JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

DECEMBER 2005 VOL. 102 (3)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 023.

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

~>

Editorial Board

M.R. Almeida, D. Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Raghavendra Gadagkar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K. Ullas Karanth,Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Senior Consultant Editor

Mr. J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore.

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

QamarQureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 102 (3): DECEMBER 2005

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL ‘ 263

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PRINWIVECTEUSOCIAL WASP

ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB. ) (HYMENOPTERA: VESPIDAE) *

Sujata P. Kardile and Raghavendra Gadagkar 265

I

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS FROM EARLY EMBRYONIC STAGES TO OVER THREE-

YEAR-OLD ADULT

Mrinalini Virkar, Savita Joshi and S.L. Shinde 274

SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEX-RATIOS AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS IN DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS

IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Krushnamegh Kunte 280

NESTING ECOLOGY AND BREEDING SUCCESS OF CHEER PHEASANT CATREUS WALLICHII IN GARHWAL

HIMALAYA, INDIA

M.S. Bisht, S. Phurailatpam and B.S. Kathait 287

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH FROM 1997 TO 2003

Harkirat Sangha and Rishad Naoroji 290

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS IN DUDHWA

NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

Gopinathan Maheswaran and Asad R. Rahmani 305

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF PTERIS L. (PTERIDACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA) FROM WESTERN GHATS OF SOUTH

INDIA

S. Dominic Rajkumar 313

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS EUPLECTRUS WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM

INDIA

M.A. Khan and M. Agnihotri 315

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS DOLICHOGENIDEA VIERECK (HYMENOPTERA:

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA

K. Pandey, Z. Ahmad, A. A. Haider and Shujauddin 324

THREE NEW SPECIES OF LASIA CANTHA FROM SOUTHERN INDIA WITH A KEY TO THEIR IDENTIHC ATION

(HETEROPTERA: TINGIDAE)

David Livingstone and Jeyanthi Bai 326

REVIEWS

I. CHANGING FAUNAL ECOLOGY IN THE THAR DESERT

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 330

2. RAPTORS OF THE WORLD: A FIELD GUIDE

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 331

3. BIODIVERSITY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 332

4. BIRDS OF SOUTH ASIA: THE RIPLEY GUIDE, VOL 1: FIELD GUIDE, VOL. 2: ATTRIBUTES AND

STATUS

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

333

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Occurrence of the Rustyspotted Cat Prionailurus

rubiginosus (Geoffrey) in Sriharikota, Nellore

district, Andhra Pradesh, India

By Ranjit Manakadan and S. Sivakumar 336

2. Occurrence of the Rustyspotted Cat Prionailurus

rubiginosus (Geoffrey) in Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary,

Karnataka

By H.N. Kumara and Mewa Singh 336

3. Disappearance of Elephants in Uttara Kannada

By H.N. Kumara and Mewa Singh 337

BIRDS

4. Mandarin Ducks Aix galericulata (Linnaeus) on the

Sat Tal Lakes near Nainital, Uttaranchal

By A1 Vrezec, Tomaz Jancar, Luka Bozic and

Borut Rubinic 338

5. Record of the Amur Falcon Falco amurensis Radde

on Sriharikota Island, Nellore district, Andhra

Pradesh

By S. Sivakumar and Ranjit Manakadan 339

6. Sighting of Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher Ficedula

strophiata (Hodgson) at Bandhavgarh (M.P.): Afirst

record for Peninsular India

By E.P Eric D’Cunha 339

7. Occurrence of Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher

Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson) in Jamnagar

district, Gujarat, India

By Justus Joshua, Hiren Soni, Ni.schal M. Joshi,

Pankaj N. Joshi and Oswin Deiva 340

8. Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis

Gmelin in Ladakh

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and Rishad Naoroji 341

REPTILES

9. Ganges Softshell Turtle Aspideretes gangeticus

(Cuvier) attacking a male Peafowl Pavo cristatus

By Satish Kumar Sharma 341

EISHES

10. Occurrence of deep-sea sharks off the Pondicherry

coast

By Shilpin Patel, Atma Reddy and Gita Doha 342

11. Extension of range of Puntius arulius arulius

(Jerdon) in various streams in Thungabadra river

basin

By M. Arunachalam, J.A. Johnson, A. Manimekalan

A. Sankaranarayanan, R. Soranam, P. Sivakumar and

M. Muralidharan 343

1 2. New records and range extension of freshwater fishes

to the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, South India

By A. Manimekalan, M. Arunachalam and

K. Rema Devi 344

INSECTS

13. Notes on the life history of Laccoptera (Sindia)

sulcata (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae:

Cassidinae)

By Nilesh Rane and H.V. Ghate 346

14. Batesian mimic butterflies taken in by their models

and the mimetic status of Argyreus hyperbius L.

(Nymphalidae)

By Peter Smetacek 352

15. Cosmostigma racemosa Wight, a new host plant

record of the Dark Blue Tiger Butterfly Tirumala

septentrionis (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae:

Danainae) from Kerala

By Vmayan P. Nair 354

16. Parsonsia spiralis'. New larval host plant of endemic

butterfly Malabar Tree Nymph, Idea malabarica

Moore (Danainae, Nymphalidae)

By C. Susanth 354

17. A new food plant of the Great Eggfly (Lepidoptera:

Nymphalidae)

By Anuradha Rajagopalan 355

1 8. Uvaria narum Wall., ( Annonaceae), a new host plant

record of the Tailed Jay Butterfly, Graphium

agamemnon (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

from Kerala

By Vinayan P. Nair 355

19. Description of hitherto unknown egg and 1st instar

nymph of Cinara maculipes Hille Ris Lambers

(Aphidoidea: Lachnidae) from Shimla, Himachal

Pradesh

By Sumit Chakrabarti 356

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

20. A new record of the coral Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg,

1 834) (Scleractinia, Agariciidae) from Anaipar Island,

Gulf of Mannar Bisophere Reserve

By K.P. Raghuram and K. Venkataraman 358

21. A new record of Turbinaria patula (Dana, 1846)

(Scleractinia, Dendrophylliidae) in Tuticorin, Gulf

of Mannar Biosphere Reserve

By K.P. Raghuram and K. Venkataraman 360

22. Parasitic infestation of the clam, Marcia opima

(Gmelin)

By N. Suja and P. Muthiah 361

BOTANY

23. Additions to the grass flora of Tamil Nadu

By V.S. Ramachandran, V. Balasubramaniam and

P. Pandikumar 362

24. New generic records of grasses for Maharashtra

By G.G Potdar, P.D. Mahekar and S.R. Yadav .... 365

25. Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatter & McCann

(Orchidaceae): A new record from Sikkim Himalaya

By D. Maity, N. Pradhan and A.S. Chauhan 368

26 . Bulbophyllum rep tans ( Lindl . ) Lindl . ( Orchidaceae ) :

a critical study

By D. Maity, A.S. Chauhan and GG. Maiti 369

27. Notes on rarity and occurrence of Drosera indica L.

(Droseraceae) in Gujarat State, India

By Sanjay R. Kshirsagar and Minoo Parabia 372

28. A note on Athyrium schimperi Moug. ex Fee

(Athyriaceae: Pteridophyta) in India

By Y.P.S. Pangtey 372

29. Athyrium nephrodioides (Baker) Christ

(Athyriaceae: Pteridophyta): an addition to the fern

flora of India

By C.R. Fraser-Jenkins and Y.P.S. Pangtey 374

30. Deparia acuta (Ching) Fras.-Jenk. (Athyriaceae:

Pteridophyta): A new record for Kumaon Himalaya

By Y.P.S. Pangtey 374

31. Matteuccia intermedia C. Chr. (Onocleaceae:

Pteridophyta): an addition to the fern flora of India

By Y.P.S. Pangtey 375

ii

32. Pteris heteromorpha Fee Pteridaceae; a new

distributional record for Andhra Pradesh

By V.S. Manickam, A. Benniamin and

S. Harikrishnan 377

33. Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Bory) Dawson — a

red alga reported from certain backwaters of Kerala

By P. Kaladharan 378

34. Additions to the type material in the herbarium of

Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune

By V.P. Prasad 379

35. Additions to the flora of Karnataka

By K. Gopalakrishna Bhat 383

Cover Photograph: Leopard Dorid Jorunna funebris

By Deepak Apte

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

WE THANK

Experts who have given editorial inputs for this volume

B.F. Chhapgar

D.B. Bastawade

D.K. Lahiri Choudhury

Gayatri Ugra

Isaac Kehimkar

Naresh Chaturvedi

Otto Pfister

Rahul Kaul

Varad Giri

Editorial

Highest Importance: Lowest Priority

“Environment sustainability is not an option but an imperative. Clean air, pure water, conservation of forests

and wild life and generation of greenery are the essentials for a healthy environment. Prevention of degradation of

land, controlling floods and droughts, preventing desertification, conservation of fragile eco-system, prevention

of deforestation, conserving bio-diversity and mitigating water and air pollution all present challenges for planners

and policy makers.”

Nice words, isn’t it? This is quoted from a government document “Mid-term Appraisal: Tenth Five Year Plan

- Part II, Chapter 14, pp: 429-443. Let us see if this rhetoric matches with the deed. I quote from another government

document given to me in one of the meetings of the II* Five Year Plan:

* Swaminathan Committee appointed by the Planning Commission, Government of India, recommended

allocation of Rs. 9,950 crores for the 8"' Plan.

** Mukherjeee Committee of the Planning Commission recommended allocation of Rs. 26,752 crores for

the 9'^ Plan for ensuring covering of 33% area in 20 years.

*** The National Forestry Action Plan aimed at having 33% of land area under forest/tree cover in

20 years. To achieve this, the Ministry of Environment and Forests, in 1999, requested allocation of

Rs. 27,256 crores for 10"’ Plan.

The MoEF got 0.94% of the National Plan of the Government of India in the 1 0“" Five Year Plan for protecting

the environment and almost 20% in the land of the country that is officially under forest cover (the state governments

have their own budgets). Let us see what the forests provide to us. Intangible benefits of forests and biodiversity

run in billions, perhaps hundreds of billions of rupees - though I do not have statistics for this. To give you some

examples of the intangible benefits of forest and wild areas: most rivers originate from the forests; forest cover

regulates stream flow and rain water; forests and grasslands help in ground water recharge and soil conservation;

vegetation cover does CO^ fixation and provides us with clean air; forests, grasslands, mangroves and wetlands

provide a plethora of medicines and genes for crops. The tangible benefits of the forests are: 70% of all rural and

20% of urban fuel energy comes from forests, 40% of the green fodder (grazing, lopping and cutting) comes from

forests, 80% of all rural medicine and a large volume of non-timber products come from forests. All of these

activities support livelihood in the rural sector. Millions of people visit national parks and sanctuaries ever year.

The state governments earn crores of rupees from forests through harvest of timber. Forest Corporations, and

auctions of Minor Forest Products. The Forestry sector employs millions of people in rural India.

Environmental sustainability is certainly not an option which can be delayed for future generations. Future

generations and civilizations are sustained by environmental sustainability. Can we sustain and protect the

environment when the Planning Commission (and the Government) gives it a low priority?

In this age of globalization, WTO, Millenium Development Goal, agriculture subsidies, Davos and Doha, will

someone in India calculate the benefits, both tangible and intangible that our forests and wildlife provide to us?

With an economist for a Prime Minister, and Secretary of Environment and Forests, this is perhaps the only

language they would understand.

Discussions on the 1 1"** Five Year Plan are ongoing with each ministry putting up their demands of funds. Let

us take the mandarins of the Planning Commission to a national park before they decide fund allocation for the

MoEF.

Perhaps, clean air, pure water, unpolluted streams, song of the Malabar Whistling Thrush, and innocent

alarm calls of a skittish Cheetal doe would change their heart.

Perhaps, taking them to the forest in central India, where the Chambal river originates, would change their

outlook to nature.

Perhaps, a morning walk on a lonely nature trail in the thick jungles of Arunachal Pradesh would change their

mind.

Perhaps, in the 11th Five Year Plan the MoEF will get 5% of the National Plan, which the MoEF rightly

deserves.

Perhaps, the statement quoted at the starting of this editorial would not remain just an empty rhetoric.

Perhaps...!

Asad R. Rahmani

264

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

265-273

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR

OF THE PRIMITIVELY EUSOCIAL WASP ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.)

(HYMENOPTERA: VESPIDAE)*

SUJATA P. KaRDILE-' ‘*AND RaGHAVENDRA GaDAGKAR-’ ^

‘Accepted August 2004

-Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India.

“Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur,

Bangalore 560 064, Karnataka, India.

Email; [email protected]

^Email: [email protected]

This paper reports on natural history and behaviour of the primitively eusocial wasp Ropalidia cyathifonnis, which

builds small, open, paper carton nests and exhibits an aseasonal nesting cycle. The number of adult wasps on a nest

ranges from one to about a hundred, and nests last from a few days to sixteen months or more. Most colonies have a

single queen, who is morphologically similar to her workers but has better developed ovaries. Female wasps exhibit

several dominance behaviours which are positively correlated with rates of snatching food and building material from

incoming foragers, and also of feeding larvae and building the nest. This suggests that behaviourally dominant individuals

specialize in performing intra-nidal tasks including brood care. Queens are the most behaviourally dominant individuals

of their colonies and appear to inhibit worker reproduction and regulate non-reproductive activities of workers using

dominance behaviours. Our observations suggest that R. cyathifonnis is a typical example of a primitively eusocial

species, in striking contrast to the congeneric R. marginata which exhibits some features reminiscent of more advanced

eusociality. Queens of R. marginata are behaviourally docile and appear to use a non-behavioural (probably pheromonal )

method of regulating worker reproduction. Non-reproductive activities of workers in R. marginata are regulated in a

decentralised, self-organised manner without the involvement of the queen. A comparative study of R. cyathifonnis and

R. marginata will be valuable in understanding the evolutionary transition from primitive to advanced eusociality in

general.

Key words: primitively eusocial wasps, social evolution, Ropalidia cyathifonnis, Ropalidia marginata, nesting cycle,

dominance behaviour

INTRODUCTION

Eusocial insects are characterised by overlap of

generations, co-operative brood care and reproductive

differentiation into fertile reproductive and sterile worker

castes. Eusociality is seen in ants, bees, wasps, termites,

aphids, thrips, ambrosia beetles, marine shrimps, a possible

example among spiders and a lone vertebrate example - the

Naked Mole Rat. Eusocial species may be classified as

primitively or highly eusocial. Primitively eusocial species

lack morphological caste differentiation and retain many

behavioural features of their solitary ancestors. Highly

eusocial species exhibit morphological differentiation between

workers and reproductives, and have acquired many

behavioural features not present in their solitary ancestors

and inconsistent with solitary life (Michener 1969; Wilson

1 97 l;H611dobler and Wilson 1990;Bourke and Franks 1995;

Crozier and Pamilo 1996; Gadagkar 2001 ). The emergence of a

sterile, altruistic worker caste is one of the most challenging

problems of the evolution of eusociality. Primitively eusocial

species are appropriate model systems to investigate the early

stages of evolution because reproductives and workers are

usually not irreversibly committed to their respective roles

and because individuals in many species have retained the

ability to found nests and rear brood in the solitary mode.

Among social Hymenoptera, primitively eusocial

species are found among bees and wasps. The old world

tropical genus Ropalidia is thought to be of particular interest

in understanding the evolution of eusociality because it

includes both primitively as well as highly eusocial species.

Ropalidia marginata and Ropalidia cyathifonnis are the two

most abundant primitively eusocial wasps in peninsular India.

Of these, R. marginata has been studied extensively to yield

a number of interesting insights into the evolution of

eusociality (Gadagkar 2001 ). By comparison, R. cyathiformis

remains poorly studied but promises to contribute to our

understanding of the evolution of eusociality in new and

interesting ways (Gadagkar 2001).

R. cyathiformis was first described by Fabricius ( 1 804)

as Eumenes cyathiformis. It was also described as Icaria

ceylonica by Cameron (1898), as Icaria cayaynensis by

Ashmead (1905a,b), as Icaria bilineata by Cameron (1905)

and as Icaria cyathiformis by Schulz (1912). Vecht ( 1 94 1 , 1 962)

first used the combination Ropalidia cyathiformis.

R. cyathiformis wasps are small in size, the females are

6.5 - 7.0 mm long and the males about 5.5 mm. Sexes are easily

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS

distinguishable. R. cyathiformis has been reported from Uttar

Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Bihar, Assam, Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra and Karnataka in India and also from Nepal, Sri

Lanka, Malaysia and Sulawesi and Sumba in Indonesia (Das

and Gupta 1989).

We have initiated a long-term study of this species to

develop an additional model system for investigating the

evolution of altruism and eusociality. Here we describe some

aspects of the natural history and behaviour of R. cyathiformis

in Bangalore ( 1 3° 00' N and 77° 32' E), India.

METHODS

Nesting cycle

Selected buildings and other favourite nesting sites on

the campus of Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore

were surveyed once in about two weeks for the presence of

nests of R. cyathiformis. When a nest was first encountered,

the number of eggs, larvae, pupae, parasitized cells, empty

cells, combs, pedicels, adult females and adult males present

were recorded. This was done before 0700hrs or after 1900hrs

with salivary secretion. Thus, transparent windows can be

seen at the bottom of those cells in which larvae have pupated

at least once. Since the cells are reused, empty cells as well as

egg and larva bearing cells may have transparent windows.

Hence the presence of any one or more transparent windows

at the bottom of empty cells, egg cells or larval cells indicates

a post-emergence nest. Based on this criterion, every nest

was classified either as a pre-emergence or post-emergence.

When a pre-emergence nest had only eggs and young larvae,

it was designated as having been initiated in that month. The

numbers of nests seen to have been initiated or abandoned

in different months of the year were compiled from such data.

The survey was done for most months during four

consecutive years (Table 1 ). For those months in which survey

was done in more than one year, the numbers of nests initiated

and abandoned in that month was averaged over all the years

during which survey was done. During this study we located

and recorded data on 33 pre-emergence nests and 53 post-

emergence nests.

Behaviour

when adult wasps are expected to be in the nest. On

subsequent visits we noted only whether it was active or

abandoned. A nest with brood and adults was considered

active and one devoid of both was considered to have been

abandoned.

Adults of old world primitively eusocial wasps remove

the larval meconium (faecal matter) by chewing a small hole at

the bottom of the cells. This is done immediately after the

larva spins a silk cap on its cell, in preparation for pupation.

After removing the meconium, the adult wasps seal the hole

Table 1 : Monthly census records. V denotes nest census was

taken in that month for that year while — denotes no census was

taken in that month for that year

We observed 10 post-emergence nests (Table 2) from

April 2002 to January 2004. All adults on each nest were

uniquely marked with spots of quick drying, non-toxic enamel

paints. Five minute observation sessions were made, during

which every performance by each individual was recorded

for the following behaviours: dominance behaviour, bring

food, snatch food, lose food, feed larva, bring building

material, snatch building material, lose building material and

build. Observation sessions were evenly distributed from

0630 hrs to 1830 hrs. Five sessions of 5 minute observations

were randomly performed each hour during four to six hours

per day. Each nest was thus studied for 16-20 hours over a

period of four to six days.

Month 1999 2000 2001 2002

January

February

March

April

May

June

July

August

September

October

November

December

i

I

i

I

]

j

V

\

I

Table 2: Number of females, males, eggs, larvae, pupae.

No. of empty cells and parasitized cells present in the 1 0 nests

events used for the behavioural observations

266

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.)

Fig. 1 : Camera lucida drawings of (a) female R. cyathiformis in

profile, frontal view of (b) head of female, and (c) head of male

and (d) side view of male antenna showing curved apical

segment and tyloids. (By Thresiamma Varghese)

Body size

All adult wasps were collected at the end of the study,

and stored at -20° C for measurement and later dissection. For

each wasp, the following were measured: interocellar distance,

right ocello-ocular distance, left ocello-ocular distance, head

width, head length, clypeus width, clypeus length, width of

first segment of right antenna, length of first segment of right

antenna, width of first segment of left antenna, length of first

segment of left antenna, inter-antennal distance, width of

mesoscutum, length of mesoscutum, alitrunk length, length

of right wing, length of left wing, length of 1 marginal cell of

right wing, length of P‘ marginal cell of left wing, number of

hammuli on right wing, number of hammuli on left wing, width

of 1 gastral segment, length of P‘ gastral segment, height of

P' gastral segment, width of 2"‘* gastral segment, length of 2"'*

gastral segment and height of 2"‘* gastral segment. These 27

body measurements were subjected to principle components

analysis using a correlation matrix, separately for each colony

as well as for data pooled from all the 1 0 colonies. The results

were used either as an index of body size (defined as the

magnitude of the first principle component) or to plot the

relative positions of different wasps in a two dimensional

principle components space.

Ovarian development

Female wasps were dissected to evaluate the state of

ovarian development. The following measurements were made;

width of the largest oocyte, length of the largest oocyte,

average width calculated over all proximal oocytes, average

length calculated over all proximal oocytes, total number of

oocytes, number of oocytes with yolk and number of mature

oocytes. The ovarian measurements were subjected to

principal components analysis and the results were utilized

as for body size.

Dry weight and fat content

After taking all measurements the wasps were oven-

dried at 72 °C for 36 hours and weighed. Fat content was then

estimated using the method of Folch et al. (1957).

RESULTS

Females have a crescent shaped brown mark on the

clypeus, which males’ lack. The apical segment of the antenna

is more curved in males. Only males have tyloids on the third

and the subsequent segments of the antennae. The first of

these differences is easily seen, without disturbing wasps

sitting on the nest, making field identification easy (Fig. 1).

Nesting habits

Like most primitively eusocial polistines, R. cyathifonnis

builds simple, stelocyatarus (suspended by a pedicel) and

gymnodomous (un-enveloped) nests. Each nest has a single

pedicel only, and generally a single comb. Of the 86 nests

observed 82 had a single comb, three had two combs and one

had three combs. Each comb was suspended by a single

pedicel, situated either approximately at the centre (60 combs)

or at the periphery (31 combs). Stone pillars and walls (40

nests), cement walls (11), croton bushes (10), wooden door

and window frames (9), iron beams (7), asbestos sheets (3),

underside of leaves (3), glass panes (2) and brick wall ( 1 ) were

used as nesting sites in decreasing order of preference. Nests

were invariably built in relatively open spaces and were never

seen in crevices or in closed places with only a narrow

entrance. Active nests were seen throughout the year (Fig.

2a). Nests were also abandoned at all times of the year, but

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

267

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.)

15n

10-

5-

0-1

4-,

c

o

05 2

n

e

^ 1

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

0-1

b. Nests initiated (n = 33) and

abandoned (n = 67)

i_L

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Fig. 2: Frequency distribution of (a) active nests, (b) nests

initiated (black bars) and abandoned (grey bars), (c) minimum life

span of nests. Sample sizes of nests studied are shown in

parentheses in (b) and (c) and also above the bars in (c)

nest initiation occurred usually between October and March

(Fig. 2b). For most nests we either recorded the initiation or

the abandoning, but not both. This is because either the nests

were already initiated at the beginning of our study or our

study was terminated before the nest was abandoned. Hence

we can only assess the minimum life span of the nest which

ranged from one month or less to 1 6 months, with six out of

8 1 nests lasting for 1 0 months or more. The median of the

minimum life span was three months and mode was two

months.

The total number of adult wasps on a nest ranged from

1 to 93 (Fig. 3a) and the number of females ranged from 1 to 72

(Fig. 3b). 22 out of 33 newly initiated nests had a single founder

while the remaining 1 1 had two founders each. Males were

never seen on pre-emergence nests. Out of 53 post-emergence

nests, 1 1 had from 1 to 2 1 males (Fig. 3c). Information on nest

size in terms of cells and brood is summarised for 75 nests in

Fig. 3d-g. Although ants and an unidentified ichneumonid

wasp occasionally prey upon/ parasitize R. cyathiformis nests,

the hornet Vespa tropica is undoubtedly its major predator

(not counting humans), keeping its population in check.

Body size

Intracolony variation in the seven most variable parts

of the body and in the index of body size is depicted for a

representative colony in Fig. 4a. Intracolony variation in body

size is rather small and continuous. By no measure of body

size is the queen the largest individual. Multivariate statistical

analysis confirms that intracolony variation in body size is

relatively continuous and that the queen is intermediate; there

are individuals with lower as well as higher values than the

queen along principal component 1 as well as principal

component 2 (Fig. 5a). The intermediate position of the queen

relative to workers is even more clear when data from all the

10 colonies are pooled. The 10 queens are scattered among

the 136 workers along the two principal component axes

(Fig. 5b). In colony C97 there were 12 males in addition to 18

females. In two others (C96 and C98) there were males but

only one and two respectively. Intracolony variation in body

size for males, workers and queen for the colony C97 is

depicted in Fig. 6 as the relative positions of different wasps

in principal components space. Males and females form two

distinct clusters with all females (with one exception) having

higher values of principal component 1 than males. Males

and females have similar variation in values of principal

component 2. Since wing length has the maximum weightage

in principal component 1 , this means that males are smaller

than females when measured by wing length although they

may be comparable to females in some other measures of

body size.

Ovarian condition

In sharp contrast to body size, ovarian condition varies

discontinuously within colonies. Intracolony variation in

ovarian condition for seven measurements of the ovaries, as

well as by a composite index of ovarian condition for the

same representative colony is depicted in Fig. 4b. When

measured by length and width of the largest oocyte, average

length and width of proximal oocytes or total number of

oocytes, three kinds of individuals can be recognized - the

queen with a very high value, about half the workers with low

and the remainder with zero values. Mature oocytes and

oocytes with yolk were generally seen only in the queen.

When the data are subjected to principle components analysis

268

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.)

