): Studies on the growth of Katelysia apima (Gmelin).

Section II of Proceedings of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council. 1951.

6. Devanesan, D. W. & Chidambaram, K. (1950): Report on Pearl Oyster

of the Gulf of Manaar. (unpublished).

ADDENDUM

During discussion on the growth-rate of Pearl Oysters with Shri

Kk. Chidambaram, Assistant Fisheries Development, Advisor to the

Government of India in February 1954 he referred to the attempts.

of the Madras Fisheries Department to study bionomics of the pearl

oyster of the Gulf of Mannar. An unpublished report on these studies

extending over a period of nine years by D. W. Devanesan and K.

Chidambaram (1950) was made available to us. These workers reared

spats of known age and correlated age of oysters with body or thickness

at the hinge as factors in age and growth assessment. The extensive

investigations carried on by them for prolonged period, if reported and

published would be valuable to workers on Bionomics of Molluscs.

* Papers are not seen by us.

CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE

OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS

Ill. MURDANNIA SCAPIFLORUM (ROXB.) ROYLE.

R. FERNANDES, B.SC.

AND

Hi. SANTAPAU, S.j.

(With two plates)

This paper is a continuation of several by the senior author (H.S.

published in this journal in the last few years. (See J.B.N.H.S.

50: 305-312; 428-430; etc.).

In our field work in the Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli,

Salsette Island, we have found a plant that has given us plenty of

trouble before we could come to a definite conclusion as to its identity.

Finally after a detailed study of the pertinent literature on the subject,

we have come to the conclusion that our plant is identical with

‘the one fisted by Cooke in his Flora of the Presidency of Bombay

under the name Aneilema scapiflorum Wight. The main reasons: for

our difficulty in identifying the plant were that neither Wight nor

Clarke describe the root system of the plant, and Cooke only mentions

that the roots possess ‘pisiform’ tubers; further the diagrams shown

by Wight and Clarke picture a juvenile specimen, and their descriptions

refer to the same undeveloped plant; the picture given by Royle has

not been seen.

We shall give here a complete description from numerous specimens

collected in the field; we have found this plant on several occasions

and in large numbers, so that we have had ample opportunity to

examine the development of the specimens at leisure.

1. The generic name Murdannia Royle.

Our plant is placed under the generic name Aneilema R. Br. in

Cooke’s Flora, and in this he follows Hooker in the Flora of British

India; most authors of local or provincial floras of India follow suit

and use the name Aneilema. Royle in 1839 gave the name Murdannia

to a section of the genus Aneilema; Briickner in 1926 named the same

section Phaeneilema, which was made into an independent genus; but

in 1930 the same Brickner recognised that his Phaeneilema coincided

entirely in its circumscription with Murdannia Royle. The name

Aneilema R.Br. is a valid genus, but our Bombay plants do not

belong to it; for our plants the oldest valid name is Murdannia Royle.

Brickner, in Engl & Pr. Pflanzenfamilien (ed. 2) 15 A: 165,

divides the family Commelinaceae into two subfamilies, on the

following grounds:

A. Flowers actinomorphic i... Tradescantieae

B. Flowers zygomorphic ... Commelineae

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The genus Murdannia belongs to the subfamily Tvadescantieae, tribe

Triandrae; on the other hand the genus Aneilema in the restricted

sense belongs to the subfamily Commelineae, tribe Declinatae. Thus,

although the name Aneilema R. Br. (1810) is much older than

Murdannia Royle (1839), the latter name is considered valid as one

of the subdivisions into which the conglomerate of species under

Aneilema R. Br. has been split by Bruckner.

2. The specific name.

Murdannia scapiflorum (Roxb.) Royle, Ill. Bot. Him. 403, t. 95,

1839; Brickner in Engl. & Piamilien. (eds 2) 150-8173 8 ogo:

Commelina scapiflora Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1: 175, 1832.

Aneilema scapiflorum Wight, Icon. 6: 30, t. 2073, 1853; Hook.

f.-in Fl, Brit® Ind. -6:- 375°; Clarke Comm asC vine eo cner2e miner.

1874 & in DC. Mon. Phan. 3: 200, 1881; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay

23377004 OOO;

Aneilema tuberosum Ham. in Wall. Cat. 5207, nom. nud.

3. Previous descriptions of the pliant.

The first description of this plant is that of Roxburgh in Flora

Indica (Carey Ed.) 1: 175, 1832, where he writes: “Root perennial.

Racemés radical, erect, with alternate, many-flowered spathes. Petals

equal. Leaves in a tuft, ensiform. .. . Root perennial, composed

of several, ‘smooth, elongated tubers, with a few filiform radicles.

Stems none, except the sheathing bases of the leaves which appear

a month or two. after the flowers; these are ensiform, waved, acute,

smooth, and marked with several straight veins; length from four

to eight inches, breadth one. Racemes radical, erect, straight, smooth,

invested at each of the remote two or three joints, with a small,

solitary sheath; these sheaths towards the top are more approximated,

each of them there embracing the insertion of a branchlet which

bears several pedicelled flowers. Calyx the three leaflets thereof broad-

lanceolate, and considerably shorter than the corol, Petals equal,

round, concave. WNectaries alternate with the stamens, hairy.

Filaments three, alternate with the petals, longer than the filaments

of the nectaries, and like them hairy about the middle. Anthers

blue. Pistil declining. Stigma minutely three-toothed.’

Among the older authors who have described the plant, Roxburgh

is the only one to mention the tuberous roots; such roots are not

found in the figures of Wight or Clarke; the latter mentions, however,

that ‘Radix plus minus tuberosa unde nomen Hamiltonianum’. (The

root is tuberous, hence the name given by Hamilton Aneilema tuberosa

in Wall. Cat. 5207, 1831-1832; Hamilton’s name happens to be the

oldest for this plant, but being a nomen nudum in the sense of

Art. 42 of the present Internat. Code of Bot. Nomencl. it is invalid,

and must not be taken into consideration for the purposes of nomen-

clature.) The roots are missing from the type specimen by Wight

in Kew Herbarium (see plate I).

We have examined the present plant in the living condition in

the field, and have had the whole plant, the roots and tubers included,

carefully lifted out of the ground; our description will differ in some

an amen

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats 1

Murdannia scapifiorum Royle.

Photograph of Wight’s Type sheet in Kew Herbarium.

IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 139

particulars from those of Roxburgh, Clarke and Wight, all of whom

seem to have dealt with more or less imperfect plants. This is perhaps

why Wight, in Icon. 6: 30, gives the following warning note: ‘My

drawing is taken from a dried specimen with fruit, generally, nearly

mature and does not therefore give a good idea of the flowering plant.

Neither Roxburgh nor Royle mentions the fruit, though the latter

constitutes this a new genus. Royle’s figure does not much resembie

mine, but the difference seems to depend on his being a younger

and less luxuriant form. The open flower of my drawing is taken

from an unopened one, and may not represent the correct proportions

of the parts as seen in naturally opened ones, but if they do represent

the correct proportions, it seems to me this can scarcely be Roxburgh’s

plant, as he distinctly mentions the petals being longer than the

calyx. The inflorescence too seems different, that of mine being;

properly a panicle, while he calls his a raceme, but describes it as

having “‘branchlets’’, this showing that it has the elements of a panicle,

only wanting luxuriance to develop it, as shown in my plant.’

Clarke, in DC. Mon. Phan. 3: 201, describes the plant thus (the

description translated from the Latin original): ‘The root fasciculate

with fusiform tubers. Leaves 10-15 cm. long, 1-1.5 cm. broad,

somewhat narrowed at the base, scabrid. Scape 1o-4o cm, tall; the

bracts at the primary dichotomies 1-5 cm. long; higher bracts small,

amplexicaul, ovate, truncate. Petals blue. The pedicels in fruit 1

cm lone, suberect:' Stamens 3 perfect, 3 sterile, all the filaments

bearded. Capsule trigonous-ellipsoid, mucronate and scarcely acute at

the apex, lead-coloured. Seeds in each loculus 3-6, uniseriate, straw-

coloured with a white aril, reticulate and scabrid with very minute dark

glands, superposed exactly, forming a triangular column which is

rounded at the back . . . India, at altitudes 0-1,000 meters .. .; mostly

in grass fields that have been burnt; fairly frequent.’ It is clear

from this description that Clarke was describing an immature or

juvenile form of this species; the description agrees fairly well with

the plants we have collected at the beginning of the season in

Salsette.

Cooke, on the other hand, speaks of ‘Roots of elongate pisiform

tubers. ... Leaves 4-8x 8-2 in. ©. : . Blowers in erect: -elongate

panicles on terminal leafless scapes; scape together with the panicle

8-18 in. long . . .’ (Italics ours). Obviously the word pisiform is a

mistake for fusiform tubers; Cooke further mentions that the panicles

are terminal; in none of our specimens have we found a single plant

with terminal scapes; they are all lateral, one or two scapes for

each plant, the scapes appearing either immediately before the leaves,

or one scape before the leaves, the second one appearing in fact when

the leaves are already fairly well developed.

4. Our own description of the plant.

We give now our own description, which is illustrated by a careful

diagram of the whole plant and with some details about the fiowers

and fruits (see plate II).

A perennial herb; root-fibres rather stout, coming from the base

of the stem, up to 4o, usually 15-20, in number, about 3-4 mm. thick,

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

straw-coloured outside, pure white inside, many of the roots having

a fusiform or ellipsoidal tuber at their end or at some distance from

it, that is to say, the root may continue for some distance beyond

the tuber; tubers white inside, about 4x1 cm. in size, of the same

colour as the fibrous roots. Stems short, hypogeal, about 2 cm. long

or a little longer, and together with the bases of the leaves about

2 cm. diameter. ‘Leaves all radical, up to 10 in number in our speci-

mens, alternate, the middle ones the largest, upper and lower leaves

gradually decreasing in size, the lower ones passing into large bracts

or scales at the base; the leaves. are up to 60x 4.5 cm., usually about

40x 4 cm., somewhat coriaceous, glabrous or nearly so, ensiform,

parallel-veined, the nerves not being conspicuous; margins waved

and with a narrow hyaline border at least in young leaves; the midrib

depressed above, prominent beneath. Scapes one or two, always

lateral, not terminal, up to 100 cm., usually 30-50 cm. long, simple

below, branched above; flowers only on the upper third of the scape,

paniculate; each scape is supported by a large bract or sheath, which

may be entire or bifid at the very apex; bracts at the forking of the

scape large, more or less triangular, acute or acuminate, the base

embracing the -scape;! the») size :of the bracts ‘decreases’ from

below upwards, until towards the apex of the plant they are but a

few mm. in length. Flowers blue or purplish-blue, about 1 cm. in

diameter when fully opened, bracteolate and pedicelled; the pedicels

elongate in fruit up to about 1 cm. long; the flowers are perfectly

regular, bisexual, hypogynous. Sepals purplish-green, 7x 3-4 mm.,

oblong or slightly tapering and rounded at the apex, persistent ;

nerves 3-5, distinct. Petals 9x6 mm., or slightly larger, obovate,

easily caducous, free. «Stamens 3) perfect, 3 sterile; fertile, stamens

opposite the sepals and alternating with the petals; filaments of the

fertile stamens filiform on the upper half, broadened into a strap-

shaped lower half; filaments of sterile stamens uniformly filiform ;

anthers purple, dorsifixed, opening by longitudinal slits; sterile stamens

or staminodes alternating with and shorter than the fertile ones,

their anthers X-shaped; both fertile and sterile stamens are bearded

with moniliform hairs of the same-.colour as the corolla; in the case

of the sterile filaments such hairs are confined to the lower third of

the filament; with fertile stamens such hairs are found only at the

point where the filament narrows from the broad base. Gynoecium

tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior, 3-celled; placentae axile; style

simple, terminal, a little shorter than the fertile stamens and of the

same colour; stigma capitate, small. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, about

6 mm. long, 2.5-3 mm. broad in the middle, obovoid, somewhat

trigonous, beaked with the remains of the style. Seeds about 4 in

each cell, exactly superposed and uniseriate, more or less trigonous,

the two inner faces being flat, the outer face rounded and marked

with a minute circular depression, in the middle of which there is a

prominent mucro or clypeus. Seeds externally reticulate with a

brownish aril, the reticulations being very minute and_ perfectly

hexagonal in shape.

Habitat: In more or less water-logged soil beneath the protection

of trees, along the plains on the south side of river Dahisar; it is not

a common plant, but wherever it occurs it does so in considerable

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiaTE II

_——

Murdannia scapiflorum Royle.

IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 141

numbers, in almost pure stands; occasionally a few grasses or sedges:

are mixed with these plants, but more often than not the plant grows

in pure formations; perhaps the reason for this is that, at the time

our plant was collected in flower or fruit, grasses were very far

behind in development and many had not yet appeared above

ground. | .

Flowers were seen before any leaves had appeared above ground on

June 18, 1953 (fernandes: 1260); on .June. 21, 1953, flowers were

fully developed and some had already gone into fruit, while the first

leaves were still but 3-6 cm. long (Fernandes 1276; Santapau 15627).

By the 27 June, 1953, the leaves were up to 15x4 cm. and flowers

about equalled the fruits in number, but only one scape for each

plant was noticed up to that date (Fernandes 1311-1313).. On July

4th many plants were collected with 2 scapes each, mostly in fruit ;

leaves were then about 30x 3.5-4 cm. (Fernandes 1316; Santapau

15642-15643). On July 10, 1953, leaves were 40x 4 cm., the scapes

50-60: (cm. or even exceptionally larger (Iernandes 1335. A-C;

Santapau 15653-15659). Finally on July 25th, 1953, we found plants

with very large leaves, and only the remains of the inflorescence or

the dehisced fruits. Comparison between young and old plants has

further shown that the number of tuberous roots increases with the

age of the plant; younger specimens showed 5-10 roots, while at

the end of the fruiting season it was common to find up to 4o roots

for each plant.

All the specimens mentioned in these pages are preserved in Blatter

Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES

Pirate I.—Photograph of Wight’s type specimen in Kew Herbarium. Photo by

H. Santapau, reproduced by kind permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew.

Pirate I].—Diagrammatic representation of Murdannia scapiflorum Royle drawn

by R. Fernandes.

A. Pull plant:

B. Stem and base of leaves.

C.’ Flower.

D. Fruit, external view.

fs. Seeds from a single cell seen from the inner angle.

I. Seed as seen from the outer side.

BiBLIOGRAP #H ¥

Briickner, G. (1930): Commelinaceae. In Engl. & Pr. Pfamilien. (ed. 2) 15

A: 159-181.

Clarke, C. B. (1874): Commelinaceae et Cyrtandraceae Bengalenses (paucis aliis

ex terris adjunctis additis). Calcutta.

(1881) : Commelinaceae. In DC. Mon. Phan, 3: 113-324.

Cooke, Th. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. (Commeli-

-maceae in 2: 779-797, 1907).

Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India. (Commelinaceae in 6:

366-390, 1892).

Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica (Carey edition).

Wight, R. (1838-1853): Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING

INDUSTRY

EeeR. Ay DEOZYLVA

Acting Director of Fisheries, Ceylon

DN TR OD UCM N

Ceylon, with a population of 6.7 millions in 1946, had just over

100,000 persons engaged in the fishing industry, or 1.7% of the

population. It is an interesting fact that the 1921 Census showed

that out of.a population of nearly 5 millions, just under 80,000 persons

were engaged in the industry, also 1.7% of the population. Of

those at present engaged in the industry, it is estimated that about

72,000 fishermen are actively engaged in sea fisheries, and just under

9,500 in inland fisheries.

The annual production of fish is estimated at 90 million Ibs.

In other words, the average fisherman lands about 1,500 lbs. of

fish each year. Compared with the production of Denmark, where

the average is 33,000 lbs. per head per year (5), this is very low.

In 1952, Ceylon’s fish imports were valued at 55 million rupees (17),

representing about 9o million lbs. of cured and preserved fish. If

it were possible for the local industry to double its present produc-

tion, the country will have gone a long way towards achieving self-

sufficiency in fish. How is this target to be achieved?

It is clear that the industry is operating at a low level of efficiency.

Primitive craft, the absence of capital for investment by fishermen,

social prejudices, and the lack of new ideas or the incentive to pro-

gress have worked together to keep the industry in the role of a

Cinderella. Little progress in comparison with that achieved in

agriculture has blessed the fishermen’s lot. An earlier awakening of

public consciousness of the deplorable conditions under which fishermen

lived and worked (2) was largely overshadowed by the international

situation resulting from World War II, and almost the only significant

progress achieved during that decade was the revival of trawler fishing

operations, which showed that, in spite of the high cost of production,

a trawler could be expected to bring in about two million pounds

of fish per year at a cost of about 50 cents a pound, and that local

personnel could be found or trained to man the trawlers (3).

- Much expert opinion has been and is being sought on the problems

of developing the island’s fishery potential, and this has yielded, and

is yielding, much valuable data, from which future operations will benefit

very considerably (4-9). The Government first secured the services

of a Danish team consisting of a Senior biologist, a fisherman and

a fish-food technologist for two months; since then, the Fisheries

Division of the Food and Agriculture Organisation through the Indo-

Pacific Fisheries Council and the Extended Technical Assistance

DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY 143

Programme, and more recently the Colombo Plan Technical Assistance

Bureau, have provided personnel and equipment for the investigation

of the Island’s fishery problems. Their energies have been directed

to the introduction of more effective capture operations, cultural opera-

tions, and secondary industrial development for the provision of storage,

transport, processing and handling facilities, to ensure that fish reaches

the consumer in the optimum condition (17).

PROBLEMS OF FISHERIES DEVELOPMENT

The development of the sea fisheries presents a complex problem.

The present low level of production is partly the result of the use

of primitive craft, with little inboard accommodation, and partly the

result of vagaries in the availability of fishable stocks. As these craft

are dependent on the wind, the fishermen are obliged to spend very

little time in actual fishing operations, up to 4/5th of their time being

spent on the daily voyage to and from the fishing grounds. The

limited inboard accommodation permits the use of very restricted

quantities of gear. The resultant income is very low, and the fishermen

can barely earn sufficient to buy improved gear in more appropriate

quantity, much less indeed buy mechanized craft. The Government has

sought to rescue the industry from this plight by, financing Co-operaive

Societies of fishermen, either as Producer Societies for the purchase

of craft and gear, or as Credit and Sales Societies to enable them

to secure for the primary producer as large as possible a proportion

of the ultimate value paid by the consumer, by eliminating the many

existing links in the chain between producer and consumer. About

5% of the fishermen have so far formed themselves into Co-operative

Societies, notwithstanding the great deal of impetus which the

Government has endeavoured to give the project. A possible inference

from this experience is that the Co-operative Society is not ideally

suited to meet the requirements of the fisherman (8). On the other

hand, it may not be the Co-operative system, but rather the inflexible

procedure which is attendant on a Government controlled organisation

that is responsible for the small number of Fishing Co-operatives. <A

possible solution lies in the inauguration of a National Fishing

Corporation, the legislation for the operation of which is now being

finalised.

MECHANIZATION

The first impact of mechanization on the indigenous fishing industry

in the Island came in 1949 when local fishing craft were towed out

to well-known fishing grounds, which lay at some distance from the

shore, and towed back to their base by an attendant mechanized

craft (5). This enabled the fishermen to spend more time in aciual

fishing, and they made catches four or five times as large as was

their wont. In certain districts, particularly in the northern half of

the Island, there has been considerable interest shown in this type

of operation. This is understandable, for the continental shelf is much

wider in that region, whereas in the southern half of the island, the

144, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 52

shelf only averages from 6 to 12 miles in width. Fishermen haye,

however, shown some reluctance to meet the entire cost. of the

operation of the attendant ‘mother ships’, although they have- had

indisputably better incomes during towing operations, and there have

been many difficulties in operating mother ships, the chief being the

lack of suitable harbours or moorings in fishing centres for craft of

this type.

While this phase was in operation, six small mechanized fishing boats

three of 22 ft. and three of 20 ft. were purchased from Denmark on the

advice of the F.A.O. Fishery Engineer. These were put on fishing:

operations with locally trained fishermen, and have shown that they are

capable of bringing in considerably larger catches than local craft. These

boats are powered by a simple semi-diesel, hot-bulb engine, and fitted

with an auxiliary sail, and can be beached where the surf is not

heavy. The capabilities of these boats are being demonstrated now

to Co-operative Fishing Societies, and it is anticipated that a request

to finance the purchase of similar craft will be forthcoming from

these Societies (19).

A further development has been the inboard mechanization of one

type of local craft, which is the only fishing vessel type that is

capable of accommodating an engine. The F.A.O. Fishery Engineer

has installed three small marine diesel engines, which were supplied

by the F.A.O., in these craft, and the Co-operative Societies which

are using these boats have found that they are able to get to the

fishing grounds earlier, spend more time in capture operations, and

get back in time to catch the market at its peak. Earning capacity

has been trebled. Great interest has been aroused in this venture.

Already fifteen other boats have been equipped by the fishermen with

marine engines, and a further twenty engines are on order. It 1s

proposed that suitable engines should be imported, and that hulls

should be built locally (in an endeavour to rejuvenate the local boat-

building industry which has seen better days), in order that more

mechanized boats may be available to meet the demand. The above

remarks apply to the northern regions of the Island, where the local

fishing craft are suitable for inboard mechanization, The sleek, swift,

outrigger canoe of the southern seaboard is regarded as ‘having

reached the limit of its development, and, in its class, it has no equal

for seaworthiness, speed, and ability to land on surf-lashed beaches.

Experiments with the use of an outboard motor on these craft have

given flattering indications, but the outboard motor is still regarded

as a fickle and delicate piece of machinery, which perhaps will not give

maximum efficiency with the heavy surf in which these craft are

launched and beached.

THE COLOMBO PLAN

The most recent development has been the Canadian sponsored

Colombo Plan project, under which two multi-purpose Canadian

West-Coast type fishing vessels, built in Vancouver, are operating,

each under the command of 2 Canadian fishermen, assisted by local

crews. One of the boats specializes in the capture of- surface types

DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY 145

of fish, by trolling, ring-netting, gill-netting, and purse-seining while

the other specializes in trawling, long-lining and demersal operations.

These vessels have completed three moniths of exploratory fishing

and will now engage in training local fishermen in the use of

mechanized capture techniques. ‘The trainees are to be drawn from

‘Co-operative Fishing Societies, and will be financed to purchase suitable

small boats and appropriate gear with which they will continue to

fish on the lines of the training they have received. The hulls for

these 20-30 ft. craft will be made locally; the engines will be imported

for installation here. It is hoped that some of these trainees will be

‘sent for further training in Canada under the Colombo Plan.

A part of the Canadian Aid has taken the form of a deep sea

trawler, the ‘Maple Leaf’ equipped with a refrigerated fish-hold,

which, with the Government trawler ‘Braconglen’ purchased in 1950

to replace the old trawler ‘Raglan Castle’, now makes a valuable

contribution towards the island’s fish supply. These trawlers fish

on the Wadge Bank, some 4,500 sq. miles of trawling ground lying

150 miles to the west of Colombo (1), (3). Their catches vary from

70,000 to 140,000 Ibs. for a 10- to 12-day| trip, and, as they harvest

a resource which is not normally drawn upon by indigenous fishermen,

and on which no other regular fishery of any magnitude is based, their

operations are being followed with a great deal of interest. Catches

are now being studied in an effort to determine the productivity of

the grounds and to detect any indications of depletionary tendencies

in the fishery. A great extent of trawlable ground lies within com-

‘mercially exploitable range of the Island, and this first successful

tropical trawler fishery, which has now gone on for over 8 years

without any sign of depletion, must undoubtedly be of great

‘significance at the present time, when countries are turning their eyes

towards the sea in their search for new sources of food for the

people.

SHORE FACILITIES

The shore facilities which exist today will not be adequate either

to service an increased number of mechanized craft, or to deal effec-

tively with the distribution of the increased landings. As a first step

towards the provision of improved facilities for fish handling, the

Government is constructing *four ice-making plants, three five-ton and

one ten-ton, in important producer areas, each equipped with

refrigerated ice-storage and _fish-storage accommodation. The

Canadian Aid under the Colombo Plan is providing a 500-ton cold

storage plant for holding fish, with 4o tons per day ice production

and 1s tons per day blast freezing equipment, and this 1s being

planned in association with a pier for trawler unloading and

provisioning, and accommodation for gear ‘storage, repair workshops

and offices. This unit will probably form the nucleus of the National

Fishing Corporation, when that body is established. At present, all

trawler landings are handled by the Co-operative Fish Sales Union,

which provides sales facilities on a direct-from-producer-to-consumer

basis under the supervision of technical personnel provided by the

Government Co-operative and Fisheries Departments.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

BRACKISH-WATER FISHERIES

~The backbone of the island’s fishing operations, is, however, the

beach seine, a large net which is set out in an arc from the beach,

often extending 14 miles out to sea, and drawn up to the shore by

manual labour. The opinion has been expressed that this fishery has.

reached a depletionary phase (8). The owner now continues in the

hope of realising one or two bumper harvests during a six-month

season, to recoup his expenses. Part of the development programme

must be devoted to a more economical and productive utilisation of

this man-power. With the introduction of mechanised operations, it

is likely that this activity will require less personnel than it now

employs. In order to absorb this surplus man-power into productive

fishery employment, it is proposed to divert it to cultural operations.

in the many thousands of acres of brackish “water lagoons and

marshes which skirt nearly every mile of the country’s 800-mile

coastline. This technique, which is now an _ established peasant

routine in the Philippines, Indonesia and Malaya, is ideally suited

to this Island’s requirements (15). The particular species of fish

on which the cultural operations are based are available in abundant

supply in local waters. They are well-known in the markets, and

command a ready sale. The introduction of this technique presents

no difficulty other than that which is attendant upon any attempt

on the part of a Government to change the established routine of a

conservative community, which, on account of its poverty, is steeped.

in traditional suspicion of any departure from pristine practices. The

potential for development is enormous. The market is assured.

FRESH-WATER FISHERIES

The inland fisheries have received little attention save in the very

recent past. There are an estimated 140,000 acres of fresh waters,

rich in micro-organic life, which however are, in their natural state,

almost entirely devoid of any plankton-feeding fish of food value.

Some of these waters are perennial, while many dry up more

or less regularly during the annual drought. Thus nature performs.

one of the tasks which the fish-farmer must carry out, if he would

have a good yield in return for his labours. The wide distribution

which the Giant Gourami, Osphronemius gouramit, (a vegetation

feeder which was accidentally introduced into a large river system

about 40 years ago), has achieved, bears ample testimony to the

potential which exists for fishes of this type in local waters.

These reservoirs, or ‘tanks’ as they are called, are scattered

throughout the island, some in the well-populated and the majority

‘in the sparsely-populated regions. It is in ‘these sparsely-peopled

areas that fish-farming can yield its most significant results, for

here the diet of the peasant is notably deficient in protein, and fish

farming will ensure the production of protein food in the areas where

it is most needed. Marked success has been achieved through the

“introduction of the Cichlid mouth-breeder, Tilapia mossambica; it

thrives in fresh and brackish environments, breeds rapidly and yields.

a fish of reasonable size and good flavour within a single season. |

DEVELOPMENT OF CEYLON’S FISHING INDUSTRY 147

This fish has been widely distributed in rivers, swamps, and tanks

throughout the island, and has already found its way into the markets

where it is readily bought, reputedly on account of its resemblance

to a sea-fish. (The peasantry show a marked preference for sea-fish !)

The conditions for growth of Tilapia, and indeed of any other food

fish, can be improved perceptibly by the removal of mud and silt

from the bottom of the pond. This) mud contains much organic

matter which is of manurial value for crops, and it can be used with

advantage as a dressing for arable land. The desilting of these

tanks will not only improve their yield of fish but will also increase

their water-Holding capacity, enabling them to store during the rainy

months many more acre feet of water for irrigation purposes than

they do today. The effect of increasing progressively the water-

holding capacity of the ‘tanks’ of the dry zone can have far-reaching

effects on the development of those areas which are now largely

under forest or support a small peasantry at a subsistence level.

_- Demonstration . fish-rearing ponds are being constructed in

collaboration with the Agricultural Department in its Experimental

Stations and with the assistance of Rural Development Societies and

private individuals, to popularize the farming of fish (18). There is

so much in common between fresh-water fishery development work

and Agriculture that a closer association of the two activities will

undoubtedly be of benefit to both. For instance, the advantages of

the introduction of fresh-water fish into paddy fields have not yet

been appreciated in this country; there is an estimated 7% increase

in the yield of rice (16), and the farmer gets a crop of fish as well.

The dwarf gourami, Trichogaster pectoralis, which has been found

most successful for this work in Thailand, has now been successfully

introduced and established in Ceylon waters.

- The average annual yield from an acre of fresh water may be

conservatively put at 500 lbs, although, with careful farming, yields

of 7,000 lbs. have been secured in Indonesia. At 500 Ibs. per acre,

this Island’s tresh waters can yield 70 million Ibs. of fish a year,

almost sufficient to meet the present shortfall. The. fresh-water

fishery programme aims at establishing stocks in all rivers, tanks

and perennial waters, to increase the available supply of food fish,

and at maintaining stock ponds for supplying fingerlings to farming

areas.

GONGLUSION

The chief obstacle to progress in the industry, apart from finance,

is lack of ‘know-how’. This is, to some extent, due to the present

educational system, which, though it pays court to Agricultural

education, does not give any thought to fishery education. A

Fisheries Department alone cannot promote the development of the

fishing industry. This requires the co-operation of several branches

of Government. The inclusion of a course for the study of Fisheries

in the Ceylon University will have far-reaching effects on the industry.

Much fundamental research, which is essential as a background to

an understanding of the lines along which development might take

place, will be undertaken in the University. Secondary schools will

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

include the study of fisheries in their curricula in order to prepare

students for the University. Literature from more progressive areas

of the world, describing the development of fishery science and

techniques, will be studied. Finally, technical schools will take up

the practical training of those not suited to academic education, and

will provide skilled technicians for employment in the many phases

of the fishing industry, capture, processing and marketing on the

one hand, and boat, net and gear manufacture and maintenance on

the other. A! new generation will rise up to develop an industry which,

in view of the world shortage of food from the land, will bear an

ever-increasing responsibility for the production of food for the people

from the waters. |

REFERENCES

1. Pearson, J., & Malpas, A. H. (1926): A Preliminary Report on the Possibi-

fities of Commercial Trawling in the Sea around Ceylon. Cey. Journ. Sci., C. II,

1926. .

2. Report of a Sub-Committee of the Executive Committee of Local Administra-

tion on the Fishing Industry (1941): Cey. Sessiona¥ Paper XI. 1941.

3. Amirthalingam, C., & de Zylva, E. R. A. (1947): ‘Commercial Trawling in

Ceylon Seas’, (Mimeo).

4. Hickling, C. F. (1947): Report on the Fisheries of Ceylon. Cey. Sessional

Paper VI—1951.

5. Blegvad, H. (1949): Report to the Minister of Industries, Industrial Research

and Fisheries, Ibid.

6. Petersen, E. (1949): Report on the Handling, Treatment, Packing, Trans-

port, Refrigeration, Storage and Sale of Fish, with notes on Fishery By-products.

Ibid.

7. John, C. C. (1949): Some suggestions for developing the Fisheries of Ceylon.

Ibid.

8. Kesteven, G. L. (1949): Report on the Ceylon Fishing Industry. Ibid.

9. Schuster, W. H. (1951): Report on a survey of the Inland Fisheries of Ceylon.

Cey. Sessional Paper XXIV—1951.

10. de Zylva, E. R. A. (1951): Administration Report of the Acting Director

of Fisheries, (1940-47).

11. — — — (1952): Administration Report of the Acting Director of Fisheries,

(1948-50). Ibid.

12. — — — (1952): Administration Report of the Acting Director of Fisheries,

(1951). Ibid.

13. Croker, R. S. (1952): Fisheries Administration, Mimeo.

14. The Economic Development of Ceylon (1952): Report of a Mission organized

by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. é

15. Schuster, W. H. (1952): Fish Culture in Brackish Water Ponds of Java.

IP F.C. Spec, Pub}. No. 1.

16. Hofstede, A. E., & Ardiwinata, R. O. (1952): Compiling Statistical Data

on Fish culture in irrigated rice fields in West Java.

17. de Zylva, E. R. A. (1953): Administration Report of the Acting Director of

Fisheries, (1952).

18. — — — (1953): Fresh Water Fish Farming in Malaya as a guide to fish

farming in Ceylon. Fish. Dept. Bull. No. 4.

19. — — — (1953): Catching More Fish. Free World, February 1953.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG.

IN INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON

INSEE DOR

PARTa I

(With 27 text figures)

[Continued from p. 916 of Vol. 51 (4)]

8. Cymbopogon clandestinus (/Vees ex Steud.) Stapf in Ann. Rept.

Board Sci. Advice, India, 10 (1918) & in Bull. Imp. Inst., Lond. 27, 458

(1929). 3

Andropogon clandestinus Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 388 (1854).

‘ A perennial grass from a short woody, stout rootstock. Culms slen-

der, stiff, terete, smooth and glabrous even at the nodes, up to 100 cm.

tall. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, long-attenuate into a fine filiform tip,

rather flaccid, tapered towards the base, up to 45 cm. long, 1 cm. broad,

minutely puberulous on the upper surface towards the base, otherwise

glabrous, scaberulous on both surfaces, coarsely scabrid on the margins,

somewhat glaucous in colour with a prominent mid-rib below; sheaths of

the upper part of the culm tight, clasping the culms, usually shorter than

the internodes, very smooth and glabrous, striate, those lower down and at

the base much looser and slipping from the culms, the basal sheaths short :

ligule rather stiffly chartaceous 3 mm. long. -

Inflorescence a narrow, oblong, erect panicle up to 35 cm. long, 4 em.

wide ; internodes of axis angled, scabrid or ciliate on one or more of the

angles, particutarly towards the apex of the inflorescence, branched at the

nodes, each branch subtended by a spathe-like sheath which carries a

rudimentary blade or is bladeless ; branches similar to the internodes but

smaller-in every way, hairy towards the top, often ciliate on one of the

angles, rebranching but usually only once, ending in a spatheole which

bears a peduncle crowned by a pair of racemes; spatheole 20-25 mm.

long, lanceolate-acuminate in shape when flattened, greyish-green in

colour, many-nerved, hyaline on the margins, scabrid on the keel, turning

brown; peduncles 5-7 mm. long, wiry, minutely hairy; racemes

20-24 mm. long, divaricate, one subsessile the other shortly pedicelled ;

joints of the racemes 2.5 mm. long, compressed, glabrous on the back

and face, but densely ciliate on the two edges; pedicel similar to the

joint; both ending in a toothed excavation. , The lowest pair of spikelets

in the subsessile raceme are homogamous, ¢ or neuter, pedicel of the

pedicelied spikelet very much swollen, all the remaining pairs of spikelets

in the two racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite sptkelets oblanceolate-

acute in shape 4.5 mm. long, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume

shape and size of the spikelet, flat on the back but with a deep furrow in

the lower third, covered all over with a minute pubescence, 2-keeled in

the upper third, ending above in 2 horns, winged in the lower half of the

keel, not winged in the upper half, scabrid and ciliate on keels and wings;

upper glume as long as the lower glume, boat-shaped, keeled above and

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL ISIS OCTET Ys. Vol, az,

scabrid on the keel, puberulous over the whole of the dorsal surface,

3-nerved. Lower floret empty ; lemma an oblong hyaline 2-nerved scale,

ciliate on the margins in the upper half; Aalea absent. Upper floret & ;

lemma very narrow, cleft to the middle into two subulate lobes, awned in

the sinus ; dalea absent ; awz2 21 mm. long ; column light brown in colour,

twisted, 12 mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose; stamens 3; anthers

1-5 mm. long. Pedicelled spikelets 5°5 mm. long, elliptic- or oblong-acute,

very hairy. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, keeled in the

upper half and scabrid on the keels, many-nerved, hairy all over the dorsal

surface, with nerves becoming prominent with age ; wpfer glume shallow-

ly boat-shaped, 3-nerved, puberulent or villous on the dorsal surface.

Florets reduced to an oblong hyaline scale as long as the spikelet, wrap-

ped round 3 stamens with anthers 1°5 mm. long.

Burma: Mount Segain, 1827, Wallich 8794K (type of Andropogon

clandestinus Nees) ; ibidem, Wallich 87941; Upper Burma, Nov.

1890, Abdul Huk; ibidem, Dec. 1890, zdem; ibidem, Kyaukse,

12 Oct. 1890, Abdul Huk; ibidem, Fort Stedman, Jan. 1893,

Abdul Huk; Tonbo, Mandalay Dist., 27 Dec. 1906, Rk. S. Troup

5859: Railway Mandalay-Maymyo, above Sedaw Rly. Stn.,

9 Nov. 1913, C. G. Rogers—a sweet - scented grass from which

oil may be extracted; Sedaw, near Mandalay, Jan. 1927,

D. Rhind.— rocky hill-sides; near Tonbo, Mandalay, 5 Nov. 1928,

D. Rhind. Burmese name: Myet-sat (pungent-tasting grass).

Usually burned to the ground in the dry season, this perennial grass

springs up during the rainy months and flowers at the end of the year.

Accerding to D. Rhind ,* it occurs abundantly in dry, rocky places, and in

open forest on hill-sides.

Rhind distilled about a ton of the grass and obtained a yield of 0°25

per cent. The oil was a light straw-colour, with a pleasant smell, some-

what resembling ginger-grass oil. The chemical analysis carried out at

the Imperial Institute confirmed that the odour of the oil resembled that

of ginger-grass oil, with a more pronounced odour of carvone, but showed

that the oil was not up to the standard of a first-class oil, and the price to

be expected was not such as would make the venture a commercial

success,

9. Cymbopogon nervatus ( Hochst.) Chiov. Gram. da Essenze, 10

(1909).

Andropogon nervatus Hochst. in Flora (1844) 243.

Gymnanthelia nervata (Hochst.) Aschers et Schweinf. in Schweinf.

Beitr. Fil. Aethiop. 306 (1867). This page is printed 310, but it comes

between 305 and 307.

A. schoenanthus var. nervatus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6, 611

(1889).

An aromatic annual grass. Culms 2-5 from the base, erect or geni-

culate at the base and then rooting at the nodes, up to 2 m. high, some-

times with stilt roots, terete, smooth and glabrous, polished, yellowish to

*Aeric, Journ. India 326 (1925)

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 151

purple-red in colour, simple, rarely branched. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate,

g laucous-green or purplish, tapering to a very fine filiform tip, rounded at

the base, 15-30 cm. long, up to 1 cm. broad, smooth on the upper surface,

scaberulous below, coarsely scabrid on the margins ; sheaths of the upper

part of the culm much shorter than the internodes, fairly tight and clasp-

ing, smooth and glabrous, conspicuously ribbed, turning straw-colour,

tinged with red or purple, those of the lower part of the culm loose,

slipping from the culms ; /zgale chartaceous, 2—3 mm. long, lacerate on the

upper rounded margin. '

Inflorescence a somewhat simple panicle, 20-40 cm. Icng, consisting of

a central axis with branches arising singly or in small fascicles at the

nodes subtended by a bladeless sheath ; branches rebranching to the first

or second degree and ending in a spatheole which carries a peduncle

crowned by two racemes ; joints of the axis and the branches smooth and

glabrous, polished, dilated slightly above; spatheole 20-30 mm. long,

narrowly elliptic-acuminate when flattened, hyaline on the margins,

smooth and glabrous, often with a purplish tinge ; peduncle about 20 mm.

long, wiry, smooth and glabrous ; racemes in pairs, 1°5-2°5 cm. long.

eventually epinastically deflexed, one subsessile the other shortly

pedicelled, hairy in the fork ; joints of the racemes 2°5 mm. long, flattened,

linear-clavate, densely ciliate on the margins, ending above in an oblique

cup toothed along the margins ; pedicels very similar and about the same

length. Lower pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous,

J or neuter, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet much swollen, glabrous on

the back and shining, reddish. AHermaphrodite spikelets +-4.5 mm. long,

oblong-oblanceolate acute in outline, with a short bearded callus. Lower

glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the upper half and very

narrowly winged on the keels, shallowly grooved from apex to base with

a slit-like groove at the bottom ofthe former in the lower half, with two

green nerves in the keels and 2 others, one on each side of the groove, the

tissue between each pair of nerves much thinner and obviously filled with

oil cells, coloured light to dark brown, smooth and glabrous on the dorsal

surface, scabrid on the wings ; upper glume boat-shaped, rounded in the

lower half, keeled in the upper and most narrowly winged on the keel,

1-nerved, ciliate on the margins above, very shortly hairy over the dorsal

surface. Lower floret empty ; lemma a hyaline scale, elliptic-acute when

flattened, ciliate on the margins above, 2-nerved, often suffused with

purple ; falea absent. Upper floret ¢ ; lemma very narrow, hyaline, split

to the middle into two subulate lobes, awned; jalea absent; awz

22-25 mm. long, stout ; column brown, 10-12 mm. long, strongly twisted ;

styles 2; stigmas plumose, purple; stamens 3; anthers 1:5-2:5 mm. long,

yellow. Pedicelled spikelets 4°5 mm. long, lanceolate-acute in shape.

Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, 8-9-nerved, usually with

brown streaks between the green nerves, obscurely keeled in the upper

half, smooth and glabrous ; wpper glume as long, rounded on the back,

3-nerved, smooth and glabrous. /Vorets reduced to a hyaline scale,

3:5 mm. long wrapped around the three stamens; azthers 3 mm. long,

often much smaller.

Burma: Minbu Steamer Ghat, 12 Dec. 1908, Burkill and McKenna,

ex Herb. R.E.P. Govt. of India, 31550. Purplish grass growing

on dry hill slopes—generally up through bushes—the smell is

like that of sofia, very strong—no use is made of it, Shwebandaw,

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

23 Jan. 1912, C. G. Rogers, no. 34390 in Herbarium R.E.P. Govt.

of India; Tatkon, 28 Nov. 1927, U Ba Thein—3’-4' high, in:

dry places ; Tatkon, 7 Nov. 1928, D. Rhind 928, 4’-5' high, erect

tufts ; Mahlaing Township, 17 Nov. 1928, E.B. Minus 1:77

inches high, rocky hills; Tatkon, 2 Dec. 1929, D. Rhind 928 -

Allanmyo, 3 Nov. 1939, U Thein Lwin 3201; South Pegu.

Division (Kyidaung Kan Zamethu), P.O. Zaung Range, 30 Nov.

1939, U Thein Lwin 71; Allanmyo, 23 Nov. 1947, U. Theix

Lwin 378—found growing wild by the motor road near mile post.

228. Bur. Myet-nan.

Lower glumes of the hermaphrodite spikelets of

1. Cymbopogon nardus Linn. var. confertiflorus (Steud.) Stapf; 2. C. mnardus-

Linn ; 3. C. winterianus Jowitt ; 4. C. cttratus (DC.) Stapf; 5. C. martinii (Roxb.)

Wats. ; 6. C. caesius (Nees) Stapf; 7. C. polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf. All x 10.

A note by Rhind reads ‘ This grass was first collected by A. McKerral

in November 1918, and Rhind made collections in the same locality in

1927 and 1928. It occurs on dry sandy soils in zzdaing forest and on

rocky slopes, where its reddish-purple colour makes it conspicuous..

Specimens sent to Kew in 1928 were reported to belong to a new species.

near Cymbopogon clandestinus Stapf but differing from it in the glabrous

pedicelled spikelets. No description appears to have been published. In

the field the plant is quite distinct from C. clandestinus Stapf and C.

martinit Wats., the main differences being its smaller size, deep purple--

red colour, the thick barrel-shaped bottom internodes of the racemes

(cf. C. coloratus Stapf), the broadly grooved fertile glume and the glabrous.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC, 153

pedicelled spikelets. The purple colour is retained in the dried

specimens.

Samples of the grass were steam distilled in 1927 and yielded 0:7 per

cent. of an aromatic oil similar to the oil of C. clandestinus Stapf but

differing in the optical rotation being negative instead of positive.

The grass is utilised as an inferior fodder in times of scarcity.’

I am unable to point to any morphological differences of specific value

which could be used to separate the Burma specimens from C. nervatus

(Hochst.) Chiov. The known distribution of this latter plant has hitherto

been confined to the Sudan and neighbouring areas in very dry and hot

regions. It is, therefore, surprising to find it in Burma, nearly 3,000 miles

away, where it also grows in hot, dry, inhospitable places. This is, however,

not an isolated instance of such a discontinuous distribution, for the grass

Urochloa mosambicensis (Hack.) Dandy was collected by Wallich as early

as 1826 in the neighbouriiood of Yenangyaung, also inthe dry belt. This

species of Uvochloa is an inhabitant of Central East Africa. How these

two grasses arrived in their present habitats after a journey which must

have involved crossing the ocean and then traversing an area of high rain-

fall, can only be pure speculation. Rhind [ature n. 4058, 195 (1947)]

presumes that the introduction of Uvochloa mosambicensis took place

accidentally, the seeds being carried by boat up the Irrawadi to the dry

areas of Central Burma. Cymbopogon nervatus Chiov. can only have

reached its present habitat in the same way.”

One musi point out, however, that the inflorescences of the African

plant are far more congested than those of the Burmese plant, and that

the stems do not appear to develop the purple colour that some of the

Burmese specimens possess. A specimen at Kew which had been grown

in the Cairo Botanical Garden is very different in facies from the desert

plant growing in its own home in Eritrea or in the Sudan. The dry tract of

Burma is only dry in comparison with surrounding humid areas and could

not be compared with the Sudan or Eritrea for heat or dryness. A plant

from Eritrea or the Sudan would find conditions in the dry tract very mild

compared with those in its own home.

10. Cymbopogon hookeri (A/unro ex Hack,) Stapf ex Bor in Ind.

For. Rec. (Bot.) 1, 3, 92 (1938).

Andropogon hookert Munro in Cat. Pi. Griffith, Falconer & Helfer, 58

(1865) nomen.

A. hookert Munro ex Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6, 614 (1889).

A perennial (?) grass. Czdms up to 2 m. tall, slender, terete above,

strongly compressed below, smooth and glabrous, polished, simple. Leaf-

blades 30-iv cm. long, up to 6 mm. broad, linear-acuminate, very long-

attenuate to a filiform tip, flaccid or rigid, pale below, many-nerved with

all the nerves except those in the middle very coarsely scabrid with for-

wardly directed teeth, coarsely scabrid on the margins, smooth on the lower

surface, glabrous on both surfaces ; sheaths extremely smooth and glab-

*Just as this paper was going to press, a glance through the ‘ dubia’ sheets from

Siam revealed that this grass seems to be common in that area. ‘This fact suggests

that the main area of distribution may well be southeast Asia, and that its pre-

sencein Africa may be due to casual introduction in the reverse direction from that

suggested above.

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

rous, becoming almost coriaceous, striate when young, very strongly com-

pressed, keeled on the dorsal surface, the basal sheaths very short and

loose ; ligule 3-4 mm. long, membranous to chartaceous, glabrous.

Inflorescence a very loose lax panicle up to 40 cm. long, the central axis

with smooth and polished internodes, each node carrying a spathe-like

sheath which is smooth, glabrous and shining, and usually bladeless, giving

rise to |-3 branches each of which may branch again, eventually ending in

a spatheole which subtends the ultimate unit, a peduncle crowned by a pair

of racemes ; spatheole 2-3 cm. long, very narrowly elliptic-acute, smooth

and glabrous; peduncle 3-4 cm. long, wiry, flexuous, very smooth and

glabrous ; racemes 13 mm. long, one subsessile the other with a pedicel

3°5 mm. long, ciliate on the edges, not epinastic, slightly divaricate ; joints

of the raceme 3 mm. long, linear, expanded above into a toothed oblique

excavation, somewhat compressed, glabrous on the surfaces but densely

ciliate on the angles; lower pedicels similar in shape but longer, upper

pedicels clavate, with a large 2-toothed apical cup into which fits the base

of the pedicelled spikelet, 3mm. long. Lowest pair of spikelets in the

sessile raceme homogamous, <¥# or neuter, pedicel of the pedicelled spike- ~

let not swollen, all other pairs of spikelets of both racemes heterogamous.

Hlermaphrodite spikelet linear-acuminate in shape, awned, 5'5-6:5 mm. long.

Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-nerved, coriaceous or chart-

aceous, with a deep concave furrow almost the whole length of the glume

leaving the 2 nerves as ridges which are scabrid above, puberulent at the

bottom of the groove, truncate or obscurely 2-lobulate ; upper glume com-

pressed, becoming keeled in the upper third, scabrid on the keel, other-

wise smooth and glabrous, tapering, acuminate at the tip, mucronate,

almost shortly awned. Lower floret empty; lemma an elliptic-acute

hyaline scale, ,3-nerved, hyaline, ciliate on the margins; falea absent.

Upper tloret ¢ ; lemma very narrow, 4 mm. long, linear, split from the

apex to the middle into two setiform lobes, awned in the sinus; Aalea

absent ; aw2 15 mm. long ; column darker brown, twisted, 6 mm. long ;

anthers, styles and stigmas not seen; grain 3:5 mm. long, fusiform ;

embryo half the length of the grain. FPedicelled spikelet elliptic-acuminate

in outline, 5-5°5 mm.long. Lower glume size and shape of the spikelet,

2-keeled in the upper third and scabrid on the keels, otherwise smooth

and glabrous, with a strong median nerve and 2 keel nerves, and an

indefinite number of faint-nerves in between ; wDhper glume 3-nerved, long-

ciliate on the margins in the upper third. Lemmas reduced to a single

hyaline scale nearly as long as the spikelet ; stamens 3; anthers 1:5 mm.

long.

Ind. Or.: Bhutan, Griffith 6767 (holotype in Herb. Kew.); Assam,

Aka Hills, 1933, Bor s.n. (in Forest Herbarium, Shillong).

A rare grass, known only from the two collections named.

11. Cymbopogon tibeticus Bor, in Kew Bull. 1953, 275 (1953).

A wiry tufted non-aromatic perennial grass clothed at the base with

many scarious, pale yellow sheaths. Culms up to 45 cm. tall, very

smooth and glabrous, shining, terete. Leaf-blades mostly from basal

sheaths, narrow, linear, tapering to a sharp point, loosely covered on the

upper surface with silky, long, white hairs which are quite distinctive,

minutely scabrous on the upper surface, and also on the margins, rarely

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 155

flat, usually folded in various ways ; sheaths shorter than the internodes,

smooth and glabrous, lower very short ; /igule a lacerate membrane 3 mm.

long.

Intlorescence a panicle consisting of pairs of racemes subtended by

spathe-like sheaths ; spathes supporting the racemes narrow, acuminate,

2°5 cm. long, reddish, smooth and glabrous ; spiciform racemes not .epina-

stic at maturity (?), occasionally branching, unequal, one sessile or shortly

pedicelled, (pedicel 1 mm. long, villous), with a o sessile spikelet and a

& pedicelled spikelet at the base, 4-noded ; the other pedicelled (pedicel

4°5 mm. long, villous with white hairs), with a sessile spikelet at the

base accompanied by a 6 pedicelled spikelet, 5-noded; joints 3 mm. long,

clavate, ciliate on the margins, hairy on both surfaces particularly below,

cup-shaped and 2-toothed at the apex; pedicel of pedicelled spikelet

1:75-2mm. long, truncate and concave at the apex, armed with two stout

teeth on either side, plano-convex in section ciliate on either margin with

cilia increasing in length from below upwards. Lowest pair of spikelets

in the subsessile raceme homogamous, %, pedicel of the pedicelled spike-

let short but not swollen, all the remaining pairs of spikelets in both

racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets narrowly oblong-acute,

4-5-5 (6) mm. long, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume some-

what truncate or 2-toothed at the tip, deeply concave between the two

keels, scabrid onthe two keels in the upper half, dark purple in colour,

smooth and glabrous, nerveless between the keels; upper glume boat-

shaped, keeled in the upper half, rounded below, scabrid on the keel,

smooth and glabrous elsewhere, chartaceous, 3-nerved, stained with pur-

ple, Lower floret empty : lemma a hyaline scale 4°8-5 mm. long, almost

2-keeled, with two hyaline ciliate flaps which embrace the upper floret ;

palea absent. Upper floret ¥ ; lemma narrowly oblong, 4 mm. long, cleft

to the middle into two narrow glabrous lobes, awned in the sinus; falea

absent ; awz 8 mm. long ; column 4mm. long ; styles 2 ; stigmas plumose,

purple ; stamens 3; anthers 2°5-3 mm. long. Fedicelled spikelet lanceolate-

acute in shape, 5 mm. long : lower glume shape of the spikelet, 2-keeled,

scabrid on the keels, flat or convex on the back, glabrous except for the

scabrid upper halves of the keels, margins incurved, clasping the upper

glume, 7-nerved ; upper glume length of the spikelet, boat-shaped, round-

ed on the back, somewhat keeled towards apex, scabrid on the keel in the

upper third, otherwise smooth and glabrous. Lower floret empty ; lemma

shape of and somewhat shorter than the spikelet, 2-nerved, the hyaline

margins wrapped round the upper floret ; alea absent. Upper floret 3;

lemma a narrow hyaline scale 2 mm. long, sometimes split almost to the

base or absent altogether ; falea a triangular scale 0°5-1 mm. long or

absent ; stamens 3; anthers 2°5 mm. long.

Tibet: Kyi Chu Valley, 15 miles east of Lhasa, 3000 m., Aug.

1904, Capt. H. J. Watson (type in Herb. Kew.) ; Tsangpo Valley,

3-3,500 m., 14 Aug. 1935, Aingdon-Ward,—sand binder ; Tsane-

po valley, 3,000—3300 m., 19 Jul. 1935, Azngdon-Ward 12022—

grass which grows in the sand, helping to bind it, and forms turf

in which flowers grow. (K. & B. M.) ; Kongbo, Kyikar, 3100 m.,

27 July 1938, Ludlow, Sherritt & Taylor 5446—on rocks. Glumes

purple, styles dark purple, (B.M.); vicinity of Lhasa 3300 m.,

July 1939, Hl. £. Richardson 273—grass (B.M.); Hills south of

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Lhasa, 4000 m., 11 July 1943, Ludlow and Sherriff 9745-on

sandy open grassland (B.M.).

Little is known about this grass and nothing about its oil.

12. Cymbopogon gidarba (Ham.) Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1048

(1924).

Andropogon gidarba Ham. ex Wall. Cat. no. 8797, nomen.

A. gidarba Ham. ex Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 208 (1896).

A perennial caespitose grass. Culms up to 80cm. tall, erect, very

slender, terete, smooth and glabrous, polished, even at the nodes. Leaf-

élades linear-acuminate in shape, up to 25 cm. long, 5 mm. wide, often

very much narrower, rounded at the base to the sheath, rigid, somewhat

glaucous, glabrous on both surfaces or minutely hairy on the upper sur-

face, with widely spaced long hairs on the margins at the base, scabrid

on both surfaces and very scabrid on the margins, tip very long acuminate,

almost filiform ; sheaths clasping the culms, smooth and glabrous, striate ;

ligule membranous, becoming chartaceous, 1 mm. long.

Inflorescence a short panicle 5~30 cm. long, 2°5 cm. wide, often of

pedunculate pairs of racemes racemosely arranged on a 3—4-noded axis, less

often the branches branching and rebranching simulating a decompound

panicle, 6—-&-noded ; branches somewhat compressed, striate, sometimes

densely ciliate along one edge, usually smooth and glabrous ; racemes.

1:5-2 cm. long, divergent, ultimately forming a straight line, one subses-

sile, the other shortly pedicelled, very hairy in the fork ; spatheoles 16-20

mm. long, narrowly lanceolate, nerved, turning reddish or brownish-red ;

peduncles 6 mm. long, slender, capillary, smooth and glabrous, enlarged

at the tip ; joints of the fragile racemes 3 mm. long, linear-clavate in shape

ending in an oblique excavation which is 2-toothed on the margin, densely

hairy on the two edges and villous on the lower third of the back ; pedi-

cels somewhat similar, much compressed, with a long tooth on the edge

of the oblique tip. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme

homogamous with the pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet much swollen and

adnate to the joint, 3’, all the remaining pairs in both racemes heteroga-

mous. Hermaphrodite spikelets 4-4-5 mm. long, narrowly linear-acute,

with a short bearded callus. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet,

with a coriaceous boss just above the callus, and above that with a concave

groove extending almost to the tip, 2-keeled, glabrous or puberulous in

the groove, otherwise glabrous, nerveless between the keels, several-nerved

outside, 2-toothed at the tip, scabrid on the keels, not winged; wpper

glume boat-shaped, rounded on the back below, keeled above, as

long as the spikelet, smooth and glabrous, scabrid on the keel. Lower

floret emapty ; lemma a hyaline scale, 3 mm long, lanceolate, ciliate on the

margins at the tip; falea absent. Upper floret £; lemma 2:5 mm_ long,

very narrow, Split half-way down into two very narrow ciliate lobes, awned

in the sinus; falea absent; awz 12 mm. long; column 5 mm. long;

stamens 3; anthers 1:5 mm. long. Pedicelled spikelet $f, lanceolate-acute.

Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, keeled in the upper half

many-nerved with sirong median and keel-nerves, scabrid on the keels»

upper glume similar in size and shape, more delicate in texture, 3-nerved.»

Florets reduced toa hyaline scale 3mm. long; stamens 3; anthers 1:5

mmm. long.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 157

Ind. Or.: Himalaya; Tara Devi, near Simla, 2000-2500 m, 24 Aug.

: 1889, J F. Duthie 10098; Kumaon, Kalemath, 1600 m., Strachey

& Winterbottom 2; Chenab, Aknur, (Jammu), 1871, Falconer;

between Nachar and Taranda, Bashahr, 2100 m., 22 Oct 1933,

R. N. Parker 3289.

Madhya Pradesh; Koderma forest, Hazaribagh, 12 Nov. 1916,

Al. H. Haines.

Bihar & Orissa ; Monghyr, Oct. 1894, Mokim 1410 & 1411; Gaya,

Oct. 1894, Mokim 1332; in montibus Mongger (Monghyr) Ham.

ex Herb. Wall. no 8797 (type of Andropogon gidarba Ham.).

Madras; Bellary Dist., 1886, J S. Gamdle; ibidem 1889, /. S.

Gamble; Chingelput Dist.. Kambakam Drug, 16 Mar. 1901,

Bourne 2452; Tinnevelly Dist., Agostiarmalai, 22 May 1901,

Barber ?; Mysore, Yelaigi, 5 Oct. 1903, Barber 6135 ; Cuddapah,

18 Nov. 1905, Barber 6418; Nellore, Kamigeri, 7 Apr. 1905,

Barber 6619 ; Mysore, Oorgaum, 1907, - Roskrow ; Vizagapatam

Dist., Palakonda, 18 Dec. 1923, A. C. Jacob 17259.

This species is readily separated from all other species by the pronoun-

ced boss at the base of the slotted lower glume of the hermaphrodite

spikelets. Guenther does not mention this grass, so apparently nothing is

known ofits oil. Hook. f. remarks that it smells of terebinthine.

var. burmanicus Bor var. nov. a typo ramis binis, pedunculis longis-

simis e spatheolis plerumque valde exsertis recedit.

Burma; Sagaing, Taungnyotaung, 300 m, 20 Oct. 1928, Szkoe

7873 ; Sagaing, Talaing Ywa, 150 m., 16 Oct. 1928, Szkoe 7855 ;

Meiktila Dist., Mahlaing, 26 Oct. 1947, U Thetn Lwin 345—not

common, growing on calcareous stiff clay soil in the open ; Magwe

Dist., 28 Nov. 1947, U Thein Luin 380—fairly common on cal-

careous stiff clay soil in the dry zone.

In appearance this grass is utterly different from typical C. gtdarba,

but apart from the very long branches and peduncles, which give the

grassa very different appearance, I am unable to find any difference

between the two which would justify the grant of specific rank.

13. Cymbopogon microtheca (Zook. f.) d. Camus in Rév. de Bot.

Appl. 1, 284 (1921).

Andropogon microtheca Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 208 (1896).

A perennial grass, apparently not aromatic. Czlms up to 120 cm.

tall, simple, erect, terete, smooth and glabrous even at the nodes. Lzaf-

blades flat, linear, up. to 1 m. long, exceptionally up to 1 cm. wide, usually

very much less, 1-3 mm., long-attentuate to an almost filiform point,

glabrous, smooth or minutely scabrous, coarsely scabrid on the margins,

with a very marked mid-rib, hardly contracted at the base to the sheath ;

sheaths usually much shorter than the internodes, auricled, turning red

inside, those above very tight, clasping the culms, smooth and glabrous,

striate, the lower and basal sheaths much looser and slipping from the

culms, straw-coloured, very smooth and glabrous, rather coriaceous,

polished ; /z7gwles coriaceous about 1 mm. long.

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Inflorescence an elongate narrow panicle, very loose, erect, about 40

cm. long. by 3-4 cm. wide, giving the impression of a vertical axis cover-

ed closely with vertical spathe-like bladeless sheaths from which project

Lower glumes of the hermaphrodite spikelets of

8. Cymbopogon osmastonit Parker ; 9. C. clandestinus (Nees ex Steud.) Stapf ;

10. CC) nervatus (Hochst.) Chiov. 11. C. hookeri (Munro ex Hack.) Stapf; 12. C..

tibeticus Bor ; 13. C. gidarba (Ham.) Haines; 14. C. microtheca (Hook. f.) A.

Camus ; 15. C. stracheyi (Hook. f.) Raiz. et Jain. All x 10,

horizontal ‘divaricate spatheoles, each of which bears a peduncle crowned

with two epinastic racemes in its axil; axis covered by the supporting

spathes, smooth and glabrous ; branches and branchlets similar, capillary ;

spatheoles 1-1:2 cm. long, lanceolate-acuminate in shape, smooth and

glabrous, hyaline on the margins, very many-nerved, turning a bright

reddish-brown inside, brownish-red outside; peduncle 4-5 mm. long,

smooth and glabrous, dilated at the tip, racemes two, eventually epinastic,

4—6 mm. long, one subsessile the other shortly pedicelled, very hairy in

the fork ; joints of the raceme obconical, flattened on the inner face,

smooth and shining on the convex back, densely ciliate on the edges,

2 mm. long, ending above in an oblique 2-toothed excavation; pedicel

similar in shape but slightly shorter. Lowest pair of spikelets in the

‘sessile raceme homogamous, <¢ or neuter, pedicel of the pedicelled

spikelet much swollen, shining, polished, all other pairs of spikelets in

both racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets linear-acute in

shape, 2:5-3°5 mm: long, witha minute bearded callus. Lower glume

shape and size of the spikelet, bifid at-the apex, keeled in the upper half,

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON’ SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 159

with a deep groove in the middle line, puberulent in the groove, scabrid

on the keels ; upper glume boat-shaped, compressed, keeled in the upper

half, rounded below, smooth and glabrous, scabrid on the keel. Lower

floret empty ; lemma a hyalinescale 2 mm. long, 2-keeled, ,2-nerved,

ciliate on the margins above; falea absent. Upper floret ; lemma

1-5-2 mm. long, very narrow, hyaline, cleft almost to the middle, awned

in the sinus ; stamens 3 (?); anthers not seen; awx 9 mm. long; column

chestnut-brown, 2°5 mm. long ; styles 2 ; stigmas plumose, purple. Pedi-

celled spikelet S$ ; narrowly elliptic-acute, 3 mm.long. Lower glume shape

and size of the spikelet, many-nerved, keeled towards the apex, rounded

below, smooth and glabrous ; «zpper glume 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous.

Florets reduced to a hyaline lemma 2°5 mm. long ; stayzens not seen.

Ind. Or.: East Nepal ; 12 Nov. 1848, Hook. f. (type of Andropogon

_ mtcrotheca Hook. f.)

Sik kim; Salim P., 15 Jan. 1877, J. S. Gamdle 2105B—on rocks

_at Nan Dunga; between Tarkola and the Rungpo, Tista valley,

3-400 m., 2 Nov. 1909, 7. H. Burkill 34034-—has no fragrance,

is very wiry and grows commonly with Aviophorum comosum on

rocks over the Tista. ;

Bihar; Sameshwar Hills, Ramnazar, Nov. 1915, HY. A. Haines

5325 (type of var. sameshwarensis Haines).

This very peculiar grass is, according to Burkill, not aromatic ; never-

theless, it can only be placed in Cymbopogon until more is known of it.

Haines’ variety sameshwarensis seems hardly worthy of varietal rank.

14. Cymbopogon stracheyi (/Yook. f.) Raizada et Jain, comb. nov.

Andropogon nardus. var. stvacheyt Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 207

(1896).

A perennial aromatic, tufted grass, with thick fibrous roots. Calms

slender, terete, smooth and glabrous, polished, up to 1 m. tall, erect or very

slightly decumbent at the base. Leaf-blades very narrow, up to 30cm.

long, 2-3 mm. broad or less, folded, convolute or involute, rather

glaucous, flexuous, linear, tapering to a fine filiform tip, scabrid on the

outer nerves and on the margins, glabrous on both surfaces from the

middle upwards, but often with a covering of very short hairs on the

upper surface towards the base; ligule membranous, 3 mm. long, lacerate.

Inflorescence an erect panicle varying from an almost simple raceme

of pedunculate raceme-pairs to a fairly complicated panicle with branches

rebranching up to the third and fourth degree, up to 35 cm. by, at most,

8 cm. broad, often much shorter and narrower; axis of the panicle

straight, each internode enveloped in a sheath which carries a rudimentary

blade which becomes progressively shorter until the topmost sheaths

carry only an arista; internodes terete, shining, polished, smooth and

glabrous, dilated at the apex; branches similar but more slender, the

sheaths becoming more and more like spathes, smooth and glabrous,

brownish on the hyaline margins ; spatheoles 16-27 mm. long, narrowly

elliptic-acuminate, smooth and glabrous, hyaline on the margins, Striate ;

peduncle very short, much shorter than the spatheole, not more than

10 mm. long, often much shorter ; racemes 12-22 mm. long, one sessile

,thé other definitely pedicelled, the lowest pedicel in the subsessile raceme

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

not swollen, the lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homo--

gamous, o' or neuter, all the other pairs in both racemes heterogamous ;

joints of the racemes 2 mm. long, compressed, ciliate on the edges,

expanded and toothed at the tip. Mermaphrodite spikelets 4:5 mm.

long, linear-acute in shape, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume

shape and size of the spikelet, keeled inthe upper half, most narrowly

winged on the keels, definitely depressed on the back with the indications

of a boss at the lower end of the groove, with 2 green nerves in the keels,

scabrid on the keels, glabrous or with a minute wool on the dorsal

surface ; wpper glume as long as the lower glume, boat-shaped, rounded

on the back in the lower half, keeled above, scabrid on the keel, cther-

wise smooth and glabrous, 3-nerved, the two lateral marginal and very

faint. Lower tloret empty ; lemma a hyaline scale 4 mm. long, 2-keeled ;

palea absent. Upper floret 2; lemma very narrow, cleft to the middle

into two ciliate lobes, awned on the sinus; falea absent; awnz 11 mm.

long ; column brown, twisted, 5 mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose ;

stamens 3; anthers 2 mm. long. Fedicelled spikelets 4°5-5°5 mm. long,

lanceolate- or elliptic-acute in shape, dorsiventrally compressed, with a

glabrous callus. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, flat or

slightly convex on the back, many-nerved, 2-keeled in the upper half,

scabrid or even ciliate on the keels; upper glume equal in length,

shallowly boat-shaped, smooth and glabrous, 3-nerved, scabrid on the

nerves in the upper third. Flove¢s reduced to a hyaline obiong-acute scale

with infolded ciliate flaps ; stamens 3; anthers 2 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Bashahr, Pauni, Sept. 1864, 2500 m., Brandis 3142;

N.W. Himalaya, Pangi, Dr. Stoliczka (type) ; Kalemath, Kumaon,

1900 m., Strachey and Winterbottom 4; Sutlej valley near Ram-

pore, Aug. 1847, Hooker and Thompson ; Herb. Falconer ; Simla,

Fielding; N.W. India, 1876, Braxdis—the common grass on the

low slopes of the Kulu valley to the Sultan pass. Eaten when

young. Root scented; Gilgit, Nittar valley, 2-2500 m., 3 Aug.

1892, J. F. Duthie 12328 ; Larji, 1050 m., 30 May 1933, R. XV.

Parker 3271; Bashahr, Rampur-Gopalpur, | Oct. 1959, AZ. B.

Raizada 19740; ibidem, near Nireth, 17. B. Raizada 19688 and

19694.

C. stracheyt seems to be confined to the comparatively very small area

of Bashahr State and the neighbouring Kangra. It has not been collect-

ed anywhere else in the Himalaya.

It has, for long, been suspected of being a hybrid, with C. gzdarba as

one of the parents, on account of the deeply grooved lower glume to the

hermaphrodite spikelet which ends below in what can be termed the

rudiments of a boss. From the general appearance of the grass, and its

widely divergent racemes, one can only assume that the other parent is -

C. distans.

The plant flourishes on the open hillsides of somewhat inhospitable

country. Only one of the collectors noted that it was an aromatic grass.

Nothing is known of the oil.

In the Flora of British India, Hook f. quotes two sheets as the basis

of his C. nardus var. stracheyt viz. (1) Dr. Stoliczka’s sheet from Pangi,

and (2) Strachey and Winterbottom’s no. 2 from Kalemath, Kumaon.

The first named sheet is correct, but the second contains a specimen of C.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 161

distans collected at Simla, and not in Kumaon, There is, however, a

Strachey and Winterbottom’s sheet which was collected at Kalemath,

Kumaon, and the specimen matches that on Dr. Stoliczka’s sheet. The

number of the sheet is no. 4, and is obviously the specimen to which

‘Hook. f. refers and numbered 2 in error.

15. Cymbopogon flexuosus (ees ex Steud.) Wats. in Atkins. Gaz.

N. W. Prov. Ind. 392 (1882). }

Andropogon tlexuosus (Nees) ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 388 (1854).

A, nardus Linn. subsp. flexuosus (Nees) Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan.

6, 603 (1889).

A tall aromatic perennial from a short thick rhizome. Cz/ms up to

3 m. tall with a nodding inflorescence, terete, stout, smooth and glabrous,

polished, solid, glabrous at the nodes. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, taper-

ing at both ends, attenuate upwards to a long almost filiform tip,

glaucous-green, sometimes suffused with purple or a reddish tinge, minute-

ly scabrid on both surfaces, coarsely scabrid on the margins and the outer

nerves, coarsely hairy on the upper surface towards the base, shortly

hairy on the lower surface at the junction with the sheath, over 1 m.

in length, up to 1:5 cm. wide; sheaths of the culms tight, clasping the

culms, striate, smooth and glabrous, glaucous-green or with a tinge of

purple, densely hairy at the junction with the blade; lower sheaths

very loose, long, persistent and becoming leathery, curled, falling away

from the culms ; /égzle chartaceous to coriaceous when old, 2—3 mm. long.

Inflorescence large, loose, with many long flexuous drooping branches,

branching and rebranching, and ending in a spatheole subtending a pair

of racemes seated upon a peduncle, up to 60 cm. long and 30 cm.

broad ; axis of the inflorescence often 12-noded ; joints smooth and

polished, slightly expanded at the tip, often flattened on one face, rounded

on the back, smooth and glabrous, but ciliate or villous towards the top

on the edges, usually villous just at the node; branches and branchlets

similar ; spatheole 18-20 mm. long, narrowly elliptic-acuminate when

flattened, many-nerved, hyaline on the margins, greyish green, turning

a pale red or brownish red; peduncle 3-3°5 mm. long, wiry, smooth

and glabrous but shortly hairy near the tip; racemes 15-20 mm. long,

one subsessile, the other shortly pedicelled, very hairy in the fork ; joints

of the raceme 2°5 mm. long, somewhat compressed, linear, expanded at

the tip, densely ciliate along the margins; pedicel similar but shorter.

Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, o', pedi-

cel of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen but very short, all remaining

pairs in both racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets 45-5 mim.

long, with a short bearded callus, oblong-acute or widest above the

middle. Lower glume size and shape of the spikelet, 2-keeled from the

middle upwards, winged on the keels, smooth and glabrous but scabrid

on the margins of the keels, flat on the back or shallowly concave below,

obscurely or clearly 1—-3-nerved between the carinals in the upper third ;

upper glume length of the spikelet, boat-shaped, rounded on the back

below, keeled in the upper third and winged on the keel, smooth and

glabrous, scabrid on the keel. Lower floret empty ; lemma a lanceolate-

acute hyaline scale, 2-keeled, ciliate on the flaps: Aalea absent, Upper

floret 9 ; lemma narrow, hyaline, cleft to the middle, awned in the Sinus ;

palea absent; awn 12 mm. long ; column 5 mm, long. twisted ; styles 2 -

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 52

stigmas plumose, purple ; stamens 3 ; anthers 1.75-2 mm. long ; lodicules

truncate-cuneate. Pedicelled spikelets gi or neuter, elliptic-acuminate in

shape, 3:5 mm. long. Lower glume many-netved, smooth, glabrous ; upper

glume 3-nerved, boat-shaped, smooth and glabrous. F/orets reduced toa

lanceolate-acute hyaline scale 3 mm. long; stamens 3; anthers 2. mm.

long.

Cymbopogon flexuosus in its typical state is easily recognisable from its

ample panicle with drooping branches, crowded raceme pairs which are

finally epinastic, and small sessile spikelets. It is typically at home in

Madras and is possibly one of the commonest Cymbopogons in that State.

Towards northern India and to the north-east it tends to merge into

C. pendulus without, however, acquiring the distinctive characteristics

of that plant. It does, however, lose the ‘ bunchiness’ of the panicle and

the drooping branches are therefore simpler. As this form becomes at

times distinct and easily recognisable, I have given it varietal rank as var.

stkkimensis. Where the simplification of the panicle is carried a stage

further, another distinct form emerges—var. mzcrostachys.

C, flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. var. flexuosus Bor. panicula

decomposita, congesta.

Ind. Or.: Madras ; Quilon, Travancore, 29 Oct. 1904, C. A. Barber

6718 ; Nilgiris, Berliar, 12 Feb. 1901, Bourne 2547; Pulneys,

Gundar valley, 10 Jun. 1901, Bourne 1446; Annamalays,

Poonachi, 10 Oct. 1901, C. A. Barber 3762 ; Nilgiris, Kullar F.H.,

Oct. 1889, J. S. Gamdble, 21398 ; South Arcot, Melpat, 20 Sept.

1899, C. 4. Barber 1073; N,. Coimbatore, Salzygamullam,

Mar. 1902, Bourne ; Coorg, ‘Chandanathode, 3 May 1940, WV. ZL.

Bor leg. s.n. . Wynaad, 3 May 1940, V.L. Bor leg. s.n.; eae

24 Nov. 1939, N.S. Katkinz; Cochin, Feb. 1905, C. 'B: Bavher

2934—raised from seed; Coimbatore, Kollegal, 13 Feb. 1930,

V. Narayanaswami 19916 ; South Canara, Mangalore, Jan. 1902,

C. A. Barber 4825 ; Coonoor, 19V0 m., leg. D. Hooper; Travan-

core, hills near Shencotta about 200 m., 26 Nov. 1914, A. Venkoba

Rao—ted variety of Chukkunaripillu ; Salem, Devabetta, 25 Feb.

1927, K. C. Jacob 18053; High Wavy Mountains, Blatter and

Flallberg 230 ; Herb. Wight, 1704 (type of Andropogon flexuosus

Nees).

©. flexuosus var. sikkimensis Bor var. nov. a typo panicula

simpliciore, ramis longioribus pendulis recedit.

Ind. Or.: Sikkim; Kynanooka, Terai, Nov. 1878, /. S. Gamble

7363; Tuckvar, 19 Sept. 1874, Zrezutler 792; Rungpo, 399 m.,

3 Now. 1909, /. H. Burkill 34063— plentiful on rocks over the

Tista. Bengal; Darjeeling Dist., below Badamtam, towards the

Ranjit, 1 Nov. 1909, /. 4. Bur Rill 34012.

C. flexuosus var. microstachys (Hook f.) Bor, comb. nov.

Andropogon nardus L. var. mtcrostachys Hook, f.

Ind. Or.: Uttar Pradesh ; Dehra Dun, Sietan Sateen, 9 Nov. 1928,.

Umrao Singh 404 ; Kajnair pass, 900 A.,, Dec. TSo0) 7. De

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG.. IN. INDIA; ETC. 163:

Gamble. 22392 ; Saharanpur, /. S. Gamble. 23994; Chillawalla,

Saharanpur, Jan. 1898, /. S. Gamdle 26436 ; Siwaliks, Nov. 1895,

J. S:.. Gamble 25580; Forests of north Oudh, Jan. 1873,

R. Thompson, comm. Brandis 381 (type of Andropogon nardus

L. var. microstachys Hook. f.)

Cymbopogon flexiosns' is the source of a valuable aromatic oil known

as ‘Oil of Lemon-grass ’, but while the grass grows wild in many tropical

and semi-tropical parts of Asia, Africa and America, the commercial

product is obtained from plantations of the grass formed exclusively for

this purpose. In so far as Indiais concerned; the State of Travancore is

the chief producing area, and the plantations of this grass are situated at

the foot of the Ghats. As might be expected, local conditions of soil,

climate and aspect have an effect upon the quality and quantity of the

yield, and the northern districts are alleged to produce a better quality oil.

This grass was considered to exist in two forms, indistinguishable

morphologically, but easily separated by the colour of the stems. The

red-stemmed variety was believed to be the true Lemon-grass, while the

other, a white-stemmed variety, yielded an inferior kind of oil which could

not be marketed commercially. Fortunately, there are sheets of both

these so-called varieties at “Kew, and it can now be stated that the red-

stemmed _ variety is, in fact, true C. flexuosus. The white-stemmed variety,

while superficially identical with C. fMexuosus, is actually morphologically

distinct, and is the grass which has now been christened C. travancorensis

Bor. This species was called by Stapf C. flexwosus forma albescens.

The main constituent of the oil is an aliphatic terpene aldehyde

called citral, and it is this substance which gives it the strong odour of

lemons. The oil is used in the perfumery trade for scenting soaps,

while the purified citral is used in flavours, cosmetics and perfumes. This

substance is, according to Guenther, converted into ionones, ‘a group of

very important synthetic aromatics possessing a strong and lasting violet

odour ’.

16. Cymbopogon pendulus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats. in Atkins.

Gaz. N. W.: Proy. Ind. 392 (1882). |

Andropogon pendulus Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 388 (1854).

‘A perennial robust grass. Culms up to 3 m. tall with stout culms

solid at the base, very smooth and glabrous, terete, glabrous at the nodes.

Leat-blades up to 90cm. long. 2 cm. wide, very scabrid on the'margins,

linear-acuminate in shape, tapering at both ends, contracted gradually and

involute at the base till it is hardly broader than the conspicuous mid-

nerve, scabrid on both surfaces, glabrous, very glaucous, tasting and smel-

ling of lemons; sheaths clasping the culms, striate, smooth and glabrous,

rounded on the back, slightly auricled at the insertion of the blade ; /zgwle

a coriaceous or chartaceous membrane, 2-3 mm. long, ciliate or lacerate

on the upper margin. | |

Inflorescence a pendulous decompound panicle terminating the culm,

up.to 100 cm. long, 60 cm. broad ; axis of the panicle is the uppermost

nodes of the culm subtended by spathes 2°5-7°5 cm. long, which seem to

sheath the axis, from each of which arise branches which are themselves

noded and rebranched, eventually ending in the unit of the inflorescence, a

pair of racemes up to 2 cm. long seated on a peduncle and subtended by

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

a spatheole ; spatheoles 1:5-2'5 cm. long, narrowly elliptic when flattened,

compressed, reddish ; joints of the raceme and pedicels equal in length,

slender, expanding at the tip into a 2-toothed cup; the pedicels more

compressed, long ciliate on the margins ; joints equally hairy ; one raceme

short-, the other long-pedicelled, hairy in the fork ; lowest pair of spikelets

of the short-pedicelled or sessile raceme, homogamous, awnless, male,

pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet cuneate, compressed, short, not swollen ;

all pairs of the pedicelled raceme heterogamous; rhachis of the racemes

fragile. Sessile spikelet 2, 5-6 mm. long, elliptic-acute or -acuminate in

shape. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, shallowly concave

along the middle line on the dorsal surface, smooth and glabrous, shining,

2-keeled and narrowly winged on the keels, 2—4-nerved apart from the

dark green keel-nerves, without a mid-nerve, very scabrid on the margins

of the very narrow keel-wings ; upper glume boat-shaped, 5°5 mm. long,

keeled in the upper half, rounded on the back below, smooth and glabrous

except the extremely narrow keel-wing which is scabrid, 3-nerved. Lower

tloret empty ; emma a lanceolate-acute hyaline scale; falea absent. Upper

floret 2 or 2; lemma very narrow, cleft into two almost capillary lobes,

4 mm. long; awz 13mm. long; column twisted, brown, 6 mm. long ;

stamens if present 3; anthers 2°5 mm. long; styles 2, separate; stigmas

long, plumose ; /odicules 2, truncate, cuneate.” FPedtcelled spikelet ¢, ellip-

tic-acute in shape, 6 mm. long. Lower glume shape and length of the

spikelet, many-nerved, flat on the dorsal surface, rounded on the keels

below, almost keeled above, scabrid on the keels, otherwise smooth and

glabrous ; upper glume shape of the spikelet but smaller, 3-nerved, chart-

aceous, ciliate on the margins. Lower floret f\; lemma a hyaline scale

clasping the stamens; jalea absent. Upper floret absent; stamens 3 ;

anthers 2°5 mm. long; lodzcules 2, truncate-cuneate.

Ind. Or.: Bengal; Bengala, Griffith 6763; Andul, 10 Nov. 1909,

Kalka Pershad 30638; Boradighi Rly. Stn. 22 Aug. 1908,

I, H. Burkill 30753; Purnea, Paksiri near Kalyaganj, 29 Jan.

1911, 7. H. Burkill 34144 ; Banaphat, 24 Aug. 1908, 7... Burkill

30772 ; Jalpaiguri, Sal forest between Sivoke & Siliguri, 7.7. Bur-

kill 33425; Darjeeling, between Maligera & Naralbari, 25 Jan.

1911, 7. H. Burkill; ibidem, Debigaon to Bhatgaon, 24 Jan. 1911,

I. Hi. Burkill 34124.

Sikkim; Punkabaree, Oct. 1868, S. Kure; Teesta valley, 1850,

Hook. f.; Dulkajhar, 100 m., 15 Oct. 1884, C. B. Clarke 36873B.

Assam; Khasi Hills, Grzffth 6759, ibidem, Garo Hills, Tura,

400 m., Oct. 1929, Parry 780; Manipur State, Bishenpur, 5 Oct.

1943, WV. L. Bor 18051—on dry slopes.

M ad hya Pradesh ; Chanda Dist., forest near Karjeli, 1 Feb. 1890,

J. F. Duthie 9893.

Nepal; Wallich 8794G.

Guenther does not mention the oil which is obtained from this plant on

distillation, in his book on Essential Oils. There is, however, a reference

to itin Sem. Ann. Rept. Schimmel, 59 (1911), where under the heading

‘Lemon-grass oil’ it is mentioned that several oils obtained from C. pend-

ulus and collected by I. H. Burkill, were sent to Schimmel & Co., New

York. No details of the constituents of the oil are given, but one is led

to understand that they are similar to those obtained from C. flexuosus and

C. citratus.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 165

Burkill mentions that there are great sheets of this grass beside the

river Teesta in Bengal. He also says that the grass is plucked and

brought into the house because it smells nice, but that it is not otherwise

used.

17. Cymbopogon exsertus (Hack.) A. Camus in Rév. Bot. Appl. 1,

287 (1921).

Andropogon nardus Linn. subsp. marginatus (Steud.) Hack. var.

exsertus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan. 6, 608 (1889).

Culms apparently slender, probably not more than 1 m. tall, terete,

polished, smooth and glabrous, simple, glabrous at the nodes. Upper

leat-blades linear, very long attenuate, ending in an acuminate membranous.

tip, probably up to 1 m. long, 8mm. broad, glabrous, very scabrid on

both surfaces and on the margins; sheaths shorter than the internodes,

striate, clasping the culms, eventually slipping from them, smooth and

glabrous; /zguwle membranous 2-3 mm. long, rounded on the upper

margin.

Inflorescence a narrow lax-flowered panicle up to 35 cm. long, 5-6 cm.

broad, about 6-noded ; branches and nodes capillary, wiry, smooth and

glabrous, sometimes with a few white hairs just below the node, subtend-

ed by spathe-like sheaths which are usually without a blade, ending ina

spatheole in which is a peduncle crowned by a pair of racemes about

1-5-2 (3) cm. long ; spatheole 1°5-2°5 cm. long, narrowly elliptic-acumi-

nate when flattened, nerved, reddish ; peduncle filiform, slightly expanded

above, usually longer than the spatheole; joints of the raceme about

3 mm. long, slender, widened at the tip into a cup with a toothed crenu-

late margin, densely hairy on the back and the sides; pedicel similar in

shape about 2°5 mm. Jong ; one raceme subsessile or shortly pedicelled, the

other long pedicelled, hairy in the fork; lowest pair of spikelets in the

subsessile raceme homogamous, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet not

swollen, very short, all other pairs of spikelets heterogamous. Hermaphro-

dite spikelets 3°5-4 mm. long, 0°8 mm. wide, oblong, or elliptic-oblong, or

elliptic-obovate-acute, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume shape

and size of the spikelet, flat on the back or very slightly depressed in the

lower quarter, 2-keeled, with or without one conspicuous median nerve,

very narrowly winged (almost wingless) on the keels, scabrid on the

keels, shining and polished on the lower half ; ~pper glume as long as the

spikelet, boat-shaped, rounded in the dorsal surface below, keeled above,

scabrid on the keel, otherwise smooth and glabrous. Lower floret

empty ; /emma a lanceolate hyaline 2-nerved scale, 3°55 mm. long, ciliate

on the margins in the upper half; Aalea absent. Upper floret 2 or g 3

lemma 3mm. long, cleft in the upper quarter into two triangular lobes,

hyaline ; stamens, if present, three; anthers 1°75 mm. long; styles 2;

stigmas plumose ; awz 7 mm. long; column chestnut-coloured 2°5 mm.

long; gvazx 3mm. long. Pedicelled spikelet &, elliptic-acute, 3 mm. long.

Lower glume size and shape of the spikelet, 9-nerved, with a well-

marked median nerve, smooth and glabrous, dull red; upper glume

similar in shape but smaller, 3-nerved. Flovets reduced to an ovate-

acute hyaline 2-nerved lemma wrapped round the stamens; azthers

1°75 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Nepal, Wallich no, 8794 M.

166 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY NATURAL HIST...SOCIETY, ‘Vol..:52

-:. ‘This: grass. appears to be rare, for it is only known from the type

‘collection .which is, itself, without a base. It is, nevertheless, a very

distinct looking. grass, and the short, squat, pedicelled spikelets are

quite different from those in any of the species so far seen from India,

Burma or Ceylon. None of the specimens outside the type collection

which have been identified as C. exsertus, including those cited by

‘Hook.’ f., is that species. Sir Joseph Hooker presumed that it was a

form of Andropogon nardus Linn., altered by culture, but there is no

evidence at all that this plant is cultivated. It has not been collected

Since.

18. Cymbopogon virgatus Stapt ex Rhind in Agric. Journ. Ind.

25, 328 (1930).

An aromatic perennial grass from a knotty rootstock, forming

tussocks. Culms up to 2:2 m. tall, terete, smooth, polished and shining,

smooth and glabrous, sometimes hairy at and below the nodes, erect

; “yn

ae.

vag sy

Lower glumes of the hermaphrodite spikelets of

16; _ Cymbopogon flexuosus. (Nees) Wats.; 17. C. pendulus (Nees ex Steud.)

‘Wats. ; 18. C. exsertus (Hack.) A. Camus ; 19. C. virgatus. Stapf; 20. C. &hasi-

anus ( Hack Stapf ; ZC. distans ee Wats. All x 10.

apie often. tinged with purple. ; Leaf-blades ' linear-acuminate, 40-60

cm. long, up to 1:5 cm. wide, (teste Rhind), flat, rigid, gradually

tapering to the rounded base, long-acuminate to a fine tip, smooth on the

upper surface, minutely scabrid: on the lower surface, smooth on the mar-

THE GENUS’ CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 167

gins below, but gradually becoming more scabrid as the tip is approach-

ed, dark green above} pale’ below; calm-sheath shorter than the nodes,

smooth and glabrous or villous below, finely striate, clasping,, tight,

contracted at the tip to‘ the base: of the blade, auriculate, basal sheaths

becoming’ scarious-coriaceous, shining, very pale, slipping from the culm

and breaking up into fibres or becoming curled ; ligule 3-45 mm. long,

membranous to chartaceous, lacerate. ;

‘Inflorescence a panicle, usually (?) lax, (owee! simple and interrupted,

occasionally dense, decompound and interrupted, up to 45cm. long ; axis

straight, erect, long-noded, with spathe-like sheaths at the nodes carrying

immature blades or bladeless, with 1-3 long-noded branches at the nodes

which rebranch once: or twice or more and then end in a proper spathe

supporting the peduncle and racemes; internodes of the axis and branches

smooth, terete, glabrous, or more usually villous below the nodes,

ultimately very slender; spatheoles narrow, linear-acute, turning red,

14-17 mm. long, many-nerved ; peduncles. slender, wiry, up to 7 mm.

long, dilated and villous at the tip; racemes 8-12 mm. long, - eventually

epinastically deflexed, one subsessile the other shortly pedicelled ; joints

1-5 mm. long, linear, flattened, densely ciliate on the margins, dilated

above into two large teeth, which clasp the base of the sessile spikelet ;

pedicels equal in length but with smaller teeth above. Lowest pair

of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, < or neuter pedicel

of the pedicelled spikelet not swollen, the remaining pairs in both

racemes heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets 4-5 mm. long, elliptic-

lanceolate acute, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume size aud shape

of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the upper half and winged on the keel ;

many and finely-nerved between the keels, smooth and glabrous

except for the scabrid keels, flat on the dorsal surface in the upper half,

with a couple of depressions and 1-several wrinkles in the lower half,

often slightly oblique ; upper glume boat-shaped, rounded on the dorsal

surface below, keeled in the upper half, scabrid on the keel, otherwise

smooth and glabrous. Lower floret empty ; lemma 3:5 mm. long, hyaline,

linear-acute in shape, ,2-nerved, ciliate on the margins above; jalea

absent. Upper floret 2; lemma very narrow, hyaline, 3 mm. long, cleft

to the middle into two subulate lobes, awned in the sinus: jAalea absent ;

awn 9mm. long; column dark-brown, twisted, 4 mm. long; styles 2;

stigmuas plumose, purple ; stamzens 3; anthers 1 mm. long, purple. Fedz-

celled spikelet 4 mm. long, lanceolate-acuminate, 3. Lower glume size

and shape of the spikelet, 5-6-nerved, smooth and glabrous, scabrid on

the keels ; upper glume 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous. Florets reduced

toa hyaline scale 3mm. long, ciliate on the margins above ; stamens 3;

anthers about 1 mm. long.

Burma: Upper: Burma, Mahlaing, 17 Nov. 1928, &. 2. Anus—

growing wild in rocky parts; Mandalay Dist., Thaphangaing,

12 Nov. 1928, D: Rhind ; Thaphangaing, near Sedaw, 100 m., 15

Feb. 1929, D. Rhind 926 (type in Herb. Kew.)

Although this grass is cited in the Index Kewensis as C ymbopogon

vergatus Stapf ex Rhind-in Agri. Journ. India, 25, 328 (1930), it is not

in fact described in that place, nor are any details of its botanical

‘structure given, so that itis: to-all-intents and purposes a nomen nudum.

All that we are told is that it isa coarse perennial, tufted grass, growing

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

in tocky places and in open forest. The culms are up to 8 ft. tall and

flowering takes place in November. The crushed leaves have a very un-

pleasant smell.

Rhind distilled a quantity of the grass and obtained 0°55 per cent. of

an unpleasant smelling oil which Messrs. Schimmel analysed. The oil is

not likely to be commercially valuable.

In order to validate the name a short diagnosis in Latin follows.

Cymbopogon virgatus Stapf ex Rhind descr. ampl. Ab aliis speciebus

panicula erecta, racemis brevioribus distinguenda.

Gramen perenne aromaticum. Culmi usque 2°2 m. alti, teretes, laeves,

glabrique, infra nodos interdum pilosi. Foliorum laminae lineare-

acuminatae, 40-60 cm. longae, usque 1:5 cm. latae; vaginae nodis.

breviores, laeves glabraeque vel inferne villosae; ligula 3-45 mm.

longa, membranacea vel chartacea, lacerata.

Panicula erecta, laxa, simplex vel composita, interruptaque usque 45 cm.

longa ; Spatheolae 14-17 mm. longae; racemi 8-12 mm. longi, demum

epinastice deflexi ; pedicellus infimus haud incrassatus. Spiculae hermaph-

roditae, 4-5 mm. longae, elliptico-lanceolato-acutae, callo breve barbato.

Gluma inferior dorso plana, carinis scabra, superior navicularis. Anthoe-

cium interius vacuum, superius 9 ; Jemma angustum, bifidum, aristatum ;

palta abest ; arista 9 mm. longa; antherae 1 mm. longae. Spicula

pedicellata 4 mm. longa, lanceolato-acuminata. |

19. Cymbopogon khasianus (Aack.) Stapf ex Bor in Ind. For.

Rec pt.3,. 92, l9se se

Andropogon nardus var. khastanus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan, 6,.

602 (1889).

A perennial grass from a rather stout rootstock. Culms up to 2 m.

erect, terete, with a more or less dense tomentum at or below the

nodes, otherwise smooth and glabrous, polished. Leaf-blades linear, long-

acuminate, ending in a very fine membranous filiform tip, up to 60 cm.

long, perhaps longer, 8mm. broad,dark green on the upper surface,.

somewhat glaucous below, coarse scabrid on the margins, scaberulous

on both surfaces, glabrous, rather flaccid ; sheaths of the culms tight, clasp-

ing, becoming coriaceous, very striate, shorter than the internodes ;

ligule membranous, becoming chartaceous, rounded above, 1-2 mm..

long.

Inflorescence a very large, decompound, oblong panicle, up to 90 cm.

long by 30-40 cm. broad, decompound, the branches branching up to the:

third or fourth degree, loose or somewhat dense; axis of the panicle

8-10-noded, each in the axil of a spathe-like sheath with or without 2

blade, terete below, becoming 2-angled above and slightly expanded at

the node, often hirsute along a line between the two nodes, hairy or

glabrous at the nodes ; subsidiary branches similar ; spatheole 15-20 mm.

long, narrowly elliptic-acute when flattened, smooth and glabrous, many-

nerved, hyaline on the margins ; peduncle up to 10 mm. long, hairy at the

apex and carrying two racemes; racemes 1-2 cm. long, one subsessile

the other pedicelled, very hairy in the fork; joints 3 mm. long, linear,

2-angled, expanding above into a 2-toothed excavation, long ciliate on

the angles ; pedicels very similar but shorter. The lowest pair of spike-

lets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, o", the pedicel of the pedi-

celled spikelet very short but not swollen or adnate, the remaining

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 169

- pairs of spikelets in both the racemes heterogamous. AHermaphrodite

spikelets elliptic-acute, 4:5-5°5 mm. long, most usually suffused with purple.

Lower glume size and shape of the spikelet, flat on the back or with

several depressions, smooth and glabrous, 2-keeled from the middle

upwards, with 7 intracarinal nerves, winged on the keel, scabrid on the

wings, bifid at the apex; upper glume boat-shaped, keeled in the upper

third, smooth and glabrous, scabrid on the keel, 3-nerved. Lower

floret empty; lemma a, hyaline, lanceolate-acute 2-nerved scale; palea

absent. Upper floret 2; lemma 2°5-3 mm. long, split to the middle,

awned in the sinus; palea absent; awz 10 mm. long; column chestnut-

brown, twisted, 5mm. long; styles 2; stigmas plumose, purple ; stamens

3; anthers 2mm. long. FPedicelled spikelets elliptic-acute in shape, 4-4°5

mm. long, dark brownish purple. Lower glume shape and size of the

spikelet, many-nerved, keeled from the middle upwards, scabrid on the

keels, otherwise smooth and_ glabrous; wpper glume boat-shaped,

3-nerved, smooth and glabrous. AFlorets reduced to a hyaline scale wrap-

ped round 3 stamens; anthers 2 mm. long. -

Ind. Or.: Khasi Hills; towards Moflong, Nov. 1835, Grzffith 6764

holotype of Axdropogon nardus subsp. Rhasianus Hack. ; idem

6765; Bogapanee, 29 Jun. 1850 Hook. ft. & T. Thoms.; Syong,

4 Jul. 1855, Hook. f. & T. Thoms.; below Poniranga, 18 Sept.

1850 Hook. ft. & T. Thoms.; Tserra, 1300 m., 8 Oct. 1867,

C. B. Clarke 6432 ; Shillong, 1400 m., 6 Aug. 1885, C. B. Clarke ;

Shillong, 1500 m., 22 Oct. 1942, V. L. Bor 17153.

Naga Hills; 1935, V.Z. Bor 1121; ibidem, NW. L. Bor 2379;

Sataka, 1900 m., 8 Sept. 1942, V. Z. Bor 16320. Manipur ;

Mythi Phuni, 1100 m., 13 Nov. 1885; Thoubal, 1000 m., 19 Dec.

1942 NV. L. Bor 16955—an aromatic grass.

var, magensis Bor, var. nov. a typo spiculae sessilis gluma inferiore

latiore hirsutaque, carina glumae superioris late alata recedit.

Ind. Or.: Assam; Naga Hills, Shiloi Jopi, 16 Nov. 1935, 2600 m.,

NV. L. Bor 10—on dry grassy slopes.

This grass, which may yet prove to be distinct, is closest to C. khast-

anus (Hack.) Stapf, but the very broad hairy lower glume of the sessile

spikelet and the winged upper glume give it a very different facies.

One peculiar feature of the wing on the upper glume is that in a high

percentage of mature spikelets the upper portion of the wing becomes

detached and recurved as a kind of spur. Shiloi Jopi, where this grass

was collected, is on the eastern boundary of the Naga Hills, and was

at one time a game reserve, consisting mainly of vast grass covered

slopes which were fired every year. There are, or were, a few stands

of Pinus insularis Engl. in this area.

20. Cymbopogon distans (/Vees) Wats. in Atkins, Gaz. N. W. Prov.

Ind. 392 (1882).

Andropogon distans Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 387 (1854),

A perennial aromatic grass with many fibrous roots. Culms up to

45 cm. tall, rather slender, terete, smooth and glabrous, even at the nodes,

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:SOCIETY: “Vol. 52

‘polished, erect, simple. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, up to 50 cm.: long,

3mm. broad, folded, involute, twisted, finally almost filiform, ‘glabrous,

minutely scabrid on both surfaces to almost glabrous, rather’ glaucous ; ;

upper sheaths tight, clasping the culms, glabrous, very striate, ‘most

minutely scabrid, glaucous, auricled, the lower very short, coriaceous,

smooth and glabrous, polished and shining, long-persistent at 2 base,

finally breaking up into tough fibres.

Inflorescence a.simple panicle made up of an axis branching once at the

nodes, each branch terminated by a spatheole and peduncle carrying a pair

of racemes ; axis with long, terete, smooth and glabrous internodes, each

4nternode arising in the axil of a bladeless sheath; spatheole 2°5-5 cm.

long (exceptionally 5-7 cm. ), narrowly elliptic- acute when flattened,

greyish green, many-nerved, hyaline on the margins, compressed ; pedun-

cle 1:5 cm: long, smooth and glabrous, ‘wiry; racemes divaricate, even-

tually forming a straight line, 25-35 mm. long, one subsessile, one short-

pedicelled ; joints 2 mm. long, stout, 2-toothed at the cup-like top, com-

pressed, densely ciliate on the edges ; pedicels 3 mm. long, 2-toothed

above, ciliate. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homo-

gamous, d’, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet notswollen or adnate, all

remaining pairs of spikelets in the two racemes heterogamous. | Herma-

phrodite spikelets 6-8 mm. long, oblong-acuminate or oblong-elliptic-

acuminate without the wings, often oblique. Lower glume. shape and

size of the spikelet, 2-keeled, broadly wiry on the keel in the upper half,

with three intracarinal nerves, smooth and glabrous on the flat or sha low-

ly depressed back, bifid above, scabrid on the keels, chartaceous, shin-

ing . upper glume as long as the lower glume, boat-shaped, compressed

and keeled above, rounded and chartaceous below, shining, smooth and

glabrous, scabrid on the keel which is narrowly winged. Lower floret

empty ; lemma elliptic acuminate, 2-keeled, ciliate on the flaps, 5mm.

long ; palea absent. Upper floret & ; lemma 3°5 mm. long, very narrow,

cleft to the middle, awned ; palea absent ; aw2z 18 mm. long; column

10 mm. long ; stamens 3 ; Withee 2-5 mm. long; styles 2, long; stigmas

plumose, purple. Pedicelled sptkelets lanceolate | acuminate, 7-9 mm. long.

Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, many-nerved, very broad and

wrapped round the upper glume, smooth and glabrous; upper glume as

long, 3-nerved, ciliate on the margins above. Florets reduced to a single

hyaline lanceolate-acute scale ; stamens 3 ; anthers 3 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Central Himalaya; Simla, 24 Aug. 1849, 7. Thomson ;

Simla, Elysium Hill, 1900 m., 9 Sept. 1877, /. S. Gamble 4959B ;

Simla, Jakko, 2600 m., Sept. 1877, /. S. Gamble 5463A ; . Simla,

Mahaser Rd., Sept. 1877, J. S. Gamble 5144A ; Tehri-Garhwal,

Tihri road between Landour and Phedi, 2-2300 m., Sept. 1881,

J. F. Duthie 2154; Tehri Garhwal, Jumna valley above Bari,

2500-2900 m., 1 Oct. 1883, J. A Duthie 304 ; Kumaon, near Bhim

Tal, 1300-1500 m., 4 Oct. 1885, /. F. Duthie 5059’; Simla, Tara

Devi, 1900 m., Oct. 1889, /. F. Duthie 10098 ; Malhot, 1500 m.,

Nov. 1891, /. iS Gamble 23262 ; Jaunsar, near Chakrata, 2300 m.,

Oct. 1894, /. & Duthie 15147 : Jaunsar, Matkangra, 2300 m.,

Oct. 1894, J. S. Gamble 25006 ; Tehri Rd. below Landour,

/ 2-2300 Gear Sept. 1895, J/. 2 Duthie 17839; Mussoorie,

2300 m., Sept. 1898, /. S: Gamble 27222 ; Mussoorie, Witches

Hill, 2000. m., 3 Sept. 1930, A. A. Stewart 11406 ;: Simla Hills,

FHE’: GENUS CYMBOPOGON:’ SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 171

roc €asauli, 2000 m., 5 Nov. 1933, Rk. WV: Parker 3277—an aro matic

-- - <gtass, the inflorescence more or less lemon-scented. The scent

_ varies a good deal from one plant to the next: ’ The dominant

grass on dry rocky hot slopes Sau 3000 and 4000 feet.. It is

not much eaten by cattle.

N.W. Himalaya; Kashmir, Siti 2000 m., 11° Oct, 1875,

Levinge; Mattiana, 1885, J. R. Drummond 21103.; Kashmir,

Sandrattan, Sept. 1874, é B. Clarke comm. 241824 ; Bashahr,

Karchang Bridge, 2000 m., 6 Oct. 1890, /. H.. Lace 633; Mal-

_ kandi, Kagan, /. F Duthie 22655; Chamba, Pangi, 2600 m.,

~8 Aug. 1899, Harsukh; Nathia, 1907, Sir HY. Deane ; Kashmir,

~.1. Banihal pass, 2000 m., 5 peak 1930, R. R. Stewart 10171; “Gol:

G. Wingate. LF

Beyond the fact that this grass contains an aromatic jeiOn Teese

pues in its oS5iles nothing is known of it as a source of oil.

oy :

aN Cymbopogon thwaitesii (Hook. f.) Bor, eonib. nov.

Andropogon thwaitesit Hook. f. in Trimen, Flor. Ceyl. 243 (1900).

A. distans Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 364 (1864) non Nees. . -

A perennial grass from a woody rootstock. Czlms simple, over 1 m.

tall, erect from the base, terete, smooth, polished, glabrous; znternodes

long above, crowded below. Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, long attenuate

to a filiform tip, narrowed to and almost petiolate at .the base, up to 21

(35 cm. fide Hook. f.) cm. long, 4 mm. broad, flat, minutely scaberulous

but glabrous on both surfaces, with two small triangular glandular

patches, one on each side of the narrowed base ; sheaths at the base very

crowded, overlapping, very broad below, smooth and glabrous, very

striate, scarious on the margins, loose, auriculate, those of the culm proper

shorter than the internodes, tight at first, eventually becoming looser and

slipping from the internodes, smooth and glabrous, very striate’; /igzle

continuous with the auricle, up to ©: mm. long, truncate, becoming

coriaceous.

Panicle an almost simple raceme of pedunculate spatheate raceme-

pairs about 15 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, loose, not congested ; internodes

of the rhachis wiry, slightly thicker above, somewhat compressed, smooth

and glabrous, or sparsely ciliate on the edges and bearded just below the

node; spatheoles narrowly elliptic-acuminate about 35 mm. long, very

striate, hyaline on the margins, turning brownish-red at maturity; peduncle

about 10 mm. long, wiry, expanded at the tip ; racemes 15-22 mm. long,

one subsessile, the other shortly pedicelled, hairy in the fork ; joints of the

racemes 3°5 mm. long, slender, linear, compressed, expanded above into

a toothed cup, ciliate on the edges and on the outer surface; pedicels

very similar. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homoga-

mous, od‘ or neuter, pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet of this pair, short,

stout, but not markedly thickened, all other pairs of both racemes

heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelet lanceolate-acute, elliptic-acumi-

nate, 6-8 mm. long, 1-15 mm. broad, with a shortly. bearded

callus. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled, flat: on the

back or puckered or shallowly concave, narrowly winged on. the keels,

shortly cleft at. the apex, smooth and. glabrous on’ the dorsal

surface, scabrid on the margins of the wings,. 3- or: mare-nerved

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

between the carinals ; wpper glume as long as the lower glume, boat-

shaped, 3-nerved, keeled and narrowly winged on the keel in the upper

half. Lower floret empty; lemma a lanceolate-acuminate hyaline scale, 5—5°5

mm. long, 3-nerved; palea absent; upper floret 2; lemma very narrow,

split for half its length into two linear, narrow, ciliate lobes awned in the

sinus; palea an oblong, bifid scale, ciliate on the margins, very short ;

awn 13 mm. long ; column brown, twisted, 6 mm. long; stéyles 2, long ;

stigmas plumose; stamens 3; anthers 3 mm. long; lodicules 2, quadrate,.

minute, 2-toothed. edicelled spikelet 7 mm. long, narrowly elliptic-

acuminate. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, convex on the

back, very many-nerved ; upper glume rounded on the back, 3-nerved,

ciliate on the margins above. Florets reduced to an oblong-elliptic-acute

3-nerved scale, ciliate on the margins ; stamens 3 ; anthers 3°25 mm. long,

dark red in colour ; Jodicules 2, small.

Ceylon: Newara Eliya, Aug. 1862, Zhwaztes C. P. 3784 (type at

Kew); Hakgala Bot. Garden, Hakgala Peak, c. 2000 m., 16 Dec.

1950, F. Ballard 1110—near base of Peak, in open part of wet

jungle.

The above description is taken from Thwaites’ type sheet. There is

a note on this sheet in Hooker’s handwriting to the effect that the speci-

men was lemon-scented. The specimen collected by Ballard at Hakgala

seems to be this species. It is, however, a far more robust grass which,

unfortunately, is without its basal parts. Against this, however, the

leaves are strongly petioled, the ligule is long and the sessile spikelets are

acuminate but only 5°5-6 mm. long. In this specimen the panicle is.

extremely long, over 45cm., and is about 5 cm. broad, the leaves, too, are

much longer than those in Thwaites’ specimen, being up to 65 cm.

long by 12 mm. broad. Apart from the size, there is no single or group.

of characters which would justify its being raised to specific rank, and

it may well be that Thwaites’ specimens were collected in an un-

favourable habitat. The leaves of this specimen smell strongly of lemon.

22. Cymbopogon coloratus (Vees) Staff in Kew Bull. 1906, 321

(1906).

Andropogon coloratus Nees in Wight, Cat. no. 1703 (1833) nomen

nudum.

A. nardus Linn. vat. coloratus Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 206 (1896) ;

description.

A. nardus Linn. subsp. glomeratus Hack. in DC. Monogr. Phan, 6,

604 (1889).

A perennial aromatic grass, caespitose from a short thick rootstock.

Culms simple, over 1 m. tall, erect or hardly geniculate at the base, terete,

smooth, polished, glabrous apart from a furry pubescence about the nodes.

Leaf-blades linear-acuminate, long-attenuate to a filiform tip, up to 40 cm.

long and possibly longer, 4-6 mm. broad, green or somewhat glaucous

in colour, eventually turning red or reddish with age, minutely scabrid on

both surfaces, coarsely scabrid on the margins, rather rigid ; sheaths very

rigid, very striate, leathery, smooth and glabrous apart from a furry

pubescence towards and at the nodes and on the exterior margin,

eventually almost glabrous, those of the lowest nodes very loose, leathery,

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC, 178

shining, glabrescent, polished, falling away from the culm, those at the

base finally woolly ; /7gzde chartaceous, rounded above, 1-2 mm. long.

~ Inflorescence a narrow, erect panicle 30 cm. and more long, up to 4 cm.

broad, usually interrupted, occasionally congested but never widely

spreading; the divisions short, dense; internodes of the axis straight,

wiry, becoming thicker above, usually furry-pubescent at and below the

nodes, often pubescent along a line between the nodes; spatheole

14-16 mm. long, narrowly elliptic-acute, turning a brownish-red at matu-

tity ; peduncle about 2 mm. long, clavate, smooth and glabrous; racemes

12-14 mm. long, one short-pedicelled or subsessile, the other long-

pedicelled, very hairy in the fork; joints of the raceme 2 mm. long,

expanded above into a 2-toothed excavation, long-ciliate (cilia 2-3 mm.

long) on the edges; pedicels similar, slightly shorter. Lowest pair of

spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, <, with the pedicel

of the pedicelled spikelet grotesquely swollen, the remaining pairs of

spikelets heterogamous. Hermaphrodite spikelets apart from the wings

-elliptic-acute, 5-6 mm. long, 1 mm. broad, with a short bearded callus.

Lower glume shape of the spikelet, 2-keeled, irregularly winged on the

keels, not nerved between the conspicuous brown keel-nerves, flat on the

back above, in the lower half with a shallow groove or the groove broken

up into 2-3 shallow depressions or wrinkles; smooth or glabrous or

minutely puberulous in the lower half, scabrid on the keels; upper glume

as long as the spikelet, boat-shaped, keeled above, smooth, shining and

glabrous on the dorsal surface, scabrid on the keel, 3-nerved. Lower floret

empty ; emma a hyaline scale 4°5 mm. long, 2-nerved, with ciliate flaps

in the upper half; falea absent. Upper floret 2; lemma very narrow,

hyaline, 3 mm. long, split to the middle into two linear ciliate lobes,

awned in the sinus; falea absent; stamens 3; anthers 1:5 mm. long;

styles 2; stigmas plumose; awn 13 mm. long; column 5 mm. long.

Pedicelled spikelets 4°5-5 mm. long, lanceolate-acuminate, §. Lower

glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the upper half, rounded

below, membranous, many-nerved, scabrid on the keels; upper glume

shallowly boat-shaped, 3-nerved, smooth and glabrous below, somewhat

scabrid and minutely puberulous above. /orets reduced to a hyaline

scale ; stamens 3; anthers 1:5 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Madras State; Herb. Wight. 1703 (Typus in Herb. Kew.);

Salem, Devarbetta 25 Feb. 1927, K. Cherian Jacob 18052; Ananta-

pur Dist., Penukonda, 12 Feb. 1917, Madras Herb. no. 14322 ;

Cuddapah Dist., 1917, 2. S. Hole, Dehra Dun, legit ; Cuddapah

Balleipalle, 300 m., Feb. 1883, /. S. Gamble 11195; North Arcot

Dist., Chandragiri, 23 Feb. 1914, Madras Herb. no. 19000;

ibidem, Kuppam, 19 Dec. 1927, H. &. Watson; Herb. Heyne,

Wallich 8794B; Bellary, Tumati, Oct. 1889, J. S. Gamble :

ibidem, Malpanguda, Oct. 1889, /. S. Gamdle; Herb. Wight.

3087;

Madhya Pradesh; Chanda Dist.; /. A) Duthie 9893.

In the type folder of Cymbopogon coloratus (Hook. f.) Stapf at Kew

the following sheets are to be found.

(1) Two sheets of Wight’s catalogue number 1703, distributed under

the name Azdvopogon colovatus Nees, which appears to haye been a manu-

script name only. The plants on the two sheets are identical and are of a

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5?

short erect grass with a narrow interrupted panicle of rather dense congre-

gations of raceme pairs, the reds and brown of the spatheoles and spikelets

contrasting with the silver grey, rather long hairs on the joins and

pedicels.

The first time a description of the plant was published was in 1896,

when Hook. f. in the Flora of British India distinguished it as a variety

of Andropogon nardus Linn. with a brief diagnosis.

(2) Two sheets of Wight’s catalogue number 1700 c, which was

distributed under the name Andropogon (Cymb.) caesius elatior, culmo

erecto firmo, Stapf considered them to be a similar form to A. coloratus

Nees, ‘ but with long, stiff and dense panicle and paler spathes’. This

grass is so similar to C. flexwosus that identical specimens have been

placed under C. flexuwosus and under C. coloratus. The position of the

grass seems to be intermediate between C. coloratus and C. flexuosus, and

actually is the species described as C. ¢vavancorensts in this paper.

The oil obtained from this grass is said to resemble a mixture of the

oils of lemon-grass and citronella. At the Imperial Institute the chief

constituents were identified as geraniol and citronellal. On the other hand,

Pilley, Rao & Simonsen [Jour. Soc. Cham. Ind. 47, 52 (1928)] obtained

an entirely different oil from the flowery tops of a grass said to be this

species. It contained geraniol, sesquiterpenes, borneol, limonene, camphene,

etc- This result shows that there is some doubt about the identity of the

grasses used. The presence of borneol suggests that C. travancorensis

Bor, either pure or in mixture with grasses strongly resembling it, was

used in the latter experiment, since it is the only Cymdopogon with borneol

as one of the constituents of its oil. There is the possibility, however,

that C. coloratus also possesses this substance in its oil, since, as will be

seen from the remarks under C. travancorensis Bor, there is much else 1 in

common between the two species.

23. Cymbopogon travancorensis Gor, sp. nov. C. flexuoso (Nees)

Wats. persimilis sed ab eo nodis barbatis, pedicello infimae spiculae: pedi-

cellatae racemi subsessilis crasso distinguenda.

Gramen perenne. Cz/zz erecti, usque 2°5 m. alti, validi, teretes, lasés

glabrique, nodis barbati. Folzorum laminae usque 1 m. longae, lineares,

acuminatae, in apicem filiformem attenuatae; vaginae laeves, glabrae,

laxae ; /igulae chartaceae demum coriaceae, 1-1°5 mm. longae.

Panicula terminalis magna, C. flexuosz paniculae persimilis sed racemi

haud congesti ; racemi circa 1 cm. longi; articuli lineari-clavati, .2°5 mm.

longi, compressi, marginibus ciliati ; pedicelli similes ; racemi subsessilis

par imum inferius homogamum, vel neutrum, alia spicularum paria

heterogama ; spiculae sessiles g, pedicellatae <. Spiculae sesstles 3°5-4 mm.

longae. Gluma inferior elliptico-acuta, bicarinata, carinis alata, obscure

netrvata; gluma superior navicularis, apiculata, carinata, laevis, glabra.

Anthoecium interius vacuum, lemma hyalinum, oblongo-acutum ; palea

abest. <Anthoecium superius g ; lemma lineare, bifidum, ex fissura aristam

perfectam 12 mm. longam emittens ; s¢yli 2 ; stigmata plumosa; stamina

3; antherae 2 mm. longae ; Capes 3mm. longa. Spicula pedicellata 3,

3°5 mm. longa, elliptico-acuta, Gluma inferior elliptico-acuta, bicarinata,

carinis scabra, 5-nervis ; gluma interior navicularis, 3-nervis, carina apicem

versus scabra, ceterum laevis glabraque ; lemma hyalinum, 3 mm. longum ;

stamina 3; antherae 1:5-1'7 mm. longae. __ nfistast ly calney mectees

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA,: ETC. 175

_- Cymbopogon travancorensis Bor, sp. nov.. -

An aromatic perennial. Czdms erect, up to and probably over 2:5.m.

tall, up to ] cm. thick at the base, very stout, solid, terete, smooth and

very glabrous, polished, except at the nodes which are often covered with

a short golden pubescence, simple. Leaf-blades in robust specimens up to

and over 1 m. long, up to 2 cm. broad, linear in the middle portion,

tapering to both ends, (the lower leaves almost all midrib at the base),

and ending in a very long drawn-out attenuate tip, scaberulous on both

surfaces, very coarsely scabrid on the margins, somewhat glaucous on

the lower surface, glabrous on the lower surface except for a white

tomentum of short hairs on the glandular patches at the base, covered in

the basal part of the upper surface with a dense covering of long white

hairs which are particularly dense behind the ligule, sometimes tinged

with purple ; lower sheaths coriaceous, shiny, white, polished, very loose

and showing a distinct tendency to slip from the culm and form spirals

just asin C. jwarancusa, the upper sheaths tight, clasping the culms,

smooth and glabrous, striate, sometimes tinged with purple; /gwle

chartaceous or coriaceous, 1-1°5 mm. long.

Inflorescence a terminal decompound panicle of many raceme-pairs,

with the aspect of a panicle of C. flexuosus; axis grooved on the side

from which the branch springs, otherwise terete, very smooth and _ gla-

brous, polished, with branches branching and rebranching with very short

branchlets ; branchlets grooved or flattened on one side, clavate towards

the apex and there hairy, otherwise smooth and glabrous ; spatheole about

10 mm. long, drying reddish-brown, narrowly lanceolate- or elliptic-acute,

striate, hyaline on the margins, glabrous, minutely scaberulous ; peduncle

3 mm. long, filiform, clavate at the tip, smooth and glabrous; raceme-

pairs about 1 cm. long, one subsessile, one shortly pedicelled ; joints of

the racemes about 2°5 mm. long, linear-clavate, ending above in a toothed

cup, convex on one surface, flat or slightly concave on the other, ciliate

on the margins and villous on the concave surface; pedicel similar.

Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, or

neuter, pedicel of the lowest pedicelled spikelet grotesquely swollen and

adnate to the joint, the remaining pairs of spikelets in both racemes

heterogamous. Lowest pair of spikelets in the subsessile raceme hetero-

morphous, the sessile resembling 2 hermaphrodite spikelet of C. fexuosus,

but with rather broader wings. Hermaphrodite spikelet 35-4 mm. long,

without the wings elliptic-acute, with a short bearded callus. Lower

glume shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled, winged in the upper half of

the keels, (wings ending just below the tip) without any obvious nerves

apart from the keel nerves, smooth and glabrous, with one or two

depressions in the lower half on the back; wpfer glume boat-shaped,

l-nerved, keeled in the upper half, narrowly winged on the keel, scabrid

on the wing, otherwise smooth and glabrous. Lower floret empty ;

lemma a hyaline nerveless scale 3°5 mm. long, oblong-acute in shape;

palea absent. Upper floret 2; lemma very narrow, 2°5 mm. long, split to

the middle, awned ; palea absent ; awn 12 mm. long ; column 5 mm. long,

brown, twisted; styles2; stigmas plumose; stamens3; anthers 2 mm.

long ; gvatn 3mm. long; embryo almost half as long; /z/wm a dark

coloured basal point. Pedicelled spikelet #, 3°5 mm. long, elliptic-acute.

Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, weakly keeled in the upper

half, scabrid on the keels, 5-nerved, rounded on the back, smooth and

176 |. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

glabrous ; upper glume boat-shaped, 3-nerved, scabrid on the keel near the

tip, otherwise smooth and glabrous. Florets reduced to a hyaline scale

3 mm. long which encloses 3 stamens with anthers 1:5-1:7 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Madras; Wight’s Cat. 1700C; Slopes of the Pulneys,

3-600 m., Barber 6588, 2640 and 2641; Munanthorai Ghat,

Tinnevelly, 14 May 1901, C. A. Barber 2769 ; Koilpatti, 19 July

1901, C. A. Barber 3437 ; Courtallam, Tinnevelly, 11 Nov. 1908,

Bourne 5309 (typus in Herb. Kew.); ex Imperial Institute

16 Aug. 1923, received as C. flexuosus; Poonachi Ghat, Anna-

mallais, 8 Oct. 1901, C. A. Barber 3582: Travancore; hills near

Shencotta, 200 m., 26 Nov. 1914; Venkoba Rao; Nadarai,

1 Nov. 1904, C. A. Barber 6739 ;

In addition to the above, there are at Kew 8 sheets of a grass

received from the Imperial Institute as the white variety of

Lemon-erass. Stapf identified these gatherings from Travancore

as C. flexuosus forma albescens, but they are all different from

C. flexuosus in the swollen lowest pedicel in the subsessile raceme.

Superficially, the panicles and spikelets are those of C. flexuosus.

C. travancorensis, according to Venkoba Rao, is known in its native

home by the names Inchi, Inchippul or Sukhunarippul, but as Guenther

remarks, 1. c. 133, there is considerable confusion in the literature regard-

ing the taxonomy of the grass from which Inchi-grass oilis obtained. It

is quite obvious that no reliance can be placed on local names, since the

same name is often given to species with a superficial resemblance to one

another. Unless, therefore, the chemists who are investigating the proper-

ties of a minor forest product are also competent: botanists, a remote

contingency, they are likely to be at the mercy of the locals and to accept

as correct what the latter decide to tell them, very often with the result

that their conclusions are based on a wrongly named plant. This is what

happened, one assumes, when attempts to arrive at a correct name for

Inchi-grass were made.

In a paper in the Perfume and Essential Oil Record 13, 292 (1922),

Moudgill and Iyer describe the extraction and properties of Inchi-grass

oil. One is led to believe from the title of the paper that the grass they

were dealing with was C. caészus, but the paper concludes with a paragraph

on the identification of Inchi-grass, which is reproduced here.

‘ Note on the Identification of Inchi Grass. A sample of the grass was

sent to Rao Bahadur K. Rangachariar of Coimbatur, through his assistant,

Mr. Tadulinga Mudaliar. ‘They stated that the white variety was Cymdo-

pogon caestus, Stapf, and the red variety Cymbopogon flexuosus, Stapf. In

the meantime, the Director ef Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to whom a

sample had been forwarded through the Director of the Imperial Institute,

reported that both the red and white varieties were different states of the

grass which he identified as Cymbopogon ftlexuosus Stapf forma albescens.

According to this it is of interest to note that although botanically

lemon-grass and “‘ inchi’”’-grass are very closely allied, the oils which they

yield are so entirely different. Fresh samples of both varieties of inchi-

grass and lJemon-grass are being sent for further identification. The

identification of Rao Bahadur Rangachatiar has been adopted provi-

sionally till the final decision on this point is obtained.’

Oe ee es

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 177

The research carried out by Moudgill and Iyer was thus left in a very

ainsatisfactory state, since the identity of the plant to which their published

data relate, had not been established. The fresh samples, mentioned in

autlting,

‘ 2

ei 4 ‘ss

4 ant

\ git, f

Lower glumes of ine hermaphrodite spikelets of

22. Cymbopogon thwaitesii (Hook. f.) Bor; 23. C. coloratus (Nees) Stapf; 24.

C. travancorensis Bor; 25. C. jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. 26. C. schoenanthus

{Linn.) Spreng. ; 27. C. parkeri Stapf. All x 10.

the above paragraph, as about to be sent for identification, cannot be

traced, at least in the material at Kew, and it is not known if the identifi-

cation has ever been published.

Moudgill and Iyer stated that their investigations were concerned with

the white variety of a grass which existed in two states, a white and a red.

The red state was identified at Kew as C. flexuosus and the white state as

C. flexuosus forma aléescens. Although a glance at the spikelets of C.

caesius Would separate it from white Inchi-grass, it would be easy on

account of its glaucous colour, for the non-expert to confuse the two.

There is ample evidence that the grass with which we are concerned

is the grass named by Stapf C. flexuosus forma albescens, the specimen

sent to Rangachariar, obviously having been collected in error for the

other.

This grass is said to grow wild in profusion on the dry hill slopes of

South Travancore. Fires pass over these dry hills in the spring, and the

grass is invariably destroyed. The young shoots appear just after the

rains in June, and reach a height of 6 ft. or so, producing flowers at the

end of the year. Moudgill and Iyer state that the same grass growing

(178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

in moist places or in water-logged tracts, is almost odourless, and presume

that the essential oil present decreases when the habitat is wet. Until a

specimen of the grass from wet areas has been examined and identified, it

would be dangerous to assume that it is the same species.

Apparently the distillation of the grass for its oil, which was a regular

practice at the beginning of the century, had by 1922 been entirely given

up. The authors carried out an investigation into the properties of Inchi-

oil in order to find out whether it could be profitably produced as a per-

fume oil. It was found, and the conclusions were confirmed by the

Imperial Institute, that the constants of the oil differed from those of any

of the oils of commerce. In fact, the oil is so different from that obtained.

from the grass it most closely resembles morphologically, C. flexuosus, that

it is most surprising that the grass was not suspected of being a different

species. Lemon-grass oil (from C. flexwosus) is characterised by the

presence of citral. This substance is absent from Inchi-grass oil, whose

main constituent is the alcohol borneol, which in its turn is not found in

Lemon-grass oil.

Inchi-grass oil has a very pleasant odour of ginger, and it is considered

that it may be used as a substitute for palmarosa oil but the yield is very

low.

Attention may be drawn here to the fact that C. travancorens?s possesses.

certain characters which indicate that it occupies an intermediate position

between C. coloratus and C. flexuosus. In common with C. coloratus it has.

bearded nodes, and the swollen pedicel in the lowest pair of spikelets in the

subsessile raceme. It resembles C. flexwosws in the shape of its spikelet,.

its stature, and above all, in its panicle. Indeed, one would hazard a guess.

that it is a hybrid between the two, if there was any evidence that the areas.

of distribution of each overlapped. These areas may, of course, impinge

upon one another, but so far the collections seem to show that they do not.

Another point which may be mentioned is that the oil obtained from

C. travancoreénsis contains borneol, a substance which is also said to be con-

tained in the oil derived from C. coloratus. There is, obviously, here room.

for much more investigation and research.

24. Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Joves) Schult. Mant. 2, 458 (1824).

Andropogon jwarancusa Jones in Asiat. Res. 4, 109 (1795).

A. himalayensis Gandoger in Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 46, 421 (1899).

A perennial aromatic grass with a stout rhizomatous rootstock. Culms.

up to 120 cm. tall but usually only about half that height, with very short

internodes at the base, and hence many overlapping sheaths, smooth and

glabrous, terete, shining, wiry above. Leaf-blades flat, rarely filiform,.

linear, up to 30 cm. or more long, 5 mm. broad, glabrous on both surfaces,

scabrid or smooth on both surfaces, very scabrid on the margins, rather

firm, often coriaceous in texture; sheaths of the culms smooth and glabrous,

tight, clasping, striate, shorter than the internodes, those of the base

closely crowcied, eventually, when withered, flattening out and becoming

coiled like wood shavings, often turning pale yellowish-red ; /zgules mem-

branous, becoming chartaceous, 2-3 mm. long.

Inflorescence a panicle of more or less racemosely arranged pairs of

racemes seated on a peduncle supported by a spathe, 10-20 cm. long ; one

to several of which arise in the axil of a topmost sheath, proper spathes

2°5 cm. long, smooth and glabrous, shining often turning reddish, very

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON “SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 17$

narrow ; racemes 1°4—2 cm. long, one sessile or short-, the other longer-

pedicelled ; joints of the racemes 2°5 mm. long, slender, expanding at the

tip into a toothed cup, ciliate with hairs up to 5 mm. long ; pedicel similar

but shorter, 1°5 mm. long ; pairs of spikelets in both racemes all hetero-

gamous, except the lowest pair which are homogamous, @ or neuter, the

pedicel of the pedicelled spikelet of this pair very short, compressed,

but not swollen. Sesszle sptkelet linear- or narrowly elliptic-acuminate,

straight or oblique at the tip, 5 mm. long. Lower glume shape and size

of the spikelet, concave between the keels, 4-nerved, bifid at the apex,

with the narrowest of wings on the keels in the upper half, scabrid and

shortly ciliate on the keels, otherwise smooth and glabrous; upper glume

4-5 mm. long, boat-shaped, compressed and keeled in the upper half,

rounded below, smooth and glabrous on the dorsal surface, scabrid on the

keel, 3-nerved, the mid nerve produced as avery shortawn. Lower

floret empty ; lemma a hyaline, 2-nerved scale, ciliate on the margins,

lanceolate-acute in shape, 4 mm.long; Aalea absent. Upper floret g :

lemma 3 mm. long, hyaline, split to the middle into two narrow ciliate

lobes; awz 10 mm. long, hardly differentiated into column and bristle ;

styles 2 ; stigmas plumose; stamens 3; anthers 2 mm. long; lodicules 2,

truncate-cuneate. Pedicelled spikelets 5°5 mm. long, 6, oblong-elliptic-

acuminate. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet, convex on the

dorsal surface 2-keeled, 9-nerved between the keels, smooth and glabrous

save on the scabrid keels ; wpper glume shape of the spikelet, shallowly

boat-shaped, 3-nerved, ciliate on the margin above, smooth and glabrous.

Lower and upper florets represented by a single lanceolate-acute scale

5 mim. long ; stamens 3; anthers 2 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Assam; Goalpara, 11 Dec. 1912, #. .S. Hole.

Bengal; Dr. Roxburghex Herb. Forsyth (type of Andropogon

jwarancusa. )

Uttar Pradesh; Bed of Jumna, near Singhoree, 8 May, 1836,

Falconer ; ab Agra ad Saharanpur, 1831, Jacguemont 352 ; without

locality, 8 July 1848, Forests North Oudh, 1870, R. Thompson ;

Hardwar 1848, Wallich 8793D ; Gorakhpur, 26 Mar. 1898, /. F:

Duthie 22892 ; Marka, Pilibhit, 23 Mar. 1898, /. FF Duthie

22891; Lachmipur, Gorakhpur, 15 Apr. 1898, Harsukh s.n.

Tehri Garhwal; Kumaon, Tons valley, Jacguemont 398:

-~Kumaon, May 1848, 7. Thomson; Kumaon, Almora, 1500 m.

1846 (?), Strachey & Winterbottom 5; T. Garhwal, banks of -

Tons, Thadyar, 1000-1300 m., 17 May 1893, JZ. F Duthie 12922 ;

ibidem, May 1894, J. F Duthie 24752; T. Garhwal 1300 m.,

May 1895, J. S. Gamble 25444; T. Garhwal, Tons valley near

Thadyar, 13 May 1894, J. #2 Duthie 14499 ; ibidem, Tons valley,

3 May: 1898; +7. 7 Duthie 15579 ; -ibidem, 11: May 1897, /. F.

Duthie 19790; Garhwal Div., Bijrani, 9 Jun. 1902, /zayat 26012.

Chitral; Warai, 1400m., 10 Sept. 1895, from Bot. Dept. N.

India, 17609.

Punjab; Ferozepore, Griffith 6770; Lahore, Mar. 1846, Royle;

Panjab, 7. 7. Thomson 1848 ; Lahore, Hook. f. G T. Thomson ;

Punjab, July 1870, 7. &. 7. Aitchison 97; Punjab, Grffith ex

Herb. Lemann; D.I. K., Tank, 9 May 1888, J. A. Duthie 7224;

Multan, J. & Duthie s.n.; near Lahore, Dr. Stewart; Kulu,

Katrain, 1500m., Apr. 1919, Walter Koelz 1882—dry slopes ;

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Rawalpindi, 600 m., Sept. 1828, A. FR. Stewart, 10155, and the

following sheets of J. &) Drummond ; from Hissar 15241, 21099,

21100; Sirsa. 21096; Tila gojian wala 21125; Jhelum 15102 ;

Galenwala 14°87; Chantala 21101; Malakwal 14753.

West Himalaya; Mohand Pass, Oct. 1890, J. F Duthie s.n.;

Waziristan, Kajuri Kach, 800 m., J. & Duthie 15738; Hindu

Bagh, Shula Kila, 7. -. Duthie 19041; Baluchistan, Fort San-

deman, /. F.: Duthie 19046; Spiti, Lace 295; Leh, 3000 m.,

12 May 1848, 7. Thomson; Kalatze to Nurla, Indas valley, 8 July

1848, 7. Thomson.

This species is probably more widespread than any of the other Cym-

bopogons (with the exception of C. martiniz), at least of those in the area

under consideration. It ranges over the whole of northern India from

Assam to Baluchistan, and is particularly common in areas of low rainfall

and high temperatures. It is entirely absent from Central India, Madras

and Ceylon.

The yield of oil is low, but it is quite different from any of the others.

It has an odour of peppermint and consists mainly of di-piperitone, which

may amount to 77 per cent., and a lesser quantity of A* carene. ‘There

is also present in varying amounts a sesquiterpene alcohol with a rose-like

odour.

It will be noted that this oil is quite different from that distilled from

Cymbopogon schoenanthus, the species which it most closely resembles

morphologically.

The specific name of the species is derived from two Indian words ;

jwar—fever ; ankus—a hooked instrument used by the mahut for control-

ling his elephant; the combination referring to the supposed medicinal

properties possessed by the grass in combating malaria. It was, and is,

considered by the village people to be a very powerful remedy for all kinds

of fevers. Blane, who discovered the plant, thus describes it :—‘ The

whole plant has a strong aromatic odour, but both the smell and the virtues

reside principally in the husky roots, which in chewing, have a bitter,

warm, pungent taste, accompanied with some degree of that kind of glow

in the mouth which cardamoms occasion’.

PAR Cymbopogon schoenanthus (Lizz.) Spreng. Pug. 2, 15 (1815).

Andropogon schoenanthus Linn., Sp. Pl. ed. 1, 1046 (1753).

A. laniger Desf. Fl. Atl. 3, 379 (1800).

A. jwarancusa subsp. laniger (Desf.) Hook. f. Flor. Brit. Ind. 7, 203

(1896).

A perennial caespitose grass. Culms erect, slender, terete, simple,

smooth and glabrous. Leaf-blades filiform, wiry, flexuous, semi-terete,

rounded on the back, channelled on the upper surface, upto 30 cm. long

by 2 mm. wide, those of the culms sometimes flatter and shorter, glab-

rous, minutely scabrid on the nerves on the under surface, pale, smooth ;

sheaths of the culms smooth, glabrous, tight, those at the base much

wider and looser, slipping from the culms, long-persistent, straw-coloured ;

ligules membranous becoming firmer, scarious, oblong-truncate, 2-3 mm.

long.

Inflorescence a narrow panicle up to 30 cm. long, 4—7-noded ; axis

slender, smooth and glabrous, the internodes decreasing in length towards

the top, sheathed in spathe-like sheaths which have only a rudimentary

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 181

blade or none at all, often tinged with purple : spatheoles narrowly elliptic-

acute or -acuminate ending in a setaceous point, 3-5 cm. long, many-

nerved, hyaline on the margins, pale or straw-coloured ; peduncle wiry,

filiform, angled or terete, widened upwards, shortly villous below the

racemes ; racemes 15 mm. long, divaricate, ultimately epinastically deflex-

ed, white-villous, often tinged with purple, one subsessile the other shortly

pedicelied ; joints of the racemes 2 mm. long, compressed, 2-angled, long-

ciliate on the angles, with hairs up to 3°5 mm. long, slightly widened up-

wards, ending in an oblique cupular tip, 2-toothed on the margins; pedi-

cels similar in shape and length but more slender. Lowest pair of

spikelets in the subsessile raceme homogamous, 3% or neuter, pedicel of

the pedicelled spikelet shorter and broader than the others but not

grotesquely swollen, hairy, all other pairs of spikelets of both tacemes

heterogamous. Fertile spikelets elliptic-lanceolate, more or less acuminate,

4-5 mm. long, with a short bearded callus. Lower glume shape and

size of the spikelet, shallowly concave on the back, 2-keeled on the upper

half, scabrid on the keels, smooth and glabrous on the dorsal surface ;

upper glume equal in length, 3-nerved, boat-shaped, rounded on the dorsal

surface below, keeled in the upper half, scabrid on the keel, ciliate on the

margins above. Lower floret empty ; lemma a, hyaline scale 4 mm. long,

oblong-acute ; palea absent. Upper floret ¢ ; lemmaa linear hyaline

narrow scale, cleft at the top into two subulate lobes, awned in the sinus ;

palea absent ; awz 10 mm. long ; column brown, 3 mm. long, twisted ;

styles 2 ; stigmas plaumose ; stamens 3; anthers15 mm. long. Pedicelled

spikelets narrowly oblong-elliptic-acute, 45 mm.long, ¢. Lower glume

shape and size of the spikelet, 2-keeled in the upper half, scabrid on the

keels, strongly nerved, apart from the keel and median nerve 4 intracari-

nal nerves, smooth and glabrous ; upper glume as long, 3-nerved, minute-

ly puberulous on the dorsal surface or glabrous. //orefs reduced to a

hyaline scale 4 mm. long, 2—3-nerved, ciliate on the margins in the upper

half, wrapped round the three stamens ; anthers 15-3 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Punjab: Kurram valley, Para Chenar, 23 Apr. 1894,

flarsukh 14800; Multan, Sept. 1891, 4. V. Monro; Ludhiana,

Apr. 1837, dgeworth; Salt Range, Bhirpur, Sept. 1872,

J. £. T. Attchison 59—not very common: highly scented grass ;

Jhelum, J. £. 7. Aitchison 157;

Kashmir; Astor valley, 1900 m., 28 July 1892, J. & Duthie

12301; Mir Kassen Tangi, Apr. 1893, J. & Duthie s.n. ; Hazara,

Malkandi, Kagan, 3 Aug. 1899, /zavat s.n. ; Gilgit, Netta valley

near Nomal, 1600-1900 m., 3 Aug. 1892, J. F Duthie 12335 ;

Ramoo, 10 July 1876, C. &. Clarke 28501A; Baltistan, near

Skardu 2600 m., 14 July 1892, J. F: Duthie 12045 ; Gilgit, Chalt,

sept. 1847, J. &. Winterbottom 971; Gilgit river valley, 1885,

Dr. Giles 237—the grass is about the only member of the order

that makes good a footing in this desolate region, growing in

tufts up to 100 ft. above the river level ; ibidem, Doyan, 2200 m.,

1885, Dr. Giles. }

Chitral; Drosh, 1500 m., Apr. 1908, Zoppzn 177.

Waziristan; Torkhan, 1600-1900 m., Apr. 1893., J. #: Duthie;

Barwand, 1300 m., 26 Apr. 1895, J, F: Duthie 15721.

Sind; Dy. S/ocks 816 ; ibidem, Hilla, Dr. Stocks 690.

Afghanistan; Gyriffiths 365.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

This typically desert plant is sometimes known as ‘ camel grass ’,

apparently because it forms the principal grazing grass for camels in the

desert. It contains an oil which can be obtained by steam distillation.

According to Guenther, the odour of the oil recalls that of elemi oil, indi-

cating that one of its constituents is phellandrene, a terpene useful for

technical purposes, particularly as a solvent.

26. Cymbopogon parkeri S/apff in Kew Bull. 1929, 10 (1929).

Andropogon laniger Duthie, Fodder Grasses N. W. Ind. t. 23 (1886)°

non Desf.

A perennial grass, caespitose, compact, with many intravaginal innova-

tion shoots, up to 1m. tall, very woolly on the basal sheaths. Culms

erect, slender, 3-4-noded, unbranched below the inflorescence, terete,

glabrous. Leaf-blades plicate, narrowly linear, above filiform and long

attenuate, up to 20cm. long, 3mm. broad when flattened, somewhat

glaucous, with 3 prominent nerves on either side, with secondary nerves

numerous and very close, covered on the lower surface with lax hairs some

of which are long, scabrid on the nerves, scaberulous everywhere on the

upper surface; J/eaf-sheaths of the basal leaves 5-10 cm. long, firm, pale,

woolly towards the base, glabrescent above, persistent for a long time,

at length apparently not twisted; those of the culms tight, greenish,

glabrous and very smooth ; /zgules scarious, rotundate-truncate, 1:5 mm.

long.

Inflorescence a spatheate panicle, narrow, interrupted, up to 40 cm.

long, 6-7-noded, with the lower nodes 10-16 (rarely 20) cm. long, with

the remainder rapidly decreasing in length upwards ; spatheoles narrowly

lanceolate, 3-4°5 cm. long, scarious, pale straw-coloured, sometimes reddish,

without blades, glabrous; peduncles 1 cm. long, glabrous, filiform.

Racemes 2, at length divaricate, with one at least epinastically deflexed,

1:5~2°5 cm. long, covered with white hairs ; one sessile, the other support-

ed ona slender basal internode 1:5 mm. long; the lowest joint of the

sessile raceme with the adjacent pedicel swollen, hard, dark coloured ;

lowest fertile joints distended at the apex into a toothed cup, the remainder

linear, slightly dilated above, truncate at the apex, with white hairs on the

back and on the angle, up to 2 mm. long. Lowest pair of spikelets

of the sessile raceme homogamous, of the other raceme heterogamous.

Fertile spikelets linear-lanceolate, acuminate, 4-6 mm. Icng; callus very

short, slightly bearded. Lower glume shape and size of the spikelet,

chartaceous, more or lesS concave between the scabrid keels and

especially deeply depressed towards the base and there slightly villous,

2-toothed at the top; upper glume boat-shaped, from the side narrow-

ly linear-lanceolate, mucronulate, slender, J-nerved, scaberuious on the

keel, ciliate above on the hyaline margins, pilose on the back towards

the base. Lower floret reduced to a hyaline lemma, nerveless, lanceolate-

linear, ciliate, 3-5 mr. long, Aalea absent. Upper floret hermaphrodite ;

demma narrow, 2-45 mm. long, cleft almost to the middle, hyaline,

with ciliate lobes; palea absent; awn very slender, ¥-13 mm. long,

geniculate ; column 3-6 mm. long, twisted; drzstle smooth; stamens 3;

anthers 2 mm. long. Fedicelled spikelets lanceolate-linear, 5°5-—6°5 mm.

long, glabrous, gaping broadly at anthesis, pale glaucous or slightly tinged

with red ; glumes scaberulous or ciliate-scabrid on the nerves ; the lower

7-9-nerved between the keels; the upper» slightly shorter, 3-nerved.

THE GENUS CYMBOPOGON SPRENG. IN INDIA, ETC. 183

Lemma of the lower floret subulate involute, a little shorter than the

glumes, almost nerveless, ciliate ; stamzens 3 ; anthers 3 mm. long.

Ind. Or.: Uttar Pradesh, Etawah afforestation area, Aug. 1923,

Rk. S. Pearson (Holotype); Punjab, Hissar, 28 Feb. 1886,

J. R. Drummond 21097, 21098 and 21102 ; Ajmer, 17 Oct. 1887,

Jo EF Dative 6/60; Hissar Bir, Oct, 1897, 7. Ff. Duthze 20705 ;

Baluchistan, 8 May 1897, Harsukh 20666; Sind, India, without

date or number, leg.D). Hlooper.

A very distinct species, obviously revelling in dry, hot areas. It

is, apparently, much commoner than realised, and is usually mistaken

for C. schoenanthus Spreng. Indeed, the specimen and figure called by

Duthie loc. cit., 4. laniger Desf., is none other than this species. It is

quoted by Stapf in the synonymy of C. jwarancusa in Kew Bull. 1906,

(1906), with the remark ‘a form approaching A. schoenanthus.’ If this

species contains an oil in its tissues nothing is known of it.

NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE

TATERA INDICA CUVIERI (WATERHOUSE)

M. R. N. PRASApD

(Department of Zoology, Central College,

Bangalore, India)

INTRODUCTION

Among the many problems confronting the agriculturist is one

which concerns the large-scale destruction of food crops by pests.

While efforts are being made to assess the damage and suggest

measures for biological control of a number of insect pests, nearly

the Same amount of attention has not been paid to the damage caused

by the rodents, of which the gerbilles are of considerable importance.

For instance, the Mysore Agricultural Calendar for 1949-50, dealing

with Rodent crop pests, makes no mention of the common gerbilles,.

though in one of the earliest records, Blanford (1891) stated that

‘these rats feed upon roots and grass, especially harayali (Cynodon

dactylon), seeds and grain, and sometimes caused great damage to

the crops. In 1878-7; they ravaged the grain fields in the Deccan

throughout several thousand square miles cutting down jawari

(Holcus sorghum) and bajri (H. spicatus) stalks and feeding on the

grain, part of which they stored in their burrows’. Fletcher (1914) while

recognising the damage caused by these gerbilles remarked ‘normally

it probably does some good because its favourite food is the roots.

of the harayali grass (Cynodon dactylon) which is a most pestilential

Weed jaca Tule = eon. =

Besides, our knowledge of the reproduction of a number of rodents,.

especially of the tropical species is very scanty. Drawing attention

to this point Mossman and Judas (1949) remark ‘In Rodents we have

extensive information on a few species of the family Muridae, on one

species of the Cavidae, on one of the Sciuridae and one of the Geomyidae

and a little, mostly morphological, on a few members of the same

families. This means that of the 32 living families of Rodents,

we have a workable knowledge of only 5. Among the unknown 27,

mammalogists have known for a long time that there are far greater

diversities of reproductive pattern than among the other 5. How

much are we justified in generalising about reproduction in Rodents?’

It was thought that a study of the reproductive phenomena of a

member of the subfamily: Gerbillinae, family: Muridae, about which

very little is known at present, would, besides filling the lacunae in

our knowledge about this group of rodents, be of some economic

value. The present study deals with the natural history of the Common

South Indian Gerbille Tatera indica cuvieri (Waterhouse). The

present report is based on extensive field observations and examination

THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE TATERA INDICA CUVIERI 185

of trapped animals brought to the laboratory. A number of burrow

systems were dug out completely and their occupants were captured

by net. The data pertain to the area around Shivanahalli village,

Bangalore District, Mysore State, South India, about three miles from

the city limits of Bangalore. The collection extended over a period

of over a year from August 1952 to December 1953. The observations

recorded here may not be typical for this species in other parts of

South India, as different regions exhibit marked differences in climatic

conditions.

ENVIRONMENT

Bangalore lies in the middle of the Deccan plateau at a height

of about 3,050 ft. above mean sea level. The city area is surrounded

on all sides by cultivated fields which yield a variety of crops through

the greater part of the year. The natural vegetation around

Bangalore is of the dry deciduous category, where there are very few

trees apart from those forming the avenues along the highways.

This is on account of the scanty rainfall (average rainfall: 34.5 in.

per year) and interference by man. Owing to the comparatively dry

climatic conditions and the soil being exposed to the hot sun for the

greater part of the year, the trees are stunted and seldom attain great

dimensions. Before the monsoon the vegetation becomes active and

green. Cassia auriculata is one of the most widespread and abundant

shrubby species found in the open and as undergrowth in many of the

slightly wooded areas. Dense impenetrable thickets of Lantana camara

var, aculeata cover large tracts of land. The common shrubby species

occurring in and around the fields are: Acacia leucocephalia, Acacia

arabica, Calotropis gigantea, {species of Capparis, ‘Anisomeles,

Gymnosporia, Flacourtia, Streblus, Fluggea, Dodonea, Grewia,

Canthium, Sopubia, Lepidogathis and Teucrinum. The entire area

is covered with a variety of grasses, namely: Cynodon dactylon,

Brachiaria distachya, Urochloa reptans, Setaria intermedia, Sporobolus

sp., and Eragrostis bifaria, by the first week of August.

Of the crops supported mainly by the monsoon rains is Ragi

(Eleusine coracana), the most important food crop of the area, which

is grown under dry cultivation. Sowing is done by the middle of

June or the beginning of July and the crops harvested in December.

A mixed crop of legumes and cereals is grown with ragi to avoid a

regular rotation of crops. A few of the more important mixed crops

are: Jola: Andropogon sorghum, Red gram: Cajanus indicus, Avare:

Dolichos lablab, Horse gram: Dolichos biflorus, Black gram:

Phaseolus mungo, Bengal gram: Cicer arietinum, Cow peas: Vigna

catiang, Sesame: Sesamum indicum, Castor: Ricinus communis and

Ground nuts: Arachis hypogea, which are harvested completely by the

middle of January. The fields are generally left bare for the rest

of the period from February to June.

The climate of Bangalore does not present such marked contrasts

in meteorological conditions as in other parts of South India. Records

maintained by the meteorological department of the State for 40 years

show that from January to March, clear skies, fine weather, low humidity,

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 62

and slight diurnal range of temperature (80° to 83°) are the usual

features. The north-east monsoon is slightly active during this period.

The hot weather period of April and May is one of continuous increase

in temperature to a maximum of 95° in the middle of May. Towards

the first week of May the south-west monsoon bursts over the

peninsula. The strength of the wind currents and the accompanying

rainfall gradually increase from June and remain steady till the end

of October. August, September and October experience heavy rainfall,

The second half of the wet season forms a period of transition leading

to the dry winter season, which begins by the first week of December

and continues to the end of January. During winter the night

temperature drops considerably (70°).

HABITAT

The gerbilles are mainly nocturnal and are confined to their burrows

by day. The burrows are dug in soft soil on the borders of cultivated

fields. They are occasionally found in deserted ant hills. Each burrow

system has two or three openings and the passages are long, winding,

3 to 4 inches in diameter and extend to a depth of 4 to 5 ft. below

the surface. Near the main entrance the tunnel branches off into

two or three lanes all of which, except one, end in blind alleys and

are thought to be meant for misleading stragglers into the burrows..,

The gerbilles constantly make new entrances leading to the different

portions of the winding tunnels. These entrances are seldom used

till the soil thrown out during the excavation is sufficiently dry. As

the animal enters, after completion of the connection with the main

tunnel, it partially seals off the entrance by kicking mud with its

hind feet. These new entrances are the emergency exits. The fresh

earth thrown out in working these exits generally gives away the

position of the burrow system, which otherwise is carefully concealed

in the undergrowth. When alarmed, the gerbille, with remarkable

agility, unexpectedly darts out through one of the emergency exits

to the open and dashes to a nearby bush to become instantly lost

to view. In the centre of the main passage or tunnel an area is

widened out forming the living and breeding chamber. The animal

scoops out mud from the bottom of the chamber to form a shallow

trough. Tender blades of grass from the neighbourhood (Cynodon

dactylon, etc.), are finely shredded and arranged compactly in the

trough on which the litter is laid or the animal rests. Normally

each burrow is the home of an adult male and an adult female with

their- young.

A few burrow systems, undisturbed by human intervention, harbour

a large collection of gerbilles numbering seventy-five or more. In

such a large grouping of animals the correct identity of the extent

and delimitation of the various burrow systems becomes difficult on

account of their close proximity.

The gerbilles feed on the plant foods previously listed. The plants

eaten are usually green, but some are hard seeds, small stems and

rhizomes of a variety of grasses. A detailed analysis of the stomach

contents is being published elsewhere.

THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE TATERA INDICA CUVIERI 187

SURVIVAL

There are a number of factors affecting the survival of individuals

in a wild population of rodents. The survival of a considerably large

number to the age of sexual maturity and their consequent breeding

is of the utmost importance for the maintenance of the species. The

physical environment does not seem to affect the survival of the

gerbilles to a great extent as they were taken in sufficiently large

numbers in all months of the year. During the rainy season (June

to October) many of the low-lying burrow systems are flooded

drowning a number of their occupants.

Frequently in winter, a number of animals are caught with their

tails swollen and presenting a ringed appearance. <A few had tails

sore and broken. This is the ‘ring tail’ disease which also occurred

in animals kept in the laboratory for breeding. This is probably

due to the fact that at the beginning of winter, on account of the

sudden drop in temperature, a few of the less resistant animals develop

the disease. Otherwise, diseased animals are rarely noticed in a

wild population of gerbilles. i

Intra-specific struggle is very common. This is particularly marked

in young gerbilles when they migrate from the parent burrow and

establish new homes. A large number of young trapped during

October and November, had wounds indicating that they

had been involved in fights. Victims of a fight are commonly found

bitten through the back of the neck. Young gerbilles are often eaten

by the larger ones. Generally an opening is made at the back of

the neck, and as the flesh and ribs are eaten the skin is pulled back.

Skinning out through the thoracic rather than the lumbar region appears

to be the more usual method of eating. Cannibalism has also been

observed in animals kept in the laboratory.

Of the predators, the snake Zamenis mucosus, the mongoose

Herpestes and the owls are important. In the fields near the village

the domestic cat takes a heavy toll. The snakes swallow the gerbilles

completely. Carcasses of gerbilles with a large portion of the body

eaten away might be the remnants of predation by either the mongoose

or the owl. Village folk consider the flesh of the gerbilles excellent

eating and spare no pains to get them out of their hideouts. Any

study of the ‘Home ranges’ and other trapping experiments fails on

~ account of this interference by man.

BEHAVIOUR IN CAPTIVITY

The gerbilles are rather shy and timid and remain in their burrows

for most part of the day. A number of specimens captured at

different seasons of the year have been kept in wire cages for breeding.

They were fed on the same grains as grown in the fields from

which they were caught and were provided with fine straw as bedding.

The grains were regularly alternated with a liberal supply of green

leaves. During the day they lie curled up in a corner of the cage

and the slightest disturbance startles them, when they move about

agitatedly in the cage. All attempts made so far to get them to

breed in captivity have failed. Perhaps the sudden change from a

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL <aaST: SOCIETY, Vol, “52

wild condition to the narrow confines of the cage, cuts short their

activity besides’ taking them away from the warmth of the soil 4

to 5 ft. below the ground level. A number of pregnant females

brought forth litters after a few days of their capture, but ate all

the young within two or three days of their birth. This behaviour

in captivity possibly indicates an extreme expression of the tendency

towards cannibalism, characteristic of the species. Juvenile gerbilles

are more easily managed and eat whatever is offered to them. They

are more docile than the adults.

REPRODUCTION

No information is available concerning the reproduction and breed-

ing seasons of the gerbilles except the observation of Phillips (1935)

that in the Ceylonese gerbille ‘The young are born at any time of the

year but have generally been found during the north-east monsoon,

October to April. The number of young is 4’.

Collection of material in all months of the year offered evidence

of the fact that the young are born from September to the first week

of March. The earliest litters are noticed in the burrows in the

third week of September. Following this there is a continuous pro-

duction of the young till the middle of February and a few stray births

continue till the first week of March. From March to the end of

August there were many gerbilles with inactive uteri. Histological

examination of the ovary and uterus showed that non-parous animals

were in a greater percentage than parous adults. The number of

juvenile gerbilles weighing between 22 grams and 70 grams is on the

increase from October onwards. Pregnancies were generally confined

to the heavier weight groups (above 95 grams) pointing to the con-

clusion that the gerbilles do not Bice in the same season as of their

birth.

SIZE OF THE LITTER

The number of mammae is often a rough guide to the average

size of the litter. There are four pairs of mammae in Tatera indica

cuvieri; the first pair is pectoral ; the second pair, thoracic; the third pair,

abdominal and the fourth pair, inguinal in position. Thirty gravid

females of the gerbille examined by me showed that the number of

embryos ranged from 5 to 8. Usually a lactating female showed

evidence of all the mammae having been used. The distribution of

the embryos and the placental scars was almost equal between the

two horns of the uterus. Litter counts collected from the burrows

correspond roughly with the embryo counts in gravid females.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. B. R. Seshachar and Dr. H. W.

Mossman for guidance and encouragement and to Dr. E. M. O. Laurie,

British Museum of Natural History, London, for the identification of

the gerbille. I am grateful to the Education Ministry, Government of

India, for a liberal financial grant.

THE SOUTH INDIAN GERBILLE TATERA INDICA CUVIERI 189

SYNOPSIS

The natural history of the South Indian gerbille Tatera tndica

cuviert (Waterhouse), subfamily: Gerbillnae; family: Muridae, about

which very little is known at present, has been described. The des-

cription pertains to the form occurring near a village about 3 miles

from Bangalore, South India. The environment, vegetation and

climate of the area are described. The gerbilles are nocturnal and

live in burrows dug on the borders of cultivated fields. The burrows

are long and winding passages with a number of emergency exits

and a breeding or living chamber in the centre in which the litter

is laid. The physical environment does not affect the survival of

the gerbilles. Intra-specific struggle is in evidence at the time of

migration of the young ones from the parent burrow to establish new

homes. Cannibalism is of frequent occurrence. The snake, Zaments

mucosusS, the mongoose, Herpestes, the owl and domestic cat are the

probable predators. All attempts made so far to get them to breed

in captivity have failed. Mothers have been observed eating their

litter shortly after their birth in captivity. The young are born from

the third week of September to the last week of February or the

beginning of March. Gerbilles do not breed in the year of their

birth. The litter size ranges from 5 to 8. |

REFERENCES

Blanford, W. T. (1891): The fauna of British India, including Burma and Ceylon.

Mammalia. London, 396-398.

Fletcher, T. B. (1914) : Some South Indian insects and other animals of importance.

Government Press, Madras, 215-216.

Mossman, H. W. and Isle Judas (1949): Accessory corpora lutea and lutein cell

origin and the ovarian cycle in the Canadian porcupine. Amer. J. Anat., 85 (1):

1-40.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1935): Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. Ceylon Journal

of Science, Colombo, 242-247. :

Seshagiri Rao, D. (1949-1950): Rats and their control in granary and field.

Mysore Agricultural Calendar, 12-14.

NEW SPECIES OF INDIAN PLANTS

R. SESHAGIRI Rao

Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta

In previous numbers of this Journal and the Journal of the Indian

Botanical Society, two plants were described, but the Latin diagnosis

was not given; to comply with the prescriptions of Art. 44 of the

new International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, the Latin des-

cription is herewith appended.

1. Paragrewia poilanei Gagnp. ex Seshagiri Rao. (Journ., Bomb.

NaRY isi: “S'0c% @51.5 2071, 1953).

Frutices.. Rami tenues, glabri, 2-3 mm. diam. Folia alterna,

stipulata (stipulis deciduis), petiolata, oblanceolata vel fere elliptica,

integra, acuminata, membranacea, glabra in utraque pagina reticu-

lata; lamina 11-17 x 2.5-4 cm.; petiolus glabrescens 6-10 mm. longus

foliorum basis fere obtusa vel tenuiter acuta. Inflorescentia axillaris

cymosa, pauciflora. Flores brevi-pedicellati, bracteati, actinomorphici,

hermaphroditi, hypogyni. Sepala 5, 6-8 mm. longa, libera, valvata,

puberula in superiore pagina. -Petala 5, minuta, libera, 1-1.5 mm.

longa, imbricata, pubescentia ubique, pilis marginalibus eminentibus,

depressione glandulari ad basim in interiore parte nulla. Stamina

10-15, unita ad basim circa ovarium, nonnulla contracta in staminodia

minuta, conica, nonnullis pilis ad apicem ornata; filamenta tenuia,

puberula; antherae 2-cellulares, oblongae, introrsae, basifixae, dehis-

centes per longitudinalem fissuram. Gynoecium thalamo glandulari

infixum, androgynophoro nullo; stylus aeque longus ac stamina, partim

pilosus; stigma acutum, 3-4-fidum; ovarium pilosum, 3-4-cellulatum,

ovulis plurimis insitis placentis axillaribus. Iructus haud visus.

Shrub; Branches: slender, glabrous, 2-3 mm. in diameter. Leaf:

alternate, stipulate, (stipules deciduous), petiolate, petiole glabrascent, 6-

ro mm. long, lamina 11-17 cm. long ,2.5-4 cm. broad, leaf base nearly

obtuse or slightly pointed, oblanceolate or nearly elliptic, entire, acu-

minate, membranous, glabrous on both sides, 3-nerved at base, 5-8

pairs of secondary nerves, pinnately reticulate. Inflorescence: axillary,

cymose, few-flowered. Flower: short-pedicelled, bracteate, actinomor-

phic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous. Sepals: 5, 6-8 mm. long, free,

valvate, finely pubescent on upper surface. Petals: 5, minute, free

I-1.5 mm. long, imbricate, hairy all over, marginal hairs prominent,

elandular depression at the inner base absent. Stamens: 10-15 united

at the base around the ovary, a few reduced to small conical staminodes

with a few hairs at the tip, filaments slender, slightly hairy, anthers

dithecous, oblong introrse, basifixed, dehisce by longitudinal slits.

Gynoecium: on glandular thalamus, androgynophore absent, style as

NEW SPECIES OF “INDIAN PLANTS 191

long as stamens, partly hairy, stigma pointed, 3-4 branched, ovary

pilose, 3-4 celled, ovules numerous on axile placentae. Fruit: not

available.

2, Chonemorpha pedicellata Seshagiri Rao, spec. nov. (Journ. Ind.

Bot. sSoc., Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 44, 1953)-

Folia petiolata, elliptica, 22-27 11.5-14.5 cm., acuta, integra,

angusta ad basim, glabra supra, puberula infra, nervo medio canaliculato

atque piloso supra, nervis primariis 10-11 in utroque latere nervi medii,

prope margines curvatis; petiolus puberulus, 2-2.5 cm. longus. Inflo-

rescentia longe pedunculata, ad primum puberula, 14-20 cm. longa,

cymosa, multiflora, bracteis suaviter tomentosis, lanceolatis, 9-11 mm.

longis. Flores longissime pedicellatis, pedicellis pulchre pubescentibus

atque 3.8-5 cm. longis. Sepala 5, unita, puberula, 12-15 x 4-5 mm.,

segmentis angustis, Conicis, circa 4 aeque longis ac calyces. Petala

5, unita, hypocrateriformia; corollae tubus plus minusve cylindricus,

abrupte fastigatus ad basim; petala 4.5-5 cm. longa, segmentis vel

lobis ad sinistram versis, oblique obovatis, tenuiter multinervis, circa

3-5 em. longis, r.5ccny. Jatis. :

Leaves: petiolate, ellyptic, 22-27 cm. tong, 11.5-14.5 cm. broad,

acute, entire, base narrow, glabrous above, finely pubescent below,

midrib chanelled and hairy above, primary veins 10-11 pairs, gently

forming loops near the margin, petioles finely pubescent, 2-2.5 cm.

long. Inflorescence: on long peduncle, finely pubescent when young,

14-20 cm. long, cymose, many flowered, bracts softly tomentose,

lanceolate, 9-11 mm. long. Flowers: on very long pedicels which are

finely pubescent and 3.8-5 cm. long. Sepais: 5, united, finely pubes-

cent, 12-15 mm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, lobes narrow, conical, about

4 the length of calyx. Petals: 5, united, hypocrateriform, corolla tube

more or less cylindrical, abruptly tapering downwards near the base,

4.5-5 cm. long, lobes twisted to left, obliquely obovate, finely multi-

nerved, about 3.5 cm. long and 1.5 cm. broad.

My grateful thanks are due to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.j., for Latin

translation.

REVIEWS

1 ANIMAL WONDERLAND—ESSAYS IN NATURAL

HISTORY. By Frank W. Lane, pp. 232, London, Country Life Ltd.,

2-10 Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, W.C.2. 1948. Price 7s. 6d.

Not caring for disconnected tales of wonder relating to animals

I] approached this book with considerable distaste. For those who

are interested in such things the first few chapters contain much

curious and interesting information. The story of a crow who managed

to knot her tail round a tree cannot fail to bring a smile to the face

of the most stolid. Equally funny is the tale of the snake which

bit a motor tyre and was inflated to bursting by the inrush of

compressed air through its hollow fangs. And one cannot but admire

the cleverness of the honey merchant who employed bees to smuggle

his stock-in-trade across the Italo-Swiss frontier. It was in this portion

of the book that I found a solace for wounded vanity. Years ago

[ missed an easy shot*at an otter with a 12-bore gun. It is consoling

to learn from Mr. Lane that an otter moves fast enough to dodge

even a rifle bullet. Mr. Lane’s engaging style tells to advantage in

the later portion of the book, which takes the form of articles dealing

with particular aspects of animal life and behaviour. There is a

fascinating account of ‘bird—anting’ in which the author has attempted

to collect all the information on the subject. This is followed by an

equally interesting discussion of the hedge-hog and apples legend.

In another article the author tells the readers about the passenger

pigeon and the American bison. It is difficult for the human mind

to comprehend the astronomical figures in which the numbers of

these creatures are generally stated. The descriptions of eye witnesses

cited by the author makes it possible, and at the same time gives

an idea of the widespread destruction caused by them. In the roosting

places of the passenger pigeon, which might be one hundred

square miles or more in extent, the dung lay several inches deep

and all tender grass and underwood was destroyed; the ground was

covered with branches of trees broken off by the weight of the

roosting pigeons, and the trees themselves were killed as if completely

girdled. Such destruction we are told might continue for years and

could be seen in several places. It is usual to speak in pathetic

terms of the manner in which man has exterminated these two species,

and it is as well, therefore, to be told of the other side of the picture.

The book is well got up and reasonably priced and can be

recommended for general readers.

D.E.R.

2. LEOPARD OF THE HILLS. By James Temple with illustrations

by Maurice Wilson, pp. 190, G. Bell & Sons, Ltd., London, 1953.

Price 125. 6d,

_ This life story of a leopard will appeal to all who love the Indian

jungle and its folk. The trials and tribulations of cubhood, the slow

- REVIEWS 193

and at times painful acquisition of knowledge and of the all-important

lesson how to see without being seen, the different ways in which

felines may receive injuries which hinder their hunting, and finally

how ‘Chitwa’ doubly, lamed by bullet and trap, is driven by hunger

to become a man-killer with the inevitable sequel, are all vividly

and realistically depicted. The author has done well to avoid endow-

ing his character with human speech, the bane of so many animal

stories; he is content to give him simply the intelligence and cunning

gained by experience which any leopard may reasonably possess. The

whole story rings true and the sole exception to our own experience

is the account of a pack of pine-martens running down and killing

a doe barking-deer. That martens will at times kill a fawn is well known,

but would they even in combination attack a full-grown animal?

However, the author obviously has much experience of the jungle;

and may have personal knowledge of such an incident, so it is well

to bear in mind Conrad’s dictum that ‘nothing lays itself open to

the charge of exaggeration more than the language of naked truth’.

The reason given for tigers liking water while leopards avoid it so

far as possible, is new to us, but is undoubtedly correct. The author

is to be congratulated on producing such a very readable book which

should be in the library of everyone interested in Indian Wild Life.

PeaUG:.E.

23. THE BIRDS OF, BURMA. By -B.:E. Smythies,’ 8.4.,- with

31 colour plates by Commander A. M. Hughes, 0.B.E., R.N., (Retd.).

Pp. 668, (Oliver and Boyd) London, 1953. 4-4-0.

The appearance of a new edition of The Birds of Burma will be

a matter of interest to all.

The first edition was published in 1941 and at once attracted

attention by the 31 coloured plates by Commander A. M. Hughes

illustrating 290 species of birds, which provided what the ordinary

person had been demanding for years. The usefulness of such a

large number of coloured plates was enhanced by their intrinsic

beauty and neatness of line. The book then appeared under the

name of B. E. Smythies, 1.F.s., and edited by H. C. Smith, 1.F-.s.,

and P. F. Garthwaite. Smythies explains in the first edition that

these gentlemen had done a great deal of the preliminary work and

that J. K: Stanford, i.c.s., was to have written. the text. The

first edition of 1,000 copies was printed at the American Baptist

Mission Press at Rangoon and a very good job they made of it. In

the preface to the second edition Smythies tells us of the fate of

the first edition. Most copies were sold in Burma and were left

behind by their owners when the Japanese overran the country. Most

were collected by the- Japanese and sent back to Tokyo but were

then burnt in an Air Raid. Only a few copies were sold outside

‘Burma and the second-hand value rose to 425. The precious paint-

ings were carried out by Mrs. Smith in her 30 pounds evacuation

allowance and spent the rest of the war in a safe deposit in Bombay :

21 out of the 31 blocks from which the plates were printed were found

13 2 i,

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

by Smythies and carried to safety by the Royal Navy, and spent the

war in Khatmandu. After the war the Baptist Mission Press did

not re-open and the new edition has been brought out by Oliver and

Boyd. Those who owned the first edition will want to know how

the new edition compares with the old and in particular the unique

and beautiful plates.

Despite the very creditable work of the Baptist Press it must

be conceded that the plates in the new edition are better: the out-

lines are much sharper without any blurring and the new plates

bring out the gradations in shades much better. For example plate

vi showing the Drongos shews much more subtlety in the variations

in shade. é

In the third edition we can ask the author to supply a list of the

plates at the beginning of the book. This is a curious omission.

The text has been re-written throughout by B. E. Smythies for

the new edition and the completion of such a task fills one with

admiration and astonishment, that a working Forest Officer could

find the time for this. Mr. Smythies is rather peSsimistic over the

further study of birds in Burma as with the departure of all foreigners.

there are none left to carry on the work and so far no Burman has

shewn any interest. However I am sure this beautiful book will

spur on the young men and women of Burma to start now.

For those who do not know the first edition some details of the

book are necessary. The text is an attempt to put down everything

that was known about the birds of Burma upto 1948. It is no

reflection on the book to say that what is. recorded indicates more

clearly than anything else how much is yet to be learnt. A good

deal of new information has been added in the new edition.

The arrangement is that the more important birds are printed

in larger type and the less frequent and less widely distributed in

smaller type. This is adopted to save space. As it is the book

is of 668 pages so the need for this can be fully appreciated. The

author claims there are probably 1,000 species in round numbers in

the avifauna of Burma of which 953 are already recorded.

For each important bird the headings are:—

Local name.

Identification.

Voice.

Habit and food.

Nest and eggs.

Status and distribution.

The identification depends on the coloured plates but notes on variation

between the sexes, and other details are given.

Under voice an attempt is made to describe the calls and song.

Under habit and food in the first edition the author (with due

acknowledgment) made considerable use of Whistler’s Popular Hand-

Book of Indian Birds. Whistler is inimitable in his descriptive

sections and the pen pictures he paints alone have made his book

worth buying to the lover of good English. In the second edition,

Smythies has cut down these extracts and left the bare bones. This

was probably inevitable if the book was to. be kept to one volume.: «-

REVIEWS ; 195,

Under nest and eggs the information available about each species

is given but there is obviously a big field for further observation.

The times of nesting, etc., vary enormously in a country which

stretches from 10 deg. to 26 deg. north and varies in altitude from

sea-level to 19,000 ft.

Under status and distribution is noted whatever is known about

the migration and movement of the bird and its range both inside and

outside Burma.

It is thus essentially a repository of what is known and keeps

strictly to business and there are few rhapsodic passages on the beauty

of the individual birds. Along with this, notes are given on races,

etc. and these include the latest information provided by American

and Indian investigators.

One other change on which I am not competent to comment is

the change in nomenclature. The author tells us that he has adopted

the findings of American authorities and this appears to have one

advantage for the weaker members in that a lot of ‘lumping’ has

been done in the generic names and so the number of genera is reduced.

I see however that Salim Ali sticks to the old names in his Birds

of Travancore and Cochin which is published in November, 1953 and

if such an eminent authority has not followed the Americans, I am

sure we will not get rid of the extra names so easily.

Finally I strongly advise people to order the book, look at the

Jungle Cock on the dust cover, open the book in the middle and

feast on the beautiful plates and promptly pay the bill without letting

that first glow of excitement fade. They can later find the money

by giving up smoking for a year. Their health will not suffer and

they will be in possession of one of the finest Bird Books published

anywhere in the world.

C.E.H.

4. HOOFED MAMMALS OF THE WORLD. By Ugo Mochi

and T. Donald Carter. Pp. 94 (12”x 154”) with qo plates (silhouettes)

Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1953. $15 nett.

This is an attractively got-up work on the hoofed mammals of the

world and covers the entire diversity of forms such as the Giraffe,

Okapi, the many Deer and Antelopes, Wild Goats and Sheep,

Chevrotains, Buffaloes, Bison, Yak, Wild Pigs, Hippopotamuses,

Rhinoceroses, Tapirs, Wild Horses, Asses and Zebras.

Of the 940 recognised forms of modern ungulates, most races and

subspecies are referred to and only those which are almost identical

in form and structure are not illustrated. The geographical distribu-

tion of each species and the characters of the various geographical

races or subspecies are described and often discussed in detail.

The book carries a great deal of information on habits and habitats.

of the various species, and in several instances these notes are based

on first-hand observation and experience. The value of many species

as ‘game animals’ is discussed and the need for protecting the rarer

forms is suitably stressed. There is also much valuable information.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

on the domestication of the various species and their economic

importance.

. Donald Carter’s extensive fat experience and keen powers of

observation have contributed largely to the wealth of information

gathered in this book. A fair idea of the thoroughness with which

the animals are dealt with in this book may be had from the fact

that, no less than twelve different geographical races of the Giraffe

are comparatively described and illustrated, and about twenty-nine

distinct forms-are described under the heading ‘Miscellaneous European

and Asiatic Deer’, giving precise information on their diagnostic

characters and geographical ranges. The brief sketch of the history

of Pere David’s. deer is of particular interest as this perks has

now been unknown in the wild state for many, years.

Up-to-date information on several interesting points such | as the

growth and shedding of the antlers in deer, the relative speeds of

the more fleet-footed forms, breeding habits and parental care, to-

gether with vivid accounts of sport and adventure often based on

first-hand observation by the author, render the book highly interesting

to the layman and greatly enhance its value.

The book is illustrated by forty full-page plates of silhouettes which

have been executed with great skill and accuracy. Ugo Mochi has

used this unusual technique to the best advantage. Each illustration

is carefully cut out of a single piece of paper with a knife. His

illustrations, instead of being mere outlines, are seen in relation to

space, and give the impression of life and movement. His principle

is based on the assumption that true form is the main character

distinguishing an animal, colour and shade being secondary. This

technique of illustrating animals by silhouettes deserves praise as a

bold and unique venture which is at once simple and effective.

The binding, format and typography of the book leave none

to be desired, and it is one of the exceptionally beautiful Natural

History publications which should find a place on the shelves of

every Nature-lover.

S. THOMAS SATYAMURTI.

5. THE PHARMACOGNOSY OF AYURVEDIC DRUGS, Series

I, No. 2. Published by the Central Research Institute, University

of Travancore, Trivandrum. 1953. 24.5x18 cms.; pp. vi+104;

plates 9 in colour, 22 half-tone. Price ?

The first number of this interesting series was reviewed in this

Journal (50: 920-921, 1952); the present number has not only kept

up the standard of its predecessor, but in a way has improved upon

it. The printing is clear and neat, the plates good and well printed.

The treatment of the subject is Similen to that of the first number.

Plates showing external characters of plants all give a scale in

inches; on the other hand plates showing details of internal anatomy.

do not do so; even such plates should bear an indication of the

scale in mm. or microns, and this can be given on the pee itself,

or.in the text that accompanies the plate. :

REVIEWS BAND eg) oe Gal 197

Before a plant is discussed from the botanical or medicinal point

of view, references are given to Ayurvedic literature. Some readers

seem to have remarked that such references should be given in

Devanagiri script, in place of the rather complicated roman type with

numerous diacritical marks. In the opinion of this reviewer, perhaps

it would be better to omit such references; it would suffice to give

a summary of the traditional medicinal uses of the plant, without

quoting the original texts at all. Such texts may be of great interest

to Sanskrit scholars, but are of relatively little iosenest to. the

botanical or medical reader.

On p. 1 Chonemorpha macrophylla G. Don is diene it - might

be worth mentioning that ‘the correct name of the plant is only

Ch. fragrans (Moon) Alston. Similarly on page 49 Stereospermum

tetragonum DC. is mentioned together with S. suaveolens DC.

Chatterjee in the Bull. Bot. Soc., Bengal 2: 62-79, 1948, has re-

viewed the Bignoniaceae of India and Burma and shown that our

common Indian plant should be called Stereospermum personatum

Chatt. In the spelling of scientific names we have noted a few

mistakes, but this is of little consequence, except that in a work of

such standard even minute errors are to be deprecated. |

Without hesitation the book can be recommended to all those

interested in the study of our medicinal plants. The complete series

promises to be a monumental work of which India can be justly

proud.

HW. SANTAPAU.s

6. THE INDIAN PHARMACEUTICAL CODEX. Volume I—

Indigenous Drugs Approved by the Pharmaceuticals and Drugs

Research Committee. By Dr. B. Mukerji, Director, Central Drug

Research Institute, Lucknow. Council of Scientific and Industrial

Research, New Delhi, 1953. 25.5x17 cm.; pp. x+ 431.

This is an excellent book on the subject of Indian Drugs. After

a short Preface and Introduction, the book consists of two parts: 1.

General Monographs. 2. Formulary. There follow two short

appendices, and two indices, the first of scientific names, the second

of common vernacular names.

In the first part, the following is the treatment of each item:

Name of the medicine or plant; synonyms of the same; vernacular

names; specification of the drug; distribution ; description of the source

plant; characters of the part that is medicinally used; constituents

of the drug; action and uses; standards and tests; substitutes and

adulterants ; storage; dose; preparations.

The second part of the book consists of a formulary, where subjccte

are treated thus: Name of the specific medicine; synonyms; method

of preparation of the drug; standard; assay; storage ; dose.

The book is the result of many years of study by one of our most

distinguished scholars, Dr. Mukerji; when the Government of India

opened the national laboratory for the study of Indian drugs at

Lucknow a few years ago, Dr. Mukerji was selected as its first director,

a post that he ‘has been filling with distinction up to the present.

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The standard: of the work is fully, in keeping with the name - ~and

position of the distinguished author. —

‘This book gives, for the. first time, correct standards, saetnedd

of preparation, dosage and other details pertaining to indigenous

drugs’ (Preface by Dr. R. N. Chopra, p. viii). ‘The present work

will. be welcomed by all those who are interested in drug therapy

and who believe that many of the indigenous drugs can be substituted

with advantage for foreign imported drugs. Medical practitioners

do not prescribe indigenous drugs, as no standards have been laid

down for many of them.’ (Ibid. p. vi).

The presentation of the work, the printing and even the binding

make this an attractive volume. The Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research of India will have rendered a good service to

the country if by means of this book medical practitioners are

persuaded to take up some of the more effective indigenous: drugs

in their treatment of disease. With the incomparable wealth of

medicinal plants we possess in India, it is a pity that we should

go to foreign countries for this essential commodity. Careful use

of the book will show that it is possible to use our national assets

to the best advantage in the treatment of disease.

> H. SANTAPAU, 6.3.

7. THE BIRDS OF THE BRIGISH ISLES. By avid

Bannerman and George E. Lodge, Volumes, I and II. Passeres. Oliver

and Boyd, Edinburgh and London. 45s nett. ;

There are so many books on British birds that Dr. Bannerman

is fully justified in saying that ‘there was not much room for’ another,

unless it could be planned on original lines. It is not, perhaps, very

easy to discover what Dr. Bannerman’s ‘original lines’ are, but he

has certainly made the text of the work both authoritative and

readable.

The main feature of the work is, undoubtedly, the fact that every

species is illustrated by that most gifted artist, George Lodge.

Opinions differ about the quality of Lodge’s work, but the present

reviewer can testify that when he first saw Lodge’s black and white

text figures in Hudson’s ‘British Birds’ over. fifty years ago, he

suddenly got a new idea of what bird drawings could be. Here

were live birds, running about in the fields or perched as any small

boy could see them perched any day in tree or shrub. They were

not mere museum specimens. He has never altered his opinion, so

he whole-heartedly, welcomes this latest (and alas! last) book full of

the beauty and charm of Lodge’s pencil and brush. They are worthy

of the master-artist.

Lodge, the octogenarian, has died since these two volumes were

published. Bannerman says that the artist contributed some 384

original paintings and 45,000 towards the cost of production. It is

not quite clear whether further volumes are intended—even to complete

the Passeres at least one more is needed; but if the paintings are avail-

REVIEWS 199

able it is to: be hoped that the project can be financed, so that the

complete Lodge-cum-Bannerman British bird-book will be available

to the public.

H.G,A.

_.8., THE BIRDS OF WEST AND EQUATORIAL AFRICA, 2

volumes. By David A. Bannerman. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh and

London, 1953. £6 6s, pp. xili+1,526.

Dr. Bannerman is the author of the standard work on West

African birds. This work appeared in eight volumes; the first was

published in 1925, the last in 1951. So much new knowledge had come

to light in the course of over twenty years that the final volume is

infact a supplement, an attempt to bring the earlier volumes up-to-

date.

The, present work is an .up-to-date condensation into two bulky

volumes of what was formerly only available in the much larger and

very heavy eight volumes of the earlier work. Sir Alan Burns justly

remarks in his preface that the ‘small Bannerman’ will quickly win

for itself as many friends as the ‘large Bannerman’, and it will, no

doubt, be the preference for all who are not systematists or men

of wealth. Many of the excellent features of the earlier work are

preserved, including thirty-seven coloured plates, and convenient

identification keys. | | Seas <oy

The volumes contain no map; and it is not easy to determine

just what area is fully covered; primarily, this, like the earlier work,

is on the birds of West Africa, so that the title is slightly misleading.

In the preface Dr. Bannerman observes: ‘It has been found by analysis

that of the 1,536 species and subspecies which inhabit West Africa,

quite 75% range right across the continent and if it is not exactly

the same race which occurs in the Belgian Congo, Kenya Colony,

Uganda and the Egyptian Sudan, then those countries have their

geographical representative which will be found in the text.’ But

there must be a quite number of species inhabiting the countries

named which do not occur in West Africa. These are presumably

not included.

EG, Ax

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY'S LIBRARY

The following books received for review have been added to the

Society’s Library since November, 1953 :—

1. SEARCH FOR THE SpINy BaBBLER—Bird hunting in Nepal. By

S. Dillon Ripley (Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1953).

2. Tue Birps or WEsT AND EguatortaL ArricA—Volumes I and

II. By D. A. Bannerman (Oliver and Boyd, 1953).

3. THE Birps or Britisn Istes—Volumes I and II. By ren:

Bannerman and G. E. Lodge (Oliver and Boyd, 1953).

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

4. A COLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM CEYLON—

Tetrapod Reptilia. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala (The Ceylon Government

Press). | .

a Tue SNAKES OF INDIA AND PakisTaN—Fourth edition. By

Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey (The Popular Book Depot, 1954).

6. THE PaLaEoBoTanist—Volume II. (Birbal Sahni Institute of

Palaeobotany, 1953).

7. THE Birps oF BurMa—Second edition. By B. E. Smythies.

(Oliver and Boyd, 1953).

8. LropaRp OF THE Hits. By James Temple. (G. Bell & Sons.

Lids; 1953)-

g. JuNcLE Lore. By Jim Corbett (Oxford University Press,

1953)-

The following books have been presented to the Society’s

Library :—

1. Man in THE Maxinc—Studies in Philosophy No. 3—University

of Mysore. By J. B. Freeman (The University of Mysore, 1950) (By

J. B. Freeman).

2. Mountain Birps. By R. A. H. Coombes (Penguin Books, 1952)

(By H. G. Alexander).

3. THe CENTRAL Boarp or GEOPHysIcs—A Compilation of papers.

on the Assam Earthquake of August 15, 1950. By: M. B. Ramachandra

Rao (The Central Board of Geophysics, 1953) (By The Secretary,

Central Board of Geophysics).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. MAN-EATING TIGER IN SOUTH INDIA

In view of the paucity of records of man-eating tigers in South

India, it may be worth recording that this month a tigress with

cubs killed, dragged off, and devoured a Sholaga at Gundimalam,

Kollegal Taluk, Coimbatore District. I just missed bagging the

man-eater by a stroke of ill-luck one evening; and she and her cubs

cannot now be located. Only one member of the victim’s family remains ;

four others also met with death in the jungle; two fell from trees

and were killed; one was mauled by a panther and died; and another

was fatally gored by a bison. Only after we had located and collected

the man’s remains (and his bill-hook and clothes) would the sholagas

of Gundimalam accompany me in my search tor the tigress. Until

the remains were found and gathered it would be, they said, courting

disaster to go after a man-eater.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, \

ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS

via Mysore (S. Inp1a),

October 29, 1953.

2, PANTHER KILLED BY DOMESTIC BUFFALOES

I have often heard of domestic buffaloes and cattle defending

themselves against and sometimes attacking felines though I have

not previously come across a case of a kill.

Recently here, a herd of buffaloes had just been driven into a

stone kraal for the night when a fairly small though full-grown male

panther jumped for an instant onto the bank and, the poles not being

fixed, stampeded the herd.

The panther then retired to a position on an open grassy slope

below the kraal where in the haste of the moment he apparently

let himself be surrounded by the herd and was immediately attacked

by a big herd bull.

On the second day he was brought in and had evidently died as

a result of the encounter the same night. There was a deep gore

under the left shoulder and another in the neck.

I understand that two buffaloes were killed out of the same herd

the previous week but I am unable to say whether this was the

work of a tiger or panther as unfortunately they were not reported

at the time. Evidently the herd was ready to deal with their aggressor

on this occasion.

Curzon Estate,

Kotaciri P.O., J. M. POWER

Nivciris (S. Inp1a),

January 2,.1954.

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

3. MORE NOTES ON THE INDIAN BUFFALO

Bubalus bubalis, the Indian wild buffalo, is one of the rarest

animals in the subcontinent; and one of the’ most: interesting. These

notes made over a period of five years (1949-1953) in Bastar District

of Madhya Pradesh are intended as a supplement to Mr. Prater’s

chapter on the wild buffalo in ‘The Book of Indian Animals’ and must

not be construed as an independent or self-contained work. —

' a. The origin of the solitary bull: There is no season of the year

when the mature males leave the herd and congregate together, as is

the case with certain other animals, notably black buck. Nevertheless

it is an undisputed fact that solitary males are often found and that

these males are the biggest. They are not solitary from choice,

because I have myself seen them attacked and driven off when they

try to rejoin the herd. It appears that the stud bull becomes

overbearing and intolerant of other males at a certain stage of his

life. When this happens, the other bulls in the herd form an alliance

and turn on the dictator, who is either killed or driven out of the

herd. Such solitary bulls frequently attach themselves to tame herds

which enter their jungles to graze, after killing the tame stud bull,

or, more frequently, they mate with the tame cows whenever an

opportunity occurs, without actually joining the herd. The offspring

are remarkably like wild buffalo, but the number which die at, or

soon after birth, is large. This appears to be due to the larger

size of the calf, which causes complications in delivery. The

percentage of survival increases in the second generation, as might

be expected. I have seen the buffaloes of a certain village Nilji,

which are almost three-quarter wild buffalo, and the owners now

encourage wild bulls to mate with their cows. But this is exceptional ;

‘in most cases owners do not like wild crosses, due to the high

death-rate at delivery, not only of the calf, but of the mother as

well.

2. The chela bull: After watching wild buffalo closely for more

than five years, I have come to the conclusion that the solitary bull

is seldom really alone, particularly if he is a big one. I first heard

the story of the chela from a Muria friend, and I did not believe

it, until I had personally investigated four cases. It is easy to

miss the chela, unless you are looking for him. He is extremely

self-effacing, and acts as a sentry and general attendant for the

bigger bull. Very careful stalking is necessary if the two bulls are

to be seen together, and I would not recommend the pastime to

novices in the art, as the chela is likely to charge without provocation,

while the bigger bull escapes. I cannot explain the existence of the

chela, unless it is because buffalo are naturally gregarious, and like

the company of their own kind. But why another bull? And why

‘does not the original solitary animal try to build up a herd of his

own? The chela is by no means an immature youngster; in fact,

he also has been outlawed from a herd, just like the guru bull. The

two will only be found together when resting, or when on the way

to pasturage. Then they split up, and spend the grazing hours in

different places, to meet again at the lying-up site. I have known

the chela to rejoin the guru when the latter was wounded; I have

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 203

also known the chela to visit the guru’s pasturage as soon as. the

guru was dead. A chela who is guarding a wounded guru-bull is

extremely dangerous and is more likely to ambush the trackers than

the wounded bull himself. Fortunately such instances of devotion are

not common; I have come across only one.

3. The temperament of the solitary bull: The bull buffalo has

an undeserved reputation for cause-less ferocity. I have watched him

at different distances for long periods at a time, I have photographed

him at close range, and I have even abused him (quite unjustifiably)

from a car to which he refused the right of way. The only times

I have actually been charged were when he was wounded, when he

had just been driven out of the herd, and when the man with me

lost his nerve and bolted. I am emphatically of the view that a

buffalo is not aggressive unless he is wounded, or unless his fear is

aroused by any sudden movement. He will shake his head from

side to side, and even paw the ground, but these are only ‘show

off’ demonstrations, and need not be taken seriously. But if he

moves towards you, even slowly, get up or behind the nearest tree;

he. means business; the buffalo knows only one kind of advance, the

kind from which there is no retreat.

-« A solitary bull that acquires the habit of eating crops, is a curse

to the cultivator. A charge of coarse salt fired from a muzzleloader

into his rump at short range will often discourage him, if anyone

can, and will, get close enough for the purpose. I did it twice,

at night. The first time it was alright, the buffalo ran away. The

second time, something went wrong, and it was I who ran away—

at world record speed! There was no third time. The salt does

no damage, and is, I think, preferable to killing’ or wounding an

already rare animal. But nothing else will drive him away from

the succulent paddy or urid, no amount of noise, or showing of

lights. The damage one buffalo can do to a field) has to be seen

to be believed.

4. The wounded buffalo: In his own jungles, the buffalo is

frequently in fairly dense cover, with the result that only about six

inches below the top of his shoulder is visible. A bullet placed there

will seldom kill in the same day. The bullet must always be a solid type,

of at least 300 grains. If a vital spot is not visible, do not shoot. I

dislike the shooting of buffalo, and I am only referring to it because

I dislike the wounding of them even more.

A wounded buffalo will invariably try to ambush his trackers. He

lies on his stomach, front legs bent and hind legs under tension,

facing back along his tracks. If wounded on the right, he will

usually circle to his left; if wounded on his left, he will circle to

his :right. In either case, the method of laying the ambush is the

same—he will return about fifty yards along his tracks and lie up

beside them, ten or fifteen yards away from the line of tracks. The

place selected is fairly open; I have never known an ambush in really

dense jungle. Unless one is alert for an ambush, and sometimes

even then, the first indication of the buffalo is when he is almost

on you. After which it is all a matter of shooting, and luck—

mostly the latter. Nothing but instantaneous death will stop a

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

charging buffalo. A good shot has a fifty per cent chance oi

survival.

If not finished off before the maggots form in the wound, the

buffalo will lie all day in water deep enough to cover his wound, and

only leave it to graze at night, if he is capable of grazing. His

vitality is enormous, and he will cling unbelievably to a thread of

life. I repeat, do not shoot buffalo; but if you do, kill cleanly and

mercifully. I have had to follow far too many of other men’s

woundings.

5. Pasturage: <A buffalo is a selective feeder, in spite of his

size. He will browse through what seems to be tender grass, pick-

ing a mouthful here and a mouthful there, covering long distances in the

course of his grazing. A careful examination will show that, in an

apparently casual fashion, he has managed to select only the choicest

bits. His grazing is done in the night and early morning or late

evening, the day being spent in dense cover. It is probable that

this change from the habits described by Sir Samuel Baker in the

early 1890’s is due to the increased disturbances to which he is

subjected now-a-days. His habitat too has changed; he no longer

lives in the open grassy places, and tends to frequent denser forests.

A sure spot to find him in, during the latter months of the hot season,

is an open maidan in the forest after it has been burnt, when the

young grass begins to sprout. Five in the evening is the best time,

if you want a photograph.

JAGDALPUR P.O.,

BasTAR Dist., R. P. NORONHA

Mapuya PraDEsH,

December, 1953.

4. GAUR ATTACKING MAN

A Sholaga was recently killed by a gaur bull, which made an

unprovoked attack on him in long grass. Nearby the remains of a

cow, or young bull, which had been killed by a tiger, were found.

This appears to be yet another instance of a bull bison charging,

apparently unprovoked ; a tiger being in the vicinity.

In a previous note to the Journal I referred to three instances of

unwounded bulls charging and in every case a tiger was found to be

in the same area at the time. In the Journal, Vol. 50, No. 1, Mr.

A. F. Hutton describes a case of a plantation labourer being attacked

and killed by an unwounded gaur bull; here again a tiger had been

around, and had badly mauled another bull nearby. It would seem

as if the protracted presence of tiger has a maddening effect on bull

bison; even if they are not actually mauled.

Not long ago I came on a dead bull (it had died only a foe hours

previously), which had obviously succumbed to blood-poisoning follow-

ing an attack by a tiger. It was obvious from the broken saplings

and smashed bushes in the nearby shola that the poor creature had

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES: : ; 203

been in a bad temper only the day before; had I come on it

unawares a day earlier I] might have been in for trouble.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, |

Artixan P.O., : R. C. MORRIS

via Mysore (S. Inp1a), — ae

December 8, 1953.

5. THAMIN OR ELD’S DEER [PANOLI4A ELD] THAMIN

: (THOMAS)] IN BURMA

There are two Wild Life Sanctuaries primarily constituted to

perpetuate Thamin, the typical deer of Burma. The Shwezettaw

Wild Life Sanctuary was constituted in 1940. It is situated in the

Minbu Forest Division. The approximate area is 213.4 sq. miles,

When proposals were submitted in 1937, there were at least 100 Thamin

in the area. They were on the increase in 1946-47 and 1947-48.

Over 300 Thamin were then reported in the Sanctuary. But since

1948-49, the area has been under occupation by underground Com-

munist insurgents. The Divisional Forest Officer, Minbu, informed

me in September 1953 that ‘the number is on the decrease and that

poaching is still going on during these days of insurrection’.

Kyalttthin Wild Life Sanctuary was constituted in 1941. It is

situated in the Shwebo Forest Divison. The approximate area is

104 sq. miles. Touring is not possible as yet. The Range Officer,

Kyatthin, who has been in charge of the range for the past several

years estimated the number of thamin in the sanctuary as 150.

Outside the sanctuary thamin still exist in the unclassed forests

east of the railway line in the Kanbalu Range, Shurbo Forest

Division. According to the Annual Report on Forest Administration

for the year 1949-50, thamin are reported from the following Forest

Divisions :—

Katha West Forest Divisions.—Unclassed forests in Nam Khan

Range.

Meiktila Forest Division.—Sadon, Nagar—Min. Khum, Myothit,

Tagundaing, Satthwa and Meiktila Range. eR :

Zigon Forest Division.—Satthwa Reserve. The Divisional Forest

Officer, Zigon Forest Division informed, the writer in October 1953,

‘thamin are on the increase in Satthwa Reserve, Gamon Range, as

no one dare go out into the jungle to shoot game.’

The Deputy Commissioner, Yamethin District, informed the

writer in December 1953, ‘Thamin exist abundantly in Meiktila

District though of course its number is gradually on the decline as

it is one of the easiest of game to be shot. Their habitat spreads

almost throughout the whole district and even extends into considerable

areas of adjoining Kyaukse—Myingyan, Magwe and Yamethin

Districts. It is found in good numbers all along the foothills. and

its sparsely jungled plains on the East of Ky aukse, Meiktila’ and

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Yamethin Districts.’ The Deputy Commissioner, Yamethin District

was Sub-divisional Officer, Meiktila, before he was posted to

Yamethin.

SHAN Roap,

KEMMENDINE P.O., TUN YIN

RANGOON (BURMA), 7

November 26, 1953.

6. STRIDE OF ELEPHANT CROSSING TRENCH

On page 933, Vol. 50 of the Journal I recorded elephants crossing

a 54-ft. trench. This month an elephant on two successive nights,

in a single stride, crossed and re-crossed an 8-ft. V-shaped trench

bordering our raghi farm. From the tracks he would appear to

have lurched himself over.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., R. C. MORRIS

via Mysore (S. Inp1a),

October 29, 1953.

7. DEATH OF WILD ELEPHANTS, FROM SUSPECTED

FOOD-POISONING, IN TRAVANCORE-COCHIN STATE

During October and November last year, there were several deaths

among elephants in the Periyar Game Sanctuary area of the State

Reserve Forests. Altogether eight elephants died, one on 13-10-1953,

two On 10-11-1953, four on 16-11-1953 and one on 19-11-1953. Fearing

the outbreak of an epidemic, the Disease Investigation Officer of the

State Animal Husbandry Department was deputed to investigate the

cause of this mortality. Upon arrival at the scene of death, he

found that vultures. and other carrion-feeders had already made short work

of the carcasses and reduced them to bones and scraps of skin so

that he could not secure any material for bacteriological or other

examination. However, from the fact that there were no more

deaths among elephants in that area after the last death was reported i.e.,

19-11-1953 (there has been no further report up to the time of writing)

and from the healthy condition of the five survivors of the herd that

had sustained this mortality and which he found feeding in the

neighbourhood, he ruled out the possibility of infectious diseases such

as Anthrax, Rabies and Haemorrhagic Septicaemia. The absence of

casualties among domestic cattle grazing in and around the place

where two of the elephants had died, as welll as the fact that cuts

and skin abrasions sustained by the labourers who were assisting

at the post mortem of one of the animals healed up normally leant

further support to this view. The possibility of insecticides and

fertilizers used in the neighbouring tea-gardens as a source of

poisoning was also considered, but it was reported that they did. not

contain enough poison to kill any of the higher animals, much less an

i ima

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 207.

elephant. Even if contrary to assurances, they did have any strongly

poisonous substance, at least stray cases of death either then or

previously, among cattle or elephants should have come to light, for

insecticides and fertilizers have long been in use in these estates.

With the above causes of mortality thus eliminated, there only

remained the possibility of the elephants feeding on some poisonous

plants. During the course of the inquiry, it transpired that some

of the estate labourers had raised one or two crops of Koda millet

along the border of the reserve forests. Can it, then, be that the

elephants had raided these crops and got poisoned in the process?

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn. the Koda millet is known occasionally

to develop a narcotic principle which then becomes fatal to man

and animals. Mr. R. C. Morris on page 722, Vol. 37 of this Journal

has reported the instance of fourteen elephants dying from ; millet

poisoning in the Vannathippara Reserve in South India. Tamarind

and buttermilk are believed to be antidotes for this poison. Gruel

made out of green gram meal, the juice of the stem of the plantain

and the astringent juice of the guava are also reported to counteract

its poisonous properties.

I am indebted to the Chief Conservator of Forests, Travanccre-

Cochin State and the Disease Investigation Officer for the information

contained in this note.

‘GOKULAM’,

NANTENCODE, Ne oGs PILLAI

TRIVANDRUM,

February 6, 1954.

8. BIRDS EATING THE POISONOUS FRUIT OF THE

YELLOW OLEANDER (THEVETIA NERIIFOLIA)

Further to my note on the Koel’s addiction to this poisonous drupe in

J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 943-944, and Mr. K. K. Neelakantan’s

record in Vol. 51, No. 3, p. 738, of the Common Grey Hornbill

(Tockus birostris) eating the fruit:

On February 13, of this year, 1 saw a Common Mynah (Acridotheres

tristis) pecking at the fallen drupes on the ground beneath the tree

and consuming the fleshy mesocarp. In the last three months I have

again noticed Koels eating the fruit, and a Common Mynah pecking

at a fallen fruit.

LECTURER IN GENERAL SCIENCE,

GOVERNMENT TRAINING COLLEGE, S. M. KRISHNAN

MANGALORE,

December 28, 1953.

9. MIGRATION OF INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS

IN MADHYA PRADESH IN 1953

} The rains of 1951 and 1952 were much below normal in the west

of Madhya Pradesh comprising the districts of Hoshangabad, Betul,

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Nimar, Buldana, Akola, Amravati and Yeotmal. Upto the end of

the hot weather of 1953 there was no marked change in the usual

distribution of birds but from the onset of the rains about. June 15;

there was a strong migration. By the beginning of July most insect-

eating birds had gone. The most striking example was the Green

Bee-eater (Merops orientalis). Except for a few birds on the Narmada

I did not see any resident birds in the seven districts until October.

About the middle of July I saw two parties of Bee-eaters but these

were on the move and did not stop. I had previously recorded that

the Bee-eaters left the higher plateau areas in the rains: for instance

they are absent from Betul from July to September, but this is the

first time I have seen them leave the plains in the rains. I noticed

the return migration on October 1st and by the end of October numbers

were normal. The other insect-eating birds were also present in

much fewer numbers but their withdrawal was not complete. The

next most common insectivorous bird, the King-Crow (Dicrurus

macrocercus) was not seen for miles on end but in some centres

there were several individuals. The Blue-Jay (Coracias benghalensis)

was rare: Shrikes were seen and their numbers fell less than any

other. The Fly-catchers, such as the Whitebrowed Fantail Fly-

catcher were not seen by me. The only insect-eating birds which

seemed to be present in usual numbers were the Indian Swift (Micropus

affinis). |

In many drier parts, for instance in Khandwa town the only

birds seen were Crows, Mynahs, Doves, Sparrows, Swifts and

Larks.

I toured in the above area only and cannot say how much further

eastwards the migration occurred.

CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS, _ , |

AMARAVATI CAMP, C. E. HEWETSON

BERAR,

January 5, 1954.

10." STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF ATHOUSE CROW

The behaviour of the crow referred to on page 939, Vol. 50,

No. 4, would suggest that it was hiding something for future consumption

and an inspection immediately after the incident may have explained

just what it was doing.

I witnessed a very similar incident in Malabar from a distance of

about 20 or 30 ft.; the crow in this case was watched while it care-

fully hid a fairly large piece of a rice cake under the lower edge of

a wooden railway sleeper in a track adjacent to the one on which

my railway saloon was stabled.

The crow flew to the spot and deposited the food which it had

in its tightly packed beak. It next poked round near the underside

of the sleeper and removed two or three stones which were resting

loosely against the sleeper and formed part of the stone ballast of the

track. The food was then placed in a small recess and the stones .

replaced. It then hopped a few feet away and picked up two or

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

three dry leaves which were pushed in near the stones. The bird

was very silent during this time and when it appeared satisfied it

flew away. |

It returned again in a few minutes and did some rearranging of

the stones and leaves, but did not appear to bring any more food.

c/o THE IMPERIAL BANK OF INDIA,

25, OLp Broap STREET, Cony BIDDULPH

Lonpon, ENGLAND,

clover 22 1953:

tr, POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LARGE

YELLOW-NAPED WOODPECKER AND THE

LARGE RACKET-TAILED DRONGO

Lt.-Col. Bates’ note on page 941, Vol. 50, No. 4, is of interest

as it would appear to place on record yet another instance of the

more common associations that exist between birds and animals, or

birds and natural phenomena with which we are familiar. Associations

which may be considered as of convenience and mainly connected with

the easier procurement of food.

Associations that are more commonly known are :—

(a) Cattle Egrets and Grazing Cattle.

(b) Indian Rollers, Drongos and Shrikes in advance of a small

jungle, or scrub fire.

In both these instances the birds appear to realise they will be able

to procure food more plentifully and with less effort.

In the first instance cattle while grazing disturb insects that would

otherwise have remained hidden and in the second the insects that

try to escape the fire are readily captured by the birds waiting just

in advance of the fire.

The probable explanation of the association witnessed by Lt.-Col.

Bates owes its origin to the fact that both these birds are insectivorous

and that the woodpecker in climbing the trunks of trees in search

of insects on which it normally feeds inadvertently disturbs certain

winged insects which in flying away are seen and captured by the

attendant and very alert drongo. :

The drongo would find it a slower business procuring insects

in the ordinary manner in a thick jungle and any assistance afforded

by a foraging woodpecker would be made good use of on occasions

when both birds happened to be feeding in the same locality.

It seems unlikely that the drongo would continue to follow the

woodpecker throughout any prolonged period, but it is evident from

the instances now recorded that when these two species meet the drongo

does seem to recognise a bird that is of assistance to it and makes

the most of the opportunity to do some quick feeding.

c/o THE IMPERIAL BANK OF INDIA,

25, OLp BRroapD STREET, C. H. BIDDULPH

LonpOoN, ENGLAND,

October 22, 1953.

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL) HISF“SOCIETY, Vol. 52

12, CUCULUS CANORUS BAKERI IN BOMBAY

On 12th October, 1952, I motored up to the Randha Falls near

Bhandardara, Ahmednagar District, Bombay State, where cuckoos.

appeared to be common. I obtained a specimen which I was unable

to match with any of the birds in our collection but it has now

been compared by Dr. S. Dillon Ripley with the material at the

American Museum of Natural History, New York, and he has placed

it as nearest to Cuculus canorus bakeri which was described from

Shillong, Khasia hills, Assam. The specimen, a female, has the

following measurements :—

Wing Res -.) 6. oS hom. “(iresiy)

Bill oes cet 22 mm. (from base)

Tarsus s. x3 Pa tenantagys

Tail sg Pe eae rata

These measurements are smaller than those recorded for bakeri

(Fauna IV p. 139 exceptionally small female 208 mm., mostly between

225 and 235 mm.) and the specimen also represents a very considerable

extension on the known range of this race which has been believed

to be more sedentary than the others.

Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 3,

February 1, 1954.

13. OCCURRENCE OF REDWINGED CRESTED

CUCKOO (CLAMATOR COROMANDUS) IN MADRAS

The Redwinged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) is definitely

a bird that visits the neighbourhood of Madras in the rainy season. I

saw two dead specimens with a Kurava in 1950, I think it was in

August, and in September last a boy brought me a live specimen,

unfortunately with a leg broken and a wing also maimed—he said he had

obtained it in Chembarambakkam, an immediate suburb of Madras.

City, and when I tried to get ‘fuller and better particulars’, as the

lawyers say, he ran away with his victim. There are three specimens.

of this cuckoo in the Madras Museum, all collected near Madras

City. I am almost sure I have seen this bird near St. Thomas

Mount, but had only a fleeting glimpse. In Madras, as elsewhere,

the bird is partial to a woodland habitat.

LECTURER IN GENERAL SCIENCE,

GOVERNMENT TRAINING COLLEGE, S. M. KRISHNAN

MANGALORE, an

December. 28, 1953.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 211

14. GOSHAWK (ASTUR GENTILIS) IN BHAVNAGAR

(SAURASHTRA)

Fourteen years ago, His Highness the Maharaja Saheb Sir

Krishnakumarsinhji of Bhavnagar felt sure that he had seen a male

adult Goshawk in the Victoria Park, Bhavnagar. It was much

doubted whether this observation by His Highness was quite correct,

because no wild Goshawk had been reported in Kathiawar. However,

owing to His Highness’ experience in falconry, the record was

reluctantly accepted. Fairly recently, I myself, was quite sure of

having seen an adult female Goshawk in the Gir forest in the winter of

1949. Both the above records were sight records, and therefore,

were subject to questioning. However, this year on 1toth December,

1953, His Highness the Maharaja Saheb of Bhavnagar’s men caught

an immature female Goshawk in perfect plumage in the Victoria Park,

Bhavnagar. This is conclusive evidence that this species migrates

into Saurashtra, and that the previous sight records can now be

considered validated.

Identification of the bird was confirmed by the fourth quill being

longest, the tail long and rather graduated with the tarsus about equal

to tibia in length, the former being scutellated in front and behind and

reticulated on the sides. The right wing measured 340 mm. and the

eae eylgmcaheuss

‘Dit Banar’,

BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

February 14, 1954.

15. OCCURRENCE OF THE BANDED CRAKE

[RALLUS EURIZONOIDES AMUROPTERA

(JERDON)] IN TRAVANCORE

Mr. W. H. Matthews’ note [Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 51

(3): 742] on the nesting of the Banded Crake in a tea bush in

Darjeeling causes me to wonder if this species does not breed also in

tea estates of the Vandiperiyar district of Travancore (elevation

3,000 ft.). Although the species is distinctly rare in this district I

have observed it on several occasions in the months April-July during

the past six years. These birds are usually seen singly and are

generally only seen when put up by dogs as they skulk under tea

bushes. I have not seen any sign of the species breeding in the

area but on two occasions I have seen a pair of birds together, so

I do not rule out the possibility. The Banded Crake appears to be

absent from this area for the rest of the year, and it may be that

the birds that I have seen have been stragglers which have been blown

in from the coastal areas by the S.W. monsoon winds.

MUNJAMULLAY ESTATE,

VANDIPERIYAR P.O., M. C. A. JACKSON

West Cz,

November 4, 1953.

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL BUST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

[The Travancore and Cochin Ornithological Surveys failed to meet

with this bird. Salim Ali in his report on the Surveys (Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 39, p. 574) writes :—

‘Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5) procured a single specimen of this

crake in 1875 in some paddy fields near the foot of the hills in South

Travancore at about 4oo ft. elevation. There is, according to Mr.

Whistler, one Travancore specimen labelled ‘‘Mynall’’ with no other

data in the British Museum (Hume Collection), and a second also

without data, collected by Fry. It occurs in Ceylon.

Breeding.—No information available for Travancore or Cochin.’

Mr. Jackson wrote in later to say that he had seen this species again

on 22nd November.—Ebs. |

16. HOOD OF THE BULL. FROG

This letter is many years over-due. I could find many excuses,

but honesty would reject them all, leaving only sheer inertia.

The District Judge of Ratnagiri lives in a delightful old rambling ~

sandstone house, of which the ground floor is his Court and Office. °

From the residential verandas one looks down on to a charming garden

backed by a patch of forest. A bird-bath which I chipped out of

a sandstone block and sank almost flush with the ground used to

give me hours of fascinating entertainment.

Near the centre of the garden there is a small deep rectangular

tank—the mali’s water storage point. A Whitebreasted Kingfisher

had a habit of plunging into this tank every afternoon (presumably

for fun or refreshment, since there were no fishes in it), And a huge

Bull-frog used to squat in the grass at the side of the tank (which

was totally sunk in the ground) all day long.

One afternoon, as I studied some case-papers, my daughter

came running to me with a very bedraggled Kingfisher in her hand.

She had heard a frantic splashing in the tank, and on going to

investigate, she found the Kingfisher in the water, all but drowned,

tightly clasped by the bull-frog from behind. Evidently the frog

had leaped on the bird’s back exactly as it dived, and had gripped

it round the wings so that it could not escape—a real wrestler’s

hold! My daughter and I carefully dried the Kingfisher and placed

it in the sunshine; after an hour it flew away. The bull-frog was

sentenced to banishment from the garden, the sentence being carried

out forthwith.

What was the frog’s intention? Did he plan to eat the bird?

If so, he might doubtless have avenged the deaths of countless small

cousins and remoter relatives. But how would he have digested that

formidable beak? Have you a record of any similar murderous

onslaught?

‘SEVAGRAM’,

BHANGARWADI, T. GAY

LONAVALA DIST.,

Poona,

December 24, 1953.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

[The bull frog is omnivorous and we have, from time to time,

recorded various items as its food. They include snakes, garden

lizards, toads, a wounded snipe, sparrows, Guinea fowl chicks, rats,

mole crickets and also the cocoon of a psychid moth made of sharp

babool spines, 2 in. in length, with larva inside. We have, however, no

record, of a frog clasping its prey in its arms !—Eps. |

17, THE RECORD INDIAN CROCODILE

Major W. Robert Foran in the Field dated January 13, 1951, p. 61

dealt with the records of large crocodiles in Africa and wrote:—

‘A normal specimen is roughly seven times the length of its head.

An. alleged go ft. one, therefore, would have a head about 6 ft.

in length, which is the height of absurdity... .’

The evidence for the largest Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus)

was a skull in the British Museum from Bengal and which was said

to have been taken from an animal measuring 33 ft. in length.

We wrote to Dr. Malcolm Smith asking for its measurements and his

reply reads:

lt+measured! 335" in. which is 1/12 of the total length, if 33 ft.

as stated, is correct. There is no reason to think that the African

crocodile differs greatly in proportions from that of C. porosus.’

If Major Foran’s method of calculation is correct the alleged

record specimen would have been only 19 ft. 5 in. in length and not

33 ft. We have examined two Marsh Crocodiles (C. palustris) in

Bombay, one juvenile 290 mm. and one adult (10 ft. 5 in.) and their

heads measure between 4 and 1/7 of their total length.

114, APOLLO STREET,

Bene HUMAYUN ABDULALI

December, 1953.

18. AN ADDITION TO THE LIST OF SNAKES OF BOMBAY

AND SALSETTE—UROPELTIS MACROLEPIS

(PETERS)—UROPELTIDAE

On the 2nd July 1953, Mrs. Roshan Captain sent in a specimen

of the Roughtailed Earth snake—Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters)

obtained in a garden at Powai Lake, Salsette Island, Bombay. This

species has not been recorded previously from Bombay and Salsette

Island.

Some potted plants had just been received from Bangalore, but

Mrs. Captain assures us that the snake was picked up about 30 yds.

away and could not have arrived in this parcel.

It is interesting to note that this specimen has the characteristics

of those localised at Mahableshwar as recorded in J.B.N.H.S., 50,

p. 950 and 51, p. 512, i.e. a lemon-yellow stripe occupying 2 scalerows

on either side as also 12-13 subcaudals.

Subsequent to this Dr. K. K. Nair of Wilson College, Bombay,

sent in one more specimen from Mahableshwar which agrees with

these.

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA BYSi. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The distribution of the two forms appears curious when it is

recalled that specimens from Lonavala, Khandala, Igatpuri and

Matheran, are identical and differ from those from Bombay and

Mahableshwar.

BoMBAY, Vo K. CHARS,

December 28, 1953. Officiating Curator.

19. FURTHER COMMENT ON THE MANI-JAL OF @HE

CHILKA LAKE—A SPECIAL NET FOR

BELONIFORM FISHES

Commenting on a note by us published in the Society’s journal

(Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 288-289) on the Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake,

Mr. M. Peter Devasundaram states [J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 51 (3): p. 761|

that Hornell in his account of the fishing methods of the Madras

Presidency (Mad. Fish. Bull., Vol. 18, No. 2, p. 73) ‘has described

the same net under the name ‘Kuzhi Valai’ used in the Negapatam

backwaters’ and that Hornell ‘has also stated that it is exclusively

used for catching the garfish, Belone strongylurus’. A careful perusal

of the description of Kuzhi Valai by Hornell and of Mani-jal by us

would show that the two are different and that Hornell does not

state that the Negapatam backwater net is used for catching garfish.

Mani-jal, as we have stated, is a composite net ‘made up of a

chain of small bags’ each distinct from the other, whereas Kuzhi

Valai according to Hornell is a ‘peculiar modification of the normal

Konda Valai, where the bag is no longer continuous but is broken

up into as many small pouch-like bags as there are vertical sticks’

placed ‘across the common mouth of the net’. Though Hornell has

not stated that the net is used for catching garpike in Negapatam

it could presumably be used with almost the same effect as the Mani-

jal of the Chilka Lake or the Kola Valai of the Coromandel Coast.

Hornell, however, says that nets of similar design as Kuzhi Valai

but ‘much longer and rather deeper in the mouth are used at Kundapur

in South Kanara where they are employed to catch garpike (Belone

strongylura)’ and adds that ‘so far as I am aware this much-specialised

net is not known at any other places in the Presidency’. In the absence

of further information about the construction of the net it cannot be

asserted that it is the same as the Mani-jal.

The Kola Valai, the Konda Valai, the Kuzhi Valai, the ‘garpike

net’ of Kundapur and the Mani-jal show varying degrees of relation-

ship amongst themselves, but in the present state of our knowledge

the origin and evolution of these nets could only be a matter of

speculation.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH STATION, S. JONES

BARRACKPORE, K. H. SUJANSINGHANI

October 14, 1953.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

The above was sent to Mr. M. Peter Devasundaram who writes:

| ‘I have no further comments to make on the subject as Dr.

Jones and Mr. K. H. Sujansinghani have admitted that ‘‘Kuzhi Valai

of Hornell’s description could presumably be used with almost the

same effect as Mani-jal of the Chilka Lake.’’ It is clear from Hornell’s

description of Kuzhi Valai that the bag is not continuous but broken

up into as many pouch-like small bags as there are vertical sticks

crossing the mouth by which he means that the mouth of the net is

one and not many.’

| Horneil’s sketch appears to confirm that Kuzhi Valai consists

of a series of pouches which are, however, said to be 30 in. deep as

compared with 15 in. for Mani-jal.—Eps. |

20. APOSEMATIC INSECTS AND THEIR FOOD-PLANTS

Mr. McCann’s note under this heading (J.B.N.H.S., Vol. 51, p. 752,

1953) rather tends to overlook the essential difference between insects

‘with an incomplete metamorphosis, and with the same food-plant in

both the immature and adult stages, and those where the metamorphosis

is complete and the food in the two stages entirely different.

Aposematic lepidopterous larvae, feeding on poisonous food-plants,

are undoubtedly protected by their poisonous qualities, although I

am more inclined to the view that it is through the remnants of

food in the intestinal tracts rather than an actual absorption by the

_ tissues. Poulton records an instance where a procryptic larva feed-

ing on Ivy was rejected by birds, but accepted readily when transferred

to a non-poisonous food-plant. I have not got the reference with me

but, from memory, the larva was Biston betularia L., the birds

domestic fowls.

During the pupal stage of Lepidoptera there is an almost complete

break-down of the larval substance and a rebuilding into the adult.

Pigments that were present in the larva disappear and new pigments

are developed, and I think it highly probable that any poisonous

constituents derived from the larval food-plant would do the same.

So far as I know, there is no known larval mutant that is connected

with an imaginal one. Thus the green and brown forms of Sphingid

larvae both produce the same form of imago. There is an English Geo-

meter with two larval forms’ with the fat and blood of different colours,

but the imago from both is the same. I have recently discovered an

African Lymantriid (Dasychira georgiana Fawc.) in which in addition

to a dimorphic larva, there is also a sex-controlled dominant in the

female larva; the larvae either being black or green, with the female

larvae also either having or lacking an orange-red lateral stripe, which

never appears in the male larva. All larval forms produce the same

imago.

The Pierid, Catopsilia florella F., has two larval forms that appear

to be directly connected with pigments derived from the food. When

feeding on the leaves of Cassia they are green, when feeding on

the yellow flowers they are yellow, but both forms of larva turn to

the same clear, greasy-looking green when preparing to pupate and

both produce the same green pupa. Here, then, is a case where the

Jarval pigment does not persist in the pupal stage even.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Much of the above may appear to be beside the point at issue, but

pigments have been studied to a certain extent and many of them analysed

and it does not seem unreasonable to assume that the other compounds

that go to make up an insect behave in the same way.

To return to Mr. McCann’s note, he states in his remarks on

Lepidoptera that Danaus chrysippus has a scent similar to its food-

plant, Asclepiadaceae of various species. But does it? Dr. G. B.

Longstaff, who probably studied the question of Butterfly scents more

thoroughly than anyone before or since, writes that the scent in

both sexes is of a strong and disagreeable nature, like that of cock-

roaches, and adds that it has also been compared to the scent of

musk-rats (Butterfly Hunting in Many Lands, 494). - Dr. Longstaff

was obviously well acquainted with Calotropis, the usual food-plant

of chrysippus, as elsewhere in the same book is the remark that

the absence of the Danaid was surprising in view of the abundance of

Calotropis. In all his references to the scent of chrysippus stress

is laid on the animal nature of the scent, whereas most other groups

have scents reminiscent of flowers. As regards limniace, Longstaff

writes :—

‘I detected in a male a very faint scent suggesting old

cigar-boxes. Observations made on other occasions were doubtful

or negative.’

KAMPALA, D.:G., SEVASTOPULO} F-ReE.s-

November 15, 1953.

21. APOSEMATIC INSECTS AND THEIR: FOOD-PLANTS

Mr. Sevastopulo believes that I have overlooked the difference

between insects with complete and incomplete metamorphosis, the

latter (often) feeding on the same food-plant throughout life, but I>

can assure him that this point did not escape my attention. My first

example, Aularches, (incomplete metamorphosis) feeds on plants of two

different families, one in the hopper stage, and the other in the adult

stage. Both hopper and adult reflect the odour of their

respective food-plants. In this particular instance the two plants

are not available at the same time of the year. In the case

of Poecilocerus, the food-plant is available throughout the year.

In the case of Lepidoptera (complete metamorphosis) it is obvious

that the food supply should vary from larvae to adult owing to the

complete transformation of the mouth parts. The odour of the crushed

or bruised insect is different to that emitted by the special (often

plumose) scent glands. If such scents are elaborated from its larval

food supply (?) it seems also possible that the odour of the food-plant

can be retained in adult life as a means of protection from would-be

enemies. The scent from the specialized glands (although they may

also play a role in protection) appear more in the nature of devices

for the attraction of the sexes rather than for purposes of protection.

It is the odour of the body (or poisonous property of the body) which

acts as the deterrent and this, it seems reasonable to believe is

derived from the food-plant of the larval stage.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217

In his second paragraph Mr. Sevastopulo admits that aposematic

lepidopterous larvae are ‘undoubtedly protected by their poisonous

qualities,’ but qualifies his admission on the grounds that he is

inclined to the view that ‘it is through the remnants of food in the

intestinal tracts rather than an actual absorption by the tissues.’—

belief without any positive support for his contention, but which I

leave open to question. In support, Mr. Sevastopulo refers to a

record of Poulton’s on procryptic larvae being rejected or accepted

by domestic fowls, when the larvae are fed on noxious and innocuous

food-plants. My main objections to the results of Poulton’s experiment

(as given by Mr. Sevastopulo) are: (1) What is the normal natural

enemy cycle of the larvae in question? (surely not the domestic

fowl!): (2) The use of the domestic fowl—as a gallinaceous bird

it is predominantly granivorous, although it will accept almost any-

thing, and is probably less selective in matters of food than its wiid

congeners. Domestication tends to make animals more ‘careless’):

Does not the feeding on poisonous plants tend to protect and enhance

the security of the species rather than those larvae which feed on

non-poisonous plants and are therefore more readily acceptable to

would-be enemies? Presumably, the innocuous larvae would be

susceptible to a greater enemy cycle than the noxious ones, and on

that account alone, would, in time be, perhaps, exterminated. A -

further question which may not have a direct bearing on the subject

is: Which way is the species tending, towards the poisonous food- -

plant (for security) or towards a non-poisonous food-plant? However,

these points may appear just quibbles but, I think, are factors which

cannot be lost sight of.

My original note on the above subject was intended merely as

a record of my own experiences and observations in the field, and

the interpretation of the scents as diagnosed by my nose. Scents,

more than colours, are difficult to define, and the individual can only

refer to them as ‘like so and so’—a past ‘scent memory’ based on

previous experience—the odour in question recalls to mind some

particular object which emitted a similar odour. When two persons,

or more are subjected to the same odour, their responses and

comparative ‘scent terminology’, may be totally different, governed,

partly by the degree of sensitivity of their respective noses, and partly

by the ‘memory’ of scents they have previously encountered. The

second factor is more important for the ‘memory’ is limited by the

past experience of the individual. An odour in concentration may be

pleasant to some and nauseating to others. In reduced degrees of

concentration the terminology may vary very considerably. There is

too much individualism to be accounted for, for accuracy.

It is well-known that a prolonged stay in a scented atmosphere

results in the individual becoming ‘immune’ to the particular odour

to which he has become accustomed and can ‘smell’ it no longer,

while his nose remains sensitive to fresh odours in the same

atmosphere. Scent terminology is almost impossible, for example,

let us take the word musk—there are many degrees of ‘musk’ and

as many interpretations of what is ‘musky’. Animals have been

variously referred to as Musk-Deer, Musk-Rat, Musk-Shrew, and so

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BYST. SOCIETY, Vol. b2

on. The odour of many reptiles and cockroaches, and several other

insects, have been referred to as musky. However, (to my nose) all

these various musks are very different, I would prefer to prefix them

as occasion arose. As a botanist I have often resorted to scent for

the determination of a plant, and practised tracing plants at night

by the scent of their flowers with fair success. This practice has

given me a fair amount of scent appreciation and ‘scent memory’.

The terminology of scents is very controversial, even more so than

colour, and I am not prepared to carry the controversy further. It

would be less fruitful than the famous ‘White Bison’ correspondence

which ran through the pages of the Journal some years back.

Although this discussion on ‘scent terminology’ and ‘scent memory’

has no direct bearing on the subject in hand, it tends to show how

scents may be differently interpreted by different individuals. In

the absence of some definite method of evaluating scents, argument

leads nowhere. Each observation is individual and individually inter-

preted. It was in this spirit that my original note was published.

DomINION MUSEvuM,

WELLINGTON, | C. McCANN

NEw ZEALAND.

22. OCCURRENCE OF DANAIS CHRYSIPPUS VAR. DORIPPUS

AT DUM=DUM ATR PORF

I. have to: record that on the 27th December, 1953, 1 took ‘a

specimen of Danais chrysippus var. dorippus in the garden of my

shack, two miles north of Dum Dum Air Port.

The butterfly is, I believe, very rare in this part of India and

may be worth recording in the Journal.

c/o GRAHAM TRADING Co. (I) LtTD.,

6, Lyons RANGE, AL EG" BESine

CAT CUAIA:

February 20, 1954.

|D. chrysippus var. dorippus occurs only sporadically within our

limits. It has been taken at Campbellpur in the Punjab, at Karachi,

near Poona, in the neighbourhood of Trincomalee, Ceylon and recorded

from the Southern and Eastern coasts of the same island.—Ebs. ]

23. HUNTERS’ SUGAR

When I was hunting big game with my Burman hunters in the

year 1889 or thereabouts in the forests of the Momeik State Ruby

Mines District, Upper Burma, one of my hunters who was with me

on this occasion suddenly pointed out a bush to me growing in the

jungle about 4 ft. 6 in. in height which was covered with a thick white

semi-hairy looking substance which looked to me like hoar frost and

remarked to me, ‘Sir there is a bush which is covered with hunters’.

sugar’. Being somewhat sceptical about this I ran the fore finger and

thumb of my right hand along one of the stems of the bush containing the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219

white substance referred to and noticed at once after tasting it that

it had a distinctly sweet taste and flavour of sugar and it was not

till I was in Dehra-Dun, India, during the last war against the Japs,

many years afterwards, that I touched on the subject in a letter to

Father Caius who was an editor of the Journal and from whom

unfortunately I never received any reply on the subject of the Hunters’

Sugar tree.

It was only the other day that my brother-in-law, Mr. R. M. Aldworth

informed me that he had come across a similar bush in the jungle

sometime ago covered with the same snow-white feathery substance

which I had seen and which he took to be the ‘larvae’ of some insect

or moth which may probably be the correct solution.

He did not, he informed me, taste this white feathery substance

but got a Shan villager who was on the spot to do so for him and who

said that it was very sweet.

There was one other thing that one of my hunters showed me

about this time which also rather astonished me. He picked up

a piece of smooth green-coloured creeper a little thicker than an

ordinary lead pencil and after cutting off a portion of it, about ten

inches in length, dropped it into a small stream that was flowing

alongside us at the time. The cut portion that had been dropped

into the water then started to swim off as if’ it were a live snake.

This was referred to by Burmans as the ‘Nwe-Shin’ or live creeper.

TAUNGGYI,

Ss950.; W.S. THOM,

BURMA, Retired Imperial Police.

November 25, 1953.

|The sugary secretion is usually associated with certain Coccids

(scale insects) and allied families of the Hemiptera; the young stages,

which are flat, secrete both the sugary substance as well as wax which

covers the entire body and is sometimes produced into hair-like

prominences.—EDs. |

24, OCCURRENCE OF CORYMORPHA (HYDROZOA) -IN

INDIAN WATERS

(With a text figure)

In August 1953, an outing by the author to the shore at Colaba

for the collection of specimens for the Taraporevala Aquarium,

yielded a number of beautiful solitary hydroids in a bed consisting of

both a sandy and muddy layer. The specimens were brought to the

aquarium and were kept in exhibition tanks with proper aeration. Some

of these specimens were preserved in 4% formalin for later study.

The hydroids were identified as a new undescribed species of

Corymorpha.

Reference was made to the Zoological Survey of India for

literature and for information on the distribution of genus Corymorpha

in Indian waters. The inquiry shows that Goa mocha had not been

previously recorded in any part of India and that its discovery in

Bombay was significant.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Corymorpha is solitary in habit and grows to nearly 2} in. in

length. It carries two clusters of tentacles, the lower set being thicker,

TENTACLE — x _

-HYDROID

CorvMORPHA SP. (cracRammaric)

while the upper set encircling the mouth has the fineness of threads.

Lying at the base of the thicker tentacles is a ring of branching

gonophores with medusae in different stages of development. These

medusae had detached themselves from the parents and were moving

freely. The body of the animal is slender and bulbous below and

has a root-like structure with which it embeds itself in the sand.

Four days after the introduction of the Corymorpha in the tank,

tiny medusae were extruded by the parents and were seen swimming

in the tank. The medusae resemble roughly the shape of a lantern,

with a typical cone, surmounting the dome. It had but one tentacle,

beaded in appearance owing to the presence of nematocysts.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE

BIOLOGICAL STATION, M. R. RANADE, misc. (Hons.)

BOMBAY 2.

a i i i

2 ene

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 221

25. -A SIX-LOCULAR CAPSULE ON THE

COTTON PLANT

The cotton plant is known to bear 3-5 locular capsules. I found

in our compound on 7-12-1953 a 6-locular capsule on a Devkapas (G.

Hirsuta var. brasiliense) plant.

‘SANJEEVAN’,

ELuis BRIDGE, G. W. DEODHAR

AHMEDABAD 6.

26. OCCURRENCE OF A BI-FOLIATE LEAF IN

CITRUS AURANTIUM L.

(With a Sketch)

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The members of the genus Citrus (Rutaceae) are, ‘Palaeo-trop:cal

and sub-tropical perennials with usually simple leaves which show a

joint at the meeting of blade and stalk indicating their derivation

from compound leaves’. That is, in other words, the leaf of Citrus

appears to be phylogenetically compound but has become unifoliate

by reduction and often it is difficult to convince the junior students in

the demonstration classes about this fact.

A large consignment of Citrus aurantium L. plants had recently

arrived at the Chidambaram Railway Station from a certain nursery.

While glancing through them cursorily, my attention was drawn

towards a leaf which was bifoliate. This although an abnormal

specimen, was a clear demonstration that the leaf of Citrus aurantium

L. was phylogenetically compound. This abnormal compound leaf was

quite normal in all respects with regard to the venation serration of

the margin and the distribution of gland dots. The only difference

observable was that a leaflet was borne in a lateral position at the

very same joint of the large terminal leaflet and the broadly winged

petiole (see figure). The laterally formed leaflet was about half the

size of the terminal leaflet. The venation in this leaflet as well was

of the usual type. AF

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, S. KALYANASUNDARAM

ANNAMALAINAGAR,

October 12,1053.

27. PROLIFERATION, IN “GRASS

Teratological phenomena are not very common in the grasses. As

far as known no such cases have as yet been reported from Bengal.

Goebel (1900) and Bor (1953). have cited examples of some

viviparous species of Poa and of other grasses where flower or seed

formations are often replaced by the growth of the axis of the spikelet

into leafy shoots. Such shoots are capable of producing new off-

springs. Another case of proliferation in Sorgum was reported from

America by Lande and Gates (1929). In India S. A. Parandekar

(1950) has reported such. occurrence in Zea mays. The species of

Saccolepis indica (L) A. Chase, S. myoSuroides, A. Camus, collected

from the neighbourhood of Birnagar and Chakdah District Nuddea,

are found to contain many greatly proliferated spikelets. In order

to see whether related structures of the spikelets can be traced, they

are dissected and studied under binocular microscope.

The glumes, lemnas and paleas are seen to be transformed into

leaf-like structures. The stamens and carpels are represented by the

flat, green and elongated bodies. The cavity of the ovary is often

found to be occupied by a larva or an egg of an insect. In Panicum

trypheron Schult, inside enlarged ovaries such eggs are occasionally

met with but proliferation is not the rule with that species. Curiously,

though large number of spikelets are dissected out, yet no structures

referable to the lodicules, are found out. Sometimes, however, a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 223

papery structure is found to remain attached to the style—the mor-

phology of which is not clear. Another interesting fact is that in

transformed lemnas or glumes, the number of veins characteristic of

the particular species remain unaltered. About the reason of the

proliferation it seems logical to suggest that the injury caused by the

insects at the time of laying their eggs inside the ovary is responsible

for the phenomena.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

VIDYASAGAR COLLEGE, R. B. MAJUMDAR

CALCUTTA 6,

December 7, 10953:

23. THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES

AURICULATUS NEES.

Strobilanthes auriculatus Nees, has flowered gregariously this year

in the Singhbhum forests. The first flowers were noticed early in

December, and the maximum flowering density was attained about

the third week of December, and continues to be so.. The flowering

is confined to the Saranda, Kolhan and Porahat Forest Divisions,

over an area of approximately 850 sq. miles.

The last gregarious flowering occurred in the same area in the

cold weather of 1945-46, and as it is supposed that the period of

flowering is six years the next gregarious flowering was expected in

1951-52, but it did not occur then. Sporadic flowering was, how-

ever, noticed in the cold weather of 1951-52, and to a greater extent

in the cold weather of 1952-53.

Authentic records of previous gregarious flowering in this region

of this species are: 1898, 1911 (Haines); 1933 (Mooney); 1939 (S. S.

Prasad); and 1945 (S. Ahmad). According to Haines the variety

Edgeworthiana is more common than the type species in Singhbhum.

He gives the distribution of this species in Bihar as Singhbhum,

North Champaran, Gaya Ghats, Manbhum, Hazaribagh including

Kodarma. Mr. S. S. Prasad, the present Chief Conservator of Forests,

Bihar, mentions having seen this species in gregarious flower in the

Khurchutta Range, Giridih Forest Division, in the Hazaribagh

District, in the cold weather of 1952-53. The vernacular names of

this species used locally are: Hutid by Kols; Gada Kalha by the

Santhals.

Strobilanthes jeyporensis Bedd., with white flowers as described

by Clarke in the FBI, has also been noticed in Singhbhum this year,

occurring as isolated plants but strikingly noticeable amidst the massed

blue flowers of the S. auriculatus. Haines had given the area of this

as the neighbouring Mayurbhanj hills and the Eastern Ghats near

Mahendragiri, both in Orissa.

The other species noticed had purple and red leaves with blue

flowers. It may be Strobilanthes dyerianus, which is normally a

cultivated species, but identification is not certain. It was found in

the Tebo Ghats on the Ranchi-Chaibassa Road, at an elevation of

roughly 1,700 ft. above sea-level.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURALLEST: SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Haines also mentions the Strobilanthes scaber Nees, as occurring

in Purnea, Santhal Parganas and Singhbhum, but it has not been

seen in flower by me. —

c/o Sami AHMAD EsgqQ.,

1, EUROPEAN BACHELOR’S QUARTERS, MRS. JAMAL ARA

DoranpDA, P.O., :

H1noo, RANCHI,

january 8, 1954.

29. ABNORMALITIES IN THE FRUIT OF

ARECA CATECHU L.

(With a text figure)

Arecanut (fruit of Areca catechu L.) is normally one-celled and

one-seeded. The pericarp of the young nut is green but turns to

varying shades of reddish orange on maturity. This consists of a

thin epicarp and a fibrous mesocarp. The endocarp is not so clearly

differentiated or hard as in the coconut. The centrally placed seed

completely fills the cavity and is adherent to the pericarp in the ripe

fruit. But on drying it may separate and lie loose in the cavity. A

vertical section of the seed reveals, at the base a short white cylindrical

embryo, 2-3 mm. long and half as broad embedded in the endosperm.

The latter consists of a central white portion from which many

diverticula extend into the surrounding ruminate coloured area.

During the examination of a large number of arecanuts several

abnormalities were brought to my notice by Sri. N. Balakrishnan,

Senior Assistant, Arecanut Research Station, Vittal, South Kanara.

They are described in this note.

pees

be a ee a ieee See

One fruit though extern

ally appearing normal was extrabroad.

On opening, this was found to be two-celled with a distinct septum

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

between the cells. In each cell was a well developed independent

seed. Another fruit which did not exhibit any external peculiarity

showed on cutting, an imperfect division of the cavity. There was

partial development of the septum from the wall of the cavity towards

iheseentre. But the two seeds#had fused on one “side: -One of the

seeds was bigger than the other. Each portion had a_ separate

embryo. In a third fruit which was normal to all external appearance

a double seed was present in a single cell. In this case the two

seeds had fused all along the point of contact. But two distinct

embryos were found each embedded in its portion of the endosperm.

Other instances of double seeds were also noticed in which the two

portions were of unequal growth.

Abnormalities in the fruits of coconut have been recorded by several

authors, but there is no record of 2-celled fruits or double seeds in

Areca.

AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,

LawLy Roap, P.O., Tes. RAMAKRISHNAN

January 23, 1954.

g0.4 BEEECT OF MARGOSA (AZADIRACHTA INDICA)

EAVES, ON «HE ROUTING OF BOTATO

TUBERS. DURING, STORAGE

Tandon! reported that the losses during storage of potatoes due

to sprouting of tubers were low when the medium of storage consisted

of sand and margosa leaves rather than sand alone. The present

note deals with the effect of margosa leaves on the losses due to

rotting of potato tubers during storage. The first lot of potatoes were

stored between-dry sand layers and in the second lot the storage

medium consisted of a mixture of dry margosa leaves and dry sand.

The rotted tubers were removed at definite intervals.

Table showing percentage of rotted tubers

; . Mean | : - Sand +

ae ae temperature of | shed See ve Margosa

storage (°C) | ‘ leaves

20 days ea 22°95 Small | 0°14 Nil

Big | Nil Nil

40 ,. 95 26'9 Small | 0°99 0°58

foc saad BB Fe 2°15 2°24

59 ,, 5 32-0 Small a ehe7 0 1:02

.| Big 6°45 5°61

g0 ,, say 33°8 | Small 6°38 4°83

| Big 19°35 | 14:60

120 »., oo 31° 2 | Small 18°86 8°78

| Big 36°55 | 17°96

150 ,, | 277 | Small De 27 | 11528

| | Big 40°86 20722

d30). ,, Ail 27°7 Small 23°50 He23

| | Big 45°21 | 20722

ST RA ES A PC SS SS ESTE, SSP BE I SR OE AR RS

fa fandony:S. 1. 1953): Gurr. Sci.; 22 = 255.

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (AEST) SOCIETY, Vol. 52

It is seen from the table that the losses in storage due to rotting

of potato tubers was less when the medium of storage consisted of

sand and margosa leaves rather than sand alone. These results,

thus, further support the use of dry margosa leaves along with sand

as storage medium for potatoes.

DEPARTMENT OF Botany,

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, S., LP ANDoON

DELHI 8,

January 25, 1954.

31. VARTATION IN THE FLORAL PARTSIOR

SOLANUM MELONGENA L.

(IVith a text figure)

It is common knowledge that the flower of Solanum melongena

L. belonging to the natural order Solanaceae consists of a gamosepalous

calyx with five united sepals free in the upper part; a gamopetalous

corolla with five united petals mostly distinguished by their separation

at the tips; and five epipetalous, connate anthers alternating with the

corolla lobes. Despite the above rule, six sepals and an equal number

of petals and anthers per flower are not uncommon in the species.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

“J

Studies in the floral biology dealing with qualitative and quanti-

tative characters of the floral parts have been reported from time

to time. It is, nevertheless, proposed to mention in this brief note

the extent of heteranthy obtaining therein due to the numerical

variations in the floral parts.

A wild erect type of Brinjal yielding small round fruits is found

to bear purple flowers with three, four and five sepals and as many

petals and anthers as the number of sepals in individual flowers.

In case of the 4-petalled flower the petals are entirely united, being

distinguished by their paier colour and a marked venation in contrast

to the deep violet colour of the floral membrane running right up to their

tips and wholly uniting them, giving a squarish appearance to the

open corolla; and the four stamens bear mostly four anthers, rarely

a fifth one appearing fused with one of the four.

The above type of Brinjal appears to be perennial in nature.

Of the 118 hard pendulous berries obtained during two seasons to-

gether, 76 were found to be five-sepalled, 38 were four-sepalled and

4 had three sepals only. Interestingly enough, roughly a _ direct

correlation was noticed between the number of sepals and the size

of the flower and the fruit, the mean diameter of the berries with

five sepals being 1.94 cms., that of berries with four sepals being

1.83 cms. and that of berries with three sepals being 1.60 cms. The

plants of this type are rather spiny and small leaved, the mean leaf

size being about 4.5 x 3.0 cms. and the diameter of the flower varying

frony 2) to 42) ems:

In a Gujarat type of cultivated Brinjal we noticed flowers having

five, six, seven, eight and nine long, slender and much separated

sepals, their free portions approximating almost two-thirds of the

length of the calyx; and as many petals and stamens in the flower,

except that the following types of flowers are also occasionally evinced

in this type:—

Type | No. No. No. Remarks on other irre-

of leshes Of Pe VoF of gularities of the floral

flower | sepals Petals anthers parts

~— | i: |

1 6 5 5) =

2 fi 6 6 —

3) 7. a 8 Four of the sepals found

united into two pairs.

4 7 6 9 _

5 7 6 ) Two of the sepals being

more united.

6 6 6 6 The sepals existing in three

pairs instead of regularly

alternating with the

corolla lobes,

The flower of this type is large, the diameter of the open corolla

being 4.7 to 5.3 cms., the large purple berry measuring approximately

I0-12x9-10 cms. The leaf of this type is about 23x15 cms.

The 6- and 7-petalled flowers do not seem to be a rare occurrence

and are mentioned here mainly for the sake of comparison with 3-,

(@ 8)

JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL, BIS# OO SOCILTY, Vol. 52

4-, 8- and g-petalled ones which are probably as yet unreported,

the numerical range of these floral parts, which mostly bear a direct

inter-relationship with one another, being, therefore, three to nine

in the heteranthous species of Solanum melongena L.

We are indebted™te Rev. Fr. H. Santapani for examining the

specimens of flowers and the note.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH STATION,

BiJAPUuR, Go PP) ARGICKAR

November 19, 1953. My S] SOLAN

32. CHAPTERS ON THE HISTORY OF BOTANY IN INDIA,

BY I. H. BURKILL, IN THIS JOURNAL 51: 846-878

A CORRECTION

In giving an account of the botanical work done in Western

India (Vol. 51, p. 873) Burkill writes ‘There was a botanically minded

Charles Lush (1747-1845) at the Cantonment of Dopuri or Dapoli in

the Ratnagiri District, with a-Botanical Garden under his charge.’

This statement is obviously incorrect and needs correction. The

Botanical Garden referred to was not situated at -Dapoli in the

Ratnagiri District but at Dapooree near Poona, in the grounds of

Government House. It was formed by order of Sir John Malcolm

in 1828 with an area of 48 acres (out of the 70 acres forming the.

whole Government House Estate) and was maintained at a cost of

RS. 3,000. per year.

The garden was established mainly for experiments in the cultivation

of foreign cottons, coffee, tea, tobacco, Mauritius sugarcane, Mulberry,

Cochineal insect, Culinary vegetables and fruit trees.

Three nurseries were attached to it at Sheoneri Fort (for temperate

plants) and two at Hirwe and. Nirgori both situated near

Narayangaon.

This garden was successively in charge of Dr. Williamson, Dr.

Lush and Dr. Gibson. The garden continued in this locality upto

1865 when it was shifted to Ganeshkhind along with the Government

House itself. It is at present a purely horticultural garden.

Further details can be found in J. Royle in his ‘Essay on the

Productive Resources of India’, London (1840) and in the Poona

District Gazetteer, Vol. xviii, part 3, p. 128 (1885) under Dapuri.’

MAHARASHTRA ASSOCIATION FOR THE S. P. AGHARKAR,

CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE, PhsbD., FAN.

POONA.

33. GLEANINGS |

A Fish Story

On page 113 of ‘Arabian Days’, H. St, J. Philby writes :—

‘At Hakaika in Mesopotamia, we heard a good and presumably

authentic fish story from the Garrison Commander, One of his

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 229

soldiers had been fishing in the river with a lump of bread on an

ordinary hook, when a mighty pull nearly dragged him into the

water. He stuck to the rod, however, and the tackle held with

some monster at the farther end. He got it ashore—a Euphrates

salmon as long as a tall man and weighing 538 lb. All I can

vouch for is that I saw a photograph of the man with his catch, and it

was certainly a huge fish.’

In'the Jourmal,y Vol xxvi,i p.679, under aletter dated October

12, 1918 is recorded a fish 69 in. long (measured along the curve of

‘the back) and 38 in. in girth weighing 123 lb. and caught by Major

H. L. Colan with atta.

Mr. Philby’s notes are also made during the war

wonder if both these records refer to the same fish!

years and we

A Snake-kiling Cat

M. R. Millet, French Embassy, Dyjakarta, Indonesia in a letter

to the ‘Field’ (page 490, 17th September 1953) writes :—

‘It is well-known in Siam that Siamese cats kill snakes and many

people living there keep them for that reason. I have a two-year

Siamese cat from Bangkok which has killed many snakes. He al-

Wwavse bites wthem \ trom. the) back... of. (they. head4 Fld. never

eats them but often plays with them, but as far as I know he has.

never been bitten J never heard’ of a Siamese cat having

died from a snake bite though I saw one with an enormously swollen

head, the result of a bite from which he recovered.’

Diwection-findng in Animals—Influence of Light and Heat

The many different ways in which animals find their way about

were discussed by zoologists, Dr. H. W. Lissman of Cambridge

University gave a general review of the problem of direction-finding in

fish.

The two most spectacular examples are the breeding migrations

of eels and salmon. No satisfactory explanation of these has yet

been given although there is evidence that fish have a highly developed

chemical sense and are sensitive to temperature changes of less than

ome-tenta of a degree.

As a more specialized type of perception he quoted his own recent

discovery that certain African fish regularly emit electrical pulses. and

are sensitive to similar pulses either from other fish or their own if

picked up and fed back again into the water. The case of the

Sandhopper (Talitrus saltator) was described by Dr. D. I. Williamson,

of the Marine Biological Station, Port Erin, Isle of Man.

Sandhoppers spend most of their time buried in the sand near

high water mark but surprisingly they have been found to use different

methods of navigation according as they were released on wet sand

below high water mark or on dry sand above it. If released on wet

sand they moved up-beach no matter whether the sun was shining

or obscured, or whether the beach was one to which they were

accustomed or not. Under laboratory conditions they responded to

patterns of various shapes when projected on to a screen, and on

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

the beach are thought to direct themselves by objects well above high

water mark.

Seaward movements towards high water mark have been shown

by Prof. L. Pardi and Dr. F. Papi in Italy to depend on sunlight

and to be upset by moving the hoppers from one beach to another

facing the opposite direction. Dr. J. L. Cloudsley-Thompson stated

that the movement of centipedes, millipedes, and wood lice was

governed during the day by their need to avoid dry, bright, and hot

places. In the moist air at night their movements are less restricted

and it is at night that they disperse themselves to new areas.

Dr. J. D. Carthy, of Queen Mary College, London, said that

little was known of the stimuli which aided butterflies on their

migratory flights, but more was known about the movements of

locusts. Whereas it used to be thought that the long-distance move-

ments of flying adult locusts were undertaken in the face of prevailing

winds, it has been shown that these movements are often in the

direction of local winds which may be contrary to the prevailing

one.

The general direction of flight is thought to be canalized. by

physical features which the iocust can see. So long as the wind is

in the direction of flight, images pass over their eyes from front to

back and flight is then continued. The reversal of this normal move-

ment may cause the locust to settle.

—The Times, September 5, 1953

(Reproduced from Science Newsletter No. 123 dated September 11,

1953, item: No; 1829).

Protection of Gram by Asphyxiation of Insect Pests

According to the report of the Food Manufacturers’ Conference,

workers in Argentine have discovered that when infested grain was

stored in large underground pits, which had been leak-proofed for

carbon-di-oxide, with roofing felt and bitumen, the perspiration of

the insects caused a rapid rise in carbon-di-oxide concentration and

corresponding fall in oxygen and the insects died by their own

efforts.

Trial pits had been built and tested in parts of East Africa with

promising results and it was likely that the method would be developed

on a full commercial scale.

Another method by which the need for insecticide could be avoided,

or at least minimised, was the self-sterilisation of bagged grain by

stocking bags in the tropics as tightly as possible in order to conserve

all the heat that might be engendered, much of the insect life in

the centre of the stack was killed, or was driven to the periphery

where contact insecticides could be used in the form of dusts applied

to the outer bags. This method has been successfully used on a

large scale in East Africa.

(Reproduced from Science Newsletter No. 126, October 2, 1953,

item No. 1880). eee

NORES ANDEAN EW S

In the report for the period ending August 1953 (Journ., B.N.H.S.,

Vol. 51, p- 979) we referred to the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild

Birds Protection Act being brought into effect from ist May, 1953.

Though Government have advertised for a Wild Life Preservation Officer,

no whole-time man has yet been appointed and the work is being looked

after by Mr. J. A. Singh in addition to his other activities as Chief

Conservator of Forests.

Wptow rs chs March.) 1954, 1,050 Small Game (Rs. 20) and‘138 Bie

Game (Rs, 60) Licences were issued. The number of offences detected

under the Act throughout the State by the end of January was about

33 including 22 animals (12 panther, 7 tiger and 3 sambar) said to

have been shot in defence of life and property.

Several instances of partridge and quail illegally trapped and sold

were detected and a considerable number of these birds released at

the Krishnagiri Park and in other places. Two persons have been

fined Rs. 75 and Rs. 15 for shooting Cattle Egrets. The Honorary

Game Wardens working in the neighbourhood of Bombay have been

responsible for the above convictions and though shooting at night

from cars and other illegal methods of shikar continue, this has been

discouraged to a large extent in the city-dwellers and should soon

cease completely.

The agriculturists who hold Crop-Protection Licences could, how-

ever, not be so easily contacted, and propaganda will have to be

carried on a more extensive scale to impress the implications of the

Act upon them.

With the appointment, however, of a full-time Wild Life Preser-

vation Officer it is hoped that it will be possible to take the work more

earnestly in hand, and that Bombay will be able to show to the other

. States the efficacy of its new Act.

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

CORRIGENDA

VoL. 51) Now

In the articles ‘Local and Scientific Names of Commercial

Fishes of Bombay’ and ‘Occurrence of Brine Shrimp 4rtemza

Sp. in Bombay ’.

p. 924, line 8 from bottom: The words ‘ Estuarine Fish’

appearing as a sub-heading, should be in bracketed parenthesis

below ‘ Etroplus suratensts’.

p.951: In the caption to illustration of male and female

Artemia,

‘22’ in both places may be read as ‘ x7’

‘ x 200° may be teadcasv-a~an ¢

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—1-7-1954. C905

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU

114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for

publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been

published elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. ‘The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific

names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a

person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis

suratensis or Dimerta blattert.

4. ‘Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used

where identification has been authentically established by comparison

of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identi-

fication is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x24 inches

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian

ink, preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged

titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hitbner. Trans. ent.

Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949).

9. Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific

Information Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable

that each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at

the beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be

factual. It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw

attention to all new information and to the author’s main conclusions,

It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions

of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new

finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not

exceed 200 words.

When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

114 Apollo Street, Fort, EDITORS,

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME bie NOS: 2 6, 3

BaseRN REGION, By H.-P; Gig For poset oh He ise

(OMMENTS ON THE BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA WITH PARTICULAR REFER-

ENCE TO Brrps. By S. Dillon Ripley. (With two maps): a

(Occophylla smaragdina (FABR). By A. P. Mathew. (With five text

figures) fs ss nase ot ae aes oe

WILp LIFE PRESERVATION AND SANCTUARIES IN THE UNION OF BURMA.

By U Tun Yin. (With a map) 3 peels ‘at es

eee MerHops EMPLOYED IN KILLING & CAPTURING eget By

K. M. Kirkpatrick. (With six text-figures) ——..... seeiees ees

A SUPPLEMENTARY NotE ON THE STATUS OF RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN

ae ON THE FORESTS oF THE NORTA TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE,

- Nort ae By F.. Kingdon-Ward eae sp fe

By M.R.N. Prasad. (With one histogram) aes Be ee

THE WHALE SHARK, Rhineodon typus (SmitH). By Charles McCann.