50

40

30

20

10

0

50

I 40

■530

I 20

E

- 10

0

80

60

40

20

0

□

a. No, of adults

12.7 ± 16.3

1-93

n = 86

b. No. of females

11,9 ±13.9

1-72

n = 86

□ □

9 No Of empty cells

0.1 ±0.6

0-4

n = 81

h . No of parasitised cells

0.1 ±0.4

0-3

n = 81

i. Total number of cell;

44.0 ± 39.0

3-174

n = 81

□

CZD t=D

o ^ p p p ^ ^

vO' 4^'

Fig. 3: Size distribution of nests. The measure of nest size, mean ± S.D., range and sample size are indicated in each panel

and the relative positions of individual wasps are plotted in

the first and second principal components space, the

discontinuous variation is even better emphasized. The

workers form one cluster and the queen alone lies far away

(Fig. 7a). Even when data are pooled across all colonies the

queens (with one exception) form a distinct cluster at one end

while workers (with two exceptions) form a tight cluster at the

other end (Fig. 7b). The one exceptional queen that lies in the

cluster of workers was labelled as the queen because she was

the only individual observed to lay eggs in her colony.

However, upon dissection she was found to have no mature

oocytes. The workers with higher values of ovarian index

had proximal oocytes similar to or smaller than that of the queen,

but they had higher numbers of oocytes. We suspect that the

queen in this colony had approached the end of her tenure.

Dominance behaviour

As m other primitively eusocial wasps, adults of

R. cyathiformis exhibit several kinds of aggressive or

agonistic behaviours towards each other on the basis of which

one member of the interacting pair can be unambiguously

designated as ‘dominant’ and the other as ‘subordinate’. Six

distinct dominance behaviours were observed; peck, nibble,

chase, attack, hold in mouth and sit on another wasp. The

sum of the frequencies of these behaviours was designated

as the frequency of dominance behaviour. The relative

abundance of the six behaviours is shown in Table 3. When

the frequencies of dominance-subordinate behaviours were

used to compute a dominance index and construct a dominance

hierarchy, the queen was always at the top of the hierarchy

except in colony C97 in which we suspected the queen to be

approaching the end of her tenure (see section on ovarian

condition). These data are not given here because similar

results have been published before (Kardile and Gadagkar

2002, 2003). The frequency of dominance behaviour shown

by the wasps had a significantly positive correlation with the

frequency with which they snatched food, fed larvae,

snatched building material and built the nest, as well as with

their state of ovarian development and fat content. The

frequency of dominance behaviour was not significantly

correlated with body size and dry weight (Table 4).

DISCUSSION

The main motivation for studies on R. cyathiformis Ifom

our laboratory comes from the desire to identify a species of

Table 3: Types of dominance behaviour and their relative

abundance, measured as percentage of total dominance

behaviour

Data pooled from the 1 0 colonies used to study dominance behaviour

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

269

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.)

a. Body size (Colony C79)

b. Ovarian condition (Colony C79)

Fig. 4: (a) Body size and (b) Ovarian condition of wasps in a representative colony

C79. The seven most variable measures of body size are on the left panel and all the seven measurements of ovarian development are on

the right panel. Grey bars represent workers while black bars represent queens. Left panel: LLW, length of left wing; LRW, length of right

wing; MSCW, width of mescoscutum; W2GS, width of second gastral segment; LM1L, length of 1st marginal cell of left wing; LH1R, length

of 1 St marginal cell of right wing; HL, head length; IBS, composite index of body size. Right panel: LLO, length of the largest oocyte; WLO,

width of the largest oocyte; LPO, average length of proximal oocytes; WPO, average width of proximal oocytes;. NO, total number of

oocytes; NM, number of mature oocytes; YO, number of oocytes with yolk; IOC, composite index of ovarian development.

primitively eusocial polistine wasp that would be suitable for

comparison with R. marginata. The latter is also classified as

a primitively eusocial wasp because of the absence of

morphological differentiation between queens and workers.

R. marginata is one of the most extensively studied social

wasps, whose namral history, ethology, nesting biology and

social biology have been documented in considerable detail

during the past 25 years. This species has served as an

270

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS

c\j

c

<u

c

o

D.

e

o

15

Q.

o

c

£

5

4

3

2

1

0

-1

-2

-3

-2 -1 0123456789 10

6

4

2

0

-2

-4

-6

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

Principal component 1

a. Body size (Colony C79)

O

o

Oo o

Q> o

° o

o o

■ ‘ ■ » ■ ■ « «

Fig. 5: Intra- and inter-colony variation in body size

(a) colony C79 and (b) all colonies.

Closed circles = queens, open circles = workers

excellent model system for understanding the evolution of

eusociality and the apparent paradox of altruism (Gadagkar

2001). These investigations have, however, yielded a major

surprise. In primitively eusocial species queens are known to

Table 4: Kendall’s coefficient of rank correlation (tau) between

dominance behaviour and other variables

To test significance of tau, a was set at 0.05. After Bonferroni

correction (12 tests), p < 0.004 was considered significant and is

indicated with an asterisk. Because data on all variables were not

available for all wasps, sample sizes (N) varied between different

correlations

(M

c

0)

c

o

Q.

E

o

to

Q.

O

c

qI

4

2

0

-2

-4

-7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7 9

Principal component 1

Fig. 6; Intra-colony and inter-sex variation in body size. Closed

circle = queen, open circles = workers, closed squares = males

-2 -1 01 23456789 10

Principal component 1

Fig. 7: Intra- and inter-colony variation in ovarian condition

(a) colony C79 and (b) all colonies.

Closed circles = queens, open circles = workers

be the most behaviourally dominant, active and interactive

individuals who are always at the top of the dominance

hierarchies of their colonies and use dominance behaviour to

suppress worker reproduction as well to coerce workers to

undertake non-reproductive activities such as foraging for

food and building material. Because of these roles, queens in

primitively eusocial species have sometimes been labelled as

central pacemakers of their colonies (West-Eberhard 1969,

1977; Wilson 1971; Breed and Gamboa 1977; Brothers and

Michener 1974; Buckle 1982; Dew 1983; Reeve and Gamboa

1983, 1987; Fletcher and Ross 1985; Gamboa et al. 1990;

Gadagkar 1991; Reeve 1991; Roseler 1991).

By contrast, queens of R. marginata are classified as

meek sitters who are never at the top of dominance hierarchies

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

271

NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OF ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS

(Gadagkar 2001 ). Nevertheless they are completely successful

in maintaining reproductive monopoly and there is suggestive

evidence that they may do so by using pheromones to regulate

worker reproduction (Sumana et al. in preparation). Queens

of R. marginata, by virtue of their physical inactivity and

lack of behavioural dominance are also not involved in

regulating non-reproductive activities of their workers. This

appears to be achieved by the workers in a decentralised,

self-organised manner (Premnath et al. 1995). R. marginata

also exhibits a well-developed, remarkably honeybee-like age

polyethism that is not usually expected in primitively eusocial

species (Naug and Gadagkar 1998). R. marginata may perhaps

be described as a relatively more socially advanced species

among the primitively eusocial species (Gadagkar 2001 ).

Such unusual features of R. marginata merit comparative

investigations with another closely related species which is

more typically primitively eusocial. There is already some

evidence that R. cyathiformis may be the appropriate species

for enhancing our understanding of the unusual properties

and evolutionary position of R. marginata (Gadagkar 2001;

Kardile and Gadagkar 2002, 2003). We have, therefore,

commenced detailed investigations on the biology of

R. cyathiformis similar to previous studies with R. marginata.

Here we report our observations on the natural history and

behaviour of R. cyathiformis.

There are several features of R. cyathiformis that are

very similar to R. marginata. Both exhibit an aseasonal nesting

cycle and lack morphological caste differentiation. Most nests

are monogynous (have a single egg-layer). As in R. marginata

most of the dominant individuals stay on the nest, snatch

food and building material from incoming foragers and

specialise in performing intranidal activities, including brood

care. An important difference is that the adult wasps, as well

as the nests, are much smaller in R. cyathiformis. Another

difference is that R. cyathiformis colonies can be polygynous

(although all ten studied here were monogynous), which is

never so in R. marginata (Gadagkar and Joshi 1982; Gadagkar

2001). We already know that queens of R. cyathiformis are

indeed the most dominant, active and interactive individuals

and behave as if they regulate worker reproduction and

activities by using dominance behaviour (Kardile and

Gadagkar 2002). Unlike in R. marginata, regulation of foraging

appears to be a centralised process with a major role for the

queen (Kardile and Gadagkar 2003).

The observations reported here combined with the

previous studies make R. cyathiformis an ideal model system

to compare with R. marginata. A comparative study of R.

cyathiformis and R. marginata is expected to help understand

the evolutionary transition from physical to chemical control

of reproduction, centralised to decentralised regulation of

worker activity and from the primitive to the highly eusocial

state in general.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Department of Science and Technology

and the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of

India for financial assistance.

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Gadagkar, R. ( 1991 ): Belonogaster, Mischocyttarus, Parapolybia, and

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Gadagkar, R. (2001): The social biology of Ropalidia marginata:

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Queens regulate worker reproduction without physical interactions

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

273

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

274-279

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS FROM EARLY EMBRYONIC

STAGES TO OVER THREE- YEAR-OLD ADULT'

MrINALINI ViRKAR- SaVITA JOSHr '^AND S.L. Shinde--^

'Accepted September 2004

-Zoology Group, Animal Sciences Division, Agharkar Research Institute, G.G. Agarkar Road, Pune 411 004,

Maharashtra, India.

"Email: [email protected]

Sphaerotheca breviceps is a burrowing frog of Family Ranidae, widespread in peninsular India. 40 eggs of this species

were collected from the wild, and reared successfully under laboratory conditions using five different set-ups, depending

upon their developmental or seasonal needs. Rapid development, juvenile cannibalism, seasonal behaviour of aestivation,

and possibility of breeding under laboratory conditions are the highlights of rearing this species. The development

including metamorphosis was completed in 35 days. The adult males showed vocal sacs and nuptial pads, and gave

mating calls during three successive breeding seasons. The adult survivors showed an average life span of three years,

one of which survived for 1289 days. Their rapid development and overall health during the course of the study indicate

that the species can successfully adapt to variations in temperature and humidity in the laboratory.

Key words: Sphaerotheca breviceps, frog, laboratory rearing, development, juvenile cannibalism, aestivation, mating

calls, life span

INTRODUCTION

The Indian Burrowing Frog Sphaerotheca breviceps

(Schneider 1799) is distributed in hidia. Sri Lanka and Myanmar

(Boulenger 1890, 1920). We have identified three locations on

the Pune- Alandi and Alandi-Chakan Road that have a dense

population of frogs (Fig. la). During the monsoon season of

1997, we came across an unusual spawn similar to that of

Microhyla ornata. Intrigued, we collected forty eggs from

this spawn that had about three hundred eggs, and reared

them under laboratory conditions. During the course of the

study, S.K. Dutta identified the species as Sphaerotheca

breviceps from the two eventually grown adults. Hitherto

known information on the habits of this species is little; more

information on its ecology and behaviour was, therefore, felt

necessary (Daniel 1975, 2002). In this paper, we report our

observations of 1289 days on rapid development, voracious

feeding, good acclimatization to laboratory conditions,

cannibalism on metamorphs and distinctive mating calls of

the Indian Burrowing Frog.

STUDY AREA

We have been visiting three ponds along the Pune -

Chakon road to observe their rich amphibian fauna. Three

sites were identified and marked as Location 1 , Location 2

and Location 3. Location 2 and 3 are adjacent to each other

on Alandi - Chakan road, 27 km from Pune and 6 km from

Alandi. Location 1 is situated at 18° 38' 22" N and 73° 52' 45"

E on Pune - Alandi road, 16.6 km from Pune and 4.4 km from

Alandi (Fig. la). It comprised of eleven temporary rainwater

puddles and one big seasonal pond (Fig. lb). The pond

contains water for about nine months of the year (July-March)

under conditions of average rainfall in monsoon. The

amphibian species found at these sites are Hoplobatrachus

tigeriniis, Microhyla ornata and Bufo melanostictus.

M. ornata is the dominant species found in Location 1 . The

spawn of 5. breviceps eggs was noticed only once at Location

1 in puddle number 6 (Fig. 1 a & b).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Rearing of developmental stages: During the early

period of embryonic and tadpole stages, the eggs were kept

in a plastic tub containing dechlorinated water. The tadpoles

showed well-developed hind limbs at 23 days, corresponding

to Gosner stage (CGS) 38 (Gosner 1960). About 5 ml of spinach

extract was added every day and about 2 ml of plankton

concentrate was added every alternate day to the water as

feed. Planktons were collected from the wild every fortnight

and maintained in the laboratory until fresh replenishments

were obtained. The spinach debris or excreta was removed

every day with a wide-mouth pasteur pipette, and the water in

the tub was replenished every alternate day. The tadpoles

developed forelimbs at 31 days (CGS 42). They were then

transferred to a plastic bucket containing tap water,

dechlorinated by storing for at least two days, and coarse

sand. In the bucket, coarse sand was arranged on one side in

a slope with height 2 cm above the water level. The tadpoles

were kept under this set up till they metamorphosed into

froglets around the 35th day (CGS 46).

Rearing of newly metamorphosed froglets: When

metamorphosis was complete, the young froglets were

transferred to an aquarium with steps of thermocol as shown

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS

Fig. 1 : (a) Location map of dense population sites of frogs on Pune-Alandi Road and Alandi-Chakan Road;

(b) Schematic site map of the puddles and pond on Pune-Alandi Road where spawn of Sphaerotheca breviceps was found

in Fig. 2a. The thermocol steps were covered with filter papers

that were changed once a week or when found soiled. A few

pebbles were kept on the steps. Water was added up to the

lowermost thermocol step and was changed every alternate

day by tube siphoning. Trials were made to feed the froglets

black ants, de-winged or vestigial winged Drosophila flies,

termites, red cotton bugs, besides successfully feeding them

commonly available tubificid worms of genus Limnodrilus.

Black ants and termites were collected from nature. Drosophila

flies and red cotton bug (Dysdercus koenigii) nymphs were

from cultures maintained in the laboratory.

Rearing of young and mature adults: The aestivation

set up was prepared based on initial observations at the onset

of the first winter and summer respectively, during rearing of

the froglets. Two aluminium trays were kept on either ends of

an aquarium. One tray was filled with non-sticky garden soil

while the other was half-filled with water. A thermocol sheet

covered with a sheet of filter paper, which was changed

routinely, was placed between the two trays (Fig. 2b). Apetri

plate containing weighed quantity of tubificid worms was

kept on the covered sheet of thermocol every evening. The

soil in the tray was kept moist by sprinkling water over it as

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

275

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS

c

Fig. 2; Different laboratory habitats used for rearing S. breviceps]

(a) Habitat used for newly metamorphosed froglets;

(b) Habitat used for young and adults for aestivation;

(c) Habitat used during monsoon for adults

and when required. The soil from the tray was changed every

3 months. The water tray was removed, cleaned and refilled

every day with dechlorinated tap water maintained in the

laboratory. During each monsoon period, between July and

October, all the frogs were transferred into another aquarium

set up. This contained a 15 cm high slope of sand, starting on

one side and terminating in the middle of the aquarium. The

other half of the aquarium was filled with 10 cm water with few

small stones close to the sand bed (Fig. 2c).

Laboratory temperature and humidity: The eggs,

tadpoles and adults were maintained in the laboratory under

normal uncontrolled conditions of temperature and humidity.

The temperature in the laboratory between March and June

was 25 °C to 40 °C, between July and October was 20 °C to

35 °C and between November and February was 10 °C to 30

°C. The relative humidity in the laboratory during summer

was 40% to 60%, during monsoon 60% to 90% and during

winter 50% to 70%.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Spawn and eggs: During a routine survey, on July 27,

1997, a spawn of 5. breviceps was collected from puddle no. 6

(Fig. lb) at Location 1 . It was a round spread of jelly holding

eggs. Eggs were reddish mustard in colour. The spawn was of

moderate size consisting of about 300 eggs. The appearance

of the spawn and eggs was different from the spawns and

eggs of other frogs and toads in that area. So, we carefully

separated a small piece of the spawn at 1030 hrs. The eggs

were well formed and in the dorsal lip stage (CGS 10). The

eggs were counted in the laboratory and found to be 40 in

number. We observed the eggs under a binocular zoom

microscope, and found them to be in the early neurula stage,

at approximately 9 hrs of age (CGS 13).

Developmental span and feeding habits; The present

report of developmental span from eggs to metamorphosed

froglets in S. breviceps is 35 days, which is shorter by 10 days

in comparison with an earlier report (Mohanty-Hejmadi etal.

1979). S. breviceps tadpoles and adults accepted all kinds of

food supplied. They readily and greedily swallowed tubificid

worms throughout their life span under laboratory conditions.

There is a drastic shift in the feeding habit of S. breviceps

from herbivorous tadpoles to wormivorous froglets and frogs,

when reared under laboratory conditions. These observations

conform to inferred natural food habits recorded as herbivore

in tadpoles (Sekar 1992) and insectivorous in frogs of this

species (Mohanty-Hejmadi and Acharya 1982). The overall

growth rate of the species appeared to be considerably rapid

and they remained healthy during their hfe span under laboratory

conditions. These observations led us to believe that the species

could serve as a good amphibian laboratory model.

Juvenile cannibalism: All forty individuals of

S. breviceps observed during this study were reared together.

Soon after completion of their metamorphosis we were trying

to feed young froglets with various kinds of food as mentioned

earlier, when we observed four froglets being swallowed by

their fellow frogs during this early phase after metamorphosis.

We not only observed the process of swallowing, but also

noticed the bulging bellies of the cannibalistic individuals.

We increased the tubificid quota substantially, which they

relished, to avoid such instances. No more act of cannibalism

was observed throughout the remaining course of rearing

after this change. The intraspecific predation among

amphibians is well known. Juvenile cannibalism is reported

earlier in R. pipiens and R. temporaria as reviewed by Polis

and Myers (1985). This is the first report on juvenile

cannibalism in S. breviceps.

Aestivation: During the course of the study, the young

adults underwent aestivation during which they were seen

276

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS

hiding below the filter paper or burrowing under the thermocol

sheet. It was fascinating to see most of them hiding under the

filter paper cover. We, therefore, prepared a special set up for

burrowing activity (Fig. 2b). The young adults showed

enhanced feeding prior to aestivation as was evident from

the average amount of food consumed (about 10 gm/frog/

day); from November, the extent of feeding reduced drastically

(about 2.5 gm/frog/day). As the room temperature at night

dropped below 20 °C, the frogs buried themselves in the moist

soil kept in one of the trays. They used their forelimbs as

shovels to remove the soil sideways while burying into the

soil. The dug out soil was cleared quickly with the help of

hind limbs. It is inappropriate to say that the structure of hind

limbs enables this frog to burrow as reported previously

(Boulenger 1890). Some of them used to emerge out of these

hideouts during late evenings for meagre feeding (less than 2

gm/frog/day) before buiTowing into the soil again. The feeding

almost ceased during December and January. The frogs looked

thinner and pale after aestivation. During summer, the frogs

showed bunowing behaviour only during daytime. They

continued feeding (less than 3 gm/frog/day) until the onset

of the rainy season in June. The surviving individuals showed

similar behavioural patterns in subsequent years too. As

adults grew, the average amount of food consumed increased

during subsequent years (about 15 gm/frog/day), but the

extent of meagre feeding during aestivation remained

unchanged (about 3 gm/frog/day). We observed such

behaviour for seven complete cycles. This behaviour in young

adults indicates that seasonal cyclical changes are built

intrinsically.

Mating calls: This was another important feature of

S. breviceps observed in one-year old adults, around the

onset of monsoon. It was striking that the eleven individuals

in the laboratory were responding to the natural seasonal

changes outside. This indicates built-in physiological

rhythms related to breeding, which may not necessarily

depend upon environmental cues. At the beginning of

breeding season in 1998, the surviving frogs showed

development of vocal sacs. The call notes were short syllables

“uMun” expressed in quick succession. Each call group was

composed of a series of syllables. The frequency and pitch

of the calls gradually increased towards the end of each call

group. As previously described, the call notes were neither

the short syllables "''Rut -Rut -Rut" (Rao 1915) nor the soft

""awang" (Daniel 1975, 2002), but each call group is composed

of a large number of calls (Kanmadi et al. 1994) that can be

heard from a distance of about 15 m. On observing this, we

developed a special set up in the hope of possible breeding

(Fig. 2c). The entire lab was filled with loud, but not shrill

mating calls during late evenings, prompting us to rush to

the laboratory every morning for two weeks; we expected to

see some eggs, but this never happened, because all the

adults reared were males. This prompted us to carefully check

vocal sacs and nuptial pads on forelimbs of all the individuals.

Since all of them had vocal sacs as well as nuptial pads, egg

laying was no more a possibility. The mating calls were heard

from the surviving adults during two more breeding seasons

that followed.

Life span: The objective of these studies was to learn

the total life span of this species. In terms of surviving

numbers, it is obvious that the individuals were more

protected under laboratory conditions than in their natural

surroundings. In terms of other natural factors, including

possible variety in feeding, they may have been deprived of

several unknown factors. The healthy condition of the

surviving adults, throughout the course of this study,

indicates that the observed life span in their natural habitat

may not be substantially different. Our observations indicate

that majority of the adult individuals survived an average life

of three years. The last individual survived for 1289 days.

This may serve as an indicator of average life span of this

species in the nature too. This is first report on the longevity

of S. breviceps under laboratory conditions or otherwise.

Life profile under laboratory conditions: Our initial

strategy of fixing froglets at 5 mm snout-vent length increment

retrospectively appears to be an unwanted intervention. This

could have prevented the ‘all-male-situation’ of surviving

adults. Success of rearing this species during the initial year

prompted us to search for more spawn(s). In spite of our

best efforts, we could not locate one more spawn at the

localities identified by us (Fig. la & b) between 1998 and

2003. The species may have become extinct from the study

localities. The present study opens up a possibility of

rehabilitation of this species by rearing them under laboratory

conditions.

The overall trend of life of this frog under laboratory

conditions highlights other important features of this species.

The foremost being that they remain healthy in captivity if

their basic needs are provided in time. Although voracious,

their feeding behaviour is flexible and it is surprising that

they adjusted well to feeding on tubificid worms. Barring

juvenile cannibalism, they co-existed well in captivity sharing

their resources. Rapid development, juvenile cannibalism,

cyclical behaviour of aestivation and strong possibility of

breeding under laboratory conditions were the highlights of

rearing this species. The entire chronological sequence of

events of rearing S. breviceps individuals is tabulated in Table

1 to help subsequent work on amphibian studies, to keep

track of this long-lasting exercise and also to keep a record of

available specimens for study.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

277

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS

Table 1 : Chronological events of rearing the Indian Burrowing Frog Sphaerotheca breviceps

from developmental stages to over three-year-old adult

CGS = corresponding Gosner Stage; SVL = snout-vent length

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS H.V. Ghate (Modern College, Pune) and M.S. Khan

(Herpetological Laboratory, Rabwah, Pakistan) for sharing

We thank S.K. Dutta (Utkal University, Bhubaneswar), their views during the progress of this work.

278

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS

REFERENCES

Boulenger, GA. (1890): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor and Francis, London.

541 pp.

Boulenger, G.A. (1920): A monograph of the South Asian, Papuan,

Melanesian, and Australian frogs of the genus Rana. Rec. Indian

Mus. 20: 1-226.

Daniel, J.C. (1975): Field guide to the Amphibians of Western India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 72: 506-522.

Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 238 pp.

Gosner, K.L. ( 1 960): A simplified table for staging anuran embryos and

larvae with notes on identification. Herpetologica 16: 183-

190.

Kanmadi. R.D., C.R. Hiremath & H. Schneider ( 1994): Advertisement

calls of two amphibians, Rana tigerina and Tomoptema breviceps.

J. Biosciences (Bangalore) 19: 75-80.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, R, S.K. Dutta & S. Parida (1979): Life history of

the Indian frogs: 1. The burrowing frog Rana breviceps Schneider.

J. Zool. Soc. India 31: 29-37.

Mohanty-Hejmadi, P. & B.K. Acharya (1982): Observations on food

habits of six species of Indian frogs. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

79: 120-124.

PoLis, GA. & C.A. Myers ( 1985): A survey of intraspecific predation

among reptiles and amphibians. J. Herp. 19: 99-107.

Rao, C.R.N. (1915): Notes on some south Indian Batrachia. Rec. Indian

Mus. 11: 31-38.

Schneider (1799): Rana breviceps. Hist. Amph. 1: 140 (Syntypes:

ZMB 3351, from ‘Tndes Orientales,” India).

Sekar, A.G (1992): A study of the food habits of six anuran tadpoles.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 9-16.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

279

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

280-286

SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEX-RATIOS AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS

IN DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA'

Krushnamegh Kunte^

‘Accepted November 2004

^Life Research Foundation, 1000/6-C, Pranav, Navi Peth, Pune 411 030, Maharashtra, India.

Current Address: Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin,

1 University Station C0930, Austin, TX 78712, USA. Email: [email protected]

Longitudinal migration of danaine butterflies takes place across the plains of southern India to the Western Ghats during

October-November, and towards the plains, about April-May. I report here on the butterfly migration through Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, in October 2001. Tirumala septentrionis (Butler) was predominant, constituting 78.5% of

the migrating butterflies. Euploea Sylvester (Fabricius) was twice as numerous as E. core (Cramer), the two species

making up the remaining 21.5%. The migrants were freshly emerged adults and sex-ratios were equal, except in the

slightly male-biased E. Sylvester. The number of butterflies in this swarm was conservatively estimated at over 175,000

over three days. Reproductive status of migrating danaines and the apparent resident population of E. core at Chinnar

Wildlife Sanctuary are discussed. I suggest that the migratory tendencies evolved to avoid the torrential southwest

monsoon in their larval habitats in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest of the Western Ghats. This hypothesis is

consistent with the absence of diapause in early stages of these species, and with the fact that the butterflies breed

alternately in the plains and in the Western Ghats.

Key words: Tirumala. Euploea. Danainae, butterfly migration, sex ratio, seasonal movements

INTRODUCTION

Annual butterfly migrations in southern India have been

documented since the turn of the 19th century (Williams 1927,

1930, 1938) but their nature is still poorly understood. Unlike

the small-scale or occasional butterfly migrations that take

place in central India and northern Western Ghats (Bharos

2000; Chaturvedi 1993; Chaturvedi and Satheesan 1979;

Reuben 1961, 1962; Williams 1938), the southern Indian

migrations are both regular and on a very large scale, involving

hundreds of thousands of individuals (Fisher 1945; French

1943; Larsen 1978; Williams 1927, 1938). The patterns of the

short-distance north-south migrations in the Anamalai-Palni

and Nilgiri mountains are relatively well-documented and

have been monitored over decades (Evershed 1910; Williams

1938; Briscoe 1952; Larsen 1978, 1987). However, literature

pertaining to the long-distance east-west migrations that take

place through the plains of southern India is scarce. During

this migration butterflies traverse a distance of 300-500 km,

from the plains near the eastern coast to the Nilgiri and

Anamalai-Palni mountains, near the western coast of southern

India. This migration takes place mainly during October or

November and towards the plains about April-May (Williams

1930, 1938; Karthikeyan etal. unpublished observations. The

east- west migrating swarms are composed mainly of Tirumala

septentrionis, Euploea Sylvester and E. core of Danainae

(Nymphalidae), as opposed to the north-south migrations

exclusive to the hills, which are composed of Catopsilia

pomona (Fabricius), C. pyranthe (Linnaeus), Appias albina

(Boisduval), Papilio demoleus Linnaeus and smaller

proportions of Tirumala limniace (Cramer), Danaus genutia

(Cramer), Hypolimnas bolina (Linnaeus), Cynthia cardui

(Linnaeus), and Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) belonging to

families Papilionidae, Pieridae, Nymphaliade and Lycaenidae

(Evershed 1910; Larsen 1978; early works reviewed by

Wilhams 1938).

Estimates of the size of swarms of migrating butterflies

based on quantitative data are scarce, although a few

subjective estimates are available. Relative proportions of

species (Palot 2000) and sex-ratios (Larsen 1986) in largely

danaine aggregations have been reported, but not from

migrating swarms in southern India. The sex-ratios of

migrating butterflies are also of crucial importance, since they

would strongly influence sexual displays and mating behaviour

at their ultimate destinations. In this paper, I provide

quantitative estimates of the size of the swarm, relative

proportions of species and the sex-ratios of butterflies in the

migration that passed through Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kerala, in October 2001. Also reported are observations on

the breeding and larval parasitization in the local E. core

population during the migration period. I further suggest a

pattern of movements and breeding of migratory danaines of

southern India.

METHODOLOGY

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 15’- 10° 22' N, 77° 05'-

77° 15' E; total area 90.42 sq. km) is situated between

Amaravathi Wildhfe Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu and Eravikulam

National Park in Kerala. It is near Munnar, on the eastern side

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

of the Western Ghats, in Kerala, at an altitude of 500 m to

2400 m. The mean annual rainfall is 1000 mm, due mainly to

the northeast monsoon, from late October to December. The

Sanctuary contains dry deciduous and scrub forests. The

vegetation is dominated by stunted trees and thorny shrubs,

including various species of Acacia, Ziziphus, Santalum

album, Anogeissus latifolia, and along riverbeds, Terminalia

arjuna and Pongamia glabra. This is similar to the original

vegetation of the plains of southern India east of the Western

Ghats (Puri era/. 1983).

I observed migrating butterflies at Chinnar Wildlife

Sanctuary and Eravikulam National Park from October 18-20,

2001, and sampled individuals from the swarm between

0900 hrs and 1430 hrs on October 20. 1 do not know exactly for

how many more days the migration lasted. On October 20, the

weather was wann and sunny, but there had been occasional

rains the previous week, with clouded evenings. Observations

were made from a spot approximately in the middle of the

stream of butterflies. The migrating band was at least several

hundred metres wide, but for a most conservative estimate I

restrict my calculations to 50 m. The general direction, flight

behaviour and total number of individuals were quantitatively

estimated, without collecting the butterflies. For this purpose,

I chose a 10 m wide imaginary belt at the centre of the stream

of butterflies, and counted the number of butterflies passing

through this belt over a 5-minute duration. Eight such

observations were taken between 0930 hrs and 1405 hrs

(Table 1). Since the two species of Eiiploea could not be

distinguished apart in flight, they have been combined in this

count. T. limniace did not form a significant proportion of

these butterflies, and it was missing completely from the

quantitative sampling.

A randorh sample of 250 migrating butterflies was taken

with a butterfly net to confirm species identities and detemiine

sexes of the butterflies caught, after which they were released

on the spot.

RESULTS

The butterflies were flying from east to west, with a

slight northeast to southwest tilt, over the plains through

Amaravathi and Chinnar sanctuaries towards Eravikulam

National Park. Tirumala septentrionis, E. Sylvester and

E. core comprised most of the migrating swarm, with T.

limniace making up a very small fraction. A few other species,

notably P. demoleus, C. pomona and Danaus chrysippus

(Linnaeus), were also seen flying along with the swarm, but

due to their small numbers, inconsistent direction and manner

of flight, it could not be concluded that they were migrating.

Tirumala septentrionis far outnumbered all other species, in

the migrating swarm, making up about 78.5% of all butterflies

(Tables 1 and 2). Euploea Sylvester was twice as numerous as

E. core, the two species making up the remaining 21.5% of

the swarm. All butterflies were flying between 1 and 4 m above

the ground. The flight speed and style were usual for the

danaines - leisurely but persistent with continuous wing-beats

— and during the day they never halted to feed or rest. There

was no perceptible wind when the observations were made.

More than 95% butterflies captured for close examination

were freshly emerged adults, without any wing wear or tear.

Table 1 shows number of butterflies that passed

through a 10 m belt in five minutes. Based on these data, of

the total number of migrating butterflies was estimated. The

migration was in progress for a minimum of three days for at

least five hours daily (0900-1400 hrs). Assuming a minimum

width of 50 m for the main stream of the migrating swarm, size

was calculated as follows:

Butterflies flying in 1 hour in a belt of 10 m ( 195 in 5

minutes x 12) = 2,340.

Butterflies flying in 5 hours a day in a belt of 50 m (2,340

x5x5) = 58,500.

Size of the swarm (58,500 x 3 days) = 175,500.

Thus, the most conservative estimate of the size of this

migrating swarm was over 175,000 butterflies; T. septentrionis

constituting almost 137,000 of the total number and

Euploea spp., the remainder. The number of butterflies

involved in this exodus would appear to be small as compared

to “millions” of butterflies reported by Larsen ( 1978) in the

Nilgiris. However, it should be noted that Larsen reported the

breadth of Nilgiris migrating swarms to be almost 6 km,

whereas 1 have assumed a modest breadth of 50 m for the

migration I witnessed. The estimates would rise exponentially

if these assumptions are changed and further quantitative

observations are made with a more intensive effort.

Table 1: Number of butterflies passing through a 10 m belt in 5-minute duration

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

281

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Table 2 gives sex-ratios calculated from 250 individuals

of three migrating species as well as an estimate of relative

proportions of two species of Euploea, the sample of Euploea

being random. The sex-ratio in T. septentrionis and E. core

was approximately 1:1, while that in E. Sylvester was slightly

biased towards males.

On the breeding of E. core at Chinnar Wildlife

Sanctuary: E. core from the plains may have both migratory

and non-migratory populations, as has been reported for many

butterflies with migratory tendencies elsewhere (Williams

1930). In support of this, I report the following observations

pertaining to the occurrence and breeding of E. core at Chimiar

and Bangalore.

Isolated by about 200 m from the main stream of

migrating butterflies was a puddling assemblage of about

50 individuals of E. core and Appias libythea (Fabricius) at

the Chinnar forest check-post. These butterflies remained at

that spot throughout the day, and showed no indication of

joining the migration. Therefore, they were most probably

from local breeding populations of these species, rather than

the migrating swarm. Of the 25 caterpillars and pupae of E.

core collected from a Nerium plant close by, only two yielded

adult butterflies. The rest were destroyed in early stages by

parasitoid dipterans except one, which was destroyed by a

parasitoid wasp. Fresh eggs were observed on this plant,

indicating that breeding was ongoing in the E. core population

at Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary. Butterflies from these eggs

would have metamorphosed in about 40 days after the

migration had passed through, and therefore would probably

not have left their place of emergence.

In Bangalore city, which is on the migratory route, mid-

way between east and west coasts, E. core is active

throughout the year (unpublished data). It is not known what

proportion of the local population, if any, joins the migrating

swarm. However, this area maintains a local, continuously

breeding population of E. core, feeding mainly on Ficus spp.

Thus, both migratory and non-migratory individuals are

expected to comprise the E. core population.

Table 2: Sex-ratios of migrating butterlies

DISCUSSION

The danaine butterfly migration in southern India is

interesting for a) its longitudinal extent, and b) the pattern of

migrational movements which is influenced by the Indian

monsoon. Most of the known seasonal migrations of

butterflies in the world are either latitudinal or altitudinal

(Johnson 1 969; Williams 1958). Both are somewhat similar, in

that they are adaptations mainly to escape adverse seasonal

temperatures and host plant availability at very high altitudes

or latitudes. The southern Indian migration does involve an

altitudinal component, but the butterflies do not just descend

the hills and settle in the eastern foothills on the plains in the

rain shadow, but travel across the plains to disperse close to

the eastern coast, travelling a minimum of 300 km. However,

the exact area of dispersal is still unknown, and therefore the

longest distance travelled, by migrating butterflies is still

unknown. Importantly the longitudinal component

overwhelms the altitudinal component, and therefore this

migration is better viewed as longitudinal.

Southwood (1962) observed that globally most

migratory lepidopterans belong to semi-arid areas where

habitats are temporary. These migrants are mainly from cold

altitudes, extreme latitudes or warm semi-desert areas; for

example Cynthia carclui (Linnaeus) and Pieris spp. in northern

Africa and Europe (Johnson 1969; Williams 1958). In Costa

Rica, Danaus plexippus (Linnaeus) and others apparently

migrate from dry forests to evergreen forests of the hills

(Scoble 1995). The southern Indian danaine migration

superficially seems to fit the pattern that their prefeired habitat

is dry forests of the plains, from which they migrate to moist

and cool evergreen forests of the hills, presumably to escape

hot summers. However, in the unique geography of the

Western Ghats and the eastern plains, where a combination

of torrential southwest monsoon and milder northeast

monsoon brings about markedly different seasons on either

side of the Western Ghats (see below), an interesting new

pattern emerges; i.e., southern Indian danaine butterflies

escape from the wettest season in an evergreen forest and

migrate to drier habitats. This is exactly opposite to the pattern

observed in most migratory insects.

On the pattern of migration and breeding in southern

Indian danaine butterflies: Unlike the relatively well-

documented, predominantly pierid migrations in southern

India (Evershed 1910; Larsen 1978), observations on the

exclusively danaine migration have been random and sporadic,

because its importance and magnitude was probably not

realized. There was no conceptual framework in which

observations could be fitted to construct a coherent picture

of movements of the danaine butterflies involved in this

282

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

2

4

6

8

movement of butterflies

1 Nilgiri Mountains

Anamalai Mountains

3 Paini Hills

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

Bangalore

Chennai

5 Palghat Gap

7 Mysore

Fig. 1 : Movement pattern* of migratory danaine butterflies in southern India

*a) Predicted movement pattern is extrapolated from opportunistic observations

b) The Western Ghats are not accurately reproduced, but illustrated only for reference

migration. I attempt to offer such a framework here, based on

my observations over the past five years and partly from the

data presented here. This needs validation by further

observations, especially since 1 10 years of studies on the

migration of Danaus plexippus in North America have taken

a tortuous path ( Brower 1 995 ). I hope that this beginning can

generate interest and stimulate further observations and

research.

I propose that topography of the Western Ghats in

relation to southern Indian plains and its effect on the

monsoonal pattern are the decisive factors in shaping the

pattern of this migration (Fig. 1 ). I briefly review these two

factors.

Topography of the Western Ghats and southern India:

The Western Ghats is a mountain chain parallel to the western

coast, about 1600 km long. It can be conveniently divided

into three natural zoogeographic zones: a) northern (southem

Gujarat up to Kali river in northern Karnataka), b) central (south

of Kali river to Palghat Gap) and c) southern (Palghat Gap

southward). The migrations of E. core reported by Aitken

(1898) take place from around Kali river northward.

The danaine migrations under present consideration

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

283

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

occur in the Nilgiri and Anamalai-Palni mountains, lying north

and south of the Palghat Gap, respectively. The Palghat Gap

is a gap of lowland, about 40 km wide, in the otherwise

continuous mountains of the Westem Ghats. It forms a major

natural bairier between the high hills of the Nilgiris and

Anamalais, isolating endemic butterflies of the two mountain

ranges.

The Nilgiri and Anamalai mountains rise to an altitude

of over 2,500 m, with a spectrum of habitats, from scrub and

deciduous forests to mid-elevation evergreen forests and

montane shola forests and grasslands. The highest peak in

southern India; Anaimudi (2,695 m), lies in the Anamalai

mountains, and the danaine migration passes at 2,400 m

through the surrounding plateau. The Karian and Varagaliar

sholas in the Anamalais, on the eastern slope at 600-700 m are

known breeding habitats of migrant danaines. They harbour

dense tropical evergreen forest, now remaining as tiny habitat

islands representing once extensive evergreen forests in the

presently vast ocean of secondary deciduous forests, and

tea, coffee and teak plantations.

The plains east of southern Western Ghats lie mainly at

an altitude less than 200 m. The high mountains of the southern

Western Ghats, where southwest monsoon is the main

monsoon, cast a rain shadow over the plains.

Monsoonal pattern and seasonality in southern India:

The southern part of the Indian peninsula receives two

monsoons, the torrential southwest and milder northeast

monsoon. The southwest monsoon begins on the Westem

Ghats with heavy downpours from June to early October.

The Nilgiri and Anamalai mountains receive more than 4,000

mm of precipitation mainly in June and July. During this period

humidity is maximum and sunshine is virtually absent for two

months; therefore adult butterfly activity is suspended. The

high ranges more or less drain the clouds. As a result, although

the plains receive the southwest monsoon, their main

monsoon is the northeast monsoon. This is active from late

October to December or early January. In contrast to the

Western Ghats, the plains receive very little precipitation,

varying from 400 mm to over 1 ,000 mm. October to January is

the ideal breeding season for most butterflies in the plains,

the rest of the year being very hot and dry. The northeast

monsoon is effective also on the eastern slopes of the Westem

Ghats, bringing rains mainly in November and December. There

is a marked gap in October after the southwest monsoon

recedes and the northeast monsoon opens in the hills. Overall

butteifly activity peaks in the hills from October to January or

early February. Sporadic but heavy pre-monsoon showers

break in the hills toward the end of April and continue through

May. There is a brief period of butterfly activity in April and

May before the onset of the southwest monsoon.

The southwest monsoon has earlier been implicated as

the prime force driving butterfly migrations. Aitken (1898)

suggested that E. core fly north to the northern Western

Ghats to escape the heavy rain with which the southwest

monsoon opens in the southern and central hills. However,

this would only affect butterflies in areas close to the northern

ranges, which do not participate in the migration discussed

here. The long stretches of mountains immediately north and

south of the Nilgiris, Anamalais and Palni Hills, where the

present migration occurs, are equally wet and unfavourable

during the southwest monsoon. Williams ( 1938) in connection

with the butterfly migrations from the Palni Hills, alluded to

October-November being a shift between southwest and

northeast monsoons in southern India. However, neither

author developed the theory further to cover exact movement

patterns and breeding cycles of the butterflies involved in

this migration, as has been done here.

Movement and breeding patterns of the danaine

butterflies: Tirumala septentrionis, E. core and E. Sylvester

are widespread in Asia, and have been reported to be

migratory in various parts of their range ( Ackery and Vane-

Wright 1984; Wang and Emmel 1990). In southern Western

Ghats and the plains lying to the east the butterflies have two

migratory flights every year: towards the Nilgiris, Anamalais

and Palni Hills in October-November, and towards the plains

in April-May. Therefore, they spend roughly half the year on

the plains and half in the hills, but during most years they

take flight by late April or May and mid-October, thus

spending more of their time in the hills. This pattern could

result from either of two possibilities: a) the preferred habitats

of these danaine butterflies are scrub and dry deciduous

forests of the plains, and the butterflies take refuge in the

cooler, forested hills for part of the year, or b) these species

belong to evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the hills,

and are forced to migrate to the plains to avoid the southwest

monsoon. The former would resemble the movement pattern

of Dcinaus plexippiis and others in Costa Rica (Scoble 1995),

while the latter would mean a unique pattern of migrational

movements in southern India. I favour the latter possibility.

The crucial point is that November-December is the wet

season for southern plains and therefore October to January

is the ideal breeding season there for most butterflies. In spite

of this, the danaines emigrate from this region without

exploiting the optional breeding season of the plains, and

take refuge in the hills. On the other hand, the months the

butterflies spend away from the hills are the exact period when

the southwest monsoon is at its peak, adversely affecting

adult activity, breeding and larval growth. Combining these

observations, evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of the

Westem Ghats could be interpreted as preferred habitats of

284

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

the danaines. This migratory tendency has apparently evolved

to escape the heavy southwest monsoon. Possible adaptation

to escape this monsoon could have been to undergo a long

diapause. However, diapause in early stages is apparently

absent, and because of the monsoonal climate in the hills is

unhealthy for adults, the option of migration was necessary.

Since the hills of the Western Ghats immediately south and

north of the Nilgiris, Anamalais and Palni Hills are equally

inhospitable, the butterflies fly to the eastern plains, rather

than north, as E. core does in northern Western Ghats ( Aitken

1898).

On arrival in the hills in late October-November, the

butterflies spend a few weeks in dense congregations (pers.

obs) that are reminiscent of the overwintering congregations

of danaines elsewhere in Asia (Wang and Emmel 1990). They

cling in dense clusters of several thousand individuals to

higher branches at about 1 5 to 20 m of medium-sized trees

inside the forest. Mortality seems to be very high in these

congregations, and the forest floor is strewn with scores of

body-less wings of butterflies. This could be due to avian

predation as in overwintering colonies of D. plexippus

(Brower and Calvert 1985), or to other reasons. Butterflies

from these congregations, however, do not usually visit wet

soil patches for puddling or feed regularly from flowers,

although they occasionally fly around the congregations.

They disperse by December-end or early January, with the

males soon engaging in feeding at the edges of forests on

damaged plant parts of Crotalaria spp. (Fabaceae). the sap

of which contains pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

The movement and breeding patterns of these

butterflies after they disperse are unknown. However, at least

a portion of butterflies breed in the hills by April, before

leaving for the plains. I have reared caterpillars of

T. septeutrionis on Tylophora sp. in Karian shola, Anamalais.

adults from which emerged by May, before the migration

towards plains. We do not know whether all adult butterflies

breed and perish in the hills and only their offspring

undertake the migration towards the plains. Observations

on adult butterflies migrating towards the plains will elucidate

this. However, it is apparent that the butterflies breed both in

the plains and the hills before the respective migrations; and

it is predominantly freshly emerged and unmated individuals

that participate in the migrations. Thus, seasonal sexual

diapause and overwintering behaviour as seen in other

migratory danaines (Brower 1995; Wang and Emmel 1990)

seem to be replaced in southern India by alternate but

continuous breeding in two ecologically very different and

spatially distant habitats. Observations on the post-migration

behaviour of the danaines in the plains are lacking.

The almost equal sex-ratio of the migrating butterflies

reported in here is also significant. Assuming that all freshly

emerged butterflies migrate, without sex related bias in

migratory tendency, it may be concluded that sex ratio at

eclosion in these danaines is 1:1. The fact that freshly

emerged males fly along with freshly emerged females further

supports the idea that T. septeutrionis and Eiiploea spp.

have pre-reproductive migratory flights. Similar pre-

reproductive migration also occurs in Danaus plexippus

(Brower 1985 ). The information on sex ratio and physical and

reproductive status of butterflies taking a migratory flight

towards the plains in April-May is crucial to further

understanding.

The unique longitudinal extent and the yearly breeding

cycles in different habitats in two distant areas in the hills

and in the plains make this butterfly migration in southern

India a very interesting study. Some cmcial questions remain

unanswered. For example, we do not know the exact

location! s) of the beginning of the exodus from the plains,

and whether it is a single swarm of butterflies starting from

the plains which later splits to reach the Nilgiri and Anamalai

mountains, or if there are many arms to this migration. It is

puzzling that if the butterflies migrate to the plains merely to

escape the heavy southwest monsoon, they should travel

as far as close to the eastern coast of India, rather than

stopping at the eastern foothills. Also unknown is whether

T. septeutrionis and E. Sylvester have permanent resident,

breeding populations, apart from migratory ones, in the plains

as suggested here for E. core. Most importantly, the exact

patterns of breeding phenology, voltinism, relative breeding

success and occunence of danaines in the plains and the

hills remain obscure. Large-scale captures and examination

of butterflies prior to. during, and following migration would

elucidate the reproductive status of the migrating species. I

hope that a directional effort may advance our understanding

of the causes and working of this migration in the light of the

new framework proposed, which may help to formulate and

test specific hypotheses about migrational movements and

breeding in these danaines.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 thank James Zachariah (IFS, Wildlife Warden,

Eravikulam National Park and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary)

for his timely permission to conduct this study and for

providing facilities. I appreciate Shivakumar and Sumit

Dhole's field assistance at Chinnar. I am indebted to Shonil

Bhagwat, Lincoln Brower, Thomas Emmel, Harish Gaonkar,

Utkarsh Ghate, Kumar Ghoipade and Barrett Klein for offering

prompt help with literature and for providing useful criticism

of an earlier draft of this paper.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

285

DANAINE BUTTERFLY MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

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Wang, H.Y. & T.C. Emmel (1990): Migration and overwintering

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Williams, C.B, ( 1930): The migration of butterflies. Oliver and Boyd,

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

287-289

NESTING ECOLOGY AND BREEDING SUCCESS OF CHEER PHEASANT

CATREUS WALLICHIl IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA'

M.S. BishY \ S. Phurailatpam- '' and B.S. KathaiY

'Accepted December 2004

’Department of Zoology, H.N.B. Garhwal University Campus, Pauri 246 001, Uttaranchal, India.

■’Email: [email protected]

■•Email: [email protected]

Nesting ecology and breeding success of the Cheer Pheasant Catreus wallichii was studied in Garhwal Himalaya,

Uttaranchal from 2000 to 2002. Five active nests were located in May-June and one in September on the south,

southwest and northwest aspects, in shallow depressions; hollow pits or below stones, lined with dry pine needles and

leaves. The vegetation around the nest was less than the dry litter. Clutch size ranged from 6-12. Hatching success was

71 per cent, but breeding success was less than half the clutch size.

Key words: Cheer pheasant, nesting ecology, breeding success, chick survival

INTRODUCTION

Cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii (Hardwicke), is a

threatened species (Fuller and Garson, 2000), found in the

Himalaya from northwest Pakistan to west-central Nepal

between the Indus and Kali-Gandaki rivers (Ali and

Ripley 1980; Garson etal. 1992). Information on the breeding

biology of this pheasant is scarce and mainly derived from

accounts of Hume and Marshal (1995) on wild birds,

Chandola-Saklani etal. ( 1990) and Singh and Singh ( 1995) on

captive birds.

In this paper the nesting ecology, clutch size, breeding

success and associated behaviour of Cheer is described on

the basis of six active nests located from year 2000 to 2002 in

Garhwal Himalaya, India.

STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

Cheer Pheasant (called ‘Chair or Phaklas/Phakras’ in

Garhwal Himalaya, Uttaranchal) inhabit steep slopes covered

by Chir-pine and pine-mixed forests {Finns ro.xburghii,

Phyllanthus embelliciis , Quercus leucotricophora,

Rhododenron arboreiim, Myrica nagi, Lyonia ovalifolia)

between 1 000-2 1 50 m altitudes. During summer months ( May-

June) their habitats become relatively inaccessible due to

accumulation of dry slippery pine needles, grass and leaves.

We were, however, successful in locating six active nests at

different sites in districts Pauri and Chamoli, Uttaranchal (29°

22' N to 31° 07' N and 78° 07' E to 80° 10' E) during a survey

conducted on status and distribution of Cheer in the year

2000-2001 and 2002 (Bisht etal. 2002). Information on altitude,

aspect, position on ground, distance to escape site (nearest

ridge and hiding cover), dimension of nests and vegetational

cover was collected for each located nest site. Quadrats

measuring 10 x 10 m were laid at each nest site where canopy

cover, shrub cover and grass cover was assessed through an

arbitrary index of 1-25, 25-50, 50-75 and 75-100% (De Vos and

Mosby 1981 ). Grass height and litter depth around the nests

were also recorded.

Each nest was visited at intervals of 2-3 days, and

records were maintained on the number and colour of eggs

laid, shape and size of nest, hatching success (total number

of eggs laid by total number of chicks hatched), chick survival

(total number of chicks hatched by total number of chicks

survived up to 8 weeks), breeding success (total number of

eggs laid by total number of chicks that survived to

adulthood), population survival (total number of adults that

survived till the next breeding season) and associated

behaviours.

RESULTS

Nest site characteristics; Detailed information is

presented in Table 1 . The nests were found between altitudes

of 1450-1700 m. Of the six nests: two were on the north-west

facing slope, two on the southwest slope, one on the southern

slope and one on the western slope. The nests were found

under the shelter of rocks, in a hollow or pit on the ground.