(With two plates) oe ee ive oer fee

PETRELS, SHEARWATERS AND OTHER OCEANIC BIRDS IN THE NORTH

INDIAN OCEAN. By W. W. A, Phillips - ese eee eee

_ Chacko and B. Krishnamurthi. (With six text-figures) ... ate

THE STRUCTURE AND POPULATION OF THE Nest OF THE COMMON INDIAN

TREE Ant, Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr. (HYMENOPTERA,

FormIciDAz). By M, L. Roonwal. (With one table, one text-figure and

three plates) a aw an Pe fas Sb

TES ON THE BUITERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILts, EASTERN

~Guats. By-A.E. G. Best na ae <a “a

‘uz Brrs or Gurarar. By Sélim Ali. Part I ( With a map and five plates)...

OLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES (ISsopTERA) No. 1—

- Odontolermes parvidens Hotmc, AnD Hotmc. SEVERELY DAMAGING

THE BARK AND CONTRIBUTING TO THE DgaTH oF STANDING TEAK

TREES IN-UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA. By M. L. Roonwal. (With two.

Pe vacles and @ plaity > sé pews is (caae evi? Bee

BSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF Two SPIDER MIMICS OF THE RED ANT.

( Panolia eldi thamin) IN THE UNION OF BurMA, 1953. By U Tun Yin...

Foop OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE Zatera indica cuvieri (WATERHOUSE) —

OBSERVATIONS ON Tilapia mossambica PETERS IN MapRAS. By P. I.

241

249

264

285

301

304

321

326

334

349

354

365

374

459°

BIOLOGY AND EcoLocy oF ORIENTAL TERMITES (IsOPpTERA) No, 2-On

EcoLocicaL ADJUSTMENT IN NATURE BETWEEN Two SPECIES OF —

TERMITES, NAMELY Coptotermes heimi (WASMANN) AND Odontermes

vedemanni \WASMANN) IN MapHyA PrapesH, InpIA. By M. L. |

Roonwal. (With one plate and one text-figure) ... ea oes Sa

Notes on Lanp LEecHES. By J. L. Harrison a= a, ae AGS =a

A SyNOPSIS OF THE GENUS Ozobranchus (DE QUATREFAGES 1852) (HiRU-

DINEA, ANNELIDA). By P.J.Sanjeeva Raj. ... ip nn eee

A New SprECIES OF Arthraxon FROM PURANDHAR, BOMBAY STATE. By aaa

F. R. Bharucha and Y. Satyanarayan. (With a plate) ee ast * AB

THE VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. Py T. S, Bakshi.

(With a map) iy ae ‘a Sf saa): 468

Poisonous SEEDS OF INDIA, By S.L. Nayar. Part II | ae sas eo Dae

Tur GENUS Cyathula LOUR. IN INDIA, By T.S. Bakshi ae ee Tee

EcoLoGy AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION Palamnaeus bengalensis

C. Kocu. ByM.S. Kanungo, (With two text-figures) ... 936

CHECK-LIST OF THE TRIDACTYLIDAE AND GRYLLIDAE (INSECTA, ORTHOP-

TERA) OF CEYLON, WITH RECORDS OF DISTRIBUTION. By ‘TT. R,

Sandrasagara ie “ae fae a ar

OBITUARIES :—

1. Sir Peter Clutterbuck in + ee ae

2. C.M. Inglis (oto) re Ae a laa

REVIEWS :— :

1, Jungle Lore. By Jim Corbett. (M.R.S.C.).. ae.

2, The Snakes of India and Pakistan. By Lieut. Ta. K, G. Guareures:

rims. (J.C.D.) se oe “8 aa Ons

3. A Field Guide to the Birds of Bedi and Europe. By Roger Peterson Pees

Guy Mountfort and P. A.D. Hollom. (S.A.) ne ona TO

4, Poisonous Plants of India. By Sir Ram Nath Chopra, Rattan Lall —

Badhwar and Sudhamoy Ghosh. (H. Santapau, s.J.) ag 2 S71

5. The Birds of Travancore and Cochin. By Sdlim Ali (B. Biswas) 573

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY ... Ss Soe aes

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— _

1. Swimming and Locomotion of Captive Hedgehogs. By Iswar Prakash

(p. 584). 2. Earthquake effect on Elephants. By Frank Nicholls (p. 585). ee

3. A Rorqual Whale near Badagar, Malabar Coast. By P. 1. Chacko and

M. J. Mathew (p. 585). 4. A Large Tiger. By T. B. Hawkins (p. 586).

5. Habits of the Asiatic Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus thibetanus) a

By U Tun Yin (p. 586). 6. Longevity of the Ceylon Ruddy Mongoose

(Herpestes smithi zeylanicus) in Captivity. By W. W. A. Phillips :

(p. 587). 7. Record Sambar for the Nilgiris. By E. G. Phythian-Adams

(p. 588). 8. Malformation in Antlers of the Malayan Sambar (Wzth a ~

photo). By H.J. Kitchener (p, 588). 9, Shikar in India. By K. M. Kirkpat-

we a As ES is gins

sey Hee | ie a : cee ee ee ie

gpe a pie sy ue oe ents e fi

INTENTS OF VOLUME 52, NOS. 2 & 3 (contd.)

, 589). 10. Intelligence of the Indian Elephant. By K. Kadambi

11, The Abominable Snowman (With a photo). By Editors.

15. More Notes on Finn’s Baya (Ploceus megarhynchus). By

Humayun Abdulali (p.599). 16. Sparrows nesting in colonies in Trees.

By Humayun Abdulali (p. 601). 17. A display of the Redwinged Bush-

Lark (Miratra erythroptera Blyth). By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 601), 18. The

- Couriship Display of the Large Pied Wagtail (Motacilla maderaspatensis

Gmelin). By K.M. Kirkpatrick (p. 602). 19. The Occurrence of Franklin’s

_ M.C.A. Jackson (p. 603). 20, Occurrence of Spurs in the female Jungle-

“ fowl (Gallus sonnerati). By Editors (p. 603). 21. The Great Indian Bus-

tard. By Editors (p. 604). 22. Occurrence of the Blacknecked Crane (Grus

-nigricollis) in Indian limits. By F.N. Betts (p. 605). 23. The Status of

the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) in South India. By

C. H. Biddulph (p. 666), 24. Occurrence of Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal

(Zunetta falcata) near Calcutta, By J. N. Taylor (p.607). 25. Birds asso-

ciating Natural Phenomena with Food Supply. By Charles McCann (p. 607).

26. Some Bird Notes from Chingleput District, Madras. By Rev. E. O.

Shaw (p. 609). 27. Birds seen above the tree-line in Tehri Garhwal in the

Central Himalayas (Wzth two plates). By H. F. Lamprey (p. 610). 28, The

Secondary Song of Birds. By K. K. Neelakantan (p, 615), 29. Pythons. By

Frank Nicholls (p. 620), 30. Notcs on the Frog Rana breviceps Schneider

(With a sketch), By J. L. Bhaduri and M.B. Kirpalani (p. 620). 31. A Record

_ of the Whale Shark (A/ineodon typus Smith) from the Malabar Coast. By

-P. I, Chacko and M. J. Mathew (p. 623). 32. Food Organisms of Gadusia

_chapra(Ham.) fromcertain Ponds with thick Huglena blooms. By P. Mohapa-

for five Cyprinids (With five graphs). By P. Mohapatra (p. 626). 34.

Effect of Jaggery on Fish Life. By P, I. Chacko and R. Srinivasan

35. Spawning of Rohu at Powai Lake. By F. R. Goldschmidt

i . 36. Distribution of Rana leithit Bouleng. A Correction. By

Humayun Abdulali and J. C. Daniel (p. 635). 37, Extension of range of

Rana temporalis Gunth. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 636). 38, Extension of

range of the Frog Uperodon globulosum Gunth. By Humayun Abdulali and

,C. Daniel (p. 637), 39. Food of the Bull-Frog (Rana tigirina), By (Mrs.)

: Aruna Banerji (p. 639). 40. Distribution and Habits of the Batrachian,

Ichthyophis glutinosus Linn. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 639). 41. A Note

yn the Courtship in the Sand Crab (Philyva scabriuscula (Fabricius). By

iiss) K. G. Raja Bai Naidu (p. 640). 42, Sex Ratio and Variability of

Apodous Segments in Apus (Phyllopoda, Crustacea). By Krishna Kant

Tiwari (p. 641). 43. Occurrence of the mantis Gongylus gongyloides

Linn, in Junagadh (Saurashtra). By I. H. Kachhi (p. 644). 44. On Some

recorded Host Plants of the Lac Insect, Laccifer lacca (Kerr) (Homoptera,

cciferidae). By A. P. Kapur (p. 645). 45. Presumptive Fatal Sting

the Common House Wasp, Polistes hebraeus. By J. N. Onial (p. 647).

- Some Insects Attracted to Light. By S. Usman (p. 647), 47. Land

eches, By R. N. Champion-Jones (p. 650). 48, Land Leeches. By F. M,

3ailey (p. 652). 49. Land Leeches. By J.L. H. Williams (p. 652).

Land Leeches. By R.S. Mathews (p. 655). 51. '‘ Nwe-Shin’ or ‘ Live

tra (p. 624). 33. The Relationships of Total Length to Furcal Length’

By H.G. Hundley (p. 656).

Creeper ’.

J. G. Srivastava (p. 659). 56. A note on Ventilago gamblei Merrill.

By M. B. Raizada (p. 660). 57. New Plant records for Bombay (With |

iwo plates). By R. Fernandes, A. Randeria and H. Santapai (p. 661).

58. E. J. Woodhouse—His Contribution to Our Knowledge of the oy of

Bihar. J. G. Srivastava (P. 663). 59. Gleanings (p. 665).

NoTES AND NEwS cae am tox Res 1.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE

YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1953 ae AR ane

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1953. Scere seb

APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT Come THE

PERIOD JANUARY to Aucust 1954 ns Bee e nee

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY © «s.

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING...

52. Identity and Taxonomical —

Status of Sesamum ekambavramii Naidu. By S. Ramanujam and |

A. B. Joshi (p. 657). 53. The Genus Wurdannia in Bombay State. By _

H. Santapau (p. 658). 54. The Genus Murdannia in Bombay—Further —

Corrections. By H. Santapau (p. 658). 55. Some Recently Introduced or an

‘Newly Recorded Plants from Patna District and its neighbourhood. By

668

669°

670

JOURNAL

OF THE ag

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

ae 1954 : VoL. 52 Nos. 2 & 3

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA:

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1953 ON THE EASTERN REGION

E. P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S., A

Honorary Regional Secretary, Indian Board for Wild Life

p *~ CONTENTS

I. THE EASTERN REGION

During the year -1953. the Eias tern Region under the

Indian Board for Wild Life comprised the following States: Assam,

Bengal, Bihar, Manipur, Orissa and Tripura.

- The North East Frontier Agency, an area containing rich and

varied wild life and some of the finest mountain and river scenery

in India, is not included in this Region. It is to be hoped that in

the near future the N.E.F.A. will be in a position either to form

its own Wild Life Board or to send representatives to the Assam

Wild Life Board and thus become ‘co-ordinated with Assam in the

matter of wild life preservation. | ; 7

Similarly, Bhutan is adjacent to Bengal and Assam and has mutual

problems concerning wild life preservation; and it would be in the

interests both of India and Bhutan if the latter country could be

closely associated: with India in this respect. The same kind of

problems exist on the borders of Bihar and Nepal, and it would also

be in the interests of both these States if concerted action could be

PAGE

I. Tue EasTERN REGION ae ia Se3 rf sane

II. Witp Lire IN THE REGION ae was as eis"

Ill. Strate Witp Lire BoarpDs ae ae ae <a 258

IV. Wiuip Lire RESERVES, SANCTUARIES, AND NATIONAL PaRKs ... ... 236

V. Witp Lire LEGISLATION ... ae £6 a Mie 23

VI. GENERAL ie fee oes Ye as Fae LOO

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62

II. Wiutp Lire 1n THE REGION :

Rhinoceros. Perhaps the most valuable animal in the Region

is the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros, and its numbers may, now

be estimated as follows: Assam 347, Bengal 43, Bihar 2 (and Nepal

48). There are signs of a revival of interest in the Jaldapara Sanctuary

of Bengal, and this factor should enable the depleted rhino population

of that area to be increased to what it was some twenty years ago.

Officially I believe there are no rhino in Bihar, but it is reported

that occasionally a few of the fifty or so animals of Nepal wander

across the border into India. It might be possible to create a sanctuary

in the Champaran District of Bihar in order to provide a refuge for |

these stragglers from Nepal; and this sanctuary might in later years .

develop into a safe stronghold of this most important creature.

Elephant. It is fortunate that the wild elephant appears to

be able to hold its own in spite of the advance of civilisation into its

habitat. Although its numbers are being constantly reduced by

capturing and controlled shooting wherever damage to crops is reported,

its prolific nature leads us to feel assured of its continuance in the

future.

Gaur (‘Bison’ or ‘Mithan’). This fine animal is becoming much

rarer in north-east India, chiefly owing to its susceptibility to diseases

spread by domestic cattle and buffaloes. It is recommended that it

be protected as much as possible.

Buffalo. In spite of rinderpest this animal continues to

survive in safe numbers in Assam and north Bengal, and in some

parts of Orissa. The sad news has been received from the Chief

Conservator of Forests, Bihar that ‘the wild buffalo of Purnea also

probably has vanished with the privately-owned forests were its last

refuge and were cut down’. It is essential that domestic cattle and

domestic buffaloes of graziers and villagers adjacent to wild buffalo

sanctuaries should be. compulsorily innoculated against rinderpest.

Some research is needed into the question of the advantages or

otherwise of the crossing of tame buffaloes with wild ones, as

there are conflicting accounts of the quantity of the milk supply and of

the quality of the offspring after such crossings have taken place.

Swamp Deer. Unlike the sambar which frequents thick

forest and hilly regions, the swamp deer confidingly inhabits the more—

open places and presents an easy target to poachers and others.

Because of its meat value as compared with the hog deer, the swamp —

deer has become exceedingly rare in the States of this Region and —

requires the most rigid protection—especially in sanctuaries.

Serow and Goral. These goat-antelopes are also in need of

protection. (Takin and Musk Deer exist in the mountainous areas —

of the N.E.F.A. and Bhutan, and are therefore outside the scope of

this report.)

Thamin or Brow-antlered Deer. In “spite of

enquiries and search by the Forest Department in Manipur, no trace

can now be found of this beautiful deer which once existed in ~~

ESERVATION IN INDIA~

‘numbers in a State’, This is most unfortunate and a great loss

to the wild life of India. Owing to its habit of wandering from

place to place in search of grazing etc., the prospect of re-introducing

it from Burma is not feasible. Moreover the Burma Brow- antlered

seer, isa different sub-species.

Pygmy Hog. This peculiar diminutive pig seems to have

disappeared from the foothills of Bhutan, though it used to be found

a few decades ago in the forests of Assam (and Beal adjoining

_ Bhutan. 1

€leouded.-L-éopard. The: progressive’ reduction - in, the

numbers of the carnivora is the natural result of the gradual decrease

in the populations of deer and such other animals, but the rarity of

_ the clouded leopard led the Mysore Conference of the Indian Board

_ for Wild Life to recommend this beautiful animal for full protection.

ait is to be hoped that its preference for thick forest will prevent its

becoming extinct.

Florican. Owing to the clearance for cultivation and the

opening up by grazing of large tracts of grassland, the Bengal

_Florican has become rare in recent years. A number still exist in

Kaziranga Wild Life Sanctuary in Assam, and it is to be hoped

that this bird can be saved from extinction in all the States of this

_ Region.

Pinkheaded Duck. Reports of this duck having been

seen or shot in recent years are open to doubt owing to the fact

that many people confuse the Pinkheaded Duck with the Redcrested

Pochard. It is a regrettable fact that there is no really authentic

evidence of the aed Duck having been seen in the last few

=. yeats..

mo oW’hite-wingced Wood Duck... This duck still ‘exists

in Assam, at any rate. As it can be kept in captivity fairly easily,

Bethe possibility of rearing it in zoological parks or private erie

should not be ignored.

Monitor Lizard and Python. These two reptiles are

protected in some States of the Region, but unfortunately the trade

in their skins goes on unchecked. Information obtained. at the

rs receiving end in this trade (e.g. Calcutta) reveals that many persons

ut in the mofussil are collecting these skins, and the matter needs

reful investigation.

Bite STaTE WiLp LIFE BOARDS

1A : sam. The Assam Wild Life Board was constituted on

and 6 non-officials, with the Minister for Forests as Chairman and

e Senior Conservator of Forests as Secretary and Convenor.

. eptember, 1953; in eS

Fes

th June, 1953, and consists of 10 members comprising 4 officials:

The first meeting | of this Board was held on oth and toth

: pice

Se gee

Advisory Board will be able to deal fully and efficiently with all the

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

A great number of items was dealt with, and two sub-committees

were formed, one for framing rules etc. for the Board, and one

for revising the Assam Forest Regulations in so far as they deal

with the protection of wild life and for drafting a aber, version

of the Arms Act as applicable to Assam.; i ee ae!

2. Bengal. No Wild Life Board as such exists in Benga. and —

the Conservator-General of Forests has informed me that it is not

considered necessary to create a Wild Life Board as there already

exists the Forest Advisory, Board. To what extent this Forest

problems of wild life preservation I am not at present in a position

to say. Possibly the appointment of a few additional members to

represent wild life and sporting interests might solve the problem,

or perhaps a technical sub-committee to deal with wild life matters

ee be preferable.

2. Bihar. “The Bikar Wild late Bound was constituted on 3rd

December, 1953, and consists of 11 members comprising 5 officials

and 6 non-officials, with the Minister for Forests as Chairman and

the Chief Conservator of Forests as Secretary and Convenor.

4. Manipur. The Manipur Wild Life Board was constituted

during the year, with the Deputy Commissioner as Chairman and

the Forest Officer as Secretary, with four other members.

The first meeting of the Board was held on 21st October 1953

at Imphal. Among the many items dealt with was the complete closing

of shooting in the Logtak area, which has been made into a

sanctuary. ‘

5.-O7r1s s-a. Information has been received from the Director of

Forests, Orissa, that the State is trying to constitute a State Wild

Life Board.

Stat ip Yl tea. 30 farino information has been oes concerning

the constitution of a State Wild Life Board.

IV. Witp LiFe RESERVES, SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS

. Assam. Steps are being taken to up-grade the Laokhowa

Sd: ‘Orne Reserves into Sanctuaries, and the Kaziranga and North

Kamrup (Manas) Wild Life Sanctuaries are to be constituted as.

National Parks under the Assam National Parks Bill now in draft

form. It would be to the advantage of Assam as well as of Bhutan

if the latter State could create a sanctuary or national park on its

side of the boundary north of and adjacent to the North Kamrup

Sanctuary of Assam, and a proposal has been sent to. Bhutan |

concerning this. | +

2. Bengal. The Conservator-General of Forests has informed .

me that they are putting up a proposal to the Government for the 7

management of the Jaldapara Sanctuary as a national park. fe

3. Beh are At present there are “only fom sanctuaries in the

State, totalling just over 250 sq. miles. The Chief Conservator

WILD LIFE ‘PRESERVATION IN INDIA

‘of E orests has Mntderaece me that the creation of a national park is

contemplated, or alternatively, a large sanctuary covering about 200-300

=. sq. miles’ in extent.

A very noteworthy fact which should be mentioned here is that

the Forest. Adviser of the Soil Conservation Department of the

Damodar Valley Corporation has drawn up a detailed proposal for a

national park or wild life sanctuary in the D.V.C. Area, which is to

be forwarded to the Bihar Government for their approval. The area

selected is one of 320 sq. miles of Sal forest 13 miles from Hazaribagh.

The opportunities offered by the changing of the countryside by

these multi-purpose river projects should be quickly grasped by nature

conservationists, as here are good chances of effecting some sound

wild life preservation and even of restoring species which have become

extinct in recent decades.

4. Manipur. The Logtak Lake area has been made into a

sanctuary, and shooting closed there throughout the year. While

commending the authorities of Manipur for their good intentions in

creating a sanctuary for the preservation of wild life, I personally,

as well as many other naturalists, doubt the wisdom of choosing the

-Logtak Lake area for this purpose. Now that the Brow-antlered

Deer has disappeared, the chief wild life of this area is the wildfowl

which frequent the lake. But these are mainly migratory, and in

plentiful numbers; and I feel that some other place, perhaps in the

hills where wild life is being exterminated by shifting cultivation and

other evils, could have been more wisely selected. Moreover, the

Logtak Lake used always to be a favourite shooting ground for

bona fide sportsmen visitors to the State, and their absence will be

regretted in more ways than one.

5. Orissa. I have no information as to existing or proposed

sanctuaries in Orissa.

On Tari puna: The Forest Officer of this State has informed me

that the opening of a wild life sanctuary is under the active consideration

of the authorities.

V. Wittp LIFE LEGISLATION

1. The effectiveness of Existing Legislation,

This item need not be dealt with State by State, for the same

story is heard in all the States of this Region, as in “other Regions.

It is not so much the lack of effectiveness as the lack of enforcement

of the existing legislation. As became apparent at the Mysore

ce Conference, the machinery for preserving wild life exists all over

India but has become neglected and in some cases fallen into disuse.

There are two alternatives now: one is to revive the old legislation

and strictly enforce it, and the other is to make new and up-to-date

legislation. I am in favour of the latter course, provided it is not

too elaborate or difficult to enforce. I consider the Bombay Act of

195r an excellent piece of legislation for the preservation of wild

life, but can it be enforced? According to this Bombay Act, if a man

eo shoots a bulbul, say, in his own vegetable garden he is liable to

guns after the crops have been reaped presents a great administrative

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL TS SOC]

prosecution. There is no See a of ak eT legislation being %

properly enforced. oe

I feel that a simplified and up-to-date fore of fie Wild Birds and

Animals Protection Act of 1912 might be the answer. A rationalised

and simplified schedule of close seasons and protected animals and

birds, easy of enforcement, is desirable.

I also recommend that first things be done first; that is pay full

attention to the sanctuaries first and make them proof against poaching

and properly guarded; then pay attention to the reserved forests and

make them proof against poaching and all illicit practices; and then

after these two items have been fully dealt with turn attention to

the unclassed forests, waste lands, private lands, and so on. |

Under the present state of legislation, detection of offenders is

difficult and charges hard to substantiate. And when a case is

successfully brought and proved, the magistrate imposes an absurdly

lenient fine—Rs. 60, say, for a hog deer killed and valued at Rs.

120 for its meat, or even for a sambar valued at Rs. 400. These

fines were probably fixed some 50 years ago, and since then the

value of money has changed, but not the fines.

The Forest Department, which has control of all sanctuaries and

reserved forests, can ‘compound’ a case for up to Rs. 500nly. This ‘fine’ —

was also fixed some 50 years ago, and by the present value of money

should be raised to Rs. 200. If a Divisional Forest Officer could

compound cases of offence against the Forest Regulations with a fine

of Rs. 200 and also possibly with a liability of the offender to pay,

the amount of damage done (as is sometimes done in Bengal—a good

idea), the immediate protection given to wild life would be very great

indeed. In fact I feel certain that the first step in any proposed

legislation of any kind should be the revision and improvement of

the State’s Forest Regulations in so far as they apply to wild life

preservation.

Holders of ‘crop protection’ guns are well- known as responsible

for extermination of much wild life. Since the handing in of these

problem, it would perhaps be a better idea if the use of these guns

is restricted to the area of crop-producing land actually belonging

to the possessor of the gun, and if he wishes to shoot elsewhere he

must obtain an extra licence. Licence fees for possession of guns

and for shooting with them should be increased—these again are in

many cases the same as they were 50 years ago when the value of

money was much greater than now.

2, New -Legislation Passed or Contemplated.

(1) Assam. The draft Assam Rhinoceros Preservation Bill was —

scrutinised by the Assam Wild Life Board, and modified in places

where considered necessary. An Assam National Parks Bill has been ©

drafted and will soon be placed before the Wild Life Board for —

approval. Sub-committees have made proposals for the Rules etc., —

of the State Wild Life Board, and for the revision of the Assam ;

Forest Regulation. |

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 239

(2) Bengal. Proposals are being put up to Government for the

management of the Jaldapara Sanctuary, as a national park. The

Conservator-General of Forests is of the opinion that Forest Officers

should be invested with the powers of a police officer to demand the

production of a licence and of a gun for examination. The Government

has renewed the leases to the Associations. of the Game Federation of

Bengal. :

(3) Bihar. Measures contemplated are: Rationalisation of the

‘Close’ season for all kinds of birds and animals; the enactment of a

special law applicable only to the State-owned Forests which will

provide for deterrent penalties, including confiscation of fire-arms and

cancellation of licences of habitual offenders, and the creation of a

national park, or in the alternative of a large sanctuary covering

about 200-300 sq. miles in area.

with the Indian Forest Act to effectuate proper control and preservation

of wild life.

(5) Orissa. No information has been received up-to-date of any

legislation either passed or contemplated. ?

(6) Tripura. Measures contemplated are: creation of a wild

life sanctuary, and rules for shooting.

}

VI. GENERAL

It is generally agreed, particularly in the Eastern Region of India,

that a separate wild life organisation is not feasible, and that wild life

preservation is best taken care of by the Forest Department under

whose charge most of the wild life already falls.

To counteract the possibility that the Minister for Forests and the

officials of the Forest Department may not always act in a way best

calculated to serve the interests of wild life, it has been accepted

that each State should have a Wild Life Board whose main function

will be to advise the Forest Department on all matters affecting wild

life. Obviously these Boards must contain a strong, influential and

knowledgeable element of non-officials, who should fully represent all

important sections of public opinion and should contain among

their number some experts in the field of nature conservation, natural

history and _ sport.

In order that the Forest Department, advised by the Wild Life

Board, may efficiently carry out its duties, it is essential that the

Forest Regulations should be revised and brought up-to-date. ;

The State Forest Department can do a very great deal by strong

executive action in the way, of Gazette Notifications. For example,

in Assam there used to be shooting of sanctuary animals all round

the Kaziranga Sanctuary, just outside the boundaries. But a Gazette

Notification issued on April 6th, 1953, declared a buffer zone all

‘round Kaziranga Sanctuary with specified limits, within which shooting,

is prohibited the whole year. The result has. been very encouraging,

_ and poaching round the fringes of the sanctuary has almost entirely

_ disappeared. ) pe

(4) Manipur. Certain Rules have been framed in accordance ~

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SO

of wild life preservation conversion is easier than coercion, and once

the children have been shown the value of wild life, the enforcement

aH; o =e

Ey Ne Sa ae Be

- A great deal of shooting by artificial light at night from machans.

over salt-licks and from vehicles takes place, and indiscriminate _

poisoning and dynamiting of fish in rivers. This is often connived

at, if not actually done by subordinate officers of all the Services.

In addition to warnings of severe penalties to be imposed, I think

some publicity needs to be done to instill into these subordinate

officers the best traditions of sportsmanship and sport of all kinds.

For example, if military officers were interested in the sport of fishing ~

with rod and line, they would not connive at their men dynamiting —

rivers for fish. | :

_ Information on the wild life of the States of the Region is urgently,

required, and it is recommended that the series ‘Wild Life Reserves

in India’ as published by the Bombay Natural History Society, (Bihar

by Jamal Ara in Vol. 48, No. 2, pages 282-287 and Assam by E. P.

Gee in Vol. 49, No. 1, pages 81-88) be continued and include the

other States of the Region and of the Indian Union as a whole.

It is a welcome sign that in all the States of this Region there

is a growing realization that much publicity for wild life preservation

needs to be done in the Press, Radio and in Education. It is well-

known that the best way of educating the adults is through their

children. What is urgently wanted are suitable text-books, one for

each stage of school and college curriculum, illustrated and well

produced, to stress the need for nature conservation, preservation of —

wild vegetable and animal life and all allied subjects. In matters

of legislation will become very much less difficult.

February 15, 1954.

COMMENTS ON THE BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA

WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO BIRDS

j BY

S. Ditton RIPLEy

- _ (With two maps)

During World War II my interest became aroused in southern

_ Arabia, when I had occasion to fly over it several times on military

_ business and to land at various hitherto inaccessible places, such as

_ Sharjah and Dhahran. Although the mountains of Yemen in the

_ south-west have been visited by, naturalists, notably a British Museum

_ of Natural History expedition in 1937 (Scott, 1942), virtually nothing

- is known of the fauna of Muscat and Oman, and of the spectacular

so-called ‘Green’ Mountains, the Jabal al Akhdhar, which rise to a

height of over 10,000 ft.

3 In 1950 I had an opportunity to visit Arabia and Muscat, but

was prevented by a changed schedule from actually visiting the

_ south-eastern corner of the Peninsula. However, as a result of that

_ visit and of my correspondence with the Sultan of Muscat, three years

later a joint collecting expedition, sponsored by the Philadelphia

_ Academy of Natural Sciences and Yale’s Peabody Museum (de

-Schauensee and Ripley, 1953) was arranged. The collection made

on this expedition has added considerably to our knowledge of the

- avifauna of the area, and has prompted me to prepare the following

comments.

Little can be understood of the history -of the fauna of Arabia

_ without an attempt to picture the geological events which have produced

_ the conditions perceived today. The following brief summary of the

recent geology of Arabia, therefore, seems appropriate.

GEOLOGY

_ _ The Peninsula of Arabia is a vast peneplain, bordered at its western,

- south-western, and south-eastern extremities by two blocks of highlands

composed of a core of ancient crystalline rocks on which have been

superimposed huge thicknesses of successive formations, mainly

_ sandstones, during the Cretaceous.

In late Cretaceous or early Cenozoic time, western Arabia was

uplifted far above sea level and a period of faulting and crustal

movements set in. At this time western Arabia was connected to

Africa, which, during a large part of this period, was isolated from

the rest of the world. This unity. remained until early Miocene time.

Vulcanism developed and has continued to the present as evidenced by

hot springs and vapor fissures. There are many lava outcroppings in

the western Arabian highlands. The tableland of Yemen is an enormous

4 ‘upraised block of lower Cenozoic or Tertiary, age with central peaks

‘rising to 10,000 ft. above sea level.

242 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO a ae

Eastern Arabia was submerged in Miocene time, emerging ‘telore

the end of this period, covered with Eocene sediments. According

to Gregory (1929) the Oman Mountains are related to the Zagros

mountain system. He feels there is no evidence for considerable

submergence in south-western Iran, or a broad separation between

Eurasia and Arabia by intervening seas. On the contrary there seems

to be no certain evidence for a land connection during this period

across the Persian Gulf. Certainly the northern part of the Gulf is

post-Pliocene (vide Gregory, 1929: 118).

Meanwhile before the end of the Miocene, the time of the

worldwide spread of savannah vegetation types still characteristic of

parts of eastern Africa, the Red Sea was flooded from the north

by the Mediterranean, but Arabia remained connected to Africa through

Yemen-Somaliland (Furon, 1941). This latter connection was broken

in late Pliocene and meanwhile a Sinai connection had arisen which

has continued in roughly the same shape to the present day era of

the Suez Canal.

The above brief summary of geological events prior to the

Pleistocene is given to indicate only that there had been land connections

between Arabia and the adjacent continents as far back as the origin

of the Peninsula, but that these connections were not always

contemporaneous, and that the mountains of the south-western parts

of Arabia in Yemen and of the south-eastern, in Oman respectively, are

neither contemporary nor apparently closely related.

PLEISTOCENE

Superimposed on these earlier rocks are alluvial and aeolian

deposits of Pleistocene date. The Pleistocene is noted, of course,

for its glaciation in the temperate zones of the world, as well as for

a certain amount of transitory glaciation in the higher montane

equatorial areas. Flint (1947: 468) describes conditions in the

northern hemisphere which tended to produce the so-called ae

periods in the tropical latitudes:

‘With the gradual growth of ice sheets in North ey

Siberia, and Europe and with the growth of sea ice in the Arctic

Sea and the North Atlantic, high-pressure conditions were

established in the air over them, and the entire belt of eastward-

moving cyclonic storms (‘the belt. of westerlies’) was shifted

progressively southward. In South America a similar northward —

shift took place, but it was certainly less: pronounced because the —

area of glacier ice in southern South America was comparatively ©

small. a

‘As the belt of cyclonic storms edged southward, regions— —

especially in the extra-tropical belts of high pressure—that are dry —

under the climates of today began to experience increased rainfall. —

At the same time the increased cloudiness that characterizes the ~

belt of westerlies operated to reduce the evaporation rate, already —

diminished somewhat by the worldwide cooling that had preceded ~

the growth of the ice sheets. The results were increased stream

discharge, expansion of existing lakes without outlets, and the

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-APHY OF ARABIA

creation of pe in bacias. previously dry. In short, a pluvial age

- came into being.

9 ‘In the Old World, in like manner, pluvial conditions affected

chiefly the Mediterranean lands, northern and central Africa, Asia

Minor, central Asia and northern China. However, the effects

were felt right down to the equator itself, where evidence of expanded

lakes in East Africa is clear and extensive. This fact is not as

surprising as it seems at first. The northern half of Africa is the

only large subtropical land mass lying north of the equator. Because

of this vast expanse of land it is more favourably situated than any

other subtropical region to receive winter-season outbreaks of cold

polar air. Even today these outbreaks reach as far south as

latitude 15°. During the glacial epoch these outbreaks should have

reached the equator itself.’

During these pluvial periods it has been assumed that the average

temperatures fell several degrees [how much for the equatorial belt

- is uncertain and equivocal (Moreau, 1933, 1952)], but at 20°N.

latitude there is little doubt that it would be a significant figure.

_ Even a relatively small change in temperature plus increased

precipitation would be enough to alter the climate sufficiently to extend

_ the savannah and arid vegetation types north along the western Arabian

coast to Sinai and Egypt, and on the east from Trucial Oman to Iran,

thus making a continuous belt of light forest and grassland in the

form of a connecting link between Arabia and the continents.

Huzayyin (1941) who has worked in Yemen reports evidences of

two major pluvial periods which he equates with the Kamasian and

_ Gamblian in East Africa, with an interpluvial stage characterized by

- vulcanism as also found in Africa. Zeuner (1950) states that both

_ these pluvials are contemporary with a Levalloisian variety of the

Paleolithic. Other remains of prehistoric man are still rare in the

literature for Arabia. Blades, burins, and end scrapers of Levalloisio-

- Mousterian type have been found at Turaif near the Jordan border,

- and Mousterian implements at Badanah near Iraq, both of the last

interglacial or the beginning of the last glacial period in date (Coon,

personal communication).

Caton-Thompson and Gardner a50) report paleoliths of a crude

_ Levalloisian type from the Hadhramaut indicating in their opinion

a low ebb in paleolithic culture, perhaps due to the impoverished and

harsh environment, also indicating a degree of isolation from the nearby

cultures of Africa, North Arabia, and Palestine. Such evidence as

muere is, then, would indicate that pluvial conditions during the

_ Pleistocene were enough only to ameliorate, not to change radically,

the rather arid biota of Arabia. Savannah grassland and thorn scrub

could have existed over large parts of the Peninsula, especially out-

- lining the shore lines and montane features, where only desert exists

-. today. That in itself would have been Sufacient to encourage the

_ spread of animals, plants, and associated man.

PLEISTOCENE—RECENT

7 _ There are some scraps of evidence for a more recent wet phase.

_ Huzayyin (1941) proposes that this wet phase may have continued

as late as 1600 years ago, basing his theory largely on archaeological

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62

data. Philby (1933) found gravel spread on the north side of the

Rub-al-Khali (possibly lacustrine) and stone artifacts ofi neolithic facies.

This might be correlated with the ‘Neolithic’ wet phase found in

Egypt at Fayoum and Kharga, and ‘Pluvial C’ in Palestine. In the

Sudan Red Sea Hills there is some evidence for a wet phase about

10,000 to 15,000 years ago based on the semi-fossil Mollusca found

there. Many other evidences point to the existence of a so-called ©

Mesolithic rainy interlude (Murray, 1951) in Egypt, Libya, and the

Sudan, dating as late as 4000 B.c. and extending bdck at least to 8000

B.C. This date would be satisfactory when compared with the recent

radiocarbon dating's of about 10,000 years ago for the Mankato maximum _

of Wisconsin, preceded by a warmer period about 11,400 years ago

(Allerod horizon-Two Creeks) in Western Europe and North America

(Flint and Deevey, 1951, Flint, 1953).

Dessication certainly began in Africa about 6,000 years ago and

has continued to the present with little change. In Nubia there has

been no continuous rainfall since about 5,500 years ago. Wood-Jones

(1907-1908) reported the preservation of later predynastic bodies of

that time, which were buried in the sand, as so complete that even

eyes and brains are preserved, shrunken but intact. Gradually the

scrub forests and the grasslands have disappeared. Stumps of trees

lie on the Libyan desert where they have not grown for 5,000 years.

Similar vestiges occur near Taif in western Arabia. Networks of

trails of grazing animals cover hillsides where the vegetation disappeared

in early predynastic times. Flake industries existed on hills in eastern

Egypt which have not supported populations for millenia. The rise ~

of the climatic optimum or thermal maximum in Europe which has

been dated from about 6,000 to 3,000 years ago (Flint and Deevey,

1951) sounded the knell of the sparse savannah and steppeland growth

of the lowlands of Arabia which thereby began their long progress

towards the desert conditions of today. In spite of these minor changes,

there is no indication whatsoever that the climate of this part of the

world has undergone any radical alterations since the commencement

of the Pleistocene.

CLIMATE TODAy

Today rainfall in Arabia as a whole is insignificant. In the Yemen

highlands it may reach 14 to 15 inches annually, mostly during the

summer monsoon. In these highlands there are perennial streams and

springs, although no streams reach the coast or far into the interior,

losing themselves in their older, greater courses in the sand.

In the adjacent lowlands rainfall is no more than 2% inches per

annum, with interior areas of the Peninsula having less. Isolated from

the south-western hills (although the southern coastal belt of the

Dhofar receives moisture in the form of a cloud and mist cover and

heavy dews from the sea) are the south-western Oman hills. Rainfall

may reach 4 inches in the coastal area, concentrated during December

and January. Figures are not available for the Green Mountains of —

Muscat which have a parallel rainy season, and an intermittent cloud —

cover as well with a mist blanket of moisture in lieu of rain. In ©

~ COMMENTS ON BIOGEOGRAPHY OF ARABIA

February each year, crop of fine grasses springs up on the plateaux

at 6,000 ft. which is grazed by feral asses. There are no perennial

streams in Oman.

The principal vegetation of Arabia is xerophytic, the habitats

ranging from open desert sand to rocky cliffs, to arid steppe highlands

dotted with occasional grasses or shrubs, many of them succulent,

to patches of tropical grassland savannah. On the heights cultivation

occurs with olives, figs, citrus trees, grains, wheat, barley, ‘dhurra’

or sorghum, millet, lucerne, and coffee above 5,000 feet. These isolated

highlands in the south-west and south-east serve as ‘islands,’ ‘refugia,’

for relict, Palearctic plants—primulas, iris, potentillas, and such genera

as Juniperus, Monotheca, and Caylusea.

Among birds there are important Palearctic relict forms in Yemen

such as the Hedge-Sparrow, the Bullfinch, the Wheatear, Gray Shrike,

and the Serin Finch. There are Palearctic relict reptiles and numerous

insects, all presumably dating from pluvial times. Among the mammals,

however, none can be ascribed to the Palearctic with the possible

exception of the hedgehog, the rest being derived either from Africa

or the Orient.

ORIGIN OF THE AVIFAUNA

With the exception of the species enumerated above, the birds

which are known to be resident today in southern Arabia can be shown

to have been derived either from the Ethiopian region or the Indian

sub-region. These are entirely arid country forms of life. Such species

may have derived from savannah types, but endemism is very high

in what Chapin (1932) calls the ‘Somali Arid’ sub-region.

_ Attempting to screen out only the resident land birds, and to

eliminate those species of presumed Palearctic origin, a rough listing

of the two areas gives the following:

SW. Arabia SE. Arabia

No. of families (including ostrich) 22 — uepebe

No. of species 36 isos? 1G

Ethiopian derived 25 == 649% aero O

Indian or Ethiopian G = 176 fae 3. = 20%

Indian or Mid-Eastern T= 19% te OG

The above figures include endemic species and subspecies. The

latter are fairly easy to ascribe, as often they belong to species found

either in the Ethiopian region or the Indian sub-region, although the

latter category, may include south-east European elements. Some forms

such as the local resident bee-eaters and larks might be assigned to

_ either fauna, and have been listed under the category ‘Indian or

Ethiopian’.

Moreau (1952: 905) states that, ‘The status of the Somali... arid

- -avifauna suggests . . . uninterrupted local evolution since the Pliocene,

_ and perhaps since the Miocene. It follows that none of the Pleistocene

pluvials (and no consequences of the movement in the caloric equator)

can have extinguished at any time the arid environment in the areas

concerned.’ ; .

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ee

Analyzing the avifauna possessed in common by Africa and th

Indo-Malayan region, Moreau (1952) shows that the affinities between

the two areas in birds are mostly at the family or ordinal level indicating —

a very long separation climatically, thus fitting with the hypothesis —

that free interchange of evergreen forest organisms could not have

continued more recently than early Pliocene time. |

The above statements are interesting as supporting the fidence

derived from the fauna of Arabia, that the Peninsula has been a

segment of a faunal barrier for a considerable time.

Looking also at the figures presented above it is interesting to —

note the degree of difference between the avifaunas of south-west and

south-east Arabia. While the south-west area [included by Chapin

(1932) in the ‘Somali Arid’] has a clear majority of forms derived

from the Ethiopian region, either similar subspecies or closely related

forms, the south-east has no clear-cut cases, and only 20 per cent

belonging to the category ‘Indian or Ethiopian’. It is of course entirely

possible that further collecting in south-east Arabia will reveal more_

resident forms.

In addition it is noteworthy that there are forms representing 19

per cent of the total in south-west Arabia which can clearly be ascribed

to Indian or Middle-East sources, while this figure reaches 80 per

cent in south-east Arabia. Therefore, it would appear that in southern

Arabia, the intervening country between the Yemen and Muscat high-

lands forms in itself a substantial barrier to faunal interchange;

supported by the fact that several bird genera such as Turdoides,

Ammomanes, Alectoris, Prinia, etc. have subspecies differing from

each other in the two areas. Additionally the barriers between southern

Arabia and neighbouring biotic types have been strong enough | to

create a distinct group of residents, rather different in composition.

As an example of this, in the Oman-Muscat area several Indian birds

occur which have been able to penetrate no farther west than these

hills. Five of these species, the Redwattled Lapwing, Senegal Dove,

Indian Parakeet, House Crow, and Malabar Munia cannot be ae

taxonomically from their Indian relatives., :

Of the endemic birds found in southern Arabia only two are

specifically distinct. One, the Blackheaded or Yemen Partridge,

Alectoris melanocephala, seems most closely related to the Chukor

Partridge of India and the Middle-East. The second species, the Taif

Woodpecker, Picoides dorae, seems Asian in origin to me, closest to

the Indian relict species Pee ies mahrattensis and: its ‘only close —

relation, P. auriceps, of the Himalayas. Dorae resembles these species —

in its reduced and browned-out but similar patterns on the nape, lower

abdomen and vent, under tail-coverts, and on the wings and tail.

Interestingly enough the sole Arabian mammal species is a similar |

‘relict’ related to the Himalayas area, the Tahr, Hemitragus.

LIMIT OF THE PALEARCTIC IN ARABIA

Seitz (1930; in Warnecke, 1933) says that the southern limit of —

the Palearctic in Arabia lies north of a line between Mecca and the ~

northern end of the Gulf of Oman. Holdhaus (1929) makes the line a _

little more to the south along the 2oth parallel, thus excluding Oman

Muscat Fomphiey. This woul be all very well if only Yemen

re to be considered in southern Arabia, and if it were to be included.

h the ‘Somali Arid District’ of Chapin (1932).

Alternatively, however, the recent work of Bates (1936) and others

in western Saudi Arabia, and the increased knowledge of the birds

- Muscat would seem to indicate that the southern endemisms as well

s the Oriental and Ethiopian forms range farther north along the

oast, and that they are not confined strictly below such lines. South-

est Arabian forms such as the sunbirds, Nectarinia, the Fantailed

aven, Corvus vhipidurus, larks, bulbul, wheatears etc., all range

arther north than formerly supposed, many to the edge of the Sinai

eninsula. Eastward the border should certainly be north of Hofuf

nd the Qatar Peninsula. Such a line would correspond to about

26°30’N.. latitude.

CGNnGLUSEON

Arabia has had a relatively stable climate since the beginning of

F the Pleistocene. What history is known of the past few thousand

years indicates only a steady increase in dessication., Recent studies

of the avifauna indicate that endemism is fairly high for such an arid

region and that important relict species occur. Based on climatic

history it can be presumed that three of these relicts, the partridge,

_ the woodpecker and the tahr, as well as the Palearctic relicts, represent

invasions from the Indian sub- region, or from the north, of at least

leistocene climatic conditions, at least among birds and mammals,

ere are none.’ Presumably such species remnants have been slowly,

xtinguished over the intervening millenia.

In general, the presence of the Peninsula may be considered more

f a barrier than an avenue of interchange between adjacent continents.

in addition, the birds, at least, would tend to dispute the evidence

dvanced by some zoologists, particularly in the field of entomology,

hat the boundary of the Palearctic region lies far south in the Peninsula.,

would suggest, therefore, that in the future the Peninsula of Arabia

south of latitude 26°30/N. be considered a distinct biotic type or

province (to use Semenov’s term), distinct from the ‘Somali Arid,’

be known as the ‘South Arabian’. It is to be hoped, of course, ie

further field studies in the hill ranges of southern Arabia will yield

2 dditional evidence for the distinctness of this isolated area.

REFERENCES CITED

Bates, G. L. (1936) : Ibis, 18 : 47-65, 301-321, 531-556, 674-712.

Caton-Thompson, G. and Gardner, E. W. (1939): Geog. Jour., 93: 29-31.

a Chapin, J. P. (1932) : Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Bull. 65: 90.

_ de Schauensee, R. M. and Ripley, S. D. (1953) : Acad. Nat. .Scte Phila:, Prog.

3 105 : 71-90

-: Sie R. F. (1947) : Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch. New York,

=a — — and eaves. E. S. (1951): Am. Jour. Sci., 249 : 257-296.

— — — (1953): Bull. Geological Soc., America, 64: 897-919.

Furon, R. (1941): La palégéographie. Paris.

Gregory, J. W. (1929): The Structure of Asia. London.

re-Pleistocene date. Of other vestigial species, remnants of pre-—

Mee eee Sea NM ee

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-Holdaus, K. (1929) +

Handbuch fiir Been al Dis yin %

Huzayyin, S. A. (1941): Mem. a l’Inst. a@Egypre, 13: 125. 126.

Moreau, R. E. (1933): Jour, Ecol., 24: 428.,

— — — (1952): Zool. Soc., London, Proc., 124: 883-886.

Murray, G. W. (1951): Geog. Jour., 117: 429-430.

Philby, H. St. J. (1933): Geog. Jour., 84: 1-26. —

Scott, H. (1942): In the high Yemen. London. ‘

Seitz, O. (1930): Suppl. Band zum Palaarkten. Grosschmetterlings der Erde. ah

Warnecke, G. (1933): Zoogeographica, 1: 573-578. tas Dianex

Wood-Jones, F. (1907-1908): Archaeol. Survey of Nubia, 2: 189-190.

Zeuner, F. E. (1950): Dating the Past. London. p. 248. — :

- OBSERVATIONS ON THE HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS

_ OF THE RED ANT, OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA (FABR.):

A. P. MATHEW, M.A., Ph.D.,

Professor of Zoology, University College, Trivandrum

(With five text figures)

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION... ae Kip

HaBITS OF THE MODEL AND THE MIMICS

. THE RELATIONS OF THE MODEL AND THE MIMICS...

(a) Discriminating powers of Occophylla

(b) Do the ants mistake the spiders for other ants?

. DruRNAL HaBiIts OF THE SPIDERS

. COURTSHIP AND MatTING |

. COcooNns

. LirE-HISTORY

. CONCLUDING REMARKS

. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

INTRODUCTION

— Myrmarachne plataleoides Cambr. and Amyciaea forticeps

_ (Cambr.) are two well-known spiders which mimic the Indian Red

Ant, Oecophyilla smaragdina (Fabr.). These spiders belong to two

a 1. Hapirs OF THE MODEL AND THE Mimics

The Red Ant, Oecophylla smaragdina, that forms the model for

_ both these mimics is a common ant occurring all over India. Its

nests built of a number of leaves bound together with silk and guarded

ferociously by the innumerable inhabitants are very familiar objects.

_ Observations on the habits of these ants are recorded by Rothney

_ (1890), Wroughton (1892) and Hingston (1923). : ;

_ Wherever colonies of these ants exist, one can generally come

ross two mimicking spiders—an Attid spider, Myrmarachne

plataleoides and a Thomisid spider, Amyciaea forticeps. Observations —

_ on the former are recorded by Cambridge (1869), Peckham (1892),

a? Read before the Thirtyfirst Session of the Indian Science Congress Association,

anuary 1944 (Delhi). iat Se ee

Narayan (1915), Hingston: Rios ane Mathew Te, oe

is moving about or halting, these front legs are always kept in motion

the normal size. It is interesting that this wide range of variability

Observations on A. forticeps are recorded by Cambridge (1873, 1901),

Pocock (1909), Shelford (1902), Graveley (1915), Kunhikannan (1916),

Hingston (1927) and Bhattacharya (1934). * se :

Myrmarachne plataleoides is a perfect mimic of the red ant ;

so perfect is this mimicry that even experienced biologists may pass.

it by as an ant, in the field. There is a complete copying of the

external form and coloration of the ant’. To this passive mimicry

is added a close imitation of the general movements of the model.

The front legs are long and directed forwards and, whether the animal

and very often held raised up. In this position, frequently, the leg

is bent about its middle so as to simulate the ‘scape’ and the.

‘flagellum’ of the ant’s antenna.

During daytime these spiders may generally be found wandering

on foliage not far from red ant colonies. To distinguish the spiders

from the red ants as they move amongst them is rather difficult.

Still, a few minutes’ observation will show one that in details of

behaviour the spider is quite un-antlike and thus can be distinguished.

When one of these spiders is disturbed—the shadow of an observer

is enough to do this—after ‘looking’ at the.intruder for a moment, it

-tries to escape. If it is on a leaf it dodges to the under-side and

keeps quiet. One who has disturbed a red ant colony will realise

that this is what an ant would never do. If the spider is still pursued,

it moves fast in an attempt to get away. Sometimes it drops’ on

the ground and thus baffles the would-be captor; for, once among

the underlying scrub and dead leaves with many red ants moving

about, detection of the tiny spider is very difficult. Most often,

however, ~when the spider lets itself down like this, it will =

have a silken cable attached to the leaf from which it dropped, so that _

it does not always reach the ground but hangs midway. The ~~ ~

particular behaviour often depends on the extent of the disturbance.

If it is slight, the spider merely hangs by the silken cable for a

minute or two and then climbs back to the leaf; but if the disturbance

is greater, the cable snaps, and the spider drops down amidst the

rubbish below. ee

Specimens collected in the field show certain variations in colour

and size. Adult individuals have been met with which are not larger

than three-quarters the normal size, some even so small as only half

in size was noticed mainly in the males. Observations on some se

voung ones which I reared in _artificial cages suggest that this 4

depends to a great extent on food; regularly and well-fed individuals —

at the final moult attained to the normal size and those which were

underfed developed into smaller individuals. In coloration too there

is variation. Specimens which were in close proximity to the red —

ants had the normal reddish brown colour, whereas those collected —

away from ant colonies had a darker colour. My breeding experi-—

ments in this case have also given some suggestions as to the probau

1 vide references cited above.

s af aie ane Al noticed that generally, when quite highly

coloured individuals were confined in cages and fed on a diet of

gnats and flies, they turned several shades darker, in two or three

days. This suggests that the variation in colour may be, partly at

a due to diet. \

Amyciaea forticeps is a Thomisid spider which, by an approxi-

mation in size and coloration to the Oecophylla, has attained a general

likeness to this ant but lacks the part-to-part correspondence so striking

in the Attid mimic. Attempts to show such a correspondence have

been unsatisfactory and often conflicting (see Pocock and Hingston).

It is an aggressive mimic and may be seen moving about in a

characteristic way in ‘rushes and pauses’ with a peculiar trembling

- their colonies (fig. 1). It is said that these

SE spiders keep the first pair of legs stretched

in front, simulating the ant’s antennae

as has already been noticed in Myrmarachne.

_ My observations however do not confirm

- this. While watching a specimen of this

species for some time, one might occasionally

see it in such a posture but normally it

is seen to move about in a series of rushes

and pauses during which the first two pairs Fic. 1—Amyciaea forticeps in

of limbs, which are longer than the other ordinary movement.

: pairs, are raised up together and brandished

in a convulsive manner (figs. 2 A, 2 B and 2 C). As these two pairs

to the peculiar movement of the first two pairs of limbs.

_ 2 A—First two pairs of limbs raised up so as to form a pair of double arches.

_ 2 B—These two pairs of legs brought down together for a moment.

2 C—Immediately after, they are jerked upwards. .

of legs are held up over the head bent in a characteristic manner

forming two double ‘arches, they suggest little resemblance to the

antennae of the ants.

When among the ants, it is interesting to notice the extremely

- cautious movements of these spiders, always avoiding the main lines

of the ants. Confronting one of the ants, the spider immediately

dodges to the opposite side of the leaf moving dexterously sideways

‘in true Thomisid fashion, or it may drop on its silk line ‘safety cable’.

Though it shuns the ant in the open foliage it is a regular hunter

e these ants, stalking and feeding on them. It waits watching for

- movement of the first two pairs of limbs near streams of red ants or

Fic. 2—Amyciaea forticeps. Postures presented as the animal moves along, due

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 2

7” +

an unwary stray ant and, when it sees one, cautiously approaches it

si and finally makes an unerring spring. : et |

7 tee Hingston (1927) remarks that these spiders make silken retreats from _

fs 2, which they emerge to capture the. ants... have failed: te sce

retreats made by these spiders; they do not make any. They hunt

their prey in the open, lurking in the paths of the ants.

In February 1930, I kept a few of these spiders and two red ~

ants in a glass box. After wandering about for some time one of the —

spiders was seen stalking an ant. Facing the ant the spider retreated

a little and waited for its chance. As it thus waited the body was —

balanced on the 3rd and 4th pairs of legs, the 3rd pair directed forwards |

and the 4th pair backwards. The two pairs of legs in front are

held up together and gracefully bent at the joints forming a pair of

double arches and are kept constantly quivering in a characteristic:

way. This quivering movement of the limbs together with the two

conspicuous black spots on the abdomen suggesting a pair of eyes

gives the picture of a struggling ant. Probably this serves as a lure

to the ant. Whereas an ant under normal conditions may not mistake

a spider as it moves along for a member of its own species, it is

quite possible that a small ant-like body with the legs all quivering

may suggest an ant in trouble. The ant immediately took up the

usual alarm attitude, paused, raised the body on the legs, held the

antennae up and bent the abdomen sharply over the thorax. This

was the spider’s chance. It quickly moved to a side and by a

sudden unerring spring jumped on to the back of the ant and

thrust its chelicerae into the ant’s head (fig. 3). Immediately the ant bent

its body double and was motion-

less...’ he: Spider: jel itor. 2a

moment but soon returned and

began sucking it. Meanwhile the

other ant which was in the cage

became highly alarmed and, mov-

ing hurriedly with mandibles held

wide open, came across the spider

‘quietly enjoying its meal; in a

moment the spider was struggling

between its mandibles, helpless.

A similar observation regarding

the hunting habits of Amyciaea

has been made by Mrs. Drake as recorded by Graveley (191 a Though

this appears to be the method of capture as observed in cages, my

observations in the field show a different behaviour. One evening while 3

searching for spiders near an Oecophylla colony, I came across a stout » a

! -Amyciaea stalking a stray ant. It moved in its characteristic manner, —

pee: took up the ‘luring posture’, and then made the spring; the ant

: struggled, and the next moment I saw the hunter and the hunted 2

: tumbling down together from the twig. The spider never lost 1 ;

firm hold on the prey but as it rolled down, it glued to the twig

its ‘safety cable’ so that, instead of falling down on the rubbish below —

: where the ant probably could make a good struggle, it hung down

my from the twig on the slender cable in mid air with the ant struggling

aes

Fic 3—Amyciaea forticeps springing °

t on an ant.

ee Se

Bre

“HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS OF THE RED ANT 253

between its chelicerae (fig. 4). Here the spider was ‘at home’ and

the ant helpless. After hanging in this position for a while the

spider began sucking its prey. Sometime later it climbed back to

the twig carrying the prey along with it and there continued to suck

it at different parts.

= Since then I have observed on several occasions spiders of this

| species enjoying their repast hanging in mid air on their threads

from the open foliage. This is certainly safer

since red ants move about in the vicinity

and, if one of them surprises the spider, the

i latter would, have no way of escape as was

noticed previously in one of my observation

cages.

2. THE RELATIONS OF THE MODEL

AND THE MIMICS

Amyciaea feeds on its models and so its

close association with ant colonies is easy

to understand. But it is difficult to see why

the formidable red ants wink at the intrusion

into their midst of these dangerous assassins,

especially when we realise how uncourteous

these ants generally are to intruders, and

how fiercely and tenaciously they defend the

colony and the nest from outside interference.

it is surprising, similarly, to note the same

apparent indifference shown by these ants

towards the Attid mimic M. plataleoides 5, de ay cca fortran

which also enjoys the closest proximity to hanging from a silken thread

these insects. It is commonly suggested and sucking a captured ant.

that by their ant-likeness they are mistaken

by the ants for members of their own community and that thus they are

tolerated. Regarding A. forticeps it is claimed that in this false garb it

can get into ant colonies unrecognised and thus have plenty of unsus-

pecting prey on which it can feed with impunity. This interpretation

on the one hand and of the discriminating instincts of the ants on

- the other. We have no reason to imagine that the ants are deceived

by the false garb of the spiders so as to mistake them for other

ants. The behaviour of the ant when it faces one of these spiders

is ample evidence that it is not in any way deceived as to the real

nature of the intruder.

(a) Certain observations on the discriminating powers of Oecophylla

Two individuals from a distant colony of red ants were introduced

on a shrub where there was a thriving colony of these ants kept under

__ observation. These moved about on the leaves. One of them soon came

_ across one of the smaller type of workers of the colony. The latter

immediately ‘recognised’ the stranger and, without waiting for any

help or running away scared by a larger opponent, fearlessly attacked

cannot, however, be held in the light of what we know of insect vision -

colonies and is quite inhospitable to them.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY,

Vol. 52

it. It gripped one of the legs of the intruder sith its snare bles a

and pulled it hard but the other struggled and bending its body caught

the enemy by the neck and severed the head from its body. The

carcase of the defender rolled down the leaf, but its head never lost

its firm grip. Meanwhile some half a dozen members of the colony

had come on the scene and gripped the intruder at different places.

Two held the antennae and pulled them tightly in opposite directions.

Others caught hold of the legs and pulled them apart, while others got

on the body and began to bite and tear viciously.

While they were so uncourteous. towards members of strange

colonies, they appeared to be very considerate towards individuals of

their own colony: which were kept away from them for some time.

On their being restored they were received with apparent cordiality

and were not attacked. The Oecophylla’s sense of distinction goes

a step further. One family seems to establish more than one colony

—sometimes quite a number of colonies, grouped close together on

the same or adjacent branches. Individuals of these different colonies,

but all belonging to the same family, seem to recognise each other

perfectly well for, when they meet, there is no show of hostility but

they. seem to get on in the most friendly manner. Into a nest which

was under observation I introduced a worker from one of the adjacent

colonies whose proximity to this nest convinced me that they must

form one family. It was not attacked.

These observations show that: (1) Oc¢ecophylla can _ readily

recognise members of its own colony (2) It distinguishes members

of eeadly and allied colonies with little difficulty and accords to them

the proper cordial treatment (3) It recognises members me other

(b) Do the ants mistake these spiders for other ants?

Possessing such instincts of discrimination as observed be it is

highly improbable that the ants would be deceived by the false garb

of these spiders with its many imperfections. My observations convince

me that the Oecophylla recognise these spiders as strangers and are

alarmed. I have often closely watched specimens of M. plataleoides: as

they move about on plants with streams of red ants. The spider is

very careful to avoid the ants, and if it comes across one, it immediately

beats a hasty retreat and escapes. The ant recognising it (or

recognising that something is amiss) assumes its alarm attitude which

gives the spider time to escape. Should the ant pursue, the spider

quickens its pace, dodges under a leaf, or as a last resort lets itself

down by a thread and hangs suspended in air Where the ant cannot

pursue it..The ant, losing its quarry, abandons the chase. If somehow

this method of escape is rendered impossible or prevented, the ant

pounces upon it in the most relentless manner and carries it

triumphantly to the nest. This applies equally truly to Amyciaea.

Coming across the foraging ants, this spider dodges and escapes or

drops on a silk thread as Myrmarachne does. Only stray ants

are ‘lured’ in the characteristic manner described above and ‘secured

as prey. It never behaves as if it felt safe near the ants but is ever

on the alert. A moment’s neglect or ease may find it being crushed

Patt

Eye ret

255

between the mandibles of ca ant! ‘T Bd safety of these spiders thea

from being attacked by the red ants amongst whom they live depends,

not so much on their deceptive garb though commonly thought to

be so, as on their cleverness and quickness in perception and move-—

ments. Their sight and nimble movements in any direction as may

be necessary and their possession of the ‘safety cable’ ready for use

at any time, alone make them safe in the midst of these vicious ants,

What then, it might be asked, about the protective value of ant

- mimicry? By looking like ants and haunting their vicinity, these

spiders do secure comparative safety from their usual enemies, as has

been pointed out by, me in a previous paper (1934). But we

are not to think that the false garb in any way deceives the ants

themselves.

a0 ‘Does Myrmarachne feed on its models?

Does Myrmarachne feed on its models as Amyciaea does? The

few observations recorded that it does were quite likely made as a

result’ of confusion between these two mimics. My observations

extending over many years and made under diverse conditions show

that M. plataleoides does not feed on the red ants. I have also made

some tests with other Attid mimics and their models; I have never

seen any Attid mimic attacking its model. This is quite a contrast

to the Clubionid and Thomisid mimics which regularly hunt and prey

on their models.

- Though Myrmarachne dues not feed on the red ants, it still keeps

persistently close to the ant neighbourhoods. This may suggest that

- there is some biological interrelation between these animals. Many

times I have seen these spiders getting as close as possible to the

nest of the ants; and occasionally seen mature or immature individuals

waiting in their ‘retreats’ on the underside of a leaf which was just

an inch or two below the nests of these ants. But I have never seen

them getting any further.

While camping at Karupanthode, Travancore Reserve Forests, in

December 1929, I came across a red ant nest which was deserted by

_ the occupants. On opening it I found a female M. plataleoides inside.

- Sometime later in Parur, North Travancore, I came across a male

anda female M. plataleoides in a ‘mating nest’ within a deserted nest

of Oecophylla. Probably the spiders might have got in after the

nests were deserted by the ants. But, on another occasion in the

summer of 1931 at Parur I found a female spider in a nest of

—Ocecophylla still tenanted by a few ants. I have ascertained definitely

that these spiders do not live in ant nests as certain other spider

mimics do. . The above observations therefore merely suggest that

under certain conditions they may enter ant nests.

It seemed that the larvae and pupae of the ants might be the

attraction for these spiders. To see if these would be taken and

relished as food, I put a few ant pupae in a cage where there were

-a few spiders. Since they ordinarily take only moving prey I was

_ not expecting any positive results. But in a few minutes, when I

returned. to. the cage, I was quite ‘surprised to see the spiders each

5) oath: a pupa in its jaws aed busy, sucking it! oe

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Later, a red ant’s nest from which most of the ants were driven

off leaving only a few larvae and pupae with a few smaller workers who

persisted in remaining with the pupae, was gently dropped into one

of the cages containing a few spiders. After a few minutes the

spiders approached the nest with great caution. They moved

carefully halting at every step. Getting on to the leaf on which the

nest was, they moved about on its outer side. One casually got

on the other side; it must have seen the ants guarding the pupae, |

for it immediately dodged to the opposite side of the leaf. As it

was thus approaching the pupae it showed evident signs of caution

or fear; for, at the slightest movement of the ants or even of the

cage, it would suddenly run back. After some time, however, I

saw each of these spiders holding a pupa in its jaws! How they

did it I was not able to observe.

Once while collecting egg cocoons of these spiders I came across

one cocoon near which was a nest of the small brown ants. In

the cocoon the eggs had hatched and the spiderlings had completed

their second moult within the cocoon and had become quite ant-like;

their size and dark coloration made them appear very similar to

the brown ants which were moving about on the leaf. This relation

appeared quite interesting. The nest was taken to the laboratory

and put in a glass cage. In doing this I evidently disturbed the

young spiders as well as the ants; for, they became restless and

leaving their nests began to wander about the glass cage. The

disturbed ants according to their universal custom had each taken in

its mandibles a larva or pupa and were wildly moving about for

some time. Finally, they settled in a corner of the glass cage with

their charges still in their jaws. Afterwards two of the spiderlings

were seen moving to the new ant settlement; getting close to it they

spun their retreats and settled close by. It seemed that these spider-

lings too, like their parents, may be larva and pupa stealers, but

these exploit, not Oecophylla, but the small brown ants which they

mimic. ,

An attempt was made early in 1932 to see if a spiderling could

be reared from its earliest stages on a diet exclusively of ant larvae

and pupae. It was quite'a success and it is specially noteworthy

that the specimens continued to be healthy and vigorous through all

the stages.

These studies show that quite possibly these spiders are larva

and pupa stealers of their models. This may be only a step towards

becoming actually aggressive; for, from the habit of feeding on

larvae and pupae of the models to feeding on the models themselves

is only a small step—yet, one accompanied by greater risks and therefore

perhaps never taken.

3. DrurNAL Hapits OF THE SPIDERS

During daytime M. plataleoides wander about in search of prey

and towards dusk they generally spin silken shelters or retreats in

which they rest for the night. They have seldom been seen to go

Moth Cee Pian (nl ot ge acoder gtaam Aelia

back to their old retreats, being satisfied with making a fresh retreat

for the night wherever they chance to be. When confined in small

cages they have quite often been noted to use the old retreats if they

are not badly torn. The females, with their cocoons and guarding

the eggs, stray out only a short distance from their ‘nests’ and return

soon to their charge.

My observations show that these spiders ‘rest’ in their retreats

during the whole night and do not stir out after nightfall under

normal conditions. Some of the observations and experiments which

have convinced me that these spiders are not nocturnal were given

in detail in a former paper (Mathew, 1931). The following observations

may be noted:

1. In the field, towards dusk, these spiders can be seen making

their retreats in which they remain all through the night.

2. When kept in observation cages they do the same.

3. At night, observing an individual in its retreat we note that

it fails to observe the intruder’s approach; in the daytime it would

be almost impossible to approach them without being noticed. _

4. At night when an individual is within its retreat, if a needle

is taken to its front and waved to and fro, it is not perceived. Only

when touched by the needle does it become aware of any disturbance.

But even then it does not realise the real nature of the disturbance ;

it simply gets out of the retreat and runs about in a confused manner.

5. A specimen was kept in a cage and occasionally fed on tiny

insects. One night after the spider had retreated into its nest, a

small insect was introduced into the cage to see if the spider would

attack it, which could be expected if it were nocturnal. But the next

morning the insect was found alive and the spider still at rest. A

few minutes later the spider got out of its retreat and soon afterwards

caught the insect and sucked it.

The retreats made for the night are never so thick and well

built as the moulting chambers. They often consist of only a canopy

over the spider resting on a leaf; the canopy being narrower towards

the ends, both of which are open. The spider can conveniently turn

about within this retreat. As it rests under the canopy the forelegs

are stretched out forwards and upwards, so as to be in contact with

the front part of the canopy; the tarsi are bent downwards so as

to stretch across the front opening. The last pair of legs are stretched

backwards in a similar manner with the tibia in contact with the

dome and the tarsi resting on the floor stretched across the posterior

opening. Thus both the openings are guarded and at the slightest

4 _ disturbance, whether on the dome or at any of the openings, the

spider is on the alert. If the disturbance is from behind, it immediately

turns around within the retreat and faces the intruder. If however

the disturbance is sufficiently serious, the spider rushes out wildly and

escapes.

Amyciaea too is diurnal. During the day it is active near the

colonies of the red ants. During the night it rests. However,

it does not make retreats as M. plataleoides does. On the other

hand towards nightfall it spins irregular tangles of silken threads

stretched between adjacent leaves or twigs and suspending itself

A RSS DSRS Tae

SANs etapa aS

of eS bythe UN ag EA

258

in the middle of this. framework, it rests secure (fig. 5): ‘The two

front legs on either side are held to-—

gether and stretched outwards at right

angles to the length of the body in |

a straight line. The third pair of legs

which is the smallest pair, each grips

one of the filaments while the last pair

is directed backwards holding on firmly —

to the strands behind. In such a

position it can rest secure from the

predacious red ants which may be

moving in the vicinity.

4. COURTSHIP AND MATING

The courtship and mating habits

of M. plataleoides have been described

by me in a previous paper (Mathew,

1940). It was shown that pairing

normally takes place in ‘pairing

nests’, without any _ preliminary

courtship.

Regarding the courting habits of

Amyciaea, Bhattacharya (1934) has recorded certain observations, The

following observations of mine may be added.

On June 4, 1930 I saw a stout female Amyciaea on a portia —

twig along which a stream of red ants was moving. On an adjoining

leaf was a male, smaller and of a more slender build than the female.

I secured them both in tubes and later put them together in a cage.

Considering their aggressive nature I hesitated to put them together

but there was no show of hostility; they moved about the cage in

their characteristic way, in rushes and pauses, the anterior two pairs

of legs being stretched out and flourished with a quivering movement

during the pauses. This has been thought to have some special

relation to courtship. It is referred to as a display of their graceful

movement of legs in courtship. But I have shown above that they

behave in this way in their ordinary movements, Soon they came

near each other and then, without any preliminary ‘courtship’, the

male made a sharp jump on to the back of the female as he would

pounce upon his prey. He took up his position above her abdomen,

facing in the same direction as she. This is unlike the positions —

taken up by male and female M. plataleoides in pairing, who face

in opposite directions and both have their legs resting on the floor. —

Here, the male plants all his legs on the female’s- abdomen leaving

her perfectly free to move about. While the male adjusted his

position on the female’s back, -she remained quiet in a crouching ~—

attitude. Soon, however, the female resumed her normal posture and |

-on the slightest disturbance. would move about carrying the male on ~

her back. She was in fact quite free to move and continued to- do

so in the cage for about a quarter of an hour. The movements then

gradually Stopped and she became quiet. The male felt for the

-epigynum of the female with his palpus and the sperm transfer was

Fic. 5—Amyciaea forticeps.

Position of night repose.

or most sf hie time s were quiet eeeut for an pectin nal quivering

“movement of the first two pairs of limbs. After copulation they

_ separated and wandered apart. :

Here we notice certain marked differences from the pairing habits

of M. plataleoides. It is clear that in Amyciaea there is no preliminary

courtship. Their ‘recognition’ or ‘realisation’ of each other seems

__ to be instantaneous and, the moment the male has planted himself

eon the back of the female, the latter’s feeding instinct is suppressed

and she is ready to pair. Again, in Amyciaea pairing takes place in

the open and not in any ‘pairing nests’. M. plataleoides withdraws

into specially constructed nests for pairing, and it was pointed out

in that connection (Mathew 1940) that this was necessary, since they

live in close proximity to the predacious red ants which might at

any time surprise them. But in Amyciaea, which too lives in identical

a Bo cundings the necessity for retreating into a nest is dispensed

with since the female during pairing is completely free to move about

sieving the male on her ‘back. If surprised by a ee ant, she

can dodge under cover and escape.

5. Cocoons

Both these spiders make special cocoons in which they lay their

eggs, and the ‘mothers’ remain guarding them long after the eggs

have hatched out—till the spiderlings have become fit to leave the

cocoons. eo as

In M. plataleoides the cocoon is generally spun on the upper

surface of a leaf though, during the rainy season cocoons have been

= on the underside of large leaves. On the surface of the leaf

a small sheet of silk is first spun—this in confinement takes a long

Eaime- The eggs are laid usually in one group and arranged side

by side in a single layer, in contact but not stuck to each other.

Over this a fine silken felt sheet is made completely enclosing the eggs,

its edges being firmly attached all round to the surface of the leaf.

This layer is. reinforced by another or sometimes two or more layers

over it closely adherent to it. In many instances I have seen a

second clutch of eggs added after the first layer of felt has been

fully spun, so that this clutch of eggs lies between the first and

second layers of felt.. The second clutch when present contains a

smaller number of eggs compared to the first; while the first clutch

contains about 20 eggs, the second has only 5 or 6 eggs.

s Adtter: the felt layer over ‘the eggs has been completed, the spider

takes up her position over it; above her, she spins a dome-like

canopy enclosing herself and the cocoon ah the eggs. This canopy

is of the usual type with an opening at each end. Sometimes there

‘an irregular scattering of white fluffy silk on the wall of this dome

scalling the ‘stabilimenta’ of some of the web-spinning. spiders.

nside this retreat she remains till the eggs are hatched and the

piderlings ready to leave the cocoon. Only rarely she leaves the

cocoon, probably in search of food. The emaciated condition of most

the spiders guarding the cocoons shows that they do not venture

utside very frequently, even for feeding. When ase they

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

appear very unwilling to desert their precious charge. During the

monsoons I have come across a few nests with eggs but soaked

in water. The mothers were found dead in their ‘on guard’ positions.

Perhaps the sudden rains wetting the whole nest made their escape

impossible.

Generally the cocoons are seen Seely, but occasionally one comes

across numbers of these aggregated on a single leaf. This tendency

to aggregate during egg laying has never been seen in Amyciaea.

Amyciaea too makes a cocoon which the female guards with

great tenacity. The cocoon is generally made on the concave inner

surface of a leaf the edges of which are drawn together by two

strong bands of silk. On the leaf a silk sheet is spun over which the

eges are laid. The eggs are not arranged in a flat row as in M.

plataleoides but all stuck together in a round ball. In M.. plataleoides

they are separate, not stuck to one another. Over the mass of eggs

a thick felt is woven the edges of which are fused to the surface of

the leaf all round. Over this felt the female takes up her position

in true Thomisid style. There is no canopy over her as was noticed

in M. plataleoides.

6. Lire-HIstTory

The life-history of M. plataleoides has been described by me in

a previous paper (Mathew, 1934). It was shown that the young too

are ant-like and mimic different species of ants according to their

size and coloration at their different stages, and this interesting

form of mimicry was termed ‘Transformational mimicry’. It was seen

that the young too share the advantages of mimicry; thus solving

an old problem of the protective methods of the young of those

spiders which are protected by mimicry as adults. This phenomenon

introduces certain complications for the field naturalist. Collecting

ant mimics he often comes across many spiders mimicking common

ants. While it would be interesting to note models and mimics,

their habits and behaviour, since many of them would be immature,

their identification would be impossible unless the life-history of each

species has been fully determined. A spider which when adult mimics

a certain ant is observed in its early stages to mimic other ants out

of necessity, as shown in the paper referred to (Mathew, 1934).

Another fact to be noted is that the ants which form the models for

the immature forms of certain spiders have certain other spiders

mimicking them in their adult stages. Thus the small biting ant

Solenopsis which is mimicked by M. plataleoides in one of its early

stages, has a small species (very near M. spissus) mimicking it as

adults. The small black ant Prenolepis is mimicked by an early stage

of M. plataleoides as well as early stages of certain black mimics like

M. manducator and M. ramunni.

The form of the cephalothorax which is an important basis for

specific distinction attains the characteristic shape only when adult or

in the later stages. The cephalothorax of an immature form is

different from that of the adult and often resembles that of some other —

species. The falces, sternum and the epigynum which are such .

distinctive features of most species attain the typical form only in ae

adult stages.

A OREN Ny a eer aD ee Se eS ne eT FT NS Re ee, ee }

| HABITS OF TWO SPIDER MIMICS OF THE RED ANT 261

aos) Dn the development of Amyciaea no such transformational mimicry

is seen. The young ones are of the typical crab-spider form with

light green coloration without any ant-likeness. The two pairs of

front legs which are the longest as in the adult are marked with

certain reddish bands and these legs are held up and nervously brandished

like the performance of the adult. The ant-likeness is assumed only

in the later stages. As these spiders are of a more shy and retiring

nature like the typical Thomisidae, contrasting with Attidae which

more boldly expose themselves in the open, special protective methods

in the earlier stages may not be so essential.

7, CONCLUDING REMARKS

It was shown that the mimicry seen in M. plataleoides is most

perfect when the spider is in movement in the company of ants. With

and it is now well recognised, that it is not merely the coloration and

pattern that contributes to safety but also immobility. A recent writer,

(Cott, 1940) expresses this as follows: ‘Compared with stillness cryptic

coloration is relatively unimportant; but combined with stillness it

is-all important’. An individual however protectively coloured, if it

actively moves about, runs the risk of being conspicuous. But in

a true mimic of the type of this spider—which copies not an immobile

object but an active organism—we find that the perfection of the

mimicry depends not so much on the external appearance as on the

imitation of movements. Thus in these two types of resemblances,

one copying a passive object and the other an active one, safety

seems to depend primarily on the passivity of the former and on

| the activity of the latter.

s The purpose of ant mimicry by spiders is believed to be either

_ protective or aggressive. The value of ant mimicry as a protective

device has been discussed in a previous paper (Mathew, 1934) where

- I have shown that the objections which are ordinarily brought forward

"against this have arisen as a result of the faulty way in which this

- function is usually explained.

= Amyciaeéa is a mimic of a different type. Its mimicry is termed

_ aggressive since it feeds on the models, and the protective value of

_ its mimicry is not stressed. It has been shown above that the ants

' never mistake these for other ants and that both these mimicking

spiders enjoy the proximity of ants not by virtue of any simulating

powers but only by their shy nature and possession of the safety

cable. The role of mimicry here as an aid to aggression has been

- explained. It is not an actively moving ant that is mimicked but

a struggling or dying ant, thus serving as a ‘lure’ for would-be

' prey. This explains why the mimicry appears far from perfect and

' why there is no imitation here of the normal gait of the ant. In

- addition the mimicry may also have a protective value. Though these

' spiders are aggressive towards their models, it does not mean that

_ they are immune from the attacks of their own numerous enemies.

For protection through ant-mimicry it is essential that the mimics

= should be: amongst, or at any rate, close to the models. Field

_ observations show that they are actually seen in the proximity of the

reference to protective coloration Beddard (1892) has pointed out,,

mie

Liat

262 JOURNAL, BOMBA’ 4 NATURAL HIST.

red ants. What can be the incentive ‘that keeps ‘these mimics in

their proper surroundings?

Amyciaea feeds on the red ants ad so its Sheline proximity to—

the latter is easy to understand. It has been shown above that M,

plataleoides too has an attraction since it steals and preys on the

larvae and pupae of the ants. The young ones of this species which

mimic the Prenolepis ants have been seen to steal the larvae’ and —

pupae of these ants and, evidently for this purpose, to keep their

company. In a previous paper (Mathew, 1935) I have shown ants

mimicking bugs feeding on plants which are also frequented by the

models for certain exudations of. these plants; model and mimic ~

frequent the same plant for food and thus the mimic gets the

requisite surroundings. :

Beddard (1892) in considering a similar question says: ‘It is not

generally believed that insects and other animals that are protectively

coloured deliberately select for a temporary. resting place a situation—

whether it be a trunk or a leaf—that harmonises with their own

colour. The theory is that their colours have been modified in

accordance with their usual environment, those that habitually settle

among trees being green and so forth. It has, however, been stated

that a small black moth (Physis carbonariella) is constantly met with

in patches of underwood that have been burnt; its dusky hues

approximate with the colour of charred wood.’

The theory that colours have been modified in accordance with

their usual environments, while it might explain how a particular

pattern has been arrived at in the course of generations, does not

explain how a particular individual having a particular pattern gets

into the proper environment. This difficulty would not arise in the

case of fixed organisms or organisms which move only to a small

extent; but in an animal with active habits like these spiders the

question of being in the proper surroundings is very important. —

8S SUMMARY

Ob oe atinas on two ant-mimicking spiders, the Attid jenseechne

platalecides and the Thomisid Amyciaea forticeps, mimicking the —

common red ant Oecophylla smaragdina, are recorded. M. plataleiodes ©

mimics not only the external form but also the movements of the

model. Am yciaea is alleged to raise the first pair of legs to simulate

the antennae of the ants but this is denied. It keeps both the first —

and second pairs of legs raised, bent and quivering in a characteristic

manner serving to ‘lure’ the ants. The usuai claim that by their

mimicry these spiders are mistaken by the ants for other ants and —

thus they procure plenty of unsuspecting prey, cannot be accepted

in view of the discriminating powers of Oecophylla experimentally —

shown. "3

Both these spiders are diurnal and their night retreats are described. |

Amyciaea ‘sleeps’ suspended on a sling made for the night. Mating ~

of Amyciaea is not preceded by any courtship as is sometimes —

suggested—the nervous movements noted when two individuals come

together being observed also as they ordinarily move about. The

young of Amyciaea do not mimic ants, contrasting in this respect

Che purpose af ant mimicry in ‘Both these spiders is protective—

m the usual enemies of spiders. In Amyciaea it is, in addition, —

Stews to lure and capture ee ants. For protection —

t e edie: How ne is brought about in the case of these spiders

discussed. ae

REFERENCES

- Beddard, F, E, (1892): Animal Coloration. London. pp. viii-+1- 288.

Bhattacharya, G. C. (1934): JBNHS, Bombay, 37 (1): pp. 233-239.

semedee, O. P. (1869): Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., London, 4 (3): pp. 68-69.

— — — (1873): Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1873, pp. 112-129.

~— — — (1901): Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1901, pp. 11-16. ‘

- Cott, H. B. (1940): Adaptive Coloration in Animals, London, xxxii-_pp. 1-508.

_ Graveley, F. H. (1915): Rec. Ind. Mus., Calcutta, 11: 483-539.

_ Hingston, R. W. (1923): The Red Ant, JBNHS, 29: 362-372 ; 681-693.

— — — (1927): Proc. Zool. SOC, London, 1927 (4) pp. 841-858.

_ Mathew, A. P. (1931): JBNHS, ‘Bombay, 35, pp. 132-143.

~ — — — (1934): ibid 37 (2): pp. 369-374.

_ — — — (1935): ibid 37 (4): pp. 803-813.

_— — — (1940): ibid 42 (1): pp. 171-180.

Narayan, K. (1915): Rec. Ind. Mus., Calcutta, 41, pp. 393-406.

x Peckham, GaewW. (1892) » Ant-like spiders of the parity Aitidae. Occ. Pap. Nat:

Hist. Soc. Wisc., 2 “(1): pp. 1-83. -

Pocock, R. I. (1909): Journ. Linn. Be London, 30, pp. 256-270.

is Rothney, (1890): JBNHS, Bombay, 5 (1) : pp. 38-64,

Shelford, R. eS Proc. Zool..Soc., London, 1902 (2) pp. 265-267.

~ Wroughton, 'R RC, Ge), JBNHS, ‘Bombay, 7 (1): pp. 13-60.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION AND SANCTUARIES —

IN THE UNION OF BURMA

BY | .

U_Tun YIN, BsA., B-C.s. (Selection Grade) (Retd.)

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

There are eleven Wild Life Sanctuaries comprising 914.87 aL miles

in the Union of Burma.

Pidaung Wild Lite Sanctuary (279.70 sq. miles) is sane in the

Kachin State. Part of Shwe-U-Daung (45.00 sq. miles) and Taungeyi

(6.20 sq. miles) are situated in the Shan States, Kahilu (62.00 sq.

miles) and Mulayit (53.51 sq. miles) are situated in the Kaw-Thu-Lay

(Karen) State. ‘The remaining sanctuaries are situated in Burma

proper. They are: :

Shwe-U-Daung me ae, BIOO>sq- mules

Kyatthin les oe OAC OO a Ee

Shwezettaw ee ee meen! Uren ton 2

Maymyo ae Ae OO Polke eg ai

Moscos Islands Pe eS A OOO, Pe,

Wettigan ai a PD va Ai

Kelatha Hill a i ae 0 Abe. 5

Shwe-U-Daung and Kahilu were constituted primarily to protect

the few remaining specimens of Dicerorhinus sumatrensis trom

extinction, Sey otteay and Kyatthin to perpetuate Panolia eldi thamin

Thomas, the typical deer of Burma. Pidaung was a natural haunt

of various species of wild life, except rhino, and was the show place

before 1940. Unfortunately it has been shot out during the last

World War. Maymyo, Taunggyi and Kelatha Hill are refuges for

various species of = birds and ee Lake is a refuge for

waterfowl.

Immediately prior to the British evacuation in 1942, preliminary

notifications were issued in respect of Htu Lake in the Henzada Forest.

Division for waterfowl, and Byingye Hill in the Yamethin Forest

Division to protect the remaining accessible heads of goral. The Game

Warden was appointed Settlement Officer in respect of these two

proposed sanctuaries. As the post of Game Warden is at present

held in abeyance, settlement cannot yet be carried out.

LEGISLATION

Section 6 of The Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1986, reviewed

in the Society's Journal, [Vol. 39 (3), pp. 606-607, 1937] affords

cet oe RTL Pes} 7

SEP aE ar REI PI REL SID © Pete aR aN’ Cee Ep WARES eee ree iene

Jgourn.,; Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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56 ‘. SKOWING

Pos GAME SANCTUARIES

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REFERENCES: ~

Burma Boundary —Demarcated __._.—.—

a oy

Undemarcated — x» ==

State Boundary Moscos Island

AE crac rere Sanctuary

Burma Railway Line 4... «..

Game Sanctuary woe tes @ Maymyo Sanctuary

Head-quarter of Game Sanctuary...SawEO

: rlec*

| WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA — A 265

complete protection to rhinoceros, tapir, peafowl, Argus pheasant and

masked finfoot. But the proviso to the said section reads as follows: —

‘Provided that it shall not be an offence for any physician or

druggist to possess or sell, or for any person to possess for private

medical purposes rhinoceros blood or any preparation thereof.’

Under section 7, no person shail hunt any of the following animals

or knowingly possess or sell or buy them alive or dead or part or

product thereof save under and in accordance with the conditions of

a licence: —

‘Elephant, bison, tsaing, thamin, serow and goral.’

Section 8 prescribes a close season from 15th June to 30th September

for hog-deer, sambar and barking-deer and from 15th March to

30th September for all species of pheasant (except Argus pheasant),

partridge, junglefowl, quail, wild duck and teal.

Under sections 26 and 28, the Burma Wild Life Protection Rules

were published in the Department of Agriculture and Forests Notifi-

cation No. 2, dated the 2nd January 1941. The rules came into force

on the lith January 1941.

The Scheduled Areas Wild Life Protection Regulations (Regulation

No. 1 of 1941) was published by the Defence Department, Political

Branch, on the 10th February 1941. It extends to the following

areas :—

(i) The Arakan Hill Tracts;

(ii) The Chin Hills District;

_ (iti) So much of the Kaehin Hill Tracts of the Myitkyina, Bhamo

and Katha Districts as is included in the Myitkyina, Bhamo and

West Katha Forest Divisions;

(iv) The Shan States of Hsawnghsup and Singkaling Hkamti

and the Somra Tract in the Naga Hills District.

The provisions of the Burma Wild Life Protection Act, 1986, shall

apply to the areas mentioned above subject to the modifications as

~ get forth in the Schedule.

Firstly, the Wild Life Protection Regulation has been extended

only to the Kachin Hill Tracts in the three Forest Divisions—Myitkyina,

Bhamo and West Katha.

The Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation 1895 has been declared as

the law applicable to the hill tribes in the following tracts :—

(i) The Kachin Hill Tracts of the Bhamo, Myitkyina, and Katha

Districts ;

(ii) The Hill Tracts of the North Hsenwi State; and

(iii) The Kodaung Hill Tracts of the State of Mongmit.

This Regulation applies to the undermentioned tribes in the above-

mentioned tracts :— |

(i) Bhamo and Myitkyina Districts: Kachins, Yawyins, Nungs,

Marus, Lashis, Atsis, and Chins (Nagas); and also Shans and Gurkhas

permanently resident in a hill tract. (N.B. The term shan includes

Shan-gyi, Shan-tayok and Shan Burmese but does not include the

Shan Burmese in the hill tracts of the Mogaung Sub-Division.),

(ii) Katha District—Kachins. © ,

(ii) North Hsenwi—Kachins.

(iv) Mongmit—Kachins and Palaungs.

3 '

266. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. ‘soci |

‘The -Hkamti. Long Administration Order,- 1926, eo tor ine. eight s

Shan. Circles” “in the Putao ‘Sub-Division. ike “the. ‘Myitkyina. District: 3%

(i) Lonkhun, (ii) Mansi, (iii) Lonkyein,, (iv) Mansekhun, (v) Mannu,

ae Langdao, (vii) Mongyak, and. {vitit) Langnu in Hkamti Long.

The. remainder of the Sub- -Division is. part of the: Kachin Hill ‘Tract

a has the Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation applied to it.-

» Under Section (8) sub-section (1) of the Kachin Hill Tribes: Berle

fion;. notwithstanding anything. in-any enactment in foree; this regula-

tion and the enactments in the Schedule annexed shall “be deemed

to be the only ee Uae oe apply to members of a sake ee in a

hill tract. has

.. Under - Section (8). sab hagtioe (2). no Bike ‘alibi ofits shall be

deemed to apply to members of a-hill tribe in a hill tract.

To sum up, the position as the writer’ can interpret it is as” follows:

~The Burma Wild Life Protection Act does not apply to the

Kachins, -Yawyins, Nungs,. Marus,. Lashis, Atsis and Chins (Nagas) ;

and also Shans and Gurkhas permanently resident in a hill tract in

the Bhamo and Myitkyina District, and Kachins in the Katha District.

Regulation 1 of 1941. is “applicable only to non-members of a hill

tribe resident in. hill- tracts of Maik yina,, Bhamo and West. Katha

Forest Divisions.

Burma became a Sovereign Independent Republic known as ; ‘The

Union of Burma’ on the 4th January 1948.

Section 226° sub-section (1) of the Constitution of hee ‘Unies of

Burmai reads: ‘Subject to this Constitution and to the extent to which

they are not inconsistent therewith, the existing laws shall continue

to be in force until the same or any of them shall have been repealed

or amended by a competent legislature or other competent authority’.

Under Section 6 of the Constitution Myitkyina and Bhamo Districts

form -a constituent. unit of the Union of Burma knows: as ‘The Hace

State’. 3

‘The few surviving specimens of Dicerorhinus sakiaiheee in the

Nam Lang Valley, -Putao Sub-Division--and Kungsai tract, : ‘Kamaing:

Santi icn Myitkyina ‘District are wholy unprotected.. And so are

other rare animals such as the takin, musk deer, panda, goral and serow.

If the present surviving specimens are ta be saved, it is necessary.

to_extend the Burma Wild Life Protection Act to the whole of the

Kachin State and at the same time amend the Kachin Hill Tribes”

Regulation and Hkamti Long Administration Order.

Under Section 196 of the Constitution the Chin— Hills ‘District

and the Arakan Hill Tracts form a Special Division of the Chins.

The Chin Affairs Council has gone ahead by extending the Wild

Life Protection Act, 1936, to the whole of the Chin Special Division

by the Chin Special Division (Extension of Laws) Act, 1948 (Act No,

48 of 1943).

Under section S of the Constitution the Pedeniod. ‘Shan Staten. : ; Ss

and Wa States form a constituent unit of the Union of Burma. A

In 1987, the Federal Council of Shan Chiefs decided that the

application of the Shan State Game Rules ‘should cease to extend to —

those States or parts of States over which the Forest Act has ceased

<0.) WILD LIFE PRESERVATION. IN BURMA. ~~

to apply, and also to- Block. VI of the Southern. Shan States Forest

Bute which lies oul the _Temote Mekong drainage of Kengiung

tate. =

The protection of game in areas to: which the Shan States Game

Rules, 1929, do not apply was- ‘undertaken’ by the Chiefs. concerned.

The Chiefs agreed ‘to issue prohibitory orders” under customary laws.

_ (1) Affording protection” to bison, serow, -goral- and peafowl so as

to allow. shooting only ‘under permits issued by: ‘the Chiefs of the States:

(2) Protecting animals. during closed” times similar to those i in 1 force

in Burma. ae

It will. be. noticed that" fee was” mee includad: There are no

more Chiefs. Who.is now the competent authority to issue prohibitory

orders | under the customary laws—the Commissioner, the Special

Commissioner, or the Ministers of the Shan States? .

From the. following extract from. the Annual. Report on Wild Life

Preservation in the Federated Shan States for the year ending 81st

March 1941, it is not clear whether the Shan States Game Rules,

1929, have since been amended: 3

‘Ag the Burma Wild Life Peckooticn. Rules Seamed. under the

Paria: Wild: Life - Protection Act, 1986, have now been issued, the

question will: be taken up of amending. the Shan States Game Rules

ee accord as far as possible with the Burma Act and Rules thereunder’.

-The- Scheduled -Areas- Wild. Life Protection Regulation (Regula-

a No. 1 of 1941) applies only. to the Shan States of Hsawnghsup.

It is necessary to- examine the laws at present applicable to

z Bickervtion of wild life in the Shan States and extend the Wild Lite

Protection Act to the whole of the Shan States.. —

-Under section 7 of the Constitution, -the | territories that. were

heretofore known as the Karenni States, viz. Kantarawaddy, Bawlake,

and Kyebogyi form a constituent’ unit of the Union of Burma. which

is known as ‘the Kayah State’. The position of. the law is not

complicated as in the Shan States. ‘The Burma Wild Life Protection

Act, 1936, can be extended straightaway and extension is recommended.

‘The Loeaiiaie (Karen) State was recently constituted. The

Burma Wild Life Protection Act may be extended ‘to it as in the

case of the other constituent States. There should ies a uniform

law throughout the Union of Burma. ~

It is gratifying to learn that the Forest Law Arieridinant Committee

has recommended the deletion of the proviso to section 6 and to

place the burden of proof on the possessor as in the case of possession

of meat of wild animals during their close season. Harly legislation

is necessary. to remove this ‘very large loophole for illicit dealings

a in rhinoceros blood which. means | dead rhinoceros. ° ([JBNHS, vol.

40 (4), pp. 594-617].

The exception is a blot on an otherwise excellent Act, but it was

s aden for the reason that so many people in Burma have such

Implicit faith in the efficac y of rhinoceros blood for medicinal purposes.

a Had. this. exception been omitted, the Bill would probably not have

2 2a pie oe JBNHS, vol. 39 saat PP. ee Septembes

Bi eRe ae jan ae

268 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

THE PipAUNG GAME SANCTUARY.

The Pidaung plain was known in old Burma as one of the best

localities for big game (bison, tsaing, sambar and elephant) in the

Province. It used also to be famous for the herds of hog-deer that

were found there. The name originated from the open stretch of

country or lwin covered with short grass situated to the north of

Pidaung railway station on the Burma State Railways. The whole

stretch of country over which the game was plentiful covers a very

wide area containing several lwins separated by hills covered with

densest evergreen jungle. The first proposals came from _ the

Commissioner of the Mandalay Division in 1908. He stated that

owing to the spread of cultivation big game was rapidly decreasing

and Pidaung plain was a natural haunt and sanctuary. Leading

officials in Myitkyina interested in shooting were unanimously in favour

of reservation. The settlement was carried out at the close of 1911.

Approximately 180 sq. miles were finally notified in April 1913. The

reserved area covered the stretch of country north of the railway

only. In 1917 the Reserve was visited by H. E. the Lieutenant-

Governor, Sir Harcourt Butler, and orders were issued for a further

reservation of the area south of the railway line. This was really

part of the so-called plain and contained several salt licks constantly

frequented by game. The settlement was carried out in 1920, the

reserve being finally notified in August 1921. The original Reserve

was notified under the Burma Game Rules, 1917, as a Game Reserve

in October 1918, and the south extension in 1921. Both Reserves

were notified as a Game Sanctuary in September 1927.. The area

was then computed as 260 sq. miles. In 1937 the area was re-computed

as 277.5 sq. miles. By the constitution of the Pidaung East Extension

Reserve as part of the sanctuary in 1938, the area was further increased

from 277.5 to 282.5 sq. miles. In order to provide a natural instead

of an artificial boundary, and to free land for cultivation, an area

of about four sq: miles on the west of Pidaung Sanctuary was excluded

from the sanctuary in 1940. Approximately 0.7386 of a sq. mile

(471 acres) situated in the Kamaing Kachin Hill Tract was declared

as the Pidaung West Extension Reserve and included in the Sanctuary

in 1941, The present area of the sanctuary is approximately 279.7 sq.

miles. During the period of Japanese occupation 4,352 acres of Pidaung

Reserve and 7,129 acres of Pidaung South Extension Reserve were

encroached on by Kachins from Mayan Village. This whole area is

now under paddy cultivation. The harm has been done, and it seems

that the Forest Department may now have to exclude this area, finally.

The sanctuary was primarily constituted for the following

species: —Hlephant, bison, tsaing, sambar, hog-deer, barking-deer,

pig; tiger, leopard, bear, peafowl, junglefowl, pheasant, partridge and

quail. .

There are 45 miles of paths and_57 miles of fair-weather motor

road which were constructed before the war. The Stilwell Road which

was constructed during the war passed through the southern. sector

of the sanctuary for a distance of about 74 miles (Mile 13 /4 to Mile

21/0). From Mile 17/0 of this highway, a branch road was_ also

constructed to Hopak, a distance of about a mile. All the main salt

Pe PN es de tah TTA.

et rie ee es fee ee es 4 ees

RTO RR pret retibae tan erg te

ved

a +4

nia

nett end «¢ Vs

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SN ern

‘WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA a 960

litks and Iwins' can-now be reached by jeep. A special game staff

of one head keeper and five assistant keepers is maintained. per

~- Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4. (Retd.), has fully described this

sanctuary in Burma (pre-1942) with present status of Rhinoceros and

Thamin [JENHS, 49 (4), 1950]. ees ee

March 1951-February 1952. During my tenure of office Ae

Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina District, I camped in the sanctuary on

- four occasions and spent a total of eight days. The majority of the

villages just outside the boundaries of the sanctuary were also visited.

J observed an elephant in Kyanan lick on one evening in March, a

sambar stag in Manaw lick for several minutes one morning in May,

a hog-deer stag feeding in Kason lwin one evening and a small herd of

tsaing feeding in Pyawbwe lwin on the following morning in June.

In the course of my wanderings I disturbed a bison on one occasion,

sambar and barking-deer on several occasions; peafowl and red jungle-

fowl were seen all over the sanctuary, Blackbreasted Kalhj Pheasant

(Gennaeus lathami) was seen once; Hoolock Gibbon (Hylobates

hoolock Harlan), the Chindwin Langoor (Trachypithecus pileatus

shortridget Wroughton), the Burmese Pigtailed Macaque (Macaca

nemestrina. Linnaeus) and Phayre’s Leaf-monkey (Trachypithecus

phayrei phayrei Blyth) were also seen.

The station master, Pidaung, had seen a leopard (black variety)

in the dry bed of a chaung near the railway station. In March 1932,

a leopard (black variety) was shot in the sanctuary. The forest

officer who sat up failed to turn up at the hour scheduled for the

departure of the ‘Governor’s Special’. As it was feared that he

had met with an accident a rescue party comprising the medical

officer and the veterinary officer of the Governor’s party set

out, fully equipped to render First ‘Aid. To their relief the party

came upon the forest officer unharmed and returning to camp with the

dead leopard. The Governor’s Special left Pidaung Station behind

schedule. Officers from Myitkyina ‘District who were left behind in

camp found the steaks served up at, dinner to be tasty, and only learnt

afterwards that they were leopard meat!

Returning late from Mogaung one evening the Superintendent

of Excise (U Tha Aung) noticed an animal racing alongside his jeep

as he was driving along the Stilwell Road inside the sanctuary. He

turned round to look and to. his surprise found the animal. to be a

leopard. . :

On the 25th April 1951 at about: dusk, a young cow elephant

charged the up-passenger train between Mayan and Pidaung railway

stations. ‘The cow elephant received serious injuries and was

destroyed the following morning.. Ag

Elephants from the sanctuary raided the standing’ paddy crop in

Pamadi tract on two or three occasions and one of them trampled a

hut in which a cultivator was keeping watch. | |

Two bull bison. were shot inside the sanctuary, one by a Kachin

from: Mayan with the rifle issued for village protection, and the other

also. by a Kachin from Kabaw Kataung with an American rifle.

Bee kien ta on open grassy plain usually undulating and often, quite. a small

area surrounded by forest. »

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 7) :

Se oe oa = 2

The Cover: rifle was. Wihhd TaN. and the. private Sere rifle

confiscated.

In spite si my: fotneeene to Sprosccute the two culprits i in the

Criminal Court, the late Divisional Forest Officer closed the two cases

on the report of the Range Officer that the “culprits were not traceable.

From the girth of the two horns, 18” in both heads, it is evident

that there are still a fair number of big bulls inside the sanctuary. .

Two bullocks were killed by tigers inside the. sanctuary. A family

of four tigers—a tiger, a tigress and two: full-grown cubs—killed a

number of cattle in the Pamadi tract. The Nepali headman of Pamadi

shot cne cub over a kill in September 1951. It is probable that the

same family killed the two bullocks. One tiger. was trapped by

villagers from a Nepali village in January 1952 and destroyed. One

leopard was also shot near Kabaw. Kataung village, outside the

western boundary of the sanctuary - during. a by the Kachin who

shot the second bison.

Due to shortage of salt during the J: apanese. badupitions illagers

camped near Loipyit salt lick and boiled salt out of the saline earth.

The American army set up a saw mill on a ridge. close to Hopak

salt lick. The converted timber was conveyed in motor lorries from

the saw mill.on to the main Stilwell Road. Both salt licks are now

abandoned by big game. Motor vehicles passing up .and down : the

Stilwell Road both day and night .could also be heard: from Hopak.

There -are still a few hog-deer and sambar in the area. Hopak lwin

is admirably suited for the introduction of thamin: — Saw Ze lick in this

_ sector, Kyanan, Manaw and Maw Raw licks in the northern sector are

visited by elephant, bison, tsaing, sambar and hog deer regularly.

- During the war period, the Army authorities put: up “NO SHOOT-

ING—NO FISHING’ notice boards, one at Nankhwi Bridge on the

old P.W.D. road from Myitkyina to Mogoung and one at Mile 13/4

on the Stilwell Road. Unfortunately this. did not seem, in any

way, io deter the Army personnel from wholesale shooting of game

inside the sanctuary.. On -re-occupation, there was considerable

poaching both by members. of the Armed Forces and the civil

population.

Poaching was’ rife when I enrived in the District in March 1951,

but by enlisting the cooperation of the Officer Commanding, 1st Kachin

Rifles, Battalion Commandant, U. M.P., headmen and elders of the.

villages-in the neighbourhood of the sanctuary, bringing up the game

_ Staff to pre-war strength and maintaining two gates—one at Mile.

11/0 and one at Mile 22 /4—Mayan railway crossing on the Stilwell

Road we succeeded in suppressing poaching completely by the middle

of 1951. Salt was regularly put down in the salt licks and game

started to appear in the many wins and salt licks ne I left

the district in February: 1952. ae

M: are h 1952 - S eptember “1958. ace after my rottdinth fcr

Myitkyina, ‘the Kachin Rifles were replaced by the: Kayah Rifles. The

Battalion Commandant, U.M.P., a keen conservationist, was recalled to

the Army. The Chief Works Officer as well as the. District Super-.

intendent of Police who. cooperated whole-heartedly in my humble

efforts proceeded on leave,. and on the expiry. of Se leave returned , to

the Union Government. ae i c

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION. IN BURMA...” ~..

~ There ‘was also a: change’ in the’ Kachin -State Government. - This

_ was followed by a wave ‘of serious erime in the Myitkyina District:

Frequent poaching by parties of Army; ‘Civil ‘Police and- Union Military

_ Police: personnel in motor cars was detected by the game staff and

reports made: to the Deputy Commissioner, -but no- action was taken

to stop it. -A bison was shot about half.a mile-from Kason Chaung

Forest Rest ‘Hut. The culprits were not apprehended. Kason

Chaung. is close to. Nankyin village. Two assistant game keepers

reside: permanently in Nankyin - village. ete uae

~The new cantonment is now located near thie sanctuary. Without

the co-operation of the Officer Commanding, we will not be able to

stop poaching. Game As often driven out from the sanctuary and.

shot outside. :

October ‘S 1953. J une 1954. A Divisional Forest Officer,

interested in game preservation, in the person of U Maung Gale, was

selected. and sent to Myitkyina. Immediately on his arrival in the

division in August 1953, he tried his best to: effect improvements in the

rehabilitation ‘of the sanctuary. Before his work was half completed

he was taken away on deputation with the Agricultural and Rural

Development Corporation. Three Kachins were prosecuted for shooting

a bison within the Sanctuary. The Court sentenced each of the Kachins

to four months rigorous imprisonment. The headman of Nankyin

village was prosecuted and fined Kyats 100 for cutting taungya inside

the sanctuary. Four. armed guards were added to strengthen the existing

game staff of 6 game keepers. Roads were repaired so that they

eS ald be jeepable during the open season. Salt was deposited at all salt

licks regularly. Poaching had almost ceased within the sanctuary.

Game can now be seen in increasing numbers at the same licks.

It is now left to the succeeding Divisional Forest Officers to. accep

the task of bringing back the sanctuary to its pre-war conditions.

~ The following statement gives a rough idea of the existing depleted

stock as compared with pre-war stock, All that is done at present to-

estimate the stock of game is for the game establishment to prepare

monthly and annual statements of game seen. These statements

cannot be considered to be an accurate estimate of as actual AUTOR of

4s eet eo in the paltetnary 2

nu : Antioale |

Kind of Animal |. comme

1936-37 1948-49] 1910 So] 50 | os] 1952-53

| Animals observed Mt

Elephant 200 24 35

Bison 2 3: «4° -300 42 45

Tsaing . 200. 15 12

Hog-deer eee a sage ||) Bs 13 32

Sambar = - 250 18 25

Barking-deer . | 150 9 ae

Tiger : 12 2 3

Pepenti ss, 4 AO, 2 ik

Bear FpiA cage a I Ot 3 a

Wilddog - | = 40 © eee see

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

There are two small herds of bison, one of twelve animals with two —

bvas and one of eight animals. The stock of tsaing consisting of a

small herd of five animals is concentrated in the northern sector near

Pyawbwe lwin. If we could completely stop burning of charcoal in

the area, both bison and tsaing which have now taken to the hills

might re-appear. From {the {report for the year ending 80th

September 1953, it appears that the hog-deer from the adjoining un-

classed forests have come into the sanctuary. There may be more

barking-deer than the figures given in the annual statements. On

my: way to Nanti one afternoon I came across no less than three

barking-deer. Mr. J. N. Martin the chief works officer and his wife

observed a barking-deer standing by the side of the Stilwell Road.

A barking-deer is “also regularly seen between Mayan and Pidaung

stations by passengers travelling in the up-passenger train. The figures

for elephant, bison, tsaing and sambar may be considered as very

nearly correct.

Namkyin Village. It is understood that. the sotethehene cd

of this village on the right bank of the Namkhwi Kha, was permitted

by the Deputy Commissioner, Myitkyina, about the year 1932. ‘The

site falls inside the sanctuary. There are 12 households, 7 bullock

carts, 9 pairs of bullocks, 4 buffaloes and 10 other head of cattle.

The villagers who are all Kachins earn their living by burning wood

charcoal inside the sanctuary and marketing same in Myitkyina town.

It would be a problem now to shift this village.

The sanctuary is in the Kachin State and the attitude of the Kachin

State Government. is not known. If the sanctuary is to be

rehabilitated it is este to shift this village from inside the

sanctuary.

Namse Reserve. ‘With a view to ae the Pidaung

Sanctuary to the south, settlement of 58 sq. miles of good game

country to constitute the Namse Reserve was carried out in 1937 and

notified in Department of Agriculture and Forests Notification No. 514

dated the 30th November 1939 with effect from the Ist February 1940.

At the time of evacuation in 1942, plans were afoot to add this

reserve together with Uya-Hatha Reserve, Kawan Reserve, and all

the intervening unclassed forests. This contemplated addition to the

Pidaung Sanctuary was well stocked with elephant, bison, tsaing, hog-

deer, sambar, barking-deer, peafowl, partridge, pheasant and white-

winged wood- ‘duck. The large open grass plains in the area make it

very suitable for further development into a place where wild animals

and birds can be easily seen. If this projected extension can be

accomplished a sanctuary of approximately 600 square miles (including

the existing Pidaung) will be brought into being.

Soon after his arrival in the Division U Maung Gale, the Divisional

Forest Officer, took up the question of rehabilitation of this sanctuary

and submitted proposals in May 1954. The proposals are now being

examined in Rangoon and it is hoped that early orders will be issued for

the settlement of the proposed extension.

The sanctuary can be developed into a Nz ational Park in a short

time. and it would be an asset not only to the Kachin State but

also to the Union Goyernment, 3 eee =

lisadicdadiibine ese 0

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA 273

_ The Hon’ble Thakin Kyaw Tun, Minister for Agriculture and Forests,

accompanied by U Thein, Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle,

visited the sanctuary in the course of his tour in December 1953.

_ he interest taken by the Hon’ble Minister is deeply appreciated.

TAUNGGYI GAME SANCTUARY

Year of notification We .. Ist March 1930. |

Area in square miles es ai Oa

_Forest division-in which situated ... Southern Shan States.

Species for which the sanctuary is

_ primarily constituted .. Birds and barking-deer.

This sanctuary was notified under the Shan States Game Rules,

1929, in Ministry of Forests Notification No. 13 dated the 22nd January

1930 with effect from the 1st March 1930. It is situated in the

Shan States. , |

The sanctuary is more of a wild bird refuge than a game sanctuary.

It was well stocked with birds and contained a few barking-deer

before the War. As the sanctuary is practically surrounded by a

densely populated area and is extremely accessible, poaching un-

questionably takes place in spite of vigilance by the forest staff.

- The Principal Forest Officer, Shan States, writes, 23rd March 1954::

“The Taunggyi Sanctuary has been greatly disturbed owing to proximity

to villages and difficulty in control. There may still be about half a

dozen gyis'. I gather that there are also a few leopards which prey

on dogs from houses adjoining the reserve.’

: Kanitt GAME SANCTUARY |

Year of notification eee air September 1928.

_ ‘Area in square miles a4. 02;

Forest division in which situated - ... Thaton

_ Species for which the sanctuary : :

is primarily constituted — - 3, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis,

ie | serow, sambar, barking-

: deer, mouse-deer, hog-deer

i and junglefowl.

. This sanctuary was notified in Ministry of Forest Notification

z No. 188 dated the 9th July 1928 with effect from the 1st September

1928. It is situated in the Pa-an Township of the Thaton District,

_ and the Papun Township of the Salween District.

< _ &. sondaicus was once fairly plentiful in several parts of Burma,

and was realised as being in danger of becoming very rare early in the:

_ present century.. But it was not until about 1927, partly as a result

of the activities of Thai poachers near the Siltaing River, that the

Forest. Departrment became seriously alarmed and decided that special

measures would be necessary if the species was to be saved from

_ extinction. Unfortunately this sanctuary was established too late.

‘A thorough investigation of this sanctuary conducted in 1938 by the

_ late: Theodore. Hubback showed that at least some of the rhinoceros:

ee Barking-deer. oa

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

inhabiting it -belonged ‘to the Sumatran” aro homedyi spebies.! LOrge, ae 2

vol. 2. (3),.-pp. 145-146, , ‘November, 1953].

In 1939-40, ‘the Game Warden (BF. Je “Mustill) tere a Suits

evidence. regarding the species as an excellent view and photos of a

rhinoceros in its wallow were obtained at very close range. The

animal was undoubtedly of the Sumatran species and its track: was the

largest measured in the sanctuary.

In 1940-41 the Game Warden (C. E. a stated that the » ‘rare

Rhinoceros sondaicus no longer existed here.

The Divisional Forest Officer, Thaton ‘(August 1946) in answer So

an enquiry informed Mr. Wi. F. H. Ansell ‘that there is at least one

family of rhinoceros in the Kahilu Sanctuary and that tracks of two

were recently seen’ [JBNHS, vol. 47 (2), p. 249, December tg

Hatracts from Report on Forest Administration in Burma.

1946-47. ‘Tracks of two Rhinoceros sumatrensis were reported

seen in the sanctuary’.

1947-48. ‘A Rhinoceros sumatrensis was ‘reported séen soGasionially’.

Information later than 1948 is not available. The sanctuary is situated

in the area at present. under occupation by the insurgents (Karens). -

Besides Dicerorhinus sumatrensis the sanctuary contains serow,

hog-deer, mouse-deer, barking-deer and a few bison. This sanctuary

falls within the recently constituted Kaw-thu- -lay Srey Stae.

Muuayir GAME SANOTUARY

Year of notification “— - ist J anuary 1986. a dice ah

Area in sq. miles IN a ae 5) eee tees oe Sipe 2S

Forest division in which situated _ Thaungyin.

Species for which the sanctuary -

is patty constituted _ Barking- deer, ‘Pig, Mer. and

es leopard. | :

This sanctuary was notified in Ministry of Forest ‘Notification

No. 232 dated the 5th November 1985 with effect from the 1st January

1986. - It is situated in the Kya-in Township, Kawkareik Sub-division,.

Amherst District, on the western slopes of the Dawna Range and

takes its name from the highest point in the area, namely Mount

Mulayit (6,828 ft.). Mount Mulayit is a place of pilgrimage and the

slopes of the mountains are uninhabited and likely to remain so.

This is the first of a series of sanctuaries constituted with the

support of the Buddhist monks. In an area with such. great range.

in elevation (6,823 ft. down to 1,200 ft.) the flora varies a great

deal—from dense evergreen and moist deciduous forests to hill forest — q

and open grass screes on the highest slopes. ‘There is therefore much

variety of food for herbivorous fauna. The streams are all perennial

and there are plenty of fish in the deep pools which occur. The .

climate is wet with a rainfall of probably more than 200 inches per

annum. - This rascee! was ely Beers to. contain oe ¢

Dawna! Range” at. 6; 899 ft. “(1929- 5). The Caseig is that

specimens may wander there from time to:time. .The sanctuary. was 4

last visited in 1946-47 by the range officer who found tracks of bison,

mouse-deer, sambar, barking-deer, pig, bear, tiger and. leopard.

WILD: LIFE. PRESERVATION: PMBUEMALI IS. Sts

te detailed: faunal ‘and floral: survey ‘is: necessary.“ The area is

present under occupation ‘by insurgents oe, and t Mons), cs

aus — the ee ae Karen” State. poy :

ee elk pen ‘Suwe-U- Dave

- -Year of notification er ioe : 4918.

Area in square miles is 5 126:+

— pionesd men in- which situated: Sine Bagh) loon’:

Be. Big | : : eet Burma s e205) ot: Se:

Mone Mit, "sgn jsi5at c:

Shan State. BSG ap

3S Species fn which the pancinary. as "126 -

1S s Primarily constituted e , Dicerorhinus ice

: 5 ie pais ice elephant, bison, _ tsaing,

Meer. Br es Sot ere - sambar,. serow,- . barking- es

Me ee ely ye ip RE ~ deer, pig,- Boor leopard, moe

Mls 85 Bis? of ee *) ¢-bear; . peafowl; - junglefowl; es

2 ; 3 pheasant, anes and +e

ee eee o= 3 ee er Cee Meter ieee: oe

2 gl sq. “miles of the Shwe- UDaung “Reserve ying in ‘the ‘Mopok

_ and Thabeikkyin Sub-Divisions of the Katha District was originally

notified as a Game Reserve in 1918 and declared as ‘The Shwe-U-Daung

_ Game Sanctuary’ in Forest Department (Ministry of Forests) Notifica-

— tion No. 248 dated the 29th September 1927. 45 sq. miles of the

_ Shwe-U-Daung Reserve lying in the Mongmit State was declared as

“The Shwe- U- Daung Game Sanctuary, in Forest Department— as

. Notification No. 188 dated the- 22nd July 1929 with effect from the gee

Ist August 1929. An account of this sanctuary by E. H. Peacock

has previously. been published in 1981 ‘(JBNHS, vol. 35 (2), October

1931 J. |

she eons Ue all species ‘of animals ‘adicenoue to

Northern Burma with the exception of thamin, goral and hog-deer and

- many of these can be observed on the open grassy hill slopes found

- at high elevations within the sanctuary. The scenic value of the

sanctuary is said to be almost unequalled within the Union, many

of the hills within it. being over 5;000 ft. above sea level. The

_ Shwe-U-Daung Hill from which the sanctuary takes its name rises

E pt an altitude of 6,222 ft. _

fe -<In- 1939,. this sanctuary was visited by the Conservator of

Forest, Northern Circle, the Game Warden and the Divisional

_ Forest Officer, Mong Mit Division. It was then estimated that the

‘sanctuary contained from twelve to fifteen specimens of Dicerorhinus

_ sumatrensis. Sambar could be seen at any time of the day on the

- open grassy slopes, which are the most distinctive features of this

- sanctuary. . Elephants are extremely plentiful: -In 1940, no

casualties among the D. sumatrensis were reported. The Game

~ Warden (Mr. Mustill), who visited the sanctuary during the year,

_ was struck by the diminution in numbers of sambar which live almost

permanently. in the open grass country along. the higher ae

7 Ents abound in the sanctuary. ,

ees

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The higher slopes were inhabited by several species of pheasants.

The Game Warden was able to identify the Burmese Barbacked

Pheasant. The Arakan Hill Partridge was also identified. Since then,

the sanctuary was last visited by the Divisional Forest Officer, Mong

Nit Division (KH. A. P. Reynolds), in April 1948. He did not see any

D. sumatrensis, but saw fresh tracks of one and a month-old spoor

of a cow with a’calf at heel. .The Range Officer, who visited one

sanctuary in May 1948, saw a D. sumatrensis in a mud wallow. |

The Range Officer found old poaching camps in the Lorie

drainage (Mong Mit Sector) dating from Japanese days. ‘There was

definite indication also that poaching had been going on from the Burma

side. After sifting available evidence, the Divisional Forest Officer

concluded that despite poaching there were approximately 4 to 5

specimens of this rare animal surviving in the Mong Mit Sector of

the sanctuary.

The Divisional Forest Officer counted thirty sambar feats on

the grassy hillocks and knolls of Namadawgyi between 4,500 and

5,000 ft. contours one morning. A forester of the party while clearing

paths saw three tigers, two Himalayan bears, a herd of elephants

and a small herd of bison.

There is a local legend that the best time to come across rhinoceros

is during the full moon of Waso (July) when they usually congregate

together.

1949-50: Due to very insecure conditions ‘prow ania’ in the ‘manele

vicinity of the sanctuary, the Divisional Forest Officer was. unable to

visit the sanctuary. The terrain affords an ideal hiding ground for

poachers, and fears were entertained that some of the animals. in the

sanctuary had been disturbed.

1950-51 and 1951-52: Nothing of importance was reported. But

the writer was informed by a gazetted officer of very senior rank

that three rhinos had been shot inside the sanctuary—one under a

special permit issued to the Maha Devi of Mong Mit for medicinal

purpose, and two illicitly by the Shan hunters’: who were entrusted

with shooting the first. The circumstances which led to the issue

of the special permit were:

(1) A physician sae the Maha Devi to take rhino blood

bath.

(2) A male D. sumatrensis was shot inside the sanctuary by

Game Warden (E. H. Peacock) in October 1930 under the direction

of the then Local Government for museum purposes..

Present-day conditions are quite different. The Game Warden

(i. H. Peacock) writes in February 1951

“The destruction of this animal is less to be deplor ed than might

be apparent, as there are fully ten other rhinoceros living in the

sanctuary under conditions ideal for their continued existence oud

increase.

The few surviving specimens are constantly harassed by rioediiety!

The sanctuary-is often disturbed by: the Prcceee of oo —

its boundaries.

The legend that the mountain seine of Shwe-U -Daung do ant like

poachers is no longer heeded by pe oe tesigont 2 in oe poe

hood of the sanctuary.

oi ve fe

rr Sh Pay eee es

ee Sol aks oy ects net at at

fia \

ay PP ae ae t¥ ey a be Pee oe Ee a ee i

URS

: UN dw bias

Se he Rae es

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA. 277

East Katha Sector (Burma). ?

1949-50. The Divisional Forest Officer, writes: —

‘Owing to continued lawlessness in the Thabeitkyin Range, it

was also not possible this year for the writer to carry out a survey

of the game in this sanctuary. Tracks of rhino were rarely seen

according to the report from the Range Officer, Thabeitkyin. As no

poaching could be prevented under existing conditions of lawlessness,

the number of rhino present will not be more than a couple if any exist

at all in the sanctuary.’

1950-51:: Not possible for any gazetted forest officer to visit the

sanctuary. The Range Officer, Thabeitkyin, reported one male, one

female and one calf rhino as existing in the sanctuary.

1952-53: Owing to the presence of insurgents in the area, it has

not yet been possible for the Divisional Forest Officer to visit the

sanctuary. From enquiries conducted by the Range Officer,

Thatbeitkyin, it is learnt that three rhino (one male, one female

and one calf) are surviving in the thick jungles in the upper reaches of

Shwe-Hyar Chau g.

‘Tt will be necessary in the interest of game to post a Deputy

Ranger and two foresters to the Sagadaung beat in the near future

for effective patrolling of the Game Sanctuary—at present there is

only one forester.’ [Annual Report on Forest Administration, Mong

Mit Division (1947-48) ].

No action appears to have been taken on the above recommendation.

| Two trial lines for finding the best route to the upper slopes of

_ Shwe-U-Daung were cut in 1938. The routes may be re-surveyed

when local conditions permit.

SE gee at eee Peer ee ee ee ee ee eae ee a

, ead s y fig ’ Y

t aH *

* Wis a

KyatrHin Winp Lire SANCTUARY

- Year of notification er LOAT.

‘Area in square miles 6, ek OA:

: Forest division in which situated ... Shwebo.

4 Species for which the sanctuary

is primarily constituted i, Lhamin.

i Establishment ... One game keeper.

This sanctuary was notified in Department of Agriculture and

_ Forests Notification No. 177 dated the 19th June 1941 with effect

_ irom the ist September 1941. It is situated partly in the Kawlin

_ Township of Katha District and partly in the Kanbalu Township of

Shwebo District. It was primarily constituted for thamin. Its

Constitution is a departure from all existing ideas concerning sanctuaries

in that, for the first time, villages are included inside the sanctuary.

ee Co-operation _of the villagers is to be enlisted by offering to pay

compensation for damage to their crops by the wild animals. The

suggestion made at the time of the constitution is that compensation

_ would take the form of paying the Land Revenue for the villagers. in

return for which the villagers would be asked to co- operate in preserving

the fauna in the sanctuary.

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 ale

Apparently this new idea..has: been ‘overlooked: by. Forest: O Officers. ‘

concerned. The Conservator of. Forests, igs Circle; has not a e

pHi ee foliides: an area ES swamp: = Wwhifeh: with | Sin’ an

canAlloat bird sanctuary. The whitewinged wood-duck and whistling,

teal breed in the area whilst there are many other species of water

fowl, which live here permanently. In 1937, the area proposed for

constitution - as a sanctuary was estimated — to contain 150 head of

thamin. In 1945-46 the Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, re-

ported that the number of thamin had beén reduced to one-third ‘of the

pre-war number. This would mean that. Spice were ae ee thamin

in 1945-46. ‘

“The number increased 6 cighty i in . 1948. 49 and to one s handreil: and

fifty in 1951-52. This sanctuary is situated in Thaw Range. The

number of thamin in Thaw Range was estimated as 600 to 700. in

1952. Many. animals from the unclassed forests had apparently. taken

up residence inside the sanctuary: ._

Tsaing and barking- deer are also “reported. “When proposals. for

constitution of this sanctuary were ais in 1937 there was a a herd

of about fourteen tsaing in the area. — 3

Note. The land occupied by the Burma aah Kyatthn:

Yindaik Fuel siding where the. siding passes through the Kyatthin

Fuel Reserve and Kyatthin Extension Fuel Reserve, is included in the

sanctuary boundaries as notified i in Notification No. Ww ie dated the 19th

June 1941. muh te oe eae ; ee

Suwezerraw Witd Lire Sanctuary

Year of notification ... 1940.

Area in square miles a7 2108.4.

Forest division in which situated ... Minbu.

Species for which the sanctuary a ee

is primarily constituted. - 3 ISOM, sambar, ‘thamin, and

- barking- deer.

This sanctuary ne is iets in the townships of Sidoktaya,

Pwinbyu, Sagu and Ngape of the Minbu District was notified as.

wild life sanctuary in Department of Agriculture and Forests Notifica-

tion No. 210 dated the 29th June 1940 with effect from the Ist

September 1940. The sanctuary is within two hours’ motor drive

from Minbu and takes ‘its name from the famous Shwezettaw Pagoda,

a place of pilgrimage for Buddhists. -This sanctuary and Kyatthin —

Wild Life Sanctuary in the Shwebo Forest Division were constituted

primarily for the perpetuation of Thamin (Panolia eldi thamin Thomas)

the deer typical: of Burma. When proposals for constitution of this

sanctuary ‘were submitted in 1937 there were at least 100 head of

thamin, some 40 head of bison and a few tsaing in the area.

Thamin were reported to be on the increase and in 1946-47 and 1947-

48, their-number in the sanctuary was estimated at one time to be

350: The whole of Minbu District was, however, overrun by insurgents

in 1948-49.- Though: Minbu and: the riverine towns have since been re-

occupied and are under civil administration of. the. Union Government,

é forest. area: including, thie: sanctuary is still occupied by underground,

ommunists... The Divisional. Forest. Officer . (U. Ba Thaung). reported

on 23 November 1948: 53

«. {Up till: now. thamin, though m_ reduced: daendikyc ‘continue ‘to

exist. and are found sparingly and sporadically. Quite a number have:

gee into: the adjoining scrub. jungles... Everywhere _ they | are

- now:seen in panic, and run away at. a distance. No poacher. will

_ find: it: éasy_to bag them. . It ‘is believed that when the- population has

been: harnessed and law and order has been restored. thamin — will

: . return to their. original homeland, and. large herds of them will re-

| alee again majestically.’

= <i: ilfo-my: query the Divisional Forest Officer (U hanes Myint) sepliad

ee & September 1953: 7

E _.*L think the: number of ‘thamin ; in (Gheregestary Wild Life Sanctuar:

- is.on the decrease due. to: heavy poaching during the Japanese occupa-

=. tion. - Poaching’ is still going-on during these days of insurrection

pase the area is still unoccupied | by. Government forces.

Beet ites! _ _Maymyo GAME SANCTUARY ee

Year of Notification S pate ine Ue ST 1918.

res neces | 8 ee ee OO OT

Forest Division in which situated ase Maymyo.

Species for which the sanctuary : 3

is peony constituted - .., Barking-deer, junglefowl,

partridge, and peafowl.

Originally notified as a. oie Reserve in August (1918 for the

benefit of the public of Maymyo, this sanctuary was re-notified as

_ ‘“Maymyo Game Sanctuary” in Ministry of Forests Notification No.

+243 dated the 29th September 1997. ‘The present boundaries of the

sanctuary were ‘revised with effect from the Ist November 1928, vide

Notification No. 240 dated 17th September 1928. Prior to its

constitution all wild life was rapidly being exterminated in and around

_ the station, and it was to enable residents to see a certain amount

BOL bird and animal life that the sanctuary was formed.. ‘As a result

_ of 35 years of protection, the original stock of junglefowl and barking-

deer had increased considerably and there was an eis stock when

_ the War broke out.

* ‘During the Japanese regime, villages | Laid ‘and inside the

/' sanctuary expanded with the influx of refugees, and to cope with

_ the ‘shortage of food, taungya cultivation was carried out inside

reserved forests without any restriction and though it was brought

under control later, the lands already cleared and cultivated are no

_ more ‘suitable to be retained as reserved forests. Now, as there is

Sha |

_Yeserve is recommended by the Deputy Commissioner, Mandalay,

action is being taken for dis-forestation, and as such the area, of the

ee ctuary will be reduced by about 5, 900 acres, curtailing the area

available for occupation by wild life. _

_.-‘The situation of the sanctuary close to a popular hill-station

_ idlike - _Maymyo—serves as a life-museum and could develop into a

genuine land hunger and as the disforestation of affected parts of the

Se eopsitar ‘National Park’ if steps are. taken to educate the public in the

3 er ireciation of wild life. But so. far, the sanctuary has suffered from:

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

uncontrolled hunting by the people and the military personnel during

the whole period of Japanese occupation, and the initial stages of

British reoccupation!. | ant 4

‘Since the beginning of 1947, steps are taken to enforce the game j

rules and appeal made. to military personnel is proving successful. F

Besides, the unsafe condition for any one to hunt in the sanctuary

due to the activities of insurgents in 1948 kept the game reserve in the

vicinity of Maymyo undisturbed throughout the year. Barking-deer

exist in fair numbers, tiger, leopard, wild dog and wild cat are to be

found in the sanctuary, and tracks are reported to have been seen in

compartment 24, near Singaunggale, Phoungdaw and Ye-gyon-oh

villages. Junglefowl is distributed throughout the sanctuary, and |

peafowl can be seen near Nyaungni and Ye-gyan-oh villages during

winter.’ (Divisional Forest Officer, Maymyo. 10th January 1949).

‘The appeal to the Military authorities for co-operation was repeated

in May 1952. ‘Tigers and leopards are much in prominence and

occasionally lift dogs and goats from inside Maymyo Town.’ (Annual

Report 1952-53). :

‘In 1954 a leopard walked one morning into a bungalow in Maymyo

while the owner was having his morning coffee, and was trapped

inside and shot by a police officer who was called in. :

: :

- Moscos Isutanp GaME SANCTUARY : rae ‘

Year of notification ed OR4. :

Forest division in which situated. .ea Lavoyn =

Area in square miles SS 5 ;

Species for which the sanctuary : *

is primarily constituted Ra me Sambar, barking-deer, and

pig. :

Originally notified as a Game Reserve in 1924 and declared as . =

‘“Moscos Island Game Sanctuary’ in Forest Department (Ministry of

Forests) Notification No, 243 dated the 29th September 1927.

It was hoped to be able to stock the islands with species which

might ultimately become exposed to extermination on the mainland.

With this object Im view nine sambar, three barking-deer (all stages),

four hog-deer, nine pigs and two junglefowl were released from time

to time between 1924-1929. The Divisional Forest Officer, Tavoy

Division, who visited the sanctuary in 1937 doubted whether any

of the hog-deer or barking-deer, had survived. He suggested ‘that

the island is well suited for development into a seaside resort for

Rangoon, being only a few hours’ journey by sea-plane. Excellent

sea bathing and sea fishing offer great attraction, and if such develop-

ment takes place the establishment of a well-conducted wild life

sanctuary on the islands would prove an additional asset.’

* On British re-entry administrative instructions were issued that the Forest

and Game Laws were not to be enforced too strictly in consideration of the bad

time the population had been through in the war years. In areas where touring is

now possible, it is found that much game is destroyed by peace guerillas, who

misuse the ammunition issued by Government for local defence. nS

WILD LIFE: PRESERVATION IN BURMA

in 1938 and 1989 respectively.

; The Game Warden (H. A. Maxwell) who visited the sanctuary

(1988-39) wrote:

i ‘Of the indigenous fauna, the crab-eating monkeys are well

represented. Hornbill and Imperial pigeons are also numerous, while |

there is a great variety of bird life, the study of which would require

a prolonged stay on the islands.’

| The: Game Warden (Ff. J. Mustill) wrote (1939-40): ‘Unless these

islands are stocked with animals and birds imported from the main-

land, there is little point in maintaining a sanctuary here.’

3 Of the animals released only the pig is established on the islands.

Nine sambar and about 500 pigs were reported by fishermen in 1950-51.

The evergreen forests on the islands afford poor feeding, and

clearings are required to provide suitable feeding grounds for any

animals imported. —

As the area is a notified sanctuary, all interference with wild

life is prohibited. But collection of edible birds’ nests and turtles’

eges is authorised. The Union Government may not be prepared to

forego the revenue. ‘The collection of edible birds’ nests should at

least be restricted. This is necessary for the preservation of the Grey-

rumped Swifts (Collocalia francica) which are responsible for these

E nests.

. The Deputy Commissioner, Tavoy, (U Kyaw Thant) who was

* consulted writes on 6th April 1954:

‘I discussed it with the Divisional Forest Officer and since no

Forest Officer had visited it during the past years because of the

insurrection nobody knows the present position of the sanctuary.

The island proves to be poor feeding ground, and it is very doubtful

if it will become a seaside resort at all, because of the easier accessibility

of Maungmagan beach. Maungmagan is only ten miles from Tavoy

by motor car and there is very little danger of its becoming overcrowded.

The Moscos, on the other hand is about 20 miles from Tavoy, and the

communication is very poor and by fishing boats.

The right to collect turtle eggs during 1953-54 was sold for Kyats 150

and the right to collect edible birds’ nests for three years 1951-54

for Kyats 141,000.

Pre-war the licensee paid Rs. 450 per annum for the right to collect

the turtle eggs and sold them on the mainland at from two to three

annas for ten.

eet ee Sa Le eee ee ey

WELTIGAN WiLD LirE SANCTUARY

Year of notification es Ist September 19389,

Area in sq. miles waar cb. 10%

Forest division in which situated ... Minbu.

Species for which the sanctuary

is primarily constituted ... Many species of waterfowl.

This sanctuary which is situated in the Salin Township of the Minbu

District was notified as ‘Weltigan Wild Life Sanctuary’ in Department

_ of Agriculture and Forests Notification No. 275 dated the 5th July

‘A pair of barking-deer and a young sambar (stag) were released |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,

were 38 resident bird species and 31 migrant species. The suggestion

that the area be notified as a reserve emanated from Kan Kyaung

Sayadaw, the head of the monastery situated on the shores of the

lake. The Sayadaw was strongly supported by the headmen of Hga-

linban, Sin-Kyon, Tamagyaung, Anauk-kanbaung and Shanzu village

tracts. ‘During the period of Japanese occupation, there was

considerable poaching not only of the waterfowl but also of the fish.

The Divisional Forest Officer (U Ba Thaung) reported in November

1948: ‘The sanctuary is now reviving and the stock is on considerable

increase, and at present it is in its early stage of rehabilitation. The

advantage of its proximity to Salin, the Headquarters of the Civil

Sub-Division, and also that of the Salin Forest Range, and co-operation

of many good citizens with sense of civic duties help towards its”

success which appears to me to be promising’.

But I learnt from the present Divisional Forest Officer (U Aung

Myint) in October 1953, that the water in the lake is very low. He

attributes the cause to the wholesale cutting down of cutch trees in

the insurgent occupied areas by villagers under permits issued by the

insurgents. A senior forest officer with whom I discussed considers

that on-the-spot investigation would be necessary to ascertain the

actual cause, as the water in Maymyo Lake is also very low. There

the cause is attributed to cracks in the earth surface caused by

bombing during the war.

Rights and privileges granted as below:

Particulars of rights and

privileges

Owners of cultivation He To scare wild birds which are

destroying crops but the use of

fire-arms, catapults or any

Particulars of holders.

injurious weapon is not be

mitted.

The public ... (a) To graze and water cattle without

restriction.

(6) Tocollect lotus leaves, fruits and

grass without restriction.

KeLatHa Hitt Witp Lirrt SANCTUARY

Year of notification ... 1942.

Area in sq. miles ... 9.45. |

Forest division in which situated .., Kado and Agency.

Species for which the sanctuary ... Junglefowl and numerous — 3 |

is primarily constituted species of birds.

This sanctuary was notified in Department of Agriculture and

Forests Notification No. 9 dated the 12th January 1942 with effect

from the Ist April 1942. The proposal for its constitution emanated

from the leading monk of Kyaungtaya—Myathabeik mena oe situated

in the Kelatha Range of hills. —

1939 with effect from the lst September 1989. The sanctuary ne i

mainly of lake and marsh land. At the time of constitution there |

ae |

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN BURMA

_ Besides junglefowl and numerous species of birds, barking-deer

nd serow are also benefited by the constitution of this sanctuary.

The sanctuary lies within the Kado and Agency Forest Division in

the Bilin Township of the Thaton District but is placed under Thaton

Forest Division for administrative convenience. At present it falls

within the area occupied by the KNDO and KMT.

UNOFFICIAL GAME RESERVES

In the Southern Shan States there are eight unofficial game

reserves in areas outside forest departmental control. Five reserves

4 are situated in Yawnghwe State, two in Lauksawk State, and one

in Kengtung States.

They were maintained by the Chiefs:in the interests of wild life

protection. All these reserves are frequented by large numbers of

duck and waterfowl which together with the fish are protected by

the Chiefs under the customary law. With the recent change in the

administration of the Shan States, how these unofficial reserves will

fare in the future is not known.

a The Principal Forest Officer, Shan States, would alone be able

- to advise the Shan States Government as, well as the Union Govern-

ment. These reserves should be perpetuated and not allowed to lapse.

3 PROPOSALS FOR NEW SANCTUARIES

(1) a 1939-40, the villagers living round the Htu Lake situated

- two miles south of Inbin village, Myanaung Township, Henzada

District, requested that the lake which covers some 5 sq. miles may

be formed into a sanctuary.

Preliminary notification was issued in the Department of Agriculture

and Forests, Forest 11 Branch Notification No. 37 dated February 4,

- 1942. Its approximate area is 5.63 sq. miles.

3 With the present improved conditions in the area, the Divisional

3 Forest Officer, Henzada-Bassein Division, may be appointed to be

settlement a in place of the Game Warden to fulfil the long

3 ee rang request of the villagers. |

(2) Proposals for formation of a wild life sanctuary in the Hlaing

- Yoma Hills Reserve of Insein Forest Division, comprising the Hlaing

B Yoma Hills, Wanetchaung and Kalitaw Reserves embracing the catch-

4 ‘ment area of the Rangoon water supply dam at Gyobyu, were under

- consideration at the time of evacuation. It is felt that such an area

4 which can easily be reached by car from Rangoon will, if developed,

_ provide a very welcome source of recreation to the citizens of Rangoon.

(3) Notification proposing the Byingye Hill as a sanctuary in the

interests of goral was issued in 1941. ‘The area selected ig situated

partly within the Byingye Reserves of Yamethin Forest Division and

partly in the Shan States and covers approximately 12 sq. miles. The

_ goral. is practically limited to the three peaks of Byingye (6,254 ft.),

_ Megon, (6,169 ft.) and Tinyudaung (5,959 ft.).

_ The constitution of this sanctuary would save the remaining

accessible heads of goral in the Union from extermination. It is

; Ficped that settlement of this sanctuary would be taken up as soon as

‘the situation in the area returns to normal.

is Reger Es ag sues

Sale oh a St 25 Se

a f aan .

PEW oh Nah ed F ‘

* CE sokse Pi ara

284. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

(4) In 1936, the Divisional Forest Officer, Arakan Division (Mr.

Castens) suggested the Kyaukpandaung Hill as a suitable area for a

sanctuary. He remarked as follows: —

‘From many points of view this hill is a most attractive proposition

as a Game Reserve. Though at present inaccessible it could be

connected to Paletwa by a fair weather motor road with only one

difficult stretch, that from Amataung to Tawseik Sakan. This would

bring it within two days’ journey of Akyab and a minimum of three

days from Rangoon or Calcutta.

‘The hill forms a horseshoe-shaped plateau, the inner and outer

rims of which are precipices. The plateau is covered with a type

of hill evergreen with a number of lwins along the outer (and higher)

edge. A herd of bison is said to live permanently in the forest of

the plateau and certainly at times grazes in the lwins. Strangely

enough, no sambar have ever been seen on the plateau, while elephants,

though common on the lower slopes, do not often reach the top.

‘The greatest attraction of the plateau, however, lies in the

unrivailed opportunities it offers for the observation at close quarters

of serow and more particularly goral. ‘These animals graze freely on

the open slopes below the outer precipice and can be watched for hours

from the top. During my short stay I saw one serow and six goral grazing

in the open, while other members of my camp watched a herd of about

ten goral for a period of about two hours from a distance of about 40

yards.

‘The scenery on the plateau is the most magnificent I have seen

anyWhere in Burma. Shooting serow and goral is limited to those slopes

which can be reached by descent of the cliffs, which is possible only

in one or two places. ‘There is a limited amount of native poaching of

serow, goral and bison.’ : 3

Apparently the above proposal has not been lost sight of, judging

from the following remarks in the Annual Report on Forest Administra-

tion for the year ending September 30, 1946::

“A possible sanctuary for the protection of goral was previously

suggested in Kyaukpandaung Hills, east of Paletwa in the Arakan

Division. This area is very remote and protection will have to be

left mainly to the subordinate staff.’ ;

The proposed area falls within Chin Hills Special Division to

which the Wild Life Protection Act, 19386, was extended in 1948. As

remarked by the then Game Warden (F. J. Mustill), an area which

affords opportunity of observing serow and goral at close quarters —

is certainly worth consideration. Byingye Hill sanctuary alone would ~~

not be sufficient for the perpetuation of goral. Settlement can also’ ~

be carried out now.

The Chief Conservator of Forests as a member of the Chin Hills

Development Committee, has undertaken along with the committee

three fact-finding tours of the Chin Hills Special Division. It is

therefore presumed that he has examined this proposal on the spot,

The Chins are a law-abiding people. They are not likely to contravene —

the game rules when the area has been notified as a wild life sanctuary. :

‘S

ABORIGINAL METHODS EMPLOYED IN KILLING

AND CAPTURING GAME

K. M. KirKpPATRICK

(With six text figures)

Before the introduction of the fire-arm, the aboriginals were hunting

in the forests of India. Their whole life being devoted to the filling

of the family stomachs, it is not surprising that they invented methods

of killing and catching game to supplement the efforts made with

their bows and arrows, axes, and—sometimes—spears. The

aboriginal kills for two reasons. The primary reason is food, for

as the Ho say ‘merim he merim’ (meat is meat), and they are not

particular as to whether this meat is furred, feathered or scaled as

long as it is edible. The other reason for killing is when animals

prove themselves to be a menace to the security of the aboriginal.

No aboriginal kills for the sake of killing, and they can see no object

in destroying an animal for the sake of sport or for its hide, head

or horns. They kill, primarily, for food and food alone, much as

any other carnivore, and were, before the influx of outside hunters,

an important feature in the scale of the balance of nature.

The aboriginals with whom I am familiar, having lived amongst

them in their villages, are the Ho, the Munda, the Urang and the

Bhuiya of south Bihar and the States of Gangpur and Bonai, the

Kutia Khond and the semi-hindu Oriya of Kalahandi and Jeypore

Samasthanam, the Muria of Bastar and the wandering almost pigmy

Bir-ho of south Bihar and northern Orissa. Their traps are described

here as well as their methods of securing game. In order to attain

some sequence, I am listing the animals and birds concerned,

grouping several species where the trap is common, in order of

classification.

MAMMALS

Tue Common Lancur (Semnopithecus entellus)

Amongst the forested hills of south Bihar and northern Orissa

wander the small family parties of the Bir-ho (‘Bir’ meaning forest

and ‘Ho’ meaning man), a jungle people of no fixed abode to whom

the jungle is home and in which they live and die, erecting little

shelters of branches or of grass as temporary shelters when the

weather is wet or cold. They live on the forest life around them

and their major source of sustenance is the Langur or Entellus monkey.

In the tall tree forest, the langur very seldom comes to the ground

but lives the major part of its life amongst the high branches. Up

there in that leafy world, it has its special sleeping sites, its chosen

food sites, and to and fro between these it has its well-marked travel

routes, running along the same branch and jumping from the same

springy take-off. point to leap across and land on the same landing

Te ee

286 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

point. The Bir-ho is well acquainted with the fact that these monkey-

gangs tread the same familiar path to and from their sleeping places

and, on moving into a section of forest, they immediately scout out

the Langurs’ routes, the times at which they are used, and the frequency

with which the gangs travel. over them. Having gleaned this

information, the route is reconnoitred and a spot, usually where the

monkeys leap across some gap and are bunched together on some

branch, is chosen.

One of the hunters climbs up the tree at a time when the monkeys

_are furthest away from the scene and very carefully cuts through the

underside of this selected branch until it is literally hanging by a thread

and will be disturbed by the slightest weight. Nets woven of the

bauhinia creeper are slung loosely bag-like beneath the branch and

the aboriginals settle down to await the monkey-gang’s arrival.

As soon as the monkeys are near, one or two small boys create

an uproar behind them, causing the monkeys to run for safety and

this they do, leaping across the gap bunched closer together than

normal on to the weakened branch, which gives beneath their weight

so that some fall into the bag-nets, others lose their balance or

jump wildly elsewhere on seeing the trap their leaders have fallen into,

whilst the little Bir-ho shoot at them with their arrows; their shooting

is fairly accurate and I have often seen an entellus shot in mid-air.

The netted monkeys are not killed until later and it is usual to kill

all the adults caught but to keep the young as pets—(for consumption

at some later date when food is hard to find?)

THE TIGER (Panthera tigris)

The tiger constitutes a grave threat to the aboriginal, especially

in those areas where encroaching civilisation has caused a depletion

in the deer population of the forests. In such areas the tiger falls back

on the killing of cattle, and sometimes human beings, and it is usually

the forest dweller who suffers. Thus, during the breeding season,

in Saranda, I have known a pair of tigers kill three cattle of Baliba

village on one night, two cattle of Ponga village the next, and finally

five cattle near Chota Nagra village on the third night—all these

villages are roughly eight to ten miles from each other in a triangle.

In such cases and where a tiger is making a nuisance of itself by preying

on village cattle or on human beings, the villagers usually call for

the services of a professional tiger-killer or ‘Bagh-mari’. This

gentleman contracts to dispose of the tiger for a consideration in cash

or kind. His equipment consists of three large bows, capable of

propelling arrows some five to six feet in length carrying barbed heads

of iron some nine to ten inches long. These bows are set in a triangle _

around the kill, the lane of fire of each bow being cleared, and each bow ~

is then set for firing with a trip-string. The bows are so aligned that —

the arrow, which travels with considerable velocity on release, will —

fly about twenty inches above the level of the ground. Some ten

paces back from these trip-strings, the tiger-killer strings a ‘Dharam- _

suta’ (a life-saving thread) at chest height from the ground, —

This latter string serves to warn any human intruder that the trap —

is set. The tiger, of course, passes below this string on its way to ~

the kill and usually fouls one of the trip-strings, whereupon the arrow _

287

is. iileaced ‘and the diger mb rtalll wounded or killed outright. There

have been instances where man-eaters, who have become gun-shy and

who will not return to the kill after making the first meal from | it,

-. in the centre of his deadly triangle. Thus, in 1949, the Patharbasa

-man-eater in Saranda R.F. was disposed of, the fee being Rs. 300.

Sketch no. 1 illustrates this type of trap. :

TRIP = SrRING

- SKETCH 1.+-Tiger Trap.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52.

Another trap, not known to the Ho, Munda, Urang (or ? Oraon),

Kutia Khond or Bhuiya, is the ‘Suri-phanda’ used in Central India.

(Phis consists of tying the kill to a barked and slippery pole, which is

lashed horizontally between two stout trees at some twelve feet above

the ground. The ground below the kill slung on this pole is planted

with upright spears, concealed as best possible in the grass or bushes.

(The tiger, on approach, sees the kill dangling out of reach and tries

to secure it by climbing one of the support trees and then out along

the pole, which, being both slippery and too narrow in diameter to

afford a grip for the great paws, causes the tiger to miss its step,

slip and fall on to the waiting spears below, its heavy weight usually

inflicting a mortal wound.’

Other methods, which I have not observed personally, but about

which I have been told by the people of Erpund pargana, Bastar, are

as follows :— 7

(a) A path frequently used by the tiger is carpeted with large

Bauhinia leaves or Asan leaves, liberally smeared with bird-lime, made

from pipal tree latex and mustard-oil. The tiger, walking on the

path, puts his foot on a leaf, which promptly adheres to it; he struggles

to shake it off and usually collects a few more leaves on his other

feet and legs. He then tries to lick. the leaves off and these adhere

to his head until, finally, he succumbs to a terrible rage and rolls,

roaring loudly, on the leaves. The waiting hunter, secure in some

retreat, hears the roars, walks up and shoots the tiger with an arrow

from a safe distance. :

(b) Large, loosely hung nets constructed of Bauhinia creeper are

slung on weakly. planted bamboo poles across several paths used by

the tiger around his favourite lying-up haunt. Two hunters are

stationed near each net whilst beaters enter the area and make a

tremendous uproar by beating drums, whacking bushes and shouting

very loudly. The upshot of this is that the tiger decides to leave the

area in a hurry and runs into one of the nets, the weak bamboos

collapse and the net enmeshes the struggling tiger, which is then

disposed of by the sentries. I have seen these nets, which are also

used in securing deer, but I have never witnessed a hunt in action.

THE LEOPARD, OR PANTHER (Panthera pardus) :

The panther probably constitutes the greatest menace or nuisance

to the aboriginal. Virtually every village in or near the forest 1s

haunted by one or more of these beasts, which prey on cattle, goats

and dogs and sometimes become man-eaters. Their great cunning

combined with their familiarity with man makes them all the more

dangerous, and the aboriginal is only too’ glad to dispose of them

but usually does not do so until they have become an extreme nuisance.

The south Bihar-northern Orissa tribes usually employ a bow-trap,

illustrated in sketch no. 2, which is fairly satisfactory. A bow is tied

to two small ‘Y’ stakes facing the narrowly opened gate in a fence,

through which the panther has been observed to move. Another *Y’

stake is planted in front of the bow and this supports a piece of

bamboo, one end of which is rounded and holds the bow string back,

1 For further details of this-method, see Davar, JBNHS, Vol. 49, p. 52.—Ebs.

re! et Ae

ewer eae

ail my b mae 2 4 -

PRS AER ti Sa diet Mee Pee Sei ord y Shi is e bo =

NER SRS tei tite i Ni Reo ae. ASNT RES RMN TH Le TRY, oe

cubes

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og See see. ahead

RA MR a!

ABORIGINAL METHODS OF KILLING & CAPTURING GAME 289

a small notch in this bamboo holds against the supporting ‘Y’ stake’s

fork when the pressure of the bow-string forces it forward. From

the other end of the bamboo, a short string holds up one end of a

small plank, which is placed directly in the open gate-way. The whole

trap is set with great care and the bamboo is virtually a hair-trigger

peLutlii

UE =

Zz 7

wh: I ! Ve =

=f i}

LMU /|

‘fe =]

Za SS = Aa ;

PLANK

TRIP-LEVER \, wu

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SKETcH 2.—Panther Trap.

for the slightest pressure on the plank causes the bamboo to jump

up and release the bow string, propelling the arrow forward with

great velocity. The bow is so set that the arrow flies diagonally

upwards. The marauding panther usually tries to sneak through the

gate, treads on the plank and releases the arrow, which strikes it

in the chest or head inflicting a terrible wound or killing the animal

completely. This trap is very common amongst the Urang.

' The Muria of Bastar and some of the villages in Orissa use a

regular trap with a trap-door. The trap is a two-compartment affair,

built of stout stakes hammered well into the ground and roofed with

heavy timbers. A partition of thinner stakes divides the two compart-

ments. A heavy trap-door is poised above the entrance to the trap,

held in place by a rope tied to a narrow stake against the partition.

-A pig is placed in the smaller of the two compartments. The panther,

‘

on! Hd

”

over. A string ending in a noose is attached to the bamboo and

in an effort to secure the pig, enters the trap and its scratchings

against the partition disturbs the key-stake holding the rope and the

trap-door is released to trap the panther. It should be pointed out

that the trap is so narrow as to make it impossible for the panther

to turn around and attack the baulk of timber that serves as a

door. ‘The panther is then disposed of with an arrow through the —

gaps in the stakes. R

Tue LEopArRp Car (Prionailurus bengalensis)

THE JUNGLE Cat (Felis chaus)

THE InpIan Fox (Vulpes bengalensis)

These three animals, especially the latter two, can be extremely harm-

ful to poultry and—iti the case of the two cats—are not averse to

destroying goat kids and lambs, whilst the little fox occasionally wreaks

havoc in the melon patches and the yam fields. All three are trapped

with the spring trap shown in sketch no. 3. This is a very simple

SKETCH 3.—Spring Trap used for wild cats, foxes, hares and peafowl.

trap and consists of bending a springy bamboo or young capliaee

a second string attached to a stake driven lightly into the ground

serves to hold the bamboo bent over. A’ piece of meat or the intestines

aS me Fe wrs

RS fe

GAME 291

- KILLING & CAPTURING

of ‘a chicken. are firmly lashed to this stake, which is planted in a

hollow about four to six inches deep, the noose being laid around

_ the hollow’s circumference. The predator, in trying to dislodge the

position with the release of tension, and the animal is noosed around

the neck or upper body. The bamboo selected is usually about twelve

feet tall and the noose-string is about five feet long so that an

animal so suspended cannot touch the ground and is usually choked

or hangs in mid-air until the trapper destroys it. The Junglecat

is eaten as a delicacy by some tribes, especially the Urang. .

e. Rats .

“« All aboriginal tribes mentioned in the introduction eat the field

‘rats which live in their fields and houses. Several traps are used

- including the spring trap referred to above as well as ‘figure four’

traps holding up a baulk of timber, which crushes the rat with its

weight when released. The Urang have a novel trap, illustrated in

sketch number 4, which consists of a hollow bamboo, with an entrance

SSSSS

SSS

VEEN

SSIS

AMI

AYES See:

SSS SLE

SSS SESS

EATS

LS BASS.a BAB

saa

SSSeEss

SSS SSS

\ermanees

« thang.

SKETCH 4.—Urang rat trap.

eM A fea ees ea |

292 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62

hole cut into one side. A small bow holding a ‘tuti’ or blunt-headed

arrow is fixed to the open end of the bamboo and the bow-string is

held taut by a bamboo splinter, wedged against a node in the

bamboo’s hollow interior. A morsel of food is fixed to one end

of this splinter, the other end being used against the bow string.

The rat enters the bamboo in quest of food and dislodges the splinter,

whereupon the arrow is released and the rat killed.

THE INDIAN PoRcuUPINE (Hystrix leucura)

The porcupine is trapped as food or when its destructive inroads

into garden produce become intense. Usually the porcupine forces a.

way through a hedge or tunnels through a bund in order to enter

a garden and uses this entry regularly thereafter, and this is its

undoing for the aboriginal poises a heavy timber on a delicate figure

four in the field just over the tunnel’s mouth, the porcupine disturbs

the figure four and the timber crushes it. Where there is a scarcity

of convenient hedges or fences around gardens, the aboriginal usually _

erects a narrow box-trap, not unlike the panther trap, and this he baits

with some succulent vegetable, usually yams or sweet potatoes, allowing

the porcupine to visit the trap for several nights until its suspicions

have worn off and it has become a regular nocturnal visitor. The trap

is then set with the same heavy timber and figure four as used in

hedge-tunnels and the porcupine is crushed. Sometimes, though very

seldom, a trap door is employed.

THE ComMMoNn Hare (Lépus ruficaudatus)

Much sought after by the aboriginal as food, the hare is widely

trapped and killed. Several methods are employed. The first is based

directly on the hare’s habit of running through gaps between bushes,

no matter how low these may be, rather than jump over the bushes

when flushed. Accordingly, the trapper erects a long low barrier of cut

branches in the shape of a large ‘V’, at the apex of which and at intervals 2

along the arms of which he leaves several small gaps. Each of these - ~

gaps is covered with a loose net, the ends of which are firmly pegged ye

to the ground and the hunters then beat the surrounding scrub driving

the hares towards the ‘V’, which they enter, run down the arms

in panic diving for any gap, where they are promptly fouled by

the net and taken. This is an extremely effective trap and I have

yet to see one draw a blank.

The second trap employed is a spring trap as described under the

Cats and the Indian Fox, only no shallow pit is dug but grain and

rice are sprinkled in the centre of the noose and the hare disturbs

the key-stake whilst eating, thus noosing itself.

The third and very successful method of killing hares is the village

version of shooting from motor cars at night with the aid of bright

headlights. For some reason best known to itself, the hare is

scared by a bright light, and the Oriyas of Kalahandi have developed

a novel method of hare-hunting, which I have never witnessed else-

where. An earthen pot with a wide mouth is daubed with white clay

and affixed to a woven bamboo screen about three feet wide and four feet

high in such a manner that the pot’s mouth is facing away from

the screen horizontally. This contraption is attached to one end of

a ‘Kaur’ or shoulder pole, as used for carrying loads, and is counter-

ORIGINAL METHODS OF KILLING & CAPTURING GAME 293

Bd coe. 7

balanced by a basket filled with small chips of timber at the other

' HF

end of the ‘Kaur’. A fire is made in the pot and the load is shouldered

by the chief hunter, who moves rapidly across the fields and open

glades, swinging the light from the pot about much in the manner

of a searchlight. In his hand he carries a large iron ring, some

ten inches in diameter, on which are hung loose some three to four

small rings of plaited wire. As he swings his torch here and there

he jingles these rings continuously. Behind him waiks a general

factotum, whose job it is to keep the fire replenished and, later, to

carry the bag, whilst behind him again walks the killer, a man armed

a with a long bamboo pole. All three are very careful to keep directly

in the shade of the bamboo screen and so throw no shadows of their

own from the firelight. I have tried to illustrate this in sketch no. 5.

FIRE-POT on SCREEN

SKETCH 5.—Oriyas hunting hare.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol

The jingling of the wire rings apparently attracts the attention

of the hares, which look up and are frozen with fear (I surmise it is

fear) at the sight of the great glowing ‘eye’ bearing down on them,

their attention being totally held by a very rapid jingling of the wires.

The whole party moves rapidly towards the petrified animal. until

they are within range, when the killer deals the unfortunate beast

a deadly blow with his long bamboo. ,I have been out on these

hunts on several occasions. The hunt is always on very dark nights,

before the falling of the first dew, and it is always highly successful.

However, if one is careless and allows the firelight to throw the

shadows of legs or arms across the ground, the hares immediately

forget their trance and make a bolt for it, being vigorously pursued

with a rapid jingling until they stop and are again hypnotised. The

villagers have told me that, on occasion, cheetal deer, and once, a

panther have been similarly attracted. In the case of the panther,

the chief hunter very: carefully placed his load on the ground, the

hunters faded into the night and watched the panther stalk the fire-

pot, upon which it leaped with a roar that quickly changed to an

anguished scream as it burnt itself. This incident was considered

extremely humorous and was narrated with much delighted thigh-

slapping and guffaws. ?

THE INDIAN ELEPHANT (Elephus maximus)

In parts of southern Bihar and northern Orissa the elephant causes

immense damage to the fields. The Elephant Protection Act

prohibiting the killing of elephants has led to a situation where the

elephant has become so familiar with man as to be contemptuous of

him, entering his fields and villages with impunity to eat its fill. It

is heart-rending to see a small field of paddy that has been worked

over by an elephant and yet there is little one can do about it and

the aboriginal is usually content to dig a pit, severely thrashing the

elephant that falls into it, after which the elephant is left to climb

out as best it can. In the old days, these pits were planted with

sharpened stakes or spears but this habit has died out due to fear

of the law.

Tue InpIAN CHEVROTAIN OR MousE-DEER (Moschiola memina)

Strangely enough, although deer meat is looked upon with fondness

by all aboriginals, in fact the Ho word ‘merim’ is used for both ‘meat’

and ‘deer’-—I suppose because the Ho looks upon all deer as being

nothing but meat in an active form—I know of no true traps, apart from

the nets referred to under the paragraph on tigers, which, as I

have said, I have never seen in use. Most aboriginals are content

to stalk deer or beat them to a waiting line of hunters armed with

bows or sometimes, as in Orissa, with flintlocks of great vintage or,

at most, to ambush them over their regular dung-heaps. However, ~~

the mouse-deer is trapped, in one sense of the word, by two simple

methods, one of which is rather strenuous.

In the jungle, the mouse-deer usually lairs up inside a hollow

fallen tree during the day. The aboriginal who discovers such a

lair promptly takes off his loin cloth, or, if he has no loin cloth, —

goes home and fetches a piece of cloth, which is draped over the ~

ORIGINAL METHODS OF KILLING & CAPTURING GAME 295

france of the hollow log, which is usually solid for some part of

ts length. Having covered the entrance as best he can, he commences

hammering on the log, proceeding from the entrance up, with the

butt of his axe, until the sound tells him he has reached the end

of the hollow portion of the log. He then cuts a large hole about

_ two feet away from this solid part, puts in his arm and catches the

deer. It is as easy as that because, for some unknown reason, the

_ deer will not attempt to run past the flimsy cloth covering its escape

route, whilst the continuous hammering and cutting, the noise of

_ which must be amplified to excess in the confines of the hollow log,

E send it in retreat as far back as it can get, where it remains apparently

_ dazed by the sound, for it makes no attempt to struggle when caught

_ or at the most will give a couple of ineffective kicks.

a The second method is employed during the summer months, when

_ the carpet of dry leaves on the forest floor is thick and piled into

drifts. The hunter, knowing the path used by this little deer, conceals

himself nearby and, on the arrival of the deer, throws himself into sudden

and violent pursuit. The alarmed little animal plunges off the path

and, in trying to run through the drifts of dry leaves, punctures

them with its sharp hooves so that they accumulate like large anklets

around its legs, slowing it down and sometimes stopping it completely,

so that the’ hunter, albeit-a trifle puffed by his exertions for these

_ little deer are capable of great speed, successfully captures it. The

_ only parallel with this that I have on other species of deer is when

2 _ I was invited to hunt sambar by a band of Kutia Khonds in northern

_ jJeypore Samasthanam. I visualised myself sitting on some shady

-forest-line whilst the beaters worked the deer towards me, and set

3 off in high spirits which quickly waned when I discovered that the

-Kutia Khond method of hunting sambar is very simple. One simply

finds a sambar and runs behind it until it cannot run any more. In

this case, I ran from nine in the morning to noon, when finding myself

Ss chie nity near my camp I retired modestly. The sambar was brought

in that evening. It was explained to me that when the sambar is

_ too tired to run it stands at bay and a member of the hunting party

, then unslings his axe, walks up to the sambar, grabbing its sweeping

antlers with one hand as it swings at him, pushes the head down

and delivers the coup de grice with the other hand with a single

_ stroke of the axe. It is a sport I would recommend to those gentlemen

of England who derive pleasure from pursuing on horseback a

| = released deer, across someone else’s fields with a pack of baying hounds.

_ I think the Khond’s method is more sportsmanlike and far more

energetic. However, that is a totally different story.

Reverting to mouse-deer, the Saranda Ho tell me that it is also

secured in the breeding season—before the monsoon—at least the

males are, by the following method. Two hunters go into deep forest

and manceal themselves behind some chosen bush. One of the pair

then rattles on a large dry leaf with a pair of twigs. This rattling

: is brisk and staccato and is made in small bursts. Apparently it is

_ tthe male mouse-deer’s challenge to a rival or it may be the means of the

_ female on heat calling any. interested males. At any rate, in a short

while, there is an answering rattle that comes nearer and nearer

until, finally, a male mouse-deer in a fine temper, stalks into sight

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. |

and is promptly despatched by the second hunter’s arrow. I have —

tried this without success, but it is very probably a correct tale as the

Ho does not lie about the forest. It shows an amazingly keen |

observation of the animal’s habits by the aboriginals concerned. .

Tue INDIAN WILD Boar (Sus cristatus)

This great pest and raider of fields is also relished as a great

delicacy by all the aboriginals amongst whom I have had the ~

pleasure to live. However, although adept at ambushing pigs at their

summer wallows, in their monsoon ‘nests’, and by the direct beating

them out of cover or shooting at them from grass shelters in the

fields, no aborgines except the Ho have developed a trap for these

beasts. Yet the Ho trap is extremely effective. I illustrate it~ in-

sketch no. 6. A field is fenced off and several gaps are left in the

SKETcH 6.—Ho trap for wild pig.

fencing. The pigs coming out of the forest at night become accustomed

to entering and leaving the field through these gaps and they are

allowed to do so without molestation for a few nights. Several of

the gaps are then temporarily closed so that, after a few days, the © 3 4

pigs now become used to entering the field through the remaining

openings. The temporarily closed gaps are then opened and a ‘Y’

shaped (in cross section) ditch is dug in each gap, which it should

have been explained earlier is just wide enough to allow the passage -

of a single pig. These ditches are some four feet deep, the upper

‘V’ section is about 2 feet across and the narrow lower section is

ates

297

about twelve inches across and some two feet deep. The ditch

is lightly covered. with branches and earth. That night,

the pigs enter the field by the gaps which had never been closed

and, once they are well into the field and busy foraging, a sudden

shout sends them scurrying to safety, and several of them head for

the old remembered gaps and there fall into the ditches. Their legs

fall into the narrow lower section, where they dangle without touching;

bottom whilst the weight of their bodies wedges into the upper ‘V’

section and keeps their legs jammed down uselessly despite all struggling.

‘They are then despatched speedily with heavy clubs.

BIRDS :

Although the aboriginal will eat any bird, most of the tribes trap

various game birds fairly regularly for the sake of food. I have known

Oriya sawyers at Belgarh to enjoy a delicious stew of Milvus migrans ;.

Urang youth eat young Corvus splendens with relish; Khonds eat

Athene brama and my Munda bearer could think of nothing tastier

than curried callow Green Barbet.

DOvES AND PIGEONS

Nooses made of horse-hair and attached to lengths of fibre rope

are spread in the stubble of paddy fields, in which large numbers

of doves and pigeons flock to glean in the evenings. This type

of snare is common throughout India; so I have no need to describe

it in any detail, merely remarking that species I have trapped or seen

trapped by the use of these snares are Blue Rock Pigeons (Columba

livia), Rufous Turtle Doves (Streptopelia orientalis), Spotted Doves

(S. chinensis), Little Brown Doves (S. senegalensis), Indian Ring

Doves (S. risoria) and, once, the Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps Hue

in Ponga, Saranda R. F.

THE CoMMON PEAFOWL (Pavo cristatus)

_ The Peafowl, although sacred in many parts of India, is greatly

sought after by the aboriginal tribes so that, in their territories, it is

an extremely shy and wary bird. It is snared by nooses across its

favourite paths, usually where these enter cultivation on the forest fringe,

Or it is snared with a spring trap similar to that employed for hares.

There are several other methods, however, which are worthy of note.

(The Urang usually catch it by threading together, on stout twine,

several grains of gram. This string of gram is laid in a straight

line near other strewn gram and a single bird will usually pick these

grains up, swallowing them in quick succession. Since the other end

of the string is firmly lashed to a stake or to a bush, the bird finds

itself anchored and is thus caught.

The Ho make a very cruel and powerful trap by selecting a young

and springy sapling with a fork.some eight or ten feet high. This

_ sapling is twisted several times and then bent over so that the prongs

- of the fork are on the ground. A stake delicately holds the fork

down and the area directly beneath the fork is strewn with grain,

half buried in the earth. The peafowl, coming across this grain

commences pecking and scratching, which latter action disturbs the

298 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL-HIST, SOCIETY, ‘Vol. 62°

stake, the sapling immediately jumps cup, lifting the peafowl in. the

fork, and as the sapling violently untwists itself the peafowl is beaten

severely on the ground and whirled around in the -air,. ‘usually with

such force. that its neck is broken. The: violence ° of the sapling’s

untwistings combined with the sudden lift is strong: enough to -lift

an peta man - off als feet and prebaely, break a. leg at the same

time.

The Oriya flay. on the pied? S curiosity: When: the mhoue is

falling, trains- of peafowl congregate beneath the mhowa trees to

glean the fallen flowers.. The Oriya hunter builds a grass lean-to

against the bole of such a tree and conceals himself behind it with

a leopard skin. The lean-to wall is so constructed that anyone on

the outside can dimly see someone inside and this building has an

important role in the hunt that follows. Towards the evening, the

peafowl emerge. and commence picking the fallen flowers. When they.

are thus. busily engaged, the hunter gently. rustles the leopard skin

against the grass wall of his lean-to, attracting the attention of the

peafowl, One would expect them to run away. but a most curious

thing happens. The panther is an enemy of the peafowl, who always

alert to danger keep a sharp eye open for these pests. They hear —

the rustling under the tree, look up and there is a panther in the grass

lean-to. They can see it dimly ; it may or may not be.a panther and,

in order to discover whether it is or not, the silly, birds—at other times

so cunning and so cleyer—erect their necks the better to see Over

the grass, stand very erect exposing the chest to the hunter and

commence to walk, almost on tip-toe, toward the hide, all the time

making a low ‘kok kok-kok’ sound. When they are near enough,

a rustle from the hide freezes them for a second and, in that second,

the hunter shoots one with an arrow. It flutters about and the

others prepare to flee, but a rustle from the hide and a glimpse of

that hated spotted coat attracts their attention again like a magnet

and the performance is repeated, until the remnant of the train finally

decide to call it a day and take flight.

This method of hunting is clever in that the Oriya has learned

of the bird’s great curiosity in identifying an arch- -enemy and has

used this” lesson. to. secure the bird easily.

THE RED JUNGLEFOWL (Gallus gallus)

The Junglefowl: is also a regular item on Sdae menu. of bee earl

tribes. . It-is secured, when: gleaning _ in paddy stubbles with the aid

of. horse- hair nooses and is sometimes snared as are the peafowl by

the Urang and the Ho. However, the commonest method of snaring

it is-by means ofa decoy. <A captive ‘bird is usually staked out in

the jungle and surrounded by a ring of horse-hair nooses. It commences

to crow lustily thus attracting the attention of the nearest wild cock,

which, rushing down to do combat, is caught in a noose. If the

aboriginal who does not. possess. a ‘decoy cock wishes to snare one

for himself, ‘he will conceal. himself beneath a bush, ring himself

in with snares, and commence crowing lustily himself with the ‘same

result: as a decoy’ cock produces... Even a passable: imitation of the

crow: will suffice, and’ I have called €ocks to the gtin‘this way by: merely

elapping’- my hands—a necessary action. to simulate the flapping ‘of

eet SEE AN es a atc Raph arse

he at

rp bui eel bs:

SP cel Ae

ABORIGINAL METHODS OF KILLING’ & CAPTURING GAME 299

: wings before crowing—and then crowing loudly. The challenge will

be immediately answered, and before. long a junglecock will make his

‘appearance to do battle... ee . ie ag

Qua. SU es | ; ghrcrey od .

In southern Bihar, the migratory Common Quail (Coturnix coturnix)

occurs in great numbers during the winter and is netted in fair quantity.

The method of netting is that a low finely meshed net is pegged out

over a-fairly large area. in the stubble of paddy: fields. The net is

pegged down ‘all round its circumference except at one side where

it is propped open and held about ten inches above ground by a series

of small sticks joined together with a string, the end of which is payed

out into the field. When a flock of quail settle in the field, the

trapper,. draped in a white sheet and bearing two branches slowly

enters the far side of the field bent double:: This queer. stance and

paraphernalia are supposed to represent a cow grazing and, though it

may seem ludicrous to human eyes, the quails accept the figure as

a cow and are not unduly disturbed. This ‘cow’ then commences

‘grazing’ and slowly traverses up and down the field parallel to the net.

As it goes to and fro, it comes, closer to the quail, who move away

from it so as not to be stamped under by some clumsy foot and so

the little drama continues until the quail are beneath the net. Then

with a wild shout, the ‘cow’ pulls the release string dropping the

open side of the net and traps the unfortunate quail.

I have sometimes seen Coturnix coromandelicus in these catches

but it is mostly Coturnix coturnix who is the greater sufferer.

THE STONE CURLEW (Burhinus cedicnemus)

Living in the more open scrub on the fringe of cultivation, the

Stone Curlew falls victim to the Murias of Bastar because it will not

cross a mound of ashes. Why it should not do so is not known as

it will gladly jump over a line of boulders; it will run over a bund

of earth but it draws the line at ashes. It simply will not walk over

them or jump over them but must walk around them or in a gap

between two ridges of ashes. Thus, the Muria, taking advantage

of this weakness, builds a ridge across some favourite path of the

plover and leaves a gap through which it may walk. The only snag

is that Muria also places a noose of horse-hair in this gap and the

plover, treading like Agag delicately, walks straight into the

noose and is snared. I can attribute no reason for this behaviour

and I often wonder as to which Muria was so observant as to learn

of this strange weakness on the part of the bird.

* * * *

Finally, I have not mentioned two methods of capturing

animals and birds, both of which are destructive and harmful. The

first is the use of bird-lime spread on bared branches or smeared on

a broom of twigs which is dropped on the birds. Bird-lime usually

snares birds which cannot be considered as ‘game’ by any stretch

of the imagination, and the use of it should be stopped as far as

possible.

The other more serious trap is the artificial salt-lick. If you visit

Kalahandi, Jeypore and parts of Ganjam, you will run across the

oe Ae

confidence of the villagers. These licks are made by ‘salting’ a hollow

with human urine over a considerable period. of time, the lick being

covered over with large boulders so that the animals, attracted 40, ite

by the smell, cannot use it until it is adjudged as ‘ripe’—this is

usually arrived at when it is seen that animals are trying to use the

lick in large numbers and with high frequency. The lick is then ©

uncovered and a convenient hide built close to it, and from this hide >

the ‘salter’ huntsman usually wreaks havoc amongst the deer and pig.

that come down to the lick, sparing neither doe nor fawn nor ODEETYeNe. i

close season. Bea

I-hear that there is a Sportsmen’s Acca tlans or sactiechiie: of that

sort in Orissa formed by sportsmen and shikaris in that State, and it

is hoped that they will take steps to see that the artificial ae are

made illegal as soon as DOES ts

= A SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE STATUS OF RHINOCEROS

AND THAMIN (PANOLIA ‘ELDI THAMIN) IN THE

UNION OF BURMA, 1953

| : Se Seth he

-U Tun Yu, B.c.s. (Retd.)

This note is compiled from copies of reports very kindly furnished

by the Personal Assistant to the Conservator of Forests, Burma

(U Thein Yin), Principal Forest Officer, Shan States, Taungevi (U Ne

Win), and the Conservator of Forests, Northern Circle, Maymyo

= (U Thein). The writer takes this opportunity to thank the, above

mentioned forest officers for their readiness in tracing official reports

on rhino and supplying him with copies on request.

SHWE-U-DaunG SANCTUARY

The range officer, Thabeitkyin, continues to receive reports from

time to time that the ‘three rhinos reported previously are still surviving

in the dense jungles in the upper reaches of the Shwe-Hnyar-U Chaung.

(Annual Report on Forest Administration, East Katha Division, 1952-

During the Japanese occupation, a villager from. Pegu village shot

one cow rhino and a school teacher from heat Sein-Gon village shot

two rhino (sex unkown).

There is a local belief that the best time to come across rhino is

during the full moon of Waso (July) when they. usually congregate

together. (Report on the Shwe-U-Daung Game Sanctuary by Range

oe Momeik, dated 22nd May 1948.)

-Uyu RIVER DRAINAGE AREA

“It’s pretty hard to estimate the number of rhinoceros in Homalin

Sub-Division. I would personally hazard a guess of some seven or

eight animals. Rhino tracks (possibly a solitary animal) have been

reported from the right bank of the Chindwin north of Nantalaik.

_ There may be one or two animals in the wild interior of Hkamti State.

‘I remember a Chin telling me in 1943 how he and a few others

shot two rhinos within a week in the Uyu area, west of Chaungson.

The Chin village east of Mawngkan is probably doing colossal damage

to game and forests.’ (W.J.Carrot,t Commissioner, Sagaing

Division—March 1951.3 - |

The Divisional Forest Officer, Upper Chindwin, Myittha Division,

suggests the triangle between Uyu and Chindwin rivers and Taw Sein

unclassed forests for reservation as a sanctuary for rhino. Received

report that there are rhinos surviving in the Nataleik Yele Forests

in the Somra Tract. Not verified. (Annual Report on Forest

Administration, Chindwin Circle, 1951-52.) The Divisional Forest

Officer, West Katha Division, estimated the number of rhino in

| be Mir, WV J. Carrot was Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills District, till June 1950.

mig Bes

gtr

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

Namka-Za, Nam-Yoke Chaung unclassed forests and the Taungthonlon’

area, as. five.- The. same estimate was given in 1950-51.. (Annual

Report on. a5 orest Administration, Northern Circle, _ 1952- -53-).

MYITKYINA AREA: |

‘In July 1948, a track of a rhinoceros was seen on the hills of

Pao Tan Bum in Pindung Reserve by gamekeeper La Kyon Nawng

and the thugyi (headman) of Mayan village. It is believed that the

animal crossed -over from the Uyu side and went north along the

east bank of Namti_ and Pidaung Siete (stream) towards the

Eimkhing Bum..

‘At a place. called Kyaukkaik camp. néar the source of the Tagwin

Chaung, Mogoung Range, tracks of another animal are reported to

have been discovered as recently as November 1947. From the tracks

seen, it is believed that the animal came from the west, crossed the

Tagwin and went eastwards.

‘In Indawgyi Range tracks of two biinSeeross were seen near the

border of the West Katha and this Division near a place called

Maingseingyi as recently as September 1948. The animals are believed

to have come over from the Uyu drainage and. the tracks of an

animal indicated that it turned back into that drainage after about a

fortnight.”. (Memo dated 16th December 1948 from the Divisional

Forest Officer, Myitkyina, to the Conservator of Forests, Northern

Circle, Maymyo)..

TENASSERIM PENINSULA

‘Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus and Rhinoceros sumatrensis)

were at one time plentiful but owing to the depredations of Thai

poachers have greatly decreased in numbers. They are now rarely

heard about in any of the well-known forests. One animal may possibly

visit the Yebu salt lick, another is on Nwalabo mountain, while

occasional animals are reported in ‘other areas. A queer report comes

in from time to time that rhinoceros visit Rodger’s Island. This report

is hardly credible but as it recurs there may be some truth in it. |

‘In 1889, Anderson stated that rhinoceros found their way to

Kisseraing Islands, that at that time they existed on Sir Robert Campbell

and Sir Charles Forbes Islands. In those days the dried hide of

Rhinoceros sondaicus was sold in the Mergui bazaar as food. He

stated also that a police officer saw a two-horned rhinoceros swimming

near High Island which is a' good 20 miles from the mainland although

there are islands in sight all round.’ [Tavoy Divisional Working Plan

(1939-40 to 1958- 59) BY. H. C. Pudden, 1.F.s., Deputy Conservator of

Forests. | | renee

PANOLIA ELDI THAMIN

THAYETMYO FOREST DIVISION

‘Thamin~ occur mainly in the scrub jungle between the eastern

Saieccued of the Pani stream and the Irrawaddy River. There are

1! Taungthonlon is an extinct volcano, 5,600 ft., near es = dos of Upper. Chindwin

and Myitkyina Divisions,

Sg a ANB eae

ae 2 oy =? o% ba ‘af

‘

RHINOCEROS AND THAMIN IN BURMA ~~ 803

possibly 200 animals in this area. Round Sitsayan and Damathaw,

south and north of Kama respectively, there are a total of 20-30

animals.’ ere ia orest. ees eens 1947.)!-

Dnicce FOREST “Division

‘The existing stock has diminished to a yee narrow oss and is

now confined to the following ‘limits:—.-.0 00) () 0 :

Area ae sie 2 eae Estimated stock

- Stags. Hinds

Meiktila Range ;

Menyotaung reserve and unclassed Ree er 22>.

_Inbinwa reserve and unclassed forest — ...10 8

Pyaukseikpin unclassed forest EE ef. 20

Tagundaing Range: ni tke

Yupataung and Sintauny unclassed forest EOE 25

Sathwa range —s_|" i ORs . +. Small number

Myothitrange ss ged, hike do

(Divisional Forest Officer, Heit Ge: March DORE.) 6

~U Aung Din, M.a. (Oxon), B.Sc., Silviculturist, informed the writer

that he saw thamin on several occasions “during his inspection. of

Meiktila Forest Division in March 1954. He is definite that thamin

is Oil. the inerease.. 2 Sa Jie fee Se

‘Abundant in the Lower Chindwin, Yaw and Minbu Forest Divisions.’

(Annual Report on Forest Administration, Chindwin Circle, Maymyo,

1951-52.)

“West Katha Forest Division, Nam Khan range, Ne-phi-lay un-

classed forest: estimated stock 5. East Katha Forest Division—not

seen now.’ (Annual Report on Forest Administration, Northern Circle,

Maymyo, 1952-53.)

Note.—Thamin exist in. fair numbers near’ Kyauk-O, ‘Thabeithyin Range, East

_Forest Division (1948-49).

CONCLUSION

. ‘Are there any thamin alive in Burma today?’ (Lt.-Col. EE. G.

Phythian-Adams, JBNHS, Vol. 50 (1) p. 1o—August 1951.)

Thamin exists and is on the increase in the Union of Burma. The

Japs were strict. Ammunition for shot gun was not procurable and

there were no shooting parties. Thamin as well as all wild game

increased during the war period. It was only on re-occupation that

much game was destroyed. During the present Civil War, game is

destroyed by peace guerillas who misuse the ammunition supplied by the

Government. Whether the insurgents can afford to waste their limited

stock on wild game is not known. Ammunition is still scarce. Permit

holders are permitted to draw only fifteen rounds at a time (once in

two or three years): People dare not venture out to shoot game. In

1948, a party. of five guns from Rangoon (Europeans) who’ went’ out

to shoot. junglefowl in the Insein District, were surprised’ by’ the

insurgents and all their guns and ammunition looted. The Rangoon

resident who- organised the shoot later received a note from’ - the

insurgents that the guns would be returned in exchange for rifles!”

REPORT ON THE FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE,

KACHIN STATE, NORTH BURMA

BY | 2

F. Kincpon-Warp, B.A. (Cantab.), 0.B.E,, F.L.S., V.M.H.

A general description of the vegetation and flora of North Burma

was published in four parts in the Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Vols. xliv, xlv, xlvi (August 1944 to. August 1946),

under the comprehensive title ‘A Sketch of the Botany and Geography

of North Burma’. This is referred to in what follows as ‘the earlier

monograph’.

The present paper is a direct continuation of those observations,

dealing with a part of North Burma not previously mentioned since

“no botanical collecting had ever been done there—namely, the North

Triangle, between the eastern and western branches of the Irrawaddy.

Here,- between December 1952 and January 1954, my wife and I together

with two Burmese colleagues, U Tha Hla and U Chit Ko Ko, seconded

from the Burma Forest Department, spent eight and a half months.

Though I have not attempted to reconcile in detail the vegetation

zones recognised in the Triangle with those previously discussed, the

use of the same names for the same zones leaves no room for

confusion.

INTRODUCTION

Our objective in 1953 was the region known as the Triangle,

situated in the Kachin State of the Union of Burma, north of

Myitkyina. No serious botanical collecting had ever been done in this

area; and though, as a result of previous exploration in adjacent areas,

it was known what types of vegetation and what sort of flora would

occur there, it required and still requires much further work to give

a complete picture of North Burma.

The ultimate goal decided on was the group of high peaks forming

part of the watershed between the eastern and western branches of

the Irrawaddy. It is amongst these peaks that the Hkrang Hka,

a left bank tributary of the Mali Hka (or western branch), rises. The

approximate position of the group is 26°50/N., 98°15/E., the highest

peak called Tama Bum rising to 11,845 ft. above sea level. I shall

refer to them as the Arahku peaks.

The Triangle, whose apex is the confluence of the two branches

of the Irrawaddy. at Tanghpore, 27 miles above Myitkyina, and whose

ill-defined base lies a little north of the 27th parallel of latitude, is

entirely mountainous. In fact, North Burma and north-eastern Assam

together make. up part of ‘the under belly of the Sino-Himalayan

plateau, which stretches for 2,000 miles across Asia. This under —

belly has been so deeply and widely eroded that it no longer bears —

any outward likeness to a plateau, and has in fact become somewhat

detached from the main: plateau; and although this isolation is

geologically recent (dating only from the beginning of the Pleistocene

STS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE; KACHIN STATE 305

E saihon), the climatic and other Eee then initiated have left

indelible marks on the flora.

= . While, therefore; the yerotanion and flora of North Burma in

_ general and of the Mali Hka-Nami Hka watershed in particular

could. readily be inferred from what was already known of the

surrounding areas, there was good reason to think that many new

species remained to be discovered, even though the height of the

_ peaks in the Triangle did not warrant belief in an ‘extensive oti

flora. And so it proved.

~ There would, of course, be less scope for new Sonate tion types

than for new species, since it takes a major climatic change acting

over a long period of time to bring about the former, whereas new

species may result from much smaller causes and in much less time.

oe We established that the North Triangle had been glaciated, which

glaciation lasting through perhaps half a million years, must have

brought about a fundamental change of vegetation types; but these

types would not differ appreciably from other vegetation types of

North Burma, where the marks of glaciation are even plainer.

oo Change of climate alone, consequent on the Pleistocene glaciation,

sis, however, not the only reason for the unusually rich and varied

- flora of North Burma. The dynamic events of the changeful and

intermittent ice age have certainly been a major factor, causing

_-—s migration, extermination, and re-introduction of species. But not less

important has been the isolation of areas, the compression and

telescoping of several phytogeographical regions within a small area,

f-_-and the immigration of new species. Here, differences of altitude have

played a major role by bringing different floras into three-dimensional

f= contact. - (On the plains they can be in two-dimensional contact

me Only) |

= Over large parts of the earth’s land surface, the phytogeographical

___ regions are in contact, if at all, in two dimensions only, being separated

from one another by deserts, by oceans, or by mountain ranges.

In the Triangle, as in many other mountainous areas, they are in

contact in three dimensions. It is not necessary to follow up all the

implications of this truth here; but it is obvious that, whereas the

; alpine region is the most. isolated, the temperate region, between

5,000 and 10,000 ft., is in close and uninterrupted contact with two

& distinct phytogeographical regions—Indo-Malaysian below, and alpine

_ Sino-Himalayan above; which perhaps accounts for the fact that the

temperate zone is the most prolific of all in endemic species. .

Previous WorRK

. Something was known of the vegetation and flora of four areas

__ of North Burma outside the Triangle, all of which lie within 150

— miles of the SfOuD of peaks we ue tes to explore. These areas

include :

(i) the Myitkyina eiain to the ae

(ii) the Htawgaw and Hpimaw Hills and western Yunnan to

_ the south-east ;

A (iii) the Hkamti plain and the Seinghku | ak Adung: valleys to

the north; :

tint

PY £ £ eles Bh: fag

a org Ze

Sack ¢ te i

Ss Ses : *% i" * ScS ee

Th Ue = ee fae oe hee RE SF os

306 JOURNAL, .BOMBAY..NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53.

_ (iv) the Taron valley: and: Irrawaddy plateau::to the northseast,.

(For an account of the Mra wadsy ea see Oe ee

Journal, 4 Ostober, TO38iit ies )

It was certain: that the flora Pore veweHiiod lof the Noth: Triangle

would have a great deal in common with these’ areas; but 'éven they

had. been’ only: superficially explored,. and there was still a great

deal to bev learnt about North Burma—particularly in’ the es

which in the botanical sense, ‘had never been explored at ‘all. A

complete list of these previous explorations | has ‘been — given - in the

eater monograph, Part I; so hee is no need to ape it spe.

. ee ae Seale

Sea TR STR eS ee SET EON Ce

Dadian Fingeidunen el) :

wie discussing my plans with the Chief Conservator | and the

Sylviculturist, Burma Forest Department, it was arranged that two

Range Officers of the Department, U Tha, Hla and U Chit Ko Ko,

should join the expedition for training. in plant exploration ‘and

botany, and to help us in -any. difficulties which, might arise. I

cannot speak too highly of their enthusiasm, loyalty, and unselfish 3

co-operation. Thus, the four of us made up a team which worked

together harmoniously throughout, to make the most of our unique

opportunity. It is certain that my wife and I, the two most experienced

members of the team, would not have achieved the results we did

without the help of our Burmese colleagues.

We had brought our stores, tents, and equipment out. an Ee

England, and the “business of landing and. clearing these, obtaining

the necessary permits from the Union and Kachin Governments, and s

so forth occupied us in Rangoon for six days. My wife and | finally

left for Myitkyina on the 18th December, 1952, our Burmese colleagues

arranging to join us later.

ROUTE

We left Myitkyina by jeep on the 5th January, 1953, reaching =

Sumprabum (131 miles by road) on the 7th, Here we halted for *

two and a half months. The Arahku peaks and.the. ranges to the ©

north were under snow, and I did not think we _ should- find much a

in flower in the ternpérate forest before mid-April; but in this I was A

mistaken. The time was well spent making a representative collection e

in the neighbourhood, pushing. out stores into the Triangle, purchasing =

rice, and studying the country. g

Sen from here the Arahku peaks, about 50 miles to the

north-east, appeared to consist of a series of short, more or less

overlapping chains arranged in echelon. Due to their height they

are somewhat isolated on the spine of the Triangle, and seem to bear

little relation to their visible surroundings ; WEE are like islands in

an ocean.

Two days before we set out for Arahku, U 14 Tha Hla and U Chit

Ko Ko (who had been delayéd by unforeseen — joined us.

They arranged to follow: us in a few days.

On the 21st March we started on foot, crossed the Mali Hka at

Ningma Daru by dugout, and four days ‘later reached the Hkrang

Hka, which we crossed by bamboo raft. Throughout: : the: ten

;

PAR TIAS a Pe Pee oe ke

FORESTS, OF THE NORTH. TRIANGLE, | KACHIN. STATE 307

days’: “journey. to Arahku we followed : a ‘general - north-easterly,

direction, halting at. Arahku fora profitable five days’. exploration,

On the oth April: we reached: Hkinlum,. the last village up the main

valley and close under the ‘peaks, having. marched: 86, miles::; ‘Here

wé' made our base camp. On the 12th we were joined by .U ite ae

and U Chit. Ko-Ko; so our party was now complete...

Though Hkinlum is at exactly the ‘same altitude as. i na

we noticed at once that certain trees familiar at'the latter place

were lacking here; for example, Ficus benjamina, .Duabanga sonnera-

tioides, Aesculus. assamica (?:— or A. punduana?), Shorea assamica,

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus (?), Michelia sp. nov. (only- three specimens

found), Altingia excelsa and Terminalia myriocarpa. Several of these,

however, became prominent further down the valley of the Hkrang

Hka.. Their absence at Hkinlum was obviously connected with the

proximity to the high peaks. On the other hand, a number of trees

not seen at Sumprabum were prominent at Hkinlum : e.g. Prunus

cerasoides rubella, Bucklandia- populnea, Mangletia caveana: -Michelia

bailloni, Alcimandra cathcartit, Myrica nagi, Acer cuniphelle (2), and

others. It cannot, however, be too’ strongly insisted that, below

5,000 ft., the flora of the two areas is essentially the same, such

differencés as there are being mainly due to minor. differences of

climate, which here means temperature ‘differences. |

@urvbkie

oS A fairly. hotel ae picture of the climate of North Recna

is given in the earlier monograph, Part I, and I can add little that

is new here. The climate of the Triangle does not differ appreciably

from that of other comparable parts.of North Burma—that is to say,

prolonged summer rain, followed by a drier cold weather. The four

seasons are well marked, and become more so with increase of altitude

Up. to about 9,000 ft.

In 1953 spring in Hkinlum (4,000 ft.) was S baSeally wet. This was

Pllowed by a comparatively rainless August, the break in the monsoon

lasting about a month with temperatures up to go°F. and_ high

humidity. Such August breaks, however, as I recall, are not unusual _

in North Burma, when little rain falls—and that mostly in the form

of short thunder storms: often at night. The fact is that, in mountainous

North Burma, microclimates within the general monsoon framework

are common. The most obvious deviation from the familiar monsoon

climate of Burma. is, of course, the presence of a sub-arctic climate

in the north (becoming cold-temperate in the Triangle), which affects

‘adjacent areas. Ground frosts occur so low as 4,000 ft. (as at Hkinlum,

where’ the hillsides have been cleared); while above 10,000 ft. snow

hes cer for three or four ma

THE Wicericids TYPES OF THE NorTH TRIANGLE

.. North Burma is almost completely covered with forest. There

are three minor—but none the less important—exceptions to this:

T. The banks of rivers, especially between low water mark and

Mood level; also small areas above high flood level which are covered

Le eae iad {pan

oe we Te

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5:

with sand. (In the latter the vegetation shows a transition to forest,

though the species are often peculiar.) This river valley vegetation

is, of course, no more than a narrow strip lining either side of the

permanent stream bed; but along the many hundreds of miles of

rivers, large and small, it amounts to a considerable area, and the

immersible vegetation type includes a surprising number of species.

Four distinct habitats are met with: i ee rg

(a) rocky cliffs;

(b) pure sand; | 3

with no sand or soil visible between them; :

(d) piled-up boulders. |

Silt rarely occurs, and where it does locally it is due to the

presence of a small, slow jungle stream. There are, however,

gradations between (b), (c), and (d), with occasional (and often

temporary) admixtures of silt. Above flood level, sand is almost

always piled up on low shores for a greater or lesser distance; but

vertical cliffs, or boulder banks, are followed immediately by thick

forest. |

Each of the above habitats has its characteristic species, besides

species common to more than one habitat. The most interesting plants

of this sere (i.e. temporary stage on the way to forest) are those

which at some period are more or less submerged, especially shrubs.

They may be gregarious, like Homonoia riparia, scattered, or in

dense mixed thickets, where such plants as Eugenia, Phlogacanthus,

Phyllanthus, shrubby Strobilanthes,, Mussaenda, Ligustrum, Rosa,

Camellia, Rhododendron simsii, and others occur. There is even a

species of Euonymus with minute flowers.?. 3

The leaves of almost every shrub annually submerged are long

and narrow, either narrow-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, and leathery. ©

This is true of all the species mentioned above except Mussaenda and

Rosa involucrata which, with a species of Phyllanthus growing under

similar conditions, have finely divided leaves. Other examples of

narrow-leafed plants are Ficus pyriformis, Scutellaria, Salix tetrasperma,

several grasses, ferns, and Cyperaceae. A much smaller, completely

prostrate undershrub is the curious Rhabdia lycioides which grows

in almost pure sand, usually well below high flood level. _Herbaceous

plants include a creeping fern (Goniopteris) and _ the Arm-like

Cryptocoryne, which forms compact colonies wedged between stones.

Most of this strand flora flowers either in the winter at low water,

after the river has begun to fall in October, or in the hot weather

of March-April. | Coe Os ee “ae

From the practical point of view, a knowledge of this river bank

sere is imperative for the selection of plants suitable for reclamation

work. pe ae ee ee ee

It is important to remember that this river bed formation, stabilised ee

at sere level, is open, and can easily absorb many more species, if

they can comply with the conditions.

1 This is possibly the lapw shin lap of the’ Kachins (Burmee mway kike say) a—

well-known remedy for snake bite (some snake bites ?).. eee Ge

Are

FORESTS «

OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 309

+A. The zone of cultivation which extends intermittently from the

_ lower valleys, less than 2,000 ft. above sea level, to about 6,000 ft. :

_ Between these limits, much of the country has been cleared of forest

and is covered with crops, or with second growth undergoing several

-_ metamorphoses before its final return to climax forest—which of course

it is never permitted to do. Cultivation, however, is confined to south

and west slopes; north and east slopes, precipitous rocky slopes,

gullies and ravines, are untouched. Thus, even within the zone of

cultivation, in the most thickly populated districts, a good deal of

climax forest survives. 4

Many widespread herbaceous and undershrub plants occur in this

zone. Some of these are found in connection with cultivation all over

South-East Asia, and even further afield; certain Compositae and

grasses, for example. These plants are provided with good means

of dispersal and quickly seize on unoccupied ground as soon it becomes

3 available, either through the felling and burning of forest for taungya

cultivation, or the cutting of paths. ©

Many orchids, too, which will not grow inside the dank forests,

are able io establish themselves on solitary trees left standing on

cultivated slopes. They, like many other herbaceous plants commonly

found on roadside banks, are as much a part of the Indo-Malayan

flora as are the forest trees, to which they are necessary. They

are not, like weeds of cultivation, intruders, though they may appear

to be so because in the forest they are much more scattered. Such

___Indo-Malayan or pantropic herbaceous plants include species of Begonia,

a Chirita, Impatiens, Viola, Didymocarpus, Ohiopogon, many ground

orchids, Cyperaceae, Gramineae, and others, |

Some of the most interesting herbaceous plants met with were

__ those which occur only in villages, brought in perhaps long ago from

__ outside by the people themselves. Examples are: Iris sp. (allied to

= I. wait) and Hemerocallis, neither of which sets seed, and neither

_ of which grows outside the village, though the iris at least occurs

s in almost every village. The same is perhaps true of the Tea bush

(Camellia sinensis) in the warmer zone, and of another species of

Camellia, which might be a substitute for Tea in the cooler zone

found only in Hkinlum and adjacent villages.

a ‘The presence of these plants is suggestive, and a knowledge of

__their occurrence and distribution might furnish valuable clues to anyone

__- €nquiring into the history of the hill tribes of North Burma. One feels

_ compelled to ask, who brought these plants here? and when? and

Whence? Above all, why?

Il. The apline zone on the mountain tops, where they exceed

10,000 ft. This is probably the most extensive non-forested area in

North Burma.

a _ The alpine vegetation may consist of elfin wood (especially

_ Rhododendron species), or of scrub (also largely Rhododendron, with

_ Prunus, Sorbus, Vaccinium), or of Arundinaria with a few scattered

_undershrubs; all three exclude tree growth. |

Where the summits reach 17,000 or 18,000 ft. there is an extensive |

_ zone above the tree line filled with alpines—the real arctic alpine

}

310

vegetation, or, as the limit of plant life is approached, open ground

with widely scattered herbaceous plants. Even_ moss and lichens are

rare here, and of few species. : Th oie en a

At. lower altitudes an alpine vegetation clothes the precipitous

ridges which lead up to the. exposed wind-swept summits... It also

descends the steep gullies, which are kept open by running water .and

falling rocks. | ar ae end ae

In its extreme form, above 12,000 ft., the. alpine vegetation

consists of turf and sedge, with many scattered and gregarious

flowering plants, either of low stature (Pleurogyne, Lloydia, Creman-

thodium, Gentiana, Saxifraga, Parnassia, Viola), or forming flat

mats pressed against the rocks (Androsace, Arenaria,

in great variety. This alpine flora is

or with the flora of the

It includes a number of

compact

Rhododendron, Diapensia)

comparable with the European alpine flora,

Arctic; and so also is the vegetation type. 3 , |

endemic genera (Omphallogramma, Cremanthodium, Oreosolen,

Nomocharis), besides entire sections of large genera such as Primula

and Rhododendron, sufficient to raise the alpine and sub-alpine region

of North Burma to the rank of a phytogeographical region (Sino-

Himalaya), in spite of a considerable element of Arctic and northern

forms.

Not on

a few new species (Primula, Nomocharis, Veratrum?) ; but a considerable

number of species—especially alpine undershrubs common on mountains

15,000 to 18,000 ft. high further north—were lacking on the alpine

tops of these lower peaks. For example, we found ‘no species of

Berberis or dwarf Lonicera, and only one species of the following :

_ Cotoneaster, Salix, Spiraea; while two whole series of Rhododendron

(‘Laponicum’ and ‘Saluenense’) could not provide a single species

between them. Further north, seven species belonging to these two

sections are found in the alpine region. Another widely distributed

alpine undershrub—Potentilla fruticosa—was not found; but Rosa

omeiensis, Vaccinium modestum, Sorbus pygmea (?), and two alpine

mat-forming Gaultherias occurred. There was also a dwarf Juniper.

No Fritillaria, Notholirion or Meconopsis was ‘seen ; |

the genus Primula, in sub-alpine and alpine zones combined, was

represented by only four species, of which at least two appear to

be new.

‘Thus, as might be expected, the alpine vegetation of the Arahku

peaks—though many species must have remained undetected—wa

counted only between

together, including Omphallogramma

Avenaria, Pleurogyne, Gentiana, Saxifraga

Lloydia, Androsace, Parnassia, and Tofieldia.

This Sino-Himalayan flora_is the most

vegetation types

mountain top floras being ‘cut off from one another by

60 and 7o alpine and -sub-alpine species

(two species), Cremanthodium,

isolated of all the

valleys. Different ranges running south from the Tibet plateau, though

same general flora, seem to possess species: peculiar ‘to

possessing the

themselves. ~

ly were there many familiar North Burma alpines here, and

“and even.

oor compared with that ‘of the higher peaks to north and east. I

(two species), Bergenia, -

of -North~ Burma, and is discontinuous, ~ the

‘deep forested:

Be eet OR ae

FORESTS OF THE. NORTH ‘TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE B11

Types OF ForEsT IN THE NORTH TRIANGLE

The forest cover of North Burma is divisible into- five main types,

‘of which three: are represented in the North Triangle; these are

‘stratified -according to altitude. ‘The three types represented’ are:

(i) Tropical Broad-leafed Evergreen Forest, which is a northward

‘extension of the Indo-Malayan phytogeographical region. In the

Kachin State this type still persists in the low-lying valleys to about

28°N.; and in the Arahku-Hkinlum area it reaches an extreme altitude

of about 6,000 ft., though it is more characteristic of the river gorges

at 3,000-4,000 ft. | :

(ii) Temperate Broad-leafed Rain Forest, which is in part a west-

ward extension of the East Asiatic phytogeographical region, though

separated from China by high mountain ranges and deep gorges.

Temperate forest covers most of the North Triangle between 5,000

and 9,000 ft., and includes a great variety of broad-léafed trees, both

evergreen and deciduous. — Ae wees : .

(iii) Silver Fir—Rhododendron Forest. This, the highest forest

belt, is under snow for at least three months in the year in the Arahku-

Hkinlum area, and for six months in the year further north, where

the mountains are much higher. 3 ts

Pine forest, described in the earlier monograph, is_ entirely

lacking in this part of the North Triangle, where we did not meet

with a single Pine tree. eee Se Doge a ee

- Mixed Temperate Forest is also lacking; we found neither Picea,

Larix, nor Tsuga. In fact, the only Gymnosperms we noted, other

than Abies, were a dwarf Juniper and Taxus—both above 10,000 ft. ;

and two very rare species down in the valley at 4,000-5,000 ft.—a

Cephalotaxus (probably C. mani) and an unidentified genus with

leaves like a Metasequoia. This last, a big tree, was exceedingly

rare. We saw no sign of Taiwania. : A

The three main forest types briefly mentioned above are further

divisible on the basis of dominant families or genera, and species

frequency, many. species having a considerable vertical range, with

of course an optimum altitude. Thus, the broad belt of tropical

evergreen forest which fills the deep valleys and spreads upwards

into the foothills, can be subdivided into a lower, narrow tropical

belt, and an upper, broader sub-tropical belt, although at intermediate

altitudes the distinction between. them is necessarily blurred. It is

worth noting, however, that a change of forest type is almost always

accompanied by a change in the dominant Bamboo genus, or

MBECIESROC EF gt : oe De

_ Again, in the temperate belt, a distinction between the lower warm-

temperate and the upper cool-temperate forest: is not difficult to

uphold.. We. may therefore récognise five forest types in the North

Triangle, out of the eight described for North Burma in the earlier

monograph. It will be useful to. give a brief. account of each,

mentioning a few of .the more outstanding trees; a fuller account

must await the working out of our collections. , ,

J. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest

This type. is barely represented in. the Arahku-Hkinlum area, and

need not detain us. Even at 3,000 ft. altitude, where the summers

319 JQURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

are hot, and no frost enters, and with ample atmospheric humidity

throughout the year, the effect of the adjacent high peaks is already

beginning to make itself felt. A number of trees mentioned in the

earlier monograph as characteristic of this zone (e.g. Terminalia

myriocarpa, Mesua ferrea, Duabanga sonneratioides, Gmelina arborea,

Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Spondias), though occurring lower down the

valley, had disappeared before we reached Hkinlum. Nevertheless,

the forest lining the Hkrang Hka gorge, though composed largely,

of species not seen at Sumprabum—or even in the valley of the Mali

Hka—comes within our conception of tropical forest. Common trees

here include species of Elaeocarpus (at least four species), Echinocarpus,

Styrax (two or three species), Eugenia, Manglietia, Albizia,

Dipterocarpus, Shorea, Spondias), though occurring lower down the

one strangling species), besides several big Laurels, Euphorbiaceae,

Rubiaceae, and others. Though forming only a small proportion of

the total forest, this zone is interesting by reason of several rare

species, and of importance because of its lining the steep river banks

—rivers being the only economic means of transport under present

conditions. The rarest tree met with—a single specimen of Cephalotaxus

(and the strangest plant—an epiphytic Lily of the ‘Martagon’ type)

belong to the borderline between tropical and sub-tropical forest.

II. Sub-Tropical Hill Jungle

This is well represented in the North Triangle between 4,oo0 and

6,000 ft., above which it passes gradually into a definitely temperate

forest type. It lies entirely within the zone of cultivation, and on

south and west slopes is represented mainly by second growth which,

however, may include woodland of 20 or more years’ standing. (Such

woodland is set aside for furnishing building poles.)

By far the most interesting tree is a tall Gymnosperm whose

identity, in the absence of flowers or fruit, we were unable to

determine ; though microscopic examination of the wood is likely to

furnish a clue. It is an extremely rare species, at least as a fully

grown tree. Common are species of Diospyros, Rhus, Pieris, Schima,

Elaeocarpus, Terminalia (?), Stvrax grandiflora, Zanthoxylum; also

Altingia excelsa, Erythrina indica, Alnus nepalensis, Bucklandia

populnea, Manglietia, caveana. Less common were Helicia, Tern-

stroemia, Erniobotrya, and Sterculia (a small tree with reddish flowers

like S. coccinea), and the very rare conifer, like Metasequoia, just

mentioned.

The majority of the species in the sub-tropical belt belong to a

few families only, notable to Fagaceae (Quercus/Pasania, Castanopsis), ©

Rutaceae, Magnoliaceae (Magnolia/Michelia), Theaceae, Rubiaceae,

Lauraceae, and Moraceae (Morus HeviEta; Ficus), together with the

genera mentioned above. |

: Climbing plants abound in this warm damp climate, and include

species of Clematis, Lonicera, Jasminum, Smilax, Vitis, Vernonia,

several Accle pia daccac and Apoeyanacenc, Frequent scramblers “ane

Toddalia aculeata and Aspidopterys sp. |

Characteristic and abundant is the epiphytic flora, including many — ;

Orchidaceae and ferns, Ericaceae (Rhododendron dendricola, yaaa &

EM Ree EU Ee RE ee eee ee

Be ie

Ae ss

“ion

a ®

Te re ee ee

_ FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 313

A gapetes, Pentapterygium), Asclepiadaceae, species of Hedychium, and

-so forth; also the lily just mentioned.

The composition of the hill jungle, however, varies considerably

with its distance from the high peaks. Nearer the peaks, the more

tropical families rapidly decrease, while the more temperate families

increase in numbers and variety.

There are many useful and possibly valuable timbers, but no

species forms pure stands; and extraction, except perhaps close to

the larger streams, is a major problem.

Hl. Warm-Tenperate Rain Forest (5,000-7,000 it.): Cool-Temperate

Rain Forest (7,000-9,000 ft.)

‘In the North Triangle this type agrees fairly closely with the

description given in the earlier monograph; the differences noted are

mainly those of composition, a number of new species being added,

while many of those mentioned as characteristic (e.g. Decaisnea,

Dobinea, Pottingeria), were not met with in the Arahku-Hkinlum

area.

Perhaps the most striking trees of the Warm-Temperate belt are

Gordonia axillaris, with flowers six inches in diameter, Rhodoleia

forrestiit, Helicia excelsa, and several species of Rhododendron,

including R. stenaulum, R. genesterianum, and a ‘Ciliicalyx’ species.

~ Oaks, Laurels and Magnoliaceae abound; also a species of Calamus

which ascends to nearly 7,000 ft. The epiphytic flora, which includes

several shrubs—notably Agapetes—is varied; but climbing plants,

lacking the summer heat they need, are on the down grade.

There are a few deciduous trees, but not enough to colour the

autumn forest. On the other hand, several autumn-flowering trees

are sufficiently abundant to brighten the slopes in November.

Several of the trees mentioned serve to indicate the upper limit

of the warm-temperate zone, but the dividing line must never be

regarded as fixed; on the contrary, the number of genera with species

in several zones, ranging sometimes through 6,000 ft., is a measure

not only of its fluidity, but also of the fierce, continuous struggle

which goes on always between the floras of two superimposed

phytogeographical regions to extend their boundaries..

This is apparent not only regarding familiar genera such as Ilex,

Castanopsis, Quercus, Rhododendron, and Acer (4,000 to 9,000 ft.),

but equally amongst others less familiar, such as Eriobotrya (4,000,

7,000 ft.); Helicia (3,500, 6,500 ft.); Styrax (four or five species,

3,500 to 8,000 ft.); Pieris (3,500 to 9,500 ft.) ; Schima (4,000 to 8,500

ft.); and Symplocos (3,500 to 9,500 ft.). Bucklandia populnea, to

mention but one species, has a vertical range of over 4,000 ft. in the

Arahku-Hkinlum area.

Thus mutual pressure is exerted by one phytogeographical region

on another, not only laterally where these adjoin, but also vertically

in the mountains.

The next zone, the Cool Temperate forest, in latitude 27°N. is

in some respects equivalent to the forests of lower altitudes in much

higher latitudes—perhaps to those of the moister parts of western

Europe. Its composition is, however, partly Eastern Asiatic. Here

ats

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY

autumn colour becomes a major feature; indeed, the forests flush

with colour twice a _year--in spring, when the magnolias, —

rhododendrons and cherries come into blossom, and the breaking leaf-

buds add a rich mosaic of greens, yellows, purples, and reds; and

again in autumn when the dying year flings a patchwork of scarlet

and gold over the hillsides.

Amongst the most brilliant trees at this season may be counted

Sorbus, Acer, Viburnum, Gamblea, Enkianthus, and Pyrus. During

the height of the rains, however, and in the depth of winter, the

temperate forest is sombre indeed; for the truth is that even at

g,000-10,000 ft. it is still largely evergreen, with rhododendrons, Ilex,

Symplocos, oaks, some laurels, and ,some Magnoliaceae retaining

their leaves; while other trees (e.g. Eviobotrya sp.) are naked only for

a very short time.

This is the zone of the big-leafed tree rhododendrons, of R.

sino-grande and others, one of which, with glorious yellow flowers,

was outstanding in May. (We did not see any of the others in

bloom.) The big-leafed -species (‘grande’ and ‘falconeri’ series) at

9,000 ft. tend to form almost pure Rhododendron forest; and though

their trunks are gnarled and twisted to an extraordinary degree, they

are large enough and abundant enough to provide an unlimited supply

of timber for special purposes. The wood is extremely hard and close-

grained, and takes a good polish. It would be valuable for veneer and

panelling. These trees seemed to be immortal; I estimated many of

them to be over 200 “years old, and rarely, did. we sce-a> dead

rhododendron.

There is also a great variety of shrub rhododendrons, including

a number of epiphytic species. In fact, in the cool-temperate forest

Rhododendron and Magnolia are dominant genera, so much so that

it might properly be defined as the zone of Magnoliaceae and

Ericaceae.

Notable trees are Magnolia rostrata and M. Campbellu (mollicomata), —

flex crenata nothofagifolia (very different in appearance from the

Japanese I. crenata), and I. sikkimense, Acer wardii and A. sikkimensis,

and species of Tetracentron, Zanthoxylum, Michelia, Eriobotrya, .

Schima, Betula, Styrax, Illicium, and several large Araliaceae and

Fagaceae (Quercus lamellosa and Q. pachyphylla). s -

Two species of Primula petiolares and a ‘Candelabra’ species—

likewise belong to this zone, together with species of Begonia,

several ground orchids, and a few Compositae. -

A noted feature is the swathing of the big trees with moss, which

not only pads the trunks but hangs in long festoons from the limbs.

In this moss a variety of perennial epiphytes, both woody and

herbaceous, spring up from seed; in fact, there is hardly a tree in

the forest which cannot start life thus, while many continue as epiphytes

all their lives, and when fully grown are often connected with the earth

as well, by means of a great root which has grown down the side

of the trunk till it reached the ground (e.g. Sorbus). They are partial

epiphytes. The thin-barked rhododendrons, however, carry no moss.

Tos surprising that neither in this, nor in any higher zone, did

we meet with a single species of Berberis, so many species of which

occur further north; and with only one species of Cotoneaster.

‘ORESTS OF HE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE — 815

| LV. Diododendean Silver Fir Forest

The Burmese, and probably Chinese, Silver Fir is found on

sheltered slopes as low as g,ooo ft. in the North Triangle, as high

as 12,000 ft. in North Burma generally. Though it forms practically

pure stands, the trees are rather far apart, the intervening space being

filled with Arundinaria and Rhododendron arizelum—one of the big-

leafed trees, and to a lesser extent with another tree species of the

-_ ‘Thomsoni’ species. In the earlier monograph I referred the Burmese

Silver Fir to Abies fargesiu; but whether the North Triangle tree is

this species or not remains to be seen.

o A number of broad-leafed, mostly deciduous trees are associated

with the Silver Fir, notably Gamblea, Clethra delavayi (?), Pyrus,

and Sorbus insignis (S. harroviana?); besides numerous shrubs,

especially species of Rhododendron and Gaultheria. It may be remarked

that Abies is practically confined at this altitude to the more sheltered

slopes, being unable to withstand bright sunshine. Hence, in this

zone we find three distinct plant associations: (i) sheltered slopes

- covered with Abies—Rhododendron forest; (11) exposed slopes, with

- Rhododendron—broad-leafed deciduous trees, mostly of small size;

— and (iii) ridges which, being exposed to both wind and sun, are

covered mainly with mixed shrub growth of low stature, including

many species of rhododendron [RR,. tephropeplum, telopeum (?),

_trichociadum, polyandrum, and others], mixed with Euonymus,

Enkianthus, Symplocos, Viburnum, Gaultheria, Vaccinium glauco-

album, Taxus, and many other species. All three associations have

Arundianaria as a fill-in. 3

ae Another point of interest is that Abies, the only tree other than

_. rhododendron to form pure stands, is local in its occurrence. Thus,

while it was a dominant on Tama Bum at 10,000-11,000 ft., we

did not come across a single tree on Tagtlam Bum, only a few miles

to the north and very little less in altitude. One gets the impression

that, though a tough-looking tree, it is in reality sensitive to slight

differences in climate.

4 _ There was no sub-alpine meadow association within this zone (or,

_ indeed, anywhere else) such as is typical of the higher ranges along

Ethie China: Tibet frontier. The nearest approach to this was in the

3 steep, sheltered gullies, which, being drained dry in their upper parts

_ by October, carried only a fimited variety of coarse herbaceous plants,

_ forming nevertheless a type of sere. The more outstanding plants

in these gullies were: Caltha, Cimicifuga, Nomocharis, Polygonum,

Lugula, Pedicularis, Rodgersia, Astilbe, and several Compositae with

large leaves : besides a few shrubs, including a Lonicera.

‘=

FOREST IN GENERAL

Since the various types of forest are in three-dimensional contact,

as opposed to two-dimensional contact on flat land, over wide areas

_ a good deal of interchange of species takes place. Every zone tries

to expand its boundaries, and incorporate within itself something of

E the zone below and the zone above. Even alpine species penetrate

as far down the gullies as they can, while cool temperate species

‘Strive to become alpines. This, of course, is what one would expect,

" i

“e

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 3.

since there are always transitional zones; nothing is hard and

fast.

But while species may, and often do transgress boundaries,

different species of the same genus regularly occupy different zones.

Obvious examples in North Burma are Rhododendron, with species in

every zone from 1,000 ft. above sea level (R. simsi). 10 14,000 ft.

(R. chryseum); and Ficus, with species in all zones between 1,000 ft.

and 10,000 ft. But whereas the former is much more abundant above

8,ooo ft. than it is below, the latter is far better represented at 2,000

ft. than it. is at 9,000 ft. Hence, one suspects that Ficus is: a

tropical genus which has worked its way up to a temperate climate,

while Rhododendron is a temperate genus which has worked its way

down to a tropical climate.

Certain species of Rhododendron, ane become gregarious, have

made their own small zones, e.g. RR. sino-grande and arizelum,

which form together, or with other species, or even alone, a zone of

rhododendron forest, while others form rhododendron scrub. Whole

sections of the genus are confined to particular zones. This, however,

is not exceptional; rather is it the rule, though on a less generous

scale.

Amongst common genera which have overflowed into two or more

zones one might mention Quercus, Acer, Ilex, Magnolia, Michelia,

Elaeocarpus (mainly in the lower zone, however), Euonymus, and —

Prunus. Of all these we met with several species. In the North

Triangle also grows a species of Rehderodendron, quite a common

constituent of the forest between 4,000 and 5,000 ft.; at 8,000 ft.

it was replaced by. a second species. The same with . Helicia ©

(Proteaceae)—one species at 4,000 ft., a second at 7,000 ft.; while

Eriobotrya had four species, the lowest at 4,500 ft., the highest at

7500, it.

Alpines, too, try to extend their territory downwards, e.g. a species

of Nomocharis, found inside the forest at 8,500 ft., and on the open

ridge at 10,000 ft.

The fact that one finds such a genus as Symplocos, usually reckoned

as sub-tropical, at 8,500 ft., and various Lauraceae at 8,000-9,000

ft., is another indication of the concerted attempts being made by

the lower zones to extend upwards.

It is worth noting that the green fruits of Rehderodendron sp,

from 4,ooo ft. are regularly eaten (i.e. the rind) by the local

inhabitants.

It will be remarked that we actually passed through three main

vegetation belts or climax, belonging to three different phytogeographical

regions:

(i) Tropical Indo-Malayasian forest ;

(ii) Temperate forest (Eastern Asiatic and Northern phytogeo-

graphical regions) ;

(iii) Alpine (which comprises a region by itself) Sino- Himalayan.

In the latest exposition of phytogeographical regions, Prof.

Ronald Good has increased the number formerly recognised to 36.*

1 The Geography of the Flowering Plants, 1st edition, London 1947.

+5 Seah is ah Bi aa A i a a a

FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 317

That the number must be increased as we get to know more and

more of the world’s flora, and the distribution of species and genera,

is highly probable. But Prof. Good seems to me to be in advance

of our certain knowledge. How many divisions we allow depends,

of course, mainly on what degree of peculiarity—especially endemism

and its degree (specific, generic, or family)—we insist on. (Prof.

Good himself doubts the justification for his Continental South-east

Asiatic Region.) It also depends on the results of continued

exploration.

For the present I am conservative enough to keep to the old

comprehensive Indo-Malaysian region. We hardly know enough

about the huge flora of Indo-Malaysia as yet to sub-divide it. Such

knowledge as we do possess suggests that the first sub-divisions to

make would be to detach Ceylon as a separate region, in spite of its

proximity to India.

ECONOMICS

The question arises: have these extensive forests any economic.

future? Are there any valuable products and, if so, is it possible,

or worth while, to extract them?

The absence of pure stands of any big tree other than Abies—

the most inaccessible of all—suggests that the answer is an immediate

‘no’. On the other hand, it seems certain that many useful, even

valuable, hardwoods occur at much lower altitudes, though even here

the problem of extraction, at any rate ona big scale, is almost

insoluble. Two possible methods, however, may be briefly referred

to:

(1) It would be worth while to test the Mali Hka and Hkrang

Hka (below Laja a fair-sized river, especially during the rains) for

floating logs down to Myitkyina; though it is certain that there would

be awkward places where jams would occur. Thus, it would be

necessary to maintain a series of patrols, with knowledge of how to

free logs, along the banks. It might be advisable to obtain the

services of lumberjacks from Canada or elsewhere to train the

necessary personnel.

The Mali Hka should, of course, be tested first, by throwing in,

say, one hundred marked logs at the Hkrang Files confluence and

keeping a watch for them at Tanghpre; though even here patrols

might be necessary. If this proved successful, tests might be carried

out on the Hkrang Hka from Laja (above which village the river

rapidly breaks up). The fact that heavy planks (not logs) are

successfully floated down the Ngawchang Hka—a river little superior,

if any, in size to the Hkrang Hka—suggests that it would be worth

while to examine the possibilities of the latter river.

Only trees which grow close to the river could be regarded as

accessible, whereas many of the more promising timbers grow high

up in the temperate zone, far above the river. These, however, are

not for ever out of reach, if the methods adopted in western China

and in Tibet are adopted and developed. There, stout building poles

are cut and roughly shaped in the forest, high above the villages.

A narrow gutter is then cut straight down the steep mountain face,

sae)

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

along which the poles are dragged with ease. As the gutter becomes _

smoother with constant friction, and in winter when it becomes filled

with snow (rapidly compacted into ice), the effort required is much

diminished. Admittedly, conditions in the» North Triangle are very

different. The heavy summer rain would tend to deepen and roughen

the gutters; and it is only where the mountains exceed 12,000 ft. that

there is any great quantity of snow descending so low as 9,000 ft.

But taking the long-term view, it might be possible to develop a

system of timber slide and river transport adapted to local conditions.

(For example, a gutter lined with bamboos laid lengthwise would

be extremely slippery.) It is not suggested that timber could be

extracted thus on a commercial scale; but it seems a pity that with >

water available, its possible uses should not be explored.

(ii) In the Htawgaw Hills (south-east Kachin State) the Chinese

export—or used to export—heavy coffin planks cut from the Gymnosperm

Taiwania cryptomerioides. These coffin planks, weighing from 80

to 100 lb. each, were carried one by one some ten days journey over

the high dividing range to Tengchung in Yunnan—a journey which

involved crossing the Hpimaw Pass, 10,000 ft. high. It would be

impossible to extract logs of this big tree—one of the largest in the

forests of North Burma; but by cutting the planks to the required >

shape at the spot where each tree is felled (Ta:wania does not grow

in pure stands), floating them down the Ngawchang Hka, seasoning

them for a year, and using human transport, thousands of coffins

have been made and sold. Chinese carpenters are sent into the Kachin

State to cut the planks;-and the industry, hoes a small and luxury

trade, is well organised.’

It will be observed that both the ahows methods of extraction

from difficult terrain, as practised today, depend upon a special

technique applied to a particular species required for a known purpose.

In Canada, soft woods are required on a huge scale for the immense

paper pulp industry, the pulping machinery being sited on the river

used for floating the logs, as high up the valley as possible. In the

second example, the extraction of a single species of soft wood for

the manufacture of one article—coffins—in limited but steady demand

shows what is possible with scattered trees.

It is suggested that, since it is not possible to extract Havber

wholesale from the North Triangle, efforts should be made to extract

planks, provided that they have a certain known value for a particular

purpose.

Before this could be done, it would be essential to know more

about the forests—what species occur there, in what quantity, and

for what particular purpose they would prove most useful. Until

more information is available, it would be a mistake to embark on

extensive and expensive operations. Indeed, it is of the greatest

importance to know what raw materials exist, and to develop such a

potentially valuable industry step by step. The emphasis here is on _

exploration. . Soa

Apart from timber, the forests yield minor products used in the

arts—many species of bamboo and cane, for example, used by the local _

“1 See The Chinese Coffin Tree, Geographical Magazine (London), November 1952. 3

: FORESTS OF THE NORTH TRIANGLE, KACHIN STATE 319

aahahitants for Bi variety of purposes, from water pots and drinking

vessels to suspension bridges and house floors.

Another potential minor product is horticultural plants; and here

again there is scope for further exploration to reveal new species

_ which will always be in demand. First place may be given to orchids,

_ so popular nowadays everywhere—even in countries with a cold climate.

_ The forests of the Kachin State are as rich in orchids as is any other

part of the world of equal area; and there are-even a few species

of considerable merit, which are under snow for a few months each

year. But, as already pointed out in an article in the Burmese Forester,

the exploitation of these is best left to private enterprise. It may be

said categorically, however, that anyone who took up with enthusiasm

the cultivation of Burmese orchids for export could earn a living.

Secondly, there is ample material in the mountains for a successful

seed, or even nursery business, although for the latter purpose capital

gy would be required and the nursery would have to be in the hills.

There are potential markets all over the temperate world, and the

3 higher mountain tops everywhere are covered with desirable horti-

cultural plants, the seeds of which would find a ready sale, yielding

a modest profit. A successful seed business has been set up in

_ Darjeeling, while in Japan there are a number of exporting nursery

a firms: ;

' ~~ +Any such business must be content with a modest start, and

knowledge—often bought at a price—is needed as well as enthusiasm ;

but the good taste of the Burmese is a valuable asset in the choice

of suitable plants. The expense of collecting orchids and seeds would

be negligible.

a Lastly, mention must be made of medicinal plants, many of which

_ find a ready sale in China. “We did not come across the oft-acclaimed

_ machit (the Kachin word; botanically, Fritillaria roylei), because the

mountains we were exploring are not sufficiently high for this species.

It can confidently be asserted that it does not occur anywhere south

_ of Putao (except possibly east of the Taron) ; but it is abundant further

- north, at altitudes of over 12,000 ft.

Coptis teeta, another favourite Chinese drug (hwang-lien is the

_ Chinese name), is not rare in the forests above Hkinlum at 7,000-

8,000 ft.; and where it occurs its spread is easily induced by clearing

the undergrowth. It would, however, be profitable to cultivate it

- on a much larger scale, concentrating it in one place. Only the

_ yellow root is used, so that its collection involves the death of the

plant. The best method would be to raise it in fields and plough it

up when mature, replanting the fields in rotation. It is, however, a

forest plant requiring heavy shade, and the best method of cultivation

would be a matter for experiment.

_ There ‘is also the plant known locally as Mashaw isi, alter cihe

village of Mashaw (between Htingnam and Laja), which is reputed to

have a monopoly not only of its sale but also of its occurrence!

The claim seems extravagant. To bolster up the myth of

--exclusiveness, stories are circulated locally of its peculiar appearance

4 fe BS stories aes to the botanist hardly ring true. However, we were

- unable to break through the veil of secrecy which envelopes this

plant, and ascertain its relationships. Substitutes are readily palmed

off on the too curious, though there is some evidence in favour

of its being a species of Euonymus. During our sojourn at Hkinlum _

the discoverer of this patent medicine, who called himself the Mashaw- |

tsi Duwa, died; but his mantle doubtless descended on another member _

of the family. : Tee a: Lo age

The one authentic fact which emerges from the cloud of rumour

and speculation concerning this mysterious plant is that it is used

mainly in connection with poisoning including alcoholic poisoning (or

more briefly, drunkenness), and with undoubtedly good effect, as —

reported by a doctor in the district. ia

These notes on the flora and vegetation of the North Triangle

do not claim to be exhaustive, and indeed, until the collections made

by U Tha Hla and U Chit Ko Ko and by ourselves have been

worked out (a long job, since the total number of species is about

1,500), no complete account of our joint discoveries is possible. |

Incomplete as it is, however, it should, in conjunction with the valuable

field notes made by U Tha Hla, prove of some interest to the Forest

Departments' of Burma and India.

. FOOD OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE

- TATERA INDICA CUVIERI (WATERHOUSE)

4 : BY

= M. R. N. PRasap ,

Department of Zoology, Central College, Bangalore, India

(With one histogram)

In an earlier paper (Prasad, 1954)) the natural history of the

gerbille, Tatera indica cuvieri, has been described. In spite of its

occurrence in large numbers and the admitted knowledge of its

depredations on field crops, we have no adequate account of its food

and feeding habits.

Gerbilles are nocturnal and Seldon venture out during the day.

Blanford (1891) states that these animals store a part of the grain

in their burrows, but my examination of their burrow systems presented

no indication of such a tendency. Consequently one has to adopt

the expedient of examining the stomach contents to ascertain the type

as well as the variety of food eaten. If the stomach contents are

examined within an hour after feeding, the different constituents can

be identified with little effort. Seeds are recognised by their hard

outer coats, insect remains by wings, fragments of appendages, tracheal

tubes and exoskeletons, while leaves and stems of plants which serve

as food are made out by their colour and vascular structure. Rhizomes

of grasses can be identified by their outer coats and roots attached

io. them.

Stomach contents were examined soon after the gerbilles were

captured in the morning. ‘The animals feed during the night and

-return to their burrows at dawn. The stomach was split and emptied

of its contents into a trough containing a little water. The mixture

was agitated and allowed to settle down, when the separation of the

components could be effected easily. The volume of each kind of

food was estimated to the nearest 10 per cent. More accurate

estimation did not seem necessary since in a natural population there

is generally a slight variation in the food items consumed.

The environment and vegetation of the area under investigation

(Shivanahalli village, 3 miles from Bangalore, Mysore State, India)

have been described in the earlier’ paper referred to. The concentration

of the gerbilles in a given area depends to a great extent on the

availability of food in sufficiently large quantities throughout the year.

‘

SS Gt Rs ee Oe ON ee et ee ane ee Se CRT Le RC Pen ERE AECL RS NC EN ea? Fe eo

Bs Bee: = Kee. he ld. pz fino ees re be: is es ee sh ee

> ;

NPP RO RO rE mn ere eee

Pare

TABLE I[

Food of the gerbille, Vatera indica cuvieri, in Shivanahalli village,

Bangalore District, India, in 1953. Volume—per cent. The figures

ti : day

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

in parentheses indicate the number of gerbille stomachs examined in

each month and the percentage 5 gu the average of the total

number of. animals examined.

a g| | 813

; re w oS | oct age

Food SE 2 ee (el ee eee

[oxe) qa Q o a, a gq — : [oF booed ° QO”

See et et Se ae re ee

) (10) | (11) | (9) | 10) | (8) |G1)| (8) | (12)} (22)|0) | 3} 2)

Seeds =o 60 50 25 10 |; 00 | 20 | 25} 10 | 00-145 25 50

Stems and Leaves | 10 (210 15 4-75" 400 10 (10) 20s

R hizomes-grasses. 10 °.:20 35..a8 45.) S06 1245: 35-140 4-50: 1°40 1. 35.120

- Miscellaneous... | 10 | 10 i0 16:7}. 18 4° 00 )-00);4) 104210) * 1021-10-16

a Insects AD A 16 15 | 20 | 25 |-25.|-30} 201 25 | 20 1-20 | 10

It will be seen both from the table as well as the histogram that

the relative food constituents vary in the different seasons of the year

and with the food material available in the neighbourhood.

June to August:

At the end of the hot weather period the fields are bare and bereft

of vegetation. With the onset of the south-west monsoon in the

last week of May brisk farming activity is initiated and sowing

operations begin by the third or fourth week of June. Sown seeds

offer a good source of food during this period. The food also consists

of rhizomes of a variety of grasses growing in and around the fields,

namely: Cynodon dactylon, Brachiaria distachya, Urocholoa reptans,

Setaria intermedia, Sporobolus sp., Eragrostis bifaria, etc. The advent

of the monsoon and accompanying strong winds bring large numbers

of dragonflies and these form an important constituent of the gerbille

stomach for a fairly long period. It was not possible to identify the

genera of the dragonflies. In July the sprouted seeds form the food.

With the emergence of the saplings a little later, a new kind of food

becomes available and the fields are also full of the different varieties

of grasses already listed.

September to November: :

During this period seeds form a rather small percentage of the

as food. Since all the seeds have either sprouted or been eaten up by

awe now, the gerbilles become more and more dependent on other food

i like the rhizomes of grasses and insects. A large number of cutworms

belonging to the species Laphygma exigua and Euxoa sagetum which

N Miscellaneous

| Tare a

URC REESE — ELAN ee qn Nt iy

Bata Ree aaa Ma om oe seer sonahet otal totibetatetatatetateretcftateteostata cat SS Y)

x stag ars cin eencaes strat thane eto eae cee a

a PA) Bega. LAA =

ANU a stelatecrranet srbsronaeaearatressenssnta tire cesnstate-ctatarettstoaretetatacatefstotacerscatiteretriecencnett S

| =

. arene eee eee na ZS

.@)

& CE se

aes Stes rg ite entertainer acrherelascae trate Sek Sane ‘he

Mtlédéddddeag ne

ie Raa +a Te oe

. Pee eee briciercens seretertnesCetnceeheasieasscreeea acs rethcatetetese Se fess

Lvs)

a Z — We

ANY Witenes chee ee _— ee 1

= muse omen = ot ‘a mreceaeceere = ir

x 2

re i = =

a *e aK Pantene, eine ety ohh eee baat 5 AN SNK Fre. NA E

| ol ol ol Q!

IE Vth:

ae eee a A el oes

Boneretanrcesecacereme iiecrere nt orceecacsaeerortceretenmrtee pete

a epee ele a mR m ee vem

OUITYON %

Histogram showing Seasonal Food Constituents of the Indian Gerbille.

was ~

— =

FOOD OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE 323

cause damage to Ragi (Eleusine coracana) appear at this time and the

_ gerbilles consume them in considerable numbers, thus helping in their

control. In the middle of October a few of the early earheads of

_ ragi and jola (Andropogon sorghum) ripen and the gerbilles feed on

them. The percentage of seeds in the stomach increases gradually

from now on, as ripening of the earheads progresses. This is the begin-

ning of the breeding season and the first litters are brought forth in

the third week of September. Intra-specific struggle and evidences of

cannibalism are evidenced in the stomachs of a few gerbilles examined

during October and November.

December to February:

This is the period of plenty and the fields are all full of crops

ready for the harvest. Gerbilles cut the earheads of ragi and jola

ana gather the seeds. With this increase in the percentage of seeds

taken, other items normally consumed in the earlier seasons show a

gradual decline, though a considerable variety is still maintained. The

ce grain crops are harvested in the middle of December. Since a mixed

crop of the following plants, i.e. avare (Dolichos lablab), red gram

(Cajanus indicus), Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum), horse gram (Dolichos

biflorus), black gram (Phaseolus mungo), green gram (Phaseolus

-_ radiatus), cow peas (Vigna catiang), sesame (Sesamum indicum), ground

nuts (Arachis hypogaea), and castor (Ricinus communis), is always

grown in the same fields along with the main food crops, the harvesting

of Eleusine coracana and Andropogon sorghum in the middle of

December does not deprive the gerbilles of their food. The other

plants continue to provide for them till the end of January, “when

the harvesting of all the crops is completed. Cannibalistic remairis are

also common in the-stomachs of a few well-grown adults. Insects

are always found mixed with the other items of food. The animals

show an increase in body weight and they appear to accumulate fat

around the internal organs.

HO a tae ees pee

oe Pe te

March to May:

These are the hottest months of the year; the fields are bare and

there is a general shortage of food in the neighbourhood. The gerbilles

readily take to an omnivorous diet during this season and miscellaneous

unidentifiable items of the stomach contents increase. Scattered seeds

are available in the fields till the end of March and early April, after

which period the main items of food include the rhizomes of grasses

and insects. Most insects were so finely masticated that their

identification was impossible.

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

= Records available for a number of rodents show definite trends

in population fluctuations which exhibit a periodic or cyclic change.

Most of the apparently periodic fluctuations in year-to-year populations

of mammals occur with either a 3/4-year rhythm or a 10-year rhythm.

- __It has been pointed out by Errington (1951) that the number of

animals in a population are the result of a number of factors

_ ‘Important in the regulation of numbers of a wide variety of vertebrates

may be inter- or intra-specific competition or the density factor, plant

fa:

324. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

succession, human land use, climate, lethal emergencies, epizootic

diseases and uncompensated. predation including that frequently taking

the form of hunting pressure by man. In addition to these some

investigators, myself among them, think that a probable extra mundane

factor may affect living things in an essentially periodic manner.

Population impacts of at least the better defined of these factors vary

with the species, time and place.’

Cyclic fluctuations of populations have been demonstrated by Elton

(1942) in voles and mice, Dymond (1947) in the animals of Canada,

Siivonen (1948) in the monet of the Northern Hemisphere, McLeod

(1950) in the muskrat of Manitoba and Errington (1951) in the muskrats

of South Dakota and Northern Minnesota. In such a cyclic fluctuation

of populations peaks and depressions of abundance alternate regularly.

The considerable increase or decrease in numbers of a population

of rodents in an area has its effect on the extent of destruction to

crops in the neighbourhood. In our country, and specially in Mysore

State, such a study of population fluctuations of rodents has not been

carried out systematically, hence no figures of economic losses to crops

due to rat damage are available. The absence of general information

of such a type appears to be due to the rather sporadic nature of.

the damage caused and also to its restriction to localised areas, and

finally to variations in annual incidence of damage, the effect being

felt only during the years of heavy destruction.

In spite of their capacity for destruction, the gerbilles do not

appear to exert much adverse influence on the environment. One of

the earliest references to an extreme effect of gerbille infestation is

by Blanford (1891) who states that ‘in 1878-79 they ravaged the

grain fields in the Deccan throughout several thousand square miles

cutting down jowari (Holcus sorghum) and bajri (H. spicatus) stalks

and feeding on the grain, part of which they stored in their burrows’.

It is probable that this period marked a peak in the abundance of

gerbilles in a cycle, which is not definitely established at present.

While the damage to food crops caused by the gerbilles is to be

admitted, it seems possible that they are to a small extent beneficial

to the farmer. By destroying large numbers of cut-worms (Laphygma

exigua) and (Euxoa sagetum) and other caterpillars, namely Stenachria

elongella, Sphenarches caffer, Heliothes obsoleta, and Exelastes

atomosa, which are inimical to ragi and other mixed crops, they help

the farmer to keep down the numbers of these harmful types. Also

by feeding on rhizomes of a variety of grasses and other pestilential

weeds they must exert a beneficial “influence.

SUMMARY

It seems clear that there is a seasonal variation in the foods

eaten by the gerbilles through the year. Seeds form a predominant

food in December, January, February and to a lesser extent in June

and July at the sowing season. In the hot weather period of April

and May, and in the months of August and September, rhizomes of

a variety of grasses form an important item of food. Insects are

eaten in considerable numbers _consistently in all the seasons.

Miscellaneous food items include remains of smaller gerbilles, a

Me,

Er?

‘

y ae

aad

IN GERBILLE

‘result of cannibalism. This is specially noticeable during October,

November, December and January, when the younger animals leave

the parent burrow and establish new homes. The gerbilles also

consume cutworms and harmful caterpillars inimical to crops and thus,

perhaps, help in their control. By feeding extensively on rhizomes

of a variety of grasses and other pestilential weeds they are of some

help to the farmer in considerably reducing the cost of weeding

operations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was undertaken with the aid of a liberal financial

grant from the Education Ministry, Government of India. My thanks

are due to Dr. B. R. Seshachar, Professor of Zoology, Central College,

_ Bangalore, for valuable guidance and encouragement, and to Sri B. S.

Doddashankarappa who kindly provided facilities for collection of the

gerbilles from his estates.

REFERENCES

Blanford, W. T. (1891): The Fauna of British India, including Burma and

Ceylon. Mammalia, 396-398.

Dymond, J. R. (1947): Fluctuations in animal populations with special reference

to those, of Canada. Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada 44 (5): 1-34.

Elton, Charles (1942): Voles, Mice and Lemmings; problems in populaticn

dynamics, 496 pp. Oxford. ; es

Errington, Paul, L. (1951): Concerning fluctuations in populations of the prolific

and widely distributed Muskrat. Amer. Nat., 85: 273-292.

McLeod, J. A. (1950): A consideration of Muskrat populations and population

~ trends in Manitoba. Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada. 94% (ser. 3): 69-79. Re

Prasad, M. R. N. (1954) : Natural history of the south Indian gerbille Tatera indica

cuvieri (Waterhouse), J.B.N.H.S., 52 (1): 184-189. :

Siivonen, Lauri (1948): Structure of ‘short cycle fluctuations in numbers of

mammals and birds in the northern parts of the northern hemisphere. Papers on

Game Research, 1: 166 pp. Helsinki: Finnish Foundation for Game Preservation.

THE WHALE SHARK, RHINEODON TYPUS (SMITH)

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(Vertebrate Zoologist, Dominion Museum,

Wellington,'New Zealand)

(With two plates)

Several years ago, when visiting the ‘shrine’ of that great

entomologist M. T. R. Bell at Karwar, I walked in on him just

as he had finished reading one of my articles in the Journal. After

the usual greetings, the old man turned on me jockingly and said,

‘I don’t believe you, McCann.’ .“Don"t -believe--what?. “T'_replied,

not knowing what he was referring to. ‘What you have written.’

The retort was spontaneous: ‘It is the privilege of “doctors and

scientists to disbelieve each other—even themselves.’ We understood

and laughed heartily. This is the spirit in which J now write this

short article on a ‘monstrous’ subject. .

Ina recent. issueof ‘the Journal (Volo 51, p.. 870) tba

Gudger published an interesting article entitled, ‘What ultimately

terminates the life-span of the Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus?’ I do

not intend to answer this question, for «I. just donot know.

However, there were certain aspects in the life of the Whale Shark

which interested me. My limited experience with these giant fish |

and the views of some writers on the subject were not quite in

accord. Having had occasion to cast one, and ‘wallow’ in the

‘innards’ of two young males landed in Bombay (1938 and 1940)’ my

hand flew to the hilt of my ‘sword’ on reading the above-mentioned

article. But, I must confess that I feel diffident to cross swords

with so great an authority on ‘fishy’ matters as Dr. ere I

merely question rather than attack. .

The substance under the first sub- eadine in Dr. Gudger’s article,

‘The only animate enemies of the Whale Shark—intestinal parasites’,

I must pass over; I found none—I did not look for any. Howercs

the next sub-heading calls for some comment. Great size certainly

reduces the enemy cycle of such animals that possess it, but it must

be remembered that they all had small beginnings, and that the

‘big fellows’ only became big fellows at the expense of their less

fortunate companions when they were all smaller and younger

together! This is paralleled on land by the elephant which, in

adult life enjoys a certain amount of immunity from predators.

Perhaps, there is a weakness in my comparison for there is nothing

known of the life-cycle of the aquatic giant in its infancy. However,

some authors refer to schools of adults and, if this is true of the

adults, there is good reason to believe that the young also band

* For a full account of these specimens see JBNHS, 42: 255.

eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

together, just as many young fish do. All I intend to convey is that

the predators take advantage of the giants during their early life and

those that have reached the proportions of giants are comparatively

immune from predators. |

Turning to the second immunity factor referred to by Dr. Gudger,

namely, the thickness and density of the skin, I can only rely on

my experience with the two young specimens already referred to.

The shagreen-covered skin was certainly tough to pierce with a

large surgical scalpel but, once an incision was made, I experienced

no difficulty in carrying on the cut. Incidentally, as is the case

with most animals, the skin of the dorsal surface is somewhat tougher

than that of the ventral. Speaking from memory, the tough outer

skin was scarcely 3 to 4 mm.’ thick (see plate IV). Below this tough

envelope, cutting was easy. There was scarcely any difference between

cutting through the skin of one of these giants and that of any big

shark. To carry the comparison yet further, I have since had the

opportunity of dissecting a Sunfish (Mola mola). The difference in

the texture and toughness of the two is considerable. In the one

instance it is like cutting through tough canvas, and in the other,

through several layers of tough cardboard! Incidentally, I used

the same knife on the two species. With the ‘same scalpel, I got

down to the heart without much difficulty. The heart is still in

my possession. I have laboured this point just in order to show

that these giants are not so tough as they appear to be. In the

circumstances, I feel that the skin plays little, if any, part in protecting

these monsters against well-armed predators. The giants, nearing

maturity, have passed the stage of attack from their earlier enemies,

just as adult elephants pass the stage of attack from large

carnivora.

That mutilated specimens showing the attacks of predators are

seldom, if ever, encountered or washed up is not surprising for, once

the skin is torn, the flesh being comparatively soft, would soon

be demolished by smaller flesh eaters and scavengers, in which the

sea abounds. Accordingly, I agree that size plays an important

part in survival, but not entirely. The effectiveness of the skin, as

a protective armour is seriously open to question.

On the subject of food, Dr. Gudger believes that the Whale Shark

‘is largely a surface-feeding plankton-gulper; of similar habit to the

large baleen whales. Apparently, his belief is based on the observations

Of Others, for, in support, he quotes Mr.E. R. F.. Johnson: “They

(the sharks) were plainly engaged in feeding, swimming about

for one or two minutes with the wide mouths partly open, the upper

jaw being about even with the surface of the water. Then each fish

would close its mouth and dive to a shallow depth, for the depth

pressure to help to get rid of the water through the gills; and then

the giant fish would come to the surface for another swim with mouth

open.’ Perhaps, this statement could be interpreted in quite another

way. The opening and closing of the mouth was probably the normal

‘fish-fashion’ procedure of oxygenating the gills, and the occasional

1 The puckered skin is well illustrated in the accompanying photograph.

2 2 ert i

WA ee oe eet oe

~ Dad

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62:

sounding to accelerate the flow over the gills.’ Such bulls, in spite

of its sluggish habits, would require an enormous amount of oxygen

to maintain itself. Accordingly, the original observation could be

a misinterpretation, more so, as there are no stomach contents to

support the statement. Again, I believe that surface plankton is

comparatively scarce during the hours of daylight, and it is only at

its maximum during the hours of darkness. However, depending

on the season, there would be a considerable amount of drifting

algae, with its attendant life, at the surface, which could be engulfed.

Towards the end of his section on the feeding habits of these

giant fish, Dr. Gudger refers to reports from waters north of Cuba

of Whale Sharks feeding in a vertical position. Again, a Mr. Stewart

Springer had actually seen sharks feeding in the Gulf of Mexico in

such a position. This posture during feeding, Dr. Gudger refers to

as ‘variant feeding’. Strangely enough, Dr. Gudger does not refer

to the stomach contents of the only specimen which he had been

fortunate enough to see in the flesh.

The two young males, which I had the opportunity of examining,

were captured by fishermen in their nets and towed ashore. Neither

of them was a diseased nor a disabled specimen. The stomachs

in both the individuals were packed to capacity with marine algae.

The algae were so fresh that there could be little doubt that the meal

was very recent—the animals must have been feeding at the time

of capture and blundered into the nets. Likewise, there can be little

doubt that a certain amount of both micro- and macro- plankton may

enter the capacious mouth along with the vegetation, but that is

perhaps more accidental than deliberate. In the case of both

individuals examined, no fish were observed among the stomach

contents. This is all the more surprising when we consider that

the animals were captured at the fishing grounds, and in fishing nets

that were set for smaller fry. Under the circumstance it would not

appear rash to conclude that the Whale Shark is predominantly a

true vegetarian. Nevertheless, let us look further for some more

evidence in support of this view.

A casual examination of one of these enormous fusiform giants seems

to suggest that their shape has an important bearing on their manner

of feeding. The greater bulk of their mass is concentrated towards

the head, a factor of distinct advantage for sounding. Again, the

terminal mouth would be of equal advantage whether they fed at

the surface, or while sounding, in a vertical position as described

by Springer.

The numerous rows of rasp-like teeth, quite unsuitable for holding

active prey, seem admirably adapted for browsing on slime-covered

algae. The closely pectinate gill-rakers, believed to be adaptations

for sifting out the zoo-plankiton engulfed while feeding, could be

equally effective in expressing the water from the mouthful of algae.

The gill-rakers would prevent the slimy laminae of the algae from

getting among the gills themselves and, perhaps, fouling them.

Speaking from memory, the gill-rakers appeared to be covered by

1 In fish with subterminal mouths the action of the mouth would not be readily

visible.

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THE WHALE SHARK.

highly, vascular tissue and, besides performing the duty of a protecting

sieve for the ‘gill-chambers, is it not possible that they perform the

function of ancillary gills also? . However, this last point is an after-

- thought and requires confirmation. |

We have still to explain the surface haunting habits so often

observed. Both the young males were caught at night. This may

_—s- suggest that the animals normally feed at night (?), and surface

during the day, there to leisurely swim about, and bask in the sun,

- contentedly digesting the vast amount of algae eaten. Similar

behaviour is met with among herbivorous land- mammals, such as

the ruminants, which feed by night and lie up during the day digesting

their enormous meal of cellulose.! Another consideration which may,

not be out of place is that the surface water normally contains a

higher volume of oxygen than the deeper layers; this fact alone would

facilitate the respiration of such a monster and, at the same time, the

“warmer temperature of the surface and the procumbent posture would

go a long way in aiding digestion of the vast meal. In addition,

there appears good reason of believe that a herbivorous diet often

tends to produce larger body form than does a carnivorous diet.

This is equally true of the animals of the past as of the present

day. Whales, however, seem to be the exception, but this exception

may be largely due to the type of food (not herbivorous) and the

manner necessary for capturing and feeding on such a diet. The

_ head of a baleen whale is converted into an enormous ‘trap’, and

the diet is rich. It is significant that ithe more aggressive and

carnivorous cetaceans are also of small size.

Another feature of the Whale Shark, perhaps worthy of mention,

is its apparently placid temperament. Apparently, this is also in

keeping with its vegetarian diet. This too is paralleled by herbivorous

land mammals. Not so long ago, I happened to see a film in which

an aqualung diver had the courage to clamber over the head of a

Whale Shark and to peer into its cavernous mouth. The shark did

not seem in the least bit disturbed by this adventurous human. How-

ever, this is speculation, so let me pass on,,

_ The habit of the Whale Shark of leisurely drifting at the surface

has undoubtedly given rise to the widely accepted assumption that.

it is mainly a zoo-plankton feeder, but there is little or no evidence

to support this view based on actual examination of the stomach

contents. As early as 1870 Wright recorded large masses of algae

as the stomach contents and he concluded that the animal was herbi-

vorous. The repeated finding of large quantities of algae as the main

stomach contents does not appear to be merely accidental ! (

i Soon after reading the great epic of the Kon-tiki, I had the

< pleasure of meeting one of its crew, Bengt Danielsson. A passage

from the book, dealing with the Whale Shark encountered, raised

several questions in my mind and here was the chance of getting

some of them cleared up. The passage is as follows: ‘and a toad-

like jaw which was four or five feet wide and had long fringes

| hanging drooping from the corners of the mouth.’* Were these [ress

1 I am aware of the other ors involved ‘also. :

The italics are mine, . : PENS Ts

oe he |

Ben

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

algae? The behaviour of the animal, as. described, appeared {to me)

as. though the animal were possibly feeding on. the algae which had

developed on the logs composing the raft. In reply to one of my.

questions, Mr. Danielsson informed me that. quite a considerable

amount. of algae had formed on the logs. This then seems to be

what the animal was after ‘to have spent so. much time about and.

under..the raft. Evidently, it was browsing, and, perhaps, the fringes

can be explained. If. this were so, it seems we have some evidence

that the animals feed on-algae drifting at or-near the surface. Mr..

Danielsson confessed that he was not very: pleased with. the proximity

of the great beast at the time, in spite of its placid nature!

A further argument that these sharks are vegetarians centres round

Heit seasonal migration, particularly their periodicity and location

along the coasts of India. Writers on the Whale Shark have gone

to some length to account for the movements of these fish in relation

to the appearance of off-shore phyto- and zoo-plankton, and the

trend of ocean currents. Although these factors play. an important

indirect part, the main seasonal movement appears to be coupled with

the first two principles of life—preservation (feeding) and procreation

(breeding). Either one or both factors may cause animals to change

their immediate habitat. This is common to most life in the broader

sense, and is well known. However, it often happens that in our

enthusiasm - to fathom the unknown we lose sight of the obvious!