Average distances of nests from the nearest escape sites,

namely ridge/cliff and hiding cover were 29.0 ±14.4 m and

11.5 ±1.5 m respectively. Diameter and depth of the nests

were 24.2 ± 1 .6 cm and 9.3 ±0.8 cm respectively. All nests were

made up of dry pine needles, grass and leaves in a shallow

depression. The median scores for vegetation cover around

the nests were as follows: canopy - 25.0% (inter-quartile range

- 18.8), shrub - 12.5% (inter-quartile range - 5.0) and grass

cover - 10.0% (inter-quartile range - 0.0). The grass height

and litter depth were 17.7 ±5.5 cm and 10.6 ±2.2 cm respectively.

NESTING ECOLOGY AND BREEDING SUCCESS OF CHEER PHEASANT IN GARHWAL HIMALAYA

The nesting sites were characterised by low grass

height and grass cover (except in nest no. V - Table 1 ). The

litter depth was significant during May-June, subsequently

depleting during September. The five nests located in May-

June were found near the ridge/cliff (10-25 m), however, the

nest found in September was far from the ridge ( 100 m). The

grass cover and grass height are positively and significantly

correlated to distance of nest from ridge/cliff (r=0.989, P>0.01

and r=0.960, P<0.01 ) respectively.

Clutch size and breeding success: A mean clutch size

of 8.5 ±1.0 eggs was recorded. The eggs were of the size of

those of a domestic fowl, and coloured brownish buff-white

with reddish brown specks around each end. Eggs from two

nests were probably picked up either by villagers or predators.

From the remaining four nests, 79% (inter-quartile range -

11.4) eggs were hatched. The chicks were generally dark

chestnut in colour.

The hatching success recorded was 70.8% (inter-

quartile range - 64. 1 ) with chick survival and breeding success

of 53.6% (inter-quartile range - 5 1 .8) and 37.5% (inter-quailile

range - 39.6) respectively. The percentage population survival

for the four families recorded before the commencement of

the next breeding season was 53.6% (inter-quartile range -

14.1).

DISCUSSION

The breeding of Cheer Pheasant in Garhwal Himalaya

starts with pairing and territory formation by the end of

February. The first courtship display was observed on

March 1 7. During this period the breeding pairs remain in

isolation within their home range and are sometimes

accompanied by an unpaired sub-adult male from the previous

year. The male performs mate guarding while the female feeds.

Egg laying generally starts by the first week of May and

incubation continues till June. Hatching was observed from

mid to end June (I6th, 23rd and 26th) after an incubation

period of 25-27 days. Sub-adults become apparent by the

first week of September and sexual dimorphism is complete

by mid-October to November ( Hume and Marshall 1 995 ; Ali

Table 1: Nesting ecology and breeding success of Cheer Pheasant

Breeding events Number of nests Mean±SE

or

288

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NESTING ECOLOGY AND BREEDING SUCCESS OF CHEER PHEASANT IN GARHWAL HIMAUYA

and Ripley 1980). However, locating an active nest at 1 500 m

altitude in district Chamoli in September 2001, which later

produced chicks with breeding success of 33.3%, may indicate

an extended breeding season.

The principal source of nesting mortality in Galliform

species is predation (Jimenez and Conover 2001 ). The nest

site (with its complexities) is important for nest survival; as it

should camouflage the nest from predators. The nests

recorded by us had a stone/rock- wall or litter (mostly pine

leaves) filled hollow/pit as background, which provided a

good camouflage to the incubating hen. The canopy, shrub

and grass cover (except in nest no. V ) were low while the litter

cover and depth were significant. The dulling of the red orbital

patch during the breeding season in the females may also be

advantageous during incubation. It was observed that the

facial patch of the incubating female (while actually on the

nest) is concealed by the supercilia and the infra orbital parts,

revealing only the eyes, making it almost invisible. However,

this red orbital patch becomes noticeable when it leaves the

nest for feeding. Though the pre-monsoon in May-June

influence invertebrate abundance (necessary for chick

survival), it does not affect the litter cover/depth, which aids

in making the nest less conspicuous. The monsoon showers

usually wash the litter away and promote vegetational growth

during July and August.

Five of the six nests were located quite near ridges and

cliff, a possible area for escape from predators for though the

Cheer runs fast it seldom takes to wing if the ground is open

(Hume and Marshall 1879). The presence of hiding cover IS-

IS m) near the nest was also advantageous in case the female

wanted to seek shelter. The cause of nesting failure of the

two nests was predation. Though both nests were located in

habitats similar to successful ones, nesting success seemed

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Oxford University Press. London, New York, Vol. 2,

2”“ Ed. 127 pp.

Bisht, M.S., B.S. Kathait & A.K. Dobriyal (2002): Status and

distribution of Cheer pheasant (Catreus wallichii) in Garhwal

Himalaya, Uttaranchal. Pp. 6-10. In: Proceedings of National

Symposium on Galliformes. (Eds: M.C. Sathyanarayana.

S. Sathyakumar, R. Kaul & R.S. Kalsi). Division of Wildlife Biology,

A.V.C. College (Autonomous), Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu.

Chandola-Saklani, A., R.S. Bhadauria, M. Jain & P. Lakhera (1990):

Game management and captive breeding as a conservation measure

in Himalayan hills. Pp. II: 677-687. In: Proceeding of XIX lUGB

Congress International Biologists (Ed: Myrberget, S.) Norwegian

Institute of Nature Research, Trondheim.

De Vos, A. & S.H. Mosby (1981): Habitat analysis and evaluation.

Pp. 135-172. In: Wildlife management techniques. (Eds: Robert,

H.G & L. Toschik). The Wildlife Society, Washington, D.C.

Fuller, A. & P.J. Garson (2000): Pheasants: Status survey and

Conservation Action Plan 2000-2004. WPA/Birdlife/SSC Pheasant

to have no significant association with habitat features. This

may be credited to high predation or anthropogenic pressures

as the nests were exposed due to fire.

Larger nests (diameter) appear to have larger clutch

sizes (r=0.87S, N=5, P<0.05) [Nest II was excluded as the eggs

were exposed to predation (human/potential predators) due

to forest fire before a complete clutch was laid.] The clutch

size of 6- 12 found in the present study is comparatively lower

than 9-14 eggs reported earlier (Hume and Marshall 1995). In

captivity, an average clutch size of 10.8 eggs/brood, hatching

success (average 56%) and chick survival (average 57%) has

been recorded (Chandola-Saklani etal. 1990).

Chick survival can be related to factors like invertebrate

abundance (Hill 1985) and predation pressure. Adult survival

is another major factor influencing propagation and dispersal,

and is probably affected by excessive hunting during the

winter months (Bisht et al. 2002).

Cheer can adapt relatively well to high levels of human

disturbance (Lelliott 1987). Fires, which may be necessary for

maintenance of open grassland and scrub communities, are

lit during the egg laying and incubating period. This may

disrupt breeding and cause re-nesting (as was witnessed

during this study), and along with hunting may be a severe

threat to the survival of Cheer in Garhwal. Habitat degradation,

therefore, may not be the only cause of depletion of this

threatened monotypic species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India for financial assistance and Mr. A.S.

Negi, Chief Wildlife Warden, Uttaranchal, for permission to

carry out the study in the wild.

Specialist Group. lUCN. 68 pp.

Garson, RJ., L. Young & R. Kaul (1992): Ecology and conservation

of the Cheer pheasant {Catreus wallichii): Status in (he wild and

the progress of a reintroduction project. Biol. Conserw 59: 25-

35.

Hill, D.A. (1985): The feeding ecology and survival of pheasant chicks

on arable farmland. J. Appl. Ecol. 22: 645-654.

Hume, A.O. & C.H.T. Marshall (1879): The Game birds of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Vol. I. 2"'* Reprint.

Bhavana Books & Prints, New Delhi. 279 pp.

Jimenez, J.E. & M.R. Conover (2001 ): Ecological approaches to reduce

predation on ground-nesting game birds and their nests. Wilcll.

Soc. Bull. 29: 62-69.

Lelliott, A.D. (1987): Surveys of Cheer pheasants near Dhorpatan,

West Nepal. 1981. Pp. 58-61. In: Pheasants in Asia 1982.

(Ed: C.D.W. Savage & M.W. Ridley). Rekha Printers AVorld

Pheasant Association, New Delhi.

Singh, K.R. & K.S. Singh (1995): Pheasants in Asia and their aviculture.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun. 176 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

289

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

290-304

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

FROM 1997 TO 2003'

Harkirat Sangha- and Rishad Naoroji'*

'Accepted December, 2004

- B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Godrej Bhavan, 4- A Home Street, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

The consolidated results of seven ornithological expeditions to Ladakh, Indian Trans-Himalayas during summers of

1998, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2003 and autumns of 1997, 2000 are documented with information on habitat, abundance,

distribution and status. Interesting sightings and observations are presented in greater detail together with records from

previous studies of the area. A total of 122 bird species were recorded including four new records for the area. The

adverse impact of tourism, overgrazing and other factors on the fragile ecosystem of this remote area are discussed and

recommendations made for protection of the habitat for pregnable, endemic bird species.

Key words: Ladakh, ornithological expeditions, new records, avifauna

INTRODUCTION

Summer and Autumn surveys of raptors were conducted

in collaboration with the Indian Army from 1997 to 2003. The

main objective of the surveys was to collect distribution and

breeding data on raptors and list all other bird species in

Ladakh. Although Ladakh is remote and logistically one of

the most difficult areas to work in, it has attracted many

ornithologists after 1976 when travel restrictions were relaxed.

Subsequently, most studies have focused on the ‘vulnerable’

Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis. Salim Ali guided a joint

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) and World Wide

Fund for Nature ( WWF) expedition to Ladakh in 1 976 in search

of the crane, which led to a four-year study (Hussain 1976).

The project aimed at rediscovering its breeding grounds,

through short-term missions to Ladakh, and monitoring its

breeding success. In 1986, a follow up expedition was

organized by the BNHS to observe the status of the Black-

necked Crane (Ali etal. 1986). Otto Pfister studied the Black-

necked Crane from 1994 to 1997 (Pfister 1998 and 2001 ) in

addition to general mammal/bird surveys. Migration studies,

conducted by Southampton University between 1977-82, were

mainly concentrated in the Suru valley and Shey-Tikse

marshes (William and Delany 1985, 1986). WWF initiated a

project in 1999 for the “Conservation of High Altitude

Wetlands of Ladakh” (Chatterjee etal. 2002).

Our yearly surveys over seven years during summer

were conducted during July 1999, June/July 2001 and August

2002 (HS and RKN) and May/June 1998 (RKN) and June/July

2003 (RKN and others); during autumn in September 1997

(RKN and others) and August 2000 (RKN and HS). The

duration of the surveys was three to four weeks except in

2002, which lasted two weeks. During these expeditions a

total of 1 22 bird species were recorded, of which four had not

been reported earlier for the Ladakh region: Little Grebe

Tachyhaptus ruficollis. Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger.

Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis and Rufous-

necked Snowfinch Pyrgilauda ruficollis. Little Grebe, Large

Pied Wagtail, Small Blue Kingfisher atthis and House

Crow Con’us splendens were recorded at considerably higher

elevations than previously reported in the Indian

subcontinent. The breeding of Upland Buzzard Buteo

hemilasius was confirmed - first for the Indian subcontinent

(Naoroji and Forsman 2001 ).

Geographical description of the area

Ladakh is a cold desert situated in the westernmost

Trans-Himalayan region of India representing the westernmost

extremity of the Tibetan Plateau. Ladakh has close ecological

and cultural affinities with Tibet and was included in the

“Outer Plateau” area of Tibet by Charles Vaurie (1972) who

studied the birds of Tibet. Ladakh is extremely arid, rugged

and mountainous receiving less rainfall than eastern Tibet.

The 100,000 sq. km area of Ladakh is bordered by the

Karakoram range in the north and by the main Himalayan

range in the south, the Ladakh and Zanskar ranges running

between and parallel to these main mountain ranges. From its

source on the Tibetan Plateau, the Indus river flows northwest

between the Zanskar and Ladakh ranges, turning southward

300 km downstream into northern Pakistan. Almost all the

settlements (including army and ITBP) are concentrated along

the main river valleys (Nubra - Shyok, Indus, Suru, and

Zanskar), each of which contains small areas of low lying,

open, level ground. Eastern Ladakh has several lakes and

forms the western extremity of Changthang, the northwestern

adjunct of the Tibetan plateau.

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO U\DAKH

In Ladakh the altitudes range from 2700 m to 7000 m.

The landscape which includes barren mountains, steep

valleys, sand dunes, grasslands, upland bogs, marshes, rivers,

and sweet and brackish lakes make it a land of contrasts and

extremes. The temperatures are extreme with maximum and

minimum temperatures ranging from 35°C in summer to irdnus

45°C in winter. Precipitation is less than 100 mm per year. The

human population is sparse, mainly concentrated within the

habitable Indus and other river valleys. The flora consists of

selective elements from Afghanistan, Siberia, Tibet and the

Himalayan region together with a considerable proportion of

endemic species. Vegetation consists primarily of sparse

grass, herbaceous plants and low thorny scrub. The

combination of constant high winds, low temperatures and

high altitude has a depressing effect on the vegetation.

Objectives: The objectives of the expeditions were:

a) survey all areas for raptors (status and habitat

requirements) and prepare checklists of all birds

observed.

b) search for nests of resident raptors and observe their

breeding biology and ecology, and identify threats if

any.

c) raise awareness levels of our main collaborators - the

army and the forest department and suggest

conservation measures.

METHODS AND STUDY AREA

Raptors and other birds were primarily recorded by

employing the Tine transect’ method from the vehicle or while

hiking. Breeding studies and intensive surveys were

conducted near nesting sites of raptors, where we camped

for reasonably long periods. Birds observed were logged,

photographed if possible and maximum numbers were noted

to assess relative abundance. Mammals (mainly Tibetan Wild

Ass Equus kiang) encountered were also logged.

Accessible areas along the Indus, west up to Alchi, but

mainly from Leh eastwards to Shey, Tikse, Chumatang, and

Loma, Rumbak, the Nubra and Tankse valleys, and especially

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

Rupchu and Changthang territories in the east were regularly

surveyed on each visit.

Conservation significance of Ladakh

Despite the harsh environmental and climatic

conditions, the avifauna of Ladakh is diverse, displaying

Palaearctic, Mediterranean and Chinese influences. Each trip

has stimulated us with sightings of unexpected migrants and

little known high altitude species. Uniquely located on the

border between the Palaearctic and Indo-Malayan

zoogeographic zones, Ladakh is strongly influenced by typical

species from both regions. The characteristic Tibetan species

extend their ranges well into eastern Ladakh. In addition, dry

and sunny summer months attract many summer visitors and

breeders. These diverse climatic and geographic influences

make Ladakh a melting pot of bird movements, resulting in more

than 300 species recorded in the area so far (Pfister 2001 ).

The ‘vulnerable’ Black-necked Crane breeds in Ladakh.

Thirteen pairs have been breeding regularly in the area,

including one pair each in Tso Moriri and Tso Kar (Chatteijee

et al. 2002). Tso Moriri is not only an important staging point

for migratory birds, but also the main breeding ground of the

declining Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus in the Indian

subcontinent. The fresh water Startsapuk Tso and the saline

Tso Kar have a large population of Brahminy Shelduck

Tadorna ferruginea. Tso Moriri and Tso Kar have small

breeding populations of Great Crested Grebe Podiceps

cristatus. The Common Tern Sterna hirundo breeds in small

numbers in the marshes around the lakes. At Tso Moriri,

Common Merganser Mergus merganser also breeds in small

numbers (Chatteijee et al. 2002). The Brown-headed Gull iMrus

brunnicephalus and Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius

mongolus breed in good numbers at Tso Kar, whereas Common

Redshank Tringa totanus breeds in small numbers in the area.

Several large mammals including those categorised by

lUCN as vulnerable, critical, or endangered are found in

Ladakh such as Snow Leopard Uncia uncia, Tibetan Wild

Ass or Kiang Equus kiang, Siberian Ibex Capra sibirica.

Great Tibetan Sheep Ovis ammon, Urial or Shapu Ovis vignei,

Bharal or Blue Sheep Pseudois nayaur, Tibetan Antelope or

Chiru Pantholops hodgsonii, Tibetan Gazelle Procapra

picticaudata. Wild Yak Bos grunniens, Eurasian Lynx Lynx

lynx, Tibetan Wolf Cards lupus, Indian Wild Dog Cuon

alpinus. Red Fox Vulpus vulpus, and Brown Bear Ursus arctos.

RESULTS

During the seven surveys, a total of 122 bird species

were recorded, including twelve species of birds of prey; ten

diurnal and two nocturnal. Four new species were recorded

from the area: Little Grebe, Little Cormorant, Large Pied Wagtail

and Rufous-necked Snowfinch. The observations of Little

Grebe, Large Pied Wagtail, Small Blue Kingfisher and House

Crow in Ladakh increased altitudinal ranges of those species’

to considerably higher elevations than previously reported.

In addition, breeding of Upland Buzzard in Ladakh was

documented — first record for the Indian subcontinent. One

nest was found in 1998, and two nests containing near fully-

fledged young were observed in 1999 (Naoroji and Forsman

2001).

Threats to the habitat and wildlife

The Ladakhis are innately life respecting people and

sensitive to their environment. Traditionally they have used

the natural resources of the region wisely without causing

any adverse impact on the environment. However, recent

changes in land use patterns, influx of tourists, settlement of

Tibetan refugees at Hanle and increase in livestock, especially

in Changthang, has had increasingly adverse effects on the

fragile environment and consequently the wildlife even in the

more remote areas (see Recommendations). For example, the

Tibetan Gazelle Procapra picticaudata was abundant on the

plateau to the southeast of Tso Moriri lake, on the hills east

of Hanle, and in the Indus valley from Demchok, the frontier

village of Ladakh, as far down as Nyima (Nyoma) (Stemdale

1884). In seven visits we only once sighted three Tibetan

Gazelles at Hanle. The endangered Black-necked Crane, which

has so far managed to survive, is increasingly becoming

vulnerable to changes in land use patterns, and increase in

predation of eggs and chicks by proliferating numbers of

feral dogs and to a lesser extent increase of egg predation by

Ravens (Pfister 1998).

The pastures are increasingly being overgrazed and

consequently degra'ded due to considerable increase in

livestock because of increased government supported

commercialized production of the valuable Pashmina wool.

The Changthang area of Ladakh holds about 14,000

domesticated livestock, represented mainly by sheep, goat,

yak and ponies. The growing domestic livestock population

has overgrazed the pastureland, causing wind erosion and

desertification. Heavy pressure on available pastures have

resulted in the herdsmen, known as Changpas (who earlier

co-existed peacefully with wild herbivores), becoming hostile

especially to the Kiang which are now being driven away

from all pastureland and marshes along river valleys. The

herdsmen argue that the Kiang and Tibetan Gazelle directly

compete with their domestic livestock.

Domestic livestock (including ponies and yak) are

furthermore herded into marshes and shallow ponds (not their

natural habitat) where the vegetation is comparatively lush

292

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

and intact. At Chushul, Hanle and Lai Pahari livestock grazing

in knee-deep water disturb breeding Black-necked Crane and

waterfowl. The Changpas deliberately do not harm the

breeding birds, but their frequent movement near nesting sites

sometimes forces incubating birds to leave the clutch,

allowing aerial and terrestrial predators access to their nests

(Pfister 1998).

Herders are openly hostile towards the Kiang, which

are driven off on horseback. Their dogs are also trained to

warn them of approaching Kiang. Most grazing pastures are

now fenced, effectively preventing the Kiang from feeding.

Furthermore, the Changpas have ceased practising rotational

grazing and are only partially nomadic, having permanent

summer camps in prime pastureland (when the Black-necked

Crane, Waterfowl and ungulates breed), thereby creating

additional pressure on the wildlife and the land. In the near

future, confrontation between the Kiang and the Changpas

in Changthang could be a major conservation issue.

Throughout Ladakh shepherds are visibly hostile

towards the Golden Eagle chrysaetos. Accessible nests

are destroyed, as the species is perceived as a threat to their

lambs. In fact, Buddhist values are discarded and accessible

nests usually destroyed or nesting disturbed so that the

adults desert the nest. Its habit of only occasionally lifting

few weeks old lambs of domestic sheep and goat does not

endear the species to the local population. The pressure on

Golden Eagles is primarily during the summer breeding season,

which coincides with the lambing period.

The large population of dogs belonging to the

Changpas and adopted by soldiers at arniy and ITBP outposts

are the biggest threat to the Black-necked Crane, ground

breeding birds in general and small mammals. Dog numbers

have multiplied by as many as 50 at most outposts as they are

fed to provide vigilance. Egg destruction and chick mortality

caused by dogs represent the biggest threat to the Black-

necked Crane population in Ladakh, and are responsible for

up to 50 per cent destruction of broods within a productive

cycle during certain years (Pfister 1998).

The Jammu and Kashirur government and the Indian

Army have improved accessibility to Ladakh, particularly the

Changthang and Rupshu areas. Motorable tracks have been

laid even in extremely remote areas for strategic reasons.

However, road construction accompanied by blasting has

not only created disturbance to wildlife but also initiated new

development activities in remote areas. During our visit to

Hanle in 2002, we found recently erected electricity poles

cutting through the marsh. This poses a direct threat of

electrocution or wings being sheared off to flying Black-

necked Cranes, especially at night. The poles could have

been routed along the periphery of the marsh.

Encouraging Tibetan refugees to settle at Hanle is

directly creating new threats to the Changthang Wilderness

area. The Tibetan refugee settlement is rapidly growing into a

township with cement residential buildings, schools,

dormitories and a handicraft centre, thanks to generous

foreign aid. The small primitive Ladakhi settlement is, however,

unchanged. The Hanle river has been diverted to newly created

agriculture fields, not only reducing the area available for

wildlife, but also shrinking the marsh. Unsuccessful fenced-

in plantations of stunted Willow Salix and Poplar Populus

are irrigated through channels diverted from the marsh. Lack

of water may drastically shrink or dry up the marsh in the near

future. Relatively large-scale agriculture along the marsh has

also led to fencing of fields. This recent practice has reduced

and fragmented primary habitat.

Ladakh has been experiencing an increasing influx of

tourists since 1974. The easy availabihty of ‘inner line’ permits

from the district administration in Leh has made the popular

lake areas of Tso Moriri, western Pangong Tso and Tso Kar

accessible since 1993. Tourism in the region is expected to

rise. Surveys conducted by the World Wide Eund Nature-

India (WWE) indicate that there has been an alarming increase

in the number of visitors to the Changthang region (Chatterjee

etal. 2002).

Tourists are accommodated in eco-friendly tents, as

permanent infrastructure is thankfully lacking. Although tents

are usually pitched in defined areas, waste management is

unfortunately totally neglected and most tourist sites are

littered with various non-degradable items. Additionally, at

some remote army and Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)

outposts degradable and non-degradable garbage is a

common sight. The impact of tourism has been maximum near

the major wetlands of Tso Moriri and Tso Kar.

Pastures and wetlands are the feeding and breeding

areas of the Upland Buzzard, Black-necked Crane and Bar-

headed Goose (Anser indicus)', camping in these areas,

driving off track and washing of vehicles are disturbing the

breeding marsh dependent birds (Chatteijee et al. 2002). The

dramatic increases in trekkers’ pack animals — donkeys, mules

and horses have further degraded the pastures particularly

around the wetlands accessible to tourists.

Recommendations

There is an immediate need to develop a strategy and

action plan for the conservation and management of Ladakh’s

natural heritage, especially the high altitude wetlands and

lakes throughout Changthang and Rupshu, namely Tso

Moriri, Tso Kar and Nuro Sumdo. Prompt steps need to be

initiated by involving all the stakeholders - local communities,

tour operators, development agencies and defence forces.

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

Pangong Tso is comparatively pristine as it is more isolated and

tourism is restricted to the southeastern part of the lake. Any

development around the wetlands must be supervised and

executed in an eco-compatible manner. Unregulated tourism can

impair the wetland’s fragile eco-system in the future. With the

present unregulated flow of tourists and lack of any drainage

system, pollution levels of Tso Moriri and Tso Kar will increase

in the near future ( Mishra and Humbert-Droz 1 998 ).

As the peak tourist season coincides with the breeding

season of birds {when they are most vulnerable), there is all

the more urgency to increase visitor’s awareness about the

delicate situation. Awareness literature should be given to all

tourists on arrival. There is need to control reckless driving

particularly around Tso Kar as it is damaging the vegetation

and causing siltation of the lake. Leftovers in the form of

plastic bottles and bags, tin cans, glass bottles, battery cells

and other non-biodegradeable waste after each tourist visit

at Tso Kar and Tso Moriri must be removed. Travel agencies’

guides and drivers accompanying tourists should be made

responsible to carry back their garbage to be disposed off in

a non-polluting eco-friendly manner — not to be buried/bumt

or left at the camping site. Guards should be stationed at all

important sites to verify whether only designated camping

sites are occupied, monitor activities of tourists and control

littering and fine offenders.

All breeding and staging sites at designated wetlands

need to be protected. As army and para military forces have a

regular presence they should be updated about the ecological

sensitivity of this area. They can play a major role in the

conservation of the biodiversity of Ladakh. For example, ITBP

camped at Korzok (Tso Moriri) can help in protecting the

breeding Bar-headed Goose by safeguarding their breeding

grounds. According to a WWF-India report they have helped

in clearing the lake from time to time by removing garbage and

waste dumped by the tourists around Tso Moriri (Chatterjee

etal. 2002).

Recently erected electrical and telephone poles cutting

through the Hanle marsh are a very serious threat to the flying

Black-necked Crane. The poles need to be re-routed along

the periphery of the marsh.