This reminds me of a story told me by a French biologist. A! professor -

was making an exhaustive study of the uses of the leg. After

considerable research, he went in great glee to his colleague and

said, ‘Professor ! Deore ecor's I fave: discovered forty-nine uses of

the leg.’ ‘Let. me see,’ said the other. After perusing the list,

he turned to his companion and said, ‘Ah! but, my dear colleague,

you have forgotten one’. ‘Which one?” came the sharp eas ‘The

natural one—walking !’ -

I do not intend to deal with this nee of the Whale Shark’s

life-cycle in great detail, but merely to make brief references to

some of the more probable. factors controlling its movements, as they

present themselves to me. My observations are based mainly on the

belief in the vegetarian diet of these great fish. Their appearance

along the Indian coasts, particularly along the western coast, between

certain months of the -year (January to April) seems to be very

significant. It coincides with the annual increase of the algal vegetation

along the coastline. That the trend of oceanic currents at that

particular season of the year influences and assists migration, goes

without saying, but it appears to me that the main influence is the

abundance of marine algae (food). At the time when the fish are

moving westward (January to April), the Bay of- Bengal is under

the influence. of | the. north-east monsoon. . The great rivers. emptying:

into. it CARTY, down enormous volumes of freshwater and sediment in

suspension, The sediment in suspension may be‘ seen far out at

sea. The dilution of the waters of the Bay and the large amount

of sediment are factors detrimental to the growth of-marine- algae.

Hence, food is scarce, and there would be .no incentive for the

animals to travel up the Bay, apart from the muddy condition of the

[ a1lvig

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiaTe II

THe BaskING SHARK (Cetorhinus maximus)

A. Showing gill arches and reduced tongue.

Photos: #. T. Salmon Courtesy Dominion Museum Wellington, N.Z.

B. Gill arch with gill and gill rakers.

TE TAS 7 eles UL RA A 331.

water and. lower density: That an» occasional stray..may enter the

upper reaches of the Bay in no way negatives this conclusion.

When the north-east monsoon is in progress, the western .coast

of India is normally. free from heavy. rain. Excepting the Indus,

no large rivers empty into the Arabian. Sea. Soon after the cessation

of the south-west’ monsoon, which. brings heavy rain to the west

of India, the coastal waters : clear, and. there is a marked increase

in algal production. The inter-tidal zones are remarkably productive,

and large quantities of the algae are swept out to sea by wave and

tidal action. There is a corresponding increase in the deeper. water

forms during this period. About March, each year, the inter-tidal

algae commence to. die out.. By May, the monsoon swell commences

and the sea often becomes boisterous and churns up the coastal

waters.’ This action of the sea, shortly to be followed by the monsoon

rains, coupled with the sediment in suspension, reduces the amount

of the deep water algae. Thus again, there is a Scneny of food

and the sharks, move off to ‘greener’. pastures.

‘In. Vol. A2, Pp. 255,-0f the Journal, Mr...S.:H. Prater gives us

an informative article dealing with the distribution of the Whale

Shark in the Indian waters. The article is well illustrated and worthy

of careful perusal. Mr. Prater goes to some length in an effort to

explain the seasonal migration of these animals and arrives at the

conclusion that their movements are dependent on the movements of

oceanic currents and zoo-plankton. This conclusion. is mainly based

on the assumption that the Whale Shark is largely a zoo-plankton

gulper. His view is all the more surprising when he was _ fully

aware of the stomach contents of the 1938. and 1940 specimens, and

of the circumstances under which they were captured. In addition,

he. was also aware of Wright’s evidence. Surely, the stomach

contents of these individuals were not. accidental? The evidence that

the Whale Shark is a zoo-plankton_ feeder is, to say the. least, very

slender.

I am not fant with the Basking ‘Shark, Cetorhinus (see Pl.

J) but from the numerous accounts of the species and some of its

anatomical characteristics, it would appear that: there is little doubt

that it isa zoo-plankton feeder, subsisting largely on shrimp-like

crustacea (krill) and other small organism, just as the baleen whales

do. The similar habit of drifting or swimming at or near the surface

observed in both the Basking and Whale Sharks has, apparently, led

to the assumption that the feeding habits and the food are similar,

if not the same, in the two species. This assumption I am not prepared

to accept for several reasons, not to mention the stomach contents

already referred to. In support of my, ‘disbelief’, allow me to compare

the two in several details:

(a) Shape? :—If we contrast the shape of the two sant it

will be noticed that Cetorhinus (Pl. 1) is. far more ~ fusiform

and stream-lined than Rhineodon. The bulk-of .the former is more

evenly, distributed throne bout. ‘its length: than in the case of the latter.

1 It is s generally believed tat Oiarics are averse to entering _ turbid: water.

2 The illustrations depicting the’ shape of Cetorhinus in many works are not in

“strict keeping-with its actual-shape (i.e. line drawings) ! :

332. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

In Rhineodon the greatest bulk. of the animal is situated in the fore-

part of its body. The snout is more acute and ‘compressed’ in

Cetorhinus than in Rhineodon ; in the latter it is more depressed. Again,

if we compare the caudal fins, that of Cetorhinus is more in keeping

with the fast moving sharks, such as the Mako (Lamna), than that

of Rhineodon. All these factors taken conjointly indicate that the

Basking Shark is built for greater speed and activity than the Whale

Shark.

(b) Head:—If we look more closely at the head, apart ae the

acuteness and obtuseness of the snouts already referred to, the first

point which immediately strikes the observer is that the Basking

Shark has a Subterminal mouth and Rhineodon a terminal one.

Further, the angle of the gape in Cetorhinus extends far behind the

eye, whereas in Rhineodon the gape is ‘tadpole-like’ and terminates

in front of the eyes. An obtuse snout and a terminal mouth would

be a distinct disadvantage to a fast-moving animal feeding with its

mouth open in ‘beds’ of zoo-plankton (krill and mollusca). The resistance

of an open, terminal mouth to the pressure of water as the animal

forged forward would tend to reduce speed in such an animal as

the Basking Shark whereas, in a slow-moving ‘browser’ feeding

on algae, speed is no consideration. Another point which strikes

me most forcibly is the great disparity in the size of the gill-covers

in the two species. In Cetorhinus the gill-covers almost ‘sever’ the

head from the body (see Plate I), while in Rhineodon they are com-

paratively short. This again, to my mind, is a further indication

that the Basking Shark is a faster moving animal than it is believed

to be, and that the extensive gill-openings are an adapation to its

feeding habits. The large gill-openings would facilitate the rapid |

flow of water taken in at the mouth along with its food, as it ploughs

through the plankton when feeding. Such large openings would

lessen the resistance to the water and not hinder the rapid progress

of the animal. The mouth in this case is converted into a sure plankton

‘trap’, specialized gill-rakers confining the catch. It is also significant

that the gill-arches reach further forward in Cetorhinus (see Plate II

A & B) than they do in the Whale Shark. The latter has a large

flat tongue, and the gill-arches are not so prominent.

species. The Basking Shark is an inhabitant of the temperate waters

of both the northern and southern hemispheres, whereas the Whale

Shark is an inhabitant of the warmer waters of the globe. The Basking

Shark, like the baleen whales, is more or less restricted to the areas

where the normal food (krill and molluscs) is in great abundance,

while that of the Whale Shark coincides with the algal distribution.

Under the circumstances, I believe that the Whale Shark is

essentially a herbivorous animal, subsisting on marine algae. Its

great size, anatomical structure, habits and normal distribution all

go far in confirming this views There i is the substantial evidence of at

least three specimens—there is no concrete evidence to the contrary.

The only point of similarity between the Whale Shark and the Basking

Shark is the habit of leisurely drifting or swimming at or near the

surface of the sea. This habit has undoubtedly led to the erroneous

assumption that both species are zoo-plankton feeders. Perhaps, the |

: ne meal to "dee and Sake is eee done at or near the surface —

: where the volume of oxygen is greatest, a smaller effort required

in Ses a reduced pressure around the loaded stomach, and a

‘ ae ee when conducting university’ students around the

galleries, I often contrasted the Whale Shark, with its great bulk and

- cavernous mouth, with the tiger! The comparison always called forth

a considerable amount of laughter and merriment as my audience

was more often than not composed of both strict vegetarians and

meat eaters! It always went down well without offending the suscepti-

bilities of my hearers, although. the ape was invariably against the

vegetarians !

ERO SHEARWATERS AND OTHER OCEANIC BIRDS

IN" THE NORTH. INDIAN: OCEAN

W. W. A. PHLLrs.

Since the aubleanon in the Pack in December 1950 of my

paper on ‘Wilson’s Storm-Petrels, Shearwaters and other Sea-birds

in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean’, I have crossed the Indian

Ocean from Colombo to Aden and back once again, and have been

able to make further observations on the oceanic birds of that part

of the Ocean that lies between these two ports. The first voyage

outwards from Colombo took place in early February 1953 and, as

usual at that time of the year in these waters, oceanic bird life was

very scarce until we arrived in the vicinity of Socotra and the Gulf

of Aden, where shearwaters and phalaropes in small numbers were

observed. No small petrel of any species was observed on this voyage.

On the return journey in early August 1953, there were no phalaropes,

but petrels and shearwaters were plentiful, as expected, and were

observed in greater or lesser numbers each day until we entered

Colombo Harbour. On this voyage, three Wilson’s Petrels (Oceanites

oceanicus) and one Mascarene Black Petrel (Pterodroma aterrima)* were

caught on deck after dark; they were all released the following mornings

after thorough examination. Small white-bellied petrels—believed,

in spite of Gibson-Hill’s statement (p. 446) that there are no reliable

sight records of these species from our area, to have been either the

Blackstreaked Storm Petrel (Fregetta tropica) or more probably the

Whitebellied Storm Petrel (Ff. grallaria)—were fairly plentiful on one

day near lat. 10°24/N. and long. 63°25’E. on this voyage.

On our return to Colombo, through the good offices of Mr. D. D.

Condon of the United Kingdom High Commissioner’s Office I was

placed in touch with Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite, Fishery Expert in

trawler ‘Braconglen’ which makes regular trips from Colombo to

the fishing grounds to the west of Cape Comorin. On his voyages,

Mr. Grisenthwaite has made some valuable observations on the oceanic

birds—chiefly Wilson’s Petrels and shearwaters—that he has en-

countered ; extracts from his notes. are given at the end of this paper,

including his interesting record of the migration of Wilson’s

Petrels.

In the following notes from my diaries, I have condensed my

observations and confined them to the pelagic birds observed on each

voyage.

1 Mackworth-Praed and Capt. Grant, in their ‘Birds of Eastern and North-Eastern

Africa,’ Vol. I, call this bird Bulweria brevirostris, but Mr. W. B. Alexander informs

me that this name appears to be incorrect.

| ae

: OPS

“ ‘i = 5 te dee laa ec

Pee ee Pa inne thes

RG Pee ea Say OE Te eT ee ee eS

Ee, eee

Te ee ee een Re ee ee

Se th sy sale as a. te” eR Re a a

--PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC: IN- N, INDIAN OCEAN 335

-HOMEWARD Wevece M. V. ‘Derbyshire’

(10, 625 Tons. ED. BRAND, ‘MastTER)

Fe Colombo to dene ebruary 6th to Ree riacy, rath 1953. -

February 6th. — 08.45. hrs. | Left Colombo Harbour ; sunny with siete

breeze ; visibility excellent. ,

09.45 hrs. Flock of about 30 Bridled Terns (Sterna anaethetus)

j passed flying south. :

12 Noon. Lat, 7.06 N. “Long. 79.07, Ez. - Distance from Colombo

—s« gg, miles ; average speed 14.33 knots.

12.10 hrs. Single tropic-bird (Phaethon sp.) flew past and. vanished

: astern; it flew very rapidly at varying heights from item above to

100 ft. or more from the water.

14.30 hrs. to dusk. Visibility, excellent; no other birds seen.

February 7th. Indian Ocean.

06.00 hrs. to Noon; flat calm; no wind; no birds.

12 Noon. Lat. 08. o4N. Long. 73- ee Distance run 370 miles ;

average speed 15.10 knots.

: 12.05 hrs. Passing Minicoy, distant about 15 miles; two solitary

: Frigate Birds (Fregata sp.) far away to south.

14.00 hrs. to dusk. Visibility excellent; no birds seen.

February 8th. Indian Ocean. |

: 06.15 hrs. to Noon. Bright, sunny; slight breeze; visibility

, excellent. No birds seen. |

, __12 Noon. ‘Lat. og.11N. Long. 66.51E. . Distance run (3e miles ;

3 average speed 15. 35 knots. —

‘ Afternoon to dusk. No birds seen.

February oth. Indian Ocean.

06.10 hrs. to Noon. Bright and’ sunny; slight breeze visibility

E excellent; no birds seen.

i: 12 Noon... Lat. 10.12N. Long. 60.57E. . Distance run 376 ES

_ ~—s- average speed 14.53 knots.

to 16.30 hrs. Visibility excellent ; no birds seen.

; 16.44 hrs. to 16.55 hrs. ‘Two tropic: -birds appeared and flew to-

gether, round and over the ship, for about ro minutes; they seemed

to be Indian or Smaller Redbilled Tropic-bird (P. indicus).

e 17.20 hrs. ‘to dusk. Two tropic-birds again flying round the ship ;

either the same two as seen before or a fresh pair; they were seen

in a good light and were wigs es Indian ERs No other

birds seen before dusk. | |

a February 1oth. Indian Ocean.

oe 06.10 hrs. Sea smooth, very slight breeze, visibility excellent.

% - 06:15 hrs. to Noon. A tropic-bird appeared from over our bows

ee spent the next 15 minutes flying rapidly ‘round and. over the

ship ; it generally flew some 100 to 150 ft. above the sea, shook itself

several times and spread its tail when banking to turn sharply ; beak

bo eae

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vo

yellow, tail short with black tips to white feathers; black and brown

on wings and upper parts; Se a juvenile Indian Tropic-bird (P.

indicus). No other birds seen.

12 Noon. Late -1n48N. Long. 54. 49E, Distance run 369 miles ;

average speed 15.07 knots.

to 15.30 hrs. Visibility excellent ; no_birds.. : Hie Soe

15.50 hrs. Single, medium- sized shearwater (Puffinus sp.) flying

low over water in usual shearwater manner, a long way out on port

side; appeared to be dark brown all over.

16.20 hrs. Another solitary shearwater of same species. 3

16.55 hrs. Another shearwater, closer ‘to starboard; dark brown

all over but rather darker on the upper parts; we are now about 60

to 70 miles south of Socotra and appear to have entered the habitat

of a resident species of shearwater which looks very like the Wedge-

tailed (Puffinus pacificus).

17.10 hrs. Another shearwater of the same species; dark brown

in colour with rather long, pointed wings.

17.40. hrs.’ Patty -of 4 phalaropes (Phalaropus Sp.) : flying rapidly

west close over the water, twisting and turning with the sun lighting

up their white under parts. Another dark brown shearwater. Islets

off the south of Socotra are now in sight. about 30 miles to north-

wards. nen

F ebruary 11th. Gulf of Aden.

05.30 hrs. to 06.15 hrs. Bright sunny morning ; wind steady from

NE.; slight breeze and swell; visi excellent. African Coast is

in sight to port.

06.20 hrs. Solitary phalarope crossed our bows flying south,

06.30 hrs. Tropic-bird in distance.

07.40 hrs. Two shearwaters crossed our bows fying rapidly

northwards; light excellent; both were very dark sooty brown above

and only a little lighter below ; wings long and pointed, tail also

longish and rather pointed; they appear to be Wedgetailed Shearwaters

(P. pacificus),

08.10 hrs. A smaller species of shearwater, white on the lower

parts, flying some distance away on the port bow. Five phalaropes

crossed our bows, flying close over the sea towards the aaeon

coast.

08.55 hrs. Dark brown shearwater folkawel by a sinaller species

with white under parts; the second one would appear to be the Persian

Shearwater (P. lhermimieri eG which is well- known to be: resident

in these waters. ©

09.50 hrs. to 10.30 hrs. 4 dark brown shearwaters (P. pacificus ?)

crossed our bows, flying N.

“10.40: hrs,” Another dark brown Se ee onciaed our baw flying

N; this one flew close to us and was almost certainly a Wedgetailed

Shearwater.

12 Noon. at a2 7 Tone 48.53E.. Distance run 354 miles ;

average speed.-r4.44. knots.

15.05 hrs.. Single phalarope - and. single dark. brown shearwater

passed flying | low. over. water. .

»+ 95.12 hrs. _ Another solitary phalarope . appeared close. to our. ae

baw: . eis flew. a little. distance: and: settled. on the water for a minute

S, ETC.-IN N

INDIAN OCEAN 337

EOF SO ; it rode very upright with the neck held straight up. In

appearance, it was a small white bird with a blue grey back; in flight

the white wing bar is very noticeable; all seen have flown close

over the water with the sun glistening upon them; they give the

impression of small white and bluish grey birds. Probably the majority

of them are Rednecked Phalaropes (P. lobatus) but some of them

may be the Grey Phalarope (P. fulicarius); it is most difficult to

identify the species, with any certainty, from the deck of a liner. _

15.15 hrs. to 15.30 hrs. 4 dark brown shearwaters passed, flying

: singly ; one settled on the sea directly in our course; it took to flight

and wheeled off as the ship approached ; all these shearwaters: are

rather slim birds with long pointed wings and longish, rather narrow

tails.

rie 35 hrs. Two more phalaropes flying E., followed by another

dark brown Shearwater 500 yds. to port.

_ 16.18 hrs. A, Persian Shearwater wheeling to port, the sun glisten-

ing on its white under parts.

16.40 hrs, Two. more phalaropes.

17.00 hrs. ‘Two tropic-birds, flying round ship ; both appeared to

be Indian Tropic-birds (P. indicus) with long white tail streamers.

17.25 hrs. Another solitary phalarope passed.

We entered ier ‘Harbour ee the ata It will have

been noted that, with the exception of the phalaropes, the frigates,

and the tropic- -birds only two species of shearwaters were seen and

‘no other petrels at all. As the voyage took place during early February,

when normally all Southern Hemisphere nesting birds, i.e. the migra-

tory petrels and shearwaters, would still be in southern: latitudes, this is

exactly what one would expect. Whenever I have passed through

the Gulf of Aden and waters adjacent to Socotra, I have invariably

observed two species of shearwaters, one moderately large and dark

which I believe to be a race of the Wedgetailed Shearwater (P.

pacificus) and the other smaller, sooty. black above and white below,

which I was misled in my former paper into calling the Dusky Shear-

water (P. assimilis) but which now appears to be the Persian Shearwater

(P. lherminieri persica). There cannot be any doubt, I think, that

both these shearwaters are resident in these. waters, all the year

through; presumably they breed in Socotra and/or the adjacent islets.,

I have given by diary in full with regard to the sighting of these

: shearwaters in order to show their density in these waters. Phalaropes

- are always present around Socotra and in the Gulf of Aden during:

4 the winter months; I have seen many of them but almost always

on the wing; I believe most of them are the Rednecked Phalarope

~ (Phalaropus lobatus) but some of them may be the Grey Phalarope

(P. fulicarius), I am not sufficiently familiar with the two species to

be able to distinguish them on the wing at a distance.

My return voyage took place. during early August while the

_ Southern. Hemisphere shearwaters and petrels were still in their

northern haunts; many more oceanic birds were, therefore, to be

__ observed in the Indian Ocean. On this voyage I had the pleasure of the

company of Mr. D. D. Condon. of | Eelomee who meBene many hoes

bird-watching with: me. :

Say

Poe eae o's.

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; ‘Vol. $2

-OUTWARD| Vovace. M. a 3 fe ge ee nee

fad Stee Tons. E. D. BRanp, Master)

a Aden to Colombo: August 4th to August 10th 1953

August 4th. Gulf of Aden., ‘Left Aden about 08. Io hours.

09.15 hrs. One Wilson’s Petrel’and 20 to 30 Large Crested Sea-

terns (Sterna bergii) passed. Wind strong from S.; slight swell and

a little choppy; visibility fairly good with some distant haze.

og.20 hrs. Liberated Wilson’s Petrel which had been caught on

deck about 20.30 hrs. the evening before. This petrel has a subdued

double call-note like a child’s squeaker; it was a very gentle bird

and did not struggle to escape.

11.20 hrs. Several Wilson’s Petrels, all flying independently” close

Over waves; none in wake.

TTI SAS hrs. to Noon. Large numbers of Wilson’s. Petrels flying

across our bows and in lee of ship, too yds. or so port; several

hundreds in sight at one time. Often they paddle and feed on the

water.

12 Noon. Lat. 12.43N. Long. 45.50E. Distance from Aden 53

miles; average speed 14.95 knots.

12.15 hrs. Still many Wilson’s Petrels to be seen.

12.30 hrs. Small numbers of Wilson’s Petrels still about but large

concentrations, as seen between 11.45 to 12.15 hrs., now passed. | All

these petrels appeared to be Wilson’s (Oceanites oceanicus).. eh

12.45 hrs. Still many Wilson’s Petrels; one shearwater, black

and white, passed some distance away. — |

5 hrs. Many Wilson’s Petrels crossing bows, flying south-

wards and in lee of ship.

2 6600: tS; ) TOO EO. 4-50 Wilson’s Petrels now in our wake; they

Jook like a swarm of immense bees; small numbers flying across ’ bows

and to leeward. | St | : .

15.10 hrs. Small sooty brown shearwater seen by Mr. Condon.

15.37 hrs. Single, rather small, blackish shearwater crossed our

bows flying S.

15.45 hrs. Three Brownwinged Terns (Sterna anaethetus), beating

S. against strong wind, crossed our bows; Wilson’s Petrels still

plentiful. Sea very choppy with modérate swell and Comeised waves ;

sunny with some cloud; visibility excellent.

16.00 hrs. to 16.45 hrs: 200 or more pétrels in our spake, flying

to and from across the smoother water; all appear to be Wilson’s.

17.30 hrs. Still hundreds of Wilson’s Petrels-in our wake and

many flying round ship; they remained until it became too dark to

see them Dra iya Small numbers (about 12) Brownwinged Terns

flying S.. ae ; Pie: : Sek

August 5th. Gulf of Aden (approaching Socotra). .

~ 05.50 hrs. Some swell but no breaking waves; sky overcast ; ; light

breeze; visibility good with horizon hazy.

06. 60 hrs. Passed ‘rafts’ of several hundreds of Wilson’s Petrels:

many on water, others taking wing and flying off presumably to feed :

none in wake. On other voyages also I have observed large ‘rafts

eS eee ee eae eee é

: me

GS ee a EEO ee Le ee ae

ie Be

ee Y

PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 339

of these petrels on the water in the very early morning ; apparently

they collect to spend the night sleeping and preening on the waier

and disperse as soon as it is light, to commence feeding again.

06.10 hrs. Straggling flock of 100 or more Wilson’s Petrels crossed

our bows; many others in various directions around us.

06.15 hrs. Small black and white shearwater, probably Persian ;

many Wilson’s Petrels, one or two in our wake.

07.30 hrs. to 07.50 “hrs. _ One smallish sooty black GiSanuater and

several Wilson’s Petrels passed but comparatively few about now.

07.55 hrs. Two smallish sooty black shearwaters flying near

bows; longish tail, shortish black beak; too small for Wedgetailed

Shearwaters, may be Mascarene Black Petrels (Pterodroma aterrima).

08.00 hrs. to 08. 45 hrs. Small number of Black Petrels (?) and

one. or two Wilson’s Petrels; Black Petrels (?) fly like small shear-

waters. aig : ;

08.50 hrs. to 09.30 hrs. Swell increasing and sea choppy; sky

overcast. Small numbers of Black and Wilson’s Petrels passed; none

in wake.

10.07 hrs. Tropic-bird reported flying eecnd ship; no petrels.

10.45. hrs. Solitary blackish shearwater—probably Mascarene

Black -Petrel.* * ; :

e W1-087hrs.: Single Wilson’s Petrel. paiae

11.55 hrs. Two Black Petrels (?) crossed our bows ying S; we

are now about 25 to 30 miles from land.

12 Noon, ' Lat. 12.53N.-Long..51.57E. . Distance run 358 miles

average speed 15.24 knots.

Confused and choppy sea; strong wind from S; overcast, ene

weak sunshine at times; visibility good but haze in distance.

13.40 hrs. to 13.55 ne Tropic-bird near bow; 5 Paes Petrels (2)

all flying independently, crossed bows flying S. »

14.54 hrs. -Persian Shearwater (P. lherminieri Lope aye small, black

above white below, crossed flying: Ss followed by a Brownwinged Tern

(Sterna anaethetus).

15.00 hrs. Two Wedgetailed Shearwaters (P. pacificus), very much

the same colour but larger than the Black Petrel (?); crossed flying

15.05 hrs. 5 or 6 Black Petrels (P. aterrima?) flying to port.

15.15 hrs.. 3 or 4 Persian Shearwaters and 4 or 5 Black Petrels (?)

flying ahead. : sae he 3

15.30 hrs. to 15.40 hrs. ‘Many Black Petrels (?) flying in various

‘directions, usually solitary, with a few Persian Shearwaters and one

Indian Tropic-bird (Phaethon indicus).

15.45 hrs. Large dark sooty shearwater crossed our bows flying

‘S.; its flight was more gull like ; it plunged once into the water; wings

longer and sharper than in “Black Petre] (?) and had more flapping

flight—unidentified.

- 16.28 hrs. Several Persian Shearwaters, Black Petrels (?) and

eae Brownwinged Tern crossed, flying S.

~ 16.32 hrs..- Another Indian Tropic-bird circled the ship; small

SSE of Black Petrels (?) and Persian Shearwaters passing. .

16.50 hrs. Many Persian Shearwaters, many Black Petrels (7) and

one tropic-bird passing. |

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol: 62

16.55 hrs. ‘Still many Persian Shearwaters and Black: Petrels: (8

Socotra is now in sight on starboard bow. ~~

17.15 hrs. to 17.30 hrs: Small. numbers of Pasa Shearwaters

and Black Petreéls (?).

17.40 hrs. Black Petrel (?) settled on water, consuming some-

thing; three ‘birds looking - like Nodies > (Anous cp hae vise

flying S.

_ 18.10 hrs. to 18.30 hrs. (Dusk) Aneithee Indian Tropic-bird naaeds

Black Petrels (?) numerous, Persian Shearwaters in smaller numbers ;

‘we are now in the lee of Socotra, distance 20 to 25 ag sea fairly

calm ; visibility good. —

August 6th. Indian Ocean.

06.15 hrs. to 06.30 hrs. Shortly after sunrise; strong wind from

SW.; heavy monsoon swell, choppy sea; visibility very good. No

birds.. ' : | |

07.50 hrs. Solitary Black Petrel (?) crossed, flying N.

08.55 hrs. Black Petrel (?) crossed flying S. ss

09.05 hrs. Another Black Petrel (?) flying S., very rapidly.

10.25 hrs. to 11.30 hrs. Black Petrel (?) flying N.; Black Petrels

(?) were seen at the rate of about one Overy: 15. minutes, mostly flying

across thé wind, northwards. i

11.35 hrs. to Noon. No birds. !

12, Noon. Lat. 12.04N.: Long. 57.44E. Distance run 1 346 miles ;

average speed 14.73 knots.

Sea and wind have moderated slightly. but typical SW. Monsoon

conditions prevail; sunny; visibility good. ee.

to 13.00 hrs. No birds.

15.00 hrs. to 16.30 hrs. No birds seen.

16.37 hrs. to dusk. One Black Petrel (?) Seeced, tying 55

another about 17.00 hrs. and a third about 18.00 hrs.

20.30 hrs. Mascarene Black Petrel (Pterodroma aterrima) came

aboard; it knocked against one of the iss on the ae deck

and was brought to me.

Description and Measurements. Upper and lower plumage so6ty.

blackish brown with a few grey feathers on abdomen near vent; small,

darker patches immediately in front of eyes; legs and webs dusky

flesh with a yellowish tinge when first caught; outer toes and webs

more dusky and inner more flesh coloured; nails jet black, small and

sharply curved; beak short and black. Wing 257 mm.; beak. to

gape 34 mm. ; culmen 29 mm.; tarsus 37 mm.; eye dusky black... This

specimen. confirms the identification of the numerous blackish, shear-

water-like birds, too small and slim for Wedgetailed Shearwaters,

seen during the past three days. When close, the small, shorter

beak is a good distinguishing charactér but’ often, when the bird

is a little distance away and there is nothing with which to gauge

“its size, it is difficult to ‘distinguish it from the Wedgetailed: Shear-

water, This bird was liberated the. following morning, ‘after. some

Mallophaga parasites had been removed {xen it; oat was” in Pret

unworn plumage.

DS ER paar aoe wo byyort FERS fas a eRe

TRELS, SHEAR WATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN .OCEAN

August 7th. Indian Ocean.

+ 05.50 hrs. to 06.10 hrs. ‘eodenie Sei little eOHBY eevee

_ to light breeze from SW. ; visibility good; 6 dark, medium-sized shear-

__ waters crossed, flying independently, some distance away; seemed to

be either Wedgetailed Shearwaters or Black Petrels.

06.15 hrs. to 07.07 hrs. Small numbers of medium-sized, dark

shearwaters crossing, flying S.; mostly too far for certain identification.

* 07.20 hrs. to 07.40 hrs. Indian Tropic-bird ranged up on starboard

side, flew round and dropped astern; 2 Mascarene Black Petrels flying

: _ independently to port.

07.45 hrs. to 08.00 hrs. Many dark, shearwater-like birds passed,

mostly flying S.; majority appeared to be Mascarene Black Petrels but

some of them, which seemed rather larger and more stoutly built,

were probably Wedgetailed Shearwaters. One small petrel, rather

far off, appeared to have white underparts. )

08.15 hrs. to 08.55 hrs. Two small petrels passed closer to port;

they definitely, have white underparts; they glide more than Wilson’s,

are about_the same or a little smaller in size, have dark wings and

white rumps. Several Mascarene Petrels continue to pass but large

flights appear to be over.

09.25 hrs. Three Sooty Terns (Sterna fuscata) flying high, south-

wards; 3 more Macarene Black Petrels and one small petrel with

white underparts.

09.32 hrs. Two more Black Petrels.

09.35 hrs. 16 Sooty Terns, flying high, crossed our bows flying

southwards; 5 minutes later a ‘large, straggling flock of 30 followed

them.

og.40 hrs. Indian Tropic-bird passed.

09.45 hrs. Another Mascarene Black Petrel and another white-

bellied petrel.

10.37 hrs. to 10.50 hrs. Several Mascarene Black Petrels crossed

our bows, flying N. |

“TOs 4chtSs. <2 medium-sized, dark shearwaters, larger and more

heavily built than Black Petrels; wings are wider and beak longer;

there is little doubt that these are Wedgetailed Shearwaters (P.

pacificus). Possibly some of those seen earlier were also of this

species.

11.03 hrs. 2 more white-bellied, white-rumped small petrels crossed

our bows close in; ; they could be well seen ; tail is almost square; wing-

lining white, belly white, chest and throat black, rump white; they

answer well to the description of the Whitebellied Storm Petrel (i regetta

grallaria). I suspect that they are of this species, but possibly they

“might be the Blackbellied Storm Petrel (F, tropica).

11.05 to 11.15 hrs. Two more Mascarene Black Petrels passed.

11.25 hrs. 3 more white-bellied storm petrels passed ; they glide

low over the swell, much more so than Wilson’s; they often drop their

feet and paddle; ‘they do not join our wake. |

11.30 hrs. Solitary Sooty Tern flying close to port; Indian Tropic-

bird crossed, flying S. about 50 ft. above water; one Wedgetailed

: Shearwater and one Mascarene Black Petrel.

11.45 hrs. 2 more Whitebellied Storm Petrels close to our bows,

2 eed > Shearwaters rose off the water close to our bows ; their

“Dalen th

j= eae)

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

longer beaks could be seen distinctly ; . several. amore crossed: soon

afterwards, all flying S. 3

11.50 hrs. to Noon... 2 more Wedgetaiied ‘Sicar ates aed 2 -more

Whitebellied Storm Petrels; the latter seem generally to fly in DeNSs

but sometimes singly. | One Mascarene Black Petrel crossed. |

2 Noon. : Lat.: 10,24N.,..Leng. 63. 25s: Distance run. 351 oie

average speed 14.95 knots.

Swell moderate, little choppy witha does waves eee light

breeze from SW.; bright and sunny ; visibility excellent,

12.05 hrs. to 12.30 hrs. Small numbers of dark SSeS =

birds passing; majority appear to be Wedgetailed | but two -were

certainly Mascarene_ Black ‘Petrels. Another Whitebellied Storm

Petrel at 12,30. hrs. :,

12.45 hrs. One Wedgetailed Shearwater and 2 Whitebellied Storm

Petrels crossed.

14.50 -hrs,: ‘to 16.55 shes. One Wedgetailed Shearwater. rose from

water, flew round and settled again; several others crossed from time

to time together with one Mascarene Black Petrel.

16.20 hrs, Party of 15 to 20: Sooty, Terns, circling 100 ft. above

water, passed slowly N., sun glistening upon their white underparts.

16,40: hrs..... Single Whitebellied Storm Petrel passed. Sea has

now moderated into a_ long, slow swell, slightly choppy with an

occasional wave breaking; visibility excellent.

17.50 hrs. Wedgetailed Shearwater flying N. ; another Whitebellied

Storm Petrel passed.

18.05 hrs. Another Whitebellied Storm Petrel se in on port

bow; line down centre of abdomen could be distinguished ; no other

Bede seen before dusk.

August 8th.. Indian Oee: fi

06.00 hrs. to 11.20 hrs. Slight breeze from SE. ; sea or Sale long

swell and slight ripple; sunny; visibility excellent. .No birds. *

11.21 hrs. Solitary large, dark brown shearwater (Puffinus sp.)

flying S.; possibly P. carneipes, the Pinkfooted peemio. ee

too stout for P.. pacificus, No other birds before noon..

12 Noon. Lat. o9.02N. Long. 69.13E.. Distance run 355 miles

average Speed 15.10 knots.

Noon to 16.00: hrs... Slight swell and Opies fine let! overcast.

No birds. ;

16.10 hrs. Solitary dark ae es passed far out.

16.20 hrs. to 18.00 hrs. No birds. ;

August oth. Indian Ocean.

Approaching ‘Ceylon—Passed Tailed Antoll about’ 04.00 hrs.

06.20 hrs. Sea calm, with, very slight swell and ripple; very light

breeze from S.;-fine but slightly, overcast ; visibility. excellent.

. 06.30 hrs. Two Wilson’ S. Petrels | ‘fying, to and fro across: our

wake - %

06. 40 hrs. to “07. 20 hrs. et Wilson? S Petrelg passed ;

07.00 hours there were. four quartering our. wake and others. passing.

08. 15 hrs, 5 Wilson’s eee in. wake, icagpetar eal oo

PETRELS, SHEAR WATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 343,

eg-10 hrs. - tO: .11. 30 hrs. Wilson’s Petrels in wake gradually

increased in number until 25 to. 30 were. fying to and fro; others

crossed our bows...

- 12 Noon, iat. O7. 4sN. Long. 75.118. tarstatice run 365, miles ;

average speed 15.52 knots. Moh is

Sea moderately calm, with slight, long swell and little ripple

with occasional breaking waves; some cloud but generally sunny ;

visibility excellent. 7

12.15 hrs. 15 to 20 Wilson’s Petrels in wake.

12.40 hrs. Single Wilson’s Petrel in wake.

13.45 hrs. No petrels in wake; no birds of any sort to be seen.

15.40 hrs. Medium-sized, dark ‘brown shearwater and one Wilson’s

Petrel to port; shearwater seems to be a Wedgetailed.

15.45 hrs. Petrels have reappeared ; there are now 12 flying 1 in our

wake; all appear to be Wilson’s.

16. 4o hrs. Tropic-bird flew over; red beak; short, sharp tail with

brown marking's on upper parts; probably a juvenile. 12 to 20 Wilson’s

Petrels in wake.

i705 lcs. Two shearwaters crossed fying’ S.; moderately large;

dark brown, almost certainly Wedgetailed or Greenbilled (P. pacificus

chlororhynchus) which is the common shearwater of these waters

during the summer. Ae te i

~- 17.35 hrs. Another shearwater. Still 15 to 20 Wilson’s Petrels

in wake. < 3

17-45 “hrs: ‘to 7 35 hrs. Several more Wilson’s Petrels:and dark

brown shearwaters passed ; at dusk: there were still 4 or 5 Wilson’ S

in wake. |

20.30 hts. 2 Wilson’ S Petrels (Oceanites pecknicusy were rouse

to me alive; both had hit the lights on the Sports deck and fallen

down unharmed. Both typical Wilson’s; they, roosted quietly in a

cupboard in my cabin and were released the following morning, after

yielding some Mallophaga parasites. Both.in fresh, unworn plumage.

| August roth. Indian Ocean. Arrived Colombo about $ am.

05-45 hrs. Sea smooth, with slight swell and ripple; light breeze

from S:; fine; visibility ood. - Several: petrels can be« distinguished

flying’ to “and fro in our wake. Colombo light is in sight.

_, 06.15 hrs. to 06.40 hrs. Several Wilson’s 'Petrels crossed, flying

>. . One Tropic- -bird, in far distance astern; one shearwater crossed.

| undoubtedly a Greenbilled ; 12 or more Wilson’s Petrels in wake.

-} 06.50 hrs. We are now approx. 4. miles from land; one Wilson’ S

Petrel crossed our bows; those in wake gradually disappeared as we

closed the harbour.

This voyage was chiefly notable for the very large number of

Mascarene Black Petrels (Pterodroma aterrima) observed in the Gulf

of Aden and in the vicinity of Socotra and the Whitebellied Storm

Petrels seen on the 7th August. I had not definitely identified the

Mascarene Black » Petrel on previous voyages. On this voyage, the

identity was confirmed by the: one that came aboard on the evening

ofthe 6th August. . Persian - and Wedgetailed Shearwaters were, as

usual, seen in the vicinity of Socotra. It is curious that on the “th

August, when white-bellied storm _petrels- ‘were. numerous, not a

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

single Wilson’s Petrel was observed and that white-bellied storm

petrels should have been seen only on that day. _ I have not previously

seen this small petrel between Colombo and Aden, but. I saw many

that appeared to be of the same species near Lat. 18.20N. Long. 60.25E.

between Aden.and Karachi on a voyage in July 1945. ee

Undoubtedly there is room for considerable research into the oceanic

birds of the northern Indian Ocean; not only is very little known

of the species of migratory petrels and shearwaters that visit these

waters during the summer months when they are not breeding, but

it is obvious that several species must nest either on or in the vicinity:

of Socotra, as both Persian and Wedgetailed Shearwaters have been

observed frequently in the vicinity of Socotra throughout the year.

On our return to Colombo, Mr. D. D. Condon was able to

persuade Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite, Fishery Expert in the Trawler

‘Braconglen’ to keep notes on the oceanic birds encountered on his

fishing trips. Although in no way a trained observer, Mr. Grisenthwaite

is familiar with shearwaters and petrels which he has met in European

waters ; so he has been able to furnish some very interesting observations

which throw light upon the density and distribution of migratory.

shearwaters and petrels in South India and Ceylon waters, and on

the dates of their departure to the South.

_ The following are extracts from his reports, submitted through

Mr. Condon :— ‘

August 22nd. Left Colombo on north west course to Cape Comorin;

picked up large flocks of Wilson’s Petrels. Soon after leaving

Colombo, there were scores of them. About 30 miles out on NW.

course where sea’s depth is very great, all petrels disappeared; there

were no birds at all. 120 miles out on this course, off the South

Indian coast, observed first shearwater and large numbers of Wilson’s

Petrels reappeared. |

Note. Shearwater was probably the Greenbilled (P. pacificus) or

Pinkfooted (P. carneipes), or both; he also saw many birds which,

from his descriptions, were obviously Sooty and Bridled Terns (S.

fuscata and S. anaethetus). He states that these terns never settle

on the water, probably, he suggests, because of the large numbers

of sharks always present! They come from the southwest in the morn-

ing and returned in the afternoon; they were not seen after 5 p.m.

He assumes that they go to the Maldives or Laccadives to roost. On

this voyage, Mr. Grisenthwaite also saw two tropic-birds and a

dark brown ‘gannet’ (probably the Brown Booby, Sula leucogaster) ;

it was taking flying-fish on the wing, when they left the water ;

he suggests that it was doing so, instead of diving for fish, as the

sea was ‘alive with sharks’! eyes

September oth to 15th 1953. Left Colombo 15.30 hrs. South-west

monsoon blowing fairly fresh to strong; usual Wilson’s Petrels in

large numbers, gradually left behind after leaving continental shelf;

this shelf of shallow water extends on a course direct for the South

Indian coast, i.e. NNW.—exactly 14 miles from Colombo. ~ .

September t1oth. Vessel engaged in deep sea trawling off

Travancore coast, approx. 15 miles SE. of Cape Comorin. Many

Bridled Terns observed not far from ship. Also Wilson’s Petrels

in flights of 2, 4, 6 and 8 but never more. (I ei TE

eee ye

ia il i ls

Soe

a ee

—— =

PETRELS, SHEARWATERS, ETC. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 345

September 11th. West of Cape Comorin. Strong SW. wind;

bird-life absent with exception of Wilson’s Petrels, 21.30 hrs. Chief

Officer reported Wilson’s Petrel in his cabin; it had numerous

parasites under the wing and amongst the breast plumage.

September 12th. West of Cape Comorin. One party of shearwaters

or terns, evidently feeding, too far off for identification; another

Wilson’s Petrel came on board.

September 13th. Southwest of Cape Comorin; large numbers of

‘shearwaters noticed with many Wilson’s Petrels in company. Another

Wilson’s Petrel came aboard.

September 14th. Southwest of Cape Comorin. A few shearwaters

noticed.

September 15th. Returned to Colombo.

September 18th to 23rd. SW. monsoon still blowing; course for

Cape Comorin. A few miles out from Colombo passed several Wilson’s

Petrels but not so plentiful as during July, August and early

September. Off Cape Comorin and Muttam for 5 days until 23rd

September. Shearwaters, previously seen in this area, were gone;

only on one occasion did I see 4 birds of the small sooty kind (P.

pacificus?). Each and every day large flocks of Wilson’s Petrels

appeared—by this I mean hundreds. Our seamen, when gutting the

fish, use old paint drums in which they put the offal. When they

are full, they empty them overboard. This causes a distinct oil

patch and it is marvellous to watch the little Wilson’s Petrels flying

in from every point of the compass until they are like a cloud

over the oil patch. The shearwaters used to be seen feeding like

this, but even cheap feeding is no attraction now; they have just

one.

: September 30th to October 7th. Still SW. monsoon; no sea birds

sighted between Colombo and Cape Comorin. Off West Muttam

Light, and later 30 miles west of Cape Comorin, large flocks of

Wilson’s Petrels seen every day.

October 2nd. Caught one Wilson’s Petrel after dark.

October 3rd. About 20.00 hrs., 16 Wilson’s Petrels stranded on

deck ; four retained.+

October 7th. Leaving fishing grounds at 06.30 hrs. Still flocks

of Wilson’s Petrels to be seen but no shearwaters.

October 8th. Returned to Colombo.

Mr. Grisenthwaite is very emphatic that the Wilson’s Petrels are

seen only over the Continental Shelf area and never in the deeper

water beyond this shelf.

_ October 13th to 23rd. Course as on previous voyages. Leaving

Colombo in exceptionally fine weather only birds seen for 30 miles

were occasional pairs of terns. No Wilson’s Petrels were seen off

Malabar Coast and Cape Comorin. Next day, however, Wilson’s

Petrels were seen in quite large numbers. With the exception of a

few swallows (probably, Hirundo rustica gutturalis) and other birds

flying low over the water, obviously migrating towards the Gulf of

Mannar, nothing further was Seen. Returning to Colombo and

whilst about 15 miles out, my old friend the Gannet (Brown Booby ?)

* See concluding note for identifications.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. S

was sighted, a single bird only.

the day was just dawning, but the plumage appeared either dirty

white or cream with a light beak. He appears to stay well off the .

land, because 12 miles from port he had left us.

October 31st to oth November. Course as before. With the

exception of an occasional tern, no birds were sighted; the Wilson’s

Petrels had all disappeared.

On Sunday November 8, however, I witnessed the spectacle of a

huge flock of Wilson’s Petrels, probably reaching for over a mile,

crossing the bows of our ship, flying low down on the water and

making a beeline almost SW. Mr. O’Connor, the second engineer,

watched these birds with me. Mr. W. G. Mitchell, the skipper, says

he has witnessed a similar flight before this and that the Wilson’s —

Petrels will be back again during May next year.

Note by Mr. Condon. The Wilson’s Petrels were seen about 140

miles NW. by W. of Colombo. Mr. Grisenthwaite said that there

were thousands, flying mostly 20 or more abreast. As usual they

were seen on the Continental Shelf. They appeared to be coming from

the Indian Coast and, while he watched, there was no pause or

hesitation, no feeding or resting, just this steady, fast mass-flight,

moving South-west. — , 3

November 14th to 24th. Course approximately as on previous

voyages. ‘We were for the most of. the time fishing off the Malabar

Coast. The most interesting feature with regard to bird-life was the

total absence of Wilson’s Petrels.. It is quite obvious that I

witnessed the migration of these birds on Sunday November 8. I

am, however, still puzzled as to where such a huge flock had

congregated before their flight. From all appearances, it would seem

that they came from the shallow water regions of the Gulf of Mannar

as the flock was flying in a straight south-west direction and came

from the coast to the north-east, which would be straight out from

the Gulf. All the petrels have now completely: gone.

From Mr. Grisenthwaite’s observations it is evident that the

shearwaters (probably both P. pacificus chlororhynchus and/or P.

carnetpes) left Indo-Ceylon waters on or about the zoth September

on their southward migration but Wilson’s Petrels remained

until the 8th November on which date a very large migration was

observed. Regarding this migration, it is interesting to speculate

from where the petrels had collected to form the very large concourse

that was noted by Messrs. Grisenthwaite and O’Connor. Many of

them were probably birds that had spent at least the latter months

of their sojourn in our northern oceans, in the relatively shallow waters

of the Continental Shelf of India and Ceylon, for these diaries show

that there have been many Wilson’s Petrels in Indo-Ceylon waters

from at least early August to November 8th. Their numbers had

probably been augmented, however, by other petrels from further —

north up the west coast of peninsular India, for there is believed to

be a clockwise movement of Wilson’s Petrels round the north Indian

Ocean and moving south by way of the waters off Ceylon in

September and November (Gibson-Hill 1948, p. 445).

On the other hand, as Mr. Grisenthwaite is very insistent that

the birds all appeared to be flying on a south-westerly course out of the

I could not see. its colour well as

Se he Bl Ue Ne ke la i le

. IN N. INDIAN OCEAN 347

Gulf of Mannar, it is possible that some, at any rate, came from

the Bay of Benead passing down the east coast of India and

_ through the Palk Straits and Gulf of Mannar between India and

Ceylon. This course would be on the direct south-westerly route

from the Bay of Bengal to the known breeding haunts of these petre!s

in Antarctica and the southern islands. Further observations on the

movements of petrels and shearwaters in the Indian Ocean and Bay

of Bengal are awaited with great interest.

— 7 SUMMARY

. Extracts fom the ane: of two voyages are-given, showing

‘the Senor of petrels and shearwaters in the Indian Ocean and Guif

of Aden in early February and their abundance in early August.

~~ 2. ‘The occurrence of phalaropes (Phalaropus sp.) in the Gulf of

_ Aden in February is recorded and of the Mascarene Black Petrel

(Pterodroma aterrima) in early August; also of a small white-bellied

petrel, believed to be either the whitebellied Storm Petrel (Fregetta

grallaria) or the Blackbellied Storm Petrel (fF. tropica) in Lat. 10.24N.

and Long. 63.25E.

3. Dates of departures in 1953 of shearwaters and Wilson’s

Petrels (Oceanites oceanicus) from Indo-Ceylon waters are given.

REFERENCES

Alexander, W. B. (1928): Birds of the Ocean.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1948): The Storm-Petrels occurring in the northern Indian

Ocean and adjacent seas. JBNHS, 47: 443-448.

— — — (1953): Notes on the Sea Birds of the orders Procellariformes and

q - Pelecaniformes recorded as strays and visitors to the Ceylon Coast. Spolia Zeylanica

pe 27: 83-102.

E Macworth-Praed, C. W. and Grant, Capt. C. H. B. (1952): Birds of Eastern and

North-Eastern Africa. Vol. 4, p. 7-15.

--- Norris,[email protected] E. (1952) : Oceanic and other birds seen on two recent trips between

- Colombo and Aden in 1951. JBNHS, 50: 671-674.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1947): The Ornithological diary of a voyage of s.s. Samluzcn.

_ JBNHS, 46: 593-613.

— — — (1950): Wilson’s Storm-Petrels, Rhee. and other Seabirds in the

q Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. JBNHS, 49: 503-508.

ADDENDUM NOTE

Seven specimens of Wilson’s Petrels, (Oceanites oceanicus), caught

in the ‘Braconglen’, were sent to the British Museum (Natural

~ ae for determination of the races. Mr. J. D. Macdonald writing

on 24th March, 1954, reports :—

: ‘Your specimens are all in moult, but in four of them the new

‘primaries appear to be full grown. These specimens are :—

(1) 12-9-1953. 18 miles West of Cape Comorin, W.136. If

- fully grown, this bird could be magellanicus, and as a_ second

alternative it could be parvus.

- (2) 11-9-1953. 29 miles South of Cape Comorin, W.140.5. As

above. |

(3 e 12-9-1953. 25 miles Southwest BE Cape Conmem —W.145.

Could be either oceanicus or parvus or even a very small individual

of the Atlantic-breeding exasperatus. ze

(4) No. P.q4 collected 3-10-1953. »©W.154. Almost certainly

O. 0. exasperatus.’ : ie

The above report would appear to indicate that Wilson’s Petrels,

from several separate breeding localities, congregate together in the

northern Indian Ocean during the summer months or non-breeding

season.

OBSERVATIONS ON TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA PETERS

IN MADRAS

P. I. Cuacxo & B. KRISHNAMURTHI

(Freshwater Fisheries Biological Station, Madras)

(With six text figures)

INTRODUCTION

The. Cichlid fish, Tilapia mossambica Peters, is of economic

importance as a source of protein for the population of Africa (Graham,

1929; Worthington, 1929; Wilbaux, 1946 & 1947; Hey, 1947; Bont,

1948; Sklower, 1951; Lowe, 1952). Owing to its great cultural value

this fish has been introduced and cultured in several Asian countries such

as Ceylon (De Zylva, 1952 & 1953), Indonesia (Hofstede and Ardiwinata,

1950; Hofstede and Botke, 1950; Vaas and Hofstede, 1952), Malaya

(Burdon, 1950; Hickling, 1950) and Taiwan (Chen, 1953), from where

favourable reports are made. The fish was first introduced into Madras

from Ceylon on 8th September 1952, and the preliminary observations

gave encouraging results (Devadas and Chacko, 1953 a & b). In

this communication the salient features of further investigations carried

out by us at the Freshwater Fisheries Biological Station, Madras,

are recorded, in view of the many enquiries received from fisheries officers

and fish farmers throughout India.

Foop AND FEEDING HABITS

The fish has been found feeding mostly on the following algae:

Cyanophyceae: Anabaena, Merismopedia, Microcystis, Oscillatoria

and Tetrapedia.

Chlorophyceae: Actinastrum, Ankistrodesmus, Chlamydomonas,

Chlorella, Closterium, Coelastrum, Cosmarium, Eudorina, Gonium,

Mougeotia, Netrium, Pandorina, Pediastrum, Planktonema, Rhizoclo-

nium, Scenedesmus, Selenastrum, Spirogyra and Staurastrum,

Bacillariophyceae: Amphora, Cyclotella, Fragilaria, Gomphonema,

Gyrosigma, Navicula, Nitzschia, Pinnularia, Pleurosigma, Synedra

and Tabellaria.

Zooplanktonic organisms such as protozoans (Euglena, Peridinum,

Phacus and Volvox), rotifers (Anuraea and Brachionus), daphnids

(Bosmina, Ceriodaphnia and Moina), ostracods (Cypridopsis) and

copepods (Mesocyclops and Neodiaptomus), and leaves of hydrophytes

like Hydrilla verticillata and Chara zeylanica are also consumed in

smaller proportions. Sand grains are frequent in the guts, indicating

browsing at the bottom. Under aquarium conditions the fish is found

to be omnivorous, feeding on plant matter, mosquito larvae, corixid

bugs, shrimps (Caridina nilotica), cooked rice, rice bran, oil-cake,

Be Be ee tare

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL H

CIETY. -¥

and strands of boiled meat. When starved, small carp fry introduced

into the aquarium are consumed to a certain extent. Barbus stigma,

Brachydanio rerio, Gambusia affinis, Oryzias melastigma and similar

smaller species of fish when introduced into the aquarium are found

to be attacked only rarely.

GROWTH

The fish attains a length of 220 mm. (9 inches) and a weight of

4 to 5 oz. in 8 months. The growth thereafter is slow, only 12 inches

and 8 oz. being reached at the end of 16 months.

ASSOCIATION WITH OTHER FISHES

In the ponds of the Chetpat fish farm, Ippur fish farm, Yellamanchili

demonstration farm and Chingleput fort moat farm, Tilapia is growing

. well in association with Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala, C. cirrhosa,

C. reba, Labeo fimbriatus, L. rohita, Barbus sarana, Barbus:

carnaticus, Cyprinus carpio, Osphronemus goramy, Chanos chanos.

and Etroplus suratensis. Carp fingerlings have been stocked with

and without Tilapia in ponds of identical conditions; and observations

on their growth did not show any difference.

MATURITY AND BREEDING

Tilapia attains maturity in Madras when about 90 to 100 mm. in

size and 3 months old. The left ovary is slightly longer than the

right one; and they contain 220 and 180 ova respectively. The mature

ege is oblong and measures 20 to 22 mm. along its long axis. The

mother has been noted to carry about 350 fertilised eggs in its mouth

till the hatchlings attain a size of 9 to 10 mm. Breeders can be

distinguished by the rosy tinge of their fins. Spawning is repeated

at intervals of 8 to 10 weeks.

DEVELOPMENT

The fertilised egg measures about 25 mm. and has little pervitelline

space. The yolk is yellowish-cream in colour and is minutely

segmented. There are no oil globules. The eggs are reared successfully

in aquaria for following embryonic development. By the end of the

first day the eyes, auditory vesicle and few stellate chromatophores

appear (fig. 1). At 36 hours after fertilisation the embryo is well

mm,

Fic. 1.—Embryo at end of first day of fertilisation.

—

TERS IN MADRAS |

"defined with 11-14 myotomes. At the 48th hour, more chromatophores

appear; and the embryo shows more myotomes, heart and blood

vessels (fig. 2). On the third day the embryo almost completely

Fic. 2.—Embryo at the end of second day.

encircles the yolk-mass, and shows wriggling movements within the

membrane. At the end of the fourth day hatching commences. The

Fic. 3.—Embryo at the end of fourth day.

_ hatchling is delicate and transparent, and measures 3.5 mm. in length

and 0.35 mm. in width at the. anal region. The yolk sac is

---«-1.72 mm. in diameter. The eyes are not closed though pigmented

bluish (fig. 4). On the second day after hatching the larva measures

‘7 Sy

SSSI led 6

bee SSE eT

NS PTZ 77

Spt

Za gIL

mms.

Fic. 4.—Hatchling. t

5 mm. in length, and develops a yellowish tinge. Twenty-six myotomes

are discernible. The eyes are fully developed but the mouth is not

formed yet. The gills and pectoral fin buds appear. On the third

_ day the larva is 5.5 mm. in length and shows occasional swimming

ane

Bits

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

movements at the bottom of the aquarium. Mouth is formed, and

the caudal fin demarcated. Thirty myotomes are clearly seen. More

chromatophores appear over the body, particularly on the head (fig.

5). On the fourth day the larva continues to remain at the bottom

WERALEaiteaee

—

ZZ SWUNUUNS NNN

Me Ua —$\G

Bie

Fic. 5.—Three days old larva.

with occasional brief risings to the surface. On the fifth day, the

yolk sac is almost absorbed, and the larva swims at the surface.

The dorsal and anal fins are differentiated, and 7-8 rays can be

counted in the former. ~Chromatophores get distributed thickly in

the head, nape and pectoral region (fig. 6). On the sixth day, the

{| <—————_=%

RES SS

SRN

Fic. 6.—Six days old larva.

larva commences to feed mainly on diatoms and on a few daphnids and_

copepods. On the seventh day, the larva is 7 mm. in length; and

actively feeds on planktonic organisms. Twentyfive and twelve rays

can be counted on the dorsal and anal fins, though the embryonic "

fin fold is still present. Pigmentation is spread almost all over the &

body. On the ninth day, the larva measures 8.5 mm., with its ventral ¢

portion yellowish-blue and the opercles golden in colour. The ventral Fa

fins are also formed. On the tenth day the chromatophores tend to x

crowd on the dorsal half of the body in the form of vertical bands. =

It is at this stage that the young ones are liberated by the mother

from its mouth.

aS AER ar DN ee Se) Ee ISNT COR ee ee CPS ee eS ee Ee ee ey ee er Te ee eR Coe ee oT ee OER

SUITABILITY FOR CULTURE IN SoutH INDIA

Non-cannibalistic habit, rapid growth and propagation, parental

care, harmless association with indigenous species, adaptability to

different types of fresh and brackish waters, capacity to withstand

handling and transport, and algicidal and mosquitocidal propensities

make this exotic fish ideal for culture in South Indian waters many a

of which dry up in the summer. The seasonal waters can be stocked Al

with Tilapia for raising a good fish crop within the short duration 2 |

of water supply. It is also suited for the innumerable temple and

village tanks, which are usually dirty and overgrown with algae. Its

medium size and good flavour should make it popular with the rural

wid

i cs

WiyeMie SS &

_ TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA PETERS IN MADRAS | 353

population, especially as it can be purchased at a lesser cost than the

large sized carps. It is also tasty and without small bones embedded

in its flesh. It is neither possible nor practical to collect and transport

all the required number of carp fry and fingerlings from the few rivers

(the carp fisheries of which are not great) for stocking rural waters,

which are not easily accessible for lack of means of communication.

The majority of the estuaries and backwaters do not contain good

fisheries excepting that of mullets. Introduction of Tilapia, a

perennial breeder, into these waters will not only enrich their fisheries

but also ameliorate the economic condition of the coastal fisherfolk,

particularly during the season when there is no sea fishing. Thus

Tilapia has great potentialities in South India and also in other parts

of India. |

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are thankful to Sri K. N. Anantaraman, I.c.s., for according |

permission to publish this paper.

REFERENCES

Bont, A. F. D. (1948): Fish farming in the Belgian Congo. Nature, 162: 998.

Burdon, T. W. (1950): Report of the Fisheries Department, Colony of Singapore,

for the year 1950. re

Chen, T. P. (1953): The culture of Tilapia in rice paddies in Taiwan. Chinese-

American Joint'Commission on Rural Reconstruction, Fisheries Series, 2: 1-29.

De Zylva, E. R. A. (1952): Bull. Dept. Fish. Ceylon, 4: 1-9.

— — — (1953): Administration report of the Acting Director of Fisheries for

1952. Ceylon Government Press.

Devadas, D. D. P. and Chacko, P. I. (1953 a): Introduction of the exotic Cichlid

fish, Tilapia mossambica Peters in Madras. Curr. Sci., 22: 29.

— — — (1953 6b): Tilapia culture in Madras. Madras Information, T: 16.

Graham, M. (1929): The Victoria Nyanza and its fisheries. Crown Agents for the

‘Colonies, London.

Hey, D. (1947): The Culture of Freshwater Fish in South Africa, Cape Town.

pp. 124 :

Hickling, C. F. (1950): Tilapia culture in Singapore. Comptes Rendus de la

Conference Piscicole Anglo-Belge, Elizabethville, June 1949; 287-292.

Hofstede, A. E. and Ardiwinata, R. O. (1950): Compiling statistical data on fish

culture in irrigated ricefields in West Java. Landbouw, 22: 469.

Hofstede, A. E. and Botke, F. (1950) : Tilapia mossambica Peters as a factor in

malaria control in the vicinity of Djakarta. ibid., 22: 453.

Lowe, R. H. (1952): Report on the Tilapia and other fish fisheries of Lake Nyasa.

Colonial Office Fishery Publications, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 126.

Sklower, A. (1951): Fish farming and freshwater biology in Northern Rhodesia.

Archiv fur Hydrobiologie, 45: 284.

Vaas, K. F. and Hofstede, A. E. (1952): Studies on Tilapia mossambica Peters

(ikan mudjair) in Indonesia. Contrib. Inland Fish. Res. Stat., Djakarta, Bogor,

Indonesia, 1: 1-68.

Wilbaux, R. (1946): Notes techniques sur les Pecheries du Lac Albert. Bull.

Agricole du Congo Belge, 37: 385. hy

— — — (1947): Notes sur Tilapia nilotica L. du. Sud du Lac Albert. ibid.,

37: 619. ;

: Worthington, F. B. (1929): A report on the fisheries survey of lakes Albert and

Kiaga. Crown Agents for the Colonies, London.

uN Ry

“abr et

‘ON THE STRUCTURE AND POPULATION OF THE NEST OF

THE COMMON INDIAN TREE ANT, CREMATOGASTER

DOHRNI ROGENHOFERI MAYR (HYMENOPTERA,

FORMICIDAE)

M. L. Roonwat, M.sc., Ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.Z.S.1.

Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

(With one table, one text-figure and three plates)

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

(a) Generai

(b) Review of Crematogaster nests

NEST-STRUCTURE AND NEST-POPULATION OF Crematogaster dohrni

vogenhofert Mayr

(a) Nest-structure

(b) Nest-population ...

OTHER NESTS OF Crematogaster sP.

SUMMARY

REFERENCES

APPENDIX

L332 PNW RO D2 CoL- OLN

(a) GENERAL

Although a description of the nest of the common Indian tree ant,

Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr (Family Formicidae, Sub-

family Myrmecinae, Tribe Crematogasterini) has been touched upon

_by several authors, e.g., Mayr (1878), Wroughton (1892 a, b) Rothney

(1895), Watt (1898), Barlow (1900) and Lefroy (1909), they have

THE TREE ANT

ae described and figured the outer structure, and the few details

- available regarding the inner structure and the composition of the

- nest-material are either inadequate or faulty. No information is

available regarding the nest-population. In the present account I have

given a detailed and illustrated description of the outer and inner

structure of the nest, the microscopic composition of its material and.

finally, the composition of the nest-population. The account is

largely based on a nest collected by me recently (17th May 1953).

‘It was built 15 ft. above ground-level on the branches of a mango

tree, Magnifera indica Linn., at New Forest, Dehra Dun (western

Himalayas, ca. 2,000 ft. above sea-level). In addition, the following

5 nests are briefly described :— (i) Three small, young nests of C. d.

_-rogenhoferi recently _ (January, 1954) collected by me from the forest

~ on Kankramari char (island) in the Sundarbans, Lower Bengal. (ii) Two

nests of Crematogaster sp. from South India.

(b) REVIEW OF Crematogaster NESTS

Information regarding the nests of the Indian species of the genus

- Crematogaster is both scanty and widely scattered. Here I have

brought together and reviewed the available information.

It has long been known that ants of the genus Crematogaster

construct large, globular or ovoid nests of papery material either

high up on branches of trees or near ground-level. Sykes (1836, p.

tor, pl. xii, fig. 1) described and figured the nests of Crematogaster

_ physothorax Emery’, from the Maharashtra area in peninsular India,

which are made among tree branches. According to him, ‘they

consisted of a multitude of thin folia of cow-dung imbricated like

tiles upon a house, the folium above all covering the summit in an

unbroken sheet, like a skull cap on a man’s head’. In one case

he also found a queen in the nest. According to Wheeler (1926, p.

215), Kirby (1837) also described the nest of C. physothorax Emery’,

and Mayr (1878) of C. dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr. Rothney (1895, pp.

205-206) mentioned having found a ‘big brown-paper nest’ of C. dohrini

vogenhofert Mayr at ‘Bandora’ near Bombay, but did not describe it.

— Wroughton (1892 a, p. 23) observed as follows: ‘C. Rogenhoferi and

C. ebeninus, and perhaps some other species, (which) build nests of

a material which looks like cow-dung, but which is, probably, a sort

of coarse brown paper, manufactured from vegetable tissues, and

suspend them from the branches of trees, like wasps’ nests. The

normal situation for the nest of a species is, however, not always

' strictly adhered to.’ He further (1892 b, p. 197) remarked that

C. [{dohrni|] rogenhofert ‘builds large nests of ‘brown paper’, with

projecting pen-houses, more or less overlapping one another. The

nests may usually thus be distinguished from those of C. ebeninus,

--which, at most, have only rudimentary verandahs. I believe this

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

system of ‘frills’ is intended to give protection from the sun as much

as from the rain; . . . ’. Wroughton added that, according to the

observations of Aitken, a woodpecker habitually rears its young in

the nest of this ant. Barlow (1900, p. 185, pl. xv, fig. 1 b) gave

a drawing of the nest of C. [dohrni|] rogenhoferi Mayr. According

to the same author, Watt (1898) made some observations on this

species (wrongly identified by Watt as Crematogaster contenta Mayr)

and found it as infesting tea bushes in Assam. Lefroy (1909, p. 228)

gave a figure of the nest of the same species, as copied from Barlow

(1900, vide supra).

Hingston (1925) figured a nest of C. auberti from Baghdad, Iraq,

which measured only about 4 cm. in diameter and was composed of

seeds. Mukerji (1930, p. 153 and pl.) briefly described and figured

a nest of C. sovor Forel from Calcutta; according to him, the nest

was composed of vegetable fibres, clay and debris. He added that

Prof. Hans Molisch of Vienna, who had examined a piece from

this nest, opined that it was composed chiefly of a fungus—a position

which is very unsual in Crematogaster. Ayyar (1937) gave a detailed

description of the nests of C. dohrni artifex Mayr from South India,

and also briefly touched upon their chemical composition. The nests

are globular or ellipsoidal and vary in size from a diameter of ca.

3x4 inches to about 94x 114 and 7x12 inches. He further remarked

that the eggs and young larvae were found more towards the interior

of the nest, and the pupae, the ‘teneral adults’ and the winged males more

towards the periphery ; the queens and the workers throng the interior

of the entire nest. No special chambers are set apart for the queens.

Beeson (1941, pp. 501-502) made a brief mention of the nest of C.

dohrni artifex from the work of Ayyar (1937, supra).

To sum up, the papery nests of the genus Crematogaster in India

and the neighbouring countries have been mentioned and _ briefly

described by the following authorities, the only detailed description

being that of Ayyar (1937) regarding the nest of C. dohrni artifex

Mayr :—

C. auberti Emery.—Bacupap, Irag: Hingston, 1925.

C. dohrni artifex Mayr.—Inpia: Ayyar, 1937; Beeson, 1941.

C. dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr.—Inpia: Mayr, 1878; Wroughton,

1892 a, b; Rothney, 1895; Watt, 1898; Barlow, 1900; Lefroy,

1909; Roonwal, present account.

C. physothorax Emery (synonym: Myrmica kirbii Skyes).—Inp1a:

Sykes, 1836; Kirby, 1837.

C. soror Forel.—Inp1a: Mukerji, 1930.

Crematogaster sp.—Inp1A: Roonwal, present account.

According to Ayyar (1937, pp. 296-297), Crematogaster rothneyt

in South India does not build papery nests on trees but always nests

in soil or in crevices in walls.

Oe SORES ee IE eee

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Photographs of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr collected in New For

Dehra Dun (U.P., India) ca. 2,000 ft. above sea-level; 17th May 1953, M. L.

Roonwal Coll. The individuals in figs. 1-4 are from the single nest shown in figs.

5 and 6.

1—Large winged form. 2—Small winged form. 38—Worker major. 4—Worker

minor.

Fic. 5.—Whole nest as seen from outside. Built at a height of about 15 ft.

above ground on a mango tree (Mangifera indica Linn.).

Fic, 6.—Same, cut into two halves to show the inside structure. The small

white dots inside the cells represent the winged ants.

c—cells of the ant nest; /—dried up leaves of mango tree; n—nest; t—twigs.

Ty ee Ne

357

I]. NEST-STRUCTURE AND NEST-POPULATION OF Crematogaster

dohrni rogenhofert Mayr

(a) NEST-STRUCTURE

(Plate 1 and Text-figure)

The Dehra Dun nest is a light, globular, dark brown structure,

measuring about 13 cm. in diameter. It is composed of papery

material giving the appearance of loose felt or dried cow-dung.

Examination under the microscope shows that this material is

composed of pieces of vegetable matter, e.g., grass leaves, bits of

bark, etc., cemented together by some sticky secretion and moulded

into light, papery stuff (text-fig. 1 a, b). The individual vegetable

fibres are about 2-6 mm. long and are extremely thin. The nest

weighs about 81 gms.

When the nest is carefully cut across’ it is seen to be composed

internally of a large number of interconnected cells which run more

or less concentrically, the depth of the cells, 1.e., the distance beween

the neighbouring walls, being about 3-7 mm., and the width about

8-30 mm. or more. The cell-walls are about 0.5 mm. or less in

thickness. The cells are strengthened by means of perpendicular or

transverse walls (text-fig. c) of similar thickness and_ similar

Text Ficure (a-c)—Portion of a nest of Crematogaster dohrni rogenhoferi Mayr.

(a) Portion of the outer covering of nest. Note that the nest is composed of

vegetable fibres, bits of bark, etc. cemented together into a papery material. (b) A

few of the longer vegetable fibres from the nest-wall. (c) A few nest-cells near

the periphery of the nest.

f—vegetable fibres (bits of grass leaves, etc.); m—main cell-walls of nest;

ty—transverse or perpendicular cell-walls of nest.

material. Towards the periphery of the nest the cells are narrower

than in the centre. The nest is built around the tree branches in such

* To avoid damage to the delicate, papery nest, the cutting is best done with a

small, finely-toothed saw; a bread-knife is excellent for the purpose.

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE

a way that several branches pass right across the nest, In the —

present case (pl. 1), besides the main twig which is about 1.5 cm. in ©

diameter, 7 other thinner twigs pierce through the nest. Externally,

the nest is covered over by a continuous covering of thin, papery

laminae of the same material as the remainder of the nest and in

such a manner that the nest-cells do not open on the outside except

by tiny crevices here and there through which the ants enter and

come out of the nest. These crevices are probably partly ‘original

structures’, i.e. are laid down as such while the nest is being

constructed and partly ‘accidental’, 1.e., arise by the removal of the

external covering here and there by mechanical injury caused by wind,

contact with twigs and by other agencies.

(b) NEST-POPULATION

The nest-population in the Dehra Dun nest was counted by sampling.

When the nest was kept aside after collection, very few individuals

came out of it during the first few hours. The nest was then lightly

dusted with 5 per cent D.D.T. powder and kept aside. Within an

hour or two a large number of individuals—winged forms as well as

workers—started crawling out of the nest and, by coming in contact

with D.D.T., they died in the next few hours. In this way, individuals

continued coming out for four days, after which there were no further |

emergences. All these individuals were collected. When the nest

was cut into two halves after a week, a small number of dead individuals

were still found in the nest cells, and were collected. The entire lot

of individuals collected from the nest were stirred vigorously in spirit

and a sample taken out with a small glass vial. These samples were

transferred to another small glass vial of about 1 cm. height and 1.5 cm.

inside diameter. The second vial was repeatedly tapped against a soft

surface to make the ants settle down in a more or less tight uniform

mass. When the tube was thus full to the brim, it was emptied

in a glass dish and the contents counted and classified into castes,

etc. The volume of the entire collection, in terms of the standard

second tube, was then determined and the total number of individuals

calculated. To this total a 5 per cent addition was made to account

for the individuals still remaining in the nést. In this way the

approximate grand total was obtained (Table). :

The population consisted of 4 kinds of adults and the pupae, the

former being characterised as follows :—

(i) Large winged adults—Body-length ca. 8 mm. Body

golden brown; abdomen smoky. |

(ii) Small winged adults—Body-length ca. 3.5 mm. Body

golden brown; abdomen smoky.

(11) Workers major—Body-length ca. 5.5 mm. Body golden

brown; abdomen large and only faintly smoky, with a whitish band

at the posterior margins of the terga.

(iv) Workers minor—Body-length ca. 4.5 mm. Body brown,

darker than in worker major; abdomen small and darkly smoky

(almost blackish to the naked eye), with no white bands at the posterior

margins of the terga.

“TABLE _

. Betitation of a nest of the tree ant, Crematogaster dohrni rogenhofert Mayr,

collected at New Forest. Se Dun, on 17th May 1953.

Baga Add 5 per Percentage

ce cent for . of each caste

ge and caste number | individuals | T°! | among

actually ; S

pourica) left in nest adults

; = 1. Large winged adults vat 452 23 475 8 %

2. Small winged adults es 110 6 116 2%

3. Workers major ... cn: 452 23 475 8 %

4. Workers minor... Fie) fetes SYA Se cee 234 | 4,910 82 %

Total (adults) ...| 5,690 986 5,976

14 =r 33 17

GRAND Totat ...| 5,704 289 5,993 2

ae pupae were large and whitish and essed about 5-6 mm. in

~ length.

. The total calculated number of individuals (including the few pupae)

in the nest, 13 cm. in diameter, was about 5,993 or say 6,000, the

composition of the adult population being as follows :—

1, Large winged adults ... 475 individuals (or 8% of total adults)

2, Small winged adults sk LG a (or 2% of total adults)

_ 3. Workers major Rape 7) a (or 8% of total adults)

4 4, Workers minor ... 4,910 Bs (or 82% of total adults)

_ Ayyar (1937, pp. 303-304 and 307- 308) noted that in Crematogaster

— dohrni artifex Mayr in South India in swarming individuals the pro-

portion of females never exceeded 3 per cent of the emerged sexual

_ forms.. He further gave the population of a nest, of about 54x 7#

- inches diameter, as follows:—

Caste, etc. Number and percentage of individuals

1, Workers major, including callows. 39,082 (68°6% of adults)

_ 2, Workers minor, including callows. 13,192 (23°2% of adults)

=--3. Males, winged -- 4,614 (8°1% of adults) eon

Females, winged Sri fst 58 (0°1% ot adults)

(a) Total adults: 56,947

wees ee

5. Female pupae Ssoee7 OO

6, Female larvae, large size Sie. oe OSS

7, +~Smaliest larvae, probably workers

and males 2,744

8. Pupae of workers and males... 1,100

(b) Totallarvae and pupae 5,294

em ee Ae

«9. «Eggs a3 aie a wey,

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The method adopted by Ayyar for counting the nest-population

was by sample-weighments of lots. He, however, does not mention

whether the samples were dried suitably or not before weighing.

Unless uniform drying is done for all the samples, the degree of error

in comparing the different samples is likely to be considerable.

Assuming that Ayyar’s figures provide a correct picture of the pro-

portions of the various castes, a comparison with the proportions

observed by me in C. dohrm rogenhoferi is of interest. The percentage

of the winged adults is nearly the same in both the subspecies—1o

per cent winged adults in C. d. rogenhoferi and 8.2 per cent in C. d.

artifex. The percentage of the workers ‘is also _ similar—go

per cent in rogenhofert and 91.8 per cent in artifex. The relative

proportion of the major and minor workers, however, differs radically

and the tendencies in the two subspecies are, in fact, quite opposite,

there being far more workers major (68.6 per cent of total adults)

in artifex than in rogenhoferi (8 per cent of total adults). Correspond-

ingly, the workers minor constitute only 23.2 per cent of total adults

in artifex, as against 82 per cent in rogenhoferi. Among the workers

themselves, the proportion of workers major to workers minor in

artifex is 74.8 per cent and 25.2 per cent respectively or roughly as

3:1; in rogenhofert, 8.1 per cent and 91.9 per cent respectively or

roughly as 1:11. Another point of comparison is the density of

population in the two nests. In the globular nest of C. d. rogenhoferi,

with the nest-diameter of 13 cm. (the nest-volume, therefore, being

ca. 1,151 cu. cm.) the population, including the 17 pupae, was 5,993

individuals, or about 5.2 individuals per cubic centimetre. In the oval

nest of C. d. artifex, with the nest-diameters of 54x74 inches or

about 14x19 cm. (mean 10.5 cm.), the nest-volume worked out at

about 2,630 cu. cm. ; with a total population of 62,278, including larvae

and pupae but excluding the 37 eggs, this gave a density of about

26.4 individuals per cubic centimetre, or nearly 5 times as great as

in rogenhoferi.

(Plate II)

During a recent survey (January 1954) of the Sundarbans in Lower

Bengal, I found small, young live nests of C. d. rogenhofert1 common

on the island named Kankramari char’ which lies in the Muriganga

River about 3 miles from Namkhana town. The ecological conditions

obtaining on this island are of interest and may be briefly touched

upon. The island, which is formed by silting, is of comparatively

recent origin (about 60 years or so old) and is growing fast. It

is about 8 miles long and about a quarter mile wide. The soil consists

of clayey loam over stiff black clay and there is no rock. The altitude

is about 15 ft. below the mean sea-level and the island is, therefore,

1 Char, in the local dialect, means an island formed by silting.

a a EBS

"PSGI-1-G/9A “ON “HOD PIPIA—E = PSET-1-/SU “ON ‘TOD PPI—S “HS6I-1-3/PA “ON ‘TOD PPLA—T

‘peel ‘Arenuvf pug “yoD [VAuooy "YT "PY "jesueq jesMo7y ‘sueqiapung ayi “yy esursiunyy

‘(puvls]) apyo tavureryuvyy oy? worzy ‘AAV Meafoytiasos 1uAYyop Aajspsojpiuladg Jo ysou Sunok jo sydviasojoyg

erence

| ©

I] aiv1g ‘20S ‘ISIN ‘JUN Avquiog ‘‘uanor

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe.

Photographs of nest of Crematogaster sp.

Fic. 1—Nest No. 1 (Ent. Mus. Reg. No. 1001A), as seen from outside.

Prats II!

Cremato~

gaster sp. North Salem Forest Division, Madras State, India. February 1930,

Cc. F. C. Beeson Coll. Natural size: 17x20 cm. diameter.

Fic. 2—Nest No. 1 (Ent. Mus. Reg. No. 1001A), as seen in longitudinal-

vertical section.

Fic. 3—Nest No. 2 (Ent, Mus. Reg. No. 1001B), as seen from outside.

Cremato-

caster sp. Same collection data as in nest No. 1 above. Natural size: 13x17 cm.

iS |

diameter.

Fic. 4—-Nest No. 2 (Ent. Mus. Re

vertical section.

3, No. 1001B), as seen in longitudinal-

_ NEST STRUCTURE, ETC. OF THE TREE ANT. 361

fully submerged under the saline estuarine waters during the spring

tides (March to August) for about 3 hours in the day and 3 hours

in the night. The ground is always marshy. The island .is covered

by a forest of the Heritiera-type, the principal species being baen

(Avicennia officinalis L. and other species of Avicennia) and gengwa

(Exacaecaria agallocha L.). Goran (Ceriops roxburghiana L.) has

also come underneath gengwad; and occasionally korea (Sonneratia

apetala Ham.) is found. The forest crop is young and flourishing, the

tree canopy about 20-30 ft. high and half open, and the girth of

trees about 6-24 inches at breast height (44 ft.). The larger mammals,

e.g. tiger, wild boar and cheetal deer, have already invaded the island

from the mainland. The insect fauna is poor: there are a few species

of ants and grasshoppers; no termites were seen. It is obvious that

only those ants which can nest high up in trees can survive because of

the periodical submergence of the island under water.

Several nests of C. d. rogenhoferi were commonly seen on trees

at heights of about 4-10 ft. from the ground. All of them were

small in size and were evidently young. In shape they were rounded

or subovoid with irregular protuberances. Three nests were collected

on 2nd January 1954 and are briefly described below (pl. 2):—

Nest No. 1. (Coll. No. R4/2-1-1954) (pl. 2, fig. 1)—Subtrian-

gular, the three sides measuring 7x 7x9 cm.; height ca. 4cm. Dark

brown. Outer papery covering poorly developed. In a forked twig

at a height of ca, 8 ft. on a gengwa tree.

Nest No. 2. (Coll. No. R5/2-1-1954) (pl. 2, fig. 2).—Subglobular

but rather flattened, with diameters ca. 5 cm. and 7 cm., and with

two projections for holding on to thin twigs. Dark brown. Outer

_ papery covering rather more complete than in No. 1. Attached to

thin forked twigs, at a height of ca. 8 ft. on a goran tree.

Nest No. 3. (Coll. No. R6/2-1-1954) (pl. 2 fig. 3).—Suboval,

cm 5x8 cm. Dark brown. Outer papery covering as in

No. 2. Attached to thin, forked twigs at a height of ca. 4 ft. on

- a goran tree.

Except in size and shape, the external and internal structure of

these nests was essentially the same as in the Dehra Dun nest described

above. The population consisted solely of major and minor

workers. :

III. OTHER NESTS OF Crematogaster sP.

(Plate III)

Besides the nests of C. dohrni rogenhoferi described above, there

are two other nests of Crematogaster sp., both from South India,

in the collection of the Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun. While these nests clearly belong to Crematogaster sp.,

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

no ants are now present in them and: it is, consequently, not

possible to determine the species. The nests largely resemble those

of C. dohrni rogenhoferi described above, but show certain differences

and are briefly described below :— ee Lestat a

Nest No. r. (pl. 3, figs. 1 and 2)—Ent. Mus. Reg. No. r1oo1A.

The only data recorded are as follows: Crematogaster sp. Formicid |

nest made up of leaves on the branches of some tree. North Salem

[Forest] Division, Madras [State]. ee rs, ee Dr. C.F. bag

Beeson. ie

The nest is dark brown (cow-dung coloured) and lope in stapes

the diameter being about 17x 20 cm. It is made up of numerous cells

generally shaped as _ described above for C. d. rogenhoferi and

composed of papery material which, under a lens, is seen to be

composed of numerous small vegetable fibres cemented together—

it is not ‘made up of leaves’, as stated in the original label. The

cells appear to be proportionately smaller in width than in the nest

of C.d.rogenhoferi but are otherwise similar to the latter. The

nest weighs about 245 gms. |

Nest No 2. (plate 3, figs. 3 and 4)—Ent. Mus. Reg. No.

roo1B. Same collection data as in No. 1oo1A above. The nest is

oval and measures about 13x17 cm. in diameter but is otherwise

markedly different. It is much darker brown, being almost blackish.

The cells are appreciably smaller than in the nests described above,

and also much more irregular. In a transverse section the peripheral

portions, especially on one side, are much darker, while the central

portions appear to be paler owing to a fine, white, powdery deposit

on the cell-walls. The central cells are larger than rhe nero

ones. The nest ees, ye 152 gms.

IV. SUMMARY

ellie: snrblished information on nests of ihe Indien apeneS of

fee ants of the genus Crematogaster is briefly reviewed.

2. The nest of Crematogaster dohrm rogenhofert Mayr is’ ABbilat

is constructed high up on trees, and is made of dark brown, papery —

material composed of fine vegetable fibres glued together by means of @&

‘a secretion. The inside of the nest is composed of numerous inter-

connected cells. Externally the cells are covered over by a continuous

layer of papery laminae, so that the peripheral cells do not open on

the outside except for small chinks here and there. The Dehra Dun

nest measured: about 13 cm. in diameter and weighed about 81 gms.

3. The ant-population, in a nest about. 13 cm. in diameter and

collected at New Forest, Dehra Dun,'on 17th May 1953, consisted ©

of about 5,993 (or say 6,000) individuals, comprising 5,976 adults — =|

and 17 pupae. The-proportion of. the four kinds of adults was as —

follows :—(1) Large winged adults, 475, (8%) ; (ii)-small winged adults,

PIG. (200) (iii) ee eel iee AS, et and mae workets: minor,

4,910. (82%). EU OT hg ent EL Tee ect? gif Jee Care a8

& +. 4s: The density of population was about 5.2 individuals per cu.

pee 5. AX detailed comparison of the population-structure in C. d.

rogenhofert with that of C. d. artifex Mayr (as studied by Ayyar, 1937)

is made. This reveals certain similarities as well as some striking

contrasts. : MS Pe oe, Ghat

6. Some small nests of C. d. rogenhoferi from the Sunderbans,

Lower Bengal, are described. oe Gp 7

7. Iwo other nests of Crematogaster sp., from South India, are

briefly described. :

V. REFERENCES

* Not seen in original.

AyyaR, P. N. (1937). A new carton-building species of ant in South India,

Crematogastey dohrni artifex Mayr. JBNHS, 39 (2): 291-308, 4 pls.

Bartow, E. (1900). Notes on insect pests from the Entomological Section,

Indian Museum. Indiam Mus, Notes, Calcutta, 4 (4): 180-221, 2 pls. (14 and 15).

Beeson, C. F. C. (1941). |The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India

and Neighbouring Countries. 6+11+1,007 pp., several figs. Dehra Dun.

BincuaM, C. T. (1903). The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.

Hymenoptera. Vol. II. Ants and Cuckoo-Wasps. xiv+500 pp., 1 pl. London.

Hineston, R. W. G. (1925). The Crematogaster ant. JBNHS, 30 (2): 541-

550, 1 pl.

*Kirsy, W. (1837 a). Fauna Boreali-Americana, or the Zoology of the Northern

parts of British America. Part 4. Insects.

*__ —_ — (1937 b). On the History, Habits and Instincts of Animals. (7th

Bridgewater Treatise. 2nd Amer. ed.)—Philadelphia.

Lerroy, H. M. (1909). Indian Insect Life. A Manual of the Insects of the Plains

(Tropical India). Pp. xii+786, several col. pls. Calcutta.

*Mayr, G. (1878). Beitrage zur Ameisen-Fauna Asiens. Verh. zool. bot. Ges.

Wien, Vienna, 28: 645-686. ;

Mukery1, D. D. (1930). Report on a collection of ants in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta. JBNHS, 34 (1): 149-163, 1 pl. °

— — — (1934). Entomological investigations on the spike disease of sandal (22).

Formicidae. Indian For, Rec., Delhi, 20 (5): 1-15.

Rotuney, G. A. J. (1895). Notes on Indian ants. Trans, ent. Soc., Lond., 1895 :

195-211.

Sykes, W. H. (1836). Descriptions of new species of Indian ants. Trans. ent.

Soc:,,-Lond. 1299-1075 1. col. pl.

Wart, G. (1898). The pests and blights of the tea plants of Assam. Calcutta,

1898.

Wureter, W. M. (1926). Ants, their Structure, Development and Behaviour.

xxv-+663 pp. New York.

— — — (1927). Burmese ants collected by Professor G. E. Gates. Psyche,

Boston, 34: 42-46.

Wrovucuron, R. C. (1892 a). Our ants. Part I. JBNHS, 7 (1): 13-60, 2 pls.

a = see oye Our ants. (Part tl. pf BNES, 1: (2) 3175-303, 2 pls.

VI. APPENDIX

I have now been able to consult Watt (1898) and Watt & Mann

(1903) in original. These authors clearly state that C. dohrni is a pest

of tea bushes in Assam and Ceylon, injuring the bark and branches to

such an extent that circulation is checked and death occurs. ‘They

add that the belief that the ants are useful by keeping in check the

harmful aphids and coccids is incorrect, and, on the contrary, they,

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

protect these insects. In Ceylon, according to ‘fhe 5 same inuiiats - this

ant injures cinchona, coffee and tea. Watt’s (1898, p. 257; 333)

statement that the ant makes ‘mud enclosures’ (or nests) is of course

not correct as discussed above, the nest being composed entirely of

fibrous laminae. Watt & Mann (1903, pl. XIII) figure a a oe.

nest of C. dohrni rogenhoferi.

Watt, G. (1898). The Pests and Blights of the Tea. Plant. Being aa of Inves-

tigations conducted in Assam and to some extent Be amy nea Calcutta (Supdt.

Government Printing, India), iii+467-+ xvii.

Watt, G. aNnD Mann, H. H. (1903). The Pests and Biches - of the eres Plant >

(2nd ed.). xv+429 pp., 24 pls. Calcutta (Supdt. Government Printing, India).

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NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM

HILLS, EASTERN GHATS.

Ao EGi BESE

During the two years from April 1950 until the end of February

1952, I paid frequent visits to the Nagalapuram Hills which form

the outer spur of the Eastern Ghats between Nagari and Kalahasti.

These hills extend for about 30 miles from south to north, the

southernmost end being about 4o miles NW. of Madras City.

_ These hills are, as far as I know completely uninhabited and are

covered with thick jungle, the southern end being bare rocky peaks.

There are no signs of grazing goats or cattle but there are numerous

tracks of sambar and barking deer on the: forest paths; judging

from the droppings and pug marks there must be a number of sloth

bears and panthers and on one occasion I saw a couple in the early

morning. The Grey Junglefowl i is fairly common and I have also seen

an occasional spurfowl.

The highest point is Kumbakkam Drug (about 2,700 ft.) and just

below this is an unattended Forest Bungalow. But it is a long hard

walk of 5 miles from the Government Fish Farm at Thantipandal

and without careful arrangements made well before hand it is impossible

to obtain coolies to carry one’s baggage to the top of the hill.

There is no fresh running water on the plateau except in the

monsoon, but there are two small poo es cue about one mile to the

north of the bungalow and another 14 miles to the west. The first

2 miles from Thantipandal the ascent is very steep to about 1,900 ft.,

thereafter the path is along a rolling plateau gradually ascending to

2.500 ft:

Around the northern edge of the hills is a small clear stream

with a permanent flow of water which appears to emanate from a

spring halfway up the hill. The jungle round the bottom of the

hills is thick scrub with some big mango. and other trees and some

patches of Pamnpoe jungle. This stream flows into a small artificial

tank. :

Most of my collecting was done on the Horthebn end of the hills as

the southern and central parts are not easily accessible, at any rate

for short visits.

The rainy season is from mid-October to the end of November,

but there are frequent heavy showers from July to September.

There is one point which seems to me of particular interest and

this is the scarcity of females of Papilio polytes compared to the very

large number of males. In the two years spent among these hills,

I’ certainly did not see more than 12 females, all of form stichius.

This in itself seems peculiar as P. aristolochiae which stichius mimics

is comparatively scare while P. hector, which the typical form mimics,

is the commonest Papilio and hundreds and even thousands are seen

every day. It is possible that I may have missed form polytes and

passed them as hector, but I can usually distinguish between the

two in flight and was always on the lookout for them.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 62

PAPILIONIDAE

1. Polydorus aristolochiae aristolochiae.. ie, eRe

Rather scarce, but usually three or four to Be seen every day.

2. Polydorus hector.

Very common at all seasons, round the lower slopes of the hills,

but scarce at the top. This is one of the commonest species 208 is

often seen in swarms of hundreds. :

3. Papilio polytes polvtes:

Males fairly common from August to November but scarce at

other times. On the 9th September 1950 after a week of heavy showers

males of this butterfly appeared literally in thousands. on wet ashes.

There had been a forest fire along the banks of the stream and these

patches of ashes were covered with hundreds of butterflies, the

commonest being P. polytes, P. demoleus, G. nomius, G. eurypylus

jason, C. pomona, C. nerissa, A. libythea. Among the P. polytes

was a male which had distinct light blue scaling on lower h.w. between

the discal series of white spots and the discal edge of the wings in

interspaces 1-7. The underside of the h.w. had a series of small blue

lunules under the discal series of white spots. This butterfly was.

quite conspicuous among a crowd of about 4o P. polytes hovering

and settled over wet ash. Now after 18 months the set specimen.

still shows the unusual a mene they have faded some-

what.

Females of all forms are scarce and during the whole two years

not more than 12 of form stichius were seen and none of the other

forms.

4. Papilio polymnestor.

Only one was seen in July flying down the river, but. the wings:

of another were seen floating in a pool at the end of June.

5, Papilio crino.

Scarce at most times of the year but saw one in res and

took another early in December on thistle. The next time this

butterfly was seen was at the top of the hill in April-when 9 were seen

round the summit of Kumbakkam Hill. No others seen except at

the top of the hill in August. | Res

6. Papilio demoleus demoleus. ;

Very common everywhere and at all times. a the. yo

7. Chilasa clytia clytia. :

Scarce—only one tattered specimen seen at the bottom of ‘del

hill, but always one or two to be found round the summit. These ©

vary in colour from almost black to a rusty brown. ~—— a

8. Chilasa clytia dissimilis. ie © ae

Scarcer than clytia yi and opr seen “round cm summit of ee

Kumbakkam. : peas ee eae a a

tod eo ¥

9. Graphium agamemnon menides. ia

Scarce at all times=-a few seen in eee near ihe tone of ‘the

hill and others on lantana.

10. Graphium teredon sarpedon.

Very scarce—a few taken on damp rock near a | spring on ae top»

of the hill in a

11. Graphinn: auevpyias f. jason. |

Very common at the bottom of the hill qlee ‘the stream,

especially from August to January. They come to damp patches in

numbers and are easy to catch when settled but are very rapid

fliers.

12. Graphium nomius nomius. :

Fairly common in July only but these have been seen Hehconenont the

year. On the 25th July there were hundreds newly hatched, whereas

on the 9th August only one was seen and again in early September

only one was seen.

PIERIDAE

1. Leptosia nina nina.

Not common, but a few seen in wooded areas on the lower

| slopes of the hill.

2. Delias eucharis. .

Rather scarce but usually:a few to be seen most days.

3. Appias libythea libythea.

Males common at most times of the year, but females scarce.

4. Appias albina.

Scarce, but a few males taken on wet patches of sand.

5. Catopsilia crocale.

Males fairly common, but females very Scar eg omy two seen over

the entire period.

6. Catopsilia pomona.

Very common:

7. Catopsilia pomona f. catilla.

Only one seen and taken.

3 8. Catopsilia pyranthe.

Common.

Eurema pichewee

Scarce.” Waar 68) Be iecb aick oe ad noxch 5

368 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY ey Cee HIST. “SOCIET

1. Danais limniace mutina.

10. Eurema hecabe simulata. © © # # © =|

Scarce. or as

11. Cepora nerissa ane e.

Very common.

12. Ixias pyrene frequens.

Rather scarce, but usually a few to > be seen at the bottom of the

hill and along the stream.

13. Ixias marianne.

As above.

14. Anapheis mesentina.

Usually very scarce except on one day in September when there

were hundreds about and many pairs were seen in copula. c |

15. Colotis amata amata. 2 AN

Scarce, but always one or two to be seen on most days.

16. Colotis etrida.

Fairly common in the scrub jungle at the foot of the hill.

17. Colotis danae.

Common in scrub jungle at the foot of the hills.

18. Colotis faustia fulvia.

Fairly common in same places as etvida and danae.

19. Colotis modesta modesta.

‘A few seen as above.

20. Valeria valeria hippia.

Very scarce indeed and only three seen in the entire period, all

males.

21. Valeria ceylonica.

One only seen and taken.

DANAIDAE

Common at all seasons.

2. Danais plexippus. aiivceteied beet ces

Very common.

3. Danais chrysippus. rt Oe are eS

Very scarce—only a dozen or so seen during the entire. period.

- BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS 369

4. Euploea core core.

Very common.

5. Euploea coreta coreta. eta ; ete ee

a - Very common. : : Seis OS

& Note.—These two Euploeas are both about equally distributed. : ne

SATYRIDAE 3

1. Mycalesis perseus. 5 :

" Very scarce. | ee Coen

2. Lethe rohria nilgiriensis. : Soa:

Only one seen at the top of the hill round damp rocky outcrops. ee

3. Ypthima hubneri. oe

Common round the foot of the hill. tii,

4, Melanitis leda ismene. | :

Very scarce. tal ae

ERYCINIDAE | ; ee

1. Abisara echerius prunosa, | ; ay oe

Very scarce. a

2. Libythea myrhha myrhha. G : | ah

Very scarce—only three seen. ee

4 NYMPHALIDAE

7 1. Charaxes polyxima imna. fa

4 Fairly common round the peak of the hill at midday. One male oe a

q was seen on fresh bear droppings. No females seen at any time. x

2. Charaxes fabius fabius. ; | cate

E A few seen at the peak and others at the bottom of the hill on

rocks by the stream.

+ 3. Eriboea athamas. : ae

; Common at the peak and in several places on the rocks in the ae zs

middle of the stream. yas is ed

| 4, Euthalia nais. | % ©

- Fairly common all over the area. re HE

5, Limenitis procris procris. :

Scarce. A few seen at higher elevations. is

d te

| 6. Neptis columella. wag

g Common at higher elevations, ie

: 2

Si:

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA TURAL IST. SOCIETY, ‘5.

7. Neptis hylas varmona. , SG SHEE Bet

Common throughout the area. EPR ee

8. Rahinda hordonia.

Scarce, but usually one or two at the foot of the hills.

9, Precis hierta hierta,

Fairly common. Si BAS /

10. Precis lemonias vaisya.

Common.

11. Precis iphita pluvialis.

‘Common.

12. Precis almana almana. | |

Very scarce—only two seen near the stream.

13. Precis orithiya.

Common everywhere.

14. Vanessa cardui.

Only two seen.

15. Hypolimnas bolina.

Very scarce—no males seen.

16. Hypolimnas missipus.

Males very scarce—all but one seen being in the jungle at the

bottom of the hill and near the stream. No females were seen in

this locality but they were quite plentiful near the hill- -top_ where

only one tattered male Was seen. :

17. Atella phalanta,

Very common. .

nee

18. Ergolis merione taprobana

Very common.

19. Ergolis ariadne. fina

Common.

20. Telchinia violae.

Very common everywhere.

21. Biblia ilythea.

Rare, but there were several on the panies of a ‘small tank into

which the stream empties about 2 miles from the foot of the hills.

-LycaENIDaR,

hk. Castalius rosimon rosimon.

Not rare, eee: one or two to ie seen at : low levels.

as 2: Castalius deleta deeidea. 3 |

Very scarce—only three taken in two years. _

—-3,,—« Spalgis epius.

Scarce—a few near the stream.

4, Talicada nyseus.

No others seen.

7 5. Syntarucus plinius.

and August.< ae %.") :

6. Lycaenopsis puspa gisca.

Fairly common at low level.

7, ~Chilades laius laius.

¥ A single one taken near the summit of Kumbakkam in n September.

a Scarce—two near the stream and others on | the main road in July

Very common at low levels, July to October. Sometimes swarms

at damp patches on the forest road.

y 8. Zizeeria trochilus ou

. Common.

9, Zizeeria lysimon.

& Common.

10. Zizeeria otis decreta. .

Scarce.

2 11. Euchrysops cnejus. Ne ge, |

One only on the plateau at 12,000 ft., October.

12. Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina.,

Two at hill-top near a anal spans of water.

13. Ggthelresape Serab:

Common.

14, Lampides boeticus.

Scarce—only one taken near hill-top, but others seen.

15. Jamides celeno celeno.

colour.

Scarce—females ey so. All seemed to be of very”

pale

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

16. Curetis thetis.

Males fairly common—only two females seen.

17. Horsfieldia anita dina. ae et a

Fairly common on the banks of fhe: stream, July to zn oben:

Not seen elsewhere. 2

18. Amblypodia amantes ‘amantes.

Common, particularly on the plateau. Males sometimes came to

damp sand.

19. Surendra quercetorum biplagiata.

Fairly common.

20. Loxura atymnus atymnus,

Very scarce—only two, both in October.

21. Apharitis lilacinus.

Only one taken in February near Kumbakkam peak.

22. Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus,

Fairly common in April on the plateau. Also seen in September

and October.

23. Spindasis ictis ictis.

- Two poor specimens taken in April—no others seen.

24. Tajuria cippus cippus.

Several on the top of the hill in August. “Rano taken in the valley

in November. No others seen.

25. Rathinda amor. . °

Common August to October, but very small compared to Bombay

specimens.

26. Rapala melampus.

Two males seen and one taken in December in valley.

Note.—I have three more lycaenids which I have been unable to

identify so far.

HESPERIIDAE

1. Hasora alexis alexis,

Only one taken but several seen in October, November and

December. dei cca ai aes sili 0 oe

a Badamia exclamationis.

Fairly common.

3. Calaenorrhinus ambareesa.

Three only, all in October.

4, Calaenorrhinus leucocera leucocera.

Two only in November.

BUTTERFLIES OF THE NAGALAPURAM HILLS 373

5. Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa.

~ Only one in October; -

6. Coladenia dan dan.

Common.

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7. Coladenia indrana indra. es

Fairly common. >

8. Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni. . =e

a Only one taken in November, and another seen the same day. © :

9, Caprona ransonetti ransonetti. ;

Common. . i

10. Caprona agama pelias. ' os :

Only one taken in July. ; Bie. Se ae

1l. Syrichtus galba, ; :

Fairly common. | : Se

12. Ampittia diascorides, oy

Scarce. -

13. Aeromachus dubius. ) i, Ss :

Two taken in October. | = ay x

14. Suastus gremius gremius. ~ . . =

Three taken in October. te

15, Udaspes folus, i

_ Only one taken in October. .-

16. Notocrypta paralysos alysia,

Common. E

fat

417, Gangara thyrsis thyrsis. 3 c

Seen twice October, but missed each time.

18. Taractocera ceramus ceramus. |

3 Common. :

19. Astycus pythias lanka. : ast F.

Only two taken in March and May. ve

- 20. Baoris kumara kumara, oe

' Only one in April. anor

21. Baoris zelleri cinnara. Ne

Fairly common. : 7

Note.—There are two more specimens which I cannot identify 4

with certainty. 2 4

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

SAtim ALI

ParT I

(With a map and tive plates)

INTRODUCTION

The publication of this paper has been unduly : delayed. The main

- field work of which it is the outcome was undertaken for varying periods

of a month to five months at a time between the years 1944 and 1946

with shorter field trips up to 1948. It covered the then State territories

of Kutch, Baroda (including its Kathiawar enclaves), Rajpipla, Cambay,

Palanpur, and Radhanpur, together with the cluster of tiny Bhil States

known as the Surat Dangs. Financial and other assistance was gene-

rously provided by the darbars concerned, and supplemented by a wel-

come grant from the Gujarat Research Society.

Publication even at this late date is considered desirable in view of

the great deal of fresh distributional and ecological data brought to light

by the field surveys and the study material collected, which seem worthy

of being put on permanent record. I have tried to make the paper as

comprehensive as possible by collating other available information, either

previously published or since supplied by.competent observers. For

various reasons I was unable to cover the Kathiawar peninsula except

only fragmentarily, but happily this gap in our knowledge will be filled

by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s shortly forthcoming book on the Birds of

Saurashtra. The author being a keen and knowledgeable resident orni-

thologist of Bhavnagar will doubtless furnish fuller information than a

short seasonal survey or two would have made possible.

My thanks are due to the Bombay Natural History Society for lending

me, as usual, the services of their collectors and skinners Messrs. J. Gab-

riel and L. Nogueira, whose assistance was invaluable and greatly

appreciated.

The draft of the major ‘portion Ae this report ° was Gireparcn many

years ago, at the time the collections were first worked out ; therefore

some of my notes, such as on the status of various species (written i in the

‘present tense) may already be much out of date. Conditions affecting

wildlife in general, directly or indirectly, have changed and are changing

rapidly, a and unhappily not for the better.. This is particularly noticeable

in the case of areas whose erstwhile rulers were actively interested in the

preservation of wildlife in their respective territories.

In view of the recent changes in the political structure of the country,

it seems necessary to define the entity ‘Gujarat ’ as used in the title

above. It is all that tract of country in Bombay State, some 64,000 sq.

' miles in area, which stretches down the western side of India from Sind

in Western Pakistan (ca. 24°30’N) to the southern boundary of Surat

District (ca. 20°15’N). In addition to the former Indian administrative

districts of Ahmedabad, Kaira, Panchmahals, Broach and Surat, it includes.

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{. Moist deciduous forest, Rajpipla, S. Gujarat

2. Deciduous biotope, Surat Dangs, March

Photos by Author

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc.

1. Moist deciduous secondary jungle,

Surat Dangs

2. Looking towards Salher Fort, Navsari Dist..

S. Gujarat

Photos by Author

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7 FRANS

BHR BIRDS“OF GUJARAT ti fy :BTB

‘Kutch and the Kathiawar peninsula (Saurashtra). It includes also the

_tract. of hilly jungle country south of the Tapti River known as the Surat

Dangs which lies between the Nasik-Khandesh Deccan and the south

Gujarat plain. This area which may roughly be enclosed within the

parallelogram 20°30’ to 24°N and 69° to 74°E, has recently been termed

Maha Gujarat or Great(er) Gujarat (Jour. Gujarat Res. Soc. vol. ix. (3)

p. 155—July 1947), a name whose general adoption is commendable from

several points of view.

PHYSIOGRA PHY

‘Maha Gujarat contains a wide range of biotopes, stretching from

practically pure sandy desert (e.g. the Great Rann of Kutch), with an

annual rainfall of less than 10 inches, to tropical semi evergreen forest

(e.g. portions of Navsari district and the Surat Dangs) with an average

annual precipitation of over 80”.

The most prominent trees and shrubs interspersed among cultivation

as well as about villages and on the countryside generally are mango

(Mangitera indica), neem (Melia azadirachta), kot (feronia limonia),

mhowa (Lassza latifolia), ber (Zizyphus jujuba), kandi (Prosopis spicigera),

babul (Acacia arabica), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), the two Salvadoras

‘(persica and oleozdes), Gymnosporia montana, and Capparis aphylla, depend-

Sing upon the requisite locality factors.

It is not easy to classify the terrain as a whole, but three main types

are Clearly recognisable.

The northern portions, from a little NW. of Ahmedabad city, eg. the

Mehsana, Radhanpur and Palanpur areas stretching up to the Marwar

desert are largely flat, undulating, sandy, semidesert tracts with sparse

cultivation and tail luxuriant Euphorbia hedges. As it approaches the

Abu hills (Aravalis) the country assumes a hilly and stony character eg.

about Hathidhara and Balaram in Palanpur territory. Here it is tolerabiy

‘well-wooded being covered mostly with scrub jungle, 12 to 15 ft. high,

consisting of Zizyphus, Acacia, Butea, Salvadora, Aegle marmelos,

-Gymnosporta and such other typical species, with a sprinkling of enormous,

ancient, spreading Ficus trees, chiefly -. bengalensis. Bordering streams

are found some lofty arjun trees (Zermznalia arjuna) and bamboo (sp. ?)

is locally abundant on the low hills. .

In years of normal rainfall a chain of marshy jheels forms

between Ahmedabad and Sidhpur attracting abundant wildfowl. The

greater part of the plains or champaign (Central Gujarat), including

the erstwhile Baroda State territory are heavily cultivated, the principal

crops being bajra (Pennisetum typhotdeum), jowar (Sorghum vulgare),

groundnut (Arachis hypogaea) and cotton (Gossypium). Scattered among

the cultivated fields or clustered in groves around the little villages are

trees, usually large and leaty, of mango (Mangitera indica), neem (Melia

- azadirachta), teep-papdi’ (? Acanthocephalus kadamba), mhowa (Bassia

_lattfolia) and tamarind. (Tamarindus indica), Butea frondosa forms scrub

, patches here and there along the banks of streams and nullahs, while the

tad or palmyra palm (Borassus flabelliter) i is locally abundant.

_ The physiography and vegetation of Kutch are in the main similar to

N, Gujarat—sandy flat semidesert with a preponderance of xerophytic

= species. Here and there occur, ‘scattered singly or in clusters, shady trees

around villages and tanks, or in the luxuriant ‘ wadis’ or market garderis

irrigated from deep wells. The unique, feature | ‘of the Kutch’ landscape,

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

however, and one that calls for special mention is the Great Rann which

divides Kutch from Western Pakistan (Sind) to the north. It is an ex-

pansive billiard-table-flat strip of salt, barren, sandy waste some 150 miles

long east to west, and 80 wide north to south. During the SW.

monsoon season the Rann becomes completely inundated, partly by the

flood waters of the rivers Banas and Luni debouchinginto it, and partly

by the sea. When the water dries the Rann assumes a hard flat desiccated

surface, covered with pebbly stones, shingle and salt encrustation. To

the ornithologist the greatest interest of the Rann lies in the unequalled

potentialities it offers for the visual observation of bird migration in

autumn and spring, and in its being the only known breeding ground of

the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) in this country, the most easterly in

Asia and perhaps the largest in the world. Further details regarding the

climate and floristics of Kutch may be found in the Introduction to Salim

Ali: The Birds of Kutch (Oxford University Press, 1945).

The Kathiawar peninsula (Saurashtra) in its physiography is an

epitome of Kutch and the rest of Gujarat. The hilly deciduous forest,

characteristic of portions of Central Gujarat, finds its parallel in Juna-

gadh (southern Saurashtra), particularly in the Gir which has an annual

rainfall of 40 to 50”. For an account of the flora of this area

reference may be made to the excellent paper recently published by

H, Santapau, s.s., and M. B. Raizada (/ndian Forester, 80 (7), July 1954.

Forest, wherever it occurs, broadly falls into the following four major

types of Champion’s classification!

1. Tropical Thorn Forest (Kutch, Saurashtra, N. Gujarat), —

2. Tropical Dry Deciduous (Central Gujarat, Saurashtra (Gir),

3. Tropical Moist Deciduous ) (Surat Dangs, Navsari prant, Raj-

4. ‘Tropical Semi-evergreen 4 ae)

In the composition of the Dangs forests the principal species is

‘Teak. Some of the other characteristic trees are ain or sadada (7ermin-

alia tomentosa), beo or bibla (Pterocarpus marsupium), Ahaman (Grewza

tiliaefolia), dhamoda (Anogeissus latifolia), kilai (Albizzia procera), hald-

wan (Adina cordifolia), khair (Acacia catechu), koshim (Schleichera

tvijuga), mahuda or mhowa (Bassia latifolia), samar (Bombax malabari-

cum), tanach or tiwas (Ougeinia dalbergioides), timru (Diospyros melan-

oxylon) and others. Bamboo is abundant, both the katas (Bamébusa

arundinacea) and manwel (Dendrocalamus strictus).

Among the more important scientific results of the ornithological

explorations in Maha Gujarat has been the northward extension of a

number of forest birds hitherto believed to be restricted only to the humid

southern section of the Western Ghats or Sahyadris. Their discovery at

the northern end of this mountain chain, in the region where these hills

dovetail with the Satpuras (Rajpipla and Khandesh, etc.), provides striking

evidence in support of Dr. S. L. Hora’s hypothesis concerning the proba-

ble route by which East Himalayan fauna, particularly fishes of the hill

streams, spread to South India, namely over the Satpura mountain trend.

This aspect of the field work in Gujarat has been dealt with more fully

‘elsewhere [Sdlim Ali (1948): The Role of the Gujarat Satpuras in

Indian Ornithogeography, Jour. Guj. Res. Soc., Vol. 10, pp. 35-45. |

pM a anaemia aaa PORES eee oe te ioe) ES oe ee

1Champion, H.G.(1936): A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of Indi

and Burma. Jnd. For. Rec. (New Series), Sylviculture. VoI.I, No, 1.

suRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

1. Country about Balaram, Palanpur

N. Gujarat

Abu hills in the distance

2. Lesser Flamingos at Banas River mouth,

Little Rann of Kutch

Photos by Author

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

1. ‘The Banni country, N. Kutch

2. Typical coastal sand-dunes, Mandvi, Kutch |

Photos by Author

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

NT ee Oe BE ee EM ee OR ye EE RN EDEL ae ee MT Le EE EN an OTT ETT Ry are el ee

TEESE ERE ne

oe apy eS LO OY ee Se BS x healt

4 Ber asst fy eg MI ee RY Bai

Some of the peculiar species whose distributional range has now been

shown tozextend to the Gujarat Satpuras are :

Malabar Trogon (/farpactes fasciatus)

Bluebearded Bee-eater (Alcemerops athertont)

Malabar Whistling Thrush (A/zyophoneus horstieldz)

Large Wood Shrike (Zephrodornis gularis)

Orange Minivet (Pericrocotus flammeus)

Blackbacked Pied Shrike (Hemipus picatus)

| Vigor’s Yellowbacked Sunbird (Aethopyya siparaja vigorst)

Malherbe’s Goldenbacked Woodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus)

Heartspotted Woodpecker (/emicircus canente)

Malabar Black Woodpecker (Dryocopus javensis)

BirD MIGRATION

The geographical position of Kutch, Banaskantha and the Kathiawar

peninsula and the natural conditions that obtain, particularly in the former

_two, make them ideal venues for the study of Indian bird migration.

Kutch lies directly athwart the main route of the hordes of species that

sweep into India from the north and north-west in autumn and out in the

reverse direction in spring. It forms, moreover, the eastern fringe of the

broad stream of through migration that flows down from Central and

Northern Asia in a southwesterly direction in autumn. This current

passes over the NW. Frontier Province, Afghanistan, Baluchistan and

Sind, beyond across the Arabian Sea and southern Arabia into British

Somaiiland and Abyssinia, and trickles down the eastern side of the

continent even to South Africa. Many of the Asiatic forms that winter in

Africa pass through Kutch in September and early October. They come

in great waves, as it were ‘Swarming’, on the countryside during their

temporary sojourn, and are all completely gone within the course of a

few short weeks. ‘The return passage, in the main at any rate, apparently

takes a somewhat different route since the birds are not in such promi-

nence again in spring. Outstanding examples of these Africa-bound

‘through passengers’ by the Arabian route are the Greybacked Warbler

(Agrobates galactodes familiaris), Indian Whitethroat (Sylvia communis

acterops), Kashmir Roller (Covacias garrula semenow?), European Nightjar

(Caprimulgus europaeus unwint ) and Spotted Flycatcher (Muscicapa

striata neumannt).

Kutch derives a substantial quota of its winter visitors and/or passage

migrants into peninsular India from the NW. and WNW.,, i.e. from nor-

thern and eastern Europe and from Middle-Eastern countries. ‘The Rosy

Pastor (Pastor roseus), Blackheaded Bunting (Amberiza melanocephala),

Greynecked Bunting (Z. buchananz), Yarkand Short-toed Lark (Calandrella

brachydactyla longipennis) and White Stork (Ciconta c¢. ciconia) ate some

of the species that enter by this route.

Kutch is a veritable crossroads for all these migrational streams, and

offers unique opportunities for a well planned study of Indian bird mig-

ration by ringing and observational methods. The bare and open

nature of the terrain, and the scantiness of vegetation are distinct advan-

tages. Data which otherwise would have to be collected more or less

piecemeal and conjecturally, here stand out in graphic clarity. Especially

suitable for trapping and observation stations is the northernmost edge

of the ‘islands’ or ‘bets’ where the flat, featureless Rann meets the

stony range of hills (Kala Dongar, Bhanjda Bet, Chhaparia etc.) that runs

Pos a, uttoer et

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

more or less continuously along the northeastern border of Kutch. I

can think of no better place than this for the study of visual migration in

the whole of India. The wide expanse of the Great Rann that separates

Sind from Kutch must of necessity be crossed by all birds journeying

along this sector of the route. There are no natural distractions to make

them linger, and thus create doubts and uncertainties in the mind of the

observer as to whether what he sees is actual migration in progress or

not. There is no obstruction to good visibility here save perchance when

a dust storm ison. Ifa few observation posts could be strung out along

the northern base of this transverse range of hills—say from Kuar Bet

across to Bela Island—manned at the appropriate seasons by competent

bird watchers, I am confident that data of the highest value could be

secured. While encamped at Nir on the NE. point of Pachham Island

during the first 3 or 4 days of October (1943) I found ample assurance

of this from the abur ‘ance of the species and numbers of birds that were

continually passing through.

The late Maharao of Kutch, Shri Vijayarajji, who was keenly interested

in birds, had approved of a tentative scheme for the putting up of obser-

vation posts along the Great Rann. Owing to his untimely death and the

change in the general set-up, the plan unfortunately never reached

fruition. When field ornithology in India comes into its own—as one

hopes it will do in the not too distant future—the implementation of

such a scheme will deserve one of the top priorities.

The classification adopted in the Systematic List that follows is a

modified version of Wetmore’s well known arrangement which, in essen-

tials, is now more or less internationally adopted. ‘A (1952) Revised

Checklist of the Birds of Ceylon’ by W.W.A. Phillips (published by the

National Museums of Ceylon), Dr. B. Biswas’s very useful ‘ Checklist

of Genera of Indian Birds’ (Rec. Ind. Mus., 50 (1): 1-62) and Dr.

S. Dillon Ripley’s more complete ‘Checklist of Indian Birds’ (under

active preparation) have all adopted the Wetmore classification with

suitable modifications. Moreover, all the recent checklists of birds of our

neighbouring countries (Malaysia, Thailand, etc), either published or

shortly to be published, follow this system of classification, namely

they begin with what is believed to be the lowest rung of the evolutionary

ladder and climb to the highest. Thus inthe case of Indian birds they

begin with the Gaviidae (Divers & Loons) and end with the Corvidae

(Crows), and not vice versa as Stuart Baker’s Fauna volumes did. The

position of individual genera and species within this framework may

vary somewhat as between one author and another, but the divergence is

usually of minor degree.

Personally I consider it immaterial at which end we begin ; and while

naturally I would rather retain an arrangement with which the living

generation of Indian bird students is familiar—and on which | was myself

brought up—it seems clear that we cannot isolate ourselves from the

universal trend which, for better or worse, has largely replaced what is now

considered to be an outmoded system. If we wish to keep in close

touch with modern ornithological thought and literature, we must of

necessity adopt the new classification and familiarize ourselves with it in

the shortest possible time. Therefore, the sooner we begin, the better. I

trust this apologia will suffice for what some will, 1 fear, consider a

thoroughly unwarranted innovation. A little inconvenience and confusion

‘

]

aay

are inevitable at first, but one soon gets accustomed to change, however

drastic, and it may be hoped that in due time the younger generation will

find it just as easy to grope their way through the new classification as

we did through the old. |

In order to facilitate reference, the new sequence in which the families

appear in the following pages is given below :

Podicipitidae : Grebes, Dabchick

Pelecanidae: Pelicans

Phalacrocoracidae: Darter, Cormorants.

Ardeidae : Herons, Egrets, Bitterns

Ciconiidae: Storks.

Plataleidae : Ibises, Spoonbill

Phoenicopteridae: Flamingos

Anatidae: Ducks, Geese, Swans

Accipitridae : Hawks, Vultures

Falconidae: Falcons

Phasianidae : Junglefowl, Partridges, Quails

Turnicidae: Button-and Bustard-Quails

Gruidae : Cranes ©

Rallidae: Rails, Coots

Otidae: Bustards, Florican

Jacanidae: Jacanas '

Haematopodidae : Oystercatcher

Charadriidae: Plovers, Lapwings

Subfamily Scolopacinae: Curlew, Sandpipers, Snipe, Woodcock

Recurvirostridae: Stilt, Avocet

Rostratulidae: Painted Snipe

Dromadidae: Crab Plover

Burhinidae : Stone-Curlews

Glareolidae : Coursers, Pratincoles

Laridae: Gulls, Terns

Pteroclidae : Sandgrouse

Columbidae : Pigeons, Doves

Psittacidae: Parakeets

Cuculidae : Cuckoos

Tytonidae: Barn Owl

Strigidae : Owls

Caprimulgidae : Nightjars

Apodidae : Swifts 3

Trogonidae : Trogons

Alcedinidae: Kingfishers

Meropidae: Bee-eaters

Coractidae : Rollers or Blue Jay 3

Upupidae : Hoopoes

Bucerotidae : Hornbills

Capitonidae : Barbets

Picidae ; Woodpeckers

Pittidae: Pittas

Alaudidae: Larks

N.B. Unless otherwise stated all measurements in the account that follows were

taken in the flesh; therefore allowance for shrinkage in the wing must be made

when comparing with museum material. In my experience this varies from 2 to

4mm. in the case of birds up to the size of a starling.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 379

: »

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL 1

SYSTEMATIC LIST

Family PODICIPITIDAE: Grebes, Dabchick.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. The Little Grebe or Dabchick. 4

Specimens collected: Kutch xs350 9 9-3-44 Mandvi; Gujarat: i”

GS575 2 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.)

| Measurements: . We Oe: B Tar. paid |,

— i 2 ad. 102 28 34°5 —

1 & imm. 93 2055 32 23

Resident. Common on all inland still waters. Breeding was in full 4

swing in Kutch during August and September (1943). a

Podiceps caspicus caspicus (Hablizl) The Blacknecked Grebe

= (= nigricollis)

A specimen was collected by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji near Bhavnagar ~

on 7-11-1951. (J8NHS, 50: 664). This is the only record of this

rare migrant for western India.

o . Podiceps cristatus cristatus (Linn.) The Great Crested Grebe.

A rare winter visitor. K. 5. Dharmakumarsinhji obtained a pair (f'Q)

22/24-8-1947, and saw a third example on a tank in Bhavnagar

(JBNHS, 47; 385.). The early date is interesting. In’ the Society’s

collection there is a specimen from Viramgam, 13-3-1905. Hume records

others (S-/., iv : 31) from Deesa, Kutch and the western coast of Kathia-

war, at Beyt and Porbunder.

Family PELECANIDAE: Pelicans.

Pelecanus onocrotalus Linn. The Rosy Pelican.

nS Pelecanus philippensis philippensis Gmelin. The Spottedbilled

" Pelican.

Pelecanus philippensis crispus Bruch. The Dalmatian Pelican.

Noted: Kutch: Pung Bet (Little Rann) at the mouth of the Banas —

River. Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal); Navlakhi. Gujarat: ©

Kharaghoda. :

Of the birds observed by the Surveys some were satisfactorily identi-

fied as onocrotalus and others as ~. philippensis. It is not unlikely that

the large gatherings may have contained f. crisbus as well since that

species is a common winter visitor to Sind and has heen noted by Hume

on the Rann of Kutch and on the western coast of Kathiawar. But the

birds were always so wild that close enough approach for definite diagno- _

sis was seldom possible: q

Lester saw about 20 Rosy Pelicans at Devisar Tank (Bhuj Dist. —

Kutch) in the winter of 1893, and Butler (S./., iv: 32) records immense

flocks of onocrotalus on some tanks in northern Gujarat during winter. —

PE philip pensis were equally common, and on the same ground.

Family PHALACROCORACIDAE : Darter, Cormorants.

| Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis (Shaw & eee The Large Indian

ormorant.

Noted: Kutch: Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Kandla. Gujarat:

Baduchi (Cambay town environs) ; Kanewal (Cambay) ; Radhanpur.

= Small numbers at tidal lagoons, duck-shooting jheels, salt pans, etc.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephen. The Indian Shag.

Noted : Kanewal (Cambay). Possibly overlooked elsewhere.

_ Phalacrocorax niger (Vieill.). The Little Cormorant.

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch: Bhuj environs; Mandvi, etc. Saurashtra: Dhari

Berne Dist.) Ghatwad (Kodinar). Gujarat: Baroda environs and

strict ; Cambay and envirous; Balaram (Palanpur) Gujarat : Viramgam,

| Resident. Common. Breeding in mixed heronries of egrets, etc. in

August (Kutch). Normal clutch 4 eggs.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. ‘The Darter or Snake-bird.

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Bhuj environs; Rapar ; Khadir Island

(Great Rann) ;Saurashtra: Dwarka; Mithapur (Okhamandal) ; Kodie

ear : Ghatwad etc. Gujarat: Baroda and environs ; Cam bay and

environs ; Palanpur, Viramgam, etc.

Resident. Common. In smaller numbers than cormorants, but

‘usually in association with them at tanks and jheels. Breeding in mixed

heronry with spoonbills, etc. in August (Kutch).

Family ARDEIDAE: Herons, Egrets, Bitterns.

_ Ardea purpurea [manilensis Meyen]. The Purple Heron.

No specimens collected. ca

Fairly common resident throughout the area. Frequent, but not

abundant. Solos at suitable waters—jheels with reedbeds, tidal man-

grove swamps, elcr =

ee in Kutch in August in mixed heronries with Cattle Egrets,

Normal clutch 3 eggs.

" Ardea cinerea [rectirostris Gould]. The Grey Heron,

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs245 2 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

GE H .

Measurements : : W B Lar. Ay

: 19 41732 120 Jossk 150

(from forehead feathers)

_ Apparently this subspecies, but I am not positive.

_ Same remarks as for the Purple Heron. Breeding in Kutch in August.

382

Butorides striatus [javanicus (Horsf.)] - - The Lattle Green Bittern.

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal),

Dhari (Amreli Dist.); Gujarat: Dediapada (Rajpipla); Waghai &

Laochali (Surat Dangs).

Soios in bushes bordering streams and tidal mangroves. Largely

crepuscular. Doubtless resident, but no data on breeding within the area.

When perched on a low branch, flicks tail like kingfisher, more rapidly.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Pond Heron.

Specimens collected: Gujarat; Gsl22 9, Gs123 @ 5-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) Gs522 #1 9-12-45 Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist.)

Measurements : WwW B Tar. ae

25'S 215-219 57-64 57-60 75-79

(from forehead feathers)

iy. 206 61 54 50

Common throughout, at ditches, ponds and tanks. Usually singly ;

occasionally loose parties. Nesting July to September in mixed heronries

with egrets and cormorants, etc. Colour of legs variable seasonally and

individually, from bright yellowish green or sage green (non-breeding )

to bright salmon pink or rose pink (breeding).

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.) The Cattle Egret.

Specimen collected : Gs155 4 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.)

Measurements : W B at. T

1g 263 69 90 97°5

Common throughout, mostly in attendance on grazing cattle. Large

numbers collect to roost at night in favourite leafy trees. Breeding in

progress July to September. Much harried by House Crows in the mixed

heronries who destroy vast numbers of eggs and young, missing no oppor-

tunity to lift them from nests howsoever momentarily left unattended.

Bluebottle flies (AZusca vomitoria) picked-off low herbage while follow-

ing cattle, figure largely in its diet. Poises bill, sways neck from side to

side like a snake to take aim, and jabs bill at fly.

Egretta alba modesta (Gray). The Large White Egret.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs220 2 14-9-43 Tuna (Anjar Dist.);

Gujarat: Gs236 @ 15-11-45 Baroda town environs ; Gs339 9, Gs340 2

21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; GS517 ¢ 9-11-45 Nadiad environs.

Measurements : W B Tati T

1d 372 115 165 ASS

4 29 337-365 97-100°5 132-160 120-138

_ All the specimens are in winter dress so there are no breast plumes to

suggest any of them being zztermedia. ‘The measurements of modesta and

intermedia overlap so considerably, with odd birds shooting up or down

from the norm, that identifying individual examples is not always satis-

factory. In the field extreme examples of the two are often impossible to

tell apart.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

383

A specimen (Q) in the B.N.H.S. collection labelled ‘ Yonywa, Sando-

way Dist. (Burma) 26-2-30 ’—also in winter plumage and without breast

plumes—is determined by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst as zztermedia. I measure

this specimen W 361; B 99, Tar. 136, T 133, therefore far exceeding the

wing measurement given for zzdermedia by Stuart Baker : ‘304-333 mm.,

once 354’ (F.B.I., vi: 347). It falls more satisfactorily within the range

of &. a. modesta, namely ‘ 354-391 mm.’ and altogether there seems no

doubt that it is misidentified.

Further, as regards colour of bill, according to published descriptions

(cf. F.B.I., vi, 345-47) this in the breeding season is black and in non-

breeding birds yellow, in both a. modesta and intermedia. In a heronry

off Kandla in the Gulf of Kutch Mr. W.T. Loke and I particularly remarked

that a number of actually breeding examples (with nest and young) of

E.. a. modesta had yellow bills! The presence of dorsal plumes and the

absence of breast plumes now made their identity undoubted. The bill

colour of breeding birds could be a dimorphic character analogous to

the colour phases of Demiegretta asha or to leg colour in breeding egrets

and pond herons (Avdeola). It is also possible that the seasonal change

in bill colour from yellow to black and vice versa is not perfectly synchro-

nized with the donning and doffing of breeding plumes.

Resident evidently over the entire area. Seen singly, as a rule, at

jheels, ponds, marshes, rivers, etc., but its identity is often confused with

the Lesser Egret (2. intermedia). Nesting was in progress in Kutch

(Kandla Creek) in August/September in a mixed heronry among man-

grove trees, shared chiefly by Reef Herons.

Egretta intermedia [intermedia (Wagler) |]. The Indian Smaller

Egret.

No specimens collected.

Observed in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat but sometimes possibly

confused with the Large White Egret. When the two species are seen

together it is usually possible to differentiate them on size. ‘The Smaller

Egret is more gregarious, as a rule, though solitaries are also not un-

common. Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August/September,

in mixed heronries.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little’ Egret.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS181 9% 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

. Dist.) ; @S1172 31-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Measurements : W B “Ar. I

20 285-290 90-93 114-115 103-104

In both the above the legs (tibia and tarsus) are black, and the feet

greenish yellow.

Common over the entire area, usually at jheels and on marsn land and

inundated ploughed fields, etc. Normally gregarious. Breeding was in

full swing in Kutch during August and September, in mixed heronries

with Cattle Egrets and Cormorants. Threequarter fledged young are

confusable with Budbulcus of comparable age, but black bill as against

dark yellowish brown in the Cattle Egret is a distinguishing character.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

‘Demiegretta asha (Sykes). The Indian Reef Heron.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks62 Qimm. 13-8-43. Bhuj environs ;

Saurashtra: op 4-447 Okha (coll. ee. :

Measurements : W =B Tee i

1 oad. 214 93 104 104

1 1mm. 265 85 | 98 85

Common along the sea coast, and about tidal creeks and mangroves.

Once seen at a freshwater tank in Kutch. Usually solitary, but nests

colonially. Feeds largely on mudfish FLO AUIS Also wades into

shallow surf and ‘ still hunts’ for small fry.

Nesting was in progress in Kandla Creek, Kutch, during August and

September on a tide-swept isiand in a mixed heronry on mangrove trees

with Large and Smaller Egrets (4. a. modesta and &. 2. intermedia).

In this colony the majority of birds were slaty blue-black. There was

no direct evidence of blue and white birds being paired together. All the

nests examined (about 8 out of over 30) contained either exclusively white

young (3 or 4 per nest), or exclusively ashy ones. Only in one nest was

there a mixture of the two phases—two chicks all-white, one all-grey. At

least one of the parents of this brood (observed feeding young) was pure

white. None of the white chicks in the colony were ever pure white, all

being dappled grey to a greater or lesser extent. (Is the juvenile plumage

also dimorphic, or do only the dappled white young turn into the white

- adult phase and the ashy become darker with subsequent moults ?)

In recently hatched chicks the naked body skin—the apteria, and also

in between the feather-buds—is yellowish grey-green; legs and feet

yellowish green and brown. Bill dark brown with a greenish tinge. Iris

greenish grey in very young chicks ; ; lighter coloured—almost whitish

grey—in older ones.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.). The Night Heron.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gsl175 ¢ + 31-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla).

Noted: Kutch: Bhuj environs; Kandla; Tuna; Lakhpat, etc.

Gujarat: Baroda city and environs ; Kanewal (Cambay) ; Viramgam.

Measurements : W B Tar. iE

1? 293 65 73 109

Resident. Not common and rather locally distributed. Crepuscular

and nocturnal Breeding in Kutch during August and September in

mixed heronries. Apparently breeds in Gujarat at other seasons also; |

the specimen of March 31 had the oviduct distended and the largest

ovarian follicles measured 2 mm.

Ixobrychus sinensis [sinensis (Gmelin) ]. The Yellow Bittern.

Not met with by the Surveys. Butler (S.7., v: 216) found two or

three pairs breeding in bulrushes by a small tank at Milana near Deesa

during the rainy season—August 1876.

5 taurus stellaris rstellaris (Linn The Bittern.

Not met with by the Surveys. Butler (S./, iv : 24, 1876) records it

Family CICONIIDAE : Storks.

Ibis leucocephalus leucocephalus (Pennant). The Painted Stork.

No specimen collected.

- The commonest stork in the area, found in ones and twos or large

_ gatherings at jheels, ponds, marshes etc., and sometimes also at streams

and tidal creeks. Breeds in August vA Beebe in large colonies on trees

standing in or near water, usually in a mixed heronry. Feeds in shallow

_ water, jabbing the partly open bill into the ooze, sometimes right up to

the gape. One leg is raised and kicked forward, a little behind and to one

side of the bill, and deliberately shaken with a raking motion, to drive the

_ quarry into the mandibles. From time to time one wing is flicked open

3 in an attempt to stampede the ‘ frozen’ quarry ; and that this manoeuvre

_ usually succeeds is apparent from the bird’s subsequent movements—the

sudden snapping of the mandibles, jerking upwards of the head and

swallowing.

oad ples

__ Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). The Openbilled Stork.

No specimen collected.

Not uncommon, throughout the area as a whole, but not abundant,

and subject to considerable local movements dependent on the monsoon.

| Seen i in twos and threes or small flocks at jheels and marshes.

Ciconia episcopa episcopa (Bodd.). The Whitenecked Stork.

. Specimen collected: Gujarat: sp212 $ 7-3-48 Chinchli (Surat

- Dangs) ; Gs644 #1 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.)

2 Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Dediapada

- (Rajpipla) ; Mahal, Galkund, Mheskatri (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : WwW B tar: at

20'S 515-519 163-171. 184-185 162-190

Iris brown; bill black, red on culmen and gonys, at tips of both

_ mandibles and along commissure ; legs and feet lake red.

Resident in Gujarat. Not uncommon, but sparse and local. Singly

or pairs at ponds and ditches, etc. Roosts at night up in branches of tall

_ trees. Stomach of one contained larvae of water beetles and a fish 3”

long. Not met with by the Kutch Survey though Lester records it

_ ‘during the cold season and rains.’ Local Mahratti name Kardok.

Ciconia ciconia ssp. The White Stork.

__ Observed only on three occasions in Gujarat (January and March) at

_Deesa (Palanpur) and in the Surat Dangs at Pimpri and Mheskatri—solos

and parties of 3 or 4. Apparently an uncommon winter visitor.

-Ciconia nigra (Linn.). The!lBlack Stork.

Not observed by the Surveys. Lester records it in Kutch during

‘Ab cold weather. Butler (S.Z., Iv : 22-1876) noted one on a tank between

} Ahmedabad and Deesa, and it may well occur in other parts of the area

also in winter season.

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus [asiaticus (Lath.)]. The Blacknecked

Stork.

No specimen collected. p

Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Bhuj environs; Anjar. Saurashtra:

Dwarka (Okhamandal); Gujarat: Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Saiat (Kaira

Dist.) ; Viramgam. |

Resident. Sparse. Occasional solos at tanks, etc. On September 10

(1943—Kandla, Kutch) a bird was observed sitting on an empty but fresh

nest on a mangrove tree-top amongst a mixed heronry on an islet in

Kandla Creek.

Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). The Adjutant.

Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsf.). The Smaller Adjutant.

Not met with by the Surveys. The late Sir Peter Clutterbuck, 1.F.s.

reported seeing both species in Kutch during the winter of 1944/45, the

former near Bhuj, the latter at Mandvi.

Butler (S.7. iv : 21—1876) considered the former rare in northern

Gujarat. He saw occasional solos and small parties of 3 to 8 birds (August

and November) usually feeding with vultures at animal carcases, but ap-

parently did not meet the Smaller Adjutant.

Family PLATALEIDAE: Ibises, Spoonbill.

Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis.

Specimen collected : Gujarat: Gs548 $1 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.)

Noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Bhuj and environs; Kandla Khavda;

Dholovira (Khadir I), etc. Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal).

Gujarat: Baroda district; Cambay district ; Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ;

Viramgam ; Kharaghoda, etc.

Measurements: W B Parr a

1d 381 185 Ds Bao ge br

(from forehead feathers)

Resident. Rather local, but in small numbers usually at tanks, etc.

Breeding in mixed heronry of Painted Storks, cormorants etc., August- —

September (Kutch). When probing into the bottom mud in shallow ~

water, the head is sometimes completely immersed momentarily. é

Pseudibis papillosus (Temminck). The Indian Black Ibis. e

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl272 g'+ 16-4-46 Mahal (Surat |

Dangs) ; Sb343 2 imm. 16-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs). Z

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Mandvi; Bhuj; Chobari (Bhachau

Dist.); Saurashtra: Veraval (Junagadh); Kodinar; ete. Gujarat:

Viramgam ; Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Radhan-

pur. ;

Measurements : W B Pat, T

iL 401 152 78 190

Simon. 390 140 82:5 182

The female was a young bird in the brown plumage, except for the

remiges and rectrices which were adult and freshly moulted, glistening

Jlue-black.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 387

Resident. Not uncommon. In family parties and flocks of up to 20 or

so. Feeds in dry fallow fields etc., often far from water. Has accustom-

ed roosts in large trees to which flocks repair nightly. Utters a loud,

nasal, screaming cry of 3 or 4 notes resembling the Brahminy Duck’s. On

November 5 (1945—Bodeli) a nest was found ca. 80 ft. up among the

snags of cut-away leaves in the head of a palmyra palm, containing 3

. hard-set pale bluish green eggs. While one bird was incubating, its mate

continued to fetch twigs and add them to the nest.

Plegadis falcinellus [falcinellus (Linn.)|. The Glossy Ibis.

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch: Bhuj (March & April, 1944 and 1945); Gujarat;

Viramgam and Kharaghoda (March 1946).

Status uncertain. I cannot trace the source of Stuart Baker's statement

(F.B.I., vi: 319) that it breeds in the Rann of Kutch, nor was I able to

obtain supporting evidence. This locality has been subsequently omitted

by him from ‘ Nidification ’ (iv: 440/1).

On one occasion a flock of over 40 was observed feeding on the edge

of a tank. The birds waded in up to the belly and often had their heads

completely submerged.

Platalea leucorodia [major Temm. & Schleg.)].. The Spoonbill.

No specimens collected.

Noted : Kutch : Bhuj and environs; Mandvi; Kandla; Chobari (Bhachau

Dist.) etc. Saurashtra: Dwarka; Mithapur (Okhamandal); Gujarat:

Viramgam ; Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Cambay town environs; Saiat (Kaira

Dist.) ; Deesa (Palanpur); Kharaghoda etc.

Resident. Common. Breeding in mixed heronries with egrets, cormo-

rants etc., August-September (Kutch).

Family PHOENICOPTERIDAE: Flamingos.

Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas). The Flamingo.

Specimens collected : Kutch: KS205 #11-9-43 Kandla. Saurashtra:

3 99 4-4-47 Mithapur, Okhamandal (coll. Devkar).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nir (Pachham I., Great Rann); Mandvi;

Pung Bet (Little Rann); Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal),

Measurements : W B Rariz ah

1 jad. 464 134 324 167

a 22 ad. 393-410 116-126 261-284 130-140

Resident. Widely dispersed on jheels, brackish lagoons, salt pans and

sea coast throughout the year and concentrating to breed on the Great

Rann off Nir (Pachham Island) in vast numbers. The breeding season

varies with the availability of requisite conditions. Normally it is

September /October, but in 1945 nesting was at its height as late as

March/April. The nest ‘ city ’ covered an area of about 100,000 square

yards with an average density of 131 nests per hundred square yards.

The number of adult birds present in this colony was estimated at

2,09,516 and the young 69,839, and the total population of flamingos

including young and non-breeding birds concentrated in the area was

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL

probably not less than half a million. For further details see JBNHS, :

45 (4) : 586-593. :

Phoeniconaias minor (Geoffr.). The Lesser Flamingo,

No specimens’ collected.

Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Nir (Great Rann) ; Pung Bet (Little Rann);

Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal). ;

Presumably resident. Usually seen in small parties by themselves or

in association with the larger species. Between 25 February and 2 March —

1946, enormous concentrations roughly estimated as close on a hundred

thousand birds, with no admixture of ruber, were observed on the flat

muddy expanse of the shallow Banas River near its mouth (opposite

Dhutari Bet) in the Little Rann of Kutch. The species has so far not been

found breeding within Indian limits, but there seems high probability of

its doing so inthe Great or Little Rann. The gathering here included

numerous birds in the brown post-juvenal plumage perhaps not more than ~

2 or 3 months old, which could well be from this undiscovered breed-

ing ground. The birds were feeding with great avidity in the bottom,

ooze. A sample of mud collected at the actual spot, ca -25 cubic foot,

when washed and strained produced only 3 red worm-like larvae ca.

5 mm. long each (Chivonomus ?). ‘The mud was soft and velvety to the

touch, of a clayey texture with no grit in it at all nor any visible organic

substances. It was reminscent of the oily sludge that collects in the

bottom of the crankcase of a motor engine. This ooze is obviously

extraordinarily rich in organic matter, since besides this immense gather-

ing of Lesser Flamingos it afforded sustenance to hundreds of thousands

of ducks and waders, all concentrated here prior to emigration. 2

Family ANATIDAE: Ducks, Geese and Swans.

Anser anser [rubrirostris Swinhoe]. The Grey Lag Goose.

No specimens collected.

According to the late Maharao Shri Vijayarajji (VBVAS, 21: 678-9)

the Grey Lag was a regular winter visitor to Chhari Dhandh (36 miles NW.

of Bhuj) in past years and provided good sport. Owing to scarcity of

rain and the consequent progressive desiccation since 1930 or thereabouts,

the Dhand has apparently disappeared and with it the wintering geese.

(Salim Ali: The Birds of Kutch, p. 158). :

Butler (S./, iv: 26—1876) recorded it as rare in northern Gujarat. In

the neighbourhood of Ahmedabad. ‘Very scarce. Seldom more than 1

or 2 shot in a season.’ (R. M. Simmons ca. 1932). Observed by Dr. H. C.

Aldrich is December and January 1931/32 and 1939 at Pariej and

Chitersumba (Kaira Dist.)

Anser albifrons [albifrons (Scopoli)]. The Whitefronted Goose.

No specimens collected. Evidently a rare winter straggler. Lester

shot 3 birds in February 1892 on a dirty village tank near Anjar (Kutch).

Anser indicus (Latham). The Barheaded Goose.

No specimens collected. According to the late Maharao Vijayarajji —

(JBNHS, 21: 678) arare winter visitor to Kutch. The surveys did not

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE Y

1. Portion of ‘Flamingo City — Great Rann of Kutch

April 1945

2. Exhausted immigrating Grey Quail sheltering under

old flamingo nest-mound,

Great Rann of Kutch

Photos by Author

‘ome across it in Gujarat or Saurashtra, nor has it been recorded by Hume

or Butler or more recent observers.

Cygnus bewickii jankowskii Alpheraky. Alpheraky’s Swan.

Specimen: o? 8-4-1947 Bhuj, Kutch (lat. 23° 15’ N) coll.

-_H.H. Maharao Madansinhji a.

Measurements : W B Der

(in flesh) o? 552 99 (from it 161

forehead feathers)

Middle toe with claw 140 mm.

One of a pair reported to have frequented Hamirsar tank, within the

town of Bhuj, since 4 or 5 days prior to its being picked up disabled on

_ the shore, presumably due to attack by a small crocodile. en ag

47 (3): 167). A unique record.

In 1870 or thereabouts Stoliczka claimed to have seen some swans

_ while crossing the Great Rann from Kutch to Pachham Island, (/.4.S.B.,

was known to be short sighted, had proLably mistaken pelicans in the

distance for swans! ~

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Lesser Whistling Teal.

No specimens collected. Resident. Fairly common locally, but not

abundant. Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August (1943).

4 Dr. H. C. Aldrich of Nadiad found a nest in a hollow in a banyan tree

near the village tank of Sandhana (Kaira Dist.) on 1 Sept. 1945, contain-

ing 17 eggs believed to be the product of a single female. (/BNAS,

22. G10)...

Dendrecygna bicolor (Vieillot’. The Larger Whistling Teal.

a Not met with by the Surveys. Included in Palin’s original list of the

birds of Kutch. ‘Ticehurst (Lozs 1923 :457) says ‘it is less common in

Kutch also than the next species (D. javanica).’

I have not been able to trace any authentic records for Kutch or

Gujarat, but there is of course no reason why it may not occur.

_ Tardorna ferruginea (Vroeg). The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy

~ Duck.

4q No specimens collected. A rare and erratic winter visitor to Kutch;

less uncommon in Gujarat, though never abundant. Usually in Bhs

and threes; once a loose flock of about 20 (Mahi River, Dabka, Baroda

Dist.) Always excessively wary and wide awake.

Todorna todorna (Linn.). The Sheldrake.

A very rare winter visitor, or vagrant. Col. C.B. O’Brien shot one

a near Bhachau (Kutch) in 1921, and it has been obtained also in Saurashtra

q (JBNHS, 26: 674). ;

_ Anas angustirostris Menetries. The Marbled Duck.

3 M. K. S. Fatehsinhji shot one in Kutch in 1940, and it has also been

Gg obtained in Saurashtra (/BNVHS, 38: 195). According to Butler (S.A,

_ iv: 30—1876) though far from common in northern Gujarat, the species

occurs on many of the tanks. It is fairly common in Sind.

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Anas acuta acuta Linn. ‘The Pintail.

Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairiy common and plentiful. Often

flocks comprised more or less exclusively of drakes.

Anas crecca crecca (Linn.). The Common Teal. ,

Specimens shot. Winter visitor; common and plentiful. One of the

earliest ducks to arrive: first date August 28 (1943—Kutch). Often in

large flocks. Enormous concentrations were observed on the shallow

expanse of the Banas River near its mouth in the Little Rann of Kutch in

early March (1946), together with many other species, notably the Gar-

ganey, presumably just before emigration.

Anas falcata Georgi. The Bronzecapped or Falcated Teal.

Vagrant. A specimen was shot by the late Maharao Vijayarajji in

Kutch on 7 February 1932 (JBN/TS, 35 : 899).

Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster. The Spotbill or

Grey Duck.

Specimen collected : Kutch: Ks223 2 + 15-9-43 Anjar.

Elsewhere noied: Kutch: Mandvi, Rudra Mata (Bhuj Dist.).

Gujarat: Timbi (Baroda Dist.) ; Dakor & Saiat-(Kaira Dist.) ; Khara-

ahoda.

Measurements : W B ars T

LQ 269 64 48 94

Resident. Breeds in Kutch during August and September. The

specimen was laying. The largest ovarian eggs measured 19x15 mm.

and the oviduct was greatly distended.

Anas platyrhyncha Linn. The Mallard.

No specimens collected. An uncommon but regular winter visitor ;

rather more plentiful in abnormally cold winters. ‘ Confined to the reedier

jheels’. (R. M. Simmons).

Anas strepera Linn. The Gadwall.

Specimens shot. Winter visitor. Common.

Anas penelope Linn. The Wigeon.

Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairly common and plentiful. Accord-

ing to Lester it arrives in Kutch later than most other species of duck.

Anas querquedula Linn. The Garganey or Bluewinged Teal.

Specimens shot. Winter visitor; common and abundant. According

to Lester it arrives in Kutch later than the Common Teal. It is also one

of the latest to leave, and he records a party of 7 as late as May 6 (1897—

JBNHS, 11 : 168).

Spatula clypeata (Linn.). The Shoveler.

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs1047 2 20-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Meastirements : W B Tar. T

gS 236 75 ey 79

Winter visitor ; common and abundant. Also amongst the last ducks

to leave. I have seen them in numbers till 24th April and Lester records

20 on a tank in Kutch as late as May 6 (1897—JBNZ'S, 11: 168).

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

Netta rufina (Pallas). The Redcrested Pochard.

Noted in Gujarat at Patan (Mehsana Dist.). Only a couple, so presu-

mably an uncommon winter visitor. Butler (S./., iv : 30—1876) writes of

_ it as not very common in northern Gujarat, but occurring on most large

tanks.

Aythya ferina (Linn.). The Pochard or Dun Bird.

Seen in small numbers in Kutch and Gujarat. Winter visitor. Fairly

-common.

Aythya nyroca (Giuldenstadt). The White-eyed Pochard:

Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; common.

Aythya fulgiula (Linn.). The Tufted Pochard.

Specimens shot. Winter visitor ; fairly common, but its abundance

varying from year to year.

Aythya marila marila (Linn.). The Scaup Duck.

A rare vagrant. One was shot by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji near

Bhavnagar (Saurashtra) on 22nd February 1935 (JBNAS, 38 : 195).

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal.

: Specimens seen: Kutch: 2 29, winter 1937, Bhimasar Tank (Anjar

Dist. Shot by M.K.S. Fatehsinhji & Sir G. Archer).

‘- Noted: Kutch: Bhuj (Humayun Abdualali); Gujarat: Harni

_ (Baroda environs) Saiat (Kaira Dist.)

; Measurements : 2 92 W 151-160 ; Tail 62-64.

a Hume (.S./., iv, 27) records it as occurring in ‘ Kattiawar ’. Resident in

-smallnumbers. Also local migrant. Breeds July to September.

4 Sarkidiornis melanotus melanotus (Pennant). The Nukta or Comb

® Duck.

: _ No specimens collected.

a Noted: Kutch: Mandvi (Changdai tank) Rudra Mata (Devisar tank)

of Bhuj environs; Gujarat: Pariej (Kaira Dist.); WVaghjipur (Mehsana

_ Dist.) ; Champaner (Godhra Dist.)

“9 Resident, in small numbers. According to Hume (S./, iv: 27)

~ ‘Common in Kathiawar’. Lester records it as breeding in Kutch during

: the rains in holes in cliffs. Normally it nests in tree-holes.

. Mergus albellus Linnaeus. The Smew.

a Butler (S.Z., iv: 31-1876) saw it occasionally on some tanks in northern

= Gujarat. He describes itaS very uncommon and excessively shy. It

has not been recorded from Kutch or Saurashtra.

te . Family ACCIPITRIDAE: Hawks Vultures etc.

Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). The Blackwinged Kite.

4 Specimens collected ; Gujarat: Gs4l1 2 30-10-1945, Gs49 7, Gs50

— 31-10-45. Ajwa (Baroda Dist; \GSo71 og 21- 12-45 Saiat (Kaira

Dist.) ; Gs639 4 18-12-45, Gs672 2 20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ;

i cs820 Q 4-1-46 Radhanpur. Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi;

‘ers

= us

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIET ep

Jakhau ; Bhuj environs ; Bela Island Great Rann); Anjar ; Gagodar etc. 4

Saurashtra: Ghatwad (Kodinar); Kharaghoda; Gulkund (Surat —

Dangs). ;

Measurements : W B Tar. oo &

3A 270-276) a0 Dees 30-31, 120-1225. 4

aS 274-283 Deo 235 35-36 125-130

Fairly common, but sparse and local. Affects dry scrub-and-grass

country in open cultivation and waste land. A colony hadits roostina

“small leafy Pithecolobium saman tree in the compound of Ajwa Rest

House (Baroda Dist., 30 October). Fifteen or more birds would converge

on this from all points of the compass over the surrounding expanse of

tall grass every evening at dusk. In fading light the wing action of an

oncoming bird is ‘ angular’ and reminiscent ofa flying fox. Stomachs

of specimens contained remains of field mice and rats. The gonads of

es41, cs49 and Gs50 (30-31 October) were slightly enlarged, but not

sufficiently to provide any indication of the breeding season.

Pernis ptilorhynchus _ ruficollis Lesson. The Crested Honey

Buzzard.

Specimens collected. Kutch: Ks 330 2 3-3-1944 Bhuj; Gujarat:

GS755 Q 30-12-45, Gs772 2 31-12-45, Gs823 2, Gs824 of, Gs825 ¢,

4-1-1946 Radhanpur ; Gs873 # 11-1-46, Gs901 #1 13-1-16 Deesa (Palanpur).

Elsewhere noted: Balaram (Palanpur); Mahal (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. sl

4dg 382-404 36-38 49-57 245-262

ee cad 400-445 38°5—42 55:-69 250-276

This series contains examples in every phase of coloration from dark,

more or less uniform umber brown below (as in the dark form of Aguzdla

vapax vindhiana) with broad brownish grey band in tail (anterior to the

black subterminal band), to almost white below with broad or narrow dark

brown streaks along the shafts of the feathers on the breast and under-

parts, and wavy narrow bars and mottling of grey and brown in the tail.

In this latter plumage the underparts resemble one phase of Wzeraétus

pennatus, a bird of rather similar proportions. The deeper, stronger bill, —

feathered legs and absence of scale-like feathers on lores, forehead and ©

cheeks, and the unbarred under aspect of the tail distinguishes the Booted ~

Eagle from the honey Buzzard in this comparable colour phase. a

In some of the Gujarat specimens the whitish underparts are barred

with broken brown bands; in others the underparts are brown similarly —

cross-barred with white. The dark brown shaft streaks are present in ©

both phases. Whether any of my specimens belong to the typical race of —

Java or to the Siberian oxzentalis it is not possible to determine for want

of suitable comparative material. It would appear that wing size and —

y(t x 100)

‘ tail-wing index are the ultimate criteria between the races. —

The tail-wing index of the specimens ranges between 62 and 64.8, there- —

fore conforming with Stresemann’s dictum! that the tail-wing index of

vuticolizs is usually under 65. :

1 Archiv tir Naturgeschichte, 1940 : 137-193.

I find, however, that determination of the races satisfactorily with

any degree of confidence is by no means a simple matter. Honey

Buzzards were common in the Radhanpur area during the last week of

December 1945 and the first week of January 1946. A congregation

of 8 or 10 birds roosted in large neem and other trees in Jorawar Bagh

on the outskirts of the town, and others similarly in the compound

of Lalbagh Palace, within municipal limits. It is just possible that all 3

- races, or at least one other besides rzficoll7s, were represented in these

- gatherings. My notes show that of the 3 specimens collected on 4-1-1946,

_ two with many narrow cross-bars in the tail were also very fat, whereas

the third which had the typical broad grey-and—black banded tail of

vuticollts was not. The same was noted in the rest of the specimens :

birds with narrow tail bars were fat; those with the broad bands lean,

suggesting that the fat birds belonged to the migratory Palaearctic

species.

The call-note uttered as the birds flew about was a rather kitelike long-

_ drawn whistling whee-cew. Presumably it was also this same call that was

once heard during night in the Surat Dangs subsequently, and if it can be

confirmed that Pesnzs sometimes does call during the night then the mys-

terious ‘owl’ referred to in my Central India Ornithological Survey

Report (JBNAZS, 41; 475) was probably no other than this species.

Milvus milvus (Linn). The Red Kite.

' No specimen obtained. Over 50 of these birds collected for scraps in

the neighbourhood of my camp on Pung Bet (near Adesar, Little Rann)

Kutch (March 1945) where several specimens of wild ass for the British

Museum were being skinned. This kite has not hitherto been recorded

from Indian limits, but close examination through glasses, several days

running, left no doubt whatsoever of its identity. The overall rust-brown

coloration with paler (whitish) head, dark-streaked brown breast, the very

bright rufous tail and white underwing patch were quite diagnostic.

The squealing whistle was similar to the Pariah Kite’s, but shriller.

It is probable that the Red Kite is a regular winter visitor to Kutch

but has been overlooked, though its deeply forked rufous tail would seem

sufficiently distinctive.

Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. The Common Pariah Kite.

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs234 9 + 12-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.); Gs913 g’ 13-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); GslU81 2 +4 21-3-46

Kharaghoda

_. Measurements : W B 7 bare T

Ad: oe 458 37 53 290

4 - Acommon resident in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat. Usually about

, q

ea.

: FE

_ towns and villages and herdsmen’s encampments, and wherever the pros-

pects of refuse and garbage are promising. Breeding from September to

_ end March.

_Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). The Becta Kite.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: G@s375 ? 23-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

3 _ Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Anjar

rey |

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, Vol.

Gujarat: Ajwa, Bodeli (Batoda Dist.) ; Balaram (Palanpar) ; -Juna ay

pipla ; Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; Mahal (Surat Dangs).

Not common, but usually present on the larger rivers and streams.

Breeding was in pie during April.

Accipiter badius dussumieri (Temm. & faeces The Indian

Shikra.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs69 df 16-8-43, Ks70 9+ 17-8-43°

Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gs77 2 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.);

Gs179 § 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs306 2 19-11-45, Gs357 2 +

21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs390 $ 27-11-45, Gs445 of 1-12-45,

Gs497 2 6-12-45 Cambay town environs; Gs914 Q 14-1-45 Deesa

(Palanpur); sbD39 Q 26-2-48 Galkund ; sp47 9 27-2-48 Malegaon; sp129

oJ 2-3-48 Galkund; sp160 #1 5-3-48 Pandwa; sp139 2 3-3=48 Galkund ;

spd295. ¢' 14-3-48 Mahal; sp390 2 20-3-48 Sarwar (sp series = Surat

Dangs).

Measurements : W B bar T

738 179-206 18°5-21 © 50-54 - 137-166

8 29 206-222 2I5—23 51-55 160-175

The commonest of the smaller hawks. Affects wooded country —

generally. Its favourite haunts are groves of trees in the neighbourhood

of villages and cultivation. General moult in August and also in March—

body, rectrices, remiges. No direct evidence of the breeding season was

obtained, though Lester gives it as March/April for Kutch. Stomachs

examined contained remains of skinks, large insects and small birds.

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell). The Asiatic Sparrow-Hawk.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: @s441 3 30-11-45 Cambay town

environs; GS1171 2 31-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gsl3ll # 21-4-46.

Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : EN <B Tar. 7

i gad. 207 19 "59 150

1 o& sub-ad. 202 18°5 56 151

1 2 ACs os, EAS Yo 22 60 1733

Winter visitor. Not common, but may easily be confused with the

shikra to which it is superficially very close. Stomach of one contained

remains of a Yellowthroated Sparrow ( ‘Gymnorhis).

Butler GSI; 11 445) found it sparingly in the plains and hills, Of 33

Northern Gujarat in winter. Hume saw a specimen shot by Stoliczka in —

Kutch, and maeaions that it is apparently very rare in ‘ Kattiawar’.

Accipiter apeubiis ssp. ie i ti

‘Hume mentions that Stoliczka obtained a SEDI of young birds 4 in

Kutch (S.F,, tii : 445-1875).

-Buteo [rufinus (Cretzschmar)]. The Buzzard.

_ Specimens not obtained.

Noted: Kutch: Anjar; Thonn (Wegad Dist) Not in Gujarat

or Saurashtra—possibly overlooked.

THE BIRDS OF ‘GUJARAT 395

_. A sparse winter visitor to Kutch, much commoner in some years than

in others. The heavy build and somewhat sluggish habit, together with

the overall reddish brown plumage, buff coloured rounded tail and buff

underwing patches provide clues to its identity when perched and in

overhead flight.

Butler (S./., iii : 447) says it arrives in northern Gujarat about 12th

September, and is not very common.

Butastur teesa (Franklin). The White-eyed Buzzard. —

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs95 Q 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gsl28 ? 5-11-45, Gs180 2 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; ¢s367

2, GS368 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs460 2 2-12-45 Golana

(Cambay) ; GS523 1 9-12-45 Nadiad town environs (Kaira Dist.) ; Gs719

@ 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana); sp145 ¢' + 4-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi;. Jakhau; Bhuj. Saurash-

tra: Dhari (Amreli Dist.) Kodinar; Ghatwad ; Dalkhania.

Measurements : W B Var. iy

3d 292-304 28—31°5 62-67 169-180

G42 295-312 29°5-32 (55)61-68 170-185

; ~The commonest hawk in the area. Affects dry, open, cultivated and

_- sparse scrub-and-bush country; usually seen perched on a tree-top or

- pole. Its food is chiefly snakes, lizards, mice and large insects. From

the crop of one a watersnake, Z7vofidonotus stolatus, 15 inches long was

removed. Another was observed walking about purposefully overa patch

of recently burnt grassland, with some of the rubbish still smouldering,

looking no doubt for freshly roasted lizards etc.! Breeding was in pro-

gress in March.

Spiza¢tus cirrhatus cirrhatus (Gmelin). The Crested Hawk-Eagle.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl129 2 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla ;

GS1170 ff 1-3-46, Gs1188 2 3-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Elsewhere noted : Galkund (Surat Dangs)

Measurements : © | WwW 7B War a

1d 392 35 106 ZIT

2 os ~ 410-445 41 105-106 286-335

No. Gs1129, apparently subadult, has a buffy or brownish white head;

ey crest normal black with white apical edge. Underparts uniform buffy

- white with faint, sparse, fine brown shaft streaks on breast. Tips and

inner webs of greater upper wing coverts largely buffy white.

bas Not uncommon in forested country. Usually solos perched bolt

upright on outgrowing branches, hidden in the canopy foliage of tall trees

: whence it can keep a good lookout over a natural glade or cultivation

: - clearing for prey venturing into the open. One observed in aerial display

— on] April (1946), high up.in the air, stooping with great velocity and

ag ‘looping the loop’ completely. No more precise data as to breeding

were obtained.

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot). Bonelli’s Eagle.

% Specimens collected : Kutch: KS338 2 7-3-1944 Bhuj. Gujarat:

68735 f+ 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs892 $1 12-1-46 Deesa

_ (Palanpur) ; Gs319 ¢ 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) roy

eat:

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIET:

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: pate (Boj Dist.)'; Gujarat: 74

Vaghjipur (Mehsana). i

Measurements : W B Tar. ae :

20d 468-475 42-49 103-104 246-2 56

2 490-498 47-49 106-110 254-270

Colours of soft parts of Gs319: Iris damaged ; bill plumbeous, black

at tip ; cere and feet greenish lemon yellow ; claws horny black. <4

In the pale brown plumage, distinguishable in flight from Aguila

vabax (in comparable colour phase) by its slenderer build, narrower

wings and proportionately longer and square-ended (against rounded)

tail. One was observed devouring a paddy bird (Avdeola grayii) on the

ground. Another was busy tearing up and demolishing a pariah kite

nestling calmly and composedly with the frantic parents innocuously

stooping at it again and again! The stomach of a-specimen contained i

fur, apparently a hare’s.

Breeding was in progress in December, but presumably commences a

month or so earlier. In October a pair were observed carrying large

sticks and tangles of twigs in their feet to a massive old nest of sticks on

the topmost ramparts of Bhujia Fort (Kutch).

Kirke Swann (‘A Monograph of the Birds of Prey’, Part xi: 73) F

recognises a large Indian breeding race, H. f. grandis (Hodgson), giving

its wing measurements as ‘o' 465-495; 2 505-530’. Besides being

larger it is said to average a little darker; more buffish less pure white

below ; abdomen more heavily marked ; thighs a more uniform brown, _

- striped with blackish and a little mottled with white. No. Gs319 con-

forms with this description, and should the race be resuscitated this _

specimen must be considered as belonging to it. It had a mature ovary

(largest follicles over 2 mm.) and was apparently ready to breed. ‘S

Hieraéts pennatus (Gmelin). The Booted Eagle.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS736 Q 27-12-45 Patan (leheaas 4

Dist.) ; GS754 Q 30-12-45, GS771 9 31-12-45 Radhanpur. -

Elsewhere noted : Gujarat: Cambay town environs; Deesa (Palan- —

pur). “4

A specimen was collected in Kutch by the Maharao in 1896 and two ~

more by Sir Geoffrey Archer in 1939/40. eS

Measurements : W B Tar. Ay

Eee 385-423 34-36 65-69 204-225

I do not know how far, if at ail, the race MTOTEES of Jerdon is tenable. ©

Kirke Swann (op. cit., Part xi : 79) says it is ‘larger than HZ. p. Pennatus. a

Wing & 375-405 ; 2 425- 530 ; the head with a rudimentary crest . é

These Gujarat specimens possess no rudimentary crest and ‘their E

measurements agree with the typical race which, however, Kirke Swann ~

does not give as a winter visitor to India at all! Hartert (V6g. pal. Fauna, —

ii: 1113) mentions Indian collected specimens as being larger, but he :

does not consider the naming of an Indian race worth while. With this

Ripley and I agree. a

This eagle also has dark and pale plumage phases. In the dark umber —

brown phase it resembles the immature Brahminy Kite (/faliastur indus) —

on the wing, but has a proportionately longer and paver ee tail, aga

JONES in the Brahminy.

A number of Booted Eagles collected to roost every evening

_ (December) in the large leafy tamarind, casuarina and other trees in the

rambling old neglected compounds of Lalbagh and Jorawar Bagh palaces,

and the species was fairly common in the Radhanpur area.

: On 12 January a stick nest like a crow’s near the top of a Prosopis

- tree in semidesert country (Deesa) presumably held young. One of the

__- parent eagles was bringing food to the nest. A shikra was observed haunt-

ing the tangle of branches below the nest, and to work his way up to it each

time the owner left, and help himself to the food. He promptly slipped

3 down into the thorny tangle upon return of the owner, and remained

there quietly till the nest was again left unattended ! When shot on the

nest in this act of pilfering, blobs of freshly extracted brain were found

adhering to his bill. It could not be ascertained whether this was the

brain of a nestling eagle which he had murdered, or belonged to some

quarry which the parent had brought to the nest. But for a certain element

of doubt, this would be the first authentic recent record of AY. pennatus

breeding in peninsular India. Unfortunately I was unable to satisfy myself

- that this nest actually did contain young at the time. And in view of the

hhabit of many birds of prey to use old nests—usually their own, it is

_true—as larders or feeding tables even in the non-breeding season, the

evidence is rather vitiated. I failed to secure the specimen of the eagle.

Gonad examination could possibly have settled the doubt.

Aquila heliaca heliaca Savigny. The Imperial Eagle.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs430 2 27-2-1946 Pung Bet (Little

Rann) ; Gujarat: Gs505 9 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira Dist.)

Elsewhere not definitely identified, but several of the large eagles

sparsely dotted about on the bare ground in the Little Rann of Kutch,

where KS430 was secured, were probably this species.

Measurements : W B ar: a

2.22 630-632 60-66 102-105 284-328

Iris yellowish brown ; cere and gape yellow ; bill plumbeous, blackish

at tip ; legs and feet chrome yellow ; eyeshade and eyelid yellow.

The stomach of Gs505 contained a recently swallowed Russell’s Viper

(Vipera russelli), 14 inches long, and remains of a Common Sandpiper

_ (Actitis hypoleucos) ; that of Gs430 had the remains of two large Fat-

tailed Lizards ( Uvomastzx).

Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin. The Indian Tawny Eagle.

“ai Specimens collected: Saurashtra: Gsl013 #+ 16-3-1946 Dal-

_ khania (Amreli Dist.); Gujarat: Gs318 9+ 20-11-45 Gs374 9+

23-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs378 9+ 27-11-45 Cambay town

environs; GS588 9 15-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs821 2+

_ 4-1-46, Gs842 39 6-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs1130 2 juv. 29-3-46, Gs1189 ¢

_ 3-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; sD131 2 2-3-48 Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : Wiese B Tar. fils

23s 500-503 50-51 80-87 251-252

6 2° 510-528 48-55 84-91 242-264

Colours of soft parts : Adul¢: iris yellow brown; cere and gape lemon

yellow; bill horny black, plumbeous at base of lower mandible ; feet

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Bee hie ee

yellow, claws horny black. In specimen Gs588 ge very pale buff plum-

age) cere ivory white.

The above series contains almost every alia phase from dark ee

brown (almost black) to pale cream or buff.. This wide ‘range of colour

variation makes the Tawny Eagle a difficult bird to identify with certainty

in the field, particularly in winter when several other migratory eagles are

also present. Perhaps even more so in the museum when jumbled up with

skins of the other eagles of varying ages, e.g. Aguzla nipalensis, and

when the measurements overlap. I can see no overwhelming reason for

not considering vapax and nipalensis as conspecific. |

A common resident species over.the entire area. Breeding was in

progress between November and March. The crop of one specimen

contained fresh and not very mangled remains of a Grey Quail (Connie

and a Bush-Quail (Perdicula).

Aquila nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson. The Eastern Steppe Eagle.

Specimen collected: Kutch: Ks431 # 27-2-1946 Pung Bet (Little

Rann).

Elsewhere not definitely identified, but some of the large eagles

perched on the bare ground along the edge of the ‘ bet’ (island) where

this one was shot, were apparently this species.

MEG ERE ; W B Par ils

1g 570 ores 98 288

In worn plumage and moulting primaries. Iris grey-brown ; cere and

gape pale yellow; biil horny plumbeous, black at tip ; feet yellow ; claws

black. Stomach empty at IT-acm: :

The specimen is in immature plumage, streaked on 1 the breast. Head

pale golden brown with a buff patch on nape. On the whole similar to

the phase described for ‘ young birds’ under 4. heliaca in (F.B.1., v: 69).

Aquila clanga Pallas. The Greater Spotted Eagle.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs506 Q 8-12-45 Pariej_ (Kaira

Dist.) ; GS937 3+, GS938 9+ 19-1-46 Hathidhara (Palanpur).

Elsewhere not identified with certainty.

Measurements : Ww B | Tar. re

2 $¢ 533-545 52-55 90-105 260-272

Usually seen in the neighbourhood of jheels. At 5-30 p.m., at the

end of what one would imagine to be the foraging day, the stomach of

Gs506 was quite empty. Of the other two, one contained an entire

chamaeleon with a Calotes lizard, and the other, remains of a Whitebreasted

Kingfisher (/alcyon smyrnensis) including the complete head and bill.

Gs937 and Gs938 were a pair. Testes of male 17x7 mm.; largest

ovarian follicle of female over'3 mm. diameter. ‘The birds were either

breeding or quite ready to breed, and if their identification is correct this

will be the first authentic presumptive evidence of 4. danga breeding

within Indian peninsular fe

SLA ER BIRDS OF GUYARAT 8 7 399

Ictinaétus malayensis [perniger (Hodgs.)].. The Black Eagle. :

_ Definitely. observed only once — a single bird beating over teak and

mixed deciduous forest at Jambughoda (Gujarat), 11-11-1945.

‘Haliaétus leucogaster (Gmelin). The Whitebellied Sea Eagle.

Not met with by the Surveys nor recorded from the area by Butler

or Hume. Mr. Harinarayan Acharya of Ahmedabad gives an accurate

description of a bird he saw on Gobhlaj lake, 18 miles south of Ahmeda-

bad on 9-2-1936 which was presumably this species. This freshwater

lake is about 50 miles from the nearest sea coast to which this eagle is

normally restricted. An unusual record.

Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

Occasional solos were observed on the Mahi River at Golana

_ (Cambay), and on the Banas River (Palanpur). According to Butler,

occurs sparingly throughout the plains in the well watered districts of

northern Gujarat, to which Hume adds Kutch and Saurashtra as well.

Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus [ichthyaétus (Horsfield)]. The Grey-

headed Fishing Eagle.

Noted only at Balaram (Palanpur), a pair on a perennial rocky forest

stream with shingly bed and rock pools. Perches upright and motionless

on boughs of riverbank trees. In flight the comparatively short white tail

and white abdomen and vent are conspicuous. Call: a single screaming

note, not particularly loud, of the timbre of the Grey Hornbill’s (Zockus

birostris) ‘laugh’. vo

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli). The Black or King Vulture.

_. Observed in small numbers throughout the area. On 10 March (1944)

a nest with c/1 was found on the ‘ roof’ of a kandi tree (Prosopis spicd-

gera), about 12 ft. up, growing amongst sand-dunes near Mandvi (Kutch).

A pair of Whitethroated Munias (Uvoloncha malabarica) were constantly

entering and leaving the pile of sticks right under the brooding owner,

and evidently had their nest within. Nesting was in progress in Kutch

generally during March.

It will bear reiteration that this vulture’s reputation for boldness and

pugnacity is entirely fictitious. Ifa ‘ King’, it is certainly a very timid

and constitutional one !

Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus). The Cinereous Vulture.

A rare straggler. An example was picked up dead by Mr. Harinara-

yyan Acharya near Ahmedabad on 25-12-1949 (JAN'S, 49: 307). He

measured it as Wing 770; Tail 390 mm. The only other record for Guja-

rat is of one seen feeding on the carcase of a Painted Stork (/bzs leucoce-

phalus) by Capt. A. E. Butler in the winter of 1870 (S.F., iii : 441).

Four birds were observed by me on the ground in the Little Rann of

Kutch near Sandher in Radhanpur territory, on 3-1-1946.

Gyps fulvus ssp, The Fulvous Vulture.

A few examples of this vulture, distinguishable from others by its

enormous size and distinctly reddish-fulvous or cinnamon coloration,

-_were observed at various times during the Kutch survey, August 1943 to

“,

ac.

ees

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

March 1944. In Gujarat it was only noted in the neighbourhood of

Deesa (Palanpur). The commoner Gyps indicus has often been mistaken

by observers for this species.

Gyps indicus ssp. The Longbilled Vulture.

Noted: Kutch: Mandvi. Gujarat: Ajwa and Dabka (Baroda

Dist.); Cambay town environs; Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Deesa —

(Palanpur); Songadh (Navsari Dist.) In smaller numbers than the

Whitebacked Vulture at animal carcases. Possibly nests on the cliffs

about Salher Fort.

Gyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The Whitebacked Vulture.

‘The commonest vulture in the whole area. Birds on nests were seen

in numbers, and generally, between December and February. Large

tamarind, mango and Ficus trees are usually selected on the outskirts of

towns and villages. Flying young were first noted on 31 March (Dedia-

pada, Rajpipla).

Neophron percnopterus ssp. The White Scavenger Vulture.

Fairly common over the whole area. Nesting in Kutch during August.

Turrets and ledges in crumbling old forts and buildings, niches and

hollows in weathered sandstone scarps are favourite sites for the filthy

nests, and the droppings of the birds whitewashing the surroundings give

them away from afar.

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin). The Pale Harrier.

Specimens collected: Kutch: £8195 9 9-9-1943 Ratnal Cbtweos

Bhuj & Kandla); Gujarat: Gs151 §¢ 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ;

Gs440 1 30-11-45 Cambay town environs; Gs519 7, Gs520 9, Gs521 Q

9-12-45 Nadiad town environs (Kaira Dist.); Gs828 2 4-1-46 Radhanpur;

GS1108 @ + 26-3-46 Rajpipla town environs; sp201 2 6-3-48 Pandwa

(Surat Dangs).

Measurements: WwW | B Tar. T

4a SS 347-355 25-27 69-70 207-222 =

5 29 350-376) 27-5531 (67) 72-78 222-240,

Fairly common winter visitor. Earliest seen 24 August(Mandvi, Kutch); |

latest 29 March (Rajpipla). According to Butler (S./,, iii : 447) arrivesin

northern Gujarat (Deesa) about 2 August. Solos, in graceful flight, skim-

ning the tops of standing crops, or scrub and bushes, in open country.

Gonads of a specimen on 26 March showed a slight development ; an indi-

vidual flying purposefully, with steady wing beats, about 400 ft, upin a

due N. direction on 29 March (7-30 a.m.) was evidently emigrating. 4

Circus pygargus (Linnaeus). Montagu’s Harrier. 4

No specimens collected, and not definitely identified in the field, but it —

must doubtless often be confused with C. macrourus on account of their —

great superficial similarity. Lester (‘ Birds of Cutch ’, 2nd. ed.) considered —

it equally common with the Pale Harrier in Kutch during the winter —

months. In the hand the surest way to distinguish the two species —

seems to be the shorter tarsus of C. pygargus, normally under 65 mm.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT or 401

Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus). The Marsh Harrier.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs1041 2 19-3-1946 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Mandvi. Saurashtra:

Mithapur (Okhamandal) Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Golana

3 ae (Cambay); Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Balaram (Palanpur); Laochali

(Surat Dangs).

Measurements : ‘ W B Tar. T

die. 413 36 96 Dail

Winter visitor. Fairly common, singly, at jheels and marshes. Butler

(S.Z., iti: 448) saw ‘ young’ birds in the dark blackish brown plumage,

with buffy white heads (female plumage), as early as the beginning of July

in the neighbourhood of Deesa, Hume comments on this ‘. . .a few pairs

certainly remain to breed in Southern, Central and Northern India.’

There is no authentic record of the Marsh Harrier ever having bred within

- Indian limits.

Circaétus gallicus gallicus (Gmelin). The Short-toed Eagle.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GSl150 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.); GSs369 f+ 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs683 2 21-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs807 9 2-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs900 24 13-1-46

Deesa (Palanpur).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nakhatrana, Khari Rohar, Nir (Pachham

Island). Mandvi. Saurashtra: Okha. Gujarat: Champaner;

Golana, Cambay; Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) Kharaghoda ; Songadh (Navsari

Dist.) etc.

Measurements W B ats 4 hee

20d 520-525 45-46 93-98 277-283

a 2 538-550 47-48 94-96 287-288

Fairly common in dry sand-dune and open country with cultivation

and sparse scrub, and dotted with babul trees. Keeps a look-out from

the tops of trees, and also hovers cumbrously 40 or 50 ft. up in the air to

~espy snakes and lizards which form a considerable proportion of its diet.

One bird when flying over and hit by shot, suddenly jinked and dis-

gorged a snake, about 12” long, in mid air but instead of jettisoning it,

promptly transferred it to its talons and flew on complacently with the

reptile dangling below! Another, after hovering stationary at 1300 to

1500 ft. above the plain (i.e. about 300 ft. above the summit of Songadh

Fort) pulled in its wings and dived at an almost vertical angle (ca. 70%)

on to the fallow cultivation right at the base of the hill to seize some

quarry, bespeaking phenomenal keenness of sight.

Breeding was in progress between November and February. During

this period pairs are often seen flying in circles high up in the air uttering

a kite-like pzecou, piceou, etc.

Spilornis cheela minor (Hume). The Crested Serpent Eagle.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs945 2 20-I-46 Balaram (Palan-

pur) ; GS1154 9 30-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gs1088 9+ 25-3-46 Juna

: Raipipla.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Mahal and Laochali (Surat Dangs).

por

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY Vole 52 |

Saurashtra: Dalkhania (Amreli Dist. ); Bhavnagar (specimen :

Dharmakumarsinhji). Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : WwW B Par. aes

3.22 469-481 43-48 | 99-109 290-315

All the above are with unbarred breast and grey tail band diagnostic

of this race. A male received from K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji (Bhavna-

gar, 26-11-1947) in worn plumage has a wing of 440 + mm. (tips worn).

It has the barred breast and black chin and throat of typical S. ¢. cheela.

This may either be a migrant from N. India or an aberrant throwback to

the typical race as suggested by Whistler (Mysore Survey, /BNVAS,

44:21).

Not uncommon is deciduous forest country where its presence is adver-

tised by the characteristic prolonged screaming call hee-kee-kee as pairs soar

high up in the heavens. This call is usually prefaced by three short

notes like pu-pu-fu quickly upeated in undertones and audible only at

short range. Breeding was in progress in March.

Pandion haliaetus haliactus (Linn.). The Osprey.

Specimen collected : Gujarat: GS822 9 4-1-46 Radhanpur.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi. Saurashtra: Dwarka;

Viramgam. Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Golana, Cambay ; Vaghji-

pur (Mehsana Dist.).

Measurements : W a 3 Warsz , dis

dha Gey, 43 61 251

Winter visitor, not abundant but usually one or two present on most

of the larger rivers and jheels. One was observed to plunge headlong

after a fish from about 40 feet up where it was hovering in the air, with a

great splash, becoming completely submerged, It wrestled for several

seconds with the quarry, bobbing. up and down in the water as if struggl-

ing to keep afloat. Finally it rose clear, flying heavily with the weight of

the large fish which it successfully managed to drag along the surface

and land on the bank.

Family FALCONIDAE: Falcons.

Falco jugger J. E. Gray. The Laggar Falcon.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks253 #+ 20-9-43 Rapar; Ks421

Q juv. 29-3-44 Bela Island (Great Rann). Gujarat: Gs261 # 17-11-45,

GS333 2 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs788 4 1-1-1946 Radhanpur ;

Gs859 7, GS860 1 10-1-46, Gs903 ~+4 13-1-46 Deesa environs (Palan-

pur) Saurashtra: Gsl026 9+ 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mata-no-Madh; Chobari (Bhachau

Dist.) ; Dholovira (Khadir Island); Bhuj; Khavda Pachham Island.

Saurashtra. Dwarka,

Measurements : W : B , oPar. Ad

6 316-335 25= ik 49-53 165-183

SS. 357-360 2iaol 46-54 186-210

Resident. Fairly common. Breeding in March, but a male collected in

Kutch on September also had moderately developed testes. KS421 is a

juvenile which left the nest with wobbly unsteady flight when it was

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 403

climbed up to. Its two other nest-companions were more advanced in

development and just managed to flutter away. Its soft parts were noted

as follows: Iris brown; bill bluish grey, brownish near tips of both :

mandibles ; legs and feet pale grey; claws horny black. ‘The nest, a large

stick platform with a deep centre, was 30 ft. up in a peepal tree on the

outskirts of a village. Stomachs of adults contained feathers and remains

of birds (including, in one case, two entire legs of Avgya caudata), skin

and fur of some rodent, and grasshoppers. A laggar regularly frequented

one of our camps and carried off the carcases of skinned birds thrown

outside.

Falco peregrinus ssp. The Peregrine Falcon.

No specimens collected. Observed: Kutch: Nakhatrana (2 Sept.) ;

Rapar (19 Sept.) ; Pung Bet (Little Rann, 1 March) Gujarat: Khara-

ghoda (19 March). Solos observed by Dr. H. C. Aldrich at Nadiad, Kaira

Dist., in December 1944 and November 1945. Stoliczka shot one in: Kutch

and Hume obtained it at Dwarka, Saurashtra (S./., iit: 443—1875),

Winter visitor. Not common, and occasional.

Falco peregrinoides babylonicus Sclater. The Redcapped Falcon.

Specimens collected: Gs818 ,3-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gs874 Q 11-1-46

Deesa (Palanpur).

Elsewhere not noted. Recorded from Kutch De ester and more

recently by Sir Geoffrey Archer (specimen).

Measurements : W B ate aT

eis eres 276 AT es 45 122

ro 281 Sea ae) 39 133

Winter visitor. Met with in semi-desert country with sand mounds

Capparis bushes and scattered trees of Prosopis spicigera etc. One

_ stomach contained a leg and other remains of Passer (? domesticus).

Falco subbuteo ssp. The Hobby.

No specimens obtained. Single birds were observed in ketene at Nir

(Greaf Rann) and Mandvi, in October and March. One was chasing a

tired-out willow warbler just arriving on migration across the open expanse

of the Great Rann. By keeping to the stony hillocky country about the

base of Kala Dongar (along the northern edge of the Rann) in the autumn

migration season, these little falcons doubtless reap a rich harvest of ex-

hausted incoming small birds. Neither Butler nor the Gujarat Survey

‘came across it in the plains of Gujarat. |

Falco chicquera chicquera Daudin. The Redheaded Merlin.

Specimens collected. Kutch: xs79 2 18-8-1943 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.) ; KS113 § 24-8-43 Mandvi. Gujarat: Gs94 % 2-11-1945 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.); Gs389 ¢ 27-11-45 Cambay town environs; Gs829 3

5-1-46 Radhanpur.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Lakhpat ; Dholovira; Nir ; Padhar.

Measurements : W B Tar. fe

4d | 200-207 19-24 37-40:°5 125-137,

12 230 = 41 156

In the last week of August, KS113 was moulting primaries and

- rectrices. Fairly common. Frequents semidesert in the neighbourhood

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOC

of cultivation. Usually seen in pairs hunting in close co-ordination, one bird —

pursuing and the other heading off the quarry. Stomachs contained re-

mains of small birds. Curiously enough, the stomach of one shot at

sunset was completely empty! No dataas to breeding were provided by

the specimens.

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linn. The Kestrel.

Specimens collected: Suarashtra: B4 @ 12-10-43 Dwarka. —

Gujarat: Gs93 # 21-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist,); Gs217 9 10-11-45

Jambughoda; Gs356 @ 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); cGs398 2 —

28-11-45 Cambay town environs; Gs486 4-12-45 Golana, Cambay;

Gs650 91 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs721 jf Patan (Mehsana ~

Dist.) ; Gs1046 $ 20-3-46 Kharaghoda. : —

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Anjar; Rapar; Bhachau ; Mandvi;

Dholovira etc. Saurashtra: Okha; Dhari: Dalkhania; Kodinar etc.

Gujarat: Radhanpur ; Deesa; Palanpur; Pariej (Kaira Dist., specimen:

H. C. Aldrich).

Measurements : W B Tar, Tt:

6 J 2363-255 >. 40 3-22 41—46 155=175

ad die 243-260 20-22 — 41-43 158-180

A common winter visitor, Earliest date 30 August (Bhuj); latest 29

March (Adesar, Little Rann.)

Usually solos hovering, or on favourite look-out posts—mounds,

telegraph poles, dead trees, etc. One individual came in to roost every

night (November) on a rolled-up sun blind in the first floor verandah of

the Rest House at Ajwa !

It is not unlikely that the resident race of the kestrel, F. ¢. objurgatus,

breeds on the cliffs about Fort Salher (ca. 5000 ft.) in Navsari Dist. The —

western aspect of this hill is a sheer cliff with suitable-looking nesting

sites. In March (1948) 2 or 3 pairs (race ?) were observed disporting

themselves around this escarpment in a very suggestive manner, shooting —

high up in the air with the wind, and hovering in a way quite distinct 2

from hunting—rather like the display of Astur badius at breeding time.

Family PHASIANIDAE: Junglefowl, Partridges, Quails.

Francolinus francolinus ssp. The Black Partridge.

Specimens collected. Kutch: rs101 #+ 21-8-1943 Chaduva (Bhuj .

Dist.) ; KS371 #4 15-3-44 Jakhau.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Bhuj environs ; Mata-no-Madh.

Measurements: W Boeke TAG res is

20s 155-163 23°5-25 46 89-92

These specimens approximate to the pale Sind-Baluchistan-Iran race

henvict, but it must be pointed out that black partridges have been intro- —

duced into Kutch from time to time to augment the game bird stock with-

out particular regard to their place of origin; therefore a certain amount —

of racial confusion is inevitable. Pure white albinos have been reported.

Affects sandy grass-covered dunes in the vicinity of irrigation tanks, —

riparian tamarisk jungle, and afforestation plots. Breedsin Kutch during —

August. : =

According to Hume, Deesa whence Butler recorded a specimen, is

about the line of junction ot the Black Partridge and the Painted which is

__ the common species of Gujarat and the Deccan (5.2%, ly : 6).

Francolinus pictus ssp. The Painted Partridge.

Specimens collected: Saurashtra: @s994 $' 15-3-1946 Dalkhania

> (Amreli Dist.); Gujarat: Gs1190 9, Gs1191 4, Gsl192 9 3-4-46

Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; GS1306 ) 20-4-46 Galkund (Surat Dangs); sp184

J+ 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

~ Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Dakor (Kaira Dist.,

specimens H. C. Aldrich !); Gangasagar (Palanpur) ; Dohad (specimens

og A. E. Jones!); Ratlam (specimen V. 8. LaPersonne!), Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : 2 AWW B | Pare Hi Bs

5S 140--149 23-26 37-45 65-68

Bese , 140-151 21-24. 41-46 64-69

I can see no difference between the above specimens and the one

collected in Central India on which Mr. Whistler was unable to satisfy

himself of the existence of two races in India. If anything, some of the

central Indian birds are darker than this series and not paler as they

~ should be (F. B.L, v: 414). According to Stuart Baker, however, Gujarat

specimens in the British Museum from Gondal, Deesa, Ahmedabad, Abu

and Neemuch are pallidus !

Small numbers in grassland along streams, in fallow and stubble fields

overgrown with weeds, and in the vicinity of abandoned forest cultivation

overgrown with grass and scrub. ‘The testes of sp184(6 March) showed a

slight enlargement but no other evidence of the breeding season in Gujarat

was obtained. According to Butler (S.7., iv: 6) it breeds in northern

Gujarat from end July to end September. I was able to get some sup-

port for the assertion of a local shikari in Central India that the female

also calls like the male (JBNHS, 41: pee but conclusive evidence

remains to come.

Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus MHartert. The Grey

Partridge.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs238 §+, Ks239 $+ 17-9-1943

Bhachau. Saurashtra: GS993Q 15-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

— Gujarat: Gsl8 94+, Gsl9 ~+ 29-10-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs451

o' 2-12-45 Golana (Cambay); GS576 {+ 15-12-45, Gs610 §# 17-12-45,

Gs642 2 18-12-45, Gs648 § 19-12-45, Gs687 2+, Gs688 f+ Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.). Also 2 specimens from Kaira Dist. (H. C. Aldrich! )

and 1 from Wankaner (Saurashtra—C. M. Crump !).

_ Measurements : me WE B Rar: T

10 jg 144-160 23°5-29 36°5—45 80—94

6.29 134-145 23-26 37-46°5 79-91

The Gujarat birds are in reality an intermediate population and merely

S a section of a cline. Therefore individual specimens are impossible to

; Be place satisfactorily as to subspecies.

JSS

3 open thorn scrub-and-bush country in the neighbourhood of cultivation.

A common and abundant game bird over the entire area, affecting dry

and villages. Breeds practically throughout the year, but the chief period

___ is evidently from March till November.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linn.).- The Common or Grey Quail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKsl56 $+ 4-9-1943 Nakhatrana ;

KS219 Q 14-9-43 Tuna (Anjar Dist.). Saurashtra: B40 # 20-10-43

Dhari (Amreli Dist.). Gujarat: Gsll 9 28-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.);

6s443 2 30-11-45 Cambay town environs; GS475 < 3-12-45 Golana

(Cambay); Gs927 2 16-1-46 Palanpur; Gs1193 2 3-4-46 Dediapada .

(Rajpipla) ; sp181 9, sp183 & 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Measurements: — W B Tar. eae

3a 110-115 13:5-16 26-27 31-38

8°22 F12—116* 14-16 26.30 | 33°5—44

A common winter visitor to the entire area. Earliest date 4 September

~ (Kutch) ; latest 3 April (Rajpipla). Affects standing crops of bajri and

jowar, cotton fields and grassland. The specimen of 3 April was very

fat, suggesting that it was ready to emigrate.

In Butler’s time about 1875, it used to be so abundant in winter about

Deesa and Ahmedabad that ‘2 guns, or even one good gun, might with-

out difficulty shoot 100 brace in the day’ (S./, iv : 6).

Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin). The Blackbreasted or Rain

Quail.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS476 # 3-12-45 Golana (Cambay) ;

Gs569 of’, GS570 Q 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.); Gs9410 2 19-1-46

Hathidhara (Palanpur). Saurashtra: 6s964 § 11-3-46 Kodinar.

Measurements : W B Tar: ae

3a 93-95 12:5-13 23-26 29-32

Zoo 96-97 12-14 26—26°5 29-5-31

Evidently resident, but certainly has its numbers largely augmented

during the winter months by influx from adjoining areas. Unfortunately

little is definitely known about its seasonal movements. The gonads of

the specimens furnished no indication as to breeding; according to Butler

(S.Z, iv: 7) it breeds in northern Gujarat in August and September.

Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Latham). The Jungle Bush-Quail.

Specimens collected; Gujarat: Gs11949 3-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla);

spl61 9 5-3-48, sp185 6-3-48 Pandwa; sp217 <, imm. sp218

imm., SD219 §# + 7-3-48 Babulnaghat; sp275 9, sp276 Q imm

12-3-48 Laochali (sp= Surat Dangs). |

Measurements : W Be. Wa: aE

4dd 81-88 1527 25-303. 7 34-37

322 2G. 80-88 15°5-16 26-31 36°5-40

Perdicula argoondah ssp. The Rock Bush-Quail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs64 + 16-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); KS378 3, KS379 Q 17-3-44. Mata-no-Madh Gujarat:

@s254 fi+, GS255 9+ 17-11-45; Gs366 9+ 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.); GS789 Qf 1-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs887 o, Gs888 % 11-1-46,

Gs907 2, es908 ov, Gs909 9, Gs9l10 4, Gs91l of, Gs912 Y 13-1-46

Deesa environs (Palanpur) Saurashtra: Gs992 f° + 15-3-46

Dalkhania (Amreli Dist. ). fe | cei iene

- THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT | 407

Measurements : Te W B Tar: T |

10 J 82 -88°5 13-16 25-27 43°5-46°5

6-22 82-86 14-15°5 24-25 40-47

The three specimens from Dabka (Baroda Dist.), three from Kutch

and one from Saurashtra are somewhat darker and less sandy than the

rest of the series and seem nearer the typical race, though actually inter-

mediate between it and the pale Rajputana meznertzhagent. The series

from Deesa, and the Radhanpur bird are meinertzhagent, matching speci-

mens so attributed by Whistler from Badarwas (in northwest Gwalior)

and Jodhpur.

I do not understand the significance of the fact that the juvenile plu-

mage of some females has the underparts barred on the breast and flanks

with blackish brown as in the adult male! In addition to this, one female

(Gs912) possesses the dull brick red chin and throat-patch of the male.

The normal condition in birds is for the juvenile male to resemble the

adult female in plumage, and not vice versa as in these cases. The sexing

was checked by me personally.

Both Bush-Quails are common throughout Kutch, Saurashtra and

Gujarat in the appropriate scrub and bush facies. he Rock Bush-Quail

is found in the stonier and drier parts, the Jungle Bush-Quail preferring

rather more densely scrubbed country and open deciduous forest.

Odd pairs were found breeding from August to March, but the season

was more general between October and January when, besides the evid-

ence of the gonads, chicks in all stages were met with from freshly hatched

to pullet and sub-adult.

Galloperdix spa dicea spadicea (Gmelin). The Red Spurfowl.

_ Specimens collected: Gujarat, Gs941 2 +4 19-1-46, Gs955 Y,

Gs956 J’, GS957 3%, GS958 1, GS959 2 '20- 1-46 Hathidhara (Palanpur) :

GS1153 4 + 30-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gs1233 f'+ 9-4-46 Songadh

(Navsari Dist.); Gs1259 29+ 13-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs); sp141

* 4 + 3-3-48 Galkund ; sp202 + 7-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs). Absent

- in Kutch though some parts, eg. Chaduva and Mata-no-Madh, seem

eminently suited to it ecologically.

~ Measurements : W B Tar. Als

Oh ilo 160-165 25-26 44-52 124-143

4 99 153-160 225-2965. 43-46 120-125

‘Common in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest in stony foothills

country broken by nullahs. Breeding January to April.

Specimens from Waghai, Songadh, Dediapada and Hathidhara are

progressively paler and tending towards the pale Aravalli race caurina.

- Ihave not been able to examine any topotypical material of caurina, but

' Stuart Baker (F.B.L, v: 361) mentions that birds from the Bombay

_ Presidency immediately south of Mount Abu are darker than Abu birds,

and though intermediate are nearer to spadicea than to caurina. Hathi-

_ dhara is part of the country immediately south of Mount Abu to which

_ these remarks would presumably apply.

. Capt. Butler (S.4:, iv: 5) says it breeds in N. Gujarat in the hot

_ weather. He often saw chicks with the old birds goucey after they

_ have been. hatched in May and June.’. .

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL #1 y,

Gallus sonnerati Temm. The Grey Junglefowl.

Specimens collected: Gujarat; 68954 @ (Ist year) 20-1-46

Hathidhara (Palanpur) ; Gs1232 9 9- 4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ; spl

ot 23-2-48 Malegaon (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Champaner and Pavagadh (Panch-

mahals Dist.); Gangasagar (Palanpur); Dediapada (Rajpipla) ;

R. M. Simmons noted it, at Khedbrama and Saranga Hill, Mehsana Dist.

in the Ahmedabad neighbourhood, and has shot it at Vijainagar (ca. an ae

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Lar: ie

1 fad. 247 21 (from base Ld 372

of comb) .

1 oad. 201 32 64 138

Not uncommon locally in hilly bamboo, teak and mixed deciduous

forest. Very fond of the ripe windfallen figs of - Ficus bengalensis and

F. glomerata, coming out to feed under the trees where local shikaris

usually ambush them. ‘The crow of the cock seemed sensibly different

from that of south Indian birds.

Its persecution by shikaris, commented ‘on by Capt. Butler in 1876,

still continues, and it is a wonder that this species has held out despite

this.

Pavo cristatus Linn. The Peafowl.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs1309 Q pull. 21- 1-46 Galkund

(Surat Dangs). :

Common throughout the area, largely in a semi-feral state. Near ~

villages, where unmolested, it boldly enters cultivation and does con- —

siderable damage to newly sown groundnuts and cereals with impunity.

But it is difficult to conceive of a warier and more circumspect creature

than a forest-living peafowl, especially where subjected to persecution by

humans.

Breeding was in progress during August (Kutch). When digsiauiee: to

a hen—train fanned out, erect and slightly tilted forward—the cock keeps: —

his legs partly flexed while facing her and prances from one foot to the

other in mincing steps as if stalking her—very reminiscent of the holding

manoeuvre in the Indian game of ‘ Ata pata’. One cock was observed to

interrupt such a display in order to chase off a rival with a full and

resplendent train like his own, but he showed no resentment towards a

young cock with short mangy tail displaying assiduously before 2 hens

on the fringe of his own coterie, who was obviously cutting no ice with

them at all! —

Family TURNICIDAE: Button and Bustard-Quails.

Turnix sylvatica dussumier (Temm. & Laugier). The White- = 3

legged or Little Button-Quail. a

No specimens obtained. Both Lester and Capt. Newnham record it. ine

Kutch from Devisar (Bhuj environs), and the former mentions that alive —

bird brought to him by a shikari dropped an egg (May 1892). Capt. —

Butler (S./-, iv : 9) described it as common in the north Gujarat plains.

He caught a half grown young in some tall grass near Deesa on 27 July. ©

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

Turnix maculatus tanki Blyth. The Yellowlegged Button- Can

oo Specimens collected: Kutch: x«s87 o+ 18-8-43, Ks102 9+

-21-8-43, xs103 24 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gs689 9 21-12-45

- Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

__ Elsewhere noted : Gujarat. Dabka (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements: § W B Par. T

492 87-93 14-15 25+5-28 28-34

Iris white ; legs and feet bright chrome yellow (colour of ‘ Koh-i-noor’

pencil) ; bill same, horny at tip.

Frequent, singly and pairs, in grass and scrub country around

the grassy edge of tanks, and also in drier facies. Sometimes associates

with 7. s. daigoor, and specimens of both were once collected with the same

shot! Breeding was in full swing in August (Kutch).

3 Capt. Butler found a nest with c/4 near Deesa on 15-7-1875

So ee IV, > Gl:

3 - Turnix suscitator taigoor (Sykes). The Bluelegged or Common

- Bustard -Quail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl47 9+ 2-9-1943 Nakhatrana.

Gujarat: Gs301 # 19-11-1945 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); cGs387 ¢,

Gs388 2 27-11-45 Cambay town environs; GS673 2 20-12-45 Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.); Gs739 2 imm, 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.)

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj environs; Rapar. Gujarat: Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : W | B Tar. T

200 83-85 15 Be=23 35-37

pase 89-90 ays oy, 24°5-25 33-41

4 Specimen Gs739 whose sexing as female was confirmed by me

_ personally, and also by its measurements (W 89 mm), is immature.

_ Contrary to the normal condition in birds where the young of both sexes.

resemble the adult female in plumage, this young female is like the maze.

i this is not an individual aberration, it would appear that the reversal

_is in keeping with the fact that in this polyandrous species the roles of the ©

- sexes are also reversed, the adult female being the dominant partner and

_ more richly coloured (with black chin, throat and breast) than the male.

_ Fairly common over the entire area. Usually in pairs, inhabiting scrub

- country bordering cultivation. Breeding August/September, when also

_ the characteristic drumming of the female was commonly heard. In

northern Gujarat, Capt. Butler found a nest with 4 fresh eggs at Deesa on

9 pens 1875 page iv: 7).

Family GRUIDAE: Cranes

& | Gras grus lilfordi Sharpe. The Eastern Common Crane.

No specimens collected. A fairly common winter visitor and passage

Brictant though in smaller numbers than the Demoiselle, with which it is

_ often associated. Earliest date 13 September (Khari Rohar, Kutch ).!

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIS? SOCIETY. Vol. a2

Grus antigone antigone (Linn.). The Indian Sarus Crane.

No specimens collected. Not common in Kutch, but plentiful in the

cultivated plains of Gujarat where it enjoys protection on sentimental

grounds from the human population and is, in consequence, comparatively

tame. Breeding August to October. Pairs accompanied by young in

December—usually 1, sometimes 2. When one bird of a pair calls, its.

mate invariably joins in immediately, taking up the ‘ screams’ or trumpet-

ing in a sort of duet. Later on in winter small flocks collect. The

largest seen by me consisted of 18 birds.

Anthropoides virgo (Linn.). The Demoiselle Crane.

Specimens shot but not preserved.

An abundant winter visitor and passage migrant over the entire area.

Earliest date 13 September (Kandla, Kutch); latest 23 March. Nir, on

the northern tep of Pachham Island in the Great Rann of Kutch, is an

ideal place for the study of visual migration, and among the numerous

species observed there coming through in a NNW.-SSE. direction in the

first week of October, perhaps the most spectacular were the flock upon

flock of Demoiselle and Common Cranes. On some days flocks of some 30:

to 100 birds each passed over in a steady stream at a great height

throughout the daylight hours, chiefly between 11 a.m. and 12:30 noon.

The stomachs of two specimens examined were crammed with wheat,

and considering the vast swarms which invade the newly sown fields, the

damage these cranes do must be considerable.

Family RALLIDAE: Rails, Coots

Rallus striatus [albiventer Swainson]. The Bluebreasted Banded

Rail. :

No specimens obtained.

Lester and Capt. Newnham both record it from Devisar tank (Bhuj

environs) in 1892. I can trace no record for Gujarat, but it must doubt-

less Occur.

Porzana porzana (Linn.). The Spotted Crake.

No specimens obtained.

Lester shot a specimen at Devisar tank (Bhuj environs) Kutch, in the

winter of 1892. ‘ Not very common in N. Gujarat, but tolerably plentiful

in swampy country between Ahmedabad and Deesa during winter ’ (Butler,

S.F, v: 215—1877).

Porzana pusilla [pusilla (Pallas)]. The Eastern Baillon’s Crake.

No specimens collected. Observed in Gujarat at Ajwa (Baroda Dist.)

28-10-1945, and Balaram (Palanpur) 18-1-46. Solos on weedy marsh at

edge of tank. Very tame. ‘Twitching up tail every little while in typical

moorhen manner, and also at every step. One bird when alarmed, ran.

under a dry lotus leaf for refuge and remained hidden there for many

minutes, peering out cautiously from time to time to see if the danger was

past ! Common on tanks between Ahmedabad and Deesa ‘in September

and later on in the season. Possibly breeding.’ (Butler, S.4., v: 215—187 7)

Amaurornis akool akool (Sykes). The Brown Crake.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Capt. Butler (SZ, iv, 21) records it as occurring in Northern Gujarat. . |

eee ee ah ee a, Te ee Eee ee Em ee ES

Secret he

eR nda his oie ha oie i ea eg ah nS

pas é

yest

Bae Se

Loy Sher:

ran

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 411

where it frequents ‘rocky nullahs, beds of rivers, and marshy grounds.

He adds later (v: 224—1877) that it is very common at Milana (18m.

SE. of Deesa) where he took many nests during the rains.

Amaurornis phoenicurus spp. The Whitebreasted Waterhen.

No specimens collected. Noted: Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ;

Cambay town environs Nadiad (Kaira Dist.); Radhanpur; Dediapada.

(Rajpipla) ; Mahal, Ambika, Waghai etc. (Surat Dangs) and elsewhere.

Not common. Hume had specimens from Kutch and ‘ Kattiawar’ (S.F.,

iv: 21). Capt. Butler found it ‘ tolerably common’ at Milana, near Deesa,

and nesting in August (v : 224—1877).

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin). The Kora or Watercock.

Not met with by the Surveys. Lester records a pair shot in Kutch by

H. H. the Rao Saheb on 4-7-1897. Later he wrote (7BNAS, 11: 321)

that he had eggs from Kutch in his collection presumably belonging to this

species.

Gallinula chloropus [indica Blyth.] The Indian Moorhen.

No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.).

Saurashtra: Dhari (Amreli Dist.). Gujarat: Baroda town envi-

rons ; Balaram (Palanpur) ; Kharaghoda.

_ Fairly common. Lester had eggs brought to him from Devisar tank,

near Bhuj (Kutch) in July 1893. Butler (S.7., v: 224), in 1876 and there-

abouts, found it very plentiful in the tanks at Milana, 18 miles SE. of

Deesa, breeding during the rains in the large rush beds.

Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham). The Purple

Moorhen. |

No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Chaduva (Bhuj. Dist.);

Bhimasar tank (Anjar Dist.). Lester found it plentiful and breeding on the

Dhonsa jheel in Kutch (season?), Capt. Butler described it as uncommon

in most parts of N. Gujarat, but plentiful on some tanks overgrown with

weeds and bulrushes,:and Hume adds that it is also common in Kathiawar

(7; iv 20).

Fulica atra [atra Linn]. The Coot.

‘No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Anjar. Gujarat:

Cambay town environs ; Dakor (Kaira Dist.); Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

Balaram (Palanpur) ; Kharaghoda.

Mainly winter visitor.. Fairly common. Earliest date 12 August (Bhuj);

latest 30 March (Anjar). In August 1946 K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji found

it breeding in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra—5 nests with eggs—where the

_ Species is normally seen only between about September and April.

(JBNHS, 46: 724.)

Family OTtbAE: Bustards

_ Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). The Great Indian Bustard.

Noted: Kutch: Rapar (Waghad Dist.); Nir (Pachham Island) ;

a Chobari (Bhachau Dist.).

A female specimen shot by H. H. Maharao Madansinhji on 3-3-1946

was measured by me in the flesh as follows: W 564, B 88, Tar. 162,

T 250.

- Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii : 172) records a single egg taken in Kutch in

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Soft parts : Eyelids (unfeathered) cream colour; bill greyish or ivory

white, black at base and tip of upper mandible; legs and feet greyish

china white ; claws horny. 5

Not common in Kutch, but small numbers were to be seen in the

sandy, grassy country along the edge of the Great Rann at least till 1946.

Its status since then is unknown, though the change in the political set-up

is not likely to have improved the position. The rulers of Kutch were

particularly mindful about wild life preservation in their State, and infrin-

gement of game and netting rules and close seasons, now rampant, was

far more liable to be reported and taken serious notice of then than now.

A pure white albino has been recorded in Kutch (JBNAS, 31: 526).

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji knows of a few places in the Bhavnagar area

of Saurashtra where this bustard still breeds regularly, or at least bred till

a few years ago, and many of us have seen his excellent Kodachrome

movie of an adult female and young made there. In northern Gujarat it

was apparently ‘ not at all common’ even in the 70’s of the last century,

but in Kathiawar Hume writes of it then as ‘very common’ (S.F., iv: 9).

January, and Maharao Vijayarajji a newly hatched chick in Octal

(JBNHS, 43 : 660).

-Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (J.E. Gray). The Houbara.

1 specimen collected near Khavda (Pachham Island, Kutch); 4-10-43.

Not preserved. Stomach contained yellow ‘phulri’ flowers and two

species of tenebrionid beetles. ; 4

Winter visitor to Kutch ; abundant in some years. in three drives on

different days in December 1943 (a good year) among the khip-covered

(Lepiadenia spartium) sand-dunes near Mandvi, H. H. Maharao Madansinhji

shot 16 and 17 Houbaras.

Rare in Gujarat, being only occasionally met with during the wits

months in the semidesert northern portions, e.g. about Deesa.

Sypheotides indica (J. F. Miller). The Lesser Florican, or Likh

No specimens collected. Common in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat, —

patchily and in suitable grassy localities, during the SW. monsoon—July —

to October. Where it disperses at other seasons, and its migratory move-

ments, are not properly known or understood. According to Hume(S Fi,

iv: 10) ‘They migrate hither [Gujarat] from the central tablelands of ~

the peninsula, where they spend the cold and dry season.’ This seemsa

vague and unsatisfactory statement considering that the bird is nowhere —

particularly common or abundant in the Deccan at any season. 4

The experiment in ringing florican, initiated by K.S. Dharmakumar-

sinhji in Bhavnagar (JBNH'S, 44: 299) was a praiseworthy attempt to

elucidate migration data, but the returns so far obtained are not very —

enlightening. In Mr. Dharmakumarsinhji’s opinion the birds cross over

from the mainland of peninsular India in a NW. and westerly direction

across the Gulf of Cambay to the eastern coast of Kathiawar, commenc-

ing in May or June, in advance of the monsoon, and thence spread over —

Saurashtra, and presumably also Kutch.

It seems tragic that while other game birds enjoy statutory protes: :

tion during the breeding season, the florican should be subjected to the ©

greatest persecution from ‘sportsmen’ at this very period owing to the ~

‘THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

@ prominence which males give to themselves through their jumping courtt-

_ ship display. The killing of the birds in this season must be rigidly

- banned if the species is to survive.

Mr. Dharmakumarsinhji has recently made a careful study of the

courtship and breeding habits of the florican, and brought to light some

2 interesting and hitherto unrecorded details. (/BNA'S, 49 : 201-216).

_ Breeds in Kutch and Saurashtra during the monsoon months when the

. - grass is sufficiently grown to provide cover. Also in standing crops.

q Be cording to R. M. Simmons, ‘ breeds in grassy maidans west of Sanad’

_ (Ahmedabad Dist.), Gujarat.

ee: ; Family JAgANIDAE: Jacana

_Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). The Pheasant-tailed Jagana

a Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs939 Q 19-1-1946 Hathidhara

_ (Palanpur).

_ Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj. Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.);

_ Pariej (Kaira Dist.), Kanewal jheel (Cambay) ; Balaram (Palanpur).

E _ _Measuremets : W B Pai A

: le? 240 34 58 gis:

3 : (to tip of attenuated first

primary )

- Common on most vegetation-covered tanks etc. Large flocks in

winter, sometimes of 50 plus. In off plumage, in flight, the brown

head and back, and white wings with black tips are conspicuous. Utters

a nasal mewing fewz, tewn etc.

According to Capt. Butler (S./., iv: 20) only a cold weather visitant to

the country in the Deesa neighbourhood. Humayun Abdulali found it

common on Hamirsar tank, Bhuj, in June 1937 (7BwHS, 40: 122).

‘Metopidius indicus (Latham). The Bronzewinged Jacana

— No specimens collected. Noted at Bhuj (Kutch) also by Humayun

- Abdulali in June (7BNA'S, 40: 122) and several places in Gujarat on

’ vegetation-covered tanks and jheels. Decidedly uncommon.

Ss Family HAEMATOPODIDAP: Oystercatcher

q a Haematopus ostralegus [ostralegus Linn.]. The Oystercatcher

No specimens collected. Noted: Mandvi (Kutch) in March. Pairs or

, small loose flocks on the seashore, feeding in company with Dunlins and —

"Sand Plovers. Winter visitor to the sea-coast ; apparently not inland.

4 ex.

Family CHARADRIIDAE : Biover, Lapwings

_Chettusia leucura (Licht.). The Whitetailed Lapwing

___ Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs513$ 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira

Be Dist.) ; GS551 9 Gs552 4, Gs651 9, Gs553 gf, GS554 9 12-12-45 Saiat

| (Kaira Dist. ).

= Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla, Gujarat: Kanewal, Cambay.

Measurements : Ww eee Tar.

‘ te sts 179-189 37-38 72°5-75 72-82

186 | 38 rie Fi

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

_ Winter visitor. Earliest date 5 August (Kandla, Kutch). Parties

and flocks on grassy muddy margins of jheels. It is of the same size and

general outline as the Yellow-wattled Lapwing, but unlike it always near

water.

Chettusia gregaria (Pallas). The Sociable Lapwing

Not met with by the Surveys, although Lester records it as a common

cold weather visitor to Kutch. Possibly its visits are as erratic here as they

have been noted elsewhere, e.g. Lower Sind. Capt. Butler (S.F., iv: 12),

in 1876 and thereabouts, found it ‘ very common during the cold weather

in the neighbourhood of Deesa’ (N. Gujarat), less plentiful further

south.

Hoplopterus indicus indicus (Bodd.). The Redwattled Lapwing

Specimens collected: Kutch: No. 47 & 25-5-39 Khari Rohar

(Sir G. Archer); Gujarat: Gs62 9+ 31-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); GS190 $1 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs358 2 22-11-45 Dabka

(Baroda Dist.) ; 68537 2 11-12-45 Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist.) ; ¢s1198

Q-+ 3-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Measurements: W B Tar. T

2d 22a =255 35-38°5 65-76 108-124:5

4 99 217-237 35-3635 75-7695 106-127

Resident. Common. Breeding March to October. ‘There is a widely

current folk belief in Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch that if the eggs in a

lapwing’s nest lie with the small ends pointing inwards, a good monsoon

is assured. ‘This must be a comforting augury since certainly by far

the larger number of eggs are placed in this way, regardless of the vaga-

ries of the monsoon!

Hoplopterus malabarica (Bodd.). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Specimens collected. Gujarat: 68230 9, Gs231 2 11-11-45 Jam-

bughoda; Gs442 ¢ 30-11-45 Cambay town environs.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Mandvi; Khari Rohar; Anjar;

Jakhau; Mata-no-Madh etc. Saurashtra: Kodinar; Dalkhania.

Gujarat: Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Kharaghoda.

ONE RAE ei eae he Sh al el i ridin acl ra

saa

Measurements : W B ar. T =

lg 205 ZO ae 64 84 3

222 197-205 28-28°5 57-62 75—80 ; :

Resident. Fairly common. Usually on arid waste land and fallow .

fields. Possibly a local migrant to -some extent, as it is in Sind. The

black cap sometimes stands up like a miniature tableland’ above the §

head, reminiscent of long erect pile of a silken carpet! Breeds in Kutch,

and presumably also over the rest of the area, April to August.

Pluvialis squatarola (Linn.). The Grey Plover

No specimens collected. Noted: Mandvi (Kutch).

Winter visitor. Not common, but frequent. Usually a couple, or

small flocks, mixed with other waders on the seashore. Hume obtained

it in northern Gujarat on the shores of the Rann, and saw specimens from

other places along the coasts of Kutch and Kathiawar (S./, iv :. 11).

ae Ree. boats a

a i a a an i foe a PO a ny,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT . 415

On 27 August a pair, evidently just arrived, was still in summer plu-

mage with black underparts. In winter plumage (underparts white) the

black axillaries show up in flight as an oval black patch providing an

easy means of field identification.

Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin). The Eastern Golden Plover

Specimen collected: Kutch: Ks355 $ 9-3-44 Mandvi.

Elsewhere noted: Mithapur (near Dwarka, Saurashtra).

Measurements : W B Tar, ay

1g 165 30°5 45 60°5

Winter visitor. In large flocks of 50 + on grassy, muddy shores of

jheels and brackish lagoons, and tidal mudflats.

Charadrius leschenaulti leschenaulti Lesson. The Large Sand

Plover

_No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Kandla; Lakhpat;

Saurashtra: Kodinar.

Winter visitor in small numbers. Earliest date 24 August (Mandvi,

Kutch). Usually in twos and threes mixed with flocks of lesser Sand

Plovers on the seashore and about salt pans, etc.

Charadrius dubius curonicus (Gmelin).

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs158 Q 4-9-43 Nakhatrana; «Ks315

9, KS316 9 4-10-43 Khavda (Pachham I.).

Measurements : W B Tar. “

SO? 113-126°5 17-18°5 21-26 56°5-63:°5

Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge)

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs291 9 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; G8594 2, Gs595 fi 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. AS

1d 108 17 26 Dero

Ce Se 110 16 26 53-55°5

The two races of the Little Ringed Plover are difficult to differentiate

‘in winter plumage except on size and therefore in cases of overlap, more

-or less arbitrarily.

C.d. curonicus winter visitor; C.d. jerdonz resident. Fairly common

over the entire area. Parties and small flocks (in winter) frequenting

muddy shores of tanks, ponds and tidal creeks, etc.

Charadrius alexandrinus alexandrinus (Linn.). The Kentish Plover

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl1269, Gsl271 5-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.). Elsewhere not specially noted; possibly confused with

Charadrius dubtus. )

Measurements : W B Tar. Ah

1g 110 20 26 46

19 Stas = 20 28 45

2 Cae PL

as a ee. Avs | ea

Br td ein eed Bae oN ae

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

drius dubius. 'The two may be distinguished as follows :

Charadrius alexandrinus Charadrius dubtus

1. Three outer pairs of rec- 1. Only the outermost pair all

trices all white. white; 2nd and _ third

2. shafts of all primaries pairs partly brown.

white. 2. Shaft of first primary only

3. Brown pectoral band wide- white.

ly broken. 3. Pectoral band unbroken.

4. Legs black. 4. Legs yellow.

The Lesser Sand Plover, Ce vLUS mongolus atritrons resembles

C. alexandrinus but it has only the outermost pair of rectrices white with

a brown spot on inner web near tip. The second pair is sooty brown ex-

cept for fringe of extreme tip which is white. The pectoral band is usually

broken as in alexandrinus, and its legs are also black.

That the Kentish Plover is a resident in Saurashtra, and possibly

also in Kutch, has only lately been proved by the discovery of its breeding

in Bhavnagar and Porbandar by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji in June 1946

and subsequent years. (JBNAS, 46: 728/29; 48: 809/10). No speci-

mens are available to determine this resident race. Stuart Baker records

typical alexandrinus breeding in Sind, while the smaller scebohm7z is known

to breed in Ceylon.

In winter the population is no doubt augmented by influx of migrants

from beyond Indian limits. Seen on the sea coast, in mixed flocks with

other small waders ; also inland, on river banks and shores of tanks and

jheels.

Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler. The Pamirs Lesser Sand

Plover

No specimens collected. Noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Kandla;

Saurashtra: Kodinar ;Flocks on seashore in winter, often mixed with

other small waders. Common.

Subfamily SCOLOPACINAE: Curlews Sandpipers, Snipe, Woodcock

Numenius arquata orientalis Brehm. ‘The Eastern Curlew

_ Specimens collected: Kutch: xs367 @ 12-3-1944 Mandvi;

Gujarat: Gs2609 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) |

- Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Bhuj; Mandvi; Khavda;

Saurashtra: Bedi Bunder; ; Dwarka; Mithapur (Okhamandal) ;

Gujarat: Cambay town environs ; Kanewal (Cambay); Radhanpur ;

Viramgam ; Kharaghoda.

Measurements : W B Tar: fi

1g 288 157 83 110

A ge 310 187 89 109

Usually seen solitary or in small parties on the seashore, tidal mudflats,

lagoons, &c. Butler says they arrive in N. Gujarat as early as mid July

and frequent tanks and jheels in immense flocks often of 2—300 birds

(5.£.,-iV : 16—1876). So far believed to be a winter visitor only, but consi-

dering the reiterated claim by local shikaris, that it breeds in Kutch, and

also the fact that birds may be seen about Kandla and Navlakhi in the

In winter plumage very similar to non-breeding and immature Chara- |

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

& Gulf of Kutch practically derouchout the year, further investigation seems

desirable, and particularly after the discovery of breeding of the Avocet.

The specimen of 12 March was freshly moulted. Its stomach contained

remains of small crabs with a quantity of sand grains.

Numenius phaeopus [phaeopus (Linn.)]. The Whimbrel

No specimens collected. |

Noted: Kutch: Kandla; Mandvi ; Saurashtra: Navlakhi

(Morvi); Mithapur (Okhamandal) :

The same remarks apply to it as to the Curlew, and its breeding in

the Great Rann is not improbable. It is plentiful on the muddy shores of

the numerous creeks and channels in the Gulf of Kutch, between Nav-

- lJakhi and Kandla, in June, July and August and also the rest of the year.

Limosa limosa limosa (Linn.). The Blacktailed Godwit

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl043 7+, Gsl044 2 19-3-46

= Kharaghoda.

ME:

Elsewhere noted : Kutch: Mandvi; Bhuj; Rudra Mata.

Measurements : W B ‘Ear A 8

1d | 218 111 Ths) 78°5

ee ee 220) 118 85 80

Winter visitor: Earliest date August 23 (Mandvi) ; latest March 22

(Bhuj). Lester noted it in numbers as late as April 17 in Kutch, and 3 birds

in winter plumage on 7 July. Not uncommon, and even abundant at

tanks, lagoons, etc. Flocks sometimes of over 50. The male specimen

of 19 March was partially moulted into summer plumage and its gonads

showed a slight development. Basal portion of bill salmon-yellow in

Gs1043 (3), flesh pink in Gs1044 (@); blackish for ca.50 mm. at tip.

Both birds were very fat indicating readiness te emigrate shortly.

Limosa lapponica lappenica (Linn.). The Bartailed Godwit

Specimen collected: Kutch: Ks199 & 11-9-43 Kandla.

Elsewhere noted: Bhuj.

- Measurements : WwW B Par. <i |

19 220 109 nes 73:5

Winter visitor. Much less common than the last. Earliest date August

5 (Kandla). Small numbers feeding in the shallow salt pans along the

creek.

When the oe species are seen together in the field, the shorter tarsus

of the Bartailed Godwit is an easily noticeable and diagnostic feature.

ee Tringa erythropus (Pallas). The Spotted, or Dusky, Redshank

Not met with by the Surveys. According to Capt. Butler (SF, iv:

| e is— 1876) not uncommon in N. Gujarat, occurring along the edges of

ES most of the tanks in the cold weather. i

Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser). The Redshank

Specimens collected: Kutch xs196 % 10-9-43 Kandla; xs369 ¥

133-44 Mandvi.

~ Measurements : W B Tar. 40

200 158-160 45-49 49-50°5 _ 62°5—69

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Common winter visitor. Earliest date 23 August (Mandvi, Kutch) ;

latest 22 April (Nir, Gt. Rann). Singly, in small parties and flocks often

mixed with Dunlins, Curlew Stints and other small waders, feeding in the

shallow brine of salt pans, on the squelchy mud along tidal creeks, and

also on the margins of jheels, puddles, etc. —The September specimen was

in heavy general moult involving body, rectrices and remiges ; the March

bird was excessively fat, indicating impending emigration. A disabled

bird with freshly injured wing was caught, examined and measured on

22 April when it was in perfect breeding plumage.

The stomach of a specimen feeding in a salt pan contained over 900%,

grit, with some brown mucous and 2 or 3 small crimson threadlike, seg-

mented worms 5-7 mm. long. When alarmed or suspicious the bird

bobs violently up and down.

The large numbers of Redshanks that collect, together with thousands

upon thousands of Ruffs and Reeves and assorted small waders, on the

squelchy myd and shallows at the mouth of the Banas River opposite

Dhutari Mata in the Little Rann of Kutch in March, prior to emigration,

is a sight worth journeying a long way to see!

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein). The Marsh Sandpiper

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS327 9, KS328 0 ? 10-10-43 Kandla ;

KS391 #7 21-3-44 Bhuj environs.

Elsewhere noted : Kutch: Nakhatrana ; Khavda; Mandvi; Khadir

J., etc. Gujarat: Radhanpur ; Rajpipla, etc.

Measurements : W B Pars: Lis

1d 142 47 56 58

nase 145 44 54 - 60

Winter visitor. Earliest date 4 September (Nakhatrana, Kutch) ;

latest 31 March (Rajpipla). A perfect miniature of the Greenshank. Seen

singly or in parties and small flocks at inland waters and swamps, and

about salt pans, frequently in company with other sandpipers and stints.

Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus). The Greenshank

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl183 9% 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gs624 9 17-12-45, Gs643 2 18-12-45, Gs674 Qf 20-12-45 Vaghji-

pur (Mehsana Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. fF

200 189-198 59-64 59-62 76-83

ae. 200-205 61-65 61-62 79.5-81

Common winter visitor to Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat. Earliest

date 23 August (Mandvi, Kutch). Usually seen singly at tanks, tidal

creeks, rivers and puddles. The crop of a specimen feeding at a drying-up

muddy pond contained a frog, larger than what would seem Aye:

by the slender bill and gullet of the bird !

Tringa ochropus Linn. ‘The Green Sandpiper

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs182 4% 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gs596 # 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); sp137 2 3-3-48

Galkund (Surat Dangs) Saurashta: Gs995, 0? 15-3-46 Dalkhania

(Amreli Dist.).

HAAG N Oak gee

Reh Te yea eee

Sait

SUE

" eA al i ly Np ee ree oe : ;

= Se ' aie

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT. 419

Elsewhere noted; Kutch: Mandvi; Bhuj; Nakhatrana; Anjar,

Lakhpat; Khadir ].; Gujarat: Baroda; Cambay; Radhanpur;

Palanpur ; Ahmedabad ; Viramgam ; Kharaghoda; Rajpipla ; Waghai and

Mahal (Surat Dangs). Saurashtra: Dhari (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements : W B at T

200 143.5-144 40 35.5-00.5 Sy —ol.

10 147 41 35 60

Common winter visitor. Earliest date 13 August (Kutch); latest

17 April (Surat Dangs). Seen singly on all inland waters: jkeels, tanks,

ponds, ditches, etc. Butler (.S./., iv : 18—1876) says it begins to arrive in

N. Gujarat about the end of July.

Tringa glareola Linn. Spotted Sandpiper

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gsl84Q 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.). 3

Measurements : W B ‘ear: ae

de 125 35.5 36 49

Common winter visitor to the entire area. Latest date 22 April (Nir,

Great Rann). Frequents inland waters, inundated ploughed fields,

brackish lagoons, etc. Rarely the seashore. Keeps singly, in small parties

and sometimes flocks of 35 or so. Utters a sharp, quick-repeated chip,

chip, chip, chif on the ground (at about 2 or 3 chips per second), and

pee-pee-pee as it flies off.

Tringa cinerea [cinerea (Gtlden.) ] The Terek Sandpiper

No specimens collected.

Winter visitor. Earliest date 28 August (Mandvi, Kutch). In small

numbers on the seacoast and brackish lagoons, in mixed flocks with

sandpipers, etc.

Tringa hypoleucos Linn. The Common Sandpiper

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs232 2 16-9-43 Anjar; Gujarat:

—@8185 o ? 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. ais

1Q 119 30°5 23 63°5

Winter visitor to the entire area. Common, but usually singly or in

scattered two and threes. Frequents inland waters as well as seacoast,

particularly where rocky. Earliest date 4 August (Navlakhi, Saurashtra),

but a few odd non-breeding individuals may stay over in their winter

quarters throughout the year.

Arenaria interpres interpres (Linn.). The Turnstone

Specimen collected : Kutch: xKs200 2 11-9-43 Mandvi.

Elsewhere noted : Khavda (Pachham I., Great Rann).

- Measurements. W B Rare Al

ae) 147 26 26 56

Winter visitor, as it is to the entire western coastline of India. Small

parties in association with other waders on the seashore, not necessarily

rocky. Once also seen at a village tank (a solo) a few miles inland from

the Great Rann.

= JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Capella stenura (Bonaparte). The Pintail Snipe

No specimens of the Pintail Snipe were obtained by the Surveys, but |

it doubtless occurs in small numbers, as in neighbouring areas. In the

experience of Capt. Butler it was not very’common in northern Gujarat

(S.F., v : 212—1877).

Capella gallingao gallinago (Linn.). The Common or Fantail

Snipe

Specimen collected: Saurashtra: B47 % 20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli

Dist. ). |

Measurements : W B at. Tt

1d 14? oo, TS, 36 61°5

Winter visitor. Earliest date Sept. 16 (Anjar). Common throughout

the area but only moderately and locally plentiful at seepage marshes

from irrigation tanks, squelchy muddy and grassy borders of jheels, etc.

In Kutch, where it was practically free from molestation by humans, birds

sometimes in loose parties were frequently seen at the water’s edge on

open village tanks within a few yards of chattering women filling their

household pots and cattle watering !

Capella minima (Briinnich). The Jack Snipe

Specimen collected: Kutch: xs33] $f 5-3-44 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.).

Measurements : WwW B Tar: fie

a ees 119 395 26 54

Winter visitor. Not common, but a few odd birds are usually put up

in typical snipe country on the grassy, marshy margins of tanks, etc.

Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linn. The Woodcock

An example, the first ever seen or heard of in Kutch, was shot by

Maharao Madansinhji near Chakar (Bhuj Dist.) on 19-11-42 ee

43 : 661).

In January 1945 the late Sir Peter Clutterbuck, 1.R.s. sheeted

an individual at Hamirsar Tank, right in the middle of Bhuj City, on 3

consecutive days !

Since then a Woodcock has been taken at Mount Abu, curiously

enough on 2nd July ! (1949—7eNWHS, 48: 585).

Calidris minutus minutus (Leisler). The Little Stint

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs206 3, Ks207 9 11-9-43 Kandla;+

KS214 2 13-9-43 Khari Rohar. Gujarat: Gs124 2, Gs125 ¥ Gs138

Q 5-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : “Ww B af Pars cr

23g 945-98 21-215 20-21:5 40-42

4 99 OBANOR 23-95 is 36-42:5

Common winter visitor to the entire area ; well in by 11 Sept. (Kandla

1943); remnants by 2 April. Singly, in small parties or large flocks,

usually mixed with other waders, on tidal mudflats, salt pans, lagoons, and

margins of jheels, etc.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

_Calidris temminckii (Leisler). Temminck’s Stint

Specimens collected : Kutch: xs354 9 9-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat:

or esl86 2 8-11-45 Bodeli qearocs Dist.); Gs625 2 17-12-45 Vaghjipur

. (Mehsana Dist.).

Mansabernen(s - We: B Tar. ab

B22 98-105 21°5-23°5 19:5-20 46°5-52

Winter visitor to the entire area, but less common and abundant than

the Little Stint. Usually in mixed flocks with it and with other small

waders.

Calidris testaceus (Fallas). The Curlew Stint or Pigmy Sandpiper

- Specimens collected : Kutch: Ks197 2 10-9-43; Ks201 $ 11-9-43

Kandla.

Measurements: = W pe Tar. T

1g 137 43:5 31 52

1 Qe: 133 A565 32 Ay 47

Winter visitor. In large mixed fiocks with dunlins, stints and other

small waders, feeding in the shallow concentrated brine of salt pans, at -

brackish lagoons, tidal mudflats etc. When newly arrived in autumn,

many individuals still have odd feathers of the summer plumage on the

body which facilitates their differentiation in the field from dunlins. In

winter plumage these two species are easily confused. Both the speci-

mens were excessively fat and with freshly moulted remiges and

rectrices.

Calidris alpinus alpinus (Linn.). The Dunlin

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs198 . 10-9-43, KS202 2 11-9-43

Kandla.

Measurements : WwW B eats cs ae T

229% 120-123°5 40°5-41 26—27°5 47-51°5

Common winter visitor to the seaboard and perhaps the most abun-

dant single species amongst the mixed flocks on the seashore, tidal

mudflats, salt pans, etc. These flocks, doubtless also contain examples of

the Broadbilled Sandpiper (Limzcola falcinellus) not procured by the

Surveys.

Philomachus pugnax (Linn.). The Ruff and Reeve

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch; Anjar; Khavda; Bhuj; Pung Bet (Little Rann).

Saurashtra: Mithapur ( ‘Okhamandal) ; Gujarat: Baduchi and

_Kanewal (Cambay).

Winter visitor. Earliest date 16 September. (Anjar, Kutch). Fairly

common in parties and small flocks, often in association with other small

waders. In March, aggregations of thousands were present amongst the

-_- vast number of waders on the mudflats near Pung Bet where the Banas

River debouches into the Little Rann of Kutch.

4,22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Family RECURVIROSTRIDAE: Stilt, Avocet.

Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linn.). The Blackwinged

Stilt

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks368 1+ 12-3-44 Mandvi; Guja-

rat: GS243 9, Gs244 2 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.)..

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Lakhpat; Chobari; Khadir ;

Anjar, ete. Gujarat: Cambay; Dakor (Kaira Dist.); Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.) ; Radhanpur ; Viramgam, etc.

Measurements : W RB Tar. 4h

1d 251: 78 131 84

2 Sa 244-248 Ti: 120-122 82-83

Resident. One of the commonest waders on inland waters ; present

in varying numbers at every swamp, jheel, puddle or tidal mudflat.

Evidently given to marked local movements. Utters chek.chek-chek-chek

like moorhen, of timbre and quality of the Redwattled Lapwing’s call.

Breeds March to August.

Recurvirostra avocetta [avocetta Linn.]. The Avocet

No specimens collected.

Status uncertain. Lester recorded it as‘ very common’ in Kutch in

the winter of 1895-6 ; during the Kutch Survey, August 1943—April 1944,

I did not come across the species at all. However, between 19 and 23

April (1944) I discovered a large breeding colony of over a thousand

birds close to the ‘ flamingo city’ in the Great Rann of Kutch, off Nir on

Pachham Island. ‘This is fully described in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society [45(3): 420] and constitutes the first record of

the Avocet breeding in peninsular India. The nearest breeding locality

previously known was in northern Baluchistan. ‘The eggs (maximum 4)

were laid in a shallow depression on hard sunbaked ground, sometimes

on a bed of mud pellets. 16 eggs average 49.25 x 35:0 mm. No speci-

mens of the birds were collected so as not to disturb the flamingo colony

hard by, but it remains to determine whether the Indian breeding birds

are in any way different from the winter visitors from Europe.

The call, when the bird is agitated and flying overhead is a continuous

kleet-kleet-kleet (about 3 per second) of the quality of the Stone Plover’s

calls.

Family ROsTRATULIDAE: Painted Snipe

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.), The Painted Snipe

No specimens. Flushed occasionally at several places in Kutch and

Gujarat on grassy marshland bordering jheels. Not common or abun-

dant.

A female shot by Capt. Butler on 16 September (?1875) near Deesa

contained ovarian eggs. (Sf, iv: 16).

Family DROMADIDAE: Grab Plover |

Dromas ardeola Paykull. The Crab Plover

Not met with by the Surveys, and apparently a very rare vagrant.

Col. Butler shot a specimen on a creek near Mandvi (Kutch) on 25-1-1877

wats

stub Pawan

yen.

gh eae sage iin te

ORR SRS RNAi ip:

en 3.

A See vn Se Mi Sy: = eb Ress ~ sa Se ere

ist ene oe, Oe)

“

(S.F.,v: 212). He notes that ‘on the wing it reminds one of the jacanas,

flying with its legs stretched out behind, much in the same style as.

Metopidius tndicus.’

Family BURHINIDAE: Stone-Curlews

Burhinus oedicnemus ssp. The Stone-Curlew

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs60 o'+, xKs61 $+ 13-8-1943 Bhuj

environs. Gujarat: G8516 9 9-12-45 Nadiad town environs (Kaira Dist.);

Gs647 6 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gsl1059 ¥+ 20-3-46

Kharaghoda. |

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Nakhatrana; Anjar; Rapar.

Saurashtra: Dwarka; Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.). Gujarat: Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.) ; Cambay ; Deesa (Palanpur); Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. a

4d 223-227 44-46°5 82-88 115-116

Vee a Y, 46 81 107

These specimens are intermediate between the Indian race zndicus and

the paler and larger desert form saharae found in Rajputana and Sind.

Common. Affects open scrub jungle, dried-up tank beds and mango

topes, etc. near villages. Noisy at evening dusk and before sunrise, and

also on moonlit nights. I have described the call elsewhere as a sharp,

high-pitched pick-pick-pick-pick-pick-pick, otten ending in a slower-

repeated pick-wick, pick-wick, pick-wick, etc. In winter, flocks of 8 to 10

birds were not unusual.

Breeds from Aprilon. The August specimens had evidently lately

finished breeding as they were in general moult with testes not yet back to

non-breeding condition.

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier). The Great Stone Plover

Specimen collected: Kutch: xKs120 $+ 27-8-43 Mandvi

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla. Gujarat: Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; Golana, Cambay, on the Mahi and Sabarmati Rivers respectively.

Measurements : W B ars ar

1g 267 79 82 113

Fairly common—usually pairs-- along the sea coast and largerrivers, and

about salt pans. The specimen had lately finished breeding and was in

general moult. K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji found it in Porbunder, Saurashtra

and records one eating the eggs of a Kentish Plover from a nest (7BVHs,

48 : 809 /10).

Family GLAREOLIDAE: Coursers, Pratincoles

Cursorius cursor cursor (Latham). The Creamcolored Courser

- Specimens collected: Kutch: xs304 4, KS305 2 imm. 2-10-43

Khavda (Pachham Island); Gujarat: Gs690 og, Gs691 Q 24-12-45

Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs808 § 2-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs928 2 16-1-46

Palanpur.

: Elsewhere noted: Kutch. Mandvi. Gujarat: Deesa (Palanpur).

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 423:

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

Measurements : W B Tar. et fis

30S 160-171 30-31 52-60 63-68:'5

3.29 162-166 29-31 55-57. 65-66

One of the Kutch specimens (KS305) is in part immature plumage

with wavy black subterminal bars to some feathers of the back and secon-

dary wing coverts.

Not uncommon in sandy desert country sparsely sprinkled with

mounds of windblown sand round little bushes of Capparis, hard sun-

baked ‘pats’ and sandy fallow land bordering the Great and Little

Ranns. .

No satisfactory evidence as regards breeding in this area was obtained.

Butler suggested that it is a winter visitor to N. Gujarat arriving about

28 September (S./., iv: 11).

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). The Indian Courser

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS56 $+ 13-8-43 Bhuj environs.

Saurashtra: Gs987 $+ 12-3-46 Kodinar. Gujarat: Gs257 9+,

Gs258 f+ 17-11-45, Gs316 7+ Gs317 9+19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ;

@s904 9+, cs905 3%, Gs906 f 13-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gsl064 2+,

Gsl065 #+ 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar ; Rapar; Mundra; Mandvi; Jakhau ;

Chobari (Bhachau Dist.) Saurashtra: Dwarka, Mithapur; Amreli.

Gujarat: Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Nadiad (Kaira Dist.), etc. AC:

Measurements : W B Tar. i

73S (143) 150-161 (23) 265-28 (51) 53-57 (45) 5661

4 29 151-163 28-—30°5 56257°5°— 56-64

The smaller measurements of a male (in brackets, above) refer to a

particularly small (subnormal ?) individual—No. Gs1065.

Common in fallow fields in sandy open cultivated country. Breeding

- March to August. Later specimens, though still with slightly developed

gonads, were in post nuptial moult.

Family LARIDAE: Gulls, Terns

Larus ridibundus Linn. The Blackheaded Gull

Specimen collected : Kutch: Ks357 4 Ist year 9-3-44 Mandvi.

es Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Mata-yno-Madh; Nakhatrana ;

<3 Bhuj; Khadir Island ; Nir (Pachham I.). Saurashtra: Kodinar.

Measurements : W B Tate ae

1 f (Ist year) 310 47-5 49 113

Not uncommon in winter along the sea coast and on tidal creeks,

lagoons and jheels. Earliest date 11 September (Kandla) ; latest 22 April

(Nir, Great Rann). Ofa gathering of 20-30 on the last date, none had

acquired the black head of the summer plumage though 2 or 3 L. brun-

nicephalus in their company all had. Possibly these were all young birds

who were not going to breed till the following year, though they hadn't

the black subterminal bar to the tail as in the specimen.

a Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon. The Brownheaded Gull.

z ‘Specimen (collected by Mr. Devkar): ¢ 4-4-47 Okha, Saurashtra.

Measurements : WwW B Tar. T

tte 345 48 50 130

7 . Noted: Saurashtra: Kodinar. Kutch: Nir (Pachham I., Great

| - Rann)

Winter visitor. Apparently less common than ridibundus.

Larus fuscus taimyrensis Buturlin. The Eastern Herring Gull.

= Specimens (by Mr. Devkar): 2 99 4-4-47. Okha, Saurashtra,

» Noted: Kute h: Kandla; Mandvi; Lakhpat. Saurashtra: Nav-

=. © Jakhi,

Measurements : oe Wy, B Tats 4k

ee eh 423-433 58-59 61 158-165

-. Winter visitor to the sea coast. Usually seen singly, also on tidal

estuaries. One was observed wading into shallow surf and seizing a

fairly large crab. He dropped it nervously, picked it up again, dropped

- it,and soon. After 3 or 4 re-captures, he removed it to the shore and

smashed the carapace by repeated hammer blows with his bill, biting it

and knocking it on the ground from time to time.

pes

Gee te

Larus argentatus cachinnans Pallas. ‘The PON ee Herring

E Gull. : |

No specimens collected. Observed around Kandla (Kutch), Nav-

_ lakhi and Kodinar (Saurashtra) along the sea coast. Small numbers in

March.

_Chliidonias hybrida indica (Stevens). The Indian Whiskered Tern.

a Specimens collected : Kutch: xs212 $ 12-9-43 Kandala. Gujarat:

s 68286 Q 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.).

____ Elsewhere noted : Kutch: Bhuj environs; Anjar; Khavda & Nir

: 3 - (Pachham I.). Saurashtra: Dwarka; Mithapur. Gujarat: Ajwa

_ (Baroda Dist.) ; Kharaghoda.

7 a Measurements : W B Tar, a

E- ld 229 36°5 BB Bory

= 15-7 218 32 23 66/79

ie Evidently a winter visitor. ‘Seen at jheels, tanks and ponds. Earliest

_ date 30 August (Bhuj environs) ; latest 22 April (Nir, Pachham I., Great

Rann). On the latter date all the birds were in the black-bellied breeding

po omage.

. Hydroprogne to ieeeava tschegrava (Lepechin). The Caspian

- ler, —

No specimens collected.

Noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Nir (Pachham I., Gt. Rann), Saura sh-

per a: Mithapur (Okhamandal).

Winter visitor along the sea coast. Its large size oes large coral HO

2 bil readily distinguish it from other terns.

426 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin). The Gullbilled Tern

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ksl23 ¢ 28-8-43 Mandvi; Gu jarat:

GS287 #1 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Khavda; Lakhpat; Chobari, etc.

Sauashtra: Navlakhi (Morvi) ; Mithapur (Okhamandal). Gujarat:

On Mahi, Sabarmati and other rivers, and large tanks and jheels.

Measurements : W B ‘Tar. sh |

2.088 > BB0=312 50 33-34 77-90 /116°5-131

' Winter visitor, and the commonest tern in the area. Was fairly abundant —

already in the first week of August (Kutch). The last date I have is 23

April (Nir, Gt. Rann) but the birds were still plentiful (in full breeding

plumage) and it is not unlikely that they may breed in the neighbourhood.

Seen on all waters— sea coast, tidal creeks, rivers, jheels, ponds.

Thalasseus bergii spp. The Crested Sea Tern

I have an unconfirmed sight record from Mandvi sites) of a small

flock, 13 March (1944).

Sterna aurantia J. E. Gray. The Indian River Tern

Specimens collected: Gujarat: csl93 4% 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS549 9 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Saurashtra: Mithapur (Okhamandal). Many

on a brackish lagoon with other terns. Gujarat: Radhanpur—on Banas

River. At several places on Mahi, Sabarmati and other rivers.

Measurements : W B Var: de 3:

1¢ 273 49 23 83/137

ke 270 45 22°5 79 /169

I can trace’no record of its breeding in Gujarat, but it is not improba- |

ble that it does so on the sandbanks of some of the larger rivers.

Sterna melanogaster Temminck. The Blackbellied Tern

Specimen collected: Gujanat: 6:550 2 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist. )

Elsewhere noted : Bodeli (Baroda Dist.)—on Orsang River.

Measurements : W B Tar. Ah

Ee 233 43 SA OS5 66/155

Status uncertain. Probably resident and breeding on-the sandbanks

of some of the rivers.

Sterna albifrons ssp. The Little Tern or Ternlet

Specimens collected : KS203 o? imm. Ks204 $\ 11-9-43 Kandla.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mandvi; Nir (Pachham I., Gt. Rann).

Measurements : W B aears Jb

1d 170 a7. 17 42 /59

1 of imm. 173°5 31 17 45/53

In winter, when the specimens were collected, it is impossible to

distinguish between the typical race and saundersi both of which wander

freely in to each others range. ‘Typical aldzfvons is known to breed near

Bombay and also in NW. India and Iraq ; sawndersz breeds near Karachi.

Ticehurst has reported on this group of terns in Bull. B.O.C. 49 : 66.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT jae

Small loose parties beating gracefully up and down over shallow salt.

pans and plunging like plummets, one after another, on small fish and

crustaceans near the surface,

Family PreROCLIDAE: Sandgrouse

Pterocles orientalis (Linn.). The Imperial or Blackbellied Sandgrouse

Specimens not preserved. :

Winter visitor to Kutch but apparently only to the eastern districts

(Wagad), and there curiously spasmodic and local. Arrives about mid

December ; departs about the 3rd week of February. The late Maharao

Vijayarajji informed me that owing to a succession of drought years, its.

numbers had fallen considerably after 1930. Hewrote ‘In the good old

days our bags varied from 40 to 60 birds. . I do not remember one

gun ever shooting 100 birds in a day, nora dae? S bag with more than one

gun to have been 150 birds.’

Apparently not recorded from Saurashtra or Gujarat within recent

years. Capt. Butler (S./., iv: 4) mentions one shot near Deesa (ca. 1876)

from a party of 5, and Hume adds that it occurs in winter in the north-

eastern portions of Kathiawar along the shores of the Rann. In 1877

Butler found it ‘very abundant ’ between Babra village (80 miles SW. of

Deesa) and Mandvi in Kutch (S.F., v : 222).

Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). The Painted Sandgrouse

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs90 & 19-8-1948 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); Ks388 (+ Ks389 7+ xs390 92+ 18-3-44 Mata-no-Madh.

Gujarat: Gs641 § + 18-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nakhatrana; Bhujia Fort.

Measurements : aA B Par, TT:

4 Jo 174-178 17-18 27-28 ' 74-82

19 170 16 : 74

Resident. Sparingly distributed over the entire area in thinly scrubbed

stony, hummocky or broken country. Usually seen in pairs or small

parties. At a waterhole in Kutch large numbers arrived to drink in twos

and threes or flocks of 8 to 10 after sunset and till it was quite dark.

Gonads of the specimens indicated that breeding was in progress in

March. Lester gives the season in Kutch as February /March.

Pterocles exustus ellioti Bogdanov. The Common Indian Sand-

grouse

Specimens collected: Kutch: xksl21 ¢%@+ xsl22 2+ 28-8-43

Mandvi; Gujarat: Gs455 $ 2-12-45 Golana (Cambay; Gs718 3

25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs809 2 2-1-4146, Radhanpur ; Gs1066

J+ 21-3-46 Gs1082 7+ Gsl1083 9 +, 22-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Nakhatrana; Anjar; Bhachau ;

Bela Island (Great Rann), ete. Saurashtra: Dwarka; Okha;

Amreli. Gujarat: Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist., 2 specimens: H.C.

Aldrich).

Measurements: — W B eae a8

4 dd 177-185 18-18°5 25:°5-28 105-133

= La 2 172-177) = 15°5-17 25 85-104

Resident. Fairly common over the whole area, in dry open country

and fallow fields, and semi-desert. Breeding was in progress during

August /September, and also in March. In the Kaira Dist., Dr. Herschel

C. Aldrich found it nesting between February and May. (JBNAS,

44: 124), The eggs (normally 3) are laid on the ground in an unlined

scrape in open scrub country interspersed with cultivation.

Pterocles senegallus (Linn.). The Spotted Sandgrouse

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs293 1, Ks294 + 1-10-43 Khavda

(Pachham Island).

_ Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nanda (SW. of Adesar, on edge of Little

Rann).

Measurements : W hig

1¢ 197. aie <8

12 192 124°5

Normally only a winter visitor to Kutch, but within recent years small

numbers have been reported throughout the year. On 1 October (1943)

I observed 4 or 5 flocks aggregating 100+ birds in the Banniin north

central Kutch. Its local Kutchi name waku-waku aptly describes the call.

In the distance, when uttered by a number of birds together, the sound is

reminiscent ofthe gurgling of a hookah being smoked. Also occurs

sparingly in N. Gujarat and Kathiawar, but only in the neighbourhood

of the Rann. (Hume, S./., iv: 4). :

Family COLUMBIDAE : Pigeons, Doves

Treron phoenicoptera chiorigaster (Blyth). The Southern Green

Pigeon

Specimens collected: Gujarat: cGs609 9 17-12-1945, Gs640 of

18-12-45, Gs649 Q 19-12-45, Gs684 4, Gs685 9, Gs686 2 21-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs891 3 11-1-46 Deesa environs (Palanpur);

sp40 9+ 26-11-48, sp97 34 1-3-48, spll7.f+ sp130 9+ spl40

Q+ 2-3-1418 Galkund ; sp149 f+ spl150 9+ spl5l o& spl522+ ©

4-3-48 Pandwa; sp316 Q juv. 14-3-48 Mahal; .sp371 9+ 18-3-48 4

Mheskatri (SD series=Surat Dangs). :

Not recorded from Kutch, though Hume suggests that it occurs (S.F.,

IV gcc).

Measurements : Ws B ars: A

78S 187-201 2255245 24-99 104-120

10 29 181-202 20-24 24-28 97-116

Common and abundant everywhere in forest where plentifully scatter- _

ed with peepal and banyan trees (Ficus bengalensis and F. religiosa), on

the ripe figs of which it largely feeds. Drupes of the various Zizy-

phus and other species are also eaten. Breeding was in full swing during ‘4

March, and is said to continue into April and May.

Columba livia ssp. The Blue Rock Pigeon

Specimens collected: Kutch: xks57 #+ xS58 aa KS59 f+ ¢

13-8-43 Bhuj environs. Gujarat: Gs544 2 11-12-45 Nadiad environs © ;

(Kaira Dist.); Gs915 f+ 14-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); sp214 g, sp215g,

“ss THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 429

4 ‘sp216 J+ 7-3-48 Chinchli ; ; sp153 f+ 5-3-48 pereted' + 6-3-48 Pandwa

_(sD= Surat Dangs).

Measurements : . | W B Tar. (be

Pos 223-232 24-26 30-33 106-115

I cannot see any consistent difference between birds marked neglecta

_ (Bahawalpur) and intermedia (Central India) by Mr. Whistler, now in

the B.N.H.S. Collection, nor in birds which according to the distribu-

tion of the races as given in the Fauna (v: 220/1) should belong to

either race. With regard to two specimens collected in Gwalior,

after diagnosing them as zntermedia, Mr. Whistler writes (7BNAS,

_ 41: 477) ‘Both have the rump concolorous with the back. In colour

and size these birds match my series from the Punjab, but until

material is available from South India to allow the characteristics of true

intermedia to be satisfactorily appreciated, I can neither define the

ranges or differences of zzfermedia and neglecta nor identify individual

birds with any satisfaction.’

A specimen trom Gersoppa (Mysore) in the Society’s collection, which

should be zztermedia, cannot be distinguished from the Gujarat Survey

specimens, nor from tkose from Bahawalpur or Gwalior labelled by

Mr. Whistier as méglecta and intermedia respectively,

Two examples collected in Ceylon by the recent survey of the island

are diagnosed by Mr. Whistler as zudermedia, and he says they agree

_ with his conception of that race on the material available [Solia Zeylani-

ca, 23(3 & 4): 253)]. Thus he was apparently able to differentiate Ceylon

birds from zeglecta, whereas he could not do so with birds from peninsular

- India which to me look identical. It may be questioned, therefore, if there.

is any justification for extending the distribution of the race zztermedia to

include peninsular India. Birds from the extreme south (e.g. Travan-

core, etc.) say conceivably show greater affinity with Ceylon birds, but

crucial material is lacking. At all events Stuart Baker’s key to the

subspecies xeglecta and intermedia, vis-&-vis the distributions he assigns,

is completely unworkable as such. _

Common over the entire area, affecting buildings whether derelict

ruins or in occupation, both within and on the outskirts of towns and in

the neighbourhood of cultivation. A popular nesting site throughout the

area is down the vertical shafts of disused wells, particularly katcha ones

_ with earthen sides which offer an abundance of holes. Railway stations

and goods yards where bags of grain are awaiting shipment are favourite

resorts, and when the groundnut crop is harvested and left in the fields

to dry, these pigeons take heavy toll of the pods.

Breeding continues more or less throughout the year.

- Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes). The Rufous Turtle Dove

3 = Specimens collected: Gujarat: sp26 2 25-2-1948 Malegaon ;

sp6l of 28-2-48, sp457 Q 25-3-48 Chikhli ; sp437 ff 24-3-48 Sakalpatal,

- Surat Dangs.

be Elsewhere eee: Gujarat: Dediapada (Rajpipla); Songadh

pve Dist. ); Mahal and Galxund (Surat Dangs).

‘Measurements : ; W B Tars T

200 OOP -205 2" 2735 131-139

2 ee 192-195 22-23 26 122-129

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52°

Colours of soft® parts : Iris orange ; orbital skin, cere, gape, base of

lower mandible, legs and feet magenta ; terminal half of bill, and claws a

horny brown.

Winter visitor. - Not uncommon in open glades and-along cart tracks

in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest. eneya! twos and threes or small

parties. Excessively shy and wary. es ~

Streptopelia risoria risoria (Linn.). The Indian Ring Dove..

Specimens collected; Gujarat: Gs259 2+ 17-11-45, Gs360 94,

GS361 f+ 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs916 #+ 14-1-46 Deesa

(Palanpur).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Pung Bet (Little Rann, SW. of Adesar) ;

Saurashtra: Kodinar; Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.). Gujarat: Ajwa

and Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Cambay ; Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ; Pe ane

Harij (Mehsana Dist.) ; Radha es ete.

Measurements: = W B te ‘Lar, a

1d 160 20 23 132

2-99 168-171 © 20-23 24 123-125

Common and abundant in the drier parts of the area, frequently coin-

cident with the Little Brown Dove. It has marked local migratory

movements which have so far not been studied. On 20 November (1945,

Dabka, Baroda) I have a note: ‘Flocks of up to 20+ flying high up in

the air, directly and purposefully as if migrating ’. I have observed such

flights at other places.also in the cold season, and so have other

observers. :

Breeding was in progress between November and April, and it con-

tinues more or less throughout the year. 2

Streptonelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann), The Red

Turtle Dove

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs61 9+ 31-10-1945, Gs108 tt)

Gs109 4+ 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Mandvi; Anjar ; Bhachau ; Rapar;

Nir (Pachham Island). Saurashtra: Amreli; Dhari; Kodinar, etc.

Gujarat: Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ; Cambay ; Patan “QMlehsana Dist.) 5:

Radhanpur ; Deesa (Palanpur) ; Kharaghoda, ete.

Measurements : > W ~B Par oy

See 145 18 21 92

209 1372159) 175-185 20 52 84-87

The least common dove. Capriciously and sparingly distributed in

the drier parts, frequently alongside the Little Brown and the Ring Doves,

and unaccountably absent at other times. Usually in pairs or small

parties, but on one occasion (Palanpur, 16 January) a flock of 20+ was

met with, gleaning in-a stubble field. Breeding was in progress between

October and December. Capt. Butler (S./, iv : 3) took a nest containing

1 fresh egg near Deesa on 8 July, and saw several others in the same

mionth and in August and September. As in other doves the season is

undefined and evidently covers more or less the entire year.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 431

_ Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin), The Spotted Dove ~

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs499 9+, Gs500 #4 7-12-1945

:. Carnbay town environs; Gs545 9+ 11-12-45 Nadiad town environs

(Kaira Dist.) sp191 2 6-3-48 Pandwa; sp267 3+ 12-3-48 Laochalii ;

sp292 3+, sp293 2+ 14-3-48 Mahal (Surat Dangs). Sa‘urashtra:

Gsl023 2 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

- Absent in Kutch.

Measurements: WwW B Tar. an

20S 138-141 19 23°5—-24 134-135

4 99 133-143 195-21 225-24 1235-133

Common in well wooded areas ; absent or scarce in drier scrub-and-

bush country where the Little Brown Dove completely replaces it. A

bird calling vigorously Kvoo-krik-krik-kroo, etc., proved on dissection to

be a female!

Breeding was in progress from October to March, and presumably

continues more or less throughout the year.

~ Streptopelia senegalensis carnDey cust (Gmeiin). The Little Brown

Dove

. Specimens. - collected - Ka tch: xKs34 9+ 10-8-43, Ks138 oe

31.8- 43 Bhuj. Gujarat: Gs43l 9+, Gs432. J+, Gs433 f+, Gs434

G+ 30-11-45, Gs493 oe 6-12-45 Cambay town environs.

Measurements : Nee J8) Tats T

TOO ot ee EOI 1 75249 20-21°5 112-119 —

ooo he 126-134 17-19 20—20°5 105-113

~ Common over the entire area in drier facies than the Spotted Dove,

and addicted particularly to semi-desert and stony euphorbia and scrub-

and-bush country, In many localities it is coincident with the Ring Dove.

All the specimens were breeding. The season continues practically

throughout the year, and the birds commonly build on cornices and

rafters within occupied dwellings, regardless of the comings and goings

of the human inmates.

Chalcophaps indica indica (Linn.). The Indian Emerald Dove

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl287 (+ 17-4-46 Mahal ; SD

433 2 22-3-48 sp455 fi 24-35-48 Waghai (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted. Gujarat: Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ; Piplaidevi;

Pimpri; Laochali etc. (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : WwW. B Tar, ab

258 154-156 = 24-25°5 27-28°5 93-99

des 149 22 26 89

Songadh in Navsari District, appears to be the most northerly record

for this species on the western side of India, though ecologically it is more

than probable that it extends through Rajpipla and at least to the Narbada

River. Eastward my notes record it from Chaurakund in Amraoti Dist. .

(Madhya Pradesh), about the same latitude as Songadh.

Solos or pairs in moist deciduous mixed bamboo forest. In heavy

general moult in March.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

No. sp455 had all primaries of one wing except the first, and many of the

secondaries missing. The bird flopped helplessly on the ground as though

‘injury feigning’ and must apparently have been in this condition for

some days since it was considerably emaciated. ‘The casualty may be the

result of accidental impact with an outhanging branch of the spiny ‘katas’

bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus), characteristic of this locality, while the

bird was flying at top speed through the forest as it usually does. In

the Travancore Survey Report (JANAS, 39 (2): 339), I have recorded

a case of a bird dashing itself to death against the whitewashed wall of ©

a building abutting on forest.

Family PSITTACIDAE: Parakeets

Psittacula eupatria nipalensis (Hodgson). The Large Indian

Parakeet 3

‘ ‘Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl243 (+, 681244 9+, 12-4-46

Waghai ; Gs1280 9 17-4-46 Mahal (Surat Dangs); sp62 4+, sp63

28-2-48 Chikhli ; $1154 2 5-3-48 Pandwa; sv318 41, sp319 6’, sp320 ¢

16-3-48 Mheskatri ; $D386 (1 SD387 $ 20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat Dangs),. =

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Gangasagar (Palanpur) ; Juna Rajpipla, -

Absent in Kutch and presumably also in Saurashtra (?) 4

Measurements ; W B ‘Par, fi:

ey 203 200-217 33-39 20-22 (179) 220-310 = @

3 2° 192-212 33-35°5. §21-21°5 206-296 a 3

Commmon in the Surat Dangs. General moult in March. Odd birds ©

had enlarged gonads in February, and also in April. :

A place called Dumkhal (ca. 15 miles E. of Juna Rajpipla) is locally

famous for its large parakeets which are exported far and wide and evi-

dently especially prized by fanciers !

Psittacula krameri borealis Neumann. ‘The Roseringed Parakeet

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs31 10-8-43 Bhuj environs;

Gujarat: Gs45 3, Gsd46 o, Gs47 J, Gs48 § 30-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS503 #7, GS8304 2 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist,); Gs1060 2+,

GS1051 +, 20-3-46 Kharaghoda ;sp158 + 5-3-48 Pandwa; sp280 f+

12-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : - W. B Tar. T

5 Ag 170-180 25-285 18-19 157-245

2 29 166-168 24:5-25°5 185-19 166-183

Lower mandible largely black in 10 out of the 11 specimens, but the

larger measurements and distribution, as arbitrarily fixed by Whistler

(JBNHS, 37: 752) south to 20° N, lat., places this series ; with the northern

race borealis. i

- Common throughout the area. Breeding was in progress during

August and September, as well as-in March/April. Holes in walls of

buildings, ancient and crumbling as well as occupied ones—even inthe

heart of noisy bazaars—are freely patronized as nest sites,

: THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 433

A Psittacula cyanocephala bengalensis (Forst.). The Blossomheaded

» Parakeet - |

Specimens collected: Gujarat: cs305 gt 19-11-1945, 6s331 ¢

: 20-11-45, GS352 Q 21-11-45, Gs373 # 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ;

— @8635 2 18-12-45, Gs653 $ 19-12-45 Gs670 Q 20-12-45 Vaghjipur

3 (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs889 7, Gs890 # 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs952

ot GS953 Y 20-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur); sp321 ~ 16-3-48 Mheskatri ;

~—s« $p465 1 25-3-48 Chikhli (Surat Dangs).

; Measurements: W B Tar. a

from cere

z Idd 135-145 20-23 145-16 187-210

4 99 133-1385 19-205 14-15 124-167 (2 msd.)

eo Fairly common in wooded country. The Survey did not come across

__.it in Kutch, but Hume apparently had records thence. (S\7., iv: 458).

General moult in March. No indication of breeding from gonads of

specimens. Race as arbitrarily fixed by Whistler (/2NAS, 37: 753) for

‘birds north of 20° N. latitude.

Pees

Family CucuLIDAE: Cuckoos

2 Clamator jacobinus [pica (Hempr. & Ehr.)]. The Pied Crested

~ Cuckoo 3 |

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs43 9+ 11-8-43 Bhujia Fort; xs50

— 4+ 12-8-43 Bu environs; KS319 # juv. 5-10-43 Nir (Pachham Island),

Gujarat: 6832 J, Gs33 9 juv., 6834 2 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.);

-— G8170 ¥ 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : W B bar: db

28 149-150 25°5-27 252). = 165-166

ree 143-150 25=27 26=25 5. 166-172

On measurements the above series belongs to the northern (African)

race pica which is believed to visit India during the SW. monsoon months.

Fairly common at this season throughout the area. The October

and November specimens were fat, and presumably preparing to emigrate.

3 Breeding was in progress in July/August. The common fosterer in

Kutch is Avgya caudata ; in Gujarat Argya caudata and Turdoides somer-

ville.

Cuculus varius varius (Vahl). The Common Hawk-Cuckoo

4 Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gsl171 Q 8-11-1945 Bodeli (Baroda

e Dist.).

3 Elsewhere noted: Pavagadh, Champaner (Panchmahals Dist.);

_ Waghai, Galkund, Mahal (Surat Dangs).

- Measurements : WwW =-3 Bs Tar. op

19 195 26 26 159

a i. Apparently moves about a great deal with the seasons, but also is

_ possibly much more widely distributed and common as a resident, though

_ apt to be overlooked when silent.

Not observed in Kutch, but recorded thence by Hume (S./., iv : 460).

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

‘Cuculus canorus ssp. The Cuckoo |

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs27 $+ 9-8- 43 Bhujia Forte! S76”

Q+ 17-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj ee Saurashtra: B16 Q 20-10- 43

Dhari (Amreli Dist.). oe

Measurements : W . B | ‘Tat: eile

Lites 218 26 ae 152

2 9° 213-230 22-28 23-04 |: 160= ge

Subspecies apparently ‘¢elephonus. A hepatic male from Bodeli

(Gs177) taken on 9-11-45 cannot be placed satisfactorily. It measures :

W 209, B 27, Tar. 23, T 157 mm. Fv

Status over the area as a whole uncertain. In Kutch apparently a

rains (breeding) visitor, common during August but mostly gone by end

September. Gonads of the August specimens were mature. These two

examples, and several other solos, were observed busily walking about the .

ground on the bare stony hummocks in the environs of Chaduya where

larks and pipits were breeding at the time, searching for nests to lay in.

They were being constantly chivvied and chased about by the would-be ©

victims. Capt. Butler (S./., iii. 460) found the Cuckoo common in the

neighbourhood of Deesa during the rains and winter. One of his speci-

mens was identified by Hume.

Cacomantis sonnerati sonnerati (Latham). The Indian Banded Bay

Cuckoo

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs1310 + 21-4-46 Galkund;

sp159 di 5-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs). : &

_ Elsewhere noted : Gu jarat: Juna Rajpipla ; Waghai; Mheskatri.

Measurements : W --B Tat: view Ts Aas

23S 125 23-26 Stil ve ay 41124118

Uncommon. Very vocal and active on cloudy overcast days. Easily

overlooked when silent. Its call is wee-tz-téé-tz7, or tee-¢i-ti-tz, rather like

the ‘crossword puzele’ call of the Indian Cuckoo, but in a higher key

and differently punctuated. In timbre it resembles the call of the Plain-

tive Cuckoo which, curiously enough was not met with in Gujarat,

Saurashtra or Kutch. Capt. Butler also evidently failed to meet with the

latter in N. Gujarat though he says itis not uncommon at Mt. Aba where

it arives about the beginning of June (S./, iii: 461). The Bay Banded

Cuckoo does not appear in his list at all.

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linn.). The Koel

_ Specimens collected: Kutch: xs30 9+ 10-8-43 Bhuj environs ;

Ks68 $+ 16-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.). Gujarat: GSs334 % 20-11- 45,

Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs917 § 14-1-46 Deesa Aaene

Saurashtra: Gs986 9 12-3-46 Kodinar; Gs1012 2 16-2-:6 ee

(Amreli Dist.).

Measurements ; W Be Tar, Ts

208 : 182-195 3225" Gl) ¢ 32°9.(1) < ca 186-189

3 Qo. 181-189 29-31°5 33-34°5 171-180

Scarce i in Kutch and confined to the larger towns where its chief foster= 7

er Corvus splendens i is abundant. In eae also it keeps more to gar-

Pe, BIRDS ORY Guy Arar 435

dens in and about towns, and inthe neighbourhood of villages where

House Crows abound. Was breeding in Kutch in August.

Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). ‘The Small Greenbilled Malkoha

Mr. Joseph Gabriel, an experienced assistant in the Bird Department

of the Prince of Wales, Bombay, who was collecting birds with the Gujarat

Ornithological Survey reported seeing an example at Ajwa on 31 Oct.

1945. Ihave no hesitation in accepting this sight record. That he did

not confuse the bird with 7Zaccocua is clear from his statement that the

bill was greenish and not red. Unfortunately no specimens was obtained.

This marks a considerable northward extension of the range of this

species, limited by Baker to south of Ratnagiri.

Taccocua leschenaulti leschenaulti (Lesson). The Southern Sirkeer

Cuckoo

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs268 94+ 17-11-45, Gs336 ¢

20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs518 # 9-12-45, Gs531. # 10-12-45

Nadiad environs ; Gs682 2 21-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs921 2

16-1-46 Palanpur ; sp279 3 12-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B , (Dar ae

mc ietes 153-159 31°5—32°5 41°5-45 235-244

oe — 156-159 30-34°5 43°5-44 223~240

Tris brown. Orbital skin greyish brown. Bill cherry red, yellow at tip

of upper mandible and less at tip of lower. Legs and feet brownish grey

or plumbeous. Claws horny brown.

The specimens from north of Cambay — Nadiad, Vaghjipur and

Palanpur — are slightly paler on the underparts, being particularly less

rufous on the abdomen. ‘The upper parts are also a trifle paler, suggest-

ing, on the whole, passage into the Punjab race szrkee. ‘i

Fairly frequent in dry scrub country tall grass and secondary jungle.

Runs along in amongst thickets and stones, head lowered, tail carried

horizontally and parallel with the ground. On a fleeting glimpse in the

distance very mongoose-like. Call: kek-kek-kek-kerek-kerek-kerek or kick

kick-kick, etc., of sharpness and quality of call of Roseringed Parakeet or

- Goldenbacked Woodpecker. It is sometimes also reminiscent of the

Barred Jungle Owlet’s. The specimen of 17 November had a mature

ovary.

Centropus sinensis parroti Sresemann. ‘I'he Southern Crow Phea-

sant ; :

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs89 9+ 7-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.). Gujarat: Gs5 9 28-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs501 9 7-12-45

Cambay town environs; GS722 9 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; sp254

@ 11-3-48 Laochali; sp406 6, sp407 Q 21-11-48, sp417 of 22-3-48

Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B ‘Par T

3s 185-195 41-445 50—57 238-265

5 “ae 190-210 38-45 50-57°5 258-310

Common in Saurashtra and Gujarat. Rare in Kutch; only seen at

Bhuj, Chaduva and Mandvi where itis said to have been introduced from

- * :

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 :

Jamnagar (hence called ‘ Jamnagar Crow’) by the late Maharao Khengarji

about 4 years previous to 1943. However, since Stoliczka (.4.S.2., xli, —

1872) records an example on the Jhura Hills (Kutch) as long ago as _

November 1871, it is evident that the species existed here even before

the introduction.

The female of 7 October was laying. Birds were in general moult

(postnuptial) in October. The significance of larger size in females needs

to be investigated.

Family TyTONIDAE: Barn Owl

Tyto alba stertens Hartert. The Barn Owl.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs8ll 2 3-1-46 Radhanpur; 2

12-11-40 Nadiad, Kaira Dist. (coll. Dr. H. C. Aldrich).

Elsewhere noted: Dediapada (Rajpipla). Deesa (Palanpur. © Butler,

S.F.,, ii : 449),

Measurements : W B ats Beak

i Ree 315 BE baa A) 125

_ These specimens in their more grey, less ochraceous upper parts

match examples from Manipur, which are obviously also stevtens. Burma

birds are distinctly more rufous and ochraceous ; less grey.

Recorded from Kutch by Lester, and also by Capt. A. Newnham

(JBNHS, 2: 55—1837) and possibly less uncommon over the entire

area than the records suggest. It is more nocturnal than most

other owls, retiring into hollow trees and ceilings, etc., of crumbling,

and deserted buildings during daytime, and is therefore seldom seen.

The stomach of the Radhanpur specimen contained the skulls and other

remains of two rats. a

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji found it breeding in Bhavnagar ( Saurash- ee

tra) in October (1938—/BNAS, 41: 174).

Family STRIGIDAE: Owls

Otus bakkamoena ssp. The Collared Scops Owl.

No specimens obtained, but from its calls evidently fairly common in —

moist deciduous forest country in Gujarat. Its familiar mellow, mono- —

syllabic call waz, wit, etc. repeated once every second or so, was —

heard after dusk, and intermittently more or less throughout moonlit —

nights (particularly in the early hours before dawn) at Songadh in Nav-

sari District, and at Mahal, Galkund, Pandwa, Laochali and elsewhere —

in the Surat Dangs. In addition to this call it sometimes utters a —

slowly repeated ack-ack-ack-ack, etc. strung out for 5 seconds or So.

Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin). The Indian Great Horned Owl —

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs252 #+ 20-9-43 Rapar. q

Gujarat: Gs370 9+ 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs508 ce i

+ 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira Dist.) ; Gs902 f'+ 13-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur). - 7

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar. Gujarat; Shedi River ance

Virdi (Kaira Distr specimens: H. C. “ Aldrich) : Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

" Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; Mahal (Surat Dangs).

Measurements: § W B Tar. T

3 SN 375-390 44-45 69-76 189-195

lee 420 45 75 227

Iris orange yellow ; bill horny black, base and cere piumbeous; claws

horny black.

2 Affects well wooded country with large shady mango and simi’ar trees

in the vicinity of villages. The call, heard soon after sunset and also at

dusk is a far-carrying, hollow, du... 40 rather pleasant in comparison

with the Brown Fish Owl’s. Stomachs examined at 10 a.m., 10°30 a.m.

q and 6 p.m. were all empty! The gonads of the specimens were in various

stages of development, but no direct evidence of breeding was obtained.

- K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji records a nest with 4 eggs in Bhavnagar

(Saurashtra) in December (1938—/4NZS, 41 : 174).

Bubo coromandus coromandus (Latham). The Dusky Horned

- Owl 2 aoe

Specimens collected : Gujarat: 68379 ¢ 27-11-1945 Cambay town >

environs; GS737 Q 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs810 2 3-1-46

Radhanpur; Gsl045 \ 20-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Virdi (Kaira Dist., specimen: H.C.

Aldrich) ; Kanewal (Cambay). Evidently absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Tar. dh

2 ' 390-402 42-43 60-61 196-208

2 99 <> 403-412 46-49 55-67 198-210

3 A very diurnal owl, often on the move and even hunting during day-

time. One individual, when shot, was actively devouring a freshly killed

_ shikra hawk (Astur badius). GS1045 was one of a pair together in the

act of demolishing a freshly killed coot. When it was shot, its mate flew

off carrying the booty with it! Besides coot’s feathers the stomach of

_ this specimen contained remains of large water beetles (Dysticus). I feel

_] have now decicively traced down the resonant, hollow ‘ pingpong-ball-

. bounce ’ call to this species. This call is reminiscent of a large hollow

_ celluloid ball dropped from a height and allowed to bounce itself tosilence,

® the sound getting fainter and quicker with each successive bounce.

Bubo zey lonensis leschenault (Temminck). The Brown Fish Owl

_ ‘Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS507 § 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira

Dist.); Gs645 2, Gs646 1 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

_ __ Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Patan (Mehsana

q Dist.) ; Nadiad (Kaira Dist., specimen: H.C. Aldrich). Evidently absent

in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Tar. T s

pave 420-443 50-54 80-90 206-210

12 : 425 | 50 75 207

4 The above series would, on the measurements given in F.B.I. (iv 473)

| £0 with the race hardwickiz. However, Ticehurst (/d¢s 1923 ; 236 and

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

JBNHS, 34: 473) considers that only the one race leschenault is recog-

nizable in India and both Whistler (7a@vHs, 38: 234) and Ripley

(Checklist MS) concur. The typical race from Ceylon is differentiated

on darker colour and smaller size—% 2 W 365-383 (Spolia Zeylanica,

23 (3 and 4)—Aug. 25, 1944).

Not uncommon in wooded country in the neighbourhood of tanks

and rivers. The eroded banks and scrub-covered ravines of the Mahi

River near its mouth at Dabka (Baroda Dist.) provide an ideal habitat for

this and the Great Horned Owl. Its characteristic call is an eerie, hollow,

reverberating doomo-boom heard in the gloaming soon after sundown.

The gonads of the specimens were undeveloped. ‘Their stomachs con-

tained remains of frogs and fish.

Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell). The Barred Jungle

Owlet ss

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs1133 2 29-3-46, cs1155 G+

30-3-46, GS1187 3 2-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gs1208 9+ 7-4-46,

Gs1223 $ 9-4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ; Gs1271 9+ 14-4-46 Waghai;

Gs1292 9+ 17-4-46 Mahal ; Gs1308 + 20-4-46 Galkund (Surat Dangs);

sD98 2 1-3-48, sp106 a4: sd107 9+, sp108 2, sp109 9+, sp110

Q+ 2-3-48 Caltchind: sD169 9, sp170 3+, sp171 3+. 5-3-48 Pandwa;

SD247 9+ 10-3-48 Laochalii ; spD309 f+ 14-3-48 Mahal; sp345 2 17-3- 48

Mheskatri (SD = Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. fy

8 Jd 124-134 18°5-21 25=27. 66-71

te 2° 128-135 17=20 23227 62°5—71

Common in the Dangs in moist deciduous forest country, where the

most usual bird associationss consist of Crypstrina vagabunda, Disse-

murus paradiseus and this species. Its pleasant, distinctive and somewhat

junglecock-like call is one of the commonest bird sounds here. It begins

with a loud kao repeated 2 or 3 times, followed by kao-kuk, (or kookik)

kdo-ktiik, kaio-kuik, and so on, in quickening tempo and lasting about 5

seconds. When calling the head is somewhat lowered giving the bird a

hunch-back profile, and the tail is wagged laterally or swung from side to

side. Breeding was in full swing in March and April.

Ninox scutulata ssp? The Brown Hawk-Owl

No specimens obtained. Heard and seen at Songadh (Navsari Dist.)

and in the Surat Dangs at Waghai, Mahal, Galkund, Pandwa, Laochali,

Mheskatri, and other places. Not otherwise in Gujarat, or in Saurashtra.

Absent in Kutch.

Its wing action and habit of sweeping upward to alight on a branch at

the end of a flight is characteristically hawk-like. The call is a pleasant,

almost musical 00-7, oo-u~k, oo-uk uttered in runs of 6 to 20 (mostly of 9

to 13) with a break of 4 to 1 second between each run. Very vocal

during moonlit nights, and answered by other individuals from all

directions. It is particularly active in the early morning just prior to

retiring for the day, and may then be seen hawking winged insects in

mid-air like a flycatcher, springing up a few feet vertically for a capture

and diving back to its perch on a tree stem.

eter ibety Dy

tty Sane gs PAO a ee A NT EY ee ed i >

PERRET AIS es al ioe it ps

Sea cath Gites Meee N pe vo a Sh bl he

een eee

a, as

‘a ,

MERE Rep eee A

ee,

ey ata

oo Remon Bi = = Yr PTR Re ee ae ee yay were. or eae es

SNe Ga renter se ercrin ce Man any NTN ee EMS

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 439

Athene brama indica (Franklin). The Spotted Owlet

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs26 9+ 9-8-1943 Bhujia Fort ;

KS28 9+ 10-8-43 Bhuj town environs; Gujarat: Gs89 % 1-11-45

Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs188 7, Gs189 9 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ;

G8738 2 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gsl025 #-+ 16-3-46 Dalkhania

(Amreli Dist.); Gsl085 + 22-3-46 Kharaghoda; Gs1224 9 9-4-46

Songadh. 3 |

Elsewhere noted : Kutch: Chaduva; Mandvi; Khari Rohar ; Tyna.

Saurashtra: Amreli town; Bhavnagar (specimen: Dharmakumar-

sinhji).. Gujarat: Cambay; Nadiad(specimen: Aldrich); Vaghjipur, etc.

Measurements : W Br har: gt

4 ff 154-160 20-22 31-33 72-77 ©

mo. -ei53—164 20-20°5 32-34 76-85

The subspecies is attributed as pe: the boundary arbitrarily fixed at

20°N between the north Indian race zzdica and the south Indian dvama

(Whistler, /BVHS, 38 : 237).

Common. Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August; in

Gujarat March and April. At Dediapada Rajpipla, (30 Mar.) 2 pairs had

eggs in hollows in the trunk of the same Mhowa tree (Aassza) within

15 feet of each other: In another hollow in an adjoining bough wasa

Roller’s nest containing 3 eggs !

Strix ocellata ocellata (Lesson). The Mottled Wood Owl

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs871 2, Gs872 2 11-1-46 Deesa

environs (Palanpur); GsS1148 2 29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; sp245 2

10-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs). ;

Elsewhere noted : Gujarat : Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Patan (Mehsana

Dist.); Galkund and Mheskatri (Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B sear: ae

4 99 345~—357 38-41 61-65 179-193

The two usuai calls of this owl are: (1) a mellow single hoot, and (2)

a quavering eerie chuhuaa. In addition it occasionally utters a screech

similar to that of the Barn Owl. This last needs confirmation. Spends

the day dozing in the branches of tamarind and such thickly foliaged

trees. The gonads of the specimens provided no indication as regards

breeding.

Asio flammeus flamimeus (Pontoppidan). The Shorteared Owl]

Specimens collected : Gujarat: 68288 2 1811-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.); Gs812 4, Gs813 3, Gs814 J, sG815 9, Gs816 3, Gs817 2 3-1-46

Radhanpur ; sp143 9, sp144 9 4-3-48 Galkund (Surat Dangs),

Elsewhere noted : Mandvi (specimen: M. K. $, Fatehsinhji) ; Guja-

Pat; Asami, Kaira -Dist.>(specimen .- H.-C. Aldrich): Saurashtra:

Dwarka; Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements : W B Wars kT

. 430% 314-325 30 46-48 141-150.

. 422 305-520 = 820-3) 43-48 143-148

Winter visitor. Not uncommon, but local and patchy. Perches on

ground, for preference, at the base of bushes in tall grass and scrub

2 he ~

- Fy eT cy

et ERE Ot ot oh

fe PR em

: _

t i se a2

Ba ibtage te Gees fe

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

country. On one occasion (Mehmedabad, Kaira Dist.) a loose assemblage

of 10 or 12 birds was met with. In flight the pointed wing, white on the

underside with black tips and a blackish crossbar at about half its length, —

is diagnostic of this migratory owl. Its speed on the wing is much greater

than is apparent. The March specimens were very fat preparatory to

emigration. 7 a

Hume (S.F, iii: 450) records Aso otus, the Longeared Owl, from —

Kutch on the authority of Stoliczka.

Family CAPRIMULGIDAR: Nightjars

Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham. The Indian Jungle Nightjar

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS573 2 12-12-1945 Saiat (Kaira

: Dist.); spl03 [2] 2+3-48 Galkund ; spl173 <7 6-3-48, sp2139'+ 7-3-48

Pandwa.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Dediapada (Rajpipla); Waghai, Male-

gaon, Mheskatri, etc. (Surat Dangs.) Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W /B Tar. T

~ 24 196-198 © 225-23. 16*5-17 186-144

229 187-1895 20-23 16-18 127-129

Common in teak and mixed deciduous forest areas. Its presence is

advertised by its distinctive calls, which are of two different kinds:

(1) chuckoo-chuckoo-chuckoo, &c, 3 to 12 or more times quick-repeated _

at about 2 calls per second. ‘There is a pause, often of only a second or.

two—a mere break in the continuity—before the series is resumed ; pause

... repeat... pause. . . . repeat, and so on, for considerable periods

at a stretch, the birds being particularly vocal during their breeding season,

and then on moonlit nights. The chuckoo calls are sometimes terminated

by a pleasant, hollow-sounding wowowowowowo tailing off atthe end and

reminiscent of an oil engine conking out. S

(2) a not unpleasant Uk. . . krookroo repeated ad lib while the bird

is perched lengthwise along a branch.

Only runs of either (1) or(2) are uttered at a time, and I have never

heard a calling bird switch over from one type of call to the other. The

significance of these alternate calls is not understood. -

Stomachs contained grasshoppers predominantly. The testes of the

March 7 specimens were enlarged to breeding size. ; .

CGaprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume. The European Nightjar

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks237 3 17-9-43 Bhachau: ks2550?;

21-9-43, K8261 2 229-43, KS262 9, KS263 J, 23-9-43, KS264 J, KS265

oS 24-9-43 Rapar. 4

Not observed in Gujarat or Saurashtra.

Measurements : W T

4dNo 176-192 117-134

2 29 183-184:5 126-130

A fairly common and abundant autumn passage migrant through

Kutch by the Arabian route to its winter quarters in Africa. Earliest date —

17 September (Bhachau). Abundant about the 3rd week of September —

(Rapar); nearly all gone by 3rd week October. Not observed on retum —

HE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

ssage between 3 March and 5 April. Presumably travels northward in

spring by a different route.

_ All the specimens were excessively fat in preparation for the long

chuck-chuck-chuck-chuck of the quality and volume of a House Gecko’s

call. Their stomachs contained dung beetles and crickets.

___Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes. Sykes’s Nightjar

Specimen collected: Gujarat: GS290 2 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

e- Dist.).

--_ Elsewhere not noted.

a Measurements: W B Mar. T

g lige 168 9 oy 104 (dry)

from forehead

feathers

4 ‘The specimen was one of a pair flushed on dry grassland on the edge

of a jheel. Hume obtained a specimen in N. Gujarat between Deesa and

-Suizam, and implies that it occurs in Kutch and Saurashtra as well (S\F,,

> 455).

a . Gapemmniiens monticolus monticolus Franklin. Prandin’ Nightjar.

4a Specimens collected: Kutch: xs254 oO VA-3-45 “RaparGwjarat:

_ «GS252 9 11-11-45 Jambughoda. Saurashtra: Gs990 #+ 15-3-46 Dal-

- khania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Mata-no-Madh. Gujarat: Dediapada

_. (Rajpipla). -

Measurements : W B am: xh

1¢g 202 19 4218 T2303

3 The call of this nightjar, heard at dusk and during moonlit nights, is

a characteristic sharp sweesh like a whip lash cutting the air. The

_ September Specimen was in heavy general moult; testes of Gs990 (15

. - March) had enlarged to 5x4 mm. and the bird was een preparing

- to breed.

= Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. The Common Indian

Nightjar

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs49 %+ 12-8-43 Bhuj environs;

—~xs139 #1 + 1-9-43 Bhujia Fort.

3 Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Khari Rohar; Mata-no-Madh; Khadir,

Bela and Pachham Islands. Saurashtra: Dwarka. GAT ar ate aa oda

Dist; Golana, Cambay, etc.

Measurements: W B oars gi

23 142-148 11-13 20-22 104 (1)

Fairly common. Its distinctive ‘stone-on-ice’ calls chuck-chuck-

uck-chuck-chukr-r-r were frequently heard at dusk after February.

Ithough the testes of the specimens showed some enlargement (Aug. /

t.) they were both i in heavy general moult which was presumably post-

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Family ApoprpaE: Swifts

Apus melba ssp. The Alpine Swift

No specimens collected. Observed in Kutch (Nakhatrana, Bhachau,

Bhuj) and Gujarat (Patan, Waghai, Fort Salher).

A bird of capricious movements, loose parties appearing suddenly

from nowhere and after wheeling about at tremendous speed, hawking

insects—chiefly around the tops of hills with cliffs and ancient forts— dis-

appearing just as suddenly. They usually fly lower in cloudly overcast

weather. |

Apus affinis affinis (J. E. Gray). The Indian House Swift

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs44 Q juv., Ks45 3 juv., KS46 2

juv. 11-8-1943 Bhujia Fort. 7

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar; Rapar; Khavda; Nir; Lakhpat :

Mandvi; Adesar, etc. Saurashtra: Okha; Amreli; Dhari; Kodinar.

Gujarat: Baroda City; Champaner; Dabka; Patan : Cambay town;

Kapadvanj (Kaira Dist.) ; Viramgam; Surat City, ete:

The specimens (not measured) were taken from a nest of the Striated

Swallow (Azvundo daurica) in an open cellar under a ruined rampart of

Bhujia Fort, that had been appropriated by the swifts. The differential

growth of the young indicated that brooding had commenced with the

first egg.

A common species over the entire area, though somewhat patchy, with

old established nest colonies under arches and gateways everywhere. Also

in the angle of wall and ceiling in verandahs of buildings, whether ancient

and deserted or occupied and even within noisy bazaars.

;

cs ee

\ ide aed

Pe i et SEIT eae bist i es oe en ee J oP x ie 5 5 : yb Nila ail

De eee SIR SA EN See Te Re EET ee SS See ee ae ee ee gee eee Ce Me ee eee ee

Cypsiurus parvus [batasiensis (J. E. Gray)]. The Palm Swift

No specimens collected. Observed in Gujarat at Ajwa and Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.), Cambay town environs, Rajpipla, and elsewhere. Usually

symbiotic with Palmyra palms (Borassus flabelliter), but curiously enough

not as common locally as the palms would warrant, and even absent from

some localities where the palms were abundant. K. $. Dharmakumar-

sinhji found several nests in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra, in May and June

1946, and believes it has established itself there quite recently sees

46 : 724).

Hemiprocne longipennis coronata (Tickell). The Crested Tree

Swift |

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsll02 $+, Gs1103 24, es1104

J+. 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla. 3

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Songadh (Navsari Dist.); Galkund,

Pimpri, etc. (Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch.

“Ph

a A

“

es va

hee.

Measurements : W B Tar. Cit OD:

203 150-155 >>:7-5 8°5-9 43-47 112-127 —

19 157. 8 9 43. 123-50 ae

In small numbers, hawking insects over open deciduous forest, — i

uttering the characteristic whzttuck, whittuck calls. Breeding was-in pro-

gress in March. : rie

» ry

—

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT | ‘e 443

_ Family TROGONIDAE: Trogons —

Harpaetest malabaricus legerli Koelz. The Trogon

Specimens collected: Gujarat: $ 30-12-41, Gs1241 4, Gsl242 2

12-4-46, Gs1255 o 13-446 Waghai (Surat: Dangs); sp100 1-3-48,

sp104 4, sp105 [1 juv] spl27 3, spl28 9 2-3-48 Galkund; sp205 2

7-3-48 Pandwa; SD289 2 13-3-48 Ajwa; Ssp317 3 14-3-48 Mahal; sp352

d\ 17-3-48, sp360 3, sp361 2 18-3-48 Mheskatri ; sp391 S D392 ©

20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat Dangs).. —

-. Absent in Kutch. Not noted elsewhere in Gujarat, ‘though. may

possibly occur in appropriate facies in the Rajpipla area. - Possibly _ also

in the Gir Forest of Junagadh, Saurashtra.

Measurements: WwW i rebe e Pate.’ et ;

12 Jo 130°5-142 19:5-21:5 15-17 155-184

6:29 130-135 18°5-21 15-17 160-176°5

In the young male (sp105) the crimson of the’ underparts is ‘replaced

by pinkish salmon. The chestnut central pair of retrices is not truncated

asin the adult, but has the normal rounded tip. The black terminal band

of the adult tail is lacking.

As pointed out. by me (/SNZS, 48: 806/ 7), this fine series is ‘ridlie:

- tinguishable from specimens of /eger/z collected in Bastar (eastern Madhya

Pradesh). Besides being larger than malabaricus from Travancore and

Kanara, they differ from that race in the following respects :

Males brighter yellowish brown above, less suffused with éhestnan

particularly on the upper tail coverts. Head and breast sooty black or

greyish black as against deep black in southern birds. The females are

also a brighter yellow-brown above than females of southern. birds.

Specimens from the neighbourhood of Bombay city are intermediate.

For the sake of convenience I have arbitrarily restricted the range of

malabaricus to ‘the Western Ghats country north to the 20th parallel ’

(loc. cit.).

Fairly common in the Dangs. Affects bamboo and mixed jungle in

moist deciduous biotope. The male utters a throaty, rather musical (of

oriole quality) cue, cue, cue, repeated unhurriedly usually 3 times, some-

times only twice. Sits bolt upright with dull coloured back studiedly

turned to the observer thus obliterating itself effectively in its surround-

ings. In this position, moreover, the broad, square-ended tail (as broad

as the body) makes it look like a bit of a-branch ora dry leaf. When

taking off, flutters from side to side, like a dove suddenly disturbed, with the

pointed lateral tail feathers and primaries spread out and twisted round

looking like the points of a star—reminiscent of the tail of the” American

Sage Grouse in display.

Most of the March specimens were undergoing body moult. In only

one male (14 March) was a fair development of the testes noticed. ‘N O

other evidence as regards breeding in this area was obtained.

Family ALCEDINIDAE : Kingfishers

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach. The Pied Kingfisher

_ Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs563 ? 12-12-1945 Saiat . (Kaira

Dist); cs605 9, Gs606 Y 16-12-45, GS636 ro 68637 ne 18- 12- 45

- Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.),._ ae

SG Ce

Gee:

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva; Bhuj; Anjar. Saurashtra: 4

Kodinar. Gujarat: Baroda and environs; Golana (Cambay); Radhan-

pur; Kharaghoda ; Juna Rajpipla. :

Measurements : W B Tar. AB

(from forehead

feathers)

1dg 142 6654 12 69%

aye 139-141 57°5-67°5 12-15 70-74:5

Fairly common. Pairs at irrigation reservoirs and rivers, hunting in

the well known spectacular manner of hovering stationary and plunging

headlong. No indication of breeding was provided by the gonads of the

Saar According to Lester, it breeds in Kutch in February and

arch.

Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin. The Small Indian Kingfisher

Specimens collected: Saurashtra: B48 ~ 20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli

Dist.); Gujarat: Gslll # 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); @s562

12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.); Gs580 Q 15-12-45, Gs638 $ 18-12-45,

GS668 Y 20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs947 2 20-1-46 Balaram

(Palanpur) ; Gs1122 § 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla.

Elsewhere noted : Kutch: Bhuj environs; Mandvi. Saurashtra:

Dwarka. Gujarat: Cambay; Radhanpur; Kharaghoda, ete.

Measurements : W B Par, ca

5d 69-72 42-46 8-10°5 30-33

3 29 69-71 435-445 9:5-10 30°5-34

The specimen from Dhari (No. B48), just completing general moult, is

very blue and would pass for ¢afrobana; but relatively more blueness or

greenness seems to me a variable and unreliable subspecific character.

Several others of the Gujarat series are equally blue with B48.

Occasional solos at ditches, ponds and streams. Not common. Breeds

in Kutch, according to Lester, March to May. Gonads of all the above

specimens were quiescent.

Pelargopsis capensis gurial (Pearson). The Brownheaded Stork-

billed Kingfisher. <a

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs946 4 20-1-46 Balaram (Palan-—

pur); Gsl121 $+ 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1147 9 29-3-46, Gsll63

Q 30-3-46, GS1195 9 3-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; Gs1250 9+ 12-4-46,

Gs1263 2 14-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs); sp372 f+ 19-3-48 Kalibel ;

sp435 ji-+ 24-3-48 Sakalpatal (Surat Dangs).

Absent in Kutch. Saurashtra?

Measurements : W B "bat T

6 Jd 155°5-163 84-93 19-20 98-110

ee) 159-168 86-90 19-20 100-105

Not uncommon on forest streams. Its presence is usually advertised

by its loud, explosive, harsh laugh Ké-ke-ke-ke-ke (accent on the initial fe),

or the pleasant soliloquy pcer-peer--bur etc. Late March specimens were

completing moult and their gonads were maturing.

pate tate Leen

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

445

-_ Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (Linnaeus). The Whitebreasted King- 3

fisher | | |

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsll2 Q 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); Gs176 § 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs302 19-11-45,

G@s337 9’ 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist); Gs454 2 2-12-45 Golana,

Cambay; Gs496 ( 6-12-45 Cambay town environs, GS607 <1 16-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.), Gs1184 <f' 2-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva ; Mandvi; Lakhpat. Saurash-

tra: Amreli; Kodinar. Gujarat: Radhanpur; Palanpur; Khara-

ghoda, etc. !

Measurements : W B Tar: iE

— 6h (115) 121-125 60-67 16 (19) 76°5-82

22° 122-123 65-66 16:5-17 81-87°5

I agree with Whistler’s remarks (JBNAS, 37; 762 and SZolia Zey-

lanica 23 (3 & 4): 228—Aug. 25, 1944) that Travancore and Ceylon

birds are alike and there is no constant difference in colour between birds

from the rest of India and the NW. race smyrnensis excepting a slight

increase in size as one moves northward, in keeping with Bergmann’s

Rule.

A common and widely distributed species, but nowhere abundant. It

is much less dependent upon the presence of water than other kingfishers,

and is often met with in openly wooded country far away from any ponds

or streams. The Survey specimens provide no indication of the breed-

ing season in this area.

FP a ee ee ON ME Re LE PT Re PME We ORNS Pi MEE Lene Tee eee a A pn ee ee ea ine

< 5 , : Lug ae

Halcyon pileata (Boddaert). The Blackcapped Kingfisher

Specimen collected: Gujarat: sp436 Q\ 24-3-48 Sakalpatal (Surat

Dangs). Elsewhere not noted.

- Measurements: W 228 Tar. AL:

1Yg e130 64 15°5 81:5

The only example met with by the Survey. A solitary on a rock pool é

in Ambika River. In flight the large white patch in the wing is conspicu-

ous and strikes immediate attention.

Family MEROPIDAE: Bee-eaters

Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas. The Bluecheeked Bee-eater

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs290 #1, KS291 9 30-9-43 Chaduva

(Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat; Gsl 9, Gs2 |, Gs3 of, Gs4 % 28-10-45, Gs16

3, G817 2 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.).

' Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Rapar (21 Sept.), Bhuj (28 Sept.),

Khavda (1 Oct.) Nir (5 Oct.) Absent at Chaduva (5 March). Saurash-

tra: Mithapur (Okhamandal, 23 Oct.), Amreli (17-20 Oct.).

Measurements. . W B Tar, O.T C.T

5d 146-155 47-50 14-27 88-91 96-

3.29. 142-150 16-47 14-46 85-92 97(1)

Evidently an autumn passage migrant over Kutch to its winter quar-

ters in Africa, like the Kashmir Roller. First met September 21 (Rapar) ;

abundant in Ist week of November. Between 5 March and 5 April no

return passage was observed. In Gujarat its status is not clear, although

446. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

to'some extent it is certainly a passage migrant as in Kutch: In Satirash-

tra, K. S$. Dharmakumarsinhji recently reported it as arriving in May’ and.

breeding in considerable numbers between J tine and ‘August i in foe Bhav-

mabe area. (JBN/ZIS, 46: 723),

Affects: the neighbourhood of tanks and aheale The éeiils te- few >

(repented) heard in the Bene are reminiscent of the nee notes: of

the Redvented Bulbul.

__. Merops orientalis orientalis Latham, The Little Green Bee-eater

Specimens collected: Kutch: k&8277 # 26-9-1943 Bhuj environs ;

KS323 0? 5-10-43 Nir (Pachham Island);- Gujarat: 4@s157 ye

7-11-45, GS221 9, Gs222 Q 11-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.);*e¢s421 9,

Gs422 4 29-11-45 Cambay town environs; Gs991 4 15-11- 46 setae

Cai Dist.) ; Gsl055 J+ 20-3-46. Kharaghoda.

"Measurements: “W Bo] Tarn. OT: C.T.

Sane 94°97" 28-33 “10-2 705275." 121-144

1 2 . 94 6 Va tna LO Pet catty 5) 126s

Rare i in Surat Dangs. Sees but generally distributed elsewhere in

Gujarat, Saurashtra and Kutch. The Great Rann evidently acts as a

barrier between orzenxtalis and the paler race bzludschicus of Sind, though

individuals from Kutch and N. Gujarat may pass with either. Breeding

seemed imminent by about mid March. Nga ean or

Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni (Jard. and Setby) The Bluebearded.

Bee-eater

No specimens obtained nor completely satisfactory sight record, but at

Medha near Songadh (Navsari Dist., Gujarat) the distinctive guttural

_ korr-r-r was heard in foothills moist deciduous forest country—the typical

bigtope of this sesh (8-4-1946). Confitmarion 1 is SS

Family CoRACIIDAE : Rollers or Blue ie

- Coracias garrula semenowi Loudon. & Tschusi. The Kashmir

Roller a s, ~

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS71 § 17-8-43, Ks98 2 20-8-43

Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gs37 2 30-10-45, Gs88 4 1-11-45

Ajwa (Baroda Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar ; Rapar; Bhachau; Khavda; Nir

(Pachham Island) Saurashtra: Dwarka; Okha ; Amreli ; Dhari.

Meastirements : CV ees Pat,“ ah

208 197-205 B5=37'5860 5 Zo 124-128

4 oo | 190-201 36-39 OTS oy 121-130

A passage migrant in autumn, through Kutch and Saurashtra. Earliest

date 17 August. Abundant between second week and end of September;

mostly gone by end of October. The specimens of 30 October and 1

November were excessively fat in preparation for emigration to their

winter quarters, presumably in Africa. Return migration to Kashmir,

Baluchistan, etc., evidently takes place by a different route in spring. This

species migrates ‘during daytime, chiefly in the morning up till forenoon,.

but also throughout the day. The birds do. not travel in flocks but rather

like birds of prey, in a steady stream of spaced singles with an interval

SO Oe eee et ee

Bo Ni es i hs

eR ad ira bap re tee eae

Fe te ORO CT Sn Sen ee re ee ee ee

erty cs Mi aA i a il a 5 al ae

;

447

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

of half to several minutes between each individual. On September 20

and 21 (1943, Rapar, Kutch) migration was observed in progress. The

birds were flying steadily over a wide front, 300 to 400 ft. up, in an

ENE.-WSW, direction. The wing beats are slow and deliberate, like a

aie eS in the distance the flight silhouette is also very reminiscent of

that bird.

Coracias benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.). The Indian Roller

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl48 ¢ 3-9-43 Nakhatrana. Guja-

rat: Gs152 4, Gs153 9, Gs154 of 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs472

2 3-12-45 Golana, Cambay ; 68538 2 11-12-45 Nadiad town environs

(Kaira Dist.) ; Gs720 # 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); csl071 f+

21-3-46 Kharaghoda ; Gs1234 3 9-4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.). :

Measurements : W B Pat: Zi

5 NS 185-193 39-44 B22 S122 ode

aoe 189-190 40-44°5 26-29 126-134

Assigned to this northern race in accordance with the arbitrarily fixed

boundary at 20° N. Lat. by Whistler (/BNAS, 37 : 755). ;

Commonly but sparsely distributed. Not abundant anywhere. Birds

in tumbling aerobatic displays were observed between December and April.

Breeding was in progress during March/April. Has a curious habit,

while perched, of swinging its tail slowly up and dowa as in the Black-

winged Kite, the Forest Wagtail and the Little Green Bee-eater.

Family UPUPIDAE : Hoopoes

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus. The Hoopoe

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs93 2 19-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); xs125 $ 30-8-43 Bhuj environs; Ks408 924-3-44 Chobari

(Bhachau Dist.). Saurashtra: B27 2 17-10-43 Amrelii Gujarat:

—6s70 9, Gs71_ 4, Gs72 0? 1-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); es143 Q

6-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs284 91 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ;

GS543 3% 11-12-45 Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist.); Gs710 of 27-12-45

Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs1062 (+ 20-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch; Nakhatrana, Anjar; Khavda (Pachham

Island), Nir; Saurashtra: Kodinar; Dalkhania: Gujarat. Radhan-

pur; Deesa; Palanpur, etc.

Measurements : W B Wan T

5A - 148-155 54-63 23°5-26 99-105

See 140-150 50-55 21-23 95-100

Specimen No. Gs1062 was in freshly moulted plumage on 20 March

and fat. The gonads were maturing, and the bird seemed getting ready

_ to breed.

I agree with Whistler’s doubts (/BNZS, 37 : 28) as to whether the

race orvzentalis of north India is worth recognizing. ‘There seem to be no

tangible or constant characters by which it can be separated from typical

éhops. ‘The above series from Gujarat include both darker and paler

birds. They measure larger than ceylonensis and are also distinctly paler

_ than that race, possessing white subterminal spots to the long hind feathers

of the crest.

448. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIET: 53

Not common, but frequent. Presumably resident, though the num-—

bers may be augmented during the winter months by influx of immigrants oa

from the north. S

Usually seen singly, but on oczasions loose parties of 10 or more were

met with feeding on a restricted piece of ground. ;

Family BUCEROTIDAR : Hombills

Tockus birostris (Scopoli). The Grey Hornbill a

Specimens collected: Gujarat: csl089 $+, Gs1090 f+ 25-3-46

Juna Rajpipla. i

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Hathidhara —

(Palanpur); Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ; Galkund, Malegaon, etc., (Surat

Dangs).

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W Bx Tar. T

2d. 220 406—112 45-47 266-276

Not uncommon in the better wooded parts of Gujarat with a generous _

sprinkling of large banyan and peepal trees (Ficus bengalensis and

veligiosa). Local name: Chalotra. There is a widespread belief in its medi-

cinal properties as a cure for after-childbirth pains in women, and the

birds are persecuted to some extent on this account. A brothis prepared

of the entire bird, feathers and all, which is taken internally. In addition

a decoction of it is used for bathing.

Both birds had testes enlarged to breeding size and from the paucity

of females at this period it is possible that they may be sitting on eggs.

Family CAPITONIDAE: Barbets

Megalaima zeylanicus inornata Walden. The Large Green Barbet

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs960 #, Gs961 4 20-1-1946 Hathi-

dhara (Palanpur); Gs1093 $+ 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1210 {+7-4-46 —

Songadh (Navsari Dist.); sp48 2 27-2-48, sp68 & + 28-2-48 Malegaon ;

spl21 J+ 2-3-48 Galkund; sp2417 + 10-3-48, Laochali; sp338 Q ~

16-3-48, sp356 {+ 18-3-48 Mheskatri; sp394 (§-+ 20-3-48 Sarwar —

(Surat Dangs). 4

Elsewhere noted : Gujarat: Pavagadh (Panchmahals Dist.).

Measurements : W B. Tar. T 24

Shades 119-127 34:5-38°5* 30-325. 72-785

et 119-123 40-41 30-33 73-74

This race is very brown above and below with practically no streaking

on the breast ; or rather the streaks are much finer and less contrasty than

in zeylanicus. ‘The brown of the head and breast, moreover, is silky and —

very buff if viewed from the side. In zeylanicus the head and breast are —

almost umber brown with the whitish streaks standing out boldly. :

Restricted to well wooded country ; abundant and noisy where oceur-

ring. Feeds chiefly on banyan and peepal figs. Occasionally sips nectar from

Erythrina flowers. Call: a loud kutvoo, kutroo, kutroo, or pocock, pocock,

pocock, repeated ad nauseam. Breeding was in progress during March.

Megalaima viridis (Boddaert). The Small Green Barbet

; Specimens collected: Gujarat: sp81 9 29-2-1948 Malegaon (Surat

- Dangs). Only observed in the Surat Dangs, not elsewhere in Gujarat.

_ Absent in Saurashtra and Kutch. ee

Measurements : W Peas ‘Ear. lk

bo fem cn07 29 27 66

Restricted to moist deciduous forest in Ghats foothills country, and

a here not uncommon. Call: kutroo, kutroo, etc., rather like the Large

Green Barbet’s but in a higher key and distinguishable if heard side

by side, e.g., at Malegaon,

Megalaima haemacephala indica (Latham). The Crimsonbreasted

Barbet

- Specimens collected: Saurashtra: B25 & 17-10-43 Amreli;—

Gujarat: Gs38 2 30-10-43 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs208 0? 10-11-43

Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; 68376 3+, Gs377 oa 23-11-43 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.); Gs424 9 29-11-43 Cambay town environs; Gs918 $+ 14-1-46

Deesa (Palanpur) ; Gs1197 2+ 3-4-46 Dediapada ( ‘Rajpipla) ; sp18 #+

24-2-48 Malegaon ; $p393 f+ 20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat a

Rare in Kutch.

‘Measurements : - W B ‘Pat. Ry

5 JS 78-81 16-19°5 Lj 25 34-36

SOF ve 75-81°5 17-19 eZ 0s 30-35

In abraided plumage back looks more bluish grey-green, less yellowish

green as in fresh plumage. This difference has no racial significance

since both types are found in the same localities seasonally. Feathers of

the back become abraided in nesting birds presumably due to the constant

scraping in and out of nest-holes. Therefore I cannot uphold Koelz’s race

contusa from Londa, described in Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, 52:78 —

ao:

Common. Ree in progress November / December—March/ April.

Family PiIcIDAE : Woodpeckers

lynx torquilla ssp. The Wryneck

Specimens collected: Kutch: ks374 9 15-3-44 Jakhau; Ks124 9

29-8-43, KS184 9 8-9-43, KS275 o? 26-9-43 Bhuj environs; Ks292 9

30-9-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gs39 § 30-10-45, Gs79 JY,

6880 @ 1-11-45, Gs115 2 3-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs351 i 2iei-45

‘Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs667 2 20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ;

GS708 2 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs898 7 12-1-46 Deesa (Palan-

Be); Gsllll 2 26-3-46 Rajpipla environs. Saurashtra: B36 of

18-10-43 Amreili.:

Measurements. : ai ieee B Tar. “ly

— 4d 87-92 16-18 20-22 65:5—70:5

Loo? 86-92 14-17 18-21 65-70

I can see little constant difference i in winter between the typical Euro-

pean race and the Asiatic form chinensis which breeds in Kashmir, and

3 therefore hesitate to assign my specimens to either.

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Fairly common winter visitor. Earliest date 29 August (Kutch) ;

latest 1 April (Rajpipla). Hops along ground like finch to pick up food:

ants and other insects aud seeds (?). Clings to thin stems of trees like

woodpecker and also perches across branches like a passerine bird.

Flight often deceptively finchlike.. On a fleeting glimpse, when dashing

from one thicket to another, easily mistaken for Great Reed Warbler

(Acrocephalus stentoreus) in appropriate facies. Utters a harsh quick-

repeated nasal chewn, chewn, chewn, chewn, at about 3 per second, of |

timbre between call of Myna and Goldenbacked Woodpecker’s ‘ laugh ’. 4

~ Affects dry scrub jungle and semidesert country with Prosopis, Euphor-

bia, etc. |

Micropternus brachyurus jerdoni (Malherbe), The Rufous Wood-

pecker ae ;

Specimens collected: Gujarat :sp421 9, sp422 gf 22-3-1948 Pimpri

(Surat Dangs). |

Elsewhere not noted. : a.

Measurements : W B ar AL :

17 131 30 24 62 ’

ie 129 30 24 64:5

Both these specimens have crown and nape grey, contrasting clearly

with the rufous of rest of upper parts. ‘The dark chocolate and whitish

squamation on the chin and throat is more pronounced in the female. In

the male this is obsolete and also lacks the chocolate. A cline in size 3

from Travancore birds is noticeable (4 jf) W 1165-1205; 4 99° Z

116°5-123). A female from Andheri (Greater Bombay) in the B.N.H.S. F:

collection has W 125°5 mm. ‘

The above were the only 2 examples met with by the Survey. They é

were busy digging a hole, about 24 inches in diameter, in a cartonnest of

black tree ants in secondary deciduous jungle. Gonads undeveloped. E

Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster Jerdon. The S. Indian Small Yellow-

naped Woodpecker

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl199 & 7-4-1946, Gsl225 9,

Gsl226 9 9-4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.); sp19 g++ 25-2-48 Malegaon ;

sp38 Q 26-2-48 Galkund ; sp419 3+ 22-3-48 Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B ‘Par, Ay 4

4 So 1235-128 27-30 22-24 78-85 2

asus 124-125 29-30 22-23 77-81

Not uncommon in hilly bamboo, teak and mixed moist deciduous

forest. Utters a single nasal, rather mournful note cheenk, about one 3

second long, from the top twigs of a leafless tree. Breeding March/ April. =

Dinopium benghalense benghalense (Linn. ). The Goldenbacked

Woodpecker

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs206 %, Gs207 9 10-11-1945

Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs418 9 29-11-45 Cambay town environs ; Gs707

OO 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs841 9 6-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs875 —

@-+ 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs948 ¢'+ 20-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur);

Gsl1098 9+, Gsl099 + 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gsl156 § 30-3-46

Dediapada (Rajpipla); $sD35 ¥, sp36Q 26-2-48 Galkund; spl75 of

SO RHECBERDS ORIGUVARATS so Tt TUF 451

- 6-3-48,. sp210 g++ 7-3-48 Pandwa; sp248 Q+ 10-3-48, sp28l1 y+

12-3-48 Laochali; sp323 5 16-3-48 Mheskatri. (sD series. from Surat:

_ Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Saurashtra: Bhavnagar (Zespecimens: K, S:

Dharmakumarsinhji). Not met with in Kutch though Hume implies its

occurrence there (S.f., 3: epee

‘Measurements 7° ee W aie is Ay

oy 9 IN 2» 6° 136:5-150. 37-43°5 24-28 ~- 78-95

6-9 136-152 375-42 24°5-28 83-94

Birds from Palanpur and Radhanpur—both in northern Gujarat near

the Rajasthan boundary—show no obvious passage to dzlutum in colora-

tion. The latter isthe race with paler yellow upper parts occurring in

Sind, and also recorded from Mt. Abu. Specimens from Jodhpur ‘ defi-

nitely belong to the typical form’ (Whistler JBNES, 40: 225).

ene ere,

Nowra

Pei ApY

One

rs,

iF od

) cee a en

Ree le ey at | i.

Not uncommon in the better wooded tracts of the area. Breeding

January to March/April. Together with Chvysocoluptes lucidus frequent-

ly observed taking deep eres of nectar from classi of Lrythri-

na Vo aes

“Dryocopus javensis hodgsoni (Jerdon). The Great Black Wood-

| pedker .

_ Specimens collected : Gijarat’ Gs1214 8-446 Songadh (Nav-

sari Dist.); Gs1296 2, Gsl297 4, Gsl298 4 19-4-46 Galkund (Surat

Dangs); sD225 Qi 9-3-48, Piplaidevi; sbD226 9 9- 3-48 Ahwa; sp234

sp235 ft 10-3-48, sp261 J, sp262 2, sp263 2 11-3-48 ‘Laochali ;

sp341 2 imm., sp342 2 16-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs).

- Not noted elsewhere i in Guj arat, or in Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : : W B Tar. aah

Ona 213-225 63-69 37-43 147-165.

GOO 214-219 56-65 36-39 122-161 ©

Iris in adult (both sexes) yelllowish white; in immature pearl grey.

The young female (sp341) in addition to the crimson patch on the hind-

crown, as in the adult female, has the forecrown sparsely stippled with

crimson.

All the specimens were in more or less heavy general moult in

_ March/April. Their gonads were quiescent, but from the immature

— collected on 16 March it would appear that the ae season is towards

the end of the year? |

Stomachs examined were crammed with pupae G termites), about

ae 10 x 2 mm. each, over 500 being taken from three specimens. A fourth

_ stomach contained large grubs of boring beetles and ant pupae 4x2 mm.

The female also calls chzank like the male. The flight is stately with

unhurried deliberate wing beats, rather reminiscent of a crow in silhouette,

- Songadh in Navsari Dist. is now established as the northernmost:

; point in the distribution of this woodpecker along the Western Ghats.

Affects moist deciduous, forest in hummocky foothills country, syne-

-cologically with Hemictrcus and Chrysocolaptes luctdus. The birds are

_ greatly persecuted by the Dangi Bhils for the ‘ squabs’ which are claimed

_ to be an epicurean delicacy !

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO

Picoides mahirattensis mahrattensis (Latham). The Yitiowtrontad

Pied Woodpecker a

Specimens collected : Kutch: xKs35 4, xs36 2 11-8-43 Bhuj.

Gujarat: Gs3ll 2 19-11-45, Gs343 4, Gs344 % 21-11-43, Gs371 gf

22-11-43 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs419 31, Gs420 Q 29-11-45 Cambay

rs town environs; GS666 6 20-12-45, Gs681 9 21-11-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana

ie Dist.); Gs827 2 4-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs853 3 9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur) ;

pos Gs949 § 20-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur); Gs1144 7+, Gs1152 #+ 29- 3.46 ;

Dediapada (Rajpipla); sp119 2 2-3-48, sp136 #4 3-3-48 Galkund: —

sp259 J+ 11-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs). =

Elsewhere noted: Saurashtra: Kodinar; Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.)

Measurements : W ce Tar. Al

ue 12 dv (96) 100-104 (107) 25-27°5 16-20°5 (50) 57-64

uy boo (94) 100-103 20425) = 418-19 57-61. 4

_ All the specimens are typical mahrattensis except GS827 (Radhanpur) , a

and Gs949 (Balaram, Palanpur) which, in their slightly more extensive

white of the upper parts suggest intergrading with awrocristatus. On the

whole these two specimens match two examples from Jodhpur in the

B.N.H.S. collection determined as auvocristatus by Whistler (JBVAS, 40 :

226) but which themselves seem intermediate (see Whistler's remarks,

Eastern Ghats Survey, /2V/S, 37: 228). Kutch birds appear to go

better with the typical race. |

Affects the more dry scrub jungle with babul and /yvosopis trees.

Also roadside WDaltergias, and mango groves near villages etc. Was

seen in Kutch clinging to dry Luphorbia stems in arid, stony, hummocky

country. Breeding wasin progressin March/April. From time to time —

during this season the male (only?) drums dy-r-7-r-v-y continuously for 1-2 _

gy seconds.

The call-note commonly heard, at other seasons also, is a sharp

click-click or click-v-r-7.

oy Picoides nanus hardwickii (Jerdon). The Pigmy Woodpecker

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs213 9, es214 og, Gs215 J,

Gs216 2 10-11-45, Gs227 J, Gs228 9, Gs229 4, 11-11-45 Jambughoda; —

Gsll45 § 29-3- 46, GS1159 4 30-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); Gs1295 fi

19-4-46 Galkund (Surat Dangs); sp2 23-2-48 Malegaon; spl18 Q

2-3-48, sp135 3 3-3-48 Galkund; sp246 2 10-3-48 Laochali; sp347

@ 17-3-48 Mheskatri ; sp404 O4 20-3-48 Sarwar; sbD160 2 25-3-48

Chikhli (sD = Surat Dangs). |

I have seen two specimens collected in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra, by

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji. Absent in Kutch. -

Measurements : W B. Tan 7. 2

I ve 72-75 14-155 12-145 (16) 31:5-38 7 |

8 22 73-76(79) 135-16 13-15 32-375 =

Common. Breeding March/April. An example was observed roost- _

ing at night in a crotch of upright branches about 14 ft. up in a leafless

tree in bare deciduous pole forest. The bird clung at an angle of

about 45°. It was not observed in the same place the following night.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

2 -Hemicircus canente canente (Lesson). The Be aoc Wood-

- pecker

x Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gsl200 9, Gsl201 7-4-46

- Songadh (Navsari Dist.); Gs1248 $ 12-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs);

sD304 2, SD305 #1 14-3-48 Mahal; sp373 41, sp374 9 19-3-48, sp397

3, sp398 2 20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat Dangs).

Not recorded in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B ‘are T

5 Jd 93-99 20—22°5 18°5-19°5 © 33-35

4:90 92-94 19:5~21 17°5-18°5. - °32°5=34°5

For my reasons for not recognising the race H. ¢. cordatus see

JENHS, 49 ; 786. Songadh in Navsari District now becomes the most

northerly point of the distribution of this woodpecker in the Sahyadris

or Western Ghats. In view of its discovery in this area, the doubt cast

in FBI. Gv : 85) on Jerdon’s record from the adjacent Madhya Pradesh

is nullified.?

~ Not uncommon in the moister facies of deciduous forest—in hilly

bamboo, teak and mixed jungle. Its large crested head, attenuated neck

and the curious broad, short rounded tail, together with its habit of per-

ching crosswise on a bare top twig like a passerine bird, draws attention

to it a long way off. Goes about in pairs. The gonads of the specimens

furnished no indication of the breeding season.

Chrysocolaptes festivus festivus (Boddaert), The Blackbacked

~ Woodpecker

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl173 9, Gsll74 4 3]-3-46,

Gsll182 % 2-446 Dediapada (Rajpipla); sp37 2 26-2-48 Galkund ;

sp231 2 10-3-48 Laochali; sp322 Q 16-3-48 Mheskatri; sp409 4

21-3-48, sp420 9 22-3-48 Pimpri (Surat Dangs),.

Not noted elsewhere in Gujarat, or in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B hates Ab

4d 155-162 50-54 29°5-31 72-80

49° 150-158 43°5-51 26-30 ceo &

j Specimen sD37 marked Q has a paler brown back and its crest and

- crown feathers are tipped with scarlet. (Immature ¢f ?)

_ This species has the habit of chiselling out several holes in the trunk

of a tree one below the other in ‘ apartment house’ fashion. What the

facts of their ownership are is not clear, i.e, whether they belong to one

_ bird or are colonial, but in one instance four of such holes a few feet

apart vertically, were occupied as nightly roost by one bird each on two

successive evenings, and 3 similar holes in a nearby trunk by 3 more

_ birds. A male shot whilst busily chiselling out the topmost hole ofa

series of 4, on dissection, showed no gonadal development. All specimens

collected in March and April were in various stages of general moult in-

- volving body, rectrices and remiges. Their gonads provided -no indication

ie breeding.

q 1 The ornithological surveys of Bastar (eastern Madhya Pradesh) in 1948, and

eS Orissa hills in 1949, actuaily procured several specimens in those areas.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

Chrysocolaptes lucidus chersonesus Kloss. Malherbe’s ss :

backed Woodpecker —

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs1281 $ 17-4-46 Mahal saree i

Dangs); sD44 1, sp45 3, Sea 27-2-48. pipet SDOI f+ 29-2-48

Pimpri (Surat Dangs). ep Ra 57 ieee a

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : WwW Big Mage Tar, gee

Agg © a 43-46 29-5-30 - 80-91

19 3 154 Or 3 S05 4 85

Iris JP pale fawn or biscuit colour.

The above specimens provide a northward extension into the

Khandesh area of this species and race. Stuaft Baker (Fauna iv : 81)

gives its range as ‘India south of Bombay City and the Province of Orissa’.

~ Not common. Confined to moist deciduous biotope. — Breeting in

February, on.

Family PYPTIDAR : Pittas

Pitta brachyura [brachyura (ny 4. The Indian Pitta '

_ Not seen or heard by the Survey between August and mid April,

in Kutch, Saurashtra or Gujarat. Possibly arrives in suitable localities,

as elsewhere, as forerunner of the SW. monsoon at the end of May or in

early June. K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji found it ‘ widespread and calling

frequently * in the Gir forest, Junagadh, in the last week of May Oe

One pair had started to nest. (VENA, 48 : 189). .

| Family ALAUDIDAE : Larks

Mirafra javanica cantillans Blyth. The Singing Bush Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl04 $+, xsl05 g+ 21-8-1943

Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Ksl57 $+ 4-9-43 clea Gujarat:

Gs530 2 9-12-45 Nadiad environs (Kaira Dist.).

Measurements : _ Wis: B ai Par, oe eke

3 Jd’ P5a81 OS TB days Signe ee ae

1 80 13:5 or DR mass ak,

In very. worn plumage in August / September ; : freshly | ae ae in 4

December / January. In fresh post nuptial dress the white chin and throat 3

are prominent; the pale edged dark brown feathers of the back are

reminiscent of juvenile Galerzda larks.

_ A not uncommon resident species denies often poet with ‘the

Skylark when soaring aloft and singing, as I myself did until specimens >

-were actually secured of birds that had dropped to earth after the per- :

formance. Except that the singer does not, perhaps, ascend as high i in al

the air as the Skylark, I could detect no consistent difference in the song ¥

or the song-flight of these two species, as also those of Sykes’s Crested [4

Lark (Galerida deva). My impression is, however, that the Singing Bush _

Lark and Sykes’s both incorporate in. their song the calls of other birds -

far more. freely than the Skylark does. _ Amongst these I have heard

Ley er re Ke a

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT. 455

perfect imitations of Common Babbler, Tajlor Bird, Franklin’s Wren-

Warbler, Rufousfronted Wren-Warbler, Jungle Wren-Warbler, Wood

Shrike, Redwinged Bush Lark, Purple Sunbird and Rain Quail. The

imitations run into one another in quick succession with no break in the

melody.

Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August.

Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst. The Redwinged Bush

Lark :

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl7 (+ 9-8-1943 Bhujia Fort;

KS82 o9'+-18-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.) ; Ks287 2 28-9-43 Bhuj envi-

rons ; KS383 (i 17-3-44 Mata-no-Madh; xs416 4 28-4-44 Bela Island

(Great Rann). Gujarat: @s26 @ 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs

274 § 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs665 $~ 20-12-45, Gs679

21-12-45, Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs715 9, cs716 25-12. 45, GS

727 § 26-12-45, Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs756 30-12-45 Radhanpur ;

Gs851 of 9-1- 46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs1002 61, Gs1003 4 15-3-46 Dal-

khania (Amreli Dist.). ,

Measurements : : W B Tar. T

13 IS (73, 75) 77-84 12°5-15 20°5-23 46-56 ©

IK 73°5-76 oes 5. e225) 44°5-47-

Specimens GS26 and Gs274 from Baroda District have rufous-tinged

edging to feathers of back and would pass for typical evythroptera. So are

also GS1002—Gs1003 from south Saurashtra nearer the typical race, Speci-

mens from Kutch and Gujarat north of Baroda, as a series, seem nearer

_ sindiana though it is clear that most birds are intermediate. No. Gs679

has the 2nd and 3rd primaries wholly rufous—up to their tips, with only a

faint brown spot near extreme tip.

Common in stony scrub couniry, singly or in loose parties of 3 to Ge

In the breeding season, June to September, the parachuting display and

song of the male described in my ‘ Birds of Kutch’ (p. 60), is diagnostic

of the species. In the appropriate biotope one can hardly go far in any

direction without seeing one or more males thus advertising themselves.

: Eremopterix grisea Scopoli. The Blackbellied Finch Lark.

_ Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl3 $ 28-10-45 Ajwa_ (Baroda

Dist.) ; 68313 #'+, 683149+ 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs725

9, GS726 o? juv. 26-12-45, Gs744 § 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

Gs790 , G8791 2 Radhanpur; Gsl033 # juv. 19-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Kutch: xKs83 f+, Ks84 9+ 18-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.).

Measurements : ; W B Tar ats

7308 74-80 11-12°5 fof 41—45

3 Po 73-78 10°5—11 Gi 3642

The males, as a series, are a trifle greyer above seen with ‘the eye of

faith’ though one would expect Radhanpur birds to be definitely so,

being nextdoors to Deesa, the type-locality of szccata Ticehurst. I agree

with Dr. Dillon Ripley’s action (Checklist MS) in sinking this very poorly

differentiated race.

Resident, common, but like the Rufoustailed, Finch Lark subject to

‘considerable seasonal local movement. There is ‘apparently no hard. and

fast breeding season. Odd birds were breeding from August to April,

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol.

Ammomanes phoenicurus phoenicurus (Franklin). ‘The Rufous: :

tailed Finch Lark.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs4l1 oj, xs42 9 11-8-43 Padhar

(Bhuj Dist.) ; Ks65 4 16-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.); Gujarat: Gsl64J,

Gsl65 % 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs7812 31-12-45 Radhanpur ;

sp282 §'+,s8D283 2 12-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs). Saurashtra:

Gs996 1, Gs997 2 14-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements : WwW B Tar. ZN

6 JIS 100-107 15-17 21:5-24 57-64

4 29 98:4—104 iéo=15'9,. 2b b223.- 4 Qoob

Resident. Breeding March/April. Affects dry stony country, ploughed

fields etc. Marked local movement was noticeable in Kutch where, in

suitable localities, it was far more plentifulin March than it had been in

August/September.

Alaemon alaudipes doriae (Salvadori). The Hoopoe Lark or Large

Desert Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKS295 $+ 1-10-1943 Khavda

(Pachham Island); Ks318 9+ 4-10-43, Ks324 9+ 6-10-43 Nir (Great

Rann) ; KS409 3 25-3-44, Ks410 @ 25-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau’ Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Between Kakindia Bet and Gangli Bet ; between

Dholovira and Bela (Great Rann). Pung Bet (Little Rann).

‘a

Measurements : W BS Tar. T

3h 126-136. 30°5—34°5 33°5=36°. “79-93

2 oO — 117-118 ZT 30°5-32 75

Affects salt-encrusted barren sandy ‘pats’ in the Rann, usually in —

pairs or singly. . Some examples were seen as far away as 10 to 12 miles

out on the Great Rann, on absolutely bare and featureless sunbaked

terrain with not a stone or blade of grass to afford shelter from the fierce

midday sun. Breeding was in progress in aby October. The song and

courtship display have been described in my ‘ Birds of Kutch’ (p. 57.).

Calandreila cinerea longipennis CLL The Yarkand Short-

toed Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ksl92 4, KS193 9-9-43 Bhuj en-

virons ; Ks308 6, 309 9, Ks310 2 2-10-43 Khavda (Pachham Island) ;

KS343 9, KS344 1, KS345 9, KS346 2 8-3-44 Mandvi. Saurashtra:

B13 2 13-10-43 Dwarka. Gujarat; Gs438 9, Gs439 ¢ 30-11-45 —

Cambay town environs ; Gs623 2 17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.);

GS713 9, 68714 jf 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs792 jf 1-1-46 —

Radhanpur ; Gs848 9, Gs849 7, GS862 9, Gs863 JY, Gs864 2, GS865 of

9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur) ; Gsl034 (9 19-3-46 Kharaghoda. ©

Measurements : W B Tar. a

ISS 95-100 12-15 20—-21°5 54-6 4°5

Jal Oe 88-94 12-14 20-21 53-56°5

Winter visitor. Common and abundant. Earliest date 9 September

(Bhuj); latest 30 March. Affects semi-desert and open scraggy grass or —

weed-covered fallow land, usually in large flocks.

All the March specimens were excessively fat pias to emi-

eration. eet

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 457

Calandrella raytal adamsi (Hume). The Indus Sand Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs208 #'+, KS209 7+, KS210 +

11-9-43 Kandla ; Ks370 $+ 15-3-44 Jakhau.

Not noted elsewhere, but K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji found a very

distinct dark form of this lark inhabiting marine mud flats in Bhavnagar

(Saurashtra) which Dr.C. Vaurie recently described as C. 7 krishna-

kumarsinhjt (JBNES, 52: 8—1 July 1954).

Measurements : W B Tar. T

4S 80-89 12-13°5 19-19°5 43-50

Resident. Not uncommon in the neighbourhood of salt pans and dry

open sandy mudflats on the sea coast. Solos, or scattered twos and

threes. Males soar about 100 ft. up to sing. The song is rather like that

of Syke’s Crested Lark, but short and broken: a few notes... pause...

a few notes again... pause, and soon. Wanders here and there in the

air while singing, and parachutes to earth in steps, with stiffly open wings

and tail, hovering for a moment at each step in the descent. ‘This perfor-

mance iS somewhat reminiscent of the song flight of the Indian Pipit.

Also sings from perch on amound. Lester gives the breeding season in

Kutch as June and July, but all the specimens collected in September had

enlarged gonads indicating that the season must extend through August,

and later. In the March specimen also the testes appeared to be. maturing

(3x2 mm). In Bhavnagar, according to K. 5. Dharmakumarsinhji, it

breeds from March to September, principally between June and the latter

month.

Galerida cristata chendoola (Franklin). Franklin’s Crested Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl08 (+ 248-43, xsl17 $+.

27-8-43 Mandvi; Ks211 9+ 12-9-43 Kandla. Saurashtra: B20 92

13-10-43 Dwarka. Gujarat: Gs784 3, Gs785 92, Gs786 J, Gs/787 2

31-12-45 Radhanpur ; Gs1027 4, Gsl028 2, Gsl029 3, Gsl030 & juv.

19-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements : Wio. B Tar. a

6 Jd 98-105 20-23 23-26 54-62

SE Cde) 92-98 19-22:5 O35 97, 51-55

Fairly common in the more arid portions of the area, in Kutch and

N. Gujarat on the edge of the Great and Little Ranns. 1t affects open

sandy sparsely scrubbed country, singly or in pairs and small parties.

Breeding was in full swing in Kutch during August. No. Gs1030 (19

March) was a juvenile just out of nest, with stub tail, wobbly flight and

creamy yellow gape.

Galerida malabarica (Scopoli). The Malabar Crested Lark

Specimens collected: Gujarat: sp220 #+, sp221 #+ 7-3-1948

Fort Salher, 5000 ft. (Navsari Dist.)

Elsewhere not noted in Gujarat, Saurashtra or Kutch,

Measurements : W B ate ly

2d 97-98 16-17 23°5—24 53-57

Several pairs, evidently breeding, and one flock of about 15 observed

on the grassy, stony, undulating plateau on the summit of Salher hill-fort.

The call notes uttered on the ground and in low hovering flight are

identical in pattern and analy with those of the Crested Lark | Galeri

cristata).

Galerida deva eye Sykes’s Crested Lark

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks63.> 4+ 13-8-43 BHiys environs ; ;

KS72 9+ 17-8-43, Ks80 2+, Ks81 + 18-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.) ;

Ks118 #4, xs119 ji+ 27-8-43 Mandvi. Saurashtra: B21 $4,

B22 9 14-10-43 Dwarka; B33 §-++ 18-10-43 Amreli. Gujarat: Gs514 —

©, GS515 9 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira Dist.) ; GS560 § 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira

Dist.) ; Gs983 o, Gs984 9, Gs985 1 12-3-46 Kodinar ; Gs1009 7 15-3-46 =

Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.) ; Gs1031 4, Gs1032 2 19-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements: W Bok: Tar. T

124d” - 84-92 . 13-145 20-2155 46-54

72 | 78-86 13-15 20-—21°5 43-—49°5

Common, resident. In non-breeding season, loose flocks of a dozen

or so in open country, also dry grassy surroundings of tanks in Skylark-

facies. Was breeding in August/September. Song and song-flight

indistinguishable from those of the Singing Bush Lark and I was never

able to be certain about the identity of an individual up in the air, and till

it was shot on descent to the ground. The song contains imitations of

most of the bird species associated with the lark in its habitat; curiously

‘enough the presence of the Yelloweyed Babbler (Chrysomma) in. <4

certain locality was first suggested to me by this lark’s mimicry. The. <q

species was actually met with some time later !

In the Eastern Ghats Survey report [/BN/S, 37 (1): 104] Whistler

moots the suggestion that G. deva might be treated as a race of G. mala-

barica. It seems to me that one very good reason why this is untenable

is that in their habits, particularly in pattern of song and courtship display,

these two larks are so markedly different. G. malabarica resembles

G. cristata in general, whereas G. deva is almost identical with Alauda

gulgula and Miratra 7. caniillans. :

Alauda gulgula inconspicua Severtzoff. The Small Skylark

Specimens collected : Kutch: xs341 9, xs342 3 8-3- 44 Mandvi.

Gujarat: Gso61 ¥ 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.)

Measurements ; : W B ates a

205 93-96 16-16°5 23-26 52-55

1 92 14:5 22°5 54

These birds differ from A. g. gulgula in being markedly paler and in

possession of the other characteristics assigned to the race punjaubi by

Whistler (JBN HS, 38: 767) now synonymized by BEY (Checklist Ms)

as above.

_ Fairly common in suitable localities, on moist grassy margins of tanks

etc. My impression is that the well-known song, uttered on the wing

high upin the air, may usually be distinguished from the equally lively

performance of Sykes’s Crested Lark (Galerida deva) by its having fewer

imitations of other-bird calls, interwoven in it. Generally speaking, perhaps

this species also sings from a loftier heient than either —— s Crested

Lark or the Singing Bush Lark.

(Lo be continued)

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES

Be : =. 2 (ISOPTERA)

3 No. 1.—ODONTOTERMES PARVIDENS Hotmc. AND HoLMG. SEVERELY

s DaMAGING THE BARK AND CONTRIBUTING TO THE DEATH OF

SZ STANDING TEAK TREES IN UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

w | BY

M: L. Roonwa., M.sc., Ph.p. (Cantab.), F.N.1., F.Z.S.I.

Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

S (With two tables and a plate)

xs - CONTENTS

2 PAGE

be I. INTRODUCTION et ah ae sie ee 459

II. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS eee 459

s III. SuMMary 383 cae aoe See aS 461

‘IV. REFERENCES ae ae aie! ae as 462

l~ INTRODUCTION

The termite, Odontotermes parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren, is a

ark feeder and makes mud-plaster coverings on the trunks of trees;

4 it does not make narrow, tubular mud-galleries like Odontotermes

_ obesus (Rambur), the common mound-building termite. Beneath these

_ mud-coverings the workers feed on the bark and sometimes even

_ damage the sapwood of standing trees. O. parvidens does not build

mounds but breeds in underground nests. It has been recorded as

damaging the following timber species in India: Duabanga sonnera-

tioides Ham., Melanorrhoea glabra Wall., Pinus longifolia Roxb.,

— Shorea robusta Gaerten f. and Sterculia villosa Roxb. (Beeson, 1941,

p. 552). It is also a serious pest of the roots of Cajanus cajan Linn.

(Millsp.) (=indicus Spr.) (Rattanlal & Menon, 1953, pp. 83-84), and

in my files I have a record of it on Litsaea. polyantha Juss. in Assam.

abe present is the first record from teak, Tectona grandis efor et.

- O. parvidens occurs practically all over India and goes up to an

elevation of about 6,000 ft. above sea-level in the Himalayas.

II. OBSERVATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

In May 1952, Dr. K. Kadambi, Assistant Central Silviculturist.

kindly informed me that teak (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) was dying ir

ae Pharanda Range, Gorakhpur Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh, and

; ‘that the bark showed signs of white-ant attack. Sometime later,

Specimens of damaged teak were received from the Range Officer,

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Pharanda Range. In January 1953 I visited the area and carried out —

examinations in the field.

The teak areas in the Pharanda Range are confined to the compart-

ments and coupes in the West Lehra Forest Block, as given in

Table I. Of these, teak in Compartment 10 (Coupe 16) and Compart-

ment 11 (Coupe 3) showed the mortality described below. Both these

coupes are taungya plantations, the age etc. of the trees being as given

in Table 2.

TABLE I

Distribution, etc. of teak in the West Lehra Block, Pharanda Range, Gorakh-

pur Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh.

Coupe | Compartment

No. No. Acreage, etc. of forest

10 6 122 acres. (Teak J acre; remainder sal, Shorea

robusta) .

1] 3 243 acres. (Teak 40 acres ; remainder sal.)

2 7 15 acres, all teak.

2 8 do.

TABLE 2

Height, age, etc. of some of the teak plantations mentioned in Table 1,

3 |

Com partment Coupe Age Height Diameter

ee |

10 16 17 years. 40-50 feet. 6-8 inch.

11 3 27 years. 60-80 feet. 8-12 inch.

According to the information supplied by the Range Officer,

Pharanda Range, in April-May 1952 trees in these coupes (Table 2)

started drying and the bark began to crack; this period coincided

with the leafless condition (January-April), the new flush arriving at the

end of May. The proportion of dead trees in May-June 1952 was

roughly 30 per cent in Coupe 16 and 5 per cent in Coupe 3. After

the first heavy rains in July 1952, there were no further deaths. The

root stock in dried trees was noticed to be alive and sending out

shoots in July 1952. This was so even at the time of my inspection

in January 1953; other trees were completely dead, and the bark was

largely or completely gone—dried up, cracked and peeled off. In 1952

the Range Officer noticed signs of heavy termite damage;.and this

was visible even in January 1953. The termites ate up the bark and

bast; they thus exposed, dried and killed the cambium and produced

a sort of ‘girdling’ effect. This injury as well as drought killed the

trees. Dead termite soldiers and workers were collected beneath the

mud plaster coverings on dead trees and proved to » be Odontotermes

parvidens Holmg. & Holmg. :

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate 1

Lettering.—b—bark ; bd—portion of bark eaten up by termite; bh—portion of

bark not eaten by termite ; c—callosities ; ch—cambium ; t—trunk.

All figures are of portions of teak trees (Tectona grandis Linn. f.) from the

West Lehra Block, Pharenda Range, Gorakhpur Forest Division, Uttar Pradesh,

damaged by the termite Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg., during 1951-52.

Fic. 1—Pertion of trunk, showing light grazing (dark area, bd) on barks by the

termite,

sy)

Fic. 2—Another portion of the same trunk, showing heavy damage to a portion

of the bark (bd) by the termite. The rest of the bark is undamaged (bh).

Fic. 3—Another portion of the same trunk, showing even heavier damage to the

bark by the termite than in fig. 2.

Fic. 4—Diagrammatic cross-section of the trunk of a tree whose entire bark

was completely eaten up by the termite, except for a narrow strip (of bark and

cambium) which sustained its life. (See text),

Fics. 5-6—Outer views of portions of the barlx, showing moderate damage by

the termite.

Fic. 7—Inner view of a portion of the bark whose outer side was moderately

damaged by the termite. Note that the inner side shows no damage.

Fics. 8-10—Outer views of portions of the bark, showing severe damage by the

termite.

oY 8 ee 4 sac

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES 461

In Coupe 3 it was seen in January 1953 that the mortality was

most severe at the upper fringe of the slope where there was excessive

drainage and little moisture retention in the soil. Towards the lower

fringe, mortality was practically nil. In the adjoining Sample Plot

of ae same coupe, which was on flat ground, there was no mortality

at all. .

It appears that the trees were at least weakened, if they did not

die, as a result of the severe drought in 1951 when only 22 inches

of rainfall was received as compared, to the normal of 55 inches per

annum. That one single year’s drought can be the sole or even

the major contributing cause of death is a controversial question,

especially owing to the high water-table in the Gorakhpur area, and

the matter needs fuller investigation.

Whatever the cause of the initial weakening of these trees, it

appears reasonable to assume that the severe damage to the bark by

Odontotermes parvidens hastened their death. The process appears

to have been somewhat as follows. The termites ate up all the bark

and bast and thus exposed the cambium layer to the drying effect of

the sun. The cambium being thus killed, there was a sort of ‘girdling’

effect and no nourishment was transported across the trunk. The tree,

consequently, quickly dried up and died. This theory, is well illustrated

by the example of a tree of about 30-ft. height and g-in. diameter

at breast height, inspected in January 1953. This tree was alive at

_ the time of my inspection, even though it was debarked completely

naked by the termites, except for a very narrow strip (pl. 1, fig. 4)

of bark (b) and cambium (cb) running from the ground level right

up to the top of the bole; it was this narrow strip which was keeping

the tree alive. The two sides of this strip had formed callosities (c).

As already mentioned, the termite lives under mud-plaster coverings

on tree trunks. These mud-coverings reach up to the top of trees

4o or 50 ft. high. The bark is eaten in somewhat spindle-shaped

grooves about 1-10 cm. long and o.5-1 cm. wide, These grooves

coalesce with one another, producing a complicated pattern (pl. 1,

fig. 5). In cases of severe damage, the complete thickness of the

bark is eaten away, but until the outer surface of the bark has been

largely eaten up, the inner side is not touched and remains smooth

(pl. 1, fig. 7). The healthy bark is fairly smooth and, in dried

specimens, it is usually not more than about 4 mm. thick.

In addition to teak, this termite was also found commonly attacking

the bark of sal trees (Shorea robusta Gaertn f.) in the same forest

range. Nearly 50 percent of the sal trees showed the characteristic

mud-coverings of O. parvidens. The bark, however, was much less

severely damaged than in teak, and there were no deaths of sal in this

area which could be attributed to the termite.

Ill. SUMMARY

1. The termite, Odontotermes parvidens Holmg. & Holmg., was

noticed to damage severely the bark of standing teak trees (Tectona

grandis Linn. f.) in the Pharanda Range, Gorakhpur Forest Division,

Uttar Pradesh. This damage hastened the death of trees by exposing

and killing the cambium and thus causing a ‘girdling” effect.

JOURNAL

2.. The present is, 1 believe, the first record of this te ‘mite Ses

damaging teak. ‘

3. In addition, this termite was ai none to , damage the bark

sal (Shorea robusta: Gaerig. fF) V2 Beet es

rig REFERENCES’

Bezeon, Cc. FiC3(1044);. The Ecology and Control of ‘he Hore Insects in lptie

and the Neighbouring Countries. 6-++-ii+1,007 pp.+figs. Dehra Dun (Vasant Press).

Rattanlal & Menon, R. D. (1953) : Catalogue of Indian Insects. Part 27. Isoptera,

iii +94 pp. Delhi (Government of India Press). bers ee”

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES

Bt ) -» (SOPTERA) = ce

No. 2.—On EcotocicaL ADJUSTMENT IN NATURE BETWEEN TWO

SPECIES oF TERMITES, COPTOTERMES HEIMI (Wasm.) AND

ODONTOTERMES REDEMANNI (Wasm.)—

IN MADHYA PRADESH, INDIA

M. L. RooNWAL, M.sc., Ph.D. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.Z.S.1

Forest Entomologist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

= | (With 1 plate and 1 lext-tigure)

ConTENTS —

| PAGE

I, OBSERVATIONS en oe Si —. .. 463

% II. ConctusIons ... ane Wes are ail oe 466

3 © 10, “SUMMARY'.,«. /.. bas bee pe Ly ... 466

IV. REFERENCES... e ait as gis jo AOGR

I. OBSERVATIONS

_ Recently I came across a vivid example of ecological adjustment in

nature between two species of termites, namely the dry-wood species

_ Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) (family Rhinotermitidae, subfamily Copto-

_ termitinae) and the mound-building and rotten-wood species Odontotermes

_ redemanni (Wasmann) (family Termitidae, subfamily Macrotermitinae)

_ which is worth recording, for such clear cut examples do not often come

tolight. The two species were competing for a recently dead, standing

tree of salai (Boswellia serrata Roxb.—family Burseraceae) in the Sillari

forest in Madhya Pradesh.

he Sillari forest lies about 41 miles north-east of Nagpur in Madhya

_ Pradesh (formerly the Central Provinces) and belongs to the East Pench

_ Forest Range of the Nagpur-Wardha Forest Division. The observations

discussed here were made in the last week of May 1953. The general

ecological condition of the forest was as follows :—

Ground rocky; 1,450 ft. above sea-level at Sillari. Soil either black

and clayey or red and gravelly, changing from place to place. Deciduous

‘mixed forest with teak and other miscellanedéus species, being worked by-

coppice ; trees 30-40 ft. high. During the end of May practically all trees

leafless. Owing to failure of rains during the last 3 years, there was acute

‘

ree

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

drought and the soil was bone dry down to 3-4 -ft. below surface.

Average rainfall! 45 inches per year, most of it being received during

June-September. Average temperatures (degrees F.): January—max.

83°6; min. 55°0; May—max. 107-6, min. 82:1; July—max. 87:7, min.

GSs2.

The salai tree in question was probably recently dead, within the last

2 or 3months. The bole and crown were quite dry but the root-stock,

p—

Vi a

Text-fig. 1, (Explanation at end) —

* Figures of rainfall and temperature are based on the account of Sagreiya (1936.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

soeupesintetorassssceseevecscnsa Matai

Lettering Cop., damage by Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann); /f., hole in core

of trunk representing the portion eaten by Coptorermes heimi (Wasin.). ‘The portion

eaten away is converted into a spongy, woody mass whose removal on splitting

leaves this cavity ; Od., damage by Odontolermes redemanni (Wasmann),

Photographs of the lower portions of the trunk and of the root-stock of a recently-

dead, standing tree of salai, Boswellia serrata Roxb., showing damage by two

species of termites, viz., Copiotermes hermit (Wasmann) (family RKhinotermitidae,

subfamily Coptotermitinae) and Odoniotermes redemanni (Wasmann) (family Termi-

tidae, subfamily Macroterimitinae) collected by M. L. Roonwal in last week of May

1952 in Sillari Forest Range, Nagpur-Wardha Forest Division, Madhya Pradesh

fig, 1. Outer view of part of trunk, to show the portions eaten up by Odontoter-

“mes redemannt. This species does not attack the core.

Fig. 2. Inner view of same piece as in Fig. 1, longitudinally split in half to

show the core eaten up by Coptotermes heimi. 'This species is confined to the core

of the trunk and the surface of the root-stock (cf. Text-fig.).

Fig, 3. Oblique view of a transverse section of the trunk of the same tree, to

show the core entirely eaten hollow by Coptotermes heimi. A spongy mass, moulded

by the terinite out of the eaten up wood, fills this cavity ; it has been removed in the

photograph to emphasize the cavity.

fig. 4. Part of the upper portion of the root-stock of the same tree to show the

portions damaged by Coptotermes heimi (pale patches, Cod.) and by Odontoter-

mes redemanni (dark patches, Od.).

BIOLOGY AND ECOLOGY OF ORIENTAL TERMITES 465

at least to 4 ft. below the ground surface, was moist and sappy. The

following are some other particulars about the tree (also see text-fig. 1) :—

Height of bole (B-G) cade TE.

Height of crown (B-D) cot or Orde:

Girth at base (G) svete Cate

Girth at breast height (44 ft.

from ground) son 2 21S SES:

The tree was heavily attacked by the two species of termites mentioned

above, but the portions of the tres attacked were sharply separated as

described below. The termites collected have been deposited in the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. (The termites are characterised as

follows :—

Odontotermes redemanni (Wasmann)—This is the commonest termite

inthe area. It usually builds earthen mounds. It also eats up half-rotten

logs and other pieces of wood lying on the ground and the bark on the

surface of the sapwood on living and dead standing trees, the termite

galleries going high up. Its presence in such cases is characterised by

the formation of flat mud-plaster galleries which have the same colour

as the ground soil of the atea concerned. The termite soldiers and

workers swarm beneath these mud galleries, eating up the surface of the

wood and filling the eaten portions with earth. In extreme cases a con-

siderable portion of the tree or logis thus hollowed out and filled with

earth.

In the salai tree in question, the damage to the bark and the surtace

of sapwood was typical of this species of termite. The earthen galleries

went right up to the top of the crown, 39 ft. up (pl. 1, figs. 1,3,4;

and text-fig. 1, Od.) and on the root-stock at least to 4 feet below the

eround (pl. 1, fig. 4, and text-fig. 1, Od.) The damage, however, did not

go more than one-half inch deep from the surface both in the roots and

in the trunk. Soldiers constituted about 2°2 per cent of the soldier-

worker population.

Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann)—This is adry-wood species. The soldiers

have a yellow head with a pair of dark-coloured, sabre-shaped mandibles.

When the soldier is disturbed the mandibles are opened out and kept in

that position for a considerable period of time (2 to 3 minutes). They

also secrete, from the fontanelle aperture at the front margin of the head,

a drop of milky-white fluid which, on contact with air, sets into a gummy

mass within a minute or so. The proportion of soldiers to workers is

evidently much higher than in Odontotermes, and this feature was noticed

throughout the length of the gallery. The soldiers constitute about 33

per cent of the soldier-worker population, as against 2°2 per cent in Odonto-

ternies vedemannt.

The damage by this species was conned to the ‘ heartwood’ or core

of the tree and extended upward to 11 ft. of the bole from the base and

downward to about 4 feet of the root-stock. A cylindrical core, of dia-

meter varying from about 2 to 3 inches, was completely eaten away in

the salai bole up to 11 ft., leaving a crenulated inner surface (pl. 1,

figs. 1-3, and. text-fig. 1, Cop.). Inside this were formed whitish,

spongy masses of a hard, woody substance, evidently composed of wood

eaten, digested and excreted by the termite ; these masses were Some-

times formed around a thin, pencil-like core of hard, uneaten wood, and

ay PES

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 52

were attached to'it- Phe spongy masses were dirty Fees on ae surface,

with numerous circular greenish dots all over ; when broken, the inside

of these masses was seen to be dark-brown:

On the root-stock (pl. 1, fig. 4, and text-fig. 1, Cop.) the damage was

characterised by shallow, whitish galleries, about 1-2 inches wide, going

down irregularly and spreading to the smaller roots and even to the

neighbouring ground. The greyish-white colour of the galleries, marked —

With darker dots at once distinguishes, the galleries of Coptotermes from.

those of Odontotermes. ‘The damage to the root-stock differed from that

to the bole in two respects, thus: (i) The spongy masses were less’

numerous on the root-stock than on the bole. (ii) The damage was con-

fined to the surface and not to the core of the root-stock.

II. CONCLUSIONS

It will thus be seen that while the two species of termites inhabited

the same tree and ate its wood, one of them, namely Odontotermes vedem-

anni (Wasmann), confined its galleries and damage to the surface area,

and the other, namely Coptotermes hetmz(Wasmann), to the core. As far

as one can judge by the distribution of the galleries and the damage to the

wood,the two species would appear to lead a completely separate existence’

and thus they provide us with a good example of inter-specific and.

inter-generic adjustment. In the same, more or less homogeneous habitat, '

viz., the dry-wood bole, the two species confined themselves to entirely

separate and sharply defined niches. Colonies of both aes were rich’

in 1 numbers and were obviously flourishing. ;

lil. SumMMARY

1. An example of ecological adjustment between two species of ter-

mites, viz., Coptotermes hetmi (Wasmann) and Odontotermes redemanni

(Wasmann), in a recently- dead tree of salai, Boswellia serrata Roxb.

(family Burseraceae), is described. The example was noted in the forest

near Sillari (altitude 1450 ft. above sea-level) about 41 miles NE. of.

Nagpur in Madhya Pradesh.

2. Odontolermes redemanni fed on the surface of sapwood, not going

deeper than about one-half inch from the surface both on the bole and the.

root-stock. On the other hand, Coptotermes heimi was confined to the

core of the bole, which it completely hollowed out and filled with a hard,

spongy, whitish excretory material.

3. The proportion of soldiers in the worker-soldier enced was —

about 2:2 per cent in Odontotermes redemanni and about 33 per cent in*. 3

Coptotermes heimt. pee

IV. REFERENCES

Beeson, C.F.C. (1941). The Ecology and Control of the Forest Insects of India

and the Neighbouring Countries. 6 + ii + 1007 pp. Dehra Dun (Vasant Press.)

Sagreiya, K. P. (1936). Working Plan for the Nagpur-Wardah Forest

Division Central Circle, Central Provinces, 1935-36 to 1946-47. viii + 252 + 2 pp.,

2 maps in pocket. Nagpur (Govt.-Priat.;-C.P,)

ORIENTAL TERMITES

EXPLANATION OF TEXT-FIGURE

~—s-«* Text-fig. 1. Diagrammatic view of a recently-dead, standing tree of salai

Boswellia serrata Roxb., in the Sillari forest (East Pench Forest Range, Nagpur- te

Wardha Forest Division, Madhya Pradesh), showing attack by two species of r

ermites, wz., Coptotermes héeimi(Wasmann) (in the core of the bole) and Oduntoter-

mes vedemanni (Wasmann) (on the bark and surface of sapwood, as indicated by

hick, wavy line in text-figure). Last week May, 1953. (a) Entire tree in longi-

tudinal section (6) Transverse section of the bole at level C, ~ ;

A, level up to which the Coptotermes heimi galleries extend in the bole (11 ft.

from ground); &, top end of bole; C, top of crown; Cop., Coptotermes galleries ;

G, ground level; Od., Odontolermes galleries; A, lowest level to which the

- Coptotermes héimi galleries extend down the root-stock.

NOTES ON LAND LEECHES

J. L. HARRISON

Institute tor Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur

In his ‘Notes and Queries on Land Leeches’ last December

Mr. Smythies raises some interesting questions and gives us the benefit of

some very useful observations (Smythies 1953). Although Iam not the

best person to discuss leeches, I have recently been carrying out some

tests of a ‘new dope’ to which he refers and I have been giving some

thought to the very problems which he poses.

SPECIES AND DISTRIBUTION

Leeches are not popular, even among zoologists, and their students

are sparse. Workers in India, Pakistan, Burma and Ceylon are fortunate

to have available that magnificent work ‘ The Fauna of British India’

which a volume of Hirudinea by Harding and Moore: was published in

1927. It is still available, price 25 shillings, and in spite of its content of

technical matter contains much that is readable. Professor J. Percy

Moore, who deals with the bloodsucking leeches, was and is a world

authority on the subject, although he is now living in retirement in the

United States of America. For workers in Malaya and Borneo, two further

papers by Professor Moore appeared in the Bulletin of the Rattles Museum,

Singapore (Moore 1935 and 1938). A general review of the subfamily

Haemadipsinae in French by Blanchard was published in 1917 in the

Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique (Blanchard 1917).

Land Leeches comprise the subfamily Haemadipsinae of the family

Hirudidae (or Gnathobdellidae of some authors) and are confined to

Southern and Eastern Asia and to Australasia. Two aberrant species, one

from South America and the other from Europe, are also ascribed to the

sub-family, but there is no evidence that they are ofthe land-leech habit. All

the species from the Indian region belong to the single genus Haemadipsa.

The following species have been described from the Indo-Malaysian

Region (excluding Philippines) :—

Haemadipsa zeylanica Moquin-Tandon, with very many colour

forms widespread over Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Malaya and Borneo.

Hl. montana Moore, from the mountains of India, Pakistan, and |

Burma.

Borneo, Java, and Sumatra.

H. ornata Moore, a mountain species from Assam, said to have a

‘ stinging ’ bite.

H. picta Moore, the corresponding mountain species from Malaya

and Borneo, also with a stinging bite.

? A. dussumiert Blanchard, described from a specimen doubtfully

from Southern India.

ube enon aoe eee hes ‘Pe 2 i Ne eI rome ‘ sh yt , . i ‘

ii PIPER ENG Nach i itG ics alee cepa nctc a ha i el

H1. sylvestris Blanchard, a lowland form from Burma, Malaya,

FA Te ae eS a Ree SS

PORTS PUREE Moi vis

coca

—_— ee) a

NOTES ON LAND LEECHES \ 469

Tritetrabdella scandens Moore, from Malaya (Penang).

Phytobdella catenitera Moore, from Malaya.

Other related species are known from the Philippines etc.

I cannot claim much ability in identifying these leeches, but the

following key (modified after Moore) may be of assistance. I should

explain that a leech contains 34 segments (somites) each of which is divided

externally into a number of rings (annuli). The number of annuli to the

somite can be detected by counting the number between successive pores.

KEY. TO LAND LEEGHES

1 Middle somites with 5 annuli each .-- Haemadipsa 3

— Middle somites with more or less PED os

2 Middie somites with 4 annuli © a. Lritetrabdella

— Middle somites with 6 annuli .. LPhytobdella

3 Eyes 3 and 4 on adjacent annuli (prehensile

papilla well developed) . HI. zeylanica

— The annuli bearing eyes 3 and 4 separated by

a complete or partial annuius 4

4 Posterior sucker with a well developed prehen-

sile papilla. Furrow pits poorly developed.

Mountains of Indian region . H. montana

— Prehensiie papilla but little developed. Furrow

pits on somites VIII and x1 distinct Sete ee)

5 Sucker rays usually less than 79, colour dull

brown with black stripes .. Hd. sylvestris

— Sucker rays usually 80 or more, colours brickt

red and yellow 6

6 Sucker rays more than 86. Mountains of Assam FH. ornata

— Sucker rays less than 89. Mountains of Malaya

and Borneo 1. ff. picta

Foop AND LENGTH OF LIFE

Land leeches certainiy do suck blood; Mr. Smythies raises the

question as to whether they must have blood to live, or whether they can

exist on other substances, such as humus. He points out that leeches

seem to be present in such large numbers that it is difficult to believe

that they can all obtain a blood meal. The same question has been

intriguing me a good deal.

I incline to the belief that they feed only on blood, although I agree

that more evidence is needed. I have tried keeping Haemadipsa zeylanica

in a glass jar containing earth and leaf-litter, covered with cloth to prevent

their escape. One group of such leeches, partly engorged when put in,

and thereafter deliberately starved, lived for five months, and died off

when the jar became dried up during my temporary absence. During

these five months the leeches were active whenever the jar was examined

but became very thin, and apparently less numerous (they were difficult

to count). ‘The reduction in number could, of course, have been due to

Cannibalism, a phenomenon which has misled workers with other animais,

Such as trombiculid mites. JI can say only that I saw no sign of it, and

I assume that the reduction in numbers was due to the natural death rate

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

under such conditions. The fact that the leeches became very thin argues

that they obtained no nutriment from the soil, dead leaves, or the soil

fauna (of which a variety of minute arthropods were present). As confir-

matory evidence Buffalo Leeches (/Tirudinaria manillensis) have been

kept in clean tap-water unfed for more than five months without their

getting even thin.

Such evidence is by no means conclusive, but it argues that land

leeches can starve for at least five months. The next question is what

chance a leech has of getting a blood meal during that period.

I have a patch of lowland dipterocarp forest under observation for

other experiments, where land leeches are numerous. Land leeches are

always to be found there and I get the impression that in the wetter parts

during suitable weather I meet about one per yard of slow walking. Let

us assume (and it is an assumption) that there is a resident population

of one leech per square yard of valley bottom. Marking experiments have

given a fair idea of the small mammal population of this strip of

forest. I estimate that in an area of about 100,000 square yards there

is a resident population of at least between forty and fifty rats mostly

of the species Rattus miilleri, R. vajah, and R. whiteheadt. The area

is also used by pigs, mouse-deer and occasional other ungulates,

cats and civets of several species, tree-shrews, and shrews—I am con-

sidering only mammals which frequent the ground. Estimating from a

map J] should say that approximately half the area is suitable for

leeches, and that the forty or fifty rats cover this area in their home

range.

We have therefore, estimating one leech per square yard of suitable

land, a population of 50,000 leeches with 40-50 rats and proportionate

numbers of other animals to support them. Allowing one feed per 100

days (34 months) the leeches could be supported on the rats alone at a

rate of ten leech-feeds per rat per day. If we allow that rats form

roughly half the ground-dwelling mammal population this rate would be

reduced to 5 feeds per rat per day. Is this reasonable ? I would suggest

that it is.

These calculations must not be taken too seriously. A lot is guesswork.

If anything the leech population has been overestimated, perhaps even

wildly overestimated, since the leeches are probably concentrated along

tracks, giving a false impression of their abundance, and one’s impressions

are gained from the worst spots rather than from the average. ‘The

mammals on the other hand are probably underestimated. Forty or so is

the number of marked rats actually known to be present in the area at

any one time; there are probably many more unrecorded. The result,

however, of overestimating the leeches and underestimating the mammals

is a reasonable figure, so we are safe in saying that leeches can get suffici-

ent blood to keep them going.

The next question is whether leeches do feed on such mammals as

rats in nature. Ishould like information on that point. I have found —

leeches in the nasal cavity of rats, but I have never found a wild rat with. —

a leech attached anywhere else. Leeches detach so readily, however, that. —

many could have detached and gone before the rat-trap was visited. I

have tried feeding leeches on rats under laboratory conditions, i.e. in small.

cages. The leech will attach and engorge readily, but the rats I have,

tried (Rattus millert, R. sabanus and R. rajah) have been too skilful at.

finding the leeches. All leeches tried have been detected before the feed,

=P Nagin te TE a aah TN ;

_ NOTES ON LAND LEECHES | , 471

was completed and most were either bitten to death or eaten. It may

- well be however, that in the wild the rat does not pay so much attention

to leeches. Animals other than rats, such as mouse-deer, pigs and so on,

would presumably ae much less efficient at finding the leeches on their

bodies. !

HABITS

The next group a aece may be samara as ‘How do land

leeches find their prey’? Stammers (1950) gives a useful summary and

an account of experiments in the Cambridge journal Parasitology. No

clear answer can be given to the question, but they seem to use a variety

of senses : sight (they have ten simple eyes), a sense of warmth and _air-

movement, vibration of the ground, smell, and touch. All these senses

are used at times, and it seems likely that all are in fact used in finding

their prey.

The most interesting question is. that of their dropping out of ‘trees’

on to their host. My own impression is that, although this undoubtedly

occurs, it has been much exaggerated. Most land leeches can and do

climb on to herbage and low bushes, the sort of vegetation against which

animals brush as they pass. Some of the species, 7. ornata and A. picta

for instance, are regarded as ‘ tree-climbing’ species, but I think that the

word ‘tree’ must be interpreted as meaning bushes and saplings some

five to ten feet high. I have watched leeches dropping from leaves

some three to six feet above the ground, but unfortunately they were

always ones [had put there myself. Such leeches, however, alerted by

my presence would search in all directions, If there was an object beneath

- them they would reach downwards and, if unable to reach it, would

~ suddenly become limp, let go their hold, and drop. They could be

- encouraged to drop by an arm held a foot or two beneath them, but they

would also drop, although less readily, at an inanimate object such as a

parang (bush knife). My impression was that they dropped at sight

- encouraged by warm aircurrents. ‘They would also drop, however, when

_ there was nothing beneath but something (myself) in the vicinity. This

_ dropping was clearly for a different reason, it would occur when the

- leech was searching for me, but had come to the end of available leaves

and twigs and was unable to make progress in my direction. It would

- drop to the ground andimmediately make for me again.

a ad et ai > le, lial and AN ae che ol ai)

REPELLANTS

Most of the standard repellants used against insects and mites seem

effective against leeches. Dimethyl Phthalate, Dibutyl Phthalate, Benyl

- Benzoate, 2-ethylhexanediol (Rutgers 612), and tobacco juice all seem

effective repellants until they wash off, but they do wash off, and for

application to the skin I can offer no remedy. The ‘new dope’ referred

~ to by Mr. Smythies as reported in Mature (Traub e¢al 1952, also IMR 1954,

_ Audy and Harrison 1954) was not, in fact developed specifically as a leech

tepellant but as a general purpose repellant for impregnating army uni-

forms against mosquitoes, lice, bedbugs, fleas, and all the other pests of

soldiers. It proves to be very: effective against leeches, both land and —

_ water leeches, and it remained effective even after a lot of wading through

472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. es

rivers and washing of the clothes. The composition of the ations

mixture tested was :—

n-butylacetanilide . i2 gsoepaGes

2-butyl-2-ethyl-1:3 propanediol seo) parts

benzyl benzoate es OU Er ES

emulsifier (« Tween 80 ’) ie a apart

This concentrate was emulsified with water in which the garments were

soaked at the rate of about two fluid ounces per garment (jacket or pair

of trousers).

INSECTICIDES 4

The insecticides Lindane, Aldrin, and Dieldrin have been tried against

leeches. In the concentrations usually used against insects they had no

effect whatever. (IMR 1954).

QUESTIONS

This is an attempt to give some answer to a few of the questions

raised by Mr. Smythies, but I should not like to give the impression that

I think these questions are settled. My own slight acquaintance with the

subject serves but to impress me with how little is known about one of

the most notorious pests of this part of the world. The questions of which

I should like most to know the answer are: ‘ What are the normal hosts of

land leeches ?’ ‘ Are leeches ever found on freshly shot animals, if so how

often and how many ? I would also like to know of any actual estimates

of leech populations. i

REFERENCES

Audy, J. R., and Harrison, J. L., (1954) : Field tests of repellant M 1960 against

leeches. Med. J. Malaya 8 (3): 240-250. Also reprinted in J. Lndian Medical

Profession, 1 (6): 285-288 (Sept. 1954).

Blanchard, R. (1917): Monographie des Hémadipsines. Bull. Soc. Path.

Exot. to : 640-675.

Harding, W. A. and Moore, J. P. (1927). The Fauna of British India—Hiru-

dinea. London.

Harrison, J. L. (1953): Leeches. Med. J. Malaya. 8 (2) : 180-185.

IMR (1954). Colonial Office Research Unit—Leeches Rep. lust. Med. Res.

Malaya for 1952. .

Moore, J. P. (1935): Leeches from Borneo and the Malay Peninsula. Bull,

Rattles Mus. 10 : 67-79. ‘a

Moore, J. P. (1938): Leeches principally from the Malay Peninsula with des-

criptions of new Spon. Bull. Raffles Mus. 14: 64-80.

Smythies, B. E. (1953): Notes and queries on land leeches. Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 51: 954-958.

Stammers, F, M. G. (1950): Observations on the behaviour of land leeches.

Parasitology. ae 237-246, i

Traub, R., Wisseman C. L. Jr., and Audy J. R. (1952): Preliminary observations

on a repellant for terrestrial leeches. Nature, 169 : 667-668.

A SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS ms

OZOBRANCHUS (DE QUATREFAGES 1852) peas

HIRUDINEA—ANNELIDA | ai,

= BY

ca P. J. SANJEEVA RAJ, M.A.,

Lecturer in Zoology, Madras Christian College, Tambaram

INTRODUCTION

s During the course of nearly a century and a half, from its first record peor

in 1791 to the present day, this imteresting genus Ozobranchus de ieee

3 -Quatrefages has been represented by only six species recorded by various

authors at different times. This synopsis is mainly intended to help Soe

those who are interested in the genus, and who might have occasion Baye

to come across it. A list of references of the scanty but complete . x

literature available on the genus up to date is given at the end for

the guidance of future workers, and an attempt is also made herein to

clarify the systematic position of an ill-defined species, viz., Ozobranchus

papillatus Kaburaki (1921 6), on the basis of certain morphological

- characters.

= Our knowledge of the genus Ozobvanchus can be traced back to the

year 1791, when Archibald Menzies (1791) collected a ‘ new form of leech ’

_ (as it was called by de Quatrefages 1852) from a turtle in the Pacific

~ Ocean between the tropics, and designated it as Hivudo branchiata. Various

synonyms have been in use for similar specimens such as Polydora

testudinum (Oken), Branchellion pinnatum (Savigny 1822, Grube) and

_ Branchiobdella menziest (de Blainville, Diesing).

S It was Savigny (doc. cztt.) who recognised for the first time that this

belonged to a genus altogether different from Branchellion, and in 1852 de

Quatrefages suggested the generic name Ozobranchus for Menzies’s Hzrudo

_branchiata. In fact de Quatrefages never saw the specimen, nor did he

ever define the genus, but only mentioned that the name Azrudo branchiata

suggested by Menzies was not quite appropriate and instead, he changed

the generic name Hzrudo to Ozobranchus (OOS = branch) thus implying

_ the branched gills by which the genus is characterised. He called Menzies’s

_ specimen Ozobranchus menziest.

Z Ozobranchus branchiatus (Hirudo branchiata) Menzies, as described by

Menzies in 1791, was an inch in length and had 7 pairs of gills (branchiae).

_ Menzies’s description of this is brief and expressive and is worth quoting.

_ ‘H,. depressa attenuata albida, setis lateralibus ramosis utrinque 7

___ interaneis fuscis bifidis ferlucentibus.

Habitat, in oceano Pacifico, testudini adhaerens ’

= ‘Similar specimens were later obtained in 1856 by Mr. Rayner, Surgeon

_ of H.M.S. ‘ Herald ’ from the body of a turtle in Shark’s Bay, Australia.

_ These measured only half an inch in length (Baird 1869).

- In course of time, the genus Ozobranchus de Quatrefages had various. 2

_ synonyms inuse. Baird (1869) suggested the generic name Aubranchella ek

___and described Menzies’s specimen as Eubranchella branchiata as the only eet

__ Species of the genus available up to 1869. Poirer et de Rochebrune (1884)

A74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol. “52. —s

used the generic name Lophobdella. Apathy (1890) collected several

hundred specimens of a different species from the body of a single indi-

vidual of the turtle 7hallasochelys corticata in the Bay of Naples. His

specimens were characterised by the presence of only 5 pairs of branchiae

and he suggested the generic name Pseudobranchellion. His specimens of

Pseudobranchellion margot (Apathy) were included in a new family

Chelyobdellidae intermediate between the families J/chthyobdellidae and

Clepsinidae.

Leon Vaillant (1890) seems to have adopted the generic name

Ozobranchus and treated it under the sub-family Branchellionae of the —

family Lchthyobdellidae. It was Oka (1895, 1904 & 1910) who studied the

detailed anatomy of the species Ozobranchus branchiatus Menzies, and

classified the genus along with Pontobdella, Ichthyobdella and Tvachelob-

della as opposed to Carcinobdella and Piscicola.

Harding (1909 & 1927) described leeches collected from Ceylon by

Miss Robertson from the body of the terrapin WVzcoria trijuga. ‘These

were characterised by eleven pairs of gills and biannulate abdominal

somites and were designated as Ozobranchus shipleyi. Shortly after this

Oka (1912) collected yet another species from Wuchung, China,

identified as Ozobranchus jantseanus but with triannulate abdominal

somites. Oka (1912) mentioned only three species of the genus to be

existing, viz. O. margot, O. branchiatus and O. jantseanus.

Kaburaki (1921 a) described some leeches from the Indian Museum,

which were collected from a tortoise Kachuga donghoka in the zoological

gardens, Calcutta. These, he found to be resembling O. jantseanus of

Oka (1912), but later they were considered synonymous with O. shipleyt

Harding (1927). Along with these Kaburaki (1921 6) described a new

species of O. papillatus collected from the body of Kachuga tectum in

Narbada River in Nagpur. These are characterised by equal-sized

abdominal annuli each with a row of conical papillae. Harding (1927)

considered this O. papillatus also synonymous with O. shzpleyz which is

open for discussion (vzde infra).

MacCallum (1918) and Nigrelli (1943) obtained a joree. number of

specimens of O. branchiatus Menzies, from the body of Chelone mydas

and studied the anatomy and bionomics of the species in detail. oy

Lastly, Sanjeeva Raj (1951) collected a new species of Ozobranchus

polybranchus from the leg of a tortoise Pelochelys bibroni on the bank of

the river Kille in Porto Novo, South India, which is diagnosed by twenty

pairs of digitiform gills and biannulate abdominal somites.

Family ichthyobdellidae

Genus OZOBRANCHUS de Quatrefages 1852 a

Hirudo : ... Menzies 1791 Trans. Linn. Soc., London.

: ; [. P. 188 5His, @)-

— Polydora: J Okens 2 a

Branchellion sh ee ae 1822 Syst. des. Annel. 1c,

| : . 109.

Branchiobdella carer or De. ‘Blainville 1827 Syst. des: Annel. —

. TOP, OC: “ote

Eve Ocean aes de Ouietes 1852. Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.) 3, xviii

De wooos oe

<a b

Te Pe IEE eo ny RN SEE, LS Se

‘SPECIES OF. THE GENUS OZOBRANCHUS Jane 475.

Eubapachelle Baird 1869. Proc. Zool. Sips London, pp. 311-312.

Pseudobranchellion Apathy 1890. Or Dos devaaese, Eyrtesito, pp. 110-113

and pp. 122-127.

Ozabranchus Oka 1895, Zool, Mag. Tokyo, VII, No. 75.

Body small, divisible into an anterior narrow part the neck, anda

posterior broad abdomen, neck biannulate and abdomen bi-or triannulate,

usually unequal sized annuli. Abdomen carries lateral, branched, digiti-

form gills (branchiae) variable in number from 5 to 21 pairs, posterior

sucker is large and powerful. Eyes may or may not be visible in

adults. Transverse row of papillae may be present on the abdominal

annuli. Ectoparasites on marine as well as fresh water chelonians.

Species 1. OZOBRANCHUS BRANCHIATUS (Menzies) 1791

Hirudo branchiata Menzies 1701. Trans. Linn. Soc., London, 1. p.

188.

Polydora ition Oken.

Branchellion pinnatum Savigny, Grube, Syst. des. Annel. 1.c.,; 109.

Ozobranchus menziest de Quatrefages, 1852. Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.)

3S); RVI, Po BZ. -

Eubranchella branchiata Baird 1869. Proc. Zool. Soc. , London, pp.

311-312.

Ozobranchus branchiatus Oka 1895. Zool. Mag., Tokyo, vii, No. 75.

Diagnosis.—Seven pairs of lateral digitiform gills (branchiae) in the

anterior half of the abdomen and each gill with 4-5 branches. Neck short

and protrusible, not prominent. Eyes may be sunk in below the paren-

chyma in adults and not visible externally. Mouth terminal, ventrally

directed. Anus dorsally placed at the base of the posterior sucker. Male

genital opening close in front of the female, on the ventral side of the

anterior one-third the length of the body.

Dimensions.— Length 6-25 mm., maximum width of body 3-5 mm.,

_ diameter of posterior sucker 2-5mm., length of a gill 1°5-2 mm., colour

usually dirty white.

FHosts and habitat.—Menzies collected it from a turtle in the tropical

Pacific. Mr. Rayner collected specimens from a turtle in Shark’s Bay,

Australia. MacCallum (1918) collected specimens from Chelone mydas in

Key West, Flanders, and-Nigrelli (1943) from the fibroepithelial tumours

of Chelone mydas caught off the coast of Florida.

Remarks.—It is recorded by Nigrelli (1943) that these leeches are to

some extent responsible for the growth of the fibroepithelial tumours of

the turtle Chelone mydas from which they are collected. The hirudin of

these leeches is observed to help the growth of the tumours. From a

space of about halfa square inch on the tumours, as many as 50 leeches

were collected.

Eggs of these leeches are fastened to the skin of the turtle, and a

chitinous membrane covers them till they are hatched. Two eyes are

visible in the young ones, but in the adults they are shown by MacCallum

pete) to have sunk deep into the parenchyma, and are functionless.

Se 2», *OZ OBRANCH US MARGOI Apathy 1890

- Pseudobranchellion margot Apathy 1890. Orvos-termesz BE, pp. 110.

as and pp. 122-127.

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY £ , Vol. event

Ozobranchus margot Oka 1912. Annot. Zool. Jap, viii, pp. 1-4, :

Diagnosis. —By the presence of 5 pairs of lateral digitiform gills

(branchiae) in the abdominal region.

Hosts and habitat.—Collected from the body of Thalassochelys corticata.

in the Bay of Naples (Mediterranean).

Remarks.—Apathy (1890) created a new family known as Chelyobdel-

lidae for these leeches and placed it intermediate between the families

Ichthyobdelildae and Clepsinidae. Apathy (1902) worked out the histology

of the light sensory cells of this species. :

Species 3. OZOBRANCHUS SHIPLEYI Harding 1909

Ozobranchus shipleyi Harding 1909. Proc. Cam. Phil. Soc., xv, pp. 233-

234,

Ozobranchus shipleyi Harding 1927. Faun. Brit. Ind. (Hirudinia), p. 37.

Ozobranchus jantseanus Kaburaki 1921 a. (Not. Oka) Fec. Ind. Mus,

1971 -xxii;p- G91.

Diagnosis. —Characterised by the presence of 11 pairs of digitiform

branchiae in the abdominal region. Somites of the neck region are bian-

nulate, and the annuli are of equal size. ‘The abdominal somites also are

biannulate (Harding 1927) but the anterior annulus is larger and carries a

row of multipointed papillae. Branchiae arise from the anterior annulus.

Two eyes are visible. Anterior sucker carries the ventrally directed mouth.

Anus is dorsal at the junction of abdomen and posterior sucker. T'wo

genital openings close to each other are on the ventral side of the first ab-

dominal somite.

Hosts and Habitat :—Collected for the first time from the terrapin

Nicoria trijuga in Ceylon by Miss Muriel Robertson. Later Indian

specimens were collected from the body of Kachuga donghoka, K. smithi

and XK. intermedia from Rajmahal, Mahanadi, and Ravi respectively.

The inclusion of O. papillatus Kaburaki as synonymous with O. Seve

Harding is discussed below.

Species 4. OZOBRANCHUS JANTSEANUS Oka 1912

Diagnosts.—Eleven pairs of lateral abdominal. gills each with 4 to 7

_ branches. Abdominal somites are triannulate. Eyes are two in number,

and are on the dorsal side at the anterior end. Posterior sucker semi-

circular and powerful.

The male and female genital openings are situated close to each other

on the ventral side of the base of neck.

Dimensions.—Length 9 mm., width 2 mm., diameter of podenee

sucker 2 mm. a

Hosts and habitat.—Collected by Mr. Usui from a turtle at Wuchung,

China. >

: Remarks. = eanaetis specimens of O. jantseanus Kaburaki (1921 a)

are actually synonymous with O. shipleyi Harding, because of the biannu-

late abdominal somites. =

Species 5. OZOBRANCHUS PAPILLATUS Kaburaki 1921 b.

Diagnosis.—Eleven pairs of lareral abdominal gills. Biannulate abdo- “=

minal somites. Annuli are of equal size and a row of single sharp-pointed

papillae on each annulus. Eyes not visible.

477

_ ‘SPECIES OF THE GENUS OZOBRANCHUS

Dimensions.—Strongly contracted specimens measure 7 mm. in length

and 4 mm. across the widest region of the body. Colour plain grey.

Ffosts and habitat.—Mr. A. E. D’abreu collected from the body

ms of the tortoise Kachuga tectum from Narbada in Nagpur.

_ kemarks—Harding (1927) considers O. papilatus Kaburaki as

- synonymous with O. shipleyt Harding, but I think the species as desig-

nated by Kaburaki (1921 6) is mainly based on the absence of any trace

_ of eye-like organs, which is not a sufficiently strong point, and his failure

_ to notice any eyes might be due to the fact that eyes sink into the paren-

_. chyma below the skin in the adult, as is shown by MacCallum (1918) in

the case of O. branchiatus Menzies. Kaburaki obviously has not studied

the internal anatomy of the species. Nevertheless the fact that each

abdominal somite carries two annuli of equal size and a row of sharp

single-pointed papillae on each annulus, seem to be markedly distinct

features not observed in O. shifleyi Harding with which it is said to be

synonymous. On the basis of these rather important characters, I feel

that O. papillatus Kaburaki can be retained as a distinct species by itself.

__ The size of the annuli and the presence of the papillae and their structure

are diagnostic features in the morphology of Ichthyobdellan leeches.

Species 6. OZOBRANCHUS POLYBRANCHUS Sanjeeva Raj 1951

___~-~<Dtagnosis.—Characterised by the presence of 20 pairs of lateral,

- abdominal, digitiform gills. Abdominal somites are biannulate and the

__ anterior annulus broader than the posterior. Two oval eyes at the

__ anterior end on the dorsal side. Mouth in the middle of the anterior

sucker which is semicircular and ventrally directed. Anus dorsal at

& the junction of abdomen and posterior sucker which is circular. Genital

Openings on the ventral aspect of first abdominal somite. Each gill

Carries 8 to 24 digitiform processes.

Dimensions. —Length 32 mm. in alcohol. Maximum width of body

_ Smm. Posterior sucker (diameter) 5 mm. Length of a gill 1°5-2 mm.

Colour dull green on the dorsal side and pale yellow on the ventral

» — side,

: Flosts and ica. —Collected from the leg of the tortoise Pelochelys

btbronz on the river Kille in Porto Novo, S. India.

_ kemarks.—Gills were actually 21 on the right side and 20 on the left

_ side. No mutilated gill was seen on the left side.

KEY AND TABLE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF SPECIES.

Aes pairs of gills (branchiae) wee «Margot

ee 2. 7 pairs of gills ... Ovanchiatus

a 3. 11 pairs of gills

E: (i) triannulate abdominal somites we. jantseanus

(ii) biannulate abdominal somites

(a) unequal-sized annuli, and a row of

multi-pointed papillae on anterior

annulus alone shipleyz

(6) equal-sized annuli, and a row of single-

pointed papillae on each annulus ... pafpzllatus

20 pairs of gills and biannulate abdominal

somites . .. polybranchus

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SPECIES OF THE GENUS OZOBRANCHUS 479

Affinities and evolution.—The resemblances of the genus Ozobranchus

to the genus Branchellion are not only superficial in having the branchiae

of similar structure but they are more deep rooted in their nature. It has

been shown by de Quatrefages (1852) that the blood vessels of Branchel-

ézon are Closed and have no connection whatsoever with the body cavity,

which is branched and which supplies the haemocoelomic-fluid to the gills.

A similar condition is observed by Oka (1895 and 1904) in Ozobranchus

branchiatus Menzies. Hence with regard to this and many other features

the genus Ozobranchus possesses closer affinities to the genus Branchellion

than any other Ichthyobdellan. In fact our knowledge of the internal

anatomy and embryology of the genus is too incomplete to justify any

attempt to explain the evolution within the genus itself. Nevertheless the

progressive increase in the number of gills from O. margoz to O. poly-

branchus can be looked upon as a transitory basis of evolution till the

genus is more thoroughly understood.

Geographic distribution.—The genus Ozobvanchus has been

recorded from the Australian, Palaearctic, Nearctic, and Oriental Regions.

Australian Region.

O. branchiatus (Menzies). Shark’s Bay, Australia.

Palaearctic Region.

_O. margot (Apathy). Bay of Naples, Mediterranean.

O. jantseanus (Oka). Wuchung, China.

Nearctic Region.

O. branchiatus (Menzies). Key West & Florida.

Oriental Region.

O, shipleyt Harding. Ceylon and India.

O. papillatus Kaburaki. R. Narbada, N. India.

O. polybranchus Sanjeeva Raj. R. Kille, S. India.

O. branchiatus (Menzies) has been recorded from both the Australian

and American (Nearctic) Regions, but it is abundant in the latter.

Hosts and habitat.—The members of the genus have been recorded

always as ectoparasites on marine turtles and fresh water tortoises. There

seems to be no specificity of the host within the Chelonians, for, the same

species of leech is collected from different species of tortoises. It has been

shown by Nigrelli (1943) that they feed on blood of the host, and breed

on its body. The eggs are attached to the host and covered over by a

chitinous membrane till the young are hatched out. These leeches are

extremely contractile in life.

REFERENCES

Apathy, S. (1890): Ovrvos-termesz. Ertesito, 1893, pp. 110-113 in Czech, and

pp. 122-127 in German.

——-—, (1901): Verh. Congr. Zool. V. Berlin, 1901, pp. 707-728.

Baird, W. (1869. Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1869, pp. 311-312.

Blainville, H.M.D. de. Syst. Annel, l.c., p. 556. as

de Quatrefage, (1852): Ann. Sci. Nat. (Zool.), (3), xviii: 325.

Harding, W. A. (1909): Proc. Cam. Phil. Soc., xv: 233-234.

——-—— -— — — & Percy Moore, 1927, Faun. Brit. Ind, (Hirudinia).

Kaburaki, T. (1921 @): Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii: 691.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HI

—

Kaburaki, (1921 6): ibid, p. 692. : : i

Leon Vaillant, M. (1890) : Histoire Naturelle des Mais Marins Et Dreau

Doute, Vol. HI, Part II, p. 525;

MacCallum, W. G! & MacCallum G. A. (1918): Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat Hist.,

XXXVili, pp. 395-408.

Menzies, A. oat Trans. Linn. Soe., London, Tap: 188, fig. 3.

Moquin-Tandon, A . (1846): Monographie de la famille des flirudinies, ‘pp-281-

282.

Nigrelli, R. F. & Smith, G. M. (1943) : Zoologica, New Vork, XXviii : 107- 108,

Oka, A. (1895): Zool. ‘Mag., Tokyo, vii, No. 75,

—-— (1902): Annot. Zool. Jap., iv, p. 49.

—-— (1904) : ibid, v, p. 133.

—-— (1910) : ibid. , Vil, p. 165.

—-— (1912): ibid, viii, pp. 1-4.

— (1917): Mem. As. Soc. Bengal, vi.

Portier et de Rochebrune, S, (1884) : C. &. Ac, Sci., xeviii, Dp. 1597.

-Sanjeeva Raj, P. J. (1951) : J. Zool. Soc. India, 3 (1) : 1-5.

Savigny, J. C. (1822) : Syst. des. Annel l.c., p. ‘109.

Sukatschoff, (1912) : Mitth. Zool. Stat. Naples, xx: 395.

A NEW SPECIES OF ARTHRAXON FROM PURANDHAR

(BOMBAY STATE)

as BY

a : F. R, Baarucua & Y. SATYANARAYAN

S ms Institute of Science, Bombay

¥ | (With o plate)

a While studying the calcicolous associations of the Bombay State, the

authors came across an interesting species of drthraxon growing exclusive-

ly on the walls of Purandhar Fort, which is situated at a height of 4,500 ft.

above sea-level, 26 miles from Poona (2).

____It should be stated at the outset that there are six recorded species

of Arthraxon to be found in the Bombay State, namely A. inmermzs Hook.,

A. serrulatus Hochst., A. meeboldit Stapf, A. lanctfolius WHochst.,

_ A. quartinianus Nash., and A. jubatas Hack. (2,3). It is interesting to

note that all of them are seasonal and flower during the monsoon. All

are calcicolous and are found growing luxuriantly on walls (1,2).

The Arihraxon species collected by us did not agree with any

Ss species hitherto recorded but in its inflorescence appeared to have

4 _ close affinities with A. meeboldii Stapf, which is also an endemic in the

E Bombay State. By the kind permission of Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J., we

examined the collection of Avthraxon in the Blatter Herbarium but we

could not find any specimen corresponding to ours. Our species is, there-

fore, being described here as a new species and it is named after the

Purandhar Fort on which it was found. ee

ae;

Arthraxon purandharensis Bharucha, spec. nov.

It is distinguished by its large leaves and inflorescence, larger

wider long-awned spikelets, spinulous murications of the lower involucral

_ glume with its tip entire, small anthers and the 7—-nerved lower glume of

the pedicellate spikelet.

_ Herba annua. Culmi 40-60 cm. alti, validi, ramificantes ad nodos,

qui sunt pubescentes atque rubrobrunnei. Fltonin lamina ovato-

lanceolata, setacee acuminata, late amplexicaulis ad basim, usque ad

8 x 2cm,, pilis nitentibus, bulbo infixis pilosa Sparse supra, dense infra,

ciliata ad margines pilis bulbo infixis, 9-nervia, nervis aliquantum elevatis

et prominentibus in pagina inferiore. Vaginae longae 2—2.5 cm., 5.5 mm.

es culmis adpressae, subtiliter sulcatae, pilosae praesertim ad inserti-

4 onem laminae. Lzgula scariosa, ad 9 mm. longa.

4 _ Racemi terminales paniculati, emergentes ex supremi folii vagina,

ee tical, 8 cm. longi, spatha 9 x 1:2 cm.; inferiores rachides con-

_ fluentes; rhacheos nodi tumescentes, dense vestiti pilis longis atque

-_argenteis, Spiculae sessiles viridi-luteae, 6-—8.5 mm. longae, anguste lineari-

Janceolatae, uniflorae, ornatae callo brevi atque barbato. Gluma inferior

. 8. mm. longa, 2 mim. lata, lineari-lanceolata convexa ad tergum, apice

integro, coriacea vel chartacea, marginibus incurvis, eminenter carinata

—

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

carinis serratim muricatis vel echinulatis ; muricationes augentur magni-

tudine sursum in gluma; tuberculorum duplex series adest, quae in

superiore parte glumae evadit ciliata pilis tenuibus erectisque; nonnum-

quam 4 nervi distincti adesse possunt, qui sunt tenuiter eminentes, nervis

exterioribus spinulose muricatis. Gluma superior 7 mm. longa, 2.2 mm.

lata, oblongo-lanceolata, acuminata, chartacea, 6-nervia marginibus hya-

linis. Gluma inferior floralis 3°5-4 mm. longa, 0°8 mm. lata, lineari-

lanceolata, acuta, marginibus hyalinis, nervis nullis apparentibus, atque

vacua. Gluma floralis superior 5mm. longa, 1mm. lata, lineari-lanceo-

lata, acuta, aristata fere ex basi; arista dorsalis 21 mm. longa, geniculata

atque obtorta supra geniculum, inferiore parte levi atque glabra, superiore

vero supra geniculum aspera atque 12 mm. longa; Lodzculae quadratae

et hyalinae ; Stamina ut plurimum duo, raro tria ; Antherae pallide virides,

evadentes brunneae, 1.5 mm. longae, breviores quam dimidia pars glumae

floralis superioris. S¢zgma bifidum atque plumosum ad apicem.

Spiculae pedicellatae ca. 8.2 mm. longae, pediculis 2.5 mm. longis,

dense vestitis pilis longis argenteisque ; spiculae arcte adpressae spiculis

sessilibus, ovato-lanceolatae, acutae, chartaceae. Gluma involucralis

interior ca. 5°7 mm. longa, 1:4 mm. lata, 7-nervia, glabra vel ciliata,

marginibus incurvis, hyalinis, et minutim muricatis. Gluma involucralts

supertor 5°G mm. longa, 1:1 mm. lata, subtiliter striata, lanceolata atque

acuta, hyalina atque 3-nervia, marginibus inflexis. Glumae florales

inferior atgue supertor vacuae, Chartaceae, 3°4—4 mm. longae, 0°8 mm.

latae, ovatae et lanceolatae. ;

Typus lectus a F. R. Bharucha, in parietibus castri ad Purandhar,

mense octobri, 1952, (Bharucha 501) et positus in Herb. Inst. Sci. in

Bombay, India.

An annual grass. Czalms from 40 to 60 cm. high, robust, branching

at the nodes which are pubescent and reddish brown. Leaf-blades ovate:

lanceolate, setaceously acuminate, base broadly amplexicaul, upto 8 cm.

long, 2cm. wide, covered with bulbous-based shiny hairs, sparsely on the

upper and densely on the lower surface, ciliate on the margins with

bulbous-based hairs, 9-nerved, the nerves being slightly raised below.

Sheaths long, from 2 to 2°5 cm. long, 5°5 mm. broad, closely attached to

the culms, finely grooved, covered with hairs especially at the junction of

the lamina. Ligwles scarious and 9 mm. long.

Intlorescence of paniculate terminal racemes issuing from the topmost

leaf-sheath with 4-6 branches, 8 cm. iong, sheath about 9 cm. by 1:2 cm. ;

the lower rachii are confluent ; joints of the rhachis swollen, densely

clothed with long and silvery hairs; Sessile sp¢kelets greenish-yellow, 6 to

8°5 mm. long, narrowly linear-lanceolate, one-flowered, callus short and

bearded : lower involucral glume 8 mm. long, 2 mm. wide when flattened,

linear-lanceolate, convex at the back, tips entire, coriaceous to chartaceous,

margins incurved, keeled prominently, keels serrately muricate, murica-

tions increasing along the entire length of the glume, two additional rows

of tubercles present which in the upper half of the glume are ciliated with

fine erect hairs; sometimes four distinct nerves may be present which

are slightly raised and the outer nerves are spinulously muricate. Upper

znvolucral glume 7 mm. long, 2°2 mm. broad when flattened, oblong-lance-

olate, acuminate, chartaceous, 6-nerved with hyaline margins ; lower

floral. glume 3°5 to 4 mm. long, 0°8 mm: broad, linear-lanceolate, acute

with hyaline margins,.nerveless and empty. Upper floral glume 4 mm. —

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A NEW SPECIES OF ARTHRAXON FROM PURANDHAR 483

long, 1 mm. broad, linear-lanceolate, acute, aristate from near the base,

the dorsal awn 21 mm. long, bent and twisted above the knee, lower half

smooth and glabrous, upper half above the knee rough and 12 mm. long,

lodicules quadrate and hyaline, stamens generally two, rarely three,

anthers light-green, turning brown later, 1°5 mm. iong, less than half the

length of the upper floral glume, stigma bifid and plumose at the top.

Pedicellate spikelets about 8'2 mm. long, pedicels 2°5 mm. long,

densely clothed with long silvery hairs, closely appressed to the sessile

ones, ovate-lanceolate, acute, chartaceous, lower znvolucral glume about

5:7 mm. long, 1-4 mm. broad, 7-nerved, glabrous to ciliate, with hyaline

incurved margins, minute murications present along the margins ;

lower involucral glume 5°6 mm. long, 1:1 mm. broad, finely striated,

lanceolate and acute, margins inflexed, hyaline and 3-nerved, upper

and lower floral glumes are empty, chartaceous, 3-4 to 4 mm. long,

0°38 mm. broad, ovate and lanceolate.

— Arthraxon purandharensts and Arthraxon meeboldit are no doubt

closely related but a number of characters both minor and major separate

them out at once. The anthers in A. puvandharensts are much smaller

than those of A, meeboldit and are generally less than half the length

of the upper floral glume. Again, whereas in A. meeboldiz, the number of

stamens is consistently three, in A. purandharensis, the number is varia-

ble, being generally two and rarely three. Both the species possess the

peculiar type of murications in the iower involucral glume, but the muri-

cations are spinulous, broader and more pronounced along the entire

length of the glumein A. purvandharensis. This, in addition to the two

definite rows of tubercles and the presence of silky hairs over half the

length of the glume at once distinguishes it from A. meeboldiz. Again,

the racemes are more in number and much longerin A. purandharensts

than in the related species. Finally the large leaves with 9 prominent

nerves should distinguish it at once from A. meeboldiz. In addition,

A. purandharensis occupies a restricted geographical range, being found

only in an isolated fort in the Deccan. Itis, therefore, considered by the

authors to be a new species, warranting a specific rank.

The authors wish to express their thanks to Rev. H. Santapau, S.J.,

St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for kindly translating into Latin the descrip-

tion of the species, Dr. N. L. Bor, Asst. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens,

Kew, Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, Curator, Indian Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, and

Shri M. B. Raizada, Indian Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, for their

help and assistance.

REFERENCES

(1) Bharucha, F.R. and Satyanarayan, Y. (1954): Calcicolous Associations of

the Bombay State, 70th Birthday Commemoration Volume of Dr. J. Braun-Blanquet.

Vegetatio, Holland, 1954.

(2) Blatter, E. and McCann, C, (1935) : The Bombay Grasses. I.C.A.R. Scienti-

fic Monograph, No. 5.

(3) Cooke. T. (1908): Fiora of the Bombay Presidency. London.

THE VEGETATION OF PILANI AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD —

T. S. BAKSHI

Department of Botany, Stkh National College, Quadian, Punjab

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

As early as 1879, King made an attempt to study the flora of

Rajputana and published a short ‘sketch’ of the same. This was

followed over a quarter of a century later by the much more comprehen-

sive work of Blatter and Hallberg (1918-21). Since then the study

of the Rajputana desert vegetation received scant attention of

taxonomists almost till 1950, when a few authors including Mulay and

Ratnam (1950), Ramachandran (L950), Das and Sarup (1951), Ratnam

(1951), Sankhala (1951), and Sarup (1951) tried to revive interest in the

subject by preparing lists of plants occurring in their neighbourhood.

Simultaneously, a few more devoted themselves to the ecological and — a

morphological aspects of the vegetation (Biswas and Rao, 1952; Ratnam

and Joshi, 1952; Sarup 1952; Bakshi and Kapil, 1953, 1954; Bakshi ~

and Chhajlani, 1953, 1954; etc.). If this enthusiasm is continued through

the efforts of individual botanists as well as organizations, it may not be

too much to expect in the near future a revision of the pioneer work of

Blatter and Hallberg (1918-21). This in its turn would help immensely

in the re-writing of a new Flora of India (see Santapau, 1952).

It is interesting to note that, whereas western and north-western

Rajputana has been studied to a certain extent, the remaining part of

this vast arid region has received little attention. Whatever earlier «

records we have of the floristic studies of eastern Rajputana, appear to

be included in ‘The Flora of the Indian Desert ’ (Blatter and Hallberg,

1918-21). Of the more recent ones, Ratnam’s ‘The Vegetation of

Lohargal’ (1951) appears to be the only comprehensive account; the

other two (Mulay and Ratnam, 1950; Ramachandran, 1950) are published

in a summary form in the Proceedings of the Indian Science Congress, q

and as such are of little help in determining the detailed vegetation of

the area studied. Incidentally these latter two deal with the vegetation

found in and around Pilani. Needless therefore to say that the present

paper is the first detailed account of the plants of Pilani and its adjacent

areas. However, for purely ecological studies reference may be made

to the works of Sarup (1952), Ratnam and Joshi (1952), and Bakshi and _

Kapil (1953 and 1954).

Pilani, situated a little over 100 miles to the west of Delhi (vide

map), was originally a small village in the Jaipur State. Now, however,

it has sprung up into one of the important educational centres of India

due primarily to the efforts of the Birla Education Trust through more

than half a century. Recently, with the foundation of the Central —

Electronics Engineering Research Institute, it is expected to attract =

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE VEGETATION OF PILANI

LOCATION of PILANI §

m_ JNDIA Map or Pitans AND its NeighBouRHooD

Scale: 2 } 2 3

MILES

PILANIe ®DELHI 7

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VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 485

much wider attention. The region was barren and desolate till as late

as 1946. Ever since, thanks to the digging ofa number of tube wells

and the growing concern of the local authorities, Pilani is becoming

- greener every year.

ENVIRONMENTAL Factors INFLUENCING THE VEGETATION

e Little is known about the meteorology of deserts; I, therefore,

tried to collect as much data as was possible. The climate of Pilani is

- typical of the arid regions of Rajputana. According to the records in

the local Agriculture Farm, Pilani receives an average annual rainfall

of about 14inches. During 1950-51 it was 13:25 inches (Ratnam and

Joshi, 1952). 1951 was a little drier with only 11°47 inches of rain of

_ which 7:84 inches was received in August, about an inch each in June

and October, and less than an inch each in May, July and September

_ (Bakshi and Kapil, 1954). The remaining months are almost dry. It

appears the low rainfall is due to the fact that the area is inaccessible

~ to the south-west monsoons rising from the Arabian Sea. The clouds

_ float very high above the vast arid barren region and are usually carried

away from the tract. The percentage of humidity varies considerably.

It may be 31, or even lower on some particularly hot days during the

_ April-June period, or it may rise up to nearly 70 in August, the month

receiving the maximum of rainfall. August is also particularly cons-

__picuous in showing some characteristic features. The clouds roll up

on most of the days but rain of some consequence is released on just

two or three occasions in the month, the remaining period experiencing

a few light showers only. Rainwater is either quickly drained off due

to the typical topography, or is immediately absorbed by the sandy soil,

so that after rain the soil surface is just wet and not muddy.

<= As in Jodhpur (Sarup, 1952) there is a constant breeze in Pilani

from the south-west to the north-east from about February to October

- with a velocity of nearly 8-10 miles per hour. The velocity increases

_ during May to 20 and the direction changes to west-east. Storms of

higher velocity are also not infrequent.

o May and June are the hottest months with the average maximum

_ temperature of about 108°F. It diminishes to about 80°F in the winter

- months, especially January. The minimum temperature in June is on

an average 85°F and in January about 45-50°F. On some particularly

cold nights there is a crust of ice formed on the surface of drain-water ;

_ the mercury obviously touches the freezing point. Figures for the

_ respective temperatures of the soil are not available but it was observed

that in summer the soil is much hotter than the atmosphere and in

- winter much cooler. A detailed study of the effect of these soil tempe-

___ ratures on the plants growing thereon can yield fascinating results.

____The physical nature of the soil varies from locality to locality. For

_ example, in the Agriculture Farm it is almost black and is composed of

- humus and a little clay, and the soil is spongy. Humus is absent in

_ other regions where the soil shows varying proportions of silt, clay

_ andsand. The so-called fields surrounding the Vidyavihar (Education-

__ al Colony) are nothing but vast stretches of sand. Sand dunes, mostly

__ of the Barchan type (see Bagnold, 1939) and of various sizes and

_ heights, add considerably to the characteristic topography of Pilani. To

_ the south of Vidyavihar, there are also present a few sand hills. A

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V a. 5 es

little to the north of Pilani, there is a small hillock of loose gravel (see ad

‘Pilani Rocks’ in map). An almost similar hillock is present near

Narh along the Pilani-Chirawa road. 3

Water content of the soil varies considerably not only in different a

localities but also in the same locality at different spots, According to

Bakshi and Kapil (1953, 1954) who have recorded it for different depths,

the percentage of the water content ranges from 1:2 (at a depth of

3cm.) to 68 (at a depth of 10 cm.) in August—the wettest month.

Ratnam and Joshi (1952) have found the percentage in one locality to

be as low as 0°87. The depth at which the soil sample was collected is

not given. Thecentral area of the temporary pond studied by them —

shows as high a percentage as 15°75. The difference in all these figures —

may be accounted for by one or more of the following reasons : |

1. Difference in water retaining capacity of various soils.

2. Periodic watering of fields.

.3. Artificial storage of water, as near the brick-kiln.

4. Collection of drainage water.

5. Varying topography of the land.

F |

_ The chemical nature of the soil is characteristic. The carbonate —

content is very low, nitrates are in plenty, and the reductivity usually 1,

The pH value ranges from 7 to 8:5 (Bakshi and Kapil, 1953, 1954). —

Ratnam and Joshi (1952) record the pH as varying from 4 to 8:5. The

lowest figure is predominant on the south-east ey the pond included in

their study. ‘To me the figure, however, appears to be too low for the

region. a

The vegetation of Pilani—in fact the vegetation in most of the arid —

Rajasthan—is subjected to two very destructive biotic factors: manand —

grazing cattle, especially goats and sheep. Cutting the tops of trees for —

foliage to be used as fodder in the off-season, felling trees for fuel,

and collecting herbs of the rainy season for cattle are some of the most _

destructive methods which affect the plants so adversely that they are

in constant danger of vanishing should these agencies continue with

a little greater ‘ zeal’. All these practices lay bare the sandy soil to — |

the nearly constant breeze for rapid erosion. In Jodhpur (Sarup, 1952)

an attempt has been made to introduce Prosopis julitlora DC., an Aus- —

tralian plant, which is more leafy, less woody and grows more rapidly . 3

than the native species. It coppices well and the trees come up self-

sown. If large-scale planting of the species is encouraged ina wider

area, the arid regions can be profitably improved.

GENERAL ASPECTS OF THE VEGETATION

From the foregoing details it is seen that the rainfall in Pilaniis —

scanty, the percentage of relative humidity low, the hot or cold winds ~

almost constant, ana the temperatures extreme. Added to these is the

almost dry sandy soil. These factors are hardly favourable for a luxu- —

riant growth of plants. The chief features of the existing vegetation ~~

are discontinuous patches of plant associations. The species compris - ee

ing these plant communities vary from patch to patch and give the

‘region the appearance of a typical scrub jungle. As Elston (1953) has

suggested, vegetation if it isto survive must establish an equilibrium

with the environment in which it develops. Since the availability of

ie VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 487

water is the most important limiting factor of arid environments, most

of the plants in Pilani, like all other desert plants, exhibit characteristic

features of xerophytes. The leaves are either almost completely

absent, as in Capparis abhylla Roth., Leptadenia spartium Wight or

Ephedra foliata Boiss. var. ciliata (C.A. Mey) Stapf., or if present are

very small with their transpiring surface reduced to the minimum as in

Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. f. & T. and Crotalaria burhia Buch. The

epidermal outgrowths and coverings are very common on all the

exposed parts of plants. Presence of thorns, spines, prickles, develop-

ment of phylloclades, reduction of the exposed surface in proportion to

;

Se hae ee Sh

— underground organs are features most commonly met with in the

—_ region:

‘ On the basis of the source of water supply, the entire vegetation can

be divided into two groups. To one belong the herbaceous annuals like

Mollugo cerviana Ser., Cleome viscosa Linn. and Digera arvensis Forsk.

which derive their water supply directly from the rains. These appear

with the first showers, flower within a few days, and disperse the

seeas shortly afterwards. The life span of such plants is about 1-3

‘months. The second group comprises plants which draw water from

the deeper layers of the soil. To this category belong the perennials

like Capparis aphylla Roth., Celastrus senegalensis Lamk., Prosopis

Spicigera Linn., Calatropis procera R. Br., and others. Besides these

there is, however, a third group of plants which are annuals to all

appearances but which perennate by some underground parts and sprout

into new plants in the succeeding favourable season. This important

category includes species like Zyzbulus terrestris Linn., Zrianthema

—monogyna Linn., 7. crystallina Vahl., Gzisekia pharnaceoides Linn.,

Tridax procumbens Linn., Boerhaavia diffusa Linn., Polygonum plebejum

R. Br. Pupalia lappacea Juss., etc. Some of these continue to produce

shoots and flowers in suitable spots till late in the season. There are

others which grow here with the same vigour as they do in the Upper

Gangetic Plain. Species of Zephrosia and Ocimum are conspicuous in this

respect. The commonest and the most successful annuals belong to the

— Capparidaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Leguminosae, Cucurbitaceae, Ficoideae,

a : ° 4

i’ Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Amarantaceae, Chenopo-

___ diaceae, Euphorhiaceae, Commelinaceae and Gramineae. Mukherjee

(1953) has recorded for the Delhi ‘Ridge’ the same families with the

i. exception of Zygophyllaceae, Ficoideae, Nyctaginaceae and Euphor-

c biaceae. It is important to note that the Ficoideae, the species of which

__ are probably the most frequent in Pilani, is not even one of the predo-

ERI ER pete ee ee Pe ee ee ee ee ee a NR

Sg RPE. ESRD EAE

a minant families in Delhi (Mukherjee, 1953).

as VEGETATIONAL COMPLEX AND PLANT COMMUNITIES

‘Hooker (1904), Hooker and Thomson (1855) and Calder (1938) have

given a very useful outline of the vegetation of India. They have

pointed out that, of the various types of vegetation found in India, the

_ dry forests occur in Rajputana and the Punjab. Dudgeon (1920) has

—_ recorded the same for the Upper Gangetic Plain, especially Agra. The

_ dominant families are Capparidaceae, Leguminosae, Salvadoraceae,

-. Tamaricaceae and Rhamnaceae. The important trees include species

of Prosopis, Tamarix, Salvadora, Acacia, Zizyphus and Capparis. The

the one underground, formation of long roots, and perennation by |

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

vegetation of the Agra plains, is therefore, continuous with the ~

dry forests of Rajputana ‘characterised by Anogeissus pendula Edgw.,

Acacia senegal Willd., Prosopis spicigera Linn. and species of Boswellia,

Balsamodendron, Moringa and Rhus’. Pilani with its dominant plants —

like Capparis aphylla Roth., Prosopis spicigera Linn., Anogetssus pendula

Edew., Salvadora persica Linn. and species of Z¢zyphus further confirms

such an assumption.

The vegetation of Pilani is so discontinuously distributed into 4

patches that it is difficult to form any definite idea of the prevailing

plant communities. Ratnam and Joshi (1952) have recorded no fewer

than nine such associations ina small area of about 13 square miles.

Some of these like the C4PPARIS-ZIZYPHUS ASSOCIATION (with =

species of Capparis, Zizyphus Coccinia, Achyranthes, Commelina,

Cenchrus, Tephrosia, Spermacoce, Polygala, Abutilon, Justicia and

Corohorus), GYMNOSPORIA-EPHEDRA ASSOCIATION (comprising _

species of Gymmnosporia, Ephedra, Tephrosia, Polygala, Spermacoce,

Cenchrus, Evagrostis, Mollugo, Setaria, Corchorus, Euphorbia, Digera.

Coccinia and Tyrianthema), TEPHROSIA-MOLLUGO ASSOCIATION

(including species of Zephvosia, Mollugo, Spermacoct, Euphorbia

Cenchrus, Polygala, and Gisekia), and ARGEMONE-MOLLUGO

ASSOCIATION (with species of Argemone, Mollugo, Polygonum and

Calotropis) are fairly constant in Pilani and its adjacent localities, but it

is rather difficult to mark out others in a wider area.

List OF SPECIES

During 1950-52 as many as 312 (including 41 cultivated) species

belonging to 70 families were collected from Pilani and its neighbour-

hood, an area of approximately 40 square miles (vzde map). A list of

these is given below. Attempt has not been made to give any detailed

description of plants or else it would have resulted ina ‘Flora ©

Pilaniensis’. Moreover, the details of these plants can always be had

rather easily in the other available floras. In most cases the habit of —

the plant and the colour of the flower follow the name of the species.

Occasionally, however, the limit has not been adhered to especially when

observations different from the earlier records were made. ‘ Vern’ —

stands for vernacular names commonly employed in the region

investigated. ; =

The list is not claimed to be an exhaustive one. The difficulty of

communications along the unbroken expanses of undulating, sunbaked —__

and windswept sand dunes, the overwhelming light and temperature,

and the scarcity of water are factors anything but encouraging for

undertaking long journeys into the interior of the desert. This undoubt- —

edly speaks for the investigated area being restricted along either the —

main roads or the smaller routes. Much work, both in the fields of —

taxonomy and ecology, remains to be done, and it is to this aspect that —

the attention of the botanists permanently stationed at Pilani is hereby

drawn. Of the more important areas to be studied the exploration of

the region through which the river Kantli flows (see map) can prove to2

be fascinatingly fruitful.

According to the number of species in a family, the followieg

families have been found to be predominant: Leguminoseae (39),

Gramineae (25), Compositae (19) Amarantaceae (15), Convely Wines

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 489

(12), Solanaceae (11), Euphorbiaceae (10), Cucurbitaceae (9), Cruciferae

(9) and Ficoideae (8). Sabnis (1929) has given the dominant families

for the deserts of Sind and Rajputana and the Indus Delta. For the

_ Rajputana desert he includes Gramineae, Leguminosae, Compositae,

_ Cyperaceae; Convolvulaceae, Amarantaceae, Boraginaceae, Cucurbi-

] taceae, Euphorbiaceae, Acanthaceae and Malvaceae. It is seen, there-

: fore, that the families Cyperaceae, Boraginaceae, Acanthaceae and

, Malvaceae are rather poorly represented in Pilani and its neighbour-

hood in comparison with the rest of the Rajputana desert.

RANUNCULACEAE

1. Ranunculus muricatus Linn. (Syn. 2. cabulicus Boiss.)

Commonly cultivated in gardens.

4 2. Delphinium ajacis

The common Larkspur with blue flowers. A garden plant.

ANONACEAE

3, Anona squamosa Linn. (Vern. Sitaphal)

A small tree or shrub, nearly evergreen. Cultivated. Fruit ripens

in July-Sept.

4, Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook.f. (Vern. Ashok)

A handsome evergreen tree. Planted in avenues.

MENISPERMACEAE

5. Tinospora cordifolia Miers.

A glabrous climbing succulent shrub flowering in the hot and rainy

seasons. Root and stem antidote to snake-bite.

PAPAVERACEAE

6. Papaver rhoeas Linn. (Vern. LalZos?)

An ornamental plant.

7. Argemone mexicana Linn. (Vern. Satyanasht)

A common weed of low-lying lands. Fl. cold season.

8. Fumaria parviflora Lamk. (Vern. Pztfapra)

A diffuse much-branched herb. Fl. Jan.~March. Common in fields.

CRUCIFERAE

9. Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. f. & T.

A herb with minute leaves and erect, spreading and green stems.

Flowers white. Shows monstrosities with the production of several

buds in one axil. The resulting branches remain attached to each

Other along their entire length.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V

10. Senebiera pinnatifida DC.

A prostrate hispid annual weed of cultivated fields. Fl. cold season.

Frequent. ; :

11. Capsella bursa-pastoris Medik.

A common weed of cultivation during the cold season,

12, Lepidium sativum Linn.

A cold weather garden plant. aa

The cultivated plants of the family include: 13. Brassica oleracea

Linn., 14. B. xapus Linn. (Syn. Sizapis dichotoma Roxb.) 15. B. cam- —

pestyris Linn. var. vafa (Linn.) Hart. (Vern. Savsu). 16. B. cernua —

(Thunb.) Forbes & Hans. 17. Raphanus sativus Linn. (Vern. JZur).

CAPPARIDACEAE

18. Cleome viscosa Linn. (Vern. Jangliarhar)

An erect glandular, pubescent poe with yellow flowers. Fl, rainy

season. Frequent.

19. _Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC. (Syn. G. gynandra Merrill)

Dominant herb of waste lands. Fl. rainy season.

20. Maerua arenaria Hook. f. & T.

A large woody climber. Rare.

21. Crataeva religiosa Forst. f.

A small tree. Fl. April. Rare.

22. Capparis aphylla Roth. (Vern. Ker)

A much-branched glabrous leafless shrub or tree arzned with cain

thorns. Fl. March-April and Oct. -Nov. Dominant. Fruit aa pre- 5

served as pickle. aa

23. C. spinosa Linn.

A much-branched shrub smaller than C. aphylla. Common.

RESEDACEAE

24. Reseda odorata Linn. 4

The garden Mignonette, A beautiful plant flowering in cold season. 4

VIOLACEAE

25. Viola cinerea Boiss.

A small greyish perennial herb. Rather rare.

POLYGALACEAE

26. Polygalaverioptera DC.

An almost erect herb. Fruit with membranous

wings. Occurs on rocky soil in south Pilani. Frequent.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

27. | Saponaria vaccaria Linn.

Frequent as a weed in fields. Fl. Feb.—March.

28. Spergula arvensis Linn.

A greenish annual with terete fleshy leaves arranged in false whorls.

2 Fi. Jan.—March. Common on moist soil.

29, S. pentandra Linn.

Similar to S. arvensis and difficult to differentiate. An autecological

study of the two might yield as interesting results as obtained by Misra

and Siva Rao (1948), Bakshi (1952 a) and Pandeya (1953).

30. Polycarpae corymbosa Lamk.

r- Pl, Dianthus chinensis Linn.

3 Rare.

PORTULACACEAE

ual $

= 32, Portulaca oleracea Linn. (Vern. Lunak)

E An erect herb with silvery flowers arranged in much-branched cymes

_ aggregated into heads. FI. Aug.—Feb. Breen on sandy soil,

4 A sub-erect annual with fleshy organs. Fl. Aug.—Feb. Abundant.

E33. P. quadritida Linn.

. A prostrate herb with long stipular hairs. Flowers pinkish and

- surrounded by silvery hairs. Common on drier soils. Flowers open

_ only for a short duration at noon.

TAMARICACEAE

4, Tamarix articulata Vahl. (Syn. 7. aphylla Lanz.)

A small tree with bi-sexual flowers. Fl. July.

_ ELATINACEAE

Bergia odorata Edgew.

An undershrub. Rare. Known for astringent bark.

MALVACEAE

}

36. Althea rosea Linn.

= The common hollyhock. Widely cultivated.

_Malva vertic illata Linn.

An erect perennial about 3 ft. high. Rare.

Sida veronicaefolia Lamk,

equent.

A perennial trailing herb with yellow flowers. FI.

Aug.—Oct.

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

39. S$. acuta Burm. (Syn. S. carpinifolia Linn. Vern. Kharenti).

An undershrub with yellow flowers. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Common.

40. S. rhombifolia Linn. var. rhomboidea Roxb.

An erect undershrub with flowers collected in leafy corymbs.

Flowers open at noon. Common.

41. S. cordifolia Linn.

A hairy shrub. Flowers yellow. Fl. Aug. aot Rare.

42, Abutilon indicum Sweet.

Occurs as annual. Fl. Aug.-Nov. Rare.

43. Urena lobata Linn.

An undershrub with pinkish flowers. Fil. ahs te Common in

waste places. ;

44. Hibiscus gibsoni Stocks.

An undershrub with purple flowers. Frequent.

45. H. esculentus Linn. (Vern. Bhindz).

A tall annual covered with brittle hairs. Flowers large yellow

with crimson centre. Widely cultivated.

46. H. rosa-sinensis Linn.

A shrubby perennial. Cultivated in gardens for its large showy red

flowers.

STERCULIACEAE

47. Waltheria indica Linn.

A slightly branched pubescent undershrub. Rare.

TILIACEAE

48. Grewia betulaefolia Juss. (Syn. G. Populitolia Vahl.)

A shrub flowering in Aug.—Oct. Fruit edible. Frequent.

49. Triumfetta rotundifolia Lamk. ot

An annual herb with fruits armed with hooks. FI]. Sept. OEE: Rate.

50. Corchorus trilocularis Linn.

An annual herb with 2-3 inch long cylindrical capsules havines

entire, erect and short beak. Fl. Aug.—Sept. Pr SHHen

51. C. tridens Linn. =

An annual herb with 1-2 inch long cylindrical capsules ending in 3°

spreading points. Fl. Aug._Sept. Common.

52. ©. aestuans Linn. (Syn. C. acutangulus Lamk.)

An annual herb with one inch cylindrical winged eapiclees with, a :

fid beak. Fl. Aug.—Sept. Common.

Lind? ss >

i ie - : : \ ia

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ea Say eS aes o>, -,

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)

- VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 493

LINACEAE

53, Linum usitatissimum Linn. (Vern. Arsu)

An erect 2-4 ft. high annual with blue flowers. Cultivated.

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

54, Tribulus terrestris Linn. (Vern. Bhankr2)

A prostrate herb with yellow flowers perennating by rhizomatous

rootstock. Flowers almost throughout the year. Dominant.

55. Fagonia cretica Linn. (Vern. Jowasa) |

A small spiny undershrub with pale rose-coloured flowers. Fl. Sept.~

Dec. Common on sand.

56. Peganum harmala Linn.

A bush-like herb about 24 ft. high. Flowers white. Rare.

GERANIACEAE

57. Monsonia senegalensis Guill. & Perr.

A diffuse annual with violet lowers. Rare.

58. Oxalis corniculata Linn. (Vern, Khatto)

A perennial herb with subterranean stems. Flowers yellow.

Common.

59. _ Tropaeolum majus Linn.

A garden plant with variously coloured flowers.

RUTACEAE

60. Murraya exotica Linn.

A small tree with white flowers. Becomes almost leafless in May-

June (cf, Duthie, 1905). Fl. July-Sept. Rare.

61. M. koenigii Spreng.

A deciduous shrub with brownish bark. Fl. summer. Leaves used for

- flavouring curries. Cultivated.

62, Citrus medica Linn. (Vern. Vzbd00)

A small tree with white flowers fruiting throughout the year. Culti-

vated. Fruit edible and medicinal.

63. C. aurantium Linn. (Vern. Saztara)

A small tree widely cultivated in Chandra Bhawan, Pilani.

SIMA RUBACEAE

64. Balanites aegyptiaca Delile. (Syn. 2B. voxburghit Planch.)

A small tree with strong sharp thorns. Common in the scrub-

jungle surrounding Vidyavihar. The greenish white flowers appear

in April-May.

| ; eto

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “sociery, Vol.’

MELIACEAE

65. Melia azadirachta Linn. (Syn. Azadirachta indica Juss.)

The common Neem tree. White sweet-scented flowers appear in

March-April. Frequent.

66. M. azedarach Linn (Vern. Denk)

Differs from the previous in its bipinnate leaves and the 5- celled —

drupe. Frequent.

CELASTRACEAE

67. Celastrus senegalensis Lamk. (Syn. Gymmnosporia montana a

Benth.) nie

An erect spinous shrub. FI. Aug.-Oct. Common.

RHAMNACEAE

68. Zizyphus jujuba Lamk.

An evergreen armed shrub or a small tree. Fl. Sept._Nov.

Frequent.

69. Z. rotundifolia Lamk. (Syn. Z. nummularia W. & A.)

A thorny bush flowering in summer. Common.

70. Z. rugosa Lamk.

A straggling evergreen shrub, often climbing. Fl. March-April.

Very commonly lopped for fodder. Common.

71. Z. xylopyrus Willd.

Very similar to Z. rugosa but with an almost dry drupe. FI.

April-May. Common. :

AMPELIDACEAE

72. Vitis heyneana Vahl.

Rather rare.

SAPINDACEAE

73. Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn.

An annual climbing herb. Frequent on hedges.

74. Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. (Vern. Vilayati Menhdz)

An almost evergreen shrub with greenish yellow flowers appearing

in Sept—Feb. Rare.

MoORINGACEAE

75. Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn.

A small tree with fragrant white flowers. Fl]. March. Rare.

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD — 495

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotalaria burhia Buch._Ham.

; ae erect shrub with many slender branches ending in spines.

Flowers yellow with reddish veins. Fl. Jan._March. Common on sandy

soil. Exhibits monstrosities like Farsetiza jacquemontii.

77, ©. medicaginea Lamk.

A small herb with minute yellow flowers. Rare.

78, Melilotus indica All. (Syn. JZ. parviflora Dest.)

A slender annual with yellow flowers. Fl. cold season. Common.

79. M. alba Desr.

Similar to the preceding but with white flowers. Frequent.

80. Trigonella corniculata Linn.

A sub-erect annual. Rare.

81. Dolichos lablab Linn.

An annual with pinkish white flowers. Largely cultivated for the

edible pods.

82, Clitoria ternatea Linn.

Be A handsome climber with large beautiful blue or white flowers. FI.

ES _July—Sept. Frequent on hedges.

83. Canavalia ensiformis DC. :

A large climber with white flowers. Cultivated.

Sie

‘aa

84. Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Kuntze. (Syn. 2. frondosa Roxb.)

_ A large tree with beautiful flowers. Fl. March-April. Frequent,

ce. 85. Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.

a A small tree with yellowish flowers. Rather rare.

a 86, Tephrosia tenuis Wall.

q - An annual with simple leaves. Fl. throughout the year. Frequent.

87, T. purpurea Pers.

3 _ A copiously branched perennial with pink flowers appearing from

a _ June to March. Very common.

88. T. villosa Pers.

A small diffuse undershrub flowering in August. Rare.

4 89. Indigofera cordifolia Heyne.

a A diffuse annual flowering after rains, Rare.

ES 90. 1]. articulata Gouan. (Syn. /. argentea)

An undershrub with reddish yellow flowers. Frequent.

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

91. Cicer arietinum Linn. : |

A small much-branched annual. FI. Feb.-March. Cultivated.

92. Lathyrus aphaca Linn.

An annual leafless herb with leafy stipules. Fl. winter. Common.

93. L. sativus Linn.

Cultivated asa cold weather crop.

94. Pisum sativum Linn.

An annual with white flowers. Almost frequent,

95. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

A large deciduous tree. Common on roadsides.

96. Alysicarpus monilifer DC.

A diffuse annual. Common on waste lands.

97. Alhagi camelorum Fisch. (Syn. A. maurorum W. & A.)

A small spinous shrub with terete branches. The reddish flowers |

appear in March-April. Common.

98. Cassia fistula Linn.

A tree with bright yellow flowers. Fl. summer. Rare.

99. C. occidentalis Linn.

An undershrub. FI. Aug.-Oct. Frequent.

100. C. sophora Linn.

A diffuse shrub with yellow flowers. Rare,

101. C. auriculata Linn.

A tall shrub with spreading branches. Rare.

102. Tamarindus indica Linn. (Vern. Jn/z)

A large handsome tree. Flowers yellow striped with red. Fruit

edible. Frequent.

103. Parkinsonia aculeata Linn.

A small spiny tree. Rather rare.

104. Prosopis spicigera Linn.

A moderate-sized thorny tree. Dominant. With Capparis aphylla it

forms the climax vegetation in Pilani. Fl. March-May.

105." =P. juliflora DG,

An Australian plant whose sweet pods are largely used as food and

as fodder for cattle. Common.

106. Mimosa pudica Linn.

A widely spreading diffuse undershrub with Sensitive leaves.

Cultivated in the Botanical Garden.

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 497

107. M. hamata Willd.

A large straggling prickly shrub with armed pods. Fl. July-Sept.

Common. :

108. Acacia farnesiana Willd.’

A small tree with about 4 inch long stipular spines. Fl. March-April.

Frequent.

109. A, arabica Willd. |

An evergreen tree with nearly 2 inch long stipular spines. FI.

- July-Sept. frequent.

110. A. senegal Willd.

A small tree 10-15 ft. high with small hooked spines in threes. Fi.

— Sept.-Nov. -Common.

i 111. A. modesta Wall.

4 Similar to previous but with paired stipular spines. Fl. March-

3 April. Common.

112. Allbizzia lebbeck Benth.

A large deciduous tree with greenish white fragrant flowers. FI.

March-May. Frequent.

: Fant | ROSACEAE

113. Rosa damascena Mill. : |

4 The Rose—an undershrub largely grown in the gardens.

: CoMBRETACEAE

;: 14. Terminalia arjuna Bedd. (Syn. 7. glabra W. & A.)

_ A large tree with winged fruits. Fl. April-May. Frequent.

: 1i5, Anogeissus pendula Edgew. (Vern. Dhaukra)

rg A small tree with pendulous branches. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Common.

“ MyRTACEAE

«116. Eugenia jambolana Lamk.

A medium-sized tree with white flowers. Fl. March-April. Rare.

117. Psidium guayava Linn.

A small tree flowering in Sept.-Oct. and March-April. Cultivated.

< LYTHRACEAE

_ 118. Lawsonia alba Lamk. (Vern. Menhdi)

a A shrub about 5-7 ft. high. Rare in wild state but cultivated fre-

quently as a hedge plant. |

119, Punica granatum Linn.

A shrub with bright red flowers. Fl. April-May. Cultivated,

120. Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V

CUCURBITACEAE

A twining pubescent herb with 2-3 fid tendrils. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Common. evr

121. T. anguina Linn.

Differs from the preceding in the size and shape of the fruit. Fl.

Aug.-Sept. Common.

122. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.

A large climbing or trailing herb. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Rare.

123. Luffa acutangula Roxb.

An extensively climbing herb. F]. Aug.-Sept. Frequent.

124. Momordica charantia Linn. (Vern. Karelz)

Occurs mostly as a trailing much-branched herb. Branches spread- __

ing from the centre. Flowers yellow. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Common on

open ground.

125. Cucumis melo Linn.

~ An anoual with large leaves. Extensively cultivated. Rare as wild:

126. Coccinia indica W. & A. (Syn. Cephalandra indica Naud.)

An annual or perennial climber with tuberous roots and large white a

flowers. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Very common.

127. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne.

An annual with large rigid leaves having rounded lobes, Rare.

128, Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.

An extensively climbing annual with yellowish green flowers.

Rather rare,

CACTACEAE

129. Opuntia dillenii Haw.

The common cactus. Fi. Sept.-Oct. Common.

FICOIDEAE

130. Trianthema monogyna Linn.

A prostrate almost glabrous herb with 15 stamens. FI. during and “"

after rains. Abundant. é

131. TT. crystallina Vahl. |

-A minutely papillose herb with elliptic fleshy leaves. Stamens 5.

Fi. August-Oct. Common. 4

132. T. pentandra Linn.

Differs from the previous two in having two styles. Fl. Aug.-

Oct. Abundant. An ecological study of these three species of

Trianthema is full of potentialities (see Misra, 1944). =

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD | 499

: 133. Mollugo hirta Thunb.

A densely hairy annual. Stems prostrate, spreading from the centre.

Fi. March-April. Very common on drying beds of ponds. An interest-

ing plant for autecological studies as done for the two succeeding

_ species (see Bakshi and Kapil, 1953, 1954),

- 134. Molfugocerviana Ser. (Vern. Chiria-bajra)

A glabrous annual with elliptic or nearly terete leaves arising from

_ thick nodes of umbellate filiform branches. FI. July-Sept. Very

common on open Sandy soil and sand dunes.

135. M. nudicaulis Lamk.

A slender glabrous annual with many leafless stems arising from a

tuft of radical leaves. FI. July-Oct. Very common on moist soil.

136. Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.

A succulent herb with nearly prostrate branches. FI. July-Oct.

- Abundant. The plant is strongly anthelmintic.

137. Unidentified (Vern. Tambeshwart)

An erect much-branched herb with crimson flowers. FI. Sept.-Oct,

Common on a small hillock especially on its top. Rather conspicuously

absent in all other localities.

UMBELLIFERAE

mn ae a eeere a i mye

F138. Psammogeton biternatum Edgew.

A small annual with umbels in groups of silvery tufts. Common

on moist soil.

The cultivated species of the family include:

g 139. Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

140. Coriandrum sativum Linn.

141. Cuminum cyminum Linn.

—

142. Daucus carota Linn.

Occasionally these are seen wild too, probably as escapes.

RUBIACEAE

3 143. Spermacoce hispida Linn.

A procumbent herb with white flowers. Frequent.

COMPOSITAE

444. Gerionia cinerea Less.

q An erect herb with pink or lilac heads. FI. in winter. Common

_ especially in shady places.

«145. Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

_ Ahairy annual, 2 ft. high. Flowers bluish. Fl. Jan.-Feb. Com-

- mon. ;

age

oS.

Dee

500 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

146. Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke. ea

A small undershrub with tubular purplish flowers. FI. cold weather,

Frequent on sandy soil.

147. Gnaphalium futen Alben Line var. panties Wall.

A woolly annual about a foot high. Heads bright yellow. Rare.

(148, Xanthium strumarium Linn.

A coarse unarmed annual. Fruit covered with hooked prickles,

F]. Sept.-Oct. Common in waste places.

149. Eclipta erecta Linn.

A strigose slender annual with pure white heads. FI. Aug. -Dec.

Common.

150. Blainvillea latifolia (Linn. f.) DC.(Syn. B. rhomboidea Cass.) —

An annual with yellow ray flowers. Fl. Nov.-Feb. Rare.

151. Glossocardia boswallia DC. (Syn. G. linearifolia Cass.)

A small prostrate annual with yellow heads. FI. Oct.-Dec. Rare.

152. Tridax procumbens Linn.

A straggling herb with long peduncled heads. FI. throughout the

year. Common.

153. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.

A pubescent herb about 4-5 ft. high perennating by a rootstock.

Fl. Sept.-Oct. Rather rare.

154. Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

An erect annual, 2-3 ft. high. Heads in nnabeliats cymes. FI. March.

Common in Agriculture Farm and in waste places.

155. Launaea nudicaulis Hook. f.

A perennial with yellow juice.. Heads racemose. FI. Dec.-Feb.

Common on cultivated soil.

156. Helianthus annuus Linn.

The common sunflower. Largely grown as an ornamental plant.

Other cultivated species include:

157. Cosmos bipinnatus Cav.

158. Dahlia variabilis Desf,

159. Tagetes erecta Linn.

160. T. patula Linn.

161. Calendula officinalis Linn.

162. Chrysanthemum sp.

PRIMULACEAE

163. Anagallis arvensis Linn. var. coerulea.

An erect annual herb with blue flowers. Fl. Jan. -March. Comme é

VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 501

SAPOTACEAE:

164. Mimusops elengi Linn.

A handsome tree with small fragrant star-shaped flowers appearing

in ear: April. Rare.

OLEACEAE

165. Jasminum humile Linn.

An erect shrub with bright yellow flowers. Cultivated.

166. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.

A small tree with angular stems. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Cultivated.

SALVADORACEAE

167. Salvadora persica Linn.

Anevergreen shrub or small tree. The greenish yellow pedicelled

flowers appear during Jan.-April. Fruit red when ripe. Abundant.

168. S. oleoides Decne.

Differs from the previous species in its sessile flowers and the fruit

yellow when ripe. Frequent.

APOCYNACEAE

169. Carissa carandas Linn. (Vern. Kavaunda)

A large shrub with pinkish white flowers. Fl. Jan.-April. Frequent.

170. Nerium odorum Soland.

A large evergreen shrub with milky juice. J*lowers red or white.

Fl. April-June. Common.

171. Thevetia neriifolia Juss.

An evergreen small tree with bright yellow flowers. Common.

172. Vinca rosea Linn.

A perennial herb with white or pinkish blue flowers. Flowers

almost throughout the year. Common.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

173. Calotropis gigantea R. Br.

A hoary shrub upto 10 ft. high. Flowers white. Rare,

174, C, procera R. Br. (Vern, Azkdo)

Similar to the previous sp. but with pink flowers. FI. March-June.

Abundant.

g 175. Daemia extensa R, Br.

A twining perennial foetid herb. Flowers pale yellowish green

“4 tinged with pink at the base. FI. Jan,-April. Frequent.

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5

176. Leptadenia spartium Wight.

A much-branched leafless shrub about 2-6 ft. high. Flowers yellow. ;

Fl. Dec-Jan. Abundant.

177. Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb.

A twining perennial herb with tuberous rootstock. Flowers ereen-

ish on the outside, violet within. Fl. summer. Frequent.

GENTIANACEAE

178. Canscora diffusa R. Br.

A slender annual about 2 ft. high. Flowers pink, appearing in

Aug.-Oct. Rather rare. .

BORAGINACEAE

179. Cordia myxa Linn.

_ A deciduous tree with white flowers. Fl. March-April. Frequent.

180. C. rothii Roem. ,

A smaller tree with opposite leaves. FI. April-June. Frequent.

18]. Heliotropium eichwaldi Steud.

An erect herb branching from a woody base. FI. Nov.-Feb.

Common.

182. H.zeylanicum Lamk.

A small shrub-like herb with stiff ascending branches. Rare.

183. H. strigosum Willd.

A much-branched procumbent herb. F]. Aug.-Oct. Common.

184. Trichodesma indicum R. Br. eae:

An erect hispid herb with pale blue flowers. FI. Oct.-Dec. Rare.

Convorvuracrar

185. Cuscuta hyalina Roth. ; | |

A leafless yellowish green parasite. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Rather rare.

186. Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.

_A much-branched prostrate diffuse herb with white or blue flowers. |

F]. July-Nov. Common.

187. Convolvulus pluricaulis Chois.

A diffuse hairy perennial herb with a woody rootstock and sub-erect |

branches. Common on sandy soil. 2

188. C. arvensis Linn.

Differs from the previous species in its alee or “winnie habie

and 12-inch long peduncled flowers. Fl. cold season. Common.

ee, VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 503:

— 189. Merremia hastata Hallier. .

A A diffuse twining biennial herb with pale yellow flowers. FI.

_ Aug.-Dec. Rare.

190. Ipomoea hederacea Jacq.

An annual with twining stem. Flowers bluish-pink. FJ. after rains.

Frequent.

191, I, pes-tigridis Linn.

A twining pubescent herb with capsule enclosed in densely hairy

calyx. Corolla falls off within an hour of opening, FI. Sept.-Oct,

Frequent, —

192. {. batatas Lamk.

The sweet potato. Commonly cultivated.

a 193. . leari Paxt.

A handsome perennial climber with dark blue flowers turning red

on fading. Cultivated in the Botanical Garden.

194, 1. pulchella Roth,

3 The Railway Creeper, A perennial climber with pale purple

campanulate flowers. Common on hedges.

195. 1. biloba Forsk. ;

A perennial twiner with bilobed leaves. Common.

3 196. Rivea ornata Chois.

- A large spreading shrub with white fragrant flowers, Fl. Aug.-

Oct. Rare:

SOLANACEAE

197, Solanum nigrum Linn. (Vern. Wakoz)

: An erect glabrous much-branched annual with angular stems.

- Flowers white. FI. cold season. Common on moist soil.

2 198. S. xanthocarpum Schrad.

A prickly bright green perennial herb with bluish purple flowers.

¢ Fl, July-April. Common.

3 199, Physalis minima Linn, :

x An annual, about a foot high. Flowers yellow. Fl. May-Aug.,

P Frequent.

200. P. peruviana Linn.

Similar to the preceding but a stouter plant with larger flowers

andfruits. Rare.

- 201. Withania somnifera Dunal. :

___. An undershrub up to 5 ft. high with greenish yellow flowers,

_ Berry enclosed in much enlarged inflated calyx. Very common.

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

202. Datura fastuosa Linn.

A coarse shrub-llke herb, 4-5 ft. high. Capsule covered with stout

tubercles. Abundant on waste ground.

203. D.alba Nees.

Similar to the previous species but with capsule covered with sharp

spines. Frequent.

204. Petinia nyctaginiflora Juss.

An annual about 2 ft. high with dull white or blue flowers. The

cultivated species include:

205. Solanum melongena Linn.

206. S. tuberosum Linn.

207. Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.

208. Capsicum sp.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

209. Antirrhinum orontium Linn. :

An erect herb about a foot high. Flowers pink streaked with

purple.. Fl. cold season. Frequent.

210. Striga orobanchoides Benth.

A small puberulous parasitic herb with a tuberous rootstock. Turns

black on drying. FI. Oct. Rare.

OROBANCHACEAE

21]. Cistanche tubulosa Wight.

A yellowish plant tinged with purple. Yellow flowers arranged in

dense spikes. Fl. cold season. Rare.

BIGNONIACEAE

212. Tecomella undulata Seem.

A tree, 15-25 ft. tall with drooping branches. The large flowers 4

are otange yellow. Fl. March-April. Common. :

PEDALIACEAE

213. Sesamum indicum Linn. E

An erect annual about 2 ft. high. Flowers large, pinkish-purple 4

spotted with yellow. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Common. :

214. Martynia diandra Glox.

Anerect annual herb with beautiful rose-coloured flowers. Fruit

with two hard curved spines. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Rather rare. | :

- VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 505

ACANTHACEAE

215. Tubiflora acaulis O. Kuntze (Syn. Elytraria crenata Vahl.)

A small herb with compressed stem and rosette of radical, obovate

crenate, 3-8 inch long leaves lying flat on the ground. Scapes many,

usually longer than the leaves clothed with bract-like scales. Flowers

pale blue on a 3 inch long natrow spike covered with spirally

imbricate stiff bracts. Fl, Sept.-Oct. An important plant ecologically.

Very common in shade on the slopes of the temporary pond studied

by Ratnam and Joshi (1952) who, however, have not recorded it.

216. Blepharis boerhaaviaefolia Pers. (Syn. Acanthus maderaspata-

mus Linn.)

A prostrate roughly pubescent herb with blue flowers. Fl. in the

cold season. Notrare. Usually inhabits drier localities,

LE OE ee EI RAT Te free eM TRY Py eT Sa

- Ls q Jah } 41) hae Se TS kee an Hi

yi » “iF ub

217. Adhatoda vasica Nees. (Syn. Justicia adhatoda Linn.)

2 A dense evergreen shrub about 4-6 ft. high. Flowers white with pink

or purple stripes. Fl. after rains and in March-April. Not infrequent.

eG Lepidagathis trinervis Nees.

A diffuse perennial herb with white flowers spotted with brown dots.

_ Fl. cold season, Frequent on sandy soil.

219. Justicia quinqueangularis Koen. 3 |

A slender nearly prostrate herb with linear obtuse bracteoles. The

rosy flowers appear after rains. Common.

220. J. diffusa Willd.

: A diffuse herb with lanceolate acute bracteoles and glabrous sepals.

_ Flowers pink. Fl. after rains. Common.

221. J. simplex D. Don.

_ Similar to the previous species but with hairy sepals. Fl. winter.

_ Common.

VERBENACEAE

. 222. Lantana indica Roxb.

& A stout shrub 3-8 ft. high with yellowish flowers arranged in axil-

ead heads. Frequent. <A troublesome weed in some places.

203, Clerodendron phlomidis Linn.

. A large shrub with white or pink flowers. Fl. March-May. Fre-

* quent.

4 224 Stachytarpheta indica Vahl.

A short glabrous herb with dark blue flowers. ‘Frequent.

225. Duranta plumieri Jacq.

j™ < —Adrerect spinose = with bluish-white flowers; berries orange.

q Common. :

§ 8

506° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. S OCIETY, Vol. "52

LABIATAE

226. Ocimum sanctum Linn.” es: i Sg eR x

An undershrub with pink flowers. _ FI. Jan.-March. ‘Frequent.

227. Leucas aspera Spreng. > Lee oe Me = ee 3

- An annual about a foot high. Flowers white. Fl. Feb.-March.

Rares? | |

228. Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. — ,

A tall annual with scarlet flowers. FI. Sept.-Oct. Frequent.

229. Salvia aegyptiaca Linn.

A low much-branched straggling undershrub. Rare,

In addition species of Mentha are cultivated in the “Agriculture a”) rm.

NYCTAGINACEAE.

230. - Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. (Syn. B. repans Linn.)

A diffuse branched herb, branches ascending. Leaves of each pair

unequal. Flowers-pink and subcapitate. FI. JAB Very common.

231. B. repanda Willd.

Similar to B. diffusa but, according to Duthie (1915), with leaves of

each pair equal. However, this differentiating character does not

appear to be stable in Pilani, and paired leaves of all the possible sizes

and size- a are frequent. An elses) suey may be

helpful. ? :

232. . Mirabilis jalapa Linn. oes

A tall much-branched perennial herb with crimson Bowel ‘Rare.

wy Ete oo

233. Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.

-A robust thorny climbing shrub. Bears masses of flowers during

the hot season and becomes conspicuously beautiful due to its brilliant

purple bracts. Common in gardens. _

SRI SE

234, Galoats arecnten Dias.

Anerect glabrous annual about 3 ft. eae owe ine wees .

young, becoming white and glistening, forming cylindrical terminal :

spikes.. Fl. Sept.-Oct.. Rare weed of fields. 7 2 hina. i

235. C. cristata Linn.

Similar to C. avgentéa but is taller,: ‘has broader leaves and smaller 2

crimson flowers arranged in beautiful spikes. : Common... ~~ = =.

236. Digera arvensis Forsk. 7ngal. Pisieoules ett. rol 2

«An annual -herb'with pink flowers. . There are-two dichasium-like —

branched scales, each in the axil of a bracteole. Each scale has been —

a? 4°

a VEGETATION OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD 507

regarded as a reduced flower by earlier authors (Hooker, 1885; Duthie,

1915; Joshi and Rao, 1934), but Bakshi and Chhajlani (1953, 1954)

regard it as a reduced inflorescence. Fl. Aug.-Oct. Acommon weed

of waste land.

ed Aaatantas spinosus Linn.

: An erect spinous herb with greenish flowers arranged in ermina 1

and axillary spikes. Fruit dehiscent. FJ. Aug.-Oct. Common.

258. A. paniculatus Linn.

A robust annual, 4-7 ft. high, unarmed. FI. Nov.-March. Frequent.

239. <A. viridis Linn.

An erect glabrous annual about 2 ft. high. Fl.Sept.-March. Fruit

with an acute apex, indehiscent. Frequent.

240. A. blitum Linn.

A glabrous procimabent annual. Fruit broadly ovate, indehiscent.

Common. : ' |

241. Aerua tomentosa Fork (Syn. A. javanica Wight.)

A hoary tomentose erect undershrub with spikes, both axillary and

terminal. Flowers deciduous or hermaphrodite. FI. Aug.-Sept, Abun-

dant on open ground.

242. A, lanata Juss.

An erect undershrub. Spikes axillary. Silvery white flowers may

‘be uni- or bi-sexual. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Rather rare. |

243, Achyranthes aspera Linn, eens :

A coarse weed of moist soils. Flowers greenish white, sharply

deflexing soon after pollination. FI. April-July. Frequent.

244. Pupalia lappacea Juss.

A large straggling tomentose undershrub. Flowers in clusters in

- terminal spikes. Each cluster with one central fertile and two or more

lateral sterile flowers reduced usually to hooked awns. FI. Sept.-Nov.

a Very common in bushes,

245, Alternanthera sessilis R. Br.

3 - A prostrate herb. Flowers in axillary sessile heads. Frequent.

246, A. pungens H. B. K. | 3

_. A prostrate weed very similar to A. sesszlzs. The distinguish-

ing characters of the two are not clearcut. Further work on the

4 morphology and ecology is, therefore, suggested. See also Raizada

(1950). LS

247. Gomphrena globosa Linn.

- (An erect much-branched sub-silky sae oe crimson flowers

arranged into globose heads. Fl. - Sept.-Nov, Common.

248. G. celosiodes Mart.

A prostrate much- branched herb with greenish cylindrical heads.

Fl]. Sept.-Nov. Rare.

For the detailed morphology of the flower and the inflorescenee- as

also for the early history of the family, reference may be made to .

Bakshi (19526), and Bakshi and Chhajlani (1953, 1954).

CHENOPODIACEAE

249, Chenopodium album Linn.

A tall scentless herb with smooth shining seeds. Fl. Jan.-April. |

Abundant.

250. C. murale Linn.

A low rather foetid herb with rugose dull black seeds. FI. March- :

May. . Rather rare.- |

251. Kochia indica Wight.

An erect annual branching from the base. Fruiting perianth with

transverse wings. Common, especially in gardens.

The cultivated species of the family include:

252. Beta vulgaris Linn.

253. Spinacia oleracea Linn.

POLYGONACEAE

254. Polygonum plebejum R. Br.

A prostrate diffusely branched herb with a woody rootstotie

‘Flowers pink. Fl. March-May. Common on drying beds of ponds.

255. Rumex hastatus Dan

A glaucous herb with pink flowers due to the inner bright sepals

which are delicately veined. FI. late in winter. Frequent. =

256. Calligonum polygonoides Linn. E

A leafless shrub or small tree During the hot season the bushes | .

are covered with the fragrant pinkish flowers. Frequent.

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

257. Aristolochia bracteata Retz.

A slender decumbent glabrous perennial herb with ‘purple flowers

Fl. Sept.-Oct. Frequent.

EUPHORBIACEAE

258. Euphorbia royleana Boiss.

An erect glabrous fleshy cactus-like shrub up to 1? ft. high. Fl.

season. I observed only a couple of plants on the outskirts of Pil

N OF PILANI AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

oa “ ‘oe

“259. E. neri ifolia inn

- An erect glabrous shrub or small tree about 15 ‘ft. high with 4-8 inch

- long fleshy leaves. FJ. hot season. Frequent..

260. E. hirta Linn.

A hairy annual with ascending stems about 14 ft. high. FJ. almost

_ throughout the year. Common.

eS 261, 8. thymifolia Linn. : | by

—_ A-small prostrate annual with a coppery tinge. Branches hairy,

_ 4-8 inches long. Fl. during most of the months, A conspicuous garden

weed.

| 262. E. microphylla Heyne.

3g Similar to 4. thym7folia but with Smooth branches. A garden

weed.

3 - 263. +E. clarkeana Hook. f.

a Differs from the previous species in its rugose seeds. A much more

-_ copiousiy branched herb. Frequent on moist soils in rainy season.

264. . splendens Boj.

A small very prickly and much-branched shrub with crimson

flowers. Cultivated in the gardens.

3 265. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.

A glabrous herb with axillary flowers. Fl. after rains. Frequent.

266. P. niruri Linn.

A common garden weed.

267. Ricinus communis Linn.

ss The Castor-oil plant. Frequent.

URTICACEAE

- 268. Morus alba Linn. : ;

he mulberry tree. Fl. Feb.-March. Frequently cultivated.

a 269. Ficus bengalensis Linn.

The Banyan tree. Very rare.

270. F. religiosa Linn.

The Pipal tree. Frequent.

~ HyDROCHARITACEAE

: 271. Hydrilla verticillata Royle

A igen leafy freshwater herb. Cultivated in the Botanical

Garden.

si -

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIE"Y, Vol, 52 —

SCITAMINACEAE |

272. Canna indica Linn,

A stout herb with a tuberous rootstock. Common.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

273. eae vera-cruz ‘Miller ;

A perennial with many leaves arising froma ‘stout trunk, Common.

LILIACEAE

274. Asparagus adscendens Roxb.

A sub-erect shrub with cladodes in dense tufts of 6-20. Cultivated i in

Botanical Garden.

2/2. Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. (Vern. Piazz)

An annual about 1-2 ft. high with 6-12 inch long terete leaves.

Flowers white. Fl. Jan.-March. Abundant in fields..

The cultivated species include :

276. Allium cepa Linn.

277. A, sativum Linn. |

oe COMMELINACEAE

278. Commelina nudiflora Linn.

A diffuse glabrous herb with lanceolate ee and dark blue

flowers. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Common.

279. ©. benghalensis Linn. . : Be a at Jo.

Similar to the previous species but with SHES leaves. Frequent.

280. C. obliqua Buch.—Ham.

A tall branching herb with long leaves. FI.. Aa ee Riaré:

CYPERACEAE

281. Cyperus difformis Linn.

An erect annual glabrous herb, a foot high, Tao ccedice’ of 3-6

compact heads. Common especially in Agriculture Farm. ~~

282. C. niveus Retz. )

‘A perennial erect glabrous herb with a bulb-like stem. Heads of

3-13 spikelets. Rather frequent.

283. C. rotundus Linn. ale

A variable herb with an nderoraand fiom Inflorescence an

umbel of condensed spikes. F]. Sept.-Oct. Common.

254. Fimbristylis dichotoma Vahl.

A tufted herb about a foot high. Spikelets stiices: in -eompound

ampbels: Rather rare.

GRAMINEAE

With the exception of the species of Cenchrus which are. abundant,

the rest of the grasses can be said to be common. The majority of

them, though annuals, perennate by underground organs. Almost all of

them flower after rains.

285.

301.

Heteropogon contortus Beauv. ex Roem & Schult. (Syn. Andro-

pogon coniortus Linn.)

Digitaria marginata Link, (Syn. Pa spalum sanguinale Lamk.)

Setaria verticillata Beauv.

Panicum crus-galli

_ Cenchrus ciliaris Linn, (Syn. Pennisetum cenchrocdes Rich.)

C. setigerus Vahl. (Syn. GC. bitlorus Pee

Aristida hystrix Linn. f.

Perotis indica O, Kuntze (Syn. P. /adzfolia Ait.)

Eragrostis pluntosa |

E. viscosa Wight

E. nutans Nees. (Syn. EB. stenophylla Hochst.)

‘- Chloris virgata Sw.

— Eleusine verticillata Roxb.

Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beane (syn Eleusine acgyptiaca

Desf.) - oh

Echinochloa crus-galli .

Dichanthium annulatum Stapf. Syn. Andropogon annulatus

Forsk.) eon : : |

Dichanthium caricosum A. Camus (Syn. Andropogon caricosus

Linn.) 3

For the detailed morphology and ecology of these species of

- Dichanthium reference may be made to Pandeya (1953).

The cultivated plants include species of the following :

302.

303,

304.

305.

306.

Triticum

Hordeum

Avena —

Zea -

Sorghum. :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

307. Pennisetum

308. Andropogon

309. Saccharum

CONIFERAE

310. Thuja orientalis Linn.

A small evergreentree. Cultivated in gardens. —

311. Araucaria cunninghamii Ait,

Also cultivated in gardens,

GNETACEAE

312, Ephedra foliata Boiss. var. ciliata (C.A. Mey) Stapf.

A xerophytic plant with leafless fascicled stem. Usually found on

Capparis aphylla, Prosopis spicigera, Calligonum poly gonotdes, etc. el.

Nov.-March. Common.

SUMMARY

Since the publication of the pioneer work of Blatter and Hallberg—

The Flora of the Indian Desert—the study of the Rajputana Desert

vegetation received scant attention almost till1950 when a few authors

tried to revive interest in the subject by preparing lists of plants

occurring in their neighbourhood. The present paper is a detailed

account of the vegetation of Pilani and its neighbourhood comprising

an area of about 40 square miles. Pilani, originally a small village in

the Jaipur State but now an important educational centre of India, is

situated a little over 100 miles to the west of Delhi. eas

Pilani receives an average annual rainfall of about 14 inches. The

percentage of relative humidity is low, the hot or cold winds nearly

constant, and the temperatures extreme. The chemical nature of the

almost dry sandy soil is characteristic. The carbonate content is very

low, the nitrates are in plenty, and the reductivity is usually 1. The

pH value ranges from 7 to 8:5. The sand dunes are of the Barchan

type.

The vegetation is distributed into discontinuous patches giving the

region the appearance of a scrub jungle. A large number of plants

exhibit xerophytic characters, These include the reduction of the

transpiring surface, production of epidermal outgrowths, presence of

thorns, spines and prickles, development of phylloclades, formation of

long roots, and perennation by underground organs,

The entire vegetation can be divided into distinct groups: those

depending directly on rain for their water supply, and those drawing

water from the deeper layers of the scil. There is also an important

group of plants which are annuals apparently but which vegetate during

the unfavourable season by some underground parts. These include

plants like 7ribulus terrestris Linn., Polygonum plebejum R.. Br., and

others. ‘The commonest and the most successful annuals belong to the

families Capparidaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Leguminosae, Cucurbitaceae,

UES Sree) yerig ADs Te

- 4 wre Pee i ciel aa hy a 8

-Ficoideae, Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Amarantaceae,

~ Chenopodiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Commelinaceae and Gramineae. Some

of the more common and dominant plants of the Upper Gangetic Plain

on the one hand and the Punjab and the West Rajasthan on the other

are found flourishing in Pilani. This gives weight to the suggestion by

the earlier authors that the vegetation of the Upper Gangetic Plain is

continuous with the dry forests of Rajputana and Punjab.

. The vegetation of different patches is not sufficiently stable to give

a definite idea of the prevailing plant communities. A few associa-

tions, however, appear to be fairly constant. |

The list of collections made during 1950-52 comprises 312 species

belonging to 70 families. On the basis of the number of species the

-. predominant families are:. Leguminosae (39), Gramineae (25), Compo-

-sitae (19), Amarantaceae (15), Convolvulaceae (12), Solanaceae (11),

Euphorbiaceae (10), Cucurbitaceae and Cruciferae (9 each), and

Ficoideae (8). The families Cyperaceae, Boraginaceae, Acanthaceae

- and Malvaceae are rather poorly represented in Pilani and _ its

adjacent areas in comparison to the rest of the Rajputana Desert.

Some ofthe possible avenues of further research and exploration have

been suggested.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

3 It gives me great pleasure to express my heartfelt thanks to my

_ former students at the Birla College, Pilani, for the help rendered in

various ways during the course of the present study. Specific mention

- inthis respect may be made of Mr. B. D. Deshpande (now Research

_ Scholar at Pilani), Mr. D. N. Misra Raj (now Lecturer in Botany,

_ Holkar College, Indore), Mr. M. C. Joshi (now Assistant Professor of

= Botany, Birla College, Pilani), and Mr. N. C. Nair (now a member of

the teaching staff at Pilani). To my former colleague, Mr. Pat Ram

_ Gaur (Department of Sanskrit, Birla College, Pilani), I am indebted for

creating in me a deep interest for studying the /zvzxg plants rather

_ than the preserved laboratory or herbarium specimens. I am grateful

- to the Rev. H. Santapau, ss. (St. Xavier’s College, Bombay) for

kindly going through the manuscript and for making valuable sugges-

- tions. Thanks are due to Jaswant Bakshi, my wife, who frequently

accompanied me in the field, for being more than a mere onlooker by

- substantially contributing to the collections.

LITERATURE CITED

_ Bagnold, R. A. 1939. ‘The Physics of Wind Blown Sands’, London.

2 - Bakshi, T. S. 1952 a. The Autecology of Amiscchilus ericcephalus Benth.

— Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc., 31: 269-280.

3 — — — 1952 6. Floral morphology and embryology of Pszlostachys sericea

Hook. f. Phytomorphology, 2: 151-161.

— — — — 1954 a. The antipodals in the family Amarantaceae, Curr. Sci. (In

= . press).

a — — — 1954 6. The genus Cyathula Lour. in India. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. (In press). fig’

ae. — — — and Chhajlani, $. L. 1953. The morphology of the scales of Digera

arvensis Forsk. Cur. Sci., 22: 313.

ae — — — and Chhajlani, S, L.1954. Vascular anatomy of the flower of certain

_. Species of the Amarantaceae with a discussion on the nature of inflorescence in the

i oy Phytomorphology (In the press).

514 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Bakshi and Kapil, R.N. 1953. .The. autecalony of Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk.

Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal (In press).

— — — and Kapil, R. N. 1954. The morphology and ecology of Mollugo

cerviana Serr. (In press).

Biwas, K. and Rao, R,S, 1952. Rajputana desert vegetation. Proc. Nat,

Inst. Sci. India, 19: 411-421,

Blatter, E. ‘and Hallberg, F, 1918-21. The flora of the Indian Desert. Jour.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 26-27 : Different pages.

Calder, C.C. 1938. An outline of the vegetation of India. Znd. Sci. Congress.

Silver Jubilee Session, 71-89.

Das, R. B. and Sarup, 8S. 1951, The'biological spectrum of the Indian Desert.

Oniv. Raj. Studies. Biol, Sci. Sect., x: 36-42.

Dudgeon, W. 1920. A contribution to the ecology of the Upper Gangetic

Plain. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc, t :

Duthie, J. F, 1905-1915. ‘Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain,’ vols. I-III.

Calcutta. —

Elston, R. N. 1953, Desert Research. Science News, 27 : 7-29.

Hooker, J. D. 1875-1897. ‘Flora of British India ’ , Vols. I-VIf. London,

-—— — 1904. A sketch of the flora of British India, 1-55.

— — — and Thomson, T. 1855. Introductory essay to the Flora [ndica, 159-

162,

Joshi, A.C. and Rao, C.V. 1934. A contribution to the anatomy, morphology

and cytology of the flower of Digera arvensis Forsk. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc., 13:

201=23

King, G. 1879. Sketch of the flora of Rajputana. Jud. Forester, 4 : 226-236.

Misra, R. 1944. The soil complex as studied in plant ecology. Jour. Ben.

Hindu Univ., 9 : 13-16.

— — — and Siva Rao, B. S. 1948. A study in the autecology of Lindenbergia

polyantha Royle. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc., 28 : 185-199.

Mukherjee, S. K. 1953. Vegetation of the Delhi ‘ Ridge’. Jour. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., 51 : 439-465.

Mulay, B.N. and Ratnam, B. V, 1950. Study of the vegetation found round

about Pilani. Proc. Ind. Sci. Congress, Pt. IIL : 64-65.

Pandeya, S. C. 1953. Studies in the morphology and ecology of three species

of Dichanthium Willemet. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc. 32 : 86-100.

Raizada, M. B. 1950. New or noteworthy plants from the Upper Gangetic

Plain. Ind. Forester, 76: 1-9.

Ramachandran, K. R. 1950. Common grasses found round about Pilani

(Rajasthan). Proc. Ind. Sci. Congress, Pt. III, 65-66.

Ratnam, B. V.1951. The vee of Lohargal. Proc. Raj, Acad. Sct, at

26-36.

—— — and Joshi, M. C, 1952. An ecological study of the vegetation near

abouts a temporary pond in Pilani. J/dzd,3 : 1-15.

Sabnis, T. S. 1929. A note on the a Ge of the flora of Sind. Jour. Ind.

Bot. Soc. 8 : 263-286.

Sankhala, K. $8. 1951. Enumeration of the flowering pee of Northwestern

‘Rajasthan. Univ. Raj. Studies. Biol. Sci. Sect., 1 : 43-56.

Santapau, H. 1952. The need for.a revision of Hooker’s ‘Flora of British

India’. Jour. Sci. Ind. Res., 11: 529-532.

Sarup, S. 1951. A list of common plants of Jodhpur and its neighbourhood.

Univ. Raz. Studies. Biol. Sci. Sect., 1 : 29-35.

—— — 1952. Plant ecology of Jodhpur andits neighbourhood: A contribu-

tion to the Beoiey of North-western Rajasthan. Bull. Nat. = SCZ. aie, ‘ir:

223-232. ES

Pn xs FS | ee Ne oe ed uke is cai te kos ” _

5 best aK RUNS gs NER ETE ged (oc a Se SC QR ad Ree a ay a ae ee ee

A Ae SN Og ane oe, Pe ee

a er Cf ee

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA

a : : BY,

S.-L. Navar

(Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow)

Part Il

ae ee. oe Se

< ie

(Continued from page 105 of this volume)

a :

56. Lathyrus aphaca Linn. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Yellow-flowered Pea; Yellow Vetchling.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Janglimatar; Pun. Rawari.

Distribution.—An annual herb found in the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,

Bengal and Madhya Bharat, ascending to an altitude of 7,000 ft.

on the Western Himalayas.

Constituents of the seeds.—According to Pammel (24) the plant

contains hydrocyanic acid, but the author does not find any original

reference for this statement.

Remarks.—It is used in many localities as fodder for cattle.

According to Voigt, the ripe seeds are narcotic, their effect being

noticeable when eaten abundantly; in the young state, however, they.

are perfectly harmless (7). The plant has been regarded as one of

the possiblé causes of a disease called lathyrism.

{

57. Lathyrus sativus Linn. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Chickling Vetch, White Vetch.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Khesari; Mar. Lakh; Sans. Sandika.

7 Distribution.—A pretty annual with winged stems largely culti-

-_ vated in many Barts of India up to an altitude of 4,000 fisoin= the

Himalayas.

* Constituents of ihe seeds.—Seeds said to contain about 1 per cent

of a powerful and dangerously cathartic oil (7).

| Remarks.—The plant is largely used as a fodder, and being

‘cheap, the seeds are considerably used as food by the poorer classes

of people, especially in times of famine. The seeds as well as the

whole plant produce under certain circumstances, in man and animals,

a disease called lathyrism.

58. Linum usitatissimum Linn. (Linaceae).

English names.—Common Flax, Flax.

.. Indian names.—Be. Tisi; Bo. Alasi; Hi. Alsi; Sans. & Tel. Atasi;

Tam. Alshi.

Distribution.—An annual herb much cultivated throughout India

up to an altitude of 6,000 ft. for the sake of its oil-yielding seeds.

3 Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a cyanogenetic glucoside,

Re phaseolunatin (linamarin), which is also said to occur in other parts

of the plant, such as the leaves, stems and roots (11).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Remarks.—It is said that the immature seeds contain more of

the glucoside than the mature ones and that poisoning with the seeds __

is mainly due to the presence of immature seeds in the material fed.

The feeding of linseed cakes to sheep at the rate of 150 gm.

daily and the increase of this amount to 300 gm. daily after

fourteen days caused one death on the second day of feeding;

from the twenty-first day onwards a number of animals died (6).

samples of linseed cake were found-to furnish 0.032 to 0.045 per

cent of hydrocyanic acid (78). Quentin considers that linseed cakes

containing more than 0.08 gm. of hydrocyanic acid per kilogram are

dangerous (79).

59. Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne (Lobeliaceae). .

a English name.—Wild Tobacco. =

. Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Nala; Bo. Dhaval; Mal. Kattupukayila;

Sans. Devanala; Tam. Kattuppugaiyilai; Tel. Adavipogaku.

Distribution.—A biennial or perennial herb found on the Western

Ghats from Bombay to Travancore at altitudes of 3,000 to 7,000 ft.

above the sea level and is met with in Konkan, the Deccan, the —

Nilgiris, Malabar, etc. , a

Constituents oF the seeds.—According to Lisboa quoted by Watt

(7) the seeds contain an acronarcotic poison.

Remarks.—The seeds are said to be preferred to Datura as a

poison, when rapid effect is desired. Ten to fifteen grains of the

powdered seeds will act as a powerful emetic and the symptoms of

poisoning are similar to those with nicotine.

60. Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb. -(Cucurbitacae) 3

Indian names.—Be., Bo. & Hi. Jinga; Sans. Jhingaka; Tam. 7

Pikunkai; Tel. Burkai. 4

OHAE ae —A climber cultivated throughout the greater part

of India for its unripe fruits which are largely eaten as a vegetable.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain a purgative oil luffa-

seed oil (11). Seeds contain 20 per cent of a saponin glycoside, an

enzyme, and a fixed oil (125). 4

Remarks.—The seeds are described to be emetic and purgative. —

The pressed cake from the seeds is bitter and toxic. Doses of 5 to —

12 cc. of the oil cause, in dogs, purgation, vomiting and bleeding ~

from the intestines. ‘An alcoholic extract of the seeds is lethal to

dogs.

61. Luffa cylindrica (Linn.) M. Roem. syn. L. aegyptiaca Mill.

English names.—Sponge Gourd, Gourd ee :

Indian names.—Be. Dhundal; Bo. Gonsali; Hi. Ghiatarwi; Sans. —

Ghoshaka; Tam. Pikku; Tel. er ee: 4

Draehasoe —An extensive climber found cultivated or naturalized —

in most hot countries of the world. In India, it is common every- q

where and is often cultivated, especially in the plains. A

Remarks.—The seeds are considered in Indian literature to have

emetic and cathartic properties. |

ae a os Mee ae oe ;

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA

62. Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel. syn. M. latifolia (Roxb.)

_ Macbride; Bassia latifolia Roxb. (Sapotaceae).

_ English names.—Butter Tree, Mahua Tree;

Indian names.—Be. Mahwa; Bo. & Hi. Mahua; Sans. Madhuka;

Tam. Madugam; Tel. Madhukamu.

Distribution.—A large deciduous tree found in Oudh, Bihar,

a - Madhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Gujerat, Konkan, North Kanara,

Southern Mahratta Country and the Deccan. Largely planted else-

where and liable to run wild.

a Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a neutral saponin (80).

_ Leaves contain a glucosidic saponin and traces of an alkaloid (81).

- Remarks.—The residual cake ‘mowrah meal’ after the extraction

_ of the oil from the seeds is said to be used to poison fish. The

_ smoke produced during the burning of the oil cake is reported to kill

2 insects. The oil cake is used as a worm-killer for lawns— 4 oz. per -

sq. yd. (82).

63. _Madhuca longifolia (Linn.) Macbride syn. Bassia longifolia’

Linn. (Sapotaceae).

English names.—Honey Tree, Mahua of Southern India.

. Indian names.—Be. Mohuva; Bo. Mohwa; Hi. Mohua; Sans.

_ Madhuka; Tam. Mavagam; Tel. Pinnayippa.

= Distribution.—A large tree found in the forests of Western India

_ from Konkan southwards to Travancore; common in Malabar, Mysore,

_ Anamalais and the Circars at low elevations.

Constituents of the seeds.—After extraction of the oil from seeds,

a sopoglucoside called mowrin is obtained from the residue.

Remarks.—The residual cake ‘mowrah meal’ after the extraction

of oil from the seeds is said to be used to poison fish and as a worm-

killer for lawns (82).

Bes.

64. Malus sylvestris Mill. syn. Pyrus malus Linn. (Rosaceae).

English names.—Apple Tree, Crab Apple.

a Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Seb; San. Seba.

4 s Distribution.— 'A tree found wild in the North-western Himalayas.

Largely cultivated in the Himalayas, the Punjab, Madhya Bharat and

the Deccan.

a Constituents of the seeds.—The seed kernels have been shown to

a contain amygdalin (83). The seeds contain glucoside phlorizin, up to

4s 3 per cent of fresh weight (84).

Pye

65. Melia azedarach Linn. (Meliaceae).

? English names.—Indian Lilac, Pride-of-India.

~~ Indian names.—Be. Gian Bo. & Hi. Drek; Sans. Mahani-

7 mba; Tam. Malatvembu; Tel. ee es

: Se wbxtion. —A codec sized tree commonly cultivated in India

_ but is wild in the sub-Himalayan tract at altitudes of 2,000 to 3,000 ft.

Ee Shove sea level. :

_ Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain about 4o per cent of

an oil (85).

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Remarks.—Seeds possess properties similar to those of Azadirachta

indica A. Juss. In addition, narcotic symptoms are also produced.

66. Melilotus officinalis Lam. (Leguminosae).

English names.—Hart’s Clover, Melilot.

Indian names.—Be. Baupiring; Hi. Aspurk; Pers. Zhi:

Distribution.—A biennial herb with yellow flowers found in Nubra

and Ladakh at altitudes of 10,000 to 13,000 ft.; cultivated in Bur eae

as fodder.

Constituents of the seeds.—Contains coumarin, a volatile eagne

ferous principle, which in excess produces a disinclination to locomo-

tion, paralysis and ultimately fatal symptoms. No harm is to be

apprehended if the amount present does not exceed 10 per cent ps the

herbage (6).

Remarks.—F rohner reports that essere to Giese and Colin

the seeds of M. officinalis are poisonous. Horses which received

‘2-3 litres of the seed’ daily developed paralysis of the body muscula-

ture, death occurring after ten to twelve days. Autopsy revealed

pronounced hyperaemia of the lungs and swelling of the liver (86).

67. Mundulea sericea (Willd.) Greenway syn. M. suberosa Benth.

(Leguminosae). 2 ae

Indian names.—Deccan Supt Mal. Ree Tam. ihuae

varam; Tel. Palasaram.

Die anon —A stout herb or a small tree found in aVestatl dnd

Southern India in Konkan, the Circars, the Deccan and Carnatic to

Tinnevelly, in dry forests on rocky - ‘hills and uy to popes ft. above

sea level.

Remarks.—The seeds are used for poisoning: fish in Southern and

Western India.

68. Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae).

English names.—Mace Tree, Nutmeg, True Nuimer> oe

Indian names.—Hi. Jaiphal; Mal., Sans. & Tel. Jati; Tam.

Sivagaram.

Distribution.—A lofty tree, native of Eastern Moluccas and culti-

vated more or less throughout Malaya. In India it is only found as

a specimen tree in a few localities, where the climate is sufficiently,

hot and moist, chiefly Botanic Gardens.

Constituents of the seeds. —Nutmegs yield an essential oil and a

fixed oil; they also contain a saponin (87). The essential oil, which

is present to the extent of about 7 per cent, is colourless or pale

yellow, pungent and smells strongly of nutmeg. It was studied by

Power & Salaway (88) who, besides other constituents, found about

4 per cent of myristicin. Mace contains about 8 per cent of a

volatile oil of yellowish colour and. contains yee (So). The

leaves and bark also contain an essential oil (11).

-Remarks.—Cases of poisoning due to nutmeg tee Gceasianelle .

occurred. In man, severe symptoms have been produced from taking’

one to one and a ‘half nutmeg’, or from a teaspoonful of powdered

mace. (The effects appear in one to six hours and consists mainly

ay,

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_- POISONOUS SEEDS.OF INDIA. . Bo 519

of narcosis, varied by excitement and delirium, with signs of stimula-

tion of motor functions and local irritation; they usually end in

recovery in twenty-four hours. Nutmeg has ‘also ecbolic properties.

Similar toxic effects have also been observed in animals (go).

69. Myristica malabarica Lam. (Myristicaceae).

English name.—False Nutmeg. atl

Indian names.—Bo. Rampatiri; Mal. Kattujattika; Sans. PORTAE A

Tam. Pattiri; Tel. Adavijajikaya. |

Diseeiution: —A tree found in the evergreen forests of Konkan,

Kanara and Malabar at low levels up to 1,000 ft. altitude.

Constituents of the seeds. — Seeds yield about o. 67 per cent of an

essential oil (gr).

Remarks.—Narcotic effects are produced in the same way as in

M. fragrans.

Mill. syn. N. odorum Soland. (Apocynaceae).

English names. —Indian Oleander, Oleander.

Indian names.—Be. Karabi; Bo. & Hi. Kaner; Sans. Karavira;

Tam. Kanaviram; Tel. Gannera.

_. Distribution. A large glabrous evergreen shrub found in the

Himalay as from Kashmir to Nepal up to an altitude of 6,500 ft., and

also in Madhya Bharat. Cultivated in gardens throughout India and

is apparently wild in South India and in the Bombay State along the

banks of streams. . ; |

Constituents of the seeds.—Roots, bark and seeds contain the toxic

principles neriodorin, neriodorein and karabin (92, 93, 94). ee =

_ Remarks.—The seeds are highly poisonous and the Mundas use

them to poison pigs .and jackals though it is the roots that are

commonly employed for a variety of criminal purposes. Like

neriodorin, karabin is a powerful cardiac poison, acting on the heart

in a somewhat similar manner’ to digitalin and it also acts on the

spinal cord in more or less the same way as strychnine (94).

71. Nigella sativa Linn. (Ranunculaceae).

English names.—Black Cumin, Small Fennel. os ae

Indian names.—Be. Kalijira; Bo. & Hi. Halems Sans. Kaiajajt ;

Yam. Karunjiragam; Tel. Nullajilakara.

Distribution.—A pretty herb 1-2 ft. high extensively cultivated in

many parts of India for its seeds. —

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds are stated to contain 0.5 to

I.4 per cent of an essential oil and a saponin like glucoside, melan-

thin. Seeds contain variable amount of saponin (95): and yield

melanthigenin (96). An gnror phous Sempound giving reactions of

-Saponin isolated (97).

Remarks.—The seeds have a strong, pungent aromatic taste.

It appears to be a common practice in this country to scatter the

seeds between the folds of linen or woollen clothes in order to prevent

them from being eaten by insects.. The seeds are used as emmena-

_ gogue in’ Europe and in large’ doses ‘produce abortion (7).

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

72. Paeonia emodi Wall. (Ranunculaceae).

English name.—Himalayan Peony. Sree

Indian names.—Hi. Udsalap; Kash. Mid; Pun. Mamekh. ae

Distribution.—A stout glabrous perenaial 1-2 ft. high found in

the West Temperate Himalayas from Hazara to Kumaon at altitudes

of 5,000 to 10,000 ft. It forms lovely gregarious patches in Kagan

and Kashmir and, when in flower in spring, is most beautiful to

look at.

Constituents of the seeds.—A poisonous alkaloid has been reported

from the seeds and roots of P. officinalis Linn. which is a foreign

plant (98). It is quite likely that the Indian species has similar

poisonous principles.

Remarks.—The seeds are emetic and cathartic.

73. Papaver rhoeas Linn. (Papaveraceae).

English names.—Scarlet Poppy, Corn Poppy.

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Lal post; Bo. Janglimudrika; Sans.

Raktapostavrikshaha; Tam. Siguppuppostaka; Tel. Errapostakaya.

Distribution.—An erect, branched, hispid annual met with in k

Kashmir and Pangi, but is frequently cultivated in gardens through-

out the plains of Northern India.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seed capsules are said to contain

morphine, paramorphine and narcotine in addition to rhoeadine (99).

Remarks.—Seeds contain a yellow oil with acrid properties.

74, Peganum harmala Linn. (Rutaceae).

English names.—Harmal, Wild Rue.

Indian names.—Be. Isband;. Bo. Hurmal; Hi. Harmal; Tam.

Simaiyaravandi; Tel. Simagoronti.

Distribution.—A densely foliaged bushy herb, common in the —

drier waste places and fields of Baluchistan, Wasps. Kurrum

Valley, Sind, Cutch, Punjab, Kashmir, Delhi,. Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, a

Konkan and the Western Deccan. a

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the alkaloids harmine,

hermaline, harmalol and peganine (100); also a soft resin (7).

Remarks.—Seeds are considered narcotic, nauseant, emetic and

emmenagogue. In an elephant they are said to bring about a con-

dition of tremendous excitement wherein the animal loses control over

himself, i.e. becomes ‘mast’. Gopal as quoted by Watt (7) found that

an infusion or tincture acted as a mild emmenagogue and produced.

slight intoxication in the same way as Cannabis sativa Linn. He

reported that the plant was sometimes employed by Indian midwives —

to procure abortion and believed that the drug has properties similar

_to those of ergot, savine and rue.

75, Pithecellobium bigeminum Mart. syn. Pithecolobium bigeiminum

Benth. (Leguminosae). =

Indian names.—Bo. & Hi. Kachlora; Lep. Tikpikung Mal. :

Varikivi; Sans. Aragvadha; Tam. Kalalppakte: | :

Distribution. —A middle-sized unarmed tree found in the Eastern

Himalayas, Khasia and Jaintia Hills; Konkan, North and South

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA ~ 521

‘Kanara, the Western Ghats of the Madras State from Mysore to

_Anamalais and Travancore, esecadine to an altitude of 3,000 ft, above

-sea level...

Remarks.—The seeds are in great demand in certain parts ‘of

Burma where the people use them as a condiment after repeatedly

boiling them in water and discarding the water every time. Creais

(101) refers to the alarming symptoms that are sometimes produced.

Usually there is vomiting with abdominal pain. If uncooked. seeds

are eaten, violent and persistent vomiting may prevent further

- symptoms from arising. The urine is suppressed and there is. severe

pain over the loins and the bladder. Strangury occurs with the

passage of a few drops: of urine which is often blood tinged. Later

when the flow of urine occurs there may be free haematuria. Head-

ache and giddiness are present; the vision is blurred and the conjunctivae

are suffused; muscular cramps occur, particularly in the extremities.

The symptoms generally set in quickly and are very severe. The

poisoning from the seeds causes death of the unborn child.

76. Plesmonium margaritiferum (Roxb.) Schott (Araceae).

Distribution.—A tuberous herb found in Central and Eastern

Bengal, Chota Nagpur, Singbhum, Ranchi and Manbhum. Very

common in the open forest land at Purneah. In the Madras State

it is reported from the districts of Vizagapatam and in Boma hills

at an altitude of 1,500 ft.

Remarks.—The crushed seeds fave the Peover: of benumbing

the nerves {17).

a7. Polygonum aviculare Linn. (Polygonaceae).

English name.—Bloodwort.

Indian names.—Be. Machutie; Hi. Machoti; Pun. Banduke; Sans.

Miromati. — de

Distribution.—A glabrous herb found in the Western Himalayas

from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of 6,000 to 10,000 ft.; also in

Western Tibet at altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 ft. po

Remarks.—Seeds are stated by Watt (7) to be powerfully emetic

and cathartic although the plant is used as fodder for sheep and goats.

— 78. Polygonum hydropiper Linn, (Polygonaceae).

English names.—Biting Persicaria, .Smartweed.

Indian name.—Be. Packurmul. =

—._. Distribution.—A rather robust annual herb found in damp places

bo more or less throughout India up to 7,000 ft. in the Himalayas.

Remarks .—Seeds possess rubefacient and vesicant properties.

79, Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Merr. syn. P, glabra. (Linn.) Vent.

(Leguminosae). plied |

English name.—Indian Beech.

Indian names.—Be. Karanja; Bo. & Hi. Karanj.

Z: Distribution.—A moderate-sized almost evergreen tree met with

Be ali over India, on the bank of rivers and streams, especially near the

_ S€acoast and some forest localities; often planted as a roadside tree.

. 1 sometimes flowers as a shrub on the seacoast.

522. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Constituents of the seeds. —The seeds contain os to 36.4 per cent

of a bitter fatty oil and traces of an essential oil (25). Mature seeds

contain o.1 per cent glabrine, properties similar o o( -amminogerds of

the dicarboxylic acid type (102),

Remarks.—The seeds are said to be poisonous to fishes. ‘A-2

per cent P. glabra oil-resin spray has been stated to be highly toxic

against the nymph and adult stages of ve we bug eeu

viridis) on coffee, (103).

80. Prunus atmygdalus Batsch, syn. P. amygdalus Baill.; P.

communis (Linn.) Arcang. (Rosaceae). pe

English name.—Almond Tree. aap hay

Indin names.—Be. Bilatibadam; Hi. & Mar. Badong Sans.

Badama; Tam. Vadumai; Tel. Badin “e

“Disiebation: —A seed to medium-sized tree cultivated in the

cooler parts of the Punjab and Kashmir. Two varieties are re-

cognized, viz., var. amara and var. dulcis, the pul and sweet

almonds. a

Constituents of the seeds. 2 Aina ell two aicines ae a fixed @

oil and an essential oil. The sweet almonds do not yield any essential

oil but the yield of the fixed oil varies from 35.5 to 62.5 per cent.

The chief constituents of the essential oil are benzaldehyde, hydro-

cyanic acid and _ benzaldehydecyanhydrin (mandelonitrile). The

essential oil is formed by hydrolysis of the glucoside amygdalin by

means of the enzyme emulsion which is found in the seeds. On

macerating the seeds in water, the enzyme is brought into contact —

with the dissolved glucoside, hydrolysing it into glucose, benzaldehyde -

and hydrocyanic acid. It is probable that a small ieeaily of

amygdalin does occur in the sweet variety also {104). :

Remarks.—The crude oil of bitter almonds which may contain ©

up to 14 per cent of hvydrocyanic acid is naturally very poisonous. -*

- The pure oil (benzaldehyde), on the other hand, has nothing in com-

mon with hydrocyanic acid as regards its action and is said in very ~~

large doses only to produce spasms which resemble epileptic fits.

81. Prunus armeniaca Linn. (Rosaceae).

English name.—Apricot. | mee y

Indian names.—Hi. & Pun. Zardalu; Wash. Gurdalu; Kum. —

Zardaru. 7 eee a

Distribution.—A medium-sized deciduous tree commonly culti-

vated in the north-west of India especially in the hills at altitudes of —

6,000 ft. to 9,000 ft. above the sea level. 4 :

Constituents of the seeds.—Amygdalin has been found in the seeds —

probably in the bitter variety (11). :

Remarks.—As in the case of almonds there is also a bitter variety

of the seeds which is undoubtedly poisonous. _

82. ‘Prani. avium Linn. (Rosaceae).

English names.—Sweet Cherry, Wild Cherry-Tree.

Indian names.—Kum. Gilas, Kvrusbal.

er - Distribution.—A medium-sized tree cultivated in the _North-

Western Himalayas up to an altitude of 8,000 ft, especially in

Kashmir.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seed kernels contains amygdalin

tpt).

83. Prunus cerasoides D. Don syn. P. puddum Roxb. ex. Wall. -

(Rosaceae). :

English name.—Himalayan Cherry. | ,

Indian names.—Bo. Padmakasta; Hi., Pun. & Kum. Paddam;

Lep. Kongki; Sans. Padmaksha.

Distribution.—A moderate-sized to large tree found wild in the

temperate Himalayas from Garhwal at altitudes of 3,000 to 6,000 ft.

to Sikkim and Bhuttan from 5,000 to 8,o00 ft. Also met with on

the hill stations of Kodaikanal and Ootacamund in South India.

Constituents of the seeds.—The kernels are said to contain a _

substance which yields hydrocyanic acid (105).

84, Prunus cerasus Linn. (Rosaceae).

English names.—Dwarf Cherry, Sour Cherry.

Indian names.—Pers. & Urdu Alubalu; Pun. Gilas.

Distribution.—A deciduous shrub or a small tree producing many

root-suckers. Cultivated in the Himalayas of the Punjab up to an

altitude of 8,o00 ft. for the sake of its fruits.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seed kernels have been found to

contain the cyanogenetic glucoside amygdalin (106, 107).

85. Prunus mahalab Linn. (Rosaceae).

English names.—Mahaleb Cherry, St. Lucie Cherry.

Indian names.—Bo. Gahula; Pers. Paiwandimiryam; Sans.

Priyunger; Urdu Khewati.

Distribution.—A small much branched shrubby tree cultivated in

Baluchistan. Probably occurs in the north-west of India.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds are stated to contain

amygdalin (108), and when chewed give a strong odour of hydro-

cyanic acid (10).

86. Prunus padus Linn. (Rosaceae).

English name.—European Bird Cherry.

Distribution.—A small to medium-sized deciduous tree, native of

the temperate Himalayas from Kurrum at altitudes of 4,o00 ft. to

_ Sikkim and Bhutan between 8,000 to 12,000 ft.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds seem to contain the cyano-

genetic glucoside amygdalin (11).

87. Prunus persica Batsch (Rosaceae).

English name.—Peach.

Indian names.—Garhwal Khirola; gee Pun..& Nep:--Aru; ep:

Takpo. :

Distribution.—A large deciduous eat or a small tree widely

cultivated in India especially in the north-west where it also occurs

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo

in a naturalized state up to an altitude of 10,000 ft. Guitivated” ex-

‘tensively in the plains of the Punjab and North- West India and also

in the Nilgiris between 5,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea level. :

Constituents of the seeds.—The seed kernels contain | amypenline.

Gas) and yield about 0.7 per cent of an essential oil, which consists

chiefly of by dioeyanic, acid, ee and ‘benzaldehydecyanhydrin

(109). .

88, Pygeum gardneri Hook. f. (Rosaceae).

Indian name.—Bo. Daka. nate 3

Distribution.—A medium-sized tree. forint in hee Rinne and

Bombay Ghats and common on the Mahableshwar Plateau.

Constituents of vite! seeds.—Seeds smell pa din of hydroeyanie

acid. | i ae

89. Ricinus communis Linn. (Euphorbiaceae).

English names.—Castor-oil Plant, Castor-Bean.. ‘

Indian names.—Be. Bherenda; Bo. Evrendi; Hi. UT Pun.

Arind; Sans. Eranda; Tam. Erandam; Tel. Brandan: 7

Distribution.—A tall stout annual, or perennial and sub- aE tea

ceous. Originally probably from America, it is. now extensively

cultivated for its oil-bearing seeds and has also become. naturalized

near habitations in many parts of India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a heed oil . ats a

toxalbumin, ricin, which does not pass into ‘the oil (90). - The latter

is a true protein and belongs to the same class of poison as abrin

from Abrus precatorius Linn.

Remarks.—The entire seed is a very active poison. Three grains

of the seeds have caused alarming symptoms and a case is reported

where three seeds proved fatal to an adult in forty-six hours. Fatal

cases of poisoning by castor-oil seeds administered in food have also

been’ reported (14). _ Usually, however, five to six seeds are fatal to

a child and twenty to an adult.

The oil is said to be an active. poison for fies ay Parnell oy

records the: plant as.a.fish potsom =, =< -— 4; ares Oe

90. Sapium indicum Willd. (Euphorbiaceae).

Indian names.—Be. Huru; Bo. Hurna; Mal. Venkshiri.

Distribution.—An_ evergreen tree found in the Sunderbans, and.

in thé West Coast along backwaters in Malabar and Travancore.

Remarks.—The seeds are_ employed as a fish” intoxicant Bio local

people where eee tree ere : ee ae es re 3

She Schleichera oles. (Lour.) Merr.;: syn S. ite -Willd.

(Sapindaceae).

English names.—Ceylon Oak, Honey Tree. ie:

Indian names.—Bo. Kosamb; Hi. Kosum; Pun. Kussumb 5 Sans.

Koshamra; Tam. Pulichai; Tel. Pullakaya. .

Distribution. —A large tree found in dry fotos: of thes ‘Sub:

Himalayan tract, from the Sutlej eastwards and te Senta

and Southern India: | 2 - 3 3

oh h

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA S25

Constituents of the. seeds.—Seeds contain a fixed oil’ and small

quantities of a cyanogenetic compound (110, 111).

Remarks.—Seeds and their oil have been the subject of much

study. The oil is said to be occasionally mixed, as an adulterant,

with mustard oil and ‘ghee’ and has thus caused symptoms of irritant

poisoning... The seeds also have the same effects, producing giddi-

ness, dilation of the pupils, and in fatal cases death from alee

ee due. to By crecyanie acid. ais ae -

92. Sucve indicum Linn. syn. S. orientale Linn. (Pedaliaceae).

_ English names.—Gingelly, Sesame. ss

Indian names.—Be., Bo., Hi. & Pun. Til; Sans. Tila; Tam. &

Tel. Nuvvulu. | Ese

Distribution.—An erect - pubescent. annual. largely cultivated

throughout India, being. grown as an autumn or even as a winter crop

in the warmer parts of the country (the truly tropical areas), and as

a summer one in the colder areas.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds yield an oil which contains

about I per cent. of sesamin and sesmolin. The latter breaks up

into a phenolic substance, sesmol and another substance samin (112).

-Remarks.—Taken in large doses the oil acts as a purgative. The

seed cake is commonly used in India for feeding cattle. . It is not

known whether. any untoward symptoms have been produced, but

-Kobert (113), reports it to be toxic to livestock, causing colic, tremors,

dyspnoea and distention. Kobert also states that the. seeds have been

used since olden times as emmenagogue and abortive, an opinion

which has also been expressed by some writers in India. This view,

however, seems to be incorrect, judging from the extent to which it

is often eaten by Indian women, as for example during the ‘bhugga’

festival of the Hindus in the Punjab. The existence of any such

belief among Indian ladies is unknown.

93, Solanum dulcamara Linn. (Solanaceae).

English names.—Poison Berry, Snake’s poison-food.

Indian names.—Pers. Anabessalib; Pun. Rubabarik.

Distribution.—A sub-erect shrub found in’ the temperate Western

Himalayas at altitudes of 4,000 to 8,000 ft. as a moist forest under-

growth. Common in Hazara, fairly common-in Bushahr and fre-

= quently met with in many places between Kashmir and Garhwal. Also

reported from Baluchistan and as far east as Sikkim.

Constituents of the seeds.—The_ plant contains the alkaloids

_ solanine and solanidine, and the bitter glucoside dulcamarin (114).

_ The berries inclusive of seeds are stated to contain 0.5 per cent of

solanine (115).

Remarks.—The berries including the seeds are reputed to be an

_-acro-narcotic poison in excessive doses and are stated to have been

used. to poison dogs and rabbits in foreign countries. Waddell (14)

_ mMentions a case in which a child aged 4 years is said to have chcd

from eating two berries,

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

94. Sophora mollis R. Grah. (Leguminosae).

English name.—Himalayan Laburnum.

Indian names.—Garhwal Sakina; Pun. Kohen; Urdu Arghavan.

Distribution.—A low shrub fanud in the Himalayas: and Sub-

Himalayan tracts of North-Western India from Gilgit, Chitral, Hazara _

and the Salt Range to Kumaon and Nepal up to 7,000 ft. Locally

common near Malakand, in Kagan and Kilba, Bushahr and Sahan- 4

sradhara near Dehra Dun.

Constituents of the seeds.—It is likely that the seeds of rie plant

contain similar or identical alkaloid as found in. the next species

S. tomentosa Linn. =

Remarks.—The seeds are stated to be useful for dectroviae oa

vermin (17). :

95. Sophora tomentosa Linn. (Leguminosae).

Indian names.—Sinhalese Mudumuruga; Burma Thinbawmagyi.

Distribution.—A small tree or a robust shrub found in the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands and occasionally cultivated in Indian

gardens.

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain about 2.06 per cent _

of the poisonous alkaloid sophorine (116) which is identical with

cytisine, the active constituent of Persian and Australian insect

powders (14).

Remarks.—The use of this plant for insecticidal purposes naga not.

been noted in literature, but it is very likely that proper ve

may yield positive results.

96. Sorbus aucuparia Linn. syn. Pyrus aucuparia Gaertn (Rosaceae).

English names.—European Mountain-Ash, Rowan. =

Indian name: Pun. Battal. — ee

Distribution.—A small tree common in the western ‘temperate -

Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon at altitudes from 11,500 to

13,000 ft. above sea level.

Constituents of the seeds.—The de-fatted seeds were found to con-

tain about 0.073 per cent of hydrocyanic acid (117).

97. Stellaria media (Linn.) Cyrill. (Caryophyllaceae).

English name.—Chickweed.

Distribution.—A very common weed found throughout the Punjab —

and temperate regions of India up to an altitude of 14,500 ft. < ;

Tibet. 3

Remarks.—Pammel (24) states that the seeds of this plant are ©

used as a food for birds, but quotes that they cause disorder of the -

digestive system when eaten in large quantities by lambs.

98. Strychnos colubrina- Linn. (Loganiaceae). | =

Indian names.—Be. & Hi. Kuchilalata; Mal. Medwakems = ie |

Mar. Kajarvel; Tel. Tigemushti.

Distribution.—A large climbing shrub with bifid” hakenene sesiccl

found in western and southern parts of India in Bombay, Konkan,

POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 527

Poona,. Kanra, Carnatic, Velligonda Hills of Nellore, Western

Coast from south Kanara to Travancore to the lower forests of the

Western Ghats. |

Constituents of the seeds.—Roots, seeds and bark and wood

contain the alkaloids brucine and strychnine (11).

-. Remarks.—As strychnine is present in considerable quantities the

seeds which are used medicinally should be employed with great

caution. Strychnine is a violent tetanic poison. The seeds are also

likely to be poisonous to fishes.

99, Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. (Loganiaceae).

3 English names.—Nux-vomica Tree, Strychnine Tree.

= Indian names.—Be. Kuchila; Bo. Kajra; Hi. Kuchla; Sans.

Kachchira; Tam. Mutti; Tel. Mushtz. |

Y Distribution.—A deciduous tree found in the forests of Gorakhpur,

Bihar and Orissa, Konkan, North Kanara, Southern Mahratta

Country, Northern Circars, the Deccan and Carnatic; also on’ the

West Coast of the Madras State in deciduous forests and up to 4,000

ft. in hilly country.

_ Constituents of the seeds.—Strychnine is the most important

alkaloid contained in this plant; besides this there are present brucine

and a few other alkaloids. These compounds exist not only in the

seeds, the most important part of the plant, but also in the root,

wood, bark, leaves, fruit pulp, etc.

ee The seeds also contain the glucoside loganin Cre

q Remarks.—The seeds are highly poisonous. ‘A case is reported

by Taylor in which thirty grains of the powdered seeds (equal to

about one full-sized seed), taken in two doses of fifteen grains each,

‘caused death of a girl aged ten; and in two other cases death was

produced from fifty grain doses (14). Watt (7) mentions that the

seeds are employed by country distillers, who sometimes add a small

quantity of them to ‘arrak’ so as to render it more intoxicating. He

_ also states that the seeds are used by the hill tribes of Nilgiris as a

fish. poison. Mixed with starch or flour or soot it is largely used for

‘killing vermin who damage the cultivated fields and for destroying

Stray dogs. Numerous cases of accidental poisoning of man and

_ animals are on record. Occasionally suicidal cases are reported in

2 me but homicidal cases are comparatively rare.

100, Taxus baccata Linn. (Taxaceae).

| English name.—Yew.

Indian names.—Be. Bhirmie; Bo. Barmi; Hi. & Pun. Birmi.

= Distribution.—A small or medium-sized evergreen tree met with

_ in the temperate Himalayas at altitudes of 6,000 to 11,000 ft., and

in the Khasia hills at altitudes of 5,000 ft.

. Constituents of the seeds.—A toxic alkaloid, taxine (100) which

, acts as a narcotic, ponies cardiac depression and death ehd

respiratory failure.

-. . Remarks.—The seeds are poisonous ad not the fleshy cup sur-

3 a aadine them and several cases of death among human beings and

es animals have been reported on account of eating tne seeds, . The

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 52

succulent cup is eaten in certain parts of the Himalayas the seeds

only being rejected.

191... Tephrosia candida (Roxb.) DC. (Leguminosae).

Indian name.—Hi. Lashtia. _

Distribution.—A weak shrub found in the tropical Himalayas

from Garhwal to Khasia and Assam ascending up to an altitude of

5,000. ft. in Sikkim; -also in Chittagong and the Sameshwar hills.

It is occasionally grown as an ornamental plant.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain 0.5 per cent rotenone

(126

emit Shes plant has been recorded by Gamble (118) as a

fish poison in Eastern Bengal and Burma. An extract (119) of the

seeds has been tested for its insecticidal properties in small-scale

field trials, and found to be quite efficacious though the bark and

the leaves are chiefly used for this purpose.

102. Thevetia peruviana Schum: syn. T.~ neriifolia Juss.

(Apocynaceae). 3 :

English names.—Yellow Oleander, Bastard Oleander.

Indian names.—Be. Kokilphul; Bo. & Hi. Pilakaniv; Sans.

Karavira; Tam. Pachaiyalari; Tel. Pachchaganeru.

Distribution.—A large evergreen shrub or a small tree, originally

a native of America and West Indies, but now almost naturalized in

some places. There is scarcely a garden in the plains without a

few shrubs, if not a hedge.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain the toxic glucoside:

thevetin, thevetoxin, ahouain, etc.; thevetin is a strong heart poison.

The seeds contain glucosides neriifolin, acetylneriifolin, thevetin

(120). |

Remarks.—Seeds have long been known to be highly poisonous

and have been commonly used for suicidal, homicidal and abortifacient

‘purposes. Of late years they have come into extensive use in some

parts of the Bombay State as a cattle poison. The Mundas use the

seeds to poison pigs and jackals. They are also said to be used in

the: preparation of ipos or Malay. arrow poisons.- In Brazil the plant

‘has been employed as a fish poison (14, 24).

The oil extracted from the seeds is said to be emetic and purgative.

According to Shortt, it produces violent vomiting and bypercaltans

(10).

103. Tinospora cordifolia (DC.) Miers (Menispermaceae).

Indian. names.—Be., Hi. & Pun. Giloe ; Bo. Guloe; Sans.

Guluchi; Tam. Amudam; Tel. Guduchi.

Distribution. —A large glabrous climber found ey eae ou! tropical

India, Burma, Andamans and Ceylon.

Remnves cae author has been told that some seeds obtained

from a post-mortem examination of a case of suspected poisoning

were sent to the Director, Botanical Survey of India. They were

identified as belonging to this species. It is possible that the seeds

are nelsenaes though no work has so far been done to confirm this

view. ae | | |

~ POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA 529

104. Verbascum thapsus Linn. (Scrophulariaceae).

English names.—Common Mullein, Mullein Dock. |

Indian names.—Hi. Gidartamaku; Pun. . Bantamaku ; Urdu

Janglitamak.

Distribution.—A stout herb found in the. temperate Himalayas

between 5,000 to 12,000 ft, above sea level and in Western Tibet.

It also occurs in the Western Ghats and in the Nilgiris in the

neighbourhood of Ootacamund where it has been introduced and is

now rapidly spreading (122).

Constituents of the seeds.—The seeds contain 0.37 Dor cent of a

saponin (121).

Remarks. According to O'Shaughnessy (7) the seed are sup-

posed to be narcotic and are used for poisoning fish. The present

author has not, however, come across the use BE the seeds as a fish

poison.

105, Vicia sativa’ Linn. var. angustifolia Baker (Leguminosae).

English name.—Narrow-leaved Vetch. .

Distribution —A diffuse annual abundant as a weed in culewated

ground throughout Northern India.

Constituents of the seeds.—Seeds contain a cyanogenetic Pieoside

vicianin and also the gluco-alkaloid vicine. Vicine is present: in

the largest amount in the immature seeds.

Remarks.—Of late years the seeds have been implicated in the

causation of a disease called lathyrism although there is still insufficient

evidence to connect lathyrism in man with the ingestion of these

seeds. The seeds when fed to ducks cause death.

106. Withania somnifera Dun. (Solanaceae).

Indian names.—Be. & Bo. Asvagandha;:Hi. & Pun. Asganda;

Sans. Ashvagandha; Tam. Asuvagandi; Tel. Asvagandhi.

Distribution.—An erect weedy-looking shrub or undershrub found

throughout the drier parts of India, especially in waste places, ascend-

ing to 5,000 ft. on the Himalayas.

Remarks.—A fatal case of poisoning due to the seeds has been

recorded (ro).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is very grateful to Dr. B. Mukerji, Director, Central

Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, for the very valuable help and

guidance that he has given.

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POISONOUS SEEDS OF INDIA

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¢ iy et

| PHE GENUS CYATHULA LOUR. IN INDIA

T. S. BaxsHr

| Daparlment ess Botany, University of Delhi

as The senus Cyathula Baie belongs to the tribe Atnarariteaé of the

family Amarantaceae and comprises ten species distributed over tropical

Asia, Africa, and South America (Willis, 1951). Of these, C. tomentosa

Mog.,; C. capitata. Mog., C. ceylonica Hook. f. and C. prostrata Blume are

reported from India (Hooker, 1885). Hooker has divided -these four

species into two groups : : one With the clusters of flowers arranged ‘in

large globose heads ’ and the other with ‘ small, solitary,-spicate, reflexed’

flower clusters. ‘The first group includes C. tomentosa, C. capitata and

C. ceylonica, and the second C. prostrata. ‘The differentiating characters

of the two groups arte fairly good ; in other words, C. prostrata has been

founded on characters which clearly mark it out from the three species of

the other group. The present paper deals with this latter group of species.

~ Hooker (1885) and almost all the other taxonomists differentiate C.

tomentosa from C. capitata on the basis of the ‘ densely hairy or woolly.’

appearance of the former, and the ‘ sparsely ha’ ry’ organs of the latter.

However, on my numerous visits to the Simla Hills during 1951-53, I

found that these so-called differentiating characters of the two species are

not stable. On the lower altitudes (3-5,000 ft.) the plants are mostly

densely hairy and are usually identified as C. ‘tomentosa. As we go

higher the tomentose character decreases considerably, and at a height of

about 7-8,000 ft. they are almost glabrescent and are identified as C. capz-

tata: an observation very nearly coinciding with the respective altitude

records for the two species (Hooker, 1885). ‘This appeared to be interesting

and | devoted myself almost exclusively to the hills in Simla proper and a

few adjacent areas. A very large number of specimens. were collected

from different localities which included the low-lying Glenn, Annandale,

Sanjouli, etc., the highest points at Taradevi, Jatog, Summer Hill, Jakhu,

and others, as-also all the possible intermediate heights.- The range of

altitude covered was from about 4,000 to 7,500 ft. Detailed ecological

and morphological notes for each collection were made. The results

were quite interesting.

- It was seen that the. specimens of lower altitudes are densely’ hairy

ae as we proceed higher up, the plants gradually begin losing the woolly

character. So gradual and regular is the alteration in their appearance

that at. certain stages it becomes really difficult to identify the two

* species ’ merely on the basis of their hairy character! As one nears the

collections from the top of the mountains, the hairs become less pronoun-

ced. They are more widely spaced and are considerably shorter. It is as if

the closely growing epidermal appendages of the ‘lower’ plants become

scattered and shorter as the plants ‘ascend ’ along the mountains giving

tise to the less hairy type at the top. The ‘ lower ’ specimens are obviously

those of C. tomentosa and the ‘ upper ’ of C. capitata. The two, therefore,

appear to be: ecotypes of each other. It seems that Hooker (1885). also

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY,

was probably doubtful about the stability of the woolly character of

C. tomentosa as he has remarked that the species is ‘ variable in the density

of tomentum’. An almost similar case was recorded by me earlier

(Bakshi, 1952) for Anisochilus eriocephalus Benth. in which-the hairy or

glabrous nature of the calyx is controlled by the nature of the substratum.

The sepals are woolly when the plant is grown on loam, but they gradually

become glabrous as the soil is made deficient in organic matter. This led

me to conclude that ‘ the distances between the epidermal appendages of

the calyx, the differences in their lengths, and even their complete absence

are not characters suifcient to warrant the separation of the two plants

into two distinct species (A. eriocephalus and A. carnosus). .One can

easily obtain the desired form by growing the plants on appropriate

soil.’ Urs 5 eee

_ If, therefore, Cyathula tomentosa is not different from C. capitata, the

number of species in the first group of the Indian records of the genus is

reduced to two, viz., C. ¢omentosa (Syn. C. capitata) and C. ceylonica. The

differentiating characters of these can be enumerated as follows : :

Cyathula tomentosa Mog. | |

(arn C. rabitata Mon. ) Cyathula ceylonica Hook. f.

———— ee

1. A straggling undershrub, den- | 1. An erect tomentose plant with

sely woolly or sparsely hairy; slender terete branches.

stems stiff, obtusely four-

angled.

2. Leaves 2-10 inches long, ellip- | 2. Leaves 14-2 inches long, sub-

tic, acute, acuminate, base sessile, elliptic, subacute.

acute, petiole 4-1 inch long. i ; aes:

3. Heads 1-14 inches in diameter, { 3. Heads 1 inch in diameter,

white, glistening, close or} __ globose, Solitary. es

distant on a 2-6 inches long- | .

peduncled spike.

SUMMARY

_ The genus Cyathula Lour. comprises ten species of which C. tomen- —

tosa Mog., C. capitata Mog., C. ceylonica Hook. f. and C. prostrata —

Blume are recorded from India. Of these the first three have clusters of _

flowers ‘ in large globose heads ’, and the last has ‘ small, solitary, spicate,

reflexed ’ flower clusters. The present paper deals with the first group —

of species. __ ae aa ae x

The earlier authors differentiate C. tomentosa from C. capitata on the _

basis of the ‘densely hairy or woolly’ appearance of the former and the

‘sparsely hairy’ organs of the latter. However, these so-called differen-

tiating characters have been found to be variable. It was seen that the ~

density of tomentum is inversely related to the altitude at which the

plants grow; the lower the altitude, the more the tomentum. It has, —

“The scimec eats characters of C. /omentosa (Syn. C. ee and

aC: cey ylonica have been enumerated in a tabular form, ~ i

Omen ga t

ae am grateful to. Rev. Father Santapau, s.J. (St. Xavier’s College,

Bombay) for kindly going through the manuscript, and to Mirsule oo IN:

ae (University of Delhi) for help with the literature.

LITERATURE CITED |

: - Bakshi, T. S. (1952). The autecology of Amiscchilus oceania Benth, Jour.

Ind. Bot. S38 31: 269-280.

-~ Hooker, J D. (1885). Flora of British India, Vol. V, London. ;

eo Willis, Be €. (1951). A asi Sia of the. Flowering Plants and. Ferns,

Conteris:

THE ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION >

PALAMNAEUS BENGALENSIS C. KOCH

'M. 5. KANUNGO, M.SC.

Department of Zoology, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack.

(With two text figures)

Fabre, Ainsworth, Lydekker, Vanchon and others have written on the

habitats and behaviour of scorpions in general, but accounts of any species

of scorpions in their natural homes, their way of life therein and in capti-

vity are lacking. It was, therefore, felt desirable to study these aspects of

the common large, black Indian scorpion, Palamnaeus bengalensis C. Koch..