Religious leaders of Ladakh should be involved in

conservation activities as they can help in motivating the

local population. A good beginning was recently made by

involving the head Lama of the Tso Moriri monastery in the

conservation of the lake area (Chatterjee et al. 2002).

Certain areas such as the wetlands and marshes in

Changthang should be kept inviolate, at least seasonally,

during the breeding season. Staff of the Wildlife Department

needs to be motivated and trained in wildlife management

techniques. The wetlands should be monitored by the Forest

Department and NGOs to curb disturbance and ensure

breeding success of water-birds, especially key species such

as the Black-necked Crane and Bar-headed Goose. The

Changpas should be sensitized to their environment and even

encouraged to pick up trash by offering monetary incentives.

Some NGO could try this activity.

Feral dogs have to be culled at least around the marshes

where their numbers are a direct menace to breeding Black-

necked Crane and other marsh-dependent birds. Even

sterilization can be attempted in view of the religious

sentiments of the people. Defence personnel should be

discouraged to keep dogs in large numbers.

The refugees settled at Hanle should be settled

elsewhere. They have already encroached on the marsh within

the Changthang Conservation Area and are rapidly expanding

their economic activities.

The people of Ladakh are innately life respecting. They

should not be prevented from using their traditional grazing

grounds. It is not that wildlife cannot co-exist or breed where

people are present. But they have to be taken into confidence

(a long term on going exercise) and educated about their

environment. They have also to be motivated to follow some

basic rules. They should not allow domestic animals to wander

in bogs unattended at least during the breeding season of

the birds, and need to keep their dogs in check.

It must, however, be remembered that unless

inhabitants of protected areas see some logical benefit

especially in the long term, it would be difficult to convey the

message of conservation and garner support. The

management should not appear to be seen as solely concerned

about the conservation of wildlife and habitat, which might

not appeal to the local people, but also be concerned for their

welfare. To accomplish this NGOs could have a role in bringing

together scientists, management, administration. Army and

ITBP and the local people. Only then can biological diversity

be preserved by creating new protected areas and extension

of existing ones in this region where low productivity and

wildlife at low densities necessitate larger areas for protection

of viable populations.

Systematic List of Birds

122 species recorded during June, July, August, and

September are listed below. The account includes information

on abundance, status, location, distribution and breeding.

Previous notable records are briefly compared with our

findings.

Abbreviations used

(Br.) - proof of breeding found. This refers to nests

found with eggs or chicks or adults carrying nesting material

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

or food; with nidifugous species young seen or receiving

parental care by adults.

* new record, species not previously reported from

Ladakh.

? status uncertain

1 . Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis*

Vagrant. Three observed in summer plumage at Trishul

Tso(c. 3500 m) near Leh on July 1, 1999. One individual again

recorded on July 3, 1999. This represents the first record of

the species for Ladakh. Moreover, the sighting represents an

altitudinal record, considerably exceeding the highest altitude

previously recorded for the species in the Subcontinent

(Sangha etal. 2003).

2. Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus

Summer visitor. Br. Recorded nesting on ponds and

lakes in Changthang. On July 25, 1 999 at least nine breeding

pairs observed at Startsapuk Tso (seven nests and four

chicks). On August 30, 1999 one pair was observed followed

by four grown up chicks at Tso Moriri near Korzok village.

The chicks were independently diving for food. Pfister (2001 )

recorded breeding at Yoye Tso (4700 m) in June 1995 and

September 1997.

3. Little Cormorant Phalacrocorax niger*

Vagrant. An adult observed repeatedly diving for fish

in the murky water of the swollen Indus river on August 18,

2002 at Mahe, far to the north of its hitherto known distribution

range in the Indian subcontinent (Sangha and Naoroji 2005).

There is one more record of the species for Ladakh. Rouf

Zargar, Wildlife Warden of Ladakh reported sighting of a bird

from Shey fish-ponds in summer, 2001 (Otto Pfister pers.

comm.).

4. Bar-beaded Goose Anser indkus

Summer visitor. Br. This near-threatened species is

common on the fresh and brackish water lakes of Changthang

and the upper Indus river up to Chumathang, increasingly

uncommon in the west up to Leh. Absent further west.

Colonies of breeding pairs were observed at Pangong Tso

(one pair with three young birds on July 1 8, 1999) and Chushul

(six breeding pairs including one with fledged chicks on July

19, 1999). Seven fledged young with adults were observed

along the upper Indus near Mahe on July 25, 1999 and three

pairs with chicks between Mahe and Nyoma on July 3, 200 1 .

At Tso Moriri, the main breeding stronghold of the

species in the Subcontinent, the birds are wary due to

disturbance caused by spread of cultivation right up to the

lake edge.

5. Brabminy Duck Tadorna ferruginea

Summer visitor. Br. Apart from the regular sightings

throughout the study area, a pair with two fledged young

near Mirak on July 18, a pair with two chicks at Chushul on

July 19, a pair with seven chicks at Hanle on July 23 and fifty

five at Tso Kar, including four breeding pairs with chicks on

July 25, were recorded in 1999. A pair and eight young were

recorded at Hanle on June 30, 2001.

6. Gadwall A/ias strepera

Summer visitor, mainly passage migrant. Three were

observed at Chushul on July 19, 1999 and eight at Hundar on

August 20, 2000.

7. Mallard Anas platyrhynchos

Summer visitor, mainly passage migrant. A drake on

July 2 1 , 2000 at Panamik and eight at Hanle on July 1 , 200 1 .

8. Northern Pintail A/ias acuta

Summer visitor, mainly passage migrant. Four were seen

on July 2, 1 999 and three on September 1, 2000 at Trishul Tso.

9. Garganey A/ias querquedula

Summer visitor, mainly passage migrant. Eight on Pallu

marsh (at the northern base of Khardung La) on August 18,

fifteen at Lai Pahari on August 25, and sixteen at Hanle on

August 26, 2000. Four on the Indus near Loma on August 1 8,

2002.

10. Common Teal Anas crecca

Passage migrant. Ten recorded on August 15, 2002 at

Hanle.

1 1 . Ttifted Pochard Aythyafuligula

Summer visitor, mainly passage migrant. One at Trishul

Tso on July 5, 1999.

12. Common Merganser Mcrgas merganser

Resident, augmented by summer visitors. However, the

summer visitors descend to lower altitudes in winter. The

remnant resident population is confined to ice-free patches

along the Indus. Mallon (1987) saw small parties (1-4) along

the Indus and Zanskar rivers. Five on the Indus near Kidmang

on August 25, 2000, twenty four on the Hanle river between

Loma and Lai Pahari on August 25, 2000. Nineteen at Hanle

on August 28, 2000 and sixteen on the Indus near Mahe on

August 31, 2000 (HS and RKN).

13. Black -shouldered Kite Elanus caeruleus

Rare Vagrant. The species also recorded by Pfister (2004).

Both RKN and Pfister (2004) observed the species during

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

(August-September). Observed by RKN in the Chushul

marshes in early September 1997. The species has once been

observed at high altitude in Sikkim (Ganguli-Lachungpa 1 990),

well beyond its normal habitat and altitudinal range.

14. Black Kite Milvus migrans lineatus

Summer visitor/Passage migrant. Br. A pair observed

during May/June 1998 near Leh Bazaar breaking off twigs

from a Poplar and disappearing from view (RKN ). One sighting

from Army Headquarters 3 Infantry Division, Leh on

July 15, 1999. There is at least one record of a pair breeding

in 2001 in Leh (Otto Pfister, pers comm.). This race has

been observed during spring passage (Williams and Delany

1986).

15. Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus

Resident. Widespread throughout the study area. One

nest with a single young observed near Chang La on July 17,

1999 at c. 5000 m. Another nest with a fledged young was

located near Hanle in a steep valley on August 14, 2002 at

c. 4500 m. It was lined with grass, rags, sheep and yak wool,

goat hair, pieces of plastic and strips of cloth (some plucked

from prayer flags). It also contained animal remains like bones,

skin, skulls and intact legs and feet of domestic and wild

ungulates. An adult was observed feeding red meat to the

young and carrying large bones in the bill to the nest. Breeding

season extends from November/December to July,

occasionally up to mid August.

16. Himalayan Griffon Gyps himalayensis

Resident, infrequent. Widespread throughout the study

area in small numbers - usually two/three, sometimes up to

five/eight.

17. Upland buzzard Buteo hemilasius

Resident. Restricted only to Changthang and Rupshu

in eastern Ladakh. Dependent on marshes and wetlands for

food when breeding. All nests located were on rocky

outcrops adjacent to marshes. An active nest was found on

June 22, 1998 near Ponguk village, Hanle (Naoroji and

Forsman 2001). Two nests containing near fully-fledged

young were observed at Hanle on July 23, 1999. One active

nest with almost fledged young was found at Puga on July

25, 1999. The species was seen at Chushul, between Chushul

and Hanle, Lai Pahari, Hanle, Puga, Tso Kar and with highest

incidence and sightings between Dungti and Demchok at

regular intervals (three adult pairs, two single adults and two

recently fledged young on August 1 1 , 2002) along the Indus

where habitat comprised a mix of marsh/fluvial flats and steep

rocky outcrops.

1 8. Golden Eagle A chrysaetos

Resident. Widespread throughout the study area, but

under pressure during the breeding season. Accessible nests

are usually destroyed by shepherds who perceive the species

as a threat to their lambs. Two active nests on cliffs with two

downy young and almost fledged young were found at Ney

in May 1998 and end June 1999 respectively, and between

Hanle and Chumur at Lenak La on July 2, 2001. Breeding

season in Ladakh extends from late February to early August.

Nestling period is usually 65-70 days. Prey observed included

young of Shapu Ovis vignei and Bharal Pseudois nayaur,

Himalayan marmot Marmota himalayana and very

occasionally lambs of domestic sheep.

1 9. Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus

Common summer visitor. Br. Widespread throughout

Ladakh. Opportunistically breeds both on trees in the vicinity

of human habitation and rock faces usually away from human

habitation. A pair observed breeding in a disused Black-billed

Magpie Pica pica nest on a Poplar in the Shambala Hotel

compound in Leh during July 1999. In the absence of suitable

trees, observed breeding on rock faces and cliffs in Nubra,

Changthang and western Ladakh.

20. Merlin Falco columbarius

Passage migrant and winter visitor. Although Mallon

{ 1987) considered it a migrant and winter visitor in very small

numbers, Williams and Delany ( 1 986) found it overwintering

in small numbers. Our two sightings indicate that it is also

likely to summer. One female was recorded in Nubra valley at

Hundar on August 21, 2000 and a male between Demchok

and Dungti at ChakhukmaTso on August 13, 2002.

2 1 . Eurasian Hobby Falco subbuteo

Common summer visitor. Br. One near Ney on July 1,

1999, one near Tangtse on July 17, 1999, and one near Karu

on July 4, 2001 . Additionally, regularly sighted at Shey marsh,

where as many as three were observed on June 24, 2001

hawking dragonflies. Regularly observed throughout the

Hanle valley on all visits. Throughout Ladakh, more frequently

observed in open river valleys and marshes. Pfister (2001)

also regularly sighted this summer visitor at Shey marsh and

below Rizong from 1994 to 1997. Osmaston (1927b) found a

nest at Kargil on a Poplar tree, in the nest of a carrion crow

Con’us corone from which he had previously removed eggs.

May occasionally nest on cliffs.

22. Saker Falco cherrug

Mainly Passage migrant, also winter visitor. Uncommon.

Sightings during summer indicate the possibility of the

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BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

species occasionally breeding. In September 1997 one

individual observed between Chushul and Tsaga village, one

between Loma and Hanle, another en route to Korzok. One

recorded in the valley between Hanle and Lenak La on July 28,

2000. Near south Dungti; one on June 28, 2001, two in August,

2002 and one in June, 2003. One observed in June 2003 at Hanle

(RKN and Pankaj Sharma). Mallon (1987) considered it as

passage migrant and winter visitor in very small numbers.

23. Himalayan Snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis

Resident. Found at high elevations in western and

central Ladakh though not common.

24. C\mkor Alectoris chukar

Resident. Common. Widespread over most of Ladakh.

Loose parties of up to 20 are not uncommon around village

fields. A pair with six chicks was observed in a barley field

near Ney on July 6, 1999. Another pair with eight chicks was

observed near Karu on August 9, 2002.

25. Tibetan Partridge Perdix hodgsoniae

Resident. Regularly sighted between Hanle and Lenak

La in the Changthang. We observed one pair with nine chicks

on August 28, 2000 along the Hanle/Chumur road. Osmaston

(1927b) found it “not uncommon in Rupshu especially from

Polokonka down the Puga valley”.

26. Black-necked Crane Grus nigricollis

Summer visitor. Br. Regular on the wetlands of

Changthang, which are under various threats. While studying

their breeding ecology in 1997 Pfister (2001 ) recorded 38 birds

of which 24 were breeding (12 nests, 24 eggs incubated,

13 eggs hatched, and nine chicks fledged).

27. Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus

Passage migrant. One individual recorded at Trishul

Tso on July 6, 1999, one at Diskit on August 28, 2000 and

three at Shey marsh including a juvenile on August 23, 2000.

28. Common Coot Fulica atra

Passage migrant and summer visitor. Six observed at

Trishul Tso on September 1, 2000. Two recorded at Shey

marsh on June 24 and another two at Trishul Tso on July 5,

2001.

29. Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva

Passage migrant. Six observed feeding along the grassy

shore of Tso Moriri near Korzok village on August 30, 2000.

The birds were in 50%-70% breeding plumage. Pfister (2001 )

also recorded it during autumn passage.

30. Lesser Sand Plover Charadrius mongolus

Summer visitor. Br. Common on fresh and brackish

marshes of Changthang. Twenty recorded on July 18, 1999

near Mikar (Pangong Tso) including two pairs with chicks.

Four birds in breeding plumage were observed at Pashmina

Goat Farm at Khurl on July 21, 1999. Another three birds in

breeding plumage were recorded at Hanle on July 22, 1999.

Four individuals telescoped at Chakhukma Tso between

Demchok and Dungti and a pair with two chicks between

Dungti and Loma along the Indus on August 13, 2002.

3 1 . Common Snipe Gallingo gallinago

Passage migrant. Five flushed from the grassy patch

on the edge of Tso Moriri, Korzok village on August 30, 2000.

32. Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata

Passage migrant. Two observed at Hanle on July 24,

1999 and two more at Tso Kar on July 25, 1999.

33. Common Redshank Tringa totanus

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread and breeds in very small

numbers. Two breeding pairs were observed at Chushul on

July 19, 1999. The behaviour of the adults left no doubt about

the presence of chicks. On June 28, 2001 two chicks were

observed with adults who tried to guide us away along the

Hanle river near Loma. Breeding reported from Tso Kar lake

and Puga Valley (Osmaston 1927b), but these sites at present

are quite disturbed.

34. Common Greenshank Tringa nebularia

Passage migrant. Three at Chushul on July 21 and one

at Tso Kar on July 25 in 1 999. Five near Diskit on August 2 1 ,

2000. Three along the Indus near Dungti on August 1 1 , 2002.

35. Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus

Passage migrant, though a few individuals recorded

throughout winter and summer months. One at Hanle on July

23, 1999, four at Diskit and one on the lake near Panamik on

August 2 1 , 2000. One at Hanle on August 26, 2000 and two at

Tso Moriri on August 30, 2000.

36. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola

Passage migrant. One observed at Lai Pahari on July

24, 1999.

37. Common Sandpiper Acrifts hypoleucos

Passage migrant. One recorded at Mikar ( Pangong Tso)

on July 1 8, another at Pashmina Goat Farm, Khurl on July 21

in 1 999, two at Diskit on August 2 1 and another on 30 August

at Tso Moriri in 2000.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

297

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

38. Little Stint Calidris minuta

Passage migrant. Seven birds in breeding plumage

observed on a small wetland near Hunder on August 20, two at

Hanle on August 26 and three at Tso Moriri on August 30, 2000.

39. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii

Passage migrant. One at Demchok on August 13 and

another at Loma on August 1 8 in 2002. Williams and Delany

(1985) found it to be the commonest wader on autumn

migration.

40. Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea

Passage migrant. Rare to occasional. One recorded at

Pangong Tso in full breeding plumage on August 18, 1999.

Also recorded from other areas of Ladakh by other observers

(Otto Pfister, pers comm.).

41 . Black- winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus

Passage migrant. Three at Tangtse on July 17, 1999,

twenty two at North Pullu, a small lake at the base of Khardung

La on August 1 9, 2000, two at Sumur on August 2 1 , 2000, four

at Hanle on August 26, 2000 and two along the Indus near

Dungti on August 10, 2002.

42. Pallas’s Gull Larus ichthyaetus

Passage migrant. Two sightings on the Indus; one at

Loma on August 25, 2000 and five near Demchok on August

13,2002.

43. Brown-headed Gull Larus brunnicephalus

Summer visitor. Br. Regular on the lakes in Changthang

where it breeds. Commonly seen in the wetlands and along

the Indus. More than forty at Pangong Tso on July 18 and

sixty three at Tso Karon July 25, 1999.

44. Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus

Passage migrant/summer visitor. One record of over

sixty individuals on July 25, 1999 at Tso Kar. Sighted

occasionally by Pfister (2001 ) during September and October

1997.

45. Common Tern Sterna hirundo

Summer visitor. Br. Regularly seen on the lakes and the

Indus river in groups of not more than three to four.

46. White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus

Passage migrant. One adult in partial breeding plumage

and one juvenile observed hunting at Trishul Tso on

September 9, 2000. Pfister (2001) recorded one at Startsapuk

Tso/Tso Kar on June 23, 1995.

47. Tibetan Sandgrouse Syrrhaptes tibetanus

Resident. Thirteen observed on July 22, 1999 but only

two on June 28, 2000 at Pongo village, Hanle. On both

occasions the birds were confiding and we observed them

from merely four metres. Pfister (2001 ) recorded the species

around Tso Kar, Chushul, Hanle and LamTso/Chumur. Apair

of downy newly hatched chicks observed by Osmaston

( 1 927b ) near Tso Moriri on June 1 8 . Five Tibetan Sandgrouse

believed to be breeding were seen at Taglang La at c. 4500 m

(Robson 1993).

48. Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia

Resident. Common and widespread including Leh.

49. Hill Pigeon Columba rupestris

Resident. Common and widespread. Frequently in the

company of the Blue Rock Pigeon.

50. Snow Pigeon Columba leuconota

Resident. Two birds observed near Ney on July 8, 1999.

5 1 . Oriental Ttirtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis

Summer visitor. Br. Frequently encountered near

cultivated areas and in tree-covered valley basins of Ladakh,

including Nubra.

52. Eurasian Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto

Vagrant. This plains species was observed in

cultivation area Nimu on July 3, 1999. Not recorded for Ladakh

by Ah and Ripley (1981) and Grimmett et al. ( 1 998 ). Kazmierczak

and van Perlo (2000) mention only one passage record. Pfister

(2004) found it to be a late spring occasional passage

migrant with a few individuals over-summering in western

Ladakh.

53. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Passage migrant. One near Leh on August 18 and

another near Kiari on August 31, 2000. Both sightings near

cultivated areas/plantations. Recorded by Pfister (2001) at

Hanle and in the Nubra valley.

54. Eurasian Eagle-Owl Bubo bubo

Resident. Widespread and not uncommon. A pair with

nestlings at Lai Pahari on July 21, 1999. One adult with two

nestlings observed at Puga on July 25, 1999. A solitary adult

on a rock cliff near Hundar on August 20, 2000 was the first

record for Nubra valley. One roosting on the rocks near Hanle

monastery on July 1, 2001. Another seen flying near Dungti

on August 11, 2002 and two near Lai Pahari on August 16,

2002.

298

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

55. Little Owl Athene noctua

Resident. Locally not uncommon. All sightings between

Hanle and Lenak La at three different locations on the Hanle/

Chumur road. Pfister (2001) recorded it along the northern

and eastern rocky slopes of Tso Kar plains, in the upper Indus

valley and near Chang La at 5000 m.

56. Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba

Summer visitor?/passage migrant. Two at Loma on

August 10 and two at Dungti on August 13, 2002.

57. Common Swift

Summer visitor. Br.?Three on July 4 and 12, 1999 near

Ney, a single at Panamik on August 2 1 , 2000.

58. Small Blue Kingfisher A atthis

Summer visitor. One individual regularly seen at Chushul

(4450 m) from July 18-20, 1999, exceeding the highest altitude

of 4240 m previously recorded for this species in the Indian

subcontinent (Pfister 2001) The species has been recorded

from three other sites - Nubra valley, vicinity of Indus near

Shey and Hanle (Pfister 2001 ).

59. Common Hoopoe Upiipa epops

Summer visitor and passage migrant. Br. Widespread

breeder throughout the study area including Leh. Up to ten

observed at foraging sites.

60. Long-billed Calandra-Lark Melanocorypha maxima

Summer visitor. Br. Two birds; one calling with cocked

tail near the Hanle observatory on June 28, 200 1 . Pfister ( 200 1 )

found active nests in June at Hanle and flocks of up to 30

individuals at Chumur in mid-August, 1997. One record from

the Markha valley, 4 km south-west of Spituk on August 2,

2002 constitutes the most westerly record to date (Robson

2003).

61. Hume’s Short-toed Lark Calandrella acutirostris

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread and very common. An

active nest observed at Saspol on July 6; three nests near

Tangtse; and another containing three chicks near Mikir

on July 18 in 1999. Nesting observed in early September

2000, possibly extending the known breeding period (Sangha

2001).

62. Horned hark Eremophila alpestris

Resident and summer visitor. Found in both small parties

and large flocks. Two nests located on open ground with

hardly any vegetation near Hanle on June 30, 2001 . The outer-

rim of one of the nests was lined with tiny pebbles and

contained two nestlings. Another nest was lined with sheep/

goat wool and contained two eggs cafe-au-lait in colour

peppered with small dark spots.

63. Pale Martin Riparia diluta

Summer visitor. Br.? One recorded at Demchok on

August 12, 2002.

64. Eurasian Crag Martin Hirundo rupestris

Summer visitor. Br. Three chicks in a nest on a rock face

observed being fed by adults near Rumbak on July 6, 2001 .

65. Common Swallow Hirundo rustica

Summer visitor?/passage migrant. A single between

Sumur and Panamik on August 2 1 , 2000. Flocks of over 300

birds ‘built up’ during cloudy weather in late August 1981

(Williams andDelany 1986).

66. Northern House-Martin Delichon iirbica

Summer visitor. Br. Occasional sightings mostly along

the Indus, maximum being four at Kiari on August 31, 2000.

67. White Wagtail Motacilla alba

Summer visitor. Br. A common summer visitor and

passage migrant in the study area. In autumn large movements

of the species have been noted (Williams and Delany 1986).

Also recorded in winter (Mallon 1987). Early spring passage

consists mainly of race M.a. persoiiata, a rare breeder in

Ladiikh (Williams and Delany 1986).

68. Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla maderaspatensis*

Vagrant. Two birds observed along the Indus near Likir

(c. 3000 m) on July 7, 1 999. Anew record for Ladakh, extending

the species’ known distribution range further north and

considerably increasing its known altitudinal range of 2200 m

(Sangha and Naorqji in press). There is an additional record

by Anne Brooks from Rumbak on July 20, 2000 (Otto Pfister,

pers.comm.).

69. Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola

Summer visitor. Br. We observed more than ten nests in

thorny bushes not more than 0.61-0.92 m above the ground

near Ney on August 8, 1999. Adults are very vocal when

feeding nestlings. One adult seen carrying food on August

18, 1999 at Mirak (Pangong Tso). Early spring passage

consists mainly of M.c. citreola, a non-local race (Williams

andDelany 1986).

70. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

Summer visitor. Br? The least common among the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

299

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

wagtails in the study area. Breeds in Ladakh (Pfister 2001).

The races M.f beema and M.f. thunbergi appear during spring

passage (Williams and Delany 1986).

7 1 . Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea

Summer visitor. Br. Occasionally seen in the marshes,

swamps or rivers and lake-side mudflats.

72. Eurasian Tree Pipit Ant/iMs trivialis

Passage migrant. Three birds near Mahe September 2,

2000. Occasional sightings by Pfister (2001 ) during September

1997.

73. Water Pipit Ant/iws spinoletta

Passage migrant. One bird along the Indus near Loma

on June 28, 2001 . Pfister recorded one at the northern spring

of Tso Kar in September 1 994, one in the Tangtse valley in

June 1996 and more than five in the Shey marsh in March 2000

(Otto Pfister, pers. comm.). Also recorded by Williams and

Delany (1986) during autumn.

74. Grey-backed Shrike Lanius tephronotus

Summer visitor. Br. One near Tso Moriri on August 29,

2000. Another in a plantation near Pongo village in Hanle

valley on August 15, 2002.

75. White-throated Dipper Cinclus cinclus

Resident. Single adults observed; one perched on a

rock overlooking the stream near Sumdo on August 3 1 , 2000,

another at Charding Nullah near the Hot Springs, Demchok

on August 12, 2002. Adult observed feeding two just fledged

chicks, incessantly begging for food at a stream opposite

Mahe bridge check point on August 1 0 and 1 8, 2002.

76. Brown Dipper Cinclus pallasii

Resident. Commoner than the previous species. Unlike

the White-throated not recorded east of Mahe.

77. Robin Accentor Prunella rubeculoides

Resident. Very frequently seen affecting scrubs and

bushes along river valley bottoms and villages, often preferring

wet areas throughout Ladakh.

78. Brown Accentor Pr«nc//a fulvescens

Resident. Widespread, affecting trees and bushes in

remote mountain valleys, but less common than the previous

species.

79. Blue Rock-Thrush Monticola solitarius

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread throughout Ladakh. A

juvenile observed close to Hundar on August 20, 2000 and

near the observatory at Hanle on August 15, 2002.

80. Blue Whistling-Thrush Myiophonus caeruleus

Summer visitor. Br. A single at Rumbak on July 8, 2001.