Palamnaeus bengalensis lives in dry, unused and uncultivated ridges of

land (‘ bunds ’) which abound in small shrubs and bushes that make a

dry, dark and shady atmosphere (Lal and Kanungo). On both the slop-

ing sides of these ridges one has to look for narrow, almost crescentic

openings, 2°70” — 35” long and 0°5”-—1:5” high, scattered here and

there (Fig. 1). These openings are characteristic of these scorpions and

ECVE eo LX SAD 77 SESTS ae

fle om

an 7/7

ies pO i, ore 1 vee

UG fF ZX

a agi gane

Whee oa ee,

Fig 1.

lead to the chambers which they dig into the rilges themselves. Some-

times numerous smaller openings of a similar nature, about 0°7”—1:2” —

long and 0:3” —0°6” high may also be found, but these lead through

very short passages to the living quarters of another variety of very

small, black scorpion of a different genus. The length or width of the

Whar HE PLACE oF in CiVING OF

tis

THE ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION 537

opening of the home of P. dengalensts is approximately equal to the dis-

tance between its pedipalpi in normal posture. The crescentic appear-

ance of the opening is usually lost during the rains, but the opening is

always maintained in some form or. other as the scorpion gets its oxygen

supply through this only. When the earth dries up, the opening regains

its form gradually as the scorpion moves in and out. Each opening

leads through a long, sinuous passage, which is almost circular in cross-

section, to the place of living of a single scorpion family (Fig. 2). On

OPENING FOR THE PASSAGE

{

i % COT

- PASSAGE

LIVING PLACE

- OF SCORPION

many occasions big, white scorpions of the genus Buthus were also found

inhabiting similar chambers, which, as far as the author has been able to

ascertain, are not the invaded homes of P. Jdengalensis, but are dug by

Buthus themselves. Onadry summer day one has to dig a foot or more

before encountering the scorpions. Though mostly only a single adult,

male or female, is found, one may very rarely also find a pair together.

_The young are seen playing about or may also be seen carried on the back

of the mother, concealing her outline. On rainy days if water enters their

dwelling places they come out. But the openings are always situated ata

higher level to avoid such mishap.

The passage to the dwelling place of scorpions often shows accumula;

tions of chitinous skeletons of insects, myriapods, spiders, and egg-shells

of lizards and other animals on which the animal feeds. It goes in quest

of food at night, but not each night. After procuring a good meal, it

goes back to its living place where it stays for nights together without

‘moving out. Itresembles other arachnids in this habit. , Dried leaves

and sticks were kept at the openings taking care that sufficient air got into

the chambers, lest the animals came out due to suffocation. In some

cases the leaves and sticks were found to be displaced the very next day

and in some they were not dis laced even after three or four days. Live

scorpions were found when such homes were dug out. When the open:

4 ings were completely blocked and the nest dug out the next day all the

scorpions were found alive. But when closed for more days some were

2 3 found alive and some dead, This shows that they can survive for a long

period without any supply of oxygen.

Scorpions are said to live among stones, bricks and dried leaves. But

ET ot | aoe

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

in all probability, all varieties of scorpions do live in homes which they

dig in dry shady places as has been mentioned here for P. bengalensis and

other types. When they are unfortunately forced to abandon this natu-

ral habitat, it is only a dry place with bricks, stones and dried leaves that

provides them with the next best living place. Here they survive well

and breed, but it is difficult for them to dig shelters with passages.

The longevity of P. bengalensis in captivity varies with the surroundings

in which it is kept. Scorpions captured from their nest-holes were kept in

clean glass vessels and the longest time they survived was about a fort-

night. When the same glass vessels were filled with dried leaves, bits of

wooden sticks and soil they lived for about a month. Wooden boxes

and earthen vessels with bricks, stones and dried leaves proved better as

they lived for more than a month in these. In winter they died earlier in

captivity than in summer or in the rains. It has also been observed that

females live longer than males, and pregnant females the longest.

It is very interesting to observe the behaviour of scorpions in captivity.

They are active at night. Though their ferocious activity remains the

same: in captivity as in their natural home, many remain together in

captivity without quarrelling. They were never seen to mate. They

sting any animal that molests them. If living insects are supplied to them

they try to grasp the prey, but if alarmed will stop, curl the tail and

escape. Or, they attack them boldly with their stings and pincers. When

killed they are made into pieces and either eaten or left. Scorpions eat

their own kind as well. In captivity a white Buthus was seen feeding upon.

a P. bengalensis which was dying due to starvation. First it began biting -

it between the tergum and sternum to expose a greater area, and simulta-

neously sucked pulp from the body of the prey for about two hours and

then left it unfinished. Like other arachnids they can survive prolonged

fasts. The food of a scorpion seems to provide it with sufficient moisture,

for it has been observed that it lives for three to four weeks in captivity

without water. Water derived from food is used for the metabolic activity

in the body. Water loss of the body is avoided due to a thick imperme-

able cuticle, and the faeces are also discharged in solid form after the water

has been absorbed by the rectal walls. However, water supplied is very

gladly taken. Scorpions were kept many times in dishes with some

water and they were seen to suck the water with the movement of cheli-

cerae and one could hear the sound produced during sucking.

It is easy to instigate a quarrel between a male and a female scorpion by

constantly bringing them into head-on collision. ‘They catch hold of each

other by the pincers, try to grasp the head and strike with the sting at any

part of the foe. Once a male and a female were made to quarrel, the

female often caught the male uncomfortably, and both started striking

each other with their stings. But neither seemed to be affected by the

other’s poison. In order to study the behaviour between scorpions of

different genera, a specimen of Buthus was kept with a P. bengalensis.

They did not appear to live well together and started fighting. Théy

caught hold of each other by the pincers. The more active Buthus stung

its foe at the third joint of the tail. Soon the latter stopped fighting and

stayed quietly. Its condition grew worse, but after two hours it recovered. — 2

The effect of poison seemed to stay till the next morning, as it did not

move about much even when disturbed. ‘The scorpions in captivity were 4

never seen to be affected by their own poison. They, therefore, cannot —

zommit suicide,

Didee ts. a6 Rag si

G9 Set et ge

| THE ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SCORPION 539

PSone of the scorpions in captivity showed ecdysis. The cuticle was

“cast off in bits with the help of the limbs. They did not show any signs

of regeneration. Limbs and stings of both adult and very young ones

oe cut but there were no signs of new growths at the cut ends even

after fifteen days.

Ee Tam extremely thankful to Dr. M. B. Lal, Department of Zoology,

University of Lucknow, for his kind guidance in the work. My thanks

are also due to the U. P. Government, Scientific Research Committee for

3 ce an to conduct this work.

= 6 . _ REFERENCES

1, Ainsworth, D.: Natural History of Animals, Vol. I.

-, 2 Fabre, J.H.: ‘Souvenirs Entomologiques ’, J. H. Delagrave, Paris, 1923.

3, Lal, M.-B. & Kanungo, M. S.: ‘Invertase in Palamnaeus bengalensis’

_ Science, 1v7: 57, Jan. 16, 1953.

4, Lydekker. : : Royal Natural History, Vol. VI.

5, Vanchon, Max.: The Biology of Scorpions, Endeavour, April, 1950,

CHECKLIST OF THE TRIDACTYLIDA! AND GRYLLIDA

(INSECTA, ORTHOPTERA) OF CEYLON, WITH

RECORDS OF DISTRIBUTION

SB We

T. R. SANDRASAGARA, F.R.E.S.

INTRODUCTION

The following report is based on the named material of two orthop- -

terous families, the Tridactylide and Gryllidz inthe collection of the —

Colombo Museum. In May 1925, Dr. L. Chopard of Paris published

the first list of the ‘ Gryllidee of Ceylon in the British Museum Collec-

tions,’ comprising specimens mostly collected by the late Mr. E. E.

Green, in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (Series 9), Vol.

Xv, pp. 505-536. This important collection consisted of sixty-one

species, of which thirteen were described as new to science. More

specimens collected by Mr. G. M. Henry were later sent to him for

study by the Colombo Museum, and from this collection some twelve |

more forms were added to the known list in 1928, thereby increasing

the total number of species recorded from the Island to seventy-three.

Since then rather important collections of Gryliide from the Colombo

Museum have been despatched to Dr. Chopard, who finally published

a most valuable paper on the ‘ Tridactylidz and Grillidz of Ceylon’

in the Ceylon Journal of Science (Section B), Vol. xx, Part 1, pp. 9-87,

in August 1936.

The collection of Crickets in the Colombo Museum has recently been

worked out and completely re-arranged by me, and during the progress

of this work it was considered worth while to draw up the present check-

list giving records of the local distribution as fully as possible. The

family Tridactylidze alone comprises eight Ceylonese forms, all belong- —

ing toa single genus 7yzdactylus, and the Gryllide is represented bya

much larger number totalling ninety-one species in all, distributed —

amongst forty-six genera. The fauna of the Gryllodea, including the —

Tridactylidee, of Ceylon now consists of ninety-nine species altogether, |

and it must, I should think, very nearly include the total number of —

species of the group to be found in Ceylon. The collection of Gryllidz —

and Tridactylidz in the National Museum of Ceylon comprises a large ©

series of beautifully preserved specimens collected from several locali- —

ties some in remote parts of the Island and, moreover, it is worthy of —

special attention for it contains a considerable number of species which —

are peculiar to Ceylon. The endemic forms alone number a little more —

than half the total species recorded. And besides, this very valuable

collection contains numerous type-specimens some of which are unique

The references to original descriptions of the different species hav

been worked out as far as is practicable from the literature available in

the Colombo Museum Library. The reference to synonyms is als«

cited with the type-locality of synonymized forms, where known,imme

ately after the original reference. The following catalogue is main

Le ee ep eS ee, ee ee on eee ee ae eee ee ee

intended to facilitate the study of the known Ceylonese species and at

the same time to furnish a basis for future work. It is, furthermore,

_ desired to place on record observations on local distribution,

Family 1. Tridactylidae

Genus TRIDACTYLUS Olivier

Ency. Meth. Ins. iv, p. 26 (1789); Hfe¢eropus Beauvois, Ins. Afr.

_ Amer. p. 231 (1805); Xya Burmeister, Handb, Ent. ii, p. 741 (1838).

1.. Lridactylus es (Latreille)

Gen. Crust. Ins. iv, 383 (Xya) (1809); Xya japonica De Haan,

Temn. Verh. Orth. p "338, (1842) : Xya obscura Motschulsky, Bull. Mosc.

xxix, p. 182 ( 1868): Tridactylus viparius Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve,

xxv, p. 48 (1877); Tridactylus flavimaculatus Matsumura, Mém. Soc.

Ent. Belg. p. 131 (1911); Zvridactylus japonicus Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (9) xv, p. 506 (1925) ; Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 13 (1936).

_ Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Kesbewa (Western Province),

Peradeniya, Matale, Sigiriya (Central Province); Mihintale (North

Central Province); Trincomalee, Tennamaravadi Yanoya (astern

Province); Punduluoya(Uva Province); Asia; Africa: Australia

and Europe.

Type-locality ‘France meridionale ’.

. 2. Tridactylus nigroaenus Walker

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v. suppl. p. 1 (1871); Chopard, Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 13 (1936).

Dist, Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province); Peradeniya, Haragama

(Central Province); Polonnaruwa (North Central Province) ;

Katagamuwa (Southern Province) ; India.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Ty pe-locality

; 4 Ceylon’.

3. Tridactylus nigripennis Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 14 (1936).

_ Dist. Ceylon: Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Province); Bibile Uva

=. Province).

Type (female) inthe Colombo Museum. TZyfe-locality Bibile, July

-» 1929 (G. M.:- Henry).

4 = Tridactylus curlus Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 14, fig. 1 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Wellawaya, Bintenne (Uva Province).

Tybe (male) in the Colombo sale Type-locality Wellawaya,

April 1931 (G. M. Henry). -

5. Tridactylus guadrimaculata Chopard

eyion J. Sci. €B) xx, p. 15, fig. 2 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Bintenne (Uva Province).

+ Type (female) in the Colombo Museum, TZyZe-locality Bintenne,

October 1928 (G. M. Henry).

ee wuste

ee eee

Stat Sapa ~ ix Jan

zi ice of = be Feat be fe a re ath

PANT segs a sare MOORE IO we ge SN gta Nps bs

Rint ee ele Te Ee FB eee tan: oy ae Pe ete, + ee

ae ee cet ae nn rae Ve ey Se betes ei pista re Oe, vs

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

6. Tvridactylus obacus Walker

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 1 (1871); Tyridactylus

nttobae Shiraki, Mon. Gryll. Formose, p. 15, pl. 1, fig. 1 (1911); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 506. (1925),

Dist. Ceylon: Peradeniya. Nawalapitiya (Central Province); South-

ern Asia. ;

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zype-locality

‘Ceylon’. This species is not represented in the collection of the

Colombo Museum. |

7. Tridactylus thovacius De Guérin.

_ Mém. Icon. Anim. Ins. iii, p. 336 (1844); Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (9) xv, p. 506 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province); Kandy, Peradeniya

(Central Province); Timbolketiya (Sabaragamuwa Province);

Katagamuwa (Southern Province); India; Malay Archipelago.

Type in the Leyden Museum. TZyfe-locality ‘ Madagascar’.

8. Tridactylus ceylonicus Fernando

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xxiv, p. 47, fig. 1 (1950).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province).

Typein the Ceylon University. Zye-locality Colombo. (W. Fernando.)

Family 2. Gryllidae

Subfam. 1. Gryllotalpinae

Genus GRYLLOTALPA Latreille

Gen. Crust. Ins. iii, p. 275 (1802).

9. Gyryllotalpa atricana Beauvois

Ins. Afr. Amer. p. 229, pl. 2c, fig. 6 (1805); Gryllotalpa orientalis

Burmeister, Handb. Ent. ii, p. 739 (1839); Gvyllotalpa ornata Walker,

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 5 (1869); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B)

Xx, p: 9 (1936):

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte (Western Province); Kandy, Mousa-

kande Gammaduwa, Karagahatenne Gammaduwa, Nuwara Eliya,

Hakgala (Central Province); Kalawewa (North Central Province);

Balangoda, Kitulgala, Rakwana, Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa

Province) ; Bandarawela (Uva Province); Murunkan, Marichchu-

kaddi (Northern Province); Asia; Australia; Africa.

Ty pe-locality ‘ Afrique’.

Subfam. 2. Gryllinae

Genus BRACHYTRYPES Serville

Hist. Nat. Ins. Orth. p. 323 (1839). ip

10. Brachytrypes orientalis (Burmeister)

Handb. Ent. ii, p. 735 (Gryllus) (1838); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) E

xx, p. 20 (1936).

TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDE OF CEYLON 543

Dist. Ceylon: Balangoda (Sabaragamuwa Province); India.

Type-locality ‘ Tranquebar’. ‘This species is represented by a solitary

famale specimen in the Colombo Museum collection,

Genus GYMNOGRYLLUS Saussure

Mém, Soc, Geneve, xxv, p. 123 (1877).

11. Gymnogryllus erythrocephalus (Serville)

Hist. Nat. Ins. Orth. p. 339 (Gryllus) (1839); Chopard, Ann. Mag.

Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 508 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Kotte (Western Province) ;

Marai Villu (North Western Province); Peradeniya, Matale

(Central Province); Bintenne (Ova Province); Marichchukaddi

Northern Province) ; India; Malay Archipelago.

Type in the Paris Museum. Tyfe-locality Bengal.

var. melanocephalus Chopard. _

Ark, f. Zool. 23A, No. 9, p. 7 (1931): Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B)

hy p.2 F (1956).

Dist. Ceylon: Marichchukaddi (Northern Province); India; Malay

Archipelago. |

Typfeinthe Paris Museum. TZ yfe-locality Sumatra.

12. Gymnogryllus humeralis (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 5 (Gryllus) (1871); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 508 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon; Colombo, Dehiwela, Battaramulla, Hanwella (Western

Province) ; Chilaw (North Western Province); Kandy, Peradeniya

(Central Province); Balangoda, Madola Opanake, Rakwana

(Sabaragamuwa Province); Badulla (Uva /Province); Niroddu-

munai, Trincomalee (Eastern Province); India.

: Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-locality

_ Bombay. :

Genus ITaroprsis Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 511 (1925).

13. Itavopsis tenellus (Walker)

: Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 37 (Gryllus) (1869); Gryllus

parviceps Walker, Loc. cit. v, suppl. p. 8 (1871) ; Ltaropsis parviceps Cho-

pard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 510 (1925); Azurogryllus tenellus

Chopard, loc. cit., p. 508, fig. 2 (1925); Chopard, Celyon J. Sci. (B)

Xx, p. 21 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Kotte, Battaramulla (Western Province); Kandy,

Peradeniya, Matale, Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Province);

Kalawewa (North Central Province); Ratnapura, Balangoda

(Sabaragamuwa Province); Uva Highlands, Bandarawela (Uva

3 ' Province); India.

-_ © Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-locality

fe ‘Ceylon.’ .

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Genus Gryiius Linnaeus

Syst. Nat. (ed. x), p. 425 (1758); Ldogryllus Saussure,

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 134 (1877).

14, Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer

Mém. Ins. iif, p. 521, pl. xxxxiii. fig. 4 (1773); Acheta bimaculata

Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 509 (1925); Chopard, Ceylon

Wesel. (B) xx, \p. 22:(4936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province); Kandy, Mousakande

Gammaduwa (Central Province) ; Maha Illupalama (North Central

Province) ; Murunkan, Illupukaduvai (Northern Province) ; Asia ;

Australia and Africa.

Genus GRYLLULUS Uvarov

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (10) xvi, p. 320 (1935).

15. Gryllulus testaceus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 38 (Gryllus) (1869).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Kotte (Western Province):

Puttalam (North Western Province) ; Kandy, Peradeniya (Central

Province); Balangoda (Sabaragamuwa Province); Vavu-niya,

Murunkan (Northern Province); Southern Asia.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History) Zyje-locality .

Canton.

16. Gryllulus mitratus (Burmeister)

Handb. Ent. ii, p. 734 (Gryllus) (1838) ; Gryllus occipitalis Serville

Hist. Nat. Ins. Orth. p. 339 (1839).

Dist. Ceylon: Battaramulla. (Western Province); Marai Villu (North

Western Province) ; Kandy, Peradeniya, Matale (Central Province);

Diyatalawa (Uva Province); Warahamankada (Southern Pro-

vince); Southern Asia,

Tye in the Leyden Museum. TZyfe-locality Java.

17. Gyryllulus contiguratus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 8 (Gvyllus) (1871); Gryllus

guadristvigatus Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 510 (1925);

Gryllus contiguratus Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 198 (1928).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte, Battaramulla (Western Province);

Sigiriya, Mousakande Gammaduwa, Woodside Urugala (Central

Province); Diyatalawa, Wellawaya, Bintenne, Galge (Uva Pro-

vince); Warahamankada (Southern Province); Murunkan, Marich-

chukaddi (Northern Province); India.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). TZyfe-locality

Bombay.

18. Gryllulus flavus Chopard

Ceylon J.-5ci. (B) xx, p.24 (1936).

Dist, Ceylon: Battaramulla (Western Province); Balangoda, Madola

Opanake, Rakwana (Sabaragamuwa Province).

Type (female) in the Colombo Museum. Tyfe-locality Rakwana,

May 1929 (G. M. Henry).

“TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDE OF CEYLON

19. Gryllulus contirmatus (Walker)

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) iv, p. 221 (Acheata) (1859) ; Gryllus conso-

brinus Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 188 (1877); Gryllus confir-

_ matus Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 509 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte, Battaramulla (Western Province) ;

Kandy, Peradeniya, Matale (Central Province); Mihintale, Eppawala

(North Central Province); Ratnapura (Sabaragamuwa Province) ;

Wellawaya, Bintenne (Uva Province); Trincomalee (Eastern Pro-

vince); Vilapalawewa, Barberyn (Southern Province); Elephant

Pass, Murunkan (Northern Province); Southern Asia. |

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-locality

‘Ceylon’.

20. Gryllulus bucharicus (Bei-Bienko)

Bol. Soc. Esp. Nat, Hist. xxxiii, p. 323, fig. EES (1933) Cho-

pard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 25 (1936),

Dist. Ceylon: Marai Villu (North Western Province); Bandarawela

(Uva Province); Marichchukadde (Northern Province) ; India.

Typein the Leningrad Museum. TZ yfe-locality ‘Turkmenistan’,

21. Gryllulus brevicauda Chopard

Ceylon J: Sci. (B) xx, p. 26, fig. 3 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province); Kandy

(Central Province) ; Balangoda (Sabaragamuwa Province); Well-

awaya, Bintenne (Uva Province).

Type (female) in the Colombo Museum. TyZe-locality Bintenne,

October 1928 (G. M. Henry).

22. Gryllulus blennus (Saussure)

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 215 (Gryllodes) (1877) ; Gryllus flavipes

Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 197, figs. 1-2 (1928). Tyfe-locality

Colombo, Ceylon, February 1924 (male); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B)

xx, p. 27 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province) ; Marai

Villu (North Western Province) ; Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa

Province); Bandarawela (Uva Province) ; Mahaoya (Eastern Pro-

vince); India; Malay Archipelago.

Type in the Leyden Museum. Ty pe-locality ‘ Java’.

23. Gryllulus pallipes (Chopard)

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 510, fig. 3 (Gryl/us) (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province); Pera-

deniya (Central Province); Rakwana (Sabaragamuva Province),

Type (female) in the British Museum (Natural POLY fe Ly pe-

a locality Peradeniya, March 1907 (B. E. Green).

Genus GRYLLODES Saussure

Miss. Méx. Orth. p. 409 (1874).

«24, «=Gryllodes sigillatus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 46 Gry/lus) (1869) ;

Grylius punctulipes Walker, loc, cit. p. 51 (1869).

“i

"4 ay

hat at

= Ab

ane

at fr

aed

‘ ee

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Dist. Ceylon ; Colombo, Kotte, Battaramulla, Kollonnawa, Ratmalana

“(Western Province); Peradeniya (Central Province); Kalawewa

(North Central Province); Balangoda, Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa

Province); Bibile (Uva Province); Trincomalee, Bey te

Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Galle (Southern Province); Asia;

Africa, Australia; West Indies: Mexico and South America.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zype-locality ‘Swan

River ’,

25. Gryllodes supplicans (Walker)

Ann, Mag. Nat. Hist. (3) iv, p. 221 ( Acheta) (1859); Gryllus suppli-

cans Chopard, loc. cit. (9) xv, p. 510 (1925) ; Gryllodes greenit Chopard,

loc. cit. (9) xv, p. 511, fig. 5 (1925). TZype-locality ‘Ceylon’ (male &

female) ; Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 28 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Matale (Central Province); Balangoda (Sabaragamuwa

Province); Bandarawela (Uva Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyje-locality

‘Ceylon’.

Genus GRYLLOPSIS Chopard

Rec. Ind. Mus. xxx, p. 13 (1928).

26. Gryllopsts talconneti (Saussure)

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 230 (Gryllodes (1877); Chopard, Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 28 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Recorded by W.-F. Kirby without exact locality ;

India.

Type in the Paris Museum, TZyje-locality ‘Central India’. This

species is not represented in the Colombo Museum collection.

Genus NEMOBIODES Chopard.

Ann, Soc. Ent. Fr. Ixxxvi, p. 521 (1918),

27. Nemobiodes laeviceps Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 515 (1925); Memobiodes ceylonicus

Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 199, figs. 3-4 (1928). Type locality

Urugala, Ceylon, September 1922; Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xv, p. 29

(1936).

_ Dist. Ceylon: Woodside Urugala (Central Province); Pulmoddai

(Eastern Province),

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). Zye-locality

‘Ceylon’. No precise locality (EH. E. Green),

28. Nemobiodes nigrocephalus Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 514, fig. 6 (1925),

Dist, Ceylon: Peradeniya, Matale, Mousakande Gammaguwa, Hak-

gala (Central Province) ; Bintenne (Uva Province).

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). Zype-locality

Peradeniya, June 1905 (EH. E. Green).

Se ee eee a ee

PA sai ,

Te eee Ga ee Le eRe ae

se baeat SNM We Aan Reg ED Te ey Pont eg ee POE ERE Te eee

Pied Re IE ete EE GR NaC NE ht las Gia ge A A cee ee ac

REY Ria N IE

TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDE OF CEYLON 5A

Genus CoPHOGRYLLUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 232 (1877).

29. Cophogryllus martini Bolivar _

Ann, Soc. Ent. Fr. lxviii, p. 708 (1900); Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat

Hist. (9) xv, p. 515, fig. 7 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Sigiriya (Central Province) ; Continental India,

Type in the Paris Museum. Tyfe-locality Trichinopoly. This

species is not represented in the Colombo Museum.

Genus SCAPSIPEDUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 239 (1877).

30. Scapsipedus aspersus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 39 (Grylius) (1869) ; Gryllodes ber

thellus Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 205(1877); Gryllus berth-

ellus Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 510 (1925); Scapsipedus

mandtbularis Saussure Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 246 (1877); Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 29 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte, Battarmulla (Western Province) ;

Kandy, Peradeniya, Woodside Urugala (Central Province); Ratna-

pura, Balangoda (Sabaragamuwa Province); Bintenne, Bibile (Uva

Province); Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Murunkan (Northern

Province) ; Southern Asia.

= Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zye-locality Hong

ong.

31. Scapbstpedus ceylonicus Chopard

Rec, Ind. Mus, xxx, p. 18 (1928) ; Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B), xx,

p. 30 (1936).

Dist, Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Labugama (Western Pro-

vince); Peradeniya (Central Province); Balangoda (Sabara-

gamuwa Province).

Type (male & female) inthe Indian Museum. 7'yfe-/ocality Pera-

deniya, May 1910 (male) (E. E. Green); Labugama, November 1909

(female) (E. E. Green).

Genus CoIBLEMMUS Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 30 (1936).

32. Coiblemmus compactus (Chopard)

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 201, pl. xiii, figs. 5-6 (Homaloblemmus)

(1928); Homaloblemmus cavitrons Chopard, Stylops ii, p. 116, fig. 3

(1933); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 30 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Mihintale (North Central Province); Wellawaya,

Bintenne (Uva Province); Trincomalee (Eastern Province); Yala

(Southern Province); Elephant Pass, Vivuniya, Marichchukaddi -

(Northern Province) ; India.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality Ele-

phant Pass, January 1923 (male) (G. M. Henry) ; Vavuniya, December

1923 (female) (G. M, Henry).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO

Genus LoxoBLemmMus Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 249 Oe

33. Loxoblemmus equestris Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 252, pl. 13 figs. 4, 4a-c (1877); Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci, (B) xx;p. 31 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Battaramulia, Hanwella (Western Province) ; Perade-

niya, Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Province); Rakwana

(Sabaragamuwa Province); Bintenne (Uva Province) ; Southern

Asia.

Type in the Leyden Museum. Zyfe-locality Java.

=) 34. Loxoblemmus longipalbis Chopard

Be Ceylon J. Sei. (B) xiv, p. 200 (1928); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B)

xs de od oO). :

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province); Kandy

(Central Province); Balangoda, Deniyaya, Timbolketiya, Madola

x Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Province); Bintenne (Uva Province) ;

Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Katagamuwa, Talgasmankade,

Warahamankade (Southern Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). P pie tecabty

Colombo, October 1919 (G. M. Henry).

Te eT ae et Oe Ae ee eee aE eee

Genus STEPHOBLEMMUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 259 (1877).

35. Staphoblemmus humbertiellus Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 260, pl. 13 figs. 1-3 (1877); Chopard ,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 31 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Alutnuwara (Uva Province).

Type in the Paris Museum. Tyfe-locality ‘Mountains of Ceylon’ ;

(M. A. Humbert). This species is represented by a solitary male

specimen in the Colombo Museum collection, and is the only specimen

found since Saussure’s description ; the female is still unknown.

! Genus SCAPSIPEDOIDES Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 32 (1936).

36, Scapsipedoides macrocephalus Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci..(B) xx, p. 32, fig. 4 (1936). j

Dist. Ceylon : Belihuloya ’(Sabaragamuwa Province) ; Trincomalee i

(Eastern Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. Tyfe-locality Belihuloya,

September 1928 (G. M. Henry).

37. Scapsipedoides apterus Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 32 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Provence) Band-

arawela (Uva Province). 4

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. T y pe-locality Madola near

Opanake, February 1933 (G. M. Henry) i

I Re ee ee Tee EE ne PO Te ee rar ee pe Pee My. qe ee Peg ee :

TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDE OF CEYLON 549

Genus LANDREVA Walker

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 55 (1869).

38. Landreva clara (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 39 (Gryllus) (1869) ; Chopard, Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 516, figs. 8-10 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon; Colombo, Battaramulla, Dehiwela, Labugama (West-

ern Province); Marai Villu (North Western Province); Kandy, .

Peradeniya, Hakgala (Central Province); Randeniya, Wellawaya,

Haldumulla, Bibile, Bintenne (Uva Province); Balangoda, Tim-

bolketiya (Sabaragamuwa Province); Mahaoya (Eastern Province);

- Galle (Southern Province).

Tyfe in the British Museum (Natural History), Tyfe-locality

‘Ceylon’.

39. Landreva subaptera Chopard

Anu Mag. Nats fis. (9) ey, p. Siv, fig. £1 (1925); Chopard,

Bouton J:-Sci. (B) =x, -p.. 35-1936),

Dist. Ceylon: Namunukula, Ohiya (Uva Province); Ratnapura

(Sabaragamuwa Province); Hambantota (Southern Province).

Type (female) in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-

locality Namunukula 6000 feet, November 1910 (E. E. Green).

40. Landreva insignis Walker

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 55 (1869); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci.

(B) xx, p. 35 (19386).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province) : Mousakande Gamma-

duwa, Maskeliya (Central Province); Morningside Rakwana

(Sabaragamuwa Province) ; India.

Tyfe in the British Museum (Natural History). Zy/e-locality

‘Ceylon ’.

41. Landreva angustitrons Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 36, fig. 5 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama(Western Province); Mousakande Gamma-

duwa (Central Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. Ty pe-locality Labugama,

August 1932 (G. M. Henry).

Genus HEMILANDREVA Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 38 (1936).

42. Hemilandreva lamellipennts Chopard

(Cevione J: oel, (bi xx, p. oo, fig! 6 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Belihuloya (Sabaragamuwa Province); Mahaoya

- _ (Eastern Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. Lge toe Naupareil

Estate, Belihuloya 4000 feet, September 1928 (G. M. Henry).

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

Subfam. 3. Nemobiinae

Genus PARANEMOBIUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, pp. 62-63 (1877).

43. Pavanemobius pictus Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 67, pl. 11, figs. 1-3 (1877); Chopard,

, Ceylon, J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 41 (19336).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province); Peradeniya (Central

Province); Kalawewa (North Central Province); Ratnapura,

Kitulgala, Belihuloya (Sabaragamuwa Province); Oodoowerre

Demodera (Uva Province) ; Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Hini«

duma (Southern Province); Kallar (Northern Province) ; ; India.

Tyfe inthe Vienna Museum. TZ yfe-locality ‘ Cashmir ’.

Genus Prevonemobius Jakobson

Orth. Pseudoneur. Russian Emp. p. 450 (1904).

44, Ptevonemobius concolor (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 10 (Exeoptera (1871) ; Nemo-

bius ceylonicus Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 86 (1877); Pterone-

mobius gravelyt Chopard, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxvii, p. 183:(1924) ; Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 42 (1936).

_ Dist. Ceylon; Colombo, Battaramulla, Kotte, Negombo (Western

Province) ; Marai Villu (North Western Province); Kandy, Matale

(Central Province); Kalawewa (North Central Province); Ratnapura;

Yatiantota, Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Province); Bintenne

(Uva Province); Trincomalee (Eastern Province); Barberyn

(Southern Province); Marichchukkaddi (Northern Province) ;

Southern Asia. :

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality

Bombay. |

45. Pteronemobius birmanus Chopard

Ann. Soc. Ent.-Fr. Ixxxvi, p. 556, fig. 84 (1918) ; Chopard, Ceylon J.

Sci. (B) xx, p. 42 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province) ; India.

Tye in the Genoa Museum. TZ y/e-locality ‘ Birmania’.

46. Pteronemboius vagus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 10 (1871); Chopard, Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xv, p. 43 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon : Colombo, Kotte, Battaramulla (Western Province);

Peradeniya (Central Province); Balangoda, Rakwana (Sabara-

gamuwa Province) ; Barberyn (Southern Province); Southern

Asia. --. .

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zye-locality

Bombay.

Pe ee to eee Tener et ee

Ee Me See ee ee eee Te ES Cp eee

Ne eee ee Se eee

ae a ee a nao Fae

one ae eer gaat s reo,

TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDA OF CEYLON Asal

47, Pieronemobius taprobanensis (Walker)

Cat. Derm, Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 102 (Trigonzdium) (1869); Eneop-

tera lateralis Walker, loc. cit. v, suppl. p. 11 (1871); Nemobzus infernalis

Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 83 (1877); Nemobius javanus

Saussure, loc, cit. ‘p. 85 (1877); Chopard, Ceylon Ti Sci. (B) xx, p. 43

1936).

: se Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte, Battaramuila, Labugama (Western

Province); Kandy, Peradeniya, Matale, Horton Plains, Hakgala

(Central Province); Ratnapura, Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Pro

vince); Bandarawela, Ohiya (Uva Province) ; Trincomalee, Arugam

Bay (Eastern Province); Southern Asia.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zye-locality

‘Ceylon’.

48, Pteronemobius tascipes (Walker)

Cat. Derm, Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 67 (Aneoptera) (1869); Eneoptera

alboatra Walker, loc. cit. v, suppl. p. 11 (1877); NMemobius histrio Saus-

sure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, D 95 (1877); Nemobius nigvosignatus

Brunner, Ann. Mus. Genoa, xxxiii, p. 196 (1893).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Kotte, Battaramulla, Labugama (Western

Province); Matale, Madugoda, Mousakande Gammaduva (Central

Province); Bandarawela, North Punduluoya, Bintenne (Uva Pro-

vince); Ratnapura (Sabaragamuwa Province); Hiniduma (South-

ern Province) ; Southern Asia. 3

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality ‘North

Hindustan ’,

49. Pteronomobius csiki (Bolivar)

Zichy Zool. Ergebn. ii, p. 248 (Vemobius) (1901); Chopard, Ann,

Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 507 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province) ; Kandy,

Peradeniya (Central Province); Trincomalee, Mahaoya (Eastern

Province) ; Southern Asia.

Type inthe Vienna Museum. Tye-localily China.

50, Pteronemobius bicolor (Saussure)

Mém. Soc, Geneve, xxv, p. 98, pl. 11, figs. 5-6 (Vemob7us) (1877) ;

Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 45 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Marai Villu (North Western Province) ; India.

7 vpe inthe Geneva Museum. 7yfe-locality ‘Central India’.

Genus Scotti Bolivar

Trans. Linn. Soc. London, xv, p. 278 (1912)

51. Scottza ceylonica Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 45, fig. 8 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Mousakande Gammaduwa, Hakgala, Nuwara Eliya

(Central Province).

Type (female) in the Colombo Museum. TZye-locality Nuwara

Eliya, April 1931 (G. M. Henry).

Subfam. 4. Trigonidiinae |

Genus TriconipIum Rambur

Faune Andal. ii, p. 39 (1839).

52. Ls vigonidium cicindeloides Rambur

Faune Andal. ii, p. 39 (1839); Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9) XV;

ip. 025 (1929).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province); Mousakande Gamma-

_ duwa (Central Province) ; Timbolketiya (Sabaragamuwa Province);

Bandarawela, Bintenne (Uva Province); Pullumalai (Eastern

Province); Katagamuwa, Ranna (Southern Province); Asia ;

Australia; Africa.

Type in the British © Maseny (Natural History) Zype-locality

‘Ceylon’.

53. Trigonidium humbertianum (Saussure) |

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 468, pl. 17, fig. dO ea (1878) ;

Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 525 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province) ; Chilaw

(North Western Province) ; Kandy, Peradeniya (Central Province);

Kalawewa (North Central Province) ; Timbolketiya (Sabaraga-

muwa Province); Trincomalee, Kalkudah (Eastern Province) ;

Yala, Talgasmankada (Southern Province); Southern Asia.

Type in the Geneva Museum, Typerlocality Trincomalee (M.A,

Humbert).

Genus Meriocue Stl

Ofvers. Vet-Akad. Férh. xxxiv, p. 48 (1877);

Piestoxiphus Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxx, p. 467 (1878).

54. Metioche unicolor Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 526; fis. 22 (1925); Chopard, Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 49 19385).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province); Peradeniya (Central

Province); Malay Archipelago.

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural Hisiory), (female) in

the Chopard collection. TZyfe-locality Peradeniya. December 1910 es

(male) (E. E. Green); Batavia, August 1920 (female) (H. Karny).

Genus METIOCHODES Chopard

Ark, f, Zool. 23A, No.9, p. 13 (1932).

55. Metiochodes greeni (Chopard)

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 532, fig. 26 (Cortoxipha) (1925) a

Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 49, fig. 9 (1936). &

oh ple id .=

aa aie Cid oT ea

TRIDACTYLIDA & GR VLLIDZ OF CEYLON 5533

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Labugama (Western Province) ;

Peradeniya (Central Province); Ratnapura (Subaragamuwa

Province); Galge (Uva Province); Arugam Bay (Eastern

Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). 7. ype-locality Perade-

niya, June 1910 (E. E. Green).

56. Metiochodes trilineatus Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 50, fig. 10 (1936),

Dist. Ceylon: Rangala (Central Province),

Tyfe (female) inthe Colombo Museum. 7 e-locality St. Martin’s

Estate, Rangala, April 1930 (G. H. Henry).

Genus AMuUSURGUs Brunner

Ann, Mus. Genova, xiii, pp. 207, 212 (1893).

57. Amusurgus oedemeroides (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 11 (Aeoptera) (1871);

Amusurgus fulvus Brunner, Ann. Mus, Genova, xili, p. 212 (1893).

Type locality ‘Birma’; Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv,

Se) ekes co. (los a).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Labugama, (Western Pro-

vince); Kandy, Matale, Woodside Urugala, Rangala, Nitre

Cave Medamahanuwara (Central Province); Madawachiya

(North Central Province); Ratnapura, Rakwana, Kitulgala

Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Province ); Wellawaya (Uva

Province); Kanniyai Trincomalee, Mahaoya (Eastern Pro-

vince); Vavuniya (Northern Province): India; Burma; Malay

Archipelago.

Tyfe in the British Museum (Natural History). Ty pe-locality

‘Ceylon’.

58. Amusurgus speculiter Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 52, fig. 11 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. 7yfe-locality Labugama,

March 1931. (G. M. Henry).

Genus PARANAXIPHA Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 530 (1925).

59. Paranaxipha ornatipes Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 528, fig. 24 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province) ; ‘Kandy, Sigiriya,

Woodside Urugalla, Nitre Cave Medamahanuwara (Central

Province); Mihintale (North Central Province); Ratnapura

(Sabaragamuwa Province); Wellawaya, Haldumulla (Uva

Province); Kanniyai Trincomalee (Eastern Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Type-locality

Kandy, June 1910 (E. E. Green).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

Genus ‘TRIGONIDOMORPHA Chopard -

Ark. f, Zool. 18A, No. 6, p39 (1926),

60. Trigonidomorpha tuscitrons Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 54, fig. i2 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Bandarawela (Uva Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. 7 )e-locality Bandarawela,

April 1931 (G. M. Henry).

4 +i: 4

5 > tie iy 5 el thas

ON Sg. SEO. See Os Ee Se ee Pe ae ee ee Corer eae

Genus HomogoxIpHA Saussure —

Miss, Méx. Orth. p. 363 (1874).

61. flomocoxipha lycoides (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 71 (PAyllopalpus) (1869) ;

Homoeoxipha histrio Saussure, MEd. soc, Geneve, xxv, p. 467 (1878);

Cyrtoxipha ritsemae Saussure, loc. cit. p. 485 (1878) ; Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat, Hist. (9) xv, p. 532 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon; Colombo, Kotte, Labugama (Western Province) ;

Kandy, Peradeniya, Matale (Central Province) ; Kalawewa

(North Central Province); Ratnapura (Sabaragamuwa Pro-

vince) ;_ Badulla, Wellawaya, Punduluoya, Galge, Haputale

(Uva Province); Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Hiniduma, —

Katagamuwa (Southern Province) ; Marichchukaddi (Northern —

Province); Southern Asia. 3

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality —

‘Ceylon’.

Genus ANAXIPHA Saussure _

Miss. Méx. Orth. p. 370 (1874).

62. Anaxipha pubescens Chopard : 7

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.< (9)- xv, p- 530, fig. 25 (1925) ; Chopard,

Ceylon, J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 50 (1936). |

Dist. Ceylon: Peradeniya (Central Province). seu 4

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality —

Peradeniya, December 1910 (E. E. Green). ‘This species is not repre-

sented in the collection of the Colombo Museum. <

63. Anaxipha longipennis (Serville) . 4

Hist. Nat. Ins. Orth. p. 351 (Zvigontdium) (1839); Gyrtoxtbee . 4

pusillus Saussure, Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 486 (1878); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 530 (1925); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci.

(B) xx, p. 57 (1936). S|

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Bepeca (Western: Pro-

vince); Marai Villu(North Western Province); Peradeniya, Matale

(Central Province); Yatiantota, Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Pro-

vince); Arugam Bay (Eastern Province); Ranna (Southern

Province) ; Marichchukaddi (omen Province) ; Asia ; Australia ‘7 i

Africa. ; o

7ype in the Paris Museum. 7y/e-locality Mauritius.

-TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDH OF CEYLON 855

64. Anaxipha henryi Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p, 57 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Bandarawela, Wellawaya (Uva Province); Tirukovil,

Arugam Bay (Eastern Province).

Type Goes in the Colombo Museum. Tyfe-locality Wellawaya

a 1931 (G. M oe

Subfam, 5. Myrmecophilinae

| Genus MyRMECOPHILA Latreille.

Regne Anim. (ed. 2) v, p. 183 (1829) ; Myrmecophilus Saussure,

-Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 289 (1877).

«65. Myrmecophila eschericht Schimmer

2 Termit. auf. Ceylon, p. 235, fig. 61 (1911), Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci.

(B) xx, p. 58 (1936). |

Dist. Ceylon : No precise locality is indicated.

_ ‘This species was described from a very young larva 1.6 mm. long,

It is not represented in the collection of the Colombo Museum.

Genus MyRMOPHILELLUS Uvarov

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11) vi, p. 113 (1940).

66. Myrmophilellus pilipes (Chopard)

} Rec. Ind. Mus. xxx, p. 21, fig. 30 (lyrmegryllus) (1928) ; Myrmeco-

: phila dubia Chopard (nec Saussure), Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 519

(1925); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) Me, Dee do (1936);

Dist. (Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Province) ; Pera-

deniya, Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Province); Bandara-

wela, Bibile, Oodoowerre Demodera (Uva Province).

| Type ae) in the Indian Museum. T7'yfe-locality Peradeniya, May

7 1910 (E. E. Green).

Subfam. 6. Mogoplistinae

Genus CycCLopPTILOIDES Sjoestedt

_ Ergeb. Schwed. Exp. Kilimandjaro, iii (17), pp. 94, 109 (1909).

3 67. Cycloptiloides orientalis Chopard

. Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. xciv, p. 301, figs. 19-24 (1925); Cycloptiloides

; -ceylonicus Chopard, Ann, Mag. Nat. HASt.(0), xv, Dp. 920;,' figs, 1S=14

p>) Type locality Peradeniya, Ceylon (male) ; Chopard, Ceylon

eJ. Sci. (B) xx, p. 60 (1936).

a Dist. Resions Battaramulla (Western Province) ; ePeradettinas

- Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Province); Bandarawela,

_ Bibile, Oodoowerre Demodera (Uva Province) ; Malay Archi-

_pelago. ;

— «Typei in the Paris Museum. TZy/e-locality Sumatra.

ata

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Genus OrNEBIUS De Guérin ~

Mém. Icon. Anim. Ins. iii, p. 331 (1844).

68. Ornebius guerint (Bolivar)

Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. Ixviii, p. 801 (Liphoplus) (1900) ; Liphopls

ceylonicus Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 519, fig 12 (1925).

Type locality Peradeniya, Ceylon (female); Chopard, Ceylon J. OCh

(B):xx, p..60°4936),

Dist. Ceylon: Kandy, Peradeniya (Central Province); Wellawaya

(Uva Province); Trincomalee (Bastern Province); Yala

(Southern Province) ; India.

Type in the Paris Museum. TZyfe-locality ‘ South India’.

69. Ornebtus varipennis Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 60 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Madugoda (Central Province); Polonnaruwa (North

Central Province); Wellawaya (Uva Province); ‘Tennamarawadi

Trincomalee (Eastern Province); Marichchukaddi (Northern

Province).

Type (male, in the Colombo Museum. Ty e-locality Marichchu-

kaddi, March 1933 (G, M. Henry).

Genus DERECTAOTUS Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 61 (1936).

70. Derectaotus ceylonicus (Chopard)

Rec. Ind. Mus. xxx, p. 24, figs. 34 & 39 (Ornebius) Pe ; Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 62 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Kandy, Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Pro-

vince).

Type (female) in the Indian Museum. 7'y#e-locality Kandy, June

1910 (E. E. Green).

71. Devectaotus henryt Sse:

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 203, pl. 14, figs. 11-12 (Cryptoptilum) —

(1928) ; Chopard, Ceylon J. Sei. (B) XX, p. 62 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Kandy (Central Province); Herowupotana (North ©

Central Province); Kanniyai Trincomalee (Eastern Province);

Warahamankada (Southern Province),

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). TZype-

locality Horowupotana, October 1924 (G, M. Henry).

72. Derectaotus pulpatus Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 62 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Hakgala, Mousakande Gammaduwa, Goatfell Kanda-

pola (Central Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum, Ty pe-locality Hakgalay |

August 1929 (G. M. Henry).

Eee aan eet ee hae eee

RS eS

Ne Nil a ll lll i bas hii all hall

wh P ogakts ee ee ‘Pas NF

a RR NS Oe

ae Pen Ata ira

ie Da

4 Ni aie

TRIDACTYLIDE & GRYLLIDA OF CEYLON 557

Genus EcTraTopERuS De Guérin

Lefebvre, Voy. Abyssin. vi, p. 336 (1849).

73. Ectatoderus ceylonicus Chopard

Ceylon: J. Sci. (B). xiv, p. 202, pl. 14, figs. 7-10 (1928) ;

Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 63 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Horowupotana (North Central Province) ; Kalkudah

(Eastern Province); Barkeryn, Vilapalawewa (Southern Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Type-locality

Horowupotana, October 1924 (G. M. Henry).

Subfam. 7. Pentacentrinae

a Genus PENTACENTRUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 399 (1878).

74. Pentacentrus pulchellus Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 401, pl. 17, figs. 1-5 (1878); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.” (9) xv, p. 523; fig..18 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Mousakande Gammaduwa, Maskeliya (Central Pro-

vince). Tye in the Berlin Museum. 7yZe-locality ‘ Ceylon ’.

Genus HomaLocRvLLus Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 525 (1925).

75. Homalogryllus depressus Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p, 523, figs. 19-21 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Trincomalee (Eastern Province).

Type (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-

locality Trincomalee, January 1912 (E. E. Green). This species is not

represented in the Colombo Museum collection. Known from the

type-specimen only.

Subfam. 8. Oecanthinae

Genus OECANTHUS Serville

Ann. Sci. Nat. xxii, p. 134 (1831); Aecanthus Brulle, Hist. Nat.

Ins. ix, p. 174 (1835).

76. Oecanthus indicus Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 454 (1878); Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat.

mist. (9) xv; p. 525 (1925). |

_ Dist. Ceylon: Colombo: (Western Province); Peradeniya, Mousa-

kande Gammaduwa (Central Province); Rakwana (Sabara-

gamuwa Province); Haldumulla, Bintenne (Uva Province);

Nirodumunai, Trincomalee (Eastern Province); Ranna, Vila-

palawewa (Southern Province); India; Malay Archipelago;

Formosa. : 3

Tye in the Paris Museum. TZyZe-locality Bombay.

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 5

77. Oecanthus rufescens Serville

Hist. Nat. Ins. -Orth. p. 361 (1839);. Chopard, Ceylon J.-Sci,. (B)

xx, p. 65 (1936). |

Dist. Ceylon: Bandarawela (Uva Province); India; Malay te ss

pelago ; ; Australia.

Type inthe Paris Museum. TZyZe-locality Bonar.

78, Oecanthus henryi Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 65 (1936). . -

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla (Western Prayihice) Kala-

wewa (North Central Province) ; Wellawaya (Uva Province) ;

Pullumalai (Eastern Province); Deniyaya. (Southern Province) ;

Marichchukaddi (Northern Province).

Type See in the Colombo Museum.- Z7yfe-locality Wellawaya,

July 1930 (G. M. Henry).

Subfam. 9. Phalangopsinea

Genus ARACHNOMIMUS Saussure

Biol. Centr. Amer., Zool, Orth, J, -p.251 (1897).

79. <Arachnomimus nietnert (Saussure)

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 442 (Arachnopsis) (1878) ; Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 522 (1925), 3

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province) ; Peradeniya, Mousa- —

kande Gammaduwa, Ohiya, West Haputale, Hakgala (Central

Province); Polonnaruwa (North Central Province); Wellawaya,

Bintenne, Kalugala, Nammunukula (Uva Province) ; Trincomalee

(Eastern Province).

Type inthe Berlin Museum. TZyfe-locality ‘ Ceylon’.

80. Arachnonimus bicolor Chopard P

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p 205., pl. 15, 15-17 (1928); Chopard, Ceylon

J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 66 (1936). g

Dist. Ceylon: Horowupotana (North Central Province) ; Vavuniya =

Northern Province). cd

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-locality Horo-

wupotana October 1924 (male) (G.M Henry); Vavuniya, December -

1923 (female) (G.M.Henry). This species is not represented in the

Colombo Museum collection.

81. Avachnomimus annulicornis Chopard —

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 67, fig. 13 (1936). |

Dist. Ceylon: Bintenne, Buttala (Uva Province). : y

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. gee: locality Buttala, vseng i

1931 (G. M. Henry). 2

- TRIDACTYLIDA & GRYLLIDE OF CEYLON 559

Genus Luzaropsis Chopard

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 521 (1925).

82. Luzaropsis ferruginea (Walker)

_ Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 103 (Luzara) (1869); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 521, figs. 15-17 (1925).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province); Kandy, Woodside

Urugala, Mousakande Gammaduwa (Central Province) ; Balangoda,

Kitulgala, Rakwana, Timbolketiya, Opanake (Sabaragamuwa

Province); Wellawaya, North Punduluoya, Haputale, Haldumulla

(Uva Province); Deniyaya, Hiniduma (Southern Province) ; Vavu-

niya (Northern Province),

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Zype-locality —

‘Ceylon’.

83. Luzaropsts henryt Chopard

p Ceylon <3. sci, (3) xiv,.p..c05, pl. 15, ‘figs, 1344 (1928); Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 68 (1936). |

Dist. Ceylon: Horowupotana, Polonnaruwa, Mihintale (North

Central Province); Trincomalee, Pulmoddai, Katalai (Eastern

Province) ; (Marichchukaddi (Northern Province).

Tye in the British Museum (Natural History). TZype-locality Horo-

wupotana, October 1924 (G. M. Henry).

Genus SEYCHELLESIA Bolivar

Trans. Linn. Soc. London, xv, p. 286 (1912).

«84, Seychellesia ceylonica Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 69. figs. 14-15 (1936).

Mist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province); Timbolketiya

(Sabaragamuwa Province) ; Deniyaya (Southern Province),

4 Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. TZyfe-locality Labugama,

January 1930 (G, M. Henry). |

Subfam. 10. Itarinae

Genus HETEROTRYPUS Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, pp. 506, 537 (1878).

85. Heterotrypus vicinus Chopard

- - Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 206, pl. 16, figs. 18-22 (1928); Chopard,

® Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 71 (1926).

_ . Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province); Urugala (Central

Province) ; Kitulgala, Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Province) ;

4 Weliawaya, Bibile (Uva Province).

a Tye in the British Museum (Natural History). 7 ye-locality Urugala,

® April 1924 (G. M. Henry).: : acre

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

86. Heterotry pus elegans Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci (B) xx, p. 72, figs. 16-17 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province); Kitulgala, Belihulcya,

Rakwana, Madola Opanake (Sabaragamuwa Province); Deniyaya

(Southern Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. 7: ype-locality Kitulgala, April

1927 (G. M. Genry).

Subfam. 11. Eneopterinae

Genus CARDIODACTYLUs Saussure

Mém. Soc. Geneve, xxv, p. 517 (1878).

87. Cardiodactylus praectpuus (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 83 (Platydact)lus) (1869); Mada-

summa praectpua Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 533 (1925) ;

Chopard, Ceylon J. Soc. (B) xx, p. 75 936).

Dist. Ceylon: No precise locality mentioned. Recorded by

F. Walker.

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). 7yfe-locality ‘Ceylon’.

Known only from the type specimen, and the species has never been

found since it was first described. This species is not represented in

the Colombo Museum collection.

Subfam. 12. Podoscirtinae

Genus MADASUMMA Walker

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 64 (1869),

88. Madasumma marginipennis (De Guerin)

Mém. Icon. Anim. Ins. iti, p. 330 (Platydactylus) (1844); Chopard,

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 533 ((1925).

Dist. Ceylon : Colombo, Battaramulla, Dehiwela, Wadduwa (Western

Province); Marai Villu (North Western Province); Kandy, Pera-

deniya, Mousakande Gammaduwa, Woodside Urugala (Central

Province); Balangoda, Timbolketiya, Rakwana (Sabaragamuwa

Province) ; Bandarawela, Wellawaya, Uva Highlands, Bintenne

Madulsima, Buttala, Tellula, Kudaoya (Uva Province); Kantalai,

Mahaoya (Eastern Province}; Yala, Warahamankada, (Southern

Province); Marichchukaddi (Northern Province).

89. Madasumma greent Chopard 3

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 593, figs. 27b, 29, 31 (1925); Chopard:

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 76 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Kandy, Matale, Blahara (Central Province); Rak-

wana (Sabaragamuwa Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Tyfe-locality Kandy

May 1909 (E. E. Green).

90. Madasumma albonotata Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 78, fig. 18 (1936).

Se Co ti oie By Ree ee

es PR PEs NE Ns 12 5 tha Maat iit ip dake

TRIDACTYLIDA & GRYLLIDA OF CEYLON 561

Dist. Ceylon: Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Province). |

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. Tyfe-locality Kitulgala,

April 1927 (G. M. Henry).

91, Madasumma valida Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 78, fig. 19 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province).

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. T7yfe-locality Labugama,

June 1932 (G. M. Henry).

92. Madasumma varipennis (Walker)

Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. 1, p. 84 (Platydactylus) (1869); Mada-

summa incerta Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xiv, p. 205 (1928). Type

locality Horowupotana, Ceylon (female); Chopard, Ceylon J. Sci.

CB) xx. p.c/9 (1936): |

Dist. Ceylon: Horowupotana (North Central Province); Vilapala-

wewa (Southern Province) ; Marichchukaddi (Northern Province),

Tyfe (male) in the British Museum (Natural History). Zyfe-

locality ‘Ceylon’. |

Genus Myxstsutus Stal

Ofvers. Vet.-Akad. Forh. xxxiv, p. 50 (1877).

93. Mnesibulus pallipes Chopard :

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 81, figs. 21-22 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Sigiriya (Central Province); Madola Opanake

(Sabaragamuwa Province). '

Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. T7Zyfe-locality Madola near

Opanake, February 1933 (G. M. Henry).

Genus Euscyrtus De Guérin

Mém. Icon. Anim. Ins. iii, p. 334 (1844).

94. Huscyrius hemelytrus (De Haan)

Temm. Verh. Orth. p. 231, pl. 20, fig. 2 (Gryllus) (1842); Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 82 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Battaramulla, Labugama (Western Province) ; Kandy

(Central Province); Ratnapura (Sabaragamuwa Province);

Mahaoya (Eastern Province); Udugama (Southern Province);

Southern Asia.

95. uscyrtus concinnus (De Haan)

Temm. Verh. Orth. p, 231, pl. 20, fig. 3 (Gryllus) (1842) ; Chopard,

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 83 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo, Battaramulla, Labugama (Western Pro-

vince); Kandy, Haragama, Peradeniya (Central Province) ;

Anuradhapura, Mihintale (North Central Province); Ratnapura,

Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Province); Haputale, Galge, Oodoo-

| werre Demodera (Uva Province); Trincomalee, Andankulam

é (Eastern Province); Ambalangoda, Deniyaya (Southern Pro-

vince) ; Marichchukaddi (Northern Province) ; Southern Asia,

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

96. uscyrtus necydaloides (Walker)

-Cat. Derm. Salt. Brit. Mus. v, suppl. p. 15 (OecianEy as71);

Chopard, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9) xv, p. 535 (1925). |

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province) ; Peradeniya (Central

Province) ; Kitulgala (Sabaragamuwa Province).

Type in the British Museum (Natural History). Type-locality

¢ Ceylon’ s |

97. Pinyin laminiter Chopard

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 83 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Labugama (Western Province).

_ Type (male) in the Colombo Museum. T7ye-localily (abibea

September 1931 (G. M. Henry). Besides the type and allotype, the

Colombo Museum collection contains sixteen specimens from the same

locality.

- 98. Euscyrtus pertoratus Ghatak

Ceylon J. Sci. (B) xx, p. 84 (1936).

Dist. Ceylon: Colombo (Western Province).

Tyre orale in the Colombo Museum. Ty pe- locality Colombo:

April 1931 (G. M. Henry).

Genus PaTiscus Stal

Ofvers, Vet.—Akad. Forh. xxxiv, p. 51 (1877).

99, Patiscus guadripunctatus Bolivar

Ann. Soc, Ent. Fr. Ixviii, p. 806 (1900).

Dist. Ceylon : Haputale (Uva Province) ; India. 3

Type in the Pantel collection. 7: ype-locality ' South india :

OBITUARIES

SIR °PETER CLUTTERBUCK

On tue. 2otnof December. 1951, at the age of 84 ssir Peter

Clutterbuck, late Inspector-General of Forests of India and Burma,

and late Chief Conservator of Forests, Kashmir, died at Bournemouth

after a few hours’ illness. To hundreds he was known simply as

‘Clutter’; to thousands he was known and loved as ‘Sir Peter’; to

me he was the best, friend a boy or a man ever had, a wonderful

father. ioe

‘Few who knew him will consider it filial exaggeration to describe

him as a most remarkable man. Not only had he exceptional abilities

in the wide varieties of activities of a forest officer’s calling, but

he was an administrator of great vision and tremendous faith. But

here in the Journal it is more fitting to recall his activities as a

shikari, a naturalist, an animal and bird lover, and a botanist, since

others elsewhere have paid tribute to his prowess as a forest

officer. 3 3

It was his love of animals and birds and natural history that

took him to India. As a boy he was never happier than out in the

open, birds’ nesting or trapping rabbits. His school prizes—before

me as I write—were all books on Natural History. So it was, aftér

his time at Cooper’s Hill, that in 1887 he landed in Bombay and

found himself posted to ‘the Central Provinces. His first station

was Chanda, and he often told me how lucky he was in having

as Conservator a man who said that shikar was the only way to

get to know the immense forests of that area, which then were

unmapped and without working plans. Shikar, his Conservator said,

would take him miles off the beaten track and enable him to get

to learn his territory as no other method could. He plunged whole-

heartedly into this new life with an enthusiasm and zest that never

left him. He was a man of tremendous strength, untiring, and

with an amazing digestion and an ability to sleep at any time

whenever the chance offered. He often recalled his early years and

the amazing observation and prowess of the Gond trackers. On

occasions he would spend days and nights continuously with his

trackers following a bison or buffalo, always keeping well behind

it, to study its habits: where it fed and what it fed on and when

and where it drank and slept. He prepared his first working plans

of Chanda, and it was here that he made his legendary walk of

64 miles in 16 hours. He was at some far forest of his Division

when he got news that a man-eating tiger was interfering with

his fire guards at Allapilli. These were the most valuable teak forests

in the area and had been saved from fire for many years. It was

the height of the hot weather. He wasted no time and started off at

4 o’clock in the afternoon with men carrying his water and big

rifle. He walked solidly all through the night changing the carriers

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

at intervals. He reached Allapilli at 8 o’clock the following morning.

Alas, fever set in and it was not till some weeks later that he accounted

for the man-eater, But his presence reassured the fire guards and

no fires occurred. This walk is spoken of till this day and indicates

well his energy, his enthusiasm and vigour.

It was here in Chanda that he met Winifred the daughter af

the Superintendent of Police, A. B. W. Marriott, and got engaged to

her. Shortly afterwards he was transferred to Gorakhpur in the

U.P. and returned to Chanda the following year for his marriage.

That was in 1896. He had been in India 9g years.

At Gorakhpur in 1897 and 1808 his first two sons were born

and happy years were these for this young family as he was only

30 then, and my mother only 20.

But here in the U.P. forest life and work was different. First

there were elephants for use which had not been the case in the

C.P.; then the forests were heavier, more developed and richer. But

they were no less rich in game than the C.P., and still the rifle

was his constant companion. He had become an amazing shot.

To such an extent was he sure of himself that he could never quite

understand someone else’s doubt after taking a shot and not knowing

whether he had hit or missed his mark. On one occasion he brought

back on the pad of his elephant 3 panthers that he had shot before

breakfast. My mother was his constant companion and went with

him into camp in October, not returning to their station till the

following rains. In the hot weather they used to march early, and

she got used to the orders to the Mahouts for the following morning

‘Hathi char bajay’. This later became a family saying for any

early start.

As the years passed, so my father’s love of shikar diminished.

Perhaps it was the big viceregal shoots and Governors’ shoots, in

which he often worked the line of 30 or 4o elephants up to the

guns and then had the job of dealing with wounded tigers, that tired

him. He gradually gave up his rifle and took to his field glasses and

gradually began to study birds. In his last 34 years birds were his

greatest interest outside his work and home. After birds came fishing,

of which he loved enormously the mahseer and the trout.

As he advanced in his service so was his work more administrative,

and he was less able to spend time in his beloved forests. He always

tried, however, to run a Christmas camp, and in 1918 I came out to

India straight from France as a young subaltern of 20 and I can

think of no happier period in my life than his Christmas camp on

the Sarda River that winter. There I shot my first tiger, sambar and

peafowl, and landed my first mahseer. The camp was at Kaldhuya.

Day after day of perfect weather, mahseer fishing in that mighty

river, the thrill of tying up for and sitting up for tiger, and the

evenings round the huge camp fire listening to tales of the Indian

jungle and forest lore. What heaven for a young man! Can it be

wondered that I grew to love India as my father did?

After this came Simla and Delhi for him, and though he was happy

promoting the interests of his beloved service he chafed at the office

life and sought every means of escape from it. A walk with him

from place to place was not along the contour or bridle path but

or bi Rede ee ob) See ae a gon a " 2 4 , 2

Rear atk ete ue A i a a a Ng ll ed ok a ee

PMSA Aca eM ee Hi Mal ies

Ee a ee eT ee ee ee

ahi

iced

otis ak pat

Se ee ee ee ee

OBITUARIES 565

straight down the khud and up again in a bee line. He could outwalk

and outstay men of half his age.

He returned to England in 1925 after over 40 years service and

- it was thought that his Indian days were over. But no. He had always

been troubled by asthma in England and his health got worse and

worse. Finally in 1932 my mother sold their house, stored their

belongings, and took him back to India for the winter where they

had been invited as the guests of His Highness the Maharao of

Kutch. The dry crisp air of Kutch worked wonders; so much so

that in the following year he felt strong enough at the age of 66 to

accept the post of Chief Conservator of Forests, Kashmir.

He took on a new lease of life and with undiminished vigour set

about reorganising and developing the Forest Department of that

rich State. He shot little, but for 13 golden years he revelled in

his work, the joys of the wonderful home and garden my mother

made, the study of birds, and fishing. He collected round him a

band of enthusiastic officers and he spent his last years imparting to

them all the knowledge and experience that he could, as he very early

saw that it would be their task to carry on when he went. To

the end he remained amazingly vigorous and seldom used his pony

even on difficult tours. What he did for Kashmir and the Forest

Department there would fill a volume. Though ageing, his vision

and drive and enthusiasm were as great as ever.

He finally retired in 1945 and two years later celebrated his golden

wedding of 60 happy years of married life. To the end he retained

his amazing memory, his interest in India and her problems, and

his love of nature, particularly of birds. His garden and the birds

in it gave him joy. It is sad that he could not have lived another

6 months when he would have known that his eldest son would be

shortly going to India as High Commissioner for Great Britain, that

once again his blood would walk the land he loved and for which

he strove all his life. How proud he would have been!

A very great man has passed away. Hdthi char bajay.

LEC.

CHARLES M. INGLIS

(Photo)

By the death of C. M. Inglis at Coonoor on the 13th February

1954 the Society loses its second oldest member, and the world of

ornithology one of its distinguished exponents.

Charles McFarlane Inglis, third son of Archibald William Inglis,

indigo planter in North Bihar, India, was born at South College,

Elgin, Scotland, on the 8th November 1870.

At the age of 17 Charles left school and went to Inverness, where

he spent a year in the Traffic Office of the then Highland Railway.

He loved Inverness but hated the job on an office stool. At that time

his two elder brothers were indigo planting in North Bihar, India,

and he longed to go out to that country.

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

_ He was fortunate to get a job as an assistant in January 1889 on

the Roopacherra Tea Estate, in the Hailakandi District of Cachar.

In those days the journey to Cachar was rather a long one, partly by

boat and partly by river steamer, but it was all new and interesting.

_ Roopacherra, in those days, was. an ideal spot for anyone interested

in natural history, as there was heavy forest on some of its

boundaries. Charles spent his leave days, Saturday afternoons and

Sundays, in the forest, sleeping on a low machan beside some forest

stream. The great ornithologist, A.O..Hume, had recently given

up birds, and one of his collectors, a Mussulman, was wandering

about the country looking for a job. He came to Roopacherra and

showed Charles a beautifully made specimen of an oriole. Although

the latter’s monthly salary was only Rs. 125, he employed the

man on Rs. 35 a month. At that time Stuart. Baker was working

in the North Cachar Hills and Charles soon got in touch with him,

and then began a friendship which lasted throughout the rest of

Stuart Baker’s life. Books on Indian birds were Charles’s difficulty

as he could not afford them, but Baker kindly gave him what were

necessary.

After 5 years at Roopacherra and 3 more in Larsingah Tea Garden

in the Happy Valley, near Silchar, Charles finally gave up tea and

joined his brothers in Bihar, and got a job there at Jainagar on the

Nepal frontier. In 1898 he left for another job at Baghownie where

he lived for 25 years, having bought up the place in 1goo.

He made very complete collections of birds, butterflies, moths

and dragonflies while in Bihar and had many outdoor aviaries where

he bred Burmese peafowl and swamp partridges, and where a pair

of green wood-quail laid the first known eggs of that bird in one

of his aviaries. Besides natural history his other hobbies were

-gardening and painting. :

In 1923 he accepted the job of Curator of the Darjeeling Natural

History Museum, which was in a state of decay. He had to

reorganise it and start a Society and journal—all very interesting work.

His work got great kudos from the museum experts from England

who. surveyed and reported on Indian museums in 1935-36.

While in Bihar and Darjeeling, he made many collecting trips

to the Duars, Darjeeling District, Sikkim and Assam, very often

staying with congenial friends. Ornithologically he worked the Duars

and Darbhanga District, Bihar, very thoroughly, also the Lepidoptera

(butterflies and moths) of the latter district. On one occasion he

and Dr. Shaw of Mangpu, collected butterflies in the Chumbi Valley

of Tibet, travelling as far as Phari Dzong. On these treks he

always carried painting materials to do any interesting bird collected.

Many. of his bird paintings were reproduced in the Journal of the

Darjeeling (later Bengal) Natural History Society.. He also filled two

huge albums with the heads and breasts of some 659 birds, all painted

life-size. aoe

He collected four type specimens of dragonflies (Odonata) and fede

two birds and one fish named after him. |

1. Megalestes irma Fraser. Types of both sexes, and others

collected near the source of the Rani Khola, near Gangtok, Sikkim,

eRe IA afd | eS oe ee ls ee

We a Ue Se Ce eee

aks Bar ath tae Ts Re

_Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

| CuHaRLES M. INGLIS

Soe

on the 29th May 1924. Named, by request, after his hostess, the

Hon. Mrs. Bailey of the Residency, Gangtok. — sks

2, Bayadera longicauda Fraser. Type, and few others collected

at Gangtok, Sikkim, on the 29th May 1924. 3

3. Davidius zallorensis delineatus Fraser. Type, and many others

collected at Gangtok, Sikkim, in May (probably 1924).

4. Anormogomphus heteropterus Selys. Type of only known female

(up to 1934 at any rate) collected at Baghownie, Darbhanga Dt.,

N.. Bihar, on 27th June 1922.

The following birds were named after him:—

1. Prinia socialis inglisi Whistler. Collected during various

winters in the Duars.

2. Cryptoplectron mamipurensis inglisi (Ogilvie Grant). Collected

with the late A. M. Primrose on the Mornai Tea Estate, Goalpara,

Assam.

The following loach was named after him:—

- 1. Nemachilus rupicola var. inglisi Hora. (Records of the Indian

Museum, xxxvii, p. 58, pl. iti, figs. g and 10). Streams at foot of

the Darjeeling Hills.

He joined the Bombay Natural History Society on the roth

January 1894 and was the second oldest living member, Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton being one year older. The whole of his life since he first

came out in January 1889 was spent in India except for nine months

study leave in 1929 which was spent in Switzerland and in England.

He visited many museums in Europe.

He became a Member of the British Ornithologists Union about

1918 and was elected a British Empire Member in 1930; this

membership was later incorporated in that of Corresponding

Membership.

He was a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London and was,

for a number of years, a Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society

of London and a member of the British Ornithologist’s Club.

He published the following papers in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society in addition to over 80 shorter communications

on birds and divers natural history subjects:

1. A List of Birds collected during five years’ residence in

faviakandy District, Cachar, Vol. x?. 453, 609; X1:77,°.190, 474;

ae 200, 676 + Kill: 6545.xiv: -30r. 2

2. The Birds of Madhubani Sub-division of the Darbhanga

District, Tirhut, with Notes on species noticed elsewhere in the District

Biol xii: Gar, xiv: 132,362,554, 764; xv: 70.

3. The Fauna of the Darbhanga District, North Bihar, Vol. xix:

=. 136.

To the end he was a regular contributor to the Journal of Darjeeling

(Bengal) Natural History Society, which he edited for 25 years until

his retirement from the Darjeeling Museum.

Mr. Inglis was part author of ‘Birds of an Indian Garden’, which

appeared in the Agricultural Journal of India when Bainbrigge Fletcher

was Imperial Entomologist. This was later published in book form

by Thacker Spink & Co. and ran to two editions, but has been out of

print for some years now. _

OBITUARIES — | VC ae Ee

In September 1945 he married Sybil Dorothy Hunt. On retirement

he purchased a house and garden in Coonoor on the Nilgiri Hills, South

India, an ideal spot for a man of his tastes to retire to. The bird skins —

and eggs which he brought with him from Darjeeling (only a part

of his very large private collection) he housed in the cottage. There

was quite a bit of forest near the cottage, the haunt of many birds.

Here he and his wife lived very happily, and it was here that the end

came, peacefully, in his 84th year.

Simple and unassuming and the best of good companions, ne was

beloved aD all who knew him.

Molliter ossa cubent

REVIEWS

1. JUNGLE LORE. By Jim Corbett. Pp. 168, 1954. (Oxford

University Press. Rs. 6-8).

‘The now famous author of ‘Man-Eaters of Kumaon’ presents his_

fourth effort, in which he sets out to present ‘all I have learnt in

a lifetime of "Jungle Lore’. In part autobiographical, we get glimpses

into the childhood and early years of the author, with him we go

through our first-lessons in safety precautions, 0 out shooting for

the first time and share the thrill and delight when he is presented

with his first gun and rifle.

The author narrates a number of stories and incidents from his

vast experience, and we are shown step by step how a truly great

shikari is made. In spite of the author’s avowed purpose to present

what he has learnt of jungle lore, let not the reader think that

all he will need to bring his first tiger to bag is to acquire a rifle and

a copy of this book; it is not intended as a text-book on Tiger

Hunting.

Some of the descriptions of our glorious jungles and the wildlife

therein will bring the old timers nostalgic memories of the good

old days. One hopes that the not-so-old timers will realise what

they are missing by the continued indiscriminate destruction of game

and appreciate the urgent need for the een and _ preservation

of our fauna and flora.

_ Although the book makes extremely interesting reading it does

not quite live up to the reputation of the author’s earlier efforts, nor

_ did it meet your reviewer’s expectations.

5 ee SeyE ys prt a Os St tp ae My SIM Bey Pte ee |

M.R S.C.

a 2. THE SNAKES OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. By Lieut.-Col.

__K.G. Gharpurney,1.m.s. Pp. x+153, 1954. (The Popular Book Depot,

_ Bombay. Rs. 5).

; The study of all animals is always helped by the work of enthusiastic

_ amateurs. In India, however, the absence of books which present

_ with the minimum of technical terminology the elementary knowledge

3 necessary to foster this interest, is a serious hindrance to amateur

ologists. In snakes this difficulty has been further accentuated by

le mass of superstition and mythological lore which has always

a urrounded them. After the well-known series of papers by Wall,

Col. Gharpurey brought out the first edition of this book in 1935 and

13 this re-print should be useful to all those interested.

= The first chapter gives general information about snakes and is

— followed by one on other animals superficially similar to and likely

to be confused with them. Their teeth, poison, glands, scales,

Se heation, identification, the treatment of their bites and pro-

The bulk of the book is devoted to the description of the different

| 22

_ tection against them are dealt with separately in as many chapters...

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

species of Indian snakes and the ‘black sheep’ have necessarily been

dealt with in greater detail than the harmless ones.

The last three chapters set out briefly various aspects of snake

mythology and folklore, their geographical distribution with, finally,

some brief notes on the Hang rOUR snakes of the world and their

enemies.

The choice of the word ‘enemies’ in the last chattch is. unfortunate,

since in nature snakes are killed by other animals only as food, other

killings being almost entirely accidental. We do not know what

evidence there is to consider the deer as one of the chief enemies of

the cobra. The serpent-eagles and other Indian birds of prey which

play a really important part in the control of the snake population

might perhaps have. been mentioned in greater detail. } .

It is not quite correct to state that in the burrowing amphibians the.

vent is placed at the. end, since these too have a distinct though

small tail beyond it. Their other characters are quite sufficient to

distinguish them immediately.

It is a pity that the plates depicting: snakes which have lain

soaked in preservatives for many years, were not re-done. We.

hope that this aspect will be carefully considered when preparing the.

next edition. In the absence of any: other publication on these common

inhabitants of the Indian countryside it is hoped that it will not be

long before this occasion arises. .

|.C.D.

3. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS. OF BRITAIN AND:

EUROPE. By Roger Peterson, Guy, Mountfort and P. A. D. Hollom.

Pp.. xxxili+ 318... Size 74" x 44". 62 plates’-‘{mostly in ~colour),"

numerous figures in the text, and distribution maps. London (Collins) ’

EO54. .255.cNet-

Roger Tory Peterson is one of those rare combinations of first

class field ornithologist and first class artist who appear on the

scene once in a blue moon to. make international ornithological

history. His famous Field Guides of American birds have, within

the last two decades, taken the New World by storm; and. this is

what the reviewer predicts the present one will do with the Old—at

least with the European -part of it.

- Peterson’s system of indicating the salient non tor the. field

identification of species, and for differentiating confusingly similar

forms by means of pointers or arrows on his excellently. éxecuted, @

sketches, has proved its effectiveness. ‘Peterson’ is the New World —

bird- watcher’ s bible, and its users are reported to number over half

a million.

Guy Mountfort supplements | the illustrations by concise - and

admirable descriptions of. general habits and other details that go to a

make up the ‘jizz’ of a bird, including ‘Voice’ and ‘Habitat’, and

the excellent little distribution: maps for each species by” PA. D. =

Hollom present a graphic overall picture’ of. the bird’s geographical

range in Europe and _ help to round off the excellence and handiness

of the volume. Bird lovers in Europe are indeed to be envied on

the availability of such a guide, which contains everything that either

a i tb

=r)

“a

aa .

1 oN

REVIEWS | 57t

a beginner or a seasoned ornithologist working unfamiliar ground

can wish for. The scope of its usefulness is widened to continental

proportions by the fact that editions have been published simultaneously

in Dutch, German, French and Swedish and will shortly also be

available in Spanish, and later perhaps in Italian and other European

languages as well. .

As a visiting ornithologist from India who recently had the

opportunity of trying out the book in the field in Britain and on

the Continent, I have nothing but praise for it. Since a considerable

proportion of Eurapean birds are winter visitors to India, one can

hope to use the Guide with equal success in this country also. . )

In the course of working with the English edition of the book

(partly also with the German), the following points suggested

themselves, attention to which in the next edition would, in my opinion

very greatly facilitate users’ convenience:

1. The absence of scientific names on the pages facing the plates

is an unexpected and highly irritating omission, capable of easy

remedy. ) |

2. Where the overall distribution of a species extends beyond the

bounds of Europe, the map needs to be supplemented by the letterpress.

For example ‘Map below’, could usefully be followed by ‘Also Africa,

Asia’ or whatever it is, so as to give a more complete picture of

the birds’ entire range. |

3. On the distribution map of Plegadis falcinellus on p. 28, f

notice that Spain lies under a ?. Prof. B. Rensch and myself observed

4 Glossy Ibises in Las Marismas in spring this year, and local reports

give the bird as being not uncommon until quite recently, and

occasionally met with in small numbers even today.

- 4. The distribution map on p. 187 shows Iynx torquilla as absent

in Spain. This is obviously a slip. We saw several examples in

southern Spain in March, and the bird did not seem particularly

rare in other parts either.

In spite of the 551 species it covers, the Field Guide is truly a

pocket book in every sense. Oh for an Indian ‘Peterson’ !

7 FOtmONOUS. PLANTS OF -INDIA..-By sir Ram , Nath

Chopra, Rattan Lall Badhwar and Sudhamoy Ghosh. Vol. 1.

Published by the Manager of Publications, Delhi, 1949. (Scientific

Monograph No. 17 of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research).

Pp. liv+762. Price Rs. 30.

This book was published at the beginning of 1954, in spite of

the date on the title page; it had been in the hands of the printers

from about 1940. The long interval between the writing and the

publishing of the volume is responsible for the main and almost

only defect of the work: at the end of each chapter the references

given are rather old for a book that aims at helping active workers

in their chemical studies on medicinal plants. Thus after the

Renunculaceae, the latest reference given is of 1939; most of the

others are much older. This is a serious drawback in a work of this

kind; it is well known that large numbers of research chemists have |

been deeply engaged in the study of plant chemistry for many years,

but since about 1940 such studies have been intensified in a manner

unknown twenty years ago; their published results should have been

embodied in this book.

In practieally every other respect this book has been of great

interest to this reviewer; he has discussed it with many botanists,

chemists, etc., and has gathered a very favourable impression from

their comments. The price of Rs. 30 seems rather moderate for

such a splendid volume.

The introductory chapters are of great interest. In the List of

Illustrations the authors carefully cite their sources; the authors’

aim is to give a good illustration at least for each genus; when

such an illustration is found in the botanical literature, they have

reproduced it; the line drawings are generally excellent; the

photographs are not clear, the reason being that the background has

not been carefully chosen. The Glossary of Botanical Terms deserves

special mention, its conciseness and accuracy.

The Introduction proper discusses the following main points:

meteorological conditions. over the areas where poisonous plants

grow in India; types of vegetation found in the various States or

Provinces in the Indian Union; the relations between plant and

animal life; a short history of poisonous plants in ancient and modern

times. A complete chapter is given to the definition of Poisonous

Plants and to the study of their toxic constituents; several pages are

devoted to the study of poisoning by plants, its diagnosis and

treatment, etc. Chapter x1 of the Introduction deals with Economic

and Toxicological Aspects; in this chapter some interesting lists of

plants are given, for example Plants producing Dermatitis, Plants

Poisonous to Man and Livestock, Insecticidal Plants, Plants Poisonous

to Fishes, etc. The last part of the Introduction discusses the

distribution of poisonous plants among the various classes of plants,

and for the Angiosperms the classification of the families is given in

a simplified outline. :

The treatment of each family in the body of the book follows a

set pattern. Botanical characters; distribution of the family; toxic

-aspects; constituents, etc. There follows a simple key to the genera

in the family. The treatment of each genus may be shown by listing

the various headings in e.g. Aconitum: name of the genus, etymology

of the name when known; botanical characters; distribution in Indian

and world geography; toxic aspects; distribution of the alkaloids;

pharmacology of aconitines; therapeutic uses; poisoning ; symptoms of

poisoning in man and in animals; post-mortem appearance; treat-

ment; non-poisonous alkaloids; alkaloids in foreign aconites; Indian ~

aconites.

This fairly detailed introduction is followed by a key to the species —

of the genus Aconitum in India. Each species known to be poisonous

is treated shortly but clearly on the same lines as the genus; in

addition the local name of the species is listed, whenever ‘there is

one. Some of the more important species are illustrated with large

and clear line diagrams.

REVIEWS

‘The printing is good and clear, and the use of various distinctive

types makes reading very pleasant. The binding does not seem to

be very strong; in the review copy which I have been handling

for some time, some of the fascicles have already come unstitched.

Taken as a whole the book deserves commendation, and this

reviewer feels sure that it will prove of great help to botanists

and biochemists and in general to the many readers who are interested

in the collection and study of the poisonous plants of India.

H. SANTAPAU, s,J.

ope a Es BIRDS OF TRAVANCORE & COCHIN. By Salim Ali,

with 22 plates (16 in colour by; D. V. Cowen). Pp. xx +668. (Oxford

University Press) Bombay, 1953. Rs. 25.

‘The Birds of Travancore & Cochin’ is Salim Ali’s fourth and the

latest on Indian birds. This work, which is a _ quasi-technical

summarization of his vast experience of the avifauna of the area, is

based on the ornithological surveys conducted by him in 1931-1932

and 1947. The results of the earlier survey were published in a series

of papers in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society in

1935, 1936 and 1937. As these papers immediately followed the

publication of Stuart Baker’s great works, namely, the revised edition

of the ‘Fauna of British India, Birds’ (1922-1930), and the ‘Nidification

of Birds of the Indian Empire’ (1932-1935), and because of the new

and additional information on birds, their ecology and habits, and

the taxonomic reorientation of some of the species, they roused great

_ interest among the ornithologists at that time. .

| Owing to the curious physiography of Travancore-Cochin causing”

_ heavy rainfall and excessive humidity, the fauna is of exceptional

interest. The obvious similarity of the fauna of this area with that

_ of the eastern Himalayas and the Indo-Malayan countries, on the

_ one hand, and that of the southwestern Ceylon, on the other, cannot

__ be overlooked even by a casual student of Travancore zoology. There

are quite a large number of species of animals (and plants too !)

3 that may be cited as evidence for this phenomenon, They show

5 discontinuous distribution, occurring as they do only in the above-named

_ areas and being cut off from their nearest relatives by vast stretches

_ of country. Salim Ali’s lucid but succinct introduction to the book

_ admirably brings out this theme. The geographic, climatic and

_ geologic factors governing this phenomenon, which are summed up

_ as Hora’s Satpura hypothesis, have been summarized with exceptional

Clarity. The list of the more important birds and four maps illustrating

: such discontinuous distribution are indeed helpful. An account of the

_ topographic features, climate and forest types of the area concerned

_ marks another item of interest.

_ The value and importance of field study of birds, which is

_ regrettably neglected in India, cannot be more suitably stressed

_ than by what the author says: ‘We have still a great deal to learn

about the life-history and ecology of almost all our birds. These are

subjects that cannot be studied from dead skins in a museum no matter

how large or complete a collection is available. Neither can they get

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

adequate justice from short seasonal field surveys with limited time and

opportunities . . . . Only continuous and intensive field-work combined

with intelligent experimental and laboratory research on a well thought-

out plan are likely to produce the desired results. This implies patient

and methodical observation, accurate recording, careful indexing and

sifting of the records and intelligent co-ordination of the data.’ The

‘reviewer is in full agreement with him, but he may add that, since

the same is also true of almost all eroups of Indian animals, the

responsibility, to initiate students in the study of field ZO OEy rests

primarily with the teachers of zoology in India.

Another singular feature of the book is the stress laid by the

author on the study of economic ornithology—a much neglected item

of ‘bird. study in* India.” .He rgoes on (to Say: 32) ee the: purpose

of Economic Ornithology is to strike an accurate balance sheet between

the harm and the good that different species do by making complete

life-history and ecological studies. It is obvious that in- a country

like ours, so largely dependent upon agriculture and forestry, the

role played by birds is of the highest economic consequence.’ This

is indeed only too true! He has even taken pains to mention some

half-a-dozen important problems of economic ornithology, which may

be fruitfully pursued by any student without much involvement. May

the author’s appeal not fall on deaf ears!

Having dealt with the general aspects of ornithological studies

in the introduction, the highlights of which have already been

mentioned, the author presents in the subsequent portion of the book

accounts of all birds known from Travancore-Cochin, numbering about

four hundred forms. A short but precise account of each bird has been

given under such paras as field characters, status and _ habitat,

distribution outside Travancore, general habits, nesting (season, nest

and eggs), besides an approximate idea of the size of the bird and its

local name. Such smaller details as the characteristics of allied races

have not been overlooked. _

What has appealed to the reviewer most in the book is Sdlim Ali’s

vivid accounts of living birds. ‘He tells us in plain language how the

birds look, what their behaviour in the field is like, and where exactly

to look for a particular bird.

Of the nearly goo forms described, 1o1 have been depicted

in colour. The sixteen coloured plates are a great asset to the

book and Mrs. Cowen deserves all our praise for her accurate

coloured drawings. Another achievement is the neat and faithful

reproduction of colours in all the coloured plates of the volume. A

successful co-operation between the artist and the printer is indeed

rare these days, not only in India| but also abroad. Mrs. Cowen and

the Times ‘of India Press, Bombay, must, therefore, be congratulated

for the production of these fine plates.

Reviewers are generally apt to carp at some faults, however

negligible they may be, and the present reviewer takes liberty to do

so here. Abbreviated citations of references, such as, ‘F.B.I., Birds’,

‘Fauna’, or ‘Nidification’, given almost throughout the book, have

not been introduced anywhere to mean that they belong to Stuart —

Baker’s. Two systems of measure—metric in the text and British

in the plates, seem incompatible; a uniform system, whatever one may

a Seen tS +

PORTE

a >

REVIEWS |

choose, would have better served the purpose. A few spelling mistakes,

such as, = eee Ba (pp. vii, 125 and 433) for Phragamaticola,

: zeylonicus (pp. 1X, 211, 212 and 432) for zeylanicus and Eudynamis

q (pp. ix, 225 and 431) for Eudynamys, have caught the reviewer’s eye.

7 Why the author has retained the flycatcher-shrikes (Hemipus) and

4 wood-shrikes (Tephrodornis) in the family Laniidae (pp. 93-96) is not

well understood; both the genera are now rightly claimed to be

members of Campephagidae. Further, he does not seem to recognize

cany subspecies of Lalage sykesi (p. 101), though modern ornithology

accepts at least two subspecies. Sdlim Ali says (p. 171) that Anthus

hodgsom berezowski winters in parts of India. This statement is

presumably based on Ripley’s [J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 47: 627

(1948)| record of three specimens of this subspecies from Uttar

_ Pradesh. A re-examination of the same material (Koelz Collection

at the American Museum of Natural History, New York) leaves the

reviewer beyond any doubt that the specimens are only juvenile Anthus

roseatus, and that there is no definite evidence so far in favour of

Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii occurring in India. The author’s

recognition of only one species of plaintive cuckoos (pp. 219-220) and

only one of blossomheaded parakeets (pp. 233-234) seems a little out

2 ae two species of each are admitted now. Stresemann [ Ibis,

: 521 (1952)] has shown that the correct subspecific trivial name of

the Brownheaded Storkbilled Kingfisher, referred on p. 249, is capensis

and not gurial. The contentious opinions expressed above do not by

any means lessen the usefulness of the book, since no opinion in

ornithology, nor for that matter in any other science, is final.

The delight that the reviewer has derived from reading through

the book is profound, and it is hoped that it will stimulate

and inspire both the amateur and the serious student of zoology

alike. Ornithological studies by Indians have been elevated

from a rich man’s hobby and pastime to the high level of scientific

investigation by Salim Ali, and the reviewer feels confident that some

day the book will succeed in fulfilling the author’s noble mission

; ‘to popularize ornithology in Travancore not only among the public and

| pupils in elementary schools, but also as a special subject for zoology,

students at the University.’ Ornithology as a special branch of

advanced study in zoology is utterly neglected by almost all the

universities in India. The University of Travancore could steal a

march over other universities by taking the initiative to recognize the

subject. It this branch of zoology is accorded the recognition it

deserves by our universities, Sdlim Ali’s labours will be amply

: rewarded. .

: : B. BISWAS

The following books have been added to the Society’s Library,

since January 1954:—

: Review copies: :

. ANIMAL OSD are By Frank W. Lane (Country Life Ltd.,

194 | Se

? 2) Hoorep MamMAts or THE Wortp. By Ugo Mochi and T.

Donald Charter (Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1953)-

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ET

Purchased:

1. WitH GuN AND Rop. Government of India Publication.

Presented:

1. RECORDS OF ParRROTS BRED IN Captivity. By Arthur A.

Prestwich (Arthur A. Prestwich, 1950-52).

i 2. REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS. A guide to familiar species. By

Herbert S. Zim and Hobart M. Smith (Simon & Schuster, New —

York, 1953).

3. INSEcTS—A guide to familiar American insects. By Herbert 5.

Zim and Clarence Cottam (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1951).

4. FLrowers. A guide to familiar American wild ower: By

‘Herbert S. Zim and Alexander C. Martin (Simon & Schuster, New

York, 1950).

5. Brrps. A guide to familiar American birds. By Herbert S.

Zim and Ira N. Gabrielson (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1949).

6. Buinp Wuite FisuH 1n Persia. By Anthony Smith (E. P.

Dutton &.Co.).

7. MamMAtiAN Hysrips. A Checklist with Bibliography. By

‘Annie P. Gray (Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, England,

1954).

8. KeEepinc LivEstock Heattuy. Yearbook of Agriculture 1942.

United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1942.

g. PLant DisEAses. Yearbook of Agriculture 1953- United States

Department of Agriculture, Washington, 1953.

10. CATALOGUE OF FOSsIL CIRRIPEDIA IN DEPARTMENT OF Gorey.

Vol. III. By Thomas Henry Withers (The Trustees of the British

Museum, 1953).

11. A CHECKLIST OF THE GENERA AND SPECIES OF MALLopHaca. By

G. H. E. Hopkins and Theresa Clay (The Trustees of the British

Museum, 1952).

12. SIMULIIDAE OF THE ETHIOPIAN REGION. By Paul Freeman Botha

de Meillon (The Trustees of the British Museum, 1953).

13. CATALOGUE OF METEORITES—With special reference to those

represented in the collection of the British Museum (Natural History).

2nd edition. By Max H. Hey (The Trustees of the British Museum,

1953).

14. CATALOGUE OF THE AMERICAN HespErtpaE—Indicating the |

classification and nomenclature adopted in the British Museum. Parts

-Iland III. By Brig. W. H. Evans (The Trustees of the British Museum,

1952 and 1953 respectively).

15. A List or NAMES PROPOSED FOR GENERA AND SUBGENERA OF

RECENT MAMMALS FROM THE PUBLICATION OF T. S. PALMER’S ‘INDEX

GENERUM MAMMALIUM’ 1904 TO THE END OF 1951. By L. R. Consibee

(The Trustees of the British Museum, 1953).

16. LowER TERTIARY FORAMINIFERA OF THE QATAR PENINSULA. By

Alan Hilder Smout (The Trustees of the British Museum, 1954).

- The following books were presented to the Society’s Library by

_ the Executors of the Will of the late Mr. M. C. Wadia of Bombay in

January 1954-

MAMMALS

= 1. THE Minps or Animats. By Prof. J. Arthur Thomson, 1927.

2. THe AnimaL Boox. By Dorothy Childs Hogner and Nils

Hogner, 1942. ,

3. Beasts oF an InpIAN ViLLacE. By Douglas Dewar, 1923.

4. BREEDS oF INDIAN CaTTLE—Bompay PRreEsipENcy. By K. |

Hewlett, 1912.

5: Tue Natura History or SouTH Arrica—Mammals, Vol. II.

By F. W. Fitzsimons, 1919.

Bs. 6. THe Naturat History or Soutn Arrica—Mammals, Vol. III.

_ By F. W. Fitzsimons, 1920.

~~ 7, Tue Naturat History or Soutu Arrica—Mammals, Vol. IV.

By F. W. Fitzsimons, 1920.

8. THE WorLp OF ANIMAL Lire. By Fred Smith.

f g. Piain HINTS ON THE DISEASES OF CATTLE IN INDIA. By -

Veterinary Captain James Mills, 1894.

~ 10. THE AniMAL Kincpom. By T. R. Jones.

3 Mammatia. By T. Rymer Jones.

_-« 12, THIRTEEN YEARS AMONG THE WILD Bzasts oF Inp1a. By G. P.

_ Sanderson, 1806.

e. 13. ANIMAL PARASITES AND MEssmaTEs. By P. J. Van Beneden,

a Oo.

. i, ILLUSTRATIONS OF ZooLocy—Invertebrates and Vertebrates. By

_ William Ramsay Smith and J. Stewart Norwell, 1880.

15. THE MENAGERIES (QUADRUPEDS) THE ELEPHANT, Vol. II.

BIRDS

16. Brrps oF Bompay. By H. Edwin Barnes, 1885.

17. Driven Duck. By R. C. Bolster.

. THE InpIAn Crow: His Boox. By Douglas Dewar, rg1r.

INDIAN Brrps—A key to the common birds of the plains of

Part I. By Douglas Dewar. |

InpIAN Brrps—A key to the common birds of the plains of

Part I. By Douglas Dewar. |

INDIAN Birps—A key to the common birds of the plains of

Part I. By Douglas Dewar. — ,

_ 22. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF BirRD BEHAVIOUR. By

liot Howard, 1929. |

Boy Vy Common Birps oF Bompay. By EEA.

_ 24. Eccs anp Nests or BritisH Brirps. By F. Finn.

p25. tHE BIRDS OF CALCUITA. By F. Finn, 1917.

26. How To Know THE INDIAN Ducks. By F. Finn, rgor.

_ 2%. How To Know Tue Inpian Ducks. By F. Finn, root.

_. 28. How to Know THE INDIAN WaberRS. By F. Finn, 1906.

How To Know THE INDIAN WapErRS. By F. Finn, 1906.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 52.

30. How To KNOW THE INDIAN WapERS—second edition. By F..

Finn.

31. THE Game Birps oF Inpia anp Asia. By F. Finn, 1911.

32. THE Game Birps or INpiA AND ‘Asia. By F. Finn, 1911.

33. Hints ON THE MaNAGEMENT OF Hawxks—Second edition to

which is added Practical Falconry chapters—historical and descriptive.

By James Edmund Harting, 1808. 7

34- THE Birps oF Inp1a, Vol. I], Part I. By T. C. Jerdon, 1877.

35: THE Birps or Inpia. Vol. II, Part Il. By T. C. Jerdon, 1877. 3—

36. THe Birp. By Jules Michelet, 1883. E.

37. Birps oF AN’ InpDIAN ViLLacE. By Douglas Dewar, 1921. a

38. HaNDLIST OF THE Birps oF Ecypt. By M. J. Nicoll, 19109. 4

39. Birp WatTcHinc Days. A. W. Robertson and R. D. Powell, |

40. CLOSE-UPS OF Birps. By H. N. Southern, 1932.

41. Mystery Birps or Inpia. By ‘Snilloc’, 1945.

42. PouLTRy KEEpING In INDIA. By Isa Tweed, 1gog.

43. Birps (London Religious Tract Society).

Fisu

44. HANDBOOK OF THE FRESHWATER FISHES OF INDIA. By Captain

R. Bevan, 1877.

45. FisHEs, ASCIDIANS, ETC. By Harmer Herdman. _ Bridge

Boulenger, 1904.

46. TROPICAL FIsHEs. By W. Ladiges, 1934.

47. FIisHLORE. By A. F. Magri MacMahon, 1946. ?

48. SILVER: ‘THE LIFE STORY OF AN ATLANTIC SALMON’. Second

edition. By Roderick L. Haig-Brown, 1946.

INSECTS

49. REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECOND ENTOMOLOGICAL

MEETING HELD AT PUSA ON THE 5TH TO 12TH FEBRUARY 1917. Edited

by T. Paingrisge- Fletcher: 1or17.

50. History oF INsEcTs, The Religious Tract Society, London,

1839. :

51. [THE FORMATION OF VEGETABLE MOULD, THROUGH THE ACTION

OF WORMS, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THEIR Hasits. By Charles

Darwin, 1904. ! .

52. VEGETABLE Wasps AND PLanT Worms. A Popular History of ~

Entomogenous Fungi or Fungi Parasitic upon Insects. By M. C. —

Cooke, 1892. 4

53- A TeExt-Book oF AGRICULTURAL ENToMoLocy—Being a guides

to methods of Insect Life and Means of prevention of Insect Ravage. 4

By Eleanor A. Ormerod, 1892.

54. Insect Ways on SUMMER Days—In parden, forest, field and —

‘stream. By Jennett Humphreys. P

55: ELEMENTARY TExT-Book oF ENTOMOLOGY. By .W. F. Kirby, 4

1892. 2

Pe ee oe

a ae.) ee ae

)

ee ee ee On ee ee ee ee ee

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S. LIBRARY 579

56. BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON, Vol. I. By Major

G. F. L. Marshall Lionel De Niceville, 1882.: |

57- A NatTuraL HIsTory oF AQUATIC INSECTS. By Professor L. C.

Miall, 1903. : | |

58. British BUTTERFLIES AND Motus. By Percival Westell.

59. ELEANOR ORMEROD, LL.D., Economic ENTOMOLOGIST—Auto-

biography and Correspondence. Edited by Robert Wallace, 1904.

60. Mosguitro or Man?—The Conquest of the Tropical World.

By ja Robert W. Boyce, 1909.

. DEPARTMENTAL NOTES ON INSECTS THAT AFFECT FORESTRY. By

E, a Stebbing, 1903.

62. THe Lire HiIsTORY OF THE SPIDER. By J. Henri Fabre.

SHEL. Ss

63. THE CoNCHOLOGIST’s NOMENCLATOR—A Catalogue of all the

recent species of Shells included under the subkingdom ‘Mollusca’.,

By Agnes Catlow, 1845.

64. BRACHIOPODA OF THE CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF SOUTHERN InDIA—

SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCa.

SNAKES

65. THE PorsONOUS TERRESTRIAL SNAKES OF OUR BRITISH INDIAN

Dominions (INCLUDING CEYLON) AND How To RECOGNIZE THEM. By

Major F. Wall, 1913.

66. SNAKES: Snake-bites and their Treatment. By a Hindu, 1889.

67. CATALOGUE OF SHIELD REPTILES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

British Museum, Part I—Testudinata (Tortoises) with figures of the

skulls of 36 Genera. By John Edward Gray, 1870.

68. CATALOGUE OF SHIELD REPTILES IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

British Museum, Part II—Emydosaurians, Rhynchocephalia and

Amphisbaenians, 1872.

BOTANY

69. A Criass-Book or Botany—The elements of botanical science.

The Natural Orders. By Alphonse Wood, 1847.

70. THE AMATEUR GARDENER IN THE Hi_Lts—With few hints on

keeping Fowls, Pigeons and Rabbits. and edition. By an Amateur,

1894.

71. THe Picrorta, CaTEcHIsM OF Botany. By Anne Pratt, 1842.

72. FARMING FOR PLEASURE AND PROFIT, 6th edition—Roots growing

and the cultivation of Hops. By Arthur Roland, 1880.

73. ELEMENTARY LESSONS IN BOTANICAL GEOGRAPHY. By J. G.

Barker, 1875. :

74. SEED DispERSAL. By W. J. Beal, 1808.

75. THE Economic Botany oF InpiA. By Bhim Chandra Chatterji,

IQIO.

76. A List of TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE INDORE STaTeE. By W. F.

Biscoe, 1g1o. gS

77, SEED TRAVELLERS—Studies of the method of dispersal of various

common seeds. By Clarence Moores Weed, 1808.

78. SEED TRAVELLERS—Studies of the method of dispersal of various

common seeds. By Clarence Moores Weed, 1808.

79. A PLAIN aND Easy AcCcOUNT OF BRITISH es By M. C.

Cooke, 1884.

80. RomaANcE oF Low LiFe AMONGST PLants—F acts and Phenomena

of Cryptogamic Vegetation. By M. C. Cooke, 1893.

81. InpIAN TREES—BriTisH InpiaAn Empire. By Dietrich Brandis

assisted by Indian Foresters, 1907.

82. THe InpIAN Forestry. By Sir Dietrich Brandis, 1897.

83. INDIAN TREES—An account of Trees, Shrubs, Woody Climbers,

Bamboos and Palm Indigenous of commonly cultivated in the British:

Indian Empire. By Dietrich Brandis, 1921.

- 84. THe VEGETABLE MATERIA Meptca oF Western Inpia. By W.

Dymock, Part I.

85. THE VEGETABLE MaTERIA MEpiIcCa OF WESTERN INDIA. By W.

Dymock, Part II.

86. THE TIMBER TREES, TIMBER AND Fancy Woops AS ALSO THE

ForESTs OF INDIA AND EASTERN AND SOUTHERN Asia. By Edward

Balfour, 1862.

87. THE ROMANCE OF WILD FLOWERS—A Companion to the British

Flora. By Edward Step, 1899.

88. THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. I. By Elwes

and Henry. |

89. THe TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. II. By Elwes

and Henry.

go. THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. III. By Elwes

and Henry. 2

gi. THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. IV. By Elwes

and Henry. cs

92. THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. V. By Elwes

and Henry. Sern cee

93. THE TREES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. VI. By Elwes

and Henry. ate

94. THe TREEs OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, Vol. VII. ey Elwes

and Henry.

95. OUTLINES OF CLASSIFICATION AND SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY OF

Piants. By K. Goeble, 1887.

96. THe Tropica, AGRIcULTURIST—A Practical Treatise on Culti-

vation and Management of various products suited to Tropical climates.

By George Richardson Porter, 1833.

97. THE STORY OF THE PLANTS. By, Grant Allen, 1895.

98. THE STORY OF THE Pants. By, Grant Allen, 1895. ,

99. OUR HERMITAGE OF GARDEN FLOWERS. By Hilda M. Coley,

1936. |

100. INCENDIES EN FORET (Roses FrrEs). By A. Jacquot. Trans-

lated by °C. E. G~ Fischer, t0io. | ee

or. FLOWERS SHOWN TO THE CHILDREN. By Janet Harvey Kelman,

described by C. E. Smith. ‘ Ay So ee

102. THE VEGETABLE Kincpom. By John Lindley, 1845-

103.

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 581

THE ELEMENTS OF Botany—Structural, Physiological and

_ Medical. By John Lindley, 1849.

104.

A SKETCH OF THE FLORA oF BritisH InpIa. By Joseph D.

_ Hooker, 1906.

105.

A PriaIn AND Easy Account OF THE BRITISH FERNS WITH

ILLustratTions. By, Mrs. Lankester.

ae 106

ee .107.

y 108.

. FERNS, BriTISH AND Exotic, Vol. III. By E. J. Lowe.

FERNS, BRITISH AND Exotic, Vol. IV. By E. J.. Lowe.

FERNS, BriTIsH AND Exotic, Vol. VI. By E. J. Lowe.

, 109. FERNS, BRITISH AND Exotic, Vol. VII. By E. J. Lowe.

a 110. How To Enjoy Witp FLowers. By Marcus Woodward, ee

3 111. WILD FLOWERS. By Macgregor Skene, 1928.

-- . 112. DisEASE IN PLants. By H. Marshall Ward, 1901,

113. InpIAN PLanTs AND Drucs—(with their medical properties and

uses). By K. M. Nadkarni, 1917.

114. Ocean GarpENs—The History of ihe Marine Aquarium, 2nd

— edition. By H. Noel Humphreys, 1857.

- 115. Pranr Names, By T. S. Lindsay, 1923.

z 116. PLants Poisonous To LivEstock. By Harold C. Long, 1917.

% 117. FLOWERS AND GARDENS IN InpIA—A Manual for beginners, 3rd

_ edition.’ By Mrs. R. Temple-Wright, 1895.

4 118. STUDENT’s TEXT-Book oF Botany. By Sydney H. Vines,

B1804. i

= fe INDIAN ForEstT UTILIZATION. By R. S. Troup, 1907.

120. Common PLanTs oF WESTERN InNp1A, 1863.

_ 121. A Hanp-Boox oF Inpian Fiora. By Lt.-Col. Heber Drury,

-— 1864. .

GENERAL

122. A Younc Naturatist—A Handy Volume upon the Collection,

1894.

et 24.

ie 125-

4 Policy.

olicy.

- Policy.

4 Policy.

‘Policy.

13%.

_ Preservation and Arrangements of Butterflies and Shells. By H. G.

_ Adams, 1879.

123. A NaTURALIST ON THE PROWL OR IN THE JUNGLE. By EHA,

= A NATURALIST ON THE PROWL OR IN THE JUNGLE. By EHA.

3rd edition, 1905.

A NATURALIST ON THE PROWL OR IN THE JuncLE. By EHA.

4th edition, 1914.

e120. THE TRIBES ON My FRONTIER—An Indian Naturalist’s Foreign

6th edition. By EHA, 1808.

127. THE TRIBES ON MY FRONTIER—An Indian Naturalist’s Foreign

7th edition. By EHA, 1909.

_ 128. THE TRIBES ON MY FRoNTIER—An Indian Naturalist’s Foreign

7th edition. By EHA, 19009.

129. THE TRIBES ON MY Frontier—An Indian Naturalist’s Foreign

7th edition: By EHA, 1900.

130. THE TRIBES ON MY Frontier—An Indian Naturalist’s Foreign

vth edition. By EHA, 1909.

PracticaL Aips To THE STUDy oF NATURAL History—Botany,

fesse Mineralogy and Technology. Dr. Carl Arendts.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

132. AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND OTHER Papers. -By A.D. |

Darbishire, 1917.

133. THE JUVENILE NATURALIST, OR WALKS IN THE Couae IN

SPRING, SUMMER, AUTUMN, AND. WINTER. By Rev. B. H. Draper.

134. A CHALLENGE TO EVOLUTIONISTS. By Douglas Dewar, Oa 7:

135. WoNDERFUL' NEsts;. By Revi-}i G. WwW ood,. 1887. 25.7 a

136. IN NaTuRE’s GARDEN. By C. H. Donald. : =

137. Cows In InDIA AND PouLtry—Their Care and SESS ae

By. fe. Pag) nea: | 4

138. MyTH- Hanp. By Edward Hulme 1886. 4

139. THE HIGHLANDS OF CENTRAL Inpra—Notes on their forests,

tribes, natural history and sport. By Captain J. Forsyth, 1889. i

140. THE PaTHOLoGy oF Emotions—Physiology and Cpe Studies.

By* Ch: Pere, -1399;:

141. More LETTERS FROM CHARLES Darwin—A Record of his work

in a series of hitherto unpublished letters. Edited by Francis Darwin,

Vole 7

142. More LETTERS FROM CHARLES Darwin—A Record of his work

in a series of hitherto unpublished letters. Edited by Francis Darwin,

Vol. -II. |

143. THE PREDICAMENT OF EVOLUTION. By George McCready Price,

1925.

144. FaRMING IN InpIA. By Lt.-Col. Greenway, 1864. :

145. FRESHWATER BrioLocy. By Henry B. Ward and George C.

Whipple, 1918.

146. EXPERIMENTAL E'voLuTION—Lectures. By Henry De Varigny,

1892.

147. THE Book oF A NatTuratist. By W. H. Hudson.

148. THe Lanp’s Enp—A Naturalist’s impression in West Cornwall.

By W. H. Hudson, 1923.

149. SAVAGE SuRVIVALS. By J. Howard Moore.

150. HarMonics oF EvoL_uTion—Harmonic Series Vol. I. By

Huntley, 1906. ok

151. SPECIES AND VAaRIETIES—Their Origin and Mutation. ~ By

Hugo DeVries, 1906.

152. DiscouRsEs: BIoLocicaL AND GgoLocicaL. By T. H. Huxley,

1908. :

153. Darwintana—Essays Vol. II. By T. H. Huxley, 1907.

154. Darwiniana—Essays Vol. II. By T. H. Huxley, 1907.

155. THE WiLp LIFE AROUND US AND THE STORY OF THE ROCKS.

Edited by Ian Cox, 1939. 3 | . ;

156. Mountains—Their Origin, Growth and Decay. By janie

Geikie, 1913.

157. ALFRED RUSSELL Wattace—Letters and Reminiscences, Vol.

J. » By. James Marchant, 1916:

158. ALFRED RUSSELL WaALLACE—Letters and Reminiscences, Vol.

II. By James Marchant, 1916. 7

159. THE BIRTH-TIME OF THE Wor -p. ae, J. Joly, 1915.

160. THE NaturaL HIsTorY OF THE oe MATERIALS OF ComMERCE.

By john Y eats, 1837.5

161. Witp Nature’ s Ways. "By. R. Kearton, 1928.

- a all: Waal ales ik ais Ol ——a Te ee

ADDITIONS TO. THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 583

162. A History OF THE EARTH AND ANIMATED NAtTuRE, By

Oliver Goldsmith, 1840.

163. SCIENCE FROM AN Easy Cua. By Sir Ray Lankester, rg1o.

164. IN THE HEART OF THE NORTHERN Forests. By A. Radclyffe

Dugmore, 1930.

165. EVOLUTION AT THE Crossways. By H. Reinheimer, 1924.

166. OponToGRaPuy or A Treatise on the Comparative Anatomy of

the Teeth, their physiological relations, mode of development and

Microscopic structure in the Vertebrate Animals, Vol II. By Richard

Owen, 1840-1845. :

167. Kincs IN ExILe. By Charles G. D. Roberts.

168. AN EXAMINATION OF WEISMANNISM. By George John Romanes,.

“ee Tue MecuHantsm oF LiFE IN RELATION TO MODERN PHYSICAL

THEORY. By James Johnstone, 1921.

17o. NoTtEs By A NatTurALisT—An Account of Observations made

during the Voyage of .H.M.S. ‘Challenger’. By H. N. Moseley.

I71. JEFFERIES’ ENGLAND—Natural Essays. By Richard Jefferies,

£O37- |

ees AGRICULTURAL INDUSTRIES IN INDIA. By Seedick R. Sayani.

173. [THE NATURAL HISTORY AND ANTIQUITIES OF SELBORNE. By

Rev. Gilbert White, 1788.

174. OVERHEARD. By Skene Dhu, 1904.

175. THE Kincpom or Evirs. By E. E. Southard and Mary C.

Jarrett, {: 1922:

176. Lay SERMONS, ADDRESSES AND REviEws. By Thomas Henry

Huxley, 1991. .,

177. CORAL aND ATOLLS—Their InistOny + description, “etc. bye:

Wood-Jones, Igto.

178. WaLks AND TALKS IN THE GEOLOGICAL FIELD. By A. Winchell,

1886.

179. THE ARCTURUS ADVENTURE—An Account of the New York

Zoological Society’s First Oceanographic Expedition. By William

Beebe, 1926.

180. Prize Essays on Inptan AcRICULTURE. Published by the

Chilean Nitrate Committee, 1918.

181. A NaTURALIST’s VoyaGE RounD THE WorLp. By Charles

Darwin, 1897.

a 182. JOURNAL or THE Bombay Natura History Society (Bound

Volume), Vol. at.

183. JOURNAL OF THE BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY Society (Bound

Fyolume), Vol. 22.

184. JOURNAL OF THE BompBay NaturaL History Society (Bound

Volume), Vol. 23.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES |

1. SWIMMING AND LOCOMOTION OF CAPTIVE

HEDGEHOGS

To test the swimming powers of a hedgehog a small cement tank,

4’x4’x1’, was filled with water and one Paraechinus micropus

micropus Blyth was dropped into it from a height of 3 ft. The

animal sank and remained under water for 3 seconds. It then began

swimming, keeping its body parallel to the surface of the water.

Only the nostrils and tips of the spines were visible. While swim-

ming it kept both pairs of limbs under water. The fully extended_

limbs moved alternately in a fore and aft motion for the forward

propulsion of the animal. It turns by stopping the forearm of the

side towards which it desires to take a turn. At the end of the experi-

ment the hinder part of the hedgehog was almost vertical to the water

surface.

Every moment the insectivore was trying to come out of the water

but was unsuccessful for the wall was too steep to be climbed up. It

swam for 5 minutes without showing any sign of fatigue, after which

it took a rest of 5 seconds by stopping all movements of its limbs.,

It began again and during the whole period of 10 minutes it took rest

four times, the last time for 9 seconds. A small piece of wood was

then thrown in, on to which the hedgehog refused to climb until forced

to do so when almost drowning. After coming out of the water it

sniffed twice and moved in the corner of the room in which the tank

was. !

While running the hind limbs provide thrust momentum to the

bodies of the hedgehogs (Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray and

Paraechinus micropus micropus Blyth) while the forelimbs support

the heavy front part. The hind limbs occupy a position normal to

small running mammals, the feet remaining close together and the

soles flat upon the ground when not in motion. During motion the

hind feet assume a digitigrade position. Their speed when frightened

or when chasing a toad is recorded to be 25 inches per second

maximum. Normally they trot at a speed of one foot per second,and

can walk for long distances in the night in search of food.

Hedgehogs cannot stand erect on their hind legs like the Indian

desert gerbille, Meriones hurrianae Jerdon, but they can climb the

wire meshes of the cage. One evening I found one hanging under the

roof of the wire cage with its front paws, poking its nose through

the meshes.

While entering its burrow the hedgehog moves in the normal

manner i.e., the anterior portion enters the burrow first. Space

inside the tunnel is so restricted that it was thought impossible

for a hedgehog to turn round within. But to our surprise the snout

came out first. The roof of the tunnel was then replaced by a glass —

Pa Ee alee oom Sakae yar x ee : 3

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

sheet and the sideways turning round of the hedgehog with remark-

able swiftness in this very narrow space was observed.

Dept. oF Zoooey,

_ Jaswant COLLEGE, :

JODHPUR, ISHWAR PRAKASH

July 12, 1954.

Be _ 2, EFFECT OF EARTHQUAKE ON ELEPHANTS

Last March, there was quite a severe shock one morning about

— 6a.m., when I was camping right inside elephant country, on the bank

of a river. My own elephant, a tusker, was just approaching me for

- me to mount, when he started to trumpet. I could then hear wild

; elephants. trumpeting all round, some at a considerable distance, then

came the actual ‘bump’. Just prior to this, there was a distinct roar

as the earthquake was approaching, it was at that period that the

- _wild elephants together with my own were trumpeting.

s I had the same experience some ten years ago in the heart of

_- the forest, so it would appear this trumpeting is natural at the time

of approach of an earthquake, or anyhow at a time of quite a severe

e. one. |

EVERGREEN CortaceE,

UPPER SHILLONG, FRANK NICHOLLS

_ SHILLONG, ASSAM.

3. RORQUAL WHALE NEAR BADAGARA,

MALABAR COAST

The carcase of a rorqual whale, Balaenoptera sp., was washed

ashore near the Government fish curing yard at Badagara on toth

_ February 1954. It was in a putrid condition without the tail flukes.

The body measured 54 ft., the snout being 1o} ft. Each flipper was

1o ft. long. On a search the tail was found at a spot about 34 miles

‘north of the yard. It measured 8 ft. in length.

A scrutiny of the previous records of stranded whales on the coasts

of India since 1748 as listed by Moses (1947) and supplemented by

Mathew (1948), Pillai (1949), Gibson-Hill (1950), Chari (1951) and

Jones (1953) show that there were only ten instances of stranding of

whales along the west coast of Madras State, namely, at Mangalore

(1874 & 1891), Madai (1923), Pudiangadi (1924), West Hill (1925),

Baliapatnam (1926), Chalai (1927), Vadanapalli (1935), Mulki (1939)

and Naduvattam (1947). To these may be added two instances of

rorquals washed ashore near Thaikadapuram in April 1949 and near

_ Gangoli in September 1951. The present record brings the total to

thirteen. |

Wesr Hitz, Marapar, PB. FE. CHACK®

June 26, 1954. | : M.. J. MATHEW

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 52°

REFERENCES

Chari, V. K. (1951): The Great Indian Rorqual or Fin-Whale Balaenoptera

indica Blyth off Umargam (Bombay State). JBNHS, 50: 167.

Gibson-Hill, C. A. (1950): A note on the rorquals (Balaenoptera spp.). ibid.,

49: 14-19,

Jones, S. (1953): On the stranding of a whale at Jambudup' on the Bengal coast

about 19 years ago. ibid. 54: 499-500.

Mathew, A. (1948): Stranding of a whale (Megaptera nodosa) on te Travancore

coast in 1943. ibid... 47: 732-733.

Moses, S. T. (1947): Stranding of whales on the coasts of India., ibid., 47:

377-379.

Pillai, N. G. (1949): A whale near!Bombay. ibid. 48: 358.

4. A LARGE TIGER

You may be interested in the measurements of a large tiger

I recently shot in Assam. I could not weigh it but it was quite

the heaviest of the 28 tigers I have shot, including a genuine ‘ten

footer’, plus about twice that number whose death I have witnessed.

The measurements were as follows :—

Between pegs, nose to end of tail ware Oe (10’-4”)

Circumference of chest ove ie 61” (54”

,, forearm : et 24” C215

Length ‘of skull, between uprights AN 154” (16”)

Width ,, ,, across zygomatic arches ... 11” (104)

ebbeight. 45 ys a, Se ae Wi (74)

In parenthesis immediately after these measurements I give those

of a big tiger (10° 4” between peg's) shot in the Kheri Forests of the

United Province on 25th March 1946 by the Hon’ble Iqbal Ahmed,

Chief Justice, Allahabad High Court. (Figures taken from a leaflet

issued by Messrs. Van Ingen of Mysore.)

One canine which has dropped out of my tiger’s skull is 54” long

and has a circumference of 34” at the thickest part.

PaCHMARHI, M.P.,

iine 15, 19543 . T. B. HAWKINS

5. HABITS, OF? THESASIATIC BLACK BEAR (SELENARCTOS

THIBETANUS THIBETANUS G. CUVIER)

In the Fauna of British India—Mammalia Vol. II pp. 211 (1941)

R. I. Pocock writes:

~ It is largely nocturnal and arboreal, making in large trees rough

platforms of branches, known as wun-thaik (bear’s nest) on which

it may sit and rest.’

In May 1925, I trekked from Kyatkon village on the Pegue

Mandalay railway line to Zaungtu on the Pegu River via Wakadok

Forest Rest House and Shwelaung Forest Rest House (17°35/N.

96° 20’E.), Pegu South Forest Division. I arrived at Shwelaung on

the afternoon of the third day. After a short rest and tea, I strolled

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587

about in the neighbourhood of the rest house with my tracker Po Hmu

of Bawni village. We came upon a bear constructing a nest of

green branches in a big tree over a hundred feet up. I brought

down the bear with my rifle. Next morning we set out to track

either tsaing or bison. On hearing the cracking of branches, we

went to investigate and saw a pair of bears constructing a nest also

too-120 ft. high. I shot one with my rifle while my tracker shot

the other with my shot-gun as it was coming down the tree. (This

nest was also under construction and made of green branches of the

tree on which it was built. |

The monsoon breaks in Burma in May. It appears therefore

that bears construct nests for rest and protection during the rainy

season.

This species is known as Wet-wun in Burmese and Tsap in

Kachin.

7, SHAN Roap,

RANGOON, U TUN YIN

January 18, 1954.

6. LONGEVITY OF THE CEYLON RUDDY MONGOOSE

(HERPESTES SMITHI ZEYLANICUS) IN CAPTIVITY

Wheni visiting some friends recently, I was shown a tame Ruddy

Mongoose (H. smithi zeylanicus) which had been with the family, for

many years. It is an old male, now rather fat and losing some of its

teeth but apparently still healthy, fairly active and very tame.

Fortunately, its history and approximate age are known. Mrs.

Garnier, the owner, informs me~ that it was obtained in the

Ratnapura district (Wet Zone) of South Ceylon in January 1938,

when it was believed to be about three months old. Since October

-1938, it has been kept continuously by either Mrs. Garnier or her

sister, so its age is known to be approximately 16 years and 9 months,

at the end of July 1954.

‘3 IAs far as I am aware this is a record age for a mongoose of this

= Species.

_ {TonNACOMBE,

_ NamuNUKULA,

_ CByLon, | seh. / W.W. A. PHILLIPS

_ August 16, 1954.

ae [Major S. S. Flower (P.Z.S. 1931: 169) in recording the longevity

__ Of several species of mongooses, refers to an example of the Indian

Stripenecked Mongoose, Herpestes vitticollis which lived in the

Trivandrum Zoological Garden for 12 years 10 months 18 days.

(This was the longest age on record, the others ranging chiefly between

4% and 10 years, except once in the case of an African species—the

_ WVellow Meerkat (Cynictis pencillata) which lived in the London Zoo

_ for 12 years, ro months and 2 days.—Ebs. |

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCI by onige 52

a RECORD SAMBAR FOR THE NILGIRIS.

A sambar i in 1953 by Mr. Atzenwiler within sight be the

Ootacamund Golf Club carried the largest recorded head for the

Nilgiris. Measurements taken by me personally with a steel tape

and checked thrice to ‘ensure acura were as follows :—

Length right horn 442°

sj po ledt shern.437

Girth above brow antler both horns 7

Widest inside 29%”.

Tip to tip 34%”.

The largest head previously recorded was 42” shot some 70 years

ago. |

KALHATTI, NILGIRIS, Lt.-Col. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS

March 3, 1954. Hon. Supdt. Nilgivi Game Association.

8. MALFORMATION IN ANTLERS OF ee

MALAYAN SAMBAR

(With a photo)

I recently acquired, as the result of a prosecution under our

Game Laws, the antlers of a Malayan Sambar Deer (Cervus unicolor).

One of the antlers shows rather a unique malformation of one of

the brow tines, which, instead of consisting of one point only, is

forked and shows two points. | ot

The antlers measured respectively 23 ~

inches and 22 inches on the outside

curve. The ‘freak’ antler an inch above —

the burr measured 9% inches in circum-

ference while the other measured only 74

inches. The tips of the ‘twin tines’ —

measured 7 inches from the burr and ~

were 24 inches long from inside of the

fork.

This is the first time that such an

abnormality has come to my notice for,

although this freak has obviously been ~

caused by damage to the ‘bud’ of the ~

growing antler, it is so regular and

uniform in fiowth and appearance that it

would appear to be just a normal puiler,

growth.

The antlers were still in velvet hich 2

was in the process of being rubbed off. The points were all worn aa

which indicates that there was no pain or discomfort due to the ©

growth of this freak tine.

This stag was caught in one oF the wire noose traps known as

Herat: (Malay) so extensively used throughout the country at the

present time. These traps, which are set ostensibly for wild pig,

cause enormous damage to the wild life of the country as they are

not discriminatory in their action and catch and mutilate animals of

E all species—from elephant to fawn barking deer, sambar, wild dog

3 _ and bear.

_ Krane, SELANGOR, H. J. KITCHENER

$ _ Mataya, ; Chief Game Warden,

E. April 8, 1954. Federation of Malaya.

3 9. SHIKAR IN INDIA

g The following extract from The Asiatic Annual Register of 1800,

- from ‘Chronicle’ for May, may be of some interest to several members

i of the Society as it points out that tiger were alarmingly common

% I50 years ago, that even at that time g ft. 4 ins. was considered an

exceptional size for a tiger and, what is most interesting, that camels

were used with appreciation in the hunting of tiger under circumr

stances where elephants are used now-a-days and under conditions,

which to say the least must certainly have been exciting.

Extract of a letter from a Cavalry Officer, dated Camp Mooree

mo April 21 :— ;

‘

: ... Fhe detachment arrived here on the 11th; and in the

= “evening of that day, a grasscutter of the 1st regiment was seized

_and devoured by a tigress, eight feet ten inches long.

A party was formed the next morning, who went out to attack

her in the place of her retreat; not 4oo0 yards from our lines. In

endeavouring to drive her out of her den, two male tigers darted out

successively, and were both shot before the female made her appear-

ance, when, after three desperate charges, she also fell, and was

cut to pieces with tulwars. The party consisted of the camels of

the detachment, and only a few troopers on horseback, whose ardour

_ the officers found it very difficult to restrain; and from the number

of shots fired in every direction, it was, upon the whole, a fortunate

circumstance, that only one man was wounded by a carbine ball,

' besides three others whom the tigers sprung upon. The two male

tigers did not measure eight feet. We had every reason to expect

quiet nights after destroying our dangerous neighbours; but we

found that the country abounds with tigers; for the alarm was given

three successive nights; but every endeavour to find out the retreat

_ of one of those animals proved abortive.

On the roth, a man was carried away by a tigress; and from our

bi _ having missed a dawk (we have reason to suppose it is the dawk

_ hircarrah), the next morning, a party of a few troopers, armed only

with pistols, and the camelriders (troopers) who were only

allowed to carry their swords, was ordered out. (At sun-rise this

morning, at the distance of five miles from camp, in a thick, small

0 ies

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

jungle on the borders of a nullah overgrown with high grass,

the party in search of the tigress started her, when she commenced

the attack; the horsemen immediately returned the charge with a

volley, which had no other effect than that of making her retreat.

The size of this animal was such, that Major Wharton sent a man to

camp to bring a reinforcement of a few men armed with carbines;

but, before these could arrive, the tigress renewed the attack, and

made some furious charges (which the riders avoided by their dexterity

in turning their horses), and retreated into the bed of a nullah, where

the horses could not follow her. In consequence of this, the pistols

were given into the hands of the troopers on camels, who advanced

boldly into the nullah. The tigress, grown desperate, was making

a most furious spring at one of the troopers, when he, with great

steadiness, fired his pistol just as she had sprung, hit her in the

head, and brought her to the ground. On measuring her, she was

found to be nine feet four inches.

It is unusual to hunt tigers with camels and horses; and although

the latter went forward with great boldness, yet they were surpassed

by the former, which, I think, from what I have seen, are preferable

in this respect to elephants.’

GUDUR,

NELLORE DISTRICT, K. M. KIRKPATRICK

September 15, 1954. |

10. INTELLIGENCE OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT

The intelligence displayed by elephants has been described in an

article by Mr. Robert Foran which appeared in the Illustrated Weekly

of India of 28th June, 1953. When the author wrote that article,

which he has also illustrated with a number of photographs of the

African elephant, he obviously had in mind the animal from Africa and

not the Indian. Having been almost continuously associated with the

Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) for nearly a quarter of

a century and also having assisted in the capture and taming of a

few hundred elephants in several khedda operations held at Kakankote

and Budipadaga, names which are famous in this connection in India,

I have to state from my experience that the high degree of intelligence

claimed for the African elephant by Mr. Foran does not apply, except

in a meagre measure, to the Indian elephant, at least not to the

animal found in the extensive forests of the Deccan tableland. It

is true that a tame Indian elephant can be taught to do some extra-

ordinary feats requiring a high degree of skill—as for example,

balancing its huge body on a rolling cylinder, converging its four

legs on the top of an inverted wooden tub too small to accommodate

them all, picking up a minute object and handing it carefully to the

trainer, and so on; or a working elephant deftly directing huge logs of

floating timber in between the piers of bridges spanning flooded

rivers, to avoid damage to the bridges and piers, etc., but in these

instances it is the intelligence of man which comes into play and

ti > fe . at) lh . ‘ : 5 5 ae f ts ee

os FEE ARATE SOE eS LOS, Oe NLR eS CEM eee Pe Te Ee eee Oe OOM SE eee ney Eee ee En ee SOE EEA POD erg a eee ee ee ee ae ae ee

es,

Ph,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 591

makes use of the learning capacity of the animal; in other words, man

utilises the animal’s brawn for producing the desired results.

During each khedda drive scores of elephants are driven into the

khedda enclosure en masse, and this is, done time after time in

the same place and almost under identical conditions. Such captures

would have been almost impossible if the Indian elephant had

been endowed with the discriminating intelligence ascribed to its

African relative by Mr. Foran. I must say that it is the almost com-

plete absence of reasoning power, or to put it in a crude way, the

‘stupidity displayed by most of these mighty animals which enables

man to impound them almost like sheep in the khedda stockade and

subsequently noose them with ropes one by one. ‘True, there are rare

instances in which an elephant has shown a certain amount of reason-

ing power which we may term intelligence in the widest sense of

the term, but such instances are very few and far between. They

are rare exceptions, not the rule.

The roping operation involves the slipping of a loose rope-noose

up the trunk of the elephant and on to its neck. For doing this, a

scope or so of elephants are first impounded in the roping ring-

stockade and they are then roped one by one, in full view of the

other animals awaiting their turn to be roped. But, the animals which

are looking on all the time their companions are being noosed learn

nothing from what they see, nor do they help in freeing their dis-

tressed friend who, after the ropes are on him, is forcibly dragged out

of the roping ring and bewails his loss of freedom by heart-rending

cries and pours forth a constant stream of tears from his tiny, winking’

eyes. In fact, a captive which is in the act of being roped rarely,

if ever, lifts its head or attempts to push down the man who is roping

it and who remains perched, often precariously, on the back of a

kumki elephant. It would have been nearly impossible for the roping

squad of mahouts to enter the roping ring and carry on their

dangerous task had the wild elephants displayed the little intelligence

required to use their trunk for pushing down the mahouts systemati-

cally from the backs of their kumkies. This never seems to occur to

them; in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the animals keep their

heads bent and submit to the ‘machinations’ of the humans without

any show of their enormous strength or the slightest streak of

intelligence. True, they often make clumsy and ineffectual efforts to

prevent the noose from being pulled up their long trunks, but this is

done more out of animal instinct than from the consciousness that

the rope is axing at their freedom.

The fact that in their wild state no two elephants behave exactly

alike when they see a hunter shows the meagreness of their reason-

ing’ power; one may bolt’on seeing the hunter, the next may charge

him. The first animal runs away from danger while the second

turns to bay; this is a universal reaction common to all animals and

not confined only to the elephant.

The elephant recognises its mahout by smell, since the animal’s

winding (smelling) power is better developed than its sense of hearing

or sight. This is true not only of the elephant but also of most

domesticated animals.

of all those animals which associate in herds. A distressed comrade

is not normally abandoned to its fate by such animals. For example,

on several occasions I have seen a bull bison (gaur) in a herd shot

_and brought down to the ground, when some of his companions have

stood around their fallen comrade and attempted to lift him to his

feet. They have had to be scared away by shots.

‘Animals. are generally unable to assess the gravity of nacoonen

danger ; it is more on account of this than through any sense of personal

heroism that they return to free a comrade in distress. It is the human

being that assesses the degree of danger to which the animals had

been! exposed and attributes the sense of heroism to them in his own

measure. A sneaking hunter who worms his way through the forest

undergrowth is never noticed by an elephant unless he is caught

up-wind, when his smell gives him away, or unless he appears in

full view of the animal at close range, in which case the animal

either runs away from him or charges him outright.

As for the ability of the elephant to fashion steps against obstruct-

ing. mud banks with the help of their fore feet and tusks, this is

more the outcome of accumulated experience resulting from repeated

efforts to climb an obstacle rather than from a reasoned-out plan,

The accumulated experience of generations of elephants has now

probably crystallized into an insect. Its size and strength enable

an elephant to cut the steps; for the other smaller animals this would

be impossible. It is known, however, that while descending steep

paths the elephant always keeps to the beaten track and never diverts

from it even if there be an easier one within a stone’s throw; this

displays absolute want of reasoning power. I know of many an

attempted ‘river-drive’ at Kakankote (Mysore State) having failed

on account of this simple fact, namely, the elephant’s refusal to budge

from its accustomed route even if there be another in its neighbour-

hood which is a much easier and shorter one.

Most quadrupeds are excellent swimmers and the elephant can

swim too. A new-born elephant, like most other new-born quadru-

peds, cannot swim and has to be carried across deep water by the

mother.

A full-grown elephant generally avoids falling into game pits not

because of its reasoning power or intelligence, but more on account

of the fact that it has the habit of constantly feeling with its trunk

the ground on which it is about to tread. The trunk of the elephant

can be compared to the stick of a blind person. At night, especially,

the elephant with its weak power of sight has to depend more on feel

and smell. The sense of touch has therefore been well developed.

It is the calves that usually drop into the pits, but not infrequently

half grown animals, and occasionally even full-grown tuskers too, drop

i: and are roped. Instances of attempts to rescue a fallen animal are —

by no means uncommon, but it is mostly the mothers or the foster

mothers of the entrapped calves that return to rescue their young ones

and even these are often easily scared away by firing a couple of blank

shots. The mother returns to the rescue of her young one out of

maternal instinct rather than through any feeling of comradeship.

The sense of comradeship is generally well developed inthe case

ae eT

593

ss The efficiency of the African elephant in ‘road making’ or ‘dam-

construction’ has been commended by Mr, Foran, but I must say that

- their Indian counterparts are mostly untrained engineers; elephant

paths frequently go up and down hill ridges, often missing the saddles

in the neighbourhood. Quite often they make gradients of 45

degrees which could have been easily avoided by skirting a small

neighbouring hillock; but the animals always follow a beaten path,—

a path, whether it is good or bad, which has been worn smooth from

use, but laid out for them from the accumulated experience and wisdom

of generations of their roving forefathers. An elephant hitched to

a timber log generally seeks the easiest gradient possible but in this,

again, it is guided by the resistance offered by the log and not by the

reasoning power of the animal. If, for example, the log is held up by

WORE AE Ge 3 ae aes eV a

See as Ys Dias SOAP a eias beets Siete

} . “ i &: ¥ Ca %

The construction of dams by African elephants, as described by

_ Mr. Foran, is almost incredible in the case of the South Indian elephant.

Wild herds often spoil their only source of drinking water and are

_ forced to leave the locality altogether in quest of water; let alone

_ their ability to construct a water reservoir for themselves by carefully

plugging the courses of mountain streams. The description of the

sagacity used by the African elephants reminds one of the old Indian

fable in which an elephant, which was refused its share of the daily

plantain fruit by a tailor, is stated to have gone out to a neighbouring

dirty pond, filled its caanlt with muddy water, returned and syringed

the water on the tailor. The elephant has to breathe and the probosis

is the nasal passage; how the elephant retained water in it all the

“a time has not been questioned.

“As regards the general health of the South Indian elephant, like

its South African counterpart, it too is a healthy animal, though tame

elephants sometimes fall an easy prey to the deadly anthrax. Like the

African elephants too, they suffer from diarrhoea, and also intestinal

- ‘worms against which they swallow large quantities of mud which

is then ejected along with the worms. A daily bath is indispensable

_ to the South Indian elephant and sometimes two baths are taken,

each invariably accompanied by a toilet which consists of sprinkling

_ dry or loose earth or blowing dust all over the body.

_ The elephant is able to make a quick end of its human victims

because of its enormous physical power and large size compayed to

ts victim. Once dashed against the ground or trampled upon the

_ body, of man, which is of the size of a mere toy compared to the

_ elephant, is crushed and often reduced to pulp.

_.. There are no two opinions about elephants being strictly vege-

_ tarian and even the accidental smell of blood in their diet is often

_ disliked by them.

: The Indian elephant does not cover the body of its human victim

with leaves etc. and thus give it a burial of some sort as mentioned

- by Mr. Foran in connection with the African elephant. In every

any obstruction along the drag path, the elephant merely uses its

_ brute force to overcome it and often snaps its drag-chain in the effort.

E It is never known to use its reasoning power for overcoming such.

: obstacles in spite of the fact that it may have done this sort of work

- all its life.

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 52

single instance of manslaughter by elephants that I have had occasion |

to see, the animal had left the body of its victim on the ground and

fully exposed to view. It is the habit of the carnivora, on the other

hand, to secrete their meat against scavenging hyaenas and vultures

by heaping up dry fallen leaves and twigs over it.

I am unable to say anything about the standard of intelligence

of the African elephants because I have no knowledge of them in the

wild state. But, from the meagre experience I have had with a pair of

these animals in the Mysore zoo which used to be tethered sometimes

in the forests of my forest division for grazing, and occasionally

even for work, I can state that the African elephant, compared to the

Indian, is wilder and more difficult to tame or train.

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

New Forest, DeHRA Dun, K. KADAMBI

September 4, 1953. Conservator of Forests

11. THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN

(With a photo)

The snowman has again been in the news for some time and it

may be of interest to examine the facts and theories which have been

put forth in recent years.

We believe that the only instance in which the narrator claims to

have personally seen a creature, later reported as a Snowman, and

written about it is N. A. Tombazi, F.R.G.s., who in his ‘Account of

a Photographic Expedition to the Southern Glaciers of Kangchen-

junga in the Sikkim Himalaya’ writes :—

‘I was preparing my instruments and cameras for the start when

my attention was attracted by shouts outside the grotto; soon

afterwards, the Sirdar and two of the coolies hurried to the tent with

the news that a man had been sighted in the valley below. I- rushed

out—forgetting even to put on one of my snowboots—and gazed

searchingly in the direction in which the Sirdar was pointing.

‘The intense glare and brightness of the snow prevented me from

seeing anything for the first few seconds; but I soon spotted the

‘“‘object’’ referred to, about two to three hundred yards away down

the valley to the East of our camp. Unquestionably, the figure in

outline was exactly like a human being, walking upright and stopping

occasionally to uproot or pull at some dwarf rhododendron bushes.

It showed up dark against the snow and, as far as I could make out,

wore no clothes. Within the next minute or so it had moved into

some thick’ scrub and was lost to view.

‘Such a fleeting glimpse, unfortunately, did not allow me to set

the telephoto-camera, or even to fix the object carefully with the

binoculars; but, a couple of hours later, during the descent, I

purposely made a detour so as to pass over the place where the ‘‘man”’

or “‘beast’’ had been seen. I examined the foot-prints which were

clearly visible on the surface of the snow. They were very similar

in shape to those of a man, but only six to seven inches long by four

a z % ; % mS gi

FAP EN OG ee TT eT DORE PTE Mee RT OR LURE Rea eT eM SS fe Pap ee

Tes. ae

rea =

(

.. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 595

inches wide at the broadest part of the foot. The marks of five

distinct toes and of the instep were perfectly clear; but the trace of

the heel was indistinct, and the little that could be seen of it appeared

te narrow down to a point. I counted fifteen such foot-prints at

regular intervals ranging from one-and-a-half to two feet. The prints

were undoubtedly of a biped, the order of the spoor having no

characteristics whatever of any imaginable quadruped. Dense rhodo-

Snowman’s Scalp

dendron scrub prevented any further investigations as to the direction

cf the foot-prints, and threatening weather compelled me to resume

the march. From enquiries I made a few days later at Yoksun, on

my return journey, I gathered that no man had gone in the direction

of Jongri since the beginning of the year.

“When the news reached Darjeeling the press, as usual, headed

their comments with captions of ‘‘Wild Man’’, ‘‘Snow Man’’, and the

like, seen near Kangchenjunga by an “‘Italian’’ traveller. By the time

the British and Continental papers had got the news, the length of

the foot-prints had been more than doubled; and some ingenious young

gentleman on the Manchester Guardian had produced a_ bird-theory

out of his own fertile brain.

‘When I asked the opinion of the Sirdar and the coolies they

naturally trotted out fantastic legends of ‘‘Kangchenjunga-demons’’.

Without in the least believing in these delicious fairy-tales myself,

notwithstanding the plausible yarns told by the natives, and the refer-

ences I have come across in many books, I am still at a loss to express

any definite opinion on the subject. However, I can only reiterate

with a sufficient degree of certainty that the silhouette of the mysterious

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOC

being was unmistakably identical with the outline of a human figure, —

I personally rejoice in particularly acute vision and am sufficiently

familiar with the appearances of mountain fauna to be able to

distinguish a bear, monkey, snow-leopard, ostrich, kiwi (if you like)—-

and even a man. I am also somewhat versed in the simple analysis

of spoor, and can unhesitatingly state that the prints were those of

no wild animal common to the Sikkim-Himalaya. It should be borne

in mind that the foot of the Tibetan tribes is inclined to be short,

flattened-out and wide across the toes. 3 |

‘I have a theory, which may be worth consideration, if it be not

thought too far fetched. Tibet and the contiguous countries are the

very citadel of the Buddhist Faith, which in itself is actuated very |

largely, like the Early Christian Church, by the spirit of asceticism.

The country of the Lamas is filled with monasteries; and we must

remember that it is only civilisation and increased population that has

favoured the cloistral community-system. .In Early Church days

anchoritism was well recognised and it seems reasonable to suppose

that the Buddhist monks may well have turned to this form of —

mortification, in the same way as the ancient Christian hermits of the

Syrian Desert. . 7

‘I conjecture, then, that this ‘‘wild man’’ may be either a solitary

or else a member of an isolated community of pious Buddhist

ascetics, who have renounced the world and sought their God in the

utter desolation of some high place, as yet undesecrated by the World.

However, perhaps I had better leave the conclusions to ethnological

and other experts.’

More recently Eric Shipton the well-known Himalayan climber

saw foot prints 124 in. long in the snow at 12,000 ft. which the

authorities at the British Museum apparently held were made by a

langur, ‘which when bounding puts its hind feet into the marks made

by the front feet and lengthens them.’ This information however is

entirely based on newspaper reports.

A more startling aspect is put forward by Wilfred Noyce who in

‘The Ascent of Everest’ (Asian Review, April, 1954, page 128)

writes: :

‘The Lamas of the monastery Thyangboche entertained us to

tea, and with stories of that interesting gentleman the Yeti or |

Abominable Snowman. In the winter these creatures are seen near

the monastery, playing in the snow. They kill yak, which they

skin carefully and plant the horns in the ground. We are all firm

believers in their existence.’

In 1952 Messrs. Navnit Parikh, Rusi Gandhy, J. A. Gaitonde

and P. V. Pattankar of Bombay visited the Everest area through

Nepal. Mr. Parikh reports that some of the Sherpas who accom-

panied them had actually seen this Snowman or Yeti. One of them

related how he had locked himself in a hut when he saw one running

towards him and that upon his coming out of the hut (after a suitable — ‘

interval !) he had seen one of his yaks lying! dead in a pool of blood.

The Yeti was described as not more than 5 ft. in height and with

reddish-brown hair all over his body and a conical shaped head. A

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Lama at the monastery also related how in the winter of 1948 after

heavy snowfall he heard the Yeti screaming and saw it come down

_ from the slopes of Mt. Kangtega in the east. It did not come very

- near the monastery, but the Lama saw it walking on all fours and also

stand up on its hind legs and scratch its chest with its arms. The

Lama confirmed that the Yeti was a rather stunted animal with a

conical head and with a lot of hair all over the body.

Mr. Parikh’s party together with Dr. R. C. Evans of the British

Everest Expedition visited the Pangboche Monastery where a junior

, Lama showed them a ‘leather cap’ which was said to be the scalp of

the Yeti and used by the Lamas of the Gompa during important rituals.,

The accompanying photograph was taken after a lot of persuasion

after an offer of Rs. 500/- for the ‘scalp’ had been refused. Mr.

Parikh obtained a hair from the scalp and also brought in the story

of a living Yeti being kept in the zoo at Shigatse, the second largest

town in Tibet and the seat of Panchan Lama.

The latter part of the story was put to Lama Angarika Govinda,

(now resident in Devalali), who has some experience of that area, for

his comments. In his reply he said that the news of a zoo at Shigatse

is more fantastic than the report of the existence of the Snowman.

He however added that 10 years ago the Yet? was seen in the outskirts

of Siliguri when he was at Darjeeling and he heard many interesting

details. The creature was seen by the engine driver of a goods train

_ in the evening twilight, just before reaching Siliguri. He des-

- cribed it as a giant-like figure ambling along the railway track. No-

_ body would probably have taken notice of this report, if it had not

knocking at the door of her house. When she opened the door she

saw the figure of a giant, whereupon she immediately shut the door

with a scream and fainted with fright, thinking that Yama, the God

_ of Death, had appeared before her. Nobody wanted to believe her,

_ A friend of Angarika Govinda, a Mongolian Lama, whose name was

_ Geshe Chomphel, happened to be at Siliguri at that time and took exact

_ tracings of the footprints. He showed them to Lama Govinda who

remembers that they were 8 inches wide and about 14 or 15 inches

- long. Their shape was that of a rather clumsy (human) foot, the heel

_ almost as broad as the front-part, the toes very short and indistinct.

‘Lama Chomphel left India long ago, but it is possible that he

- left the drawing of the footprint in the Allahabad Municipal Museum,

_ where several of his drawings were kept in the ethnological hall of

the Museum. Lama Chomphel was an artist as well as a writer of

high qualification (he wrote in Tibetan as also in English). I have

_ therefore no doubt in the accuracy of his investigations.’

A letter of enquiry to the Curator, Allahabad Municipal Museum

has not yet elicited any reply. —

Other reports have attributed a ‘peculiar whistling note’ to this

creature.

The hair from the scalp of the ‘Snowman’ procured by Mr.

- Parikh was examined by Dr. Leon August Hausman, M.A., Ph.D.,

_ Department of Zoology, New Jersey College for Women, U.S.A,,

_ happened the same night that a young woman heard somebody

but the next morning enormous footprints were found in the soft mud.

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

who is an authority on hairs of all kinds. In his initial report

ne said that under the microscope the structural elements of the

hairshaft agreed with those of an Ursus or of an anthropoid of some

sort (not Homo). He compared it with hair from the dorsum and

head of Langurs (Presbytis or Semnopithecus), Brown Bear (Ursus

arctos) and the Takin (Budorcas taxicolor) and could not match it

with any of them. After seeing the photograph he said that the so-

called ‘scalp’ could well be the moulded and sewed artifact from some

mammal, which may have been brought in by a traveller and may not

belong to a Tibetan species at all. The identification of the hair

therefore appears impossible, though it may be worth recording that

in an earlier letter Dr. Hausman had said: ‘Its cuticle is uniformly

stained—this is an artificial feature, not a natural one—as mammalian

hairs are not colored in this way (except by skin gland secretions—

and this is none of these). The coloration, thus produced, reminds

me of the color and mode of coloring of hairs I have examined from

early Egyptian and Peruvian sepulchres’. :

The story of this hair was perhaps responsible for the recent

‘Daily Mail’ Expedition in search of this strange creature. The

party failed to find the Snowman, and we have now to wait for some-

thing more definite to turn up.

ree ee ee Pee: ; : FAME eee ee ee ale

ET eM: Sere ye eS RT ee Ee ea, OS hae eee Oe Pee Dna RENE WATE Tee =

EDITORS

12. THE OCCURRENCE OF THE CRESTED BUNTING

(MELOPHUS LATHAMI) IN SAURASHTRA

oe eh ee ON ee et ee ee

While in the Gir Forest with M. K. Dharmakumarsinhji we saw

a single female Crested Bunting on the Hiran River at Sasan on

7-4-54. I believe this is the first record of the bird from Saurashtra.

Information regarding its movements in the plains of Gujerat is

needed.

JASDAN,

April 23, 1954. Y.S. SHIVRAJKUMAR

13. AN INTELLIGENT MYNA

SARS PSAs ER ake i ch i SR Ra fi

On July 14th at 2.30 p.m., I threw a piece of stale bread on the

terrace of our neighbour’s house from our window and was watching

whether any bird would come and take it. There was a pair of

Common Mynas nearby. One of them picked it up in its beak and

was about to fly off when the other raised the harsh call generally

uttered as alarm. I saw 5 or 6 House Crows coming swooping

down. The myna with the crumb of bread in its beak hopped to the

nearest bamboo pole (one of the many stored on the terrace) and

tucked it inside the hollow end and perched above on the bamboo.

After the crows had flown away the myna jumped down, carefully

surveyed in all directions, put its beak inside the hele and took out

the bread. Then the pair shared the hearty meal.

c/o Dr: M<V..-N. Murtny,

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, | =

CALCUTTA-13, Mrs. SYAMALA MURTHY.

July, 22, 1954.

a it al ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. BAYAS AND FIREFLIES

I was interested to read in the Journal of December 1953, the

letter ‘Bayas and Fireflies’ by Mr. R. M. Aldworth.

I was hitherto under the impression that the story of weaver

birds using fireflies to illuminate their nests was a purely local one

for this part of the country, but it seems that it is a fairly widespread

3 one. It was not long after I arrived here that an Estate writer told

a . ..

Poy) er es? ee

ery : we

Pa eee ae a en

a a i la i i

me the story. I was sceptical from the start, and it was some time

before I was able to get to the bottom of the mystery for myself.

On several occasions I have inspected nests and in most cases have

found insects roughly pushed head first into the mud or clay at the

side of the nest chamber. I have never seen a live insect’ imprisoned

and not all were fireflies by any means., I have come to the con-

clusion that the insects are placed there for no other reason than as

a store of food against hard times; this, I think, is the only logical

reason for such a habit.

KUMBAZHA ESTATE,

PATHANAMTHITTA P.O., & T.O.,

TRAVANCORE, S. INDIA, P.G.S. HALL

April 18, 1954.

[It would appear from the above that Mr. Hall has commonly

found insects stuck in the mud within Baya nests. Most observers

have recorded this as a very exceptional occurrence only, and probably

accidental. However, the explanation is unconvincing. It is difficult

to believe that the quantity ‘stored’ can be sufficient for a meal,

or that a Baya would ever be so hard put to it for food to fall

back on desiccated remains of insects !—Eps. ]

15. MORE NOTES ON FINN’S BAYA (PLOCEUS

MEGARHYNCHUS)

After the recent publication of my note on Finn’s Baya Ploceus

megarhynchus (JBNHS, 51: 200-204) I had occasion to visit the bird

market in Calcutta, where I found a large Baya, apparently of this

species, being sold in some numbers. I bought a few birds in the

hope of being able to study their plumages, but they did not survive

very long. The five additional skins now available in Bombay,

however, if compared with the specimens listed earlier produce

Interesting results :

Four of the 11 birds dealt with in my previous paper, viz., Nos.

6, 7, 8 & 9, were cage birds and not procured directly from their

“natural habitat. If these four, together with the fresh specimens from

the Calcutta market are compared with the others (excluding those

in complete non-breeding plumage) they fall into two distinct

groups :—

Group I. The ‘cage’ birds, have:

g (a) yellow on the rump and upper tail coverts;

(b) the yellow on the underparts extending to and including the

vent and under tail coverts; |

. ~

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 52

centre, leaving dark patches on both sides of the neck. :

The vent of specimen No. 6 obtained from the Victoria Gardens —

was, upon re-examination, found to be pale yellow and not white as —

originally recorded.

In addition to the above, Finn’s description of rutledgi (Ibis, —

I901, pp. 29-32) which is accompanied by a coloured plate also shows — oi

all the three characters mentioned above.

One Q (sexed post mortem) from among the fresh specimens was

sketched in color in April when no collar or yellow was visible. 4

When it died on 8th October the underparts had become ty yellow — =

and distinct traces of a collar were discernible. 4

Group II. The wild birds obtained by O’Donel in the Bhutan

Duars, and again recently by Dr. W. Koelz at Agia near Goalpara in

Assam, differ from Group I in the following:

(a) No (or very slight) traces of yellow on the rump; |

(b) a white vent occasionally extending from the lower belly up

the breast in the form of a tongue;

(

Dr. Koelz has been good enough to examine several other speci-

mens in his collection (also from Agia), and confirms the above

characteristics.

‘The measurements of the two groups are similar, but there can

be little doubt that they represent separate populations. ‘4

P. megarhynchus was described by Hume from Kaladungi below —

Naini Tal, on the strength of two birds in non-breeding plumage, a

and we must determine to which of the above groups they belonged.

The specimen in the Indian Museum, presumably the type of Finn’s

vutledgii, bears on the label ‘Parokaeete teen W. Rutledge whose 4

suppliers obtained them from Naini Tal area’. Harper in Ibis, 1902,

page 169, and Bull. B.O.C., 1903, page 23-24, refers to specimens —

obtained from the Calcutta market and said to have been brought —

from Gorakhpur, 300 miles south-east of Naini Tal. Current en- —

quiries in the Calcutta market in regard to the specimens now —

purchased by me also indicated the same area of origin, and it would

therefore appear that the form represented by the cage birds (Group I) ©

is from an area in the foothills of the Western Himalayas ey j

to where the type of megarhynchus was obtained by Hume. That ©

rutledgit is a synonym of megarhynchus was later admitted by Finn

himself.

The ‘wild’ popelantGn of the Bhutan Duars (Group II) extending ay

east at least to Agia near Goalpara in Assam thus differs from true —

megarhynchus and remains unnamed. The provenance of the caged —

birds is, however, to some extent speculative and it is therefore @

dtivisable to await thé collection of specimens of this form in their —

natural habitat and in breeding plumage before finally naming 0%

eastern race, as seems called for. e

The voice and notes of the cage birds were a loud chee: chit quite =

different from that of the Common Baya. The iris was noted ‘as ~

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601

bright orange in a 6 in bright yellow plumage, and umber-brown

in a female. |

+5, AppuL REHMAN STREET, 3

BomBay; HUMAYUN ABDULALI

August 15, 1954.

16. SPARROWS NESTING IN COLONIES IN TREES

In May 1949, in the Gandhi Gardens at Karachi, I noticed a

number of House Sparrows (Passer domesticus) nesting in a colony.

The dry leaves of a palm had not been cut for some time, and

drooping against the stem formed a large pad about 20 ft. up,

under the growing leaves. I saw a sparrow fly with a piece of

nesting material into this mass of dry leaves and enter it by a small

hole, like a tunnel in an earthbank. Further observation revealed

that at least 5 pairs had similar holes in different parts of the mass

ef leaves round the stem. I have not seen reference to sparrow

colonies in trees in India though Zarudny (J/BNHS 28, p. 230) records

£29 nests of the Mesopotamian race biblicus in a small bush,

se eT ee

Faiz & Co.,

75; ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomMBay 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

January 22, 1954.

[Bates and Lowther ‘Breeding Birds of Kashmir’ (p. 169) say that

in Kashmir many House Sparrows are found in well wooded country

and on forest fringes breeding more or less in colonies in natural

hollows in trees.—Eps. |

;

“

17, A DISPLAY OF THE REDWINGED BUSH-LARK

(MIRAFRA ERYTHROPTERA BLYTH)

During the hot ‘summer months, the best time to observe birds is

in the early mornings, at which time the various species are

most vigorous. On the morning of June 14th, I was slowly walk-

ing through scrubby thorn jungle growing over a waste land much

_ fissured by numerous small dry streamlet beds, when my attention

was attracted by what I first took to be a pair of quail fighting. On

drawing closer, however, I found that the birds were Redwinged

_ Bush-Larks and, so engrossed were they in the display I detail below

that: I was ane to come to within two yards of them without their

taking any notice of me whatsoever.

aS _ The birds, when first observed, were crouching, facing each other,

with wings held low and feathers ruffled, for all the world like a pair

of miniature fighting-cocks, at a distance of about 6 inches from

each other. Holding this pose for a few seconds, one would suddenly

- make a rapid dart at its opponent, who would just as rapidly move

backwards so that no actual contact between the two was made.

ees

Pky

oS 602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The two would then pause or move slowly around, their bills pointed |

towards each other all the time, there would be a sudden rush again

by one or the other and so the performance was repeated over a

considerable period of time—about ten minutes. Some of these

| lightning rushes and retreats were up to over 6 ft. of distance and

aoe I marvelled at the retreating bird’s dexterity at running backwards

ee so smoothly for at no time did any one of the two take flight or leave

the ground, neither did they leap forwards or backwards but ran with

small, quick steps.. As I have said before, although the appearance

of both birds denoted pugnacity, there was never any actual contact os

between them.

The interesting display was unfortunately disturbed by “my dog,

which returned from chasing hare. On its arrival, the larks took

flight and disappeared. I do not know whether this display was

an act of courtship between a breeding pair, or whether it was an

actual fight between two rivals, either for a breeding’ site (the species

ae - was breeding at the time) or because one had iaeiEed on the territory

ie | of the other and was being driven off.

Gupur (NELLORE). | K.M. KIRKPATRICK

[The actions described doubtless represent formalised fighting

se between rivals, presumably males and presumably for territory.

oe These formalised innocuous encounters are to be seen in many bird |

| species. In so far as they do not result in serious injury to the

combatants they serve a useful purpose in the survival of the species.—

Eps. | a

18. THE COURTSHIP DISPLAY OF THE LARGE PIED

WAGTAIL (MOTACILLA MADERASPATENSIS GMELIN)

Whilst inspecting Mica in a factory on the outskirts of Gudur this 4

morning, my attention was attracted by the loud song of a Pied

Wagtail. On investigation, a pair of these birds were observed

perched on the edge of the flat roof of an office adjoining the factory

sheds. The female was perched, half-crouched with breast feathers

slightly fluffed out and wings partly open whilst the male, some

twelve inches away from her, was singing loudly, his throat feathétem

‘distended, his breast, abdominal and rump feathers fluffed out and —

his tail cocked high over his back with his wings extended stiffly —

away from his body. As he sang, he approached the female with a

stiff, mincing step, sometimes stopping to turn around in a little

dance, until he was almost bumping into her—this display lasting ~

some two minutes. When he was close to her, she crouched down

on the roof-edge and submitted to him. He treaded her for five to —

ten seconds and again jumped from off her back, to commence his

display but moving away from her this time until he was some

‘twenty inches distant from her—she not having moved her position

at all during this performance—when he suddenly sprang ‘upwards,

mounting some five feet into the air above the roof with a single rapid —

wingr-beat. From this altitude, he slowly sank back to the roof on —

stiffly outspread wings, thé first primaries being held well forward

tethers ‘fluffed out entirely like a oe “ball ‘and. the tail ond well

up over the back, the feathers slightly spread, his" legs hanging stiffly

below him as he ee back to his perch, singing loudly all the while.

As soon-as he touched down he again sidled up to his mate with his

stiff, mincing gait. She submitted to him once again and immedi

3 ately after copulation both birds suddenly took flight and disappeared

from view over the factory roofs.

a - GuDUR P.O.,

~ NELLORE DISTRICT, K.M. KIRKPATRICK

3 August 10, 1954.

r:..LHE OCCURRENCE OF FRANKLIN’S NIGHTJAR

(CAPRIMULGUS MONTICOLUS MONTICOLUS) IN

TRAVANCORE-COCHIN

Ss Franklin’s Nightjar has hitherto not been recorded as occurring"

in Travancore, and in Salim Ali’s recent book ‘The Birds of Travancore

_ and Cochin’ it merely gets an ‘honourable mention’.

& In February 1954 in order to definitely establish its identity 1

sent a specimen skin of a bird which I believed to be of this species

to the Society and it was identified as a female. By a strange

coincidence a day or two after I had received this information I picked

up another bird of this species in an exhausted condition. This bird,

a female, revived sufficiently to fly away after I had aig: a few

drops of water down its throat.

_ Franklin’s Nightjar appears to be not uncommon in the Peeunaae

& Hills of Travancore during the dry weather months {November to

April) for its distinctive call choee can frequently be heard near

_ localities where there are expanses of slab rock surrounded by thin

_ jungle and grassland. I have often seen and heard the male,

dentified by its white wing patches, uttering this call from the

ground or perched in a tree or when in poe but I have never heard

the female do SO.

rc. pre ous M. C, A. JACKSON

OCCURRENCE OF SPURS IN THE FEMALE

JUNGLEFOWL (GALLUS ESE ety.

In March 1949, Mr. R. F. Stoney sent in the sae of a female

- Junglefow (Gallus sonnerati) shot at the foot of the Segur Ghat in-

- the Nilgiris which is in normal plumage but has 1 inch spurs on each

leg. Col. Phythian-Adams who was with Mr. Stoney sexed the bird

dissection. |

604 | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Stuart Baker in ‘Game Birds of India’, Vol. III, p. 132, says of

the female of the Red Junglefowl: ‘undeveloped - spurs are occa-

sionally present. Tickell obtained such a specimen in Singhbhum,

and I have myself. shot half a dozen females showing spurs, which

in one instance exceeded half an inch in length’. -

There does not, however, appear to be any record of this having

been observed eanliet in the Grey Junglefowl.

;

EDITORS

2t. THE GREAT INDIAN BUSTARD

Im the Journal Vol. 51, page 276, Mr. F. H. B. Tyabji recorded

having seen several hundred bustard together at one time. Subse-

quent correspondents expressed surprise at these observations as no

one ever appeared to have recorded having seen the Great Indian

Bustard in such large flocks. It is therefore interesting to quote

from ‘Records of Sport and Military Life in Western India’ by the

late Lieut-Colonel T. G. Fraser (1881), page 138:—

‘On our arrival at the little ghat, across from M—m [ Malegaum ?|

and descending to the plain, I drew B—d's attention to a fine bustard

near the roadside, and two or three more further on. Getting our

shot guns, we made towards them, but these wary gentlemen were

not to be done so easily, and the manoeuvre of ringing could not be

effected. ‘As we approached they rose, and though too distant for

effect, we both fired, and the moment we did so, in an instant from

every direction around us rose flocks of bustard, till some eighty

or a hundred were on wing at once. We were saved the humiliation

and disgrace of seeing them fly unharmed away by a couple of them

passing over us, one of which we brought down. Whether a flight

of locusts or grasshoppers had alighted to attract this extraordinary

flight of birds, or whether they assembled for migratory purposes, I

cannot say, but never before or since have I witnessed such a sight.’

The period referred to is in the 1840’s.

EDITORS

Col. R. W. Burton offers the following comment on above :—

‘In view of the greater abundance of all species of game birds

in Ind‘a a century ago it is not very surprising that there is record —

of the Great Indian Bustard having been seen on one occasion in the |

Bombay Presidency in the 1840’s in a large flock of 80 to too birds.

That the occurrence was even then most unusual is known by the

statement by Colonel Fraser in his book, ‘‘. ... never before or since

have I witnessed such a sight’’

What is most surprising is that in these days of the Bustard in

India having become a vanishing species it should be reported that

during the years 1923-1926 flocks of 200 to 400 bustard were seen —

along the Nizam’s State Railway in the Manmad direction. ;

What can be the explanation? One large assembly recorded over —

a hundred years ago, and nothing of the kind until eighty years later

TE Ve oe ee” ee SY

WO ti i Rati a aaa eal aa aa

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605

when, despite the species having become increasingly scarce, two

much larger flocks are seen.’

“fA possible explanation of the later records was suggested by

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji’s note published on p. 740 of Vol. 51.—

Eps. | 3 |

22. OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKNECKED CRANE

(GRUS NIGRICOLLIS) IN INDIAN LIMITS

While serving as Political Officer of the Subansiri Area of the

NE. Frontier in 1946-48 I discovered that a flock of this species

regularly winters in the Apa Tani Valley.

The Apa Tani Valley which lies in the heart of the Dafla Hills, 60

miles north of N. Lakhimpur in Assam, is a geographical freak and

the tribe that inhabits it is even more remarkable. After a six days

march over a tangle of mountain ranges, intersected by precipitous

ravines and gorges, and covered from base to summit in dense

evergreen forest—except where this has been cleared by the scattered

and primitive Dafla settlements for their slash-and-burn jhum cultiva-

tions—one climbs a final ridge and looks down on a flat, open basin,

a Manipur vale in miniature, only at an elevation of 5,000 ft. Like

the latter it is obviously the dried-up bed of an old lake, and is

inhabited by some 20,000 Apa Tani tribesmen who have evolved an

entirely self-sufficient and highly intensive agricultural system which

is quite unique. Not an inch of the valley floor is wasted. The

irrigable portions are under a complicated series of rice terraces fed

by the Kale river which has been canalised and diverted to water

the greater part of the arable area. The bunds bounding the terraces

and any dry and non-irrigable land are sown with millet, and the

slopes and the surroundings of the seven large villages are planted

with carefully tended groves of Pinus excelsa and a species of bamboo.

These are grown for building purposes and neither are endemic in

the neighbouring hills but were brought by the Apa Tanis on their

original migration from some sub-Himalayan source.

The Blacknecked Cranes are a_ well-known and _ conspicuous

feature of the avifauna. According to the tribesmen a flock varying

20 to 40 have visited the valley every winter within human memory.

The first year I was there they arrived in mid-November. There

were 27, and they appeared quite suddenly one night. Their habits

were very regular. During the day they fed out in the open fallow

fields on fallen grain, usually in one flock but sometimes broken up

into two or three parties. They took little notice of the Apa Tanis

working in the fields who did not molest them, but were very sus-

Picious of anyone not in tribal dress, and it was impossible to get

within gunshot. In the evenings they flighted to one of the patches

of swampy land which lay on the outskirts of the valley and spent

the night there. They seldom took wing unless disturbed or when

changing ground, and when they did so would fly low with alternate

flapping and long glides. They never left the confines of the valley.

After much stalking I shot a male and confirmed the identity. At

the end of February, they began to get restless. The flock would

be feeding quietly, when suddenly they would all burst into a chorus of

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. at

trumpeting, and first one and then another would start to prance

and caper. At last in the first week of March, I disturbed them one

morning while preening and basking in the warm sun. This time

instead of flying off as usual to some other ground, they set their

wings and began to soar upwards in circles until they were high

above the level of the hills surrounding the valley. Then, still on

motionless, wings, they swung into formation in a plear out chevron

and headed north. When they reached the head of the valley they

hesitated and then broke up and came slanting back to the rice fields.

Next day, however, they were gone. 3

They returned the next autumn. This time the flock was smaller

and there was a smaller crane of a different species with them—I

think, a Demoiselle.

It is rather surprising that having come so far, the Blacknecked —

Cranes never continue to the rich feeding rounds of the Assam

Valley as do the Barheaded Geese and Ruddy Shelduck who breed

in the same area. The latter two species regularly passed through

the Apa Tani Valley on their spring migration and would often Bocce

for several days, but appeared to take a different line in the autumn,

or else went over by night without stopping as we never saw mem

then.

HUNNERSLEY, BURLEY, 7

RinGwoop, Hants, U.K., i ai es ey 8 ea Be)

February 20, 1954.

! 23. THE STATUS OF THE. PHEASANT-TAILED JAGANA

(H YDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS) IN SOUTH INDIA

_ | The two. notes in the Journal, Volume 50, pages 406- 407 and

947-948 and the more detailed note in Volume 51, pages 741-742, have ~

prompted me to place on record additional information regarding this

Jacana in the Madras State, as it is incorrect to regard it as. une

common in South India. 4

My observations and records show that it 1S quite common in ie s

Madras State, at least so far as the Southern Districts are concerned,

and the information furnished in the note in Volume 51 establishes ~-

the fact that it is also common in the Andhra portion of what used to 4

be the Madras. State. =

During many years’ residence in South India I have seen hein’ at 4

frequent intervals. in small numbers in Villupuram, Tanjore,

Trichinopoly, Madura and Tinnevelly Districts. It also occurs in

North and South Malabar and in South Kanara and Travancore State —

where it’ may be considered as much more common, especially —

during. and immediately after the South-west Monsoon. Most of the

birds on the Malabar Coast are seen in pairs when the monsoon has"

set .in and ‘by late September, October and November they have 2

invariably | formed small parties. a

- A nest with four fresh eggs was taken by me in South Kanes

(3-9-1943) in a tank in a large expanse of paddy fields, within a 100

yards of the railway. track. The nest, which was floating, was con-

structed amongst water lilies, reeds and grass, the depth of the water

| MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tes being between 3 and 4 ft. The eggs from this nest have been given

to the British Museum, Natural History, South Kensington, London.

A friend of mine shot a female Pheasant-tailed Jacana at Alwaye,

in Travancore State, during the South-west Monsoon. and obtained

3 a fully formed oviduct egg from the bird.

A The above records appear to establish that the breeding season

_ is during the South-west Monsoon on the Malabar Coast.

E LONDON, : : | eae :

; /anuary 3) 1954. : C. H. BIDDULPH

24. BC REENGs OF BRONZECAPPED OR FALCATED

TEAL (EUNETTA FALCATA) NEAR CALCUTTA

Ph eR he

1 aaa jute

paisa Gee

On the 24th January this year I was out duck shooting with

Mr. F. A. Ainslie at the Salt Lakes within 25 miles of Calcutta. — I

was about to fire at a flight of duck when I noticed a pair flying at

a lower level and got both with a right and left. I recognised the

male as a Bronzecapped vied immediately, and the female seemed to

be of the same species. On returning home a reference to Stuart

Baker and to the Fauna confirmed the fact that I had obtained a

peat of Bronzecapped Teal.

I presented the two specimens to the zoological galleries, Indian

‘Museum, Calcutta, and the Curator Shri M. N. Datta writes con-

firming that they are the Bronzecapped Teal representing both sexes

and in full plumage. They are now on view in the Museum, and

the drake with fully’ developed sickle-shaped secondaries is a most

_ handsome bird.

ae All my books of reference state that the occurrence of these teal

3 in India is very. rare, and during all the years I have been shooting

we have not heard of a specimen being recorded in India.

2 Fis MIDDLETON STREET, . ;

f-CArcurra; * , _J.N. TAYLOR

April 14, 1954. |

[This duck has also been obtained in. Samastipur District in

Bengal, Patna (Bihar), Jhelum (Punjab), Roorkee (U.P.) and as far

west as Sind and Kutch. Higgins in Assam saw 82 shot on 53

occasions between 1908- 43- Attention has been drawn to the differ-

ences between this species and the gadwal in /BNHS, vol. 48: pp.

po 307. SEDs. | 7

s _ BIRDS ASSOCIATING NATURAL PHENOMENA

. WITH FOOD SUPPLY

S Sin the Tors er. gs (1953) p. 142, Mr. W. W. A. Phillips published

pierestine note entitled ‘A Grass-fire Association of the Ceylon

; other natural phenomena. Not considering such commonplace

nstances of birds ‘taking ‘advantage’ of grass or forest fires, and

. 5.30

i. =. Ie

eer

a} =

a srice oe

tus Se

Rees

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

behaviour of sufficient interest, I did not commit my observations to

paper. However, my observations are not restricted to ‘fires’ alone, |

but extend to he association of birds with the migrations of certain

species of ants.

Birds soon learn to appreciate the advantages to be gained ae

natural occurrences, particularly where resulting in an increase in their

food supply. Thus it is quite simple to see how the sign of smoke,

spells food in the ‘mind’ of some insectivorous birds. The behaviour

of the birds present in the area at the time is a signal for others to

join in the hunt. On many occasions I have witnessed birds ‘going

to a fire’ and feeding on the insect and other life escaping from the

smoke and flames. The birds did not only feed on the escaping

fauna, but they also fed on the singed and partly roasted corpses left

in the wake of the fire.

When in the Nepal Tarai in 1932, grass fires were frequent and

on each occasion I observed large numbers of swallows, drongos

(Dicrurus) and shrikes {Lanius) attracted to them. The birds frequently

swooped down through smoke, and, not infrequently, were dangerously

near to the flames. Birds ranged from ‘fire level’ upwards catching

insects in the smoke. Some of the drongos would take up their

positions on reeds in advance of the flames and make short sorties

from their points of vantage, while others fed on the singed and

partly roasted insects among the smouldering embers. Birds seem

to come to the fire from all directions. !

The congregations of birds at the marriage flights of ants and

termites are too well-known and so need not be referred to here.

Flights of locusts, however, are usually a sign for most birds to

seek shelter, but some hee will feed on the fringes of the flights,

and after the swarms have passed feed on the corpses left in the

wake of the flights. Swarming bees are pursued by bee-eaters

(Merops), the birds snatching a meal on the periphery of the swarm.

Migrant ants may be divided into two groups, the diurnal and

nocturnal migrants. Of the two the former are of interest for pur-

poses of this note. Although the ants are not preyed upon to any

great extent, the fauna they disturb in the course of their migration

is eagerly collected by birds and other animals.

On several occasions I have observed swarms of Dorylus sp.

migrating in ‘full formation’ over the beds of dried ponds. The ants

covered a very considerable portion of the beds. They went syste-

matically through every crack and crevice of the drying clay driving

everything before them, winged or otherwise—insects of all kinds,

arachnids, myriapods, and even some small skinks and geckos—all

hurried before the ‘red-brown menace’. Several drongos, shrikes,

and other insectivorous birds took advantage of the situation and

swooped down on the fauna in flight, but did not attack the ants.

Among the birds there was often an odd kingfisher {Halcyon

smyrnensis) taking toll of the lizards and mole-crickets (Gryllotalpa)

as they hurried to safety. |

sats\ specimen of the Shikra hawk, collected by the Mysore ‘Ornithological ‘Survey

had all the primaries and some secondaries of one wing, and also the tail tip, con-

siderably singed, no doubt accidentally while hurting in such a fired grass- s-and- sus

patch (JBNHS, 44 (1): 237,—Eps. Metre

PEASE: -

pate: gf

Soe OR Se ee ee ee -

deal A al a rae oe ees = "

nthe, Way I ae he aaa hE i et a ag 9 aie ka :

SEEAIOSET IIS NS AP he ARISES ES aia En be Rae gat ee

ae ~

eee

ee Pre eae Pe ee Ie eee

ee Ae ee See

Amibe sed ait

a ee eee et Sa

hy tt DOF a) LK

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 609

_ On other occasions I have witnessed the mass migration of a

large black, highly polished, stinging ant (I cannot recall the name).

This species migrates in enormous swarms, sometimes several yards

wide and long. Such swarms appear like moving carpets of black !

Like Dorylus they drive everything before them. They get into

every crevice and under every stone and dislodge every form of life

that might be there, or fall upon the victims and devour them on the

spots On one pecasion I saw a 5 to 6 ft. Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus)

dislodged by them from under a rock. The snake went for its life.

In all cases I saw birds feeding on the wing and on the ground, but

clear of the ants. No birds appeared to tackle the ants.

Such associations between birds and migrating ants are not un-.

common. The sight of the abundance of insect life on such occasions

and the behaviour of birds in the immediate vicinity of the swarm no

doubt attracts more and more birds to the feast.

Dominion MuSEvuM,

WELLINGTON, ~~ CHARLES McCANN, F.1-s.

NEw ZEALAND,

May 11) 1953.

26. SOME BIRD NOTES FROM CHINGLEPUT

DISTRICT, MADRAS

1. On the night of 31st March I had an interesting visitor whose

name, I think, should be recorded. This was a _ Bluethroated’

Flycatcher (Cyornis vubeculoides).

It turned up on the upstairs verandah where I was sitting, per-

haps attracted by the light, and blundered about there, as birds on

passage so often do. The blue and rusty colouring showed it: to-

—De something quite unusual. When startled, and occasionally while

at rest It emitted very sharp and powerful ‘cheeps’ more tuneful: than”

those of the Brown Flycatcher.

With some difficulty I was able to capture it rede its perch on.

_ one of the rafters, and then had full opportunity to study it, though |

it proved a most unwilling captive. It was quite clearly a male _

Bluethroated Flycatcher and with Baker & Inglis in one hand and the.

bird in the other I was able to compare notes. The forehead blue |

was very brilliant, an electric blue, the other details were as described |

in ‘Birds of Sentiern India’ though I should say that the legs were

rather lighter in colour than mentioned. The white of the abdomen.

was very pure. :

3 I was happy when the little visitor flew safely off. os this place

is only some 30 miles south of St. Thomas’ Mount where Baker says

that he saw his only specimen, we perhaps may hope that it is not

quite such a rare visitor as he thought. I should, however, say that

it was quite definitely a migrant. The whole behaviour of the bird

reminded one of the Pittas who at this same time of year so often

blunder on their way, getting trapped on verandahs, bumping into

walls, and in general behaving quite unlike the same bird when living’

in the countryside. My wife thinks that she saw the same bird about

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. sociere” Vol,

this time last year. I am afraid that I had rather - doubted her des-

cription then.

3. On 27-14-52 a ante Drapbeleis Ground Thrush (Geokichla

c. citrina) spent the day in this compound. He was remarkably tame

and spent a lot of time in the garden near the house.

3. Perhaps I should mention the Forest Wagtail (Dendronan- »

thus indicus).as another uncommon visitor. Its call is very distinctive

and I have seen them occasionally on passage in Arkonam, pee

Arcot. My Chingleput record for this is 14-4-1952.

CHINGLEPUT, | | 2

S. INpIA, REV. E. OO, SHAW

April '2) 1954." ' . | | :

27. BIRDS SEEN ABOVE > THE? LREE-EINE: IN

TEHRI-GARHWAL, IN THE CENTRAL HIMALAYAS .

(With two plates)

The observations on which this note is based were made on the

Oxford University Expedition to Tehri-Garhwal in 1952.

Tehri-Garhwal is a small state lying athwart the Himalayan Range.

It is bordered on the north by Tibet and on the north-west and west

by the Punjab. To the east lie Garhwal and Nepal and to the south

Kumaon and the plains of the western United Provinces, now known

as Uttar Pradesh. To those who know Northern India, it is best

described as the country to the north and north-west of the well-known

hill station of Mussoorie.

Rectan map,

Miles

i dwar 10 20 30

itso

Land over 10, door Es

The Rudugaira Valley lies in the area indicated BY a circle on the first map.

During September ind “October the peditene worked in the

Rudugaira Gad, a small alpine valley whose stream rises from a

glacier directly on the north side of the main Himalayan Range and

flows northwards for a distance of eight miles, falling from 16,000

ft. at its source to 10,000 ft. at its junction with the Bagirathi River,

the main headwater of the Ganges. At its upper end the valley and

: eahiet are flanked by several mountains rising to 21,000 ft. and

: The considerable altitude of this region thus provided oppor-

Guilty for observing the birds up to and well above the snow-line.

CLIMATE

Throughout September the weather was mainly fine. A little rain

fell early in the month, marking the end of the monsoon. Winter

snow began to fall early in October. At 15,000 ft. shade temperature

ranged from 24°F. at night to 70°F. during the middle of the day.

There was little wind at this altitude but light breezes often blew

above 16,000 ft. Morning usually broke fine and clouds would

~ gradually build up around the peaks and ridges above 17,000 ft.

Towards evening these clouds would clear and others would form

in patches along the slopes at about 12,000 ft., to disperse in the

early morning. |

ALTITUDE ZONES AND VEGETATION

= The observations were made between 13,500 ft. and 22,000 ft.

_ The altitudes quoted below were obtained by reference to the map

(Survey of India). The extent of the zones is diagrammatically por-

__trayed below.

opt.

hes

GRaUND

: BY | — ALPINE Mea Dow

ae BIRCH TREES

‘ Conieers

Diagram of altitude zones.

r2,000-1t: =.“ -Conifers =

Ta, 500 147 2s itch: trees

16,500 ,, ... Alpine meadow

17,500 ,, ...- Barren stony ground

22,000 ,, ... Perpetual snow

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 52

Descriptions of the last three of these zones follow.

“Alpine meadow. Above the birch trees, one enters an area

of grassland where, during the summer, flowers of great beauty

abound. In relatively sheltered parts dwarf willow and dwarf

juniper grow. Small streams, rising from springs in the meadow

and from the melting snow and ice above are accompanied by belts

of particularly luxuriant herb vegetation. Towards the upper limit

of the meadow the grass becomes browner and sparser and at 16,500

ft. it.gives way to the open stony ground, Small cliffs and rocky

outcrops are to be seen. CVORy WHERE on the meadow.

Stony ground. Here the general appearance is that of a

wilderness of scattered boulders. Between the stones grow a few

tiny alpine flowers.

Preaepee tual snow. This is.a region with no vegetation where

snow, ice and steep bare rock only are to be seen.

es ee

Within the limits of the higher three zones defined above, the aiiitior

recorded. 23 species of birds. A few of ‘these ‘were common “on

both the alpine meadow and the stony zone. Of the six species

seen above the snow-line none can be regarded as a regular inhabitant

there. !

Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow see

The Indian Jungle Crow (presumably the Himalayan race intermedius)

occurs commonly in the valley but apparently only in association with.

man and domestic animals. Several frequented the expedition camps’

at 13,500 and 15,000-ft.-and many followed the flocks of sheep and.

goats which were grazing ( on ee meadow. Groups of up to twelve.

birds were seen. ~ 5

Pyrrhocorax popehbcurak: Redbilled Chough

Flocks of 10-60 choughs ranged up to 14,000 ft. and were

commonly to be seen just above the tree line. They were never

observed higher than 14,000 ft., above which height they were:

replaced by the Alpine Chough,~ Pyrrhocorax - graculus. The flocks

were seen feeding at the lower limit of the meadow and retiring:

to the branches of the birch trees and to the rocks when they were

disturbed. Indeed, the birch trees appeared to mark the virtual

upper limit of their range for they rarely moved more than a hundred

feet above the trees. In the evenings the choughs left the valley

- to roost on.the high cliffs at 12,000 ft. above the Bhagirati River. _

| Pyrrhocorax graculus, Yellowbilled or Alpine Chough

The Alpine Chough was seen in flocks of 20-100 from 14,000 ft.

to 18,000 ft. and smaller groups. were seen, up to 21,000 ft. The

flocks fed on the meadow, very commonly choosing the ‘karaks’ areas

where the sheep and::goats were herded for the night. In the

evenings small groups were observed flying to the high cliffs over

the glacier to roost at about 17,000 ft. Most interesting. were the

9u0zZ MOUS 9} JO WiO}}0q IY} pu sUOz AuO}s

oY} St ey FY} UG = “oTOeTS oy} Jo aureiOUT [eUTUTID} oY) st 1YSII Oy) UO pulysq 9 ‘“mMopeoyy ourdyy oy} jO MalA V

Loumny 7 O]0Ud

] Stwidg ‘00G “LSIFT “LVN Avawog ‘Nunof

Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist: Doc: PLATE II

Author

Photo

A view of the meadow showing typical rock outcrops. Areas in the stony

and snow zones can be seen in the background

ee PE ee ee FO

PET Oe ee eee ke hoe pe ee ae ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . Pues Fee 613

extraordinary aerial evolutions performed by these birds. A flock

soaring among the crags would suddenly descend, one by one, in a

way that can only be likened to that of falling bombs. Each bird,

with its: wings nearly closed would dive for a vertical distance. of

3,000 ft. at a very steep angle, terminating its dive with an upward

‘swoop on to a cliff ledge. The sound produced by the falling birds

was a distinct low whistle which could be heard some distance away.

It is interesting to note how completely the two species of chough

were segregated. On only one occasion, I saw both species feeding

close together at about 14,000 ft. The flocks were separated by a

distance of 4o yds. Ba a.

At 21,000 ft:,; we came upon three’ birds circling and diving

round the: corner ‘of an ice cliff,

Tichodroma muraria. Wall Creeper

Six were seen separately at heights of up to 18,000 ft. Five

were flying and were not seen to alight, but one landed on a small

cliff face at 17,000 ft. and ran about apparently looking for food.

The only small animal that I could find on the rocks at this height

was a red-brown mite. One bird flew at. least a mile across me

snow covered. mountain- side before passing out of sight.

Cinclus cinclus. Whitebreasted Asiatic Dipper

A single Dipper of this species was seen along the Rudagaics

Stream at 13,600 ft. The Brown Dipper, Cinclus pallasti, which

is common below 10,000 ft. was not seen above thé -tree-line. | -“

Phcenicurus frontalis. Bluefronted Redstart — = ;

Several pairs were present on the meadow, living close to large

exposed rocks.

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala. “Whitecapped Redstart

Common below 13,000 ft., but only three were seen between 13,500

and 15,000 ft. along the Rudugaira Stream.

Rhyacornis fuliginosa. Plumbeous Redstart

Twice seen at 14,000 ft. among the boulders in lee stream.

Prunella rubeculoides, Robin Accentor |

Two pairs of this large accentor were seen in the valley. Their

habitat, in both cases, was an area covered with large boulders and

steep outcrops of rock. One pair living at 16,000 ft. were seen

carrying food to an inaccessible crevice on a small cliff where they

appeared to have-a nest.. The date was eee 17... -'The: 6ther

pair were living at 15,300 ft.

On September 15, another Prunellid was seen momentarily as it

flew from the thick vegetation bordering a Stream. at,-13,500 ft.-:. It

appeared similar in colour and size to the Popes meee Spares

P. modularis. ;

Carpodacus sp. Rosefinch

Two pairs of Rosefinches of a species that I was unable to identify

were found living in exactly similar habitats at 15,000 ft. and 16,000 ft.

hare colonies. | .

‘moraine during the first week in October. It is possible that the

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 52.

to those of the accentor- P. rubeculoides. Both pairs were apparently

feeding young on eee 17 bute could not find their nests.

Montifringilla sp. (probatiy M. jae anaes. Mountain Fine.

This species was common on the meadow between 14,000 ft.’

and 16,500 ft. and as has been noted before (Ludlow & Kinnear) for

M. taczanowski, was mainly to be seen in the vicinity of mouse-

Delichon urbica, House Martin

A colony nested half way up a 2o00-ft. cliff at 13,000 ft. and —

many were seen catching insects at heights up to 15,000 ft. Young —

apparently remained in the nest until the first week of September.

Motacilla alba. White Wagtail

White Wagtails frequented our camps at all levels below the

snow-line. At 16,000 ft. an adult leucopsis in summer plumage

and two young birds were constantly about our camp on the glacier

young wagtails seen at the different levels belonged to one or more

of the other races of White Wagtail which are to be found in the

Himalayas at this time of year, namely M. a. dukhunensis, M. ‘a.

personata, and M. a. alboides. : ee

Motacilla cinerea. Grey Wagtail

A single Grey Wagtail was disturbed at a stream on the nea i.

at 14,000 ft. 7

Anthus roseatus, Hodgson’s Pipit "2

Only this one species of pipit was identified above the tree

Flock 20-50 frequented the meadow. A nest with four half-incubated

eggs was found at 13,600 ft. on September 2.

Upupa epops. Hoopoe

On September 9, at 18,500 ft., a Hoopoe flew past me, having

apparently crossed the main range at a point 19,000 ft. high.

Gyps himalayensis. Griffon Vulture

Himalayan Griffons were occasionally to be seen very high over

the valley. However, five minutes after a blue sheep had been shot,

one appeared overhead and within ten minutes there were fifteen.

Griffons were observed flying near the limit of visibility with bino-

culars and it was estimated that their altitude was above 25,000 ft.

If the apparently clear sky was searched with binoculars we were —

sometimes able to see Griffons at very great heights.

Gypaetus barbatus. Lammergeier ;

One example lived in the valley. Within four weeks of our

arrival it had become very tame and would sit near our camps. It

was seen flying along cliff faces at 18,000 ft. This bird roosted on

a cliff ledge at 14,000 ft. 3

‘Palce tinnunculus, Kestrel a i ae onto ;

Kestrels were commonly seen up to 16; 000. fe Their main food

: as. a single species of grasshopper that was very numerous on the

meadow (Anaptygus sp. n.). I saw one kestrel carrying a small lizard,

(Lacerta sp.). Below 14,000 ft. voles (Alticola roylei) were abundant,

but I did not see a kestrel take one.

“Columba leuconata. Snow Pigeon

Observed in flocks of about twenty. During the day, the birds

came to the small streams at 13,000 ft. They were often seen flying

rapidly from one cliff to another, usually above 14,000 ft. In the

evenings they went to the cliffs at 17,000 ft. above the glacier where

they probably roosted.

Lophophorus impejanus. Monal Pheasant

‘The Monal lived singly or in groups of two or three on tie grassy

slopes just above the tree-line. When flushed they invariably flew

downwards across to the other side of the valley, uttering their —

curlew- like alarm whistle.

Alectoris graeca. Chukor

A single covey of nine chukor was disturbed on the glacier moraine

at 15,000 ft. |

Tetraogallus himalayensis. Snow Cock °

The Snow Cock lives in considerable numbers on the nicadee in

family parties of 8-10. I followed one covey from sunrise to sunset.

An hour before sunrise, eight birds passed over my tent at 15,000

ft., plumetting at great speed down the hillside and producing a har-

‘monious low pitched whistle. This sound, caused by disturbance of

the air, awoke me on four different mornings. Alighting on the

“meadow at about 14,000 ft., they began to feed, walking slowly

up the hillside as they did so. By sunset they had reached the: top

of a ridge at 17,000 ft., where apparently, they roosted during the

night. On the following morning, they descended’ an

hour before sunrise to repeat the performace. _On one occasion we

‘disturbed two on the snow at 18,500 ft., and we found their footprints

up to 19,000 ft. I never saw these birds fly up- -hill or even hori-

-zontally, nor did I see them beat their wings except just before)

| _alighting. Every flight that I saw was at steep angle downwards, on

tigid wings.

While feeding, the birds continually uttered their very striking call,

a rising scale of four clearly whistled notes covering rather more than

-an octave.

er Box. 307, — > tee —. H.F, LAMPREY

ARUSHA, TANGANYIKA.

28. THE ‘SECONDARY SONG OF BIRDS

alEr. ME 7) D. Lister’s article on the above subject, in vol. 51 of

‘this Journal (pp. 699-706), put me in. mind of a number of occasions

when I had heard birds. quietly warbling to themselves an almost

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

endless melody bearing no resemblance to their normal songs or call

notes. . Instances found recorded in my notes are listed © below.

Locality, except when stated otherwise, Palghat taluk, Malabar,

South India. 3 ene

WHITEBROWED BULBUL (Pycnonotus luteolus)

2 May, 1948. Time? weather dull and cloudy. Bird sat alone ~~

in a bush and warbled for a long time in a low tone.

I had heard a similar warbling a number of times before that

date, but had not associated it with this normally ‘vociferous bird. |

5 April, 1951. 3 p.m. Same as above. Among the birds mimicked

were Large Cuckoo-Shrike, Chloropsis, Redvented Bulbul and Green

Bee-eater.

During April 1951 the warbling was heard a number of times.

September, 1952. Warbling was heard often, but notes were not

“As a rule, this bird warbled only in the afternoons, and that too,

in dull weather. It was~ the strange tendency of the bird to mimic

birds of other species in the course of this quiet song that first

attracted my attention. The bird normally sat well within some low,

thick bush; only once was it found sitting 12 ft. aboye ground

on a fairly exposed perch in a guava tree. :

April 1952. During this month also the warbling of the White: |

browed Bulbul was heard off and on.

5» November, 1953:°-.2.10° p.m, Sunny, but film of clouds coverine

the sky. A few minutes later it became very dull. Three White-

browed Bulbuls were on a neem tree where there was a Grey Drongo

also. One of the bulbuls sang short snatches of the quiet song every

now and then. Curiously enough, the bird was actively feeding all

the time. It mimicked the Chloropsis, the Drongo, and some other

birds. This was the only occasion when the Bulbul was. heard singing

like this when other birds of the same species were present. Perhaps

it was this, and the fact that the bird was actively engaged in feeding,

that made the song brief.

Macrre Rosin (Copsychus saularis)

May-June, 1953. A pair of Magpie Robins went bone in our.

compound feeding a couple of chicks. After the first week of June

they were not seen or heard anywhere here till the 30th of September, —

when one bird put in a brief appearance. It uttered only a few short

but loud notes. i ;

1 October, 1953. Sky cloudy. 8 a.m. A single bird sat idly

on a low perch and warbled for 3 minutes. Then it uttered loud,

harsh notes. :

2 October, 1953. Dull weather. A Magpie Robin uttered snatches

of song loudly for a short while. On subsequent days only loud,

harsh notes were heard. Two birds began to appear together.

6 October; -1953. 5: 15 p-m. A male sat on a branch 6 to 7 ft.

above ground and warbled in a subdued tone for a long time. It was an

endless, intricate. tune with imitations of bulbuls and: mynas thrown

in. The bird’s bill was not open, but the throat rose and fell with

the variations in tune. On seeing me the bird hopped away to another

eee

ep MTR! A EE pee ee

eh ei ey

5 combs

Res a3

i i

et Oey ¢

P ¥

= MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 617

branch, but resumed its song without delay. There did not appear

to be any other Magpie Robin nearby.

For some days after this the bird’s harsh scolding notes and loud,

brief, staccato songs only were heard.

14 October, 1953: 9.30 a.m. Dull weather: A bird«sat in the

heart of a yellow oleander bush and warbled in an undertone for a

long time. Another Magpie Robin, some thirty or forty yards away,

was uttering short, loud call notes at the same time. The first bird’s

song would not have been audible to human €ars: at..ten yards”

distance.

15 October, 1953. 12.30 to 1.30 p.m. Dull weather. ‘T'wo Magpie

Robins were singing the quiet song, sitting less than 10 yards away

from one another. They were in two different compounds with a

narrow lane in between. There was no suggestion of rivalry in their

songs.

I could watch only one of the birds. Noticed again that the mouth

appeared to be closed, but the throat got inflated and deflated very

conspicuously, and with great rapidity, while the bird sang. This

bird once jumped down to the ground to catch an insect, but on

returning to the perch took up the tune again. At first the bird

was facing the other, hidden, songster, but after this sally, it faced

the. opposite = direction.~ -Never-* once. in~ the; course. of © this

prolonged duet, did either of the birds raise their voice or utter

any harsh notes.

4 November, 6053. 7.15 [017-30 a.m. -Sunny, but not warm:

A Magpie Robin male, sitting on neem tree branch 20 ft. above

ground, burst into loud song. (From September 3oth till this date

the loud song referred to was a sharp, rapid chee-which-which .

chee-chee-witch-chee-chi . . . , and not at all the tuneful song uttered

during the breeding season.) After a brief interval, it began the

ultra-quiet song and went on for a minute. Again, bill was not

open, throat rose and fell. When some other bird (an Iora?) uttered

a few sharp notes, the Magpie Robin put an abrupt stop to its

warbling and became alert. A couple of minutes later, it whistled

a few bars of the staccato songs loudly and flew off to another neem

tree some 15 yds. away. Some time after this, when I went that

way to look at a Paradise Flycatcher, I heard the low warbling of

the Magpie Robin again. Though I knew that the bird was some-

where there, and could hear the faint melody, it took me some time to

discover the songster. It was sitting only 10 or 12 ft. away on

the neem tree, 8 ft. above ground level.

Normally the Magpie Robin makes few movements when singing

like this, but on this occasion the bird pressed its tail down, flicked it up,

pressed it down again and so on a number of times. Catching sight of

me, it jumped to another twig, sang for a time in the same quiet tone, and

jumped rapidly from twig to twig until it was hidden by a thick branch.

There it sat for a time warbling quietly, before flying away. On

_ this occasion the bird uttered its nasal screech and the long single

whistle also in the same subdued voice.

The maximum range at which a careful listener would be able to

notice this quiet song may be put down as 25 to 30 ft.

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

INDIAN RoBIN (Saxicoloides fulicata)

16 October, 1953—Ottapalam, near Shoranur, Malabar. | 5. be p-m.

Sunny. A solitary male sitting on a telephone pole near the only

tree in an open stretch of paddy fields, warbled on in a low tone.

Song was reminiscent of Magpie Robin’s quiet song. The next day,

at the same time (cloudy), bird was singing loudly from the same

perch.

WHITETHROATED GROUND-TuRUSH (Geokichla citrina)

5 May, 1945. 7 a.m. Cloudy, and drizzling lightly. Bird sat

5 ft. above ground on a teak sapling in mixed jungle and sang a

very tuneful, but remarkably low melody for a long time. Found

it difficult to discover the bird, though we were only a few yards

away, because of the low quality of the song. The bird was not

seen before or after this date in this wood.

SOUTHERN GREYBACKED SHRIKE (Lanius schach)

My note in the April 1952 issue of the Journal (Vol. 50, p. 666)

describes the quiet song of this shrike, though the fact that the

bird’s voice, while engaged in mimicry, was very low was unfortu-

nately omitted. .That shrike’s song would not have been heard

distinctly at a distance of 30 yards, though its harsh call notes were

audible 200 or even 300 yards away. I have not heard ‘the pleasing

little tinkling song’ (Salim Ali: The Book of Indian Birds) which

the bird is said to utter during the breeding season, and so cannot say

whether what I heard was distinct from the true song. The song I

heard was very low and, as was pointed out in the earlier note, very

rarely uttered.

The dates on which the shrike sang are given below.

15 May, 1947. 5 p.m. Sunny: Sang for 25 minutes.

16 May, 1947. 5 p.m. Sunny. Only for a very brief period.

19 May, 1947. 4.30 to 5.30 p.m. Almost all the time.

20 May, 1947... 5:05 40.5-15 p.m.

BROWN SHRIKE (Lanius cristatus)

29 December, 1949. Late evening. Bird sitting: on bamboo twig

uttered various low musical notes without a break for a long time.

Song was very low and contained imitations of pipit’s song and that

of some other small birds (sunbirds? and warblers?). Could not at first

believe that it was the Brown Shrike which was warbling and had to

watch it closely to make sure that I was not deceived. Bill was not

open at any time, but the bird’s throat vibrated and rose and fell while

it was singing, as described in the case of the Magpie Robin.

21 December, 1950. 5 p.m. A bird perched on low teak sapling,

chirruped away merrily for about half an hour in an undertone. Song —

seemed to contain imitations of the Yellowthroated Sparrow’s —

twittering.

Beans Mynas (Ge Sn ates pagodarum) have been occasionally |

found sitting alone and very quietly singing to themselves. The. onl

instance found recorded in my notes is the following. - 3

8 May, 1945 4 p.m. «Cloudy. Drizzled for half an hour soon

efter ‘ septs pear ee

619

; ons ee (Acridotheres tristis) have also been observed sing-

ing this quiet song, but I have not been able to find any definite

records in my notes. Individuals of both species are invariably alone,

sitting in the foliage of some mango or jak tree, while indulging

in this sotto voce song. I am under the impression that they sing

in this fashion only on hot afternoons when there is no breeze, and

when the weather is very oppressive. Both species. weave the call

notes of other birds into their songs.

Grey WacrtaiL (Motacilla cinerea, most probably.)

8 December, 1950, 3 p.m. A couple of Grey Wagtails sitting on

roof twittered continuously for a long time. Whether only one or

both birds sang could not be ascertained.

6 October, 1951. Morning. Gloudy. A bird sang a delightful series

of tunes in an undertone.

-13 October, 1953. 1.15 p.m. Heard a low twittering going on

without a pause for a long time. Went out to find out where the

bird was. There were two wagtails on the roof. They flew off

the moment I came out, and so once again I was left wondering whether

one or both birds had sung.

PURPLE SUNBIRD (Cinnyris asiatica)

= Male Purple Sunbirds in eclipse plumage have often been found

sitting 20 to 30 ft. above ground level, usually on the bare outer twig

of a teak, and uttering a low twittering song which goes on for a

long time without any appreciable pause. Other birds of the same

species are not found at the time anywhere near this. Only two

instances seem to have been recorded in my notes.

2 May, 1948. 12 noon. Sunny, but heavy clouds in the SW.

Bird sat on moringa tree and sang for 5 to ro minutes.

12 June, 1951. Noon. Cloudy. Bird was on top of tall teak

_ sapling.

The male sunbirds seem to indulge in this quiet song more

frequently than any of the other birds here mentioned. But

only birds in non-breeding dress sing thus. It is invariably in the

afternoon hours, between 12 and 4. Magpie Robins, Whitebrowed

~Bulbuls, the shrikes and the mynas make very few movements when

singing the quiet song—the first two species having even a sort of. absert-

minded, dreamy air about them—but the sunbird does not keep still.

_ It remains on the same perch, but goes on oscillating very rapidly.

_ The bill appears closed, and is always pointed up at a 45-degree angle.

GENERAL REMARKS

As will be seen from the above notes, some birds which cannot

be said to have any true song (Common Myna, Brahminy Myna and

_ Whitebrowed Bulbul for example) have been found warbling in an

undertone for surprisingly long periods.

Birds which normally do not indulge in mimicry (i.e., which do not

loudly reproduce the call notes or songs of other birds) introduce

‘such imitations freely into their subsong. Whether the Grey Shrike

also mimics other birds only when Sung 10g. in an undertone is not

clear. :

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 _

The tendency to give vent to this sort of low soliloquy seems to

be greater when the weather is dull.

As a rule the birds are alone, inactive and in a brown study when

they are singing the quiet song.

PALGHAT, K. K. NEELAKANTAN

December 9g, 1953. 3

29. PYTHONS

It may interest your readers to know that in February last, after

a cold wet day and night, I was out the next morning on an elephant

after the sun had just got up, when I came across five full-grown

pythons all on a large ant-hill, broken down to some extent by bear

and elephant. They were lying criss-cross. I approached to within 15

yards or so, when they all gradually moved round and faced me.

After having a good look at us for five minutes or so, they gradually

slid down and disappeared in the surrounding growth. They all

appeared to have new skins.

Further on, about 60 yds. away, was another full-grown python

sunning itself. That gradually slid away and the mahout and I

thought it was fully 15 ft. long.

That too had a new skin, i.e. light and shiny. I have never seen

more than two pythons together before.

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

UPPER SHILLONG, FRANK NICHOLLS

SHILLONG, ASSAM, 1954.

30. NOTES ON THE FROG RANA BREVICEPS SCHNEIDER

(With a sketch)

Mr. Humayun Abdulali of the Bombay Natural History Society

sent to us a small collection of nicely preserved frogs of Rana

breviceps Schneider, collected at Trivandrum, Travancore, in November

1953 by Mr. J. C. Daniel, indicating the presence of a small but

distinct tubercle at the tibiotarsal articulation. The collection

consisted of seven females and one male. The specimens in the

Reserve collection of the Zoological Survey of India were examined,

but as there was no representative from Trivandrum, Dr, H. W.

Parker of the British Museum of Natural History was approached

if he could examine the material in his charge, especially the Trivandrum

frogs referred to by Boulenger in his monograph’. At his request,

Miss A. G. C. Grandison very kindly examined all the specimens of

R. breviceps for the presence of the tubercle referred to above. We

take this opportunity of thanking both of them for their help.

1 Boulenger, G. A. (1920), Rec. Ind. Mus. 20: 105

Cae

Bombay Natural |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The figures in

Material examined.—The specimens were examined from the

_ following localities which are listed geographically.

_ parenthesis after each locality denote the number of frogs examined. 2 ae

Zoological Survey British Museum Tibio-tarsal ‘tie.

: of India History Society * (Natural History) tubercle aa

a Ceylon (1) _ Ceylon ° (11) | Present i =

a Se = Trivandrum (2) ao. Sui ead 3 i

a Bangalore (3) — _ do, |

2 = Cuddappah (5) = do. 5 SS

q _ Ratnagiri (1) _ == do. i

; : : Madras (1) — a do. Z

be _ Madras CE) a ee Absent ee

ss Anaimalai Hills (2) =: Malabar (6) | do.

Se sindia’ (i) = ae

g ‘s Khandala (2) ae do. :

a aes Kanheri Caves,

: Bombay (9) _ do. ,

ss Nagpur (3) - Chanda, M.P.2 (1)| do. ee

2 N.W.F, Province (1) _ — do. - = :

Allahabad (3) a: be do. “es

Agra (10) _ — do. | .

3 Himalayas (2) — Himalayas (1) do. zZ

: Nepai (1) — — do. =

- tx Assam 562} _— — do.

= = — Burma (2) do.

The fleshy cutaneous tubercle is a very small roundish structure,

and in a line with the shovel-shaped inner metatarsal tubercle (fig. 1).

It may be noted that in a few frogs, the tubercle is overhung by a

crease of skin which may be due to preservation.

-—s- Owing to the damaged condition of the hind legs of our only Ceylon

-_- Specimen, it is not possible to make out the presence of the tubercte;

4 ;

whéh he paid a short visit to the Society’s Mtiseum in August, 1954,

2 Madhya Pradesh, formerly known as Central Provinces.

‘creamy yellow in colour, placed ventrally at the tibiotarsal articulation —

1 All the specimens under this column were examined by the senior author

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol .

but since it is reported as present by Miss Grandison i in all He. Count ee

specimens at the British Museum, we have included it along with

them. She mentions that ‘it is no larger than the tip of a digit’.

Fig. 1. Right foot of Rana neevieens from ventral side, showing the inner

metatarsal tubercle and the tibio-tarsal tubercle. sre

The tubercle is prominently present in all the eight Trivandrum frogs

before us. Miss Grandison also reports its presence in the Trivandrum

frogs at the British Museum. The three Bangalore specimens show

this tubercle, though a trifle less conspicuously than the Trivandrum

specimens. All the five specimens from Cuddappah in Andhra State

are small and immature, nevertheless the tubercles are distinct in

all of them. The only Ratnagiri specimen has the tubercle, but it is

very small and apt to be overlooked. It is interesting to observe

that of the two Madras frogs, only one exhibits a very small tubercle,

while no trace can be seen in the other. Both were collected by

Dr. J. R. Anderson in ‘Madras (town)’ in November, 1917.

Among the frogs of other south Indian localities, the tubercle

is absent in those from Malabar and Anaimalai Hills. It is also

absent in the only specimen bearing the vague locality—‘S. India’,

The frogs from Bombay, Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces)

and northwards in other north Indian localities including Nepal. and |

Burma, do not show the tubercle. In a general way, it may,

therefore, be observed that the presence of the tubercle seems ‘to be

confined to the frogs from South India and Ceylon with the exception

of the localities menuoned above.

The prominent nature of the tubercle in the Travancore frogs,

and less so in those of other south Indian localities tends to suggest

a sort of geographical variability of the character or -its gradual

absence. As our observations are based on a very small collection,

it seems that. an attempt should be made to examine fresh material

collected in fair numbers from as many south Indian localities as —

possible, which will not only throw light on the trend of evolution

of this small but certainly very interesting character, but may also

help to separate the tuberculated forms either as a distinct Species ors

as a geographical race. _ ;

Geographical Distribution. —Boulenger (floc. cit.) | states; . ‘india,

Ceylon and Upper Burma. Restricted to the plains of Southern: India’

(italics ours). The localities listed above, however, amply indicate

;

ayer

_ Madras.

I" =

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

that R. breviceps occurs in many parts of northern India as

well, though it may not be as common as in southern India.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ~ . s..b. BHADURI

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, MIRA KIRPALANI

CALCUTTA 12. .

31. A RECORD OF THE WHALE SHARK (RHINEODON TYPUS

SMITH) FROM THE MALABAR COAST?

On the 12th of February 1954 two whale sharks got entangled in

a vakkuvala (a type of boat-seine net) operated by the local fishermen

for capturing catfishes at g-10 fathoms in the sea off Madapally

(about 25 miles north of Calicut). As it was difficult to haul the’ net

even with 80 fishermen in 10 canoes, one of the whale sharks (the

female) was allowed to escape. The other, a male, was landed

-ashore at about 4 p.m. after a struggle of over four hours. It lived

till the next morning. :

This specimen measured 21 ft. and 3 in. in iength and weighed

24 tons, and showed the following characters: It was dark-grey in

colour with yellowish spots (about 3 in. in diameter) and small bars

(1- in. wide) set irregularly on the dorsal half of the body. Its

mouth was straight and nearly at the end of the head. Each jaw

had a band of very small curved teeth. The mouth was 96 inches

wide, with its cavity, jet-black in colour. The upper part of the body,

had ridges, running along its length, one down the middle of the back

and two on either side. The eyes were small (one inch in diameter)

with smaller. spiracles placed closely behind. The five external gill-

slits on either side were 25 in.. wide, the last of them being situated

above the base of the pectoral fin, which was sickle-shaped and 43 in..

in height. The girth of the body behind the pectorals was 12 ft.

The first dorsal fin was 30 in. high and 24 in. broad; and the upper

lobe of the caudal fin was 5 ft. in length.

The shark was cut into pieces and sold for Rs. 290 to local

merchants who cured the white and soft flesh by using 16 maunds of -

salt. The stomach was found empty. -The liver weighed 266 pounds,

and was purchased by the Fisheries departmental staff for Rs. 83-2-0,

and sent to the Government Oil Factory, Calicut, for extraction of

oil. The saponification value of this oil was 215.7, much higher than

the usual run of values of other shark-liver oils, and the Vitamin A

Potency was 763 international units per gramme (analysis kindly

furnished by Sri U. Sundar Kini). 7 3

As this is the first record of whale shark on this coast, the monster

attracted thousands of people within a radius of 20 miles from

_ Madapally. It is probable that this pair of sharks was swimming in

the fishing ground of the local fishermen and inadvertently fouled

their net. The fishermen reported that shoals of pomfrets (Stroma-

_ teus cinereus White) were swimming under and in close association

_ with the whale sharks. | ‘

* Published with the permission of the Director of Industries and Commerce,

624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Previous records of whale sharks from Indian waters are few.

Hailey (1883, 1890), Day (1889), Thurston (1890, 1894), Regan (1908),

Southwell (1912-13), Deraniyagala (1936, 1944) and Gudger (1940)

have reported this from Ceylon waters; Lloyd (1908) from the Bay

of Bengal; Pillay (1929) from Travancore coast; Prater (1941) from-

Karachi and Bombay; and Kulkarni (1948) from Bombay waters.

One of us (P.I.C.) during his inspection of the pearl bank,

Thollayiram paar, in the Gulf of Manaar, on 11th December 1953,

observed a whale shark about 25 ft. in length, swimming motionless

‘in the vicinity in spite of the motor fishing vessel being taken around

it several times.

Marine BrioLocicaL Station, West Hitt,

MALABAR, P. I. CHACKO

March 22, 1954. M. J. MATHEW

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma—

Fishes, Vol. I, London.

Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1936): Big game fishing off Ceylon. Country Life,

2 May, p. 31.

— — — (1944): Some whale sharks and sun fishes captured off Ceylon. Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 44: 426-430.

Gudger, E. W. (1940): Whale sharks rammed by ocean vessels. The New

England Naturalist, No. 7, pp. 1-10.

Hailey, A. (1883): On the occurrence of Rhineodon typus Smith on the west

coast of Ceylon. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 5, xii, pp. 48-49.

— — — (1884): On Rhineodon typicus. Rept. Director, Colombo Mus. for

1883, in Ceylon Administration Reports for 1889, p. 14.

Kulkarni, C. V. (1948): Outsize whale-shark in Bombay waters. Journ. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc., 41: 762-763.

. Llyod, R. E. (1908): The occurrence of Rhineodon typus at the head of Bay of

Bengal. Rec. Indian Mus., II: 303-307. :

Pillay, R. S. (1929): List of fishes taken in Travancore from 1901-1915. Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 33: 347-379.

Prater, S. H. (1941): The whale shark (Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian coastal

waters. ibid., 42: 255-279.

Regan, C. T. (1908): A revision of the sharks of the family Orectolobidae. Proc.

Zool. Soc., London, pp. 347-364.

Southwell, T. (1912-13): Ceylon Administration Report, pp. 44-49.

Thurston, E. (1890): Inspection of Ceylon Pearl Banks. Notes on ‘the pearl and

chank fisheries and marine fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Bull. Madras Govt.

Cent. Mus., 1890, pp. 99-100.

— — — (1894): Inspection of Ceylon Pearl Bank. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus.,

I, pp. 36-38. ;

32. FOOD ORGANISMS OF GADUSIA CHAPRA (HAM.)

FROM CERTAIN PONDS WITH THICK EUGLENA BLOOMS

Gadusia chapra is a common herring of the Mahanadi river system.

The juvenile stages of this fish are often caught in large numbers with

the carp and other fresh-water fry. The fish attains a length of about

six to! seven) inches.

While working on the gut contents of different fishes from some

ponds having thick blooms of Euglena, certain interesting features

were observed on the feeding habits of Gadusia chapra.

Investigations on the food of Gadusia chapra have been based

on the analysis of the contents of the stomach of 110 specimens from

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

four ponds. Three of these ponds belong to the Kendrapara fish farm,

- while the other is in Dry Dock (Cuttack). In all cases it was

_ observed that the fish were fed to the extent of 92% to 100%. For

the sake of experimental convenience, the fish were divided into three

different stages depending on the size of the specimens. Specimens

ranging from 60 mm. to go mm. were put in stage I, those between

go mm. and 100 mm. were put in stage II and those between 120

mm. and 145 mm. in stage III. All these records were made during

the months of December, January and February 1949-50 and 1950-51.

The food of Gadusia chapra as analysed was mostly composed of

Flagellates. The different genera of organisms that have been identi-

fied in the stomachs are as follows :— |

: (1) Euglenids—Eugiena (species—acus, oxyrius, spirogyra, and

| viridws); Phacus and Lepocinclis. The first genus was seen to

predominate in the gut ranging from 60% to 80%.

(2) Dinoflagellids—Peridinium, Gymnodinium, and Ceratium,

the first found to be in greater numbers.

(3) Diatoms—Synedra, Tabellaria, Navicula, Amphora, Plew-

vosigma, Fragilaria, Statroneis and Cyclotella.

F (4) Microscopic Green ‘Algae—Closterium, Staurastrum,

4 Euastrum, Coelastrum, Ophiocytium, Scenedesmus, Chlorella,

F Crucigenia, Kirchneriella, Pediastrum, Ankistrodesmus and

4 Pleurococcus.

(5) Filamentous Green Algae—Spirogyra was seen in only two

instances..

(6) Blue Green Algae—Mervismopedia, Aphanocapsa, Tetrapedia,

Chroococcus and Oscillatoria.

(7) Rotifers—Rattulus, Brachionus, Rotifer, Asphanchna and

unidentified forms due to decomposition. Eggs of Rotifers were

found in the stomach in some of the cases.

(8) Crustaceans—Broken appendages of Cladocers were rarely

observed in negligible proportions.

Mud, sand and waste matter were observed in all the specimens.

TABLE SHOWING THE TOTAL NUMBER OF FISH EXAMINED AND THE

AVERAGE PERCENTAGE OF Foop EATEN.

cs ai Nag aca ct a ae ea daa i

5 Stage of fish Stage I Stage II Stage III

3 Total number of fish examined 14 73 23

_ ie

_ Euglenids bey 78% 72% €8%

Dinoflagellids ca 6% 8% 8%

2 - Diatoms e 3% 3 % 4%

_ Smaller Green Algae axe 3% 2% 1%

_ Filamentous Green Algae sae negligible — _

Blue Green Algae dae o% 2% 2%

_ Rotifers and eggs ea 5% 7% 10%

Crustaceans as — negligible negligible

Mud, sand and waste matter bas 5% 6% 7%

It appears from the table that Gadusia chapra is a selective

_ plankton feeder as it shows a liking for the Euglenids and Dino-

_ flagellids. Rotifers, Diatoms, microscopic green algae and others

the furcal length, particularly in the field. But as the total length

were probably supplementary forms consumed with the former type:

of plankton. Other organisms such as Cladocers and Copepods have

been excluded from the food, though they were observed in the —

plankton samples collected on the same dates as the fish. As a

matter of fact, the plankton consisted of a high percentage of.

Flagellates. | | fo Nea gob eee ON ARTE: Oram a

Thanks are due to Sri G, N. Mitra, Director of Industries, Orissa, —

for his interest. tae Pee : te

\DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, | | oe apg

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, P. MOHAPATRA |

CUTTIACK,= => ; ee:

June 25, 1954.

°33.. THE: RELATIONSHIPS OF. TOTAL LENGTH TO-

FURCAL LENGTH FOR FIVE CYPRINIDS

3 (With five graphs)

This note deals with the study of the general relationship between 4

the total length and furcal length in the Indian Cyprinids, Chela bacaila |

(Ham.), Chela gora (Ham.), Barbus stigma (Cuv. & Val.), Rohtee

230:

190

{50

“aw NI HLSNDT 4awound

80 S129 160 200 240

TOTAL CENGTH IN MM,

cotio (Ham.) and Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes). The expression 2 furcal _

length means the length of the fish between the anterior extremity of —

the snout and the points where the caudal fin bifurcates. In the above-_

mentioned varieties the total length can be measured more easily the

is often vitiated by wear and tear it is advisable to record. both the

lengths. The main object here has. been. to derive appropriate

mathematical value, correlating the two variables, total length and

furcal length, in a general manner and for calculating one from th

other. In view of this, a wide range for each species has been included —

HLINID WIA

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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TOTAL LENGTH 'N PAM,

Toray LENG Tm (8 AM,

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BARBUS STIGMA 78

40.

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Ta ewore my

Torah LENCTW He haa, Vota.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES a 627

Pin ihe study, and collections from different centres of Orissa were taken.

_ The measurements of the younger stages of these species have not

been recorded in this note. It is recognised that a single value of

x in the equation FL=x TL (where FL stands for furcal length and

TL for total length) does not apply for all lengths of fish with

uniform accuracy. In the present note, however, average values of

x for every size range of about 20 mm. is derived.

In India, length: weight relationships of certain fishes have been

worked out, but the inter-relationships between the ‘total length

and the furcal length or the standard length of any fish have not

been mentioned. Among recent workers, Orcutt (4) and O ‘Connel (3)

of California in their publication on the life-history of two. fishes

have derived the relationships Between the total length and standard

length.

The specimen studied included those from the Government fish

farms at Cuttack, Chowdwar, Kausalyaganga, Puri and Kendrapara,

- during the winters and summers of 1950, 1951 and 1953. The length

measurements were made on the fish measuring board divided into

millimetres. Fish longer than go mm. or 100 mm. were usually

measured fresh, while the smaller ones were preserved in 5% formalin

in the field and measured in, the laboratory. When the two variables _

total length and furcal length are plotted on a graph paper diagonal”

straight lines passing through most of the points are obtained for

each variety. A graph for each species is given in this note. The

values of the factors x mentioned in Table II are derived from these

graphs.

Table I gives the sub-families of the family Cyprinidae to which

_ the species belong, the total number of fishes measured and the range

of the total length of each species. Table II gives the factor x for

each size range, in order to convert one length to the other. The

furcal length can be calculated by multiplying the total length with

the factor x. The equation is FL=x TL (where TL and FL stand for

the total and furcal lengths respectively). For example, the furcal

length of a specimen of Chela gora measuring 140 mm. in total length

could be derived from the followine, BL=0.9224 x 140, 1.e., 129.136

- mm. The same equation may be similarly applied to find out the

total length, when the furcal length ISSKNOW Ms Ge ect as elt may be

noticed that the values of « are maximum for Chela gora and minimum

for Rohtee vigorsu. In Chela gora the value of x decreases with the

increase in length, while in ule other varieties it increases with

length. _ 3

. TABLE 1

Subfamilies and Species - S| No, of fish Range of total

ie length

Abramidinae a

_Chela bacaila (Ham.) Oe Bae Levies 59mm.—152 mm,

Chela gora (Ham.) Naa 216 88 mm.—222 mm.

Cyprininae 500

Barbus stigma (Cuv. and Val.) ee 148 41 mm.—119 mm.

Rohtee cotio (Ham. ) sas e226] 34 mm.—128 mm,

Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes.) nee 96 | 94 mm.—183 mm.

Da Td

TABLE II

Species Size Range No. of fish | Factor x

Chela bacaila 59 mm- 80 mm 21 ~ 0.8934

81 mm-100 mm 39. 0.8990

101 mm-120 mm 33 0.9046

121 mm-140 mm FEST. 9.9102

cae 141 mm-152 mm eae 0.9158

Chela gora | 88 mm-110 mm 20 — 0,9269

| 111 mm-130 mm | a rs 0.9242

131 m:m-150 mm Oy dee Os 9224

| ~ 151 mm-170 mm 128 0.9206

| 171 mm-190 mm 5 0.9188

191 mm-=210 mm 29 0.9170

- 211 mm-229 mm 5 0.9152

Barbus stigma 41 mm- 60 mm 39 0. 8620

61 mm- 80 mm 68 0.8710

81 mm-100 mm 30 0°8800

101 mm-119 mm 1l 0.8890

Rohtee cotio 34 mm- 50 mm 48 0°8585

51 mm- 70 mm 62 0°8625,

71 mm- 90 mm 96 0°8665.

91 mm-110 mm 43 0°8705

111 mm-128 mm 12 — 0°8745

Rohtee vigorsit 94 mm-110 mm ~ 13h. 0°8420

111 mm-130 mm 10 ; 0: 8470

131 mm-150 mm 38 0'8520

151 mm-170 mm 28 0°8570

171 mm-183 mm 7 0°8620

een See ey 2 G945,1-60 ng Se Sra. tere

I am indebted to Sri G. N. Mitra, Director of Industries, Orissa, a

for his kind interest in the general pursuit of work.

DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES,

CUTTACK-1, a oP, MOHAPATRA S oe

March 12, 1954.

REFERENCES

ts ieee V. G. (1950): Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., 18 (5) : 449-460. ‘on

2. Jobes, Frank, W. (1947): Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts 3

and Letters, 38: 157-162. ia

- 8. O’Connell, C. P. (1953): Fish Bulletin No. 93, State of California, Depart- ~

ment of Fish and Game, Marine Fisheries Branch, p. 23-24. ;

4. Orcutt, H. G. (1950): Fish bulletin No. 78, State of California, Reece =

of Natural Resources, Division of Fish and Game, p. 53-54.

eee Se ee

Rar A SRE, PERT Say

of a blue-green alga like Microcystis aeruginosa or Anabaena flosaque or |

oom

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 629

34. EFFECT OF JAGGERY ON FISH LIFE!

The ecological conditions of South Indian temple tanks are

favourable for fish-life. These religious institutional waters serve as

sanctuaries where the fish population is protected and allowed to

grow and breed’,*. Most of these waters contain a permanent bloom

Oscillatoria tenuis, and yield about 2,000 lb. of fish per acre per

year, if suitably stocked with fishes ilies Catla catla, Chanos chanos,

Civrhina mrigala, Cyprinus carpio and species of Labeo*®. But the

immemorial religious custom of pilgrims dissolving jaggery as vow

in these waters sometimes leads to heavy contamination and conse-

quent beagionsieal: mortality of fish.

FisH MorTALITY IN NAGASUNI TANK

The Nagasuni tank of the Sankaranainar temple in Tirunelveli

district has a waterspread of 2,450 sq. yards and an average depth

of ro ft. Its water was once baled out in 1945, and was found

on examination in March 1946 to be favourable for fish culture

-(Yable 1). The tank was taken over by the Madras Fisheries Depart-

ment in April 1948 and stocked with 500 fingerlings of Labeo

_ fimbriatus and Cirrhina reba in November 1948 and with 840 Etroplus

suratensis in the beginning of February 1949. The growth of these

fish was satisfactory, the former two species attaining a’sizé of io in.

by the end of April 1949. The plankton of the water and the filamen-

tous algal growth on the sides of the tank were rich and varied, and

consisted of the following :—

Myxophyceae.—Anabaena, Aphanocapsa, Microcystis, Oscillatoria

and Spirulina.

Chlorophyceae.—Ankistrodesmus, Chaetophora, Closterium, Cru-

cigema, Euastrum, Gonatozygon, Oedogonium, Pandorina, Pedia-

strum, Selenastrum, Spirriogyra and Staurastrum.

Bacillarieae.—Mastogloia, Melosiva, Nitgschia and Synedra.

Protozoa.—Chilomonas, Chlamydomonas, PS IeTa Phacus and

Epistylis.

Rotifera.—Brachionus, Diurella, Philodina and Salpina.

Copepoda.—Diaptomus and Mesocyclops.

On 12th February 1949, about 100 fish were found floating dead

in the tank; and thereafter 10 to 15 fish were found to die and float

daily. Towne the end of February 1949, the water in the tank

became black in colour and began to stink badly. By April, the

colour of the surface water became dark green due to a thick bloom

of Microcystis aeruginosa, but the bottom layer was almost colourless

containing few specimens of the alga. The hydrological conditions

* Communicated with the permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras.

_ practically free of oxygen. The low oxygen content was due to the

frequently stirred from top to bottom by thousands of worshippers —

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO a

of the tank both at the siraiace and bottom at 11. 45 ‘a.m. on 2 ;

April 1949 are given in Table Ie ) :

TABLE I

Showing hydrological conditions in the Nagasuni tank on 21-3- 46 oid 284-49,

21-3-1946 2 = 8-4-1949

Conditions SS

7-25 a.m. | 3-40 p.m. ‘ |); Stttace, 4) 2. Holtom

Green Green | Colour

Dark green Colourless

17°5 9°3 Transparency, cm. Boe 5:0 0

27°2 32:0 Temperature °C. ... Spa pete. 27:9

71 89 pH ne os a0 EX) aa

0°83 7:64 Dissolved oxygen, cc/litre 0:98 nil

0 56 nil Free CO,, p.p. 100,0°0 ES: 0:234 0:796

nil A) Carbonates, p.p. 109, 000 45 ayo nil

13-12 10°7 Bicarbonates, p.p. 100, 000 is T3335 16°54

6:3 6:8 Chlorides as Cl, p.p. 100,000 ... 18:0 -7 18:0

—_ — Silicates as SiOg, p.p. 100,000 ...| = 0°77 0°83

0:006 — . |Phosphates as P, Os, p.p.

‘ 100,000 ve (ORI alba ss oe (ORs!

— — O, absorbed in 30 minutes ata ak it

“100 °C, p.p. 100,000 i 5°03 4°73

nil nil =| Nitrates as N, p.p. 100,000... nil nil

Abnormal’ or pathological conditions could not be noted in the ;

dead fish. But from the above table it could be seen that the oxygen

content of the surface sample was low and that the bottom sample was

excessive rotting of the alga, which formed a coalesced slimy mass

covering almost the entire water surface. There was a pronounced —

thermal stratification, as indicated by the high difference of 5.9°C.

in temperature between the surface and bottom layers. Sulphuretted —

hydrogen was present in the bottom layer alone. But the water was

bathing in the tank; and this mixing of the hydrogen-sulphide con- 4 4

taining bottom aie with the surface water would deplete the small —

amount of oxygen contained in the surface layer and thus bring about —

fish mortality. The formation of hydrogen-sulphide was due to the 4 |

decomposition of excessive amount of organic matter under anaerobic . x

conditions at the bottom. The excessive amount of organic matter is-

to be traced to heavy organic pollution and to throwing into the tank a

by the worshippers of large quantities of jaggery which is easily decom- — .

posed by the common saprophytic bacteria. Every last Friday in:

a month several devotees assemble to worship the deity and each of.

them throws into the tank approximately 0.3 lb, of salt and 1 lb. of 4

jaggery. Further, during the Tamil months of Thai (January- |

February) and Adi (July-August) more than 50,000 people are re- —

ported to assemble in the Mosotiolie and dissolve large amounts of —

jaggery in the tank. , Ringe | ber

arhtory Seal —The flee. are, ite Fakes of a series.

ees esbeineaS conducted - us in 1950” to examine ie

SEeioniient. I. —Seven euieen pots, containing five litres of water

1 each, were taken; and in the first six were dissolved one-eighth,

alf, one, two, five ane ten pounds respectively of jaggery so that

the resulting solutions were of the strength 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and

00 per cent jaggery. The seventh pot without any Bdeiion OL

aggery was kept as control. All the pots were kept open and ex-

osed to sunlight. Six fishes, one each of Barbus stigma (3”),

anio aequipinnatus (24”), Gambusia affinis (1”), Ambassis ranga (x”), _

Brachydanio rerio (1”) and Oryzias melastigma (1”) were introduced

into each of the pots. In 50% and 100% jaggery solutions all the ©

fish were in distress immediately after release and floated dead in

about 15 minutes; and in solutions of lower concentrations also they

es could not live as shown below.

ces Percentage ot No, of hours after

a jaggery solution 3 which all fish died

ee 100 0°25

ee! MeO 0:25

ae 20 21:0

es Ceasar 45-0

ae os ee 1920

= 0 No death throughout.

a. The physico-chemical variables of the solutions in the pots were

= xamined at the beginning of the experiment soon after jaggery was

ag di ssolved and fishes were introduced, and are detailed in aloe Ie

s ee ‘TABLE Il |

Showing Results of Laboratory Experiment I

Pot Pot | pot 6 Pot 7

| pot 1| Pot 2 Pot 3

Percentage strength

Pe Of. jaggery | |

-___ solution 1:0 SOr ie 1070; lea20'0e | 500 | 100-0 | Control

82 Omi 32.0) 52:0 2:0 a S144. 31-0 |; 32:0

: sales 6:6 | Git ale 6:2 e360 5:9 5:8 69

S ‘ree CO,, ! ;

pp. 100,000 ...| 0:90 2:85 | 4:75 |. 21:85 | 43°70 | 66:03 | 0:35

Carbonates,

me pp. 100,000 ~ «| ail nil cay att Sarat nil nil

Bicatbonates, A Pees) ek) 2804-7 2412 466°9 15:77

_ pp. 100,000...) 22:26) — 68:02

As 75

a irom the Pile it. would be seen that there: was a. slight féduction

temperature in the case of 50 and 100 per cent solutions:; the pH

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vai ook ene

decreased from 6.9 in the control to 5.8 in 100% solution (as the

solutions were coloured dark brown, 1 cc. was diluted to 10 cc. with

distilled water and the resultant pH alone measured using the indi-

cators Bromo-thymol blue and Cresol red); free CO, and bicarbonates

increased enormously with increase in jaggery; and dissolved oxygen

content decreased from 4.75 cc./litre in the control to 1.82 cc./litre

in 1% solution, to 0.49 cc./litre in 5% solution and to mil in all

the other higher concentrations. Examination of the pots at the

end of the experiment revealed that in all of them except the control

there was no oxygen left and large amounts of CO, had accumulated.

Experiment IIJ.—Experiments were conducted to find out the effect

of varying concentrations of jaggery on Microcystis—containing tank

water (a) soon after jaggery was added, (b) after 3 hours of exposure

in sunlight and (c) after keeping for 3 hours in darkness, imitating

natural conditions in a tank. Varying amounts of 50% jaggery

were added to 500 cc. of tank water and the physico-chemical variables

were determined under the above three conditions; and the results

are detailed in Table III. There was a general decrease in pH and

dissolved oxygen and an increase in free CO, and bicarbonates with

increase in the amount of added jaggery. Pots exposed to sunlight

were less affected by the addition of jaggery than those kept in

darkness, in respect of pH free CO, and dissolved oxygen. It is

evident eon this experiment that the elect of the addition of jaggery

will be greater at the bottom of tank than at the surface.

DISCUSSION

Jaggery is unrefined sugar produced from sugar-cane and is

dissolved by the pilgrims in some temple tanks as a means of dis-

charging their vows to God., Ordinarily when small amounts of the

jaggery are added to these tanks, there is an increase in the general

biota of the water and the fishes stocked in it are provided with more

food. The Nagasuni tank at Sankaranainarkoil was rich in variety

and bulk of fish food or rganisms and recorded good growth of fish.

But when jaggery is added in large amounts as on festival days, there

iS an enormous increase of putrescible organic matter in the water

which exerts a heavy oxygen demand. Taylor* found that the organic

matter in freshwaters consist largely of plant residues in the form

of particulate or, more commonly, soluble material, which is resistant

to bacterial attack, but that the bacterial activity in lake waters

responds to addition of glucose. It is quite probable that the added

jaggery may stimulate the oxygen consumption by the rotting algae

in the tank. As seen from laboratory experiment Il, addition of

large amounts of jaggery tends to create at the bottom of the tank

anaerobic conditions which favour the decomposition of organic matter

and the production of hydrogen sulphide. The latter may reduce

the oxygen contained in the upper layers when the tank water is

stirred by the pilgrims bathing in it. From the above considerations ©

it will be evident that the addition of large amounts of jaggery is

indirectly harmful to fish life and even cause their mortality on some

occasions.

633

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UL 9S¥1I0}S SINOY 991} 19} W ainsodxa jo sinoy 9014} JoIJy | jo worT}Ippe Joye Ajojeipamuly

. SolqulivA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES —

JI yuowrnodx7 £10ye10qey JO S}[Nsay Surmoyg

TM Adal <2 me | oe

‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel a os a

Laboratory experiments have also sowie that one per cent a

concentration of jaggery is sufficient to kill young fishes in about 8 —

days, the addition of jaggery decreasing the dissolved oxygen and

pH and increasing free CO, and bicarbonates of the water. Similar

chemical effects produced by the cane sugar factory effluents from a

the Vuyyur factory and their harmfulness to the fish fauna of —

the Chandriya Kalva in Krishna district have also been noted by

us’,®. Pytlik’ has referred to the existence of a directly poisonous 4

substance called saponin in sugar wastes. Laboratory experiments

done by us proved that even 0.002 per cent solution of saponin will

suffice to kill fishes like Labeo fimbriatus and Barbus sarana, 2 to" &

3 in. in size. 3

All these observations make it clear that the addition of jaggery to —

temple tanks is both directly and indirectly harmful to fish life. But —

it may be difficult to prevent pilgrims from dissolving jaggery in the

tank, as such an act will interfere with religious sentiments. There _

fore steps may be taken to harvest the fishery of the tank before the —

festival periods or not to utilise such waters for pisciculture. 4

F'RESHWATER BroLtocicaL STATION,

Kitpauk, Mapras, | | P. I -CHACKQ = @

June 12, 1954. | ~R. SRINIVASAN =

REFERENCES

. Chacko, P. Jj. (1948): Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 41: 765.

. Chacko, P. I. and Ganapati, S. V. (1949): Indian Geo. Journ., 24; 22.

. Ganapati, S. V. and Chacko, P. I. (1950): Madras Agri. Journ., 87: 169.

. Taylor, C. B. (1949): Proc. Soc. App. Bact., 96. Ee

Chacko, P. I. (1951): Progress report on the Madras Rural Pisciculiutie Schem

for 1950- 51. Madras,

6. Chacko, P. I. and Srinivasan, R., Survey of pollution of natural waters in a

Madras State (in press). ach la

7. Pytlik, R., Wat. Poll. Res. Sum., Abstract 1105.

oP ON

35. SPAWNING OF ROHU AT POWAI LAKE

I wonder whether anybody can throw light on the following

observation: -

Rohu spawned this year during the first heavy downpour period 4

(after the Solar Eclipse) on 30th June. F ish taken on or before 2nd |

July were all full of roe. The lake level had then risen rapidly as_ |

11 in. of rain had fallen within 48 hours. : |

On 4th July the level was 1 in. below the overflow. Three Roh |

taken by me on that day were entirely empty ; blood- red discolouration

near the vent and orange spots on gill covers indicated that the

fish had spawned. All fish taken thereafter had also finished spawn-

ing. Therefore breeding, whether successful or not, must have taken

place between 2nd and 4th July. As usual fish jana barel'y after the —

spawning were quite weak and did not put up a fight for about 10

days. Thereafter they have fully recovered and most of them — did

the typical Rohu EPS after being hooked. .

—$—<—$—————qoo—_

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 635

Now on roth August I took two Rohu and Mr. D. I. Amore took

another Rohu, all between 10 and 12 lb., at about the same place.

- One fish was in top condition and had fully recovered, whereas the

other two were in a miserable condition—completely lean and hollow-

bellied. I believe these fish must have finished spawning shortly,

before. If this presumption is correct then there must be two breed-

ing periods with an interval of about 5 weeks between. Is it likely

that these fish which could not reach the monsoon rivulets during

the first heavy downpour around 1st July, spawned during the second

flood from 29th July to 2nd of August?

ee iP samanvereren HOusE,

- Homyjr StrEET, Fort, A EF. R. GOLDSCHMIDT

Bompay, — :

: [Dr. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Bombay, comments on the

Be above as follows :

ee Jt is well known that the Rohu and other major carps of India

a breed under the stimulus of floods in rivers and streams. Observations

of Dr. Goldschmidt on Rohu, Labeo rohita, probably, therefore, lead

0. the fact that the fish spawned in the neighbourhood of streams

‘joining the Powai lake during July and August 1954. ‘This year,

the heaviest rainfall of 110 in. from June 20 to August 20, as against

only 75 in. every year during the entire monsoon period June to

October, has accorded the necessary stimulus to Spawn. From

_ Goldschmidt’s observations it appears that he has come across two

instances of probable breeding. His description indicates that fish

had spawned, whether successfully or otherwise cannot be stated

reliably. It is, however, not right to consider these occasions as two

different breeding periods, The carps are known to breed from June

a B10 August, the exact period depending on the stage of maturity of

- gonads of the breeders, the flood condition and the habitat.

2 Dr. Goldschmidt has incidentally. noted solar eclipse time as one

of the periods of spawning. This coincides with new moon period.

In Bengal, where spawning grounds and periods of these carps are

_ skilfully located by the local fishermen, the common belief prevails

_ that spawning is more rampant if flood and new moon or full moon

_ periods coincide in the aforesaid months. It is. not, therefore,

surprising if Dr. Goldschmidt also independently and unwittingly came

Ais the same type of ClO aiaTito) "Eps. Te

36. DISTRIBUTION OF RANA LEITHIT BOULENG.

—A CORRECTION

See in (BNI S Vol. «42, p. 50 and 46, p. 405, Mr. Charles McCann

has referred to a specimen of Rana leithii Boulenger, obtained at

Gersoppa. We have recently had the opportunity of re-examining

his specimen in the Bombay collection and find that it is the very

losely allied species Rana beddomii Gunther and not R. leithii. The

rmer is determined by its larger size and the first finger not being

orter than the second.

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Rana leithii occurs along the Western Ghats from Suriamal,

Thana District (ca. 20°N. lat.) in the north through Kanheri (Bombay),

Khandala and the Karla Caves to Panchgani in Satara District, which

at present constitutes the southernmost limit of the species. It was

nowhere found in such numbers as at Matheran, the type-locality.

McCann referred to its abundance there and H.A. also saw large

numbers on 18th October 1954. On the last date they were silent

and no tadpoles were seen, but large numbers of adults were common

on the wet rock cuttings by the railway, on wet rocks in streams

flowing into Simpson’s Tank, and also in short grass by the side

of the same lake. z

There was great variation in body colour, some being dark-grey

and blackish, others paler and pink, and some with golden patches.

The species is diurnal and often seen on roads by day, many being

killed by horses and rickshas and also by the light railway.

BomBay NATURAL HisToRy SOCIETY,

114, APOLLO STREET, — HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BomBay, J. Cc. DANIEL

November 1, 1054.

BM. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF RANA TEMPORALIS GUNTH.

In October 1951 I saw a party of frogs on wet exposed rocks

in a small hill stream shaded by bushes at Mahableshwar, 4,500 (Bis,

Satara District, Bombay. My attention was first drawn to them

by their calling in chorus, more reminiscent of birds than frogs.

When calling two sacs show up one on each side of the throat.

More were later seen in the stream at Dhobi’s Waterfall which is in

well-wooded country. |

A specimen collected was identified as Rana temporalis Gunth. at

the Indian Museum. This marks an appreciable extension of the known

range of this species northward along the Ghats. Boulenger in ‘Frogs

of the Genus Rana’, (Rec. Ind. Mus., xx, 1920) gives its distribution

as ‘Malabar and Ceylon’. Annandale in a note in Boulenger’s paper

(l.c., page 160) says that the species ‘is confined chiefly to edges

of rock streams at no great altitudes. It sits exposed on flat rocks

and stones and leaps, often for a considerable distance into thé

water when disturbed’. Ferguson (JBNHS, xv: 503) in Travancore

‘found it only in the hills at considerable heights, and describes it

as of a shy and solitary nature. Wall found it in the Nilgiris at

ca. 6,000 ft. ‘at some dark recess beside a mountain stream’, and

noted that the call was a subdued, harsh monosyllabic croak. Jerdon

(JASB, 1853, p. 531) found them in mountain streams in forest only.

Uttangi in ‘On Some Ciliate Parasites of Frogs and Tadpoles of

Karnatak’, Bombay Presidency, (Rec. Ind. Mus., xlix, page.141, 1951)

records iis as rare in ponds in Dharwar, but emcee this species. appears

to be restricted to mountain streams, we cannot be quite sure how far

his record is correct. In the hill streams of the district this frog

probably does occur. S

Ee ete eee ee

ee. a eer

ie)

et at

ete ey ape

r Ay teh ge

Fen iy ths

sha eh es

i a iy oF ht heh "i

ES eae COUT Et aoe een

TERR GT Mapai hips ease ht

BE Gah ER oh ov acincc! -y

all tad Ls PCR aa iy:

aes vi

13 tigeiy Sly

ayy

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 637

te ett |!

The tadpole of this species does not appear to have been

described. |

Faiz & Co., Sa

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

BOMBAY 3,

‘September 24, 1954.

[Mr. Abdulali visited Mahableshwar again 31st October to 2nd

November 1954 and offers the following additional notes:

=a ‘Seen in streams on Fitzgerald Ghat, and in Blue Valley nullah.

_ They were more common at Dhobi’s Waterfall where Dinsha Panday

reported having seen them in amplexus a week ago. A. small pool

in the course of the rocky stream held several masses of eggs attached

to the bottom or sides, all a few inches below water. One or two

frogs sat inside the pool and appeared to be associated with the eggs.

There is some variation in the calls, but the commonest starts with a

guttural croak (not unlike the call of Rana tigirina caught by a snake)

followed by a series of tuk-tuk-tuks. They call both by day and night,

and are quite active during the day.’—Eps. |

38. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF THE FROG UPERODON |

a GLOBULOSUM GUNTH.

On June 13, 1954, H.A. visited the Kanheri Caves (ca. 1,300 ft.)

near Borivli, Salsette Island, Bombay. At the entrance just outside the

caves, facing west is a line of rock cisterns. In the first, which

contained about 9 in. of water, were two or three large specimens

of Rana tigirina, a few R, breviceps and a number of toadlike, inflated

frogs floating sluggishly, flat on their bellies in the corners. One

specimen was taken for identification, and on the following day it

was discovered that J.C.D. had brought in the identical specimens from

the same place, having obtained them an hour or two before or

after H.A.! :

On the night of June 16, we visited the place together and found

the cistern overflowing and only four of these frogs present. They

were sluggish in their movements and not easily persuaded to move

either on water or on land. Though this frog can jump a couple

of inches it normally walks stretching its forelegs forwards, well

beyond the head. It was also impossible to turn them on their backs

for the shortest moment, as with the use of their limbs, they would

right themselves instantaneously.

The following observations were made on a male specimen kept

alive: When placed on loose earth it sits quietly for a while,

then commences to dig with its hindfeet and lowers its hind quarters

into the earth with no movement visible on the surface. In a few

spurts it is completely underground, the eyes disappearing last.

It refused to eat earthworms, but devoured white ants when they

were immediately under its mouth. They were also flicked off the sides |

of its face with its tongue. White ants crawling over its face were

brushed off with the foreleg. A small frog, Microhyla ornata, was placed

it ~~ PO Oa a id Oe uk cae oF Oe Myer =”

ee ee

ee 4 vr 2 F é

Dain

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

in the same cage, but remained completely ignored even when quite |

under it. :ebyeet =

_ The colour of the upper surface is leaden grey, with a brownish

tinge. It has a few tiny spots on the fore and hind legs and also.

along the sides of the belly. These spots look like minute pimples

and may be glandular. The underparts are pale colored with tinges

of yellow. The skin is perfectly smooth except near the vent, where

the females, which are considerably larger than the males, have

numerous pustules which may be secondary sexual characters.

The male has a dark chin. The gonads of the males dissected were —

enlarged, while the ovaries of the females were spent. — s fee

The pupil is round (vide Parker, Monograph of the Microhylidae, a

p. 75, 1934) and not vertical as stated in the Fauna, 1890. The |

tiny nostrils often quiver. } eee

On June 13, we took between us 5 do ds and 2 9 9s while the -

four individuals of June 16 were all males as determined by their dark

chins. On June 19 only two of these were present in the cistern as

also a large number of tadpoles swimming freely near the surface.

In the adjoining cistern were more Uperodon tadpoles, some with

fore and hind legs. Tadpoles of Rana breviceps were found in the

same cistern but they kept to the vertical stone walls of the cistern

| down to a depth of about 12 in. The Uperodon tadpoles were relatively

is small in size and olive brown above with a pale tail striped longi-

tudinally with dark blotchy lines. The sides and underparts were -

white, speckled with dark except in the centre of the belly which

was pure white. A more detailed description of these tadpoles is

being prepared and will be published separately. —

By a strange coincidence, Shamoon Abdulali also. obtained

Uperodon tadpoles in a rain water pool at Thana, sea-level, Salsette,

Bombay. The pool, about 18 in. deep, was shaded by a large tree

at one end and held a lot of algae. Tadpoles of Microhyla ornata

were noted in this pool, but they appeared to keep to ‘the shallower and |

clearer portions only. The pool dried up after a few days and all

the tadpoles presumably perished. Subsequent to this no more ™|

Uperodon adults or tadpoles were found in spite of continued search

in the surrounding area, and it is strange that three persons should

independently have found this hitherto rare species within the Bombay

area practically all within the same short period. The previous records

are from Russelkonda, Ganjam District, Andhra, Bengal and Berar

whence adults were taken. aoe

S. D. Mukerji (J4SB, xxvil, 1931, pp. 97-100) records a specimen

47 mm. in length obtained in Calcutta. He refers to slimy secretion

appearing on the body especially the dorsum when the animal was

subjected to open air and light for a considerable length of time.

‘His specimen, however, refused to take any, of the ants and termites —

offered to it and died after 390 days of fasting. | a

Thurston, Superintendent of Government Central Museum, Madras

(Catalogue of Batrachia, Salientia and Apoda of South India, 1888, —

p-. 43) records that the specimen from Russelkonda had its stomach

enormously distended by a mass of winged white ants. a

Dr. J. L. Bhaduri, who kindly confirmed the identity of this species,

obtained specimens of the frog from termite mounds in Bengal and —

: . . hfioe<y GAs aes ,

Shelf) Te PMP, ceo : . :

oe eds i sro >: tet Py, oa -

ee : 3 Tree plese ea coir Et bn uh Ay rol majo

ee é ea * x = Dent: , 2 bates

Ses nae 64 - its ce

ss “Brea of head.. ae tosses AIS) 17 17 185 21

aR ze iss 560 ine 4 4°5 4°5 5

bi: Upper eyelid... aa. a5 2:5 25 Cat 3°7 3

_ Inter orbital width 5a Seosenko 8:5 8 10 10°5

_ Inter metatarsal tubercle ... fod a 7 7 9 9°5

- Outer ‘metatarsal tabereles: poe eae) 350 BO) 4 4-7

‘ Ubi : 500 20°5 20 20:5 CAR) YA)

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

J. C. DANIEL

30. ‘FOOD OF THE BULL-FROG (RANA TIGIRINA)

m Mr. T. Gay’s note in Vol. 52 (1): 212 on the food of the bull-

frog reminds me of a similar murderous onslaught, as he puts it.

a I had a pet squirrel which was not then fully grown. I had

p just put her down on the ground and let her follow me when from

| Bichind the row of flower pots a frog leaped out and was on her in

EP .. flash. The squirrel let out a frightened squeak and struggled to

a free herself but the marauder’s grip was tough. In a panic I took

up three or four stones and hit the frog hard, but he was in no

mood to let go. Fortunately I spied a stick nearby, took it up and

"frantically meen the frog with it till he let go his arms and jumped

‘back behind the flower pots. I took up the squirrel which lay limp

in my cupped palm with her heart throbbing fast. She recovered

within an hour and I was glad to note that there was neither a.

3 paroren limb nor a a single bruise | on her person.

, Sunny VIEW, :

AHARANPUR, | (MRS.) ARUNA BANERJI

July 31, 1954. ste :

o. DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF THE BATRACHIAN,

ICHTHYOPHIS GLUTINOSUS LINN.

In view of the paucity of records of this curious worm-like

- batrachian in India, it may be worthwhile noting that in the

- Benoen of a3id October, 1953, I saw one on a path to one

; of the ‘points’ on the Kanara side of the Gersoppa Falls in south

Bombay State. The soil was hard laterite and the animal progressed

by a series of ripples reminiscent of a millipede rather than a snake

or eel. When put in a pox its sticky surface enabled it to climb

. ra

639

Di LT ES oy

ae a ee eA ee

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

smooth vertical surfaces. In life the coloring was bright metallic—

with a bright yellow stripe along the sides, quite unlike specimens

which have been in a preservative for some time. It measured 196

mm. in length.

c/o Faiz & Co., IRE j

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI E

BomBay, . :

August 20, 1954.

[Some years ago, Mr. A. F. Hutton sent some live specimens

to the Society from the Nuilgiri-Wynaad and which in turn were

presented to the Victoria Gardens in Bombay. Other specimens in

the Society’s collection are from Anaimalai Hills and Ootacamund

in South India and from Garo Hills in Assam. Mullan (/BNHS, 33;

723) records one found by Fr. Blatter at Panchgani, 4,300 ft., Satara

District, Bombay. Mr. C. McCann who recorded the species I.

monochrous from Khandala (JBNHS, 31: 1039) stated that ‘It lives

under stones, during the rains, in burrows much after the fashion

of the earthworm which it also resembles in its movements. At first

sight it might well be mistaken for one of these creatures as its body

is also coated with slime. On the removal of the stone under which

it lives the animal soon begins to descend into its burrow enay from

light’.—Eps. |

ah shed, ave ge ee Meee i eee ik wed e 5 a ; =

EVAR Cay SE EE CE ey Le aL Dn ere

eee

Toe?

Ate NODE ON THE COURTSHIP IN THE SAND CRAB

[PHILYRA SCABRIUSCULA (FABRICIUS)].

‘Courtship’ of an elementary type is observed in P. scabriuscula

which inhabit the low tide zone of Waltair and Visakhapatnam coast

in large numbers.

The courtship commences by the third week of November and

lasts till about the end of January. At the height of the season

a number of P. Sscabriuscula were observed in pairs each consisting

of a male and a female. Most of the females were ovigerous with

ripe orange-coloured eggs. In the laboratory the actual courting

and copulation were observed for the first time on 25-11-1952.

Subsequently this process was repeatedly observed. The male caught

hold of the female from the dorsal side by hooking its first pair

of ambulatory legs on to the chelipeds and the first pair of walking

legs of the female, and thereby getting a firm hold on her; in this

> i Fate ‘ re

io chia ie Oe Td cals Fa

sida

position the two remaining motionless for a period which ranged &

from a few minutes to two hours. When the female straightened |

her abdomen from its usual tucked-in position, the male with great z

rapidity formed an arc round the female and still holding her in

the same fashion, faced his partner. The two crabs were seen very

close to each other just for a few seconds and the male then released

the female.

When they are thus close together the sperms from the male

are transferred into the genital opening of the female. This is evident

from the fact that the anterior part of the sternal groove of the

ich tanta

mii

ere et

te Se CAP

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 641

male is exposed during and immediately after sperm transference.

When the two crabs separate, the abdomen of neither is in the

tucked-in position. The receptaculum seminalis when dissected im-

mediately after copulation contained sperms proving they were

actually transferred.

Throughout this process the female is passive. If the female does

not relax her abdomen the male faces her and forces her to release

the abdomen from the tucked-in position.

P. scabriuscula appears to be peace-loving, for during a period

of five years of frequent observation of this widely distributed species

the author has not seen more than three instances of fights and

this amongst males only. In every case, it was during the breeding

season and for a mate. A fight for the seizure of food never occurred.

One typical instance of the fight was when a male was attempting

to seize a female for mating, and another male approached them.

The first male immediately hooked the chelipeds and the first. pair

of walking legs of the female with its first pair of ambulatory legs

paralysing her movements. In this state, he puts up a defensive

fight with his chelae, using one of them for catching the wrist of

one of the chelae of the opponent thereby disabling the latter

from approaching the female already in his possession. This

struggle between them lasted for quite a long time (not less than

five minutes) during which period the female was not released at all.

It was the intruding male that finally fled.

The second instance was almost similar to the above, while in

the third case the intruder was much stronger and during the struggle

the female escaped. The above instances are not common for, in

general, a male with a female remains undisturbed.

_ DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY,

W ALTAIR,

August 8, 1954.

(MISS) K. G. RAJA BAT NAIDU

42. SEX RATIO AND VARIABILITY OF APODOUS

SEGMENTS IN APUS (PHYLLOPODA: CRUSTACEA)

(Published with the kind permission of the Director, Zoological

Survey of India)

Males are generally known to be rare in Apus. This certainly

appears to be the case in Apus cancriformis. Gurney, (1925) how-

ever, pointed out that in A. orientalis (which he referred to as A.

asiaticus) males outnumbered the females in the collection that he

examined. The author (Tiwari, 1952) also reached the same con-

clusion after examining a number of freshly collected examples of

this species from Panchgani in the Bombay State. Recently Main

(1953) has stated that in A. australiensis males are more abundant

than are usually believed to be in Apus. He also pointed out the

large variability in the number of apodous segments, a character

that is greatly relied upon in the taxonomy of Apus. .

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Ve

in A. orientalis, and to examine the variability in the number of

apodous segments, the author requested Mr. Humayun Abdulali to

lend him the collection of this species preserved in the Bombay

Natural History Society. ‘A fine sample of 76 examples of this

species was thus obtained, and the present note contains a result oe

the examination of this and other samples of A. orientalis and .

cancriformis present in the Zoological Survey of India.

Sex Ratio ww A. orientalis anv A. cancriformis

The number of males and females was ascertained from the

following samples. :

Apus orientalts

1. Panchgani, 74 specimens; Coll. Humayun Abdulali, 29-7-53,

(Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. coll.)

2 do, 6 specimens ; Coll. E. Blatter, Date ?

(Regd. No. C1527 /1, Z.S.1.)

BF do , 16 specimens; Coli. S. L. Hora, Sept. 1924:

: (Regd. No. C1264/1, Z.S.1.)

4, do , 13 specimens ; (greenish variety) ; Coll. ?,

| | 13th August, 1950. (Z. S.L)

<9, do , 11 specimens; (reddish variety)

13th August 1950. @ 9. L)

Apus cancriformis

Jammu State, Kashmir, 30 specimens; Coll. Pandit Ram Dhan,

Done: Niel Crowe, Esqr., Date ? (Z.S.1.):

2. Banihal Ilaka, south of the Pir Panjal Range, alt. 6,000 ft.

13 specimens, Donor Pe. Dateve i(Z.Sab\. )

3. Same locality, 5 specimens; (Z.S.1.). |

4. Shrinagar, 8 specimens; Coll. T. B. Fletcher, 6-7-1923. (Z.S.1.)

5. Gandarbal, Kashmir—paddy fields 8 miles from town, alt.

7,000 ft., 24 specimens; Coll. Kashmir Survey; 25- Oe (Regd, No.

1262/1, Zo.) |

6. Loc. etc. ? 21 specimens Zs), = S

Thus, 120 examples of A. orientalis and 101 of A. cancriformis

were examined. The following table gives the number of males and

females of each species present in ane sample.

TABLE I

A, orientalis A. cancritorvmis

e 2 tS g

Sample ae 3 Total Sable) 22 z 7 Total

Nels pe ae

7, 13 7, oe

j 18 56 74 1] 0 30 30

2 3 3 6 2 0 13 13

3 9 7 16 3 0 5 5

4 ale 2 eo 4 3 54 8

5 10 1 11 5 0 24 24

ae — —~ 6 0 21 21

51 69 120 pees = ete

—- me — 3 98 101

In order to investigate whether mies really outnumber ae Pais ie

“MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ae dividuals ‘fas ihe males and fentales pean in the ratio of 1 to

ee Bor figure somewhat approximating to that given by Main for

_ A. australiensis. In the other samples, however, the number of males

a is disproportionately higher. As the samples do not appear to be

_ random no statistical inference can be derived from them beyond the

_ fact-that males are quite abundant in this species.

It was, however, noticed that the males were much larger in

size than females, and in samples where males outnumbered the

females the individuals were large-sized. Measurements of the median

| length of the carapace (measured between the median notch in the

g sulcus and the transverse groove behind the eyes) in a number of

i individuals yielded the following results :— :

er 2 TARR (1

_ _ ‘Size range in Frequency _

ae: _ millimeters Males Females

| 5-0—6'9 0 Wee 1

a 7-0—8'9 7 29 36

ae 9:0—10-9 13 12 Zo

fe 11-02712:9 pes 6 20

oe . .13-0— 14-9 . 4 0 4

3 38 58 96

me ll EES

- 24

Sie

It is thus obvious that in the above material the males attained a

larger size in comparison to females, and this probably may explain

the apparent preponderance of males over females in some samples

4 where the individuals are large in size. It is to be noted that

eae s sample also contained more males than females, and more

detailed investigations are necessary before the exact nature of the

_ marked fluctuations of the sex-ratio in this species could .be ascer-

- tained.

3 Work on the biology of this species by some conveniently placed

naturalists will be welcome to determine (i) the sex-ratio in 4A.

orientalis, (ii) whether there is any seasonal fluctuation in the number

eo of males and females in the population of this species, and (ili) if

males and females differ from each other in size and other characters.

If any disparity in the sex-ratio of the populations of this species

really exists, it will be worthwhile to investigate whether this is due

| to genetic factors or due to environmental causes like differential death

3 rate, etc. The occurrence of parthenogenesis and existence of

polyploid individuals as the causes of unequal sex-ratio can also not

fo be ruled out.

BS 7 VARIABILITY OF APODOUS SEGMENTS

oS shes valli a meristic ai snawtere: in taxonomic studies has been

ke recognised. In Apus where reliable diagnostic features are few,

the number of apodous segments is generally depended upon for

_ taxonomic purposes (Barnard, 1931; Tiwari, 1952). As will -be

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 —

apparent from Main’s statistics of A. australiensis this feature is

rather variable in the Australian form. In the Indian species the

number of apodous segments is fairly constant and can be satel

relied upon as a criterion for delimiting species.

An examination of 103 examples of A. orientalis and 99 specimens

of A. cancriformis gives the following frequency distribution for the

apodous segments.,

TABLE III

Apus orientalis Apus cancritormis

No. of Frequency in No. of Frequency in

apodous Males Females Total apodous Males Females Total

segments segments

11 0 47 47 Apr i26 iO 47 47

12 4 16 20 7 3 49 52

13 33 0 33 ee ees

14 Seana atesn (0) 3 3 96 99

40 637 = 103 |

Females, thus, have 11-12 apodous segments and males have

12-14 in A. orientalis, while in A. cancriformis the apodous segments _

are either 6 or 7 in number. This number agrees with the figures

given by Gurney, except that the range for females will be 11-13,

the last figure being rather rare. In A. mavliensis where males are

not known at present the apodous segments in females vary from

8 to 1o although the last number occurs most frequently. It can,

therefore, be concluded that for Indian species the number of apodous

segments is a reliable taxonomic character in the present state of

our knowledge of this genus.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY KRISHNA KANT TIWARI

OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA.

REFERENCES

Barnard, K. H. (1981): Ann. S. Afr. Mus., 89: 241.

Gurney, R. (1925): Rec. Indian Mus., 27: 439-442.

Main, A. (1953): West Austr. Nat., 4: 34-39.

Tiwari, K. K. (1952): Rec. Indian Mus., 49: 197-206.

43. OCCURRENCE OF THE MANTIS GONGYLUS _

GONGYLOIDES LINN. IN JUNAGADH (SAURASHTRA)

| ‘ :

Gongylus gongyloides Linn. belongs to the phylum Arthropoda,

to the sub-class Orthroptera of the class Insecta and to the family

Mantidae. In 1877 this insect was recorded in the Midnapur District

of Bengal by Dr. Anderson (Proc. Asiat. Soc. of Bengal, 1877, p

193) and was shown to the members of the Asiatic Society of Bea

A single solitary specimen of Gongylus gongyloides Linn. was

first observed in the Bahauddin College compound in the month of

October 1953. It was kept in the laboratory in the living state for

ae oe aren eee aioe ue “ a 5 at Tae i — eS ee eT

OB oe oso ae pes BM ne Peel tes pa ei 6 See fi ys ie Taha SOR pe oe — inet Siete da 3: ~ ali: a. ~ -

ee et SO FO Pee FLA ae ee ee eS Re ee en ee TS ee ~ ee ee Te ler er ne 4 Sr a RISA

9h ge Cin

ete:

parse it

Dinars paacenet

ttt vega WON

at eA =

er as Hi ne a rear a3

ae or aie Py.

Tee aye oar _

» nN ey Lie Jue + Fe

et eS aS i Ske ot :

ie Rook oars ek a ME On 1 aK S es

ss = Beat } we :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 645

three to four days, but unfortunately it was attacked and _ killed

by red ants. It was preserved as a dry specimen in the College

Museum. 3 . :

So far as the author is aware this insect forms the first record of

the species from Junagadh in Saurashtra.

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE,

JUNAGADH, I. H. KACHHI

; February 25,1954.

44. ON SOME UNRECORDED HOST PLANTS OF THE LAC

INSECT, LACCIFER LACCA (KERR), (HOMOPTERA :

LACCIFERIDAE)

_ Watt! (1901) published the first comprehensive list of host plants

of the common Indian lac insect, Laccifer {=Tachardia) lacca (Kerr)

and enumerated 56 species occurring in India, Burma and Ceylon.

In 1910, Stebbing? increased this number to 88, and as our knowledge |

of the subject advanced further additions were made by several

workers so that at present well over hundred species of host plants

are known.,

The following notes on three species of hitherto unrecorded host

plants of L. lacca are based on my observations made in Chota Nagpur

while I was working as Entomologist at the Indian Lac Research

Institute, Namkum. Specific identifications of the lac insects were

made at the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, during the course

of a systematic study of the family Lacciferidae, and I am grateful

to Dr. S. L. Hora, Director of the Survey, for providing facilities

for the same. Names of two of the plants were supplied by Sri

K. S. Srinivasan of the Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, to whom

my thanks are due for his help.

It will be noted that all the three species of plants dealt with here

are of exotic origin and have been growing in the country as avenue

and garden trees for sometime past. Jn the lists of host plants given

by Watt, Stebbing and others fair numbers of exotic plants were

included.. That exotic species could be important from the point of

lac production is indicated by the fact that in Thailand the Rain Tree

[Samanea (Pithecolobium) saman Merrill], a native of tropical South

America, is a major source of Thai lac which is coming up fast in

competition with the Indian lac in foreign markets. —

1. Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. (Leguminosae : Mimosaceae).

Lac incrustations were observed on a number of branches of a

solitary tree in a private garden compound at Ranchi, in October,

1952. Thin branches of nearly half an inch diameter were covered

with thick incrustations some of which were easily six inches long.

Uhe resinous secretion was thick and light amber in colour; wax

* Watt, G. (1901): Tachardia (Carteria) lacca, Kerr. Lac (lakh) and the lac

industries. Agric. Ledger (Ent. Ser. No, 9), Calcutta, pp. 181-347 --i-ix.

_* Stebbing, E. P. (1910): A note on the lac insect (Tachardia lacca), its life-

history, propagation and collection. Indian For. Mem. (For, Zool. Ser.), 1 (3):

33-114 (1-82), |

filaments were AGS. relatively les and suggested a ee state ‘op |

the lac insects embedded in the incrustations. The females were full

of developing eggs and the swarming of larvae took place by the end

of October. The strain concerned was apparently rangeent. —

The infection seemed to have been brought about either by

accident or through the agency of birds which may carry nymphs on

their bodies from one tree to another. It was generally believed that

this tree easily succumbs to the attack of the lac insect in the course

of a few seasons if the infection is not destroyed in time. )

A. auriculiformis is a native of Northern Australia and ond

and is cultivated in several parts of India. Isolated trees occur in’

private garden compounds at Ranchi. ue ais

2. Peltophorum ferrugineum Benth. (Leguminosae: Mimosaceae).

Nearly a score of trees of this species were observed to carry lac

at Jamshedpur in June, 1952. The lac infection varied from rather

scattered cells on thick branches (? inch diameter) to thick and con-

tinuous incrustations on relatively thinner branches (4-4 inch diameter).

There were no incrustations near the tips of branches as most of the

larval settlements seem to have died prematurely. The scattered cells,

referred to above, were almost spherical while the cells consti-

tuting the incrustations were a little longer along the vertical

axes than along the horizontal. The quantity and colour

of the resin secreted compared favourably with that generally obtained

from a palas (Butea monosperma Kuntze) tree. There being two

broods in a year, the swarming of lac larvae took place once in July

and then in October. The trees were being self-infected as the

contractor who had obtained the right to collect lac from these and

other trees such as the Rain Tree, the peepal (Ficus religiosa), the

siris (Albizzia lebbek Benth.), growing along the avenues, obviously

took. care to leave intact a sufficient number of branches bearing

mature lac to serve as a source of infection for the next brood.

Owing apparently to the constant strain of infection and frequent

_lopping, the trees showed signs of deterioration.

P. ferrugineum is a native of the Eastern Peninsula and Ceylon and

is frequently planted in several parts of India. In Chota NPIS it

is often planted along the roads in several towns.,

3. Jacaranda mimosifolia D. Don. (Bignoniaceae) (Syn. J.

ovalifolia R. Br.), ,

One tree of this species was carrying the fac infection at

Jamshedpur. The incrustations were sparse to moderately thick but

in most other respects it was similar to that described above for P.

ferrugineum. The infection of lac appeared to have spread to this —

species from a nearby hedge of Inga dulcis Willd. which was carrying ~

lac. At the time of my visit in June 1952 many infected branches had

been cut down in order to save the tree. Subsequently a tree in the

author’s compound at Ranchi was also successfully infected.

Mahdihassan®* . (1936) was able to rear Laccifer (= Lakshadia)

communis (Mahd.) by artificial infection on this ppeules at ee) 4 ,

3 Mahdihassan, S. (1936): The range of host -selection and specific differentia-

tion of lac and other parasites. Arch. Naturgesch. N.F., 5: 1-22.

"MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

oN native of Brazil and of somewhat recent introduction in India,

the trees J. mimosifolia may be seen in private and public gardens.

ZOOLOGICAL! SURVEY OF InDIA, - : .

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, _ A. P. KAPUR

-CALCUTTA-I2, _M.Sc., Ph.p, (Lond.), D.1.c,

| June 25, 1954.

"— 4s. PRESUMPTIVE FATAL STING OF THE COMMON HOUSE

WASP, POLISTES HEBRAEUS-

Here in Dehra Dun, on July 17, 1954, at 16.05, I.S.T., a lady

aged 63 years was stung by a yellow house wasp, Polistes hebraeus,

between the 3rd and the 4th toe of her right foot. She became very

___ restless and complained of breathlessness. Medical aid was promptly

-—. summoned. On arrival, at about 16.17 the doctor gave the lady an

injection of Adrenalin. She expired almost immediately—only 12

‘minutes after being stung.

It is a fact that the lady was unusually sensitive to wasp sting.

_ On previous occasions when stung by a wasp she used to feel a great

deal of pain all over her body and also complained of a choking

_ sensation. She was slightly asthmatic—an injection of Adrenalin,

= however, used to give her prompt relief.

This case appears to be unique as no one here seems to have nea

of a similar one.

16, Raypur Roan, = | 3

DeHRA Dun, U.P., - J.N. ONIAL,

August 2, 1954. p.F.S, (Retd.)

as 46. SOME INSECTS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT

The following insect species were taken at light in Bangalore

from 20th October to 5th November 1953. They were caught inside

a study room into which they entered through an eastern window

(4 ft. x 2 ft.), 54 ft. above the ground level, and overhung by an electric

light (25 W, 50 C, 220 V, 5 A), the illuminated filament being

_ visible from outside. The wide range of species obtained is of consider-

able interest, when the visual stimulus in insects is known to be complex

and the form and magnitude of the response variable from species

_ to species with the location and the intensity of illumination, length

and temperature (Dethier, 1953). Of the 90 species collected, as

many as 33 are of economic importance, and these are indicated

by an asterisk. No comprehensive list of insect species attracted

to light appears to be available in the Indian literature, although

Lefroy (1909), Dina Nath (1923) and Ayyar and. Anantanarayanan

families whose members showed positive phototropism; light-traps

have, however, been a favourite experiment with economic entomologists

_ for the control of some major crop pests (Ayyar and Anantanarayanan,

647

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52 —

1934; Ballard, 1923; Dina- Nath, 1923; john 19473; and Putta

Rudraiah, 1945-46). Bia Ee

Meteorological Data. —Hours of catches : 7 to 11.30 p.m.

20th to 31st October: Temperature range 65.5° F. to

84.2°F. with an average of 73.5°F., night temperature normal to

below normal; mainly cloudy weather, with intermittent rain, slight

to 1.72 inches. Wind velocity 2.0 to 3.6 m.p.h., direction WSW.,

SSW. and NNW. A great majority of the insects were taken during

this period. : ae

“1st to sth Novembier: Vemperatuce canee 55.10).

81.1°F. with an average of 69.3°F., night temperature below normal; —

weather fair to dry. Wind velocity 2.5 to 3.7 m.p.h., direction, N., —

NNE. and NE. ,

Acknowledgments.—I am _ grateful to Dr. M. Putta- Rudraiah,

Government Entomologist, Bangalore, for facilities and encouragement.

I am also highly indebted to the Director, Commonwealth Institute _

of Entomology, London, for kind courtesy in determining most of

the insect species.

List OF INSECTS

ORTHOPTERA

Gry | lidae. : |

~ Pteronemobius cstkit Bol.

DERMAPTERA

Forficulidae.

Diplatys sp.' 3 |

| ISOPTERA

Kalotermitidae,

* Veotermes assmuthi (Holmgren).

HEMIPTERA

Coreidae.

Liorhyssus rubicundus Sign.

Ly gaeidae.

Eucosmetus sp. and Metochus uniguttatus Thunbg.

Nabidae.

*Nabis capsitormis Germ.

Miridae.

Licocoris sp. and =, vigonotylus doherty: Dist.

Delphacidae.

Perkinsiella tasezalds Dist. and P. insignis Dist.

Jassidae. : | Tae,

Euscelis indicus Dist., CNL e apicalis Motsch. and */V. btpuna-

tatus abr, rae hhc

* A new species, since described as Diplatys excidens Hineks—Prce. Fay. ent.

Soc., Ser. B, 23, (9-10): 161.

_. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES —

LEPIDOPTERA

Pyralidae.

lateritalis Walk., *Chilo zonellus Swinh., *“Cnaphalocrocis medinalis Guen.,

Lipipagis Peels Zell., *Glyphodes hivityalis Guen., “A/ymenta recurvalis

Fab., Mephopteryx sp.; Nj ymphula diminutalis Snell., N. stagnalis Zell.,

Psara licarsisalis Walk., Pristarthria minuiella Rag., “Pycnarmon eA

Fab., “Pyralis MnTTetales Guen., “Raphimetopus ablutella Zell., “Scho-

4 enobius bipunctifer Walk., Synciera traducalis Zell., and Udea martialis

Guen.

3 Bombycidae. TZvilocha varians Walk.

Pe Geometridae.

and Szerrha lineata Amps. |

— Syntomidae. *Syntomis passalis Fab.

Lymantriidae. *Laeéialitura Walk.

; Arctiidae. “dAmsacta lineola Fab., Celama ftaentsta Snell., Siccta

guttulosana Walk., * Utethetsa pulchella Linn.

Agrotidae (Noctuidae).

Antarchaea mansueta Walk., *Anticarsia irrorata Fab. “Cosmophila

flava Fab., Dichromia orosia Cram., Eublemma anachoresis Whlern.,

*“Euxoa spinttera Hb., Hydrillodes morosa Butl., Hypena strigata Fab.,

*Mocis trugalis Fab., Nodaria cornicalis Fab., Ozarba hemtphaca Amps.,

Ozarba sp., Perigea serva Walk., *Polytela gloriosae Fab., Prodenia litura

Fab., Proxenus melanospila Guen., Rhynchina pervulgaris Swinh., Rivula

btoculalis Moore, *“Sesamia inferens Walk. and *Sfodoptera mauritia Bsd.

COLEOPTERA

Carabidae. Colpodes ruficeps Maol.

Sta phylinidae. Zyvas bicolor spp. and Z. indorum Fauv.

Anobiidae (Ptinidae). “Lastoderma sericorne F.

~Elateridae. Cardiophorus formosus Curtis.

Tenebrionidae. Curimosphena fasciculatus Fa.

~ carabaeidae. “Heliocopris bucephalis Fab.,

“Oryctes rhinoceros Lin. and Phyllognathus

dionystus Fab.

Aphodiidae. Aphodius cavinulatus Motsch.

HYMENOPTERA

_ Braconidae. Heterogamus sp. and “Microbracon hebetor Say.

_ Ichneumonidae. Cvemastus spp., “Enicospilus sp., and JVetelia sp.

Eulophidae. *T7etrastichus sp.

DIPTERA

ie punctatus Will.

Culicidae. Chaoborus sp.

27.

ie Ancylolomia sp., *Antigastva catalaunalis Dup., Bostra sp., Canthelea |

* Anisephyra ocularis Fab., pal zdearia Swinh., *S. octuarvta Walk., |

Psychodidae. Psychoda alternata Say and Telmatoscopus albi=

ree

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol

Chironomidae. VPentaneura sp. and Polypedilum sp.

Sciaridae. Sczara sp.

Muscidae. “Atherigona sp. (possibly oryzae “Mall. )

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, sR

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, S. USMAN

BANGALORE-1.

LITERATURE CITED

(1) Ayyar, Ramakrishna T, V., and Anantanarayanan, K, 12 (1934) ; Mad. Agr.

Jour., 22: 268-273.

(2) Ballard, E. (1923) ; Wem. Dept. Agri. India, Ent. Ser., 7 (13).

(3) Dethier, VeGy (1953) ; ; The Insect Physiology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. , New

York, pp. 488-522.

(4) Dina Nath (1923) ; Rep. Proc. Vth Ento. Meet, Pusa, 65-74, a

(5) John, C. M, (1947) ; Ind. Oil Seeds Comitt., Scheme of Res. on Pests & Dis-

eases of Groundnuts, Madras Province, Final Rep., 1-32. |

sess Lefroy, H. M. (1909) ; Indian Tnsect Life, Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta,

106-107

(7) Putta Rudraiah, M. (1945-46) ; A/Zys. Agr. Jour., 24 (1): 4-9.

ay. LEECHES

Referring to Mr, Smythies’s interesting note’ on leeches, while _

not professing to be an expert on them, by many years of close

contact (sic) with them in my vocation as a planter, I have been —

forced to observe these revolting creatures and their ways, and my

observations may be useful to add to his.

I do not know how many species there are but have noted what

appear to be many, some mottled, some striped and large, some small

and black; these latter seem to be far the most painful as I have

always found that when one can feel the stinging bite, one may,

be sure to find a small black one at work, whereas the larger ones

are not noticed until one feels the wet sticky blood trickling down

after they have dropped off. I have seen a very large pale coloured

one on cattle. I presume that they are entirely dependent on blood

for sustenance as their mouth parts are not designed for any other

form of food. There are many warm-blooded mammals in the jungle

for them—I have found them on snakes, but even then many must

go hungry though in common with snakes, they too can go for long

periods without food and it would be interesting to know how long

a gorged leech takes to digest its load of blood. In the Anaimalai

Hills I have found them throughout the dry weather along stream

edges under heavy coffee shade and mulch. Many must die when

they drop off their temporary hosts on to unsuitable ground and the

blood inside them congeals in the hot sun before they can reach

moist cover. ‘A leech must have coolth and moisture to live.

It is well known how soon they appear again at the first rains

after the dry period. Like earthworms, leeches carry their eggs ine

a larger segment of the body; when is this shed releasing the eggs, - ) |

1 IBNHS, 61 (4): 954.

haa

“MIS CELLA NEO US Nor) TES

sins or Pree the at weather? | Behe leeches are both bi- sect

and hermaphroditic.

Mr. Smythies asks how high a. leech can climb. While I do

not believe in the parachutist leech, I have brushed them off low

branches of trees at head level where I have noticed them sitting

in the relaxed position at the extremities of the leaves, both in Assam

~ and South India. I have seen them crawl up poles of trees to

about four feet.

It takes some time for the leech to determine the direction of

its next meal. ‘This is evident in the manner in which it first extends

itself from its contracted resting position and bends the upper part

of its body towards the direction of the person and waves it about

to and fro until it gets wind of its meal, then off it sets full tilt

looping towards it falling over sometimes in its haste. Again this

is demonstrated when two or more persons are walking in single

file, the first person will find comparatively few on him but those

following will be covered. This all goes to show that they scent

their ‘prey’ through olfactory means. I have noted on a close and

careful watch that the mouth or sucker is widely open during the

osculations of the leech’s body prior to its march towards one. I

have found the maximum cistanee at which they first notice one to

be about 24 yards.

Mr. Src mentions that leeches require complete freedom from

fire to maintain existence. This is not borne out in the case of

clearing jungle for tea plantations, etc., when the brush is fired and

the clearing then planted up. As soon as a cover is obtained over ~

the ground in two to three years leeches may again be found.

The danger from leech bites is of course the intense irritation

set up at the site, and infection introduced from scratching. Is an

irritant injected by the leech as in the case of the mosquito?

It is a fact that land leeches are not to be found in Africa at

any rate in West Africa which I know. I have walked through cold

dripping evergreen rain-forest in the hills of the Cameroons, which

if it had been in the Nilgiris would have been crawling with them.

However, they are compensated for by the presence of other noxious

insects such as the Tsetse Fly, Chrysops, sandflies in millions, mosquitoes

and soldier ants. Not all Indians are familiar with the leech.

Familiarity breeds contempt, and I remember what delight tea pluckers

used to show when a ‘new girl’ from the plains saw her first leech

and ran shrieking with fright from it!

As regards protective clothing, a pair of linen stockings under

woollen ones does the trick. I am not in favour of completely :

- covering one’s limbs with clothing as one spends. more time than

one can afford searching in the upper regions of one’s clothing for

_ them. They. are bound to find a way in somewhere if not down one’s

_ neck. I prefer to let them have their fill round my knees by wearing

shorts, at any rate one can pick them off there easily enough, and from

where they can drop off easily when gorged.

- 1, CROMWELL Houstz,

_ CROOK ILKOXe. BEXLEVHEATH, R. N. CHAMPION-JONES

Kent, Uwe eno

5 ES 12, 1954.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo:

48. LAND LEECHES

The following notes to Mr. Smythies’ query about leeches may

be of interest. JI have never seen a leech drop from a tree. IT have

seen them in clusters of five or six on the underside of a single

leaf between two and four feet from the ground waiting for their

victims. As a man or animal passes he is apt to brush up against

them when they fasten on to the clothing or body. ‘They certainly —

do not rely on touch to be aware of their prey, but use some other

sense. If you put your hand near a cluster on a leaf they will all

stretch themselves out towards you. JI cannot remember at what

distance but, I think, your hand would have to be only a few inches

away. : :

Prevention: Putties soaked in tobacco juice. The leech

crawls into the folds of the putties and there is turned into rubber.

Besides two pairs of thin socks a good plan we used for a stroll

in the garden in Gangtok was to wear white socks and_ tuck

white tennis trousers into them. In this way you or someone else

could usually see a leech before he started work.

Treatment: Our Medical Officer, Dr. Dyer, gave me a very

useful tip for dealing with a leech once he had got hold. First

of all get him off with a pinch of salt but don’t pull him off; then,

to staunch the blood burn a piece of cotton wool the size of a golf

ball, put a spot of iodine on the wound and put the cotton ashi

on. Pull up your sock or take some steps to keep the ash in place

for a few minutes. The ash makes a kind of artificial scab which

can be removed in your next bath. ,

I speak with some experience. I was once attacked in the Assam

forests when in low condition and every bite festered. 1 bear the

-scars today. One night I took 150 (mostly those turned to rubber)

off my clothes and one leg, it then got dark and I could not count

the other leg ! | :

Why do leeches not attack barking deer and other wild inhabitants

of the jungle?

STIFFKEY, | 7 ) a:

NORFOLK, F.M. BAILEY, |

March 25, 1954. | Lt.-Col.

4g. . LAND LEECHES

I was most interested in Miscellaneous Note No. 18 on Land

Leeches by Mr. B. E. Smythies in Vol. 51, No. 4 of the Journal.

I have had 30 years experience of leech infested jungles in the South

Indian hill ranges, including the Malanaad of Coorg and Mysore,

the Nilgiris and Nilgiri-Wynaad, the Nelliampathi and Anamallai Hills,

and the High Wavy Mountains in the Madurai District. — :

Many of the questions posed by Mr. Smythies have intrigued me.

The following are some additional observations :— :

Some 20 years ago, in the Anamallais, I did some small experi-

ments on leeches with the help of our estate doctor. We dissected

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 653

some, as far as we were able to do so with limited facilities, with the

object of finding out what they ate. In none of our specimens did

we find anything but humus and leaf mould. At the same time we

tried a number of experiments in test tubes to try and find out

what common reagents were lethal to them.

The result of these experiments was most interesting. Any acid

reagent had little or no effect on them, in fact they appeared to

survive quite happily in contact with quite strong solutions of hydro-

chloric acid.

On the other hand they reacted very quickly to anything alkaline.

A small spot of free lime was quite sufficient to kill a leech very

quickly. Very dilute caustic soda was equally lethal. Such things

as tobacco decoections, and coarse soap emulsions, were also very

effective in killing leeches besides acting as repellents.

The killing power of alkalis was what I expected to find. The

effectiveness of coarse soap is probably due to the residue of soda ash

in the soap, as the better the soap the less effective it is. In our

jungles soils are generally of high acidity, derived either from the

high humus cover in heavy rain forest, or from the laterite of more

open forest, and it was logical to expect that leeches would be happy

living in an acid medium. I also tried malariol on them which seemed

te have little or no effect. ;

Ever since these experiments I have used coarse soap rubbed into

ankle puttees as a protective. It is the finest protective I know.

It will remain effective on 6 in. monsoon days, and stand up to

occasional crossing of streams. If it is well rubbed into the puttees

the rain keeps a constant dribble of soapy water flowing over the

boots for a considerable period. Protection is almost complete in

the worst leech jungle.

Many planters in South India use a leech proof stocking of fine

woven cotton which is good until the leech climbs over the top. Silk

stockings or socks also seem to defeat their efforts at penetration.

A curious fact about leeches is that elephant, bison, sambar, Nilgiri

Thar, wild dogs, panther and tiger live quite happily in sholas and

forest which are so leech infested that the local jungle races will not

eater them in the monsoon. I have shot many wild animals in such

forest, and none of them have ever shown signs of having been worried

by leeches. On the other hand tame dogs, cats, horses and domestic

cattle will all be attacked freely and viciously. Domestic cattle—

particularly those with English blood—will suffer severely in condition

if they graze continuously in leech-infested areas. I feel sure that

wild animals living in these jungles would be unable to live there if

they did not have some natural protection. It is a fact that Bos

gaurus is thé only ox which is known to sweat. My guess is that the

- natural protection of all wild animals living in leech-infested jungles

is an alkaline skin secretion. :

I agree with Mr. Smythies that I have never seen a leech climb

a tree, and I have never had a leech drop on me from a tree. In

very bad jungle they can be picked up off undergrowth shrubs, but

even so they are rarely above knee height. From that height they

‘may easily escape notice until they have worked up to the back of

me the neck.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

It is a well-known fact that in bad jungle it pays to walk first

in the column, and that those following always collect more leeches

than those in front. I suspect that the leeches feel vibrations—pro-

bably heart pulsations—and start moving as soon as they do so.

When I was a young assistant we used to. have leech races on the

club billiard table. The owners put their leeches at one end and then

-pricked their fingers and held them against the cushion at the other

end. Most of the leeches would finish the course without trouble and

surprisingly quickly. :

As far as South India is concerned it is not true that heavy burns

destroy the leech population. ;

I saw a good deal of the Anaimalai jungle felled and opened in

tea. It was magnificent evergreen ironwood rain forest at from

3,000-4,000 ft. elevation—often from 100-120 ft. high. The system

then was to fell the jungle in August, and put a fire into it in

January. A good burn—which meant a very fierce burn—was

desired, and it was often impossible to walk over the burnt area for

four or five days after the burn. In spite of this very fierce burn,

many areas of tea in the Anaimalais are still infested with leeches.

It is possible that they may have re-invaded the cleared areas from

swamps and unfelled jungle on the boundaries, but the fact remains

that in many places they are still plentiful under the tea and in short

grazing grass. | eye ee

In the grass hills above the Anaimalais—between the Anaimalais

and the High Range—at elevations from 6-8,o00 ft., leeches are

common in the short open tussocky, grass land, most of which is

burnt every dry weather and has probably never been under heavy

forest. They can be a nuisance when fishing for trout in the Kornelar

river and can be picked up there even in the middle of the dry weather.

Incidentally a sure way of making leeches drop off is to stand or wade

in running water. |

It is very curious that leeches are entirely absent from all the

sholas and grass land on the top of the Nilgiri Plateau. The sholas

would appear to be ideal for them. The elevation, undergrowth,

rainfall, and acidity of the soil do not differ in any obvious respect

from that of the High Range and the Anaimalais grass hills where

they abound. Leeches are found below, and on the edges of the

plateau, and there is no obvious reason why they should not have

colonised the plateau. land.

I have tried sifting the top soil under heavy rain forest in the

dry weather, and have never found any traces. of adult leeches.

Within a matter of 48 hours after the fall of the first really heavy

shower they will appear in thousands—many of them apparently fully

grown. : : !

I agree with Mr. Smythies that leech bites do not usually go septic

unless one is run down. They may cause annoyance by refusing to

stop bleeding for quite long periods, and they nearly always irritate

if they are on a small blood vessel and not a relatively large one. In

bad leech jungle loss of blood may be considerable but once one has

overcome repulsiveness they do not worry one unduly.

What happens to a leech after it is fully gorged with a blood meal, 3

and why they should want a blood meal at all, are unexplained

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 655

"mysteries. Their normal function would seem to be aeration and

_ movement of the soil similar to that of earthworms.

Tea Estates ae LTp., g

Post Box No. Jj.L. H. WILLIAMS

ae | ; |

March 15, 1954.

= 2 eo LAND LEECHES

In answer to a few of the queries asked by Mr. Bertram E.

_ Smythies in Vol. 51, No. 4 of the Journal, I have consulted my notes

taken during 1944 and 1945 while working near the Ledo Road, in

_ Upper Burma.

me: The maximum number of bites on my person on any one day was

29 in late August 1944, at Tingkak Sakan; the most feeding leeches

removed at any one time from me was Qg, in early May 1945, at

Pe Hoole... In general the vast majority of bites were just above the

_ shoe tops or in the popliteal fossa. I recall being bitten only twice

above the belt and these both were in the axilla.

a I remember one particular bite on a man working with me,

‘September 1944, at Warazup. It was inside the mouth on the cheek;

_ fortunately the leech was small and easily removed by common salt.

_ This man was a pipesmoker, who put his pipe down anywhere, and

I have always assumed that the leech was carried into his mouth on

the pipe stem. Normally leeches avoid nicotine, so there may well

be a better explanation of this bite.

mo. - Lhe soldiers usually removed leeches by heating their anterior

end with a lighted cigarette. The leech would attempt to move away

from the heat and the soldier would flick it off. The insect repellent

_ issued by the army worked well, but most of the men objected to its

texture and to the slime that the leech invariably Degg ucee when

_-doused.

As I recall leeches fed all day long in rainy eeataee but were

: generally most active in the morning. On rainless days, leeches

_usually stopped hunting at about 9:30 or 10:00 a.m. Since I was

usually in camp after dark, I do not have the time when they start

to feed; but men on night duty reported that they were bitten soon

- ealter dark. Leeches seemed to me to avoid direct sunlight.

3 One June morning, while hunting for coecilians, near Shing-

_ bwiyang, I collected 37 leeches in about an hour. Hey were most

of them just under the first layer of leaves on the forest floor. I

have looked for leeches in a number of places during the dry season

4 ‘without success. Neither did I find them after a panuary rainy spell

in the teak forests east of Bhamo.

I do not recall seeing leeches much higher than about three or

four feet off the ground, but at that level they were quite common.

This may be because, in that region the underbrush was not very

tall. It appeared to me that leeches tended toward the periphery of

plants at their maximum diameter. You would often see them

bowed upward and outward along the leaf margins. _

= From my experience I am inclined to be very sceptical of the

4 _ fain- -of-leeches stories. It is quite probable that leeches have fallen

gr to

2 ey

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

upon their prey, but I have not seen it. If a leech fell from any

distance I am certain that it would bounce or roll off its target before

getting a tail-hold. 7

Leeches, while ‘perched’ on leaf margins, are ideal subjects for

tropistic experiments. - If the hands are held on either side of a leech

while so perched, it will invariably turn to the nearer hand except when

there is a breeze; then it will turn to the windward hand. If the

windward hand is withdrawn and the leeward hand approached, the

leech will turn to the leeward hand when the distance ratio is roughly

1:4. I repeated these tests some twenty times and several of the

soldiers did them for amusement as well; the results were uniform.

There may be an illumination factor in target selection, but without —

careful control a guess is as much as I dare make.

I feel certain that leeches locate their prey by a chemical sense of

some kind. The two hand tests and the distances over which they

locate their prey—distances, unfortunately, that. I have no record of

—leave little room for question. ‘Temperature as such I think may

be ruled out as the source of attraction by the distance over which it

acts. Radiations of any type would hardly give a 1:4 ratio in a light

breeze. Moisture as the attractant may be ruled out by the humidity

of their microclimate. Sound waves do not fit the pattern of the two

hand experiment. A chemical perception of some kind is to me

the only permissible explanation of this phase of leech behaviour.

ARABIAN AMERICA OIL Co.,

DHAHRAN, Saupi ARABIA, R.S. MATHEWS

April 25, 1954. : . :

51. ‘NWE-SHIN’ OR ‘LIVE CREEPER’

Reference your Miscellaneous Notes in Vol. 52, No. 1, ‘Hunter’s

Sugar’ by W. S. Thom, he ended with a para about ‘Nwe-Shin’ or

live creeper. His version of this creeper with mobile powers which

give rise to its local name ‘live creeper’ sounds rather a ‘tall’ story.

I have indeed come -across the ‘Nwe-Shin’ in streams (prewar) in the

Namme Reserve of Mong Mit Division in the Northern Shan States

and (last year) in the Indawgyi Reserve in the Myitkyina Division of

North Burma. This creature (Phylum Annelida), for I am sure it

belongs to the animal kingdom, is as he describes like ‘a piece of

smooth green coloured creeper’ but nothing like as thick as an ordinary

pencil. Those I came across were about 4 in. thick and from ten

to eighteen inches long. They wriggled rather feebly in the slack

water of the stream, and when enclosed in a bottle of water overnight

died (I put it down to aspyxiation). Some were observed on land

in a partially dried state and when put into the water came to life

again. They certainly resemble the aerial roots of a certain creeper

that dangle from the leaf-canopy overhead in dense forest, but I have

yet to see such a creeper, when cut and thrown into water, come to

life and swim off like a live snake!

BURMA FoREST SCHOOL, :

Maymyo (Burma), H. G. HUNDLEY

August 23, 1954.

/MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

52. IDENTITY AND TAXONOMICAL STATUS

oe . OF SESAMUM EKAMBARAMII NAIDU

: In a recent issue of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society, (Vol.. 51—1953) Naidu has described a new species of

— Sesamum—Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu, reported to be occurring in

" the vicinity of Stuartpuram near Bapatla, Andhra State.

j On scrutinising the botanical diagnosis, the photograph and the

drawings published of this species, as also on examining a specimen

of this species kindly sent to us by Mr. Naidu, there seems to be

little doubt that this material is identical with Sesamum alatum Thonn.

| (Thiselton-Dyer, 1906) occurring in tropical Africa. |

. —S. alatum was obtained in this laboratory in 1948 through the

kind courtesy of Dr. J. A. Martin of the University of South Carolina,

U.S.A., and it has been since maintained here. The chromosome

number of this species was reported from this laboratory by Kedharnath

(1950) to be n=13. The plants belonging to our material of S. alatum

closely conform to the description of S. ekambaramu Naidu as also

to the mounted specimen of the latter species—the lower leaves of

this plant are characteristically palmately-compound and 5- 3- partite,

the upper leaves simple; the capsules more than one inch long, with

acuminate beak, wide in the upper part, narrow towards the base;

and the seeds black, with an apical and a basal wing.

As the morphological characters of both the species are identical,

it does not seem possible to accord a separate specific status to Sesamum

ekambaramii Naidu which must therefore be considered as a synonym

of the earlier and validly-described species, Sesamum alatum Thonn.,

as shown below :—

Sesamum alatum Thonn. in Schumach. et Thonn., Beskriv.

Guin. Plant., Copenhagen, (1827), p. 284...

Syn. Sesamum ekambaramii Naidu in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc., (1953), 514 697398.

In India, only three species of Sesamum, viz. S. orientale which

is cultivated, and S. prostratum Retz. and S. laciniatum Klein which

are wild, have so far been reported (Hooker, 1885). If the report

by Naidu on the occurrence in the wild state of S. alatum Thonn. (syn.

S. ekambaramii Naidu) is confirmed, it would constitute the first

record of the occurrence of S. alatum in this country. Apparently,

‘SS. alatum Thonn. (syn. S. ekambaramii Naidu) has reached India

from tropical Africa either as a direct or indirect introduction. it

would be interesting to investigate how this tropical African species

reached the eastern coast of India.

Our thanks are due to our colleague, Dr. D. Chatterjee, for

helpful suggestions.

4 Division oF Botany, :

— Inpian AGRICULTURAL S. RAMANUJAM

___-~-RESEARCH INSTITUTE, A. B. JOSHI |

New DEtut,

January 28, 1954.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. so

53. . THE-GENUS RESEND IN BOMBAY STATE |

After the publication of the Critical Notes on this genus in this ‘

Journal (Vol. 52, pp. 137-141), I have been requested to publish this

note on the nomenclature of all the species of Murdannia in Bombay

State. Here is the list of all the Blombay. species with the LOIrept

nomenclature and proper references:

Old Name Correct Name

Aneilema scapitlorum Wt. ae Murdannia scapitlorum Bae Ilust

: Bot. Him. 403. t. 95, 1839.

A, herbaceum Wall. x: 85 lM. elatum (Vahl) Bueck. in Engl, &

Prantl, Pflam. 15 A: 173, 1930.

A, spiratum R. Br. eae MM. spiratum (L.) Bueck., loc. cit. nae

cit. :

A. paucitlorum Wt. wat MM. paucitlorum (Wt.) Bueck., Joc.

cit. x

A, versicolor Dalz. Hee M. versicolor (Dalz.) Bueck., loc.

cit.

A. nuditlorum R. Br. | Pe M. nuditlorum (.) Santapau, in Rec.

3 Bot. Surv. Ind. 16: 325, 1953.

A, simcum Lindl. ) Sie MM. simcum (Lindl.) Bueck., loc. cit. _

A. giganteum R. Br. oe MM. giganieum (Vahl.) | Bueck., loc

Sci;

al, ochraceum'Dalz. ee M. ochraceum (Dalz.) plea loc.

cit, pee

A, lanuginosum Wall. ar M., lanuginosum (Wall.) Bueck. loc, cit.

A, pamculatum Wall. _ .. . MM. semiteres (Dalz.) Santapau, in

Poona Agric. Coll. Hehe 4] (4):

284, 1951

A. vaginatum K, Br. és M, uaginatum (L. ) Bueck., loc. City

ST. XAVIER’S. COLLEGE, .

Fort, Bomsay. ANU vr Pag Oy 2 Aan eee A NES

Can syailiee: a

eee

‘3

54. THE GENUS MURDANNIA IN BOMBAY— —

FURTHER CORRECTIONS

Recently I sent a note adjusting the nomenclature of the species

of Bombay plants hitherto placed under Aneilema. On further investi-

gation I find that another correction is necessary. |

Murdannia malabaricum (Linn.) Santapau, comb. nov.

‘Tradescantia malabarica Linn., Sp. Pl. (ed. 2) 412, 1762.

Commelina nudiflora Linn., Mant. 177, 1767 (non Linn. 1753,

nomen validum). foes : ey

Aneilema nudiflorum R. Br., Prod. 271, 1810.

Aneilema malabarica Merr. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 7: 232, 1912. “=

Murdannia nudiflorum Santapau in Rec. Bot. Surg. ee 16 (1 ):

325, 1953. )

ST. XAVIER'S COLLEGE, Hee “9

HORD, BOMBAYa Ion H. SANTAPAU; s.J. —

August 14, 1954. Ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _ 659

. 55. SOME RECENTLY INTRODUCED OR NEWLY ee

- RECORDED PLANTS FROM PATNA DISTRICT AND ok eee

ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD ~ ee

Patna is situated on the southern bank of the Ganges, almost in

the centre of the Indo-Gangetic plain. In the absence of any hills,

- the hot and strong summer winds from the west, the monsoons from

— the south-east and south-west, and in particular the cyclones, jointly

help in bringing innumerable see 2 from long distances. The Ganges,

the Poonpoon, and the Sone rivers, coming from the west, south

west, and south-east respectively, overflow the low-lying lands every cea

year, and also fill up the pools, ponds and ditches. In the years of ae

high floods, a greater part of the district gets submerged. The

rivers bring with them seeds and propagating materials of innumer-

able plants and spread them. ae

On the north bank of the Ganges lies the Muzaffarpur district. Be

_ This is inundated every year by the Gandak which comes from the See

_ Nepal Himalayas. The incessant traffic of boats and steamers from Se eae

one bank to the other serves to bring the new introductions from the a

north to Patna. Patna is approached from other directions by

& _ railways and roads. On these there is a fairly heavy traffic of trains,

_ buses, cars and bullock-carts. These bring not only men, but food-

4 grains, spices, etc. from other provinces, even from other countries,

_ and, along with these, the seeds of innumerable weeds. Some of these

_ find their way to the soil, grow, and spread. ;

Thus Patna is in a favourable position to get new introductions

of pan-tropical and even temperate region weeds through the agency

of winds, rivers, and man. It also gets many exotic species intro-

Be iced. Some of such introduced plants are indicated below. These

plants have apparently not been recorded by any of the previous

workers on the flora of this province {Prain, Woodhouse, Haines,

_ or Mooney) from any part, and as such ey appear to be interesting

recent introductions. As many of them are widely distributed weeds,

= their occurrences in this area are not altogether unexpected.

ES The author is very grateful to Dr. D. Chatterji, Systematic

Botanist, Indian Agricultural Research Institue, New Delhi, for

going through the manuscript and for suggesting some improvements.

_ Agyneia bacciformis A. Juss. (Euphorbiaceae); Alternanthera

Puneens H.B.K. (Amaranthaceae); Amphilophis odorata A. Camus

_ (Gramineae); Asysiasia gangetica~¥. Anders. (Acanthaceae); Con-

_ volvulus microphyllus Sieb var. boisseri Boiss. (Convolvulaceae) ;

_ Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. (Euphorbiaceae); Heleochloa schoenoides

_ (L.) Host. (Gramineae); Homalocenchrus hexandrus O. Kuntze

_ (Gramineae); Justicia royeniana Clarke (Acanthaceae); Lagascea mollis

Sav. (Compositae); Lolium perenne Linn. (Gramineae); Lolium

iemulentum Linn. (Gramineae); Neptunia oleracea Lour. (Mimosaceae) ;

_ Oxalis latifolia (H. B. & K.) Calder (Oxalidaceae) ; Paspalum vaginatum

Sw. (Gramineae); Pennisetum ciliary (L.) Link. (Gramineae); Phalaris

minor Retz. (Gramineae); Pseudoraphis aspera {Koen) Pilger

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

(Gramineae); Rauwolffia canescens Linn, (Apocynaceae); Scirpus

quinquefarius Buch.-Ham. (Cyperaceae); Sclerostachya fusca A.

Camus (Gramineae); Senebiera pinnatifida DC. (Cruciferae); Sesbana

cannabina Pers. (Papilionaceae); Sisymbrium orientale. Linn.

(Cruciferae); Stawrogyne glauca O. Kuntze (Acanthaceae) Syndrella

nodiflora Gaertn. (Compositae); Tvrichodesma. amplexicaule (DC.)

Sedgwick (Boraginaceae); Veronica anagallis Linn.- (Scrophulariaceae) ;

Veronica agrestis Linn. (Scrophulariaceae); Vicia sativa Linn. var.

angustifolia Grahm. (Papilionaceae).

SCIENCE COLLEGE, | : : Re

Patna, BIHAR, J. G. SRIVASTAVA

May 25,1954.

<6. A NOTE ON VENTILAGO GAMBLEI MERRILL

Dr. E. D. Merrill in an article entitled ‘Miscellaneous Malaysian

Notes’ which has just appeared in the April 1954 issue of the Journal

of the Arnold Arboretum has proposed a new name for a common

‘Vine’, Ventilago lanceolata Gamble (Kew Bull. 1916: 134), which

is found on the Western Ghats, in Malabar and Tinnevelly and also

eccurs in Ceylon. He says that since Gamble’s name has already

been used by him (Merrill) for an entirely different Philippine species

one year earlier in 1915 [Philipp. Journ, Sc., Bot. 10 (1915) 4o] a

new name is necessary for this species of Southern India and

Ceylon. :

Merrill writes [Journ. Arnold Arb. 35 (1954) ee as follows ——

‘Ventilago gamblei nom. nov.

Ventilago lanceolata Gamble, Kew Bull. 1916: 134. oe

Alston in Trimen Hand-book FI. Ceyl. een: 49. 1931, non Merr.

(1915) |

A new name is needed for this species i Southern India and

Ceylon, as the one selected by Gamble in 1916 had been used by me

for a different Philippine species one year earlier.’ .

Unfortunately, however, Merrill has overlooked the fact that in

1953 K. Suessenguth while monographing the family Rhamnaceae for

the Pflanzenfamilien had already detected this error and had pronosed

this very new name, viz., Ventilago gamble: Suessenguth (Pflanzen-

familien Band 20 d (1953) p. 152), for Ventilago lanceolata Gamble.

The South Indian and Ceylon species hitherto known as Ventilago

lanceolata Gamble should therefore now be called Ventilago gambdlei

Suessenguth.

FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, | =

DEnHRA Dun. | | abel | » M.B. RAIZADA

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

sy. NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY —

(With two plates)

» In the course of our work in the study of the Flora of the

Krishnagiri National Park, Borivli, we have come across several new

records, that we wish to bring to the notice of the public. The two

s plants given in this paper have not been mentioned in any of the

standard works on the plants of Bombay, from John Graham to T.

3 Cooke.

ae Ipomiven triloba Linn.

a This plant is reported as very common in Malaya and other Far

_ East countries, growing in grasslands, hedges, thickets, etc. In

_ SBorivli we have observed the plant growing wild on a fedee along

the road; however, it is neither common nor abundant in our Inaaitisy.

Phylogenetically this plant occupies a position between Ipomoea pileata

= Roxb.’ and I. batatas Lamk. In general appearance it more closely

resembles the latter species.

In the identification of the species we have boon ee by Dr.

we wish to extend our sincere thanks.

“

Ipomoea triloba Linn. Sp. Pl. 161, 1753; Ooststroom in Blumea ,

'3: 500, 1940 & Klor. Males. 4 (4): 468, £. 41, 1953.

Convolvulus dentatus Blanco, FI. Filip., Ed. 1, 89, 1837 (non

g Vahile 1704.0 Sec. Merrill).

3 Ipomoea blancoi Choisy in DU. Prodr. gh 380, 1845.

_ terete, glabrous or sparsely hairy especially at the nodes. Leaves

_. simple, alternate, petiolate; petioles 3-8 cm. long; lamina broadly

_ ovate to orbicular, cordate at the base with a shallow, wide sinus,

more or less entire or distinctly 3-lobed at the base, the basal lobes

rounded or angular; apex acute or apiculate; the whole lamina

glabrous 3-8x2-7 cm. Flowers in 1-6-flowered axillary cymes;

_ peduncles more or less quadrangular, 2-6 cm. long, glabrous, minutely

' verrucose towards the apex, elongating and thickening in fruit;

_ pedicels 7-10 mm. long, verrucose, elongating and thickening in fruit ;

_ bracts triangular-lanceolate, shortly acuminate, caducous, 2-3 mm.

_ long. Calyx tubular-campanulate; lobes 5, shortly connate at the

_ base, unequal, the outer ones somewhat shorter than the inner, 6-8

- mm. long in flower, enlarging and spreading in fruit; outer sepals

_ elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate or with a reflexed mucro, pubes-

inner sepals broader, elliptic-oblong, mucronate, glabrous or nearly

_ so. Corolla rose-purple in colour, often with a deeper centre,

_ infundibuliform, 1-1.5. cm. in diameter; tube 0.8-1.4 cm. long,

_ glabrous; lobes 5, short, obtuse, mucronulate. Stamens 5, epipe-

_ talous, inserted near the base of the corolla tube, included; filaments.

_ hairy at the base only. Ovary hairy; stigma 2-lobed, lobes globose.

Capsule globose, apiculate with the remains of the style, hispid with

_ long, whitish hairs, 5-6 mm. in diameter. Seeds 2 or 4, ridged on

Bite

An annual, herbaceous twiner; stems 1-3 m. long, branched, .

_ cent with long white hairs on the outer surface, ciliate on the margins};

in colour, 3-3-5 mm. long.

Occurence .—This plant is neither common nor chun it has

been found growing on a hedge near the office of the Park. Flowers

open only in the early morning. In Blatter herbarium we have seen

other specimens from Bombay and Salsette Islands; the occurrence of

this plant in Bombay is well established.

Flowers and Fruits. October to March.

Herbarium specimens examined; Blatter 14558, Victoria Gardens, —

March 1917; Acland 777, Matunga on the railway line, Nov. 1924; —

Acland .1440 & 1442, Matunga, Nov. 1926; Santapau 138-40,

Jogeshwari, 14 October 1941; Randeria 431, Borivili, 7 October 1952;

Randeria 507, 17 December 1952.

b. Commelina suffruticosa Blume

This is another plant, of which there is no mention in the Flora a

the Presidency of Bombay by T. Cooke; the plant has not been

mentioned as occurring in Bombay State by previous botanists. We

have examined the specimens in Blatter Herbarium and found that

some sheets of this plant have been mixed up with Commelina obliqua

Buch.-Ham. The two plants are rather similiar, but differ in the

following particulars: C. suffruticosa has 2-celled capsules, the other’s

are 3-celled; in the present species the seeds are not appendaged, nor are

they adnate to the cell. The flowers in suffruticosa are smaller than

in obliqua; flowering is much earlier in suffruticosa than in obliqua.

Commelina suffruticosa shoots out of the ground soon after the first

showers of the monsoon, from an underground perennial rootstock ;

the flowers are open only at about noon; the vegetative parts of the

plant keep growing for a long time after the RON IO DE in fact as long

as the ground remains moist.

Commelina suffruiicosa Blume, Enum. 3, 1827; Clarice, Comm.

A herb, 28-50 cm. high; rootstock perennial, bearing a few stout

roots on the lower side and 2-3 radical aerial shoots on the upper

side; stem more or less pubescent or glabrous. Leaves cauline, the —

highest as well as the lowest often reduced to sheaths, distant below,

crowded above, sessile or subsessile; sheaths hirsute on the margins,

close when young, up to 2.5 cm. long, at length opening by rupturing ;

lamina of the leaf lanceolate to elliptic, subacuminate, unequal-

sided, dark green above and rough, greyish or whitish and smooth

below, more or less pubescent or glabrous, hairs caducous, margins

scabrid, 9-17 x 3.5-7 cm., the lower leaves often smaller, ovate, obtuse.

Inflorescence enclosed in spathes, which are terminal or axillary in

the upper axils; spathes pedunculate, broadly dimidiately ovate

turbinate, apex acute, base truncate or rounded or subcordate, margins

hirsute, 1.5-2.5x0.9q-1.5 cm., with or without mucilage; the peduncles

are as long as the leaf-sheaths, in the axil of which the peduncle is

borne. The inflorescence is an unbranched, uniparous cyme, one

cyme in ‘each spathe, included, 7-flowered. Individual flowers

pedicelled, bisexual, hypogynous, zygomorphic and white in colour;

the inner and dennd ode ‘on the ones oe elabrous, brownish-blac eon

At tS |

ey, , A.

Ipomoea triloba Linn.

A. Branch showing TST A IN ces flowers.

B. Fruiting peduncle.

C. Capsule.

D. Seed from the inner surface.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pte lt

Commelina suffruticosa Blume

. Entire plant, showing habit.

. Inflorescence with spathe removed.

. Fruit in T.S., in front and side views,

. Seed, back and side views,

WHGOUweS

of 3 sepals; sepals subequal, somewhat hooded, the 2 outer ones

obovate to oblong, laterally connate, 3-nerved, 3x1.75 mm., the

inner sepal keeled, 4 mm. long. Corolla of 3 petals; petals subequal,

clawed, with an ernie slightly hooded limb, alternating with the

sepals, the 2 larger posterior ones 5 mm. long, the other smaller, 3

4 mm. long. Stamens 3 fertile, 3 sterile; the anthers of the fertile Suen

are subequal, one slightly larger ian the other two, 8 and 5 mm..

tong respectively; filaments beardless, those of the fertile stamens

stouter and longer than the sterile ones. Ovary ovoid, 2-celled, cells

4 = i-ovuled; ovules oblong, flattened, completely filling the cavity.

— Fruit carpets obcordate, laterally flattened, 2-celled, cells 1-seeded;

- dehiscing by loculicidal dehiscence, 5 mm. long, about as broad,

2.6 mm. thick; seed filling the loculus, the inner face of the seed flat,

=. ie outer one ee

= Occurrence: Common in the undergrowth of forest on higher

_ ground at Borivili, very abundant.

Flowers : Bhcan the middle of June to the end of July. Fruits:

June to October. |

E _ Herbarium specimens examined: Santapau 6861, ‘Andheri;

Fernandes 708, 853-854, 1455, 1847-1850, Borivili to Kanheri Caves.

_ ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, R. FERNANDES, B.sce.

_ Fort, Bomsay, | | A. RANDERIA, B.se.

= August Bi, TO54. lnk SANTAPAU, s.j.

Phas

| 58 E. J. WOODHOUSE—HIS CONTRIBUTION TO OUR

. - KNOWLEDGE OF THE FLORA OF BIHAR

Edward John Woodhouse (1884-1917), B.A., F.L.S., Economic

Botanist to the Government of Bengal, and later, to the Govern-

ment of Bihar and Orissa, the first Principal of the Bihar College

of Agriculture, was the first person who intensively studied the flora

of Bihar and set up a herbarium here.

Woodhouse collected at Sabour and in its neighbourhood, upto

- Maharajpur in the east and Bangaon in the north. He visited many

other places, both inside and outside the province. He built, up a

large collection of books chiefly floras for the college and an extensive

_ botanical garden.

a _ After he went away to join the army and his subsequent death,

_ the collection work was carried on by his colleagues till 1921. In_

& 1925, half of this collection was given away to the Ravenshaw College,

' Cuttack, and half to the P. W. Medical College, Patna, from where

it came to this College in 1941.

‘Though Woodhouse’s collections lay at Sabour upto 1925, H. H.

Haines, the author of ‘Botany of Bihar and Orissa’ (1921-1925) makes

0 Petion of them. Since a list of these collections has not been

published and since duplicate copies of his herbarium are not kept

‘al

< 5 <=

9 MASCEELANEOUS NOTES: “66a oe

s incurved in bud, erect in flower, recurved in fruit. Calyx

aie

in any of the recognized herbaria of the world, it was . thought worth while

to announce the presence of the collections here.

The interesting features of the collection are given citer: peed

Total no. of herbarium sheets or sets of sheets 3, 550.

Total no: of species collected, both wild and cultivated 2s 200.

Total no. of sheets acquired from Omnia 1,050.

Of the 73 plants reported by Haines as being doubtfully seat

or only expected to occur in Bihar and Orissa, 19 had already been

collected by Woodhouse from the Bihar area (list Te :

Of the 163 plants recorded by. Haines from the Orissa area. only,

6 had already been collected by, Woodhouse from the Bihar area

(list 2).

Of the 87 plants reported by Haines as being very rare, or ‘not

being common, or not reported from the northern area (Indo- Gangetic

plains of Bihar) 14 had already been collected by, Woodhouse from

this area (list 3). |

21 plants which have been collected by Woodhouse from within

Bihar and are not reported in Haines. They form new records (list

4). at |

6 plants which have been collected from within Bihar and are

not reported in Haines. They also form new records if they were

not cultivated (list 5). f |

16 plants which are not listed in Haines. They form new records

if they have been collected within this area and are not cultivated”

pe (liste 6).

LEAST 1

Bergia ammanioides, Malachra capitata, Croton sparsiflorous,

Sesbania paludosa, Sesbania uliginosa, Acacia concinna var. fulva,

Ammania dentelloides, Sonchus asper, Ipomea pilosa, Ipomea pes-

tigris, Veronica anagallis, Striga densiflora, Hemigraphis hirta,

Assystasia macrocarpa, Calamintha umbrosa, Amarantus polygamous

Ceratophylum demersum, Aponogeton monostachyum, and A. crispum.

List 2

Hibiscus hirtus, Seseli indicum, Sphenoclea zeylanica, Alstonia — 3

venenatum, Assystasia gangetica, and Acanthus ilicifolius.

LisT 3

Hibiscus vitifolius, Vitis lanceolaria, Crotalaria quinquefolia,

Trigonella corniculata, Lathyrus aphaca Spilanthes acmella, Nicotiana

plumbaginifolia, Celsia coromandelina, Lindenbergia urticaefolia,

Orobanche cernua, Barleria_ prionities, Blepharis molluginifolia,

Girardinia zeylanica, Pilea microphylla., 2

LisT 4

Mollugo cerviana Ser., Malvastrum spicatum A. Gray., Crotalaria

medicaginea Lamk. var neglecta, Lathyrus sphericus Retz., Tephrosia _

fall., Teramnus labialis Spreng. var mollis, Fleminga lineata

_Ixora parviflora Vahl. var zeylanica, Vangueria spinosa Roxb.,

is, Heliotropium marifolium Wall., var wallichii, Evolvulus:

ularius Linn., Ipomea wightii Chois., Convolvulus microphyllus

b. var boisseri, Alternanthera echinata Sm., Loranthus ampullaceous

xb., Pilea peploides Hk. et Arn., Pouzolzia pentandra Benn. var

\oississima, Pouzolzia indica Gaud. var angustifolia, also var

enata, Crinum amoenum Roxb., Eulophia bicarinata Hk. f.

LIsT 5

= Buettneria jackiana Wall., Euphorbia pilosa Linn., Geranium

allichii, Sw., Atylosia barbata Baker, Deutzia stamina Br., Hyoscymus

List 6

Delima sarmentosa Linn., Dicentra thalictrifolia Hook.,

hypericifolia Linn., E. prostrata Ait., Moghania macrophylla Willd.,

var viridis (Mukerji), Potentilla fulgens Wall., Sesuvium portulacast-

un inn., Ammania rotala IF. Muell., Gynura pseudochina DC.,

Anotis wightiana Hk. f., Lindenbergia macrostachya Benth., Premna

cemosa Wall., Strobilanthes acuminatum F. Anders., Viscum album —

nn.

CIENCE CoLLEGE, aoe

ATNA, | ae : J. G. SRIVASTAVA

59. GLEANINGS

The following letter appeared in the English magazine John Bull.

a7th July, 1954 in their column ‘Free Speech’ (letters to the

A friend was crossing a bridge over the Liffey last week when

saw a fight between a swan and a cormorant. The swan was

making its way upstream when the cormorant surfaced a few feet

‘away with a large eel in its beak. The swan turned on the new _

comer, which dropped the eel and disappeared beneath the water.

‘ae er, the cormorant reappeared about a yard from the swan. As

the swan tried to attack, the cormorant grasped its neck and held

- it under water. A minute or two later, a drowned swan floated away and

e€ cormorant went on searching for food.—Alfred E. Wilson,

allsbridge, Dublin.’ _

' [Mr. Salim Ali is reminded by the above of a case he witnessed

Burma many years ago of a House Crow trying to drown 4

it had in its bill, apparently disabled but still very much alive. |

» erow settled on a stone amid stream and deliberately dipped

booty into the water running past. After a couple of seconds”

yithdrew the bill in a purposeful way as if to examine the victim.

yn the squealing rat still being alive and kicking, the crow studiedly

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL uis?. “soctery, Vol po

immersed it again for a few seconde more. This process cola

apparently have continued until the rat ceased to struggle, but after

interpretation of the observer is correct that drowning was the object of

these manoeuvres, one wonders how the birds in either case—

cormorant and crow—first got the idea that their ends could be ~—

achieved thus. Surely this implies a degree of ratiocinationPp—Eps.]| ~~

Extracts from Other Letters to the Editor The Field dated March

II, 1954, page 406.

Indian Crows |

‘The Government here has been trying for a number of years to

eliminate the Indian crow, which was introduced, it is said, by the

Parsees. This bird however, is far too smart and ‘is rapidly spreading

out into the country, from its stronghold i in the city. Egg’ rewards have

proved fruitless. Shortly the crows will be the only birds left on

the island. Can any of your readers suggest an efficient remedy ?’—

O. S. Hopkin, English Club, Zanzibar. .

Not the Snowman?

Sit,

During the hard frost at the beginning of February, publicity

was given to reports of giant footprints, some 20 inches long, found

crossing deep snow in various parts of the Isle of Wight. At the’

Needles they were said to lead to the edge of the 200-foot cliff with

no sign of any return tracks, while at Bembridge they appeared

to come from the direction of the sea and disappear inland.

Reference was also made to ‘one of the world’s most baffling mys-

teries,’ recorded in February 1855, from South Devon, where similar,

though much smaller, footprints, said by some to be those of Satan him-

self, were observed covering a large area and crossing inaccessible places

like the tops of houses and narrow walls as well as in open country.

I venture to put forward an explanation of their origin. During

the recent heavy snowfall, and while walking along the Yarmouth-

Freshwater road where the high tide had covered the mud-flats above

Yarmouth harbour, I caused numerous seagulls to take flight at my

approach. As they rose from the water several of these made sudden

crash-dives, repeating the performance over a considerable distance.

It seemed that this was due to the frozen state of their feathers,

which prevented them making any balanced or sustained flight.

Similar attempts to fly over deep snow instead of water would,

I suggest, produce the effect of a series of giant footprints. A large

flock of smaller birds, such as starlings may have given rise to the

Devon footprints under similar conditions. These, be it noted, were

described as occurring in single lines, unlike the tracks of a four-

footed animal.

I should be interested to have the views of more experienced

bird-watchers. .

YARMOUTH, IstE or WicHT. ! J. A. Doucias

Letter to the Editor, The Field, dated March 4, 1954, page 356.

icienice? ie ‘ed London News, April i oe as follows :—

bird to utter its alarm note and seek refuge. The same thing

-oecurs even when the hawk is a fair way off. And experiment

has shown: that the releaser stimulus is the short neck. When,

for example, a series of cut-out silhouettes were passed over the

heads of domestic turkeys, it made no difference what was the

shape of the body, but a short neck was the releaser for the alarm

note and a long neck called forth no response. So, a cooing

dove with a short neck could send all the barnyard hens scuttling

for safety, while a hawk with a long neck would raise no alarm.

Indeed, we have the perfect example with sparrowhawk and the

“ cuckoo, which in size, build and plumage are so remarkably alike:

the hawk, with its short neck, releases the innate alarm behaviour ; the

_ cuckoo, with its long neck, is mobbed—even when it is stuffed.’ :

[In India we have several parasitic cuckoos whose close resemblance

1 plumage to birds of prey, and in one case to the Black Drongo,

- difficult to eee le information Here their habits which

NOTES AND NEWS

The 9th Conference of the International Committee for Bird Preser- |

vation was held at Scanfs, Lower Engadine, Switzerland, from 23-28 May — :

1954, with Mons. Jean Delacour as President. Delegates from 20 countries

attended, in addition to representatives of such international organisations a

as Conseil International de la Chasse and International Union for the Pro-

tection of Nature, and several guests and observers. The Indian delega- | 4

tion consisted of Mr. Sélim Ali (Chairman, Indian National Section) and

Messrs. Horace Alexander and E. P. Gee (members). — ee oe

The following Resolution moved by the Indian delegation was passed — ;

by the Conference unanimously, and it has been forwarded to the various — E

national sections of the International Committee for Bird Preservation and

to their Governments for appropriate action.

‘The 9th Conference of the International Committee for Bird Preser-

vation recommends that all Governments, especially that of the

United States of America (where the greatest importation takes place),

be urged to prohibit the import of feathers of the Grey Junglefowl (G.

sonneratz) from ail ports in the Indian subcontinent, since the habitat

of this species is peninsular India ov/y, and the species has suffered

serious depredation in recent years.’ 3

The XI International Ornithological Congress took place at Basel

(Switzerland) from 21 May to 5 June with Sir Arthur Landsborough

from about 40 countries participated, including four from the U.S.S.R.

The Bombay Natural History Society was represented at the Congress by

Mr. Salim Ali.

Mr. Salim Ali was accorded the honour of being elected a member of

the Permanent Executive Committee of the International Ornithological

Congress (1954-1958) thereby placing India among the 8 countries repre- __

sented on this Committee, and incidentally the first Asian country to be so.

recognised. , ae

K * ; sk

The Joy Gobind Law Memorial Medal of the Asiatic Society ‘ For =

Asiatic Researches in Zoology ’—1953, has been awarded to Mr. Sdlim 4

Ali. Salim

* * ; Ege

The UNESCO Budget provides funds for rendering assistance to re- =

search projects and schemes relating to arid zone development in member —_

states. The project must relate directly to a specific arid zone problem, and

should bear on some principle of general scientific interest. It must also

be such as can be expected to yield results within a period of two years or

one that can be continued by local support of the initial financial aid from

UNESCO.

Further information may be obtained from the Ministry of Natural a

Resources and Scientific Research, New Delhi. — =

Presi dent

Mr. Girsa SHANKAR BaJPAI

V. ouPyeshient Ls

-MAJor-GENERAL SIR SAHIB SINGH SOKHEY, LM.S.

eS Nitedeete AlinOye ces

‘Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.c.s.

Mr. M. J. ‘Hackney

Mr. R. E. Hawkins —

Mr. D. N. Marshall

Mr. D. J. Panday :

- Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, S. Sines

rd. A. Singh... ne

y Oia an Abdulali i ae on Pec Bree

= _ Mr. M. J. Dickins = Beg

Executive Committee

YOY,

| aa Committee

“Mr HG, “Achaea fe

_ Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, kT,, c. 1. LE. 1.C.S.

=Mr. Cal. Donald: u.7.s, wna

e Rev hne Dr. J.-B. Freeman, M. Ae bed 210 1D,

Mire, PeGee

HOt.) 7. Hora, D.Sc. *

fe Mr: M. Inglis, ¢.M.8.0.U., F.Z.S.

= Col, &. C, Morris, FRG. F.Z.S; i

ae ‘Ut. Col. Ez Ce Phythian- Adams: O-. FGZ.Siy Tel

i Baini Etasad), D. Be .

ne tre a.

r OMe Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1™M.s.

Lf Jaly Santapau, S.J.

ae a

: Bombay

Ahmedabad

New Delhi

Scotland —

Mysore

Assam

Calcutta

. Coonoor

Attikan

. Nilgivis —

; New Delhi

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5

Executive Committee

Prof. S, P. Agharkar, m.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. .. Poona

Mr. J. I. Alfrey ... SA pari

> Mr-G:-V Bedekar, wC.s sa.

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.s¢., Ph.D. \ ..\ Bombay

Mt. D. N. Marshall ot ac i |

Mr. D. J. Panday eee aa

Mr. D, E. Reuben, 1.c.s. (Retd.) se e

Mr. J. A. Singh, LES. = .. Poona

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Hon. Secretary) «« ) Bhonk

Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) y i are

Advisory Co nimitied

Mr. H. G. Acharya es aa --. Ahmedabad

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, KT, GUILE: 1.C:S: .- Lew Delhi

Rey. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, M.aA., L.T,, Ph.D., D.D. Mysore

Mr. E. P. Gee... ap : se we. Assam

Dr. S. L. Hora, D.sc. a os ww. Calcutta —

Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. ee -.. Atttkan —

Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- ‘Adams. O[B.E.) -E.ZS, cA

(Retd.) ae vas aes oe. Nilgivis —

Dr. Baini Prasad, D.Sc. he ee w- Lew Delhi

Major Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.s¢., Ph.D., F.N.I., F.Z.8.1. Dehra Dun

HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1953

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Parts 2, 3, and 4 of Volume 51 and the Index to Volume 50 were

published during the year under report.

MAMMALS

Of the three papers published, E. P. Gee’s well-illustrated account

of ‘The Life History of the Great Indian One-horned Rhinoceros—

Rhinoceros unicornis Linn.’ and his ‘Further Observations ’ deserve

special mention. Based on information from reliable sources and

supplemented by the author’s own observations, these narratives cover

several little known aspects of the life of this interesting mammal, such.

as mating, breeding, rate of growth, life span, rhino attacking humans,

noises made by the animal, etc.

As Mr. Gee emphasizes, our knowledge of the life history of the — &

Indian Rhino is still very incomplete. He appends a questionnaire,

the answers to which, if supplied by observant naturalists, would go a a

long way towards filling the gaps. |

Desmond Vesey-FitzGerald while on desert locust control work in

the Arabian peninsula in 1946, collected a few rodents on which he

gives some useful field notes and ecological data in ole on Some — .

Rodents from: Saudi Arabia and Kuwait’.

= Sent cree ht td rae!

4 } ‘

Pe ee RITE IR Me VIE RATS CT ET eT Ml ee, Pe kad SEN IOL PT rTP TEED ere te ete

t a," : j 7) tO

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1958 671

BIRDS

‘Nine papers were published in this section.

In the article entitled ‘The Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur (Rajasthan)

SA4lim Ali describes this lake as an ideal resort for wintering wildfowl.

As a breeding ground for water-birds, he would rank it amongst the

best in the world. Satisfaction is expressed at the Indian Bird Preser-

vation Committee’s action in recommending to the Central Government

that the Keoladeo Ghana should be established as a national bird sanc-

tuary in order that its continuance as a breeding ground of water-birds

may be assured. The photographs illustrating the article, and rough

estimates of the breeding population of certain species give some idea of

the vast seasonal concentration of birds in this area.

‘Some Breeding Birds of Singapore ’, in two parts, is rightly ‘a pic-

torial record of some of the more attractive citizens of a beautiful island’.

The author, Mr. W. T. Loke, whos2 work represents the high water-

mark in bird photography and has won international recognition, is well

known to members of the Society through his superb photographs

published every year in our nature calendars, and others in the Journal

from time to time which are embellished by his accurate observations

and facile writing.

On Bird Ecology may be mentioned the following papers :—

‘Some Bird Associations of Indian Built-up Areas’ by M. D. Lister

and ‘ Ecological Notes on a Colony of Small Swallow-plovers in Mysore

State’ by C. Brooke Worth.

‘More Notes of Birds of the Gandak-Kosi Watershed, Nepal’ by

Mrs. Desiree Proud is a supplement to her article dealing with the same

area published in Volume 50, No. 2. It lists some additional species

and gives useful notes.

Of taxonomic importance is ‘ Populations of Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird,

with comments on ranges and variation among related species of Sun-

birds’ by S. Dillon Ripley. Ripley recognises four subspecies of Aetho-

pyga gouldiae distributed from the Himalayas through the Indo-

Chinese sub-region, and shows that the subspecies daéryzz must now be

included in the avifauna of the Indian Union. Some comments on

ranges and colour variations among related species are also included.

~ Jamal Ara’s ‘Count of Bird Nests in a Small Town’ reports an

interesting investigation in Doranda, a suburb of Ranchi, Bihar State.

Out of 38 resident species only 18 were found to breed in the area.

The total number of nests counted for the season was 456. A list of

birds breeding outside the area is appended, and the method employed

in making the counts is described.

That many birds, apart from their loud territorial song, have other

songs (as distinct from the call notes) which can be regarded as secon=

dary in nature has been recognised by many ornithologists. This, and

particulars of the utterances, forms the subject-matter of ‘ Secondary

Song of some Indian Birds’ by M. D. Lister. A record, kept by the

author between 1942 and 1945 of the secondary song of several species

of birds in various localities, is furnished.

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS _

- The unfortunate lack of intelligent interest in these two groups.

of animals is reflected by the fact that nothing worthwhile was offered

for publication in the Journal during the year.

FisH AND FISHERIES

Publication of 9 papers under this head is Saiowasts of ne

growing importance, chiefly economic, attached to fish and fisheries.

On the natural history of fish there are four contributions of which

mention may be made of B. W. Gudger’s ‘What Ultimately Terminates

the Life Span of the Whale Shark—Rkzneodon typus’. Included in it

are the data collected during 40 years of his study of the natural history —

of this shark, on which the author concludes that the three factors res-

ponsible for the death of a Whale Shark are intestinal parasites, steam-—

ships and old age.

E. G. Silas while investigating the fish fauna of the Robber’s Cave

at Mahableshwar with the cooperation of two members of the Society’s

staff made a collection which included 14 common and one new species.

This is described as PuntzZus sahyadriensts in his ‘Notes on Fishes.

from Mahableshwar and Wai (Satara District, Bombay State)’.

Nemachilus evezardi the common loach—a resident of the cave.

cave except for the absence of the bright colour-pattern ee

teristic of this species.

‘The determination of Age and Growth of Fishes of Droplet

and Subtropical Waters’ by M. Devidas Menon isa review of the

work already done, in regard to the age and erowil rate of some

fish in tropical and subtropical waters.

K. H. Alikunhi and Hiralal Chaudhuri published the results of

their study and observations on the growth of specimens of Ladveo — g

(Morulius) angra (Ham.) reared in cement cisterns and nursery ponds

at Cuttack, in a paper entitled ‘ Characteristic Colouration of Juvenile

Specimens of Labeo (Morulius) angra with Notes on their Growth’,

C. V. Kulkarni has filled a long-felt want by publishing his ‘ Local

and Scientific Names of Commercial Fishes of Bombay ’.

On the fisheries side were published two interesting papers.

In ‘Problems of Fisheries Development in Ceylon’ Sundar Lal

Hora and T. V. R. Pillay after a detailed study of the various factors —

responsible for shortage of fish on the island make some useful recom-

mendations to remedy the situation.

‘Some Interesting Methods of Fishing in the Backwaters of Tras

vancore’ by K. Gopinath, contains descriptions of four novel methods

of catching fish in certain regions along the Travancore coast. These

methods, the author claims, are not generally known from other parts

of India but have their parallel in the commercial fishing of the EN

Archipelago and other Indonesian countries.

M. R. Ranade’s ‘A Checklist of Fishes Occurring in the Freshy

waters of Baroda’ furnishes a complete list of freshwater forms

including those previously recorded. ‘This list is particularly useful in —

Bes

view~of the recent emphasis on the development of freshwater eee

in that area.

That Mugil poecilus Day and Mugil troscheli Bleeker aré one and the

same species is the conclusion of T. Wis Pillay after a detailed. San

findings of which are published in his paper ‘ Mugil Bona Day sine

as Mugil troschelt Bleeker ’,

ae ¥ ; : |

INVERTEBRATES

‘e “Bioht papers were published in this section.

_ 'The Bionomics of Tabanid Larvae (Diptera)’ by Nawab H. Khan

eals with various methods of collecting and rearing tabanid larvae, the

adults of which suck the blood of man and livestock, transmitting

Serious disease pathogens in the process. The author describes the

lovements of these larvae in the soil and records his observations on

1e effects of various ecological factors on their populations.

A.M. Patil concluded his serial ‘Study of the Marine Fauna of the

agate Coast and the Neighbouring Islands’, which includes Echi-

uoderms and other minor groups, only a passing reference being made

to the vertebrate fauna of the coast, such as fish, snakes and dolphins.

emblica sp. nov. (Fam. Aphididae)—A New Aphid Pest on Hmblica

otticinalis’.

Results of detailed investigations of the life history of the common

Portunid crab occurring near Mandapam are contained in ‘A Contri-

bution to the Biology of the Blue Swimming Crab, Weptunus pelagicus

(Linnaeus) with a note on the Zoea of Thalamita crenata Latreille’ by

R, Raghu Prasad and P. R. S. Tampi.

. ‘Host Plants, Distribution and Abundance of Thrips (Thysanoptera)

of Bombay State’ by Narayan G. Patel and G. A. Patel contains the

results of the authors’ survey of Bombay State for Thrips during

1950-1951. Collections from several localities in the State were esti-

- tmmated to include 70 species of the suborder Terebrantia and Tubulifera

on different host plants. Asthere is very little published information

on the Thysanoptera of Bombay State, this is a welcome contribution.

K.P, Ananthanarayanan and 8. Venugopal reared the larvae of the

~Geomettid moth—Ay Zosidra successaria Wik. on leaves of the Daincha

(Sesbania aculeata) and published the results of their observations at

- every stage of growth of this pest—‘ Notes on the Bionomics and Mor-

phology of Ayposidra successaria Wik. A Geometrid Pest on Daincha

_- (Sesbania aculeata) in Coimbatore’. The status of the pest and sugges-

tions for its control form the concluding part of their notes.

The nature and the extent of damage to dum-nuts and its products

_ by the Dum-nut Beetle Coccotry pes dactyliperda and its life-history were

studied by K. R. Nagaraja Rao and I. P. Janaki who published their

results in ‘The Dum-nut Beetle—Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabr. and

ae its Control’. The control measures suggested should add to the

usefulness of the paper,

as U.S. Sharga in ‘ Bionomics of Monanthia globulifera Walk. (Hemip-

tera—Hetetoptera : Tingidae)’ furnishes illustrated descriptions of

a eaves of Ostmum hilimandscharicum erown experimentally in 1950 in

eS re for production of camphor. ‘This bug was previously recorded

as ececding on Menthol leaves all over India. :

BOTANY

Twelve papers were published in this section.

_H. Santapau contributed the second part of his useful serial ‘ Critical

Notes on the Identity and Nomenclature of Some Bombay Plants” in

hich the genus Zizyphus is dealt with. His second publication ‘ Notes

28A

es PROCEEDINGS & ACCO ty Tg 4S ee ee

G. A. Patel and H. L. Kulkarni describe 4 new species ‘ Cercia phis —

Psy“

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

onthe Acanthaceae of Bombay’ contains accounts of the genera and —

the species of Acanthaceae where some changes in the nomenclature

and delimitation of the genus have taken place. These notes are also _

intended to serve as an appendix to his Monograph otf this genus, pub-

lished in the Botanical Memoirs of the University of Bombay No. 2.

B. Appala Naidu describes Sesanzwm ekambaramit aS a new species

in his ‘A New Species of Sesamum ’.

N. L. Bor published the first of his serial ‘The Genus Cymbopogon

Spreng. in- India, Burma and Ceylon’. The author considers that a —

further assessment of the position of this genus of oil-yielding grasses

is necessary asa large number of new species have been discovered

since Dr. Stapf’s first account of the genus in the Kew Bulletin for 1906.

A useful key is given and the various species are described in detail

together with a reference to their oil-yieldinge properties.

Papers on regional vegetation include three parts of M. L. Mukherji’s

‘Plants from East Nepal’, ‘ Vegetation of Delhi Ridge” by Sunil

Kumar Mukherjee and ‘ The Analytical Characters of Some of the

Marshy Vegetation of Bombay and Salsette Islands ’ by B. 8. Navalkar.

While studying the Indo-Burmese species of Grewia in the Calcutta

and Madras Herbaria, R. Seshagiri Rao came across specimens of Para-

grewia Gagnep. collected from Burma and Tinnevelly (South India)

which he records in his ‘Occurrence of Paragrewia Gagnep. in India

and Burma’.

I. H. Burkill published the first patt of his ‘Chapters on the History

of Botany in India: I. From beginning to the Middle of ,Wallich’s

Service ’ in which he records the names of all*who have played an im-

portant part in the study of Indian Botany.

In the paper ‘ Curtis’s Botanical Magazine: Its Origin, History and

Mission’ M. B. Raizada mentions that this magazine was founded in

1787 by William Curtis and has been in continuous publication since

then. It is the oldest scientific periodical of its kind in the world, with

illustrations in colour, and is unrivalled in the beauty of its production

and the high standard of its contents.

A short lifessketch of William Curtis, followed by an account of the -

progress of the magazine from time to time, with its successive

editors, is included.. Raizada in conclusion appeals for support to this

valuable periodical which has been of such immense use to bota-

nists and gardeners the world over for so long.

GENERAL NATURAL HISTORY

Two interesting papers were published in this section. Part III of

‘A Naturalist in the North-West Himalaya’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth is

a graphic and entertaining account of a visit to Kashmir and nearby

valleys. ‘The fauna and flora met with, both during journeys and at

camp sites, are recorded with useful notes concerning them. ‘The

author’s quest for the ‘ Abominable Snowman’ of the Himalayas ended

in the conclusion that the foot-prints of the Himalayan Black Bear were

probably mistaken by mountaineers for those of the mythical creature.

The second article, by E. P. Wiltshire, is‘ Narrative of a Trek and

of Natural History Observations in Kashmir in May-June 1942’. While

concentrating mainly on the lepidopterous residents of Kashmir at

altitudes between 5,000’ and 10,000’ in early summer, the account pre-

sents.a general picture of the wild life of Kashmir as well. ;

PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1953 675 |

WILD LIFE AND WiLp LIFE Rosen ;

Al cwild Life Preservation in India’ by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton is the

only contribution on this important topic. It was the text of the fare-

well address which Col.. Burton delivered on April 15, 1953 at a meet-

ing of the members of the Society in Bombay. Col. Burton reviewed

the various activities, practical and legislative, of the Society and

others during the past 65 years in the cause of wild life preservation

inthis country, culminating in the recent formation of the Indian

— Board for Wild Life. This is proof of the fact that the Government of

India are at last fully alive to the urgent need for suitable measures to

save our fast disappearing indigenous fauna before it is too late.

Topics in Col. Burton’s text such as ‘Some present-day Problems ’,

‘Conservation and Control’, ‘ Forest Staff’, ‘Game Fund’, ‘ Zoological

and Other Parks’, ‘Trade’, ‘ Netting’, ‘Poaching’ and Sportsman-

ship’, etc., contain a wealth of information on wild life. The list of wild

life hice tine in Appendix A, and Resolutions adopted by the Central

Board for Wild Life at its first session held in Mysore from November

25th to December Ist, 1952, in Appendix B, add further to the Sle

_ value of the paper.

MISCELLANEOUS NowEs

3 87 notes covering almost all branches of Indian natural history of

both popular and scientific interest were published.

PUBLICATIONS

The publication of the following books is in progress :—

1. The Book of Indian Butterflies by M. A. Wynter-Blyth (with the

co-operation of the Government of India).

2. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and

M. B. Raizada.

3. Some Beautiful Indian Trees (2nd edition) by Blatter and

: Millard.

4, The Book of Indian Birds (Sth edition) by Salim Ali.

SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITIONS

B No major expedition was undertaken during the year under

‘review. Collecting trips to Khandala, Suriamal, Mahableshwar,

Matheran, etc., in the Western Ghats were organised by the Jt. Hon.

Secretary, Mr. Humayun Abdulali, occasionally accompanied by mem-

bers of the staff. In the course of these a new species of hill-stream.

frog of the genus Nyctibatrachus has been discovered and it is being

described in a subsequent issue of the Journal by Dr. J. L. Bhaduri of

the Calcutta University Zoological Department.

NatuRE Epu CATION

" This scheme, which the Government of Bombay has been pleased to

-__ continue in recognition of its usefulness to school children, is now in its

seventh year. Its normal activities, such as talks, fieldtrips, film-

_ shows, establishing Nature Clubs in Schools, etc., have now been

extended beyond city limits to Poona and Ahmedabad. In an attempt

to extend the benefits of the scheme to the entire State cf Bombay,

the publication of an illustrated booklet on 8 common Indian birds in

English, Hindi, Marathi and Gujarati has been undertaken. The

the year under report and the Committee wishes to record its apprecias

pole: is priced at annas ten, but is available to “aloo: is hil lren

annas. eight only. Considering that it contains 8 full-page plates ae

colour, it is remarkably good value, and it is hoped that proper advant-

age will be taken of it by schools. Itis also hoped that the Bombay

Government will soon decide to put the Society’s Nature Study scheme —

on a permanent basis, so that long-term educational programmes may a

be planned. |

REVENUE ACCOUNT

The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 46,317-1-8, —

which includes the usual grants of Rs. 8,000 and Rs. 4,000 from ties.

Government of India and the Government of Bombay respectively, as =

compared with Rs. 56,900-4-10, during the previous year. 2:

Sales of the Society? s publications showed a decrease of over

Rs. 2,300 as compared with the previous year. As was reported last

year, this was due to the stocks of the fourth edition of the ‘ Book of —

Indian Birds’ having been exhausted nearly a year ago and the fresh ~

edition being still under print. The following is a comparative state-

ment showing the different sources of revenue received in 1952 and

1953;— .

Revenue Revenue Increase Decrease

in edi in in

1952 - 1953 1953 1953

ISI hpn a Rs. a. p.| Rs. a. p.| Rs. a. p

Subscriptions web |222,07 2, 0250 (20 G30) 0 10 —— 2,035 <0. 00 =a

Entrance Fees Bae 1,460 0 9 1,135320...0 — 325 0 0.

Publications :

Books us 6,799 0 0 4801 0 0 —_— 1,998 0 0

Journals 3,408 0 0 3,374 0 0 —— 334 0 0

Interest on Investments 3,946 0 O 3,924. 0 0 35-00 i

Sundries, Taxidermy, ¥fe : :

Advertisement, etc. 315% 0; 0%, 388) 20. 205) 3 273)-02.0 or :

Donations Petar en 6,000 0 0 | a —— 6,000 0 0 -

Grants : ;

Govt. of India sa 8,000 0 0 8,000 0 0 ee ——

Govt. of Bombay ... 4000 0 0; 4,000 0 0 — -—

0 0

Total ... | 56,900

46,317 0 0 111 0 0/ 10,694 0 0

Net decrease in revenue in 1953 compared with 1952 was Rs. 10,583.

The total number of members on our books as at 3lst December

1953 was 1,091 of whom 225 were life members. Subscription for

1953 have so far been received from 676 members. During the year

54 new members joined ; 3 life members and 8 ordinary members died: ae

and 35 ordinary members resigned.

STAFF a

The work of the entire staff has been uniformly Snseains during ae.

tion of their helpful co-operation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson who ; a

continues to look after the Society’s interests in the U.K. i

ks report on the Society’s work during the year ended 3lst December

953 has already been handed out to you but, asa large part of 1954

has also gone by, | will refer toa few of our activities during this year.

As you are aware. the Society is attempting to encourage field work

mong students and makes an annual grant amounting to Rs. 600 to

one or more applicants interested in the pursuit of some specific piece

of field work in any bratich of natural history. During the current year

grant of Rs. 500 has been madeto Mr. K. k. Dixit of Poona, who is

tudying the behaviour of Indian Honeybees with respect to colour

under the guidance of Dr. Dora Ilse who has done an appreciable

ce. amount of research work in this subject. :

; It is hoped that these scholarships will be useful in encouraging the

study of natural history — in the field and that the grantees will

a continue their activities in subsequent years.

= We have at the moment four publications in the Press: the first

- editions of Wynter-Blyth’s ‘ Butterflies of the Indian Region’ and Bor

and Raizada’s ‘Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’, the second

edition of Blatter and Millard’s ‘Some Beautiful Indian Trees ’, and the

_ fifth edition of Salim Ali’s ‘The Book of Indian Birds’. Unfortunately the

progress in each case is very slow, but I sincerely hope that more than

~- one will be available by the end of this year and that its sales will

bas help to remove the drop in receipts last year.

— The Government of Bombay have not yet appointed a whole-time

Wild Life Preservation Officer and Mr. J. A. Singh, who is on our

Committee, is doing the best possible in addition to his work as Chief

Conservator of Forests.

It is hoped, that a whole-time “efhecr will soon be anointed ane that

‘it will be possible for him to take a more active part in the administration

- ofthe Act. Since the last report, several offences have been detected,

mostly by Honorary Game Wardens, and it would be perhaps correct to

say that the shooting from cars within a 100 mile radius of Bombay

- City has been stopped to an appreciable extent. Last year we referred

B to the acquittal of a person apprehended with a dead barking deer in his

possession. Government appealed to the High Court and it has been

ruled that the lower court was wrong in its interpretation of the law.

A lot of damage is undoubtedly still being done by cultivators hold-

ng crop protection licences. Many of them are really ignorant of the

implications of the Act, and one of the first duties of the whole-time

Wild Life Preservation Officer will be to explain the intentions of the

Act to the 70,000 licence holders in the State and to get them to co-

operate in observing the rules even without the threat of detection and

arrest. Other States are also considering the adoption of legislation

similar to Bombay, and in view of the continued references to these

atters in the press, both local and foreign, it is hoped that the rapid —

depletion of wild life will be arrested and that a greater interest in wild

life be arotised before it is too late. Members of this Society are of

ee always expected to co-operate as much as possible in this effort,

7st JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. sociery, Vol. 2 eS ;

The following 55 members have joined since tHe lest Ratt ;

General Meeting: | ae

From 8th August 1953 to 31st December 1953 eo

Miss S. I. Bailey, Mangala P.O., Mysore; The Divisional Boieer

Officer, Panch-Mahals, Godhra ; Rajkumar Prakritish Chandra Barua,

Gauripur ; Mr. L. D. Lovatt, Fairfield P.O., Travancore-Cochin ; Dr. T.

Ramachandra Rao, D.sc., Virus Research Institute, Poona; Dr. Augusto

Formenti, Bombay ; Mr. Ajoy Shankar Bhaduri, Sonapur Tea Estate,

Assam; Mr. Mangesh Anant Malandkar, Bombay ; Headmaster, Canara

High School, Mangalore; Mr. Jehangir C. R. Readymoney, Bombay; —

Mr. R. G. Ouseley, Bombay; Wild Life Preservation Officer, Poona ; Dr.

R. Altevogt, Germany ; Mrs. M. Choksi, Bombay; Prof. J. W. Christo-

pher, Germany; Col. B. ¢ >. Goss, Ohio, U.S.A.

From 1st January to 20th August 1954

Miss Ruth Scott, Jiaganj, West Bengal; The Curator, Industrial

Section, Indian Museum, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta; Mr. Parik-

shit Majumdar, Bombay; Mr. Alan E. Leviton, Stanford University,

California; Mr. M.M. Roy, Bombay; Rana Narayan Singh, Gopalpur,

_ West Khandesh; Mr. D. S. Ellsworth, New York; Mr. K. S. Krishna-

moortby, Tirunelvelli, South India; Mrs. L, Bobb, Calcutta; Mr. Edward

Malnate, Philadelphia, U.S.A; Prof. Pia Farina Liveranti, Italy ; Mr. D.

N. Chaudhuri, Bombay; Mr. J. W. Collins, N. Lakhimpur, Assam ; The

Director, Central Potato Research Institute, Patna; Dr. A. B. Misra, —

Hasimara Tea Estate, West Bengal; Mr. Harcharan Lal Khanna,

Calcutta; Mrs. B. E. Lucas, Bombay; Mr. B, Lissanevitch, Kathmandu,

Nepal; Miss I. R. Mitchell, Barrackpore, West Bengal; Mr. S. N. Agar-

wala, Allahabad; Mr. W. A. C. Milne, Zurrantee Tea Estate, Dooars;

Mr. D. L. Amore, Bombay; Mr. R. R. Inglis-Jones, Calcutta; Mr. W.

C. de Noronha, Kanpur; Mr. C. B. Ferguson, Rawalpindi; Mr. W.

J. Johnstone, Digboi, Assam; Mr. S. A. Doctor, Bombay; Mr, A.

Middleton, Nazira P.O.; The Secretary, Central Library, Dacca Farm,

Dacca; The Chief Scientific Officer, United Planters Association of

Souter India, Coonoor; Mr. A. Lindsay, Illinois, U.S.A; The

Librarian, Sacred Heart College, Madurai; Dr. C. V. Kulkarni,

Bombay; Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Dehra Dun; Mr. Gerald Collier.

Bombay ; Principal, Sree Kerala Varma College, Trichur; The Library,

Infantry School, Mhow.

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ANTHIS NOILvONGE SIN

aia | ee HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, BOMBAY, ON

PON sen MONDAY THE 23rd AUGUST 1954, AT 6 p.m, WITH

os REV, FR. H. SANTAPAU, SJ. IN THE CHAIR. | :

1. The Honoraty Secretaries’ Report for the year ended 31: iy

December 1953 having been circulated was taken as read. The Jt. —

Honorary Secretary then enumerated the activities of the Society during

mone period January to August 1954.

2. ‘he balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by the 2

Honorary Treasurer were approved and adopted. é

3. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory

Committees, as previously circulated to members, were accepted.

After the normal business of the meeting concwe Mr, Sélim Ali

gave a talk on his recent visits to some bird haunts in the U.S.A. and

Europe and showeda colour film which was greatly appreciated by al

present. e

aS Tee 4

Ree i abohese Oe

31300500 0 rato neato ne C00 000%

University; New Haven, U.S.A., would be

glad to receive for study purposes specimens

of land leeches—Haemadipsas spp., large fresh-

water leeches of any genus, and Ozobranchus

shipleyi Harding, a gill-bearing aquatic leech

living on freshwater turtles of the genus

Kachuga (see sketch).

Method of preservation: Allow leeches

to expand in container of fresh water. Add

70% alcohol dropwise at intervals over a

period of half an hour until a concentration

of 35-40% is reached. When animals are

relaxed and unresponsive to touch, put

them in 10% formalin.

If specimens are sent to the Society pre-

"Dr. Willard Hartman of the Peabody Museum, Yale

Ozobranchus

served as above, they will be forwarded to Dr. Hartman.

JOURNAL OF THE

A few back numbers are also available.

the Honorary Treasurer.

be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer.

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og. Ss

JOURNAL OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Vol. 52, No. 4

Editors

sALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU, S.J.

ZANT NSON/4

AUG 8= 1°55

APRIL 1955

Rs. 15

“ir coe n per Volume of wal Issues:

eign; (Rs, 20/- Inland.

the Goverr eal bring and a Zeblogieal Strayer

specially those dealin eee like Records of the Indian

m, Memoirs of the Indian Museum, Fauna of India (new volumes),

and reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, —

Dr. G. D. Bhale: pare Tit 5 Ceuta, Bolg ae =

A vee hy ALS

Vo) PU aie iu hes aTAY

wie oh ted WEN be |)

Te WORN. yt)

ee oo

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 532, NO. 4

Two BITTERNS IN A PENANG MarsH, Part I. By Loke Wan Tho. (With

1 coloured and 3 black and white plates ee 660

TRCTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA AND ITS BEARING ON FISH GROGRAPHY.

By S.L. Hora. (With 7 text figures)

SOME STUDIES ON TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS, Uca marionis

nitidus (DaNA) AND U. annulipes (LATR.). By R. Altevogt. (With

13 figures and | table) a ee Ag:

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL

PARKS, ParRTII. By E. P. Gee. (With 4 plates)

THE BIRDS oF GUJARAT, Part II. By Sélim Ali. (Wath 1 plate) Ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES. . By D. F. Sanders

COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLACENTA AND FOETAL NUTRITION

IN ELASMOBRANCHS AND Mamm™ats. By P.N. Sarangdhar. (With 2

plates ) 2ec eee eoe

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS. By Bernhard Rensch and

K. W. Harde. (With 11 figures) see “ae oH

Nyctibatrachus humayuni, A New FROG FROM THE WESTERN GHATS,

BoMBAY. By J. L. Bhaduriand Miss M. B. Kripalani. (With 1 plate)...

lxodes kerri, A NEw SPECIES OF TICK FROM A FLYING SQUIRREL FROM

SOUTHERN INDIA (ACARINA : IXODIDAE). By T. Ramachandra Rao.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA—ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1953 ON THE

WESTERN Recion. By K. S. Dharmakumarsiahji

HaBITS AND HABITAT OF SOME COMMON SPIDERS FOUND IN WESTERN

Inpia. By T. V. Subrahmaniam. (With 16 text figures)

SOME Brrps COLLECTED IN LANGTANG KHOLA, RASUA GARHT DISTRICT,

CENTRAL NEPAL. By O. Polunin

A New Species oF Chlorophytum FROM SALSETTE ISLAND. By H.

Santapauand R. R. Fernandes. (With 1 plate)

A New Form OF THE BURROWING SNAKE, Urofeltis macrolepis (PETERS)

FROM MAHABLESHWAR. By V. K. Chari abe ae RS

REVIEWS :— \

1, Indian Journal of Fisheries, Vol. 1, Nos. 1 and 2

2, Common Indian Herbs. By N. A. Watts 500 566

3. Flora of Agra District. A descriptive key to the Flora of Agra

District. By N. A. Watts (H.Santapau, s.s.) see 300

4. A Coloured Atlas of Some Vertebrates from Ceylon, Vol. Il—

Tetrapod Reptilia. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala (V.K,C.)

PAGE

687

692

831

841

852

860

865

874

886

897

904

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 52, NO. 4—(contd.)

5. Bird Life. By Niko Tinbergen. (S.A.) Heys Se ve

6. The Waterfowl of the World, Vol. I. By Jean Delacour (S.A.) ...

7. The Temple Tiger and More Man-eaters of Kumaon. By Jim

Corbett (L.F.) ae ae Se

8. Birds of Arabia. By Col. R. Meinerennen (S. A.) sa

9. The Birds of the British Isles, Vol. III. By David A, Brommnesaena

and George E. Lodge. (S. A. )

10. A Wanderer in the Wind: The OUSLY eet an Aniual esiNeattor:

By Cecil S. Webb. (H.A.) 1 ,

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Strange behaviour of Monkeys in the presence of a Panther. By

Sirdar Bhupendra Kumar (p. 913). 2, Unrecorded sounds made by the

Tiger. By Lt.-Col. R. W Burton (p. 915). 3. Cat and Mongoose. By

T. Gay (p. 916). 4. Extraordinary behaviour of a solitary Bull Bison

(Gaur). By R. C. Morris (p. 916). 5. The Brow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi

MacClelland) (With a plate). By E. P. Gee (p. 917).. 6. Thamin or Brow-

antiered Deer in the Zoological Gardens, Rangoon (With a plate). By Tun

Yin (p. 919). 7. Abnormal Horns of a Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra)

(With a photo). By C. H. Biddulph (p. 920). 8. Notes on the Desert

Hedgehog (Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray). By Ishwar Prakash (p. 921).

9. Cannibalism in Hedgehogs. By Ishwar Prakash (p. 922).10. Wild Life

Preservation in India—The area ef the former Gilgit Agency. By Lt.-Col.

R.W. Burton (p. 923). 11. New Light upoa the Natural History of Mala-

bar. By C.H. Biddulph (p. 924). 12. A bird answering its own echo. By

T. Gay (p. 925). 13. Another Bird-watching pilgrimage to SW ‘Tibet (Wzth

a map). By K. S. Lavkumar (p. 925). 14. Has the Cuckoo a protrusible ovi-

positor ? By Charles McCann (p. 931). 15. Mating of Partridges. By Editors

(p. 932). 16. The Bone-dropping habit of the Lammergeier. By Robert L.

Fleming (p. 933). 17. Heron-keeping on the Indus River (With a photo).

By P. I. R. Maclaren (p. 935). 18. Trapping birds for ringing (With @ photo).

By Zaiar Futehally (p. 936). 19. The record Indian Crocodile. By Lt.-

Col. R. W. Burton (p. 937). 20. Some notes on Rana beddomii Gtinther with

an extension of its range. By Humayun Abdulali and J.C. Daniel (p. 938).

21. Presumptive eating of a Krait by Scorpions. By Ishwar Prakash and

K.C. Dave (p. 939). 22. A grateful skink. By T. Gay (p. 940). 23.

Hunting the Land Crab ( Paratelphusa guerini (M.-Edw) (With 1 text figure).

By Jabir A. Ali (p. 941). 24. Apus (Crustacea: Phyllopoda), a new host for

parasitic nematodes. By K. K. Tiwari (p. 945). 25. An Unusual Crab

tishery in the sea off Ennur, near Madras (With | text figure). By P.I.

Chacko and E. Palani (p. 946)), 26. A new species ot <Aztroecephalus

Kirby (With 1 text figure). By B. R. Subba Rao (p. 948). 27. Some

Insects attracted to hght—II. By S. Usman (p. 950). 28. Notes on

Thrips palmi Karny attacking Sesamum indicum (With 1 plate and \ text

figure). By ‘T. Ananthakrishnan (p. 951). 29. Aposematic insects and their

food plants. By D.G. Sevastopulo (p. 953). 30. A Four-leaved Oleander.

By G. W. Deodhar (p. 954). 31. On the Occurrence of Warszlea aegyptiaca

Willd in Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India) (With 1 plate). By K. M. Gupta

(p. 954). 32. Alternanthera polygonoides R. Br. var erecta Mart—A new

record for Bombay State (With a plate). By G. P. Shrivastava and H.

Santapau (p. 957). 33. Abnormalities in the ‘Ear’ of Zea; mays L. (With 1

plate). ByS. L. Tandon (p. 958). 34. The introduction of Zilapza mos-

sambiea into India—A correction. By Editors (p. 959). 35. Gleanings

(p. 959).

NovTes AND NEWS

ERRATA

AN APPEAL he vee ane AAG ee

961

962

Loke Wan Tho

Kodachrome

The Yellow Bittern

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

1955 VOL. 52 No, 4

TWO BITTERNS IN A PENANG MARSH

LokeE Wan THO

Part I

(With 1 coloured and 3 black & white plates)

Behind the village of Ginting, on Penang Island, there is a great

area of low-lying but fertile land where rice is grown. In the months

which follow the harvest, these ricefields, or ‘bindang’, left untended

by man, become a vast sea of reeds which only the wind touches

with its invisible hands. Here, where nature has re-entered into

possession, her tenant creatures of the wild move in after her.

The Rails make their home in this intricacy of reeds, in the

midst of which they chase about and squabble noisily. The Bitterns too

live here, but in silence, making their furtive way along well-trodden

lanes, so that even when the grass around is cut, force-of-habit

makes them follow a path to the nest which no longer conceals them.

Two different species of Bitterns live in good neighbourly relations,

and often their nests are placed so close together that they might

almost be called colonial nesters: one species is the Yellow Bittern

({Ixobrychus sinensis), and the other the Chestnut Bittern (Ixobrychus

cinnamomeus),.

THE YELLOW BITTERN (Ixobrychus sinensis)

The Checklist of the Birds of Malaya describes the Yellow Bittern

as a ‘passage migrant and winter visitor’, and for a long time it

was ‘believed by the best authorities that the bird did not nest in.

Malaya. However, Mr. James Cairns, a resident of Penang, after

prolonged and careful observation, established the fact that the

Yellow Bittern was a fellow-resident, both of the island and the

mainland in Province Wellesley. Mr. Cairns’s findings were set cut

in a paper, entitled ‘The Yellow Bittern’, which he wrote for- the

Malayan Nature Society Journal, (Vol. rx, No. 1, June 1954, page 11),

I 1:5 19Re

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

and, in the same issue, he also contributed a further note entitled,

‘Notes on Two Families of ‘Yellow Bittern’ (page 28), which was

illustrated by a photograph of the nest taken by F. G. H. Allen.

- Mr. Cairns had, already in 1953, invited me to visit Penang to

try and obtain photographs of the bird, but despite good intentions

which went so far as to send up my hide in advance, business problems

kept me inactive in ornithology throughout the whole of the year.

In 1954, soon after my return from a round-the-world trip, I again

received a message to say that a nest had been found, and once more

inviting me to go up to photograph the bird. An opportunity once

lost, seldom recurs, but now the fates had given me another chance

and so, despite the fact that my mouse-like nibblings had as yet

failed to make any impression on the mountain of work on my office

table, I took the first aeroplane to Penang, arriving there on Sunday

morning, August 22nd, 1954, at just after 11 o’clock.

Cairns, and my brother Loke Wan-yat, were waiting for me; the

former was dressed for a day in the marshes, and we must have

made a strangely contrasted pair, the one with his jungle clothes and

boots, and the other, straight from the big city of Singapore, still

too natty to look a naturalist. I soon changed my clothes in the

car, and once arrived in the ricefield area of Ginting Village, we lost

no time but plunged into the marshes. I was dressed in my field

grey shirt and khaki trousers, and carried over my shoulder a black

tripod which bore a strong resemblance to a Bren-gun stand: the

thought crossed my mind that I must have looked suspiciously like

a bandit, and I wondered whether a member of the security force,

if he saw me, would challenge first before he fired, or would shoot

first and ask questions afterwards. The question was perhaps only

academic, even though terrorists had but recently been discovered

in the hills behind Ginting Pass. I have, fortunately, not had the

experience of a good friend of mine who, on one occasion, found it

and I hope I never shall; but it shows that bird photography in Malaya

sometimes has a pioneering quality about it..

The object of our attention was a nest containing four young,

the biggest of which was about 14 days old. Inside the hide, it was

like a furnace, and there were times when I felt quite faint: I had had

no food since 6 a.m., and it was not until nearly 6 p.m., before I

again had something to eat. A wait of four hours was merely time

wasted; the adult birds never returned. Two of the young were big

enough to clamber out of the nest and they quickly proceeded to do

so, and no doubt their parents were in the vicinity to entice them.

In the end, I had to admit defeat.

Meanwhile Cairns, and his assistant Ralli, had scoured the marsh

and discovered three other nests of the Yellow Bittern, and one of

the Chestnut Bittern. We went over to look at them, and as we

did so flushed a pair of the Yellow adults. They gave an impression

of contrasting colours of pale fawn and black, the male bird being

lighter in shade. After flying a short distance, they dropped into

the reeds.

Sh Pde 2 if 4 dit,

JourRN. BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

“ Looking like a bandit with a Bren-gun stand.”’

(Photos: Author)

PLATE III

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE YELLOW BITTERN

Photos

Female

lary

Male

r cract

—

raica

TWO BITTERNS IN PENANG MARSH G89:

The first of these new nests of the Yellow Bittern contained two

young birds and one egg (one juvenile had only recently emerged

from the egg, and its downy feathers were still damp, while the

egg showed signs of chipping); the other two nests each contained

three eggs, of a pale greenish blue colour. The first nest was clearly

the most suitable for photography, so we erected the hide and left.

it in place overnight.

All the nests were built some three feet off the ground, and were

astonishingly small for so large a bird, measuring roughly 4 inches by 4.

inches. Constructed of reeds and slender twigs which formed a

slightly hollow pad, they were placed on an interlacing of reed-stems.

Above the nests, a few of the growing stems had been pulled together

to form a rough canopy.

Elsewhere than in Malaya, nest-sites of a different kind have

been found. Stuart Baker, for instance, quotes Oates as saying

that in Pegu,

‘common as this bird is, its nest is one of the most. difficult

to find and, when found, to secure. It selects the matted leaves

of immense reeds, and pines its nest on the summit where wind

and rain have entangled the leaves and’ worked them into a platform.

The nest itself is a mere pad of dry grass and leaves.’

Or, Valentine Irwin, who noted in Comillah how, inside a clump.

of males,

‘doubled into sine smallest imaginable space, was a Yellow

Bittern, on a little rush-and-reed nest built on the top of a small

mud pillar, which projected about 6 inches above the water-

level .

Stuart ‘Baker himself writes that in Assam, where the Yellow

Bittern is extremely common in suitable areas, the bird,

‘builds its nest most often in reeds, rushes or Elephant-grass

round the edges of the swamps and lakes, but seems to place

them indifferently at all heights above the water from an inch

Or two to three feet or more, though I have never seen

the nests on the summits wf the reeds as recorded by Oates. I

think most often the nest is quite low down, as low in fact as

the tangled mass of broken debris will allow it to be placed, which

may be a couple of inches above the water, or it may be so matted

as to fill all the interspaces between the reed-stems to a considerable

height.’

La Touche writing of the bird in China says that,

‘It nests abundantly in the swamps on the Yangtse and in the

marshes of North China, building its nest on the reeds. In the

South it builds as well on bamboos and on trees, the banyans on

Shameen (Canton) being specially mentioned by Vaughan and Jones

as selected by the birds . . .. The nest in the reed-beds of the

Yangtse is composed of flags or reed-leaves ; where built on bamboos,

twigs, straw and bamboo-leaves in quantity are used, and the nests

on Shameen are said to resemble those of I. cinnamomeus’.

The comparison with the nest of the Chestnut Bittern is particularly

interesting because, in Penang, the two cannot be confused. The

nest of I. cinnamomeus, in the reed-beds of Ginting, is larger and

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

flatter than that of I. sinensis, and is placed lower down, being but

a few inches above the level of the water; in the words of Cairns,

they look like ‘a diminutive Harrier’s nest’.

Early on the Monday morning I set out once more to try con-

clusions with the Bitterns: it was a Monday black with storm clouds,

and as we neared Ginting Pass the rain, which earlier had begun to

fall, became heavier and heavier as we proceeded until I felt that

it would be useless to carry on. I therefore asked the driver to turn

the car round and go back, but no sooner done than my conscience

began to nag at me, and would give me no rest until I had made

up my mind not to give up till I had at least got as far as the nest-

site. So we turned round again, and drove into heavier and yer

heavier rain, until it seemed as if it would be sheer stupidity to

persevere. And yet, as we reached the top. of Ginting Pass and began

to descend on the other side, the rain miraculously ceased, and the

sun peered out of heavy clouds.

Arrived at the scene of the nest, the tripod and camera were

quickly set up inside the hide, and my helpers left me to my vigil. The

female Bittern quickly returned, showing no fear of the strange

contraption of painted cloth a mere 6 ft. away, and at once began

to brood the young and to incubate the single egg. During a space

of some 4o minutes, nothing much happened, and I had a good

opportunity to study my beautiful sitter.

Her general coloration in flight is a light-brown or buff, with

contrasting buff-and-white wings, but at close quarters the beautiful

details of her plumage could be admired at leisure. Her back was

a rich brown, and the upperparts heavily streaked; the underparts

were a pale straw or sand, and a heavy, dark brown streak ran

down the chin, throat and breast, with lighter streaks on either side.

The crest was dark slate; the eyes, yellow, with a tiny red spot

below each one; the tail black and the legs yellow. There was

a quaint patch of blackish feathers, with buff edgings, on either

side of the base of the neck, and similar patches were later noted

also in the Chestnut Bittern.

At 10.00 a.m. the male returned. There was no room on the

tiny nest for both adults at the same time, and as the male moved

in, the female moved out. They raised their crests at each other

in salute.

The cock bird was handsomer than his mate. His general

coloration, seen in flight and in the field, is somewhat paler brown

than the female. Here, at close range, I was able to observe a

beautiful maroon back, only a faint brown streak down the centre of

the breast, and a number of brown-and-white, hairlike feathers on

each side of the base of the neck. The curious patch of dark

feathers with light edgings was also to be seen, but only when the

bird hunched his shoulders. The base of his bill was yellow, and the

culmen dark horn with a reddish line below it.

Not long after the return of the male, the third egg hatched. Un-

fortunately, I was not able to witness this exciting spectacle which

| have seen only once in my life; my eye was just on a level with

the rim of the nest, and this prevented me from being able to peer

aseq 3

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TWO BITTERNS IN PENANG MARSH 695

into the bottom of the shallow nest-depression. I realised what had

happened only when the adult picked up half the eggshell and took

it away for disposal, the remainder of the broken pieces were later

eaten.’

At 10.30 a.m. the chicks were fed by regurgitation. Plate iv

shows the adult in the act of food-production. A shiny black worm

or caterpillar, about 13 inches long, was manipulated up the

cesophagus and was quickly pounced on by the hungry youngsters.

One chick, after the manner of his heron kind, seized the adult’s

bill and wrestled with it, but because of his tender years he was

unable to treat father with that rough disrespect which he would

undoubtedly show later on. A total of some 4 or 5 shiny black

worms was produced. :

After this festive interlude, the male settled down to incubating

his brood, stretching out his wings to protect them from the increasing

heat of the sun. One obstreperous youngster, more precocious than

his brethren, kept on butting father in his belly so that he had to

shift his position several times.

At 11.00 a.m. the female returned, and as cock and hen passed

each other, they again politely raised their crests. The female did

not feed the young, but was merely content to act as an umbrella,

shading her young from the sun. Her throat vibrated in the heat,

and she never took her eyes off the hide. Any noise from within.

made her stare hard, and sometimes she raised her crest in threat.

The minutes passed quickly as I took a series of pictures, both in

black-and-white and colour,

A short time before noon, the rumble of thunder could be heard

from the hills, and the rain quickly followed. We had just time

to dismantle equipment and hide and make a run for it, reaching

the car just as the rain fell. And so the day ended, as it had begun,

with a downpour, but fortune had already smiled on me, and like

the poet, I breathed a prayer of gratitude:

‘Ah, but those tears are pearl which thy love sheds,

And they are rich and ransom all ill deeds’.

(To be continued)

1 As the second egg hatched on Sunday (22-8-1954), and this third one hatched

on Monday (23-8-1954), it is clear that the eggs of the Yellow Bittern are laid on

consecutive days, but incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid.

TECTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA AND ITS

BEARING ON FISH GEOGRAPHY

S. L. Hora, D.Sc., F.N«t.

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With 7 text figures)

INTRODUCTION

As is well known, Geography is a synthetic science, largely

‘dependent for its data on the results of specialized sciences such as geo-

logy, oceanography, meteorology, biology, etc. ‘The characteristic task

of geography is to investigate the control exercised by the forms and

vertical relief of the surface of the lithosphere directly or indirectly on

the various mobile distributions.’!

The distribution of freshwater fishes has been greatly neglected

in the past for it does not fall easily into the zoogeographical regions

established for mammals or birds. The mode of dispersal of fishes,

in spite of suitable ecological niches in their neighbourhood, is

dependent on drainage patterns, river captures, flood plains and

other phenomena which may help in the commingling of waters of

different drainage systems. Further, fishes of various ecological

associations can only spread if suitable environmental conditions

become available in the intervening areas. For instance, torrential

fishes cannot spread over marshy areas though the overflooded

waters of a torrent may spread over marshy grounds. Of all the

factors responsible for the spread of fishes, the tectonic history of

a country can be most fruitful in the study of their distribution.

The Indian fish-geographers are, therefore, fortunate in the publication

of a recent Memoir of the Geological Survey of India by its Director,

Dr. M. S. Krishnan, on ‘The Structural and Tectonic History of

India’.2 It contains a wealth of material, which was otherwise

inaccessible to biogeographers. The language, though unavoidably

technical, is quite understandable by a lay reader, especially because

the text is illustrated with:a number of diagrams and maps. For

more serious students of the subject, the author has given a list of

references covering 8 pages and an index covering another 8 pages.

STRUCTURE OF INDIA

Structurally, India has been divided into two units, the Peninsula

and the extra-Peninsular area. As the stratigraphic and tectonic

histories of the two regions are different, Dr. Krishnan has treated

1 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 14th ed., 40: 139 (1929).

2 Published in 1953 as Memoirs Vol. 81, and obtainable from the Geological

Survey of India, 27, Chowringhee, Calcutta 13, for Rs. 2-6.

TECTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA: ITS FISH GEOGRAPHY 693

them separately up till the Tertiary, when they encroached on and

influenced each other.

The present writer has the intention to deal with only such facts

recorded in this Memoir as have bearing on the Fish Geography of

India.

TREND LINES IN THE ARCHAEANS

The trend lines in the Archaeans have influenced the later

geological phenomena to a marked extent, though they are much

older than the organisms which occupied the country from time to

time. The earliest known freshwater fishes of India are now entombed

in the Maleri (Triassic) and Kota (Jurassic) beds of the Godavari

Valley.!. The trend lines noticeable in the Archaean rocks of the

different parts of India represented by Dr. Krishnan in fig. 1 indicate

OBOMBAY

“,9MADRAS TREND LINES

Vibha IN THE

, ARCHAEAN ROCKS

OF INDIA

TeExtT-F1G. 1.—Trend lines in the Archaean rocks of India. After Dr. M. S.

Krishnan (Mem. Geol. Survey of India, 81: 4, 1953).

Otay seule & Menon, A. G. K. (1952): Distribution of Indian ence of

the past and their bearing on the Geography of India. 2, The extinct freshwater

Dipnoan and Ganoid fishes of India. Everyday Science, 1: 26-37. !

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

the route of migration of fishes from north-east to south-west. All

the freshwater fish fossil beds (besides Maleri and Kota _ beds

referred to above, we have Dongargaon, Deothan and Kheri beds.

of the Cretaceous-Eocene periods! in Madhya Pradesh) are situated

along these trend lines. It is thus reasonable to infer that these

trend lines though indicating the mountain chains and axes of rock-

folding in the Archaean era have persisted and, have greatly

influenced the drainage patterns of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous

and early Eocene periods.

Though Dipnoan, Ganoid and Osteoglossid fishes died out in

India, they are still living in some other parts of the world. The

causes of their extinction are violent changes in their ecological

conditions and the outpouring of lava over a greater part of the

country. With regard to the former, one reads that ‘The humid

conditions which permitted the growth of luxuriant vegetation in the

Permian gave place to dry continental conditions in the Triassic.

The sediments of this period are red sandstone and sandy clays.

(Panchet and Mahadeva Series) probably laid down in lakes’ (pp.

21-22). After desiccation during the Triassic period, moist conditions.

returned again when another invasion of freshwater fishes took place.

During the Middle and Upper Jurassic, dry conditions returned again

and the fish fauna of the Kota period died out in India. From the

Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene there were several outbursts of

lava flows and the fossils from the infra- and inter-trappean beds

tell the tale of the circumstances under which the fauna was entirely

wiped out from the areas covered by the trap formations.

GARO-RAJMAHAL GAP

In zoogeographical studies, the gap between the Garo and the

Rajmahal hills has received considerable attention in recent years.

Regarding the Assam Plateau, Dr. Krishnan points out that ‘though

now separated from the main peninsula area by a broad strip of

the Ganges-Brahmaputra alluvium, there is no doubt that the

Assam plateau is part of the peninsular shield. It appears to have

been covered by the sea from the Jurassic or Cretaceous onwards.

and to have experienced the effect of the Tertiary movements of

the Himalayan and Burmese area in that it was uplifted in the

Miocene’ (pp. 12, 13). The distribution of the Dipnoan, Ganoid

and some of the earliest Teleostean fishes from the mainland of

Asia to India from the Triassic to the early Eocene periods shows

that the peninsula was continued ‘north-eastwards to China. Dr.

M. S. Krishnan tells me that during the Triassic and a part of

the Cretaceous periods there were dry continental conditions in south-

west China and Yunnan. During those periods north-eastern India

might well have been connected by land with China through the

Sadiya region.

1 Hora, S. L. & Menon, A. G. K. (1953): Distribution of the Indian fishes of

the past and their bearing on the Geography of India. 2. The Extinct Freshwater

Teleostean fishes of India. Everyday Science, 2: 105-1138.

TECTONIC @ISTORY OF INDIA: ITS FISH GEOGRAPHY 695:

The western side of the Assam plateau is marked by fracturing

which may be connected with the formation of the Garo-Rajmahal

Gap. Minor oscillations have occurred even in the Pliocene and

Pleistocene times, and these movements may have accentuated the

MIOCENE

feeee

SDIBRUGARH

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TExtT-FIG. 2.—The Garo-Rajmahal Gap area under the sea during the

Eocene, Miocene and Pliocene periods. After M. S. Krishnan (Bull. Nat. Inst.

Sci., India, 1: 26-28, 1952).

original faults and made the Gap more pronounced while it was

still covered by the sea. It would appear that structurally the Gap

is a very old feature of the topography of India,’ though ecologically

it became suitable for the migration of freshwater fishes during the

glacial epochs of the Pleistocene.” Its present-day physical features.

seem to have been attained after dismemberment of the Indo-Brahm

River when the Ganga and the Brahmaputra began to flow through

it to the Bay of Bengal. The fault became filled up through the

sediments brought down by these rivers and now the alluvium lies

several hundred feet thick at Rajmahal.

Another point which seems clear now is that though the Assam

Plateau was uplifted in the Miocene, the area of the Garo-Rajmahal

Gap continued to be under the sea during the Pliocene and a greater

part of the Pleistocene.

THE DECCAN TRAPS

According to Dr. Krishnan (p. 52), ‘The Deccan Traps now occupy

some 2,00,000 sq. miles and must have formerly covered a more

extensive tract, probably twice the present area. They are regarded

as having been erupted from numerous fissures in the crust during a

* The presence of Lower Gondwana rocks along the western edge of Gare Hills.

may indicate the possibility of the structural weakness having arisen here in

L. Gondwana times, according to Dr. M. S. Krishnan.

* Hora, S. L. (1951): Some observations on the palaeogeography of the Garo-

Rajmahal gap as evidenced by the distribution of the Malaya fauna and flora to

Peninsular India. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, 17 (6): 437-444.

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

period of tension. They are estimated to have a thickness of over

‘6,000 ft. near the Western Ghats, but much less in other areas. They

must originally have extended also for an unknown distance to the

west of India but that part was faulted down in or about the

Miocene’.

Trap formation seems to have played a great part in Indian zoo-

geography for the fauna that reached the Peninsula upto the early

72 93 80

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TExt-F1G. 3.—The present-day extent (shaded portions) of the Deccan Traps

-with the positions of infra- and inter-trappean fossil beds marked in it. After S. L.

' Hora (Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci., India, 4% (4): 398, 1938).

Eocene period was totally destroyed in the area of the traps which

was then perhaps twice its present extent. Some of the early Eocene

fishes have, however, persisted in the extreme south of the

Peninsula and Ceylon! because the Traps did not extend beyond 15°N.

* Silas, E. G. (1954): Speciation among the freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Bull.

Nat. Inst. Sct., India, No. 5 (in press).

TECTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA: ITS FISH GEOGRAPHY 697

latitude in the south. The age of the Deccan Traps is now admitted

to be uppermost Cretaceous extending well into the early Eocene

period. It was at the close of the Trap formation that transgression

of the Bay of Bengal took place and probably severed India’s land

connection with the mainland of Asia in the Chinese region.’ Thus

there was no new freshwater fish migration to the Peninsula from

the north-east till the conditions became favourable again, firstly by

the regression of the Bay of Bengal during the Pliocene and secondly

by the Garo-Rajmahal Gap becoming dry land during the glacial

periods when the sea level fell by 100-200 meters. Later the Gap

became filled up by the sediments carried down by the Ganga and

the Brahmaputra Rivers. These assumptions are supported by the

fact that there are no post-Trappean freshwater fish fossils known

from the Peninsula.

Bay OF BENGAL

In order to explain the so-called Malayan affinities of the fresh-

water fish fauna, the earlier zoogeographers conceived of a land

connection between the Peninsula and the Malayan subregion across

the Bay of Bengal. Dr. Krishnan (p. 60) adduces_ stratigraphical

evidence to show that the eastern coast of India took shape during

the Jurassic. It is therefore reasonable to believe that an incipient

Bay of Bengal had already made its appearance in the Jurassic.

InDIA-AFRICA LAND CONNECTIONS

There is considerable evidence that during the Pliocene and early

Pleistocene the freshwater fish fauna of India migrated to Africa

along a northern route,* for the main connection over the Peninsula

seems to have been cut off when the land beyond the western coast

was faulted in the Lower Miocene or earlier. ‘Since Middle Miocene

rocks have been involved in the downfaulting of the Mekran Sea,

the date of faulting may be late Miocene or Pliocene. It may be

that the western coast of India was faulted down in Lower Miocene

and the faulting extended into the Mekran region somewhat later.

Further extension of this faulting into the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates

Valley apparently occurred in the Pleistocene’ (p. 64). Though the

Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous and early Eocene waves of migration

of freshwater fishes passed over the Peninsula to Africa, only the

‘ With regard to the migration of the Malayan fauna, Dr. M. S. Krishnan

states ‘that a ridge was formed (which is now the Arakan ranges and their con-

tinuation) during early Eocene, and it was apparently uplifted further during

the successive pulses of the Alpine Himalayan movements. This separated Assam

from Western Burma in both of which marine conditions continued till much later

in the Tertiary period. This parting ridge, or rather its base, will have provided

the land connection necessary for migration of freshwater and torrent loving

fishes’.

--2 Wiseman, J. D. H. & Sewell, R. B. S. (1937): The Floor of the Arabian Sea.

Geo. Mag., T&: 219-230.

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

northern route was available when the freshwater fishes appeared

again in the Pliocene.

TEXT-FIG. 4.—Radial distribution of mountain arcs of south-east Asia, the

pivotal point being the Assam syntaxis of the Himalayas. Modified after M. S.

Krishnan (Mem. Geol. Surv., India, 81: 25, 1953).

RapbDIAL DISTRIBUTION OF SOUTH-EAST ASIATIC

FRESHWATER Fisn FAUNA

Fish geographical studies carried out in the Zoological Survey

of India since 1937 have shown that the freshwater fish fauna of

south-east Asia is radially distributed from the south-west Chinese

or Yunnan region. This is due to the pattern of distribution of

the mountain arcs of southern Asia. Dr. Krishnan’s map on p. 25

(Text-figs. 4 and 5) brings out this radial distribution in a remark-

able way and beautifully explains the dispersal of the torrential fishes

of this part of the world. When a mountain arc is uplifted a fore-

deep is usually formed at its base which would account for the radial

distribution of the sluggish water fishes also. For instance, the

alluvium-filled trough through which the Ganges flows in the North

Indian plains is of the nature of a foredeep, a slight buckling down

of the upper crust in front of the: convex mountain arc. The

TECTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA: ITS FISH GEOGRAPHY

TEXT-FIG. 5.—Continuation of the Himalayan arc westwards into the

Alpine system. Modified after M. S. Krishnan (ibid, 84: 25).

Brahmaputra Valley in Assam is a continuation of the same feature.

The thickness of the alluvium is variously estimated to be between

6,000 to 10,000 ft.

88 96

64 72

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TEXT-FIG. 6.—Pliocene foredeep of Himalayas which later gave rise to

the Siwalik Hills) and during Pliocene helped in the distribution of freshwater

fishes from east to west. After M.S. Krishnan (Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci., India,

1: 28, 1952).

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

In the early Pleistocene, this foredeep ran as the Indo-Brahm

River at the base of the Himalayas, following its curve, from Assam

to the Arabian Sea. . The Miocene-Pliocene foredeep is now raised

up as the Siwalik hills forming the outer Himalayas (Text-fig. 6).

The Siwaliks extend from China, through India along the Alpine-

Himalayan chain of mountains. The distribution of freshwater fishes.

fully supports such a palaeographic feature of these regions.

OTHER POINTS OF BIOGEOGRAPHICAL INTEREST

In the above few paragraphs, I have tried to show how helpful

can be Dr. M. S. Krishnan’s Memovr in the study of biogeographical

problems. It is needless to say that there are many other points

in it to which attention could be directed. For instance, (i) a marine

transgression of Middle Miocene separated Ceylon from the mainland

by a very shallow sea (p. 89); (11) to the north of the Himalayan

region is a belt of negative anomalies passing through the Pamirs

and Ferghana Valley where the free-air anomalies are said to attain

magnitudes of about minus 150 milligals. Mushketov has suggested that

this region is one of recent uplift in addition to having been affected by

the Himalayan orogeny (p. 82); (ili) the Himalayan orogeny affected

the southern flank of the ‘fore deep’ at each stage thereby it suffered

elevation. In Chota Nagpur, Bihar, four regional uplifts have been

noted—1. Lower Tertiary uplift of 1,000 ft.; 2. Middle Tertiary

(Mid-Miocene?) uplift of 1,000 ft.; 3. A further uplift of 300 ft. ;

and 4. A still further later uplift of 400 ft. Dr. Krishnan notes that

along latitude 25°N. there was practically. no movement, this being

2700°

2300°

2000’

1000°

SEA-LEVEL

N TROUGH ZY HINGE UPLIFT

ZONE A ZONE

WS ASS ee LAT. 25 LAT. 23°

SS, ‘

~N Ss alee

™ —

Trxt-ric. 7.—The epeirogenic uplift of Chota Nagpur Plateau in four

stages. Copied from Dr. M. S. Krishnan, after J. A. Dunn (Mem. Geol. Surv.,

India, 78: 141, 1939).

of the nature of a hinge zone located somewhere of the southern

limb of the trough (pp. 58, 59) and {iv) there are evidences of

the recent uplift movements of the Himalayas. [or instance, the

Siwalik Zone bordering on the Gangetic plains is thrust over by

the Miocene rocks in the Kalka region below Simla. The Karewa

TECTONIC HISTORY OF INDIA: ITS FISH GEOGRAPHY 701

formations in Kashmir, of Middle Pleistocene age, are known to have

been uplifted a few thousand feet on the flanks of the Pir Panyjal

range. The Second interglacial deposits, which contain the remains of

early tool-making man, have suffered uplift in the North-western

Himalayas. In parts of the Eastern Himalayas, especially in the

Darjeeling and Bhutan regions, the thrust masses have advanced on

the plains, the age of the thrust being later than the Upper Siwalik

Conglomerate (i.e. Pleistocene).

A student of Indian biogeography will find answers to many of

his riddles in Dr. M. S. Krishnan’s Memoir on ‘The Structural and

Tectonic History of India’ and it will be equally useful for the

zoogeographical studies of the Oriental Region as a whole.

SOME STUDIES ON TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER

CRABS, UCA MARIONIS NITIDUS (DANA) AND

U. ANNULIPES (LATR.)

R. ALTEVOGT

Zoologisches Institut der Universitat, Minster, Germany

(With 13 figures and 1 table)

CONTENTS

PAGS

A. INTRODUCTION AND PRESENT KNOWLEDGE ic sae con) (AUP

B. MATERIAL AND METHODS one Bo ee ae soo (AUB

CC. 1. THe FippLer Crass OF BANDRA, BOMBAY, AND THEIR BIOTOPE coo. 9 AUS

(a) Temperatures at various spots of the Habitat B: -- 706.

(b) Behaviour towards Enemies ... 5b Ee coo CAN

2. Feeding Hes 568 60d es see soo AGA

3. Waving, Fighting, ‘Territory’ and Copulation ... bd oa AU)

4. Burrow digging a. a disk or coo | ile

D. SUMMARY 745

716

E. LITERATURE

A. INTRODUCTION AND PRESENT KNOWLEDGE

The sexual dimorphism in fiddler crabs of the genus Uca has

aroused the interest of a number of workers since the first halt

of the last century. Its bearing on problems of anatomy, physiology,

behaviour and evolution has been studied in various places and led

to quite different, and sometimes contradictory, opinions as to the

meaning and function of waving. Thus F. Miller (1869), C. Darwin

(1871) and A. Alcock (1902) thought that waving is a means of

recognition among the sexes, and that by waving the males attract

the females. Other authors like A. S. Pearse (1912-1914) and J.

Verwey (1930) favoured the opinion that by waving the males only

demarcate their dwelling and feeding territory, and that it has nothing

whatever to do with courtship and sexual behaviour. The same view

is emphasized by H. Hediger (1930 a, b) who studied Uca tangeri

Eydoux, the fiddler crabs on the estuary of the Regreg River in

French Morocco. Extensive studies on Uca-species of the American

coasts by J. Crane (1941-1943) showed that ‘waving definitely plays

a large part in courtship’ (1941, p. 152) and ‘that each species proved

to have a definite, individual display, differing . . . markedly from

every other species observed’ (ibid.).

pes.

n of Uca annul

specinie

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Figs. 4-6. Major cheliped of a small, medium and large

specimen of Uca marionis nitidus.

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS 703

Since J. Crane’s werk no studies seem to have been done on

Uca'. Regarding the Indian species of this highly interesting

group of Crustacea there are no reports available except those by

A. Alcock (1902) who observed Gelasimus annulipes (=Uca a.) on

the mud flats of the Godavari and Kistna banks and—though not

directly relevant—by J. Verwey who studied Uca signatus Hess and

a few other species near Batavia. As sufficient knowledge about

Uca in general and the Indian species in particular is lacking, each

further study on them is to be appreciated. And it is for this

reason that the following notes—incomplete as they are—are given,

which, moreover, are hoped to encourage some competent Indian

readers to further observations and investigations on the subject.

B. MATERIAL AND METHODS

After a zoological excursion to India in 1953, which was headed

‘by Professor Dr. B. Rensch and aided by grants from the ‘Deutsche

Forschungsgemeinschaft’ and the Ministry of Culture of Nordrhein-

Westfalen, I could stay for two weeks near an Uca-bank on the beach

in Bandra (Bombay). This was mainly made possible by the generosity

of our Indian friends Sdlim Ali and Humayun Abdulali in whose

house I lived quite close to the beach and could work nearly all day

except, of course, during high tides. In determining the crabs observed

and collected I was greatly aided by Dr. R. Bott (Senckenberg-Museum,

Frankfurt Main), who also compiled the list of synonyms cited below.

That I could personally compare the Uca-material of the Bayrische

Staatssammlungen is due to the friendly help of Dr. W. Engelhardt,

Munich. My warmest thanks are due to all the persons and

institutions mentioned.

The period of observation lasted from 24-5-1953 to 7-6-1953.

Sitting on a stone I could easily keep a close watch on the inhabitants

of an area chosen at will and measuring about 11 sq. yds. A 6x 30

binoculars proved useful and even necessary for detailed observation

of certain movements of the animals. Since so little is known about

the type of waving, which apparently varies from species to species,

and about the peculiar technique of feeding, which still remains a sort

.of mystery to zoologists, even the slightest details are worthy of

record. Luckily enough I could take some motion pictures covering

the feeding, waving, and burrow digging of the crabs with a 16 mm.

Bolex cine camera. Back home these pictures proved very useful

in determining the frequency of feeding and waving movements, the

method of digging and transporting the mud-pellets, and so on.

Individual crabs were marked by fixing labels of yellow cloth on their

‘backs with waterproof glue. Thus I could ‘shadow’ and re-recognize

them quite easily after the tides. In watching Ucas it is absolutely

mecessary to keep as quiet as possible, because even the slightest

—

* Recently, H. M. Peters has visited some Uca places of El Salvador; his

‘Observations are about to be published, while the taxonomic results of his visit

_ ‘have just appeared in R. Bott: ‘Dekapoden aus El Salvador. 1. Winkerkrabben

(Uca)’. Senckenbergiana Biologica, 35: 155-180, 1954.

704. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

movement on the part of the observer sends the crabs scuttling down

into their holes. A person at rest, however, does not seem to disturb.

them at all, even at fairly close quarters. i ee

At the end of the watching period a number of Ucas was preserved.

in 10% formaldehyde for determining the species and for studies on

the spoontipped hairs (J. Crane 1941). These minute but important

structures are to be found on the inner edge and wall of the merus of

the second maxilliped. For anatomical details, position and terminology

of the mouth-parts concerned see fig. 1. Measuring the width

Carpus ‘propus =

MAIS

Re \) Ss

372 _. See SS

SoS

Spoontipped Hairs — =a

New

Merus

Fic..1 The anatomy of the second maxilliped in Uca.

and length of these spoontipped hairs was done from photographs.

taken with the Leitz microphotography-set and a Leitz-microscope.

The temperatures in various spots of the biotope were measured.

thermo-electrically with an instrument by Dr. Goedecke and Kleemann.

(‘Gekatest’) the error of which is -— 1/10°C. in the range from 21°C...

tOm Aton Ge

_.. There were two species of fiddler-crabs living side by side in the

biotope, which can be easily told from each other once the main

features of differences in shape, size and colour have been mastered.

The smaller species (carapace sizes of observed and collected individuals

measured up to 15 x 11 mm.) is U. annulipes Latreille (figs. 2 and 3). The

large cheliped of the males shows a fairly smooth external surface

of ,manus, dactyl .and pollex, and there are no noticeable tubercles

except on the base of the lower margin of the manus where a ridge

of, small tubercles can be felt. The gape between pollex and dactyl

is made up by straight to smoothly curved lines of small serrations

which are interrupted only by 2 to 4 more prominent teeth on the inner

edge of dactyl and pollex (see fig. 2)... Waving males of this species.

9uRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiatEe III

———_ -_—_-

Fig. 7. Uca marionis nitidus, habitat and hole.

Fig. 8. Refused mud-pellets of Uca in linear arrangement

radiating from entrance of crab’s hole,

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fig. 10

Spoontipped hairs of merus of second maxilliped in

Uca marionis nitidus (Fig. 9) and U. annulipes (Fig. 10)

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN, FIDDLER CRABS 705-

display a bright cherry-red colour of the manus in the large cheliped.

which can change into whitish.

In the second Uca-species concerned, the alone of the large

cheliped is between yellow-orange and te but never eas bright.

This second species is U. marionis (Desmarest) f. nitidus (Dana) (figs.

4-6), which, on the average, is definitely larger than annulipes and

the large chelipeds of which show solid tubercles, especially on the

basal parts of the manus. Moreover, the inner edges of pollex and

dactyl forming the gape are more or less W- Sharan, especially on

the pollex, whereas that of, the dactyl usually is nearly straight except

for x or 2 larger teeth. Carapace in this species measured up to

26x18 mm. There is one more character which might prove useful

in distinguishing the two species in the field: the ‘fingers’ of the

large cheliped (pollex and dactyl) when thought of as in a transverse

section are round in annulipes and broad aad flattened in marionis

mtidus, As U, manonis nitidus apparently shows quite a consider-

able geographic (and ecologic?) variation it has been referred to

in literature under several names, the most important of which are:

Uca marionis (Desmarest) f. nitidus (Dana)

_ Gelasimus marionis Desmarest 1825

Gelasimus cultrimanus Gray 1847

Gelasimus vocans H. Milne-Edwards 1852

Gelasimus nitidus Dana 1852

Gelasimus manoms var. mtidus Alcock 1900

Gelasimus marioms Alcock 1900

Gelasimus marionis Tweedie 1937

Gelasimus marionis nitidus Tweedie 1937

Uca marioms nitidus Tweedie 1950

It should be noted that there is a difference between U. marionis

and U. marionis nitidus in that the W-shaped inner edge of the

pollex in m. mtidus, is only, S-shaped in marionis. Both forms live

side by side in some places, and it is still open to discussion by

systematists whether they can and should be put under the one

heading of U. marioms. If for the sake of brevity only U. marionis

is used in what follows, it must be understood that U. m. nitidus

is meant.

C. 1. THE FIDDLER CRABS OF BANDRA, BOMBAY, AND THEIR BIOTOPE

To get an idea of population density the holes in 5 areas of

4 sq. meters each were counted. There was an average of 36 holes

per sq. meter, and thus an average distance from one hole to the

other of about 17 cm. Of course, in some especially crowded places

the holes were as close together as about 5 cm. It may well be

asked how an individual crab manages to recognize its own hole

in such crowded situations—if there is such a thing as ‘ownership’

of holes at all. Also how the problem of distributing and main-

taining the feeding areas is handled, which, after all must have a

certain size. The entrance to the holes was flat (fig. 7), and no

parapets or ‘funnels’ around the entrance could be seen (as are, for

“706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

instance, built by U. pugilator, J. Dembowsky 1926, J. Crane 1941).

All holes which I opened up ended in the ground water and thus

the inhabitant could get down to the water to wet its gills.

The average depth of the holes was some 30-50 cm., and the deepest

burrow I dug out went as far down as 95 cm. This particular hole

was the farthest removed from the bulk of the population, and

situated on a fairly dry sandy spot among some big stones. Possibly

several occupants had contributed their share of building activity te

it in the course of time, and dug it deeper and deeper. The area

under observation consisted of a sandy mud-flat which ‘fell dry at

every low tide.

Some temperature figures ‘may give a better idea of the biotope:

on 27-5-1953 at 12.00 hours the calm water near the shore was

38°C. about 5 cm. beneath the surface. An isolated small lagoon

of approximately 1 sq. meter in size and with a maximal depth of

about Io cm. averaged 39.3°C., and the dark mud measured 40°C.

at the surface. In and about the lagoon both Uca-species were quite

actively engaged in feeding and fighting, and did not seem to sufter

from the heat at all. In the holes, about 5 cm. beneath the surface,

the temperatures were (average of 10 holes on 2-6-1953): 30.5°C.

at about g.0o hours; 34.1°C. at 11.00 and 36.4°C. at 13.00 hours.

I could not record a higher temperature under the same conditions

in any hole, though | took quite a number of temperatures on days

which I thought to be hotter. It is a remarkable fact that in the

tropics a number of specialized animals live quite close to the

temperature-limit their organism can stand, and a small increase in

temperature would mean certain death to many of them. J. Verwey

tried to find out what the temperature-limit for U. signatus was and

found that 5 signatus could stand atmospheric temperatures in their

cages at 40.6°C. for 1 hour. However, it does not necessarily

mean that the Ucas standing these atmospheric and environmentai

temperatures are as hot as those figures. This was shown fairly

clearly by experiments carried out on Bandra beach which I briefly

summarize here:

On 31-5-1953 I exposed 4 marnonis (29Q and 266) of

approximately the same body-size (carapace 19 x 16 mm.) to direct sun

radiation by keeping them in small glass jars, open on top and

preventing the animals to move. The temperature was measured by

inserting the thermo-needle into the buccal cavity of the animals and

recording every 30 seconds. I do not give all details here, but the

final result only. After half an hour of sun-exposure, during which

the atmospheric temperature in the (hottest) jar had risen from 35 ¢

to 39.8°C. the buccal-temperature of the ‘hottest’ animal was only

35.5°C., in which no increase could be noted during the next 15

minutes. So, the animal being still fairly far from getting its proteins

irresistably denaturated by high temperatures one should be careful

in stating possible causes for the death of Ucas at atmospheric

temperatures of about 41°C. or more, as apparently the animals are still

considerably cooler at this point provided they do not suffer or die from

lack of water (which, of course, means asphyxiation). The only way

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS 70

of getting exact information about the upper temperature-limit of

Uca seems to be heating them to death in gradually warmed up

water—though this procedure is certainly non-Indian in its attitude

and not liked by me, either.

The main enemies of Uca in my place of observation seemed to be

the Indian House Crow (Corvus splendens), the Cattle Egret (Bubulcus.

ibis), and the Paddy Bird (Ardeola grayii). According to Humayun

Abdulali (verbal information) one of the keenest enemies of Uca is

the Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), the long beak of which is ideally

suited for catching the crabs when out of their holes when they

promptly autotomize their big claw to leave it as a sort of scapegoat

in the bill of the enemy while themselves trying to escape to safety..

The bird, however,—possibly by individual learning from experience

—is usually seen to discard the big claw immediately and to seize the

escaping crab forthwith.

It is interesting to note, that a man approaching the Uca-bank

in an erect posture, sends the crabs scurrying into their holes at

a distance of about 8-10 meters. Birds of the first three species.

mentioned give the same effect if flying over the field at a height

of up to 10 meters. Birds at higher altitudes and planes going over

to land at the nearby Santa Cruz airport produced no alarm among

the crabs. In rushing down their holes due to a possible enemy, the

males usually were the first to enter, followed by the females and

the young ones. I never saw an adult male being caught by a.

crow, which of course can happen, but apparently does less frequently

than with females. In this respect adult males seem to be more

on the alert. The above notes indicate that vision, probably, is

fairly highly developed in Uca, though no experiments on colour-

or form-perception have been carried out up till now. It may be

mentioned that a passing shadow, even if moved quickly on and

off a certain individual, had no effect at all provided the object

casting the shadow was well beyond the alarm-limit. This could’

easily be shown by waving one’s hand when just before sunset the

shadows were so lengthened that the moving hand could stay: clearly

out of the alarm-zone of the crab concerned. This behaviour again

indicates the probably good visual acuity of fiddler crabs which in U.

pugnax has been found to be 3.87” by L. B. Clark (1935) using

optomotoric methods.

The average length of time between rushing down before an

enemy and emerging again to look around was about 30 secs. for

the males of marionis (I have noted only these), provided one stayed

perfectly quiet after setting the alarming effect. Sometimes the

emergence after the flight is not done stealthily after peeping out

of the hole ‘with one eye’, so to say, but by a rapid movement of

the whole body which propels the crab right up to the mouth of

the hole whence it darts down again, if there is still any danger.

C. 2. Feeding

About 5 minutes after the tide had left, the first individuals of

both species emerged from their holes. Usually the males were the

last ones to appear. Mud and dirt were removed from the eye-stalks

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

and chelipeds.. Usually the minor cheliped was used to pick the

mud. particles off the eye-stalks and major cheliped, but sometimes

the eye-stalks were simply, drawn through the slightly hairy gape

of the minor cheliped and cleaned this way. After a short time of

building activity, which was confined to clearing the entrance of the

burrow from possible mud deposits and to removing a few ‘handfuls’

of mud from the hole, a definite period of feeding began. Small

particles of the muddy soil were taken from the surface with both

chelipeds (in the females) or with the minor cheliped only (in the

males) and conveyed to the mouthparts. It is by no means clear

which parts of the mud—whether minute algae or bacteria etc.—are

the essential food of the crabs. Also there is still a lot of guessing

about the feeding procedure and the function of the various mouth-

parts in Uca (cf. J. Verwey and J. Crane). What could easily be

seen with the naked eye was that at certain intervals small pellets

of rejected material were deposited on the left or right side of the

‘crab’s body by using the minor cheliped. The crab advancing slowly

when feeding leaves behind more or less straight lines of these

pellets which begin at the entrance of the hole each time the crab

takes up feeding again after a possible flight into its hole. Thus

fairly geometric radiation patterns are sometimes formed (fig. 8).

Counting the frequency of feeding movements, i.e. movements of the

cheliped from the ground to the mouth, in marionis resulted in an

average of 18 movements per 1o secs. in the females and in 15 per

ro secs. in the males, which, of course, can eat with only one

‘hand’. In doing such counts it is important to note that the fre-

quency of the movements varies apparently with the intensity

of appetite and on the toughness and texture of the mud to be

broken into small ‘handfuls’ by the chelipeds. The male handicap

of having only one hand for feeding against the two ‘spoons’ of the

female seems to be countered by the fact that the male small claw

apparently brings more food per feeding movement than the female

claw. This was suggested by a closer scrutiny of the motion-pictures

taken of feeding Ucas. Here the time during which the claw is

in contact with the mouthparts is longer in the males and definitely

shorter in the females, indicating that time is saved in the males

by gripping a fair lot of mud each time the claw takes food from

the soil.

' As the shape of the spoontipped hairs on the merus of the second

maxilliped is very probably typical for each species or at least

species-group, these interesting structures of both species are shown

in figs. 9, 10 and 11. Measurements taken microscopically of hairs

from specimens of varying body-size showed that there is hardly any

evidence to support the view that species-individuals with a large

body-size might take larger particles of mud (or sift larger pieces

out of the mud) by means of the spoontipped hairs than do smaller

individuals. A few figures of the measurements taken may give an

idea of the correlation of carapace-size and width of ‘spoon’ of these

hairs: average width of spoons was 0.046,mm. in marionis specimens

of 13x8 mm. carapace-size, and 0.069 mm. in individuals of

27x 17.5 mm.; in annulipes of 8x.4.5 mm. the spoons were 0.032 mm.,

and 0.046 mm. in specimens.of 15x11 mm. So the spoon-size varies

only by about 1-2/100 mm. even between these extreme variants of

body-size. Thus, the function of the spoon-tipped hairs remains open

for further investigation; maybe they serve as a sort of sieve tor

removing the water from the material, or some other purpose still

unknown. : y

Co Be Warring, Mag ining, “UN Srmib@ry ancl Oj) Mie wo to

There is hardly any serious fighting or waving during the first

feeding period after the tide has gone. Occasionally two males will

exchange a few beats with their great chelipeds if they have approached

each other too closely when following their feeding-paths. The first

full waving occurred between 21 and 38 minutes after the water had

receded. Timing. the frequency of waving movements by means of a

stop-watch has not too much sense as it varies with the intensity

of display and action-specific energy. Thus my first countings on

20 large specimens of marionis averaged 1 waving movement per

every 4 seconds. Countings on a fairly large number of individuals

finally showed that the shortest time from one waving to the next

‘one was somewhat shorter than 1 sec. And the film-scenes taken

on 24 full waving’ movements revealed that the shortest interval

between two wavings is 12 frames with the 16 frames/sec.-speed—

which means 2 sec. Thus, observation in the field and evaluation

of the film-scenes gave nearly the same figure, indicating that U.

marionis waves at t sec. at its best (in May-June). Whether there

‘may be an increase in waving-frequency during a different time of the

year is not yet known, and open to observation by Indian biologists.

Apparently, however, May-June is part of the breeding season, as

quite a number of ovigerous females were seen. 2

The temporal and spatial components of the waving movement in

U, marionis, as revealed by the movie-camera, are shown in fig. 1

which was drawn after the film. A brief description may serve as

further clarification of the’ process: From the resting position on the

ground—in front of the crab’s body—the big claw is gradually and

comparatively slowly (see the time scale in fig. 12) raised towards an

upward-outward position. During this part of the waving process

the animal’s body is more and more raised towards an ‘on toes’-tip

position’ and the small claw is also brought straight upwards. When

this climax is reached, a very sharp quick down-beat of both claws

in an inward-downward direction follows, at the end of which the

original resting position with great claw on ground in front of the

«rab is restored. This sharp down-beat—especially, of course, of

the great claw—is quite conspicuous, as it gives a very quick and

definite impression after the somewhat slow and ‘hesitating’ upwards

lifting. Thus it is this part of the waving movement in marionis, that

gives one really the impression of a beckoning or ‘Come on!’ gesture:

Moreover, it is this down-beat beckoning that seems to be the constant

factor in the otherwise varying movement of waving, as in 21 (out

710 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

of 24) scenes it lasts 2/16 seconds each. Thus the down-beat lasts:

about 4 second, whereas the upward-on-toes’ ‘tip- and claw-outward.

movement varies from 2 to a few seconds. I do not know very

much as yet about the details of waving in the smaller species U.

annulipes as I did not take any motion-pictures. These, however,

are necessary for a’ precise analysis since the naked eye is too

subjective an instrument for observation of such quick and complicated’

0 1 2 S 4 Quarter -sec.

Fic. 12 Waving movement in Uca marionis nitidus: its temporal and spatial

components in relation to the time-scale (after motion-pictures).

happenings as the ‘waving’ of fiddler crabs. What can be said is

that in annulipes the waving cheliped is usually brought into a

definitely more lateral-outward position than in marionis, and that

by this characteristic one can tell the species. A similar difference

in this outward flexion of the great cheliped was to be seen between

very large and small specimens of marions. As the extremely large

individuals of this species had aroused my interest for reasons of

allometric growth and allied phenomena, I paid special attention to

4 very large marionis males and labelled them. Thus I could shadow

them and watch (and partly film) their type of waving for 5 days.

Never during this time’ did I see that these ‘monster’ specimens.

waved in the normal manner of medium-sized and smaller individuals.

The waving frequency of these ‘big four’ was sometimes at its peak

(at intervals of # sec.), but the outward flexion angle of their large

cheliped never was as great as in specimens of average dimensions.

This difference in outward flexion angle of the great claw is possibly

due to the well-known fact (see J. S. Huxley et al. 1931, J. S. Huxley

and F. S. Callow 1933) that with increasing body-size the male great

claw of Uca tends to become disproportionately large and—what is.

more important in regard to waving—heavy. The growth-center of

this positive allometry of the great claw is situated in the propodit

of the great cheliped, and thus the center of gravity is more and

more shifted towards rather distal parts of the crab’s body. How

*(ganjord-uonour-uIul 9]

e UIOI]) I[eUIo} (SUIPoI]) Je SUIAVM UOT}LINOTOD ‘sagdynuun DID

, 4 5 ° . ee .Q a : ‘ 4 hog

Avjdsip ul snpijiu siuoinu VIZ JO FRI “SI “sly Ul JUIUTIOSULIIe [eIN}eU UT sIIey poddyuoodg “‘[] sy

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS V1h.

far this state of ‘overbalance’ (J. S. Huxley et al. 1931, p. 329) can:

go may be seen from some data of my table of weights (Table 1):

TaBLtE 1. Marked positive allometry of weight of major cheliped in relation to.

body-weight in Uca marionis nitidus (Nos. 8-17) and U. annulipes (Nos. 1-7).

No | Total body weight | Weight of major cheliped

| g | g

I | 0:22 0°05

2 0:23 0:06

3 0:35 0°14

4 0°45 0°15

5 0°55 0°18

6 1-40 0 35

7 1-60 053

8 2°40 0:87

i) 3°30 1-06

10 3°35 1:07

11 3°90 1-65

12 3°92 1°57

13 7°00 | 2°61

14 7:18 2°66

15 7°30 2°79

16 7.33 | 2°69

17 7°40 | 3°56

In a marionis $ with a total weight of 7.40 g. the large cheliped

weighs 3.56 g. Thus nearly half the total weight is made up by

the large claw, and hence it seems comprehensible that such a heavy

structure cannot be waved the same way as a lighter one could. The

final stage of a marked positive allometry here seems to have a direct

bearing on the type of waving. A similar situation shows up between

the waving-type of U. signatus and U. consobrinus DeMan (Verwey

1930). In the smaller species U. consobrinus the large cheliped is.

brought into a much more lateral position at the peak of the waving

movement than in the larger U. signatus. Verwey thinks of

morphological differences in the chelipeds as the causing factor, but

weight and balance may also play quite an important role in this.

problem.

Except during the periods of feeding and building, after and

before high tide, waving was sure to occur when a female was seen

by a male (fig. 13). Sometimes a male would also wave towards

another male, if the latter’s back was turned towards him and his.

large cheliped hidden from view. This fact supports Verweys’

suggestion that the visual perception of form is so well developed

in Uca that the males recognize the females from the absence of

the large cheliped. Quite frequently one could see that a waving

male turned his back towards the ‘target’ waved at. This can be

done because the spatial angle of binocular vision is somewhat like’

180° (L. B. Clark 1935 and W. v. Buddenbrock 1944) so that there

is no spatial limit of vision towards the rear of the animal. Once-

I watched a dancing male, his back facing ‘his’ female—who, as.

112 JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY .NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

usual, continued to. feed! He danced around her in a circle of about

2 ft. diameter, and repeated this circle a full five times. Then a crow

crossed the scene at about 3 meters above the ground which sent

all other fiddlers down the holes in a rush. This particular male,

however, remained outside and stood in a sort of stiff position with

both claws rigidly stretched up and outwards for some 15 secs.

(‘threatening position’, see below). I never saw any female respond

to the sometimes frantic waving efforts of the males, nor have former

authors done so. Great as the stimulus of the female’s presence may

‘be to the male’s waving activity—since waving frequency is usually

increased by her proximity—the female herself takes no apparent

interest in his display.

The threatening gesture as described above with both chelipeds

stretched laterally upwards and body lifted on tip-toe could be seen

-quite often if two males approached each other too closely. This posture

was sometimes maintained for as long as 20 secs. The females of

OS TOROS COC SinOwecd tne GaAimmne threatening

DOSE W # S Pearse and Crane have also seen females threatening i in this

manner in U. pugnax Smith, while Verwey and Hediger in their reports

-on U. consobrinus, ‘signatus and tangeri Epica: the opinion that

there is no female threatening as the females ‘ne possedes pas d’armes

efficaces’ (1933 @, p. 256).

The fighting of the males has been ieserined in detail by Verwey,

‘Crane and others, and my observations on the two Indian species

‘concerned cannot report anything additional, so that the reader is

referred to these authors. 3

Fighting, however, has not yet been reported in the females

-of U..marionis and annulipes, and some authors think that female

Ucas in general do not fight at all. If two females of my Indian

species approached each other, they would (except during the feeding

and building period) take the typical threatening posture for a short

while with body lifted tip-toe, and then strike out with some rapid and

apparently fairly strong blows with the first 2 or 3 legs of one side,

sometimes aided by the claw of the same side for beating. The flight of

the weaker opponent ends the fight, which is the same thing as in the

fights of the males. I have never seen a fight between a male and

a female (one more indication of the probably good recognition of

sexes).

The question of the ‘meaning’ of the waving habit and its:

function, then, must—at least as regards my two Indian species

-—be answered by an inquiry into the sense of territory. If waving

is a means of demarcating territory, then it should be shown that

a particular male sticks to his burrow for a longer time than just

for an occasional visit or for one high tide. If there is no such

more or less permanent attachment to the hole, then waving must

be interpreted as belonging to the pattern of display and courtship.

Shadowing and following the paths of my labelled individuals

showed me quite convincingly ‘that in both species there

was no true sense of territory. From one high tide

‘to the next one I found that labelled animals had travelled as far

TWO. SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS 713

as 14 meters, as their new hole was that far away from the hole

Jast occupied.

I plainly saw that labelled males ‘migrate’ 6-10 meters from ‘their’

holes waving, fighting and even rendering ‘help’ in building at clearly

foreign holes en passant. Moreover, when caused to flee in

alarm, the fiddlers often would not run towards a certain hole, but

take to any sufficiently closeby; sometimes a big specimen would

try to get down a hole which happened to be too small for him

so that part of him remained outside. Possibly, some American

fiddlers, even in alarm-flight try to reach a certain (and always

the same) hole.

Thus, I must state that in U. marionis and annulipes waving

has nothing to do with a sense of territory, and may imply a bearing

on courtship and display. As a direct response by the females to this

type of male display has rarely or never been seen by investigators

(including me) many problems remain to be solved in this respect.

However, one single copulation seems sufficient for the insemination

of several spawnings (H. Balss, 1927).

Equally small is our knowledge as regards the normal pattern of

copulation. Pearse (1914) has seen 5 copulations of U. pugilator in

the laboratory, and in 1930 Verwey stated that the authors ‘do not

seem to have seen any copulations under natural conditions, though

fiddler crabs are so frequently to be seen; maybe, copulation takes

place in the holes’. Since then, Crane (1941) has watched 5 copulations

in U. stylifera, beebei and stenodactyla, but nevertheless she thinks

it probable ‘that copulation usually takes place in the burrow of the

male’ (p. 157), since the holes dug by the females are usually too

small in diameter. I was fortunate enough to witness 2 copulations

of U. marionis which happened on the same afternoon, 29-5-1953, at

about 18.00 hrs. with a 20-minute interval between the two. Apparently

there was no waving specially ‘aimed at’ the relevant female, but in

both cases there was a rapid flight of the female due to chasing by

the male, covering about 50 and 80 cm. and—in one case—ending at

about 20 cm.’s distance from my feet. (The fiddler had never before

approached me so closely even when I kept perfectly quiet.) The

males got hold of the females by gripping them from the side, catching

their legs first and using the big claw as a forceps. Then, by

‘handling’ the females with their ambulatories and—mainly-—their

big claw, the males turned the females ‘face to face’, so that the

ventral sides were facing each other. A quiet interval followed during

which copulation took place and which lasted 6 and 8 minutes

respectively. During this quiet phase the big claw of the male rested

on top of the female’s ‘forehead’, so that both her eyestalks were

at first kept down and only one could later be raised into the normal

erect position. There was some gentle stroking by the males with

their ambulatories. After the partners had separated, both of them

started feeding immediately without taking any further notice of each

other. In both cases I caught the partners to take their carapace

measurements: ‘d1 19% 13-5,°191 15x10 mm.; and d2 18x12,

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Comparing the type of copulation observed by me with Crane’s.

description of the process in the American species mentioned above,

there are some similarities: the same position, the same gentle

stroking, and the same quiescent period. The differences in the

American species described are: There was no use at all of the big

claw in catching the female partner; during the quiescent phase the

big claw was definitely held free from any contact with the female

partner; the longest time of copulation was only 3 mins.

One cannot as yet tell whether the few copulations seen in Uca up:

to now, do represent the normal type of mating, and more information

is urgently wanted. Nevertheless, a brief glance at some observations.

of crustacean copulation cited in literature may be useful, especially

as it gives a sort of frame-work to the ‘forced’ copulation observed by

me: In Astacus fluviatilis, the European crayfish, ‘for copulation the

male seizes the female with his “‘scissors’’ (chelipeds), turns her forcibly

and sheds his seminal fluid’ (W. Dréscher, 1906). According to G.

Brandes (1897) the male of Galathea strigosa uses his claws to seize

the female for mating, and of Eupagurus prideauxit quite a similar

habit is reported, the claws always being used as forceps to get hold

of the female. True, all these cases deal with Astacura, in which only

the spermatophore has to be fixed to the female telson, and in a

brachyuran, like Uca, internal insemination has to be accomplished,

but the similarity of the cases cited from the literature and my own

observations seems worthwhile to be mentioned. C. Darwin’s conjecture

that ‘the main purpose of it (of the large cheliped) probably is to

seize and hold the female’ (1871, p. 297) is proved to be correct

from my experience at least in U. marionis, though besides this.

there may be another type of mating behaviour in this and the other

species.

C.4. Burrow digging

Seen as a whole, the population of a Uca-bank will show that

after the periods of feeding and waving-fighting-(evtl.), copulating—

the preparation of holes for the next tide is commenced which ends.

in the closing of the holes by their inhabitants from within. During

this phase of digging burrows a newly increased feeding activity

is to be noted. There are reports by Pearse, Dembowsky, Verwey

and Crane on the technique applied by Uca in digging holes, and

principally the same habit as described by these authors could be

observed in my two Indian species as well—using the first 2 or 3

ambulatories of the side of the small claw to hold and transport the

mud-balls taken from the interior of the hole, the small claw being

used as an additional hand for properly ‘embracing’ the mud-balls.

After the hole had been dug to a sufficient depth marionis and

annulipes would get down and close their holes from inside by pushing”

up a plug of moist soil, taken from the interior, upwards into the

entrance. This plug is kept in place, because the edges surround-

ing the entrance have usually been specially prepared by the

crab. Before going down for the tidal duration the animal takes

a sort of riding position on the edge of the hole, left legs and claw

TWO SPECIES OF INDIAN FIDDLER CRABS at

on the inside (within the entrance) and right legs and claw on the

outside of the hole (or vice versa). Then, moving in circles around

the entrance in this ‘riding’ position the crab drags the mud of the

edge centripetally, so that the diameter of the opening becomes

progressively narrower. During these riding circles the crab’s body

gradually spirals down the hole, so that through the smallest diameter

of the final opening only some legs are out and to be seen. This

final opening then is plugged the way described above, the prepared

edges of wet mud supporting the plug. Possibly this ‘preparation’

of the edges in our two species may have something in common with

the habit of building ‘funnels’ and similar superstructures in some

other Uca-species as described by Pearse and Verwey, and by Cowles

(1908) in Ocypode arenaria.

The time between closing the hole by the last Uca out and the

arrival of high tide covering the bank was a minimum of 30 minutes

and a maximum of 45 minutes. This shows that fiddlers ‘know’

about the arrival of the water beforehand, this ‘knowledge’, of course,

being only the human aspect of a tidal rhythm by which the relevant

periods of activity (i.e. opening the hole, feeding, fighting-waving-

courting, digging, and closing the hole) are synchronized with the

course of high and low tide (see Brown and co-workers 1949,

1951, 1953)-

How complicated the situation in Uca is, in spite of this concept

of tidal rhythms, may however be seen from a few notes in my diary:

‘One afternoon the water had left the Uca-bank at 18.00 hrs., but no

fiddler appeared, since at 19.15 hours it would be getting dark already.

So the crabs ‘knew’ that there was no use coming out of their holes

though the tide was getting low. There were several days, however,

when at 19 hours the whole observation area was crowded with feeding

and digging Ucas, so that there can be no question as to 19 hours

being too late a time for the crabs’ daily activity. No Ucas were out

when I visited the place during two nights with full moonlight and

‘clear skies at about 2 a.m., this finding being in accord with Crane’s

‘observations, but in contrast to Pearse, who apparently has seen

nocturnal activity in Ucas.

D. SUMMARY

1. [The paper contains a study of the behaviour of the fiddler

«crabs Uca marionis nitidus Dana and U. annulipes Latr. in their

habitat on the beach near Bandra, Bombay. Biological and ecological

factors are taken into account (enemies, temperatures).

2. Marked individuals of both species showed that there is no true

sense of territory, and that waving most probably is part of the

display pattern.

3. The type of waving (species-specific) in U. marionis nitidus was

‘observed, filmed and analyzed by evaluating the motion-pictures.

Temporal and spatial components of the waving movement are dealt

with in detail. Quickest waving followed at 2? sec.-intervals and was

definitely stimulated by the presence of females.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

4. In U. marionis nitidus there is a threatening gesture in the

females also, which is quite similar to the corresponding posture.

in the males. Threatening and fighting of the females are described.

5. Iwo copulations in U, marionis nitidus (not reported until now

of this species, and very rarely of other Ucas) could be seen and

watched from close quarters. They represent a type of mating

behaviour not observed before in Uca.

E. LITERATURE

Alcock, A. (1902): On the habits of Gelasimus annulipes. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

Sirs Gy akek |

— — — (1902): A Naturalist in Indian Seas, London, 328 pp. 212-219.'

Balss, H. (1927): Decapoda. In. Hdb. d. Zool., 8,1. Halfte, 949ff., Berlin.

Brandes, G. (1897): Zur Begattung der Decapoden. Biol. Zbl., 17: 346-350.

Brown, F. A. and Webb, H. M. (1949): Studies of the daily rhythmicity of the.

keller crab Uca. Modifications ou light. Physiol. Zool. 22: 136-148.

Brown, F. A. and Stephens G. C. (1951): Studies of the daily rhythmicity of the

fiddler Grab Uca. Modifications by photoperiod, Biol. Bull., 104: 71-83.

Brown, F. A., Fingerman, M., Sandeen, M. J. and Webb, M. (1953) : Bersitent

diurnal and tidal rhythmicity of color. change in the fiddler crab, Uca pugnax. J.

exp. Zool., 123: 29-60.

v. Buddenbrock, W. (1944): Physiologie der Decapoden. Bronns Klassen und.

Ordnungen des Tierreichs 5, 1 Abt., 7. Buch, 863ff., Leipzig. i)

Clark, L. B. (1935): The visual acuity of the fiddler crab, Uca pugnax. J.

genet. physiol., 19: 311-319.

Cowles, R. P. (1908): Habits, reactions and associations in Ocypode arenaria.

Pap. ee Lab. Carn. Inst. Washington, 2: 1-41.

Crane, J. (1941) : Crabs of the genus Uca from the West Coast of Central America.

Zoologica, 26 : 145-207.

— — — (1943): Display, breeding and relationship of fiddler crabs (Brachyura,

Genus Uca) in the North-Eastern United States. Zoologica, 28: 217-223.

Darwin, Ch. (1871): Die Abstammung des Menschen und die geschlechtliche

Zuchtwahl 1, Stuttgart.

Dembowsky, J. (1925): On the speech of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilator. Travaux.

de V’Institut Nencki 3, Nr. 48, 7 pp., Warschau.

Dréscher, W. (1906): Der Krebs und seine Zucht. Berlin.

Hediger, H. (1933 a): Notes sur la biologie d’une crabe de l’embouchure de

l’?Oued Bou Regreg, Uca tangeri (Eydoux). Bull. Soc. Sci. Nat. dw Maroc, 18:

254-299.

— — — (1933 b): Beobachtungen an Ger marokkanischen Winkerkrabbe, Uca:

tangeri (Eydoux). Verh. d. Schweiz. Naturf. Ges. Bern, 114: 388-389.

Huxley, J. S. and Callow, F. S. (1933): A note on the asymmetry of the fiddler

crab (Uca pugilator). Roux’ Archiv, 129: 379-392.

Pearse, A. S. (1912): The habits of fiddler crabs. Philipp. Journ. Sci., 2 D, 7:

113-133.

— — — (1914): On the habits of Uca pugnax (Smith) and U. pugilator (Bosc.)

Transact. Wisconsin Acad. Sci., 17: 791-801.

Verwey, J. (1930): Einiges tiber die Biologie ostindischer Mangrovekrabben.

Treubia, 12: 167-257.

Wells, H. G., Huxley, J. and Wells, G. P. (1931): The Science of Life, 329-330,

London.

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES.

AND NATIONAL PARKS

Ido 15 (Gir, Mis, ColllooSe

Part II

(With 4 plates)

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION 500 side ae 500 anern Geld

STATE WILD LIFE Boarps : ws ee eras |

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, TOOLOGIOAL PARKS, ivionrerean Parks, WILD LIFE

SANCTUARIES, AND NATIONAL P'ARKS ae Bsa are 366 eA

SOME POTENTIAL NaTIONAL PaRKs ins ia ae aaa AS s

1. ASSAM ce Bae me ae fee S00 (ie

2. BENGAL ve ee Sine bbe ce 608 AR:

38. MapHyA PRADESH ee as iets bee ee ana eee ind

4. Mysore a a eae sts ace 500 Uae:

5. UtTar PRADESH ~ (23.

THE PLANTING OF TREES, AND THE Timeonmennon OF Witp LIFE FROM OursIDE 725.

GRAZING OF DOMESTIC CATTLE ... ee ae sak S00 GAR

ADMINISTRATION IN GENERAL A: Ae Jes Baer oF

OccASIONAL SHOOTING BY PRIVILEGED BERCONG t33 bas ooo (ahs

POACHING owe Br aa boc 500 (PRY

CREATION OF NATIONAL DAR Ree er aes oe 450 Gals

CONCLUSION sae ee ae as Sar 500 Gey}:

REFERENCES... i a Aer ee — so GOR.

JENEDERTOMDIUEC TM IEOnN

Since writing the paper ‘The Management of India’s Wild Life:

Sanctuaries and National Parks’ published in this Society’s Journal

Vol. 51, No. 1 (December 1952), considerable progress has been made

in India for the preservation of wild life. The Inaugural Session

of the Indian Board for Wild Life was held at Mysore from 25th

November to 1st December 1952, and the Resolutions adopted there

have been published. Many of these have since been accepted by

the Government of India, and some of them are now actually being

put into operation.

The Executive Committee of the above Board held its first meeting

at Kanha Sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh from 29th October to and

November 1953, and the recommendations made by it have been

published in Indian Wild Life Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2 (November

1953).

cae writer, moreover, has been able to contact personally many

more highly placed people in India and elsewhere directly concerned

with preservation of wild life, and he has been able to visit some

of the wild life sanctuaries in the States of NUyssonte, Assam, Bengal,

Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. ~

In, addition, visits have been made to some of ite Aaconal parks.

and other mild life centres of Britain, Switzerland, Kenya,.

Alls JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Tanganyika and Uganda; and discussions and exchanges of views

have been held with officials concerned with these places.

It is in the light of the developments outlined above that this

second paper has been written, as Part II of the previous paper.

STATE WILD LIFE BOARDS

As it was anticipated, the preservation of wild life in India will |

be mainly, if not entirely, in the hands of the Forest Department,

advised by Wild Life Boards. The system of Wild Life Boards has

been set up in India, with the Indian Board for Wild Life at the

Centre and State Wild Life Boards in the States. By now a number

of States have actually created their Wild Life Boards, and it is

becoming apparent that the composition of these Boards will need

careful consideration.

It is essential that the most suitable persons, both official and

non-official, be appointed to sit on these Boards. While the

-appointment of officials would naturally be by virtue of their official

position as heads of the Departments concerned, or their deputies,

the selection of non-officials is more complicated.

The actual wording of the Mysore resolution on the subject, No.

3, (a), reads as follows: “That each State Government should be

requested to set up a State Wild Life Board consisting of represen-

tatives of various organisations and interests to deal with the

day-to-day administration of local wild life problems’. The word

‘representatives’ should be carefully noted. It is most important that

the non-official members of such Boards should not just be nominated

by a Minister or Chief Conservator of Forests, but should actually

represent natural history or wild life societies and interests, sporting

Organisations and interests, publicity interests, public opinion and

so forth. }

In order that persons may effectively represent their respective

organisations and interests, they must obviously be chosen by those

organisations and interests themselves. A Note on this subject was

carefully compiled by the writer and published in the Indian Forester,

Vol. 79, No. 10 (October 1953), and the relevant extract therefrom

is reproduced herewith:

‘4. Non-official Members.—(i) While the choice of official members

should prove comparatively simple and straightforward on the lines

indicated above, the appointment of non-official members will require

careful consideration.

(ii) One or two influential and knowledgeable M.L.A.s who

could “‘put it across’? in the Assembly and on the platform, wouid

be a great asset to any State Wild Life Board. But it is essential

that the Board as’a whole should steer clear of politics. All shades

of public opinion should be represented on the Board. The over-

riding consideration should be to include knowledgeable persons who

can bring an independent outlook to bear on all problems relating

to wild life, irrespective of their political affiliations.

(iii) Most important of the non-officials to be appointed would

be one or two persons of proved experience and knowledge

of wild life problems and wild life conservation. Without such

5suRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Wild elephant (makna). Kaziranga Sanctuary

Wild buffalo bull. Kaziranga Sanctuary

CEVOCOS enn Gee)

Prare II

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

MANAGEMENT OF - INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 719

persons a Board. will’ be of little use. Field naturalists are

preferable to museum or laboratory specialists; and if a qualified

zoologist is chosen he should be a person of practical field experience

rather than textbook knowledge. The claims of wild life conser-

vationists of repute should never be overlooked in the composition

of a State Wild Life Board; and the appointment of such persons

could well be placed in the hands of the Head of the State or of

the Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild Life.

(iv) Any important organization or interest connected with the

study of natural history should be considered for membership. Most

States have some kind of natural history society, or at least a nucleus

of members of the all-India society known as the Bombay Natural

History Society ; and from these a representative should be nominated

by the Society’s committee of management.

(v) Similarly any important game association in a State should

be invited to nominate its representative, as the interests of bona-

fide.sportsmen must always be safeguarded in any scheme for the

preservation of wild life. It is well known that the presence of sports-

men in a forest is always a deterrent to poachers.

5. Other Relevant Points.—(i) In the event of a State possessing:

some outstanding Wild Life Sanctuary or National Park, preference

should be given to persons residing in that locality when appointing

either official or non-official members. Local knowledge and local

influence: are of paramount importance in such cases.

(ii) In any event members of the Board should, as far as possible,

be drawn from different parts of the State Concerned! A. predominance

of members from some particular part or parts of a State would be

unfair.

(iii) Another possible asset as a member of a State Wild Life

Board might be some influential leader, or someone of great eminence

and authority, whose backing in wild life preservation would be of

the greatest moral value. Similarly the proprietor or editor of a

newspaper in general circulation throughout the State would be a

valuable member of any State Wild ie Board. |

(iv) If it is considered desirable to admit as large a number

of non-official persons as possible to a State Wild Life Board, so

as to obtain a wider cross-section of opinion and advice, the Board

would become unwieldy. Two methods of overcoming this unwieldi-

mess might be: (a) to have an ‘Inner’ or ‘Executive Committee’

in control of a larger Board, and (b) to have ‘Associate’ or ‘Cor-

responding Members’ in different parts of the State, who would have

an opportunity of expressing their views on any important questions

in writing, without actually being on the Board.

(v) It is possible that high-ranking ex-officials retired from

service, with inside experience of the legal and administrative diffi-

culties, would be suitable for membership—especially if they were also

Mecledseatic wild life conservationists or experienced sportsmen. ~

(vi) Some States may already have an appointment for a

Game Warden (as in Travancore-Cochin) or Wild Life Officer. In

such cases this official would naturally be on the Board. |

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

(vii) The Government of India have recently appointed

‘Honorary Regional Secretaries for the Indian Board for Wild Life’

for each region of India. These persons are ready to advise States

in the matter of the creation of State Wild Life Boards, and to do

everything possible to help in the preservation of wild life. They

are to ‘maintain liaison between the Central Board and the State

Boards’. It would perhaps be right, therefore, that the Honorary

Regional Secretary should be an honorary or ex-officio member of

the. State Boards within his jurisdiction, and should attend meetings

if and when possible. In any case the agenda and minutes of every

meeting should always be sent to him.

(vill) The above-mentioned methods of obtaining the best

possible representation from the public for the non-official membership

of State Wild Life Boards should also be a guide to the appointing

of Advisory or Managing Boards or Committees, or Trustees, for

any National Parks which might be created in a State.

_ 6. Conclusion. The members, both official and non-official, of

a State Wild Life Board or National Park Committee have a heavy

responsibility to shoulder. For in all cases they will be examining

problems and making recommendations for legislation, not to solve

the difficulties of the present moment but to ensure that wild life will

be preserved for all time.

| The wild life of a State and the areas in which it is found will

be entrusted to their stewardship, to provide for the public enjoy-

ment of them in such a way that they will remain unimpaired for

the enjoyment of future generations.’

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, ZOOLOGICAL PARKS, MUNICIPAL PARKS,

WiLp LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS

There still exists in certain quarters in India some doubt as to

the exact character and functions of the various types of park found

in the world. It would not be out of place, therefore, to deal

briefly with this subject.

1. Zoological Gardens are usually places where as large

a number of the world’s mammals, birds, reptiles, fish, etc. as possible

are on show to the public in as small an area as possible, say 30

to 150 acres. These animals are usually kept in cages or restricted

to small enclosures. The functions of zoological gardens are to.

show animals to the public as conveniently as possible for their

recreation and education, and to provide material for scientific study.

Zoological gardens are museums of living animals. They are usually

found only in the largest cities, as their maintenance depends largely

on gate money, or municipal or State grant. They are usually

managed by a Board of Management or Trustees for a municipality

or for a country, or by a Zoological Society consisting of subscription-

paying members.

2. Zoological Parks are usually places where a selection

of the world’s mammals, birds, etc. are maintained in an environment

as far as possible similar to their natural habitat, in a larger area,

say 300 to 600 acres or more.. The animals and birds are kept in

MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 72h

open fields or small wooded glades or lakes; and it ‘is the human

visitors who are restricted to fenced roadways and paths. They

are usually outside, but not far distant from large cities, as they

also largely depend on gate money for their maintenance.

In both zoological gardens and zoological parks it is more

important to have a high standard of maintenance than to have a

large collection of animals, i.e. the number of animals exhibited

should not exceed the financial resources of an institution.

3. Municipal (or People’s) Parks are usually man-

made parks in towns and cities of any size, without any animals.

or birds necessarily being kept in them. Facilities are often pro-

vided in these for recreation, especially for children. Trees and

plants of any species from any place can be planted in zoological

gardens, zoological parks and municipal parks.

4. Wild Life Sanctuaries are usually places where

some rare wild indigenous animals and birds, or wild life in good

numbers and representative of a region, are considered to be in need

of full protection together with their natural environment. Sanctuaries

in India are created by the Forest Departments of States, by Gazette

Notifications. They can therefore be altered or abolished in a similar

manner. As most of the wild life sanctuaries of India are situated

in the Reserved Forests where the felling of timber takes place

according to a working plan, some sanctuaries have been hitherto

wholly or partly exploited for their forest produce, while the wild

life is left undisturbed as far as possible.

It is recommended by the Indian Board for Wild Life, and it is

obviously desirable, that there should be as little disturbance to wild

life as possible. For this reason it is recommended that there should

be inner sanctuaries within a sanctuary ‘where such operations may

not be carried out, to ensure the nursing up of wild life undisturbed

by human activities. Such sacrosanct areas may be declared as.

Abhayaranya, i.e. a forest where animals could roam about without

fear of man. Such a sanctuary within a sanctuary would also ensure

the preservation of plant life unspoiled and undisturbed.’—Mysore

Resolution No. 6 (b), Note 2.

5- National Parks are usually places which are the same

as really good wild life sanctuaries, with this difference: they are created

by an Act of the Legislature and therefore they have a permanent

status which can only be altered or undone by a subsequent act

of the same Legislature. The definition of a national park for

India as carefully phrased at the Mysore Conference is: ‘An area

dedicated by statute for all time, to conserve the scenery and natural

and historical objects of national significance, to conserve wild life

therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner

and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment

of future generations, with such modifications as local conditions may

demand’,—Mysore Resolution No. 6 (a), Note.

The up-grading of the best existing wild life sanctuaries of India

into national parks by State Legislatures as soon as possible would

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIBP@Y, Vol.) 52

bring the following advantages: (a) These sanctuaries would become

permanent intead of temporary strongholds of wild life, (b) They' would

be more. effectively administrated, (c) They would become more

respected by the public, and poaching would decrease, (d) They

would have an enhanced status, and would become institutions of

national importance, (e) They would possess a national and all-India

significance instead of merely a local one, (f) They would receive

publicity and attract visitors and tourists from abroad and (g) They

may become eligible for receiving some financial assistance from the

Centre, whenever such assistance is possible.

SoME POTENTIAL NATIONAL PARKS

The following wild life sanctuaries, all actual or potential national

parks of India, were visited by the writer since the previous paper

was written, and observations were made as under:

tr. Assam. Some harmful shooting by ‘sportsmen’ and poachers

had been going on round the fringes of Kaziranga Sanctuary, and

sometimes actually inside the boundaries. The relevant resolution

at the Mysore Conference, No. 19, reads: ‘That buffer belts of

sufficient width be declared around all sanctuaries within which no

shooting, other than that required for legitimate crop protection, will be

permitted .....’ The State Government by a Gazette Notification has

duly created such a buffer zone round the four sides of Kaziranga,

and the decrease in poaching has been significant and encouraging.

With regard to the North Kamrup (Manas) Sanctuary, a proposal

has been put forward for a similar sanctuary to be made by the

Bhutan Government on their side of the border. It is understood

that this proposal is receiving favourable consideration in Bhutan.

Should such a sanctuary materialise, and should a co-ordinated inter-

State sanctuary or national park be created by India and Bhutan,

it will be one of the finest in the world for scenery and fauna

combined.

An ‘Assam National Parks Bill’ is in the process of being drafted

for the purpose of up-grading both ie and North Kamrup

Sanctuaries into national parks.

2. Bengal. The writer was able to pay a brief visit to the

jJaldapara Sanctuary in North Bengal in April 1953, and again in

April 1954. ‘Although a few rhino and deer were observed, the

forest, undergrowth and reeds were found to be extremely thick

and the animals difficult to find—even on elephant-back after the

annual burning. It might therefore be advantageous to the Bengal

Government not to create this place as a national park but simply

to maintain it as a carefully protected sanctuary, and to seek some

other locality for development as a national park and show-place for

the public and for tourists from abroad.

Jaldapara could be much improved as a sanctuary if the burning

off of all grassy areas could be done more regularly and more

thoroughly. The addition of the rhino area of Cooch Behar in the

south would be advantageous ; and the creation of a buffer belt, in which

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MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 423.

all shooting other than for genuine crop protection was prohibited,

would help to preserve the valuable rhino and other wild life.

-Madhya Pradesh. Two visits were paid by the writez

to anti Sanctuary, probably better known as the Banjar Valley

Reserve. In the first visit from 29th October to 2nd November 1953

this fine sanctuary was seen in its green freshness before the

maidans had become dried up and burned off. Reminiscent of

English parkland it appeared to the writer as one of the most

pleasant spots of India. The sal and other trees growing in small

woods and as isolated trees throughout the maidans possess a

distinctive natural beauty of their own which no kind of regular

planting by man can equal.

The second visit from 17th to 25th April 1954 showed Kanha after

the maidans had been burned off and the new ‘grass was_ just

beginning to show. The wild life was much more visible during

this visit, and the fine Indian Swamp Deer for which this sanctuary

is renowned were much in evidence. One can motor all over these

maidans; as in Africa, though their extent probably does not exceed

two square miles. Though the freshness of November had gone

with the advent of the hot weather, it seems that February to June

must be the best time to visit this beautiful place—the later the better.

This is one of the best potential national parks of India, provided

that good access roads can be made, the forest village at Kanha

removed or kept under stricter control and a few of the difficulties

caused by its remoteness overcome.

4. Mysore. Bandipur Sanctuary, the ‘sanctum sanctorum’ of

the Venugopal Wild Life Park, was visited twice by the writer

during the Mysore Conference, It is probably unique in India as.

being the only sanctuary with numerous motorable roads—there are

over go miles of them in an area of only 22 square miles. The

‘bison’ or gaur were to be seen in good numbers, and the writer

was close to a herd of 34 of these fine jbeasts for a whole hour

on elephant-back. The Kuruba trackers who locate the wild animals.

for visitors, thus saving considerable time, are a great asset to this

sanctuary, which also contains wild elephant and sambar as well

as chital. Tigers appear to have become very rare, and should be

allowed to re-establish themselves.

This should become one of the premier national parks of India,

especially if one or two small areas of forest could be cleared as

‘view points’, to enable visitors to obtain unobstructed views of the

Nigiri Hills—thus adding beautiful scenery to the attractions of the

place.

5. Uttar Pradesh. The Hailey National Park was visited

from 6th to 15th April 1954. The natural beauty and vivid colour

of this region in the foothills of the Himalayas actually exceeded

expectations, even after reading the descriptions written by E. A.

Smythies and F. W. Champion. The view northwards from the

Dhikala Forest Rest House was very fine, especially to one coming

from the plans: This is perhaps the best part of the Park, and it

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

occurred to the writer that the hills seen in this view, which are

mostly in the Mandal Shooting Block, should obviously be included

in the Park instead of being left outside it. If Dhikala is to be

the show-place and ‘centre’ for visitors, it is reasonable to expect

it to be well inside the Park and not just on the extreme northern

boundary. The valley of the river Ramganga, moreover, with its

fishing, shisham-covered islands and pleasant maidans could very

advantageously be included in the Park. All shooting in this ‘no-

man’s-land’ should be strictly prohibited so that the wild life of the

Dhikala area may become less shy and increase in numbers.

As at Kanha, one of the beauties of this place is the trees, growing

naturally throughout the maidans. ‘These consist of sal, Bauhinia,

kusum, dhak, and so on. This natural beauty is one which cannot

‘be equalled by any regular planting of trees in avenues or lines by

the hand of man.

One of the greatest assets of the Park is the Ramganga, which

is not only a very beautiful river but also provides good fishing

for sportsmen from February to May.

The chital I found to be very shy, especially in the region of

Dhikala—the show-place of the area. At Boksar they were slightly

less shy, and still less so at Paterpani. But even at this latter place

they were far more timid than at Kanha Sanctuary. The forest was

full of wild life—tiger, sambar, barking deer, elephant, peafowl,

junglefowl and others; and of these the tiger is the greatest asset.

It would considerably improve the Park as a sanctuary for wild

life if all felling of trees and such operations by contractors, as well

as all grazing by domestic cattle, were to be prohibited in the

immediate vicinity of the places to which visitors will go, such as

Dhikala, Boksar, Paterpani, Sarapduli, Bijrani, ete. If Dhikala is

to be the main centre of the Park, then all forest exploitation and

undesirable human activity within a radius of at least two miles

snould be prohibited, thus providing the ‘inner sanctuary’ recora-

mended at the Mysore Conference.

It is a great drawback to this Park that it falls under the control

of two different Divisional Forest Officers, those of Kalagarh in the

west and Ramnagar in the east. Visitors, moreover, are at present

obliged to apply unnecessarily to two different officers for admission.

Obviously the Park would be much more effectively controlled and

regulated if it could be made into one administrative unit.

Although this wild and remote but very beautiful national park

was created as far back as 1935, no steps appear to have been taken

to publicise it or open it up for visitors. The Park is accessible only

in the dry months from November to 15th June, for during the

monsoon months it has to be totally evacuated—not even a forest

guard remains there. The construction of so many roads and bridges

for access to the Park and for driving within it during the monsoon

-would be a formidable task and one involving great expense.

But it should not be difficult to open up this beautiful spot, at

least for the serious type of visitor, during the dry season. Accom-

amodation and the other amenities should be provided for the public

MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 729

and for tourists from abroad to attract them, so that they can

enjoy the fine scenery, colourful trees, river fishing and above all

India’s most spectacular wild creature—the tiger.

THE PLANTING OF TREES, AND THE INTRODUCTION OF

WiLp LIFE FROM OUTSIDE

ig Plane PUA mien Oi. I reese

As a national park (or a good wild life sanctuary) is “An area

dedicated . . . to conserve the scenery and natural . . . objects’,

the planting of trees and shrubs in national parks should be avoided

as far as possible. The beauty in the trees on the maidans of the

Hailey Park and Kanha Sanctuary lies in their wildness and

naturalness. Any kind of regular planting of trees in lines or plots

immediately reveals the hand of man; it is the beauties of nature,

not the works of man, that are looked for in a sanctuary or national

park. Forest plantations of trees could be planted along the edges

of a sanctuary, as a demarcation of a boundary and as a protection

against poachers: this has been tried out with success at Laokhowa

in Assam. But in the interior of a sanctuary or national park

visitors expect to see and enjoy the natural beauties and wild life

in its natural environment, with as little interference by man

as possible.

It might, however, in certain cases be advantageous and benefi-

cial to plant a few trees near Forest Rest Houses, hotels, along

roadsides or in certain treeless maidans in order ‘to improve the

scenery and provide shade and shelter for wild life and for man.

But in such cases the trees should be planted at random and

haphazardly, so as to look as though they were growing naturally.

Any kind of straight lines or squares or regular intervals would be

quite out of place, and would have the disadvantage of making the

place look more like zoological park or municipal park than a wild

life sanctuary or national park.

Furthermore, if and when any trees or plants are to be planted

in a sanctuary or national park they should be of the indigenous

and local species, and never of other species brought in from outside.

For the main function of sanctuaries and national parks is to conserve

the country’s indigenous flora and fauna in their unspoiled state.

There is nothing which could spoil a wild life sanctuary or national

park in India so much as the planting of, say, mango or blue gum

trees in a place where no such trees exist in their wild state.

In the event of new roads being constructed in a sanctuary or

national park, advantage should always be taken of the ground sO

that good views of wild life on both sides can be obtained. Further-

more, such roads should never be straight: winding roads have

the advantage of not only being more natural but also they act

as a check on possible fast driving by inconsiderate motorists.

Zee hke enki oO duc tomo Vin da Liitte: fuorm Ohiit sritese

into a sanctuary or national park is also a thing to be rigidly guarded

against, unless in the most exceptional circumstances and under expert

advice. In any case the introduction of foreign or exotic species

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. a2

is a most dangerous and unnecessary thing, in all cases to be

avoided. For in a sanctuary or national park the emphasis is

always on the indigenous fana. A national park in India would not

be truly national in character if it held, say, zebra or giraffe imported

from Africa.

But the re-introduction into a sanctuary or national park of a

mammal or bird, etc. which has previously existed in that region but

which has become extinct, would not only be a beneficial action

but also a laudable one—provided it is done on the advice of expert

naturalists. It is hoped, for example, that the rare Indian lion of

Saurashtra can be re-introduced into some sanctuary or national park

of some other State in India, within its former range and meee

suitable conditions of environment.

GRAZING OF DOMESTIC CATTLE

With regard to this problem, the Indian Board for Wild Life

has made the following recommendation: ‘Whereas cattle-borne

diseases are spread in such sanctuaries by domestic cattle from the

surrounding areas, the Central Board for Wild Life recommends.

that buffer belts of sufficient width be declared around all sanctuaries.

within. which no shooting, other than that required for legitimate

crop protection, will be permitted, and within which no professional.

eraziers will be allowed to establish their cattle-pens. Whereas.

many preventable cattle-borne diseases among herbivorous’ wild

animals result from contact with infected domestic cattle in the

neighbourhood of ‘‘forests’’, the Central Board for Wild Life recom-

mends that State Governments be requested to inoculate systematically

and periodically domestic cattle in the neighbourhood of national parks,

sanctuaries and reserves where and when necessary.’—Mysore

Resolutions Nos. 19 and 20.

It cannot be over-emphasised that the grazing of domestic cattle

in and near sanctuaries and national parks is not only detrimental

to the grazing potential of the area, but is also a positive danger cn

account of diseases. There are innumerable cases of valuable wild

animals dying wholesale from epidemics spread by domestic cattle and

buffaloes. In Kaziranga Sanctuary of Assam, for example, many

rhino died in 1944 and in 1947, presumably from anthrax; and some

wild buffalo died in 1952 from rinderpest, and in 10953 from

haemorrhagic septicemia. As many as 150 wild elephants are believed

to have died in the Reserved Forests of the North Cachar Hills ix

Assam in 1949 from anthrax. The ‘Indian bison’ or gaur have

become scarce in many places in north-east India and. south India:

due to cattle-borne diseases.

, In the Hailey National Park, moreover, I was informed that

there were severe outbreaks. of rinderpest in 1942 and 1947, in which

countless chital are reported to have perished, and probably hog

deer, barking deer and sambar as well.

The difficulties of the problem of how to prevent graziers from

entering an area where they have done so for many years are fully

realized; but ‘all wild life conservationists without any exception

ouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A herd of Gaur (Bibos gaurus). Bandipur Wild Life Sanctuary,

Mysore

Young bull Gaur, Bandipur Sanctuary, Mysore

(Photos: E. P. Gee)

PLATE V

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

Forest Rest House, Dhikala. Hailey National Park,

Uttar Pradesh

View across Ramganga River from above rest house.

Himalayan foothills in distance

(Photos: E. P. Gee)

MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES CA

throughout the world are agreed that the grazing of domestic animals

inside a sanctuary or national park should be prevented at all costs,

and grazing in the surrounding areas reduced to a minimum. In

any case all cattle in or near a sanctuary or national park should

be regularly inoculated, after which no further cattle should be

admitted into the area.

There is a further reason why such grazing by domestic cattle

should be avoided: the very presence of domestic animals at the

centre or show-place of a sanctuary, where a visitor expects to see

wild life, is a veritable eyesore. It is sufficient to spoil the natural

beauty of any place, thus rendering anybody’s visit a waste of time

and money.

Such visitors often heave great distances at great expense in order

to see a country’s wild life in its natural habitat; and to imagine

their surprise, disappointment and revulsion at seeing domestic

cattle in such places should not be difficult.

From every point of view, therefore, domestic animals should

never, under any circumstances, be allowed at the ‘centres’ or show-

places of a sanctuary or national park, should be prevented from

entering the fringes, and reduced as far as possible in the buffer

belts and surrounding areas.

ADMINISTRATION IN GENERAL

There is a tendency in some parts of India to ‘lay on’ really good

preparations when a very important person is due to visit a wild

life sanctuary or national park; while at other times, when nobody

‘of importance’ is due to come, the administration of the place is

on vastly different level. The writer has visited several wild life

centres in several States of India in the company of v.i.p.s, and

then at other times by himself as an ordinary member of the public,

and the standard of administration has been found to be startlingly

different.

Even the Conservators and Deputy Conservators of the Forest

Department usually arrange their tours well in advance, so that

the forest staff in charge have ample time to ‘prepare’ the place.

At other times, as it has been found by the writer, there are many

occurrences,—commissions and omissions which go undetected—unless.

reported by non-officials to higher authority.

While it is admitted that v.i.p.s are usually extremely busy men,

and that there should be no hitch or delay in the preparations for

their visit to a place, it is surely wrong that they should see a place

entirely different from what it really is. The actual standard of

maintenance of a sanctuary or national park, i.e. the prevention of

grazing, trespassing, poaching and the condition of roads, bridges,

bungalows, etc. should be of a fixed uniform standard throughout the

year, instead of the standard being extremely high during the visit

of the v.i.p. or Conservator, and sometimes extremely low at other

times. If a place were to be maintained at a uniform level

throughout the year, as far as is consistent with the provision

of staff and funds, then all visitors, both v.i.p. and ordinary members

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

of the public, would see and enjoy it equally, as it really is and under

conditions which one would expect to find in a true democracy.

OcCASIONAL SHOOTING BY PRIVILEGED PERSONS

It has sometimes in the past been the practice in certain

sanctuaries in India for v.i.p.s or senior officers of the Forest

Department to shoot, say, a deer ‘for the pot’. By all the principles

and laws of wild lite conservation this is a mistake of the greatest

magnitude. In the Mysore Resolution No. 6 (b) Note 1, it is clearly

stated that: ‘The expression ‘‘wild life sanctuary’’ shall denote an

area constituted by the competent authority in which killing, hunting,

shooting or capturing of any species of bird or animal is prohibited

except by or under the control of the highest authority in the department

responsible for the management of the sanctuary’.

The real reason for this strict rule is not far to seek. It is not

. because there will be any upset in the balance of nature by the

shooting of one chital or such animal, but because by shooting a

mammal or bird in a sanctuary the very principle of sanctity is violated

and the rules of a sanctuary broken by a highly placed person, while

the lower grade forest staff are supposed to obey the rules and enforce

them against poachers.

Provision is made in the above quoted Resolution for ‘the highest

authority in the department responsible for the management of the

sanctuary’ to exercise control over ‘elements ‘adverse to the

maintenance of wild life including destruction of vermin and pre-

dators’—Mysore Resolution No. 6 (b), Note 3. Under this clause

the ‘highest authority’ could authorise reduction in the numbers of

hoofed animals or carnivora if considered advisable, to be done

departmentally under strict supervision, and not by any individual at

random. .

Obviously if, say, a Conservator shot a chital in a sanctuary

for his dinner, then in his absence the D.F.O. would feel entitled

to do the same; and similarly the R.O., the B.O. and finally the

newest-enrolled Forest Guard or Game Watcher would find it hard

to resist the temptation. And how would the poachers react to all

this?

It is realized that forest officers, in Uttar Pradesh for example,

spend long periods on tour in camps in the forest, far away from

their homes and the amenities of bazaars and shops. But in such

cases, the shooting of a deer or a bird ‘for the pot’ should invariably

be done in an adjacent shooting block, and under no circumstances

whatever inside the boundaries of a sanctuary or national park.

It is not the intention of the writer to attempt to advocate the

ultra-strict and highly idealistic rules and academic principles of such

institutions as the Swiss National Park or the Parc National Albert

in the Belgian Congo, for as Keith Caldwell has rightly pointed out,

‘one of the dangers to wild life is the out-and-out protectionist’.

Rather the writer advocates for India a sound broadminded policy

in regard to her sanctuaries and national parks.

It should be emphasised that, in order to enforce the rules of

a sanctuary and to prevent all illegal shooting, and in order to ensure

MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 729

the loyalty and integrity of the subordinate staff, v.i.p.s and senior

officers of the department concerned should themselves in all cases

be model examples in observing scrupulously the absolute sanctity

of the wild life entrusted to their care.

In a tour of some of the national parks and national game reserves

of East Africa, the writer recently found that even in these vast areas

where countless thousands of antelopes and game birds abound, and

where lions and other carnivora were making their kills every day

all over the place, the very idea of shooting a single creature ‘for

the pot’ was considered utterly abhorrent.

The Park Warden of the Serengeti National Park, in fact, told

the writer that even in the old days when the Serengeti was a shooting

area a rule was in force debarring all shooting within three miles

of the camp, so that wild life could be observed there. And on the

occasion of the visit of the Governor to the place on a shooting

holiday, as they set out the first day the v.i.p. enquired when

shooting was to commence. He was respectfully but firmly informed

that shooting would start only as soon as they had passed out of

the three-mile limit.

If such rules can be observed in parks of such vast extent as

those in East Africa, where they range up to 8,069 square miles

in area, then surely the smaller wild life centres of India, of which

the average is only about 100 square miles, should be maintained strictly

inviolate and sacrosanct.

POACHING

With regard to poaching and similar illegal practices, it has been

the experience of the writer and many of his friends in India that

the Forest Department is a little ‘touchy’ on this subject when

instances are brought to its notice.

When I visit a sanctuary I usually talk to the Range Officer or

Beat Officer-in-charge, and sooner or later put the questions: ‘Do

you have any difficulty with poachers? Is any poaching going on

here?’ The answers to this enquiry fall broadly into two categories.

One is: ‘No, sir, this is a sanctuary. How can there be poaching

in a sanctuary? ’ The other is: “There is some poaching going on.

We are trying our best to stop it.’ Obviously the former answer

indicates a doubtful or even most unsatisfactory state of affairs,

while the latter is almost certainly an accurate and honest statement.

Divisional Forest Officers and even Conservators are also

often evasive Or non-committal when the subject of poaching is

brought up by members of the public. How often the writer and

other members of the general public have travelled many miles at

great expense and discomfort to visit a sanctuary or Reserved Forest,

and when we report a case of poaching—no reply or even ackowledge-

ment is ever received !

If a visitor or member of the public detects a case of poaching

or similar malpractice, what is he to do about it? Is he to remain

silent? Or is he to take the trouble to note the details and report

the incident? Obviously to remain silent is not only to fail in one’s

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

duty as a citizen but also actually to render a disservice to the Forest

Department. For in remaining silent he is almost conniving at the

offence. It is clearly the duty of everyone to assist the Forest

Department by noting carefully anything serious that he sees wrong

and by reporting it to the appropriate officer as soon as possible.

Why then is it so often the case that in so doing one’s duty, no

reply—not even an acknowledgement—is ever received? If no

acknowledgement is received, the person reporting is led to wonder

(a) if the report has ever been received, or (b) if received, if any action

is being taken. In either case a sense of frustration is the result.

Let us face up to facts. Poaching and such malpractices are

always with us, even in the best run institutions in the world—even,

say, in the Swiss National Park and in the Pare National Albert.

The desire to hunt is inborn in all men, since the days of Adam:

even Shakespeare was charged with deer stealing in Charlcote Park

in Warwickshire. :

In order to minimise poaching, for complete elimination would be

impracticable, it is obvious that only co-operation between the public

and the authorities will produce any real results. The public can

co-operate by developing a strong healthy public opinion, and by

reporting all cases of malpractice as they occur.

It is recognised throughout the world that the presence of bona-

fide sportsmen in shooting blocks, and bonafide visitors and

naturalists in sanctuaries and national parks is the best deterrent

against poaching. It is plainly the duty of such people to assist the

authorities at all times and at all places, and it is equally obligatory

on the authorities at least to acknowledge such assistance whenever

it is rendered.

CREATION OF NATIONAL PARKS

Two interesting facts have emerged from the meeting in New

Delhi in 1951 of the Wild Life Sub-Committee, and from the session

at Mysore in 1952 of the Indian Board for Wild Life. :

Firstly, the problem as to whether the country’s wild life should

be left under the Forest Department or placed under a separate ‘Wild

Life Department’ has been resolved. It gradually became apparent

that whereas it would be ideal to have a separate wild life department

such as exists in certain other countries, in the case of India it

would be more practical and more expedient to allow wild life to

continue to be conserved by the Forest Department under whose

jurisdiction for the most part it naturally falls. For most of the

country’s wild life exists within the reserved forests. In the matter

of wild life conservation, of course, the Forest Department of each

State will require some additional staff, and will be advised by its

State Wild Life Board.

Secondly, it was found necessary to make some concession to

the Forest Department as to whether or not forest management

and even forest operations could be permitted within a wild life

sanctuary or national park. It is improbable that India, or any other

country for that matter, could actually agree to suspend or prohibit

forest exploitation where it had previously taken place, and thus

: MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES 731

forego considerable revenue for the sake of creating a national park.

On the other hand, if valuable fauna existed in a forested area, i1

could not be sacrificed without efforts being made to preserve it.

Moreover, sub-tropical and tropical forests are not always ideal as

wild life sanctuaries or for visitors to enjoy when left in their ‘pristine’

state, almost impenetrable with tangled creepers, thick undergrowth

and decaying trees. 3

So a compromise was reached in this respect. A wild life sanctuary

or national park in India is now preferably to be left undisturbed

by human intervention; but in those cases where it is necessary or

advisable to allow restricted and carefully controlled forest operations,

such human activity is permissible provided that ‘inner sanctuaries’

or ‘preservation plots’ of sufficient extent and in suitable areas are

demarcated and strictly maintained.

At the first meeting of the Executive Committee of the Indian

Board for Wild Life held at Kanha in November 1953, it was decided

to recommend that the most important wild life centres of India be

created as national parks.—Indian Wild Life Bulletin, Vol. I No. 2,

November 1953.

Under a Rs. 40,00,000-scheme eighteen such national parks are

proposed to be created, of which eleven are to receive priority in the

Second Five-Year Plan which is due to be taken up in April 1956.

Various States are already believed to be preparing plans and

estimates for these.

Here a word of caution would perhaps not be out of place. It

‘would be a mistake for a State to rush into creating a national park

without long and careful consideration as to whether a particular

place is really worthy of the accepted definition, to be ‘dedicated by

statute for all time . . . for the enjoyment of future generations’.

For example Bombay with commendable zeal created in 1950 the

Kanheri National Park of g square miles; but it is a place lacking in

fine scenery and wild life. With its caves and carvings and close

proximity to the city of Bombay, it had the character rather of a

people’s park or a public monument. The Bombay Government is

now believed to be reconsidering the original plans for this place.

It is particularly desirable that the advice of the Central Board

for Wild Life should be taken by a State in all matters concerning

the creation of a national park, in order that the right courses are

adopted and in order to ensure the national character of a park.—

Mysore Resolution No. 6, (a).

It stands to reason that: any wild life sanctuary which has proved

its worth and stood the test of time, such as Kanha, Bandipur, and

Kaziranga, can safely be created as national parks after carefully

drafting a State National Parks Bill and framing the necessary rules

and regulations with detailed demarcation of boundaries and so forth.

Any wild life sanctuary which has not definitely proved its worth

as such, could be improved and developed as a sanctuary before being

reconsidered for creation as a national park.

On the other hand any wild life centre which has not been a

sanctuary but happens to be on a programme for possible developing

as a national park, could first be made into a sanctuary and could

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

be left as such for a trying-out period before being further considered

for a national park.

Even before making a place into a sanctuary, due consideration

should of course be given to all aspects of the case, i.e. whether

the wild life is rare enough, or in sufficient numbers, or properly

representative of the region; whether the place is or can be made

accessible to visitors; whether the place will be popular with visitors ;

whether the place can be sufficiently financed and staffed; whether

the place can be effectively protected against poachers, and so forth.

The case of Manipur could be borne in mind: this State in their

zeal for wild life preservation rather hurriedly created the whole of

the Logtak Lake area as a sanctuary. I am informed that this

State is now planning to reduce the sanctuary quite considerably,

on advice received from other quarters.

CO enw row.

After a visit to the fine but strictly idealistic Swiss National

Park, with its adequate funds and high standard of organization,

and after hearing and reading of the Parc National Albert in the

Belgian Congo, the writer has felt somewhat dismayed at the paucity

of funds and laxity of control of some of the wild life sanctuaries

in India. And after seeing the abundance of wild animals and birds

in an almost ‘tame’ condition out in the open in the national parks

and reserves of Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda, the writer has felt

discouraged at the comparative scarcity of wild life in India, at its

nocturnal habits and at the thickness of the forest which it inhabits.

But India possesses several advantages not enjoyed by other

countries. India has very fine tree forests, mountain scenery and

grand rivers. And many of these are ,wild life centres of first-

rate national park potentiality, holding many interesting and

beautiful species of mammals and birds not found elsewhere in the

world.

Without doubt India has a unique opportunity of developing

sound but broad-minded systems of wild life conservation and national

park administration, even improving ‘on those policies and systems.

evolved in other parts of the world. And with her wild life situated

as it is mostly in beautiful tree forests as opposed to bare scrub

areas of, say, East Africa, she has the chance of creating and developing

some of the finest faunal national parks in the world.

REFERENCES

Champion, F. W. (1939): The Hailey National Park.

Gee, E. P. (1952): The Management of India’s Wild Life Sanctuaries and

National Parks. JBNHS, 51: (1).

— — — (1953): Wild Life Preservation in India. Indian Forester, 79 (10).

Indian Board for Wild Life (1952): Proceedings of the Inaugural Session held

at Mysore.

— — —(1953): Indian Wild Life Bulletin, Vol. 1, No. 2. Resolutions of the

Executive Committee.

I.U.P.N. (1951): The Position of Nature Protection throughout the World in

1950.

— — — (1952): Proceedings and Papers of the Technical Meeting.

Smythies, E. A. (1936): The Hailey National Park. Indian Forester, \xii (11).

MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES a

APPENDIX A

A TABLE SHOWING THE BEST MONTHS OF THE YEAR

FOR VISITING KANHA SANCTUARY, MADdYA PRADESH

(Altitude 2000 feet above sea level)

3 Temperature

Month ae Weather Remarks

Ks}

cS Max. | Min.

January 3 | Fine, celd. 75 | 30 | Grass being burnt off.

Some winter showers..

Fairly good time.

February 4 | Fine, cool. 80 45 Grass being burnt off.

Good time.

March 4 | Fine, cool. 85 60 Grass burnt off. Good

time.

April 5 | Fine, warm. 90 | €5 New grass growing up..

| Best time.

May ...| | Fine, warmer. 100 70 Best time.

June 4 | Fine, hot. 105 75 Best time. Rains start at

end of month.

July 1 | Rains. 100 79 Uncertain. Alright if

dry.

August 0 | Rains. 95 795 Sanctuary tunapproach--

able, except on foot.

September 0 | Rains. 90 75 Do.

October 0 | Rains. 85 60 Do.

November 1 | Fine, cool. 80 45 Grass high. Roads being.

repaired.

December ... 3 | Fine, cold. 70 35 Grass being burnt off..

Few winter showers.

late in the month.

Fairly good time.

* Key to Index numbers: 5 Best time of all.

4 Nearly as good.

3 Alright, but less good.

2 Possible, not fully recommended.

1 Just possible at times, not recommended.

0 Impossible, or not allowed, or closed.

Author’s note :—The above table is based on information kindly supplied by~

officers of the Madhya Pradesh Forest -Department, and is only meant to be

approximate. It would be highly advantageous if similar tables could be prepared:

for all the wild life centres of India.

734, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52°

APPENDIX B

A TABLE SHOWING THE BEST MONTHS OF THE YEAR FOR

VISITING INDIA’S WILD LIFE CENTRES

[oY =) a

= Gi s e

Month mobs =P 4) fo lo ele Seri

Po} s |) SPS s 1 Bio Ss | a |S

Papa re || oe Si/olefsi]d{s

Pela laie hl s fa | saps | ss

EON u oO n ee fe) q a ue} ‘=

iMi42/S/27 M6 |o|M IMI ala la

eal | f

January .f 4] 5] 4] 3} Asi) Ay een Sil

February.) 5| 5| sf 4} of 4) 35 ay a) 8]

March Sosa Ss esapee leat eau st 4) 4] 5]

April 4 Ser a) 415) 14 Seen

May 2) 22 Fash 5) le Sali | 57 Sh 4]

June 1 Seen Serge lal 5) S| 3)

July LI OW Ol Ol SH a Bt a | ale 2h

August HOP OG oS LB Si) Scliy Ze)

September...) 1] 0] of of 5 [2 5} 3) 32

October O/ Oi Oy 2 ays : 32193) |epk

November ...} 3 | Wf ah She] 3) Bi sl

December .. 5 | 2 heaton tae ies gi Si al

Key.—5 Best time of all.

4 Nearly as good.

3 Alright, but less good.

2 Possible, but not fully recommended.

1 Just possible at times, not recommended.

0 Impossible, or not allowed, or closed.

Author’s note.—The above table is based on information kindly supplied by

“persons acquainted with local conditions. The factors taken into account are

mainly the weather, condition of the roads and the amount of vegetation. When

-certain access roads are improved, some changes may be made in the above

figures, wnich in any case are only approximate.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT

SALImM ALI

PARI jt

(With one plate)

(Continued from p. 458 of this volume)

The families dealt with in this part appear in the following sequence :

Hirundinidae : Swallows, Martins

Campephagidae : Cuckoo-Shrikes

Irenidae: Fairy Bluebirds, loras

Pycnonoidae: Bulbuls

Muscicapidae :

Muscicapinae : Flycatchers

Timaliinae : Babblers

Sylviinae : Warblers

Turdinae: Chats, Robins, Thrushes

Motacillidae: Wagtails, Pipits

Laniidae :

Laniinae: Shrikes

Sittidae: Nuthatches, Spotted Creeper

Paridae: Tits

Dicaeidae : Flowerpeckers

Nectariniidae : Sunbirds

Zosteropidae : White-eyes

Fringillidae : Buntings, Finches

Fringillinae : Rosefinches

Ploceidae: Weaver Finches (including House Sparrow)

Sturnidae : Mynas

Oriolidae : Orioles

Dicruridae: Drongos

Corvidae : Crows

Family HiIRUNDINIDAE: Swallows, Martins

Riparia paludicola chinensis (J. E. Gray). The Sand Martin

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs614 2, Gs615 4 17-12-45 Vaghji-

pur (Mehsana Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Dabka (Baroda Dist.)

Measurements : W B Mary T

1g 91 75 10 38

1¢ 95 8 19195) 45

A colony of about 50 rather scattered nest-tunnels in the steep

vertical bank of Vartak River. The owners were flying in and out of

these. One tunnel dug out was 34 ft. in horizontal depth, with a flimsy

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 8

pad of straw and a few feathers at the end. It was apparently fresh but

empty. The gonads of the specimens were undeveloped.

Hirundo rupestris Scopoli. The Crag Martin.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: spl98 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat

Dangs. )

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Fort Salher,

ca. 5000 ft. (Navsari Dist. ).

Measurements : W B ‘Ware, ‘a

1% 128 12 We 54

Winter visitor. INumbers hawking insects in company with swallows,

dusky crag martins and swifts. ‘Somewhat larger size and paler under-

parts distinguish it in the air from the resident HZ. concolor.

Hirundo concolor concolor Sykes. The Dusky Crag Martin.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs266 $+, xs267Q 25-9-43 Bhuj.

Gujarat: spl48 + 4-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B (are T

25h 106-110 85-10 9-9°5 45-47

19 108 9°5 9:5 45

Common. Met with near rock scarps and ruined buildings, ancient

forts, ete. hawking winged insects usually in company with swallows and

swifts. Both males (March 4 and September 25) had enlarged testes and

were breeding. Several nests in occupation were observed in Kutch

during August and September.

Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli. The Eastern Swallow.

Specimen collected: Kutch: xs422 9, xs423 2 30-3-44 Bhimasar

(Anjar Dist.) Gujarat: «@s20 9, Gs2l 4, Gs22 gf 29-10-45 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.); Gs266 $1 17-11-45, Gs1050 1, Gsl1051 # 20-3-46 Khara-

ghoda.

Measurements : W B Tar. T (central) T (outer)

BGA WGTWOB Wi DL 40 80-90

3.90) 1082117) 11-5212) SiGe oes 5 68-71

On size all the above are guttuvalis, but Col. Meinertzhagen points

out that they have a évcad black band separating the chestnut from

white on the breast, which in true gzffuralis from East Asia is zarrow.

He would. assign the specimens to 4. 7. ambigua described by Strese-

mann from Sikkin (Ovz. JZonatsb. 1940, p. 88). Ambigua is really an

intermediate race between //. 7. rustica and HZ. 7. gutturalis and since

there is often already considerable difficulty in distinguishing between

these two forms, the recognition of an intermediate complicates rather

than simplifies the matter! In the case of wintering birds such as the

above, I consider it particularly inadvisable to assign them to the inter-

mediate race which Dr. Ripley now synonymises with guttuvalis (Indian

Checklist, MS).

A comunon winter visitor. Earliest date 27 October ; latest 17 April.

Both the specimens of 20 March were very fat, in body moult but with the

wings freshly moulted, and were obviously preparing to emigrate.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT rad

Small flocks and larger gatherings hawking in the neighbourhood of

irrigation reservoirs in open country.

Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. The Wiretailed Swallow.

Specimen Gal ence Gujarat: Gs23 2 29-10-1945 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. TT. (central) Wires

Lg » Lg) 11:5 Jal 37 75

Observed in Kutch, Saurashtra and Gujarat, in the neighbourhood of

water—irrigation tanks, temple ponds, etc. Breeding was in progress

during March and April. A favourite site, both for this swallow and the

Large Pied Wagtail, is an overhang of rock flanking a stream, forming a

sort of miniature gorge. In such situations, at various times and at

different places, I have seen the nests of the two species placed within

2 or 3 feet of each other.

Hirundo fluvicola Blyth. The Cliff Swallow.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs24 % 29-10-45, Gs58 4, Gs59 9

Gs60 2 31-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. T. (central) T. (outer)

2 Io 93°5-96 9 Tal 38 44

Undergoing general moult in October.

Resident but local. Usually in moderate numbers where occurring.

Rare in Kutch, and presumably also in Saurashtra. Hawks midges in the

neighbourhood of water in company with swifts and other swallows.

Utters a sharp ¢v7, fvr in flight.

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Sykes’s Striated Swallow.

Specimens collected: Kutch: ks9 + 8-8-43 Rudra Mata (Bhuj Dist.);

Ks40 ¢+ 11-8-43 Bhuja Fort. Gujarat: Gs425 $ 29-11-45 Kasari,

Cambay ; Gs267 3 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; spl146 2 4-3-48

Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. ‘T. (central) T. (outer)

33% 109-113 10-105 14 4.2-45°5 73-76°5

229 104-107 10 13-15 45-45°5 71-72

Fairly common resident. Seen in pairs or small parties, not in large

flocks like the wintering race zipalensts. Breeding freely in Kutch in

August/September in retort-shaped nests of mud peilets stuck horizontally

to ceilings of rock caves, temples and domes, and crumbling buildings in

old forts. A newly-completed nest was also seen under a culvert on

Songadh Fort (Navsari Dist.) on 10 April, with the birds working on it.

| Hirundo daurica nipalensis Hodgson. | Striated Swallow.

Specimens collected: Saurashtra: B49 Y 20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli

Dist.); Gujarat: Gs/6l o, Gs/62 Y, Gs/63 ¥, Gs/64 9, Gs765 Q,

68766 9, GS767 3, Gs768 3, GS769 2, GS770 § 30-12-45 Radhanpur ;

68967 J, Gs968 2 date Ghatwad (Kodinar).

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 42

6 Jf 115-121 9:5-11 13-15 40-43 65,68,81-107 (1)

7929 =-:112-119 9°5-10°5 13-14 37-43 71°5-89

Common in winter in enormous swarms, particularly on arrival in

their winter quarters and again shortly before they leave. Packed

assemblages of several hundred birds may be seen perched along’ tele-

graph wires. One such gathering in Radhanpur occupied three adjacent

strands, about a hundred yards long, and must have contained several

thousand birds sunning themselves on a cold morning.

Delichon urbica urbica (Linn.) The House Martin.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl238 2, Gsl239 2, Gsl240 i

10-4-46 Songadh Fort, ca. 1100 ft (Navsari Dist.).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B ‘Wane T

3 OS 107°5-114 9 12-12°5 51-54

All the above were fat and in general moult prior to emigration.

Not recorded from the area previously. Obviously a winter vagrant,

About 50 birds were hawking in company with Redrumped Swallows,

Dusky Crag Martins and House Swifts. In flight its diagnostic points are

(a2) white rump as in the House Swift, (4) white underparts as in the

Wiretailed Swallow, (c) short, only slightly forked tail as in the Cliff

Swallow.

Family CAMPEPHAGIDE : Cuckoo-Shrikes

Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes). The Blackbacked Pied Flycatcher-

Shrike.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: SD55 <j 27-2-48 Malegaon (Surat

Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Waghai (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B ‘Tar. TL

1? 64 1S ant 13 58

Resident ? Not common. Occasional pairs in mixed deciduous forest °

with bamboo, in foothills country, uttering its squeaky whistling whzrirzrz,

whtrivtri, etc. Previously recorded from the tableland of Akrani, south

of Narbada River, in the adjacent W. Khandesh District (Davidson, S./.,

me 8 OE)

Tephrodornis virgatus sylvicola Jerdon. The Large Malabar Wood

Shrike.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs1256 # 13-4-1946 Waghai (Surat

Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

1d 118 30 21 82

Iris lemon yellow.

aie specimen agrees With birds from Travancore, but has a very ‘levee

bill, and is also perhaps a bluer grey (against dusky grey) on the lower

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 739

breast. This may be due to freshness of plumage. 3 jo (Kanara,

Mysore, Travancore) have bills 25-27 mm; 7 29 23:5-27 mm.

Stuart Baker (F.B.I., ii: 311) describes the Malabar Wood Shrike as

occurring up the western side of the peninsula (W. Ghats) from the

extreme south to ‘almost Bombay City ’. On this Mr. Whistler remarked

(JBNH'S, 36 : 338) that he had failed to trace any record more north than

the ‘jungles west of Belgaum’ (Laird). The present considerable

extension of range is therefore of especial interest. Waghai is about

130 miles NNW. of Bombay City, ca. 21°N x 73°30’ E. Since it lies in

the zone where the foothills of the northern extremity of the Sahyadris

(W. Ghats) intermingle with those of the western Satpuras, there is good

reason to believe that closer investigation will show the Large Wood

Shrike to extend: right across the peninsula along the Satpura mountain

trend, inhabiting enclaves of the appropriate facies of moist deciduous

forest scattered here and there, thus linking up sy/vzcola with the other races

found in the Visakhapatnam ghats, Bastar, Orissa, Eastern Himalayas,

Assam, Burma, Malaysia, etc. It will be remembered that Mr. Whistler

was unable to determine the subspecific identity of Visakhapatnam ghats

specimens since they did not agree with Aédvica, the race from Nepal and

Darjeeling. A possible explanation is that sylvzcola grades into pelvica

along the Satpuras and that Visakhapatnam birds are intermediate.

However, specimens since procured by me in Bastar and the Orissa hills

are certainly elvica.

The loud and clear quick-repeated wztoo, witoo, wztoo, witoo uttered by

the Dangs example sounded in no way different from the call of Travan-

core birds. The specimen was in freshly-moulted plumage and evidently

preparing to breed. ‘Testes 4 x 2 mm.

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Indian

Common Wood Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks53 4, Ks54 2 juv., Ks55 #1 12-8-1943

Godsar (Bhuj Dist.) Gujarat: cGsl48 % 6-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.); GS396 #1, Gs397 Q 28-11-45, Gs502 o? 7-12-45 Cambay town

environs ; GS881 9, Gs882 9 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs1236 2 9-4-46

Songadh (Navsari Dist.); sp23 Q 25-2-48 Malegaon; sp233 o? 10-3-48

Laochali (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva; Bhuj ; Mandvi; Mata-no-madh.

Gujarat: Pavyagadh (Panchmahals Dist.); Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ;

Vaghjipur and Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Balaram and Gangasagar (Palan-

pur) ; Juna Rajpipla and Rajpipla town environs ; Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Saurashtra: Amreli and Dhari; Dalkhania.

Measurements : W B Tar. ap

ASS 83-88 20°5-22 19-22 64-69

» Qe 84-89 18:5—22 G71 59-68

All the above specimens are intermediate between Aondicertanus and

pallidus but closer to the former, except the two from Deesa which go

better with the pale NW. Indian race pallidus.

Resident. Common in Gujarat, less so in Kutch. Nests and other

breeding activity were noted chiefly from the last week in February till

mid-April,

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Coracina novaehollandiae macei (Lesson). The Large Indian

Cuckoo Shrike. 3

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs78 # 1-11-1945 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); Gs219 9 10-11-45 Jambughoda; Gs660 4, Gs661 Q 20-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs710 o& 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

GSs840 § 6-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gsl096 4, Gs1097 & 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla;

sp240 2 10-3-48 Laochali ; sp366 1 18-3-48 Mheskatri ; sp405 #1 20-3-48

Sarwar ; $418 $1 22-3-48 Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Cambay town environs ; Nadiad (Kaira

Dist.) ; Deesa (Palanpur); Dediapada (Rajpipla); Songadh (Navsari Dist. );

Waghai and Galkund (Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Tar. ay

oMewed 165-169 es = oles OOF) 121-134

4 9° 158-167 26°5-30 25-26°5 121-129

Resident. Fairly common in mixed decidous forest and openly

wooded country. Feeds largely on figs of the various wild F7cz along

with other frugivorous bird species. Every time a bird alights on a

branch it flicks up first one wing, then the other, repeating this in a way

reminiscent of a nervous gentleman .constantly tugging at his tie !

Coracina melanoptera sykesi (Strickland). ‘The Blackheaded Cuckoo

Shrike.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs338 $ 20-11-1945, Gs347 9°

21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.)

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.)

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B hare ls

1g 105 20 22 84

We 102°5 20 21:5 78

tatus uncertain. Rare, but presumably resident though apt to be

overlooked in seasons when it is silent. Mr. R. M. Simmons observed it

in Ahmedabad from May through August definitely, and records a nest

at Abu Road (about 40 miles NW. of Palanpur) on June 20. (/AN//S,

47 : 735).

Pericrocotus flammeus flammeus (Forster). The Orange Minivet.

Specimens collected: Gujarat; Gsl260 4, Gsl261 Q 13-4-1946,

Gs1265 7, Gs1266 3, GS1267 2 14-4-46 Waghai; Gs1304 4, Gs1035 9°

20-4-46 Galkund ; sp64 9) 28-2-48 Malegaon ; sp111 <7, Sp112 1, sp113 ,

spl20 2-3-48 Galkund ; spl77 @ 6-3-48 Pandwa; sb239 2 10-32-48

Laochali ; Sp298 2 14-3-48 Mahal; sp330 ¢' 16-3-48, sp370 #1 18-3-48

Mheskatri ; sp400 20-3-48 Sarwar ; Sp447 9, sp448 2 24-3-48 Waghai

(Surat Dangs).

' Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Medha near Songadh (Navsari Dist.).

Not in Kutch or Saurashtra.

Measurements: W B Wale. ar

WW viiad. 89-96 17-19 15°5-17°5 82-94

GEO O Fade S7— Silks 16-18°5 1€-17 83-89°5

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 741

These specimens represent a considerable extension northward of the

range given in F.B.I. (ii: 322) and by H. G. Deignan (Auk, 63: 516)

for western India, namely Cape Comorin to Khandala. The Tapti River

may now be accepted as its northern limit though there is good reason

to believe that as in Hemzpus picatus and a number of other evergreen

and moist deciduous forest birds, this minivet extends eastward along the

Satpura mountain trend to link up with the recently described semzruber

of the Visakhapatnam ghats and other eastern races, Following Strese-

mann, Deignan shows that semiruber is really a race of flammeus, as is

spectosus itself under which it was placed by previous authors.

Resident. Common in hilly bamboo and mixed deciduous forest.

The February and March specimens were in body moult; April specimens

in fresh plumage. Courtship chasing of females by males amongst the

treetops was general in the first half of April, though no development of

the gonads was as yet noticeable.

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus cinnamomeus (Linn.). The Little

Minivet.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS2 o, xKS3 Q 7-8-1943 Bhuj.

Gujarat: Gs91 21-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs135 # 5-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.); Gs407 §& 28-11-45, Gs504 # .7-12-45 Cambay town

(Palanpur) ; Gs1109 4, Gs1119 26-3-46 Rajpipla ; SD3 1 23-2-48, sp84 6,

SD85 2 29-2-48 Malegaon (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Godsar; Chaduva; Mieco ; Ratnal ;

Bhachau; Rudra Mata; Jakhau. Guj | ie @ tb 3 Kanewal (Cambay) ;

Vaghjipur and Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Radhanpur; Balaram and Ganga:

sagar (Palanpur). Saurashtra: Ghatwad (Kodinar).

Measurements: W B hare ae

73S 66-71 54 15°5-18 66-76

49° 66-69 USA SES 16—17°5 68-75

The two Kutch specimens, and the one from Deesa, show passage to

pallidus chiefly in the slightly paler grey of the upper parts.

In Washington DC. I recently had the opportunity of examining,

with the assistance of Mr. H. G. Deignan, good series of these minivets

from the U.S. National and other museums, supplemental to the Gujarat

Survey collection. We both agreed with Dr. Ripley’s action (Indian

Checklist, MS.) in synonymising Perzcrocetus peregrinus dharmakumari

Koelz from Junagadh (Saurashtra) with the nominate race.

Resident. Common throughout the area. Several nests in all stages—

building, completed, and with eggs or young—were found in Kutch

during August and September, chiefly in trees of Prosopis spicigera bet-

ween 6 and 8 feet up. Both sexes build, incubate and tend the young.

Three eggs form the normal clutch.

Pericrocotus erythropygius erythropygius (Jerdon). The Whitebel-

lied Minivet.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs257 3, K8258 9, Ks2590? juv.

21-9-43 Rapar (Wagad Dist.)Gujarat: oGsl46 Q@ 6-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) ;

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Nir and Kala Dongar (Pachham

Island).

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Measurements : W B Tar. T

23h 68-70 12°53 14-14°5 75°5-87

LO 69 13 15 moult

Resident : Common in Kutch, though rather patchy and local. The

Bodeli specimen is my only record from Gujarat; it was solitary and

seemed to be a straggler. Affects more or less semidesert country, stony

and broken, with bushes and stunted trees of Prosopis shicigera, Cappa-

vis aphylla, Salvadora oleoides, etc. and clumps of Euphorbia. When

overhead, the flight is very like a wagtail or bunting’s—a few flaps follow-

ed by a dipping glide. . . flaps. . . glide, and-so on.

The breeding season in Kutch is July, August, September. Family

parties of parents with two or three young were commonly on the wing in

the two latter months, and a nest with 3 partly-fledged young was found

at Rapar on September 21.

Butler (S./-. iii: 465) found it rare in N. Gujarat. Once or twice he

met small parties in low bush jungle near Deesa.

Family Irenidae: Fairy Bluebirds, Ioras

Aegithina tiphia humei Stuart Baker. The Central Indian Iora.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl6l 2 juv. 7-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) Gs212 imm. 10-11-45 Jambughoda ; 68330 2 17-11-45,

68355 @ 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs382 $ juv., Gs383 $f 27-11-45

Cambay ; GS611 @ 17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs723 2, Gs724 ¥

Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs826 9 4-1-46 Radhanpur; 681276 # 16-4-46

(Kodinar); Gsl007 15-3-46, Gsl022 $ 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli

Dist.) I have seen a specimen collected in Bhavnagar, Saurashtra, by

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji. |

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City ; Pavagadh ; Champaner;

Nadiad ; Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ; Deesa (Palanpur) ; Rajpipla; Galkund

(Surat Dangs) Absent in Kutch and about Kharaghoda (?)

Measurements : W B Tar. T

730 64-67 17-20 19-22 45~54°5

6 2 62-64 157519 18-20°5 48—52

Nuptial moult March/April ; most males in perfect breeding plumage

by mid-April. Two of the November specimens immature with imper-

fectly ossified skulls.

Aegithina nigrolutea (Marshall). Marshall’s lora.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks20 #, KS21 2 9-8-43 Bhujia Fort ;

KS114 § 25-8-43 Mandvi; KS154 @ 3-9-43 Nakhatrana; xKs394

21-3-44 Godsar (Bhuj Dist.); Ks418 9! 28-3-44 Bela (Great Rann).

Gujarat: GSs876 9, Gs877 [7] 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur. )

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Chaduva; Anjar; Bhachau; Rudra

Mata; Mata-no-Madh; Lakhpat. Saurashtra: Dhari (Amreli Dist.)—

unconfirmed.

Measurements : W B alvare T

53a 62-65 14-18 17-19 43-47°5

3 Sse 61-64 14°5-17 ISPS Cb) 45-5]

THE BIRDS’ OF GUJARAT 743

Specimen No. Gs877, collected’ on the same day and in the same

locality as GS876 is undoubted zzgrolutea. It measures W 64, B 18:5,

Tar. 19, T 48:5. It has a green tail and matches perfectly an immature

male of Ae. ¢. humez in post-juvenal dress from Jambughoda (Gs212).

Except for somewhat broader greenish white edges to the tertiaries

(perceived only on careful examination) it cannot be told from Ae. ¢.

humet. If this specimen had been obtained by itself I would have

unhesitatingly assigned it to the latter.

In the Eastern Ghats Survey report (/BVAS, 35 : 750) Mr. Whistler

points out that the juvenal plumage of de. nigrolutea is unknown.

The present specimen suggests that the juvenal plumage is possibly as -

indistinguishable from that of Ae. ¢. humez as the post-juvenal plumage

in this case appears to be. ‘The point needs elucidation.

Ae. tiphia humez is fairly common in the well-watered portions of

Gujarat inhabiting cultivated country interspersed with large trees, groves

about villages, roadside avenues and wooded compounds in towns, as

well as light deciduous forest.

Ae. nigrolutea is common in Kutch to the complete exclusion of

tiphia. It affects sparse scrub and thorn jungle, so characteristic of that

area, and of which kandi (Prosopis spicigera), peeloo (Salvadora oleoides),

khair (Acacia catechu), gangi (Grewia populifolia) and gugar (Lalsamo-

dendron mukul) are some of the principal components. The only occasion

on which I met it in Gujarat was also in almost identical semidesert facies.

I found the call notes of Marshall’s Iora distinct from those of the

common species, though of the same general pattern. The sibilant whi-

stles of the male are more plaintive-sounding, and rather reminiscent of the

Quaker Babbler. ‘The harsh notes of concern (as when its nest is being

handled) recall those of the Wood Shrike, particularly the large Zephro-

dornis virgatus. I found the notes of the two so distinct, in fact, that

after having met the Common Iora all through Gujarat, I detected the

presence of this species at Deesa at once by ear, and confirmed it soon

afterwards by the specimens.

The breeding season in Kutch is from June through August.

Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis (Pelzeln). The Malabar Goldfronted

Chloropsis. |

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS1213 # 7-4-46 Medha (Navsari

Dist.): Gsl249 2 12-4-46, Gs1264 2 14-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs) ;

Gs1291 $ Mahal (Surat Dangs)

Measurements: W B Tar. T

23808 97-101 25=20 20-20'5 71-73

2 SO 93°5-94 24 20=21 69-70

Not met with by the Survey north of the Narbada River. Frequent

in deciduous forest. Commonly seen probing for nectar into blossoms of

Firmiana colorata, Loranthus spp. and Woodtordia fruticosa, Testes of

the males showed some development, but breeding had not commenced

in April.

Chloropsis cochinchinensis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl44 7, Gsl45 26-11-45, Gs220

& 11-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.): Gs1230 3% 9-4-46 Songadh (Navsari

Dist.) : 681307 ¢ 20-4-46 Galkund (Surat Dangs),

744, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY, Vol. 52

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Pavagadh (Panchmahals Dist.)

Measurements : Wis B » War. AN

A do 90-94 23-265 19-20 73-77

ib $2 87 does) il) 65

Body moult in April. Testes of specimen of 20 April showed a slight

development (4x 2mm) but breeding had not commenced. Frequents

somewhat opener country than the Goldfronted species, and met with in

large leafy trees standing amidst cultivation and grazing land. Along with

cunbirds and white-eyes, amongst the most important cross-pollinators

in this area of Loranthus flowers.

Pycnonotus jocosus [fuscicaudata Gould]. The Red Whiskered

Bulbul.

No specimens obtained. A single pair was observed at Waghai in the

Surat Dangs, 13-4-10946. Not met with elsewhere in Gujarat or Saurash-

tra. Absent in Kutch.

Pycnonotus cafer humayuni ODeignan. The Central Indian

- Redvented Bulbul. | |

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs32 9 10-8-43 Tapkeshwari (Bhuj

Dist.). Gujarat: 68353 ¢ 21-11-45, Gs354 # Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs485

gi 4-12-45 Golana (Cambay); GS628 4, Gs629 ff 18-12-45 Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.); GS1084 22-3-46 Kharaghoda; Gslll2 o? 26-3-46

Rajpipla. ;

Bisewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda; Bodeli; Jambughoda ;

Ajwa; Pavagadh ; Harij (Mehsana Dist.); Radhanpur; Deesa; Palan-

pur; Ahmedabad; Nadiad ; Surat; Waghai; Mahal; Galkund;

etc. Saurashtra: Kodinar; Dalkhania ; Dwarka; Okha; Morvi;

Rajkot, ete. Kutch: Bhuj; Chaduva; Nakhatrana; Bhachau; Rapar ;

Kala Dongar (Pachham Island); Dhunara; Jakhau; Mata-no-Madh ;

Dholovira (Khadir Island) ; Bela.

Measurements : W B Aart: |

6 Jd 92-98 17-19 20°5—23 79-90

aS 92 18 23 78

Birds from south Gujarat [e.g. Dabka (Baroda), Rajpipla, etc.] are

darker, with the grey scaling to the feathers of the back and breast nar-

rower. ‘They go better with birds from the neighbourhood of Bombay

City which are the southern peninsular Indian race puszllus (Blyth)

(= vicinus Ripley). At Ahmednagar on the Deccan Plateau, in the same

latitude as Bombay but about 100 miles to the east and across the ghats,

the race, as pointed out by Whistler /8NAS, 35: 755), is pallidus

— humayunt).

March specimens are undergoing complete .moult ; November speci-

mens are in fresh plumage. Common throughout the area in every

biotope save pure desert (e.g., the Great Rann of Kutch), though present

along its edge. An unfailing attendant on the flowers of the wild caper

(Capparis aphylla), and on banyan and ber (Zizyphus) trees with ripen-

ing fruit. Usually the most numerous bird species in gatherings on these.

A large assemblage was observed roosting in a leafy mango tree in com-

pany with Brahminy Mynas (January ). Breeding was in full swing in

Kutch during August/September, 3

DHE BIRDS) OF GUJARAT 745

Pycnonotus leucotis leucotis (Gould). The White-eared Bulbul.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS278 2, Gs279 9, Gs280 ¢

18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs458 of! 2-12-45 Golana (Cambay) ;

GS750 2 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs 776 9, GS777 & 31-12-45

Radhanpur; Gsl067 1, Gsl067 2, Gsl068 6 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Kutch: xs8 $& 8-8-43 Rudra Mata (Bhuj Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj and environs; ‘Tapkeshwari ;

Chaduva; Mandvi; Nakhatrana; Bhachau; Pachham Island; Jakhau;

Mata-no-Madh, Khadir Island; Bela Island. Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; Deesa (Palanpur.)

Measurements : W iB albaites AN

6 83-88 15°5-18 21-22 73-80

5 QE 80-87 14-16°5 Z20=25 73-80

Post nuptial moult in September.

Common over the greater part of the area, but more or less restricted

to semidesert tracts. Wherever found side by side with the Redvented

Bulbul (e.g., Kutch, Kharaghoda, Radhanpur) its preference for semidesert

is readily noticeable. It is abundant in the Capparis-Salvadora facies all

along the edge of the Rann. Nectar of Capparis blossoms, and berries of

Capparis and Salvadora persica are two of its main food items.

The specimens of 21 September (Kharaghoda) showed some

gonadal development. In Kutch, breeding is recorded as commencing in

June. It was in progress during August and September.

Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson). The Whitebrowed Bulbul.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS247 9’ +, Gs248 2 +, Gs249 2

17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs498 6-12-45 Cambay.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City and environs; Pavagadh

(Panchmahals); Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Navagam (Rajpipla). Not

noted in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Adee, T

2 90-92 19=20 22°5-23°5 85-86

G88 88-89 20) 24. 81-82

These specimens measure somewhat larger than a series from the

Eastern Ghats measured by Whistler: 5 o'¢’ W 86°5-90°5; 7 99 82-85:5

(JBNATS, 35: 759).

Not uncommon locally. Its preferential habitat is scrub jungle in

ravines such as obtain near the mouths of the Narbada and Tapti Rivers in

Gujarat, and in dry erosion nullahs. A female collected on 17 November

was laying. Betham took 2 clutches of eggs at Baroda in June (JBNAS,

ike Bal),

Family MuscICAPIDAE

Subfamily MuscicaPinAkE: Flycatchers

Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche. The Eastern Spotted Fly-

catcher.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl40 % 1-9-1943, Ks178 4 7-9-1943

Bhujia Fort KS170 9, KS171 9, KS172 < 6-9-1943 Nakhatrana. Sau-

rashtra: v3 2 12-10-43, B17 $1 14-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal) ; B52

& 20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli Dist.).

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 62

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Rudra Mata: Tuna; Anjar; Bhachau ;

Rapar; Chaduva; Dhunara; Khavda. Not met with in Gujarat.

Measurements : W B slveites aly

6 I" 82-92 12°56 IBEIUG 61-65

3 ED 82-85 125-116 15=116 62:5-65

All the above were in freshly-moulted plumage and excessively fat—

literally ‘ balls of fat’.

Autumn passage migrant through Kutch and Saurashtra to its winter

quarters, presumably in Arabia or Africa. First noted September]; last

October 20. Does not winter in Kutch or Saurashtra, and evidently the

return passage in spring is by a different route, by-passing these -areas

altogether. At the height of passage, between 2nd and 4th week of Sep-

tember, the birds are fairly common. Both in flight and while at rest, this

flycatcher is very reminiscent of the Yellowthroated Sparrow (Gymnorhis

xanthocollzs) in the distance. 7

Muscicapa latirostris Raffles. The Brown Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl228 § 3-4-46 Medha (Navsari

Dist.); GS1269 91 14-4-46 Waghai, Gsl312 9 21-4-45, Galkund (Surat

Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted in Gujarat, nor in Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : W B ‘Wane. ‘ae

2d 72-74 14 14-15 47-5—50.

IL 2 Zl 14 14 47 |

All in perfect fresh plumage.

Presumably resident. Singly, perched bolt upright, on bare teak and

other branches in deciduous forest. Gonads quiescent.

Muscicapa parva parva Bechstein. The European Redbreasted

Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks313 # 3-10-43 Khavda, Ks3290 2

5-10-43 Kala Dongar (Pachham Island); KS384 o, KS385 2 18-3-44

Lakhpat ; KS402 of 24-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Ks413 ¢1 26-3-44

Dholovira (Khadir Island). Saurashtra: Gsl000 1 15-3-46 Dalkh-

ania (Amreli Dist.). Gujarat: Gs131 , GS132 9 5-11-45 Bodeli

Cambay ; G8586 0? 15-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gsl080 1

21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj; Chaduva; Nanda (near Adesar).

Gujarat: Baroda City; Pavagadh (Panchmahals Dist.) ; Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; Nadiad town and environs; Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Radhanpur ;

Gangasagar (Palanpur) ; Rajpila town and environs; Dediapada (Rajpi-

pla); Medba and Songadh (Navsari Dist.).

Measurements : W B ar. T

9 JS 64-71 12-14 17-18°5 47-52

12 66 112395) Wi 49

Winter visitor. Fairly common. farliest date October 3; latest

April 7. Usually solo. Frequents mango topes near villages, large leafy

banyan trees, and well-wooded residential compounds, etc,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT reg

Muscicapa tickelliae tickelliae (Blyth). ‘Tickell’s Redbreasted Blue

Flycatcher.

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs402 $ 28-11-45 Cambay ; Gs657 of

19-12-45, Gs678 § 21-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); GS1118 of 27-3-46

Juna Rajpipla. Saurashtra: Gs980 9 12-3-46 Kodinar ; Gs998

Gs999 2 15-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Pavagadh (Panchmahals Dist.) ; Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.); Balaram (Palanpur); Medha (Navsari Dist.) ; Waghai

(Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B “Vane ap

5 Jd 74-77 14-5-16 18°5—20 57:5-62

2, 20 WOrs=73 US =ItSeS 18°5 D0) 7/

The females of this race are very similar superficially to males of the

recent described Cyornzs poliogenys vernayz Whistler of the Eastern

Ghats. The latter, however, have longer tails (75°5-78°5) resulting in a

different wing-tail index which is a good diagnostic clue. In female

tickelliae the blue of the upper tail coverts is a trifle brighter, and the

azure blue forehead and supercilium somewhat more pronounced. The

underparts are pale ferruginous both in female fzckelliae and in male

poliogenys vernayt, but rather more albescent on the abdomen of the

former.

Resident. Fairly common in secondary jungle. In the batnboo

and mixed deciduous forest in the Surat Dangs (April) it was noted as one

of the five commonest species, the others being Dzssemurus, Cry psirina,

Alcippe and Hypothymis. ‘Till the first week of April, no sign of breed-

ing activity was apparent.

Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson. ‘The Verditer Fly-

catcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs33 Q 1-11-1945 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); Gs404 28-11-45, Gs412 9, Gs413 2 29-11-45 Cambay; Gs655

9, GS656 §\ 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

Not noted by the Surveys elsewhere in Gujarat, or in Saurashtra or

Kutch.

Measurements : W b Mar a

2 NS 81-83 LQ°S=aMNSe5) 16 66-—66:5

4 OO 78-82 WQS} 16 6560-67

Winter visitor. Sporadic solos, or separated pairs, amongst groves

of leafy trees near villages, and in wooded compounds, ete.

Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea Oberholser (= padllidior

Ticehurst). The Greyheaded Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs41l4 4, Gs4l5 @ 29-11-45,

Gs488 2 6-12-45 Cambay ; GS942 0 2? 19-1-46 Hathidhara (Palanpur).

Elsewhere not noted in Gujarat, nor in Saurashtra or Kutch. »

Measurements: W B dat: T

3d 63°5-67 12°3=13 13-14°5 52-60

TS aay 62 12 WS} oO

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

According to Whistler (Sfolia Zeylanica, 23: 154) birds from the

Eastern Himalayas and peninsular India, hitherto assigned as. ceylonensis,

are in fact intermediate between typical ceylonensis of Ceylon and pallidior

Ticeh. of the NW. Himalayas. Specimens collected by the Central India

Survey agree with East Himalayan material; so does a specimen obtained

by me in the Hoshangabad Dist. of Madhya Pradesh (BNHS Coll.). Dr.

Ripley considers that birds from the southern peninsula (south of about

the latitude of Madras) go better with those from Ceylon.

Presumably winter visitor. Not common. Solos. Sits upright on

upwardcurving dry twigs, usually fairly low down—8 to 12 ft. Very

active. Swoops at insects and loops back to the same or other similar

perch nearby.

Rhipidura aureola aureola (Lesson). The Whitebrowed Fantail

Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS129 3, GS130 2 5-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.); Gs410 ¢', Gs411 2 29-11-45 Cambay ; Gs612 % 17-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City; Dabka and Padra (Baroda

Dist.) ; Nadiad town and environs (Kaira Dist.) ; Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; Deesa, Balaram, Gangasagar, Hathidhara (Palanpur).

Saurashtra: Ghatwad (Kodinar).

According to Lester ‘it occurs in Kutch but is not common’. I failed

to come across it there.

Measurements : W B alate T

3 Jd 79-5-90°5 14-165 18-20°5 84-597

2 99 76-80 15-15°5 18:5 86-90

This series, in coloration of upper parts, is darker sooty than 3 ex-

amples of areola from Bahawalpur (W. Punjab) and Madhya Pradesh.

4 specimens of compresstrostris from the Eastern Ghats are, by comparison,

more rusty brown above.

The Bodeli birds (Gs129, Gs130) have two central pairs of rectrices all

black (without white tips), a character given by Whistler for com presszros-

tris (JBNHS, 36: 92), and the tail of the male also falls within the range

of that race, ‘ 82°5-87°5 ’.

The Cambay male (GS410) has only one central pair of rectrices all

black ; the female (Gs411) two central pairs all black. In a male from

Mehsana Dist. (Gs612) the central pair is all black, the next also black but

with a minute white dot at the extreme tip. The tails of the 2 males

fall within the range given for aureola from the Punjab, namely

89-100 mm. Whistler in the Avifaunal Survey of Ceylon, 1944 (SZol.

Zeyl., 23: 157) was apparently no longer so sure about the validity of

the characters he gave, namely 1 central pair all black for aurcola; 2 pairs

for compressirost/ ts.

I attribute the above specimens to azyeola realizing that they are

probably intermediate between birds from the Punjab and Ceylon, and

taking note of the small size of the pair from Bodeli.

Resident. Rather patchily distributed ; normally affecting drier and

less wooded localities and facies than the Whitespotted Fantail. Fre-

~ quently seen on open close-cropped grazing or fallow land with sparse

scattered bushes of babul, etc., prancing, pirouetting with fanned erect tail,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 749

flycatching in looping-the-loop sallies near or actually on the ground, and

riding momentarily on the backs of grazing goats and cattle. In such open

country Zectoralzs is never seen, but in a few intermediate localities, e.g.,

Jaspur (Baroda Dist.), Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.), Hathidhara (Palanpur)

the two were sometimes found side by side in patches of scrub jungle or

old rambling residential compounds, and there even in the same tree!

The habitat preferences of the two are distinct, but otherwise there is no

difference in their habits. Wherever they occur together, therefore, they

are competitors for food.

No data as regards breeding was obtained.

Rhipidura pectoralis pectoralis Jerdon. The Whitespotted Fantail

Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat Gs84 % 1-11-1945 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); Gs403 [|] 28-11-45, Gs409 o 29-11-45, Gs489 2 6-12-45,

Cambay ; GS582 1, GS583 of 15-12-45, Gs613 2 17-12-45 Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.) ; sp155 1 5-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Jaspur (Baroda Dist.); Hathidhara

(Palanpur); Juna Rajpipla; Malegaon (Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B aay Ap

43 NETS 14—14°5 HS —1925 86°5—90

a OO 69-70 13-14 18°5-19 89

IL Le | 78 15 20 95

R.p.vernayt of the Visakhapatnam ghats is a good and easily

differentiated race.

Resident. Affects well-wooded, well-watered country, rambling

jungly gardens with shrubbery, and groves of mango and similar low

spreading trees. Never met with on open ground as az;sola frequently is,

but in borderline localities the two are sometimes found in the same patch

and even in the same tree! The voice and song of the Gujarat birds was

noted as appreciably different from that heard in the Bombay neighbour-

-hood. 3

The male of March 5 was in freshly-moulted plumage with testes

(only one!) eniarged to 8x5 mm. No other data as regards breeding

were obtained by the Survey.

Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub). The Blacknaped Blue

Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs40 J 30-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.);

GS1119 ¢, Gsl120 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1211 9, Gsl1212 9 Medha

_(Navsari Dist.) spl0 2 24-2-48, sp93 92 29-2-48 Malegaon; sp134 J

3-348 Galkund ; sp21l1 9 7-3-48 Pandwa ; sp256 2 11-3-48; 'sp288 ot

12-3-48 Laochali; sp385 20-3-48 Sarwar; sp444 Q 24-3-48 Waghai ;

sp463 9, sp464 #1 25-3-48 Chikhli (Surat Dangs). ;

Saurashtra: B23 (Ist year) 14-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal),

_ Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Mheskatri, Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B : Tar. ab

8 IS 69°5-74:5 USS7 16-18 67-72

3) SD GJaIZ 15=16°5 16-17:5 OH 7/11

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 82

B23, a first year male, is exactly similar to adult female.