Otto Pfister (pers. comm.) found a nest in the Hundar gorge in

1997.

8 1 . Eurasian Blackbird Turdus merula

Passage migrant. One dead bird was found at the base

of Lenak La on Hanle/ Chumur road. One female seen on

1 and 2 October, 1997 below Hanle monastery during autumn

migration ( Pfister 200 1 ).

82. Himalayan Rubythroat Luscinia pectoralis

Summer visitor. Br. A pair observed feeding two chicks

at Chushul on 19 and 20 July 1999. The nest was in a caragana

bush about one metre above the ground. Two sightings in

2000 - one on August 29 at Tso Moriri and another on August

31 near Sumdo. At Demchok one observed in bushes along

the Indus on August 12, 2002.

83. Bluethroat Luscinia svecica

Summer visitor. Br. One at Tso Moriri near Korzok on

August 30, 2000. Singles at Rumbak on July 8, 2001 and

Demchok on August 12, 2002.

84. Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread, common. Two chicks

were observed being fed by adults on July 1, 1999. The nest

was in a crevice of a stone boundary wall at Nimu.

85. Guldenstadt’s KeAstsactPhoenicurus erythrogaster

Resident. Widespread and common throughout the

study area. Abundant in winter when the summer population

is swollen by winter visitors (Mallon 1987).

86. White-capped Redstart Chaimarrornis leucocephalus

Summer visitor. Br? One to three birds regularly seen at

Ney (June 30- July 8), one at the base of Chang La, another at

Chagar Tso (between Tangtse and Pangong Tso), two-three

at Chushul (Julyl9-21) in 1999. One to two birds regularly

seen around Rumbak in early July, 2001 . Not recorded at Hanle,

Chumur, and Demchok. Our sightings at Chushul are far east

of its known summer distribution range.

87. Grandala Grandala coelicolor

Summer visitor. Recorded from two sites. Two to three

were regular at Ney from 3-12 July, 1999. A female observed

picking insects by flying close to the contours of rocky slopes

300

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

close to the Indo-Tibetan Border Police camp at Hanle on

August 14, 2002.

88. Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata

Passage migrant. An early autumn migrant observed

while driving from Chushul to Loma on July 21, 1999. One

observed in September 1997 near Diskit in the Nubra valley

(Pfister 2001).

89. Pied Wheatear Oenanthe pleschanka

Summer visitor. Br. A pair observed feeding chicks near

Nimu on July 3, 1999. The nest was located in a culvert under

the road in the gap between boulders used for support. This

record confirms that the species breeds in Ladakh.

90. Desert Wheatear Oenanthe deserti

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread and very common

throughout the study area.

9 1 . Blyth’s Reed-Warbler Acrocep/m/ws dumetorum

Passage migrant. One individual was recorded at Korzok

on August 30, 2000. Otto Pfister (pers. comm.) reported it

from Nubra valley in September.

92. Common Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita

Summer visitor. Two at Hanle on July 24, 1999 and two

at Trishul Tso on September 3, 2000.

93. Moutain Chiffchaff Phylloscopus sindianus

Summer visitor. Br. Widespread and commoner than the

previous species. Smaller numbers seen in Changthang than

Nubra and areas west of Leh. At least 4-5 active nests found

with adults feeding nestlings near Ney on July 8, 1999.

94. Olivaceous Phylloscopus griseolus

Summer visitor. Br. Rather common and observed

breeding at Ney from 3-12 July, 1999. Also recorded

occasionally at Leh (including Trishul Tso) and Nubra. In

Changthang, it was not uncommon in trees and thickets. At

Sumdo, a family of three to four juveniles and adults were

observed on August 31, 2000. At the army outpost at

Demchok, daily counts of 4-8 birds seen on 1 1 and 1 2 August

2002 represent an eastern extension of its range in Ladakh.

95. Common Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca

Summer visitor. Many sightings from different areas

including Leh. One at Ney on July 5 and two at Likir on July 6,

1 999; three at Diskit on August 20 and six at Sumur on August

21, 2000. One at Karu on June 24 and two at Chumathang on

June 27, 2001. Otto Pfister (pers. comm.) found an active nest

in a small buckthorn bush near the Indus at Shey in June

1995.

96. Tickell’s Warbler P/ij//oscop«s ajfinis

Summer visitor. Br. Not uncommon throughout our

surveys in suitable areas with shrubbery, bushes and trees.

97. Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata

Passage migrant. All sightings during autumn. One

observed on a Willow at Leh on September 2, 2000. Adults

observed in early September in the Nubra valley (Otto Pfister,

pers. comm.).

98. Great Tit Parus major

Resident. Widespread and not uncommon in the Indus

valley plantations and other patches of trees. Not recorded in

Changthang.

99. Wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria

Summer visitor. Br. A pair seen near Kiari on August 25 ;

five including three trailing juveniles between Gaik and Kiari

on August 3 1 along the Indus river in 2000. A pair were again

seen near Kiari on August 1 8, 2002. Recorded from Rumbak in

June 1996; Hundar gorge in Nubra valley and Sumdo near

Puga in September 1997 (Otto Pfister, pers. comm.). Osmaston

( 1927a) observed breeding birds in June and July in the Gya

Valley, also near Tankse and Khardong.

100. Fire-fronted Serin Serinus pusillus

Resident. Widespread and locally common in the study

area except Changthang. However, recorded once at Chumur

in Changthang in the compound of the Indo-Tibetan Border

Police in early August, 1997 (Otto Pfister, pers. comm.). Found

in small flocks of up to 10 birds.

101. Twite Carduelis flavirostris

Resident. Widespread and common in sandy and rocky

areas. Immense flocks (well over 150 birds) seen while driving

from Dungti to Tyagarmale on the afternoon of July 28, 200 1 .

102. Hodgson’s Mountain-Finch Leucosticte nemoricola

? Occasionally seen throughout the study area.

Resident according to Pfister (2001) but Mallon (1987)

recorded it only during the winter of 1983-1984, but was

unclear whether the species was previously overlooked in

other winters or normally leaves the area.

103. Black-headed Mountain-Finch Leucosticte brandti

Resident. All sightings east of Leh usually in small

numbers on desolate open stony ground, high altitude cliffs.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

301

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

crags and barren moimtaintops. Otto Pfister (pers. comm.)

recorded it on all visits in the upper Rumbak valley. More

than 25 sighted near Nyoma on June 26, 2001. Literally

hundreds seen between Dungti and Tyagarmale on July 28,

2001.

1 04. Mongolian Finch Bucanetes mongolicus

Resident. Occasionally seen throughout the study area.

Williams and Delany (1986) found it quite common during

spring. Pfister (2001 ) observed fledged young being fed by

the adults during August.

105. Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrimis

Summer visitor. Br. Common throughout the area in

plantations, orchards, and thickets except Changthang. Two

birds seen by us at Hanle on July 1 , 2001 represent an eastern

extension of its range in Ladakh. The recent Willow

plantations probably account for the species’ range

extension.

106. Streaked Great Rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilloides

Resident. Sighted only in Changthang. Not uncommon

on rocky slopes, scree and plateaux. Occasionally found

around army camps/settlements.

107. Common Great Rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilla

Resident. Not uncommon. However, rather localized and

in smaller numbers than the previous species. Two active and

one abandoned nest were found in unoccupied army barracks

at Loma in August 2002 (Sangha and Naoroji 2004).

108. House Sparrov/ Passer domesticus

Resident. Quite common around human settlements and

plantations in small groups and large flocks. One active nest

(adults feeding nestlings) was located in the hollow of a Willow

at Diskit on August 20, 2000. At Leh in early September, the

ripe wheat crop attracts huge flocks.

1 09. Tibetan Snowfinch Montifringilla adamsi

Resident. Widespread and common in the study area.

Near Zingral (c. 4800 m) at least nine nests observed on the

rocky slopes along the road in 1999. One located near Ney,

below the road in the gap between boulders used to build a

culvert. It is common around settlements, army and ITBP

camps in Changthang.

1 1 0. Rufous-necked Snowfinch Pyrgilauda ruficoUis*

Vagrant. Two birds observed on June 23, 2001 at More

plains. This represents the first record of the species for

Ladakh.

111. Plain-backed Snowfinch Pyrgilauda blanfordi

Summer visitor. Br. Locally uncommon in dry sandy

areas with stunted vegetation. More than ten birds observed

feeding at the northern base of Lenak La on August 16, 2002.

Pfister (2001 ) observed breeding in Pika Ochotona burrows

and recorded three fledged young in early July 1996. At least

five (including a pair feeding young in a nest) were seen near

Taglang La on 30 June and 1 July (Robson 1993).

1 1 2. Brahminy Starling Sturnus pagodarum

? Three observed in Willow plantations of the forest

department at Nyoma on June 27, 2001 . Pfister (2001 ) recorded

it in early October 1997 at Hanle. The species has been recorded

by others as vagrant on various occasions (Otto Pfister, pers.

comm.). Williams and Delany (1986) reported it as ‘very

occasional’ during November.

113. Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus

Passage migrant. A flock of more than 200 restless juveniles

observed between Sumur and Panarruk on August 21, 2000.

They were feeding on small black berries growing on extensive

stands of buckthorn. Eleven were picking insects from a wheat

field at Hanle on August 28, 2000. Juveniles observed in Tso

Kar by late August and a good number (including a flock of

more than 15) in the Nubra valley mostly around Diskit and

between Sumur and Panamik ( Otto Pfister, pers. comm.)

1 14. Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus

Summer visitor. Br. A pair on July 15, 1999 and another

single on September 1, 2000 in Leh. One record also from

Changthang (Pfister 2001 ).

115. Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus

Vagrant. Encountered only once near Nimu in crop fields

on July 1 , 1 999. Also recorded from Mahe in July. An exhausted

individual in the western Hanle plains in October 1997 (Pfister

2001).

1 1 6. Black-billed Magpie Pica pica

Resident. Widespread and common throughout area

surveyed. In western Changthang seen along the Indus up

to Chumathang; vagrant further east. Five birds were sighted

at Tangtse on July 18, 1999. In eastern Changthang, observed

by RKN between 1998 and 1999 once between Mahe and

Nyoma and once at Hanle. Observed once at Chushul on

9 June, 1996 (Otto Pfister, pers. comm.)

1 17. Hume’s Groundpecker Pseudopodoces humilis

Summer visitor. Br. Occasional in Changthang. However,

relatively common and confiding at Hanle, Hanle/Chumur road.

302

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

and Chumur. On July 22, 1999 near Pongo, Hanle, five fledged

young observed near a stream following adults and begging for

food. Five fledged young being fed by adults observed on

August 28, 2000 along a verdant valley on Chumur road. Another

adult observed taking a dip in the stream and preening.

Approaching Chumur on July 1, 2001, two adults were observed

digging for larvae on humid grassy bank of a stream.

118. Red-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

Resident. Widespread and common throughout the

study area. At least four nests located on July 23, 1999 in

crevices/lioles of the rocky foundations of the Hanle gompo

(monastery). Osmaston ( 1927a) found 40 nests located in holes

in a sandy cliff near Leh. A flock of more than 1 50 birds flying

to their roost was sighted at Hanle on July 23, 1999.

119. Yellow-billed Chough Pyrrhocorax graculus

Resident. Widespread and common throughout the

study area but fewer than the previous species.

1 20. House Crow Corvm splendens

Vagrant. Sighted on few occasions in Ladakh during

summer of 2001 . The observation at Hanle (4240 m)on June

29, 2001 represents the highest altitudinal record for this

lowland species (Sangha and Naoroji 2003).

121. Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos

? One at Leh on August 24. 2000. Resident mainly in

western Ladakh according to Pfister ( pers. comm. ).

122. Common Raven Corvus corax

Resident. Widespread and common throughout the

study area — in the mountains, high passes, remote valleys,

around villages/towns including Leh. Up to eight at

Chumathang on August 25, 2000. Two perched quietly in falling

snow at Tanglang La (c. 5250 m) on June 23, 2001. Three

followed us from the base of Lenak La (r. 5000 m) to the top of

the pass expecting leftover food on August 18, 2002.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For assistance in the field and other courtesies,

special thanks to Chiefs of Army Staff (1999/2000) Gen. Ved

REFE

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 3. Second edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Pp. 147-149.

Au, S., J.C. Daniel, M. Inayatullah, G. Narayan, A. Akhtar,

L. Rosalind & E, D’Cunha (1986): Black-necked Crane (Gms

nigricolUs) in Ladakh. First Annual Report. Bombay Natural

History Society. 35 pp.

Prakash Malik, PVSM, AVSM, ADC; (2001/2002) Gen.

S. Padmanabhan, PVSM. AVSM, VSM, ADC; ( 2003/2004) Gen.

N.C. Vij, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, ADC for providing full

infrastructural support which facilitated our field work.

Officers in the Indian army were extremely helpful: Major

General VS. Budhwar, VSM, Headquarters 3 Infantry Division

Leh; Lt. Gen. R.K. Nanavatty, PVSM, UYSM, AVSM, Chief of

Staff, Headquarters Northern Command; Lt. Gen. R.B. Singh,

AVSM, YSM, GOC 14 Corps and Maj. Gen. A.D. Nargolwala,

Chief of Staff, Headquarters 14 Corps Leh; Maj. Gen. Rakesh

Dass, AVSM, SM, VSM, GOC 3 Infantry Division; Maj. Gen.

R.P.S. Malhan, YSM, SM and Colonel S.P.S. Tanwar (Col.

Adm.) Headquarters 3 Infantry Division took a keen interest

in our work and readily assisted in many ways.

Daljeet Singh DIG - Leh; 2"'' , 20"’ and 2 1 battalions of

the ITBP for infrastructural support and accommodation at

Chushul, Hanle and Chumur; Dr. Tekchand, Asst. Comdt.,

Chushul; notably Dy. Commandant Tarsem Singh at Chushul

and Lance Naik Tsering Dorje, Hanle. At Chushul Major Arun

Malik was extremely helpful. Havaldar Tsering Nurboo

( No. 9923523 ‘E’ Coy ) and Tashi Tsering’s field assistance was

invaluable. Our vehicles never failed us thanks to maintenance

by Nawang Chonjor.

We thank our survey companions Aniruddha

Mookerjee and Siddharth Singh (1997), Maan Barua

( 1999), Kiran Srivastava (2000) and Pankaj Sharma (2001;

2003).

Wangchuk Shall for hospitality in Leh and Motup

Chewang for helping out in various ways. Ashok Jaitely,

former Chief Secretary Jammu & Kashmir, was most

helpful. Thanks to Mohinder Pal Singh and R. Ramchandra

Reddy of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics for supplying

a knock-down scaffolding from the Observatory at

Hanle.

We thank the Forest Department of Jammu and Kashmir

for assistance. Particularly, Mr. P.C. Kapoor, Mr. S.N.

Naqashbandi and Mr. A.R. Wadoo Chief Wildlife Wardens,

Jammu & Kashmir, Mr Nasier Kitchloo, Abdul Rauf Zargar

and Saleem-ul-Haq Wildlife Wardens, Leh, readily gave all

necessary permissions and assisted in every possible way.

Furthermore, Abdul Rauf Zargar helped out with permits from

Srinagar. Otto Pfister provided unpublished records and

commented on the first draft.

NCES

Chatterjee, a., R Chandan, P. Gautam & B. Humbert-Droz (2002):

High Altitude Wetlands of Ladakh, A Conservation Initiative.

WWF-India, New Delhi. 40 pp.

Ganguli-Lachungpa, U. (1990): Blackwinged Kite Elanits caenileus

vociferous (Latham) at 3650 m in Sikkim. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist.

Soc. 87(1): 142.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

303

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 451-452.

Hussain, S.A. (1976): Preliminary Report. Bombay Natural History

Society/World Wildlife Fund-India. Ladakh Expedition

(Mimeographed report submitted to BNHSAVWF-India).

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Mountfield, Sussex, U.K.

Pp. 140-142

Mallon, D.P. (1987): The winter birds of Ladakh. Forktail 3: 27-41.

Mishra, C. & B. Humbert-Droz (1998): Avifauna! survey of Tso Moriri

Lake and adjoining Nuro Sumdo wetland in Ladakh, Indian trans-

Himalaya. Forktail 14: 65-61 .

Naoroji, R. & D. Forsman (2001): First breeding record of Upland

Buzzard Buteo hemilasius for the Indian subcontinent in

Changthang, Ladakh, and identification characters of Upland

Buzzard and Long-legged Buzzard Buteo rufiniis. Forktail 17:

105-108.

OsMASTON, B.B. ( 1927a): Notes on the breeding birds of Kashmir. Part

1. / Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 31(4): 974-999.

OsMASTON, B.B. (1927b): Notes on the breeding birds of Kashmir. Part

2. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 32(1): 132-153.

Pfister, O. (1998): The breeding ecology and conservation of the

Black-necked Crane (Grus nigricollis) in Ladakh / India.

University of Hull. Thesis Unpublished

Phster, O. (2001): Birds recorded during visits to Ladakh, India from

1994 to 1997. Forktail 17: 81-90.

Pfister, O. (2004): Birds and Mammals of Ladakh. Oxford University

Press, New Delhi.

Robson, C. (1993): From the field. India. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin

18: 67.

Robson, C (2003): From the field. India. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin

37:13.

Sangha, H.S. (2001): Late breeding of Hume’s Short-toed Lark in

Ladakh. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 41(2): 27-28.

Sangha, H.S. & R. Naoroji (2003): High-altitude records of the House

Crow Corvus splendens in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and

Kashmir, India. Forktail 19: 141-142.

Sangha, H.S. & R. Naoroji (2004): Nesting of Great Rosefinch

Carpodacus rubicilla at Loma, Ladakh, India. Forktail 20: 140.

Sangha, H.S. & R. Naoroji (2005): Occurrence of Little Cormorant

Phalacrocorax niger in Ladakh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

102(1): 99.

Sangha, H.S. & R. Naoroji (in press): Large Pied Wagtail Motacilla

maderaspatensis in Ladakh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Sangha, H.S., R. Naoroji & M. Barua (2003): Little Grebe Podiceps

ruficollis: an addition to the avifauna of Ladakh. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 100(1): 104-107.

Sterndale, R.A. (1884): Natural History of the Mammalia of India

and Ceylon. Thacker and Spink & Co, Calcutta. Pp. 399-401.

Vaurie, C. (1972):Tibet and its Birds. Witherby Ltd. London. Pp. 3-

37.

William, C. & S. Delany (1985): Migration through the north-west

Himalayas - some results of the Southampton University Ladakh

expeditions 1. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 2: 10-14.

William, C. & S. Delany (1986): Migration through the north-west

Himalayas - some results of the Southampton University Ladakh

expedition. Part 2. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 3: 11-16.

304

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

305-312

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK

EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, INDIA'

Gopinathan Maheswaran'' and Asad R. Rahmani^

'Accepted

-Department of Wildlife Sciences, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Present Address: Zoological Survey of India, M-BIock, New Alipore, Kolkata 700 053, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected]

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]. in

The breeding behaviour of the Black-necked Stork (BNS) (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) was studied from mid-September

1996 to mid-January 1997 in Dudhwa National Park (DNP). Observations were made for 749 hours on a single pair of

breeding BNS. Both the sexes were engaged in gathering a variety of nest material. Nest material was collected throughout

the breeding season, till the juveniles left the nest; dried grasses were collected most (69%) for nest insulation. The

parental investment of male and female BNS was not equal. The pair spent almost 15% of its time incubating/resting and

this varied significantly in various chick stages. Time spent on this activity was more during the early part of the day.

Male and female spent almost equal time feeding their juveniles throughout the breeding season, whereas the frequency

of feeding trips between the sexes varied significantly. As the chicks grew, there were changes in the type and amount of

food delivered to the chicks. The breeding pair was very aggressive towards conspecifics, mainly to safeguard its nest

and the nearby feeding grounds. Unusual competitions were recorded between adult male and female BNS for food on

the nest; when one of the parents tried to feed the young, the partner tried to pilfer it. The parents brought water

generally during mid-day, than in the morning or evening. Since nothing was known about the breeding behaviour of

BNS, this work has revealed much, especially about the parental care and development of young.

Key words: Black-necked Stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, nest site selection, nest materials, breeding, parental

investment

INTRODUCTION

The Black-necked Stork {Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus)

was once widespread throughout south-east Asia and

Australia; it has more recently declined in, or been extirpated

from most of its world range (Kahn 1987). It has declined

steadily in the Indian subcontinent (Rahmani 1989;

Maheswaran et al. 2004). The Black-necked Storks of tropical

Asia and Australia are uncommon throughout most of their

range. This species currently ranges from India, Sri Lanka to

Australia. In many places, however, populations have reached

critically low levels (Dorfman etal. 2001 ). It is a solitary breeder

and probably mates with the same partner during successive

seasons. Pairs are frequently seen together even outside the

breeding season (Kahl 197 1 ). It is a very late breeder in India,

starting in September in northern India that coincides with

the end of the monsoon and in late November to early

December elsewhere (Baker 1938). Except Kahl’s (1971) brief

study on the breeding biology of this species near Bharatpur,

Rajasthan in 1966-67, no major study was undertaken before

our study in Dudhwa National Park.

Information on activity pattern (Maheswaran 1998),

effects of wading bird abundance on the foraging behaviour

(Maheswaran and Rahmani 2001), and foraging behaviour

and feeding success (Maheswaran and Rahmani 2002) of the

Black-necked Stork are known. However, breeding behaviour,

especially parental care of juveniles, is not known. Sundar’s

(2003) paper on the post-fledgling breeding success and

productivity of the Black-necked Stork in an unprotected area

of Uttar Pradesh is noteworthy. In 1996-97, out of three pairs,

one pair of BNS was observed breeding within the Park. Here

we document the breeding behaviour of this pair of adult

Black-necked Storks and the type of food offered to the

juveniles by the parent birds.

METHODS

Study area: Dudhwa National Park (DNP) is situated on

the Indo-Nepal border in the Nighasan tehsil of

Lakhimpur-Kheri district in Uttar Pradesh, within the

T(?ra/-bhabar biogeographic subdivision of the upper

Gangetic Plain (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). The Park (c. 614

sq. km) hes between 28° 1 8’ - 28° 42' N and 80° 28' - 80° 57’ E.

The Himalayan foothills are about 30 km north of the Park,

and the rivers Suheli and Mohana form the natural boundaries

of the Park. If the monsoon water level were to decrease, prey

would become concentrated in the wetlands. The Forest

Department therefore pumps water into the wetlands to

maintain the water level primarily for the endangered Swamp

Deer (Recervus duvauceli), which also benefits the BNS. As

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

pumped in water is available even during peak summer it

maintains the territory and food supply of the BNS. The

decreasing water level would have forced most birds to

abandon the wetlands. Eight to ten hours supply of water for

10-15 days compensates water loss due to evaporation,

facilitating birds such as BNS, egrets and herons. We located

a solitary nest of the Black-necked Stork on September 20,

1996 in Kheima-Gauri area of Bankatti Range in Dudhwa

National Park, Uttar Pradesh, India. The nest was on a Kheima

or Haldu (Adina cordifolia) tree at a height of c. 20 m. No

other tree was present within a radius of 25 m. Tall and short

grasses, including Saccharum mimja, Imperata cylindrica

and Desmostachys bipiiwata, surrounded the nesting tree.

Behavioural observations: Since no permission was

given to build a hide close to the nest tree, all the observations

were made from a hide on the nearest tall tree (23 m) 17 m

above the ground. The distance between the hide and the

nest tree was 80 m. Observations were made through a spotting

scope and disturbance due to the observer was minimal,

except when entering the hide. Once we entered the hide, the

adult birds remained undisturbed. The nest being almost level

with the hide, we could see the type of food the parents

offered to the juveniles and sometimes even the exact number

of whole fish. Most of the nests of the Black-necked Storks in

India were located at 6-25 m above the ground, in trees such

as Kadamb (Acanthocephalus kadamba), Peepul (Ficus

religiosa), and Simul (Bombax malabarica) (K.'^lh\ 1973). The

nest which we studied intensively (from September 20, 1996

to January 13, 1997; 1 16 days) was 120 m from the nearest

human habitation (forest post on Indian side) and 140 m from

agricultural fields in Nepal, and the breeding pair was

habituated to human presence. Observations were made daily

from 0600 to 1800 hrs. Observations were not made at night.

Data were collected only from mid-September 1996 and the

actual egg laying dates were not known, as the adult birds

were already on the nest when we reached the site; probably

they occupied the old (Hancock et al. 1992) nest built by

them in the previous year. The nest was c. 1.5 m in width,

placed on top of a tall tree at a point from which three barren

stumps emerged. Eggs and chicks were not measured.

The behaviour of nesting BNS were broadly classified

into 13 categories (Kahl 1973). Activities of both the male

(having dark brown iris) and the female (having dark yellow

iris) were recorded simultaneously when both were on the

nest together. Eocal animal sampling was used to record the

activities, but two different sets of data sheets were used to

record activities separately whenever both birds were on the

nest. Whenever an adult stork brought any nest materials

(mainly for lining or insulation), the type and quantity were

recorded, and we termed such trips as the ‘Nest Material

Trip’. We term ‘Wet Grass’ as dried grasses soaked in water

or drenched in dew brought to the nest by adult storks. Adult

storks mostly collected ‘Dry Grass’ during mid-day. In

addition, the time of each nest material trip, weather conditions

and the time taken to insert the nest material were also

recorded. When the parent storks poured water (‘Watering

Trip’) on the chicks, the amount (less when water-drops

dripped and more when water was poured from the bill) and

number of drools were also recorded. In case of ‘Deeding

Trips’, the amount (based on the number of full fish and their

approximate length compared with bill length of stork) and

type (anything other than fish) of food was observed.

Time duration for each activity was recorded with a

stop-watch and the percentage of time spent on each activity

was calculated with respect to chick stages (Chick Stage 1

(CS 1 ) = 0- 1 0 days old, CS2 = 1 1 -20 days old; CS3 = 2 1 -30 days

old, CS4 = 3 1 -40 days old, CS5 - 4 1 -50 days old, CS6 = >5 1

days old) and the time of day. Eor our convenience and data

analysis, we divided the number of days juveniles were

present on the nest into six different chick stages, each

spanning ten days; we presume that this does not have any

ecological significance. All the percent values were arc-sine

transformed, and only on such data were statistical tests

performed. The Kruskal-Wallis test was used to determine

the time an adult BNS spent on each activity in different months

and at different chick stages, and Mann- Whitney U test was

used to determine how each activity differed between sexes

in different months and chick stages. Statistical packages

STATA5.0 (StataCorp 1997) and SPSS 6.1 (Nomsis 1994) were

used for data analysis.

RESULTS

Incubation and resting: Adult storks on the nest were

observed for 85 days, covering 354 hrs for male and 395 hrs

for the female. Both male and female BNS incubated, but the

female spent more than 50% of its time for incubation,

especially in September 1996 (Table 1). Clutch size was

unknown, but three chicks were present in the nest. The first

chick probably hatched on October 17, 1996. This was

confirmed when parent birds started bringing fish many times

during a day from October 19. One chick 10-15 day old died

due to unknown reasons; it was later cannibalised (passive)

by the adult male. Only 25% of the adults’ time was spent

incubating the eggs.

Standing and brooding in different chick stages: The

pair spent 15% of its time resting and brooding the young

and this varied significantly in different chick stages

(%-=65.055, d.f 5, P<0.01; Table 2). Prom September till mid-

October adult storks spent almost 50% of their time away

306

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

from the nest. Twenty-five percent of the time was spent

guarding the nest, by standing at the rim of the nest. The

male BNS spent 13.6% of his time in resting; the resting time

varied significantly in different chick stages (%-=4 1.309, d.f. 5,

P<0.01). Time spent resting was more during the early part of

the day, this could be to keep the juveniles warm, when the

temperature is as low as 6 °C in December.

The female BNS spent about 17% of her time brooding

and resting, which varied significantly in various chick stages

(%-=25.269, d.f 5, P<0.01 ; Table 2). Time spent on this activity

was most during 1400-1800 hrs (Table 3). The female spent

more time for resting than the male (Z=2.054, P<0.04) during

the different chick-stages.

Nesting materials: Both male and female storks left the

nest frequently to collect nest materials, but at least one of

the parent remained on the nest until all the juveniles became

independent. Often parents returned with only nest materials

(Table 4), on a few occasions (n=5), however, food and water

was brought with the nest material. Both sexes were observed

engaged in nest material gathering and placement of collected

materials independently, however, on two occasions they were

seen arranging the nest material together.

The storks spent 10.4% of their time to bring nest

materials, which included dry twigs, grasses, green leaves/

plants, cloth and polythene scrap. Rarely did they bring any

greenery, and if so only the green veins of Telliacora

acuminata (which normally do not have much leaves),

besides small branches of other unidentified green plants.

Table 1 : Percent time spent on various activities by the male and female Black-necked Storks during the breeding season

(1996-1997) in Dudhwa National Park.

Activity September* October November December January Overall

* - September till mid October was the incubation period.

Zeros represent no time spent on that particular activity by storks. (Male = 354 h; Female 395 h of observations)

The Black-necked Storks mostly used dry grasses (Table 4)

composed within a radius of 100-300 m for nest insulation.

The frequency of nest material trips varied greatly during

different times of the day (Table 5).

Feeding the chicks: As the chicks (n=2) grew, they

adopted begging posture; the begging calls were clearly

audible at a distance of 80 m. The hungry juveniles raised

begging calls immediately after the parents arrived at the nest.

When the chicks grew bigger they consumed more food, this

MONTHS

Fig. 1 : Number of reingestion trips made by male (empty square)

and female (solid square) Black-necked Stork in different months

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

307

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

was also evident from the reduced number of re-ingestions

made by adult storks recorded during the breeding season

(Fig. 1) and chick stages (%“= 17.20, d.f. 5, P<0.04). The parents

regurgitated the food they brought onto the nest floor

whether or not the chicks were begging for food. The juveniles

preferred to consume bigger fish, followed by smaller ones.

Fish were swallowed whole without being mutilated in about

2-6 seconds, depending upon the size of the fish.

O-lOdaysold 11-20daysol(J 21-30daysold 31*40daysold 41-50daysold >51dayso!d

CHICK STAGES

Fig. 2: Number of feeding trips made by male (empty square) and

female (solid square) Black-necked Stork in different chick stages

Combined together, the pair spent 4% of its time feeding

the chicks. However, the male spent 5% of its time and this

differed significantly in different chick stages (X“=21 .612, d.f

5, P<0.01 ). The male fed the chicks more during the early part

(0600-1000 hrs) of the day and the second peak was from

1400-1800 hrs (Table 3). The frequency of parents feeding the

juveniles in different chick stages is given in Fig. 2. The female

stork spent 4.6% of her time feeding the chicks, and this did

not differ significantly among different chick stages. She fed

the chicks most during 1000-1400 hrs (Table 3). The male fed

the juveniles more and a greater number of times than the

female, this was evident from the percentage time away

(presumed to be foraging) from the nest, which was more for

the male than female {Z- -2.012, P<0.04).

Watering: The pair under study spent about 2% of its

time watering the chicks. This activity varied significantly in

different chick stages (^-=19.095, d.f. 5, P<0.01 ). The frequency

of watering trips by the male, in different chick stages, is

given in Fig. 3. Even though the number of drools made by

both the sexes was almost equal, the male poured more water

over the eggs and chicks. The male stork made more watering

trips during 1000-1400 hrs (Table 3), especially during

September and October. The storks maintained the nest

temperature at an optimum level and whenever there was an

increase in the mean temperature they poured water over the

Table 2; Activities of male and female Black-necked Stork during different chick stages recorded

during the breeding season in Dudhwa National park

Chick stages

CS1= 0-10 days old, CS2= 11-20 days old, CS3= 21-30 days old, CS4= 31-40 days old, CS5= 41-50 days old,

CS6= >51 days old.

* = begins on October 20, 1996 (post-incubation period); # = Till January 13, 1997

308

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BU\CK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

eggs or chicks.

The female BNS spent 3% of her time watering, and this

differed for different chick stages (x-=14.624, d.f. 5, P<0.01). ^

Q_

The female stork made more watering trips during 1 000- 1 400 hrs s

(Table 3). Time spent by the male and female BNS for watering |

did not differ significantly (Z=l .700, P>0.08) throughout the ^

breeding season. ^

The male was seen to drool more water than the female. i

Z

The Mann-Whitney U test result shows that frequency of |

drools did not differ significantly (Z=0.941, P>0.34), but as

mentioned above, the quantity of water in each drool varied

between the sexes. However, this could not be quantified for

any statistical tests. On cloudy days (especially in November

and December) there were no watering trips.

DISCUSSION

As a monogamous species, both sexes of Black-necked

Storks should have spent almost equal amount of time (Trivers

1972) to care for their juveniles. The female spent more time

for incubation and nest guarding than the male, whereas the

male fed the juveniles more and made more feeding trips than

the female. However, the total time spent for feeding the

juveniles remained equal for both the sexes. According to

Hancock and Kushlan ( 1984), the level of investment may be

influenced by factors such as parent-offspring relatedness,

age, number of chicks, condition of parent and offspring, and

season.

Table 3: Percentage time spent on different activities by male

(n=354 h) and the female (n=395 h) Black-necked Stork according

to time of day recorded during breeding season in

Dudhwa National Park

Time of day (hrs)

O-lOdaysold 11-20daysold 21-30daysold 31-40daysold 41-50daysokJ >51 days

CHICK STAGES

Fig. 3; Number of watering trips made by male (empty square)

and female (solid square) Black-necked Stork during different

chick stages

Birds may select a tree for nesting by looking at the tree

structure and its proximity to feeding sites and human

disturbances, so that no predator can easily access the nest.

It appears that availability of food is the prime factor among

breeding BNS in Dudhwa while selecting the nest site.

Uninterrupted food supply from the nearby wetlands during

the breeding season helps the BNS protect the nest/juveniles

from predators as it can stay at the nest for longer periods.

Once this is assured, the storks select the trees for the nest

(Maheswaran 1998). Black-necked Storks (especially the study

pair) in Dudhwa built their nest on a tall Adina cordifolia

tree, situated amidst tall grassland habitat where no other

nests of big birds were present. Large Ciconiiformes are not

likely to nest in dense or low vegetation (Burger 1978).

Nest material, especially the lining, was brought

separately by male and female Black-necked Storks

throughout the incubation and brooding periods in DNP;

similar behaviour has been reported among Maguari Storks

Table 4: Frequency of trips for nest materials made by male and

female Black-necked Stork during the breeding season

** = Dry grass soaked in dew/water

* = Dried twigs, polythene papers

# = Parents stopped collecting nest materials on January 6, 1997.

Juveniles left the nest for the first time on January 10, 1997.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

309

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

in Venezuela (Thomas 1986). Both the storks were rarely seen

arranging the nest materials together. On the contrary, in Little

Blue Herons {Florida caerulea) the nesting materials were

gathered exclusively by the male and were given to the female

who arranged the sticks in the nest (Werschkul 1982). Every

year with permission of the Forest Department, local villagers

cut grass for thatching after which the uncut grasses were

burnt. We observed that these activities did not affect the

breeding storks adversely, except for forcing adult birds to

skulk in the nest for a while until all the people had left the

area.

Green veins of Telliacora acuminata (which are not

very leafy) were used mainly to secure loose sticks. In the

early stages of nest building we could not see what material

the adult birds brought in for nest insulation. Throughout

the breeding season, the ambient temperature remained below

15°C, especially in the morning till 1 100 hrs. BNS therefore

used readily available dried cut grasses as nest insulation, to

maintain the internal temperature. Studies on the insulation

properties of Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) nests indicate

that clean nests could maintain the surface temperature of

eggs/nest only 1.5-2.5°C above the ambient temperature

during evening hours (Rodgers etal. 1988). Three experimental

nests of Wood Stork in the United States with greenery

exhibited higher insulation properties, especially in the intact

and dried greenery nests (Rodgers et al. 1988), irrespective

of the time of the day. This was contradictory to BNS in

Dudhwa, which mostly used dry grasses. But often we had

seen storks collecting dried, but water-soaked grasses from

nearby during the sunny part of the day. This behaviour was

observed on October 1, 1996; we presume that the female

stork might have laid the eggs either on that day or within the

next two days.

According to Rodgers hypothesis, a nest with fresh

greenery had higher insulation value especially during the

early morning hours. This may be due to the initial higher

water content of the fresh greenery and resultant greater heat

transfer through evaporation. The energy cost in procuring

Table 5: Number of nest material trips made by

parent Black-necked Storks

greenery was more than that of collecting dried grasses for

BNS. Furthermore, the dried and cut grasses were available

abundantly and close to the nest. Nest insulation depends

on the materials used in nest construction, which depends

on availability ( Whittow and Berger 1977; Skowron and Kern

1980; Rodgers et al. 1988). Since BNS is a big (c. 6 kg) bird

and cannot lift off suddenly with a huge load of greenery, to

reach the nest situated on top of a 20 m high tree, it probably

preferred dried grasses that have less weight. Similar

preference for dry over fresh vegetation has also been

reported among Great Tit (Pams major) (Mertens 1977). The

availability and preference in terms of nest materials’

usefulness determined the selection of nest insulation

materials among BNS in Dudhwa National Park.

Watering and nest material trips may have been

combined with food trips to reduce the energy loss when

storks go for such trips separately. By combining such trips,

BNS also stayed with the juveniles longer, to give them

protection. Trees are scarce and isolated in the grasslands of

DNP, and thus the visibility was good for adult BNS. This

probably helped the birds to detect and avoid predators. On

two occasions, the BNS pair was seen chasing away the

intruder (intraspecies) with great determination, even leaving

the nest with eggs alone for a few minutes. Black-necked

Storks are more aggressive towards intraspecifics during the

breeding season, mainly ( 1 ) To protect the nest for the future,

as BNS tend to use the nest year after year. If another stork

identifies the nest, it may come and occupy the same in the

next season. (2) As BNS prefers to build nests close to a good

food source, it is possible that by identifying the nest of BNS,

other birds with similar food preferences can exploit the food

sources.

Approximately two days after the chicks had hatched,

we saw the male BNS feeding on fish taken from the nest

floor. One of the parents must have deposited these fish during

the night. It appeared that, immediately after egg hatching,

the adults start bringing food to the juveniles in spite of them

being very young and not able to consume all the food.

Both male and female storks spend almost equal amount

of time in feeding their young ones throughout the breeding

season, but the amount varies. It was observed among

Intermediate Egrets (Mesophoyx intermedia) that the number

of feeding visits to the nest and the amount of food boluses

regurgitated were in direct proportion to the number of chicks

being fed (McKilligan 1990). The quantity and size of food

brought by parent storks depended greatly on the age of

their nestlings, as Kahl (1964) has reported in Wood Storks.

Even though there was not much difference between the time

spent by the male and female BNS for feeding the chicks, the

frequency of feeding bouts varied significantly. This was

310

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK IN DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK

further evident from the change in the feeding bouts during

the different chick stages. This difference might largely be

due to the feeding success of the foraging BNS (Maheswaran

and Rahmani 2002) in Dudhwa National Park. Among BNS,

males were more successful in procuring food than the females.

During the breeding season, the male BNS explored more

wetlands situated in far off places than the female, and this

was confirmed when the male was observed going very far

from the nest and returning very late, sometimes 6-7 hours

later. But, we did not observe the adult storks’ foraging

behaviour during breeding season. The female may have

re-ingested less food during mid-day. This was due to the

increase in consumption of food by the growing juveniles.

The female fed the chicks with less food than the male; the

regurgitated food was completely or mostly consumed by the

juveniles. In the early stages, when chicks were not able to

eat all the fish, the parents re-ingested it and offered it later in

the form of a bolus. However, more studies on different nests

either simultaneously or during different years are needed

within Dudhwa.

Availability of food (Kahl 1964; Clark 1979) and ability

of the parents to provide adequate food to their chicks (Coulter

and Bryan 1995 ) affect the reproductive success of ciconiiform

birds. In Dudhwa, immediately after monsoon (when water

starts drying) all the ponds were full of fish, which supported

all fish-eating birds including BNS (Maheswaran and Rahmani

2001). Some long-legged wading birds had the greatest

reproductive success or began breeding in large numbers

during years with faster drying rates than in years with slower

drying rates (Kushlan etal. 1975). The male fled the nest and

often stayed away from the nest longer to get enough food

for himself, besides collecting food for juveniles. His tendency

to feed the juveniles more than the female must have compelled

the bird to stay away (foraging) from the nest for longer periods

on a few occasions. The optimum level of parental investment

can be determined by the reproductive value of the brood

(Houston and Davies 1985; Moller 1986) and the survival

chances of the parent and the young at the given level of

parental effort (Chase 1980; Houston and Davies 1985;

Sargent and Gross 1985; Winkler 1987). As a large wading

bird, BNS requires considerable quantity of food, especially

during the breeding season, for successful breeding. Low

food intake is particularly critical for fish-eating birds because

of their load of symbiotic gastric nematodes, which attack the

host when food consumption is reduced (Kushlan 1974).

REFEI

Aguilera, E. (1990): Sexual differences in nest attendance and chick-

feeding rhythms of White Spoonbills. Auk J07: 416-420.

Baker, J.R. (1938): The relation between latitude and breeding seasons

in birds. Proc. Zool. Soc. London. 108: 557-582.

We found that the parental investment of the male and

female BNS was not equal. According to Aguilera (1990),

among White Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia, males

generally were absent from the colony at night (presumably

foraging), while females attended to the nests. Yet there may

be differences in the optimal level of investment for each

partner (Trivers 1972). Sometimes there appeared to be

competition for food between the male and female on the

nest, but the reason for which was not clear. During the chick-

rearing period, the competition for food grew at the nest, and

even hungry juveniles did not get enough food.

The main reason for juveniles not getting enough food

even when the parents were present on the nest could be the

adult’s unwillingness to offer food, fearing that the other

partner would pilfer it. Only on a few occasions (n=12) did

juveniles get food when both parent birds were present at the

nest. When the chicks became older and started consuming

more food, responsibility of parents to find food increased

and this led to the competition between them. The ravenous

juveniles had to stay on the nest for hours together without

food. Further study is needed to determine if this observed

tendency of storks could be one of the reasons for the

declining population throughout their distributional ranges,

apart from habitat alteration. Reductions in potential habitats

leave storks with less food, resulting in severe competition

among the adults, sometimes forcing them to avoid breeding.

In three years we could see only one pair (out of three)

breeding within Dudhwa National Park, that too only in 1 996.

Why the other two pairs did not breed within the Park can

only be clarified by carrying out detailed long-term studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India and the Uttar Pradesh State

Forest Department for their co-operation and support

throughout the study. We are grateful to the U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service for financial support and guidance. We would

like to thank Dr. Malcolm C. Coulter, Co-chair, lUCN/BirdLife

IntemationalAVetlands International, Specialist Group on

Storks, Ibises and Spoonbills for help in the field as well as

while GM was writing his Ph.D thesis. GM is grateful to Mr.

Rupak De, IFS, Director, Dudhwa National Park for support

and hospitality. GM is grateful to his field assistant Mr. Radhey

Shyam for his commendable assistance in the field.

JCES

Burger, J. (1978): The pattern and mechanism of nesting in mixed

species heronries. Pp. 45-68. In: Wading birds (Eds: Sprunt, A.

IV, J.C. Ogden and S. Winckler). Math Audubon Soc. Res. Dep.,

Rep No. 7.

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Chase, I.D. (1980): Cooperative and non-cooperative behaviour in

animals. Am. Nat. 115: 827-857.

Clark, E.S. (1979): Factors affecting the initiation and success of

nesting in an east-central Florida Wood Stork colony. Proc.

Colon. Waterbird Group 2: 178-188.

Coulter, M.C. & A.L. Bryan (1995): Factors affecting reproductive

success of Wood Stork (Mycteria americana) in east-central

Georgia. Auk 112: 237-243.

Dorfman, F.J., A. Lamont & D.C.R. Dickman (2001): Foraging

behaviour and success of Black-necked Storks (Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus) in Australia: implications for management. Emu 101:

145-149.

Hancock, J. A. & J. A. Kushlan (1984): The Herons Handbook. Croom

Helm, London, and Harper & Row, New York.

Hancock, J. A. & J.A. Kushlan & M. P. Kahl (1992): Storks, Ibises

and Spoonbills of the world. Academic Press, New York.

Houston, A. I. & N. B. Davies (1985): The evolution of cooperation

and life history in the Duuock, Prunella modularis. Pp. 471-

487. In: Behavioural ecology: the ecological consequences of

adaptive behaviour (Fds: Sibly R. and R. Smith). Blackwell, Oxford.

Kahl, M.P. (1964): Food ecology of the Wood Stork {.Mycteria

americana) in Florida. Ecol. Monogr. 34: 97-117.

Kahl, M.P. (1971): Observations on the breeding of Storks in India

and Ceylon. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 453-461.

Kahl, M.P. (1973): Comparative ethology of the Ciconiidae. Part 6.

The Black-necked, Saddlebill, and Jabiru storks (Genera

Xenorhynchus. Ephippiorhynchus and Jabiru). Condor 75: 17-

27.

Kahn, M.A.R. (1987): Conservation of storks and other waterbirds in

Bangladesh. Colonial Waterbirds 10: 229-235.

Kushlan, J.A. ( 1974): Effects of a natural fish kill on the water quality,

plankton and fish population of a pond in the Big Cypress Swamp.

Florida Trans. Am. Eish. Soc. 2: 235-243.

Kushlan, J.A., J.C. Ogden & A.L. Higer (1975): Relation of water

level and fish availability to Wood Stork reproduction in the

southern Everglades, Florida. U.S. Geol. Survey. Open File Report

75-434. Tallahassee, Florida.

Maheswaran, G. (1998): Ecology and behaviour of the Black-necked

Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in Dudhwa National Park,

Uttar Pradesh, India. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Aligarh Muslim

University, Aligarh, India.

Maheswaran, G. & A.R. Rahmani (2001 ): Effects of water level changes

and wading bird abundance on the foraging behaviour of black-

necked stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in Dudhwa National

Park, India. J. Biosci. 26: 373-382.

Maheswaran, G. & A.R. Rahmani (2002): Foraging behaviour and

feeding success of the Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus in Dudhwa National Park, Uttar Pradesh, India. J. Zoo/.

(Land.). 258: 189-195.

Maheswaran, G, A.R. Rahmani & M.C. Coulter (2004): Recent records

of Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in India.

Forktail 20: 112-116.

McKilligan, N.G (1990): The breeding biology of the Intermediate

Egret Part 1 : The physical and behavioural development of the

chick, with special reference to sibling aggression and food intake.

Corella 14: 162-169.

Mertens, J.A.L. (1977): Thermal conditions for successful breeding in

Great Tits (Parus major) II. Thermal properties of nest and nest

boxes and their implication for the range of temperature tolerance

of Great Tit broods. Oecologia 28: 31-56.

Moller, A.R (1986): Mating systems among European passerines: a

review. Ibis 128: 234-250.

Norusis, S. (1994): SPSS Inc. 444 North Michigan Avenue, Chicago, IL

60611.

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of the Black-necked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in the Indian subcontinent. Forktail

5: 99-110.

Rodgers, A. W. & H. S. Panwar (1988): Planning a Protected Area

Network in India. Vol. 1 - The Report. Wildlife Institute of

India.

Rodgers, J.A., A.S. Wenner & S.T. Schvvtkert (1988): The use and

function of green nest material by Wood Storks. Wilson. Bull.

100: 411-423.

Sargent, R.C. & M.R. Gross (1985): Parental investment decision

rules and the Concorde fallacy. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 17: 43-

45.

Skowron, C. & M. Kern (1980): The insulation in nests of selected

North American songbirds. Auk 97: 816-824.

StataCorp. (1997): Stata Statistical Software: Release 5.0 College

Station, TX: Stata Corporation.

Sundar, K.S. (2003): Notes on the breeding biology of the Black-

necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus in Etawah and Mainpuri

districts, Uttar Pradesh, India. Forktail 19: 15-20.

Thomas, B.T. (1986): The behaviour and breeding of adult Maguari

Storks. Condor 88: 26-34.

Trivers, R.L. (1972): Parental investment and sexual selection. Pp.

136-179. In: Sexual selection and the descent of man, 1871-

1971. (Ed: Campbell, B.). Aldine-Atherton, Chicago.

Werschkul, D.F. (1982): Nesting ecology of the Little Blue Heron:

Promiscuous behaviour. Condor 84: 381-384.

Whittow, G.C. & A.J. Berger (1977): Heat loss from the nest of the

Hawaiian Honeycreeper “Amakihi”. Wilson. Bull. 89: 480-483.

Winkler, D.W. (1987): A general model for parental care. Am. Nat.

130: 526-543.

312

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

313-314

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OE PTERIS L. (PTERIDACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA)

FROM WESTERN GHATS OF SOUTH INDIA'

S. Dominic Rajkumar-

■Accepted June, 2002

‘Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Environmental Sciences, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: dominicraj_in@ yahoo, com

A new species of the genus Pteris from the Western Ghats ranges of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu is described and

illustrated.

Key words: Pteris manickami, Pteris L., Pteridaceae, Western Ghats, South India

INTRODUCTION

Pteris Linn, is a pantropical, warm temperate genus with

about 280 species (Copeland 1947). Holttum ( 1954) included

250 species in this genus, while Tryon and Tryon (1982)

accredited only 200. In India, about 50 species are known

(Dixit 1984). Manickam and Irudayaraj ( 1992) have recorded

about 15 species in the Western Ghats, South India. The new

species Pteris manickami distinctly varies from all the other

50 Indian species and particularly the allied species Pteris

confnsa T.G Walker (RHT 32560, 32632, 32698).

Pteris manickami is exceptional in having the basal-

most pair of pinnules or lobes reduced in all the pinnae.

Pteris manickami sp. nov.

(Fig. I)

Description: Rhizomate erecto, stipitibus 20-65 cm

longis, stramineis; laminis obscure viridis, late ovatis, 56 cm

longis. Pinnae usque ad 20-25 pares, subsessiles, oppositae.

Pinnae pinnatifidae, ad 2/3, Pinnae maximae 12x4 cm,

oblongae cum 12 to 20 paribus loborum, lobae basalis, par

deminuta, costa et nervatum hirsutae sparsim infra pinnam,

margo cum pilis, dispersis. Venis liberis 9-15. Sporae

tetrahedro - globosis, c. 46 pm in diametro. Sporae

abortivisque intermixtis.

Rhizome erect, stipe 20-65 cm long, stramineous.

Lamina green, ovate, 56 cm long. Pinnae 20-25 pairs,

subsessile, opposite. Pinnae pinnatifid, lobed 2/3 to the costa.

Pinna 12x4 cm maximum size, oblong with 12 to 20 pairs of

lobes. Basal-most pair of lobes reduced. Costa and margin of

the lobes sparsely hairy. Veins free, 9-15 pairs. Spores

tetrahedro - globose, c. 46 pm in diameter. Spores aborted

and intermixed.

Holotype: Devigar - Nagarigar path, Karnataka state,

900- 1 .200 m, 27.xii. 1 992, Manickam, XCH 2942.

Paratype: Maraiualai hills, Tamil Nadu state, 7(X)- 1 , 100 m,

lO.i. 1998 Rajkumar, XCH 3715.

Etymology: The specific epithet honours Rev. Dr. V.S.

Manickam, S.J., a pioneer in South Indian ferns, who was

instrumental in establishing the St. Xavier’s College Herbarium

(XCH), one of the largest herbaria in India for ferns, with

about 40,000 specimens.