Resident. One of the commonest birds in bamboo, teak and mixed

deciduous forest. It hunts in trees and undergrowth as well as on the

ground, flitting and prancing in the manner of the Whitebrowed Fantail

Flycatcher, with tail spread and partly erected. None of the specimens

showed any gonadal development between October 30 and April 7.

This flycatcher apparently has no song. Besides the harsh sweech-

wach notes, no other calls were heard.

Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi (Linn.). The Paradise Flycatcher.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl227 § 9-4-1946 Medha(Navsari

I)ist.)

Measurements : W B Tar. aN Streamers

1 3 (chestnut) 98 24°5 7 119 damaged

Ter psiphone paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs256 92 21-9-43,. Rapar.

Gujarat:Gsll07 $ 25-3-46 Gs1117 2 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla ; Gs1135o

29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla); sp8 ~% 24-2-48 Malegaon; sp274 oO?

12-3-48 Laochali; sp340 # 16-3-48, sp359 2 18-3-48 Mheskatri ; sp434

22-3-48 Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted (subspecies uncertain): Gujarat: Mahal (Surat

Dangs). Saurashtra: Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.)

Measurements : W B Tar. T Streamers

2 vo white 94-99 24-245 165-17 82 (1) 308-358

2 dh particolored |

chestnut and 95-99 23-26°5 17-18°5 86-101 239-320

white :

SQ 90-91 23-25 17:5-18 88:5-101 —

The subspecific identity of the white males as /eucogaster rests mainly

on the narrower bill possessed by this race.

The status of the Paradise Flycatcher in Gujarat needs to be determi-

ned. No doubt it varies from one locality to another within the area.

I hazard a guess that pavadisz is resident and breeds in the better wooded

parts, e.g., Navsari District, Rajpipla and Surat Dangs, as it has recently

been reported to do in the Gir Forest of Junagadh by K. S. Dharma-

kumarsinhji (JBNVZS 48: 188). Leucogaster, on the other hand, is purely

a winter visitor and passage migrant as it is elsewhere in peninsular India.

Most of the specimens of the latter were fat and suggestive of being in

transit.

Fairly common in Gujarat during the winter months affecting shady,

well-wooded forest nullahs, especially in the neighbourhood of pools.

In Kutch /eucogaster is evidently an uncommon passage migrant, as it

is in Sind, the only specimen recorded being on September 29.

Subfamily TIMALIINAE: Babblers

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. ‘The Spotted Babbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl086 of 24-3-46 Navagam

(Rajpipla); Gsl126 $ 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1206 2, Gs1207

7-4-46 Medha (Navsari Dist.) ; GS1275 #1 16-4-46 Mahal (Surat Dangs).

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT a5 1

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Ghantoli (Rajpipla); Galkund (Surat

Dangs). Not met with by the Surveys in Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : W B ‘Wai, av

3 74:5-78 19—20°5 29-30 69-73

2) QO 68-70 19-20 ARBORS 62:5—64

Occurs in Gujarat from the Narbada River southward (Rajpipla,

Navsari District, Surat Dangs, etc.) in the appropriate biotope of hilly

bamboo, teak and mixed deciduous secondary jungle. Frequent, but not

common. Occasional song heard by mid-April, but no signs of breeding

activity noted.

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi horsfieldi Sykes. The Deccan Scimitar

Babbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GSl215 ¢ 8-4-46, Gs1237 3 9-4-36

Medha (Navsari Dist.); Gsl251 9, Gsl252 0, Gs12530', Gsl1254 2

13-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs). sp49 Q 27-2-48 Malegaon; sp238

10-3-48 Laochali ; sp296 4 juv., Sp297 9 juv., 14-3-48 Mahal; sp336 of

16-3-48 Mheskatri; sp453 (' 24-3-48 Waghai (SD series = Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Dediapada and Ghantoli ( SEE)»

Not met with by the Surveys in Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : W B aan aR

6s 93-100 SoS 55 SS) 95-100

8) QE 89°5-93 33-34°5 31-33 92-98

The young birds collected on March 14 are in the characteristic

fluffy plumage of juvenile timalines, and rufous-brown on the back instead

of olive-brown. Forehead, sides of head and neck, and side of breast

bordering the white plastron, rusty rufous, continuing behind as a diffuse

nuchal collar. In other words the rusty rufous cheeks extend down

on either side enclosing the white chin, throat and upper breast. Bill:

lower mandible and tip of upper mandible pinkish flesh; base of upper

mandible horny; gape pinkish flesh. Legs and feet plumbeous. ‘This

pattern in a more accentuated form is seen in adult Pomatorhinus

schisticeps and suggests that the two species may be more closely related

than has hitherto been recognised.

This series as a whole is inseparable from forsfreldz from Bombay and

the Eastern Ghats. P. #. obscurus (type locality Mt. Abu) is an easily

distinguishable race, conspicuously greyer above and below with no black

band separating the white of the breast from the upper plumage. Birds

from north of the Tapti River show intergrading|; they are a shade

greyer above and surrounding the white breast, which in good light

the ‘eye of faith’ can just perceive. If therefore some boundary must

needs be fixed between the ranges of P. h. horsticldi (more olive above)

and P. h. obscurus (more grey above) I propose to make it the Tapti

River. All birds north of the Tapti to be arbitrarily considered odscurus

and all birds south of it horsfieldz.

The exact eastern limit of odscurvus needs to be determined. It is said

to occur in the neighbourhood of Seoni in the Satpuras, ca. 350 miles

ENE. of Medha. In JANHS, 31: 1032 I had _ recorded its extension to

Orissa, but on re-examining the specimen upon which this was based

(Reg. No. 2272 BNHS Coll.) I am not convinced of its identity as

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, - Vol. 52

obscurus. It may just bea faded example of horsfieldi of which Koelz

obtained specimens at Mahendragiri (JBN AS, 47 : 129) and to which my

own birds collected in Bastar and Orissa hills belong.

Fairly common in broken foothills country in southern Gujarat in

appropriate biotope—bamboo and mixed deciduous forest. Pairs or

parties of 7 to 10. When feeding high up amongst bamboo culms or

tree-tops, it hops along swiftly from branch to branch to escape, when

alarmed, and dives obliquely into the undergrowth. Calls in ‘duets’

Oop-upupupupu. .. krokant (male .. .,female).

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis (Blyth). The Small Whitethroated

Babbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat; GS273 4, 17-11-1945, Gs296 Q,

GS297 o?, GS298 $f 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda District.) ; 68393 3, 6s394 &,

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gsl1136 6 29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City and environs; Pavagadh

and Champaner (Panchmahals Dist.) ; Balaram and Hathidhara (Palanpur);

Juna Kajpipla; Waghai (Surat Dangs). Saurashtra: Ghatwad and

Kodinar (Amreli Dist.); Bhavnagar (specimen: K. S. Dharmakumar-

sinhji).

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B iar T

6 J 56—58 (13) 13°5-15 18-20 64-67

5) GQ 53—95°5 (13) 13°5-15 UD ABNS 58-66

Post-nuptial moult completed by about mid-November.

Ceylon birds recentiy separated as fhzllipst¢ Whistler (Sol. Zeyl.

23 : 134) and also birds from Travancore, are said to have larger and

sensibly heavier bills. I have seen no specimens from Ceylon, but two

Travancore Survey skins in the BNHS Coll., re-examined and measured,

show no appreciable difference from the Gujarat series in this regard.

Common in scrub jungle, particularly where cut up by ravines. No

evidence as to breeding was supplied by the specimens.

Chrysomma sinense hypoleuca (Franklin).. The Western Yelloweyed

Babbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS92 o\ 19-8-1943, Ks99 $f 21-8-43

Chaduva (Bhuj Dist... Gujarat: G857 o& 31-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS299 “4, GS300 2 19-11-45, GS326 o? 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS598 o? 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); GS743 91 27-12-45

Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs843 0? 9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs1185 of

GS1186 2 2-4-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Rudra Mata (Bhuj Dist.). Gujarat:

Cambay ; Golana (Cambay); Nadiad, Mehmedabad (Kaira Dist.) ;

Radhanpur ; Hathidhara (Palanpur) ; Juna Rajpipla ; Kharaghoda.

Not recorded by the Survey from Saurashtra.

Measurements : W B are qh

68 61°5-70 14°5-15 ZOO 80-98

XD 63-64: 14-16 252i 88-90

Complete post-muptial moult in progress, or just completed, October-

November.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 758

Kutch birds are certainly hypoleuca, but I attribute the Gujarat speci-

mens to this race more for convenience than from conviction. Alypoleucus

is paler and more grey on the upper parts than szzense. While some

freshly-moulted examples from among the Gujarat series can be matched

with similarly fresh plumaged specimens of hyfoleuca from Jodhpur and

Bahawalpur, others can be matched just as satisfactorily with examples of

sinense collected by the Eastern Ghats Survey (e.g., at Kurumbapatti in

Salem Dist.) or by myself in Gwalior. At best it seems to me that

Gujarat birds can only be considered intermediate. Their paleness and

greyness is by no means always obvious, and in some cases even extre-

mely doubtful. I cannot see that birds from N. Gujarat (Mehsana Dist.,

Palanpur) are markedly paler than those from S. Gujarat (Rajpipla).

Not uncommon, but rather local. Affects scrub-covered eroded

ravines, reeds and brushwood by streams, and patches of tall coarse

grass and thorn thickets separating fallow fields. In these facies com-

monly seen in association with the wren-warblers Pyrinia soctalis and

znornata, and Franklinia buchanantz.

In full song and breeding in August (Kutch); full-fledged young on

wing in September. Butler (SF, iii : 471—1875) saw several nests near

Deesa in July and August.

Turdoides somervillei somervillei Sykes. The Bombay Babbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl275 2 13-4-46 Waghai, Gs1299

3 17-4-46 Mahal (Surat Dangs); sp28 9, sp29 25-2-48 Malegaon ;

$p236 6, $sp237 of 10-3-48 Laochali ; sp310 #7, sp311 3, Ssp312 1 14-3-48

Mahal ; sp446 2 24-3-48 Waghai (SD series = Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B date aN

8 JS 98(1) 102-109 22°5-26 34(1)35:°5-37:5 98-109

(mostly 108-109)

3) QO 109 23°5—25 36-38 106-111

These specimens show that the northern limit of the rufous-tailed

typical race somervillez extends at least up to the Tapti River. Unfor-

tunately no specimens were collected in the Rajpipla area immediately

north of this river, between it and the Narbada.

Turdoides somervillei orientalis = sindianus. The Jungle Babbler.

Specimens collected : Gujarat: 68223 (11-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.); GS362 6, Gs363 Q 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs#00 9

28-11-45 Cambay; Gs532 6, 68533, Gs534 2 Nadiad environs (Kaira

Dist.) ; GS659 $1 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs933 2 18-1-46

Gangasagar (Palanpur); Gsl1072 92, Gsl073 # 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Saurashtra: Gs965 4, Gs966 Q 11-3-46 Ghatwad (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City and environs; Ajwa;

Pavagadh ; Jambughoda ; Radhanpur ; Palanpur; Juna Rajpipla; Dedia-

pada (Rajpipla). Saurashtra: Veraval town (Junagadh); Kodinar

(Amreli Dist.)

Measurements : W B sare ali

6h 94 (1)—109 21:5-24 34:°5—38 100-117

(mostly 106 + )

1 SD 100-111 22°5-24°5 34°5—36 103-112

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Birds from north of the Narbada River, and northern Gujarat and

Saurashtra, are intermediate between orzentalis and sindianus, the case

being more or less parallel with that of Crypsivina v. vagabunda and C. v.

pallida. ‘The two specimens from Kharaghoda (Gs1072 & Gs1073), how-

ever, are paler and greyer above and distinctly closer to szzdianus.

Fairly common in well-wooded tracts—in public gardens, private com-

pounds, groves of trees near villages, overgrown ravines covered with

dhak (4wztea) and other scrub, as well as in light deciduous jungle. On

the borderline of their respective preferential habitats, associating freely

with both the Common Babbler (7 urdoides caudata) and the Large Grey

Babbler (7. malcolmz). The absence or scarcity of Jungle Babblers in any

patch of jungle, I found to be a reliable indicator of the paucity of bird

life therein. Everywhere these birds seem to form the nucleus of the

avian foraging parties.

The breeding season is as irregular and ill-defined as elsewhere. While

the gonads of the majority of specimens were quiescent, somewhere in

differential stages of development and two of the three Nadiad birds

(December 10) were certainly breeding.

During several months’ field work in Kutch, when the country was

combed fairly thoroughly, I failed to come across the Jungle Babbler

though in such localities as Mata-no-Madh, and some others, all the re-

quisite ecological conditions seerned present. Neither Hugh Palin, who

originally published a list of Kutch birds in 1878, nor Capt. Lester, who

revised and added to it in 1903, make mention of the species. It appears,

however, that Hume had actually seen specimens collected in Kutch (SF;

ii: 472—1875), and it is also included in Stoliczka’s list of Kutch

birds published in 1872 (74SB, vol. 51). What has happened to the

Species Since is a point that perhaps merits investigation.

Turdoides caudata caudata (Dumcnt.) The Common Babbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ksl0 92 8-8-43 Rudra Mata (Bhuj

Dist.) ; KS403 $1 24-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Gujarat: Gs264 Q,

Gs265 of 17-11-45, Gs307 2, Gs308 9 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ;

Gs471 # Golana (Cambay); GS547 o? juv. 11-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.);

GS1077 3 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Padhar; Mandvi; Anjar;

Bhachau; Kala Dongar (Pachham); Pung Bet (Little Rann) ete.

Saurashtra: Dwarka; Okha; Amreli; Dhari; Kodinar. Gujarat:

Baroda City and environs ; Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Deesa; Palanpur

environs ; Radhanpur.

Measurements : W B mate At

4 Sid" 76-8) 21=22°5|(25))) .(26:5=28°5) 4-17

®) 22 (73) 77-82 20-22 27-29:°5 moult

No. GS264 was undergoing complete moult whilst laying. Oviduct

distended ; largest ovum 3 mm. diameter !

Common over a wide range af terrain from right away on the barren

Rann through sandy cultivation with scrub interspersed, to fairly thick but

dry thorn and scrub juugle. Associating with both the Large Grey and the

Jungle Babbler along the seams of the preferential habitats of either. Dry

sandy ravines bordered with scrub of Capparis, Zizyphus, Acacia and

Prosopis are its favourite haunts. In season, feeds largely on the nectar

TIGL, AUS IDS (Ole (GlW) I aldgealde 755

of Capparts aphylla flowers. The birds get their foreheads thickly coated

with the yellow pollen and are doubtless responsible for a considerable

amount of cross-fertilization.

There seems to be no definite breeding season, and odd birds may be

found nesting throughout the year. Practically all the Survey specimens

showed gonadal development, or gave some indication of current or recent

breeding activity. The moults are also irregular, and practically every

stage of moult may be seen in different individuals at any time of the

year.

On two occasions pairs were observed feeding and fussing over nearly

grown fledgling Pied Crested Cuckoos (Clamator jacobinus), a singleton in

one case and ‘ twins’ in the other.

Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes). The Large Grey Babbler.

Specimens collected : Gujarat; GS309 § 19-11-45, Gs341 4, 6s342

@ 23-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; GS384 9, GS385 2 27-11-45 Cambay.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City and environs ; Nadiad (Kaira

Dist.) ; Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Radhanpur; Deesa ; Palanpur town

and environs; Kharaghoda; Juna Rajpipla. Saurashtra: Dwarka;

Okha ; Amreli; Dhari; Kodinar ; Veraval (Junagadh).

Measurements : W B Albeit ‘av

2d 120 24°5-27 36 IBS IGE

5 QO 114-117 23-24 34-35 133-136

Certainly the commonest babbler in the open cultivated plains country

of Gujarat and Saurashtra. Frequently seen in association with both or

either the Common and Jungle Babblers in appropriate facies.

In Kutch it was not met with at all, neither does Lester include it in

his list (1903). Hume (S#/, iii: 472—1875) speaks of it, however, as

being ‘not uncommon in the less desert portions of Kutch’. It has also

been recorded from Kutch by Stoliczka (JASB, 51—1872).

The specimens of November 19 and 20 were freshly moulted with

partially developed gonads. No further data as regards actual breeding

in the area were procured. |

Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume. The Bombay Quaker Babbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl1202 3, Gs1203 6, Gsl204 Q,

Gs1205 2 7-4-46, Medha (Navsari Dist.); Gs1262 4 13-4-46 Waghai ;

sp16 6 24-2-48, Ssp57 27-2-48 Malegaon ; sp273 (1 12-3-48 Laochali;

sp313 2 14-3-48 Mahal; sp346 1 17-3-48 Mheskatri; sp378 <j 19-3-48

Sarwar ; SD410 2 21-3-48, sp425 # 22-3-48 Pimpri;sp449 7, sp450 9,

sp451 2, sp452 2 24-3-48 Waghai (Sp= Surat Dangs).

Not met with by the Surveys elsewhere in Gujarat or in Kutch or

Saurashtra, but Harrington (/BNAS, 23: 451) recorded it from Rajkot,

somewhat north-west of the Surat Dangs and in approximately the latitude

of Baroda City.

Measurements : W B Tar. ait

10 Jv 66-73 USI 7/05) 22-24°5 62-66:°5

1 YO 66°5=735) 15=116°5 Dies), SOHO5

One of the 5 commonest birds in hiily teak, bamboo and mixed deci-

duous jungle in the Surat Dangs and the Songadh area, the other species

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

being Dicrurus paradiseus, Crypsirina vagabunda, Hypothymis agurea and

Muscicapa tickelliae. Very fond of flower nectar, and in season invariably

present on the blossoms of /zvmzana colorataand Erythrina stricta, among

others. No indication as regards breeding was provided by the specimens.

Subfamily SYLVIINAE : Warblers

Hippolais caligata caligata Licht. (=scita Eversm.) The Booted

Tree-Warbler.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: sp461 $f 25-3-48 Chikhli (Surat

Dangs.)

Measurements : | W B Tar. alt

1d 62 14:5 20°5 51.

Hippolais caligata rama (Sykes). Sykes’s Tree Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KSI] 0, KS12 0? 8-8-43 Rudra Mata ;

KS67 o 16-8-43 Chaduva, KS153 0? juv. 3-9-43 Nakhatrana ; KS174 9 juv.

Mata; KS233 #1 16-9-43 Anjar, KS240 o, KS244 0? juv. 17-9-43 Bhachau ;

KS274 2 26-9-43 Rudra Mata; KS286 2 28-9-43 Bhuja Fort; Ks373 ¢

15-3-44 Jakhau; KS386 2 18-3-44 Lakhpat; Ks411 (1 25-3-44 Dholo-

vira (Khadir Island) ; Ks420 9 28-3-44 Bela Island. Gujarat: Gs36 ff

29-10-45, GSl16 9 3-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) GS202 0? 9-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) ; Gs621 9 17-12-45, GS677 # 21-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana

Dist.); GS699 $f 24-12-45, GS753 28-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs924

Saurashtra: B29 3 17-1043 Amreli; Gs976 2 11-3-46 Ghatwad

(Kodinar) ;

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Khavda, Nir (Pachham Island);

Mandvi; Pung Bet (Little Rann) Saurashtra: Dalkhania. Gujarat:

Champaner (Panchmahals) ; Dabka (Baroda) ; Cambay ; Palanpur; Raj-

pipla.

Measurements : W B Tar. at

MOR oe 60-64 15-16°5 20-5=272 50-56

GS 59-62 15-16 20-21°5 49-54.

August specimens are mostly in worn bedrageled plumage; general

moult takes place about September. In fresh winter plumage Azppolazs

c. rama can be differentiated from H. c. caligata in the hand (but not

always in the field) by its uniform mousy grey-brown upper parts with

slight olive tinge, against darker more fulvous brown in the latter. Rama

is more a bird of semidesert country whereas caligata prefers less arid

parts. In the Surat Dangs both forms occurred in the same locality in

winter (March).

Hi. c. rama possibly resident in small numbers, but increasing fen

Auvigust on, and abundant between September and January. Affects babul,

kandi and similar scrub jungle, keeping to the foliage canopy. Also seen

in tamarisk bushes along river beds, e.g., in Kutch. In habits and move-

ments it closely resembles the willow-warblers (Piylloscopus). Usually

seen singly, restlessly hunting insects amongst the leaves and twigs,

uttering a harsh chuck... chuck or chur-r, chur-r from time to time Wane

may be mistaken for the notes of the Lesser Whitethroat.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 157

Sylvia communis icterops Menetries. The Indian Whitethroat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks135 0? Ks136 3%, KS137 # 31-8-43

Bhuj environs ; Ks141 9, xsl142 9 1-9-43 Bhuj; KS155 #1 3-9-43, KS162 3

5-9-43, «S173 3 6-9-43 Nakhatrana; KS190 9, Ks191 % 8-9-43 Rudra

Mata. Saurashtra: B18 $~ 14-10-43 Dwarka; B35 18-10-43 Amreli.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Anjar; Bhachau; Rapar;

Chaduva ; Nir (Pachham Island.)

Measurements : W B Tar. AD

8 J IBA Y eS 20=22 60-65

3 QO) 73-76 13 21°5-22 58-66

An abundant passage migrant over Kutch and Saurashtra in autumn

to its winter quarters in Egypt and NE. Africa. First observed August

31 ; literally swarming between September 8 and 18; progressively less

thereafter, and all gone by October 10 when the last individual was re-

corded. On return passage from Africa the birds apparently travel by a

different route. Not a single specimen was observed in Kutch between

March 3 and April 3. The bulk of the autumn passage seems to avoid

the mainland. None were observed in Gujarat or east of a iine from

Rapar in Kutch to Amreli in Saurashtra, Acccording to F.B.1. (ii: 447)

it wanders as far south as Mt. Abu and Deesa and as far east at Kanpur.

Partial to sand mounds with tufts of Capparzs and other scrub,

scattered like islets amidst cultivation. ‘The birds were completely silent

during their temporary sojourn. Most of the specimens were fat; some

excessively so.

Sylvia hortensis jerdoni (Blyth). The Eastern Orphean Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKsl69 ~ 6-9-43 Manjal; rsl80

7-9-43 Bhujia Fort ; Ks235 3, KS236 3117-9-43 Bhachau; KSs419 9 28-3-44

Bela Island (Great Rann). Gujarat: Gs87 21-11 A5 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS1720?, Gsl173 Q 9-11-45 Bodeli ; 68256 9! 17-11-45 Dabka

(Baroda Dist.); Gs423 Q 29-11-45 Cambay ; Gs484 of 4-12-45 Golana

(Cambay) ; Gs604 9 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs793 of 1-1-46

Radhanpur ; Gsl1079 § 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Dholovira (Khadir Island): Rapar

(Waghad Dist.); Pung Bet (Little Rann); Khavda (Pachham Island) ;

Saurashtra: Amreli; Dhari. Gujarat: Rajpipla.

ee W B Ware, Av

7 Jv 79-86 19°5-21 (21) 23-25 66-72

5) 292 80-83 19=21°5 23°5\=25 WeaV/ I

Common winter visitor. Solos frequent. First seen September 1;

last March 31. Affects semidesert country keeping to Cappfaris bushes

among the sand dunes or outscoured ravines, and to Prosopis and babul

scrub. Feeds regularly on nectar of Capfaris flowers, and usually has a

quantity of the yellow pollen adhering to feathers of forehead. Utters

chichivrichich while hopping amongst bushes. Specimens collected in

March were very fat in preparation for emigration.

Sylvia nana nana (Hempr. & Ehr.). The Desert Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks366 9 12-3-44 Mandvi.

Measurements : W B ar alt

57 1EILeS) 18°5 47 -

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Colours of soft parts: Iris bright lemon yellow; bill & legs pale

chrome yellow ; upper mandible brownish.

Not common. Very like a miniature Agvobates in the field. Keeps

to‘ khip’ bushes (Leptadenia sbartium and ground among the barer

wind-rippled coastal sand-dunes. Fragments of a pleasant reeling song

were occasionally uttered from the ground, under the shelter of a bush.

When singing, often spreads and partly erects tail like Ahzpidura, dis-

playing the white-tipped fan which further accentuates its likeness to

A grobates.

Sylvia curruca blythii Ticeh. & Whistler: The Indian Lesser

Whitethroat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KSs226 o0?, KS227 # 15-9-43 Anjar ;

KS246 2 20-9-43, Ks260 9 22-9-43 Rapar; Ks270 2 Bhujia Fort ; Ks280 .,

Ks281 J 27-9-43 Bhuj Environs; Ks307 2 2-10-43 Khavda; Ks322 41

5-10-43 Nir; Ks333 9 5-3-44 Bhuj; Ks364 9 12-3-44 Mandvi; 393 9

21-3-44 Godsar; Ks405 § 24-3-44 Chobari; Saurashtra: B300?

17-10-43 Amreli; Gujarat: Gs35 o? 29-10-45, Gsl17 6, Gsll8 ¥

3-11-45; Gs242 4% 15-11-45 Baroda city environs; Gs201 o? 9-11-45

Bodeli; @s269 Q 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs479 9 4-12-45

Golana (Cambay); Gs603 Q 16-12-45 Gs620 92 17-12-45; Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs794 9 1-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gs1040 0? 19. 3-46, Gs1069

of 21-3-46 Kharaghoda; sb268 1 12-3-48 Laochali (Surat Dangs),.

Measurements : W B ANere, alt

7 3d 61-68 12-13°5(15) 18-23 55-60

3) IO 61-65 IIS LSPS) 3 -5= 7A 53-58

Common, abundant and widely spread winter visitor to this area.

Earliest date 15 September ; latest 2 April, but doubtless leaves later.

Affects groves of babul and Pvosopzs (kandi), and thorn thickets and

scrub, with a preference for semidesert country. Hops about the foliage

hunting insects and uttering from time to time a subdued Ze, tek like

the low clicking of ones tongue against the palate. This is distinct from

the harsh chuck or chur-r of Sykes’s and several other tree warblers.

Feeds regularly on the nectar of Babul and Capparis aphylla flowers.

and specimens usually have their forehead feathers thickly coated with

the pollen of these. It was noticed that the birds—this as well as other

species — for some reason avoided the luxuriant growth of Prosopis jultflora,

an introduced species that has colonised dry tracts in the Radhanpur and

Palanpur areas with phenomenal success, though Prosopis shicigera, the

indigenous species, is greatly favoured everywhere!

In my ‘Birds of Kutch’ (p. 34) 1 have recorded a specimen of the

Small Whitethroat, S.c¢. mzzula. On a re-examination of the skin I

find that this was a mistake. In all the specimens taken in Gujarat,

Saurashtra and Kutch there are no mznu/a at all although it may occur in

small numbers in winter.

Sylvia althoea Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

Specimen collected : sp133 § 3-3-48 Galkund (Surat Dangs)

Measurements : W B Mar ap

i & 67 15 20 SW)

Possibly often confused with Sc. d/y/hzz in the field,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT ' 759

Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth. The Brown Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xks351 Q 9-3-1944 Mandvi;

Gujarat: GS63 o? 31-10-45, Gs119 4%, Gs120 4 3-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gs162 2 7-11-45, Gs199 4, 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs429

J 28-11-45 Cambay ; 68602 2 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs782

Measurements : W “1B Tar. aw

5 is 61-65 11-13 19-21 47-51°5

4 29 57-59 10°5-11:5 19-19°5 45-49

Common winter visitor. Latest date recorded by the Survey, March

20. The specimen of that date was very fat suggesting preparedness for

emigration. Abundant in low babul scrub and bushes of Phyllanthus

veticulatus on drying up moist margins of tanks, ponds, etc. Flits about

restlessly with the characteristic phylloscopine nervous flicks of the wings.

Also affects reeds standing in water. Here it feeds off the stems as well as

from the water’s surface, reaching down or lunging out for a floating

insect, and quickly transferring itself to an adjacent stem when the perch

bends over into the water with its weight. Sometimes flutters moment-

arily in front of Cypress grass flower-clusters to capture an insect. Except

for an occasional plaintive tweet, the birds were silent.

PhylHloscopus griseolus Blyth. The Olivaceous Tree-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: G8329 o? 29-11-1945 Dabka

(Baroda Dist.) ; GS535 0? 10-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ; sp77 <j 28-2-48

Malegaon ; sp99 41 1-3-48 Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Jambughoda (Panchmahals Dist.).

Not observed in Kutch or Saurashtra.

Measurements : W B IPE. Ay

200 65-67 14 20 495]

20? 65-68 14°5-15 all 50-53

Keeps singly to tree trunks and rock outcrops scuttling up like a nut-

hatch or tree creeper in search of tiny insects. Constantly flicks its wings

and utters a monosyllabic finch-like Azck from time to time. One of the

easiest Phylloscopi to identify in the field: No wing bars; upper parts

and wings greyish brown; breast and underparts yellow; yellow superci-

lium and brown streak through eye.

Phylioscopus inornatus humei (Brooks). Hume’s Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs200 0? 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; 68348 91 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs430 $ 29-11-45 Cam-

bay town environs ; GS492 o? 6-12-45; Sp52 0?, sp53 2 27-2-48, sp80

3 28-2-48 Malegaon; sp199 2 6-3-48 Pandwa; sp336 3 16-3-48, sp354

o? 17-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Wate, AB

4 oJ 51-59 10°5-12°5 18-19 38°5—45

Oy USED S2=0" 11—11°5 18 38-43

4 o? 54-60°5 11-13 18-19 38-46

No sight records of the Gujarat or Saurashtra Surveys are given

owing to the uncertainty of correct identification. This species was,

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

however, common in the Surat Dangs in February 1948 as confirmed

by my companion, Mr. Horace Alexander, who has made a special study

of Phylloscopi in the field. The following points help to identify this

willow-warbler : Two wing bars of which the hind one is distinct and the

the front one faint. Comparatively short tail. Long whitish supercilium.

Call note zzs-yzp or chilip. Seen up in trees as well as bushes.

Phylloscopus trochiloides nitidis Blyth, The Green Willow-

Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs3ll’ o?, xs312 o? - 3-10-43

KS314 of 4-10-43 Khavda (Pachham Island); xs273 $# 26-9-43

Bhuj; Gujarat: Gsl63 4 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs1258

& 13-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. oT

43d 58°5-65 12-14 18-20 45-49

20? 62-64 13-13°5 18°5-19°5 46

Phyltloscopus trochiloides viridanus Blyth. The Greenish Willow-

Warbler,

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs428 o? 29-11-45 Cambay;

Ssp78 of 28-2-48 Malegaon; Sp399 # 20-3-48 Sarwar; sp430 # 22-3-48

Pimpri; sp369 1 18-3-48 Mheskatri (Sp'= Surat Dangs),

Sight records not given owing to uncertainty in field jidentific ation.

Measurements : W B Marr al

43S 59-64 2=15 18-19 44-48

Ik OB 58 iL 19 45

The two races are impossible to differentiate in the field, and even in

the hand they present some difficulty. Both of them, moreover, have an

identical call note in winter—a squeaky.chiwee. The earliest and latest dates,

supported by specimens, are September 26 and April 13. The latter

specimen was excessively fat in readiness for emigration.

Perhaps the commonest species of willow-warbler in the area. Feeds

mostly up in the foliage canopy of trees in openly wooded country.

Phylloscopus trochilus acredula (Linn.). ‘Che Northern Willow-

Warbler.

Specimen collected: Gujarat; GSl1137 & 29-3-1946 Dediapada

(Rajpipla). |

Measurements : W B Tar. on

1d 63 13°5 19 46

This is an unexpected addition to the Indian list. It was kindly

identified for me by Col. R. Meinertzhagen. who had his diagnosis

confirmed by Dr. James Harrison. Itis a north Buropean bird which

normally winters in south and east Africa. |

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large Crowned

Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS149 o? 6-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; sp227 3, sp228 2 9-3-48 Laochali; sp252 1, sp253 gf! 11-3-48,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 761

§p335 ¢& 16-3-48, sp353 § 17-3-48 Mheskatri; sp441 9, sp442 2 24-3-48

Waghai (sD = Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B ‘ave. A

5 ve 64-70 14-15 USS) > 49-52

3. QO 63-70 13°5-14 18-19 47-55°5

This is another species comparatively easy to identify in the field.

Faint single wing-bar ; body slim and long as in the Greenish Willow-

Warbler with proportionate tail, not short asin P. 2. humez; a coronal

band ; conspicuously orange bill ; yellow wing shoulders and axillaries.

Most of the specimens were undergoing body moult, while some were

freshly moulted. ‘They were obviously preparing to emigrate in March.

All collected in that month were fat to excessively fat and, contrary to

their normal winter habit, the birds were then moving about in small

flocks. The birds were silent until 24 March when the first song was

heard—a squeaky but lively ELIE, chwet, chwet, chwet, chwet, quickly

repeated.

Keeps to the foliage canopy of moderate sized trees, oie associated

with the itinerant hunting parties of mixed species.

Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks. Tytler’s Willow-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: sp50 1, sp51 2 27-2-1948, sp79 o?

[Q] 28-2-48 Malegaon (Surat Dangs).

Measurements ; W B ate qt

ll & 63 133 - 19 44

eae 56 13 18:5 38°5

1 o? [9] 57 ISS) 18°5 40

Field identification: No wing bar; conspicuously long slender bill

reminiscent of the tailor bird’s (Orthofomus); upper parts olive; underparts

whitish with indefinite yellowish streaks; long whitish supercilium.

The species was not uncommon where the specimens were collected. ~

Chaetornis striatus (Jerdon). The Bristled Grass Warbler.

Not met with by the Surveys. According to Capt. A. E. Butler (SF,

v : 209) not uncommon about Deesa (North Gujarat) in the rains at which

‘season it breeds. He invariably found the birds during the rains in

grass bheerhs overgrown with low thorny bushes of Zizyphus jujuba, etc.,

but was not certain if it was a resident species. He emphasizes its close

superficial resemblance to the Common Babler (7urdoides caudata) and

thinks that it may therefore escape notice at other seasons.

Locustella naevia straminea. Seebohm. The Eastern Grasshopper

Warbler.

(Cambay). |

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Timbi tank

and Harni (Baroda City environs).

Measurements : W B Tar. ‘ap

1) 61 14 NE) 38

Winter visitor. In the above localities it was not common or abun-

dant, but one or two solos were usually to be flushed in likely patches—

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

tall standing or flattened down grass at the edge of drying-up tanks or 1n

swampy depressions. On one occasion several individuals had gathered

to mob a snake in a thicket. Their agitated cht-cht-cht sounded rather

like that of Dumetia hyperythra.

Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). The Indian Great

Reed Warbler. |

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs234 ¢@ 17-9-1943 Bhachau

Gujarat: GSlO § 28-10-45, Gs25 0? 29-10-45, Gs113 0? 3-11-45 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.) ; Gs239 §115-11-45 Baroda City environs ; ¢s1037 2, Gs1038

J 19-3-46, Gsl056 31 20-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Cambay town environs ; Kanewal

(Cambay) ; Kutch: Nir (Pachham Island).

Measurements : W B Mate ah

2385 84-89 PS 26 28—28°5 73-80

Ws 85 BOS BIS 72

Birds collected in September and October were in very worn plumage

or undergoing heavy moult. Thereafter they were mostly freshly

moulted, and the specimen of March 20 was fat.

Fairly common in reed beds and shrubbery around the edges of tanks.

Once seen amongst Salvadora thickets bordering a bajri (Sorghum) field

a considerable distance from water. Here its close superficial resem-

blance to the Isabelline Shrike, as it dashed across from one thicket to

another, was particularly emphasized. Very skulking and secretive,

especially when moulting ; also silent, only occasionally uttering a harsh

characteristic £¢. Spasmodic bursts of song were heard on April 22.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: spD300 ¢, sp301 ¢, sp302

14-3-48 Mahal (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B Tar. ae

30's 63-64 17-18 22-23 51-54

Winter visitor. Curiously enough not met with at all in Kutch,

Saurashtra or elsewhere in Gujarat between August and end April.

Acrecephalus agricola agricola Jerdon. ‘The Paddyfield Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks352 2, Ks353 1 9-3-1944 Mandvi.

Gujarat: csll4 # 3-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs240 ot 15-11-45

Baroda City environs ; GS365 91 22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs437

J 30-11-45 Cambay.

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; Kharaghoda

Measurements : W B ‘Rene, ay

20h 58-61 14-15 21°5-—23 54-59

12 56 15 21 53

Fairly common winter visitor. Keeps within reeds bordering tanks

and ponds, and permits a glimpse of itself only occasionally as it mounts

to the top of a stem or dashes out in pursuit of a rival. Their presence

however, is always advertised by the characteristic harsh chrr .. chuck

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 763

they constantly utter. When flushed the bird skims over the sedges with

a jerky hurried flight, spreading its tail as it dives into them again a few

yards farther on. As it does so the rufous rump shows up prominently

and discloses its identity.

Orthotomus sutorius guzurata (Latham). The Tailor Bird.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs13 % 8-8-1943 Rudra Mata (Bhuj

Dist.). Gujarat: GS159 o? 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs364 9

22-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gsl294 § 194-46 Galkund; sp54

27-2-48 Malegaon ; SD122 # 2-3-48 Galkund; sp243 92 10-3-48 Laochali ;

sp334 2 16-3-48 Mheskatri; sp403 2 20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat Dangs).

Saurashtra: B7 # juv. 13-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal); Gs981

12-3-46 Kodinar ; GS1006 2 15-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.)

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Bhuj town and environs ; Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); Mandvi; Nakhatrana; Dhinodhar Hill; Bhachau; Rapar ;

Khavda, Nir and Kala Dongar (Pachham Island); Mata-no-Madh; Lakh-

pat ; Dholovira (Khadir Island) ; Bela (Bela Island). Gujarat: Baroda

City ; Ajwa; Champaner (Panchmahals Dist.); Saiat, Dakor, Nadiad

(Kaira Dist.) ; Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Palanpur town, Deesa, Balaram

and Gangasagar (Palanpur); Rajpipla; Waghai (Surat Dangs) Sau-

rashtra: Okha; Amreli; Dhari.

Measurements : W 1B Aden T,

4 jg S0=52 WE—NGS — AQ SZIULS) 4.3°5-82

8 QQ 47-49 G7, 20-21 37°5-39

Resident. Common and generally distributed throughout the area.

Affects gardens in towns, wooded compounds, stony scrub jungle as well

as semidesert, but nowhere abundant. Solos or pairs usually met with.

The breeding season in Kutch is between June and August/September.

Here, owing to the paucity of broad-leafed bushes the bird builds a nest

of the Czsticola type, woven out of vegetable down with a number of

narrow leaves sewed to it at the sides for support.

Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth. Stewart’s Ashy Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs427 2 29-11-45 Cambay ; Gs589 9,

Gs590 4, Gs591 16-12-45 Vaghjipur ; GS748 3, GS749 § 27-12-45 Patan

(Mehsana Dist.); Gs833 (1 5-1-46 Radhanpur. Saurashtra: Gs978

Ghatwad (Kodinar).

Elsewhere noted: Deesa, Palanpur ; Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Measurements : W B ar. T

63h 48--52 13°5-15 19°5-21 (60°5) 67-75

2 OX? 45°5-48 USNS eS) 19°5 59-62°5

Affects reeds and herbage on the margins of streams and ponds. On

the whole partial to better watered facies than the Indian Wren- Warbler,

though in tall grass-Capparis-Salvadora thickets separating sandy fallow

fields in the Radhanpur area the two species were often found together

and in association with Przzza buchanant and Chrysomma sinense. All

specimens collected during December were completing wing and tail

moult into winter plumage.

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume). The Indian Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs4 {+ 8-8-43 Rudra Mata (Bhuj

Dist.); KS151 $+ 3-9-43 Nakhatrana; «s241 (+ 17-9-43 Bhachau.

Gujarat: Gs328 2 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs426 2 29-11-45

Cambay ; Gs466 <7, 3-12-45, Gs487 0? 412-45 Golana (Cambay); Gs540 ¢,

@s541 9, Gs542 og 11-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.); es658 # 19-12-45

Vaghjipur, GS702 o? 24-12-45, Gs729 o? 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ;

GS795 3, GS796 0? 1-1-46 Radhanpur. Saurashtra:Gs977 o? 11-3-46

Ghatwad ; Gs982 2 12-3-46 Kodinar ; B34 #+ 18-10-43 Amreli.

Measurements : W B bere, a

49% Summer (breeding) 50-54 12-13°5 19-21 49-56

5 jh Winter 50-54 WAH B5) 20—21°5 59-76

599 Winter 48-50 =e 19°5-21 64-69 -

A common, resident and widely-distributed species which, though

frequently found in well-watered facies alongside the Ashy Wren-Warbler,

is more tolerant of arid conditions, often being met with far out in sandy

or stony semidesert. Breeding was in progress Kutch during August.

Several nests with clutches of 3-5 eggs were seen, as also wobbly young

just out of nest being fed and fussed over by the parents.

Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth). The Jungle Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks5 2+ 8-8-43 Bhuj; KS75 +

17-8-43 Chaduva ; KS150 0? juv. 3-9-43, Ks164 $ juv. 5-9-43 Nakhatrana;

KS284 4 juv., KS285 # juv. 28-9-435 Bhujia Fort ; kS372 7 15-3-44 Jakhau.

Gujarat: Gs292 J, GS293 of, Gs294 2, Gs295 2 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS524 $1 9-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.); GS579 $1 15-12-45, Gs599 0?

16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs1113 1 26-3-46 Rajpipla; sp186 J,

SD187 2 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs). Saurashtra: Gsl004 o?

15-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Palanpur. Saurashtra: Kodinar.

Measurements : W B Tan: Winter T

8 i'd ad. 62--65 15-17 = (21) 23°5-25:5 74-89

BQ Blo 53-56 14:5 22-25 Did 7/

Whistler (Sfolia Zeylanica, 23: 178) says that RB. s. valida of Ceylon

differs from P. s. sylvatica of India among other things by its larger bill

(12 3S valida 15°5-17 mm ; 12 oo sylvatica 13-15 mm). I measure the

8 Gujarat males bill 15-17, but have seen no Ceylon specimens, and it is

possible that bills of valida are sensibly larger otherwise than in length

alone.

Fairly common in stony, hummocky grass-and-Euphorbia scrub

country, cut up by eroded ravines. Breeding was in full swing in Kutch

during August. The male sings excitedly both from bushtops and during

the aerial courtship display which consists of a succession of quick-repeated

nose-dives, the bird tumbling headlong groundwards, then rising steeply

again for the next dive, and so on, till he finally alights on a nearby bush.

The song is a lively but untnusical A’¢4y, pty, pity, etc. While being.

uttered, whether from a perch or in the air, the tail is spread to show off

the white outer feathers prominently. The mouth in breeding males is jet

black and easily noticed in the singing bird. .

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 765

In the fluffy juvenile plumage there is a distinct primrose yellow

wash on the under parts.

Prinia lepida Blyth. ‘The Indian Streaked Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks105 3 juv., KS1O7 §'+ 24-8-1943,

K9363 2 12-3-44 Mandvi; KS337 0? 6-3-44 Devisar Tank (Bhuj Dist.).

Gujarat: Gs464 J, Gs465 2 3-12-45, Gs477 # 4-12-45 Golana (Cambay ).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Khavda, Nir, Bela, Dholovira (all along

edge of Great Rann); Pung Bet (Little Rann. )

Measurements : W B AbeKe, T

208 45-46 12 (aD) 16°5-18 (i (2)

OS 43-44. WIS G25 =eses 59-60°5

Resident. Affects sandy semidesert country with khip scrub (Lepta-

denia) and coarse grass tussocks among the sand dunes. Also scanty

thorn scrub and grass country about cultivation and sandy dry nullahs.

Flushes from cover like Czsticola and settles on a grass stem after a short

jerky undulating flight characteristic of the wren-warblers. Has a wheezy

unmusical warbling song of the Indian Wren-Warbler pattern.

Breeding was in progress in Kutch during July and August, and also

in March. In the fresh juvenile there is a distinct yellow tinge on the

sides of the neck and upper breast which appears to have been overlooked

in published descriptions.

Prinia gracilis gracilis (Franklin). Franklin’s Wren- Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs6 J, Ks7 # 8-8-43 Rudra Mata

(Bhuj Dist.) KS152 1 3-9-43 Nakhatrana ; KS377 3'17-3-44 Mata-no-Madh; ,

KS426 § 31-3-44 Bhuj. Gujarat: GS275 §#17-11-45, Gs327 & 20-11-45

Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs587 ~ 15-12-45; Gs630 of 18-12-45 Vaghjipur

(Mehsana Dist.) sp76 0? 28-2-48 Malegaon; sp207 2, sp208 Q .7-3-48

Pandwa ; sb271 3, $p272 Jf 12-3-48 Laochali; sp333 2 16-3-48, sp355

17-3-48 Mheskatri (Sp=Surat Dangs), Saurashtra: Gsl020

16-3-46 Dalkhania (Kodinar).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City & environs; Champaner ;

Nadiad Saiat, Dakor (Kaira Dist.); Radhanpur; Balgram, Gangasagar,

Hathidhara and Palanpur town environs ; Juna Rajpipla; Saurashtra:

Dhari (Amreli Dist.), Kodinar, Ghatwad ; Kutch: Chaduva; Rapar.

Measurements : W B War: ay

10 Jo 44°5-50°5 10°5-13 18-19°5 46-58

(average 47°8) (summer

: & winter)

8 QO 44-48 11°5-13 18-20 45-55

(average 46) (winter)

In winter the tails in both sexes are considerably longer than in sum-

mer (breeding) plumage. Post-nuptial moult into winter plumage takes

place about October.

Resident. Common and generally distributed. Frequents scrub

jungle with coarse grass and thorn bushes—babul and Salvadova facies —

in comparatively well-wooded country. In more open semidesert, in the

Capparis-Zizy phus-coarse grass facies, e.g., about Patan in Mehsana Dist.,

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

it was completely replaced by Printa buchanant. ‘These two species

appear to be ecological representatives of each other.

Over the greater part of our area the breeding season is from July to

September. The nuptial display of the male is a lively and spirited

performance. He mounts to an exposed perch on a bare tree- or bush-top

and excitedly warbles a loud squeaky yousee-yousee-yousee-which-which-

which-which. ‘The yousee portion of it starts feebly, and is quickly

repeated three or four times. It rises in pitch at each successive note

and ends up loudly and abruptly after the third or fourth whzch. Another

turn in the courtship proceedings consists of some spectacular aerobatics

when the bird springs up in the air and executes a series of wave-crests

and steep nose-dives in quick succession, to the accompaniment of the

breeding song.

Prinia buchanani (Blyth). The Rufousfronted Wren-Warbler.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS22 91, KS23 $f juv. 9-8-43, KS334 4

5-3-44 Bhuj ; KS365 9 12-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat: Gs700 % 24-12-45,

Gs730 of 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs759 9, Gs760 § 30-12-45

Radhanpur; Gs1042 2 19-3-46, Gsl070 2 21-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Saurashtra: GSl005 9 15-3-46 Dalkhania (Kodinar).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Padhar, Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.) ; Nakhat-

rana; Bhachau; Rapar; Khavda; Nir; Jakhau; Mata-no-Madh ; Khadir

Island. Saurashtra: Dhari(Amreli Dist.) Gujarat: Palanpur

town & environs.

Measurements : W B Tar. Ay

5 oJ 52-5) 12-13°5 18-19°5 (53)59-66

4 99 47-51 11°5-14 17-18°5 56-64:°5

Resident. Affects dry sparsely scrubbed semidesert country —Cappa-

ris—Zizy phus—Prosopis—coarse grass facies—where it is common. My first

meeting with it in Gujarat (at Patan) corroborated the floristic evidence of

the desiccated nature of the terrain, as in Kutch; and its gradual increase

in northern Gujarat (e.g., Palanpur and Radhanpur) coincided with the

increasing aridness, emphasized also by the appearance of such other typi-

cally semidesert birds as Cursorius cursor, and Oenanthe tsabellina.

The habits of Prznza gracilis and P. buchanant differ noticeably in

one particular. Whereas duchanant commonly hops about on the ground

in amongst grass tussocks and thorn scrub, tail slightly cocked, gracilzs

hardly ever does so, being more arboreal and finding its food on the

plants themselves. In the field the white tips of the rectrices show up

prominently as a fringe when the tail is fanned out before the bird alights.

In worn plumage, however, the tips become abraided and the bird then

looks confusingly like the Indian Wren-Warbler (Prznza cnornata).

The rufous forehead alone (sometimes very faint) provides a clue to

its identity.

Males mount to an se twig on a bushtop, with tail spread out

and partially cocked, and pour forth a vehement reeling, twittering song.

In overall pattern it is reminiscent of the song of the Ashy Wren-Warbler

yet distinct enough to be quite unmistakabie.

Nests with eggs and/or young, and other breeding activities, were

observed in March as well as in August. The enlarged gonads of specimens

likewise indicated that the season is a prolonged one,

‘THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 167

Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin). The Streaked Fantail Warb-

ler.

Specimens collected: K utch: xs66 ¥ 16-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist. );

KSLOO 1, 24-8-43, KSs349 of 8-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat: Gs459 9

- 2-12-45, Gs461 9 juv., Gs462 9, Gs463 ‘Pp 3-12-45 Golana (Cambay) ;

GS572 o? 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Godsar (Bhuj ainpitionnt®) Nakhatrana ;

Anjar; Pung Bet (Little Rann). Gujarat: Ajwa; Cananibeny one

environs: Dakor (Kaira Dist.). Saurashtra: Dwarka (Okhamandal);

Dhari (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. A

2 dS 52-54 O= O25 19-20 31-34

4 ae 45-48 Wo? IWS 1S °5) 38-42

Resident, but moves about locally with seasonal conditions—rain of

drought—affecting its habitat. Inhabits patches of tall grass along the

dry margins of tanks, lagoons, tidal creeks, etc. Breeding activity—

zigzag ‘chip-chipping’ soaring display flight of males, nest building,

feeding nest young, and wobbly stub-tailed juveniles ex nest—was in

evidence between August and October.

Subfamily : TURDINAE

Erithacus svecicus pallidogularis (Saudrny). The Eastern Redspot-

ted Bluethroat.

‘Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks412 $ 26-3-44 Dholovira (Khadir

Island); Gujarat: Gs43 # 30-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); cs406 ¢

28-11-45 Cambay ; GSl039 o? 19-3-46 Kharaghoda. Saurashtra:

B31 o? juv., B32 of 18-10-43 Amreli.

Measurements : W - B Tat, AN

43 70°5-—74 U5 =I6 25-27 55-56

Erithacus svecicus abbotti (Richmond). The Eastern Whitespotted

Bluethroat.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl4 9 28-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS332 g 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs746 $# 27-11-45

Patan (Mehsana Dist.).

Elsewhere noted (races uncertain): Kutch: Chaduva; Rudra

Mata; Devisar ; Mandvi environs (e.g., Bamdai and Changdai tanks).

Gujarat: Radhanpur; Palanpur ; Viramgam. Saurashtra:

Kodinar.

Measurements : W B Weir, ab

203 76-77 15-15°5 25-26 59-61

Col. R. Meinertzhagen, who has been good enough to determine the

Bluethroats collected by the Gujarat and Kutch Surveys, remarks about

EL. s. abbotti : ‘This form is dimorphic, having usually a white spot but

often a red spot on the blue. Upper parts darker than in pallidogularis

but not so dark as in saturatzor ’. .

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. #3

Winter visitor. Earliest date October 18 ; latest March 19. Common

and locally abundant among reedbeds and on marshy ground bordering

jheels, sugar cane and lucerne fields, and other wet cultivation.

Erythropygia galactotes (Menetries). ‘he Greybacked or Rufous

Warbler.

Specimens collected : Kutch: xsl133 $ 30-8-43, xs143 Sy ESI: jl,

KS145 2 imm. 1-9-43 Bhuj; xsl60 <1, Ksl61 Q2 5-9-43 Nakhatrana ;

KS177 §& 7-9-43 Bhuj; KS216 & 14-9-43 Anjar; KS247 0? 20-9-43

Rapar. Saurashtra: Bl $# 12-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Khari Rohar; Bhadreshwar; Bhachau ;

Khavda (Pachham Island); Kala Dongar; Nir; Kuar Bet.

Measurements : W B Mare ap

6 J 85°5—-90 16-18 24-27 61-67

(average 87:6)

3 22 85-87 15-16 24-25 64-66

(average 86:3)

Autumn passage migrant en route to its winter quarters in Africa over

the south-eastern tip of Arabia. Earliest date August 30 ; latest October

12. Peak between September 5 and 20 (1943). During this short period

the birds were quite common, and all the specimens excessively fat. As

in Sind, the return passage in spring evidently follows a different route,

since none were observed again by the end of April, nor has it been re-

corded at that season.

Keeps singly to stony scrub-covered broken country, on the ground or

in low bushes. Behaviour very robin-like. Hops along the ground with

wings partly drooping at the sides, tail fanned out and cocked, and flicked

up from time to time as in Saxicoloides or Cyanosylvia. When only a

fleeting glimpse of the flying bird is obtained, confusingly like Lanzus

tsabellinus or L. phoenicurotdes except for the black and white tips to its

rectrices which show up as a terminal fringe when the tail is spread on

alighting, and are diagnostic.

Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris (Vieillot). The Eastern Redstart.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS133 2, Gs134 9 5-11-45, Gs166 3,

Gsl67 9 8-11-45, Gs204 g, Gs205 § 10-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.).

Saurashtra: BS 9 13-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal); Gs970 # 11-3-46

Ghatwad (Kodinar).

Measurements : W B Tar.| ‘ae

ASS 86-88 abs 55) ZS=Z216) 60-64°5

Bs QO 82-86 14-14°5 24-25 56-64:°5

These specimens belong to the larger eastern race with blacker upper

parts, and grey fringes to the feathers greatly reduced in the male. The

females are darker with abdomen distinctly tinged with chestnut. 20 #

in the BNHS collection measure : W 85-93 (majority over 87 mm); 2 2°

W &-87 mm.

Phoenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides (Moore). The Kashmir

Redstart.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks182 /juv. 8-9-43, KS271 o? 25-9-43

Bhujia Fort ; Ks279 3 26-9-43, Ks289 @ 28-9-43, KSs336 | 6+3-44 Bhuj

THE BIRDS. OF GUJARAT 769

environs ; KS404 9 24-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.). Gujarat: Gs631 2

18-12-45 Vaghjipur, GS747 3% 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.).

Elsewhere noted (subspecies ?): Kutch: Rapar; Khavda; Jakhau ;

Lakhpat ; Dholovira ; Bela; Adesar; Chaduva. Gujarat: Champaner ;

Baroda town and environs; Dabka; Kanewal (Cambay) ; Nadiad town

and environs; Radanpur; Deesa;. Palanpur; Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Saurashtra: Amreli; Dhari; Kodinar Dalkhania.

Measurements : W B an. ab

5 8' 81-85 US SILS°S) 2 OLD) 60-65

Zao) 80-81 14°5-15°5 23-24 8595) 516)

Specimens of this race in the BNHS collection measure: 23 “4

W 81-87 (majority wxzder 85 mm); 13 92 W 76-87 (majority wxder 85

mm).

An analysis of the Survey specimens shows that all birds north of a

line from Dwarka through Baroda (1.e. ca. 20°30’N lat.) belong to the

smaller western race phoenicuvoides with broadly grey-fringed upper parts

in male. |

Winter visitor. Earliest date August 30; latest April 3. Fairly com-

mon and abundant. Solos. Affects stony scrub-covered broken country,

dry watercourses, kandi and babul patches in semidesert, and the neigh-

bourhood of villages and cultivation.

Copsychus saularis saularis (Linn.). ‘The Indian Magpie Robin.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs359 of 22-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gs391 4, GS392 2 28-11-45 Cambay: Gs1196 of 3-4-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla) Saurashtra: Gs979 $1 12-3-46 Kodinar (Amreli Dist. ).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Baroda City and environs; Dabka

Nadiad town and environs ; Vaghjipur and Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Rad-

hanpur; Palanpur; Deesa; Rajpipla; Waghai (Surat Dangs) ete.

Saurashtra: Dhari (Amerli Dist.) ; Ghatwad (Kodinar), ete.

Absent in Kutch. |

Measurements : W B APA. AN

ASS 96°5-105 21-23 30-31°5 84-93

iL @ 96 20 30 82

Resident. Common, Males in full song in March/April, and evidently

breeding in the latter month.

Copsychus macrourus malabaricus (Scopoli). The Shama.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl245 9 12-4-45 Waghai (Surat

Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B dare ‘ae

1g 98 21 26°5 156

A few examples were observed in this lovality (Surat Dangs) in mixed

deciduous bamboo and teak forest.

Saxicoloides fulicata cambayensis (Latham). The Brownbacked

Indian Robin. (Local name in Palanpur Deo/2). oO

_ Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks128 ¢ juv. 30-8-43, xKs134 $ 31-8-43

Bhuj. Gujarat: Gs90 # 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs446 9, Gs447 ¥,

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59

Gs448 7, Gs449 1, Gs450 # 1-12-45, Gs503 2 7-12-45 Cambay ; Gs884 3

11-1-46, Gs894 2, Gs895 7 12-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs1078 $ 21-3-46

Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Kandla; Padhar ; Chaduva; Nakhatrana ;

Bhachau; Khavda; Kala Dongar; Mata-no-Madh; Dholovira; Bela;

Adesar, etc. Gujarat: Dabka; Vaghjipur ; Patan; Harij ; Radhanpur ;

Rajpipla ; Waghai (Surat Dangs), etc. Saurashtra: Dwarka: Okha; ~

Amrelis Dhari; Kodinar ; Dalkhania, etc.

Measurements : W B Mate T

Sa 71°5-73 14-15°5 =25°5-26:5 61-65

Resident. Common. Breeding March to July/August. Complete post

nuptial moult August/September.

Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Kinnear & Whistler. ‘The Black-

capped Blackbird.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS44 o? 30-10-45 Pavagadh

(Panchmahals Dist.); Gs408 0? 29-11-45, Gs494 9, Gs495 2 6-12-45 Cam-

bay; GS1106 % 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla ; Gsl209 3 7-4-46 Medha (Navsari

Dist.); GS1274 Q 16-4-46, Gs1288 9, Gs1289 2 17-4-46 Mahal (Surat

Dang) ; SD36 9, sD31 2 25-2-48 ; Sp71 # 28-2-48 Malegaon (Surat Dangs).

Not met with in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

‘Measurements : W B ality av

3d 131-134 24°5—28 32-33 96-101

toe 116-128 25-28 30-33 85-94

Winter visitor to the Gujarat plains. Affects secondary deciduous

forest and scrub jungle. Capt. Butler (SF, iti: 470) notes that it breeds

in considerable numbers at Mt. Abu (where it is absent during the cold

weather) at the commencement of the trains. Presumably breeds in the

other hills of the area also, e.g., Pavagadh and Salher. Even the April

specimens showed no departure in the gonads from the quiescent non-

breeding condition, though by the middle of that month occasional sub-

song was heard.

Turdus citrina cyanotus Jard. & Selby. The Whitethroated Ground

Thrush. |

Specimen collected: Gujarat: G81222 $8-4-46 Medha (Navsari

Dist.). 3

es noted elsewhere in Gujarat, or in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

Measurements: WwW B Tar. GN

1d 119 (fresh) 22 33 79

116 (dry)

In the Eastern Ghats Survey (JBVA'S, 36: 79) Whistler measures 7 fof

Wing 109+-112°5 (dry). F.B.I. Gi: 150) gives the wing #Qas 106-112

min.

Status ? The above was the sole example met with by the Surveys.

Solo in thickets by a pool in the bed of a forest stream. Silent.

THE BiRDS OF GUJARAT 771

Monticola soiltarius pandoo (Sykes), ‘The Blue Rock Thrush.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS175 @ 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS246 9 17-11-45, GS277 $1 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs929

of 18-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur) ; Gs1128 4 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla ; sp362 3

18-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs). Saurashtra: B4l 6, B42 9 20-10-43

Dhari (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Rapar: Mata-no-Madh; Bhuj & envi-

rons ; Adesar. Gujarat: Champaner (Panchmahals); Deesa (Palanpur);

Waghai (Surat Dangs). -

Measurements : W B Tar. Ab

5 dd 116-124 27-28 27-29 77-85

i & 118 nf) 29 78

The two Saurashtra specimens are not included above. They seem

exceptionally large. |

SO 128 BS 28 85°5

mo) 121 26 28 82°5

In other respects they do not differ from the Gujarat series.

Ticehurst (JBNHS, 31:494) gives the following measurements:

M.s. pandoo Wing 117-123; M. s. longirostris (= transcaspica) W 3

121-127 mm.

Winter visitor. Earliest date September 21; latest April 11. One or

two examples usually seen in its characteristic facies : rocky cliffs, boulder-

strewn hillsides, quarries, walls and ramparts of ancient forts, and ruined

buildings.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blueheaded Rock Thrush.

Specimens collected: Gujarat; sSp66 28-2-48 Malegaon ; sp192

3, spl193 2 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted in Gujarat, Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : W B Mar. TT

2 ds 103:5-104 23-24 25-26 65

12 97 24 27 65

Winter visitor. Recorded by Butler at Mt. Abu (SZ, iii: 470) but

nowhere else in northern Gujarat. The Survey came across it in small

numbers—solos or separated pairs—in forest country in the Dangs, and it

presumably also occurs in similar terrain in the Rajpipla area.

Oenanthe isabellina (Cretzschm.) The Isabelline Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS224 # 15-9-43 Anjar; xs245 3

20-9-43 Rapar: KS288 9 28-9-43 Bhuj environs. Gujarat: Gs695 Q

24-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs800 ¢', Gs801 3, Gs802 #7, Gs803 9,

Gs804 #1 1-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs920 #1 14-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur).

Elsewhere noted: Saurashtra: Amreli. Kutch: Jakhau.

Measurements : W B Tar. Ak

7 3S 98-104. 18-19°5 30-31°5 56-6

3 QO 92°5-96 19°5-20 28°5-30 51°5-55

Winter visitor. Earliest date September 15; latest March 15. Not

uncommon in Kutch and the semidesert portions of northern Gujarat,

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Affects the same facies as Cursorius cursor, Oenanthe deserti, Oe. opistho-

leuca etc.—open sandy semidesert and waste land with sparse Capparis,

babul, Alhagi maurorum and such-like bushes.

In the field this chat may be distinguished from female Oe. desertz

by its plumper build, heavier head, longer legs and absence of black in

the upper wing coverts. In flight the white subterminal band to the tail

is noticeably broader and more glistening white against buffy white in

desertt.

Oenanthe deserti atrogularis (Blyth). The Desert Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks225 0? 15-9-43 Anjar; KS296 J,

1-10-43, KS302 4, KS303 # Khavda (Pachham Island). Gujarat: Gs192

o 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs282 3, Gs283 $ 18-11-45 Dabka

(Baroda Dist.); Gs444 #1 30-11-45 Baduchi (Cambay) ; Gs581 2 15-12-45,

Gs601 3% 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs692 4, Gs693 2, Gs694

Y 24-12-45, GS752 0? 28-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist. ).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Khari Rohar ; Nanda (SW. of Adesar) ;

Pung Bet (Little Rann); Mandvi; Jakhau; Mata-no-Madh; Lakhpat.

Saurashtra: Dwarkas Aimreli = Kodinam Gujjarato Golana

(Cambay) ; Radhanpur ; Deesa (Palanpur).

Measurements : W B ‘Ware, Te

10 Wd 94-99 16°5-19°5 Ds CA7 62-69

ae 88-94 165-175 26-265 54-62

Winter visitor. TFZarliest date September 15 ; latest March 18. Fairly

common. Solos or pairs on semidesert waste land, often along with other

chats and Short-toed Larks.

‘Oenanthe xanthoprymna chrysopygia (De Fil.). The Redtailed

Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs297.% 1-10-43, Ks300 9, KS301 9

Khavda (Pachham Island) ; Ks387 # 18-3-44 Lakhpat.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nir & Kala Dongar (Pachham Island) ;

Dholovira & Chhaparia Hills (Khadir Island). Gujarat: Patan (Meh-

sana Dist. ).

Measurements : W B Tar. A

28h 92°5-93 18 25°5—26 56:5-60

a OO 92 18-20 24:-5-—26'5 59-60

Winter visitor. Earliest date October 1; latest March 26. Not un-

common in its characteristic biotope and facies : semidesert, flat stony and

sandy ‘kallar’ land with sparse Capparis and other bushes—especially in

the tract known as Banni in northern Kutch and along the edge of the

Great Rann. Almost everywhere in food competition with Oenanthe

picata by which it was being constantly chivvied and chased about.

Hume (S/, iii, 476) records specimens from the base of Mt. Abu in

N. Gujarat and from Morvi in Saurashtra.

Oenanthe picata (Blyth). The Pied Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS37 %, kS58 Qimm. 11-8-43 Bhujia

Fort ; KS126 2 30-8-43 Devisar Tank (Bhuj Dist.) ; KS131 9, KS132 9 juv.

31-8-43 Bhujia Fort ; KS163 3 5-9-43 Nakhatrana. Gujarat: GS285 Q,

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 773

18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs512 @ 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira Dist.) ;

GS696 $ 24-12-45, Gs712 Q 25-12-45, GS733 Q 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana

Dist.) ; GS799 9 1-1-46, Gs835 9 5-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs856 1, Gs857 2

9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs922 9 16-1-46 Palanpur ; Gsl063 4 20-3-46

Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch; Kandla; Mandvi; Chaduva; Bhachau ;

Rapar; Khavda; Nir; Jakhau; Mata-no-Madh; Chobari; Dholovira ;

Adesar, etc. Saurashtra: Dwarka; Amreli; Kodinar; Dalkhania ;

Navalkhi (Morvi) ; Veraval (Junagadh).

Measurements : W B Mars Th

5 od 90-96 =I L7/ 25-25'5 64-68

112729 86°5—95 14-18°5 22-26 57-67

It is now established that this is a polymorphic species and that

Oenanthe opistholeuca and Oe. capistrata (infra) are merely colour phases

of it. The females of O2. Arcata and what was heretofore called Oe.

capistrata are usually identical in appearance, even in the hand, though

sometimes the latter’s throat is a shade darker. They are seen paired with

males either of the true pzcafa type or with ‘ capistrata’ or ‘ opistholeuca ’.

The pzcata colour phase is far commoner than either capistrata or

opistholeuca.

Winter visitor. Very common and abundant in Kutch and the semi-

desert western portions of N. Gujarat. Earliest date August 5; latest-

March 20. Individuals have fixed feeding territories which are jealously

guarded against intrusion particularly of chats of the same or other species

with similar feeding habits. Has a pretty song (on first arrival in winter

quarters) something like the Magpie Robin’s. The bird is also a good

mimic, and I have heard it taking off to perfection, among others, the

Common Babbler, Indian Wren-Warbler, Tailor Bird, Redwattled Lapwing

and Spotted Owlet; also the twittering song of the Swallow, and the

musical soliloquy of the Rufousbacked Shrike.

Oenanthe capistrata (Gould). The Whiteheaded Chat. :

No specimens obtained. A single male observed at Patan, Mehsana

Dist., (24-12-45) in sandy fallow country sparsely dotted with Capparis

and stunted babul bushes. Exactly like Oe. pzcata but with the crown

and nape white. ;

Oenanthe opistholeuca (Strickland). Strickland’s Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks299 # 2-10-43 Khavda (Pachham

Island). Gujarat: Gsl47 9 €-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs866 4

10-1-46, Gs833 1 11-1-46 Deesa (Palapur).

Measurements : W B ars ah

388 93-95 17-17:5 25-25°5 64-66

I 2 90 17 23'5 62

In what has hitherto been considered this ‘ species ’ the adult female is

very like the adult male, but sooty black (or dark brown) where he is jet

black. It is unmistakable with females of the normal O¢. picata phase

or with those considered typical of Oe. capistrata.

Both the above colour phases of Oe. ficata are much less common

than pzcaia itself. For some reason, | always found them inordinately

wild— far more so than pzcata. Tagae

(74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Cercomela fusca (Blyth). The Brown Rock Chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl8 9, xsl19 # 9-8-43 Bhujia Fort:

KS33 of 10-8-43 Tapkeshwari (Bhuj environs); Gujarat: Gs867 Q,

Gs868 3, Gs869 ¢ 10-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs934 Q 18-1-46 Ganga-

sagar (Palanpur).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Rapar; Kala Dongar (Pachham) ; Naliya

(Jakhau Dist.) ; Mata-no-Madh.

Measurements : W B Tar. Ay

43S 87-95 18°5-19°5 25-27 65-71°:5

2) 52 85°5—90 17:°5-19 25-25°5 61-69

Very worn plumage in August.

Resident. Not uncommon in Kutch about boulders and scarps in rocky

hills, ancient ruined forts, etc. In Gujarat only met with in the Palanpur

area in similar facies (e.g., Bhakhar Hill, near Deesa), Evidently the

principal breeding months in Kutch are June to August.

Saxicola caprata bicolor (Sykes). The Northern Indian Pied Bush-

chat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs229 0?, xs230 0? juv. 15-9-43

Anjar ; KS283 27-9-43 Bhuj; KS348 2 8-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat:

Gsl2 # 28-10-45, Gs30 #1 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs158 2 7-11-45

Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; GS359 % 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs380

27-11-45 Cambay; Gs435 30-11-45 Baduchi (Cambay); Gs456 9

2-12-45, Gs467 Q 3-12-45 Golana (Cambay) ; Gs513 Q 8-12-45 Pariej

(Kaira Dist.); Gs836 9 5-1-46 Radhanpur. Saurashtra: B28 3

17-10-43, 837 ¥ 18-10-43 Amreli.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Pung Bet (Little Rann). Gujarat:

Saiat and Dakor (Kaira Dist.) ; Patan and Harij (Mehsana Dist.) ; Deesa

(Palanpur) Saurashtra: Dhari (Amreli);

Measurements : W B Tar, “Aly

9d 69:5-77 IBS 19:5-24°5 50-55

5) GS MOWSTHEPS) WBS \5) 19:5-—23 49-53

Evidently a winter visitor, the first and last dates being September 15

and March 8. Fairly frequent though not common in Gujarat, less com-

mon in Saurashtra and decidedly uncommon in Kutch. Seen on reeds

and bushes, particularly in the vicinity of tanks and jheels.

Saxicola caprata atrata (Blyth). The Southern Indian Pied Bush-

chat.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: $p223 +, sp224 #4 7-3-48 Saiher

ca. 2,000 ft. (Navsari Dist.).

Measurements : W B Abayes ain

230 72-73 14 21°5—22°5 50-51

The resident race. Fairly common in the broken, undulating country

about the base or Fort Salher in March. Males in full song and in

possession of jealously guarded territories. Breeding was either in pro-

eress or imminent. Gonads of the specimens 6 x 3 and 7 x 4mm,

LE BIRDS SOR MGUTAhAT 775

Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). The Indian Collared Bushchat.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS347 ¢ 8-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat:

GS6 6, GS7 2 28-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs457 § 2-12-45 Golana

hanpur : Gs923 3 16-1-46 Palanpur; sp286 92 12-3-48 Laochali (Surat

Dangs). Saurashtra: B6 9 13-lu-43 Dwarka; B43 9 20-10-43 Dhari

(Amreli Dist.); GS1008 1 15-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Pung Bet (Little Rann) Gujarat;

Dabka ; Pariej, Dakor (Kaira Dist.); Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Rajpipla ;

Dediapada, Ghatoli (Rajpipla). Saurashtra: Muldwarka ; Kodinar.

Measurements : W B Sitar AP

8 Id 68-72 13-14 Pi 283 46-51

3 QO 66-68°5 13-14°5 = 2225 44-5-46:°5

Winter visitor. Earliest date October 12; latest April .2. Not com-

mon, but quite frequent. Singly or separated pairs about reed beds

bordering tanks, and sparse scrub around fallow fields. Also amongst

sand dunes near the sea-shore with sparse scrub of khip (Leptadenia spar-

tium), etc. Often in the same facies as the Pied Bushchat.

Myiophoneus horsfieldi Vigors. ‘The Malabar Whistling ‘Thrush,

Specimen collected : sp174 # 6-3-48 Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted only in the Surat Dangs, at Waghai.

Measurements : W B dare Aly

1g 158 32 49 107

Doubtless resident, but not common. In song on 25 March, 6-15 a.m.

Family MOTACILLIDAE: Wagtails, Pipits

Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond. The Indian Tree Pipit.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gsl277 2 16-4-45 Mahal (Surat

Dangs).

Measurements : W B | Aare ar

19 85 14 20°5 61°5

In my experience uncommon, Capt. Butler (S/, 11 : 490) apparently

obtained specimens in the Deesa neighbourhood and describes it as

common in N. Gujarat in winter, arriving about September 5.

The specimen was excessively fat, and doubtless ready to emigrate.

Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linn.). The Tree Pipit.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS103 3, GS104 9, Gs105 &.2-11-45

Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; GS289 o? 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs405 9

28-11-45 Cambay ; Gs469 9 3-12-45 Golana (Cambay); GS619 $1 17-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs1219 # 8-4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.) ;

SD17 2 23-2-48, sp25 1 25-2-48, SD70 J 28-2-48, SD88 o', SD8I ff 29-2-48,

spl47 9 4-3-48, sp157 5-3-48 Pandwa; SD375 3, SD376 3, $D377 o?

19-3-48 ; sp379 o, Sp380 20-3-48 Sarwar; sp458 of 25-3-48 Chikhli

(sb = Surat Dangs): Saurashtra: B50 o? imm., BS] o? imm,

20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli Dist.) ; GS1001 .715-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist,),

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Measurements : W B Tar. T

12 Jd 85-94. 13°5-15:5 20-22:5 61-68

3 99 84:°5-88 325—1'5 21 59-63

All the above are ¢rvzvzalis, but if one chooses to recognise haringtonz

on the basis of greater breadth of bill at. the base, perhaps Nos. Gsl04,

Gs469 and Gs1219, could pass for that form. I am inclined to agree with

Col. Meinertzhagen, however, that havzngiont is not a good race, the

breadth and depth of bill at base being a most variable character. In

any case it is inadequate by itself for identifying winter birds.

Winter visitor. Rare in Kutch; common and abundant in Gujarat

and Saurashtra. Earliest date September 9 (Kutch); latest April 19

(Surat Dangs). All specimens after February 23 were in varying stages

of body moult, and fat to excessively fat showing that they were ready

to emigrate.

Anthus sordidus jerdoni (Finsch). The Brown Rock Pipit.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS325 3, KS326 2 6-10-43 Bhachau ;

KS358 9 10-3-44, KS361 1, KS362 J 12-3-44 Mandvi; Ks415 9 26-3-44

Dholovira (Khadir Island); Gujarat: Gs8 o? 28-10-45, Gsl06 0,

Gsl07 2 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); GS237 9, Gs238 92 15-11-45

Baroda City environs. Saurashtra: B2 12-10-43, Bl4 4 14-10-43

Dwarka.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

5d 98-105 19°5-20°5 28-30 80-91

5) 2 95-99 18°5—21 28-29°5 80-88

The Perso-Baluchi race A. s. decaptus also occurs in India during

winter and may then be easily confused with this. It is, however, paler

below not so reddish.

Status ? Not uncommon. Solos or loose parties of 3 or 4 on rocky,

sparsely scrubbed hummocky ground, and sand dunes near the sea coast

(e.g. Mandvi).

Anthus richardi godlewskii (Taczanowski). Blyth’s Pipit.

Specimen collected: Saurashtra: B12 @ 13-10-43 Dwarka

(Okhamandal).

Measurements: W B Tar. 4

1d 85 16 28 62

Several scattered individuals on the grassy margin of a tank at

Mithapur.

(The identity of this specimen is not undoubted. It seems rather small

for godlewskiz and may only be rufulus !)

Anthus richardi rufulus Vieillot. The Indian Pipit.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks51 ¢% 12-8-43 Bhuj ; KS194 0? imm.

9-9-43 Ratnal ; KS249 o? imm. 20-9-43 Rapar; KS332 Q 5-3-44 Bhuj;

KS359 2, KS360 ¢ 10-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat: Gs9 o 28-10-45 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.) ; GS195 $7 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist ) ; Gs470 ~\ 3-12-45

Golana (Cambay) ; GS705 1 24-12-46 Gs745 9 .27-12-45, Patan (Mehsana

jst. ).

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT C77

Measurements ; W B Varies T

6 VS 84-87 16-16°5 26°5-27°5 60-63

3 LO 84-85 17 25 65

The Kutch specimens approximate to the pale race waztez of Sind and

NW. India.

A common resident species, usually seen in pairs or scattered parties

of 3 or 4 on fallow land, ploughed fields, etc.

Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll. The Eastern Tawny Pipit.

Specimens collected: Kutch: ks165 3, Ks166 4, KSI67 4 imm.,

KS168 1 6-9-43 Nakhatrana ;KS179 o? 7-9-43 Bhuj; KS242 0? 18-9-43

Bhachau ; KS248 1 20-9-43 Rapar; Gujarat: Gs 196 9 9-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) ; GS262 9117-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs536 31 10-12-45

Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ;Gs618 2 17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.);

Gs697 9 24-12-45, Gs731 § 26-12-45, GS751 & 28-12-45 Patan (Mehsana

Dist.) ; GS757 1, GS758 § 30-12-45, Gs805 9, Gs806 Y 1-1-46, Gs834 o?

5-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gs850 ¢\ 9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur) ; GS1058 92 20-3-46

Kharaghoda. Saurashtra: B8 oi BI of, B10 Q 13-10-43, B1D

14-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal) ; B38 6, B39 & 17-10-43 Amreli ; Gs1021

3 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements : WwW B Tar. p

21 3'o 895-95 -14°5-]8:5 —-24:5-27°5 65-76 (78°5)

8) QE 85-88 16-17°5 24-25°5 65-70

Winter visitor. Common and abundant. Earliest date September 6

(Kutch) ; latest March 20 (Kharaghoda).

In loose parties and flocks in semidesert and on fallow land near

cultivation. In flight, silhouetted against the sky, easily confused with the

Greynecked Bunting (Amberiza buchanani) with which it frequently

associates. It has the same white in the outer rectrices visible before it

alights. ‘The great preponderance of males over females in the specimens

collected is noteworthy.

Anthus rufogularis Brehm [=4. cervinus (Pallas)]. The Redthroated

Pipit. |

Specimen collected: Gujarat: GS239 o? 18-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.).

Measurements : W B mare T

lo? 87 NS) 22 65

Status ? The only example of this species among the large number of

pipits collected by the surveys.

Anthus roseatus Hodgs. Hodgson’s Pipit.

I have examined two specimens (% Y) collected by K. 5. Dharma-

kumarsinhji on 3-4-51 at Gaurishankar Lake in ‘Bhavnagar (Saurashtra).

This marks the most southerly point at which the specie has occurred

in India. Satanwara in Gwalior (Madhya Bharat) was previously the

southernmost record (JBNAS, 41: 105).

Several pipits were observed on 18-3-46 at the tank in Viramgam

(Gujarat) which by their heavily black-streaked undersides suggested

778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Anthus spinoletta. No specimens could be collected. This species has

not been recorded in Kutch, Saurashtra or the N. Gujarat plains previously,

but Hume (SF, iii: 491) procured it on the slopes of Mt. Abu, ca. 1870.

Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. The Greyheaded Yellow

Waetail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl30 o? imm. 30-8-43 Bhuj

environs; Gujarat: GS42 2 30-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs178 2

9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs616 §# 17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana

Dist.).

Measurements : W B | Tar. T

1d 81 15 23°5 71°5

Zo 77-80 16 23°5-25°5 70-71

Motacilla flava beema Sykes. The Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail.

I have examined two specimens of this race in summer plumage

collected by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji at Gaurishankar Lake, Bhavnagar

(Saurashtra) on 3-4-1951.

Motacilla flava melanogriseus (Homeyer). The Turkestan Black-

headed Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS376 @ 15-3-44 Jakhau; Ks414 3

26-3-44 Dholovira (Khadir Island).

Measurements : W B Tar. ay

200 79 17-18 22°5—24 70—-72°5

Both in heavy body moult into black-headed summer plumage. Met

with on muddy grassy tank margins.

Motacilla citreola citreola Pallas. The Greybacked Yellowheaded

Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKsS392 $# 21-3-44 Bhuj environs

Gujarat: Gsl5 3 28-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs705 & 24-12-45

Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs1036 0? 19-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

Sci 82-86 16-17 24~25°5 71:°5-75

Motacilla citreola werae Buturlin. The Blackbacked Yellowheaded

W agtail.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl4l1 6, Gsl42 & 6-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.) ; Gs436 $1 30-11-45 Baduchi (Cambay) ; Gs616 1, GS617 3,

17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs1035 < 19-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements : W B Tar. Ae

6 81-85 15-17 23-26 69-—74:5

Winter visitors. Fairly common, the two races often together, on

marshy margins of tanks, inundated fields, etc. Earliest date October 3

(Khavda, Kutch) ; latest April 22 (Pachham Island, Kutch, and Galkund,

Surat Dangs).

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 749

Motacilla cinerea melanope Pallas. The Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Specimens collected : Kutch: Ks231 9 16-9-43 Anjar. Gujarat:

$p90 o? 29-2-48, sp384 # 20-3-48 Sarwar (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. ab

1g 82 17°5 ZA 90

15° 84. 15°5 19 87°5

Winter visitor. Earliest date September 16 (Kutch); latest April 19

(Surat Dangs).

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Pied Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS52 o& 12-8-43 Bhuj environs;

KS222 of 15-9-43 Anjar; Gujarat: Gsl69 Q 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda.

Dist.); Gs669 ¢ 20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist. ).

Measurements : W B ARaye, T

205 97°5-101 20-—20°5 21=27°5 101-104

BOs? 96-99 19-20 255-28 100

Resident. Local and uncommon in Kutch and Saurashtra, more

generally distributed in Gujarat though nowhere abundant. A pair or so

usually present on every rocky section of streams and rivers. Breeding

was in progress in April (cf. Wiretailed Swallow).

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The White Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Kutch : Ks317 2 4-10-43 Khavda. Gujarat:

Gsl168 4, Gs191 of 8/9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs703 9, Gs704 3

24-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.).

Measurements : - WwW B Mans Alt

2d 94°5-95 15°5-16 24-25 89-96

1 Q (ist year) 84 15°5 20 84°5

Winter visitor. Common over the entire area. Earliest date August

24 (Mandvi, Kutch) ; latest April 22 (Nir, Pachham).

Solos or small scattered parties running about on lawns, playing

fields and dry margins of tanks, etc.

Motacilla indica Gmelin. The Forest Wagtail.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl270 of 14-4-46 Waghai, sp432 9

22-3-48 Pimpri (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W ‘B Tar. “ap

1g ‘82 18 21 73

12 83 iW Ore fal

Winter visitor. Rare. Sporadic solos met with in moist deciduous

biotope. Not observed elsewhere in the area, but possibly occurs in the

Gir forest of Junagadh (Saurashtra). Contrary to what one would expect

so late in the season, neither of the specimens was fat.

Family LANIIDAE

Subfamily ; LANIINAE: Shrikes

Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). The Indian Grey Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs91 9 19-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); KS112 of 248-43 Mandvi ; KS375 #4 15-3-44 Jakhau. Gujarat:

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

Gs250 1, GS276 %°17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs452 9 2-12-45

Golana (Cambay); GS509 2 8-12-45 Pariej (Kaira Dist.); Gs698 9,

GS709 2 24-12-45, Gs741 2 27-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); GS773 9

31-12-45, Gs831 # 5-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gs893 2 12-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur).

Saurashtra: Gsl024 9 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar; Ratnal; Rudra Mata; Rapar ;

Gedi; Desalpur; Khavda; Mata-no-Madh Lakhpat; Dholovira;

Chhaparia; Pung Bet; Adesar. Gujarat: Palanpur; MKharaghoda ;

Ahmedabad environs.

Measurements : W B Wan Ap

4 vd 108-115 20-26 30-33 106-122

79° 105-113 19-25 29-32 107-118

Ticehurst (JBNAS, 31: 495) gives the tail length of dahtora as

‘117-129’ which is surely too big? General moult was taking place in

August.

Resident. Common. Met with singly or in pairs in story, sparsely

scrubbed semidesert country interspersed with cultivation. Breeding had

commenced in March and April as evidenced-by the enlarged gonads of the

birds collected, and by the mutually attached and aggressively territorial

behaviour of pairs. A nest with one fresh egg was taken on March 18.

Butler (SF; iti : 462—1875) records it breeding in N. Gujarat in June and

July when he found many nests.

The male at this season has a short pleasant tinkling call, rather like

the Grey Tit ’s but more musical.

Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. The Baybacked Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl27 @ juv. 30-8-43, xs185 @

8-9-43, KS276 o? 26-9-43 Bhuj environs; xs149 3-9-43 Nakhatrana ;

KS213 0? juv. 13-9-43 Khari Rohar; kS321 0? juv. 5-10-43 Nir (Kala

Dongar, Pachham). Gujarat: Gs27 9 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ;

GS137 o? 5-11-45 Bodeli; Gs241. # 15-11-45 Baroda City environs ;

GS381 9 27-11-45 Cambay ; Gs483 f 4-12-45 Golana (Cambay); Gs592

juv. 16-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs742 9 27-12-45 Patan

(Mehsana Dist.); Gs832 0? 5-1-46 Radhanpur; Gs]074 Q 21-3-46

Kharaghoda. Saurashtra: B24 3 17-10-43 Amreli.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Anjar; Ratnal; Rapar; Kandla;

Mandvi; Dholovira. Gujarat: Deesa; Palanpur ; Rajpipla ; Viramgam,

Measurements : W B alate 4

3 29 ad. 84-89 15-18 23-24 84-90

Rest of specimens not measured because of moult or doubtful sexing,

or of being juveniles. Immature birds with rufous tails, are confusingly

like adult Lantus zsabellinus or L. phoentcuroides, but they usually show

some grey on the upper tail coverts. Also the white wing ‘ mirror’ is

absent. Specimens No. KS$321, a wobbly-flying juvenile just out of nest

with rufous stub tail, is greyish sandy above, crossbarred on head and

back with blackish fulvous.

Resident and fairly common, but subject to some local seasonal

movement. Affects semidesert country as the Grey Shrike, but slightly

better wooded-——with babul groves, etc. From the evidence of juveniles,

immature plumaged birds and moulting adults, the breeding season in the

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT | 781

atea would appear to be between July and September. The only direct

indication was provided by a nest on October 5 (Kala Dongar, Kutch)

with 3 stub-tailed wobbly-flying young just out of it.

Lanius collurio Linn. ‘The Redbacked Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl86 2 8-9-43 Bhuj; Ks221 o?

imm., KS228 # 15-9-43 Anjar; KS251 o? imm. 20-9-43 Rapar (Wagad

Dist. ).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Dholovira (Khadir Island). Not in

Gujarat or Saurashtra.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

1 fad 92 16°5 24 78

(from feathers)

1 2 (1st year) 93 17 25 78

BO’ 92-93 16-18 23-23°5 72°5-75

A not uncommon passage migrant (regular ?) to its winter quarters in

Africa, Kutch (and perhaps N. Gujarat) lying on the extreme eastern

fringe of its route south and west. A specimen was collected by Capt.

Butler in the Deesa neighbourhood (S/, iii. 463—1875) who says it

atrives in N. Gujarat about September 1. In 1943 my earliest date of

meeting with it was September 15. ‘Thereafter passage continued in fair

strength (never abundant) till the first week of October. Only a single

suspect was again seen on March 25, and it would appear that this species

also follows a different route on return migration in spring.

In size and appearance this shrike is rather like ZL. vittatus from

which, however, it may be differentiated in the field by the absence of the

white wing ‘mirrors ’ and by the large amount of white in the tail. The

female is merely a duller edition of the male. Immature birds are almost

impossible to tell with certainty from immature L. phoenicuroides in the

field.

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). The Rufousbacked Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks395 & 21-3-44 Bhuj environs;

Gujarat: GS28 % 29-10-45, GS55 @ GS56 o? 31-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.); GS251 2 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs481 3, Gs482 3

4-12-45 Golana (Cambay) ; GS527 2 9-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ; Gs1048

@ 20-3-46 Kharaghoda; sp43 27-2-48 Malegaon; sp172 2 5-3-48

Pandwa (Surat Dangs).

Lanius schach caniceps Blyth. The Southern Greybacked Shrike.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl4 #+, xsl]5 2+ &-8-43 Rudra

Mata; KS73 9+ 17-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.) Gujarat: Gsl049 ¢

20-3- 46 Kharaghoda.

Elsewhere noted (subspecies ?): Kutch: Chobari. (Bhachau Dist.)

Gujarat: Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Rajpipla environs; Dediapada, Ghatoli

(Rajpipla).

Measurements : W B Tar. 1

(both races)

200 90-96 23-28 113-115

19-20°5

3 QO 87-90 18°5-20°5 27-29 99°5-109

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 53

In typical evythronotus the rufous of the rump extends on to the

mantle ; in typical cazzceps it is more or less confined to the rump. But

there is a regular cline and ina great many cases, especially in winter

when both races are together, it is exceedingly difficult to decide where

one character waxes and the other wanes and to assure oneself of the

correct racial identity of individual specimens. In the Gujarat area eryth-

yonotus is only a winter visitor, whereas brceding birds (Ks14, KS15, Ks73),

though clearly intermediate, are closer to and would readily pass for

caniceps. It is this intermediate population which Koelz has recently

named kathiawarensis. 1 am not convinced that any advantage is to

be gained in naming this race, since it is clearly a stage in the

colour cline.

Immature birds are easily confused in the field with various sub-adult

plumages of Lanius c. ph. entcuroides and L. tsabellinus, but schach has the

upper parts greyer whereas in the others the upper parts are browner.

My earliest specimen of evythronotus is dated October 29; latest

March 21.

L. s. caniceps breeds in Kutch principally in July and August. Nests

with 4 newly hatched chicks in one case and 6 slightly incubated eggs in

another were taken on August 8 and 17 respectively, and their owners

collected. Capt. Butler (S/, iii: 463—1875) took several nests (of

‘evythronolus’) about Deesa in N. Gujarat in June and July. :

The preferential habitat of this shrike is a stage farther from semt-

desert than that occupied by ZL. vztfatus, namely fairly well wooded, well

watered country. Thus while their ecological ranges may overlap along

the seams, there is on the whole little competition for food among the 3

species lahtora, vittatus, and schach.

Lanius phoenicuroides = Isabellinus

Specimens collected: Kutch: S215 o? 14-9-43 Anjar; Ks306 3

9.10-43 Khavda (Pachham Island): xKs335 6-3-44 Bhuj environs

Gujarat: Gs3l0 ft 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs453 $1 2-12-45

Golana (Cambay) ; GS490 6-12-45 Cambay ; Gs510 2 8-12-45 Pariej

(Kaira Dist.) ; Gs539 2 11-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ; GS566 <1, GS567 9,

Gg568 $f 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.) ; GS578 2 15-12-45, GS593 2 16-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs774 o, GS775 o? 31-12-45, Gs830 3

5-1-46 Radhanpur.

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Khari Rohar; Pung Bet (Little Rann).

Measurements : W B Tar. T

8 id 91-97 17-20 Zoe 80-85

5 2° 90-94 17°5-20°5 24-25 78-83

Col. R. Meinertzhagen who kindly examined the above series,

remarked as follows: ‘None of your specimens are typical of either

phoenicuroides or of isabellinus. They are all intermediates and agree with

the form described as Lantus collurio bogdanow? (Bianchi) based on a bird

from North Persia; it is not a good form but an intermediate or hybrid

between colluvrio and zsabellinius sometimes with a dash of phoenicurozdes,

and it is not constant within its reported breeding area. All your birds

seem to be nearer phoenicuroides than to isabellinus. The form breeds in

Tarbagatai.’

Winter visitor. Earliest date September 14; latest March 6. Solos

frequent in semidesert biotope, within the facies of both Lazzus lahtora and

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 783

L. viltatus. Easily confused in the field with immature vztfatws and

ollurio. For points of diagnosis between immature plumages of L. phoe-

nicuroiwes and L. coliurio see Ticehurst ‘Birds of Sind’ (/ézs 1922,

p. 609). |

Lanius cristatus cristaus Linn. The Brown Shrike.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS1303 @ 20-4-46 Galkund, ansG

@ 25-3-48 Chikhli (Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted in Gujarat, Saurashtra or Kutch.

Measurements : W | B Alvantes at

2 29 80-81 19-20 25-25:°5 82-83

Both in general moult—body, wings, tail.

Winter visitor. Uncommon. Keeps singly to fairly thick secondary

jungle.

Family Sirrip#@: Nuthatches, Tree Creepers.

Salpornis spilonotus spilomotus (Franklin). The Spotted Grey

Creeper.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS886 92 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur),

GS1149 9, Gs1150 f+, Gs1151 9+. 29-3-46, Gs1162 9+ 30-3-46 Dediapada

( Rajpipla). ‘!

Elsewhere not met with in Gujarat or Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch,

Measurements : W B ADae al

2d'c 90 25°5=26 16°5 52-53

3) (Oe 87°5—89 24-28 WEPS=aIL/oS 49-51.

Col. Meinertzhagen confirms that none of these specimens belong to

the race vajputanae described by him from near the Sambhar Lake in the

Jodhpur area, which is considerably paler and sandier below.

Deesa is on the fringe of Rajasthan ca. 250 miles SW. of Sambhar. In

the specimen thence (GS886) the white of the throat extends to the upper

breast, but there is no appreciable difference otherwise between it and

birds from farther south, from the country between the Narbada and

Tapti Rivers.

Not uncommon in the localities where met, but apt to be easily

overlooked. General habits very like Sztta or Certhia. Singly or in

pairs, affecting leafless pole forest of teak and other species. Clamber-

ing up tree trunks and boughs, as well as end twigs. The Pigmy Wood-

pecker (Pzcoides nanus), with which it is often coincident, is rather similar

in appearance and actions but definitely prefers the thinner branches.

When alighting on a tree-trunk after a flight the creeper ‘tumbles’ on to it

with wings open, rather like a quail tumbling into grass, in contrast to

a woodpecker which sweeps gracefully upwards with wings closed to

flatten out against a bole. A feeble song of the volume and timbre of a

sunbird’s, of about 5 seconds’ duration—chichichiu-chi-chiu-chiu-chiu

—was heard.

Males on March 29 and 30 had somewhat enlarged testes, 3 x 2 and

42mm. Ina female on the tormer date the ovary was mature. and the

dilated oviduct indicated that she had laid.

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &3

Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. ‘The Velvetfronted Nuthatch.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs12169 +,c¢81217 3, Gs1218

do’ 8-4-46, Gs1231 9 9-4-46 Medha (Navsari Dist.); Gs1293 4 19-4-46,

Gs1302 §+ 20-4-46 Galkund; sp41 J 20-2-48, SD196 4, sp197 2 6-3-48

Pandwa (Surat Dang's).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B anaes aly

6 Jo TOS —T7) SIG 15°5-16°5 37:5—40

3 SO 70-71 14°5-16°5 15°5-16 35-41

These measurements agree both with Eastern Ghats birds diagnosed

by Whistler (V2NZS, 35 : 523) as frontalis and with birds from Sikkim

‘separated as corallina on account of their smaller size! S. 4 frontalis

from Ceylon (the type locality) and S. India are larger and inseparabie

from each other. Already as far north as the Dangs intergradation in

size seems to.be complete, and the Gujarat series would readily pass for

either race. Nevertheless it might be profitable to keep this series with

frontalis if only for the sake of indicating continuity with the southern

section of the Western Ghats. It is noteworthy that contrary to the

normal condition (Bergmann’s Rule), northern birds are in this case

smaller than South Indian and Ceylonese examples.

Fairly common in moist deciduous forest. One example was observed

clinging back downwards along the underside of a bare horizontal twig

near the top of a high tree, head stiffly turned down at right angles, bill

pointing to ground. It remained ‘ frozen’ thus for no apparent reason for

over 3 minutes, and I had to make sure with binoculars again and again

that it was in fact a bird before shooting at it!

Breeding was in progress during April. The female of April 8 had

soft ovarian eggs, distended oviduct and incubation patch. A male on

April 20 had enlarged testes. )

Family PARIDAE

Subfamily PARINAE: Tits

Parus nuchalis Jerdon. The Whitewinged Black Tit.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks47 J+, ks48 9+ 12-8-43 Bhuj

environs; KS88 (++ 18-843, xs94 9, xKs95 # + 20-8-43 Chaduva,

(Bhuj Dist.); Ks278 # 26-9-43, KS282 3 27-9-43 Bhuj; Ks380 9 juv.

KS381 § 17-3-44 Mata-no-Madh. Gujarat: Gs878 3, Gs879 9, Gs880

@ 11-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gs936 0? 18-1-46 Gangasagar (Palanpur);

Gs951 § 20-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur).

Not noted in Saurashtra. Observed on Taranga Hill (Mehsana Dist.)

by Mr. R. M. Simmons in July 1931 and February 1932.

Measurements : W B Tar. 4M

9 vd 65-71 11-13 17-19 48-55

(mostly above 68)

4 99 67 11-12 17°5-18'5 49-52

Complete post nuptial moult in September. All breeding birds have

the white of the underparts conspicuously suffused with yellow, a point I

have not seen in published descriptions.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. : PLATE |

Deciduous forest, Dediapada, Rajpipla (late March). Favourite

haunt of the Spotted Tree Creeper (Salpornis spilonotus).

Photos 7 | Author

Whitewinged Black Tit (Parus nuchalis) at nest-hole in babul

trunk. Chaduva. Kutch.

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 785

The white outer feathers of the tail and the white bars across the

wings are conspicuous in flight and curiously reminiscent of a miniature

Magpie Robin, and also of the cock Whitebellied Minivet (?P. evythropy-

Zius).

oe common in Kutch but capriciously patchy. Sparse and

sporadic in the Palanpur area of north Gujarat. Inhabits. broken stony

hummocky semidesert country where well covered with jungle of babul,

kandi (Prosopis spicigera) and peeloo (Salvadora persica and olecides), and

bushes of gugar (Balsamodendron mukul), gangi (Grewia populztolia)

and similar species. In view of the habitat which is typical of it in this

area, Jerdon’s observation quoted by Stuart Baker (F.B.I. i: 79) that it

keeps to the tops of heavily wooded hills in the Eastern Ghats seems

incongruous.

As so little is known about the habits and nidification of this tit, it

may be worthwhile to record the following. There is no difference in

its general actions and behaviour from those of its better known cousin —

the Grey Tit. The birds keep in pairs or family parties of 4 or 5. The

individuals maintain contact with one another by a clear musical whist-

ling fee-wht-whi or tee-whi-wht-wht (or see-bit-pit-it-fit) of the volume

and quality of the Tailor Bird’s calls. Besides these, the usual joyous

harsh wheeching notes of the Grey Tit are uttered. Breeding was in full

swing in July and August which are apparently the most favoured months

in Kutch. Two nests were discovered at Chaduva (Bhuj Dist.) on

August 20 and 21. Both were about 4 ft. up in holes in trunks of a babul

and peeloo tree respectively. One, into which the owners were stuffing

lining material—wool, cotton thread, etc.—was empty ; the other contained

chicks. Both parents were busy bringing food and removing packets of

excreta, I was unable to ascertain the number of chicks. Strangely

enough the egg still remains undescribed.

Before I first visited Bhuj in August 1943 my cousin Humayun Abdu-

lali gave me the ‘address’ of one of these tits he had been shown about 6

years previously roosting at night in a particular hole in the cross-bar of

a particular gate on the circular road round Bhujia Hill. He asked me

half jokingly to try and call on his friend should I have the opportunity.

On doing so at sunset on August 8 I was astonished to find the tit (same

individual or successor ?) at home! When peeped at through a chink,

the bird swayed its head and neck deliberately from side to side. In the

dim light of the hole the white cheeks and streak down the neck height-

ened the snake-like effect. Three evenings later I visited the roost again at

the same time, caught the bird in its hole and marked it with an aluminium

ring. This ringed bird was still in occupation of its roost on April 4,

1944 (i.e. 8 months Jater). I have no knowledge whether that gate still

exists, but it would be interesting to know how much longer this bird

continued to sleep there and whether the hole has since been inherited by

a successor—for the original occupant can no longer be alive.

Parus major stupae Koelz. The Indian Grey Tit.

Specimens collected: Saurashtira: Gs975 of 11-346 Ghatwad;

Gsl015 § 16-3-46 Dalkhania. Gujarat: Gs210 9, Gs2l1l # 10-11-45,

GS225 0?, GS226 # 11-11-45 Jambughoda ; Gs935 4 18-1-46 Gangasagar

(Palanpur) ; Gs972 9, Gs973 3, GS974 2 juv., GS1138 Y, Gs1139 4, Gs1140

o& 29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; sp13 $f 24-2-48 sp21 of 25-2-48, sp72

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $3

3 28-2-48, sp96 1 29-2-48 Malegaon; sp162 2, sp163 9 5-3-48 Pandwa;

SpD229 3, $p230 $f 10-3-48, sp285 2 12-3-48 Laochali (sp = Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Hathidhara (Palanpur) Juna Rajpipla ;

Songadh, Medha (Navsari Dist.); Waghai, Galkund (Surat Dangs).

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W By Tar. a

14 Jo 60-73 10-12 17-19 47-61

7 22 62-69 11-12 17°5-20 50°5-56

Resident. Rather sparsely and patchily distributed in light decidu-

ous forest country. Inexplicably absent in many apparently suitable

localities. The mutually excluding occurrence of this species and P.

nuchalts is noteworthy. Freshly moulted in March and in full song, but no

evidence of breeding. ‘The song is a musical whistling wztw7t-seesee, wit-

qwit-seesee, witwert or titiweést, titiweest, t¢tiweest, weesz etc.

Parus xanthogenys aplonotus Blyth. The Central Indian Yellow-

cheeked Tit.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: 68235 $ 5-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.) ; Gs943 7, Gs944 $1 19-1-46, Gs962 9, Gs963 o Hathidhara (Palan-

pur) ; Gs1100 4, Gs1101 4 25-3-46, Gsll]14 4, Gsll15 2 27-3-46 Juna

Rajpipla ; Gsl141 9 29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ; sp22 $1 25-2-48, sp58

3, SD59 2 27-2-48 Malegaon; sp176 Q 6-3-48, sp203 1, sp204 2 7-3-48

Pandwa (sD= Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements ; W B Aare, 4b

10 Ho 70—74:5 ILS IL295) 18-20 52-57°5

6.22 66-69 10-13 17°5-19°5 49-51

In this race, as pointed out by Whistler (/BNAS, 41: 86), the males are

all black crested and black banded ventrally ; all females black crested

with greenish grey ventral band.

Resident. Distributed rather sparsely and capriciously. On the

whole keeping to more wooded parts than P. major. Not uncommon

about Hathidhara at the foot of Mt. Abu (Palanpur, N. Gujarat), the Raj-

pipla area between the Narbada and Tapti Rivers, and in the Surat Dangs.

Family DICAEIDAE: Fiowerpeckers

Dicaeum agile agile Tickell. The Thickbilled Flowerpecker.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS701 $# 24-12-45 Patan (Meh-

sana Dist.) ; Gs1160 2 juv., Gsl161 $+ 30-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla) ;

sp258 2 11-3-48 Laochali; sb401 7+ 20-3-48 Sarwar; sp459 2+ 25-3-48

Chikhli (Sp=Surat Dangs).

No record from Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B “Dave, ‘qi

3 'o 62-64. 10-10°5 14-15 * 32-33°5

3) OD 60 8*5—9°5 12°5-14. 27-29%

This flowerpecker seems to be somewhat less dependent upon loran-

thus than Décaeum erythrorhynchos, and found in localities where the

latter species and its favourite ‘food’ plant are absent. Its distribution is

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 787

nevertheless curiously patchy. Apart from Loranthus berries it feeds

largely on ripe figs of the peepal (cus religiosa). Breeding was in

progress in March.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Lath.) Tickell’s

Flowerpecker.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GSl1181 # imm. 2-4-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla) ; Gsl220 2 juv., Gsl221 o? juv. 8-4-46 Songadh (Navsari

Dist.); sp188 +, sp189 2+ 6-3-48 Pandwa, sp344 $+ 17-3-48 Mhes-

katri, sp402 6 20-3-48 Sarwar (sp=Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Pavagadh (Panchmahals Dist.). Not

observed in Kutch.

Measurements : W B Tar aT

4d 48-50 Q5=13 ILS} DVDS

IE 47 1 ales) eZ, 24

Apart from the difference in colour of bill (pzzkzsh in this species),

Dicaeum concolor, which may possibly occur in the Surat Dangs-Songadh-

Rajpipla area, can be distinguished by its sullied white lores and sides of

forehead continued in a narrow supercilium to behind the eyes.

As elsewhere, inseparable from clumps of the Loranthus plant para-

site infesting mango and other trees. Wherever Loranthus was absent, so

was this flowerpecker. Breeding was in progress during March and April.

Family NECTARINIIDAE; Sunbirds

Nectarinia zeylonica (Linn.). ‘The Purplerumped Sunbird.

Of this I have only a single unconfirmed sight record from Pavagadh

(Panchmahals Dist.) 30-10-44, It seems curious that the species should

be so rare in Gujarat.

Nectatinia asiatica asiatica (Latham). The Purple Sunbird.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs/8 ji + 17-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Bhachau. Gujarat: Gs233 [3] 11-11-45 Jambughoda ; 68372 § 22-11-45

Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs783 $1 31-12-45, Gs797 $1 1-1-46, Gs837 3 5-1-46

Radhanpur; Gs852 2 9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); sp73 + 28-2-48

Malegaon; sp299 2 14-3-48 Mahal; sp363 gi+ 18-3-48 Mheskatri;

sp427 gi+, Sp428 Q 22-3-48 Pimpri (Sp series =Surat Dangs).

Measurements: — W B Tar. a

10 J 55-59 i8-23 14-16:5 31-37°5

Br OO) 51-54 18-20 14-15 28°5-31

These females, and in eclipse, are somewhat greener above than

those from the Eastern Ghats, but the birds all seem to be of the typical

race. The Great Rann of Kutch is evidently the dividing barrier between

this race and dvevivostris of Sind, etc. What the precise criteria are for

the diagnosis of brevivostris is, however, uncertain. Baker (Fauna iii : 399)

says smaller bill (as the name indicates) and measures it 13-15 mm.

Ticehurst (Birds of Sind, /dzs 1923: 24) gives the bill as ‘14-16:5,

mostly about 15 mm.’ Whistler measures the bill of a male collected by

the Bahawalpur Survey and assigned by himself as brevivostris (JBNH'S,

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

42:732) 19°5 mm., therefore very near the maximum for the typical

race. [Bill of 9 ff from the Eastern Ghats (aséatica) were measured by

him 20-21 mm. (JBNHS, 37: 283) ]. The Fauna (iii : 396) gives ‘ culmen

about 16-19 mm.’ for asiatéca.. Specimens from Jodhpur are identified

by Whistler as C. a. astatica (JBNAS, 40: 225)

Two breeding males from the Surat Dangs have well-defined unbroken

maroon pectoral bands as in Jofenza, but narrower. The glistening

metallic black abdomen of aszatica as against dull sooty black in Jotenta

is perhaps its most reliable diagnostic character. Also bill in Jotendza is

longer and much more bowed, reminiscent of Xiphirhynchus. )

A fairly common resident usualy seen probing into blossoms for nec-

tar. Capparis, Calotropis, Prosopis, Erythrina, Bombax, Loranthus, Butea and

Woodtordia are some of the most regularly patronized species. There is

apparently no definite breeding season. Males in breeding plumage and

birds in all stages of moult are commonly seen side by side with others

in eclipse plumage (with yellow underparts and a black ventral band) at

all times of the year. ‘The gonads also show vastly differential develop-

ment seasonally, being mature in some individuals and with no sign of

development in others. Nests with eggs or young were found in August

as well as March, though perhaps the greater part of the breeding takes

place around the latter month.

Aethopyga Siparaja vigorsi (Sykes). Vigor’s Yellowbacked Sun-—

bird.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl091 # 25-3-46; Gsl123 4,

Gsl124g%.. Gsl125 9 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gsl229 § 9-4-46 Songadh

(Navsari Dist.); Gs1246 of, Gsl247 § 12-4-46 Waghai (Surat Dangs) ;

sp4 of 23-2-48, spl4 of 24-2-48, sp32 0’, sp33 oj 25-2-48 Malegaon ;

sp95 Q@ 29-2-48 Malegaon; sp364 2 18-3-48 Mbheskatri; sp396 9?

20-3-48 Sarwar; sp426Q 22-3-48 Pimpri; sp438 o', sp439 9 2-43-48

Waghai (sp = Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Mars T

11 ¢o 61-65 23—27°5 15-16°5 50-58

BO 55=97 21-24 15:5 38-38°5

3 29 (red 54-56 Vip) USalS eS} 35°5-37°5

breasted) :

The Juna Rajpipla specimens extend the range of this species north-

ward to the Narbada River. It is common in the Surat Dangs.

Two females (sex confirmed personally) have the chin, throat and

breast a dull orange-scarlet with greyish brown bases to the feathers

showing through. This is also the case with a third female sexed by

Mr. Gabriel marked as doubtful. Some of the breast feathers in these

specimens are actually olive-brown tipped with orange scarlet; rest of

underparts yellowish olive-brown. ‘This red-throated phase of the female

has not been described in literature.

In the three other females the chin, throat and breast are greyish

brown with a faint pinkish tinge. ‘The crown and forehead are rufous-

brown, contrasting with the olive-greenish brown back.

All the specimens were in varying stages of general moult (February /

March) and showed no departure from the non-breeding condition in

their gonads,

THE BIRDS QF GUJARAT ' 789

Family ZOSTEROPIDAE ; White-eyes

Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. The White-eye.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs85 % 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS2522, Gs253 9 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs584 , Gs585 of

15-12-45, Gs634 0? 18-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.), Gs896 Q,

Gs897 of 12-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Gsll146,9\ 29-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla); Gs1278 3, Gs1279 9+ 16-4-46 Mahal (Surat Dangs) ; sp60 #

27-2-48, sp86 o, Sp87 | Malegaon, sp328 16-3-48 (Mheskatri, sp414

22-3-48 Pimpri, sp440 o 24-3-48 Waghai (sp=Surat Dangs)

Saurashtra: Gsl1018 4, Gs1019 9 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.),

Not recorded in Kutch.

Measurements : W B ANNE 4b

13 voh 53-57 1a} 15-16°5 36-40°5

3) LO 54-55 ale2 15-16 37-39

I attribute the above specimens to this race following Ticehurst’s

opinion that occzdentis occupies all Bombay Preaidency south to N. Kanara

and Mysore (JENHS, 32 : 354). Personally it appears to me that in

colour, both above and below, many of the specimens would pass comp-

letely for the race Z. p. sa/zmalzz though series for series the bill of that

race is perhaps smaller and finer, as described. Measurements alone,

however, are insufficient to show this character clearly. 169 of

salimalit from the Eastern Ghats have bills 11—12°5 (JBNAS, 37: 281),

Common, in flocks, frequently of over 50 individuals. Feeds largely

on flower nectar, some of the most favourite and regularly visited

blossoms being those of Alangium. lamarckit Woodtordia truticosa,

Eugenia janbolana and species of Loranthus. Birds in late February and

through March were in heavy pre-nuptial moult. The first indication of

gonadal development was observed in the specimen of 16 April.

Family FRINGILLIDAE: Buntings, Finches

Emberiza buchanani Blyth. The Greynecked Bunting.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl81 2 7-9-43, Ks183 9 8-9-43,

KS269 2 25-9-43 Bhuj; KS382 $ 17-3-44 Mata-no-Madh. Gujarat:

Gsl110 9 2-1145 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gsl98 o? 9-11-45 Bodeli

(Baroda Dist.); GS717 #% 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Gs844 ¥,

Gs845 1 9-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur); Saurashtra: Gs969 $# 11-3-46

Ghatwad (Kodinar) B15 3, B16 6 14-10-43 Dwarka (Okhamandal; 344

3! 20-10-43 Dhari (Amereli Dist.).

Measurements : WwW. B Aden 7

8 Io 86°5-93°5 13-15 19-22 69-77

oe. 82-88 11:5-14 18°5-20 68°5—70

A not uncommon winter visitor. Earliest date August 30; latest

April 21. Keeps to stony, sparsely scrubbed and Euphorbia-covered

hillsides and broken ground, in loose parties. Noted as abundant in

Kutch during September when great numbers were presumably coming

through on southward passage. Utters a subdued click, click, 2

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Emberiza striolata striolata (Licht.). The Striolated Bunting.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl6 (+ 9-8-43, xs39 g4+ 11-8-43,

KS146 + 1-9-43, Ks427 9 1-4-44 Bhuj; Gujarat: Gs845 02, Gs847

& 9-1-46, GS870 0? 10-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur). |

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nakhatrana; Bhachau; Rapar; Nir;

Mata-no-Madh; Khadir Island (Great Rann); Bela Island ; Kala Dongar.

Gujarat: Patan (Mehsana Dist.) Saurashtra: Dwarka; Ghatwad

(Kodinar).

Measurements : W B Tar. Ts

43g 79-85 Malls} 16-16°5 55-63

U2 75 iat 5) 56

Resident. Common and locally abundant. Affects stony, sparsely

scrubbed hillsides and broken country, hopping about on the ground stiffly

like a sparrow, not running like pipit. Fluctuation of numbers in a given

locality suggests considerable local movement. Males were in full song

from about mid-March. Breeding activity first in evidence in April

(enlarged gonads) ; actual nests with eggs (usually 3) seen as late as

September. The song is a lively which-which-wheech-whichy-which (first

2 syllables short, and accent on the final whzch). It is uttered from

a stone, bush-top or ruined building in the vicinity of the nest.

Large numbers of Striolated Buntings gathered to drink at a water-

hole in arid stony country bordering the Great Rann of Kutch regu-

larly between 8 and 11 a.m. in March, in company with /Fmberiza

buchanant. Each bird took 10 to 15 or more sips, often occupying over a

minute.

Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. The Blackheaded Bunting.

Specimens collected: Kutch: KS396 1, KS397 (1,-KS398., KS399

3 2-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Gujarat: Gs64 91 31-10-45 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.) ; GS345 0?, Gs346 o? 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist. );

GSl1075 § 21-3=46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements : W B Abang, 40

6 NN §2-—99 SIL ZO=Zo25 68-78

2O® (ZI 86-89 6=NGs5 Pale =22 68-68°5

Females of this species are difficult to distinguish from female

Redheaded Bunting (Amberiza brunniceds) unless in perfect adult plumage.

A fairly common winter visitor. Earliest date 31 October; latest

1 April. All specimens after 20 March were excessively fat, indicating

that they were ready for emigration. A male on 23 March, had in addi-

tion, developing testes (3 x 2mm. ).

Large flocks in cultivation. Roosting in enormous swarms, in associa-

tion with House and Yellowthroated Sparrows in the thorn-scrub covered

ravines along the banks of the Mahi River near its mouth at Dabka (Baroda

Dist.)

Emberiza brumniceps Brandt. The Redheaded Bunting.

“Specimens collected: Saurashtra: B45 3 20-10-43 Dhari (Amreli

Dist.)} Gujarat: Gs197 % 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs574 of

12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.),

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 791

Measurements : W B Tar. a

2 dc 85-90 16-17 IQe22 70 (1)

About equally common in winter (more so in Gujarat and Saurashtra

than in Kutch) with the Blackheaded Bunting. Usually seen in flocks

mixed with melanocephala and sometimes with £. buchanani in stony bajri

fields (Sorghum). The specimens of 20 October and 9 November were in

heavy general moult.

Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). The Crested Bunting.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs270 2 17-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS1157 #, Gsl158 % 30-3-46, Gols SJ 2-4-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla).

Not observed in Kutch or Saurashtra.

Measurements : W B Tar. TS

38d 79 eS = ts 19°5-21 61-66

LQ La 15 ots 63

Local and uncommon in Gujarat. Affects stony grass country,

particularly burnt patches, in or on the edge of deciduous forest. Pairs,

or loose parties of 4 or 5. Song sporadic in April: whzch-which-wht-

whee-which (first 2 syllables in undertone, and the last but one whee

drawn out and accentuated).

Subfamily FRINGILLINAE

Erythrina erythrina roseatus (Blyth). The Indian Rosefinch.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs203 o? 9-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda

Dist.); GS597 2 16-12-45, Gs632 3, 68633 2 18-12-45, Gs662 2, Gs663 4

20-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs950 3 20-1-46 Balaram (Palan-

pur); GS1105 # 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1176 3 31-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla); sD42 91 26-2-48 Galkund, sp429 9 22-3-48 Pimpri, sp445 of

24-3-48 Waghai (SD= Surat Dangs). Observed also at several places in

Saurashtra and Kutch.

Measurements : W B Tar. AS

788 85-90 12°5=14 19-19°5 56-61

4 99 80-85 SAIS SUS)" 54-58 |

Two males (Nos. GS632 and GS950), in fresh plumage, match well

with No. 227 of the Central India Survey which is one of the 4 examples

in fresh plumage assigned by Whistler (/6zs, 1939 p. 159) to the typical

race evythrina. ‘These two specimens may well pass for the typical form,

but it seems impossible to me to be definite on the point.

Winter visitor. Not uncommon. The latest date recorded by the

Surveys is April 18 (Anjar, Kutch). Met with in forest, scrub jungle as

well as cultivation—in the last often associated with fiocks of Blackheaded

Buntings (Emberiza melanocephala). When the birds first arrive in their

winter quarters, the flocks consist mostly of female-plumaged brown birds.

With abrasion of the feathers more and more pink males come into

prominence as the season advances, and their rosy pink colour is Dees:

before they leave for their breeding grounds, is

792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Family PLoCEIDAE: Weaver Finches.

Petronia xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellowthroated

Sparrow.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs159 + 4-9-43 Dhinodhar Hill,

Nakhatrana; Ksl #1 7-8-43, Ks#25 9+ 31-3-44 Bhuj. Gujarat: cs139

3, GS140 o? 6-11-45, Gs194 3 8-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs325 4

20-11-45, Gs349 Q 21-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.); Gs680 2 21-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; GS728 2 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana); Gs819 3

3-1-46 Radhanpur ; Gs899 $f 12-1-46 Deesa (Palanpur) ; GS1116 $'+27-3-46

Juna Rajpipla; Gs1235 f+ 9-4-46 Songadh (Navsari Dist.); sp15 y+

24-2-48, SD75 §'-+ 28-2-48 Malegaon, sp178 2 6-3-48 Pandwa, sp269 +,

sp270 f+ 12-3-438 Laochali, sb303 9+ 14-3-48 Mahal, sp367 +, sp368

Q + 18-3-48 Mheskatri, sp395 9+ 20-3-48 Sarwar; sp413 9+. 22-3-48

Pimpri (SD=Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W 1B} Tar. ALY

15 vo 81-88 13-16 16-18°5 47-57

G2 76-85 13°5-16 16°5-18 45-55

Birds from about Nadiad north, i.e. Patan & Vaghjipur (Mehsana),

Radhanpur, Deesa (Palanpur), and also from Kutch, are intermediate

between xazthocollis and transfuga and match specimens from the

Jodhpur Survey (JBNA'S, 40 : 222).

A common and abundant species everywhere, but subject to marked

seasonal local movement. Affects dry deciduous teak, babul, kandi and.

catechu forest in preference to bamboo jungle. In winter very large flocks

are seen, reminiscent of flocks of buntings or Short-toed Larks. Enormous

assemblages, mixed with thousands of House Sparrows and Blackheaded

Buntings, were observed in November / December roosting nightly amongst

the thickets of Zisyphus, Capparis and Salvadora oleoides in the out-

scoured ravines on the banks of the Mahi River at Dabka (Baroda Dist.),

and elsewhere. .

Breeding was in progress during March/April. Holes and cracks in

tree-trunks and in snags of branches are ultilized. In the breeding season

the male’s bill becomes black. In non-breeding males the upper mandi-

ble is horny brown; lower mandible pinkish brown.

In semidesert areas nectar of the flowers of Capparis aphylla isa

favourite food. In quest of this, the forehead feathers become golden

with adhering pollen and give to the birds an unusually distinguished and

intriguing appearance in the distance !

Passer domesticus indicus (Jardine & Selby). The House Sparrow.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs96 (+, KS97 2+ 20-8-43 Chaduva

(Bhuj Dist.) Gujarat: Gs320 3, Gs321 1, Gs322 3, Gs323 2, Gs324

9 20-11-45 Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs525 ¢', Gs526 of 9-12-45 Nadiad

town environs (Kaira Dist.).

Measurements: W B Tar. dh

6 3 (73) 78-82°5 13°5-14 19-20 - 52-61

3 QO 75-80 14 20 52-56°5

It will be seen that the above wing measurements are larger than given

by Mr. Whistler for NW. Indian birds (‘ 12 ff 75-79 mm.’) in the Hydera-

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 193

bad Survey report (/BNH'S, 36: 902). They are also larger than 8 Punjab

males measured by him as 72°5—-78 in the Travancore Survey report

(JBNH'S, 38:511). This discrepancy may be largely due to the fact that

all my measurements were taken zz the flesh. In wing length this

usually means 1-3 mm. more in birds up to about a thrush in size.

I cannot see any difference in colour between northern birds and these

from Gujarat.

Ubiquitous. Collects in enormous flocks during winter, feeding in

scrub jungle and on the countryside far away from human habitations.

Vast assemblages collected to roost amongst dense thickets of Zzzyphus

oenoplia, etc. in outscoured ravines on the banks of Mahi River at Dabka

(Baroda). The birds arrived in a succession of flocks from all directions

a little before sunset. When shooting down into the thickets, or flying

out on alarm the whir of their thousand wings was like surf breaking

in the distance. |

Breeding was at its height in Kutch during July/August and Septem-

ber. In the town of Bhuj the young were fed very largely on a green

defoliating caterpillar which was swarming on googar (Balsamodendron

mukul) and other bushes, denuding them completely of the newly

sprouting leaves.

Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn.). The Common Weaver

Bird or Baya. |

Specimens collected: Kutch : Ks/7 #+ 17-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.) ; KS406 $f 24-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.); Gujarat: Gs65

Gs66 2, Gs67 og’, GS68 #7, GS69 Y 31-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; cs386 2

27-11-45 Cambay town environs ; GS925 2, Gs926 1 16-1-46 Palanpur.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

3d 70-73 16-18 18-21 45-49

2 OO 68-69°5 17 20 46-47

In heavy post-nuptial moult in late October; fresh winter plumage

late November. In suitable localities everywhere, moving about locally

with seasonal conditions. Breeding was in full swing during August

(Kutch). A favourite site for the nest colonies, seldom of more than 15

to 20 nests together, was trees like Prosopis sficigera and thorny bushes

growing from the side of, or overhanging, a well in the vicinity of culti-

vators’ homesteads and fields. The observed proportion of males to

females in the colonies was, as elsewhere, approximately 1:3. The

birds are very partial to the nectar of flowers of Capparis aphylla in

season with whose pollen their forehead feathers were usually thickly

coated.

Dr. Koelz has recently described a new race from Saurashtra naming

it P. p. sardarpatelt.

Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.), The Blackthroated Weaver Bird. |

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs52 4, GS53 o', Gs54 Y 31-10-45

Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); GS555 , GS556 9, GS557 2, Gs558 2, Gs559 2

12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.).

Measurements : W B Mare T

5 99 65-715 16-165 21-215 38-45

794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 58

All the specimens of 31 October are in heavy post-nuptial moult; the

December specimens in fresh winter plumage.

Not common; locally and patchily distributed. Usually affects reeds,

etc., on the edge of marshes and jheels. All the 5 December birds, killed

in one shot from a large flock, proved to be females, suggesting that the

sexes may segregate at this season (soon after breeding), Further data

on this point are desirable.

Estrilda amandava amandava (Linn.). The Red Munia.

Specimens not collected. Observed at Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) and Dakor

(Kaira Dist.) in reedy, swampy environs of tanks. On October 29 a male

was carrying a fine flowering grass stem to a half-built nest about 2 ft.

up in a tussock of coarse grass on the swampy margin of Ajwa Reservoir.

Mr. R. M. Simmons (2 epzst.) observed a flock of 20-30 amongst reeds

in Hathmatti River at Himmatnagar (Sabarkantha) in February 1932.

Estrilda formosa (Latham). The Green Munia.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs931 9, Gs932 ¢ 18-1-46 Ganga-

sagat (Palanpur) ; GS1087 3 24-3-46 Navagam (Rajpipla); Gs1164 ¢,

Gs1165 9, Gs1166 4, Gs1167 2, Gs1168 Q, Gs1169 $ 30-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla). |

Not recorded in Saurashtra. Absent in Kutch. :

Locally and capriciously distributed. Avoids semidesert and arid .

country, but also absent over large seemingly suitable areas. The speci-

mens provided no indication as regards the breeding season, All those

taken in March were in heavy body moult.

Keeps in flocks of 20 or so in lantana scrub country. Utters feeble

cheeps like Red Munia.

Lonchura striata striata (Linn.). The Whitebacked Munia.

Specimens collected : Gujarat: Gs1282 9, Gsl283 4, Gs1284 ¢

Gs1285 9, Gs1286 # 17-4-46 Mahal (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Ab'axe. TT

33h 52-53 13-14 14145 35-36

2 QQ 53-54 USSILSPS 14-14:5 S335)

All the above undergoing complete moult, agreeing with ‘ March to

July’ as given by Whistler for the Eastern Ghats (7BNH'S, 36 : 834).

The species was not recorded in the rest of Gujarat, or in Kutch or

Saurashtra. It affected open scrub country near cultivation.

Lonchura malabarica (Linn.). The Whitethroated Munia.

_ Specimens collected: Kutch: KS85 2+, KS86 3+ 18-8-43 Chaduva,

(Bhuj Dist.), Gujarat: Gs156 #+ 7-11-45 Bodeli ((Baroda Dist.) ;

ces473 3, Gs474 3g 3-12-45 Golana (Cambay); Gs664 2+ 20-12-45

Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.).

Measurements : W B Ahan fy

4A.dS 55-58°5 9-5-11 13°5=15 39-48

229 55-56 lah 13°5-15 42-48

Fairly common and general. Nesting season apparently not well

defined; and straggles over most months ‘of the year, It was-in full

THE BIRDS» OF -GUJARAT. | : 795.

swing in Kutch during August and September. The nest material in this

area consists chiefly of fine flowering grass. In one case a large amount

of bits of old newspaper was used in the exterior of the globe. As else-

where, disused Baya nests are freely appropriated. One pair was observed

entering and leaving the pile of sticks forming the nest of a King

Vulture (Sareogyps calvus) on which the owner was sitting on its egg !

Lonchura punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson). The Spotted Munia.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs8l 9+, Gs 82 J+ 1-11-45 Ajwa

(Baroda Dist.); Gs1177 2, Gsl178 o, @sl179 2 31-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla).

Measurements : W B ‘Wane. ar

205 54-58 W253 15=16 32—36°5

3 QO 55=57/ IPH=183 USS See

Fairly common in the better wooded parts of the area. Not observed

in Kutch or Saurashtra, though it doubtless occurs in the latter in

suitable localities. The specimens of September 1 were a breeding pair.

In March the flocks consisted largely of birds in the plain brown non-

breeding plumage, and contained many young of the year.

Family STURNIDAE: Mynas

Sturnus roseus (Linn.). The Rosy Pastar.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks24 9, KS25 % juv. 9-8-43 Bhuj:

KS400 9, KS401 f+ 23-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau Dist.). Gujarat: 6s73

d', GS74 9, GS75 9, GS76 ff 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs671 3 20-12-45

Vaghjipnr (Mehsana) ; GS778 3, GS779 2, Gs780 f 31-12-45 Radhanpur ;

GS1052 3, GS1053 Q, Gs1054 1 20-3-46 Kharaghoda.

Measurements : W B var T

7 Jo ad. USNS 24-25 . 30°5-32 67=13

3} QO eave 125-136 22°5=2355 BIS = 835 65-72

Winter visitor. Common and abundant. Earliest date August 5. The

specimen of March 23 (Ks401) was very fat preparatory to emigration and

also showed some gonadal development (testes 5x3 mm.) Between

March 25 and 28 (1944) on Khadir and Bela Islands on the southern edge

of the Great Rann of Kutch, strong northward migration of ‘pastors was

observed in progress. Parties, and flocks of 40 to 50 birds in an intermit-

tent stream were flying in a N. and NW. direction(towards Sind) between

8.30 and at least 10.30 a.m. They kept about 50 feet above the ground

and flew directly and purposefully. Some of the birds occasionally alighted

on the bushtops for a few moments without attempting to feed, and pres

sently took off again. .\On reaching the edge of the actual Rann each flock

immediately rose higher. ‘Some disorder and hesitancy was noticeable

before the flocks re-formed and resumed their flight across the barren

waterless expanse which is about 35 miles wide at this point.

Sturnus malabaricus [blythii (Jerdon)|. The Whitehead Myna.

Specimen collected: Gujarat: Gs3l # 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda

Dist.). 7

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Measurements : W B Tar. AR

1d 104. 23 25 62

his specimen has the whole head, sides of face, chin and throat

silvery greyish white. The upper breast is ferruginous like the rest of the

underparts, much streaked with greyish white.

Sturnus pagodarum (Gmel.). The Blackheaded or Brahminy

Myna.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs86 9 1-11-45, Gs101 4, Gsl02 3

2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs546 9 11-12-45 Nadiad (Kaira Dist.) ;

Gs1142 9, Gs1143 3% 29-3-46 Dediapada (Rajpipla).

Measurements: W B Were, ai

33'S 105-109 20°5—24 29-30 60-69

Bre 101-109 19°5-21 28-285 61-68

Uncommon, capricious and local in Kutch ; fairly common in Saurash-

tra and Gujarat. Breeding in Kutch August/September. According to

Lester June/July. }

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii Finsch. Finsch’s Starling. °

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs312 2 19-11-45 Dabka (Baroda

Dist.) ; GS564 9, GS565 o? 12-12-45 Saiat (Kaira Dist.).

Elsewhere not noted.

Measurements : W B Tar. T

2 99 130-133 29-32 30 65-68°5

1 [2] 130 30 30 65

Evidently an uncommon straggler in winter; also recorded as such

from Kutch. Mr. R. M. Simmons (27 efzst.) saw it often round jheels in

winter, e.g., at Tarapur (near Cambay) and Bareja. Dr. H.C. Aldrich

met with large flocks at Pariej (Kaira Dist.) in September 1945.

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn.). The Common Myna.

Specimens collected: Kutch: Ks407 9+ 24-3-44 Chobari (Bhachau

Dist.).; Gujarat: Gs96 4, GS97 Y 2-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.); Gs224

29-2-48 Malegaon (Surat Dangs).

Measurements : W B Tar. AR

30d 147-151 25-28 40-42 85-93

3 29 139-143:°5 25-27°5 40°5-—41 79-84

Testes of a male in Kutch on March 24 had enlarged to 4x3 mm.

The normal breeding season in Gujarat is June to August. Post-nuptial

moult October / November.

An ubiquitous species, particularly abundant near human habitations.

Acridotheres ginginianus (Lath.). The Bank Myna.

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gs98 2. Gs9Y g, Gs100 # 2-11-45

Ajwa (Baroda Dist.).

Measurements : W B Tar. an

20d 120-121 25 37 —. 65-65'5

1 £ 114 24°5 36 60

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT | 497

Fairly common in Kutch, but curiously local and patchy. Commonly

in attendance on grazing cattle. Abundant in Central Gujarat (Viramgam,

Ahmedabad, Surat, Cambay, Broach, Baroda, etc.) where large numbers are

always present on railway station platforms, running about fearlessly in

amongst the passengers’ feet and baggage, and picking up crumbs strewn

by the charitably disposed. Frequently hopping on to vendors’ handcarts

and filching seo in spite of the vehement protestations of the owners. At

certain railway stations this species has more or less completely displaced

the Common Myna. But evenin Gujarat it is inexplicably scarce, or

absent, in places within a few miles of where it may be abundant even

to the virtual exclusion of ¢vzsézs.

Breeding was in progress in Kutch during August and September.

Favourite sites here are holes in the earthen sides of kutcha wells, shared

out concurrently with House Sparrows and Blue Rock Pigeons. The nest-

holes are often deep down the narrow shafts of these wells necessitating

almost vertical ascent to reach the top, and one wonders how the inex-

perienced fledglings manage to accomplish this feat without heavier

casualties than there are. ;

In many Gujarat towns the birds nest freely in holes in the walls of

buildings even in the midst of the noisiest bazars.

Family ORIOLIDAE: Orioles

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Indian Golden Oriole.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xs217 9, xs218 9, 14-9-43 Tuna

(Anjar Dist.). Gujarat: Gs29 # 29-10-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; cs160

ot 7-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); @s174 3% 9-11-45; Gs335 4 20-11-45

Dabka (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs711 (f 25-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs839

3’ 6-1-46 Radhanpur ; sp324 1 16-3-48 Mheskatri (Surat Dangs).

Noted in Saurashtra in Amreli town and Dhari.

Measurements : W B Tar, T

73S 139-147 29:5-33 22-24 (26°5) 86-93

2 99 138-143 31-33 23°5-24. 89-91

Uncommon in Kutch; sporadic solos frequent elsewhere. Apparently

only a winter visitor. The earliest specimens (of September 13 and 14)

were fat. The first and last dates recorded by the Surveys are August 24

and April 19.

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus Franklin (Linn.), The Black-

Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl092 2 25-3-46 Juna Rajpipla ;

GS1180 $ 2-4-46 Dediapada ; sp125 #,$p126 # 2-3-48 Galkund (Surat

Dangs) ; sp244 9, 10-3-48, sp264 1 11-3-48 Laochali; sp315 2 14-3-48

Mahal ; sp325 9 16-3-48, SD357 1 18-3-48 Mheskatri.

_ Elsewhere noted: Songadh (Navysari Dist.) ; Waghai, Galkund (Surat

Dangs).

Measurements : W B Aare A

4 Jo ad. 134-141°5 31 25—26:5 84—88°5

1 J imm. plum. 135 30 24. 91

4 99 ad. 132-137 28-30°5. 235-255 83-87°5

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $2

_-..'Phe two specimens of the Gs series are in fresh adult plumage: with

extensive yellow edging to the inner secondaries and tertiaries. In this

respect they match perfectly birds from the Prome and Thayetmo districts

of Burma (in B.N.H.S. collection) determined by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst as

axanthornus.

Common and resident in the better wooded portions of the area.

Affects deciduous forest, particularly where hilly and witha mixture of teak

and bamboo. The hot hours of the day ring with its fluty melodious calls

and harsh kwaaks. One in a leafy banyan, during the mid-day heat, spent

over 15 minutes at a stretch soliloquising in broken notes—syncopated

mellow calls jumbled with harsh ones—reminiscent of the composition of

a Rufousbacked Shrike. Not observed in Kutch or Saurashtra, though

in the latter it doubtless occurs in the Gir area of Junagadh. |

Family DicRURTDAE; DRONGOS

Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticeh. The Indian Black Drongo.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xsl00 2 21-8-43 Chaduva (Bhuj

Dist.); KSI15 9, KS116 # 25-8-43 Mandvi; Ks424 2 31-3-44 Bela Island

(Great Rann). Gujarat: Gs136 $ 5-11-45 Bodeli (Baroda Dist.); Gs218

9 10-11-45 Jambughoda ; Gs732 9 26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.).

Saurashtra: Gsl016 #, Gsl017 @ 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli

Dist.).

tomufece noted: Kutch: Khari Rohar; Anjar; Khavda; Chobari

(Bhachau Dist.) ; Khadir Island (Great Rann); Pung Bet (Little Rann).

Gujarat: Baroda; Dabka; Cambay ; Radhanpur; Deesa; Palanpur.

Saurashtra: Amreli; Okha; Dwarka; Ghatwad (Kodinar); Rajkot;

Jamnagar,

Measurements : W B dlvars T

209 ad. 141°5-142 26 Zl 93-145 /95-152

4 OO axel 140-142 22:5-25 20-23 94-151/98-154

Rest of the specimens not measured as either Ist year or in moult.

Resident. Common. Evidently subject to considerable local move-

ment the nature of which is not properly understood. During the Kutch

Survey, at the extreme NW. tip of Khadir Island (26-3-44) I counted one

morning at about 9-30 o’clock at least 20 birds in about 45 minutes

coming over steadily in locse twos and threes, roughly in a NE. to WSW,

direction at a height of 20 feet or so, across the wide expanse of the open

treeless Rann. The passage appeared to be continuing.

The Black Drongo is also met with commonly on the ‘ bets’ or small

flat grassy ‘islets’ in the Little Rann which are virtually tiny oases. One

was observed riding on the back of a grazing wild ass (Aguas hemtonus) |

The nesting season in Kutch is April to July. Complete post-nuptial

moult takes place about August.

In Cambay, where the local name of the bird is ‘ Kosita’, a villager

supplied the following prescription which is apparently fairly generally

known and believed to be efficacious : ‘ Boil a kosita, feathers and all) in |

about 4 seers of water. Pour over head and bathe woman after childbirth.

All pains in back etc. vanish.’ Curiously enough, in another part of

Gujarat (Palanpur) the same treatment is practised with much alleged

success, but using the Grey Hornbill (‘ Chalotra ’) as the basic ingredient !

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 799

Dicrurus leucophaeus longicaudatus Jerdon. The Indian Dark

Ashy Drongo. :

Specimens collected: Gujarat: GS416 . 29-11-45 Cambay; sp27

3 25-2-48 Malegaon ; sp251 9 11-3-48, sp265 , sp266 4 12-3-48 Lao-

chali ; sp326 92, sp327 2 16-3-48, ‘sp349 3, sp350 3, sp351 Y 17-3-48

Mheskatri ; sp382 2 20-3-48 Sarwar (sp=Surat Dangs). |

Elsewhere noted Gujarat: Songadh (Navsari Dist.).

Not met with in Kutch. I have examined a vagrant shot in the.

well-wooded grounds of Vijaya Vilas Palace, Bhuj, by K. S. Fatehsinhji

on 17-11-54. !

Measurements : W B Mart T

5 Jo ad. 136-148 252 S=20 90-98 /140-173

5 9° ad. 136-144 25-28 ‘18-20 89-96/155-168

Status ? Presumably winter visitor (from the peninsular hills ?;

Himalayas ?). All the March specimens were in more or less heavy moult,

and most of them very fat suggesting that the birds were preparing to

emigrate. Its favourite habitat was broken hilly country under bamboo

and mixed deciduous forest.

One of its commonest calls is a pleasant, musical, querulous £2/-£2/-

kil-kil-kil, very like that of the Striped Squirrel (/unambulus pennanii)..

It also utters a harsh, challenging chees-chees-chichuk. TM

Commonly seen hawking winged insects from tree-tops well into.

evening dusk. | ; aval Os

Dicrurus caerulescens caerulescens (Linn.). The Whitebellied

Drongo. }

Specimens collected: Gujarat: G:92 9 1-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist. );

GS417 9 29-11-45 Cambay ; Gs654 2 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ;

6s930 §# 18-1-46 Balaram (Palanpur); Gsl134 + 29-3-46 Dediapada

(Rajpipla) ; Gs1299 4, Gs1300 2 20-4-46, sp101 2 1-3-48 Galkund :

spl2 #4 24-2-48 Malegaon ; sp167 2+, Sp168 (+ 5-3-48, sp190 G+.

6-3-48 Pandwa , Sb383 + 20-3-48 Sarwar (sb=Surat Dangs).

Elsewhere noted: Gujarat: Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Songadh,

Medha (Navsari Dist.) ; Radhanpur ; Juna Rajpipla; Mahal, Ahwa (Surat

Dangs). Saurashtra: Okha. ;

Measurements : W B (Nar ay

7 3S ad. WEG UNSS) 24—25°5 19-20 88-89 /115-130

699 ad. 120-129 2S 5=21 19-21 91-95 /116-128

Resident. Common in secondary mixed deciduous jungle, and here

partial to the bamboo facies. Also affects wooded compounds, and is fond

of hawking winged insects from tree-tops through evening dusk till

almost quite dark. Has a number of pleasant musical calls, and is a good

mimic of other birds.

All the specimens collected in March had enlarged gonads and were

evidently breeding or about to breed. On March 2 (Galkund, Surat

Dangs) a nest was found 30 ft. up a teak sapling in a fork of the end

twigs of a bare hor'zontal branch. It was almost completed with the bird

sitting within and turning round and round to give shape to the cup.

The sight record from Okha (Saurashtra) is noteworthy. The bird—

the only example seen—was obviously a newcomer. It must have —

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

travelled a considerable distance over:'practically treeless country, totally

unsuited to its requirements, and was keeping to some recently grown

trees in the port area. :The advent and establishment of bird species at

Okha—heretofore a barren semidesert tract—following on its develop-

ment as a seaport and the planting of trees around the human habitations,

is an interesting subject for ecological. study.

Dicrurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham). The Malabar Racket-

tailed Drongo. | :

"Specimens collected: Gujarat: Gsl094 3+, Gsl095 G+ 25-3-46,

GS1127 2 27-3-46 Juna Rajpipla; Gs1268 + 14-4-46 Waghai; spll

24-2-48, sp94 9 29-2-48 Malegaon; sp249 3'+, $p250 9 11-3-48 Laochali;

SbD29] 2 13-3-48, sp294 1 14-3-48 Mahal; sp339 9 16-3-48 Mheskatri

(SD =Surat Dangs). Absent in Kutch. |

_ Measurements : Wisi B Tar. Centr. T Rackets

3 i ad. 156-166 35:5-41 26-28 133-142 285-385

(average 160)

nS) 2Owad: 150-160. 35-37 26-27 129-136 310-352

(average 153:8)

All the above have the short crest and short hackles on hindneck

which characterize this race.

Resident. Common in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest south of

the Narbada River. In the Surat Dangs it is one of the 5 commonest

bird species in this biotope, the others being Aypothymis, Glaucidium,

Dicrurus caerulescens and Crypsirvina. The specimens of March and April

showed progressively enlarged gonads indicating that breeding was

imminent.

Exceedingly noisy in the mornings, starting before dawn (ca. 4.30 a.m.)

with a desultory, monotonous k7t-kit-kit-kit etc. which is kept up almost

continuously till daybreak. An accomplished mimic, imitating to per-

fection almost every bird call in the forest. On one occasion the report

of a gun set it eff crowing like a Grey Junglecock. It repeated this

several times and so flawlessly, with all the appropriate pauses, that even.

the Dangi Bhils accopanying me were completely deceived. The bird

gave itself away only when it stopped abruptly once or twice right in the

middle of a crow. I frequently found bunches of this drongo’s feathers

scattered on the ground in forest, suggesting that it sometimes falls a

prey to predatory hawks. Can it be that its general obstreperousness

and mimicry of their calls bring about its undoing ? On one occasion, at

any rate, this undoubtedly was the case. I heard one imitating—almost

mocking—a Shikra (Astur badius) for a considerable time. Very soon

afterwards this individual was seen hotly pursued by a shikra which

finally struck it down and devoured it on the ground, leaving bunches of

its feathers strewn about. Onanother occasion a bird echoed back, prom-

ptly and without hesitation, the signal whistle of a member of my party

with the identical note !

| Family CorvipaE: Crows

Crypsirina vagabunda pallida Blyth. The Northern Tree Pie.

Specimens collecied: Gujarat: GS399 of 28-11-45, Gs491 9 6-12-45

Cambay , GS577 9 15-12-45, Gs600 9 16-12-45, Gsb22 9 17-12-45, Gs626

THE BIRDS OF GUJARAT 80r

18-12-45, GS651 9, Gs652 2 19-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.); Gs734 2

26-12-45 Patan (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gs885 2 11-1-46, Gs919 4 14-1-46 Deesa.

(Palanpur) ; GS1301 9+ 20-4-46 Galkund (Surat Dangs); sp20 9 25-2-48

Malegaon ; sp34 2 26-2-48, spl16 Q 2-3-48, sp138 2 3-3-48 Galkund ;.

$D348 9 17-3-48 Mheskatri; sp388 9, sp389 3+ 20-3-48 Sarwar ; sp431 2

22-3-48 Pimpri (sD=Surat Dangs). Saurashtra: B26 2 17-10-43.

Amreli ; Gs988 (1+ 15-3-46, Gs1014 2 16-3-46 Dalkhania.

Absent in Kutch.

Measurements : W B “Adare. alt

6 155-158 33-36°5. 32°5—37 247-270

U7 XO 144 (1), 146-162 30-34:5 32-37 205 (1), 209-267

In size this series averages larger than either vagabuuda or vernayt,.

but the birds are somewhat smaller than pallida of NW. India. In

colour they are inseparable from fallzda. A specimen from Amreli

(No. B26) is very small (W 146 mm.) and would pass for immature:

vagabunda, but on the whole Saurashtra birds go better with those from

Gujarat. ;

Common in all the better wooded portions of the area. Abundant in

the Mehsana District, the Songadh section of Navsari Dist. and the Surat

Dangs. In the latter locality it was one of the five commonest bird

Species in bamboo and mixed deciduous forest, the others being Quaker

Babbler, Blacknaped Blue Flycatcher, Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher and

Racket-tailed Drongo. Its complete absence from Kutch seems note-

worthy since there are many localities there which seem eminently suit-

able for it. Itis not uncommon in N. Gujarat, parts of the Kathiawar

peninsula and portions of the Indus Valley and canal areas of Sind. The

Great and Little Ranns which insulate Kutch from the mainland to N,

and #., and the Gulf of Kutch which cuts it off from Saurashtra to the

south, appear to constitute effective barriers to its spread, as they seem

also for another common bird, the Jungle Babbler, which is likewise

absent in Kutch.

From the state of the gonads and the noisy and excited, yet character-

istically secretive, behaviour of the birds it was evident that nesting was.

in progress during March and April. The pair of March 20 (Nos. sp388/

389) were courting noisily, bobbing up and down stiffly at each other

like mechanical toys—bills, almost touching —and uttering musical croaks.

and harsh chuckles.

Corvus splendens splendens (Vieillot). The Indian House Crow.

Specimens collected: KS29 o¢ + 10-8-43 Bhuj; Ks339 92, xs340 2

8-3-44 Mandvi. Gujarat: Gsl87 % 8-li-45 Bodelt (Baroda Dist.) ;

GS833 9 5-1-46 Radhanpur. Saurashtra: Bll o& 13-10-43 Dwarka

(Okhamandal): Gs1010 9, Gs 1011 ¢ 16-3-46 Dalkhania (Amreli Dist.).

Measurements: W B Tar. Ab

3 271-284. 51°5-56 45-51 166-175

3} QO 263-282 45-50 44-48 UX aN

General post-nuptial moult in October-November.

Very common and abundant in the whole area, in towns and villages.

Also out on the countryside, often in greater numbers than the available

scavenging there would appear to warrant. Enormous numbers flight

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

at sunset over considerable distances to roost in groves of large trees in

concert with parakeets, mynas and (in season) rosy pastors.

Noted as particularly destructive, in Kutch, to eggs and young of

egrets, pond herons, white ibises 'and spoonbills etc., nesting in mixed

heronries. Does useful scavenging in towns, but also quite appreciable

damage to groundnuts in outlying areas, pilfering the pods from the fields

as well as from stacked sacks.

It is worth remarking that the House Crows of Kutch belong to

the Indian race and not to the pale-collared form, zugmeyeri, of Sind as

one would expect from the physiography of the country. The Great

Rann apparently acts as a barrier to the spread of zugmeyerd here.

The breeding season is chiefly between June and August.

Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Indian Jungle Crow.

Specimens collected: Gs121 2 3-11-45 Ajwa (Baroda Dist.) ; Gs608

& 17-12-45 Vaghjipur (Mehsana Dist.) ; Gsl131 92, Gs1132 Q 29-3-46

Dediapada (Rajpipla). °

Absent at Kharaghoda; Radhanpur; Patan (Mehsana Dist.); Deesa ;

Palanpur. I did not come across it in Kutch, but according to the late

Maharao Vijayarajji the bird has (or had in 1943) established itself in

small numbers at Mandvi within recent years, and breeds ithere. A pair

had also been reported from the Bhuj neighbourhood and its further

spread to the blank areas may be watched for with interest.

Measurements : W B ‘Marte At

ads 319 58 59 185

(a SIE CENCE 290-297 59-60 52-54 165-180

Observed damaging standing :bajra crops, occasionally wrenching off

an entire cob and carrying it to a nearby tree to deal with.

No sign of breeding was noted.

Corvus corax laurenci Hume. The Punjab Raven.

Specimens collected: Kutch: xKs428 +, xs429 2 25-2-46

Nanda, near Adesar (Little Rann).

Elsewhere noted: Kutch: Nir (Pachham Island); Dholovira

(Khadir Island) in the Great Rann.

Measurements : W B Weare, fy

13 420 74 65 229

IES 410 69 62 BES

Both completing primaries moult, otherwise in fresh plumage. Testes

5x4; ovary dormant. Apparently a sparse winter visitor. Singly or

pairs seen about outlying homesteads and shepherds’ encampments in

semidesert country.

The above was a pair feeding near my camp on the edge of the

Little Rann at the carcase of a wild ass, in company with C. splendens.

Concluded.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES

D. F. SANDERS

The main purpose of these notes is to shew that the recorded

distributions of several of the butterflies of our region, (vide below),

are too circumscribed, but I have also included other information, e.g.

as to habitats, habits, etc., and some descriptions of some hitherto

unknown or undescribed subspecies and sexes, which will, I trust,

prove of interest to collectors.

‘Our region’ comprises the whole of India and Pakistan, Burma

and Ceylon, (excluding the Andaman and Nicobar Islands), and my

observations do not include the Hesperiidae.

Attention is invited to the following new information :—

Descriptions of the females of Papilio polyctor stockley: Gabriel,

Eurema simulatrix sarinoides (Frihstorfer), Dodona henrici longt-

caudata De Niceville, Dry Season Form, and Rapala abnormis Elwes ;

descriptions of Lycaenopsis ceyx cerima Corbet', male, Amblypodia

?spec. nov., male, and Horaga amethystus purpurascens Corbet, male

and female.

I am very happy to acknowledge the valuable and ungrudging

help received from Brig. W. H. Evans, C.S.I., D.S.o., etc., at the

British Museum, who was always ready to assist me with the identi-

fication of doubtful species and races, and the great help afforded

by Dr. H. A. Baylis, .a., p.sc., lately Dy. Keeper of Zoology at

the British Museum (Natural History), who examined for me

the androconia of several specimens of sundry species of Lycaenopsis,

notably argiolus sikkima Moore and jyneana De Niceville, which were

treated as separate species in the 2nd edition of Evan’s ‘Identifica-

tion’, but now, as an ofi-shoot of these examinations, are regarded

by him as one and the same species, namely argiolus jynteana De

Niceville.

These notes were commenced prior to the partition of India and

Pakistan, but, for sundry reasons, I was unable to complete them

until recently. Wherever, therefore, the context admits, ‘India’ must

be understood as including ‘Pakistan’ and Provinces such as Bengal

and the Punjab as covering the Provinces of these names in the days

of British India. |

The nomenclature adopted is that given in the Fauna of British

India, Butterflies (2nd edition) by Talbot, for the families Papilionidae,

Pieridae, Danaidae, Satyridae, Amathusiidae, and ‘Acraeidae, and that

employed in Evans’s ‘Identification’, 2nd edition, for the Nymphalidae,.

Erycynidae and Lycaenidae.

a i a Ee ED Os a at ie Be

This insect has recently been described by Dr. T. Norman, in Vol. 51, No. 2,

of the Society’s journal, from a male taken in Assam, but I took my specimens

in 1939 and wrote my description before the discovery of the insect in Assam and

am therefore including it here, for what it is worth.

‘804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Atrophaneura priapus egertoni (Distant).

While collecting around the Bwabin Tin Mine, near Wagon, about

20 miles east of Tavoy, S. Burma, early in 1939, I saw flying toward

me what I at first took to be a worn female of Papilio memnon agenor

Linnaeus, but noticed something unusual in its appearance as it

approached me and took it, when, to my surprise, it proved to be

a female of priapus egertoni, with, alas, the tornal parts of the hind

wings torn off, probably by a lizard; these creatures spoil for the

collector many a freshly-emerged butterfly in Burma, in that

manner. The butterfly has hitherto only been recorded from the

Mergui Archipelago, but will probably be found to inhabit the hilly

country from Tavoy to the extreme south of Burma. I also saw a

female ovipositing in a forest near Mergui, in January 1939, but it

never came within reach of my net or indeed to below about 30 ft.

from the ground.

Atrophaneura aristolochiae aristolochiae (Fabricius).

I once took a rather worn specimen in a garden in Hyderabad

(Deccan), which shows no sign of any reddish or white spots on the

hind wing. I can find no other record of the capture of such an

individual form.

Atrophaneura latreillei latreillei (Donovan).

Talbot states ‘more common in Mussoorie than elsewhere. Only

found at high elevations between 7,c00 and 9,000 ft.’ My collector

took it in the neighbourhood of Chungthang, in the Tista Valley in

Sikkim, at about 5,000 to 6,oco ft. in such quantities that if it is

commoner in Mussoorie it must positively swarm there. I also took

a few specimens in the same locality towards the end of May, 1943.

Papilio’polyctor stockleyi Gabriel.

Talbot states ‘The Dawna Range southwards . .. Only 2 males

at present known, both in the British Museum.’ I was fortunate

enough to take a female, unluckily in very damaged condition, in

Kalaw, S. Shan States, in June 1939. It is indistinguishable from

the (description of the) male, gave that the green stippling of

the upperside of the forewing is less dense and the shape of the wings

is broader than those of the male. The range of the insect must be

extended to at least the S. Shan States in N. Burma.

Papilio arcturus arcturus Westwood.

This insect is generally rather constant in coloration and markings

but I have a male of the dry season form, taken towards the end of

May, 1944, near Chungthang, Tista Valley, at about 5,000 ft., which

is markedly smaller than the average, the green band on the forewing

upperside being broad and outwardly diffuse and tinged with yellow.

The greenish patch on the hind wing upperside is broader and much

‘reener than usual and there is a prominent claret band, not separate

lunules, postdiscally in interspaces 1 a to 4, u-p.h. The specimen

looks rather like a hybrid between krishna krishna Moore and

arcturus arcturus Wd. Could that be what it is?

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES‘ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES'\ 805

Papilio Krishna krishna Moore. aera: KR Host ee beeen

‘Talbot states that this insect feuenienes) Hare places: on mountains

where the slopes are covered with forests. of chestnut, oak! ard

magnolia. The male however also drinks at puddles and saridy

patches on paths and roads through forests, like its congeners}!

24 Shs fi ;

‘Papilio crino Fabricius. : : | Ba onto 6

Talbot says that this species occurs in Ceylon, Peninsular’ India

and lower Bengal, being rather common in the plains. In my

experience, it is extremely rare in Hyderabad (Deccan) and distinctly

uncommon near Calcutta. os

FHS, 7S

Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason.

Talbot states that the male is usually common and that the insect

is common on the western slopes of the Nilgiris, while T. R. Bell,

quoted by him, says that in Kanara it is not often seen at flowers:

I found the insect fairly common at the foot of the Lakkidi Ghat,

leading from the Nilgiri Wynaad to the Calicut district, in early

August, 1929, during an extremely wet spell. The mmalless cameé

eagerly to flowers whenever the rain abated for a minute or two and

the females less frequently.

Papilio polytes romulus Cramer.

Mr. D. G. Sevastopoulo, in a note, if I remember right, in your

journal in or about 1942, stated that in breeding experiments he

found the female form cyrus Fabr. as common as the other forms.

Both Evans and Talbot state that this form is rare or the least com-

mon of the female forms, and my experience confirms this. I was

constantly on the look-out for the cyrus form in Calcutta but found

very few, although I was able to distinguish the female from the

male when the insect is sipping nectar from a flower; and, although

I reared several larvae, taken at random, of this species on several

occasions, I never succeeded in obtaining a cyrus form in_ that

manner. Could Mr. Sevastopoulo have struck an unusually high

percentage of cyrus forms?

Teinopalpus imperialis imperialis Hope.

I found a few of these insects flying fast and high around the

‘Observatory’ on Tiger Hill, near Darjeeling, in fone 1943, in the

sunshine. ‘As soon as a Gloud or mist obscured the sun, they would

fold their wings back and drop like stones usually on to small bushes

in the vicinity, but even on to the grass in the Observatory enclosure;

they would sit tight at rest and be very difficult to see owing to

the coloration of the undersides, until the sun emerged again. While

thus at rest they could be taken with the fingers.

PARNASSIINAE

Talbot remarks on p. 259 of Vol. 1: ‘The classification of a

number of the Indian forms 1s still in a state of uncertainty, owing

to the lack of material. In the present volume, several forms are

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

treated as races upon a consideration of the distribution: such treat-

ment is provisional, and the acquisition of more material is much to

be desired in order to obtain a more accurate conception of these

forms.’

He also says, vide p. vi of the Author’s preface in the same

volume, that there is much confusion in the genus Parnassius, and

this is unlikely to be cleared up until more intensive collecting can be

done in the higher Himalayan valleys and adequate data obtained: it

is not enough to have the name of a locality and the month of capture;

it is important to know what forms actually fly on the same ground.

In view of these remarks, the following observations from my

own rather limited experience may be of some interest, even though

per se they throw little light on the subject.

I made a collecting trip in the summer of 1939 trom Srinagar to

Gilgit via the Burzil Pass and on to the Shandur Lake, whence I

entered Chitral and travelled NE. to the Baroghil Pass, crossing the

Darkot Pass a little further on into Yasin and so back via Gilgit and

the Kamri Pass to Srinagar. References in the following items to

butterflies occurring within this area are therefore concerned with

this trip, unless otherwise stated.

1 crossed the Rajdiyangan Pass, 11,900 ft., slightly beyond Tragbal,

on July goth, but found no Parnassiids on or near the Pass either on

my outward, or return journey on the 16th September.

f collected around and above the Burzil Pass on the 14th to 17th

July inclusive. On the sunny slopes above the pass and in the valley

leading to the pass from the south, I found a few P. hardwickei

hardwicket Gray at from about 12,000 to 13,000 ft., but nearly all

were worn, and it would therefore appear that they must begin

to emerge in this locality before the end of June. P. charltonius

?deckerti Verity was fairly common and in reasonably good condition

from about 13,000 to 14,500 ft., but, as usual, difficult to capture.

P. stoliczkanus nicevillei Avinoft was moderately common from about

13,500 to 15,000 ft. but it was difficult to find fresh specimens. P.

epaphus Phinducucica Bang-Haas and P. simo ssp. were flying un-

commonly from about 14,500 to 16,000 ft., the former on the grassy

slopes near the snow-fields and the latter on slopes covered by loose,

grey, shale, where they were difficult to see when settled, and to catch

owing to the slippery nature of the shale. P. epaphus were freshly

emerged and I saw no females, but P. simo were nearly all very worm

and must have been on the wing for two or three weeks. This

insect has not been recorded from this locality previously; it seems

nearest to ssp. saserensis. All the last named four can be found flying

together in some parts of their range and season. P. jacquemontit

jacquemontu Boisduval was not in evidence on this occasion. Two

males of the P. simo were presented by me to the British Museum.

I arrived at the Shandur Lake, (about 12,000 ft.) on the evening

of the 6th August and collected in the neighbourhood from the 7th to

the rith of that month inclusive. | f

I had come across a few worn specimens of P. tianschanica

binghami Bryk on the ‘road’ from Teru to Shandur, at about

rz,000 ft., on the 6th, and those that I found on the borders of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 807

lake were in very poor condition; but on the slopes above the lake,

to the west, the same species was fairly common and fresh, from

about 13,000 to 14,000 ft. A fair number of P. charltonius ducalis

Boullet & Le Cerf in fair condition, were flying at about 13,000 to

14,000 ft. also, in company with the tianschanica’s while P. delphius

chitralica Verity were common at from 13,500 to 15,000 ft., but very

few were found, out of a large number taken, to be in good enough

condition to be worth keeping. P. epaphus ?hinducucica Bang-Haas

were rare but freshly emerged at about 14,500 to 15,500 ft. and

upwards. These four subspecies therefore all fly simultaneously

for some part of their season and range and at similar or overlapping

altitudes.

I reached the Baroghil hut, near the pass of that name, on the

zoth August and spent three days collecting in the neighbourhocd.

The slopes south of the river which flows down below the hut, facing

north and leading up to above the Darkot Pass, provided good

hunting, and I found P. jacquemontii chitralensis Moore in numbers.

and fairly fresh condition there at about 12,500 to 13,500 ft. P.

delphius ssp. occurred quite commonly from about 13,000 to 15,000 ft.

and even upwards, but most frequently between 14,000 and 15,000 ft.

I captured a large number, but 75% were worn specimens and had:

to be released ; I was, however, able eventually to secure a fair series.

The subspecies occurring here seems to approach (the description

of) race hunza, especially in the reduced discal markings, but Brig.

Evans, on a comparison of a series of my specimens with the British

Museum’s series of ssp. chitralica and hunza, considered that mine

were probably a seasonal form of the former. In view of the time

of their capture and the small amount of the SW. monsoon rainfall

in these parts, they may well have been a second dry-season brood,

the earlier brood, if one exists, being more like a wet-season form

emerging while the ground is saturated with the recently meited snows.

I presented two males and two females to the British Museum and,

perhaps, when the genus is revised a more definite view may be ex-

pressed. The only other Parnassiids I found in this locality were a

few very elderly, worn, pale specimens of P. thianschanica, which

seemed to be too faded to be worth taking. I had at the time only

Evans’s ‘Identification’, 2nd edition, in which the species is not split

into any races in the Indian area, but, on obtaining later a copy of

Talbot’s Fauna of British India, 2nd edition, I wondered whether these

specimens could have been another race and regretted that I had kept

none. They were only seen at about 12,000 to 12,500 ft.

I crossed the Kamri Pass, on my way back, on the 13th Sept-

ember in a snow blizzard, but revisited the Pass the following day

in fine weather. I saw no butterflies there, except one worn Lampi-

des boeticus!

Talbot, in a note on Maniola hilaris on page 266 of the 2nd

edition of the Fauna, Vol. 2, seems to imply that the slopes on

the northern side of the Darkot Pass are not in Indian territory, but

if he refers to the slopes which divide the two great glaciers which

join to form the summit of the Pass, where I took the Parnassitds

mentioned, he is surely wrong; for these slopes lie to the north of

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

the pass and face more or less north, but are. south of the river which

divides the Thui Range from the Hindu Kush, in which the Baroghil

Pass is situated. | ;

On the track from the Baroghil Pass to the eastern arm of the

glacier leading to the Darkot Pass, at about 12,000 to 12,500 ft.

and on the western moraine of the glacier, up to about 13,500 ft.,

the only Parnassiids seen by me were a few worn P. charltonius

(?) ducalis.

Aporia agathon ariaca

Talbot states that this race is known chiefly from Naini Tal and

is not common. In May 1945 I found it plentiful on the road from

Almora to Bhinsar, and in June of that year it positively swarmed

in one locality on the old short bridal path from Naini Tal to Bhowali.

IXvery thistle head and several other flowers had three or four of

these butterflies clustered on them. ‘They should therefore be classi-

fied probably as very common but rather local.

Delias singhapura singhapura

On a path to the top of the hill on Pataw Island, opposite Mergui,

Il was watching a pair of Delias butterflies flying around among

the foliage of some tall trees when they began to indulge in a love

flight and fell entwined just in front of me and I was able to capture

them. They proved to be specimens of the rare species named.

They seem to have the habit of several of the genus, of flying about

the tops of trees or resting on the leaves near the tops during the

heat of the day.

Delias sanaca sanaca, form confusa

Talbot says that from confusa is rare and may be said to range from

Kulu to Kumaon; he states that the description of the female given

by him is the first record of the female of this form, being taken

from the insect found by Lt.-Col. H. D. Peile dead on the ground at

Mussoorie, at 5,500 ft., in May 1916. Towards the end of May

1945, at Bhinsar, in the Almora District, and in the first half of June

of the same year around Naini Tal, I found what agrees with the

description of this form common, the females scarcely less plentiful

than the males. Both sexes spent a good deal of time during the

heat of the day flying high around trees, where they were inacces-

sible, but they also haunted shady nalas and streams, especially in

the afternoon, and seemed to enjoy sitting on the mossy banks of

the latter, where they received a sprinkling of cool spray. More-

over, I was sent a few specimens of this subspecies in two or three

successive years by a friend from Naini Tal and it would appear that

form confusa is now the commonest, and in fact the normal, form in

Kumaon.

Delias acalis pyramus {\WVallace).

Under the species, Talbot gives the distribution as ‘. . . Simla to

Burma .. .’, but under the subspecies pyvamus, the northern race,

he shows the habitat as Nepal to Burma. Evans gives the distri-

bution of this race as Simla to Burma. I have not taken it or

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 809

received it from west of Sikkim, (I.exclude Nepal, as it is not within

our area,) and it would be interesting to know which habitat is

correct.

Delias agostina agostina (Hewitson). :

Talbot says it occurs from 3,000 to 8,ooo ft. It can be taken quite

commonly along the Tista Valley, in the Darjeeling District, at

7,000 ft. and upwards to about 3,000 ft., but I have never comé

across it above that altitude.

Delias hyparete ethire Doherty.

Talbot says it is more common in the Madras district but recorded

by Taylor (1888) as being very common at Khurda, in Orissa. I can

confirm that this subspecies occurs at Khurda, in Orissa. I also

found it rather uncommon at Taptapani near Berhampore, in the

Eastern Ghats, but I searched for it in vain around Calcutta. That

does not prove that it does not occur in Bengal, but presumably it

is confined to the south of the Province. I also found it rarely in

and around Hyderabad (Deccan). |

Cepora nadina remba (Moore). .

Talbot says it does not usually frequent flowers and rarely rests

on leaves in open places, so that it is not easy to catch, but at

Mahableshwar in February 1946, I found the males commonly, and

the females rarely, on flowers and leaves beside the broad drives

through the forests, and the males frequented damp, sandy spots in

stream beds along with nerissa phryne, its congener.

Appias indra indra (Moore).

The males congregate commonly at damp places in stream beds

and, when disturbed, delight to play follow-my-leader in circles around

the place where they were sitting, until they deem it safe to resume

their sipping. Other species are recorded as indulging in the same

habit.

Pieris krueperi devta (de Niceville).

I took a few specimens of this insect in late July and August, on

my trip previously mentioned, in Gilgit and Chitral at elevations of

about 9,000 to 12,000 ft. They were nowhere common and I seldom

saw more than one or two in a day. They seemed to float down

the hill-sides to flowers beside the ‘road’, between 11 a.m. and 1 p.m.,

and thereafter to disappear up the rather barren slopes above it.

When settled, their blotchy undersides made them very difficult to

spot and they never gave one a second chance if missed.

Pieris dubernardi chumbiensis (de Niceville).

I note that Talbot follows previous authors in regarding the Chumbi

Valley as situated in Sikkim. It surely les wholly east of the

Donkya Range, which separates Sikkim on the east from Tibet, and

is therefore in that country. Ii this assumption is correct, several

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

species hitherto classified as ‘Indian’ must be excluded from that

category, e.g., Pieris napi melaena, Aulocera brahminus brahminus.'

Vanessa antiopa yedanula, etc., and some Lycaenids.

Euchloe ausonia daphalis (Moore). |

Brig. Evans, quoted by Talbot, notes that this insect is fairly

common in Chitral in March and April, between 5,000 and 8,000 ft. ;

and says :—‘It is local and has one brood, which . .. appears in the

latter half. of April’. I took a freshly emerged male near the Burzil

dak bungalow in mid-July 1939 at about 11,000 ft. but failed to find

any more. Was this a member of a second brood or merely one

whose emergence had been delayed by the severer conditions pre-

vailing at that altitude? ,

Catopsilia* pyranthe pyranthe (Linnaeus) and C. florella gnoma

(Fabricius).

The uncertainty as to whether these are one and the same species,

with florella only the dry-season form of pyranthe, has apparently not

yet been dispelled. Talbot records that the dated specimens in the

British Museum (of florella) were taken from December to April, whilst

those of pyranthe were taken from June to December, and is inclined

to think that they are seasonal forms.

I have series of dry-and-wet season forms of both ‘species’ from

several localities in the plains of India, but the pyranthe-like specimens

are far the commoner in the monsoon months and the _ florella-like

specimens much the more plentiful. in the dry months. I have also

taken dry-season-like forms during the monsoon months and _ wet-

season-like forms during the dry months, especially in places such

as Calcutta where long periods of unbroken drought are exceptional.

My experience therefore tends to support the assumption that these

are separate species, but it admittedly proves nothing!

Gandaca harina assamica Moore.

I took a few specimens of this butterfly, none of which was in

perfect condition, at Christmas and in early January, at Taptapani,

Ganjam, (vide under hyparete ethire above), on two visits of a few

days each to Gopalpur. It has not, I believe, been recorded previously

except from Sikkim to Assam. The differences between these

specimens and specimens in my collection from Sikkim are very slight,

the black border being a little broader at the apex of the forewing

upperside, in the former, and not continued quite so far down the

termen, ending generally above vein 3 and becoming thread-like

about vein 5 in the male and ending well above vein 1 in the female,

which is faintly tinged with yellow. Brig. Evans, to whom I showed

my series from Taptapani, considered that they were not sufficiently

differentiated to constitute a good separate subspecies, but it would

be interesting to know whether this view can be upheld when more

material is available for comparison.

1 Brahminus is also found in other parts of the Indian Himalaya.—EpDs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOYES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES eI

Eurema simulatrix sarinoides (I rithstorfer)

I took a fair series of this insect, including a few females, in

November-December 1938 and January-February 1939, in Tavoy,

Mergui, and the eastern foot of the Dawna Hills near Thingannya-

naung. I showed them to Brig. Evans at the British Museum,

and he confirmed that they were undoubtedly this subspecies.

Talbot says, (December 1938), that the female of this butterfly does

not appear to be known and there were no females of it in the

British Museum collection in 1947. I therefore presented a pair to

the Museum and presume that the female is the allotype. Subsequently

a report of the discovery of the female in Arrakan appeared in

a list of Arrakan Butterflies, by J. C. Gladman, in the Journal of

the Bombay N.H.S. in 1948, I believe, but cannot now trace the

correct reference. I was particularly on the look-out for this insect

during my collecting trip in Burma from November 1938 to early

June 1939, and was glad to have come across it on several occasions.

I consider that it is not as rare as it has been thought to be, but

is liable to be overlooked owing to its similarity. in the field to:

other species of the genus, and, especially when settled, to wet

season forms of blanda silhetana and sari sodalis.

It is evident from the above that my specimens were all taken

in the dry season, but all have well marked and fairly broad black

borders on the hind-wing upperside, distinctly scalloped anteriorly and

intensely black in the males, (pace Talbot, who figures and describes

what must be an extreme dry season form). The female very closely,

resembles the male but, on the upperside, the black of the borders

is less intense than in the males, the ground colour slightly paler and

the forewing slightly broader. The markings and colour of the

underside are indistinguishable from those of the male.

Colias alpherakii chitralensis Verity.

When I reached the Shandur Lake (on August 6th), I was too

late to find this insect in good condition especially at the lake level.

The few I saw were very old and worn; but higher up the slopes

above the lake, to about 14,000 ft., 1 came across ones or twos,

mainly females, in fair condition. Also on the 4th August I took

a female near Ghizar Fort, about 20 miles from the Shandur Pass on

the Gilgit side, in poor condition; and I captured another on. the

slopes leading down from the Darkot Pass towards Darkot, 1.e. on

the southern side and in Yasin, N. Gilgit, at about 13,000 ft., on

the 24th August, also very worn. This butterfly may therefore now

be recorded as occurring in N. Yasin and W. Gilgit, as well as

in Chitral. |

Colias wiskotti wiskotti Staudinger & Bang-Haas.

On the same day and within a few minutes of taking C. alpheraku

chitralensis near Ghizar (vide above), I captured a very common female

of wiskotti. It appears to occur, therefore, in W. Gilgit, as well

as in Chitral. I did not find this insect near the Shandur Lake and

next came across it near the Baroghil Pass, (NE. Chitral), at

about 12,500 ft. and along the track from the Baroghil Hut to the

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOC1ETY, Voi. 52

foot of the eastern arm of the glacier leading to the Darkot Pass.

I was too late to find any jn good condition; the few I saw and

took were lamentably elderly and worn.

Colias electo fieldii Menetries.

Néar Shankergarh on the road to the north side of the Kamri

Pass, at about 11,000 ft., on the 11th September 1939, I took a

fresh male of this insect, the ground colour of which was a deep

gamboge yellow instead of the normal orange. It was otherwise

indistinguishable from the usual form.

Danaus melanippus indicus (Frihstorfer).

Recorded by Evans and Talbot from Bengal but, at any rate

near Calcutta, it is very rare, and in many years there I only saw

three or four. I did, however, see a specimen in a casuarina wood

near Puri, Orissa, at Christmas time; it settled quite near me and

was unmistakable, but in attempting to catch it, I caught my net

on a twig and the insect escaped. Orissa may therefore be added

to its habitat.

Danaus aglea aglea (Stoll).

Recorded from Ceylon and Southern India to Orissa, but I have

found it rare near Calcutta in many years. Bengal should be added

to its distribution.

Euploea mulciber kalinga Doherty.

Doherty, quoted by Talbot, says he found this insect common

in parts of the Eastern Ghats; but Talbot states that it is rare in

collections and that there are no specimens of it in the General

Collection at the British Museum. I found a few of both sexes at

Taptapani, in the Eastern Ghats west of Berhampur (Ganjam); one

at Christmas time, it may be of interest to note.

Mycalesis igilia igilia Frihstorfer.

Recorded by Talbot only from Coorg and Mysore, but I have

taken it at Gudalur (on the Mysore side) and on the Nadghani Ghat

in the Nilgiris.

Mycalesis visala visala Moore.

Both Evans and Talbot record this insect from Kumaon to Assam,

which seems to imply that it is, in northern India, confined to the

hill country or its immediate neighbourhood. It occurs, however,

commonly in Calcutta and probably thence throughout Bengal north-

wards to the Himalayas.

Mycalesis suavolens tytleri subsp. nov.

Recorded by Talbot only from Sikkim and Bhutan, whence Evans

also records suavolens suavolens. However, I took a male above

Loharkhet and another at Khati, both places on the route to the

Pindari Glacier in Kumaon, at about 5,000 and 7,000 ft. respectively.

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 813:

Brig. Evans confirmed that these were both suavolens and presumably

ssp. tytleri. KKumaon must therefore be added to its habitat.

Mycalesis malsara Moore. :

Neither Evans nor Talbot record this species from further south

in Burma than Rangoon, but I found a few in February 1939 near

Tavoy, S. Burma. | .

Genus Lethe Hubner. It is not, in my experience, correct to

say, with Talbot, that the butterflies of this genus fly after sunset,

but in the day-time they mostly sit motionless among leaves, flying

only a few yards when disturbed. Of course, they do so, but they

also fly fairly freely around bushes and trees during the day.

Lethe dura gammiei (Moore).

Both Evans and Talbot record this insect as very rare, but I

found it, or rather the males, fairly common in Sikkim, at about

4,000 ft. between Gangtok and Dikchu and from Singhik to

Chungthang at between 4,000 and 5,000 ft-, in May 1943; in fact,

it seemed to be about as common as any other Lethes at that season

and in those localities. My collector also sent me quite a number

of males from the same localities in May and June of the two

following years, but only one female. I consider that it would be

better described as: males not rare, females very rare.

Lethe rorhia neilgheriensis (Guerin).

Hitherto recorded from Ceylon and S. India to Pachmarhi on the

western side. I found a male many years ago, in Calcutta, trying

to sample my beer at the goth hole on the Royal Calcutta Golf

Course, but despite much searching over several subsequent years,

never discovered another in Bengal.

Lethe margaritae Elwes.

Evans gives Bhutan only as the habitat of this species but both

Bingham and Talbot record it from Sikkim also. I can confirm

its occurrence in Sikkim, as my collector sent me four specimens

(two very torn, but two fairly fresh) taken near Chungthang in the

Tista Valley, at about 5,000 ft., in June 1944 and 1945.

Lethe sinorix (Hewitson).

Apparently not recorded previously from west of Sikkim, but I

have taken it very rarely near Bhowali in the Naini Tal District of

Kumaon at about 6,o00 ft. in October.

Lethe yama yama (Moore).

Talbot says that this insect is usually rare. I took a few

males in late May, 1943, near Chungthang in the Tista Valley

at about 5,000 ft., but, judging by the number (of males; not

a single female!) sent by my collector from the same neighbour-

hood in late May and early June in the following two years, it must

be extremely common thereabouts.

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Maniola hilaris (Staudinger).

Vide my remarks above, under Baroghil, in connection with

Parnassiids. I was lucky enough to find a fair number of this

species on the same slopes at about 13,000-13,500 ft. on the 21-23

August 1939. The majority were freshly emerged, while others

were very worn and faded. It would seem likely that there are two

broods in rapid succession in the summer months. there.

Maniola davendra chitralica (Evans).

I captured a few specimens of a Mamiola in late July and again

in early September, 1939, 1n Dashkin Forest, Astor, on the road

to Gilgit.. The males were identified for me by Brig. Evans as

davendra chitralica, hitherto recorded only from Chitral and the

Khyber Pass, but the females may be either that subspecies or a

race of M. tenuistigma, (see below), which I found at the same

time and place. Neither Evans nor I could distinguish with any

certainty between these females. I also took davendra chitralica near

the Shandur Pass and in N. Yasin, near Darkot, so that its distri-

bution should include these places.

Maniola tenuistigma ssp.

The specimens I took at Dashkin (vide above) and at Doyan, (Astor),

on the road to Gilgit, were considered by Brig. Evans to be a slightly

differentiated local race of tenuistigma, which has not been previously

recorded from Astor. That’ applies to the males; the females we

could not distinguish with certainty from my females of tenuistigma

laspura Evans from Chitral, (or from females of davendra chitralica,

as stated above.) The main differences, however, seem to be the

following: Male upperside forewing, brand slightly wider and more

woolly in appearance. Veins 1 to 4 darkened distally. Female rather

smaller; upperside forewing rather darker towards the dorsai

margin. Male and female underside: ocellus in 5 forewing large.

In the female, forewing always a small unpupilled ocellus in 2.

Hindwing with prominent grey irroration distally, especially towards

the costa, where it may become patchy and obscure the ocellus in

5. A very puzzling pair of butterflies !

Hipparchia persephone enervata (Staudinger).

Neither Evans nor Talbot record this insect from Kashmir, but it

does occur there, as I took a few, on the 20-22 July, in Astor, N.

Kashmir, at 6,000-8,000 ft.

Hipparchia actaea magna (Evans).

Only recorded by Evans and Valbot from Chitral, (up to 9,000 ft.).

Rather surprisingly perhaps, therefore, I took a few im rocky country

at about 4,500 ft. near the junction of the river which rises on the

north side of the Burzil Pass with the Astor River, and a few more

near Dashkin and Doyal in Astor, at between 7,000 and 8,500 ft.,

all in the second half of July..

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES $15

Hipparchia hubneri pupillata (Jytler).

90 moorei moorei (Evans).

a moorei gilgitica (Tytler).

<3 boloricus chitralica (Tytler).

Talbot states that ‘moorei, boloricus and regeli (Alph.) form a

puzzling group that requires investigation. It is perhaps doubtful

whether boloncus and regeli are distinct species’. I agree that they

are puzzling and would include boloricus in this opinion. My limited

experience is probably unlikely to throw any useful light on the

problem, but 1 give it for what it is worth. I exclude regeli as

it does not occur in our region. Huebner: then I found very rare

and only near the Baroghil Pass, at about 10,000 to 12,000 ft.

It was quite possibly out of season; it would appear, from the locality,

to be ssp. pupilata (Tytler). H. moorei moore: I found fairly commonly

above the Shandur Lake, at about 12,500 to 13,500 ft., and from

near Gazan to the Baroghil Pass at round 10,500 to 12,500 ft.,

mooret gilgitica. J took a few below the Darkot Pass to the south,

in N. Yasin (Gilgit), at about 13,000 ft. H. boloricus chitralica 1 found

common alongside and slightly above the Shandur Lake and near

the Baroghil Pass, at altitudes of from 12,000-13,000 ft. Now

boloricus chitralica seems fairly easy to separate from the others in

this group; it has the pale band on the upperside, in both sexes,

nearly white and only just tinged with ochraceous, while in the others

the band is generally ochraceous, often turning dull yellaw about the

ocellus in interspace 5.

It will be noticed from the above observations that all these

insects, with the possible exception of gilgitica, fly in the same

localities; they are also on the wing at the same times, except for

pupilata perhaps, and had this not been the case, I might well have

taken better and longer series of them all. The differences shewn

in Evans’s and Talbot’s keys do not seem constant and, although it

is possible that the males can be distinguished by their genitalia,

that is scarcely practicable with the females, which are extremely

difficult to differentiate visually. Further investigation and longer

series for examination are, as Talbot says, most desirable.

Erebia hyagriva (Moore).

Talbot describes this insect as rare, despite the fact that accord-

ing to MacKinnon (1897), whom he quotes, it is very common at

Mussoorie in August and September. Peile (1937) is also quoted

as saying that it is on the wing only during the rains. I have taken

one or two at Dharmsala (Kangra District) in May and found it

very common, but in poor condition, at Ranikhet (Kumaon) in late

September. I feel therefore that Peile’s remarks require modification

and that the insect’s occurrence should be stated as not rare

generally and common in the Garhwal and Kumaon hills.

Ypthima baldus madrasa Evans.

An extreme dry season form occurs in February and March in

Mahableshwar, which is very small, with prominent dark fasciae on

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIBTY, | Vol. 52

the underside of the wings, especially the hind wings, distally, and I

thought that they might be sufficiently distinct to form a separate

race; but I find that they can be matched by other dry season forms

from S. India in the collection in the British Museum.

Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer). |

On several occasions and over several years, in the monsoon

months, sitting after an afternoon round of golf on the Jajmau

Course, Cawnpore, on the open grassy patch in front of the club.

house, near which was a large tamarind tree, I observed in the

early dusk what were unmistakably specimens of this insect, rising

from near the foot of the tree and flying leisurely upwards in an

ever increasing spiral until they were lost to view high in the sky.

One would start the flight and another and another would follow

in rapid succession, until it became too dark to watch their move-

ments. Judging by their flight and shape, they were all males, and

I could see no sign of females flying high above the tree, so

that, if these were courting flights, as presumably they were, the

females must have been cruising around for some time at a con-

siderable height.. I never saw the butterflies descending from their

flights,—presumably it would have been too dark to see this phenomenon

when it occurred. It would be interesting to know whether others

have witnessed similar behaviour on the part of ‘this crepuscular

insect and can offer an explanation thereof.

Elymnias hypermnestra undularis (Drury).

Neither Evans nor Talbot record this insect from south of Bengal,

though Bingham gives Central India as a locality. I have taken it

rather uncommonly in Hyderabad (Deccan), so that it probably

extends through Central India down as far as the Deccan.

Elymnias casiphone saueri Distant.

Evans states that this insect is very rare and Talbot says that

the female is very scarce and still may not be known from Burma.

I took two females, one below Sukli in the Dawna Hills and the

other near Mergui, in November 1938 and January 10939 respectively.

They are unmistakably saueri, being rather like malelas female but

with the upperside apex ferruginous, (as described by Evans) and

the hind wing highly dentate, almost tailed. Strangely enough,

however, I took a male below Sukli at the same time, without the

‘tail’, but definitely saueri.

Elymnias peali Wood-Mason.

ils ‘took about a dozen specimens of this species, mostly males,

chiefly in fair condition but some not worth while keeping, in the

forests below the Umran Gate, on the Shillong-Gauhati Road, Khasia.

Hills, Assam, at about 2,o0o0 ft. in April 1933, whence I iheltions it

has not been previously recorded. Its known range appears, however,

to: be,.extending, as Bingham gives it only from Sibsagar and

Margherita, ‘Assam, Evans from ‘Assam’ and Talbot from Assan

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES S17

and N. Burma. Mr. C. B. Antram has informed me that it is wide-

spread in Assam.

Thauria aliris intermedia Crowley.

Both Evans and Talbot say that this insect is very rare (in

Burma), but I found it rather rare in the jungles near Pathechaung,

Toungoo District, at the foot of the Karen Hills, in May 1939. It

was almost impossible to obtain one without the tornal angles of

the hindwings having been bitten off, presumably by lizards. When

they settle, the butterflies sit very close and are difficult to see

and to walk up among the rustling fallen leaves which they usually

choose as resting places; they also seem to favour awkward spots.

below shrubs. It is apparently when thus settled that they fall

a prey to lizards, escaping without serious damage and torn hind-

wings. Lizards similarly damage the hindwings of many species.

in S. Burma—very exasperating to the collector!

Discophora sondaica zal Westwood.

Both Evans and Talbot record this insect only from Sikkim to

Burma, yet it is not uncommon in and near Calcutta, especially

in bamboo copses, but it can occasionally be found even in the centre

of the city,,ye.g., I took one female in the Bengal Club and two

females in a flat in Russell Street.

Discophora timora timora Westwood.

Both Evans and Talbot record this insect from Bengal, but I have

never seen it near Calcutta. |

Acraea violae (Fabricius).

Evans rightly records this insect from Ceylon and India, while

Talbot gives its habitat as Ceylon and Peninsular India. It occurs

commonly in Calcutta and Hyderabad (Deccan) and more rarely in

Cawnpore, but I never found it in the Punjab. Its distribution

would probably be more correctly described as Ceylon and India

south and east of the Punjab. \

Prothoe franckii angelica Butler.

I only came across two or three examples of this insect, and only in

the Dawna Hills and near Tavoy. They all settled on sweet exudations

on the trunks of trees, and always upside-down. One would fly rapidly

round the tree and suddenly settle on its trunk head downwards;

there was no question of it settling in the normal upward position

and then turning over. How it achieved this aerobatic feat, I was

unable to observe. When settled, it resembled very closely a piece

of loose lichen on the bark of the tree. I was unable to ascertain

whether its congener, calydonia belisama Crowley, behaved in a similar

manner, as I only succeeded in (catching one, a damaged male,

which settled on a piece of durian fruit I had put down as bait,

on a path in a forest near Pathechaung, (Toungoo District), and

would not budge from its feast even when I lowered my net

over it. | 3

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Euthalia garuda garuda Moore.

I found this insect quite common in the jungles near Pathechaung:

and took a number of females, some of which are very different

from the normal females. They do not appear to be females of

merta eriphyle De Niceville and I am hoping that one or more of

them may prove to be the females of mahadeva binghami, (of which

a rather worn male was taken by Mr. W. C. Carrot while we were

collecting together for a few days at the beginning of May, 1939),

or of kanda elicius De Niceville, the females of both of which Evans

states are unknown.

Euthalia dunya Doubleday & Hewitson.

I should think that this species is the most difficult of all forest

butterflies from our region to catch. It is even more wary than

evelina derma Kollar, Like that insect, it sits facing the would-be

captor on the tip of a leaf, usually within reach, and watches him

keenly, waving its antennae meanwhile. It will allow him to strike

before flying, but when one thinks one has it and it seems to be

actually in the net, it is almost invariably only visible through the

bag and on its way rejoicing to an inaccessible perch. I saw a

few in the Tavoy District in March 1939 but was only able to capture

a pair so elderly and ragged as scarcely to be able to fly.

Liminitis procris undifragus Frihstorfer.

This subspecies is recorded by Evans from S. India, while the

race procris’ is said to occur from Dehra Dun to Burma. What exactiy

that means I have often wondered, but I presume it implies the

arc of an imaginary circle covering the foot-hills of the Himalayas

stretching between those two places, and not the segment of the

circle. If I am correct, the latter race is not recorded from Calcutta,

but I have taken it there not uncommonly and have bred it there

from larvae found on several occasions. A comparison of these

specimens with specimens taken in S. India and Sikkim demonstrates

that the Calcutta form is procris procris. The favourite food-plant

of the larvae appears to be several species of the ?Padam tree, (I

am not quite sure of the name, but it has pendulous spheres of

florets of a greenish colour).

Neptis columella nilgirica Moore.

Evans records this insect from S. India only, but I have taken

a few, in March of several years, in the Botanical Gardens at Sibpur

near Calcutta. It should therefore be recorded from Bengal.

Neptis yerburii sikkima Evans.

Its habitat is given by Evans as Sikkim to Assam. Here again

I have found the subspecies, in wooded country near Tollygunge,

Calcutta, rarely, and there is no doubt that these specimens were

sikkima. It should be recorded as very rare, from Bengal also.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 819

Kallima inachus huegelii Kollar.

Evans gives its range as Pachmarhi, and Kashmir to Kumaon.

I took one or two specimens in poor condition at Taptapani, (E.

Ghats,—Berhampur Djistrict,) and a fresh specimen was given to me

by a friend, which flew into his carriage on a train in the ghat

country near Gaya. The distribution of this subspecies is therefore

considerably wider than that shewn by Evans, and may perhaps be

described as across Central India to Orissa and N. Madras, and

Kashmir to Kumaon.,

Precis iphita pluviatalis !'rihstorfer.

To the habitat of this insect given by Evans, viz.: ‘Ceylon; S. and

Central India’; should be added Calcutta, where I have taken it rather

rarely on several occasions and am _ satisfied that it is the race

pluviatalis.

Precis iphita siccata Stich.

Distribution according to Evans ‘Kashmir to Kumaon,’ but I

have come across it very rarely in Cawnpore, U.P., so that it may

occur in the United Provinces generally in favourable localities.

Precis iphita iphita Cramer.

This insect is, perhaps, Public Enemy No. 1 to collectors, to

whom it can be a positive nuisance, from its habit of sitting on leaves

on bushes in favourite beats of butterflies and chasing away all other

butterflies which venture near it—usually especially the rarities one

is particularly anxious to capture. Atella phalanta Drury, is another

of the worst offenders in this respect.

Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius Linnaeus.

Recorded by Evans from Mt. Abu, Baluchistan, Chitral to N.

Burma. I have taken this insect in Amritsar (Punjab), Cawnpore

(U.P.), where I also bred it from larvae found on pansies in my

garden. Also Thandaung (Karen Hills) which are really situated in

Lower Burma. The range of the subspecies should therefore be

extended to cover the Punjab, the United Provinces and the northerly

parts of Lower Burma.

Dodona henrici longicaudata De Niceville.

I was fortunate enough to discover this insect, which is described

aS very rare, in fair numbers, more or less freshly emerged, below

the Umran Gate on the Gauhati-Shillong Road, at about 2,000 ft.

in March 1933. Among them were a few females, hitherto unknown.

They were all, of course, Dry Season Forms, but I subsequently

received one or two wet season males from the same locality, taken

in August, which are darker and more heavily marked. I append

a description of the D.S.F’. form of the female :—

Resembles the male, but the fore wings are broader and the

apex blunter, the termen being straight or even slightly convex,

whereas in the male it is normally slightly concave. The black

820 ITOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

markings are greatly reduced, the basal markings on both wings

being light greyish instead of dark brown, while the greenish-white

discal band is very broad and the whitish markings on the postdiscal

half of the wings are much enlarged and prominent, with white

sub-marginal lines from tornus to vein 2 on the forewing and more or

less complete on the hindwing. Underside similar to that of the

male, but with the whitish markings enlarged and prominent. The

tail is longer than in the male and the black at the extremity of the

lobe is crowned with the ground colour.

I took one female in which the whole of the upperside is greenish

white, except for a slight grey dusting basally and, on the forewing,

a black spot on the costa just beyond the cell, a postdiscal fascia from

the costa to vein 4 and a black margin from the costa, decreasing in

width gradually, to the tornus. On the hindwing, the black markings

are almost confined to the anteciliary fine lines. In fact, this female

shows a close approach to the dry season form of the female henricz

deodata Hewitson, from Burma.

Abisara echerius suffusa Moore.

I have not seen any account of crepuscular habits of this

butterfly, so that, in Pachmarhi in early August 1945, as I was

returning to my hotel after an afternoon’s collecting, (when the rain

permitted), I was surprised to see several specimens, of both sexes,

flying round some bushes in the gathering dusk. I took one or two,

to make sure I was not mistaken in my identification; I watched

them gambolling around until it became so dark that I could only see

an occasional flirt of their wings. It would be interesting to know

whether such crepuscular flight has been seen by other collectors.

Gerydus boisduvali assamensis Doherty.

Collecting one October afternoon in the compound of a disused

house off the Kathgodam—Naini Tal road at about 4,o00 ft., (now,

I believe, used as an apiary), I was intrigued to find a few of these

insects flying around with their characteristic falling and rising,

Geometer moth-like flight. There is no discernible difference between

these specimens and unose I took in Sikkim, Assam and Burma, and

Brig. Evans, to whom J] showed them at the British Museum, was

not surprised to hear that the subspecies had turned up in Kumaon.

He records it only from Sikkim to Burma.

Everes parrhasius parrhasius Fabricius.

Evans gives its habitat as Ceylon and S. India. I have found

it in Hyderabad (Deccan) and very rarely in Cawnpore, U.P. It

looks therefore as if it occurred throughout India as far as the

United Provinces, but not, apparently. east of them, as I have not

come across it in Calcutta or Behar.

Megisba malaya thwaitesi Moore. |

Evans records this subspecies as occurring in Bengal. This is

the tailless form, but the few I have taken in Calcutta are all tailed,

and are therefore race sikkima, which Evans records from Kumaon

MISCELLANEOUS NICS ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES S21

to Burma. The habitats of these two races seem to require revising

in. the light of the above.

Lycaenopsis ceyx cerima Corbet.

I took three specimens of a small, bright blue Lycaenopsis, one

near Tavoy and two near Mergui, in S, Burma, early in 1939, which

I could not ascribe to any of the members of this genus described

by Evans. I therefore took them up to him ‘for identification and

after considerable search through the genus in the main collection

in the British Museum, we discovered one rather battered specimen,

taken some years ago by Brig. Evans himself in Burma, which agreed

superficially with my specimens; it was a subspecies of ceyx. L. ceyx

tanarata Corbet occurs very rarely in Malaya and Evans’s specimen

was the only previous one taken in Burma. This and mine were later

named ceyx cerima by Corbet. Subsequently Sir Keith Cantlie

received a specimen from Assam, which was identified as belonging

to the same subspecies, and the identification of Evans’s, my and

Cantlie’s specimens as ceyx cerima was confirmed by an examination

of the genitalia. Cantlie’s specimen was collected by Dr. T. Norman,

of Seleng Tea Estate, who described it on p. 515 of the /BNHS,

Vol. 51 (2) April 1953, under his notes on the Lepidoptera ‘of

Assam. But, as I had already prepared a description of the male, I

append it here.

Shape of the wings normal, with the apex of the forewing rather

rounded. Upperside glistening caerulean blue with black borders,

those on the forewing decreasing in width from about 2 mm. at the

apex to a thread at the tornus, and those on the hindwing a thread

with a very slight broadening at the apex. Slightly paler, especially

when viewed sideways, beyond the cell in-interspaces 2 and 3 of the

forewing and with long white patches distally in interspaces 6 and 7,

extending slightly into 5, on the hindwing.

Underside very pale grey, all the spots black, those on the forewing

being perhaps streaks rather than round spots, set slightly obliquely,

nearer the margin than the. end of the cell, that in 6 slightly and that

in 7 strongly shifted inwards. Hindwing with no spot in the extreme

base of interspace 7 or near the base in 1 b.; markings prominent,

the rounded spot in 7 larger than the rest, the discal spots in 4

and 5 very faint or missing, the discal series placed rather nearer

to the end of the cell than the margin.

Ceyx cerima must now be included in the genus Lycaenopsis,

among the butterflies of India and Burma, in the Haraldus group,

after chelaka lenya, nov., with Assam and lower Burma as its dis-

tribution and very rare as its occurrence. :

I presented one of my specimens to the British Museum.

Lycaenopsis lavendularis limbata Moore.

Evans gives the habitat of this insect as S. India to Bengal, but.

I have never come across it in Calcutta. | :

I accept the revision of the names, etc., of certain species and

subspecies of this genus made by Brig. Evans recently and published

as a Miscellaneous Note in the Society’s journal, August 1953.

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

I was, however, doubtful about his sinking of lilacea Hampson from

S. India in puspa Frihstorfer, as I have specimens of typical puspa

gisca Frithstorfer which I took in the wet season in the Nilgiris,

and of lilacea, which I took during the monsoon at the foot of the

Gudalur Ghat, on the Mysore Road, in the same range of hills.

These latter agree with Evans’s key, in that the inner edges of the

spots on the underside of the forewing in interspaces 2 to 5 lie on

an even arc; their general appearance is also very different from

that of the puspa specimens. Evans has, however, recently assured

me that he only decided on this sinking after it was established by

examination of the genitalia that the two are conspecific. It seems.

likely, therefore, hee my, and probably others’, supposed specimens.

of lilacea are extreme wet season forms from low altitudes in areas

of heavy monsoon rainfall.

i entirely agree with his objection to the modern tendency to:

split up easily recognised natural groups into numbers of genera.

Talbot also, I observe, prefers retention of reasonably large genera

for homogeneous species, dividing them, where desirable, into species.

groups, therein following Evans.

Lycaenopsis musina musinoides Swinhoe.

I have one specimen taken in the Tista Valley, Sikkim, ght

can, I believe, only be this subspecies. The arrangement of the

spots on the underside tallies with Evans’s description and it has

the peculiar, elongated, triangular androconia, which have, however,

14 to 17, and not 13, ribs. :

Lycaenopsis argiolus sikkima Moore and jynteana De Niceville.

Evans’s Miscellaneous Note above quoted treats sikkima as a

synonym of argiolus jynteana, with which determination I agree.

Polyommatus loewii sanoga Evans.

I took a female in poor condition near Doyan, Astor, which

Evans identified for me as this subspecies. He only records it from

Chitral, but it should now be recorded as occurring in Gilgit also.

Polyommatus orbitulus

I took series of this species on the Rajdiangan Pass, north of

Tragbal, Kashmir, at nearly 12,000 ft., on the Burzil Pass, N. Kashmir

at about 13,500-14,500 ft., and also in the Bringi Valley and on

the Diniaspur Pass, from 11,000 to 14,000 ft., SE. Kashmir, in

1939. I took a number of these to the British: ‘Museum and Brig.

Evans kindly helped in their identification. The series from the

Himalayas in the British Museum are not well arranged and have

not been dealt with or rearranged for years. It seemed, however—

after careful comparison with the material available there—most

probable that the Rajdiangan and Burzil specimens were race jaloka

Moore, with which they appeared more or less to agree, although

they shewed some affinity with the Chitral race walli Evans, and

that the SE. Kashmir specimens were race ellist De Niceville, al-

though, in his ‘Identification’, Evans records this race from Pangi,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES $23

as they have, like that subspecies, white spots below. The Indian

races of this species therefore seem to require revision and a re-

grouping of their habitats.

Polyommatus icarus chitralensis Swinhoe.

This insect is recorded by Evans only from Chitral but I found

it common along my route to the Baroghil Pass, commencing at

Bunji, at about 4,000 ft., in the dry, hot, Indus Valley, and again

at Gilgit, at 5,000 ft. and, in suitable localities thence to the Shandur

Pass, at ca. 12,000 ft. and slightly over, and to the Baroghil

Pass, in Chitral, at about 12,000 ft. My specimens from the higher

localities appear to be generally larger, with more pointed forewings

and much paler below, the spots tending to obsolescence. Brig.

Evans, however, assured that my specimens from the Gilgit Wazarat

were undoubtedly icarus chitralensis. Gilgit must therefore be added

to the distribution of the subspecies.

Polyommatus poseidion florenciae Tytler.

This is listed by Evans as very rare, and he told me that very

little is known about the subspecies. It may therefore be of interest

to know that I took a few near Gazan in NE. Chitral, in the

second half of August, 1939, at about 11,000 ft. I also came across

one or two more in ravine country 3 or 4 miles short of the Baroghil

Pass, at about 11,000 ft., a week or so later. Unfortunately they

were all more or less worn, or I could have taken and kept a fair

number more. It would appear that they emerge towards the beginning

of August, in those localities.

Euchrysops contracta contracta Butler.

I found this insect common in Cawnpore, where it has broods in

the spring, the rainy season and the late autumn and early winter.

The U.P. should therefore be added to its recorded distribution, viz:

S. India to Sind; Baluchistan; N.W.F.P., and Punjab.

Euchrysops pandava pandava Horsfield.

In Bengal, at any rate, this insect occurs in 4 seasonal forms.

The wet season form is large and dark, with all the markings beneath

coarse and prominent. The autumn form is small and pale below

with the spots nearly of the ground colour. The winter form has a

broad dark discal band’ beneath, the females having the blue on the

upperside very extensive, in some cases only narrowly bordered ter-

minally with black. The spring form is very like the autumn form,

save that the spots on the underside are a little more conspicuous and,

darker than the ground colour generally.

Lycaenesthes emolus emolus Godart.

Evans records this insect only from S. India and Sikkim to:

Burma, but I found it fairly common in Calcutta and it probably

occurs thence northwards through Bengal to Sikkim.

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &2

Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina Felder.

The distribution given By Evans is Ceylon; S. India; Orissa. I

have taken it very rarely near Calcutta, but only—to the best of my

recollection—in the Botanical Gardens, Sibpur.

Orthomiella pontis pontis Elwes.

I have only come across this insect between Singhik and

Chungthang in the Vista Valley, Sikkim, at about 4,000-5,000 ft. It

seems to enjoy settling on wet, muddy patches on the ‘kutcha’ bridges

over mountain torrents, (Could this predilection have influenced the

choice of its specific name?) iand an rocks bordering the torrents,

where it gets sprinkled by the spray.

Nacaduba noreia noreia Felder.

I took one or two males in Maymyo, Upper Burma, and also

at mile 75 on the Tavoy-Ye Road; this is just south of the border

between the Tavoy and Moulmein DYsintietis Of S)) Burmas. >. burma

should therefore, be included in its habitat. In addition to the

‘clues given in iaaravae s key, the following points of difference may

help to distinguish the males of this subspecies from the males of

L. dubiosa indica Evans and_ sivoka Evans. Forewing longer

proportionally to the hindwing; termen straighter and apex more

pointed. Dark borders on the upperside of both wings broader and

more conspicuous. Underside more uniform grey-brown and the spot

in imterspace 2 of the hindwing smaller. A sturdier insect

‘generally. |

iLycaena kasyapa var. zariaspa Moore.

I have only taken this ‘variety’ at about 9,o00 ft. and upwards,

and the typical form from 6,o000-8,o00 ft. It seems possible,

accordingly, that zariaspa is really a high altitude subspecies of

kasyapa and not merely a variety or form of that insect. It would

be interesting to know whether the experience in that respect of

other recent collectors agrees with mine and whether the evidence

for the treatment of the two as valid subspecies is now sufficient.

Heliophorus brahma mogeka subsp. nov.

I have a couple of males of this insect from Kalaw, Southern Shan

States. The habitat should therefore be extended to include these

states.

Heliophorus androcles moorei Hewitson.

Presumably Evans, by the words ‘Sikkim, Chumbi.’ (note the

comma and fullstop), in his distribution of this subspecies, imtends to

imply that it is only found in the Chumbi Valley in Sikkim, (as far

as Sikkim is concerned), but, apart from the fact that that vailey

lies in SE. Tibet, the race occurs fairly commonly in the Tista

Valley in Sikkim, at about 4,000-5,000 ft. Sevastopoulo informed

me that he had walker it not uncommonly in the Darjeeling District.

Its habitat should therefore be amended accordingly.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES ON. INDIAN BUTIERFLIES | $25

Strymon mackwoodi Evans.

Evans records this species from Manipur and the N. Shan States

only, but I have a small series from Kalaw, in the S. Shan States,

where I was advised that it is not very scarce. Its habitat should

be extended accordingly.

Thecla vittata Tytler.

My collector sent me three males from near Chungthang in Sikkim,

at about 5,500 ft., which I could not match with duma duma

Hewitson, which appeared to be the only subspecies of the genus

like mine recorded from Sikkim. I therefore took my specimens

to the British Museum and shewed them to Brig. Evans. We found

that they seemed nearest to wittata Tytler. Brig, Evans extracted

the genitalia from one of my specimens and one of the Museum

specimens, and after careful microscopical examination, pronounced

them to be identical. It therefore follows that vittata must be recorded

from Sikkim also, as well as from Manipur and the Naga Hills.

The only superficial differences we could see between the two specimens

was the fact that in mine the basal line in interspace 7 did: not cross

the cell, as in Evans’s key, but, as he says there, the cell portion

may be obsolete.

Chaetoprocta odata Hewitson.

In my specimens from Kumaon, taken in the second half of

May, the several bands on the underside are filled in with yellowish-

brown and are equally prominent, whereas those taken by me in

N. Kashmir, (Astor, Gilgit, etc.,) in July have only the post-discal

band underside forewing so filled in and prominent. Also the purple

colour on the upperside is paler and more greyish in the Kumaon

specimens. These differences appear to be seasonal, a spring or

dry-season form in May and a wet-season form, (although the rain-

fall in. N. Kashmir is rather scanty,) or a second brood, in July.

Incidentally, I had never found this insect common until I came across.

a walnut tree at the southern approach to Doiyan, (Astor), at about

8,000 ft., literally defoliated by its larvae and the newly emerged

butterflies absolutely swarming all over the tree and the surrounding,

grass! [vide Vol. 47 (4) p. 571].

lraota timoleon timoleon Stoll.

Although the females are normally purple with broad _ borders,

on both fore and hind wings, on the upperside, I have a female

taken in Calcutta, where this insect occurs rarely, especially in the

neighbourhood of Banyan trees, with the purple on the forewing

very much restricted and the hindwing plain brownish-black.

Amblypodia ? agesilaus Staudinger.

I took a butterfly below the Sukli rest-house, in the Dawna Hills,

S. Burma, in November 1938, which seems to belong to the Epimuta

group, as it has the discal spots in 5, 6 and 7, on the underside

of the hindwing with their centres in line and more or less rounded,

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

and has no well-defined basal dark area below the cell on the under-

side of the forewing. I shewed this specimen to Brig. Evans at

the British Museum, but, although we searched all through the

Amblypodias in the collection there and his book of illustrations of

all the known Amblypodias, we could find nothing like it. Brig.

Evans considered it to be an entirely new species, but opined that,

after Corbet’s death, there was none at the British Museum competent

to determine what the insect actually is. I append a description :—

‘Tailless. Upperside: a rather soft heliotrope blue, with a slight

sheen in a side light. Forewing, black border 1 mm. at tornus

expanding to 2 mm. at vein 1 and increasing regularly to 3 mm.

at the apex, continuing along the costa for about half the length

of the wing. Hindwing, border about 1 mm., with a fine anteci-

liary pale blue line from the tornus to vein 3.

Underside: Purple brown, with large, separated, white-circled

spots, the brown colour paler on the lower part of the forewing.

Forewing discal band of round separate spots completely broken

at vein 4, the inner edge of the spot in 4 joining the outer edge of

the spot in 3, the band not continued below vein 1. Hindwing,

the shape of the inner discal spots very irregular, the spots in 5, 6

and 7 in echelon, as usual, the inner edge of the spot in 5 meeting

the outer edge of the spot in 4, the spots rounded and separated,

not continued below vein 1. A double wavy line, becoming angled

inwardly towards its upper end, distal to the discal band, bordered

exteriorly in 1 b and 1 by light blue scales.’

Amblypodia adatha regia Evans.

Recorded by Evans from Mergui only but I took a pair in Tavoy.

Its range may therefore extend from Tavoy to S. Burma.

Ambly podia centaurus pirithous Moore.

Recorded by Evans from Kumaon to Assam, with occurrence

‘not rare’. I took what I first thought to be a dull and worn

specimen of A. amantes amantes Hewitson, which proved on exa-

mination to be A. centaurus pirithous Moore, surely an unusual

habitat for an insect which is normally confined to the foot-hills of

the Himalayas and Assam. This was the only specimen of this insect

which I found near Calcutta, but at times it is common in the plains

of N. Bengal adjoining the Himalayas,—for instance along the road

from Siliguri to the Tista Valley, in the outer parts of which it

sometimes swarms in such numbers as to be a positive nuisance.

I have also taken it on Senchal near Darjeeling at about 8,o00 ft.,

rather to my disappointment, as when I saw a few large Amblypodias

flying around a tree there, at that altitude, I expected them to be

something new to me and rare!

Amblypodia adriana De Niceville.

Evans gives its habitat as Sikkim to Shan States, but I took a

rather worn male on a stream bed about 5 miles from Kathgodam along

the Naini Tal road, in Kumaon, in March 1932. Its range should

therefore be extended to include Kumaon.,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN. BUTTERFLIES 827

Amblypodia areste arestina Evans.

To the habitat of this insect given by Evans, viz., N. and S.

Shan States, must be added Karen Hills, as I took a female in

Thandaung in those hills, at about 4,000 ft., in May 19309.

Surendra amisena Hewitson.

Its distribution is given by Evans as Tavoy to S. Burma, but

I took it in the Dawna Range, almost due east of Moulmein, in

April 1939. S. Burma, would therefore be a better description of

its distribution.

Spindasis lohita lazularia Moore.

This butterfly occurs very rarely in Calcutta, so that its distribution

should be amended from ‘Ceylon: S. India,’ as shewn by Evans,

to ‘Ceylon: S. India and lower Bengal.’ Incidentally, I observe that

Evans, in his introduction to the 2nd edition of his ‘Identification’,

on page 22, states that India may be regarded as falling into certain

divisions, one of which is S. India. This, he says, embraces the

entire Madras and Bombay Presidencies and extends throughout the

plains of. India. I seem to remember, also, that in the first edition,

he said that Bengal seemed in some respects to belong to the S.

Indian region. With the latter remark I agree generally, especially

as far as lower Bengal is concerned but it is difficult for the ordinary

man to envisage the United Provinces and the Punjab, for instance,

as part of S. India, whatever their geological formation. I therefore

prefer to regard S. India, from the point of view of the distribution

of butterflies, as roughly the equivalent of Peninsular India, or as

running approximately from a line from Cutch to the northern tip

of Orissa, southwards. As regards jower Bengal, it will be observed

from the foregoing that a fair number of the local butterflies belong

to the S. Indian races, but there are, also, a few, which seem to

have crept down from the Himalayan foot-hills, belonging to the

NE. Indian subspecies.

Zesius chrysomallus Hibner. |

Habitat shewn by Evans as Ceylon; S. India to Orissa. It occurs

also rarely in and near Calcutta, where I have taken a few, all but

one being females, mostly in the Botanical Gardens, Sibpur. My

collecting visits to these gardens, were almost entirely confined to

Sunday and holiday mornings, but the male was captured one after-

noon. Does it fly only in the afternoons?

Pratapa blanka argentea Aurivillius.

Evans gives its habitat as Sikkim to Dawnas. I took one male

on Tavoy Hill in February 1939; its range is therefore probably

Sikkim to Tavoy.

Pratapa deva deva Moore.

Evans gives the distribution of this insect as Ceylon, S. India to

C.P. To this must be added Calcutta, as I have taken it very rarely

there, but only in December and January.

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Pratapa deva lila Moore.

This subspecies I took in Tavoy; its habitat should therefore be

revised from ‘Mussoorie to Dawnas’ to ‘Mussoorie to Tavoy’.

Pratapa cleobis Godart.

This species also occurs in Calcutta, where I have found it very

rare in the cold weather. Evans gives the distribution as S. India.

Dun to Dawnas, which presumably does not include lower Bengal.

Charana jalindra indra Moore.

I have taken this:insect very rarely in Calcutta, whence Evans

does not record its occurrence. According to him, it is found only

in Orissa and Sikkim to the Dawnas.

Charana cepheis De Niceville.

I took one male and one female, at Umran, on the Gauhati-

Shillong Road, in March 1933, at about 2,000 ft., which are apparently

this species. They are, of course, dry season forms, but they differ

considerably, especially on the undersides, from Evans’s description,

(which may be based on wet season forms). The ground colour on

the underside in the male is pale yellow and in the female greyish.

The discal band is ferruginous-brown, very much narrower and more

macular than in mandarinus Hewitson, and beyorid that the marginal

area is paler, with a subterminal similar very narrow band, (scarcely

visible in the male) and some faint marginal markings. On the

upperside, the female has the discal area slightly paler with a bluish

tinge outwardly, on the forewing, and the tornal ‘white’ area on the

hindwing is dull blue, (as in the male, but paler). |

Horaga amethystus H. H. Druce.

In Pataw Island, opposite Mergui, in early 193g, 1 took a pair

of Horagas, which I could not match with any of those listed by

Evans. I therefore took the specimens to him tor identification and,

by searching through the genus in the collection at the British

Museum, we discovered that they were undoubtedly amethystus and

in all probability race purpurascens Corbet, hitherto only recorded

very rarely from Malaya. In the British Museum were only one

male, the type, and three females, one of which is the paratype. I

append a description: .

Male. Sex mark similar to that of onyx Moore and moulmeina

Moore, but inconspicuous. Upperside deep violet purple with narrow,

even, black borders on both wings, the usual white patch on the

forewing minute. Female. Upperside similar, the black border

and increasing to the apex of the forewing and reaching inwardly

the white patch which is larger than in the male. Underside, male

and female, uniform dull ochreous, with the usual white fasciae,

which are very narrow on both wings and the usual irroration and

metallic green markings tornally on the hindwing, where these

markings inwardly border the white fascia. CRs

This subspecies should therefore be included in the butterflies of

our region, as occurring at.Mergui in S. Burma, very rarely.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ON INDIAN BUTTERFLIES 829:

Chliaria othona Hewitson.

Distribution as given by Evans ‘S. India, Dun to Burma’. It

occurs however, rarely near Calcutta, where I have found a few,

chiefly in the Botanical Gardens at Sibpur, on and around the

Kleinhovia hospita trees. I suspect that this tree may supply the

food-plant of the species, and oiten examined the leaves, flowers

and fruit of the tree. but never succeeded in finding any larvae which

might have been othona caterpillars.

Deudorix epijarbas epijarbas Moore. .

} Evans records its habitat as Ceylon; S. India to Orissa. J have

found it very rare in Calcutta and can see very little difference

between the Calcutta specimens and specimens from Kumaon_ and

Simla District, but, as the subspecies epijarbas is recorded from

as near as Orissa, I consider it probable that the Calcutta forms

are race epijarbas. More material is probably required to determine

this point, however.

Rapala abnormis Elwes.

Evans gives its distribution as Karens to S. Burma, rare, and

says that the female is unknown; there was no female of this species.

in the collection at the British Museum, in August 1950, when I

asked Brig. Evans whether his statement still held. I received a

female, however, in a parcel of butterflies collected by Mr. W. S.

Wood, of the Widnes tin mine, about 4o miles nearly due east of

Tavoy, S. Burma, in November 1939. I append a description:

Female. Closely resembles the male, but the upperside is not,

as in the male, shot with brilliant purplish-blue. Underside similar

to that of the male. The wings are rather broader, especially the

forewing, and less acuminate. Upperside dull purplish-blue, semi-

transparent, with a steely-blue suffusion proximally in certain lights.

Rapaia varuna lazulina Moore.

Recorded only from Ceylon and S. India. I have, however,

taken it very rarely in Calcutta; possibly it is not actually so scarce,

but is inclined to be overlooked, owing to its similarity, especially on

the wing, to schistacea Moore, with which it flies. The females of the

two species are extremely difficult to distinguish with certainty.

One or two of the few specimens of varuna I took in Calcutta seem

to approximate to subspecies orseis Hewitson, recorded from Sikkim

to Burma. But, on the whole, I consider the Calcutta race is

lazulina.

Rapala pheretimus petosiris Hewitson.

Habitat Sikkim to Burma, according to Evans, but I have taken

it fairly commonly in the Botanical Gardens at Sibpur, near Calcutta,

where it flies in April. I did not find a wet-season form there.

Rapala dieneces dieneces Hewitson.

On the other hand, I have not come across this insect in Calcutta,

although Evans records it from Bengal.

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Rapala melampus Cramer.

Evans gives the distribution as Ceylon; S. India to Orissa;

Murree to Kumaon. But it would probably be nearer the actuality

to shew it as ‘Ceylon; India to Murree and Kumaon,’ as I have

taken it very rarely in Calcutta and. less uncommonly in Amritsar

and Cawnpore.

BRAMBLE LEA, MARESFIELD PARK, SUSSEX,

September 9, 1954.

REFERENCES

1. The Fauna of British India. Butterflies. 1st edition. By Lt.-Col. C. T.

Bingham.

2. The Fauna of British India. Butterflies. 2nd edition. By G. Talbot, F.R.E.s.

3. The Identification of Indian Butterflies, 2nd edition. By Brig. W. H. Evans,

CoSislibg Colby IbSoObs SWEs

COMPARATIVE OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLACENTA AND

POETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS AND MAMMALS

P. N. SARANGDHAR, M.Sc., Ph.D;

(With two plates)

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 831

2. TABLE SHOWING THE NATURE OF PLACENTAE IN BOMBAy ELASMOBRANCHS ... 832

3. A COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF THE SELACHIAN AND MAMMALIAN PLACENTAE ... 9832

4. EMBRYONIC ALIMENTATION IN ELASMOBRANCHS sae ase a) Ge

5. SUMMARY S na be sa 58 soo te)

6. REFERENCES | Aas as is koe ts ... 840

INTRODUCTION

Accounts of the anatomy and histology of the placenta in

¢elasmobranchs are scarcely comprehensive and certainly too seattered to

permit of a clear and comprehensive picture of the complex nutritional

processes that characterise the foetal life of this group of fishes.

The present paper is a generalised discussion of the phenomenon of

placentation in elasmobranchs, based principally on the author’s study

of over a dozen placental forms in Bombay, the detailed observations

on which have been presented before in a series of papers published

elsewhere (vide References).

The subject matter has been presented in the form of a com-

parison with the mammalian placentae, the concept of comparison

being the most natural one while dealing with an organ performing

the same essential function in’ two classes of vertebrates so widely

separated in the ladder of evolution. In the light of this comparison

an attempt is made to interpret the mechanism of action of the

yolk-sac and the yolk-sac placenta, the early or late formation of

which among elasmobranchs seems to be influenced by the initial

quantity of yolk in the mature ovum.

Finally, a discussion on the influence of the appendicula on

embryonic alimentation and their possible relationship to the mature

ovum and the placenta has also been added, since these structures

play no less important a role in the foetal nutrition in some of the

species of this group. |

5 BB

TABLE SHOWING THE NATURE OF PLACENTAE AND APPENDICULA IN

SOME OF THE ELASMOBRANCHS OF THE BOMBAY WATERS

Nature of a placenta

Name of species | - as : Nature of

appendicula

Morphological Histological |

Bor

1. Scoliodon sorrakowah Simple, contact| Haemo- Very long, pro-

type. epithelio- minent strap-shap-

chorial, ed structures.

2. Scoliodon palasorrah Firm, interdigi-| Epithelio- Delicate, thread-

tating type with | chorial. like and much

folding over the branched.

entire face-Entire.

3. Scoliodon walbeehmit... oy Ss A

4. Scoliodon acutus en Pa - Short, irregular

outpushings of the

placental cord

ie sheath.

5. Aprionodon acutidens SFI mse ' No appendicula.

6, Hypoprion maclott .. a 5 | ¥ i

7. Carcharinus limbatus we | is

8. C. melanopterus ..( Firm, inter-digi- i} is

my tating type with

folding only basal-

nn ) ly—Discoid.

9. C. sorrah ee ” 9 | ”

10. C. temminckit 306 es ” ”

ll. C. menisorrah 506 Entire ” ”

12, Hemigaleus batfourt... a Sp | Rather short,.

. ! delicate and much-

i, branched threads.

13. Hemipristis elongatus Bs es Broad, vascular

ar, ; frills of the pla-

sa cental cord sheath.

14, Sphyrna blochi 550 5 | a Gelatinous, lobu-

MG lated structures

na sometimes bi-!obed

pea! and tri-lobed.

15. S. zygaena 503 on ” Flattened, obo-

vate leaf-like flaps

of the placental

cord sheath.

WW COMPARATIVE ACCOUNT OF SELACHIAN AND MAMMALIAN PLACENTAE

1. The placenta in elasmobranchs is a simple yolk-sac placenta as

distinguished from the yolk-sac placenta found in some of the primitive

mammals such as Opposum and Dasyurus, in which this organ is,

in part at least, composed of the foetal membranes—amnion and

chorion, characteristic of the amniota. The selachian yoll-sac

placenta is thus, anatomically not comparable either to the allanto-

chorionic or to the truly chorionic placenta of the higher mammals. |

2, In all the placental elasmobranchs examined by me, with the

solitary exception of Scoliodon sorrakowah (vide Table), the wall of

the yolk-sac becomes excessively folded with the gradual consumption

PLATE I

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(a) entire placenta (Hypoprion macloti) ;

oid placenta (Carcharinus temminckkt).

Foetal placentae in Bombay elasmobranchs.

(6) entire placenta (Sphyrna blochii); (c) disc

Pratt If

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

S. palasorrah ; (c) S. walbeehm ; (d) S. acutus

; (h) S. sygaena.

(g) Sphyrna blochit;

longatus ;

(a) Scoliodon sorrakowah ; (b)

(ce) Hemigaleus balfouri ; (f{) Hemiprisiis e

Bombay elasmobranchs.

Appendicula in

PLACENTA @ FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS, ETC. 8333

of the yolk and the folds are highly vascularised by the placental

vessels. The wrinkled and frayed yolk-sac folds fit firmly on’ the

furrows between the vascular villi of the maternal trophonema, which

constitutes the maternal portion of the placenta. Both the foetal

and the maternal parts are held together by a firm inter-digitating

arrangement which represents the fourth and final stage of contact

in Ercolani’s (as quoted from Negelaeum, 1931) Classification of the

selachian placentae. |

A similar inter- -digitating contact between the foetal and maternal

tissues also exists in placenta:of Ungulates.

3. I'wo morphological varieties of the selachian foetal placenta

described above may be said to exist among the various elasmobranchs.

examined by me. They are: (i) the discoid placenta (Text-fig. 1, c)

and (ii) the entire placenta (Text-fig. 1, a & b). This nomenclature

is adopted purely on the basis of the extent of folding undergone by

the wall of the original yolk-sac. The folding in the ‘discoid’

placenta is confined only to the basal region of the yolk-sac where

it forms a thick and spongy mass, roofed over by a free, unwrinkled

proximal portion of the yolk-sac vail while the process of wrinkling

in the ‘entire’ placenta extends all over the yolk-sac wall with very

little or no free portion at all.

In mammals, the extent of the chorionic villi on the placenta

forms the basis of placental classification, there being such morpho--

logical varieties as diffuse, cotyledonary, zonary and discoid.

4. In the inter-digitating type of the selachian placenta described.

above, the foetal and the maternal tissues, at birth, are merely with-

drawn from each other like fingers from a glove. There is no

shedding of the maternal tissue. These may, therefore, be described

as corresponding to the adeciduate placentae of the Ungulata.

5. The secretion of a nutritive lymphoid exudate from the uterine

mucous membrane in primitive mammals and of the ‘uterine milk’ in

ruminants and their absorption by the foetal tissue are, in a way,,

comparable to the nutritive uterine secretions in elasmobranchs in

general and their absorption by such embryonic structures as yolk-

‘sacs, branchial filaments, appendicula and ithe embryonic body

generally. These latter secretions have been designated by Needham

(1942) as ‘histotrophe’. As in mammals, histotrophe has _ been

observed by me in our elasmobranchs to be more copious when a

‘placenta is either absent, as in some of the viviparous Batoids such

as Dasyatis, Pteropiatea, Aetobatus, Mobula, etc, (aplacental vivi-

parity) or is present but is pocr in functional efficiency as in

S. sorrakowah,

It would be relevant to refer at this stage to Ranzi’s (as quoted

by Needham, 1942) work on foetal nutrition in some of the European

elasmobranchs. He made quantitative determinations of the embryo-

nic development in oviparous (Scyllium canicula), ovo-viviparous!

(Trygon, Myliobatis, Acanthias, Centrophorus etc.) and viviparous

-forms:+and his work tends to show that the histotrophic form of

+ Ranzi has used the term (ovo-viviparous) to denote non-placental viviparous

elasmobranchs, and the term (viviparous) to denote placental forms. .

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

alimentation is even more efficient than the placental form as evidenced

in Mustelus laevis, the type specimen of selachian placental viviparity

{epithelio-chorial placenta). Ranzi has, however, pointed out that

the absorption of yolk and the speed of embryonic development are

greater in the placental M. laevis than in the non-placental, ovo-

viviparous forms M. vulgaris and M. antarcticus.

6. The histology of the placenta in Scoliodon palasorrah which

may be regarded as the type of the discoid and entire placentae re-

ferred to above, has been admirably described by Mahadevan (1940).

According to her a number of tissue layers intervene between the

foetal and the maternal blood streams. ‘These are, from the maternal

to the foetal side, (i) endothelium of the maternal blood capillaries

in the villi of the trophonema, (ii) the uterine mesoblast, (iii) uterine

epithelium covering the villi, (iv) yolk-sac ectoderm, (v) yolk-sac

mesoderm and (vi) endothelium of the yolk-sac blood-capillaries.t | In

the most advanced stages of the placenta, the various layers show a

tendency to attenuation, so as to bring about a closer apposition of

the maternal and foetal blood-streams.- On a histological basis of

tissue relationship, the above type of placenta in mammals is described

by Otto Grosser (as quoted by Needham, 1931) as of the epithelio-

chorial variety in which six tissue layers similar to those mentioned

above intervene between the foetal and maternal bloods. The barriers

between the two bloods in this variety of placenta are more numerous

than in the other histological varieties such as the syndesmochorial,

endothelio-chorial and haemo-chorial described by Grosser and con-

sequently, the efficiency in the exchange of materials is correspond-

ingly lower than those of the others. In the evolution of mammalian

placentae, the epithelio-chorial variety is regarded as the most

primitive and the haemo-chorial, the most highly evolved.

7. Unlike the mammalian placentae, a selachian placenta | except

that of S. sorrakowah, vide {8) below], is usually formed at a fairly

advanced stage of embryonic development when the various foetal

crgans and systems have already been formed and have presumably

taken up their respective functions also. The intimate contact between

the highly vascularised foetal and maternal tissues in this placenta

leads one to the view that active diffusion is set up between the

foetal and maternal circulation, that a vigorous transference of nutrit-

ive materials takes place from the maternal to the foetal blood, and

vice-versa, a flow of excretory products in the opposite direction.

(vide infra).

8. The placenta in Scoliodon sorrakowah is unique among the

elasmobranchs thus far studied by me. The initial quantity of yolk.

in the mature ovum of this species being very small, the maternal

organism is called upon to exert to the utmost, and very early too,

in the nurture of the embryo. The maternal portion of the placenta

takes the form of a very prominent, elongated process of the uterine

mucosa—the trophonema, a highly glandular organ (Setna &

* According to my anatomical findings, there exists between’ (iii) and (iv) above,

the thin and hyaline, non-cellular layer of the shell-membrane which intervenes

between the foetal and maternal tissues of all the entire and discoid placentae

examined by me with the solitary exception of that of Hemigaleus balfouri.

PLACENTA & FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS, ETC. 835

Sarangdhar, Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. 46, 1949). Vhe actual contact

between the foetal yolk-sac and the maternal trophonema is, how-

ever, one of mere apposition (only the second stage in Ercolani’s

classification of selachian placentae) and not of an intimate inter-

digitation as in the other placenta elasmobranchs. Histologically,

too, this placenta is unique in that free maternal blood is extravasated

Within the trophonema to supply nourishment, in part at least, to

the growing embryo. In order to describe this tissue relationship

between the mother and the foetus, we have had to create a new

histological category, viz.—the ‘haemo-epithelio-chorial’ variety, a

nomenclature in which the syllable ‘haemo’ stands for free maternal

blood ‘epithelio’? for the ‘maternal trophoblast’ and the syllable

‘chorial’ for the foetal tissue, though however, it may be repeated

that the latter tissue in fishes is not a true chorion. Curiously

enough, this placenta displays close structural convergence towards

that most highly evolved placenta in higher mammals, including

man—the haemo-chorial variety in which, too, free maternal blood

(‘haemo’) is extravasated for the direct nurture of the foetal tissue

—the chorionic trophoblast. The significant difference between the

two above-mentioned types of placentae is, however, at once

apparent by the fact that while the maternal blood in mammals

bathes a foetal trophoblast, that in S. sorrakowah bathes a maternal

one—a difference which appears to be only in keeping with the view

that the foetal tissue in such primitive vertebrates as fishes is not

endowed with the higher physiological faculties of a true avian or

mammalian trophoblast—faculties such as phagocytosis, selective

absorption, elaboration and synthesis etc. which the ceaseless forces

of evolution have so conspicuously bestowed upon the succeeding

ascending classes of vertebrates, thus rendering their foetal. tissue

more and more independent of the maternal intervention.

Being structurally comparable to the most highly evolved haemo-

chorial placenta of mammals and man, one may perhaps be led to

Suppose that functionally too, the placenta in S. sorrakowah is more

highly evolved than the other variety among the elasmobranchs.

The predominantly histotrophic condition of this placenta does not,

however, warrant such a supposition, for, as already pointed by us

(loc. cit.) the placenta in S. sorrakowah is functionally more a gland

than a haemotrophic organ. Judging thus, {and this would be the

only basis of consideration in ‘placental nutrition) one must say that

the placenta in S. sorrakowah is low in evolution (functional

efficiency) in spite of the fact that it displays a surprising structural

convergence towards the most highly evolved placenta among that

highest class of vertebrata—the mammals.

EmBrYONIC ALIMENTATION IN ELASMOBRANCHS

Yolk is the complex food material prepared and stored in the

ovum. by the maternal organism for the use of the developing

embryo. It consists of the highly specialised and elaborated organic

and inorganic substances necessary for the building up of the

embryonic tissues and organs, so that the embryonic cells are, in the

initial stages at least, spared the task of elaboration and synthesis.

In the ovum, yolk is tightly packed in the form of more or less solid

836° -* JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST. SOCIBRY, Voly 52

granules or plates, but after the fertilization stimulus ard the com-

mencement of embryonic development, it is emulsified and liquified

so as to become more mobile for distribution. The task of

‘rendering the yolk-plates fit for absorption by blood’ is, according

to Beard (1896), performed, upto the critical stage’, by the yolk-

merocytes, so that the, yolk may readily diffuse through the walls

of the yolk-sac and the blood capillaries interspersed in its mesoblastic

tissue. These merocytes are, according to the author, concentrated

in the region of the yolk-sac blood-capillaries and their action on

the yolk is to ‘emulsify or prepare it for digestion and absorption’.

This statement of Beard’s needs, in my opinion, further elucidation

so as to accord with the known bio-chemical principles of digestion

and absorption. .

Emulsification is a process by which a change is brought about

only in the physical state of the yolk-granules and according to the

modern concepts of the phenomenon of diffusion only crystalloids and

gases are diffusible but not the colloids. Hence, even after the

emulsification of a partial quantity of yolk in the sac (especially

in the region of the yolk-sac blood capillaries where yolk merocytes

abound), it is necessary that the complex colloidal granules be re-

duced chemically to the simpler crystalloid condition ‘before their

diffusion through the yolk-sac wall and those of its blood capillaries

actually becomes possible. This change is effected, in all probability,

by the yolk-sac blastoderm (‘periblast’ of teleostean fishes, R.

Assheton, 1907) which, in fishes, is known to behave like a tropho-

blast to the extent that it brings about an extraembryonic digestion

of the yolk in question. It is, however, reasonable to suppose that

only a fractional quantity of the yolk is treated thus and conveyed

to the embryonic circulation by diffusion—up to the critical stage

of Beard, and that the major quantity of it is conveyed to the embryo,

possibly unaltered and more directly along the yolk-duct into its

intestine which, presumably along with the other organs of alimenta-

tion, has started functioning by that time of the embryonic

development. |

Balfour (1885) writes that both these modes of food absorption,

viz., absorption of the nutritive yolk through foetal blood capillaries

and the direct transference of yolk to the embryonic intestine continue

simultaneously, whereas Beard (1896) suggests that the former alone

exists upto the ‘critical stage’ and then the latter commences.

Beard’s suggestion that diffusion through yolk-sac blood-capillaries

loses its importance at the ‘critical stage’ appears reasonable for,

when once a direct communication is established between the yolk-

sac and the embryonic intestine, the volume of yollx transference is

bound to be greater along that direct route than by its indirect

transference by the diffusion process. Nevertheless, it may be

stated that the latter form of food transference does not dwindle

but must actually increase in volume than ‘before, for, an examina-

tion of the embryos in progressive development stages reveals that

the yolk-sac blood capillaries actually increase in size and number

3 Critical stage is, according to Beard, that stage of embryonic development

when the sex of the embryo is defined internally and externally.

PEACHENTA & FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCHS, ETC. 837

with the growth of the embryo, thus affording a greater surface for

contact’ and diffusion.

The stages described above must occur: not only in oviparous,

OvO-viviparous and aplacental viviparous elasmobranchs but also in

placental forms upto the stage at which the placenta is formed. In

the latter group, the nutritional process after the formation of the

placenta (epithelio-chorial) may be described on the following

physiological basis. Simplified nutritive elements in the form: of

diffusible crystalloids and dissolved gases circulate in the (maternal)

blood of the trophonematous villi (just as they do in the maternal

blood in mammals) and diffuse through the various placental barriers

into the foetal blood, whence they are carried away by the foetal

circulation and distributed to the various organs and_ systems

according: to their respective needs. On the ground of their advanced

anatomical development, it may be held that these organs carry out

their own elaboration and synthesis from the requisite simplified

elements derived originally from the maternal blood, thus participat-

ing actively in the foetal metabolism. Such an explanation of the

functional activity of the placenta in this group is only in keeping

with the view that a ‘true trophoblast’ is never developed in fishes

as a class and with the observation that it is only formed at a fairly

advanced stage of embryonic development which must yet proceed

to bring the foetus to term.

Finally, no discussion of the selachian placenta can be regarded

as complete without a mention of the ‘appendicula’—structures

appended to the umbilical cords (later, the placental cords) of

placental elasmobranchs. Alcock (1890), to whom we owe their

appropriate designation, was the first to describe them on the

placental cords of the embryos of Zygaena blochi and he considered

their probable function to be the absorption of the nutritive secretions

of the gravid utrine mucous membrane. Southwell and Prashad

(1919) have described four different kinds of appendicula in the

elasmobranchs examined by them and they, too, are inclined to

attribute to appendicula the same absorptive function as suggested

by Alcock. :

Being derived from the sheath of the umbilical cord appendicula

ultimately bear relationship to the yolk-sac placenta. It is a curious

phenomenon that they are not found to develop on the yolk-stalks

or umbilical cords of aplacental elasmobranchs. The large quantities

of yolk contained in the ova of such aplacental selachoids as

Galeocerdo tigrinus and Carcharinus dussumieri (Mahadevan, 1940),

supplemented by the nutritive albuminous secretions of the nidamental

glands, suffice, in all probability, to meet the nutritive needs of their

embryos throughout their intrauterine life. Hence, the need for the

uterine secretions and their absorption by such extraneous structures

as appendicula must not arise in them at all. More or less parallel

conditions may be said to prevail among the Batoids, which, too,

are non-placental. They, too, possess large ova and the yolky food

is supplemented in them by the milky nutritive uterine secretions

which are poured directly into the pharynx of the developing embryos

by the trophonematous viili developed all over the mucous membrane.

of the gravid uterus. The various foetal and maternal structures in

8358 JOURNAL? BOMBAY NARO RAE HLS. SOCHED Ye NViolao2

these elasmobranchs, developed, though temporarily during the

emergency, are evidently sufficient in themselves to cope with all

this nutritive material and the necessity of appendicula does not

arise in them at all. |

In the placental elasmobranchs the initial quantity of yolk in the

mature ovum and the functional efficiency of the placenta developed

appear to be two important factors influencing the production of

additional nutritive uterine secretions and consequently, the develop-

ment or otherwise of the appendicula on the umbilical cords of their

embryos. Southwell and Prashad floc. cit.) have attempted to

describe four different grades of appendicular development in the few

elasmobranchs examined by them and four corresponding grades of

placental evolution in the inverse ratio. On the basis of their

observations they conclude: ‘In the species with the best developed

appendicula, the placenta is of the most primitive and least evolved

type and vice versa’, thus postulating a regular inverse relationship

between appendicular development and _ placental evolution among

elasmobranchs. Evidently they did not take into account that there

could be factors other than placental efficiency which could influence

the development of appendicula on tine cords of the embryos. I

cannot, however, help remarking here that this attempt of the authors

at thus grading and correlating appendicular development and placental

efficiency is purely an empirical one, in view of the facts that not

only is the very anatomy of the placentae erroneously described by

them, but also that they have not furnished any reasonably accept-

able basis for assaying the differential development of the appendicula

or the corresponding grades of placental efficiency. Thus, for

example, they describe the placentae of S. sorrakowah and S.

palasorrah as being anatomically similar—of the simple contact type,

whereas, in point of fact, the placenta of S. palasorrah is of the

firm inter-digitating type (vide Table). They also describe the placenta

of S. walbeehmi as being of an altogether different type, whereas

factually this placenta, as well as that of S. palasorrah, is of the

same inter-digitating type, representing the epithelio-chorial variety

histologically. Further, according to the authors, the appendicula

in S. walbeehmi and a Scoliodon sp. from Ceylon belong to two

altogether different grades of anatomical development and yet their

placentae are described as belonging to the same grade of evolution—

the arborescent type-——the type which corresponds to none other

than the inter-digitating type of placentae described by me in almost

all the placental forms with the exception of S. sorrakowah.

Whither then the authors’ postulation of a regular inverse

relationship between the appendicula and the placentae? While the

above-quoted statement of Southwell and Prashad may be said to

hold good only in the solitary and extreme case of S. sorrakowah,

and that, too, only with a certain reserve’ the converse of the state-

1 Tt must be borne in mind that in S. sorrakowah the excessive appendicular

srowth cannot be solely correlated to the very poorly developed placenta, it being

equally true that even the initial quantity of the yolk in the mature ovum. in this

species is a negligible quantity—a factor which must, in part at least, influence

the appendicular growth in this form. (vide Setna and Sarangdhar—Rec. Ind.

Mus.—xuvi, Pts. 1-4-1949.)

PLACENTA G&G FOETAL NUTRITION IN ELASMOBRANCGHS, ETC. 839

ment does not seem to hold good, for I cannot trace any regular,

inversely-proportioned relationship between the appendicular develop-

ment and the placental evolution in the appendiculated forms studied

by me, viz., the four species of Scoliodon, H. balfouri, H. elongatus

and the two species of Sphyrna.

A scrutiny of the table as also the diagrams will at once reveal

that in all these forms the placenta is of the same anatomical variety,

viz., the inter-digitating, epithelio-chorial variety (and hence presumably

of the same grade of functional evolution) while their appendicula

present a variety of morphological features with varying grades of

anatomical development, the determination of the exact comparative

extents of which must border, indeed, on the realm of mere specula-

tion. Any attempt, therefore, to correlate the latter with placental

evolution in the inverse ratio as postulated by Southwell and Prashad,

at once falis through, especially when one takes into consideration

all the different aspects of embryonic nutrition among elasmobranchs.

Regarding these ‘anatomically equal’ placentae as equal in functional

efficiency as well (and there seems to be no criterion to regard them

otherwise), one may only attribute any differences in the development

of the appendicula to the corresponding differences—in the inverse

ratio—in the initial quantities of the yolk contents of their mature

ova which, it must be assumed, are not sufficient to bring about in

conjunction with the placental nutrition, the complete intra-uterine

development of the foetuses, and hence make necessary the secretion

of the uterine juices in corresponding supplementary amounts.

SUMMARY

I. The placentae in 14 out of the 15 elasmobranchs examined

by the author are of the inter-digitating type, in which the folds of

the original yolk-sac wall fit into the crypts between the villi of the

uterine trophonemata. They are also adeciduate in character and in

this respect resemble those of the ungulate mammals. Histologi-

cally, they resemble the epithelio-chorial variety of placentae in

mammals.

If. Two morphological varieties of the above-mentioned

placentae are described, viz., ‘entire’ and ‘discoid’.

Ill. The placenta in Scoliodon sorrakowah is of the ‘haemo-

epithelio-chorial’ variety histologically, imitating the haemo-chorial

placentae of higher mammals, including man. The author postulates.

the presence of a ‘maternal trophoblast’ in S. sorrakowah.

IV. In most of the non-placental elasmobranchs, as well as.

some placental forms, the yolky nutriment in the ovum is supple-

mented by the uterine ‘histotrophe’. In the latter group, the

secretion of the histotrophe appears to vary inversely with the initial

quantity of the yolk in the mature ovum as well as the efficiency of

the placenta developed.

The development of appendicula -seems to vary directly with the

secretion of the histotrophe.

84.0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SSOCIBIY, Wolk 52:

REFERENCES

Assheton, R. (1907): ‘Certain features, characteristic of teleostean development.’

Guy’s Hospital Reports LXI.

Balfour, F. M. (1885): A Treatise on Comparative Embryology. II, 2nd Edn.,

Macmillan and Co.

Beard, J. (1896) ; ‘The yollx-sac, yolk and merocytes in Scylliwm and Lepidosteus.

Anat. Anz. Bd. 12.

Mahadevan, G. (1940): ‘Preliminary Observations on the Structure of the uterus

and the placenta of a few Indian elasmobranchs’. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., xi

KB); (Nose:

Needham, J. (1931): ‘Chemical Embryology, III’. Cambridge University Press,

‘Cambridge.

Idem, (1942): ‘Biochemistry and Morphogenesis’. Cambridge University Press,

‘Cambridge.

Sarangdhar, P. N. (1943): ‘Tiger-shark—Galeocerdo tigrinus M. & H.—Feeding

and Breeding Habits’. JBNHS, 44: (1).

Idem, (1946) : ‘On the breeding of the Tiger-shark Galeocerdo tigrinus M. & H.’

ibid, April 1946.

Setna, S. B. & Sarangdhar, P. N. (1948): ‘Observations on the development of

Chiloscyllium griseum M. & H., Pristis cuspidatres Lath. and Rhynchobares

diiddensis (Forsk), Rec. Ind. Mus., xlvi, Pts. 1-4.

Idem, (1949) : ‘Description, Bionomics and Development of Scoliodon sorrakowah

(Cuv.) ibid, xlvi, Pts. 1-4.

— — — (1949): ‘Breeding habits of Bombay elasmobranchs’. ibid, xvii, Pt. 1.

— — — (1950): ‘A Contribution to the Systematics of Scoliodon acutus (Riipp.),

Hemipristis elongatus (Kuinz.) and Torpedo zugmayeri Engel. ibid, xlvil, Part 1.

— — — (1950): ‘Studies on the Development of some Bombay elasmobranchs’.

ibid, xlvii, Pt. 2.

Southwell, T. and Prashad, B., 1919: ‘Embryological and developmental studies

of Indian fishes’. ibid, Xvi.

N.B.—Ercolani and Grosser have been quoted from Needham, 1931 and Ranzi

from Needham, 1942.

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS!

BERNHARD RENSCH AND K. W. HARDE

Zoologisches Institut der Universitat Miinster, W. Germany

(With eleven figures)

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION ate Rae Sate vse Sain

II. THe ABSOLUTE GROWTH OF THE BODy-SIZE ... Sa son

III]. ALLOMETRICAL GROWTH OF SOME PROPORTIONS a te 1 845

IV. SumMMary Bee Je ee ae, soo tatall

V. LITERATURE. oe ie ae dae 2S BSor

I INTRODUCTION

Modern taxonomy is no more confined to characterize animals by

absolute measurements. It is also necessary to comprehend. the

correlations connecting the single parts of the body with one another

and with the body as a whole. Ontogenetic analysis shows in very

many cases that organs or parts of the body rather rarely grow at

the same speed as the whole body (i.e. isometrically) but relatively

quicker (i.e. positively allometrical) or relatively slower (i.e. negatively

allometrical), Theretore each stage of the growing animal has other

proportions. In very large specimens the growing parts with positive

allometry become excessively large, the growing parts with negative

aliometry excessively small. And in most cases two adult specimens

of the same species or two related races differing in body-size, will

automatically differ in other characters correlated with body-size too

(cf. J. Huxley 1932, B. Rensch 1947, 1954).

Up to the present only absolute measurements of Indian elephants

have been published. Hence, in the course of investigating tie

behaviour of working-elephants in Mysore in spring 1953 (cf. B. Rensch

& R. Altevogt 1955), we took the opportunity to study also the growth-

gradients of some proportions. We took measurements of 15 elephants

of different ages and different body-size and tried to find out some

postnatal growth-gradients of these largest land mammals. We

could complete these statements by calculations based upon the absolute

measurements of elephants of Ceylon published by P. E. P. Deraniyagala

(1953).

1 This investigation was kindly supported by grants from the ‘Deutsche

Forschungsgemeinschaft’ and of the Kultusministerium of the Land Nordrhein-

Westfalen, W. Germany.

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCGUZIM, Walls B2

For kind support of our investigations we wish to express our

gratitude to our friend Salim Ali (Bombay), to the District Forest

officer Mr. Gulab Singh (Mysore), to the veterinary officer Mr.

M. D. Raghunatha Rao (Mysore), to the head of the elephant-stable

in Mysore, Mr. D. S. Eswarappa, to several other Indian forest

officers, and also to the members of our scientific party Mrs.

I. Rensch, Dr. (Miss) A. Nolte and Dr. R. Altevogt.

Il. THE ABSOLUTE GROWTH OF THE BODY-SIZE

Statements of the age of Indian elephants are not always reliable,

because most animals are not born in captivity and their age has only

been estimated after the capture. Especially in older publications this

estimation often is too high. We now know that Indian elephants do

not reach an age of 80-150 years, as W. T. Blanford (1891), G. H. Evans

(1910) and others maintained, but that they reach an age of 60-70 years

normally. The age of the two oldest animals investigated by us has been

estimated as 62 (d) and 60 years (Q), and in P. E. P. Deraniyagala’s

publications (1951, 1953) the oldest specimens measured were 65 (<¢}

and 55 years (¢d). In view of this factor of inaccuracy we have to

expect a relatively large variation of the values, if we relate body-size

to growth. But in practice the range of variation can be lowered bv

averaging two neighbouring values and plotting such average data in

a system of co-ordinates with the increasing measurements of head and

body on the abscissa and the increasing age on the ordinate.

Figure 1 shows oOUr Own measurements and also those of

Deraniyagala (1953). We measured the length of head+body from

the frontal base of trunk to the hind part of pelvis region by plotting

corresponding distance on the ground beside the elephant. Deraniyagala

measured from the ear-hele to ‘the root of the tail, but apparently directly

along the vaulted body. These measurements correspond with ours to

a high degree. The distribution of the values follows the usual curve

of growth (fig. 1) showing a quick increase at the beginning and then

a successive slackening of the growth. The curve shows that Indian

elephants are not fully grown, before they have reached an age of 25

years, but that afterwards a little growing continues until a high age.

Therefore, on the average, the oldest specimens are the largest ones.

On the average males are a little larger than females. By plotting the

maximum height of the back into a system of co- -ordinates in a

corresponding manner we got a similar result.

Table 1 shows the absolute values of the animals measured by

ourselves. Measuring the heights of shoulder and back was done by

using a stick, which was held horizontally across the relevant points

of the elephant’ s body so that a straight vertical line leading from the

ends of the stick to the ground could be taken as the real height.

The length of the ear corresponds with a vertical line from the upper

margin of the ear to its lowest point. The width of the’ ear

corresponds to a line crossing vertically and connecting the anterior

margin with the hindmost tip ‘of the ear. The upper parts of the ear,

soiitiela are tilted over in older elephants were not flattened out lor

measurements. .We measured the length of the forefoot up to tie

‘Length of head and body

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS 843

elbow, the length of the hindfoot up to the knee and the circumference

of forefoot and hindfoot with a thread around the hoofs.

10 20 30 40 50 60 Yéars

Age

Fic. 1: Absolute growth of the length of head and body. Each spot is the

mean value of 2 specimens, in 5 extreme cases the value of 1 specimen. ++ females,

. males from Mysore; x females, 0 males from Ceylon (ear-hole to root of tail,

measured by Deraniyagala).

The oldest male (Elephant Stable, Mysore) was the largest specimen

measured (table 1). Its length of head + body was 335 cm. and its

height (of back) was 310 cm. According to the statement of

Mr. Eswarappa its weight was 6 tons and 224 English pounds = 6198 kg.

But the average of the values of head + body of 6 adult females older

than 24 years is only 269 cm; and the height at the shoulder averages

only 242 cm.

The largest Ceylon elephant measured by Deraniyagala was a

younger male of 32 years having a length of head + body (ear-hole

to root of tail) of 315 cm. G. H. Evans (igro) measured a inale

from Burma, in which height of back was 360.7 cm. S. S. Flower

(1914) mentioned a male measured by Sanderson in which height of

back was 323.9 cm., but he thinks that the normal maxima are 274 cm.

for males and 244 cm. for females. L. Heck (in Brehm’s ‘Tierleben’

1930) mentioned a height at shoulder up to 3 m. as maximum and a

highest weight of gooo kg. or even more. H. Heck (1932) reported

that the largest Indian Elephant of the Zoological Gardens he knew

was the male ‘Harry’ of the Berlin Zoo: age about 52, height 3.15 m.,

weight about 7500 kg.

An old rule pretends that in elephants the height at shoulder is

about twice the circumference of the forefoot. As table 1 shows this

holds good for our measurements, the error being less than 5 per cent.

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GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS 845.

Ill. ALLOMETRICAL GROWTH OF SOME PROPORTIONS

If a part of a body grows allometrically, i.e. if the growth ratio

in relation to the body remains constant for a certain time, then the

growth follows a rule stated by J. Huxley: y=b.xa, meaning: size

of the organ=b. body-sizea. The exponent a is the coefficient of

correlation between organ and body, whereas b is a constant of

integration, which indicates the value of the organ when the body-size

is 1. Now this allometry-formula may also be written log y=log

b+a.log x. That means that allometrical increase of an organ or of

a part of the body can also be shown by plotting the size of the

ergan on the ordinate and the body-size on the abscissa of a system

of co-ordinates progressing logarithmically in both directions. If the

organ grows allometrically, the values will coincide with a straight line.

The angle of inclination of the straight line is a measure of the degree

of allometry. ’

Of course, it is also possible to show the correlations between

ergans and body-size by plotting the body-size on the abscissa and the

relative organ-size (in per cent of the body-measurement) on the ordinate

of a normal system of co-ordinates. But in most cases the variation of

values will be fairly large and the allometry, i.e. the constancy of the

relative growth-ratio, will not be proved so exactly. —

If we examine the height of shoulder (fig. 2) and the height of back

(fig. 3) by double logarithmical plotting of the absolute values, we see

Snoulder

100 200 300 400 cm

Head and: body

Fic. 2: Allometrical growth of height of shoulder in females from Mysore.

Abscissa: length of head and body, ordinate: height of shoulder. Double

logarithmic plotting.

that in both cases the values rather exactly form a rising straight line.

As the inclination angle is less than 45° the growth is negatively

allometrical. Hence the height of a young elephant is relatively greater

in relation to body-length than in older animals. This proportion

decreases constantly parallel with increasing age. The same holds gocd

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

300 Le

200 We

o +>

(oS)

100 i

60 100 200 300 40 cm

Head and body

from Mysore.

Here the variation of the vales

for the length of the foreleg (fig. 4).

lue of the young female of about

is a little larger. Especially the va

200

100

Fore -leg

100 , 200 300 400 cm

Head and body

Fic. 4: Allometrical growth of length of fore-leg (Ordinate). +-females,

- males from Mysore.

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS B47

.3 months does not coincide with the straight line. This means that the

negative allometry is more intense at the beginning. The same holds

eood for the length of the hind leg of the baby. But afterwards the

growth becomes isometrical. Apparently the relative height of shouider

and back is chiefly determined by this successive alteration of the

relative length of the legs. In this respect elephants have developed

phylogenetically parallel with other hoofed animals as Perissodactyla

and Artiodactyla, which also show a relatively larger length of legs

in young animals. The phylogenetic development of such a growth-

gradient probably took place because it is an advantage, enabling a

young animal to run quickly. Supposing that the young animals would

have the same relative length of legs as the adults, they would also

run relatively quicker than the adult animals, because the capability of

function of the legs grows proportionately to the cross sections of the

muscles in the second power, but the volume of the body in the 3rd power.

But the absolute speed of the young animals, which is important ior

selection (flight from enemies, long marches to watering places etc.),

would be less. But by developing relatively longer legs than the adults

in the course of phylogeny, their absolute speed is increased. During

the individual growth the legs successively become shorter, showing a

megative allometry.

100

Hind- leg

100 200 300 400 cm

Head and body

Fic. 5: Allometrical growth of length of hind-leg (Ordinate). -++ females,

- males from Mysore.

Also the circumference of the forefoot (fig. 6) shows slight negative

allometry, and in this case likewise the value of the 3 months old calf

is not on the straight line. Young elephants have relatively broad

feet. The length of the hindfoot begins with negative allometry (baby),

but afterwards shows slight positive allometry (nearly isometryy. In

these cases we could add also the values calculated from the tables by

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Deraniyagala. They fit into the range of variation of the animals.

measured by ourselves in Mysore. Deraniyagala’s data (unfortunate-

ly there were no values from young ones) also enabled us to calculate

Fore -foot

60 100 200 300 cm

Head and body

Fic. 6: Allometrical growth of circumference of forefoot (Ordinate). Abscissa :

length of head and body (specimens from Ceylon measured from ear-hole to root

of tail). -++ females, * male from Mysore, x femafes, o males from Ceylon (after

Deraniyagala).

Hind - foot

» tate 100 200 300 400 cm

Head and body.

Fig. 7: Allometrical growth of circumference of hindfoot (Ordinate).

-+ females, - males from Mysore; x females, o males from Ceylon (after Derani-

‘yagala). ¥ a. |

GROWTH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS 849:

the growth-gradients of the trunk (fig. 8) and of the tail (fig. 9). The

former grows with negative allometry, the latter isometrically. But.

Trunk

200 300 cm

Head and body

Fic. 8: Allometrical growth of length of trunk (Ordinate) x females, o mates.

from Ceylon (after Deraniyagala).

Tail

100 200 300 400 cm

Head and body

Fic. 9: Allometrical growth of length of tail (Ordinate). x females, o males

from Ceylon (after Deraniyagala).

the variation of the values is larger, apparently caused by the inexact-

ness of measuring not to be avoided here. Finally the growtii-

gradients of length of ears (fig. 10) show slight negative allometry.

Once again in the youngest female a higher degree of allometry shows

up. The width of the ear (fig. 11) at first grows with negative, after-

wards with positive allometry.

There is a similar behaviour of all these growth-gradients in

both sexes.

In this connection it is also of interest to compare the foetus

7.5 cm. long and figured by Deraniyagala. This specimen has a

relatively large head and relatively large eyes, that is to say, after

birth head and eyes grow with negative allometry like in other mammals.

- But the ears are relatively small. Apparently they grow with positive

allometry till birth. and later on, as we have seen, with negative

850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

allometry, but the width once: again ‘with positive allometry. The legs

of the foetus are relatively long and the back is relatively high, and

even relatively higher than in the young female of 3 months. Probably

the negatively allometrical growth of the height of the back already

begins at such small embryonic stage. ;

Ear-tength

100 200 300 400 cm

Head and body

Fic. 10: Allometrical growth of ear-length (Ordinate). -+ females, + males

from Mysore; x females, o males from Ceylon (after Deraniyagala).

Far - breadth

100 200 300 400 cm

Head and body

Fic. 11: Allometrical growth of ear-width (Ordinate). -- females,

from Mysore.

* males

So far as we know the growth-gradients of the interior organs of

Indian elephants have not yet been investigated. Corresponding quanti-

tative statements of African elephants compared with the data of other

GROWLH-GRADIENTS OF INDIAN ELEPHANTS 85k

hoofed animals were published by D. P. Quiring (1939 a, b). From

a study of the plates by J. E. Boas and S. Paulli (1925) who investi-

gated the head of Indian elephants at different ages, we may learn,.

that the face-bones, especially the nasals show a strong positive

allometry, the parietals a strong negative allometry. This corresponds

with the phylogenetic tendencies. Elephants derived from very much

smaller ancestors, the positive allometrical growth of the face-bones

of which must have led, so to say automatically, to excessive tusks

and excessive nasals, when the single lines of descent became successive-

ly larger following Cope’s Rule (cf. B. Rensch 1947, 1954). By

comparing the plates (p. 18-20), it can be stated that the brain grows

with strongly negative allometry in relation to body-size. There is a

slightly negative allometry in the growth of the cerebellum in rela-

tion to the whole brain.

IV. SUMMARY

1. Measurements of 15 working elephants in Mysore confirmed

the opinion that Elephas maximus is fully grown at an age of about

25 years. Afterwards a slow growing continues up to a high age.’

The length of head and body of 6 females older than 24 years averaged

269 cm.; the height of shoulder 242 cm. In the largest male, 62 years

old, length of head and body was 335 cm. and height of back was

Sho cm.

Height of shoulder and back, length of foreleg, sfisenndatiexanes

of fcbltbor and length of ear grow with negative allometry during

postnatal development, whereas trunk (calculated after the absolute

data published by P. E. P. Deraniyagala) and width of ear grow with

positive allometry. The tail (measurements of Deraniyagala) and the

hind-leg grow isometrically. But in a baby about 3 months old the

hind-leg and the width of ear still shows negative allometry. Allometry

in very young elephants needs further investigation.

he,

LITERATURE

W. T. Blanford (1891): Mammalia. In ‘Fauna of British India’.

J. E. Boas and S. Paulli (1925): The elephant’s head. Copenhagen.

P. E. P. Deraniyagala (1951): Elephas maximus, the elephant of Ceylon. Vol. I.

(Nat: Mus. Ceylon), Colombo.

— — — (1953): Elephas maximus, the elephant of Ceylon. Part III. Spolia

Zeylanica, 27: 111-124.

G. H. Evans (1910) : Elephants and their diseases. Rangoon.

S. S. Flower (1914): Report on a Zoological Mission to India in 1913. Cairo.

H. Heck. (1932): Elefantenbullen in Gefangenschaft. In Tierpark Zeitung

‘Das Tier und Wir’ Minchen-Hellabrunn, Nr. 8.

J. S. Huxley (1932): Problems of relative growth. London.

D. P. Quiring (1939): A comparison of certain gland, organ and body weights

in some African ungulates and the African elephant. Growth, 2; 335-346.

- — — — (1939): Notes on an African elephant (Elephas loxodonata africana).

Growth 3; 9-13.

B. Rensch (1954): Neuere Probleme der Abstammungslehre. Die transspezi-

fische Evolution. Stuttgart. 2. Aufl.

'B. Rensch & R. Altevogt (1955): Zahmung und Dressurleistung indischer

Arbeitselefanten. Z. f: Tierpsychol, 11: 497-510.

NYCTIBATRACHUS HUMAYUNI, A NEW FROG FROM THE

WESTERN GHATS, BOMBAY!

el. BEAD URT ED ASCaq bh uNals sth eAUGEenEn ZAG ats

| Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta

AND

Miss M. B. Kripauant, M.Sc.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta

(With a plate)

WITH FIELD NOTES By HUMAYUN ABDULALI

In August 1953, Mr. Humayun Abdulali of the Bombay Natural

History Society collected five frogs and a few tadpoles which he believed

to be Nyctibatrachus major, from a wayside hill-stream at Khandala,

Western Ghats, Bombay, and sent them to us for determination. In

October of the same year, he supplemented this collection with a few

more tadpoles collected from some hill-streams on the Devimani and

Bundel Ghats near Sirsi in North Kanara, South Bombay. In

November, at his instance, Mr. D. J. Panday collected two frogs and

a few tadpoles from a stream at Mahableshwar. This material was

also at our disposal for study.

The frogs though agreeing in general with Boulenger’s (1882)

description and figure of N. major did not agree with any of the

named material in the Reserve Collection of the Zoological Survey

of India. On comparison with a topotype of N. major from Malabar,

kindly loaned by Dr. H. W. Parker of the British Museum of

Natural History, we find that the Khandala and Mahableshwar frogs

are specifically distinct from N. major. Incidentally it may be pointed

out here that a couple of frogs that were later collected by Mr.

agreed fully with the topotype of N. major.

With the intention of studying the frog in its natural surroundings

and obtaining more material, Mr. Abdulali persuaded Dr. Bhaduri

to visit Khandala and Mahableshwar during his short visit to Bombay

in the first week of August 1954. Bombay had, however, experienced

an unusually heavy monsoon, the rainfall on August 7 being ten inches.

Only a single tadpole isolated in a small puddle was noticed in the

Khandala stream where Mr. Abdulali had seen many frogs and tad-

poles on 18th July. All the wayside streams were in torrents where

no frogs were visible. Panchgani and Mahableshwar were also

excessively wet. Except for the constant call of the elusive

Philautus bombayensis in the hilly tracts of Khandala, Panchgani and

Mahableshwar, and a number of the interesting tadpoles of Rana leithii

+ Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

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NYCTIBATRACHUS HUMAYUNI FROM BOMBAY 853

which kept to almost vertical wet rocks at Panchgani, we saw very

little of Salientian interest. It seemed that weather conditions were

not favourable for the free movement of frogs.

Mr. Abdulali first discovered these frogs at Khandala and collected

tadpoles fom other’ localities. In recognition of the amphibian

collections which he has been making within recent years, we have

much pleasure in describing this new species after him.

Nyctibatrachus humayuni new species

Diagnosis: A Nyctibatrachus with an erect pupil; tongue

free and deeply notched behind; vomerine teeth behind the chaonae,

in transverse patches, each with a single row of teeth; tympanum

hidden; fingers free, toes webbed, tips of all digits strongly dilated

into large disks with a deep horizontal circummarginal groove sepa-

rating the upper from the lower surface; outer metatarsals separated

by web. Omosternum forked at the base and sternum with a bony

style. Terminal phalanges bifurcate.

Holotype. Adult male, Z.S.1. Cat. No. 20628 (B.N.H.S. Cat.

No. 576); collected from a “wayside hill-stream, Mahableshwar, Satara

District, Bombay, by Mr. D. J. Panday on November 17, 1953-

Paratypes. Six specimens: one male, B.N.H.S. Cat. No. 57%

collected at the same place and on the same date as the holotype by

Mr. D. J. Panday, and five specimens, B.N.H.S. Cat. Nos. 775,

427-430, consisting of two males, two females and one juvenile from

a wayside hill-stream, Khandala, ca. 1,500 ft., Bombay, collected by

Mr. Humayun Abdulali on August 30, 1953. Three each are deposited

in the collections of the Zoological Survey of India and the Bombay

Natural History Society. i

Description. Body depressed and stout, not constricted at the

waist. Head depressed and distinctly broader than long; snout

short and rounded, not projecting beyond the mouth, nearly equal

to the diameter of the eye; without canthus rostralis; nostri] midway

between the tip of the snout and the anterior corner of the eye;

eyes prominent with a vertical pupil, directed forwards and upwards;

upper eyelid narrow; interorbital space about twice the width of

the upper eyelid and broader than internarial space ; tympanum obscure

hidden under the skin; tongue moderately large, free and deeply

notched behind; vomerine teeth patches in two slightly oblique series,

each with a single row of 6-8 teeth, separated by a narrow space, and

set well behind the choanae.

Forelimb rather stout, fingers free and moderately long, somewhat

flattened dorsoventrally ; first finger shorter than second, third finger

longest, fourth finger just reaching the base of the disic of the third

finger, second slightly shorter than fourth. Tips of all the fingers dilated

into large disks with a horizontal circummarginal groove separating

upper from lower surface; disks practically of the same size except the -

fourth which appears to be slightly smaller. Subarticular talbestelies

feebly prominent, one or two tubercles on the palm.

Hindlimb stout and moderately long’, the tibiotarsal articulation

reaching beyond the eye; toes webbed and somewhat flattened

854. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &2

fourth toe the longest, third and fifth subequal, nearly reaching the

distal subarticular tubercle of the fourth, the second nearly reaching

the distal subarticular tubercle of the third, and the first reaching a

little below the base of the disk of the second; toes fully webbed

except the fourth on which the web reaches the distal subarticular

MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES

Sex | 2 3 4 5 6 7

Body length onal, y 46 36 34 47 48 17

Head length sneer 2 wee) Omen el S 16 a

Head width ooo, A SPH 1H DD) 19 tos

Snout eeare Os Siere/ 5°5 6 6°5 6°5 As

Eye ee eNO 8) 5 45 7 6°5.

Interorbital space ose 'O 6 5 by) 6 6

Arm length Been a5, 2 20 20 26 25

Hand length -. 14 14 11 Il 14 14

Disk of third finger ee pe: 2 2 2 2 2

First finger no BH) 6°5 Uf 9°5 9

Second finger eoelol ules) 2) 10 10°5

Third finger we 14D Mela 1 11 14 14 “sh

Fourth finger Boa WB al al 9) dS Oe 5 ape

Leg length axe O40 GOR oe 50 =68 66 aes

Tibia length esc hic neo’, 18 Wee} 2472 21 606

Foot Soh ee Oe ae die) WW @ 22 Bs

Disk of fourth toe PAE 2 2 2 2 2 be

Fifth toe sel OW wal Omemenli2 We) ale 14 sats

Fourth toe eat 1D ee LOX eG See 20 19 coe

Third toe was, lo. 6 14°53 V27e 15 15 as

Second toe yal 1) 9°5 9 10° 10°5 Ah

First toe et GT 7 6 7 79 7 a

Inner metatarsal tubercle BS ae rh we: 3 3 3 3°5 ays

1. Holotype from Mahableshwar. 2. Paratype from Mahableshwar.

3-6. Paratypes from Khandala. 7. A juvenile specimen from Khandala.

tubercle, with fringes continuing to the base of the disk; tips of all

the toes dilated into large disks with a horizontal circummarginal

groove separating upper from lower surface; subarticular tubercles

moderately -developed; a deep fold of skin on the outer side of the

fifth toe; a small elongate inner metatarsal tubercle; no outer

metatarsal tubercle.

Skin above with very small closely set vermiculated folds; a

rather distinct oblique fold beneath the eye; upper eyelid with strong

tubercles.

Colour (in alcohol) grayish or brownish black dorsally conforming

to the rock, with markings, if present, irregular and darker; ground

colour of ventral parts slightly gray and usually with dark mottling.

on the chin and the throat; limbs with indistinct, or without, dark

cross bars or spots.

Sexes not distinguishable externally. Males with no vocal sacs.

Testis small and oval. Ovum in one of the female specimens measures

about 2.7 mm. )

Habitat. Hill-streams, living under the stones in crevices.

NYCTIBATRACHUS HUMAYUNI FROM BOMBAY 855-

Remarks. So far four species of the genus Nyctibatrachus are

known. These are N. pygmaeus (Giinther 1875) from the Anamallai

Hills, N. major Boulenger 1882 from Malabar and Wynad, N.

sanctipalustris Rao 1920 from Coorg and lastly N. sylvaticus Rao.

1937 from Hassan, Mysore. While describing the last-named species,

Rao observed that the former three species were present in good

numbers in the zoological collections of the Central College Bangalore.

Myers (1942) rightly suggested N. major to be the type species:

of the genus.

N. humayuni is closely related to N. major in all the essential

characters, especially in having fully-webbed toes and tips of digits

dilated into disks. But it is distinct from N. major in that its.

disks are very much larger and provided with a deep circummarginal

groove separating the upper from the lower surface. Furthermore,

in coloration N. major is brownish, while humayuni is grayish black.

Distribution. Western Ghats (N. Kanara, Mahableshwar and’

Khandala), Bombay.

Until now Nyctibatrachus has been recorded in Anamallai Hills,

Wynaad, Coorg and Mysore. With the discovery of N. humayuni

the range of distribution of the genus extends northwards to Khandala

through N. Kanara and Mahableshwar.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TADPOLE

The tadpoles are of moderate size; the head and body narrowly

oval, flattened moderately, the ventral surface being slightly convex ;.

the snout region bluntly rounded and depressed, the nostrils rather

widely separated, nearer the tip of thie snout than the eyes, the dis-

tance between them being less than the interorbital width; the eyes.

are dorsolaterally placed, directed forwards and upwards, situated

at about one-third the distance between the tip of snout and the base

of hindlimbs, nearer the tip of the snout than the spiracle. The

spiracle is lateral, sinistral, tubular, pointing upwards and backwards,

nearly midway between the tail and the tip of the snout. The vent

is dextral and tubular.

The tail which is about one and.a half times as long as the head:

and body, gradually tapers to a rather blunt point. The tail membrane

is deeper dorsally, decreasing in height towards the base of the tail.

The dorsal and ventral membranes arise just behind the base of the

hindlimbs. The muscular portion is strongly developed tapering to a

fine point.

The mouth-disk is small, directed downwards and a little backwards.

The mouth is surrounded by anterior and posterior lips which are

continuous through lateral folds. The anterior lip is distinct, crescentic

in shape and can be closed down over the mouth. It is fringed with

short, blunt papillae and shows 3-4 rows of similar papillae at its base

just above the upper beak. The posterior lip is divided into three

lobes, of which two are lateral in position and slightly larger than the

posterior mesial lobe; the upper part of these lobes is capable of being

folded backwards, the posterior mesial lobe may be broken into two

or more sublobes which are edged with short processes; similar

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

processes are scattered on the three lobes near the base of the lower

beak. Both parts of the beak well developed, the upper beak relatively

broader than the lower, which is a little stouter and V-shaped; both

parts finely serrated; the upper is entirely black and the basal part

of the lower beak is white.

The colour of the dorsal surface of the head and body and muscular

portion of the tail is dark brown with irregular darker markings.

The ventral surface is whitish.

Measurements (in millimetres) of a specimen with legs half developed:

Total length § a4 et?

Length of head and body MOIAChy) Korte s

Body width als Bo Ri ARSES

Tail length Me ee mie Z9

Tail height ee aaS ee 4 O

SPECIMENS OF TADPOLES EXAMINED

Reg. No. 3 Collected No. of

B.N.HS. LEfoTee LEY DEMS by tadpoles

978 Mahableswar, Bombay ... 17-11-1953 D. J. Panday 8

776 Khandala, Bombay -- 30-8-1953 H. Abdulali 6

422 29 9 coe 99 9 3

572 Stream under culvert 20-10-1953 A 14

No. 211, on Bundel Ghat,

1,500 ft., N. Kanara.

566 23-10-1953 99 4

*571 Stream under culvert —_ 19-10-1953 i 3

No. 413 Khandala.

* 569 In eddy of small flowing 20-10-1953 . 2

stream of Devimani Ghat,

1,500 ft., Sirsi District, —

N. Kanara.

Remarks. Among the different lots of tadpoles examined by us,

the tadpoles from Mahableshwar represent a good series of the main

developmental stages. An almost metamorphosed frog shows nearly

all the characters of the adult already described.

Annandale (1918) described the tadpoles of Nyctibatrachus pygmaeus,

Rana leptodactyla and R. semipalmata among the many other

tadpoles from south India. In the following year he made a

correction by referring the N. pygmaeus tadpoles to those of Philautus

(=Ixalus) variabilis. Incidentally, he has, however, mentioned that

the true tadpoles of Nyctibatrachus resemble those of R. semipalmata

in having no horny teeth on the mouth-disk. Unfortunately, he never

described these Nyctibatrachus tadpoles afterwards.

Rao (1920) recorded the spawning of Rk. leptodactyla from Coorg

and described its life history by rearing up the larvae with horny teeth

up to two-legged stage. It may, however, be remarked that

* Numbers marked with an asterisk, were examined by Dr. Bhaduri at

‘Bombay.

NYCTIBATRACHUS: HUMAYUNI FROM BOMBAY 857

Annandale (1918, p. 20) relied for the identification of the tadpoles

of Rk. leptodactyla on rather circumstantial evidence and on their

apparent resemblances with those of R. semipalmaia. Rao is, therefore,

quite right in pointing out that tadpoles described by Annandale as Rk.

leptadactyla do not belong to that species and may prove to be one of

the species of the genus Nyctibatrachus.

So far only the tadpoles of N. sanctipalustris have been described

from the hill-streams of Hebbe and Huthode (Kadur, Mysore) at an

elevation of 4,000 ft., by Rao in 1920. These tadpoles are very much

different from those of N. humayuju in possessing the labial teeth

rows with the formula, 1:1—1/3. N. humayuni tadpoles as recorded

above are devoid of any labial teeth rows, and they bear a close

resemblance to Annandale’s Rk. leptodactyla tadpoles. )

‘ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We take this opportunity to record our sincere thanks to Mr.

H. Abdulali and Dr. H.W. Parker for helping us in various ways

in this study. Our thanks are also due to Sri Subodh Mandal and

Sri R. C. Bagchi for the illustrations in the accompanying plate. |

REFERENCES

Annandale, N. (1918): Tadpoles from South India. Rec. Ind. Mus., 15: 17-23,

PP Tl

(1919): The tadpole of Nyctibatrachus and Ixalus variabilis: a correc-

tion. Rec. Ind. Mus., 16: 303.

Boulenger, G. A. (1882): Catalogue of Batrachia Salientia s. Ecaudata in the

‘Collection of the British Museum, pp. 113-114, pl. xu, figs. 1 & 2.

(1890): Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Batrachia, pp. 467-468.

Myers, G. S. (1942): A new frog from the Anamallai Hills, with notes on

other frogs and some snakes from South India. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 55:

49-56.

Noble, G. K. (1931): The Biology of Amphibia, p. 518.

Rao, C. R. N. (1920): Some South Indian Batrachians. JBNHS, 27: 123, 125.

Pl. 2, figs. 12-18.

(1922): Notes on Batrachia. JBNHS, 28: 446, figs. A & B.

(1937): On some new forms of Batrachia from South India. Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci., 6B, 6: 399, pl. 23, figs. 6 & 6a.

Thurston, E. (1888): Catalogue of the Batrachia Salientia and Apoda of Southern

India, p. 39, pl. vim, figs. 1 & 2.

FIELD NOTES ON THE WRINKLED FROG

On August 9, 1953, while looking for frogs and fish in a rocky

monsoon stream at Culvert 413, half way up the ghat between

Khopoli and Khandala (ca. 1,500 ft.), I saw a large frog seated on a

flat rock covered with algae and wetted by the flowing water. Durmg

my attempts to catch it, the frog was twice washed into the stream,

but it immediately landed on the nearest rock and then sat still, not

unlike a toad. In the hand, however, the disks on the fingers and

toes were noticeable and the vertical pupil was also distinctive (after

one’s attention had been drawn to it!). Tadpoles, apparently of this

species, were also found at the bottom of a pool formed by an eddy

about 20 yards downstream. Though several were seen, they were

858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

not very numerous and gave no suggestion of living together in shoals

as is common with some other species. The small loach—Nemachilus

evezardi was present in an adjoining, but not in the same pool.

Another visit on the night of August 30th and the following morning

produced two more frogs and some tadpoles distributed over small

pools in the same stream. On no occasion were more than six to

eight tadpoles seen together in the same pool and these were also

in different stages of metamorphosis. Later in the year the stream

was completely dry.

On 18th July 1954, at Khandala, I again saw some adults in the

same stream, and on 29th August noted tadpoles of varying sizes in

the Waghdhondi stream near the Kathori village between the Khandala

Hotel and Duke’s Nose, and also in a small pool in a stream hardly

more than a trickle, under the hills known as ‘The Sausages’.

Only a solitary tadpole was noticed when I visited Culvert 413

with Dr. Bhaduri on 7th September. The assumption that heavy

rains had then driven them into refuge is substantiated by the

abundance of tadpoles in the same stream on 21st September. By

30th October the stream was almost dry and none were seen.

From i1gth to 25th October 1953 I had the opportunity of visiting

the Devimani and Bundel Ghats near Sirsi, in North Kanara, and

obtained many tadpoles under similar conditions. No adults were

obtained. Mr. Dinsha Panday then obtained some further specimens

of this frog from Mahableshwar together with tadpoles. |

Tadpoles and frogs were also seen in a stream flowing into

Simpson’s Tank at Matheran on 18th October, 1954. |

The tadpoles though always found in pools in, or linked with,

running streams always stay at the bottom in the relatively quiet water,

which was seldom more than a few inches deep. They are not very

agile, and when disturbed will take refuge under overhanging rocks

and stay there for some time.

Messrs. Daniel and Chari of the Prince of Wales Museum visited

Mahableshwar on toth December 1954 and saw large numbers of

these tadpoles of different sizes., Tadpoles have now been noted

between oth August 1953 (Khandala) and 10th December which

indicates either a long period of metamorphosis or a prolonged breeding

season, both of which again might be variable. i

Early in November 1954 I was at Mahableshwar, and in the streams

where we had drawn a blank earlier with Dr. Bhaduri, considerable

numbers of adults and tadpoles in all stages were seen. From my

previous notes I had put this frog down as a diurnal species, but

a stream on the Fitzgerald Ghat was visited at night and much larger

numbers seen, than during daytime. Several were squatted in the spray

of falling water and others attached to vertical sides of rock pools

with the lower half of the body in water. In the same facies, but

almost invariably out of water, were a large number of Rana beddlomi

and R. temporalis.

In colour, the adult Wrinkled, Frogs were usually uniform blackish.

grey above, this colour extending towards the under-side of the legs

and body and gradually paling into white on the belly. The chin and

NYCTIBATRACHUS HUMAYUNI FROM BOMBAY 859

throat were dark—almost as dark as the back, The upper surface is

irregularly wrinkled and granulated with almost wartlike excrescences

on the hind legs. This character distinguishes it from all other frogs

of the neighbourhood, and I have therefore proposed ‘The Wrinkled

Frog’ as an appropriate name for the species. A female collected in

August 1953 had a patch of yellow on the undersurface of the femur

near the anus, the colour extending halfway towards the knee.

Another taken on 18th July 1954 had a similar patch which was noted

as orangeyellow, but this specimen was unfortunately not sexed.

Occasional individuals, including a 1-in. frog, had tinges of brick-red

on the head. The tadpoles were of a dark olive-green colour but with

the tail mottled on a paler background.

On 18th July three individuals, about 14 in. in length, were seen

in the Khandala stream under Culvert 413. They were in flowing

water, resting against the vertical wall of the culvert with their heads

just out of water; if splashed they worked their way higher up on the

wall (individuals in captivity can stick against vertical glass surfaces)..

About 18 in. above them were two small rectangular patches of eggs

about 2x3 in. and about + in. thickness (this would also be the

diameter of each egg) stuck against the vertical wall. It is possible

that these were the eggs of this species.

The stomachs of a few individuals examined contained Mayflies

(Heptagenia sp.) in nymphal stages, water beetles (Sphaeroderma sp.)

a Lycosid spider, remains of several insects and bits of the tape-like

‘bryophytic weed (Aspermytes khandalensis), and an entire crab.

H.A.

IXODES KERRI, A NEW SPECIES OF TICK FROM

A FLYING SQUIRREL FROM SOUTHERN INDIA

| (ACARINA: IXODIDAE)

T.. RAMACHANDRA RAO, D.Sc.

Virus Research Centre, Poona, India!

(With two plates)

Sharif (1928), in his revision of Ixodidae of India, recorded four

species of ticks of the genus Ixodes as occurring in the country. The

species mentioned by him and their recorded hosts and distribution

in India are:

SPECIES Hosts DISTRIBUTION |

Lxodes ricinus (Linnaeus, Dogs and sheep. Kashmir and Kangra

1758) Valley.

Ll. acutitarsus (ISarsch, 1880) Ox. Miri Hills, Assam,

and Darjeeling

District, Bengal.

I. granwatus Supino, 1897 Fpimys(=Rattus) Darjeeling District,

vutescens Gray, Bengal, and Abor

Sciurus (= Callosciurus) Country and Naga

erythraeus intermedius Hills, Assam.

Anderson, and ‘Squirrel’.

I. holocyclus Neumann, 1899 ‘Red Squirrel ’ and Unknown.

‘ Sczurus variabilts ’.

I. holocyclus is known in India only from. nymphs and its hosts are

as recorded by Nuttall et al., (1911). In addition, Sen (1938) has

mentioned that Ixodes japonensis Neumann, 1904, has been collected

from a Barking Deer, Cervulus aureus (sic) at Mukteswar in

Kumaun Hills, Uttar Pradesh. [Cervulus aureus (=Muntiacus

muntjak aureus Smith) however, is the Barking Deer of southern

India and that in Kumaun Hills is probably Muntiacus muntjak

vaginalis Boddaert]. All the known localities mentioned above are

either in the Himalayas or in the mountains of Assam.

More recently, Kohls (1947) has added one more species to the

list: I. radfordi Kohls, 1947, on Rattus rattus rufescens Gray, from

Imphal, Manipur, eastern India. He has also described another

closely related species from Uva Province, Ceylon: I. ceylonensis

Kohls, 1950, on the mongoose, Herpestes smithi zeylanicus Thomas.

and on Rattus rattus kandianus Kelaart.

—

1 The Virus Research Centre, Poona, has been established by the Indian Council

of Medical Research with the cooperation of the Division of Medicine and Public

Health of the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Government of Bombay.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

Ixodes kerri, new species

FEMALE |

Fics. 1-6: 1. Dorsal view. 2. Ventral view. 3. Scutum and capitulum. 4. Coxal armature.

5, Tarsus; (a): leg 1; (b): leg IV. 6. Spiracle; A=anterior; V=ventral.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate IE

aut Pent ‘

Ixodes kerri, new species

MALE

Fics. 7-11: 7. Dorsal view.

ventral view.

8. Ventral view. 9. Capitulum, dorsal view.

10.. Hypostome,

11. Pregenital plate, genital aperture and post-genital plate.

IXODES KERRI 861

The genus Ixodes has so far not been reported from anywhere

else in India. The Director of the Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta, informed the writer in March 1954 that there was no

specimen of Ixodes from southern India in the collections at the

Indian Museum. ‘Therefore the finding of ticks belonging to this.

genus in southern India at a place about 300 miles south of Bombay

is of considerable interest. |

Two females and one male tick were collected from a Large

Brown Flying Squirrel, Petaurista petaurista philippensis Elliot,

1839, on February 3, 1954 in the heavy rain forest of Kasgi Village,

Sirsi Taluka, Kanara District, Bombay State (Lat. 14° 26’ N.; Long.

74° 39’ E.) at an elevation of approximately 1,450 ft. above sea level.

The squirrel was one of two shot by Mr. B.S. Lamba as they came

out of a tredhole, after being disturbed. Mr. P. K. Rajagopalan

and Mr.S. L. Naik made the following notes when they removed

the ticks from the squirrel; “The females were attached to the base

of each ear of the squirrel. The male was attached to the body of

one of the females, probably in copulation.’ From the two squirrels.

35 mites of the family Laelaptidae were also collected.

The specimens differ from all the other species of the genus.

recorded in India. The points of ditterence from the other species are:

From I. ricinus: Size large; coxa I with two large subequal

spurs.

I. acutitarsus: Coxae II to IV with only one spur each; anal

groove of male slightly convergent behind; scutum of female

distinctly longer than broad; genital aperture of female distincily

posterior to a line connecting coxae IV.

I. granulatus: Coxa I| with two large spurs; fine puncta-

tions on the scutum few and sparsely scattered in the median field ;

palpal article II more than twice as long as article III. (See

addendum.)

| I, holocyclus: Coxa I with two spurs; anal groove of female

open behind; pregenital plate of male longer than broad.’

ee radfordi : Coxa I with two spurs and the single spurs on

other coxae prominent; a few fine punctations in the posterior area

on the scutum of the female, but no large punctations in that area.

I. japonensis: Coxa I with two large spurs and coxae II to

IV with single prominent spurs.

They are also clearly distinguished from J. ceylonensis in the coxal

armature, though in size there is some resemblance. In the size they

also resemble F. gigas Warburton, 1910, a species which Sharif con-

siders as a synonym of acutitarsus. On _ referring to Nuttall et al.

(1911) several points of difference from gigas also were noticed, and

among them were the presence of fine punctations all over the male

scutum, the anal grooves slightly converging behind and _ spiracles

being circular and not oval. They do not agree with any of the

other 50 species of Ixodes described by Nuttall et al. (loc. cit.).

The ticks are obviously new and the writer has much pleasure

in naming them Ixodes kerri, after Dr. J. Austin Kerr of the Division

of Medicine and Public Health of the Rockefeller Foundation, who

thas been greatly responsible for ‘stimulating the writer’s interest in

acarology.. :

‘862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Ixodes. kerri, new species

DESCRIPTION

FEMALE (Figs. 1-6). Two engorged specimens only.

Length of body including capitulum, 12 and 13.5 mm.; width

of body, 8.0 and 8.5 mm.

Color: Chestnut brown, scutum darker.

Dorsum: Surface finely striated and slightly hairy. Two

prominent internal accessory grooves.

Scutum: Longer than broad, length 2.6 mm, and width

2.0 mm. Coarse punctations abundant in the lateral and cervical

fields, and absent in the posterior two-thirds of the median field.

Fine punctations numerous in the anterior part of the median field

but few and scattered in the posterior part.

Venter: Surface finely striated and slightly hairy; genital

aperture slightly posterior to a line connecting the coxae IV. Genital

grooves extend posteriorly to beyond the level of the anus. [Posterior |

limbs of anal groove slightly divergent.

Legs: Long and moderate in size.. Tarsi rather abruptly

narrowed subapically. ,

Coxal armature: All coxae flattened. Coxa I with two

well-developed nearly equal, flat, pointed spurs which slightly overlap

coxa II. Coxae II to IV each with one short but prominent spur on the

posterior margin. Coxae II to IV with slightly salient posterior

borders. Coxae III to IV with prominent spurlike projection on

the antero-lateral aspect. The margins of coxae shaded dark.

Spiracles: Almost circular. | }

Capitulum: About 23 times as long as_ broad. Base

slightly broader than long. Porose areas roughly triangular in

outline, large, slightly depressed and set close together, the interval

between the two at the base being less than a quarter of the width

of either. .Palps slender and four and a half times as long as broad;

outer border nearly straight with some indication of concavity but

inner border convex. Article I visible both dorsally and ventrally.

‘Article II about three times as long as III. Hypostome more pointed

than in male and with rows of 2/2 teeth and about 12 teeth in each

row.

Mate (Figs. 7-11). One specimen only.

Length of body including capitulum, 4.5 mm.; width 2.5 mm.

Shape suboval.

Color: Chestnut brown, scutum darker; median ventral plate

lighter. | |

Scutum: Smooth, with fine punctations sparsely scattered all

over and the larger punctations abundant in the anterior region.

Cervical grooves shallow and slightly divergent.

Venter: Median plate with fine punctations scattered all

over, each punctation with a short delicate hair. Genital aperture

between coxae III. Pregenital plate longer than broad, slightly

constricted at about its posterior third and slightly indented in front.

Post-genital plate exhibits the usual transverse crescentic chitinisar

IXODES KERRI S63

tion. Anal groove horse-shoe shaped with the posterior limbs

slightly converging behind but not meeting each other. Entire

ventral surface with punctations.

Legs and coxal armature: As in the female.

Spiracles: Almost circular.

Capitulum: Base roughly pentagonal in shape, the lateral

margins slightly converging posteriorly; about 14 times as broad as

long; posterior half of the dorsal aspect covered with numerous

coarse punctations. Palps about three times as long as broad,

covered with coarse punctations and fine scattered hairs; article I

about 1$ times as long as III; article IV very small and bears 16-18

sensory hairs on tip. Hypostome has 2/2 rows of teeth about 12 in

each row.

Material: One male and two females collected from a large

Brown Flying Squirrel, Petaurista petaurista philifpensis Elliot, 1839,

taken at Kasgi, Sirsi Taluka, Kanara District, Bombay State, India.

Date: February 3, 1954. Preserved in 75% alcohol.

Holotype: One male; Allotype: One female. Depe-

sited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Reg. Nos. 2392/18 and

2393/18 respectively.

Paratype: jOne female only in the collections of the Virus

Research Centre, Poona, India. {No. A-1193.)

SUMMARY

Ixodes kervi n. sp. from the Flying Squirrel, Petaurista petauvrisia

philippensis Elliot, 1839, from Kanara District, Bombay State, India,

is described. This is the first record of any Ixodes from India south

of the Himalayas.

)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. H. Hoogstraal, U.S. Naval Medical

Research Unit No. 3, Egypt, for kindly examining the specimens

and confirming the author’s opinion that the tick belongs to a new

species.

REFERENCES

Kohls, G. M. (1947): Ixodes radfordi, a new species of ticks from rats in

eastern India (Acarina: Ixodidae). J. Parasit., 33: 497-498.

— — — (1950): Two new species of ticks from Ceylon (Acarina: Ixodidae).

]. Parasit., 36: 319-321. |

Nuttall, G. E. F., Warburton, C., Cooper, W. F. & Robinson, L. E. (UBD)

Ticks, a Monograph of the Ixodoidea, Part 11. University Press, Cambridge.

Sen, P. (1938): A check- and host-list of Ixodoidea (Ticks) occurring in India.

Indian Journ. Vet. Sc. and Anim. Husb., 8: 133-147.

Sharif, M. (1928): A revision of the Indian Ixodidae with special reference to

the collection in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mus., 30: 217-344.

ADDENDUM

After the above paper went to press Dr. G. N. Kohls, Rocky

Mountain Laboratory, Hamilton, Montana, USA, has drawn the atten-

UZ |

864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘(NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

tion of the author to a few points and made a few valuable suggestions.

They will be briefly referred to here.

tr. ‘I. kempi Nuttall 1913, synonymised by Sharif (1928) under

I, granulatus is regarded by 'Anostos | Anostos, George, 1950, The

scutate ticks, or Ixodidae, ot Indonesia, PN LO Rae Americana,

30: (1-4): I- -144] as a valid species.’

If this is confirmed I. kempi would be ae seventh species of the

genus already recorded from India.

2. “The shape of the female basis capitulum posterolaterally and

the armature of coxa I in both sexes, as figured, are most unusual

and if both these features are actually as illustrated they deserve

emphasis in the text.’

The features have been reexamined. The posterolateral margin of

the: female basis capitulum is as illustrated and has a distinct concavity.

‘The armature of coxa I is also as delineated. The two spurs are flat,

broad, set close together and nearly equal, the outer one being a shade

smaller. In the published illustrations of the other Indian species

of Ixodes with two spurs on coxa I, the spurs are shown narrower,

more pointed, more unequal and set more apart. The anteromedial

margin of the coxa I in the female, however, should have been de-

lineated less rounded and with a slight concavity. '

The author’s sincere thanks are due to Dr. Kohls for the very

constructive suggestions made by him.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA

ANNUAL REPORT FOR 1953 ON THE WESTERN REGION’

K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHJI

Vice-Chairman, Indian Board for Wild Life and Honorary

Regional Secretary

A brief summary of the wild life situation within my region

is necessary. The position of wild life exclusive of game species

appears to be satisfactory. Big game species on the whole, are

on the decrease, and certain species such as Lion, Blackbuck,

Chinkara, Swamp Deer, and perhaps Sambar with their respective

habitats require special protection. The Crocodiles {two species—

palustris and Gavialis gangeticus) are definitely diminishing in numbers

and therefore need discreet protection. Small game in general, is not

yet seriously affected; in some States it is on the increase. But

the Great Indian Bustard (Choriotis nigriceps) and Jungle-fowls (red

and grey), require careful preservation.

The formation of State Wild Life Advisory Boards has had a

beneficial effect on the general public and State Departments all over,

and has done much to save the wild life of Western India. The

Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection ‘Acts in the States of

Bombay and Saurashtra are certainly welcome and there is a growing

sympathy by the people towards the preservation of wild life, in

the two States. However, ‘Touring Wild Life Committees’ are

essential to estimate and evaluate wild life populations ‘on the spot’.

Schemes for National Parks are rapidly gaining strength. ‘Protected

Areas’ for wild life are being established. More attention is being

given to Sanctuaries.

Fish life during drought years have suffered heavily in some

States, but fish depletion in the larger rivers has not taken place.

The freshwater fish industry needs special attention.

This report has been prepared from information received from

various States, and includes a rapid survey of the Gir Forest in

Saurashtra, the home of the Indian Lion.

The Indian Board for Wild Life at its Mysore Conference of

November 1952, prepared excellent recommendations for the Govern-

ment of India, Ministry of Food and Agriculture, so that the Govern-

ment of India could assist all States to protect their diminishing

1 The Western Region covers the following States : Bombay, Saurashtra, Rajasthan,

Madhya Bharat, Madhya Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Bhopal, Ajmer and Kutch.’

866 [OURNAE, BOMBAY NATO CAE me EIULS seems OO HRY ma Veo lemma

wild life assets. And also, the Government of India wrote to all

State Governments advising them to set up Wild Life Advisory

Boards. My reminder dated 5-2-1954 to all States in the Western

Zone, emphasized the need to set up these Boards early. The following

States responded: Bombay, Saurashtra and Madhya Bharat.

The Saurashtra State, in particular, has made rapid progress

and has held two meetings of the State Wild Life advisory

Board, on 30-10-1953 and 5-1-1954. At the second meeting, some

very critical recommendations to improve the existing Saurashtra

Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1952, which was in

truth, a copy of the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Pro-

tection Act, 1951, were made, according to local conditions and needs.

The following were the principal resolutions’ passed by the State

Board, most of which were accepted by the State Government.

(1) Creation of a National Park in the Gir Forest to protect the

Indian Lion and other game species.

(2) Amendments to the Saurashtra Wild Animals and Wild Birds

Protection Act, 1952. |

(3) Complete protection of certain. wild life species and the

establishment of ‘Protected Areas’.

(4) Enforcement of the Saurashtra Wild Life Act.

(5) Publicity for wild life preservation.

) ‘Close Seasons’.

) Honorary Game Wardens.

On the whole the setting up of State Wild Life Advisory Boards

has been quite a slow process except for States such as Bombay and

Saurashtra. It is a pity that the remaining States have not fallen

in line. However, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Vindhya Pradesh

are preparing to do so.

The following States have suitable Wild Life Acts: Bombay,

Saurashtra, Bhopal and Madhya. Bharat. Rajasthan, Vindhya

Pradesh and a few others have prepared or are preparing Bills for the

same. The progress is slow.

POSITION OF WHLbD LIFE

The position of wild life within the region cannot be accurately

estimated without a proper survey. Replies received to my circular

letter inquiring of the position of wild life from the States are favour-

able except for the big gante population. In general, it appears

that big game is not in abundance anywhere and that reduction

of game species continues.

Bombay: ‘The wild lfe of the State is well protected and has

commenced to increase. A Wild Life Preservation Officer is appointed

by the State Government to look after the affairs of preservation of

wild life in the State.

1 Almost all the resolutions were moved by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji as the

representative of the Inspector-General of Forests, Central Government.

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 867

Saurashtra: The Victoria Park at Bhavnagar, which has been

a ‘Peoples Park’ for over 60 years, contains a variety of wild life such

as, Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Cheetal (Axis axis), Nilgai

(Boselaphus iragocamellus), Wild Pig {Sus cristatus) and small

game, apart from the variety of bird life. The Forest Department

has started to care for wild life preservation within the Park limits.

A census taken by me of the big game resulted as follows

25, Nilgai

16 Blackbuck

78 Wild Pig

21 Cheetal

Total 140 heads

The area consists of thorny scrub and is about 6 square miles. |

Formerly, it used to contain species like, Chinkara (Gazella bennetti),

Hog Deer {Axis porcinus) and Sambar (Rusa unicolor). |\The Spur-

fowl {Galloperdix spadicea) was successfully introduced in the past.

The Divisional Forest Officer’s repert from Jamnagar states that

game species are increasing in the Gir Forest and Barda Hills and

decreasing in other parts of Saurashtra. My rapid survey of wild

life of the Gir Forest between Ist April and 15th April, failed to

reveal game in abundance, while actually some species were found

in small numbers and are obviously reduced.

The Indian lion is one of the most important animal species in

Asia today, the preservation of which has drawn the attention of the

International Union for the Protection of Nature. My report of

1949 to the Union referred to this problem. The (Asiatic Lion

(Panthera leo persica) formerly ranged throughout the Middle Easi

and northern India. Today, it is restricted to the Gir Forest in

Saurashtra and. Bombay (Am«eli District—formerly Baroda territory).

The Saurashtra Government has given protection to the animal by

order Notification No. DP/F /I1I8-7/157 dated 25th July ro53 and

by Section 16 of the Saurashtra Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protec-

tion Act, 1952; and the Bombay State has given the lion complete

protection. The lion census made by Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth 1

1950 on behalf of the Saurashtra Government revealed between 219 to:

227 lions (adult and young inclusive) with a maximum of 250 lions in

the whole of the Gir Forest. The killing of lions is carefully controlled

by the Rajpramukh of Saurashtra and the limit of four lions to be shot

per annum has been laid down as a general policy. This seems to be

reasonable in spite of the fact that lions may increase rapidly if given

proper protection. The State Wild Life Board, at its second meeting

recommended 3 lions and 3 lionesses to be shot as maximum for the

whole year. However, Tone have been ordered to be destroyed for

cattle-lifting from time to time and it is unfortunate that a number

have been thus killed. Moreover, an accurate record of lions des-

troyed or found dead has not been kept by the Forest Department.

It appears that a good number of lions have been destroyed in a

clandestine manner. Actually, I feel that on no account should lions.

‘868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

be killed for cattle-lifting since most lions in the Gir Forest, at one

time or another, feed upon cattle owing to the density of livestock

within the Forest. It is deplorable that records of game killed in

the Gir Forest, as well as in areas in some other States, have not

been accurately maintained, and in a few are even completely wanting.

My recent survey of the Gir Forest revealed that game had been

indiscriminately shot, especially Cheetal, Wild Boar, and Sambar,

while Chousingha and Nilgai were holding their own in fair numbers,

though not in abundance. It is unfortunate that the wild life of

the Gir area has not had the rigid protection as made known officially

in spite of the importance of the lion. The Grey Hornbill (Tockus

bivostris) appears now to be extinct. The Green Pigeon (Crocopus

phoenicopterus) may have the same fate due to carelessness if not

well protected, for the feathers are sought for the same medicinal

purpose as those of the Grey Hornbill. During my rapid survey,

firing was heard within the Gir Forest and animal life was seen to

flee at the approach of motor vehicles. This behaviour of game

species discloses indiscriminate shooting from motor vehicles in

contravention of Section 17 of the Saurashtra Wild Animals and

Wild Birds Protection Act, 1952. The State Government has

appointed a Wild Life Officer for the Gir with a small staff. This

so-called Wild Life Department enjoys a reputation of supplying

shikar to some sportsmen only. The present set-up is wholly

unsatisfactory since poaching is rampant, mostly by forest contractors

and their workmen. The Forest Department is ignorant of how

to manage wild life in the Gir. The sooner a National Park is

formed in the Gir, the better it will be in the interest of the lion.

The lion’s natural food is slowly decreasing, and unless firm steps

are taken to prevent the killing of game species which supply its

food, a crisis is inevitable. The State Government should keep a

proper record of the lions and game killed or found dead, and this

information should be passed on to the Regional Secretary for Wild

Life regularly every month.

The present question of controlling the maldharies—iivestock

owners—in the Gir Forest is under the consideration of the Saurashtra

Government. The Forest Minister, Shri Dayashanker Dave, and

Shrimati Pushpaben Mehta (who is appointed on a special committee

to study this problem) have taken special interest in the plan for

the rehabilitation of maidharics. This is, I believe, an excellent

plan, for it will seclude maldharies and afford them greater safety

from the lion, and also give the lion and its habitat rest and relief.

Incidentally, the State Government is also planning to have a

National Park in the Gir. The advice of the Regional Secretary

has been invited in this connection, and a suggestion to set aside

at least 350 square miles of forest land for a Naticnal Park has been

made. This will allow sufficient areas free for cattle grazing and

afford Buffer or Preservation zones for the benefit of sportsmen.

Grassland Habiiat: Grassland without mixed deciduous forest

canopy comprises ideal habitat for Nuilgai, Blackbuck, Chinkara,

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 869

Bustard and small game. The grass and bushy cover supply them

with food and shelter. Since the tendency to plough grasslands has

grown, and owing to the encroachment of livestock upon grassland,

the above species and their habitat are threatened. Again, owing to

the ease with which these ‘lowland’ game animals are killed, they

are decreasing at an alarming rate, in spite of the existing laws and

regulations giving them protection.

It is evident that game species such as Blackbuck and Ghinieca

have been reduced to danger point in Saurashtra State. ‘And this

may well apply also to other States within the zone. It means: that

unless these species are given adequate protection, they are open to

the hazards of extirpation. As for forest land, the game within is

comparatively less reduced but is nowhere in abundance. In my

report of the rapid survey of wild life and game, 1950, in the States

of Rajasthan, Madhya Bharat, and Saurashtra, which are now

within my region, I had emphasized upon the need for protecting

wild life and game and left no stone unturned in advising and

supplying the States with useful information on National Parks,

Sanctuaries, Wild Life Boards and Wild Life Department, etc., etc.

Since then very little progress has been made, apart from what has

been done by the Bombay and Saurashtra States. It is unfortunate

that the Rajpramukhs and their Governments have neglected the

subject of Wild Life Preservation.

Rajasthan: The Keoladeo Ghana at Bharatpur, proposed as a

National Bird Sanctuary, was completely neglected, until a special

directive from our Prime Minister Shri Neat was sent. It is now

hoped, that during the coming season the nesting of water birds and

wintering of migratory wildfowl will be a success. This is a oe

which will attract bird-lovers from all over the world.

Siraska in Alwar, Sawai Madhopur in Jaipur, Jayasamand in

Udaipur and certain areas close to the Chambal in Kotah, should be

carefully re-surveyed for future wild life projects. Crocodiles in

the rivers of Rajasthan have been depleted and so require special

protection. The Ban-Bihar Game Preserve at Dholpur is a Biaee

where wild animals can be seen at close quarters.

Madhya Bharat: The State has excellent Sanctuaries: Shivpuri,

Barwaha, and Bhanpura. Game species like, Tiger, Leopard,

Sambar, Cheetal, Four-horned Antelope and Sloth Bear (Melursus

ursinus), can be seen at their best in these areas. The Madhya Bharat

Wild Life Act is (excellent and enforcement of the same is being’ carried

out in the normal way. Honorary game wardens should be appointed

in large numbers for the whole of the State, if game preservation is

to be effective. A report from the Chief Conservator of Forests indi-

cates, that wild life is being adequately protected and yet poaching

by persons in motor cars takes place sufficiently to affect the wild life

population. It is indeed alarming to receive reports of this nature,

especially when the Forest Department itself admits that the wild life

on the whole is decreasing. Consequently, immediate steps should be

taken to lessen poaching by motorists.

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The record of big game shot per annum during the last three

years in the State, furnished by the Forest Department, is given

below :—

Northern Circle 1951-2 1952-3 1953-4

1. Gwalior Div. wae aoe 4 i) eat

2. Sheopur ,, a aa 62 Nil 4

3. Shivpuri ,, abs ue 5 — 43

Ay Guna 99 eon coe 2 (ner) 11

73 20 58

Southern Circle

5. Nemawar Div. LA A -- he 7 55

6. Dhar 5 aes Ao — — —

7. Nimad an oy ee 15 13 =

8. Indore is ait nee 5 5 5

20 25 60

Grand Total ... 93 45 118

Strangely enough the above report does not give the names of

species killed!

Madhya Pradesh: The wild life of Madhya Pradesh is unique

and the State contains the following important large game species.,

Tiger (Panthera tigris), Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvaucelli), Buffalo

(Bubalus bubalis), Gaur (Bibos gaurus), Cheetal (Axis axis), Sambar

(Rusa umcolor), Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Chinkara (Gazella

bennetti), Chousingha (Tetraceros quadricornis), Barking Deer

(Muntiacus muntjac), Leopard (Panthera pardus). The Forest Depart-

ment is taking keen interest in preserving these animals. The meeting

of the Executive Committee of the Indian Board for Wild Life held at

Kanha, Banjar Game Reserve last October (1953) had a great:

stimulating effect on the people and the State Forest Department,

and the presence of the Union Minister, Dr. Punjabrao Deshmukh,

and State Forest Minister at the meeting was cordially welcomed.

Future National Parks are being planned. ‘Areas in the old Bastar

State have great wild lite potential. ,The best areas are in fact

Nature Reserves which could be turned into National Parks or

Sanctuaries where historical places and the wild life characteristic of

the State could be viewed in almost luxury.

Vindhya Pradesh: The State has preserved much of its wild life

in spite of the need for scientific wild life management. Reports

indicate that there are no special problems affecting wild life. The

State Wild Life Board is being set up.

Ajmer: The position of wild life preservation in the State is un-

satisfactory and a special inquiry committee should be appointed

immediately to go into the matter. |

Kutch: The vast dry area of Kutch lends itself ideally for wild

life preservation, though game species are on the decrease at present

Owing to military occupation and general lack of interest. Special

\ —s+

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA Sti

measures to protect the Great Indian Bustard (Choriolis mgriceps)

should be taken.

Kutch is. famous for the breeding place of the Flamingo

(Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum) the only place where these birds.

are found nesting in India. Because of the inaccessibility of the

site of the breccia colony, the species is well protected naturally.

Any special measures to afford the nesting area greater protection

by artificial means would probably endanger Ne. birds’ breeding.

Flamingo prefer complete seclusion from human interference and this.

is W ae they already have in Kutch. Kutch also contains the Onager

or Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur). ‘These animals are found in

fairly large numbers and their range reaches the borders of Northern

Saurashtra. At present, the species is well protected.

Bhopal: The Bhopai State has heen fortunate in having proper

regulations governing its wild life policy. I am glad to state that, the

game preserves there, seem to be well managed on the whole, although,

game of the larger kinds may not be as numerous as in the past.

The preservation and shooting of wild life in Bhopal is regulated

under the Bhopal Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act No

31t of 1930 and various notifications issued thereunder ‘and the

revised shooting rules of 1951.

In all respects, Bhopal offers good shooting to sportsmen with

camera or rifle, as it contains almost all game species, both large

and small, such as are usually found on the Malwa Plateau. The

total area of Reserved Forest is about 1,254 square miles, which

is divided into two divisions, Eastern and. Western, with areas of

657 and 597 square miles respectively.

ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXISTING LEGISLATION

Bombay and Saurashtra have, as mentioned earlier, made their

own Wild Life ‘Acts known as the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild

Birds Protection Act, 1951 and the Saurashtra Wild Animals.

and Wild Birds Protection Act XXXII of 1952. The Saurashtra

Act has been amended as advised by the State Wild Life

Advisory Board. This will make the Act one of the best in India.

The State Board in its second meeting have recommended ‘Protected

Areas’ for saving Chinkara and .Blackbuck especially, and each

district will have two such areas each for the safety of the species.

The Grey Hornbill has been declared a protected bird; but I fear

that this measure is too late. The same might be said in the case

of the Great Indian Bustard; however, some birds are still to be

seen. In the Saurashtra Wild Animals and Wild Birds Act, the

word ‘Natural’ (Kill) in Section 17 has been removed; and certain

Sections irrelevant to local conditions have also been eliminated,

eg, 40, 42, 43 as they refer to ivory of Elephants. Moreover,

Sloth Bears, Tigers and Barking Deer have been deleted frony

Schedule No. II and III, as these animals are not found in Saurashtra.

The Act is excellent but the enforcement appears to be lacking..

There are no restrictions on the movements of nomadic tribes, who-

cause havoc to wild life. However, it is gratifying to state that

‘872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 52

partridges and resident waterfowl are on the increase, while the hare

is definitely on the decrease. Strict measures by the Bombay State

are being enforced by the Wild Life Preservation Officer and poach-

ing of game species is being checked. Co-operation by Honorary

Game Wardens is forthcoming. In order that the law be entorced

effectively, State departments such as Police, Forest and Revenue

should take a keener interest in seeing that regulations like Close

Season, etc., are observed. The Military, particularly, are the

greatest offenders of shooting regulations and certain areas of wild

life abundance have been completely ruined by them.

If any Wild Life Act is to be effective, the magistrates and

judicial councillors should fully understand and realise the importance

of wild life as a National Asset and law-breakers should be heavily

punished. ‘From information gathered from various States, it

appears that there is not enough co-operation from State Departments

or from the public for stamping out indiscriminate killing of game

and for enforcing the existing laws pertaining to wild life protection.

In view of this, it can be said that in most States game, on the

whole, is decreasing in spite of legislation and rules and regulations

prohibiting unlawful killing of wild life. In the Saurashtra Wild

Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1952, Section 50 (1) reads

as follows :—

‘Defence of life and property. Subject to the provisions of

Sections 38 to 4o (both inclusive) nothing in this Act shall prohibit

the killing or capturing of any wild animal or wild bird by the occupier

of any land in defence of the standing crops or cattle on the land.’

Many lions are shot and wounded under this Section of which

little is known. There is no doubt that exception should be made

in the case of rare animal life, such as the Indian lion, if the species

is to De saved. .

Sanctuaries in the States have not been effectively managed and

wild life is being killed at a rapid rate. It is therefore, of vital

importance that the Government of India should nominate Committees

‘consisting of experts to tour all States to see for themselves the

position of wild life population and then advise the States on how

to manage their wild life resources. These Touring Committees

would organise, where necessary, ‘Game Censuses’, so as to estimate ~

the density of game population. J strongly emphasize the impor-

tance of having Touring Committees, which may actually see or

investigate on the spot how wild life is managed, and whether it is

given the necessary protection or not.

In Saurashtra, by individual effort a series of 16 mm. colour

films depicting wild life in natural surroundings have been produced

to inculcate interest in the public towards wild life preservation.

In spite of repeated warnings of wild life depletion the progress

made for protecting game species has been painfully slow, and in

‘some cases much too late. However, if even now other States

were to follow in the footsteps of Bombay and Saurashtra, they

would gain considerably in protecting their wild life before it vanishes

completely. I have come to the conclusion that, it is essential for

the States to inaugurate ‘Protected Areas’ where Sanctuaries in the

WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA 873

strict sense, cannot be established, as early as possible and, with the

aid of the Central Government, create National Parks immediately.

In the interests of State Governments to ensure that their wild

life is adequately protected and that areas of Sanctuaries or Pre-

serves are being managed satisfactorily, I even suggest District

Wild Life Committees, consisting of the following persons:

Collector, District Superintendent of Police, Divisional Forest

Officer and one unolficial Honorary Game Warden. This team could

tour important areas together and assess the wild life population of

the district, from time to time. There is no doubt that this sort of

committee would create much interest in the public as well as gain

knowledge of local wild life. conditions. So far, much of the

effective steps to protect wild life have been taken on paper and few

persons really know the actual position of game and wild life

population in the States. If this is to be achieved, then, the

answer I believe is in forming ‘Touring Wild Life Committees’

appointed by the States and by the centre.

HABITS AND HABITAT OF SOME COMMON SPIDERS

FOUND IN WESTERN INDIA

T. V. SUBRAHMANIAM

(With sixteen text figures)

The Tetragnathidae and Argiopidae, with which this paper deals,

are two large families of orb-weaving spiders under Arachnomorphae.

In these families we come across several interesting and curious

genera which present great variation in size, shape, coloration and

habits. Some species are so small that without a lens nothing can

be made of them. On the other hand there is the well-known Giant

Wood Spider (Nephila maculata) whose body length measures more

than two inches. Most of the members weave plain, circular snares

suspended vertically, obliquely, or horizontally among plants and

shrubs or between branches of trees. These orb-webs vary consider-.

ably in size and make-up in the different genera. Some webs are

small with a few radii and spirals; some are large, ornamented in

the centre or along the radii with silken lace-work and zig-zag lines

(Argiope); some have a diametrical line of debris (Cyclosa) and

some are perfect domes with accessory reinforcements and suspensions

(Cyrtophora). Some genera, e.g., Avaneus, Tetragnatha, etc., are

nocturnal in habits, whereas Argiope, Cyrtophora, Nephila, Leucauge,

etc. remain in their webs permanently and get away from them only

when disturbed. Then there are the forms like Nephila where sexual

dimorphism (disparity in the size of sexes) is greatly pronounced.

There are long-legged forms and_ short-legged ones. There are

smooth-skinned, prettily coloured species and also those with hard

integuments drawn into spines, tubercles and prominences. Alto-

gether in view of such wide variations the collection of Tetragnathids

and Argiopids is difficult in some cases and easy in others.

Under Tetragnathidae and Argiopidae the more important genera

that are commonly found in Bombay and other districts in Western

India (including Cochin and Travancore) are:—

TETRAGNATHIDAE ARGIOPIDAE

1. Tetragnatha 1. Nephila

2. Argiope

2. Orsinome 3. Cyrtophora

4. Cyctosa

Beene 5. Araneus

6. Herennia

4. Leucauge 7. Ordgarius

8. Gasteracantha

Tetragnathidae

Tetragnathids are moisture-loving spiders and in general structure

and habits agree with each other. They are found in large numbers.

among plants and hedges especially on the vegetative growths

SOME COMMON SPIDERS IN’ WESTERN INDIA Sane

fringing pools, tanks and wells and among grass and herbage growing

ging p ) Ss FS Ss

in water-logged localities.

Genus ZETRAGNATHA

The extraordinarily developed chelicerae, the cylindrical abdomen

and the long, slender legs stretched’ fore and aft in linear fashion

—help us to detect this genus. Members are generally nocturnal:

the spider leaves its orb-web during the day and hides on the under-

side of a contiguous leaf or grass-blade. At dusk, however, it comes

out of its hiding place, repairs and reinforces the web with fresh

threads and occupies the centre.

There are about ten species of Tetragnatha recorded from India

and the following are those commonly found in Cochin and other

Western Indian districts :—

Tetragnatha gracilis Stolicz.

ns mackenziei Gravely

we mandibulata Walck.

A cochinensis Gravely

i viridorufa Gravely

The disposition of the eyes, the nature of the chelicerae and the

arrangement of the spines over them vary widely in the different

species and are of taxonomical value.

T. gracilis has its lateral eyes prominent and the fangs and

mandibles comparatively short. The total length (carapace plus

abdomen) does not exceed 12 mm. Members are common in jungles

and even during the dry months of April and May they are found

in large numbers on the withering twigs of garden plants. One

peculiar habit of this species is that it constructs its web on either

side of a small twig, the twig itself forming a diametrical reinforcement

of the web (fig. 1). The colour of the spider invariably matches that

N),

Fic. 1. Tetragnatha gracilis.

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 52

of the twig and it is difficult to spot the creature when it sits stretched

along the twig. But as these spiders are chiefly nocturnal they are

found very active towards sunset repairing the old or constructing

new webs around the small terminal branches of plants. It appears

that this species prefers plants with sparse leaves to those with thick

foliage for the construction of the webs.

In T. mackenziei the abdomen is greyish and carapace and legs

yellowish green.

T. mandibulata is another common species found on plants over-

hanging pools and tanks. Members generally hide under grass blades

or along twigs, stretching their legs in the characteristic tetragnathid

fashion. Fully grown specimens measure 13 mm. The fangs are

well-developed and provided with two small teeth. The general

colour is brownish yellow.

T. cochinensis has a slender but long body measuring about

12 mm.

T. wiridorufa 1s a nocturnal species found among leaves and twigs

of jungle trees. The abdomen is long and tubular, more or less

squarish in cross-section. The sides of abdomen are coloured green

whereas the dorsal side and legs are reddish brown. Males and

females do not differ much in size. While mating they grasp each

other by their chelicerae. The female tucks her abdomen towards

her mate while the latter injects the sperms into her orifice applying

his right and left palpal organs alternately during the act of

copulation.

Genus KUCTA

Eucta javana Thorell is a common species found hiding under

plantain leaves. It has a pair of weakly toothed chelicerae, long,

slender legs and a very remarkable abdomen produced behind the

spinnerets into a long tapering ‘tail’ (fig. 2). Ariamnes similans

recorded from Calcutta’ resembles E. javana in general shape and

architecture but its tail and abdomen are of a prevailing green colour

with silvery and yellowish brown markings. The general colour of

E, javana is pale brown.

Genus ORSINOME

Orsinome marmorea Pocock is an interesting species resembling

E, javana but with a rounded abdomen. In Cochin, members are com-

monly found in their horizontal webs attached to rocks by the side of

fountains and streams. About the habits of these spiders Dr. Gravely

gives the following account :—

‘O. marmorea spins large and more or less horizontal webs

between rocks above rapidly running streams at an altitude of about

1,500 ft. in the Cochin Ghats. Several webs are usually grouped

together: often they are stretched above waterfalls. When the

spiders are disturbed they fall into the water, which washes them

" Biology of Spiders, T. H. Savory.

SOME COMMON SPIDERS IN. WESTERN INDIA 877

away. When they reach a rock they cling to it, and remain an inch

or two below the surface till danger is over. /Males and females were

sometimes found together in the middle of a web with their heads.

in contact. Presumably they were pairing but I had not time to

investigate this fully’.

Genus LZUCAUGE (ARGYROEPEIRA)

Genus Leucauge like Tetragnatha includes several interesting

species measuring 6 to 12 mm. in length. All of them possess a

row of long hairs on the femur of the 4th pair of legs. The body

is beautifully coloured with shining silver over a greenish black back-

ground. ‘They are chiefly grass spiders building oblique or horizontal

webs and sitting at the centre in an inverted position. They are mostly

diurnal, and their mating habits are similar to those of Tetragnatha.

Cocoons are long and egg shaped and are attached to leaf blades

or leaves on which the spider sits. :

The following species are recorded from India by Dr. Gravely :—-

Leucauge fastigata (Simon)

tessellata (Thorell)

celebesiana (Walck.)

ventralis (Thorell)

culta (Cambr.)

decorata (Blackwall)

bengalensis Gravely

Of these the first four are fully described in the Fauna of British

India. L. fastigata has its anterior end of the abdomen conically

elevated whereas in L. celebesiana it: is the posterior end that is.

conically produced beyond the spinnerets.

Fic. 2. Eucta javana. Fic. 3. Lewcauge decorata. Fic, 4. Abdomen of L.

decorata. Fic. 5.;(a) Abdomen of L. culta. Fic. 5. (b)‘Abdomen of? L. bengalensis..

In Bombay ‘L. decorata is found in large numbers in shady places

among bushes and herbage. The abdomen possesses a pair of

shoulders or tubercles of black colour at the anterior end. The

posterior end of the abdomen is also black. Rest of the dorsal side,.

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. “SOCIBTY, Vol. 52

and the two sides are silvery with a few longitudinal black stripes.

In fresh specimens the silver tint is sometimes mixed with an

additional pubescent tinge of yellow giving it a golden appearance.

On the ventral side the anterior portion is bright green and posteriorly

there are silver dots over a black background. Legs and carapace

are light green striped black at the joints. The spinnerets, the claws

and the hairs on the legs are black. Chelicerae are brownish

vellow.

Argiopidae

Genus NEPAILA

Genus Nephila- includes large-sized forms which are all inhabitants

of woods and jungles. Under this genus four species are recognised

Fic. 6. Nephila maculata (female). Fic. 7. Nephila maculata (maie).

Fic. 8.Nephila malabarensis (female).

SOME COMMON SPIDERS IN WESTERN INDIA 879

but one commonly found in western Indian jungles, especially during

the rainy months, is Nephila maculata or the Giant Wood Spider.

The female of this species is verily a giant among spiders, with a

body measuring more than 2 inches in length and { inch in breadth.

When the legs are stretched fore and aft they cover a length of about

6 to 7 inches. The abdomen is an elongate, truncated cone, black

in colour variegated by longitudinal yellow stripes on the dorsal

side and yellow or orange patches on the ventral side. The

spinnerets are prominent and form a brown rosette. Above this

rosette a deep red dot is present. Legs are also black decorated

with yellow dots at the joints. Mandibles are brownish black or

reddish. Males are insignificantly small and dull coloured. In no

other group of spiders is the disparity in size between the sexes so

greatly marked. The web of the female is a giant wheel with a

hub, radii and spirals, mathematically woven within strong boundary

lines attached between trees. The spider generally sits in the centre

of the web. To catch a Nephila is not very difficult. With a long

hook pull the web and down comes the spider. Being a slow

runner it can be seized in the folds of a kerchief and dropped into

the spirit jar. Regarding the mating and other habits of N.

maculata readers are advised to refer to the beautiful and elaborate

account given by Col. R. W. Hingston in the pages of the Society’s

Journal (Vols. 28 and 29).

N. malabarensis Walck. is common in Malabar but rare in Bombay.

This species in general appearance and structure (see fig. 8) stands

between N. maculata and Araneus. The total length of this species

is only 25 mm. The abdomen is oval with orange or yellow dots.

Spinnerets stout and black and carapace is slightly raised and reddish

in colour. Sternum V-shaped and yellow. Legs—femur and tibia

yellowish, tarsi blackish covered with fine hairs, joints striped black

and brown. The first pair of legs about four times as long as the

carapace whereas in the case of N. maculata it is about six times as

long. Members construct expansive orb-webs obliquely suspended

at the angles of tree-branches or on the exterior angles of country-

houses. Like Araneus, during daytime they remain concealed but

at dusk come out to the centre of the web. The webs are permanent

structures not renewed every night as in the case of Avraneus.

Genus ARGIOPE

The most important genus under Argiopidae is Argiope which

gives its name to the whole family. Some eight species are recorded

from India and they differ little in their habits. They are found

in large numbers soon after the rainy season, sitting in the centre

of their splendid orb-webs head downwards (fig. 9). The webs

are vertically suspended over fences and vegetation. The spider

stretches its legs in the form of a letter X along four rays of the

web. At least two of these rays are ornamented with flossy zig-

zag bands. The size and shape of the abdomen and the colour

design on it vary with different species although as a rule in all

cases the abdomen can be described as truncate in front and tuber-

culated at the sides posteriorly.

880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

In A. pulchella, which is the commonest species met with in

Bombay, the abdomen is pentangular and banded alternately with brown

and yellow. In A. catenulata the abdomen is truncate oval and orna-

mented with round spots instead of bands.

lic. 9. Argiope pulchella and its web.

It appears that the colours of Argiope have a definite warning

significance as these spiders are seldom found pecked at by

birds. Once I noticed a king-crow pecking at the white zig-zag silk

arranged along the radii of the web, probably mistaking it for one of

the legs of the spider. After this act, I found the bird looking: dis-

appointed and morose and cleaning its beak several times against a

tree trunk for about five minutes. The sticky threads must have

caused this discomfort and the bird did never make a further attempt

to catch the spider. ;

The male Argiope is considerably smaller than the female and is

of a uniform brown colour. One or two males are often seen in the

centre of their small webs built along the upper outskirts of the

female web.

The cocoon of an Argiope is somewhat pentagonal in shape and

slightly yellowish in colour. It is generally attached to the upper

side of the web. It takes about three weeks for the eggs to hatch.

Genus CYRTOPHORA

The commonest genus of Agriopidae, and that which is most

abundant on trees and vegetation, seems to be Cyrtophora. This

genus is closely allied to Araneus, (and has been grouped under

Avaneus by Pocock), but differs from the latter in some structural

details and habits. Avaneus, as a rule, has a round or oval abdomen

and legs normal and strong. In Cyrtophora the abdomen is longer

But it could be that this king-crow was only collecting cobwebs for draping

the exterior of its nest !—Eps.

SOME COMMON SPIDERS IN WESTERN INDIA 88h:

than wide and provided with four tubercles on the back. The abdomen

is beautifully decorated with silver markings on a greenish black

background, and slightly produced beyond the spinnerets. The legs.

are thinner and longer than in the case of Araneus and, further, they

are coloured green. Avaneus is nocturnal in habits and its snare

is a plain orb-web woven afresh every evening and destroyed early :

in the morning. Cyrtophora, on the other hand, is diurnal and its

web is a complicated structure of a permanent nature.

Although two or three species of Cyrtophora are recorded,

C. ciccatrosa (fig. 10) is the commonest of them all. Members of this.

Fic. 10. Cyrtophora ciccatrosa and its web.

species are of gregarious habits, 1.e. several of them build their

webs in the same place, each member with its individual web remaining

a separate entity. The web of C. ciccatrosa can be described as a

perfect dome of fine mesh-work suspended horizontally in the midst

of a clumsy, irregular tangle of supporting threads. The irregular

threads are woven first and over these the radii of the orb are built

and then the spirals. From time to time inter-radials and inter-spirals

are laid which account for the fine and closely woven appearance of

the web. The work of raising the centre of the web is done before

the completion of the spirals. Cyrtophoran webs are described by

Dr. Gravely thus:

‘Members of the genus Cyrtophora are remarkable for the

extreme complexity of their webs which are probably more elaborate

than those of any other spider. Instead of all the radial strands

extending outwards from the hub, with interspaces consequently

much wider near the periphery than near the centre, additional

strands are inserted so as to produce a web of exceedingly fine

and uniform mesh. Nor is this all, for these webs are supported

in a horizontal position by an extensive network with the help

of which the centre of the circle is more or less greatly raised

above the periphery, thus forming a sort of tent or dome.’

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The spider remains at the centre of the dome in an inverted

position. The cocoons are egg-shaped. Eggs are laid in a smail

silk sheet somewhat greenish in colour, about an inch long and 4 inch

wide. The sheet is rolled in the form of an oval cocoon and

suspended vertically right above the centre of the dome. Sometimes

several cocoons are noticed serially suspended one above the other,

but these do not belong to one and the same spider. The lowest

one is the property of the spider living in the central web. Each

of the other cocoons is owned by the other individuals living in

separate webs by the side of the central web. Why the other

spiders should deposit their cocoons in the same place where the

first spider has placed hers, baffles imagination. This instinct of

Cyrtophora does not appear to have been satisfactorily explained, and

forms a suitable subject for closer observation and study.

Genus CYCLOSA

Genus Cyclosa includes several small species measuring 4 inch

and less in length with colour varying from jet black to fine silver.

They have all the characteristics of typical Argiopids but can be

distinguished by the raised nature of the caput separated by a

groove, the two or more prominences on the abdomen and a line

of debris arranged diametrically across their vertically suspended orbs

(figs. 11 and 12). Their webs are common in bushes, sometimes

Fic. 11. Cyclosa confraga (above). Cyclosa confraga profile (below).

Fig. 12. Cyclosa confraga and its web.

SOME COMMON SPIDERS IN WESTERN INDIA 883

near the webs of other spiders. In Malabar their webs are a common

feature among the foliage of mango trees.

Genus ARANEUS

oT : : ie x / / y Neva

I'he immense genus Araneus (=Epeira) includes Many common

forms for the most part more or less nocturnal and having the same

general form and coloration as the common European garden Spider

Fic. 13. Araneus bilunifer over its cocoon

of the same genus.’ The colour is often variable, the structure oi

the vulva affording the safest means of identification. Members are

common among plants and herbs. The best time to collect them

is at dusk when they come out to spin their webs. With sunrise

they dismantle the radials and spirals and keep a few radials, the

hub and the boundary lines alone intact. I have several times

noticed Avaneus eating their webs and on having referred this

matter to the Zoological Survey of India received some useful comments

which I reproduce below :—

‘Comstock in his paper on “‘Evolution of the webs of spiders’’

(Annals of Ent. Soc. of America, Vol. v, p. 9) observes that in

certain members of Argiopidae the entire orb is replaced frequently

only the outer foundation lines being a permanent investment.

He, however, does not explain why the spiders should break up

their webs. Hingston in his “‘A Naturalist in Himalaya’’ says

that he observed Epeirid spiders eat their own snares; while doing

so they swallowed all the minute insects which had got entangled

in the webs but were apparently too minute to attract the attention

of the spiders at the time of their entanglement.’

During daytime Araneus remains concealed in a crevice, curled-

up leaf or a special shelter built by it near its orb-web. The cocoon

is white and flat, and generally placed near its hiding place. The

mother invariably sits over its cocoon presumably to keep it warm

and as a protection.

Genus HERENN/IA

Herenma is another arboreal genus distinguished by the flat penta-

gonal abdomen with sharply defined lateral edges. H. ornatissima

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

is the common species found in Malabar. It is a_ beautiful

spider like Argiope. The abdomen is_ yellowish, ornamented

with black spots. The carapace is blackish with yellowish margin.

Legs are long and yellowish. Its orb-web is generally spun close

to tree-trunks.

Genus ORDGARIUS

Members of this genus have habits similar to those of the above

or Argiope. ‘The abdomen in this case is very prominent with a

large protuberance on either side. The carapace is convex, armed

above with la few symmetrically placed tooth-like tubercles. Two

species have been recorded: O. hobsoni and O. sexspinosus. In

the former the posterior end of the abdomen is rounded and in the

Jatter it is tubercular and conically produced.

Genus GASTERACANTHA

Genus Gasteracantha includes medium-sized spiders easily recog-

nised by their peculiarly-shaped abdomen covered with hard

integument, and comparatively short legs. Abdomen varies in shape,

and the hard integument is drawn into spines of varying sizes in

the different species. Some ten species of Gasteracantha are recorded,

and in habits they all agree with each other. G. brevispina (fig. 116),

G.remifera (fig. 14) and G. arcuata (fig. 15) are very common in

Fic. 14. Gasteracantha remifera. Fic. 15 Gastevacantha arcuata.

Fic. 16. Gasteracantha brevispina.

Malabar. They build their small orb-webs in a vertical plane among

low plants and sit in them throughout the day. The spines of G.

arcuata and G. remifera are exceptionally long. Their dull colour

-and the long spines and integument protect these spiders from their

enemies.

SOME, COMMON SPIDERS IN WESTERN INDIA 885

Based on the above study of the characters and habits of

Tetragnathidae and Argiopidae, the following general remarks can

be made :—

1. The vast majority of the genera are arboreal and moisture-

loving. Naturally they abound in vegetation growing by the side

of lakes, rivers, tanks and wells. Their population shows a definite

increase soon after the dreary monsoon months.

‘When the flowers of the field awake in sprmg and carpet our

woods and downs with their beauty the little folk of spiderland awake

with them, true children of the sunlight that they are and the busy

round of life begins afresh’ (R. A. Ellis).

2. Some genera remain in their webs throughout day and night.

Others are nocturnal and come out of their hiding place only at

dusk. So mornings and evenings are the best time for collecting

these spiders. |

3. The diurnal varieties are highly protected either by suitable

protective colours matching with the environment, or by bright

warning colours, or power of mimicry or by armour and armaments

like hard integuments, tubercles and spines. In some cases the

webs are also highly protective. When disturbed, dropping to the

ground or shamming death are also protective methods noticed among

several genera. They are poor runners compared with Hersilids

or Lycosids.

4. Nocturnal species are generally less brightly coloured than

the ‘diurnal ones, but have stronger appendages with spines and

bristles. When at rest they fold their legs in a peculiar fashion

thereby successfully concealing themselves from enemies. Some

dismantle their webs during day time.

5. Cocoons are suspended and not carried by the spider. In

several genera the eggs.hatch in the course of 15 to 30 days aftez

they are laid.

REFERENCES

Ellis, R. A. (1912): Spiderland.

Gravely, F. H. (1915): Indian Insects, Myriapods, etc. Rec. Ind. Mus., Xi:

532-539.

— — — (1921): Some Indian Spiders of the Sub-family of Tetragnathinae.

Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii: 423-457.

— — — (1922): Common Indian Spiders. JBNHS, 28 (4).

Hingston, R. W. G. (1922-1923): Giant Wood Spider. JBNHS, 28 (3 & 4),

and 29 (1).

Subrahmanyam, T. V. (1936): Mating of Tetragnatha. JBNHS, 39 (1).

— — — (1937): About Spider Collection. JBNHS, 39 (2).

— — — (1938): Protective Adaptations among Some Indian Spiders. JBNHS,

40 (3).

te 1940): Some Indian Spiders—Their Season of Prosperity. JBNHS,

42, (1).

ge — (1953): Occurrence of Nephila malabarensis in Bombay. JBNHS, 54 (A).

Hermann Wiehle (1949): Vom Fanggewebe einheimischer Spinnen.

SOME BIRDS COLLECTED IN LANGTANG KHOLA,

RASUA GARHI DISTRICT, CENTRAL NEPAL

O. POLUNIN, M.A., F.L.S.

Charterhouse, Godalming, Surrey, England

North of Katmandu lies a group of mountains on the Nepal-Tibet

border called the Langtang Himal. A tributary of the Trisuli Gandak,

the Langtang Khola, cuts a deep valley into this mountain system

and runs in a north-easterly direction probably to the southern flank

of Gosainthan. An expedition under the leadership of H. W. Tilman

visited this area between June and September 1949. Botanical, and

geological collections and a photo-survey of the upper part of the

Langtang Khola were made (see Journal of the Royal Geographical

Society 1950, and Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 1950).

Between mid-August and mid-September ! made a small collection

of birds skins which are now deposited with the British Museum

(Nat. Hist.) and which are listed below. All field records included in

this list were made from notes taken between mid-August and mid-

September and do not refer to observations made at other times

during the expedition, except where otherwise stated.

Survey of India topo-sheet 71 H. Gosainkund. Nepal and Tibet,

(scale four miles to one inch) includes Langtang Khola from its

junction with Trisuli Gandak River up to an altitude of approximately

7,000 ft. A number of accessible lateral valleys and high ‘kharka’,

or summer grazings, were also within the collecting area.

The following are the main place names:

Khangjung—a village at approximately g,ooo ft. a.s.l.

Syarpagaon—a hamlet of a few houses at approximately

9,000 ft.

Langtang—a village of 20-30 houses at approximately

RIE CYOLO) IE.

Kyangjin Ghyang—a ‘kharka’ with a number of summer

herdsmen’s shelters and a small “gompa’.

Langsisa Kharka—a grazing at 14,000-15,000 ft.

Many of the birds listed were restricted, during the month

of observation, to certain types of vegetation, and it would therefore

be desirable to record the vegetational zones as they occurred in the

Langtang Khola.

‘Approximate altitude:

8,000 ft. Grassy slopes with scattered Pinus wallichianum,

Rhododendron arboreum and evergreen oaks; also thickets of mixed

scrub, probably maintained in this state by cutting and grazing.

Winter corn and maize were grown at this altitude.

g,000-11,000 ft. Fir forest, Abies webbiana, with bamboo under-

shrub; also maples, birch and Rhododendron barbatum.

10,000-11,000 ft. Open scrub (5-10 ft. high) with Berberis,

Rhododendron, Rosa, Cotoneaster, etc.; probably maintained in this

condition by cutting.

SOME BIRDS FROM LANGTANG KHOLA IN CENTRAL NEPAL 887

10,000-11,500 ft. Meadows and cultivation where corn, potatoes

and buckwheat were grown. The highest cuitivation lies at about

12,000 ft.

I1,000-13,500 ft. Birch forest, Betula utilis with Sorbus micro-

phylla abundant and Rhododendron campanulatum undershrub.

11,000-13,500 ft. Mixed shrub (2-5 ft. high) of dwarf Rhodo-

dendrons, Spiraea, Lonicera, Berberis, Potentilla, etc. ‘A number of

‘kharka’ lie between these altitudes.

12,000-16,000 ft. Low scrub (about I foot high) mainly composed

of Rhododendron anthopogon and Potentilla fruticosa. The highest

‘kharka’ lie at the upper range of this type of plant community.

14,000-17,000 ft. Open plant communities of alpine grassland,

stream sides, screes, moraines, ‘ablation valleys’, rock-faces, etc.

It is interesting to compare the list of birds from the Langtang

Khola with that compiled by B. E. Smythies during his journey in

a neighbouring region in September 1947’. It should, however

be noted that the conditions under which the two lists were compiled

differed considerably. Birds also recorded by Smythies are marked*

in the list below. In addition there are a number of cases where

the upper altitude limit of some Langtang birds are appreciably

higher than the upper limits given in the Fauna of British India.

These have also been included. The numbers against each species:

in the list refer to species numbers in the Fauna of British India,

Birds, Vol. 1-7, by Stuart Baker.

I am greatly indebted to Sir Norman Kinnear for his encourage-

ment and help in making this collection: he has kindly supplied me

with this list of identifications. I should also fike to thank Mr.

Salim Ali for his help.

7. Corvus macrorhynchus intermedius: Himalayan Jungle Crow.

One or two pairs about Langtang village and about habitations.

lower down the valley.

*22. Urocissa flavirostris flavirostris: Yellowbilled Blue Magpie.

Occasionally seen in heavy forest, particularly among evergreen

oaks and thick scrub. This bird was not seen in the birch forests.

or above 10,000 ft. It ranged between 8,500 and 10,000 ft. which

is higher than Smythies’s records.

#48, Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalayanus: Redbilled Chough.

Quite a common bird above the tree zone among rocky ground.

and low scrub country, from Langtang village upwards. Often

about kharkas in pairs or in small parties of up to 5 or 6.

*46. Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila: Himalayan Nutcracker.

Small parties up to 8 in number were occasionally seen hunting

for food in the birch and fir trees, up to 13,000 ft. Baker gives up

fo) 12,000" ht.

1 “Some birds of the Gandak-Kosi watershed, including the Pilgrim trail to the

sacred lake of Gosainkund.’ /BNHS, Vol. 41, 1948.

888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

59, Parus m. monticolus: Greenbacked ‘Tit.

Quite frequent among bushy country below Langtang village and

around Syarpagaon. Baker says up to 10,000 ft.

64. Parus ater aemodius: Himalayan Cole-Tit.

Generally formed mixed parties in the birch forests, with the

Rufousbellied Crested Tit and Willow Warblers, but it is less common

than either of these birds. It was not seen below 11,000 ft.

*65. Parus rubidiventris: Rufousbellied Crested Tit.

The commonest tit in the birch forests of Langtang. It occurs

between 10,500 and 13,000 ft. A very active bird.

+68. Parus d, dichrous: Brown Crested Tit.

Found in bushy country: a quiet and inconspicuous little bird.

Collected only at Langtang village and Kyangjin Ghyang.

77, Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei: Redheaded Tit.

Occasional parties of this bright little bird were seen in the

shrub country between Syarpagaon and Khangjung. I did not see

it in mixed parties with other Tits.

108. Sitta himalayensis: Whitetailed Nuthatch.

Quite a common bird in evergreen oak forests between 8,o00-

9,000 ft., also among Rhododendron arboreum scrub. Not observed

above this altitude.

137. Garrulax a, albogularis: Whitethroated Laughing Thrush.

Two small parties seen near Khangjung in heavy scrub.

140. lanthocincla o. ocellata; Whitespotted Laughing Thrush.

Three parties seen on the borders of forest in heavy bushy country

at about 9,000 ft. Not seen above this altitude; they are shy

retiring birds.

“161. Trochalopteron a, affine: Blackfaced Laughing Thrush.

162. Trochalopteron v. variegatum : Variegated Laughing Thrush.

These two Laughing Thrushes were the commonest and most

characteristic birds about the scrub round Langtang village. They

were found wherever there was adequate cover of mixed scrub

or rhododendron, ranging from about 10,000-13,500 ft. Small

parties would work through the bushes, flapping clumsily from

clump to clump and uttering their harsh many voiced ‘chatter’

continuously. 3

*171, Trochalopteron |. setifer: Nepalese Streaked Laughing Thrush.

A very common bird sneaking about low scrub round Syarpagaon,

and particularly about cultivated areas. Not seen above 11,000 ft.

or in heavy forest. It appears to occupy an altitude range below the

SOME BIRDS FROM LANGTANG KHOLA IN CENTRAL NEFAL. 889

two preceding species. This altitude is somewhat higher than that

usually recorded. A tame but restless bird with a great repertoire of

imitative sounds.

177. Grammatoptila s. striata: Striated Laughing Thrush.

One specimen collected at Dhunche, Trisuli River, at about

6,000 ft.

214. Pomatorhinus r, ruficollis: Nepal Rufousnecked Scimitar

Babbler.

A very secretive bird: collected in heavy bush around Khangjung

8,oo0 ft.: Baker gives up to 6,000 ft. It gave its position away

by a single monotonous call note.

220. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys haringtoni : Baker’s Rustycheeked

Scimitar Babbler.

Two specimens collected in heavy bush at Khangjung.

243. Pellorneum ruficeps mandelli: Mandelli’s Spotted Babbler.

One specimen collected at Nawakot, Trisuli River, at approxi-

mately 3,000 ft.

311. Leioptila c capistrata: Blackheaded Sibia.

Quite frequently seen in dense rhododendron forest, from

&,500-9,500 ft. Baker gives up to 8,ooo0 ft. A noisy and excitable

bird when disturbed.

*333. Siva s. strigula: Stripethroated Siva.

Occasionally seen among scrub between 9,coo-10,000 ft. Baker

says principally between 4,000 and 7,o00 ft. Not common as

observed by Smythies.

339. Yuhina g. gularis: Stripethroated Yuhina.

Two specimens collected, cne at pate, village and the other

at Syarpagaon among dense scrub.

342. Yuhina occipitalis; Slatyheaded Yuhina.

Collected among mixed rhododendron scrub above the fir forest

zone at about 10,000 ft.°

345. Ixulus f. flavicollis: Yellowheaded Ixulus.

One bird collected at Syarpagaon 9,000 ft. Baker gives up to

8,000 ft.

386. Microscelis p. psaroides; Himalayan Black Bulbul.

Small flocks seen in bushy country around Khangjung.

405. Molpastes I. leticogenys: Whitecheeked Bulbul.

Quite common among bushy ground around Khangjung, 8,000 ft.:

Baker says up to 7,000 ft.

890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

"448. Certhia familiaris mandellii : Tree-Creeper.

Occasionally seen in birch forest between 11,000-13,000 ft. Not

seen at lower altitudes.

457. Tichodroma muraria; Wall-Creeper.

One bird collected from earth bank above stream near Langtang

Village.

“458. Troglodytes troglodytes nipalensis; Nepal Wren.

Common among large boulders partially covered with moss and

among mountain ‘talus’ above the tree zone between 13,500 and

16,500 ft. Baker gives up to 13,000 it. but Smythies records it at

£6,000 ft. - Often the only small bird to be seen on some stony wastes.

Spends most of its time hunting for food under or between boulders.

471. Pnoepyga a. albiventer: Scalybreasted Wren.

Occasionally seen among moss-covered boulders in heavy birch

forest at about 13,000 ft.

476. Tesia c. castaneocoronata: Chestnut-headed Wren.

One specimen collected among bamboo thicket in fir forest at

13,000 ft. Baker says as high up as 11,000 ft.

484. Larvivora brunnea: Indian Blue Chat.

One specimen collected at Syarpagaon.

491. Hodgsonius ph. phoenicuroides ; Hodgson’s Shortwing.

Occasionally seen in bushy ground and heavy rhododendron

scrub on edge of forest. Collected between 11,000 and 13,000 ft.

It was quiet and retiring in its habits.

494. Saxicola caprata bicolor: North Indian Stonechat.

One bird collected near Dhaibungkot, Trisult River at about

FSO ith.

495. Saxicola torquata: Collared Bushchat.

Two specimens collected : one in the Langtang valley at 14,000 ft.,

and the other at Dhaibungkot at 7,000 ft., in the second week of

September.

*502. Oreicola f. ferrea: Western Dark Grey Bushchat.

A common bird in bushy country ranging from Khangyjung to

Langtang village. Commonest about steep terraced hillsides at

Syarpagaon.

*525. Microcichla s. scouleri: Little Forktail.

Very occasionally seen where the track crosses a streamlet. Only

one specimen collected between Syarpagaon and Langtang in the

forest area. Not seen above fir forest.

SOME BIRDS FROM LANGTANG KHOLA IN CENTRAL NEFAL 891

526. Phoenicurus frontalis; Bluefronted Redstart.

One specimen collected near Langtang village.

532. Phoenicurus ochruros rufiventris: Indian Redstart.

Several specimens collected about Langtang village. Unfor-

tunately this species was not clearly distinguished in the field, but it

was probably the bird that was common among the low scrub and

boulders up to about 14,500 ft.

*534. Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus: Whitecapped Redstart.

Quite a common bird above the tree zone; always to be found

near water. Altitude range from about 10,000 to 15,000 it., and

generally to be seen in small parties of from two to five.

*535. Rhyacornis f, fuliginosa ; Plumbeous Redstart.

Four specimens collected, including one juvenile. Occasionally

seen about rocks and boulders at the edge of the Langtang River

between 10,000 and 12,000 ft.

*546. Tarsiger c. chrysaeus: Golden Bush Robin.

Only occasionally seen above Langtang village and above

Langsisa Kharka at about 14,500 ft. Smythies describes it as one

of the commonest and most characteristic birds above the treerline.

It is obviously much less frequent in the Langtang valley.

549. lanthia cyanura rufilata: Redflanked Bush Robin.

Frequently seen in, and about the edges of birch forest and

rhododendron scrub at about 13,000 ft. Often retiring into thick

scrub when disturbed but always giving its position away by a sharp

’ throaty ‘prot’.

606. Monticola cinclorhyncha: Blueheaded Rock Thrush.

One specimen collected on the bushy hillsides at Syarpagaon.

614. Myiophoneus caeruleus temminckii: Himalayan Whistling

Thrush.

A characteristic and common bird about the meadows at

Langtang village and Langsisa Kharka. It was also quite common

in the mixed oak and fir forest in heavily wooded country. Altitude

range between 9,000 and 11,000 ft. in the Langtang valley. Smythies

did not record this species.

628. Prunella s. strophiata: Rufousbreasted Accentor.

This bird is reminiscent of the European Hedge-Sparrow in

behaviour and appearance. Smail parties quite frequently seen

feeding among the weed plants, such as docks and Polygonum

species, around the summer grazings between 12,oco and 14,000 ft.

632. Hemichelidon sibirica cacabata: Sooty Flycatcher.

Two specimens collected at Syarpagaon.

892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

636. Siphia s. strophiata: Orangegorgeted Flycatcher.

A locally common bird in clearings in the oak and fir forests at

10,000 ft. It was often to be seen among rhododendron bushes

‘bobbing’ its tail up and down to expose a white rump while at the

same time it uttered a sharp churring scund.

645. Cyornis t, tricolor: Slaty Blue Flycatcher.

One bird collected in forest clearing at 10,000 ft.

649. Cyornis melanoleuca: Indian Little Pied Flycatcher.

A shy little bird which was occasionally seen among the clumps

of thick bush and low scrub around Syarpagaon and Khangjung.

Stoparola melanops styani: Verditer Flycatcher.

Three specimens of this beautiful bird were taken in shrub country

at Syarpagaon.

699. Chelidorhynx hypexanthum: Yellowbellied Flycatcher.

Two specimens collected between 12,000 and 13,000 ft.

712. Lanius n. nigriceps: Indian Blackheaded Shrike.

One specimen from Khangjung.

714. Lanius schach nepalensis: Rufousbacked Shrike.

One of the commonest birds of the Langtang valley above the

forest zone from 10,000 to 14,000 ft. Baker says ascends the

Himalaya up to 8,ooo ft. It inhabits bushy ground, particularly

willow thickets among boulders. It is a noisy conspicuous bird.

738. Pericrocotus b. brevirostris: Indian Shortbilled Minivet.

Small flocks of this beautiful bird were seen feeding among the

tops of evergreen oak trees around Syarpagaon and Khangjung.

*Phylloscopus spp. Wuillow-Warblers were perhaps the most

numerous of all birds in bushy country at altitudes ranging from the —

lowest in the collecting area, i.e. 8,000 ft., to the highest scrub at

14,000 ft. They were particularly abundant in birch forests and

clearings in this vegetational zone.

The following three species were identified from specimens:

‘ Phylloscopus reguloides. Crowned Willow Warbler.

Forest verge 10,000 ft.

863, Phylloscopus maculipennis: Greyfaced Willow-Warbler.

Collected between Langtang and Syarpagaon.

*864. Phylloscopus p. pulcher: Nepal Orangebarred Willow-Warbler

Collected at Langtang village and Kyangjin.

889. Seicercus b, burkii: Blackbrowed Flycatcher-Warbler.

One specimen collected at 9,000 ft.

SOME BIRDS FROM LANGTANG KHOLA IN CENTRAL NEPAL 893

891. Seicercus x. xanthoschistos: Greyheaded Warbler.

Two specimens collected at Syarpagaon at 9,o0o0 ft. Baker gives.

6,000 ft. limit.

923. Suya c. criniger:; Brown Hill Warbler.

Quite frequent among grassy slopes and cultivated terraces from.

about 9,000 ft. down to Rasua Garhi (6,000 ft.) in the Trisuli vailey..

Baker gives up to 7,000 ft. ;

1024. Uroloncha striata acuticauda: Hodgson’s Munia.

One specimen collected at Dhaibungkot, Trisuli River.

1044. Pyrrhula erythrocephala: Redheaded Bullfinch. |

Quite frequently seen among the birch forests, feeding on the

SccdspOMmEn em DInch) -warallitude pubictweenmnn| 2,000) sand | ts,ooom mite

Occasionally seen in more open bushy country at these altitudes.

Baker gives limit of 12,000 ft.

- 1052. Propyrrhula subhimachala: Redheaded Rosefinch.

One bird collected at 13,000 ft. Baker gives limit of 10,000 ft.

*1055. Carpodacus t. thura: Whitebrowed Rosefinch.

One bird killed by porter in disused hut at 13,000 ft. on the

descent from the Ganga La in the Sun Kos: watershed.

*1059. Carpodacus p. pulcherrimus: Beautiful Rosefinch.

Two females collected at about 12,000 ft. in the Langtang valley.

1062. Carpodacus rhodochrous: Pinkbrowed Rosefinch.

One specimen collected at 11,000 ft.

1063. Carpodacus rhodopeplus: Spottedwinged Rosefinch.

One bird collected at Kyangjin.

1069. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus: Indian Rosefinch.

Two specimens collected, one at Langtang village and the other

at Kyangjin.

1076. Procarduelis nepalensis; Dark Rosefinch.

This was probably the commonest of the Rosefinches in the

Langtang valley. It was collected between 10,000 and 11,000 it.

1078. Procarduelis rubescens : Blanford’s Rosefinch.

One specimen collected at about 9,000 ft. on the Dhukpu ridge

running southwards from the Ganga La in the Sun Jsosi watershed.

*1089. Hypacanthis s. spinoides: Himalayan Greenfinch.

A common bird often seen in small parties in open scrub and in

culiivated areas from lowest locality in the collecting area to 11,000 ft.

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

1102. Passer montanus malaccensis: Tree-Sparrow.

About houses in the Trisuli valley at 6,000 ft.

1115. Fringillauda n. nemoricola: Hodgson’s Mountain Finch.

An inconspicuous bird occasionally seen among rather open

patches of scrub at Langtang village and Syarpagaon.

1139. Melophus melanicterus: Crested Bunting.

One specimen collected near Dhaibungkot (6,000 ft.) in the

Trisuli valley.

Motacilla alba subsps: White Wagtail.

One specimen collected at Syarpagaon. Frequent about grazings

and streamlets, 11,000-14,000 ff.

1169. Motacilla alba baicalensis: Swinhoe’s White Wagtail.

One specimen from Syarpagaon.

1174. Motacilla cinerea caspica: Eastern Grey Wagtail.

Two specimens collected, one at Langtang at 13,500 ft. and one

at 11,500 ft. Baker says up to 12,000 ft.

1194. Anthus striolata godlewskii: Blyth’s Pipit.

A few birds of this species were seen only during the first week

of September only on ‘gravelly flats’ partially covered with dwarf

scrub at 13,500 ft. These birds were probably on migration.

1200. Anthus pelops: Hodgson’s Pipit.

The commonest bird in the dwarf rhododendron zone from about

10,000 ft. to the highest limit of alpine grassland. It is most

abundant on grassy slopes among rough boulder-covered ground.

Smythies did not record this species.

1204. Oreocorys sylvanus: Upland Pipit.

One specimen collected near Syarpagaon.

1266. Aethopyga i, ignicauda: Firetailed Yellowbacked Sunbird.

Only two pairs of this beautiful bird were seen among tall scrub

at the edges of oak and fir forest at 10,000 ft. Like the next

species these sunbirds were aways seen feeding on the flowers of |

Colquhounia.

1274. Aethopyga n. nepalensis: Nepal Yellowbacked Sunbird.

Quite common on the bushy slopes around Khangjung and

Syarpagaon, up to 10,000 ft.

1303. Dicaeum i, ignipectus; Firebreasted Flowerpecker.

Two specimens collected from the tops of evergreen oaks feeding

on Loranthus near Syarpagaon.

SOME BIRDS FROM LANGTANG KHOLA. IN CENTRAL NEPAL 895

1311. Piprisoma a. agile: Thickbilled Flowerpecker.

One collected at Dhaibungkot, Trisuli valley.

1337. Picus s. squamatus: Scalybellied Green Woodpecker.

Frequently seen among evergreen oak and pines about Khangjung

and Syarpagaon. Baker gives up to 7,000 ft.

1370. Dryobates auriceps: Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker.

In similar localities to the preceding species but less frequent;

also collected at Dhaibungkot. Baker gives up to 7,500 ft.

1436. Cyanops asiatica: Bluethroated Barbet.

One specimen collected at Dhaibungkot, Trisuli valley.

1451, Cuculus c. canorus: European Cuckoo.

One young bird collected at .Langtang village in September.

Cuckoos were occasionally heard in the oak forests during June.

*1579. Upupa e. epops: European Hoopoe.

Occasionally seen on grassy slopes at 8,oo0 ft, but one bird aiso

seen at summer grazing at about 14,500 ft.

Cypselus sp: Swift.

Flocks of Swifts suddenly came up the Langtang valley as far

as the village in the second week of August, but stayed for a few

days only.

1683. Athene b. brama: Spotted Owlet.

One collected in dense scrub at Khangjung.

1838. Treron curvirostra nepalensis: Thickbilled Green Pigeon.

One collected in wooded country near Khangjung.

“1858. Columba I. leuconota: Snow Pigeon.

Quite common in the Langtang valley above the forest zone and

up to 16,000 ft. or more. In August most of the small flocks (10 to

30) fed among the screes and boulders at high altitudes, but one

flock remained throughout August by river-worn earth banks at

Langtang village where they were probably nesting.

*1928. Lophophorus impejanus: impeyan Pheasant or Monal.

Quite common, from 9,000 to 16,000 ft. in open broken ground or

among scrub or glades in the forest. Hen birds and young about

Langtang village in August, and at this time the cocks were usually

in open ground at much higher altitudes up to 16,000 ft.

The following birds were also seen in the Langtang valley above

the fir forest zones (11,000 ft.) but specimens were not collected.

477. Cinclus cinclus ; Whitebreasted Asiatic Dipper.

I saw two of these birds between 11,000 and 12,000 ft. at small

lateral streams coming down into the main Langtang torrent.

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Streptopelia orientalis; Rufous Turtle Dove.

Pairs of birds often seen feeding on stubble at Langtang village.

Field description: bluish rump; pink breast; brown streaked wings;

grey on back of head and neck; no apparent collar but bluish at base

of. the neck.

*Delichon urbica: House-Martin.

Small parties were commonly seen hawking insects over the

meadows and streams up about 14,000 ft.

Tetraogallus sp.: Snowcock.

Two coveys of this handsome bird were seen feeding among scree

blocks at 16,500 ft.

2132. ibidorhyncha struthersii ; The Ibisbill.

‘A small party of 10-15 occupied the gravelly river flats at Kyangyin.

Ghyang from June up to our departure in early September.

Note: A number of birds of prey were seen, including almost

certainly the Golden Eagle. No ducks, geese or waders were seen

in the Langtang valley. The characteristic ‘croak’ of a Raven was.

heard from some cliffs above 16,000 ft.

‘

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soé.

Chlorophytum borivilianum sp. Dov.

. Whole plant.

. A branch in fruit.

. A single flower, magnified.

. (i) Sepal; (ii) Petal; (iii) Stamen.

E. Outer view of fruit.

I, Transverse section of the fruit.

OW >

—

A NEW SPECIES OF CHLOROPHYTUM FROM

SALSETTE ISLAND

H. SANTAPAU, S.J., F.N.d.

Chief Botanist, Botanical Survey of India

~ AND

R. R. FERNANDES, B.SC.

St. Xavier's, College, Bombay |

(With a plate)

In the course of our work on the flora of the Krishnagiri National

Park, Borivili, Salsette Island, we often came across a monsoon

plant, that was obviously a Chlorophytum. The general appearance

of the inflorescence scape set our plant apart from C. tuberosum

and C. attenuatum at once; the scapes in the present new species.

are smaller than in the latter species, but the actual flowers are

larger than in either species. The structure of the tuberous roots

also seemed to be different in that the present plant shows roots that

are cylindric, rather uniformly and evenly thickened all along.

- The specimens from Borivili were compared with all the sheets.

in Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, and with photos of all the species

from Bombay in Kew Herbarium; our specimens did not seem to

agree with any of the species so far described. We then appealed

to Dr. N. L. Bor, Asst. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

for help. Mr. J. Robert Sealy of oa Herbarium examined our ’ sheets,

and reported on them as follows:

‘Chlorophytum from R. R. Fernandes.

I have failed to match this in Kew Herbarium. Among the

Indian species the affinities seem to be with C. tuberosum, C.

attenuatum, C. malabaricum. All three differ in having tubers

some distance from the base of the plant and attached to it by

string-like root; in Fernandes’s plant the tubers arise direct from

the base of the plant. C. tuberosum is similar in general appearance

and in size of flowers, but the anthers are revolute. C. attenuatum

is also similar in general appearance, but the flowers are smaller

_and the.anthers much longer than the short filaments. C. malabaricum

differs in appearance, being short and compact with’ the dense

inflorescence, and the flowers are smaller; the filaments, ONC,

are longer than the anthers in Fernandes’s plant.

It is strange that such a distinct ‘species should have been.

overlooked, when one remembers the’ amount of work + done on

the Bombay Flora. I wonder if the plant could be an introduction

from elsewhere, but: a search ‘thro’ the whole of our material of

898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Chlorophytum has been without results. The tubers of Fernandes’s

plant seem a distinct feature, at all events I did not see anything

quite like them in Chlorophytum. Some species of Anthericum

have similar tubers but the fruit of Fernandes’s plant seem to be

that of Chlorophytum.’ 7

The possibility that the plant might be an introduction from other

parts of India, had occurred to us. To settle this point we searched

carefully for the spots where the plant did occur in Borivili; we

have found it in the forest away from human habitation and at some

fairly good distance from any road or path. We are persuaded that

the plant is not an introduction. We have often seen introduced

plants, but in every case they seemed to be confined to the neighbour-

hood of gardens, or were found just along the main roads or

paths.

Our plant is fairly common and abundant in the plains and lower

slopes of the Krishnagiri National Park, Borivili, roughly from the

spot where the road meets the river, about 2 miles from the railway

station, all along up to the base of Kanheri Caves. One of thé sites

that seems to be preferred by the plant is the bare spots in the thin

forest on the slopes along the main valley of the National Park.

Soon after the arrival of the first rains of the monsoon, the leaves

appear above ground; in a short while, about a week or ten days, the

scapes show up and flowers open very soon; we have noticed that

many flowers were open in the early morning, and seemed to close

by about noon or early afternoon. We have seen the plant often

mixed ‘with C. tuberosum, both species growing in rather dense

profusion.

Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & Fernandes, spec. nov.

Herba perennans per radices tuberosas, quae sunt persistentes..

Radices tuberosae, fasciculatae, sessiles, cylindricae vel raro ellipsoideae,

I-g numero, crescentes et numero et magnitudine usque ad maturita-

tem plantae, extus rubro-brunneae, intus albidae, usque ad 50x 8 mm.,

Folia radicalia, usque 8 numero, saepe pauciora, 12-18x1.5 cm.,

spiraliter imbricata ad basim, sessilia, lineari-lorata vel ensiformia,

acuta, plana vel conduplicata, parum vel nullo modo attenuata ad

utrumque apicem, horizontaliter patentia vel recurva, saepe revoluta,

evadentia largiora sub fructu, coriacea, levia, marginibus hyalinis

atque undulatis, nervis parallelis aeque distantibus atque depressis.

Inflorescentia 16-30 cm. longa, ut plurimum unica, aliquando duplex,

terminalis, saepissime non-ramificans, florifera in superiore dimidia vel

tertia parte. Flores albi, 2.5 cm. diam., bracteati, pedicellati,

fasciculatim alterni, ut plurimum terni in singulis fasciculis, qui inter

se proximi sunt ad apicem, sed valde distant ad basim inflorescentiae ;

bracteae lineares, acutae vel triangulares, vel acuminatae, papyraceae,

purpurascentes, usque 2 cm. longae, persistentes ; pedicelli albidi, nodosi,

geniculati ad nodum, 6-10 mm. longi, inferiore internodali parte

trigona, persistente, 2-5 mm. longa, superiore vero decidua, cylindrica,

elongata sub fructu. Perianthiwm constans duplici heteromorpha

CHLOROPHYTUM FROM SALSETTE ISLAND 899

serie; segmenta omnia divergentia, alba; segmenta exteriora sepaloi-

dea, linearia vel lineari-elliptica, acuta, sulcata ad nervum medium,

3-4-nervia, nervis perspicuis in speciminibus siccis, 1.5-1.8x 0.3 cm.;

segmenta interiora petaloidea, oblanceolata vel anguste obovata,

obtusa atque apiculata, plana vel aliquantum convexa, 3-4-nervia,

1-7-2x0.4 cm. Stamina 6, patentia vel divergentia, inclusa, 1.4 cm.

longa; filamenta alba, glabra, latiora ad basim, duplo longiora

antheris; antherae curvatae vel arcuatae, lineares, 2-cellulatae, dehis-

centes per fissuram longitudinalem. Stylus extrussus, albus, aliquantum

tumescens ad apicem, curvus, horizontaliter imclinatus, 2 cm. longus.

Ovarium 3-lobum, angulis obtusis, viride, globosum, 2mm. longum,

sessile. Fructus capsularis, viridis vel luteus, triqueter vel 3-sulcatus,

obcordatus, 5-6x6-8 mm.; semina orbicularia vel suborbicularia,

discoidea, nigra, singula vel terna in singulis cellulis, usque 3 mm.

diam.

Typus lectus a R. R. Fernandes in loco Borivili, in insula Salsette

prope Bombay in India, die 14 junii 1954, et positus in Blatter Herbario,

Bombay sub No. R. 1810; paratypi (Fernandes 1804, 1807 & 1822)

repositi etiam in Blatter Herbario; paratypi alii (Fernandes ‘1706

& 1824) in Herbario Kewensi asservantur.

Chlorophytum borivilianum Santapau & Fernandes, spec. nov.

Herbs perennating by means of root-tubers. Tubers fascicled,

sessile, cylindrical or ellipsoidal, 1-9 in number, increasing in number

and size with the age of the plant, reddish brown outside, white

inside, up to 50x8 mm. Leaves all radical, up to 8 in number,

often fewer, 12-18x1-5 cm., spirally imbricate at the base, sessile,

linear lorate or ensiform, acute, flat or conduplicate, slightly or not

at all narrowed at the base and apex, spreading horizontally or

recurved, often twisted, becoming larger in fruit, coriaceous, smooth,

margins hyaline and wavy, veins parallel, equidistant and depressed.

Scapes usually solitary, occasionally double, 16-30 cm. long, terminal,

usually unbranched and bearing flowers in the upper third or half of

their length. Flowers white, 2.5 cm. in diam., bracteate, pedicellate,

usually in alternate clusters each of which consists of three flowers,

the cluster being close in the upper, rather distant in the lower part

of the scape; bracts linear and acute to triangular and acuminate,

papery, purplish, up to 2 cm. long, persistent; pedicels whitish,

jointed and kneed at the joint, 6-10 mm. long, disarticulating at

the joint, the lower part of the pedicel, i.e. below the joint, trigonous,

persistent and 2-5 mm. long, the part above the joint cylindric,

elongating in fruit, falling off with the flower or fruit. Perianth

consisting of two heteromorphous series; segments divergent in

flower; outer segments sepaloid, linear to linear-elliptic, acute,

medianly grooved, 3-4-nerved, the nerves being clear in dry specimens,

I.5-1.8X0.3 cm. in size; inner segments petaloid, oblanceolate to

narrowly obovate, obtuse and apiculate, flat to shallowly concave,

3-4-nerved, 1.7-2x0.4 cm. Stamens 6, spreading or divergent like

the perianth segments in flower, nearly as long as the inner perianth

segments, 1.4 cm. long; filaments glabrous, broader at the base,

‘900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

twice as long as the anthers; anthers somewhat curved, linear, 2-

celled, dehiscing by longitudinal slits. Style exserted, of the same

colour as the perianth, slightly swollen at the apex, curved, 2 cm.

long; ovary 3-lobed, angles obtuse, green, globose, 2 mm. long,

sessile. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, green to yellow, triquetrous to

3-sulcate, obcordate, 5-6x6.8 mm.; seeds orbicular to coffee-bean-

shaped, discoid, black, 1-3 in each cell, up to 3 mm. diam.

The type, Fernandes 1810, was collected on the 14 June 1954 at

Borivili in the Island of Salsette. near Bombay, in India, and is

kept in the Blatter Herbarium, Bombay; paratypes Fernandes 1804,

1807 and 1822, have also been kept in Blatter Herbarium; paratypes

Fernandes 1796 and 1824 are in Kew Herbarium, London.

A NEW FORM OF THE BURROWING SNAKE, UROPELTIS

MACROLEPIS (PETERS) FROM MAHABLESHWAR

V. K. CHARI

Asst. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

I recently (JBNHS, 50: 950; 51: 512) had occasion to draw

attention to some specimens of the earthsnake, Uropeltis macrolepis

(Peters) obtained at Mahableshwar, Satara District, Bombay,

which differed from the descriptions in the old and new Faunas,

not only in the presence of an unbroken line along the side, but

also in the scalation. Messrs. Humayun Abdulali and D. J. Panday

have since brought in a dozen more specimens from the 'samé

locality which confirm my findings. In view of the consistency of

the differences previously. mentioned I think it desirable to give

subspecific recognition to this population. I therefore propose to

call it: nage

Uropeltis macrolepis mahableshwarensis ssp. nov.

It differs from the typical form in the following characters: |

(2) An unbroken yellow line along the whole length of the body

on both sides.. In the typical form the line breaks up into a series

of spots about an inch from the anterior end.

(b) The sub-caudals range from 9 to 13 as against 7 to 10 in

specimens from other localities as per the Fauna.

in specimens from other localities as per the Fauna.

Q specimens in our collection from Khandala, Lonavla, Igatpuri

and Matheran (‘Bombay Hills’) agree in their scale counts with the

Fauna description.

Type: A female bearing register No. 1994 in the collection .of

the Bombay Natural History Society collected by Mr. Humayun

Abdulali at Mahableshwar on 17-10-1951.

Distribution: Restricted to Mahableshwar, cu. 4,500 ft., Satara

District, Bombay State. |

REVIEWS

1. INDIAN JOURNAL OF FISHERIES. Vol. 1, Nos. 1 & 2.

Published by the Editorial Committee, Indian Journal of Fisheries,

for the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government of India.

Price Rs. 7-8 net.

Ever since the last World War and the Bengal Famine of 1943,

when the need for developing Indian fishery resources was widely

recognised, rapid strides have been made in this country in stepping

up fisheries research. Consequent on this, the want of a suitable

fisheries journal for the publication of the results of investigations

has been keenly felt. Fishery workers so far have been encroaching,

very often rather too liberally, on the hospitality of general science

or zoological and natural history journals. Modern fishery research

is largely based on quantitative studies, and fishery workers in this

country have been experiencing some difficulty in publishing their

findings supported by adequate quantitative data. In these cir-

cumstances the publication of a journal devoted to Indian fisheries

science fills a long-felt need, and the authorities concerned are to.

be warmly congratulated for this.

However, the name of the publication, Indian Journal of Fisheries,

does not appear to be quite appropriate since in effect it is a journal

of the Central Fisheries Research Stations. All the papers published

in it, except for the solitary instance, namely ‘A note on some deep

sea fishing experiments off the South Western Coast of India’ by

K. Gopinath, Director of Fisheries, Travancore-Cochin State—which

also happens to be a report of work done under the auspices of

Central Government—deal with the work in the two Fisheries

Research Stations at Calcutta and Mandapam. The fact that the

Annual Reports of these two Stations are also included in the journal

and that the Editorial Board consists of only ex-officio members,

shows that it is actually the journal of the Central Fisheries Research

Stations.

Long before the establishment of these two Research Stations,

a considerable amount of fisheries research, mostly in its biological

aspects, has been conducted in the Universities and State Government

Fishery Laboratories, besides in other research institutions such as

the Zoological Survey of India. The Journal of the Bombay Natural

History Society, Journal of the Asiatic Society, Journal of the

Zoological Society of India, Proceedings of the National Institute of

Sciences of India, Records of the Indian Museum, and_ several

other periodicals, have been publishing and will continue to

_ publish on merit papers from official and non-official scientists as

heretofore. It may, therefore, be regretted that the Indian Journal

of Fisheries is not as broad-based as its name would imply. It is

sarnestly hoped that if it is intended to continue this name, the scope

of the journal with regard to its contributors will also be widened.

REVIEWS 903

The journal is intended ‘to provide a medium for publication of

original contributions and critical reviews in the field of fisheries

research’ and to ‘cover subjects relating to fishery biology, fishery

technology and other scientific topics of direct and indirect bearing

on the development of fisheries science in general and of Indian

fisheries in particular’. But out of the 13 papers published in the

first two numbers of the journal, 10 mainly relate to fishery biological

problems, two deal with physico-chemical factors governing biologi-

cal production, and one gives an account of certain fishing experi-

ments. It will be readily admitted that the list of contents thus falls

short of the objectives set forth. It is, however, hoped that every

effort will be made to include in subsequent numbers a proportionate

number of papers relating to various aspects of fisheries science. It

may here be pointed out that ‘development of fisheries’ includes all

aspects of biological, technological and sociological studies, including

the improvement of fishing nets and crafts and the betterment of

the social and economic condition of the fishermen.

The first issue of the journal, which consists of the 2 numbers

of Volume I, contains 13 papers covering 416 pages, some of which

are of a fairly high standard. The papers have been well edited,

but it would appear that the titles of many could be shortened with

advantage. Similarly, the printing of the same illustration on page

3 and on page 346 could have certainly been avoided.

On the whole, the get-up of the journal is good and the number

of printing mistakes are few. One would have liked to see a more

pleasing emblem to adorn the cover page of the journal; and perhaps

something from old cultural works might have been mere appropriate.

2. COMMON INDIAN HERBS. By N. A. Watts. Published

by The First Calcutta Local Association, Bharat Scouts and Guides.

Pp. 22, 72 illustrations.

3. FLORA OF AGRA DISTRICT. A descriptive key to the

Flora of Agra District. By N. A. Watts. Published by the

author. Pp. 34.

These are two popular booklets that aim at spreading the know-

ledge of plants among the younger generation and creating a lively

interest in the study of plants. The author has rendered Indian

botany a good service.

The first booklet, Common Indian Herbs, gives first a set of

notes for beginners on how to collect the plant and take notes on its

habits, etc. 72 plants are listed in the key on p. 6; the key is based

on obvious external characters that can be observed even without a

hand lens. Each plant is then described in a simple manner; English,

Bengali, Hindi and Tamil names are given where such names are

available. In the last part of the booklet each of the 72 plants is

lustrated by a small but clear line diagram; the diagrams are labelled

with the English and Latin names of the plant.

The second booklet consists entirely of a set of keys; the first

to the families, the second to the species within each of the families.

There follows a short bibliography. This booklet is based on

S04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

scientific terminology and may be found somewhat difficult by those

not familiar with technical terms. A number of plants is mentioned

in this book that have not been recorded by previous workers.

The first booklet, Common Indian Herbs, is of great interest,

and I have nothing but praise for it. The second, Flora of Agra

District, requires some important corrections since the work is

offered as a more or less technical work. To mention but a few

points: on p. 7 the author lists Nymphaea lotus Linn., which is

definitely not an Indian plant; the plant listed under Nasturtium in-

dicum is now placed under the genus Rorippa and goes as Rorippa

indica; Gynandropsis pentaphylla should be G. gynandra; Ionidium

goes to the genus Hybanthus, etc. In spite of these slight blemishes,

I recommend the book to students of the Flora of Agra.

November 6, 1954. H. SANTAPAU, s.j.

4. A COLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM

CEYLON, VOL. II. Tetrapod Reptilia. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala.

Pp. tor (124”x9%"). 11 half-tone and 35 coloured plates, and

44 text-figures. The Ceylon Government Press, 1953. Price not

indicated.

This volume is the second of the series and deals with 9

Testudinates (tortoises and turtles), 23 Geckonids, 12 Agamids,

1 Chamaeleon, 25 Skinks, 1 Lacertid and 2 Varanids. The descrip-

tions and illustrations are accurate, and the rare combination of a

keen naturalist and a gifted artist in the author, is well in evidence.

Definitions of Orders, Suborders, Families, Subfamilies and

‘Genera have been revised in the light of new knowiedge. Additional

information based on the author's personal observations regarding

anatomy, reproduction and ecology of several species, is furnished.

Simple keys for identification of species, intelligible even to a beginner,

are given.

Synonymy indicating original nomenclature, follows every Order,

Family, Genus and Species. The author has taken care to select the

most appropriate of the existing synonyms, as for instance, to denote

the Order of tortoises and turtles, ‘Testudinata’ Oppel 1811 is preferred

to either ‘Testudines’ Batsch 1788 or ‘Chelonia’ Macarthey 1802 since

‘Testudines’ happens to be the plural of ‘Testudo’ and ‘Chelonia’ is

the name of one particular genus.

Common English names as well as those in local languages are

listed under each species, and wherever these were wanting new ones

have been coined and marked as such. These should add greatly

to the student’s convenience.

The bibliography and indexes to scientific and common English

names, as also to those in local languages, appended at the end and

«a well-documented chapter on the Zoogeography of Ceylon increase

the reference value of the Atlas. |

A bigger map of Ceylon than supplied would have been more

onvenient for users. Some lizards and snakes—for example,

REVIEWS 905

Cnemaspis kandianus tropidogaster Boulenger and Riopa punctaia

(Gmelin) respectively—are depicted in brighter colours than they appear

to possess in nature, but the reviewer does not wish to be dogmatic

on this point for want of closer acquaintance with the Ceylon fauna.

The gettup of the ‘Atlas is attractive and the print clear. The

present literature on Herpetology is very meagre, especially works of

reference, and Dr. Deraniyagala’s Atlas forms a welcome addition.

No library of natural history of the Indian Region should be without

it.

Walk (Cr

5. BIRD) LIFE.’ By Niko Vinbergen. Fp. 62, (917 x62”):

Coloured frontispiece, numerous photographs and_ pen-and-ink

illustrations. London, 1954 (Oxford University Press). Price

Se CBs NSE

This little book is the fourth volume in the excellent Oxford

Visual Series which deals with subjects connected with physical or

natural science.

The author is one of our foremost exponents in the study of animal

behaviour. Those acquainted with his other remarkable books ‘The

Study of Instinct’ and ‘Social Behaviour of Animals’ will appreciate’

their good fortune in having from him this lucid exposition of the

ways in which birds live, how they may be watched intelligently and

how even a beginner may, with persistence and enthusiasm, contribute

to scientific ornithology.

The book is divided into 28 short chapters each of two facing

pages. Almost every aspect of the living bird is covered in ‘simple

lucid language, supported by appropriate illustrations. Collectively,

these short chapters form an admirable introduction to the ways and

lives of birds, and offer a number of suggestions to those who would

add purposiveness to the pleasure they derive from watching birds.

The observations recorded on p. 35 on young hobbies are an example

of the author’s meticulousness; and ‘Watching a Family of Great

Hits’ (p. 36) is suggestive of suitable techniques for profitable and

amusing bird watching. We are told what is known about particular

aspects of the lives of birds and what remains to be learnt. Every

chapter bears the impress of the author’s intimate familiarity with

the problems. The simplicity of style and avoidance of the rather

formidable jargon that has now grown up around animal behaviour

studies is refreshing. Instinctive Actions of Birds, Bird Language,

Learning by Experience &c. round off this admirable introduction

to the fascinating subject of Bird Behaviour, and the final chapter—

Some Practical Hints—convinces the reader of what an interesting

hobby watching the ways of birds can be. In every respect here is

a book to be recommended to the ‘practising’ ornithologist no less

than to the beginner. Its usefulness in India is particularly heightened

by the suggestions it contains for studying the living bird, and of the

simple techniques that may be employed.

Sole

906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCGIHIY. Viole 152

6. THE | WATEREROWE (ORE N\VO RID ime vane ai

Delacour. Vol. I, Pp. 284 (92%x 72%") Sixteen plates in colour by

Peter Scott; 33 text maps. London, 1954, (Country Life Ltd.).

4£5-5-0 net.

The waterfowl of the world has been decreasing at an alarming

rate, and concern in its behalf is felt in almost ali countries of the

civilized world to-day. The causes of this decline are many and

complex. Basic among them is, of course, the increasing pressure

of human population throughout the world and the consequent open-

ing up, through reclamation of marshlands and colonization, of

remote areas where the birds could hitherto live and breed com-

paratively unmolested. Added to this is the phenomenal progress

achieved during the last three decades in air transport which has

brought even the remotest refuges within easy and convenient reach

of the hunter. In the context of this deteriorated world position and

the wide sporting and scientific interest enjoyed by this group of

birds, a book like the present is particularily timely. The need for

such a comprehensive, authoritative and up-to-date work on the

waterfowl has long been felt, and the obvious person to produce it

was Jean Delacour. His long experience of wildfowl in many parts

of the world, his unrivalled knowledge of their habits and behaviour

derived from a lifetime of studying and breeding in captivity almost

all the known species, and his competence as a systematic ornitho-

logist combine to fit him eminently for the task. Supplementing

his own are the knowledge and experience of another celebrated

wildfowl enthusiast and expert, Peter Scott, and the vicarious con-

tributions of numerous other sportsmen, students and breeders of

ducks and geese.

Peter Scott’s especial contribution to the book is the 16 excellent

colour plates of the birds described. Those showing cygnets,

goslings and ducklings in down plumages are of very particular

usefulness and value, since many of them have perhaps never been

illustrated before.

The three volumes planned will cover the entire family Anatidae—

Swans, Geese and Ducks. The present volume deals with the

Magpie Goose, Whistling Ducks, Swans and Geese, Sheldgeese and

Shelducks. The classification follows the natural grouping proposed

earlier in the author’s epoch-making paper (‘The Family Anatidae’,

1945) published conjointly with Dr. Ernst Mayr, which emphasizes

the importance of behaviour, in addition to morphology, in the

assessment of phylogenetic relationships—a view to which more

and more taxonomists are happily inclining.

The information is ranged under the following heads: Characteris-

tics, Distribution, General Habits, Captivity—first of each tribe

and genus, and then broken up into its component species and races.

Workmanlike keys are provided, and the 33 distribution maps in the

text showing breeding and non-breeding ranges are of great use-

fulness.

This first volume of ‘The Waterfowl of the World’ fully justifies

itself, its author, its illustrator, its publisher and its printer, and the

two volumes to come will be eagerly awaited.

AY.

REVIEWS 907

7. THE TEMPLE TIGER AND MORE MAN-EATERS OF

KUMAON. By Jim Corbett. Pp. 197 (73% x57”), 1o plates (photos).

Oxford University Press, Rs. 6-8.

Most of Jim Corbett’s readers are by now so conditioned that

they can face the man-eaters in his pages with the same casual

courage with which he faced them in real life; but there are some

passages in his new book which shook even this brave reviewer.

For instance, when Corbett, himself suffering from a severe abscess

in the ear, is chasing a man-eater in the moonlight. Overcome by

vertigo, he has to stop and get into a tree where his abscess bursts.

Next day, his ear better, he is running after the tiger again.

Readers of this journal will know Col. Corbett’s qualities as a

shikari, naturalist, and writer too weil for us to labour in his praise.

The facet of his writing which we would now stress is that which

the New Statesman and Nation pointed out some time since: that

his books make the ideal substitute for the evil rubbish—miscalled

comics—on which today’s children feed their minds. Presumably

the children are looking for excitement, danger, heroism. ‘They

will find it all in Col. Corbett’s book. Some of his exploits would put

to shame the derring-do of the fictional supermen. Surely our

adolescents are not incapable of appreciating the subtle heroism of

Corbett’s act when he took aim with his ears and fired at the slight

noise of the tiger at his kill, since the animal itself was hidden?

or his feat of shooting a heavy rifle with the butt unsupported

because, with the tiger directly under the branch on which he sat,

there was no other way of doing it? Add to this the fact that Corbett

writes superbly well-——-a fact to which the name of his publishers

bears testimony—and even the most fastidious parent could not ask

for better books on which to bring up growing children.

This is not to detract, in any way, from the book’s value for

grownups, but merely to emphasize that this is one of those rare

books which both older and younger people can enjoy equally.

Perhaps some children might even imbibe from it, what they seem

to be in danger of not learning at all in today’s world, that real

courage is not brutal; it is compassionate and modest. A random

instance which illustrates the tone of Corbett’s descriptions is the

killing of the Panar man-eating leopard. This leopard had been

wounded, and though it was a dark night Corbett foilowed it at the

insistence of his men, and against his own better judgment.

‘Having acceded to their request, I made the men promise that

they . . . would hold their torches high, and not run away and leave

me in the dark if the leopard charged . . However, when the

time came, ‘There is something very terrifying in the angry grunt

of a charging leopard, so I was not surprised when my companions,

all of whom were unarmed, turned as one man and bolted .. :

On hearing my shot the men stopped running, and then I heard one

of them say, “‘Oh, no, he wont be angry with us, for he knows that

this devil has turned our courage to water.’’ Yes, I knew, from my

recent experience on the tree, that fear of a man-eater robs a man of

courage. As for running away, had I been one of the torch bearers

I would have run with the best . . .. Presently, while I was

making believe to examine the leopard, to ease their embarrassment

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

the men returned in twos and threes.’ This delicate respect and

consideration for the hill-people is implicit in every word he writes,

while very often he goes to great lengths in order to do them a

service; as for example when he accompanied a chance-met little girl

and her bullock many miles out of his way because he thought there

might be a man-eater in the vicinity. Or when he sat up the whole

night guarding a house where a leopard had mauled a woman.

The reason for Col. Corbett’s spectacular success as a hunter of

man-eaters is that he has studied—so meticulously as to merit an

honorary Ph.D. for research in jungle-life—the behaviour, habits,

reflexes, almost the psychology, of all that lives in the jungle, with

special reference to tiger. The more tangible results of his observa-

tions he has discussed in ‘Jungle Lore’ which was reviewed in the

last issue of this journal. It is this intimate knowledge of the mind

of the animal which enables him to forestall all its movements and

actions. This same habit of minute and accurate observation enables.

him to trail a tiger with the same apparent ease with which we would

follow the Grand Trunk Road. The bark of trees, leaves, grass,

every rustle and sound are like signposts telling him about his

quarry’s every move.

Sandwiched between the tiger stories are a great many anecdotes

of natural life. All such anecdotes from a man who has trained

himself to be such an exact observer are bound to be interesting to the

naturalist. In one instance Corbett mentions a pair of ospreys. that

had been nesting for many years in a certain tree. Now, this is

particularly interesting since it is perhaps the only authentic record

of the osprey nesting in this part of India.

~ On the back cover of the present volume, printed among the

excerpts from former reviews, is quoted a critic who seeks to praise

the ‘Man-eaters of Kumaon’ by comparing it with ‘The Man-eaters of

Tsavo’. With all due deference all round, we do not think that ‘The

Man-eaters of Tsavo’ can be classed with Corbett’s books. These

are in a class by themselves.

L.F,

8: BIRDS, OF “ARABIA.” By Col?’ Rey’ Meinertzhagen, p:S- oF

Pp. xiii+624. Folding map; 19 plates in colour, 9 in monochrome;

numerous text-figures and text maps. (104” x74”) Edinburgh and

London (Oliver & Boyd). 44-4s. net.

Arabia is popularly pictured as a land of endless sand-dunes—a

trackless, waterless waste where the withering simoom howls over

the desiccating bones of travellers and their camels who have perished

of thirst and exposure. Thus, to those whose knowledge of the

country rests solely on what they learnt from So & So’s Advanced

English Readers for Indian Schools it may come as a revelation that

in actual fact only 1/5 of Arabia is sand, the rest being fertile land only

impoverished by lack of moisture and perennial streams and surface

water; that the escarpment of the central plateau of Arabia rises

steeply from the Red Sea maritime plain to heights between 6 and

11,000 ft. above sea level (almost to an Aiptiae zone); that in the

highlands of Yemen—where some of the finest coffee grows—the

REVIEWS 909:

rainfall, which is less than 1 in. per year in the drier parts, is as.

high as 30 in. per annum, equal to many parts of the Deccan and

Malwa plateaux in India, where we have some of our finest deciduous

forests. : |

No-less astonishing seems the profile of the wild life in such a

country of popular conception, gazelles, wild goats, wolves and

leopards being still tolerably plentiful in parts. However, it seems.

that the doubtful ‘civilization and progress’ that the Oil Age has.

brought to Arabia—aided and abetted by the modern rifle and the

Jeep—are, as elsewhere, doing their pernicious bit to decimate wild

life in the shortest possible time. The bird life of Arabia is also:

far richer than is usually imagined, and contains many forms of

great scientific interest. Apart from the few desultory reports on

Arabian birds that have appeared in various scientific journals within

recent years, very little is known, especially in regard to ecology,

migration and other aspects that concern the living bird in its natural

habitat. The difficulties of travel in Arabia and the general dis-

favour with which visits of foreigners, especially Europeans, has

been looked upon, have been the chief causes of this backwardness.

Ornithologists are fortunate in having as author of the Birds of

Arabia one whose intimacy and wide knowledge of deserts, and life

conditions in deserts, throughout the world is unquestioned. His

special familiarity with the birds of the Palaearctic Region in general,

and particularly with those of the Middle East and Egypt, eminently

qualify him for the task.

The book is indeed a mine of information. The systematic list

covers all the birds known from Arabia and adjoining lands of

similar physiographical character—Description, Distribution, Habits,

Allied Forms. In the words of the author, it is ‘not strictly an

account of Arabian birds but embraces all the desert birds of extreme

South East Asia’. The chapter headings give some idea of the

comprehensive nature of the contents. (1) Geology, Geography and

Climate; (2) Desert Coloration (which deals with such topics as.

Effect of Soil on Plumage and Pelage, Effect of Diet on Plumage,

Camouflage etc.); (3) Distribution and Migration; (4) Systematics and

Nomenclature.

After the Systematic List of birds, which follows, come two

useful Appendices: History of Arabian Ornithology and Works

Consulted. An Addenda contains additional notes on various topics,

obviously written after the main MS had gone to press. A complete

index of species ends the book.

The first four general chapters are admirable. They are written

with zest and conviction and often with that unconventional cynical

humour which is so characteristic of the author’s writings. They

will repay careful reading, and in parts, re-reading. They contain

a wealth of first hand data and their interpretation by an experienced

and observant biologist refreshingly unfettered by orthodox views

and dogmas and with the courage to differ from, and criticize, hide-

bound notions, and with a rational, common-sense approach to

biological problems.

What adds particularly to the scientific value of the book and to

its interest for the» general reader, is the large number of original

910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

and penetrating observations—admittedly not always of immediate

relevancy—on a vast variety of topics which the author is able to

record from a lifetime of bird study in the field in all parts of the

world. <A core of stubborn fact, with a dash of speculation and a

dash of theorizing, is Meinertzhagen’s forte. It is this that makes

his views on so many controversial topics of biology so unstereotyped

and refeshing.

The chapter on Systematics and Nomenclature is an example.

In a way it is the author’s confession of faith, and contains a great

deal with which this reviewer and many of his fellow-travellers in

ornithology will heartily agree. The weightage he assigns to habitats

and ecology in systematic classification, and his pungent remarks on

the regrettable tendency of some ornithologists to lose sight ot the

basic scientific function of the trinomial system of nomenclature, so

that by cluttering up taxonomy it hinders rather than helps progress

in systematics will be endorsed by all workers who have suffered,

and who continue to suffer, from the importunities of a few habitual

offenders.

It is difficult to do proper justice to a book like this within the

limitations of a short review. What will impress the reader most is the

vast amount of first hand original information it presents, which be-

speaks the author’s keenly observant and critical mind.

The colour plates by George Lodge, Archibald Thorburn and David

Reid-Henry are superb and pleasing examples of ornithological

portraiture, and the distribution maps in the text should prove of

great usefulness.

The one debit entry on this highly gratifying balance sheet—a!

truly heavy one—is the weight of the tome, over 43 lb.! With the

best will in the world it needs a lot of youthful vigour to handle a

weight of this order as often and as freely as one would wish!

Softly

9. THE BIRDS OF THE BRITISH ISLES. By David A.

Bannerman and George E. Lodge. Vol. III, Pp. vitit+399

(104” x 74”). Coloured plates. Edinburgh & London, 1954 (Oliver &

Boyd). 45s. net.

This volume completes the Passeres continued from Vols.I and II

(reviewed in the Journal, Vol. 52, p. 198). It deals with the Warblers,

Robins, Thrushes, Accentors or ‘Hedge Sparrows’, Wren, Dipper

and Swallows. These three volumes, we are told, comprise the

first portion of a set that will cover the entire avifauna of the British

Isles. Further parts are under preparation.

This sumptuous set of books is a truly phenomenal undertaking

in the context of present-day printing costs, but then George Lodge

himself was a phenomenai bird artist. It would have been a tragedy

if his beautiful portraits of British birds had had to be withheld from

an appreciative public for want of funds, which but for his generous

bequest of the originals and the cost of their reproduction, would

almost certainly have to be the case. |

Lodge could scarcely have found an abler coilaborator than David

Bannerman who is responsible for the text. The’ entire production is

EVAL VS 911

on a gracious scale—such as one is accustomed to associate with

books of the spacious days ot the last century, before—as one

ornithologist has pithily put it—‘the placid stream of ornithological

publications turned into a raging torrent’. Now that we already

possess a sufficiency of standard, strictly utilitarian reference manuals

on! British birds, it feels good to be able to pick up one that is not

desperately earnest and tabulated, and that affords pleasant and

enjoyable reading at the same time as it informs and instructs.

Seaws

10. A WANDERER IN THE WIND: The Odyssey of an

illustrations. London, 1953 (Hutchinson) 21s. net.

Here we have a most readable book. The author has spent a

large portion of his life in the wilder parts of the world collecting

birds and animals for zoos. But his attitude to nature is not merely

that of a ‘collector’ which is usually very mechanical and commercial.

It is evident that he has taken a keen and intelligent interest in his

work, and has looked at his captures as living creatures to be studied

in and out of captivity. Many interesting facts are recorded of wild

animals and birds, often together with explanatory observations which

are of considerable interest. The African Civet Cat is said to devour

as roughage quantities of unmasticated coarse dried grass which pass

through the intestinal tract without being affected by the digestive

juices. This grass is remarkably free of excrement, and together with

the fact that quantities of civet-cat excrement are found in certain

spots, it has led to the belief that the animal withholds its excrement

for long periods by means of the grass wad which it inserts into the

rectum !

Many of his notes and observations on African species are of!

interest in India also; for example he draws attention to young

Jacanas diving like grebes which the adults do not apppear to do.

The South American tapirs in captivity, he says, should be treated

like hippopotamus for they will spend much of their time swimming

and often diving out of sight for considerable periods.

In the Cameroons he looked for, and obtained, specimens of the

world’s largest frog—Rana goliath—which is about a foot long. In

Madagascar he saw many orchids including Avgraecum sesquipedah

With ivory white blooms averaging six inches across and a spur

about a foot long: He has interesting notes on lemurs of which’ he

handled several species. He obtained the Tailless Tenrec (an

insectivorous mammal of Madagascar) in which thirty-two well-

developed embryos have been taken in one specimen.

In 1935, he saw a Pinkheaded Duck in the Calcutta Zoo—perhaps

one of the last seen in captivity, or even alive at the time.

But I must stop. Picking out interesting bits is not reviewing,

and I can only repeat that though there are 300 pages, wherein the

author travels in Africa, India, Indo-China, Australia and South

America, there always is something or other of interest to anybody

with the slightest leaning towards natural history.

il off.

912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY

The following periodicals were presented by Mr. J. I. Alfrey to

the Society’s Library :—

1. THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE Royat ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF

Lonpon—Series A: 16 volumes; Series B: 16 volumes and Series C:

16 volumes. ,

2. THe TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF

LonpoNn—11 volumes.

3. List or FELLOWS OF THE ROYAL ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

or Lonpon—January I, 1952.

4. JOURNAL OF THE BomBay Natura History SoOciEtTy-—13

volumes.

5s. JouRNAL or THE BeEncaL Naturat History Socrirty, Vol.

XXVI, No. 3.

6. «1 reprints of various articles.

7. JOURNAL OF RoyAL HorTICULTURAL SociEty—6 volumes.

MUSIC IB IE ILYANINUE.O)US) INO) ens

1. STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF MONKEYS IN THE

PRESENCE OF A PANTHER

This incident dates from the time when I was employed on the

personal staff of the Maharaja of Dholpur. Just after the Holi in

March 1944 I was asked to investigate the rather mysterious dis-

appearances of some of the langur monkeys in the wild life sanctuary

at Kesarbaug, where they usually enjoyed a peaceful and sheltered

existence.

On that particular day I was on duty at the Palace which stands.

in the midst of fairly wild and dense mixed jungle, some six miles

from the town of Dholpur. One early morning, while having my

breakfast on the verandah overlooking the western slopes ot the

Kesarbaug Hill, I saw a vulture landing on a grassy patch about

600 yds. away. Suspecting a kill of some animal I went there to

investigate, and to my surprise found the mortal remains of one of

the missing pet monkeys. There was not much left except the head

severed from the trunk, the tail and arms, with palms untouched,

and the intestines. The grass on that spot growing rather tall,

about 3 ft., was’ pressed down by some animal over an area of approx.

4 ft. radius. Following the traces of a drag towards a stream |

noticed on the soft ground pug marks of a full-grown panther. On

the other side of the stream the rest of the langur’s body was

thrust inside a thick thorny bush. There was of course no sign.

of the panther, so after duly noting the place I returned to my

quarters determined to destroy the beast when the opportunity came.

Four days later, sitting on the same verandah at 10 p.m., I was

admiring the beauty of moonlight shining on the jungle when I

was suddenly alerted by the warning barks of a male langur.

Suspecting the presence of the panther I seized my 12-bore shot-gun

with L.G.s and a strong battery spot-light and cautiously climbed

down towards the trees whence the warning was sounded, some 69

yds. at the foot of the hill. There, on a group of three trees just

behind the servants’ quarters, the monkeys were in the habit of

gathering for the night. I took up position below a pipal tree

under an awning projecting from the building. The moon lighted

up the ground very clearly. There were many monkeys on the tree

in an extremely excited condition, jumping from one branch to

another, shrieking and shaking the foliage and emptying themselves

so as. to produce ‘a regular shower of droppings. The ground under

the trees was flat and devoid of any vegetation. In spite of straining

my eyes I failed to discover the cause of their fright. The line

of the jungle bushes was some distance away and it is possible

that the panther had taken his ambush there unseen by me but

detected by the monkeys.

O14: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

The excitement in the tree did not seem to subside and the

monkeys were becoming more frantic every minute to the extent of

running around the crown of the tree in mad circles. Suddenly

one ot the crowd of monkeys came crashing down througn

the branches under the tree, either through loss of balance

or some other cause, and remained there some io ft. away from

me, perfectly. immobile. At the same time a dark elongated form

shot out from above the very awning under which I was standing

and landed on the langur prostrated on the ground. For a brief

moment I was uncertain what was happening, but soon realized

that it was the panther attacking his prey. I took quick aim and

fired two shots in rapid succession. Meanwhile three more monkeys

dropped to the ground and stayed similarly motionless. I switched

on the light and approached the scene of the tragedy. The panther

was duly killed. The other langurs strangely enough did not move

but remained lying on the ground as if hypnotized. The same shot

which killed the panther was also responsible for putting an end

to the life of the unfortunate langur. The report of the gun, of

course, attracted the servants who removed the bodies of both

animals. The other langurs came to only rather slowly, and in due

course moved away.

I thought much afterwards about this peculiar behaviour of

langurs in the face of danger from a panther, and would put forward

the following observations:

(a) Normally, in daylight, the langurs are generally excellent

informers regarding the whereabouts of their enemies. They give

instant warning and even follow their enemy’s progress keeping him

under. continuous observation from a safe distance. |

(b) At. night, when the danger is sensed the langurs do not

attempt to leave the safety of their tree, but try to locate the enemy.

If the latter is not visible and yet known to bein the proximity

they become very nervous and imagine the worst, that is that the

enemy may have climbed the tree and be somewhere among them.

This uncertainty seems tc work on their nerves and produces a state

of restlessness and excitement. :

or nervous exhaustion under which the langurs are unable to control

their movements. |

I should very much like to hear comments on the above story and

to know if similar) observations have been recorded.

Sanps Fort, DHOLPUR, we i , |

RAJASTHAN, SIRDAR BHUPENDRA KUMAR

October 6, 1954.

[In a note ‘How do the larger felines secure nimble prey’ (Vol. 53,

No. 2, p. 493) Mr. R. C. Morris describes similar behaviour on the part

of langurs in the presence of panther—‘a form of mass hysteria’—

causing the animals actually to jump to the ground, and ‘so play into

the feline’s paws’.—Ebs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES... 2%: | 915

2. UNRECORDED SOUNDS MADE BY THE TIGER |

In his Miscellaneous Note at p. 494, Vol. 51 (2) of April 1953,

R. C. Morris describes a vocal sound made by the tiger which he

rightly notes as not having been previously recorded.

This voice sound, without the subsequent ‘chuckles’, was heard

by me on the night of the 109th April 1925 in the Betul Forest

Division of the C.P. It was mentioned by me in the typed pages

of a preliminary draft for a General Index to the Society’s Journals

handed to the Honorary Secretary at Bombay on the 15th April

1953. In the section dealing with the tiger there is paragraph 81,

‘Voice sounds made by the tiger’. In that was noted by me, “There

is one sound which can be only heard at night, and that is the

tremendous blast of sound made by a tiger when he finds his near

approach to his dragged ‘‘kill’’ stopped by ropes to which are

attached pieces of cloth . . . it can be likened to the tremendous.

noise made by steam being let out in an engine shed.’ This noise:

was on that night twice repeated and was obviously intended for

intimidation, though there was in it also something of surprise and

alarm. . : |

Having accepted a buffalo calf and broken the tethering rope the

tiger dragged the carcase about a hundred and fifty yards below the

cart road and left it in a deep cleft in a nala. Shortly after dark

that evening the tiger refused near approach, having, no doubt,

suspicions of the ‘bird’s nest’ machan built in the only available

and somewhat inadequate tree. In the hope that a second ‘live bait’

would be taken—for the tiger again passed along the road during

the night—arrangements were made, and the carcase in the nala

covered under leaves and brushwood, and two ropes, in which were

twisted pieces of white cloth, were stretched across the nala above

and below the ‘kill’.

The first tremendous blast was uttered about 8 o’clock when the

first rope was encountered and the second some twenty minutes later

when he met the other rope. After a further interval of about the

same period there was the sound of tearing away of the brushwood

and removal of the carcase which it was found in the morning had

been done from beneath the lower rope. Having sufficiently '

‘intimidated’ the ropes he had no fear of them. A beat by seventy

men failed to find the tiger, which was left to enjoy the remainder

of his life in well-deserved peace.

c/o Lroyps Banx Lrp.,

39 PICCADILLY, R. W. BURTON,

Lonpon, W.1, Lt.-Col. ..1.a. (Retd.)

September 23, 1954. 3

916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

3. CAT AND MONGOOSE

My friend G.J., who frequently stays with me, has just told me

the following story, which I think is worth repeating’ for the interest

of readers :—

‘When I was a student at Adyar, we used to take tea out in

the garden at 3.30 p.m. daily. A saucer of milk was always placed

on the ground close to our tea table.

As soon as the rattle of cups announced the arrival of the

servant bringing our tea, from one corner of the garden would

come a cat and from the opposite corner a mongoose. They would

reach the saucer of milk simultaneously, and each would begin

to drink without taking the slightest notice of the other. As soon

as the milk was finished, each animal would retire to the corner

whence it had come.

We never saw either animal at any other time.’

Almost with tears in his eyes, my friend concluded ‘Oh! _ If only

I’d had a camera in those days!’

G.J. is a deservedly famous actor, but I have no doubt that those

almost-tears were more than almost-genuine.

LONAVLA, T. GAY.

September 29, 1954.

4. EXTRAORDINARY BEHAVIOUR OF A SOLITARY

BULL BISON (GAUR)

While out on the hills (Billigirirangans, Coimbatore District) on

the 7th November, I observed a: solitary bull bison behaving in a

peculiar manner. The scene was an open grass flat, at one end of

which Sholagas (aborigines of these hills) had buried a child about

a year ago.

The bull proceeded to flatten the little mound by pawing at it;

and then, using its right horn like a scythe, pivoting round and

round at the same time, it dug a smooth, saucer-like depression with

horizontal sweeps of its horn. The Sholagas with me were astonished,

and their comments instructive. After a few minutes the bull seemed

to be satisfied that the deep basin it had excavated was to its liking

-and strolled off.

On inspecting the bison’s effort it was revealed that had the bull

dug a few inches deeper the poor child’s remains would have been

disinterred. The sides of the ‘basin’ were, in part, polished by the

animal’s horn. It is difficult to account for its behaviour. That the

bull had: been fighting with another solitary earlier was obvious, as

we came on their battle-ground only a short distance away.

of: ESTATE,

EOL R. C. MORRIS

via Mysore,

November 11, 1954.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Neen YY

THE BROW-ANTLERED DEER (CERVUS ELDI

MACCLELLAND)

(With a plate)

1. IN WILD STATE

The beautiful Brow-antlered Deer of Asia is in danger of

becoming extinct in certain parts of its habitat. The three sub-

species in their respective regions of (a) Manipur State in India,

(b) Burma and possibly also Malaya and (c) Thailand and Viet Nam

deserve immediate attention from the I.U.P.N. and the Governments

of the countries concerned.

The relative positions of the three subspecies in their wild state,

so far as they are known to the writer, are given herewith:

(a) Cervus eldi eldi MacClelland, 1842. Found only. in Manipur

State in India. Locally known as sangai. Used to be plentiful in the

old days. In 1933 J. C. Higgins wrote of it as being ‘fairly common’.

It was nominally protected by law, but its numbers were then declin-

ing owing to the attentions of wild dogs and poachers. In 1934 by

order of the Manipur State Durbar it was resolved that no further

permits be issued for shooting these deer until further orders, ‘as

this animal was in danger of extinction’.

Since then World War II has intervened, to be followed by

unsettled conditions in the State. Unfortunately these deer are great

wanderers and leave the flooded areas near the Logtak Lake in the

rains and migrate to drier places. In the cold weather they return to

the swamps. In 1947, G. B. Eastmure reported that he saw several

in twos and threes, and two herds of about seven or eight beasts,

as well-as one magnificent stag. But when in 1950 Dr. Dillon Ripley

looked for them, he says that he found no recent trace that sangai

still existed. He was shown one pair of antlers said to be four

years old.

In 1952 the Forest Department of Manipur State reported that

all enquiries as to the existence of this deer in Manipur had proved

fruitless, and it was then presumed that the animal had become

extinct. In the spring of 1953 a Survey Party of the Zoological

Survey of India working in Manipur searched for traces of this deer,

but nothing definite could be found.

In March 1954 the writer was informed by a friend in Kohima

that a police constable in Manipur had shot one of these deer (a stag)

and that two others had escaped at the time of firing. This informa-

tion was duly passed on to the Senior Conservator of Forests, Assam,

who was about to go on tour in Manipur ; and he has since informed

the writer that after careful enquiries at Suganu on the south of

the Logtak Lake, and at Moirang on the Bishenpur-Tiddim Road, he

is under the impression that the animal still exists.

It is to be hoped that the Manipur Government will do all in

their power to protect fully this fast-vanishing creature. The mere

creating of sanctuaries and the passing of laws will not suffice:

severe penalties for killing or attempting to kill this deer should

be imposed, after full publicity has been BIYoR in the press and by

other means.

915 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

(b) Cervus eldi thamin Thomas, 1918. Found in Burma, and

possibly also in Malaya. Locally known as thameng or thamin.

Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton has informed us that this Burmese race used

to be very common in north Burma at the end of the last century.

They could be seen in their thousands. In 1931, however, there

were probably only about 500 left in the whole of Burma.

More recently. U Tun Yin’s_ exhaustive and commendable

enquiries (Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. 52, No. 1) have revealed

what appears to be an increase in the numbers of this deer in recent

years. This increase. must have been due, as U Tun Yin has

suggested, to the strictness of the Japanese about the issue of

firearms and to the shortage of ammunition during the occupation,

and later to the shortage of ammunition among the insurgents.

If and when conditions in Burma improve, and if the supply of

arms and ammunition becomes plentiful, the status of this deer may

again become endangered, unless the Government of Burma take

prompt and effective steps for its preservation.

and Viet Nam. Nothing is known to the writer of the present

status of this deer in Thailand and the areas formerly known as.

French Indo-China, or if the animal extends into Malaya.

2. IN CaPTIVITy

All three races of this deer appear to thrive in captivity if given

proper attention. It therefore seems that all possible steps should

be taken by Zoological Societies, Zoological Gardens and Zoological

Parks to obtain specimens of these animals in order to prevent them

from dying out. Instances of their being kept in captivity are as

follows:

(a) C. eldi eldi. Deer believed to have been of this subspecies

did very well in the Alipore Zoological Gardens of Calcutta, and

many fawns were born, usually in the months of October, November

and December. The herd only died out due to neglect during World

War II. In the Regent’s Park Zoological Garden of London, four

fawns, possibly of this subspecies, were born during the years 1922-

25. In the Duke of Bedford’s Park at Woburn Abbey, a small

herd of them was kept with great success, and only died out due

to unfortunate neglect caused by World War I.

(b) C. eldi thamin. U Tun Yin has informed the writer that

a pair of this subspecies was captured in the Minbu Forest Division

by U Aung Din in May 1947 and presented to the Rangoon

Zoological Garden. These have now increased to nine. Three more

stags have been presented from various sources, making a total of

twelve animals in this zoo. Unfortunately the sex ratio 1s unsatis-

factory, being 9 stags: 3 hinds. The total number of deaths from

1947 to July 1954 was only 5 (2 hinds attacked by stag, 1 from

enteritis and 2 died. young).

U Tun Yin has informed me that the animals of this subspecies

in the Rangoon Zoological Garden are not spotted, but that he has:

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PuatE |

Brow-antlered Deer stag. Vincennes Zoo, Paris

] Yj, tig

Stag with four of the five hinds,

in Vincennes Zoo, Paris

(Photos: E. P. Gee)

Journ. Bompay Nav. Hist. Soc. PLATE il

srow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldi thamin) in Rangoon Zoo,

(Photos: Zoo staff photographer)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 919

received a report that the animals in the Myatheindan Buddhist

Monastery at Mandalay in Upper Burma are spotted. He also

mentions a report that these animals have been seen with spots in

the Allanmyo Forest Division.

Vincennes Zoological Garden of Paris in 1937. The number now.

in existence from this original pair is eleven, of which 9 are in

Paris, 1 in Lyons and 1 in Rotterdam. The nine in Paris consist

of 1 stag with 5 hinds, and 3 young stags kept separate.

When the writer visited this zoo in June 1954 the animals

appeared to be in very good condition, and were a very beautiful

and graceful exhibit. Spots were just visible on some of the animals.

The mature stag had antlers with hard horn, whereas at least two

of the three young stags were seen to be in velvet (the other young

stag was not seen).

The writer is grateful to M. Nouvel for information regarding

the keeping of these deer in the Vincennes Zoo. Apparently 21 have

died: 12 of enteritis, 5 from injuries and the rest chiefly when young

and from the severity of the winter. The young are usually born

in October and November. The period of gestation is 239 to 256

days. Maximum age recorded is 13 years. Stags commence to

grow their antlers in August, are in hard horn in December and

shed their antlers July. They mate in February.

OaTinG P.O.,

Assam (InpIA), Bio 1 (GB Ie:

September 16, 1954.

6. THAMIN OR BROW-ANTLERED DEER IN THE

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS, RANGOON

(With a plate)

A pair of Thamin (Cervus eldi thamin) presented by the officers.

and staff of the Forest Department, Minbu Forest Division, in May

1947, has been breeding in the Zoological Gadrens, Rangoon, and is

now in the third generation.

o2, 1947

Oct. °47 Oct. ’48 Oct. ’49 Oct. 50 Nov. ’51 Dec. ’52 Nov. ’53 Nov. ’54

2 a 6) 6) 3 6)

Died Died

has | i

Feb. ’50 Dec. 51 Dec. 52

3 2 2

leer

‘920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Two hinds were charged by the stag born in 1947 and killed.

One hind born in October 1950 died of enteritis.

During the current year (1954), three stags were presented.

There are now eleven stags and three hinds.

25, InyA Myainc Roap,

University P.O., RANGOON, ; TUN YIN

December 5, 1954.

7, ABNORMAL HORNS OF A BLACKBUCK

(ANTILOPE CERVICAPRA)

(With a photo)

In rg18 an abnormal Blackbuck head was sent to a taxidermist

in Roorkee. He had at the same time received a very big sambar head

from another sportsman.

As both trophies were interesting I photographed them and am

enclosing a copy of the same as it may be of interest to readers of

the Journal. ‘The sambar head is not abnormal, but is an unusually

fine specimen. |

I am unable to say where the Blackbuck was shot, but as the

taxidermist was a small bazar craftsman who did odd jobs for local

sportsmen it seems probable that it was shot somewhere in Uttar

Pradesh or the Punjab near Roorkee.

In Vol. 6, p. 184 of the Journal a note by A. W. Morris,

accompanied by six illustrations, describes abnormalities in the horns

of antelopes, but none quite as symmetrical as the head illustrated

in the photograph.

LONDON, ) (G, Jel, IBMIDIDNOIEIP EL

January 3, 1954.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 92

8. NOTES ON THE DESERT HEDGEHOG

(HEMIECHINUS AURITUS COLLARIS GRAY)

Several hedgehogs were reared in the laboratory for embryological

studies. One morning I noticed that one female—the sex was

actually revealed only when it gave birth; it is not easy to detect

the sex of a hedgehog superficially because of the dense coat of

spines covering its body—was ailing; it kept itself aloof from others,

and was licking its vulva with the tongue. After a little while the

animal began to tremble and lay down on the sandy floor of the

cage in a most unusual position: the forelimbs were fully stretched

in front, the snout was extended forward on the floor; the hind

limbs were kept slightly erect, so as to keep the hind quarters a

little above the ground. At 8 a.m. she gave birth to one young.

During the delivery the snout of the young appeared first. Seeing

this one of the males (later confirmed) caught hold of the snout

of the young and actually pulled the baby out of the reproductory

tract. I was wondering if he was helping with the delivery, but

to my surprise, the young was soon devoured by the male. The

mother continued to lie thus with the hind legs also fully stretched.

After five minutes, she began to search for the young. At about

8.40 a.m. she was again observed to be very uneasy. (This time

she was kept away from all the other hedgehogs.) She assumed

the same posture as for the first delivery. This time she was also

opening her mouth at intervals. The hind limbs were shaking

violently. At 8.45 a.m. we could see the head of the baby coming

out; then the body followed. The limbs were folded laterally.

There was a series of fairly rapid muscular contractions around

the vulva for the eversion of the foetus. Each series of contractions

was separated by only a few seconds followed by a rest period of

variable length before the next series of contractions started. Each

series of contractions lasted for 4-5 seconds. There were five violent

expulsive contractions before the offspring finally came out. The young

was licked when the mother recovered after four minutes. The

delivery took 4.20 minutes. After recovering, the mother very softly

held the baby in her jaws and kept it under her body. At 11 a.m.

and 1 p.m. it gave birth to two more young and kept all the three

under itself. Altogether she gave birth to four young ones in a period

of five hours. No blood or any tissue matter was noticed. Thus _

it may be concltded that the placenta in hedgehogs is of the

Deciduous type. |

During the breeding season another female H. a. collaris gave

birth to two young only. Three H. a. collaris were dug out from

their respective burrows with two offsprings each. Last year a female

Paraechinus micropus micropus Blyth gave birth to only one young.

Another female of the latter form was dug out with two young.

The breeding season lasts from July to September, but most of

the births occur in August and September. ;

Apparently McCann’s note (JBNHS, 1937, 26: 616) was the only

observation on the breeding of the hedgehog, H. a. collaris

(=Hemiechinus collaris Gray and Hardwicke) till now. McCann

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEDN, Volk 52

concluded concerning the number of young born from. his experience

of abortion of some hedgehogs while in transport by car in Cutch.

He mentions, ‘from the premature births referred to above and

disparity of age observed in the foetuses, it would appear that only

one at a birth is normal.’ He also mentioned that according to

Dobson (vide F.B.I. Mammalia, p. 214), the number of young at a

birth never exceeds four. |

My observations, though too meagre for any conclusion about

the usual number of offsprings, show that it varies from one to four

in case of H. a. collaris, The European hedgehog, Erinaceus

europaeus, gives birth to 1 to 7 offsprings, the ‘most common’

number being 5—two and three in each horn of the uterus (Deansley,

R. 1934, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., ‘London 223, pp. 239-276).

DSESCEIDLIOM Of the WOuUmes

The young were born with eyes closed. At the time of birth,

they had only 2 mm. long spines, but after five hours these developed

to 8 mm. The spines were still soft and had no fixed coloration.

Some were dirty white and others black. In adult H. a. collaris

the spines measure 30 mm.; they are largely dirty white with black

tips. The young were capable of moving about in a small area of

8-10 in. They had a remarkable power of identifying their mother,

and as soon as she came near all the young made a noise like chu

chi, chu chi. The averages of measurements of the young of H. a.

collaris are given below.

Weight x oe 50 Co B25, FANS.

Length: tip of snout to tip of tail 47 mm.

sore ll ... sh eee? OMIT

Snout ae So 309, HO wwAvAD,

Ear a Bee sos SANT

Shank oe a soo | LD (AANA

Tail 5 mm.

JASWANT COLLEGE,

JODHPUR, ISHWAR PRAKASH

December 6, 1954.

9. CANNIBALISM IN HEDGEHOGS

In a recent note (J/BNHS, 51: 730) I recorded a case of a young

hedgehog being devoured by adults, but was unable to ascertain if

its mother had also partaken of the meal.

This year a female Hemiechinus auritus collaris Gray, kept in

a large cage with thick layer of sand in the bottom, gave birth to

two young. She dug a burrow in which to accommodate herself

together with the young and was provided with such food as

hedgehogs appear to relish in captivity, i-e., meat, frogs, milk etc.

On the fourth day the young could not be found in spite of a thorough

search being made in the sand and it can only ‘be concluded that

they were eaten by their mother.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 45 923

' In my: previous note I had observed that hedgehogs do not molest

each other iif they. are properly fed,.but the present note proves that

in captivity at least they are sometimes inclined to eat their young.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

Jaswant COLLEGE, JODHPUR, ISHWAR PRAKASH

August, 31, 1954.

to. WILD LIFE PRESERVATION IN INDIA

‘THE AREA OF THE FORMER GILGIT AGENCY

It is known from the book, ‘Between the Oxus dnd! the Tiduen

by Colonel R.C. F. Séhombere. published in 1935, Pp. 195, that while

shooting was still a popular pastime it was not easy to indulge in it

as nearly all animals had been killed off.

‘There is perpetual warfare against every living animal, foxes

‘ for their fur, birds for their meat and feathers; even sparrows

- are pursued relentlessly by small boys with sticks and stones.’

The Ram-chukor, or Himalayan Snowcock, was trapped by a

simple device as many as four or five at a time being caught.

‘The results of this incessant pursuit of every living creature

issthatwwild lite is; almose, extinct, in the Giloit Agency... 5. Tt

is distressing to wander through such country, splendid ground

‘for ibex and markhor, and to see no sign of any wild creatures

at alll,”

In this connection it would be of great interest to know if any of

the considerable number of Ovis ammon poli or Marcopoio’s

Sheep, which was at one’time’ within the Hunza territory and

protected by the Ruler, are still there—the only place within the

former British Indian limits where the species existed. Paragraphs

51 (Kashmir) and 60 (Markhor) of the summarised index of the com-

pulation, “The Preservation of Wild Life in India’, may be seen.

IN. THE GHIZR COUNTRY, WEST OF GILGIT

Trout.—In. the same book, p. 46, it is said that the Ghizr

River had been stocked with English trout—the species is not men-

tioned—the flavour of which was loudly praised by the natives by

whom the fish was largely poached, but appeared to be not only

holding its own but even destroying the native fish. The Ghizr

River flows eastward along approximately latitude 36°25’ to add its

waters to the Gilgit River some 4o miles west of that place. This

introduction of trout into the Ghizr River may be added to the

localities and literature mentioned in ‘A History of Shikar in India’,

at p. 857 JBNHS, Vol. 50, August 1952.

c/o Liroyps Bank Ltp.,

PICCADILY, . R. W. BURTON,

Lonpon W.1, | Lt.-Col. 1.4. (Retd.).

June 5,°1954.

924. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

[No more recent data concerning the position of wild life in

these areas is available. Dr. A. R. Ranjah, of Zoological Survey

Department of Pakistan, through whose good offices an attempt

was made to procure information, failed to elicit the desired response

from the authorities on the spot.—Eps. |

11. NEW LIGHT UPON THE NATURAL HISTORY

OF MALABAR

‘Str,—I have read with much interest the incident published in

The Madras Mail of December 1, of a boar and tiger killed with a

particularly lucky single shot. You will realise why I call it a parti-

cularly lucky shot when you read the following facts about boars

and tigers known to, and taken advantage of by, the Malabar

shikaries. .

When a boar and a tiger happen to meet, they stand apart looking

fixedly at each other, and each waiting for an opportunity to attack

the other. For days and days they will stand like that, and nothing

will disturb them. The shikaries say that when these animals are

found in this state, you can approach them without attracting their

attention and can even stroke the tiger without any risk of its.

attacking you. If nothing untoward happens the tiger falls down

after a few days.through sheer exhaustion, and the boar rushes to-

wards it and tears it to pieces. When a shikari finds such a lucky

meeting (lucky for him) what he does, and what he should do, is

to shoot the boar—and never for his life the tiger. As soon as.

the boar is hit, it rushes at the tiger, and invariably succeeds in

killing it. On the other hand, if the tiger is shot at and hit, that

animal rushes not at the boar but in the direction from which the

shot came, and woe unto the man if he be within reach, or is un-

prepared.

Was not the gentleman who ignorant of this instinctive peculiarity

of these animals, shot the tiger, and missing it hit the boar parti-

cularly lucky.

| —M. KUMARAN’

The above description of an encounter between a tiger and a

boar comes from The Madras Mail of December 1931 and was sent

to the paper by a contributor from Tellicherry on December 3, 1931.

I think it should find a place in the Journal as it seems extra-

ordinary that the contributor should have so completely believed one

more of the old village shikari legends that he felt he had to pass

it on to fellow-sportsmen. .

At this distant date I am not sure of the particular incident

reported in The Madras Mail of the December 1, 1931, but believe

it referred to a sportsman approaching a kill of some animal, seeing

a tiger feeding and firing at it. The shot however missed the tiger

and seriously wounded the boar, also feeding on the same kill.

The boar was reported to have attacked and killed the tiger

immediately on beg wounded and to the sportsman’s surprise he

found a dead tiger and boar when he approached the kill.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 925

The original story, one has to admit, sounded rather hard to

believe, but was easily capped by the contributor from Tellicherry,

LONDON, C. H. BIDDULPH

January 3,.1955-.

12, A BIRD ANSWERING ITS OWN ECHO

The Journal has published several notes of birds showing strong

reaction to their own reflections in mirrors and other polished

surfaces, and most car-owners must have observed Robins and

Wagtails pecking at their own images in chronium hub-caps. But

have you any record of a bird answering its own echo?

The rains were over, and the tall trees round our house were

full of bird-song. Conspicuous among the various notes was the

insistent throaty call of a Jungle Crow, answering and answered

by another in the distance.

Idly listening, I began to be struck by something peculiar about

this exchange of repartee; and I realised that the distant crow was.

replying almost betore the near crow had finished, and was copy-

ing every tone and inflection exactly. It was such a complete

mockery that I could not help sympathising with the first crow’s.

obviously rising irritation.

I stalked the crow as he sat in our big babul tree, and turned

my gaze in the direction from which the second bird was answering.

The source of the answer was perfectly clear; it came from my old

cottage about 100 yds. away. I looked and looked for the second crow.

There was no second crow,

And suddenly I remembered how I had once noted a clear echo

that is thrown back from the cottage wall if you shout from a point

near the babul tree. The mystery was solved. The Jungle Crow

was shouting at its own mocking echo!

LONAVLA, . T. GAY

January 6, 1955.

13. ANOTHER BIRD WATCHING PILGRIMAGE

LO SW. TIBER

(With a map)

This account of my bird watching in the precincts of Mt. Kailas.

must be read as a supplement to the article by Mr. Salim Ali in

Vol. 46, No. 2 of this journal under the title of ‘An Ornithological

Pilgrimage to Lake Manasarover and Mount Kailas’. There is.

little I can add to jhis excellent. account of the geography and

ecological features of the country other than that I crossed into

Tibet considerably to the west, from the Dhauli Valley in Garhwal

whereas he followed the route across the Lipu Lekh Pass close to

the western border of Nepal. Apart from the tremendous canyon

regions of the River Sutlej, very like that of the famous Colorado

of the U.S.A., this western route had no other features in climate

926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

or avifauna differing from those described by Salim Ali on his

eastern route. It is the fact that ] was in Tibet a month later than

he, that permits me to make a few additional observations on the

birds of the region. The La Chu and the Zhong Chu, the two

rivers on either side of Mt. Kalias which he mentions as desolate

snowfields were green with grass, and even the 18,600 ft. Dolma

La was free of snow. The La Chu, however, was more desolate than

the other stream which was gay with flowers. , The withering Tibetan

gales had desiccated all the snow on the plateau and the Monsoon

now banking up on the Himalayas penetrated in detached squalls

of sleet and rain, both of which added to the miseries of Tibetan

travel. Then, the occupation of Tibet by the Chinese and the semblance

of authority by two soldiers at Parkha had reduced the bandit

menace though we were careful to make the fact clear that we were

well armed, whenever we met any of the local habitants. Offsetting

the security of having a more settled authority in the land was the

annoying fact, for the bird watcher, that the new power did not

like the carrying of cameras and binoculars, as much as fire-arms,

and both these valuable companions had to be left behind with the

hospitable commandant of the Indian security police at Hoti. With-

out binoculars I missed the proper identification of many birds

especially simce most of them were totally new to me and non-

descriptly coloured.

We crossed into Tibet over the 16,250 ft., Tunjun La on 27th

June 1954 and were back at Hoti on the 16th of the next month.

The accompanying sketch map of SW. Tibet shows roughly the

routes taken by Salim Ali and by my party.

Itinerary :

26-6-54. Hoti 14,500 ft. (India). |

27-6-54. Crossed the Tunjun La. 16,250 ft.; Sarkia ca. 15,500 ft. _

28-6-54. Gemul ca. 14,000 ft. |

29-6-54. Crossed the R. Sutle] ca. 13,000 ft.; Alantara ea.

2 SOO) tit |

Shambhutara ca. 15,000 ft.

Gvajemeru ca. 14,800 ft.

Misser ca. 15,000 ft.

Gogjan ca. 15,500 ft.

Laguva ca. 15,500 ft.

Nyanri Chukhu Gompa ca. 15,800 ft.

Dhiraphuk Gompa ca. 16,700 ft.

Crossed the Dolma La 18,600 ft.; Tarchen ca: 15,500 ft.

Chiu Gompa 15,000 ft., northwest corner of Manasarover.

Paricdancanensroomlt:

10-7-54. Lajendak ca. 15,000 ft.

r1-7-54. Chumersila ca. 15,200 ft.

12-7-54. Gyanima Mandi ca. 14,900 ft.

13-7-54. Gombachin ca. 15,000 ft.

14-7-54. Sibchilum ca. 14,500 ft.

15-7-54. Daker ca, 15,000 ft. .

16-77-54. Crossed the Marhi La ca. 17,200 ft.; Hoti (India).

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MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES . 927

NoTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED ON THE TREK

Corvus corax tibetanus, The Tibetan Raven.

Sparsely distributed throughout the high regions across ihe

Zasker range, in pairs and singly close to encampments | and

monasteries. Highest seen at 18,000 ft. near the Dolma La.

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. The Redbilled Chough.

Met. with on the Kailas Prakrama and with young in SHR near

Chiu Gompa, Manasarover. Very common along the Himalayas. |

Pyrrhocorax graculus. The Yellowbilled Chough.

Very common at Hoti. A flock sailing overhead at Shambara)

Not recorded either by Salim Ali or Ludlow far into Tibet.

Podoces humilis. Hume’s Ground Chough.

_A pair with young in cliff-face at Hoti. Common on the Tibetan

Plateau with young in Mouse-Hare’ burrows, holes in clift-faces,

monastery walls and in mani walls. Young fed well into dusk. Very

confiding.

Tichodroma muraria. The Wall-creeper.

A solo seen on rock face above the swirling waters of the Sutle}.

Also a bird carrying food to a scree above Gauri Kund 18,000 ft.

below the Dolma La.

Cinclus cinclus. The Kashmir Dipper.

Seen on the Trokponup, La Chu and Zhong Chu.

Saxicola torquata, The Collared Bushchat.

A pair with young in nest at Misser on edge of wet grass

Oenanthe deserti. The Tibetan Desert Chat.

Pairs and solos throughout Tibet. Breeding: at Hoti, in the

canyons at Alantara, and Laguva. Also among the deserted huts at

Gyanima Mandi carrying food to young in nest.

Phoenicurus ochrurus rufiventris. The Eastern Indian Redstart.

Very common throughout Tibet near cliff-faces and steep banks

of rivers. Most of the birds had young following them. A couple

of pairs carrying food for young in nest at 18,o00 ft. near the

Dolma La. Freely entering the monastery at Tarchen. The male

has a peculiar song which sounds like paper rustling. At times

also uttered by the female. .

Phoenicurus grandis, Giildenstadt’s Redstart.

A pair at 18,000 ft. near the Dolma La with young out of nest,

and a bird carrying food to a scree higher up. A solo at Hoti at

16,500 ft., 17th July. Not recorded by Salim Ali. Ludlow obtained

a specimen in September 1932. j

928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Calliope tschebaiewi. Tibetan Rubythroat.

Common among Caragana throughout Tibet. Salim Ali puts this

bird down as C. pectoralis though he mentions the possibility of

his being mistaken. However, all the birds seen by me appeared

browner than the Himalayan birde! On the other hand I cannot be

absolutely certain and base my assumption on Ludlow’s identification.

Laiscopus collaris. The Alpine Accentor.

This common Himalayan bird was met with only on ihe Kailas

Prakrama. <A pair carrying food below the Dolma La. Not recorded

by Sdlim Ali. Ludlow obtained a specimen near the Lipu Lekh Pass

September 1932.

Prunella rubeculoides. The Robin Accentor.

Generally met with throughout Tibet on the edge of snow-fed

streams and wet grass. Nesting in the bordering furze. All nests

contained young—three or four. Also around Kailas and on the

Dolma La. at 18,600 ft. Feeding young late into dusk. Very

confiding.

Phylloscopus affinis. Tickell’s Willow Warbler.

Breeding in Caragana at Sarkia, and elsewhere. Mostly young |

in nest. yes

Carpodacus rubicilla. The Great Rosefinch.

A few birds seen in furze bushes near Tarchen.

Carduelis caniceps. The Goldfinch.

Seen in parties at Gemul-Alantara on grass bordering streams at

the bottom of the canyons.

Acanthis flavirostris. The Twite.

Met with in parties in similar type of country to the Goldfinch.

Also near Zuthulphuk Gompa.

Fringillauda brandtii. The Mountain Finch.

Large flocks at Misser feeding on the ground near water, along

with the Short-toed Lark.

Montifringilla nivalis, The Tibet Snowfinch.

Seen around Kailas. Met with well above 18,000 ft. Breeding.

Montifringilla ruficollis. The Rednecked Snowfinch.

Very common locally north of the Sutlej, near banks of streams.

Young following parents.

Ptydnoprogne rupestris. The Crag Martin.

Seen on the Sutle}. Presumably breeding.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 929:

Motacilla cineria caspica. The Eastern Grey Wagtail. ie

A male seen on the Sutlej near the bridge. Not recorded

previously.

Motacilla citreola. The Yellowheaded Wagtail.

A breeding pair at Misser.

Otocoris alpestris elwesi. Elwe’s Horned Lark.

Very common and breeding throughout Tibet. Mostly with

young in nest. <A pair followed by young on windy uplands near

Misser. | :

Melanocorypha maxima, The Longbilled Calandra Lark.

Large numbers breeding on the marshy pastures at Galdungi and

Gyanima Mandi.

Calandrelia acutirostris. The Short-toed Lark. 4

Common everywhere. LEspecially on the great Parkha plain.

A nest with three eggs, under the shelter of a furze bush.

Athene noctua, The Tibet Owlet.

Singly or in pairs on sandy Caragana-studded plains. Not

recorded by Salim Ali, Ludlow saw one at Tarchen, September 1932-

Behaviour similar to our Spotted Owlet (4. brama).

Gypactus barbatus, The Bearded Vulture.

A pair seen at Dhiraphuk Gompa, and a solo near Chiu Gompa,

Manasarover.

Faico peregrinus, The Peregrine Falcon.

A solo at Misser.

Falco subbuteo. The Hobby.

A pair seen near Misser at 15,000 ft.

Cerchneis tinnunculus, The Himalayan Kestrel.

Widely separated solos and pairs throughout the region.

Aquila rapax. The Tawny Eagle.

A solo on the Parkha plain. Identity doubtful.

Haliaétus leucoryphus, Pallas’s Fishing Eagle.

Perched singly on the ground on the Parkha plain near the

various streams that meander across it. Fairly common.

Buteo rufinus. The Longlegged Buzzard.

-Sparsely distributed throughout the area, singly and in pairs.

Mostly the dark phase.

930 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Buteo lagopus. The Roughlegged Buzzard.

A solo in overhead flight on the Parkha plain. It is not possible

to be very certain about the identity of birds of prey unless specimens

are collected.

Accipiter sp. The Sparrow-hawk. |

Seen on several occasions on the high plains, sailing overhead.

Columba rupestris. Turkestan Hill Pigeon.

Common everywhere on the Tibetan side of the Zasker range

and on the Tibetan Plateau. The canyon-faces of the Sutlej and

adjoining streams provide nesting sites for these birds. Large

numbers flighting to and from Tibetan cliff dwellings above Alantara.

These dwellings are occupied by shepherd families in winter and are

deserted in summer. They consist of extensive caves carved out in

the cliffs.

Streptopelia orientalis, The Rufous Turtle Dove.

A pair in flight at Misser. Possibly on migration.

Syrrhaptes tibetanus. The Tibetan Sandgrouse.

Common on the high plateau in pairs and small parties up to a

dozen birds. Seen at Laguva where a female allowed approach to

within few feet while on a nest scrape. Also at Gyanima Mandi.

Tetraogallus tibetanus. The Tibetan Snowcock.

Heard at Shambutara, Gvajameru, and in the Kailas area. The

birds most probably belonged to this species.

Grus nigricollis. The Blacknecked Crane.

In pairs on the margins of the large river pools near the source

of the Sutlej at Lajendak, and on the marsh at Gyanima. No nest

noted.

Larus ridibundus. The Blackheaded Gull.

A few birds noted among the large flocks of the Brownheaded

species, on the Parkha plain. Possibly on migration north?

Larus brunnicephalus. The Brownheaded Gull.

Large flocks on the Parkha plain and at Chiu Gompa, Manasarover,

They attend on the herds of yak grazing on the extensive plain, and

frorn time to time ‘ball’ up into the air as the swifts do, uttering soft

caws.

Larus fuscus. The Herring Gull.

A single bird among flocks of other gulls on the Parkha plain.

Sterna hirundo, The Tibetan Tern.

Met ‘with in pairs and parties on streams flowing across the Parkha

plain, Misser and Chiu Gompa, Manasarover, Lajendak.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 931

Cirrepedesmus mongolus, The Lesser Sand-plover.

Pairs on the plateau and on margins of bogs. A pair did the

broken wing trick on a windy pass west of Mt. Kailas. Possibly had

a nest or young in the vicinity. The fierce wind discouraged an

investigation.

Tringa ochropus. The Green Sandpiper.

Several birds on the tundra bogs at Gyanima. Salim Ali did not

record it in June. Ludlow saw one at Chiu in September 1932.

Tringa erythropus. The Dusky Redshank.

A solo on the Trokpo Nup and a pair at Lagua. I did not meet

with the Redshank T. totanus which Salim Ali found breeding on

the Ding Tso.

Anser indicus. The Barheaded Goose.

Very common on the Manasarover at Chiu, and feeding on the

Parkha plain with the Brahminy Duck. A pair of geese seen flying

north near Laguva early in the morning. Not having stayed long

at Manasarover it was not possible to study them more carefully. .

Very confiding. The porters from Garhwal told us that large flocks

of these ‘hans’ fly along the Dhauli Ganga Valley towards Tibet

in March and April. Possibly these river valleys and the passes

at their head are used as flight routes across the Himalayas.

Casarca ferruginea. The Brahminy Duck.

Very common on the Manasarover, breeding in the cliffs over the

warm springs at Chiu Gompa. Also at Lajendak, Gyanima and the

Parkha plain. The birds had apparently not begun to lay, for they

were all walking around on the ground or flying in pairs up to the

cliff faces calling all the time.

‘Anas streperus. The Gadwall.

A party on the warm springs near Chiu Gompa. .A large number

of duck were noted on the Manasarover, but without binoculars it was

not possible to identify them.

JASDAN, SAURASHTRA, kK. S. LAVKUMAR

November 1, 1954.

LITERATURE

1. Ali, SAlim, (1946): An Ornithological Pilgrimage to Lake Manasarover and

Mount Kailas, (JBNHAS), 46: (2).

2. Baker, Stuart: Fauna of British India, Birds, Vols. I to VIII.

3. Hollom, P. A. D., Mountfort, Guy and Peterson, Roger (1953): A Field

Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe.

14. HAS THE CUCKOO A PROTRUSIBLE OVIPOSITOR?

The old controversy of how the cuckoo lays in apparently in-

accessible nests without destroying them is a problem which has not.

yet been solved. Several explanations have been put forward in an

"932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

attempt to solve the point, but these have been far from wholly

satisfactory, Musing over the subject for some time, and recalling

the well-known instance of the Surinam Toad, the idea struck me that,

possibly, during the breeding season the cuckoo develops an

elongated, protrusible oviduct which enables it to perform such feats.

If this were so, it would not be difficult to understand how such

apparently inaccessible nests become available to the bird.

Such a possibility does not appear to be beyond the bounds of

probability. I am not aware that such a suggestion has been put

forward before. I have not come across it in literature. Although

the idea may at first sight appear rather fantastic, it is perhaps

worth while pursuing the subject. Unfortunately, geographical

‘considerations prevent me from pursuing the subject in the field and

in the laboratory. Perhaps some of our more enthusiastic members

who are more fortunately placed could verify the suggestion.

Dominion MUSEvuM,

WELLINGTON, CHARLES McCANN, F.t.s.

NEw ZEALAND,

November 26, 1953.

| We believe the possibility of a protrusible ovipositor enabling

the female cuckoo to lay in a closed or ‘inaccessible’ nest has

already been mooted before and negatived by morphological investi-

gation. Although it is now generally accepted as almost proven

that cuckoos do not deposit in a nest otherwise than by direct application

of the cloaca to the entrance hole, a letter written many years ago

by a British observer of some repute—salvaged from oblivion and

presented by H. R. Tutt at the recent XIth International Ornitholo-

gical Congress at Basel—has certainly helped to resuscitate a certain

amount of doubt in the matter. The writer of the letter produced

quite plausible circumstantial evidence from 2 marked fresh cuckoo

eggs, originally found in a deserted moorhen’s nest and subsequently

discovered in 2 different nests of reed warblers some distance away,

that the cuckoo sometimes does lay its eggs outside and transport

them later—obviously in its bill—to eligible mests of its normal

fosterers. If this account can be taken at its face value, then

there would seem no obstacle to conceding that the cuckoo may

sometimes place its egg in an ‘inaccessible’ nest by means of

its bill, as was once widely believed to be the case.—EDs. |

15. MATING OF PARDRIDGES

On page 11 of ‘British and American Game Birds’ (Eyre and

Spottiswoode, London, 1945) appears the following extraordinarily

courageous pronouncement by one of the sectional authors, Major

Hugh B. C. Pollard:

‘The sexual union of any species of partridge is not generally

seen. It is done in the air and is over in a flash. It is a very good

test of the credibility or otherwise of anyone who chatters about

birds to draw him out gently about this sexual act of partridges.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES » 933

‘If he says he has seen a cock treading a hen you can write him

off as an unreliable witness !’

As this statement seemed so supremely novel and fantastic, we

wrote to the author asking if we had not perchance misread it. In

reply he said: |

‘Yes, it is true and has been observed by game farm owners

trying to breed penned partridges. The contact is very short but

no other takes place! Sir. Trevor Wheler (?) Bart, of the

Emsworth Game Farms discussed it with me many years ago,

and his old keeper said that he had often observed it with wild

grey partridges, but not with the ‘‘French’’ partridge. I have asked

endless keepers if they had ever seen partridges in copulation and

all say they never have. Many appear to have seen these aerial

connections, but not to have realized what was taking place.’

To make assurance trebly sure, we asked 3 experts for their

views on the staggering statement in the book: Dr. Satya Churn

Law of Calcutta, the foremost Indian aviculturist, Col. R.

Meinertzhagen, the eminent British ornithologist, and Mons. Jean

Delacour, the celebrated ornithologist, aviculturist and monographer

of ‘Pheasants of the World’. All three of them, unfortunately it

seems must now be written off as unreliable witnesses since they

Maintain it is fantastic to suggest that partridges do not mate like

any other game bird, and only that, in fact, has been their experience

with various species of partridges and closely related game birds!

As to the aerial copulation of partridges, therefore, we here have

another case of a perfectly good story, being completely spoilt by

eyewitnesses !

114 APOLLO STREET,

BOMBAY 1, EDITORS

December 30, 1954.

16. THE BONE-DROPPING HABIT OF THE

LAMMERGEIER

The Lammergeier’s (Gypaétus barbatus) habit of dropping bones

and turtles to break them, for the sake of the contents, is well

established in the literature. Perhaps the oldest account is Pliny’s

(in Newton) ‘of having caused the death of the poet Aeschylus, by,

dropping a tortoise on his bald head, mistaking it for a stone’ (i).

Reference to this habit also occurs in such standard works as those

of Stuart Baker and Sdlim Ali who says: ‘Its method of smashing

bones is well known. The bird carries a large bone in its claws

up to a height of 200 or 300 ft. and drops it on the rocks below..

This is repeated again and again, if necessary, until the bone

splinters, whereupon the bird alights to pick up and swallow the

pieces’ (2).

Meinertzhagen in his 1954 Birds of Arabia, p. 361, has raised

the question as to whether or not the Lammergeier ever drops bones

934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

to break them for food. During Meinertzhagen’s extensive travels

in Lammergeier country he has never seen this habit. He suggests

that it is more likely that this vulture, which prefers bones to meat,

when carrying off a large bone and in trying to deal with it in the

air, drops it accidentally and swoops down to pick it up again.

Despite the prevalence of the idea, I have found only, one first-

hand account in the literature. Verner describes seeing one bird

once, dropping a bone from an altitude of 1,500 ft. onto a rocky

hill, flying down, and feeding on it (3).

' Rocky areas strewn with broken bones, said to be feeding places

of the Lammergeier, are well known to local people in parts of

the Lammergeier’s range, and Moreau and North describe such a

site in Kenya (4).

1 have lived in Lammergeier country. This species of vulture

is one of the commonest around Mussoorie, U.P., India. During

more than 20 years there I only once saw a Lbinmnseesier dropping

a bone. My son and I were on the Tehri Road several miles beyond

Mussoorie on December 20, 1950. Near Jalki we noticed a young

Lammergeier a short distance below us, carrying a large, bare bone

in its talons. The steep hillside, which towered above us and dropped

off rapidly below us, was covered with short, dry grass. In the

fold of the hill was ’a shallow ravine filled with boulders. The

bird glided rapidly towards us, |dropped the bone on the rocks,

circled once and alighted. It grasped the bone, flew around and

repeated the process. A third time the Lammergeier simply dropped

the bone on the rocks and sailed away behind the hill out of sight.

The distance the bird dropped the bone was between 150. and 250

ft. As far as we could see, the bone was not broken.

Apparently the Lammergeier does sometimes drop bones for

feeding purposes, but apparently the habit is rarely observed. It

thay be a common habit in a part of the bird’s range, rare or

absent in others. Observations on the occurrence and frequency

of this habit in the Himalay as and elsewhere, if it does take place,

and the purpose if any, i.e. accidentally, for marrow, for fragments

of bone, are obviously needed. et |

Cuicaco MusEuM oF NaTURAL HastTory,

CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, — ROBERT L. FLEMING, pPh.p.

November 15, 1954.

{Salim Ali has twice observed this bone-dropping habit in the

Western Himalayas. In one case, the Lammergeier after repeatedly

dropping the bone on rocks from a height of about 300 ft. and swooping

down to pick it up again, gave up and moved off. In the other

case after several drops of what was evidently.a small cow’s femur

the bird alighted on the ground, walked about with the gait of a

1. Newton, A. (1893): Dictionary of Birds, footnote, p. 503.

2. Salim Ali, (1949): Indian Hill Birds, pp. 161-162.

3. Verner, W. W. (1909): My Life Among the Wild Birds of Spain, p. 434.

4. North, M. E. W. (1948): Ibis, (Vol.’90), p. 140.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 935

Neophron vulture and picked up and swallowed a splinter of dry

bone. :

C. H. Donald (JBNHS, 18: 913) describing this habit says, ‘1

watched one in Kashmir for the better part of an hour, and during

that time the bone must have been dropped quite fifty times, but

remained unbroken when I left the place’.

_ Jerdon found large bones and the hoof of an ibex inside a Lammer-

geier, but considering the number of apparent failures, it needs to be

investigated more carefully to what extent the bone-dropping habit

is responsible for the bird’s normal food supply.—EDs. |

17. HERON-KEEPING ON THE INDUS RIVER

(With a_ photo)

The enclosed photograph was taken by Mrs. Dorothy Mackay

the wife of the archaeologist who investigated the early Indus.

civilizations in such detail, on the Indus, probably at Mohenjo

Daro. It is published by the courtesy of the Curator of the Pitt.

Rivers Museum, Oxford.

At first I thought that I had come across a unique instance

of Grey Herons (Ardea cinerea) being used to catch fish, but it

now appears that the birds were domesticated for another purpose..

‘936 [OW RNAESS BOVIBAMTN ein OTK Ae stl Siliegn.s Olay ammo eae,

Macpherson notes on p. 214 of his ‘History of Fowling’ (Edinburgh,

1897):

‘Mr. Hume observes that hundreds of Grey Herons can be

observed about every fishing village in Sindh. These tame birds

are blinded by the edges of their eyelids being sewn together.

They are usually tethered, a string being attached to the shank

of each bird. Even the lovely Great White Heron (Herodias

alba) and two smaller species of Egret share the same fate. The

birds are kept on the fishing boats. When required for the

purpose of acting as decoys, the captives are tied to stacks of

wood which float in the water, or to poles set in the shallows to

serve as perches for them.’

The manner in which birds attracted to the decoys were captured

is not specified.

FISHERIES OFFICE,

P.O. 72, Lusaka, P. I. R. MACLAREN

N. RHODESIA, 7

July 24, 1954:

| According to information supplied by an official in West Pakistan,

‘Herons’ are actually also used for fishing in shallow water. They

are said to catch fish upto 6 inches in length for the mohanas’

(boatmen) home consumption, not commercial purposes. We _ had

not heard before of herons being thus used.—Eps. ]

18 TRAPPING BIRDS FOR RINGING

(With a photo)

I am interested in ringing birds in our garden at Andheri and

at Pali Hill, and have tried out several types of contraptions for

‘trapping them., |

Some of the traps described in the pamphlet ‘Trapping methods

for Bird Ringers’, published by the British Trust for Ornithology,

have proved quite effective for birds that feed on the ground. With

the ordinary Fall Trap of the type illustrated on page 19, we

managed to catch a Magpie Robin, a White Wagtail, a Myna and

a few jungle babblers. The baits used were pieces of bread and

‘ghatias’.

The disadvantage of this trap is that one has to remain behind

the scene at all times ready to release the trip when the birds come

under it.

A more satisfactory affair is the automatic trap illustrated on

page 4 of the pamphlet, and I enclose a photograph of the one

which I am using. During December and January last year we

succeeded in catching quite a dozen babblers, several of them being

caught again and again. One bird seemed to have acquired the

trap habit, and we caught it three times during the same day. These

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 937

birds have a pugnacious temperament and peck viciously, but im-

mediately they are placed on their backs in the hand they appear

to be quite hypnotised and remain motionless until they are turned

over, or thrown up in the air.

In this trap I was lucky in getting two Ashy Wren-Warblers

and one Tailor Bird last week in Andheri. On the first day I

found two Ashy Wren-Warblers flapping furiously in the trap

to get away. Unfortunately owing to my clumsiness I succeeded in

ringing only one bird, and the other got away from the gathering cage.

The next day, however, I again found two Ashy Wren-Warblers

in the trap in company with a Tailor Bird.. One of the warbiers

got away again, but I banded the Tailor Bird and one of the warbiers.

Incidentally there was no food in the trap and it is difficult to imagine

why the birds went in at all.

The crow trap of the type illustrated on page 7 has proved

completely ineffective for our crows. Batches of them fly over the

trap cawing at the decoys from a distance, but are not tempted

by the pieces of meat, bread, etc., kept to attract them.

c/o DyNnacraFT MACHINE Co.,

IsmaIL BUILDING, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY

Hornsy Roap, Fort,

BOMBAY 1,

February 29, 1952.

19. THE RECORD INDIAN CROCODILE

In: reference to crocodile measurements | Miscellaneous Note r7,

Vol. 52 (1): 213] it is of interest to refer to the note, ‘Some

Measurements of the Estuary Crocodile (C. porosus)’ contributed by

the Curator, Sarawak Museum, in 1930 (Vol. 34: 1086).

From the long list of measurements given it is found that the

body length is a little more than seven times that of the head.

From this we know that Major Foran’s method of calculation is

938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

about correct, and the skull of length 334 in. came from a crocodile

of about.19 ft. 6 in. The Elgin Museum skull of 37 in. length

reported by Dunbar Brander in Vol. 34: 584, will have been taken

from a crocodile of approximately 21 ft..7.in., not 27, ft.

The longest crocodile (Gavial) on record in the Society’s Journal

is the 21 ft. 6 in. specimen shot in the Gogra River as reported

by Pitman (Vol. 30: 703, 1924),

Mee Gf Crocodiles

On the basis of the rate of growth of the mugger (C. palustris}

as given by D’Abreu (Vol. 38: 282) the age of the 21 ft. 6 in.

or 7 in. reptiles referred to above will have been about 60 years.

To what age the crocodile attains, and for how long after the age

of 60 increase of length continues does not appear to be known.

c/o Lioyps Bank L1tp.,

39 PICCADILLY, R. W. BURTON,

Lonpon W.1, Lt.-Col. 1.a, (Retd.).

December 15, 1954.

ts)

20. SOME NOTES ON RANA BEDDOMII GUNTHER,

WITH AN. EXTENSION OF ITS RANGE

In the Fauna of British India and Boulenger’s “Monograph of

the Frogs of the Genus Rana of Southern Asia’, (Rec. Ind. Mus.,

20: 114-116), the distribution of Rana beddomi is given vaguely as

‘Forests of Southern India’. The types of the species are also

from three different parts of its distribution namely: (1) Sivagiri

Hills in Tinnevelly District, Madras Province, (ii) Annamalai Hills

on, the Madras-Cochin border, and (iii) Malabar.

In May 1953, on our way to Goa we obtained 4 specimens (3

males and a female) of Rana beddomi on the Anmode-Londa

Road in North Kanara. These were taken from among dry leaves

by the side of a stream in heavy forest. All were pale in colour

with dark patches behind the eyes (similar to colour-pattern (ii)

mentioned hereunder). lhe enlarged gonads of the three males

indicated that they were breeding. In addition to the enlarged pad

on the inner side of the first finger, mentioned by Boulenger (1920)

as a secondary sexual character, they had on the ventral side of

each femur a granular oval-shaped swelling occupying most of the

area between the vent and the knee joint.

Later, during a short visit to Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., Satara

District, Bombay (31st October to 2nd November 1954) H.A. found

this species extremely common on, and under, rocks in flowing

streams, many of which held a luxuriant growth of Ammania

floribunda. In the field it appears very like R. leithii (common at

Panchgani, 4,300 ft., 1o miles eastwards), but R. beddomii keeps

more to the wet roe and flowing water than leithii which is often

found in grass at the top of hills or alongside hill-streams.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 939

It was frequently seen during the day but was more abundant

at night, and appeared to occur in three strikingly different colour

patterns:— — | .

(i) The commonest was dark above, very similar to R. levthit.

(ii) A less frequent pattern was paler with dark patches behind

the eyes (similar to breeding specimens from North Kanara).

(iii) A relatively rare colour pattern was dark brown or almost

black above, with a white vertebral streak extending from the snout

to the posterior end of the body. There was often a small white

square blotch on the top of the head. :

None of these colour-patterns were restricted to one sex, and all

the frogs had varying shades of reddish-orange on the underside;

above and below the knee joint this colour was, however, not

noticed in the specimens from North Kanara). No specimens larger

than 40 mm. from snout to vent were obtained. The gonads were

quiescent and the males had neither of the two secondary sexual

characters noted in Londa specimens.

The stomach held remains of insects including Gryllids (Oecanthus

sp.), Reduvid Bugs and Carabid beetles. One stomach held the

mangled remains of a Philautus, probably P. bombayensis.

The same streams in which these frogs were found held numbers

of N yctibatrachus humayunt. and Rana temporalis, as also the tadpoles

of the former. Chari and Daniel have already expressed the opinion

(JBNHS, 51: 514) that Annandale’s record of tadpoles of R. beddomii

from Khandala (Rec. Ind. Mus., xx, p. 116) must be in error for

leithii. . .

_ On 23rd July 1953, H.A. took a solitary tadpole in a shallow

sandy-bottomed hill-stream facing the Lingmala Falls at Mahableshwar,

which Dr. J. L. Bhaduri, who kindly examined it, cannot distinguish

from the tadpole of R. leith. McCann (JBNHS, 46: 405) records

Rana leithi from the same area, but attention has already been

drawn (JBNHS, 52: 635) to his mistaking a beddomii from Gersoppa for

this species. We have visited both Panchgani and Mahableshwar on

several occasions and the abundance in which we found the adults

of leithi at Panchgani and of beadomi at Mahableshwar, coupled

with our failure to find the former at Mahableshwar and the latter

at Panchgani, inclines us to believe that the two species do not

occur together in the same localities (i.e. they are allopatric), and

to suggest that it is perhaps not possible readily to differentiate

between their tadpoles. Further work is, however, necesssary before

this can be asserted conclusively.

Bompay Naturat History Society, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

December 15, 1954. lo (GO, IDAINIUBIL,

21. PRESUMPTIVE EATING OF A KRAIT BY SCORPIONS

In an attempt to study the effects of different insecticides upon

scorpions a considerable number were collected and kept in cages,

two in each. A 7-in. krait, Bungarus caeruleus, was placed in one

940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

such cage and the followmg morning found missing, though the

cage was Closed and there was no possibility of escape.

Both the scorpions were dissected for an examination of their

digestive tracts, and pieces of some hard and soft material (vertebrae

and skin) were found in their guts, especially in the stomach and

rectum. This appears to be good evidence of a poisonous snake

being eaten by a scorpion Buthus sp.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ISHWAR PRAKASH

JASWANT COLLEGE, JODHPUR, K. C. DAVE

August 31, 1954.

ys WEN (GRANDE C/E, SIR IUNIIE

‘About 6.30 p.m. on the evening of 21st September, as I walked

through my garden, | noticed a Skink (Mabuya sp.—subsequently

measured to be 10% ins. long) feebly trying to clamber out of a half

filled water tank. She was almost at her last gasp.

I lowered my open right palm into the water close to her. She

gratefully struggled on to it, and keeping my hand spread open, |

gently lifted her out of the water. She was cold, heavy and sodden,

and from time to time she brought up small quantities of water that

she must have swallowed in her struggles. I did not touch her with

my other hand, but left her to recover through the warmth of the

palm on which she lay, head on my wrist and long tail tapering

away beyond my finger-tips.

I walked all round the garden, giving instructions to my Malis,

and as darkness came on I went indoors and sat in my large warm

kitchen. All this time the Skink never moved, though I could feel

her growing drier, warmer and lighter, and almost see the sparkle

come back into her bright little eyes. Presently her tongue began

to flick in and out, and she slowly moved a couple of inches higher

up my wrist. I kept my hand open as from the first, but freely

tilted it and freely raised and lowered my whole arm.

At 8.30 I called for my supper, which I had to eat left-handed.

At 9.0 I began to stroke my guest, gently but firmly, along her

back. Still she made no movement, although by now obviously

fully recovered, except to lick my finger. when I placed it close to

her mouth.

At 9.15 I carried her upstairs to my sitting-room and gently

forced her off my hand into a piece.of hollow bamboo, which she made

her headquarters for the next few days. When I next saw her,

she scuttled away from me in the normal fashion.

I do not know whether such fearless and trustful’ reaction on

the part of reptiles is of frequent occurrence. In my own experience

it is unique, although the snakes which I handle always lie passively

in my hands until I set them down at what my daughters consider

a ‘safe’ distance from the house.

LONAVLA, T. GAY

September 29, 1954.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 941

HUNTING THE LAND CRAB [PARATELPHUSA

GUERINI (M.-EDW.)]|

(With a. text-figure)

Is he a friend, a foe, or a fifty-fifty 2? On the answer to this question:

must depend our treatment of this inmate of our farm. The answer

is important, for the land crab, forms a major part of the animal

population of all farms within thirty miles or so of the west coast of

India. Mr. McCann in his article in the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Journal (Vol. 39, p. 531) thinks the crab is unnecessarily

maligned. He even thinks the crab is to some extent the cultivator’s.

benefactor.

Paratelphusa guerint (M.-Edw.)

{ had come to live in Chembur with an open mind, 30 years ago.

My experience in my garden soon convinced me that the crab and

I could not live peacefully together. In the first year in June I planted

-a number of vegetables and papayas. As soon as the seedlings came

up to a height of two or three inches, they were snipped off. I

sowed again and replanted papaya seedlings. At the end of the

rains, I had only 10% of my seedlings left. The only vegetables

I could get from my labours was tendli (snipped off often, but strong

enough to go on producing new tendrils), and a few brinjals. Cold

season flowers and vegetables sown in September and October met with:

the same fate. Only the seeds sown late in November or in December

survived, and even these not without casualties. Whether crabs do

considerable damage to paddy or not is uncertain. I have seen very

considerable damage to seedlings, and to plants along the bunds of

fields, but what the overall damage to the crop is, it is difficult to

estimate in the absence of statistical research. I have been growing

fields of mango seedlings, and amongst these my estimate of the

damage is 15 to 20%. With this experience behind me, it is no

wonder I feel no love or friendliness for the crab. At the end of

my first year I burnt with a desire to exterminate this pest.

There is another direction in which the crab is our enemy, par

excellence. In parts of my farm, I had to prepare raised irrigation

channels. These were continuously pierced by this enemy and water

leaked out and reached wrong places. Daily patching and repair

was necessary, and took much time and labour. I was _ interested

in another farm where a seven-foot high bund kept back the sea

942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL*“HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

water. It was a mile long and had cost a huge sum. Was it able

to give the needed protection? The piercing of the bund by crabs

made the bund almost useless and the annual repairs cost several

thousand rupees. Is the crab my friend? ‘Can I love him?

Mr. McCann thinks there area number of benefits the cultivator

receives from the crab. He mentions two particularly, and in both

there is an error, I think. (a) He thinks that on death the crab

enriches the soil with lime from its shell. As the crab had

previously taken the lime from the same soil, he cannot be said to

enrich the soil. (b) He suggests: that the crabs, by burrowing in

the soil, serve the same useful purpose as the earthworm. As the

crab holes. are mostly in field bunds, or along the banks of nallahs,

the fields derive very little benefit from their digging.

We are therefore driven to the conclusion that the crab is neither

a friend, nor a fifty-fifty. He is enemy pure and simple. The farmer

must exterminate him by whatever means possible. There is no

safety for seedlings for a period of six months every year unless the

crab is hunted ruthlessly and exterminated.

War of extermination had therefore to be declared on our farm.

Before actually declaring war, I made inquiries from the entomologists

and agriculturists for information in regard to the crab and means

for its extermination. From time to time I received suggestions.

The first one that seemed reasonable came from the Agricultural

Department who suggested the use of carbon disulphide. <A _ tea-

spoonful had to be poured down the burrow, and the entrance plugged

with wet clay. I tried this method for two seasons, with so little

effect, and with so much cost, that I had to beat a strategic retreat.

Later I tried blowing cyanogas into the burrows and sealing them

off. This was no more successful. I carried my inquiry to chemical

manufacturers. JI was offered profuse advice, and told in turn to use

lead. arsenate, D.D.T., Cymag, Folidol and a number of other patent

preparations, one as unsuccessful as the other. By none of these

methods and preparations could I succeed in killing more than a

hundred: crabs in a season on my farm. I felt frustrated and helpless.

‘Could nothing rid me of this turbulent pest’? I started occasional

attacks with sticks. This was much more effective than chemicals.

I offered a reward to any one who would bring me too dead crabs.

In a full season we counted 500 dead. Was this the best we could do?

I started watching the movements and behaviour of the enemy. When

and where are they most defenceless? There are two periods during

the monsoon, when the greatest success can be achieved. The first

is at the beginning of the monsoon. Coming out after their six or

eight months of underground life, they are slow and hungry and

in the case of females, loaded with young ones. There is very

little of grass and weeds, and they have to wander far from aes

burrows to forage for food. As soon as nallahs begin to flow, the

swarm in, and will not run away in a hurry. Now is the Suen

to use the big stick. Within the space of an hour, you may destroy

a hundred and more over a hundred-foot stretch. Unfortunately

in this slaughter many babies get away from their mothers’

abdomens.. Such a period of weak defence may last one to three

weeks, depending on the rainfall.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 943

The second period for a wholesale slaughter is in September

when the young ones have become sufficiently vicible and have dug

their independent holes. Such holes along the panks of nallahs are

shallow, and by a light digging you can exyose the crab. At this

time too, a hundred crabs may be easily accounted for within a space

of a hundred feet.

After the early monsoon slaughter, the crabs’ defence is much

more effective. They do not stray far from their burrows and their

quickness, keen eyesight and vigilance, enable them to retreat into

their holes at sight of the hunter. Now it is no more possible to

bludgeon the beast, and a new technique must be adopted. I used

an airgun fairly successfully; one had to shoot from about 15 to

20 ft.’s distance. I also started using an 8 to g ft.-long hollow

bamboo. With this I started harpooning the crabs. The crabs

became more and more wary; still I was quite successful. My

technique developed in another direction. Instead of striking

directly at the crab, I first decided which hole the crab belonged to,

and thrust the bamboo in such a manner as to block the entrance.

I was either able to score a direct hit as the crab was retreating, or

I prevented it getting into its hole, thus enabling me to attack it with

my foot. This method gave me a fraction of a second extra time

and increased the chance of a kill. Thus, in results it made a big

difference. In certain positions when I had to use the harpooning

method from a long distance on the flat, or if I had to attack down

a bank, it was not possible to block the hole; here it was best to

give the crab a smart push across the hole, and in doing so, one either

kills the crab outright, or pushes it sufficiently far from its hole for

a second and a third attack.

Approaching the enemy is a skilful job. In a few days the crabs

within an area began to recognise me as their Enemy No. 1, and then

approach had to be very wary, and varied. The quarry spots us

from a distance of quite 60 ft., and rushes into its burrow before any

form of attack becomes possible. If in approaching, you can keep

a bush, a tree or even tuft of tall grass in between, you can get to

within 1o ft. which is a striking distance. A quick rush gets the crab

flurried, and through fright he loses his bearing in relation to his

burrow, and is then done for. He runs here and there and provides

a good opportunity for us to strike. As usually there are several

crabs within a short distance of each other, one often makes the

mistake of shifting the eye from the chosen quarry when approaching.

This is fatal; we lose all. The eye must be inexorably fixed on one

only, and all attention concentrated on that one.

In planning an attack, the senses possessed by the crabs and

their normal behaviour require to be studied, as one may well imagine.

Sight is extremely keen, and their wandering eyes seem able to see

things in all directions at one and the same time. On the flat, even

at a distance of sixty feet, the crab recognises his enemy, and nearer

approach becomes difficult. With this keen eyesight there is distinet

evidence of a working mind. I have noticed that if a crab is on

the opposite bank of a nallah, and I start to walk round to its side

by a circuitous route, the crab invariably disappears. He evidently

decided I was coming round to attack him. The crab’s sense of

944. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

smell is utilized by the villagers for catching him with a bait of fish

or meat. Can the crab hear? I feel certain he does. Often have

I noticed that as soon as I tread on twigs and make a crackling

sound, the enemy disappears. It is common knowledge that if you

approach a crab by night with a lantern or a torch, he does not run

away easily. Does the light blind him, or is he paralysed with fear?

Or does his natural instinct of safety at night make him unable to

think differently even in the presence of evidence to the contrary?

One sees villagers making use of this failing for catching crabs.

Crabs often have more than one entrance to their burrows.

Possibly this is one of their defence tactics. If one entrance is.

blocked, or an enemy enters through one, they can escape through

the other. .

. With my way of attack, two entrances which are often within a

few inches of one another, are a disadvantage: as soon as I see the

crab entering through one, I thrust my stick deep into the other.

{ thus block the passage to the depths: then I press my stick towards.

the other entrance; that passage gets narrower and finally the crab

is forced to rush out. This gives me the opportunity to attack by

foot.

What did I achieve by ail these methods of destruction? ‘To:

gauge this, I must inform you that my farm is 54 acres of which one

acre is occupied by buildings, roads, stables, wells etc., and the area

where crabs could live, would be just over four acres. Active,

organised warfare against crabs by my methods was started here in

1951. On this area of four acres I was able to account for 3,000

crabs in the first year, 1,000 in the second year, 800 in the third and

600 in the fourth year. Considering that as time passed, I was

developing more and more skill and ingenuity, the fail in the number

of kills shows how definitely the crab population has been reduced.

I may well claim that I have checked and controlled the crab menace

on my farm. Now, even in the monsoon my seedlings have a good

chance of survival. The number of crabs I spot on my rounds, has.

fallen to a fraction.

This brings me to the question of density of crab population in

the Konkan. I have repeatediy counted the number of burrows per

roo sq. ft. on my land, and I estimated the density in 1950 as 1,500

to the acre. At the end of the 1954 season, my estimate for my

farm is 200 per acre. Fifteen hundred crabs let loose in the midst

of an acre of seedlings will do an enormous amount of damage, and

they do. Even the 200 are 199 too many, and we hope to see the

199 wiped out. Can we expect a 100% success? No. Crabs.

spread from neighbouring areas and many are carried to us by the

rushing waters of nallahs. I feel confident however that with energy

and vigilance, numbers can be kept down sufficiently low to allow

cultivation to be carried on profitably and with safety.

A few points in regard to crabs are interesting. What age do

they live to normally? I would state unhesitatingly that the normal

life is three years. In the first season the young ones grow to half

size; next season they complete their growth; in the third they produce

second season crabs mate in September, incubate during their under-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 945.

- ground existence, and the mothers emerge next June loaded with

young. | :

The food of crabs is mostly vegetarian, specially young seedlings.

of all kinds. They do eat fish, meat and insects also, but this a very

minor part of their food. I have very rarely seen animal food in the

jaws of a crab.

That crabs must have enemies, parasites and diseases may be

taken for granted. From my observations, I would not say that

the crab is surrounded by enemies. Man is certainly Enemy No. 1.

Although I have seen kites and toads capturing crabs, this is not a

very common occurrence. During the last five years, I have spent

about 500 hours, chasing crabs, but have only twice spotted a kite

carrying off a crab, and similarly on two occasions I have seen a toad

with a crab in its mouth. As, however, I see many crab holes in

October, occupied by toads, I take it that toads do hunt the crab.

I do not claim that my method of crab destruction could be

practical on large farms, except as supplementing attack by poisons.

The farms in our country generally are quite small and I am con-

vinced that if the cultivators are zealous in hunting down this pest,

they will be able to achieve sufficient success and security to surmount

the risk to and destruction of their monsoon seedlings.

CHEMBUR,

Bomsay, JABIR A. ALI,

January 4, 1955. B.A, (Cantab.), C.D., Ag.

24. APUS (CRUSTACEA: PHYLLOPODA), A NEW, HOST

FOR PARASITIC NEMATODES!

While examining a sample of Apus orientalis Tiwari from

Panchgani, very obligingly made over to me by Shri Humayun

Abdulali of the Bombay Natural History Society, I came across two

specimens of what looked like larval stages of some nematode. The

specimens were lying coiled up in the digestive tract in the abdominal

region of the host.

The number of crustacean interhosts of parasitic nematodes from

India is very small Bayliss? has listed the following crustaceans

acting as interhosts for larval stages of nematodes recorded from

India (before partition), Burma and Ceylon.

NAME OF THE HOST PARASITE

Uca mani (Crab) Rhabdochona uca

‘Prawn’ (Macrura) PEustrongyloides sp. {larva)

Cychops hyalinus (Copepoda) Dracunculus medinensis (larva)

Camalus sweetei (larva)

Cyclops leuckarti {Copepoda) Dracunculus imedinensis (larva)

Camalus sweetei (larva)

Camallanus sp. (larva)

Cyclops vermifer (Copepoda) Dracunculus medinensis {larva)

Cyclops sp. (Copepoda) Gnathostoma spinigerum (larva)

* Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Bayliss, H. A. (1939): Faun. Brit. India; Nematoda, 2.

946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTETY, Vol. 52

Besides the above, the only record of crustacean hosts of

nematodes, that I have come across, is by Lindberg!’? and all of

them are cyclopoid copepods. Even in Bayliss’ list, barring the first

two (a crab and a prawn), the other four species belong to cyclopoid

copepods.

The occurrence of larval stage of a nematode in the digestive

tract of Apus orientalis is, therefore, of unusual interest. This cons-

titutes, as far as my knowledge goes, the first record of a nematode

parasite from a phyllopod crustacean from India, and Apus as a

nematode host would probably figure for the first time in the world.

It would be interesting if some more conveniently situated worker

would look into the incidence of infection in A. orientalis, which is

very common in pools on the Tableland at Panchgani, and establish

the identity of the parasite.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, K. K. TIWARI

CALCUTTA 12,

December 4, 1954.

25. AN UNUSUAL CRAB FISHERY IN THE SEA OFF

ENNUR, NEAR MADRAS?

(With a text-figure)

There are regular crab fisheries in the Gulf of Manaar and the

west coast of Madras State. But such fisheries are rare along the

east coast, only a few Neptunus pelagicus and N. sanguinolentus

being obtained accidentally in the ‘thurivalai’, the commonly used boat-

seine net. In the backwaters, however, hoop-nets are employed for

the capture of the Green Crab, Scylla serrata.

An unusual fishery of Neptunus sanguinolentus occurred along a

one-mile stretch of Ennur coast in the second week of August, 1954.

Swarming of these crabs close to the shore commenced in the early

hours of 8th August and lasted for four days. The local fishermen

took advantage of this phenomenon, and employed several hoop-nets

(locally known as ‘nandukatcha’) either by wading or by using smail

catamarans in the shallow waters within a limit of one furlong from

the shore; and captured a record number of 20,000 crabs.

The ‘nandukatcha’ is similar to the prototype hoop-net of Europe.

The local form consists of an iron ring (16-24 inches in diameter)

from which is suspended a shallow conical bag-net with meshes vary-

ing from 0.5 to 3.0 inches. ‘Across the ring, baits are tied with

strings or iron wire, which cross each other. ‘The baits used are

22 Lindberg, K. (1946): Bull. Soc. Pathol. escot. Paris, 39: 303-318 and

318-328.

® Published with the permission of the Director of Industries and Commerce,

Madras.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 947

pieces of crustaceans like Hippa and Albunea, and of fishes like

skates, eels and soles. The nets are provided with 3 or 4 bridles

(15 inches in length), which are joined together to a long line tied

to a wooden fleat. The length of the line varies with the depth of

water at the place of operation. The floats help not only to indicate

NANDU KACHA.

the position of the submerged net, but also to keep the latter steady.

About 5-6 such hoop-nets are laid down simultaneously by a single

fisherman, who lifts them up from the water at regular intervals and

transfers the crabs that gather around the bait into his basket. In

this way a fisherman obtained about 200-300 crabs in a day during

present fishery.

A feature of the fishery was that nearly 90 per cent of the catches.

was gravid females with their eggs in various developmental stages.

The length and width of carapace of the individual crabs ranged

from 95 to 140 mm. and 45 to 65 mm. respectively; and their weight

varied from 61 to 150 gms. The fact that almost the entire popula-

tion was of berried females throws light upon the breeding migration

of these decapods for the purpose of propagation in a new surround-

ing. Though the fishermen were jubilant over their unusual harvest

they were unaware of the depletion they caused in the crab fisheries.

However, the balance of Nature is maintained by the survival of the

offsprings of the few crabs that escape from the fishermen.

FISHERIES BIOLOGICAL STATION,

ENNUR, NEAR Mapras, P I. CHACKO

November 22, 1954. Dig) Lea LAAMIN |

‘948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

26. ‘A NEW SPECIES OF ANTROCEPHALUS KIRBY

(With a text-figure)

During September, 1953, the author was asked to undertake a

‘survey of pests damaging apple orchards in the Kotgarh area in the

Simla ranges. While examining a bee-hive which was highly infested

with the Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella L., he came across this

parasite. The following is the description of the new species.

_ Antrocephaius galleriae new species

Super family Chalcidoidea, Family Chalcididae.

. Antrocephalus galleriae new species x6.

Head; Front view showing the scrcbes and position of ocelli,

. Antenna.

Mesofemoral impression.

. Posterior margin of propodeum.

. Hind leg.

. Abdomen, side view.

OS pd

ay fon) ON oe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 949

Female. Black. Length 7.5 mm. Fore legs dark brown.,

Hind legs; coxae black; femora externally blackish, more castaneous

only round the edges; hind tibia castaneous only distally; tarsi

castaneous. Fore wings hyaline.

Head. Head in front view appears triangular: Breadth 2 mm.

Length 2.25 mm., in profile narrow. Scrobes very wide and deep,

extending to the orbits, before each of which is an elevated carina

that descends down and ends on the malar keel. Vertex rugose,

covered with white short pubescence. The anterior ocellus within

the scrobe. Lateral ocelli on the vertex slightly away from . the .4-

orbits. Antenna length 3.25 mm.; dark brown; club castaneous. —

Scape length 1.125 mm., elongate, slender; near the base o.1 mm.

broad, near the apex 0.125 mm. Pedicel slender, a little over 1/5th

of the scape. Funicle 8 jointed, all cylindrical though segments 2 to

4 are broader than the preceding one. Segments 7 and 8 narrower

than the 6. Club is longer than any of the funicular segments;

shows only one false suture.

Thorax. The entire notal surface is densely set with thimble-

like punctures; the surface between the punctures being minutely

rugose. Each puncture gives rise to a minute glistening white

bristle. Pronotum anteriorly margined; antero-medianly descending

down vertically. Scutellum extending far back; two distinct teeth

on the posterior margin; longitudinai median depression present.

Mesopleural femoral impression has 12 ridges of which two are

incomplete (see fig. 4). On the ventral side of the metapleuron

the glistening white pubescence is dense.

Propodeum. The propodeum is highly sculptured. ‘The

pattern exhibited on the posterior margin of the propodeum is shown

in the figure. On the ventro-lateral sides there is a thick growth

of white long glistening hairs. As shown in the figure the shape

and pattern of the sculpturing of the ie eee is entirely different

from the described species of the genus.

Wings. Fore wings triangular, not quite three times as long

as broad. Length 4.25 mm., breadth 1.6 mm. Submarginal,

marginal and postmarginal exactly in ratio of 7:2:2. Hind wing

length 3.25 mm; breadth 0.95 mm. A brownish spot is present from

the uprise of the marginal vein to the club of the radius and its

maximum breadth being mere than twice the length of the radius.

Legs. Hind femur with two inner lobes on the ventral ridge

which are dentate; about 54 in number. The dentition starts from

the apex and ends at less than 1/3 of the length of the femur from

base. Tibia with two short peg-like spurs, the inner being 0.4 min.

in length, and the outer 0.6 mm.

Abdomen. Tergites shining black, devoid of pubescence on

the dorsum. Regular rows of long white bristles on the sides.

Holotype. Female partly dissected and mounted on celluloid

strip; wings, antenna and hind leg mounted on a slide in Canada

balsam. Labelled: Locality—Madhuban Orchards, Thanedar, Simla

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

ranges, Himachal Pradesh. ‘From the hive of Apis indica F.’ Coll.

B. R. Subba Rao. 2-9-1953. Deposited in the National Pusa

Collection, Indian Agriculturai Research Institute, New Delhi.

Remarks. Since it was collected from a hive which was highly

infested with the Wax Moth, Galleria mellonella L., it is quite

probable that the species recorded is a parasite on the wax moth

larvae. However, literature shows that this genus is mainly parasitic

on the teak defoliating Lepidoptera caterpillars in India.

Antrocephalus galieriae is very near to A. renalis Waterst., but

differs from the latter in possessing the following characters : Wings

hyaline; tarsi and club of antennae castaneous. Marginal and post-

marginal veins equal in length. Brownish spot more than twice

breader than the length of the radius. Of all the species of

Antrocephalus recorded from India only A. galleriae is 7.5 mm. in

length which is the longest on record. A. renalis comes next with

fength 6 mm.

I am grateful to Dr. E.S. Narayanan, Head of the Division of

Entomology, for going through the paper and offering suggestions.

My grateful thanks are also due to Dr. M. S. Mani, Professor of

Zoology and Entomology, St. John’s College, Agra, for confirming

-my identification and for his valuable suggestions.

DivisIOnN OF ENTOMOLOGY,

{NDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH B. R. SUBBA RAO,

INSTITUTE, B.Sc. (Hons.), Assoc. 1.A.R.1.

NEw DELHI,

January 8, 1955.

27. SOME INSECTS ATTRACTED TO LIGHT—II

This is a further list of insects attracted to light in addition to

those already reported by me [JBNHS, 52 (2 & 3): 647-650]. The

collections were made in Bangalore during November 1953 unless other-

wise indicated. Most of the species included here were determined by

the authorities of the Commonwealth Institute of Entomology, Britis

Museum (Natural History), London, and my thanks are due to them.

{ am also grateful to Dr. M. PuttaRudriah, Government Entomo-

logist, for facilities.

List oF INSECTS

ORTHOPTERA

Tetrigidae—Criotettix grandis (Hanc.) (October), Hedotettix

costatus Hanc. (July), and Hyboella latifrons B. (May).

Gryllidae.—Trigonidium humbertianum S.

DERMAPTERA

Forficulidae.—Diplatys sinuatus Hincks.'!

* A new species, the description of which will shortly appear in W. D. Hinck’s

Catalogue of the Dermaptera of the British Museum, Vol. I.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 953

ISOPTERA

Termitidae.—Odontotermes obesus (Ramb.).

EMBIOPTERA

Embiidae.—Oligotoma saunders: Westw. |

HEMIPTERA

Delphacida e.—Delphacodes propinqua Fieb. (December), and

‘Perigrinus maidis Ashm.

LEPIDOPTERA

Pyralidae.—Phycita sp.

Bombycidae.—Trilocha fieicola Westw.

Geometridae.—Scopula cleoraria Wk.

Agrotidae—Acantholipes circumdata Wlk., A. circumflueta

“Wl1k., Gesonia obeditalis Wik. and Ozarba sp. nr. lepida Saalm.

COLEOPTERA

Elateridae.—Cardiophorus notatus Olv. (May).

Curculionidae.—Myllocerus cardoni Mshll, (August).

Geotrupidae.—Bolboceras quadridens F. (August).

Aphodiidae.—Abhodius reiche: Har.

HYMENOPTERA

Bracondiae.—Heterogamus sp. nr. percurrens Lyll.

DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY,

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, S. USMAN

‘BANGALORE,

December 28, 1954.

28. NOTES ON THRIPS PALMI KARNY, ATTACKING

SESAMUM INDICUM

(With a plate and a text-figure)

Ramakrishna and Margabandhu (1939) have recorded Thrips

_gossypicola Priesner from Coimbatore and the author has also noted

‘Tryphactothrips rutherfordi Bagnall, on sesamum plants, without any

injurious effects. Quite recently the author came across a localised

group of sesamum plants in Madras badly attacked by Thrips palmi

Karny, which ultimately resulted in the malformation of the stamens,

‘injury to the ovarian wall and ultimately the development of a dark

‘pigment on the fruit wall, instead of the usual green colour.

17A

952. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

Previous records of Thrips palmi Karny, in India, show that they~

have been recorded on tobacco, lablab flowers and lantana flowers,

with no special effects of injury.

Adult female: It is pale yellow and is characterised by

‘third antennal joint about as long as the sixth; head shorter than

pronotum; upper vein of forewing distally with three setae; lower vein.

1£-13; costa with 20-22 setae’. Total length of female 1.16 mm.

(average). 3

Males: The males are smaller than the females and have-.

‘abdominal sternites without pale depressed areas; costa with 20-22. |

other.’ Total length of male 0.g1 mm. (average).

On an average, in each flower were found 4-8 adults and 820:

larvae. Oviposition is between the anther lobes of the stamens at their-

free ends, the eggs being small, oval, yellowish white, measuring on.

an average, 0.238 mm. long and o.196 mm. broad at middle.

Larval Stages: The first instar larva is about 0.58 mm.

long and is pale yellow in colour with the body segments almost

clearly defined. The maxillary palps are distinct 3-jointed, but

reduced in size. The antenna is 100 w in length. The last abdominal

segment bears dorsally a pair and laterally two pairs of well-defined.

and long bristles. Anal bristles are moderately long, measuring

IOO [l.

The second instar larva is much longer and is about 0.8 mm. long.

The bristles on the thoracic and abdominal segments are more

conspicuous. The maxillary palps are well defined with basal joint

the shortest and the stoutest and the distal one longest and thinnest.

The antenna is distinctly 7-jointed and 116 uw long.

{

Effects of injury: The stamens were observed to be com-

pletely malformed and are as represented in the figure. The larvae were

observed to congregate round the base of the corolla tube, feeding on

Fic. 2. (a) Normal stamens with egg between anther lobes.

(b) Malformed stamens.

the walls of the ovary. As a result of the constant punctures made

by the stylets, the walls of the ovary showed a number of dark

patches. The general epidermis of the fruits which are green in

normal ones, develops. black pigment.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fic. 1. A.—Attacked sesamum plant showing fruits with dark pigment.

a.—Thrips palmi, female.

ope

i ‘Ob oi Vea Ww

SN he neti san”

raat

cae ay

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 953%.

The following cenditions of temperature and humidity in which. _

the plants concerned have thrived, might prove useful for future.

observations on the incidence of this Thrips.

‘Temperature

me Total rainfall in

° ae 10) 1

Month Mean humidity iene

Max | Min

June 1953 ses 3971 | 82°8 55 Ons

Telly 5, Sli. 85:3 79°4 63 3°38”

August ,, t 950 | 79:7 63 2°62”

Sept... i 91°6 77°8 | 75 508”

LoyoLa . COLLEGE, |

Mapras 6, T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN,

November 20, 1954. B.Sc. (Hons.), F.Z.S., F.R.E.S,).

29. APOSEMATIC INSECTS AND THEIR FOOD-PLANTS

There is a French proverb to the effect that tastes and colours

should not be argued about, which might be extended to cover scents ;,

nevertheless I propose to continue the present discussion.

I cannot help feeling that Mr. McCann’s example of Aularches is

well suited to disprove Haase’s theory that aposematic insects (he

was considering Lepidoptera chiefly) derive protection from the

poisonous qualities of their larval food-plants. Here we have an

Orthopteron, aposematic in both its nymphal and imaginal stages,

feeding on, and smelling of, a different poisonous food-plant in each

stage. In other words the smell of the nymphal food-plant does not

survive the very minor metabolic disturbance involved in the transi-

tion from nymph to imago., What chance, then, would it have of

surviving the tremendous metabolic upheaval that occurs between the

lepidopterous larval and imaginal stages?

There can be no doubt that the greater part of an insect’s con-

stituents are derived from its food, but I believe that this is through:

an indirect process of analysis and synthesis, and not by direct

absorption. There are far too many procryptic insects feeding on

poisonous food-plants and aposematic ones on non-poisonous for

direct absorption to be the only source of protection. Another point

against Haase’s theory is the number of insects with similar scents

and widely different food-plants and vice versa. I would also again

like to stress the non-poisonous Passifloraceae, which, so far as 1

know, provides the food-plants of all the Indian Cethosia spp. and the

South American Heliconinae, as well as the food-plants of many of

the Acraeidae, all most successful aposematic groups.

Mr.. McCann has, I am afraid, missed the point of the Poulton

reference. Biston betularia is a Geometer with a highly procryptic

“954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

stick-like caterpillar, which has a pronounced capacity of producing

-colours harmonising with its surroundings, in nature it may be green

or brown or mottled, and under experimental conditions a pale grey

form has been produced by mixing spills of white paper amongst the

twigs of the food. It has been used extensively in experiments to

-determine the value of procrypsis and is evidently, when feeding on

its usual food-plants—hazel, birch, sallow, rose, etc.—highly palat-

-able. It was this fact that made the rejection of the ivy-feeding

larvae by hens, as Mr. McCann points out somewhat indiscriminate

feeders, the more remarkable.

_ KAMPALA, D. G. SEVASTOPULO,

-UGANDA, F.R.E.S.

-September 22, 1954.

30. A FOUR-LEAVED OLEANDER

Nerium odorum (Marathi: Kanher, Gujarati: Karan) is described

as having cyclic phyllotaxis with three leaves at each node. Each

branch gives rise to three shoots at the top with a three-sided flower-

ing branch in the centre.

A red-flowered Nerium odorum in my garden has a branch with

four leaves at each node. Four shoots came out at the top of this

‘branch with a four-sided flowering branch in the centre. The

flowering branch came off in the usual manner after the opening of

the flowers on it.

“SANJEEVAN’,

-Exuis BRIDGE, G. W. DEODHAR,

AHMEDABAD 6, 'B.A., M.SC.

September 27, 1954.

31. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MARSILEA AEGYPTIACA

WILLD. IN JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN (INDIA)

(With a plate)

The water fern Marsilea is a cosmopolitan genus found both in

the temperate and tropical climate. There are sixty or more species

“occurring all over the world. After a revision of the genus by A.

Braun in 1870 and which formed the basis of Baker’s treatment

in his ‘Handbook of the Fern ‘Allies’ in 1887, no detailed description

of its geographical distribution or systematics seems to have been

attempted. The latest work is by Carl Christensen who described

sixty-six species in his ‘Index Filicum’ (1906, r913 and 1934). G. M.

Smith, however, mentions only fifty-six species in his beok

‘Cryptogamic Botany’ Vol. II, p. 327, 1938. There is no doubt,

however, that a number of papers have been. published on the

morphological and physiological aspects of Marsilea by American.

and other workers in recent years, for example see Annals of Botany,

Vol. 17, Nos. 62 to 67, 1952 and 1953; Phytomorphology, WO) 2%

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Text Fic. 1 a, b, c, d.—Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd. from Jodhpur, Rajasthan.

(a) and (b) showing habit under sub-terrestrial conditions; (c) a single sporocarp

(D.S.—dorsal suture, V.S.—ventral suture, R.G.—right groove, L.G.—left groove,

L,D.—lateral depression, H.—horn, S.—stallk) ; (d) same in section (diagrammatic).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 50.

No. 3, 1953; Bombay Univ. journ., Vol. 5, 1937; Vol. 16, No. 27,

1948.

It is understood that there are eight species so far known from

the Indian sub-continent, although their authenticity needs a careful

checking. These are as follows :—

1. Marsilea quadrifolia L.

minuta L.

_brachypus A. Br.

. gracilenta A. Br.

. covomandelica Burm.

brachycarpa A. Br.

. condensata Baker.

. poonensis Kohl.?

come

SSSS5E5

As a type of the Hydropterideae, Marsilea is prescribed for study

in almost all Indian Universities and usually the material for practical

work is collected locally. On transfer from Bikaner to Jodhpur, the

author saw the local material in the practical class and suspected

its identity with the common Indian species, or rather the common

Rajasthan species, namely Marsilea minuta. A closer examination

revealed the distinctive nature of the sporocarps in the Jodhpur

material. A herbarium sheet was then prepared from a number ot

specimens of different sizes showing ecological variations. The plants.

for this purpose were personally collected from three or four dif-

ferent places situated within a radius of about eight miles in Jodhpur.

The herbarium sheet was then sent to Kew for identification. The

Jodhpur species was identified as Marsilea aegyptiaca Willd., a

species previously recorded only from Lower Egypt and Astrakhan

on the Caspian Sea. A detailed comparative study of the material

has been entrusted to a post-graduate student in the department of

Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur.

I have now examined a small sample of the original fertile materiai

of M. aegyptiaca sent me by Sir E. J. Salisbury, Director, Roy.

Bot. Gardens, Kew, and also some herbarium sheets of the sterile

material from Prof. A. H. Montasir, Ibrahim University of Cairo.

A habit sketch of fertile plants and a few dry herbarium sporocarps.

from Dr. K.P. Biswas, Indian Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, have

also been examined by me. It is further proposed to examine in

detail all the therbarium sheets of at least the Indian species at

the earliest possible opportunity. I am convinced, however, that

the Jodhpur material is undoubtedly identical with M. aegyptiaca

and thus it is interesting to find the extension of the Egyptian species.

to Rajasthan, or the Rajasthan species going into Egypt and

Astrakhan. An ecological and morphological investigation of the

Jodhpur material is in hand as referred above. While this work

progresses, more specimens from different places in India and

abroad may be available for a comparative study of the plant. For

1 It seems that necessary formalities required according to international rules

for publishing an account of a new species were not gone through in describing:

this species.

956 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

the present it is sufficient to report the discovery of this new record

in India and a welcome addition to the local flora of Jodhpur. 1

Should like to add here that the material from many other places in

Rajasthan so far supplied to me by friends has been found to be the

common species Marsilea minuta or M. quadrifolia. It is, therefore,

significant to note that this local species of Marsilea occurs almost

like an endemic plant in Jodhpur flora; but I do not rule out the

possibility of its presence in other places in Rajasthan or even beyond,

specially because of two reasons: firstly the similarity between the

present material and M. condensata Baker from Sindh (Pakistan) and

my suspicion about some material from Ajmer. It can, however, be

safely asserted that Marsilea minuta or any other known Indian species

does not occur in the vicinity of Jodhpur.

This local species grows on land, muddy or even rocky banks

of the local tanks as well as in shallow waters during the wet months.

I am growing the plant quite successfully in flower pots and flower

‘beds like other ferns, i.e., it grows excellently as a sub-terrestrial form.

The size variations particularly in the length of rhizome and petioles

are, as usual, clearly noticeable according to the prevalent climatic

conditions (fig. 1: a, b). The sporocarps are quite distinct and

compare with the Egyptian species in the followmg manner as pointed

out by Mr. F. Ballard of the Kew Herbarium.

“yt. The outline shape of the sporocarps is more or less square.

2. Only the upper tooth is preserved. 3. The sporocarps are borne

solitary.” I may further add that the sporocarps are very distinctly

grooved. The dorsal suture is marked by a ridge and the ventral

one. 1s more or less smooth. ‘There are prominent depressions on

the lateral sides whereas, the median planes are represented by a

‘deep groove on the right and shallow depression on the left where

the stalk of the sporocarps becomes fully adnate to its wall (fig.

1/3 Cy Gl).

Although marked variations are observed in the vegetative organs

of the different species of Marsilea, the external and internal structure

of the sporocarps must be considered as of superior diagnostic value

to the vegetative organs. A sporocarp has been drawn here to show

its external shape which is quite different from the common bean-

shaped organs found in most of the other Indian species (fig. 1: c, d).

The preliminary examination cleariy establishes its interesting and

distinctive nature.

In the end I wish to express my grateful thanks to Sir E. J.

Salisbury, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for his kindness

and valuable help in getting the Rajasthan material examined so

promptly at the Kew Herbarium by Mr. F. Ballard to whom my

thanks are also due. I am also indebted to Dr. K. P. Biswas and

Mr. R. S. Rao of Calcutta herbarium for their help in this connection.

BoTANyY DEPARTMENT,

JASWANT COLLEGE, K. M. GUPTA,

JODHPUR, D.SC.

November 11, 1954.

iid Ny ah jarntepne net tha ta

ale

Ty.)

s re :

ors cen a cee hale

{

“i

' 1 ™ iy

TRAE he om) (ay

bit

Pe ee

Der Sa pile cade

ie rs =u

} i

} ay

ATA iy i aa.

i 4 wit mi

We 5

rol

Hagan

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

tee

A. Whole plant.

B. An individual Flower.

C. The Perianth and Bracts.

D. The Staminal Structure.

E. Fruit.

F. Seed.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 957

32. ALTERNANTHERA POLYGONOIDES R. BR., VAR.

BIE C TAMAKI: A INE RECORD HOR

BOMBAY STATE

(With a plate)

-In 1947 one of us collected a strange plant in the neighbourhood

of Wadala Railway Station, Bombay Island; the specimen was

obviously an Alternanthera, but we could not place it among the

species described in any of our local or national floras; the specimen

did not match with anything in Blatter Herbarium. The plant was

sent to Kew for identification and through the kindness of Dr. N. L.

Bor, was identified by Dr. K. Suessenguth of Munich as Alternanthera

polygonoides R. Br. var. erecta Mart.

Recently the plant has been seen in great abundance by the road-

side about one mile from Saki on the way to Vehar Lake, Bombay

Island. Between 1947 and the present time the plant has been seen

sporadically along the railway lines on Bombay and Salsette Islands;

it has not been seen by any of us on the mainiand of India.

This plant is American, probably Brazilian, in origin; how it

came to be introduced into India, we have been unable to ascertain;

it seems probable, however, that it was first introduced here during

the Second World War years. It is now spreading slowly and

gradually along the railway lines and main roads; to judge from

the appearance of the plants seen in the field, one is justified in

saying that Indian conditions suit the new arrival admirably; in

a few years we may see the plant scattered through most of our

country. |

Stem herbaceous, erect or suberect, or offen prostrate and rooting

at the lower nodes, erect higher up, terete, glabrous or with two

slender lines of hairs running vertically from node to node, smooth,

somewhat swollen at the nodes and more or less hairy, slightly

geniculate; the stem is generally green, but at times it is somewhat

purple at the nodes. Leaves simple, entire, exstipulate, ianceolate

to elliptic, acute or subacute at the apex, tapering into the petiole

at the base, up to 8.5x 3.5 cm., lamina glabrous or with a few

scattered long hairs on both sides; nerves about 4-5 pairs, arching

upward, obscure above, more prominent on the Jower surface.

Petioles up to 2 cm. long, but often obscure on account of the

decurrent blade. Inflorescence, etc., very similar in most respects

to Alternanthera sessilis.

SIDHARTHA COLLEGE, GP SHRIVAST AV AY MEse:

BomBAY,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. SANTAPAU, s.,J.

CALCUTTA.

958 [OTS AE, IXOMEUBAINY INAINO TRAIL, JSS SOCMEZIIN, Wolk, , 52

33. ABNORMALITIES IN THE ‘EAR’ OF ZEA MAYS L.

(With a plate)

Two abnormal ‘ears’ with prominent terminal prolongations

resembling the normal ‘tassel? were seen in the maize crop grown

this year. Although the occurrence of similar abnormalities in the

‘ear’ of Zea mays L. has been reported, detailed morphological studies

of such abnormalities have not been made. The present paper

therefore, is an attempt to describe the morphological details of

these two abnormal ‘ears’ and the significance of their occurrence.

In one of the abnormal ‘ears’ (fig. 1) towards the basal end of

the prolongation a male spikelet and a female flower were found to

form pairs. Pairs of male spikelets or female flowers were also present

in this region. In the middle region of ‘the prolongation the male

spikelets were arranged in pairs like the ones in a normal ‘tassel’.

The spikelets forming these pairs were equally short stalked and

arose from the same level (fig. 2). One of the two spikelets forming

a pair'in a normal ‘tassel’, however, had a longer stalk than its

partner (fig. 3). Both the spikelets of the pair arose from the same

level in this case also. Each male spikelet from the abnormal ‘ear’

had two staminate flowers. Each staminate flower consisted of a

lemma, a palet and three well-developed stamens, thus resembling

the structure of the flower of a normal ‘tassel’. The pollen grains

from these staminate flowers also showed the same percentage of

fertility (95-100) as that from a normal ‘tassel’. The terminal end

of the prolongation consisted of sterile undeveloped male-like flowers.

In the other abnormal ‘ear’ (fig. 4) the prolongation was more pro-

minent as larger number of male spikelets were aggregated on a

comparatively short thick axis. All the male spikelets of this abnormal!

‘ear’ were arranged in pairs and in all essential respects resembied

the paired male spikelets of the first abnormal ‘ear’. The terminal

-end of this prolongation, however, had fertile male spikelets. In

addition to the male spikelets two bisexual flowers were present on

this prolongation (figs. 4-6). The bisexual flowers had three stamens

with 97.5 per cent pollen fertility. The number of leaves of the

involucre covering the ovary of the bisexual flower was more than

that of a normal female flower. The style of these two flowers

was short and stout.

As the fertile male spikelets are situated on the terminal ené

of the abnormal ‘ear’ itself, there are better chances for selfing

to occur in nature. Inbred seeds could be collected by simply bagging

such abnormal ‘ears’. Such abnormalities may, therefore, be of

interest to a plant breeder. It may be mentioned here that well-

developed ‘grains’ were present on these abnormal ‘ears’. The

occurrence of male and bisexual flowers on the ‘ear’ of Z2a mays L.

may also throw some light on the origin of ‘ear’ of this important

crop plant.

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‘juejd jeursou eB jo Jesse},

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 959

I am thankful to Miss Anna Sheila Chandi for helping me in

the study of the material and the preparation of the figures.

BoTANY DEPARTMENT,

UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, S. L. TANDON

DELHI 8. :

34. THE INTRODUCTION OF TILAPIA MOSSAMBICA

7 INTO INDIA—A CORRECTION

With reference to the article ‘Observations on Tilapia mossambica

Peters in Madras’, published in Vol. 52 (2 & 3) of the Journal (pp.

249-353), it has been brought to our notice that the fish Tilapia

mossambica was first brought to India on August 7, 1952 from

Bangkok, Thailand, by the Central Marine Fisheries Research

Station, Mandapam (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Government

of India). This fact is published in a detailed’ account ‘On the mouth-

breeding cichild, Tilapia mossambica Peters in the Indian Journal of

Fisheries, Vol. I, 1954. Therefore, the statement by P. I. Chacko

and B. Krishnamurthy that ‘the fish was first introduced into Madras

from Ceylon on September 8, 1952’ is incorrect.

January 18, 1955. EDITORS

35. GLEANINGS

1. Acoustic ontentation in Birds

Among notices of Recent Literature in Auk for January 1954, p. 100

is the following:

Griffin, Donald R. 1943 Acoustic orientation in the Oil Bird,

Steatornis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 39: 884-893—Evidence to show

that Steatorms ‘guides its flight through dark caves by a type of

acoustic orientation similar to that used by bats, but the oilbird

employs for this purpose short pulses of sound that lie well within

the frequency range of human hearing.’

2. The Vegetable Milch Cow: A Remarkable Tropical Tree

which yields Rich Milk

One of the most remarkable tropical trees, the Cow Tree, was

described in an illustrated article by Mr. Paul H. Allen, Director

of the Fairchild Tropical Garden, Florida, in a recent issue of the

U.S. magazine Natural History. Mr. Allen describes how he first

saw a man making a gash in the trunk of one of these trees on a

hillside not far from his home in Costa Rica. As he watched the

milky fluid beginning to flow and saw that the man was obviously

finding it refreshing, he carefully noted the appearance of the bark,

leaf and fruit and questioned the man about it. The Cow Trees

range from Costa Rica southward to Ecuador and across northern

960 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 52

South America, usually in areas of high rainfall. The trees are

known to the local inhabitants by such diverse names as ‘Vaco’

‘Lechero’ “Mastate’ and ‘Palo de Leche’. Mr. Allen says that the

earliest, and probably best, description of the tree is that of the great

naturalist and explorer Humboldt (1769-1859), who saw it on the

north coast of Venezuela. ‘For many weeks,’ he wrote, ‘we have

heard a great deal of a tree whose juice is a nourishing milk, The

tree itself is called the Cow Tree, and we are assured that the

Negroes on the farm, who are in the habit of drinking large quantities

of this vegetable milk, consider it highly nutritive.’ To obtain the

milk from the tree, a number of gashes are made in the bark, and 2

leaf is then inserted at the bottom of the lower gash to act as a

spout when the latex starts flowing. Mr. Allen says that in its

original state the latex can hardly be distinguished from fresh cream,

and it tastes like the real article in coffee. He adds: ‘After some

exposure to the air, the taste tends to become chalky and slightly

bitter. Some of its detractors even say it then resembles milk of

magnesia Or whitewash. Within about twenty-four hours it solidifies.

in the tapping cuts to form a chicle-like substance. About two years

ago I brought a pint of it to Palmar, and we found that it could be

chilled, whipped and flavoured with sugar and vanilla extract to

provide an acceptable substitute for whipped cream, We served it

on pie to neighbours, and they did not realise that it was anything

unusual. Animals, however, at least dogs and cats, will not

touch it.’

—The Illustrated London News, March 20, 1954, p. 453,

8. Animal fights

18th January 1831—A great number of elephants fought in pairs

during the morning . .. . When the elephant fights were over,

two rhinoceros were brought before us, and an amusing fight took

place between them; they fought like pigs. The plain was covered

by natives in thousands, on foot or on horseback. When rhinoceros

grew fierce, they charged the crowd, and it was beautiful to see the

mass of people flying before them... .

A fight was to have taken place between a country horse and

two tigers, but Lady William Bentinck broke up the party and retired.

I was anxious to see the animal, he is such a vicious beast; the

other day he killed two tigers that were turned loose upon him.

Combats also took place between rams. .

From Wanderings of a Pilgrim in Search of the Picturesque

(1822-1844) by Mrs. Parkes, The Sahibs by Hilton Brown; William

Hodge & Co., Ltd. 10948.

NORES AND NEWS

The Chandrakala Hora Memorial medal of mee National Institute

of Sciences of India has been awarded to Dr. S.B.Setna for his

continuing outstanding services to the fishing Aoi of Bombay.

His introduction and popularisation of mechanised fishing craft

among fishermen has resulted in a vast increase in Bombay’s fish

supply and incidentally in an appreciable improvement of the socio-

economic condition of the fishermen.

Rev. Fr. Santapau, s.jJ., has taken over charge as Chief Botanist of

the newly resuscitated Botanical Survey of India whose offices are

cemporarily located in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.

Xx x * *

By a notification under the Sea Customs Act (VIII of 1878) the

Government of India has prohibited the taking by sea or by land out

of India of butterflies except when a consignment is accompanied

by a certificate from the Honorary Secretary-General, Indian Board

for Wild Life, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta, to the effect that

the butterflies are being exported for scientific or educational purposes,

or to a recognised private collector of butterflies.

*% * % *

Miss A. j. Randeria, who was awarded part of the Society’s:

natural history scholarship in 1952 to enable her to pursue her botani-

cal field study, has completed her thesis for the University of Bombay

on ‘The Gamopetalous Phanerogams of Borivli National Park’, and

won high praise from her examiners.

They commend it as a laborious piece of work, executed with

diligence and thoroughness, which will serve as a model for other

field workers.

* * * *

The following extract from Loris, the Journal of Ceylon Wild Life

for December 1954, is of interest :—

‘M. Alwis, Game Ranger, charged two men, with having shot

five hare in Ellapatuwa in the night with the aid of a flash light.,

U. Mudalihamy, the first accused, pleaded guilty and the charge

against the second accused was withdrawn. Mudalihamy admitted

three previous convictions and was sentenced to three months’

rigorous imprisonment.’

ERRATA

Vol. 52(1), April 1954.

Miscellaneous Notes No. 8 and 10 (p. 207 and p. 210) are

by Mr. M. Krishnan, Perunkulam House, Edward Elliot Road,

Madras and not, as ascribed, by Mr. S. M. Krishnan, Government

Training College, Mangalore. The error is regretted.

% % % x

Vol. 52 (2 & 3), December 1954.

The Intelligence of the Indian Elephant.

Page 591 line 19 from top, for ‘scope’ read ‘score’.

ye SO2 hes #4 for ‘insect’ read ‘instinct’.

ie OA anne . fom «Secketes ead secretly.

INN, 22 |PIE AL,

Dr. Hugh B. Cott of Cambridge University wishes to ascertain :—

(1) The colour of the yolk of eggs of Indian birds (any species).

Exact records of colour of yolk accompanied by matched

colour, either from one of the standard colour charts

(e.g., Ridgeway’s or Horticultural Colour Chart) are

desired. A hand-painted patch of the colour matching the

yolk will do instead.

(2) The food eaten by indian crocodiles of different sizes. In

addition to the quantity taken, details of the food items

such as molluscs, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds or

animals, are desired, together with the exact total length

of the individuals from which obtained (snout to tail tip).

Communications may be sent to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay

Natural History Society.

BIRDS OF SAURASHTRA—with

additional notes on the birds of

Kutch and Gujarat (33 coloured

plates, 51 photographs and 16 maps).

By R. S. Dharmakumarsinhbji.

ET I IL BE IE NT EY A RAE ERNE SE RS I TS ET TARE LL AL AIS

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MANDRAS—24—4-1955. (C2554

EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU

114. APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

eortibnes of scientific articles are requested to assist the

_ editors by observing the following instructions: —

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for

publication to other journals or periodicals, or ese already been

published eeechere! should not be submitted.

2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spac

one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3.__All scientific names, to be printed in be, should ae under-

1g) on

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific

names always ban with a small letter even if they refer to a

person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Oe chinensis

suratensis or Dimeria blatteri.

4, Trinomials referring to subspecies should only ie used

where identification has been authentically established by comparison

of specimens actually collected. In all ee cases, or where identi-_

fication is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

6 fe ees for cae must be clear and show good

contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x24 inches.

(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper.

6. Text figures, line Gewites aie maps should be in Indien )

ink, preferably on Bristol board.

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the —

paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s ae with the a

titles of journals or periodicals undenined Coal) and titles of books —

not underlined (roman type), thus:

Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nene Hiibner. ‘Trans, an

Soc. Lond., 100 (2) : 47-70.

Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of facia Animals Baebes

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text ahora be rade by quoting nM

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1

9. Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific

Information Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable

that each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appeari

the beginning, immediately after aie title. The synopsis aloud 2

factual. It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw

attention to all new information and to the ne main conclusions, —

It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions

of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new

finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not

exceed "200 words.

When the synopsis is completed it should be carefully revised |

the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed HELO

possible without detracting from its usefulness.

114 Apollo Street, Fort, ) Tones ;

Bombay 1 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

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The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. With many coloured and black

and white plates. Rs. 16

(Price to Members Rs. 13)

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Game Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, rst Edition.

Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 15)

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. With 56 coloured and 22 black and

white plates, 5th (new) edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 20

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Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and

Burma, by A. St. J. Macdonald. With coloured and black and white plates.

‘ Rs. 15

(Price to Members Rs. 12)

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Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured

and monochrome plates. 2nd (revised) ed. Rs. 20

(Price to Members Rs. 16)

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With

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