Fig. 1 : Bipinnate frond of Pteris manickami Rajkumar sp. nov.

showing reduced basal-most pair of pinnules in all the pinnae

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ACTiNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the late Dr. K.U. Kramer (Switzerland)

for identifying some specimens (RHT 32560, 32632,

32698) for the study. I gratefully acknowledge financial

assistance received from the Department of Science and

Technology, Govt of India, through the Young Scientist

scheme.

REFERENCES

Copeland, E.B. ( 1947); Genera filicum. The genera of ferns. Chronica

Botanic, Waltham, Mass, USA. 78 pp.

Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes. Botanical

Survey of India, Department of Environment, Howrah.

69 pp.

Holttum, R.E. (1954): A revised flora of Malaya. Ferns of Malaya

Govt. Printing Office, Singapore. 400 pp.

Manickam, S. & V. Irudayaraj (1992); Pteridophyte flora of the

Western Ghats, South India. B.I. Publications, New Delhi.

67 pp.

Tryon, R.M. & A.F. Tryon (1982): Ferns allied plants with reference

to Tropical America. Springer- Verlag, New York. 221 pp.

314

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

315-323

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS EUPLECTRUS WESTWOOD

(HYMENOPTERA; EULOPHIDAE) EROM INDIA'

M.A. Khan“'^ and M. Agnihotri ^

'Accepted June 2004

-Biological Control Laboratory, Department of Entomology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,

Pantnagar 263 145, Uttar Pradesh, India.

’Email: [email protected]

Four new species of the genus Euplectrus Westwood namely E. pantnagarensis, E. diibeyi, E. viggianii and E. longiscapus

are described and illustrated. A key to some Indian species has also been framed.

Key words: Hymenoptera, Eulophidae, Euplectrus longiscapus sp. nov., E. pantnagarensis sp. nov., Euplectrus duheyi

sp. nov., E. viggianii sp. nov.

Genus Euplectrus Westwood

Euplectrus Westwood 1832, Phil. Mag. 3: 128. Type

species: (Euplectrus maculiventris Westwood) = Pteromalus

bicolor Swedems; by monotypy.

Diplectron Dahlbom 1857, 292. Synonymy by Gahan &

Fagan 1923. Type species: Pteromalus Tt/co/or Swederus, by

designation of Gahan and Fagan 1923.

Pacliyscapha Howard 1897: 159. Synonymy by Peck

1951. Type species: Pacliyscapha insularis Howard; by

monotypy.

Rekabia Cameron 1904: 65. Synonymy by Kerrich 1974.

Type species: Rekabia testaceipes Cameron, by monotypy.

Heteroscapus Brethes 1918:9. Synonymy by De Santis

1981. Type species: Heteroscapus romiai Brethes, by

monotypy.

Euplectrus CcasNioid 1909, Proc. US. Natn. Mus. 41:

279.

Euplectrus Crawford 1914, Philipp. J. Sci. 1(9): 463.

Euplectrus Rohwer 1921, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 7: 135.

EuplectrusNlard \ 9A\, Indian J. Ent. 3: 25-36.

Euplectrus Ferriere 1941, 5n//. ent. Res. 32: 33.

Euplectrus Bhatnagar 1952, Indian J. Agr Sci. 21 : 173.

Euplectrus Mukherjee 1975, Mem. School Ent. Agra,

No. 4: 60.

Euplectrus Hussain and Khan 1986, Orient. Ins. 20:

221-223.

Euplectrus ^oucek. \9%%, Australasian Chalcidoidea,

633-634.

Euplectrus Wijesekara and Schauff 1994, Orient. Ins.

28: 1-48.

Euplectrus Wijesekara and Schauff 1997, Proc. Ent.

Soc. Wash. 99 (11): 101-109.

Diagnosis: Genus Euplectrus was proposed by

Westwood (1832) with the type species E. maculiventris. The

genus can be easily distinguished from other allied genera by

the following combination of characters: scutellum without

longitudinal grooves, which has mostly rather fine sculpture

or is almost smooth; pronotum, rather short, dorsally with a

fine transverse carina; hind tibia with at least one spur

distinctly longer than basitarsus, thorax mostly with

outstanding tong bristles, funicle always segmented in female

(Boucek 1988).

Discussion: The genus Euplectrus belongs to tribe

Euplectrini, subfamily Eulophinae. It stands close to the genera

Euplectromorpha Girault but differs from it in the above-

mentioned diagnostic characters. The structure of propodeum

in Euplectromorpha with two strong submedian carinae

behind a distinct basal cup or, if latter is extended, with H-

shaped carinae further separate the two genera. All recent

workers have considered the genera Diplectron Dahlbom,

Pacliyscapha Howard, Reckabia Cameron and Heteroscapus

Brethes to be synonyms of Euplectrus Westwood. Kerrich

(1974) synonymized the genus Rekabia Cameron with

Euplectrus Westwood. The distinguishing characters of the

genus as proposed by Nikol’skaya ( 1952); Peck etal. (1964)

and additional generic characters of pronotum, female

genitalia and subgenital plate as proposed by Khan and Shafee

(1980) apply well to the present species.

Recently, Wijesekara and Schauff ( 1 994 ) revised the genera

and species of the tribe Euplectrini (Eulophidae) and described

eight Euplectrus species as new, namely E. atrafacies,

E. colliosilvus,E. geethae,E. itoralis,E. mellocoxus,E. nibilis,

E. peechansis and E. xanthovulatus. They transferred five

species previously placed in this genus to other euplectrine

genera as follows: E. flavescens Crawford = Aroplectriis

flavescens (Crawford) comb, nov.; E. phillippinensis AtAvmead

= Platyplectrus phillippinensis (Ashmead) comb nov.;

E. rugosus Crawford = P. mgosus (Crawford) comb, nov.; and

E. japonicus Ashmead = P. japonicus (Ashmead) comb. nov.

They also removed E. ornatus from Euplectrini and placed as

Cirrospilus ornatus (Mukherjee) comb nov. (in Eulophinae).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Biology: Primary gregarious ectoparasitoids of

caterpillars.

Distribution: Occurs in all biogeographical regions.

Boucek (1988) estimated the number of species to be about

100. Most species are probably in the tropics. There are 12

species each in Australia and North America while 1 6 species

are recorded from India.

Abbreviations used: FSl, FS2, FS3 and FS4 funicular

segments 1-4; OOL- oculo-ocellar length, distance between

lateral ocellus and eye margin; POL- postero-ocellar length,

distance between lateral ocelli; MV- marginal vein; PMV-

postmarginal vein; SMV- submarginal vein; SV- stigmal vein.

Key to some Indian species

OF THE GENUS EuPLECTRUS WeSTWOOD

1 . All legs, including their coxae uniformly coloured yellow or

white 2

— Legs with differential colour black, brown, reddish brown, light

brown or a combination of these 10

2. Pedicel armed with bristles 3

— Pedicel without any bristle 7

3. Pedicel with 5 long bristles, entire face dark brown, antennae

light brown, scape about 7 times longer than wide, pedicel dark

brown, club 2-segmented E. pantnagarensis sp. nov.

— Pedicel not more than 2 stout bristles, entire face black; scape

less than 7 times longer than wide 4

4. Pedicel with 2 stout bristles 15

— Pedicel with only 1 bristle 5

5. Vertex shallowly and closely punctate face very finely and

obscurely punctate; POL more than 3 times as great OOL;

prominence between antennal toruli distinctly more than one-

third the width of frons between eyes; antennal scape pale

white, rest of the antennal segments hyaline light brown; only

one very narrow anellus present; scape 3 times as long as wide,

funicle segments subequal about 2 times as long as broad; club

unsegmented, distinctly shorter than preceding 2 funicle

segments combined, mesoscutum strongly, rugulosely punctate

anteriorly, the punctures not very well defined and virtually

coalescent; scutellum and axillae minutely and shallow punctate;

gaster mostly white except for a discontinuous centrally

intermpted pale brown band apically, laterally and at the extreme

base brown E. matemus Bhatnagar

— Vertex and face smooth, without punctuation; POL and OOL

almost equal in length; prominence between antennal toruli

slightly less than one-third the width of frons between eyes;

scape uniformly white, pedicel, anelli and first 2 funicle segments

yellow, rest of the flagellum infuscated; only two anelli present;

scape 5 times as long as wide; FS 1 longest, almost 1 .5 times as

long as wide, funicle segments 2-4 sub-equal in size; distinctly

longer than wide; club 2 segmented longer than preceding 2

funicle segments together; thorax smooth without punctation;

gaster dark brown except a white patch on middle of dorsum

E. longiscapus sp. nov.

6. Scutellum uniformly punctate; or punctate in the middle. ... 7

— Scutellum not likewise smooth 8

7. Gaster yellow above, with only the sides and a more or less

complete transverse band before the end brown, antennae

slightly brown at tip; ocelli very large; the lateral ocelli close to

the eye margins than to the front ocellus, pubescence, whitish,

funicle segments not sub-equal in length; scutellum uniformly

finely longitudinally striate; propodeum smooth; petiole slightly

broader than long E. leucostoinus Rohwer

— Gaster black with a large yellow spot, without any transverse

band; antennae uniformly yellowish white without infuscation

at tip; ocelli small, widely separated from the eye margins; the

OOL two-third as long as the POL; pubescence brown; funicle

segments sub-equal in length; scutellum finely reticulate

medially, reticulate lineate laterally; propodeum shining median

furrow distinct, complete, petiole granular, longer than wide

E. euplexiane Rohwer

8. Pedicel slightly longer than broad; gaster yellow with a

transverse strip before the end, line on the sides of the second

segment and the petiole brown; vertex almost smooth, cilia

very scattered; antennae with scape rather short, not reaching

to the median ocellus; funicle thicker, funicular segments

subequal in length E. parviilus Ferriere

— Pedicel 2 times or about 2 times as long as wide and other

character different 9

9. Gaster black with a rounded yellow spot; antennae brown, scape

and pedicel yellow; vertex smooth; ocelli rather large, the lateral

ocelli at about the same distance from the median ocellus as from

the eye margins; scape narrow and elongate, but not reaching to

the level of median ocellus; mesoscutum finely reticulate, without

median carina, scutellum smooth; MV a little longer than the

SMV; the longest hind tibial spur not quite as long as the first 2

tar sal joints together, petiole smooth, elongate, almost 3 times as

long as broad E. petiolatus Ferriere

— Gaster yellow above, slightly more orange-yellow at tip, only

2 lines on the sides at base and the petiole black; antennae

orange-yellow, brown towards tip, scape light yellow; pronotum

very short; mesoscutum with irregular transverse striate;

scutellum finely reticulate E. coimbatorensis Ferriere

10. Pedicel distinctly longer than FSl 11

— Pedicel not likewise as long as or shorter than FSl 12

1 1 . Gaster reddish brown in the middle; ocelli dark reddish brown;

POL almost equal in length to OOL; malar space very long,

almost 2 times the eye width; antennae dark brown except

scape, pedicel and the anellus reddish brown, an anellus present;

scape about 4 times as long as wide; funicle segments subequal

in size; club unsegmented, equal to Vi of the preceding 2 funicle

segments; mesoscutum and scutellum shallowly and closely

punctate; the longer hind tibial spur distinctly longer than the

316

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

length of basal 2 tarsal join together

E. spodoptera Bhatnagar

— Caster dark brown with metallic bluish reflections on the dorsum;

ocelli white; length of POL almost 2 times as much as OOL;

malar space longer than eye width; antennae yellow with slight

infuscation except scape uniformly white; three anelli present;

scape slightly more than 5 times as long as wide; funicle segments

gradually increasing in width distad; FSl as long as FS2, FS3

shortest, a trifle longer than wide FS4 quadrate; club three

segmented; almost as long as preceding two funicle segments

together; mesonotum and scutellum without punctations;

longest hind tibial spur shorter than the basal two joints together

E. viggianii sp.nov.

12. Pedicel shorter than FS 1 13

— Pedicel as long as FSl 14

13. Scape white, segment of funicle unequal; hind coxae completely

black E. biissyi Crawford

— Scape brown, segments of funicle subequal; hind coxae black

basally and reddish brown apically; body black except below

antennae light brown and gaster with a light brown patch in the

middle; vertex and face very finely and closely punctate, in low

power appears to be met with fine grains; antennae brown

except scape yellowish white; 2 anelli present

E. inatimri Bhatnagar

14. Mesoscutum coarsely reticulate medio-posteriorly, finely and

lineately shagreened anterio-laterally, without a median line or

furrow; head without punctures; scutellum faintly longitudinally

striate; funicle segments gradually increasing in length, the FS4

somewhat shorter than FS3, club entire

E. Htethesiae Mani and Kurian

— Midlobe of mesoscutum reticulately rugose, at rear medially

with 1 or 2 longitudinal rugae, which extend fomard about one-

third the length of mesoscutum; scutellum basally indistinctly

reticulate E. nyctemerae Crawford

15. Light brown with white scape, and pedicel; gaster light yellow

except tip, sides and petiole black; petiole rather long, 2 times

as long as broad or little less, longer spur of hind tibia reaching

0.66 the length of first two tarsal segments together

E. ceyloneiisis Howard

— Yellowish brown antennae except scape white with infuscation,

gaster dark except with a broad yellow patch on mid dorsum

before apex petiole short as long as wide, longer spur of hind

tibia equal to the length of first two tarsal segments together.

E. dubeyi sp. nov.

Euplectrus pantnagarensis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-11)

Female; Dark brown; head lustrous dark brown, eyes

reddish brown; antennae light brown; thorax dark brown with

purplish reflections; wings hyaline; legs yellow; gaster dark

brown.

Head (Fig. I ): Smooth except upper part of the frons

very finely reticulate; wider than long in facial view

(0.58: 0.43), frontovertex less than 3 times wider than long

(0.36: 0.19), ocelli arranged in obtuse angled triangle; POL:

OOL 0.10: 0.1 1; antennal toruli just at the lower level of eyes,

distance between antennal toruli situated (0.08) more than

l/4th the width of frons: malar sulcus absent; length of

malar space (0.19) much more than the eye width (0.11);

maxillary palp and labial palp two and one segmented

respectively. Antennae (Fig. 4): Scape cylindrical, apex of

scape reaching up to the median ocellus, about 7 times

longer than wide (0.25: 0.035), pedicel dark brown, short, more

than 2 times longer than wide (0.09: 0.035), 2 anelli

present; funicle 4 segmented, subequal in size except

the FSl short (0.13: 0.55), numerous sensilla and hairs

present.

Thorax (Fig. 5 ): Pronotum reticulate and deeply notched

at the anterior margin, posterior margin convex with 2 pairs

of long setae (Fig. 6), mesoscutum more than 2 times wider

than long (0.59: 0.28) with 6 pairs of setae, midlobe coarsely

and strongly reticulate, scutellum smooth; axillae triangular

and weakly reticulate, scutellum slightly wider than long

(0.3 1 : 0. 16) with blunt apex, metanotum, band like, propodeum

expanded on sides, median and submedian carinae and plicae

prominent, sides of the propodeum with 3 long setae.

Forewings (Fig. 7): more than 2 times longer than wide,

SMV long (0.34) with 5 long setae, MV much longer (0.5 1 );

PMV longer than SV (0.21: 0.15), costal cell naiTow, speculum

broad and closed below, basal triangle hyaline, disc uniformly

setose, marginal fringes moderate. Hind wings: more than

4 times longer than wide, tapering at the apex, marginal

fringes long. Legs (Figs 8-10): hind legs with 2 tibial spurs;

first tibial spur longer than basitarsus, remaining legs

normal.

Gaster: Petiole slightly longer than wide; first valvifer

triangular (Fig. 1 1 ) semicircular, second valvifer uniform in

width, curved; third valvulae rudimentary, outer plate of

ovipositor much enlarged, narrow at the base, much broadened

at the apex, apex dark brown with a long setae, dorsal marginal

ridge present throughout the length.

Male: Not known

Material Examined: Holotype: $ . india: Uttaranchal,

Nainital, Pantnagar, CRC, host unknown, sweep net collection

on Pigeon Pea. 2.xii.l990. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 1001 (S.N. Sushil).

Paratypes: 4 $ $ , data same as holotype. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 3029b

(S.N. Sushil). Holotype and Paratypes have been deposited

in the Entomological Museum. G.B.P.U. A & T, Pantnagar,

India.

Etymology: The species name is derived from the type

locality.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

317

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-11 : Euplectrus pantnagarensissp. nov.

1 . Head in frontal view, 2. Head in dorsal view, 3. Antenna, 4. Pronotum, 5. Thorax in dorsal view,

6. Propodeum, 7. Part of fore wing, 8. Part of fore leg, 9. Part of mid leg, 1 0. Part of hind leg, 1 1 . Female genitalia

Euplectrus dubeyi sp. nov.

(Figs 12-23)

Female: Body length about 2.12 mm; general body

colour black with metallic reflections; head black with slight

metallic reflections except clypeal region and scape white with

infuscation; thorax dark with metallic green reflections; wings

hyaline; legs uniformly honey yellow; gaster dark except a

broad yellow patch on mid dorsum.

Head (Fig. 12): Smooth except upper part of the frons

weakly reticulate; frontovertex more than 2.4 times as wide as

long (0.69:0.29); head in dorsal view more than 1.3 times as

wide as long (0.67:0.50); ocelli arranged in obtuse angled

triangle; POL:OOL 0. 15:0.07; width of frons more than 3.5 times

318

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 12-23: Euplectrus dubeyi sp. nov.

1 2. Head in frontal view, 1 3. Head in dorsal view, 1 4. Mandible, 1 5. Antenna, 1 6. Pronotum ,

1 7. Thorax in dorsal view, 1 8. Forewing, 1 9. Hind wing, 20. Part of fore leg, 21 . Part of mid leg, 22. Part of hind leg, 23. Female genitalia

the distance between antennal toruli; antennae inserted just at

the lower level of eyes; scape not reaching up to the level of

median ocellus; maxillary palp and labial palp two and one

segmented respectively. Malar sulcus absent, length of malar

space times the eye width; mandible bidentate Antenna (Fig.

15): 8 segmented excluding broad anellus; scape slightly dilated

with long setae, more than 5 times as long as wide (0.28: 0.05);

pedicel with 2 strong and 2 small setae, slightly 2 times as long

as wide (0.09: 0.045), slightly longer than FSl; funicle 4

segmented, FSl less than 2 times as long as wide (0.07: 0.04),

longer than each succeeding segment, FS2 and FS4 sub-equal

in size (0.06: 0.05), slightly longer than wide, club 2 segmented,

less than 2 times as long as wide (0.1 1: 0.065), shghtly shorter

than preceding two funicle segments together.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

319

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Thorax (Fig. 17): Pronotum with anterior margin deeply

concave in middle and reticulate (Fig. 16), anterolateral arms

long and narrow, posterior margin much convex bearing 3

pairs of long setae; mesoscutum wider than long (0.59: 0.34),

midlobe weakly reticulate anteriorly and strongly posteriorly,

and with 4 pairs of setae; scutellum distinctly wider than long

(0.40: 0.31 ), with 2 pairs of setae and round at apex; axillae

smooth; propodeum less than 3 times as wide as long (0.62:

0.22), with prominent median carina and plicae, spiracles

separated by a space more than one half the length of a

spiracle. Forewings (Fig. 18): more than 2 times as long as

wide ( 1 .69: 0.72) with round apex; costal cell long, broad with

9 setae in row; SMV with 5 long setae, 4 upward and 1

downward, slightly shorter (0.48) than MV (0.53); MV with 13

setae; SV more than (0.14) I /3rd the length of MV and slightly

longer than PMV (0. 1 2); basal cell bare; speculum narrow and

closed below; cubital vein almost straight; subcubital line of

hairs starting from the base of cubital vein; marginal fringe

short, spaced by a distance less than 1/2 of their length. Fliml

wings (Fig. 19): 5 times as long as wide; marginal fringes

spaced by a distance equal to 1/2 of their length. Fore legs

(Fig. 20): basitarsus with an oblique row of 8 setae; tibial spur

much shorter. Middle legs (Fig. 21): apical rim of tibiae with 2

pegs tibial spur long. Hind legs (Fig. 22): characterized by the

presence of two long tibial spur, longest tibial spur (0.32)

equal to the length of basal 2 tarsal segments together, shortest

tibial spur (0.22) sub-equal in length to the first basal segment.

Gaster: Petiole short as long as broad; ovipositor

slightly concealed arising from apical one third of gaster; first

valvifers triangular (Fig. 23) with basal margin concave; second

valvifers on uniform width, almost 8 times as long as wide

(0.39: 0.05); third valvulae rudimentary (0.02) (Fig. 23),

articulated with the second valvifers; outer plates of ovipositor

narrow at the base, widened at apex, median longitudinal ridge

well extended to the apex of outer plates of ovipositor.

Male: Not Known.

Material Examined: Holotype: 9 . india: Uttar Pradesh,

Rampur, host unknown, sweepnet collection, mango trees;

26.x. 1990. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 1002 (R.S.J. Singh). Paratypes: 3

? ?,datasameasholotype. Hym:Eulo. Nr. 1002 (R.S.J. Singh).

Holotype and Paratypes have been deposited in the

Entomological Museum, GB.P.U. A & T, Pantnagar, India.

Etymology: The species is named in honour of Dr. O.P.

Dubey, ADG (PP) ICAR, Govt, of India, New Delhi for his

contribution to promoting Insect taxonomy in India.

Euplectrus viggianii sp. nov.

(Pigs 24-33)

Head (Pig. 24): Dark brown with metallic bluish

reflections, wider than long (0.61 :0. 44); finely reticulate with

punctures on frontovertex width less than 2 times the total

head width (0.34:0.61 ); ocelli white arranged in obtuse angled

triangle; POL:OOL 0.12:0.07; antennal toruli slightly above

the lower level of eyes; apex of scape not reaching up to the

median ocellus; prominence between antennal toruli less than

l/4th the width of frons between eyes (0.09:0.34); malar sulcus

absent, length of malar space longer than the eye width

(0.15:0.13); maxillary palp and labial palp two and one

segmented respectively. Ante/jnc/e (Pig. 25): yellow with slight

infuscation, except scape uniformly whitish, nine segmented

excluding 3 anelli; scape cylindrical, slightly more than 5 times

as long as wide (0.22:0.05); pedicel less than 2 times as long

as wide (0.09:0.05), distinctly longer than ESI, funicle

4 segmented, segments gradually increasing in width distad,

ESI (0.07:0.045) as long as FS2 (0.07:0.055), PS3 shortest, a

trifle longer than wide (0.065:0.06), PS4 quadrate (0.07:0.07),

club 3 segmented, slightly more than 2 times as long as wide

(0.0165:0.08), almost as long as preceding two funicle segments

together.

Thorax: Dark brown with metalhc bluish reflections and

pronotum (Fig. 26) with anterior margin deeply concave in the

middle, anterolateral arms moderate, posterior margin convex

hearing 3 pairs of long setae, posterolateral grooves deep,

side projections raised, developed; mesoscutum with 3 pairs

of long bristles wider than long scutellum smooth longer than

wide and 3 pairs of bristles; axillae weakly reticulate propodeum

with a median carina. Forewings (Fig. 28): Hyaline almost 2.5

times as long as wide ( 1 .8:0.7); costal cell broad and long with

3 long and 15 small setae; SMV (0.61) with 4 strong setae,

longer than MV (0.36), SV (0. 18) 1/2 the length of MV and

distinctly shorter than PMV (0.27); marginal fringe short,

spaced by a distance equal to l/3rd of their length. Hind

wing: (Fig. 29) hyaline, less than 5 times as long as wide

( 1 .3:0.28), blunt at apex; marginal fringe spaced by a distance

equal to 1/2 of their length. Fore legs (Fig. 30): uniformly

yellowish with slight infuscation, tibial spur shot, apical rim

of tibiae with four stout pegs, basitarsus with an oblique row

of small setae on dorsal surface. Middle legs (Fig. 31):

Uniformly yellowish, femora with a long, strong setae at apical

end; tibial spur shorter than basitarsus; apical rim of tibiae

with 3 stout pegs. Hind legs (Fig. 32); Uniformly yellow except

coxae with slight infuscation, tibiae with two strong tibial

spurs; longest tibial spur shorter than the length of basal two

tarsal joints together.

Gaster (Fig. 33); Dark brown with metallic bluish

reflections on the dorsum; petiolate, petiole, almost 1 .5 times

as long as wide; ovipositor concealed, arising from apical one

third of gastral venter, first valvifers triangular with basal and

apical angles at different level, basal margin concave, second

valvifers of uniform width and continuous with the third

320

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 24-33 : Euplectrus viggianiisp. nov.

24. Head in frontal aspect, 25. Antenna, 26. Pronotum, 27. Propodeum, 28. Forewing, 29. Hind wing, 30. Fore leg,

31 . Middle leg, 32. Hind leg, 33. Gaster

valvulae, outer ovipositor narrow at base, widened at apex;

subgenital plate of uniform width, anterior margin straight

posterior margin with a wide notch in the middle.

Length: 1.81 mm.

Male: Not Known.

Material Examined: Holotype: ? . india: Uttar Pradesh,

Pilibhit. Merasmia trapezalis (Guen.) (Lepidoptera:

Pyraustidae) on Zea mays. I.viii.l989. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 4001

(M.A. Khan). Paratypes: 10 9?, data same as holotype. Hym:

Eulo. Nr. 4002 (M.A. Khan). Holotype and Paratypes have

been deposited in the Entomological Museum, G.B.P.U. A&

T, Pantnagar, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

321

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

34. Head in frontal aspect, 35. Maxillary palp, 36. Antenna, 37. Pronotum, 38. Propodeum, 39. Fore wing,

40. Part of fore leg, 41 . Part of mid leg, 42. Hind leg, 43. Ovipositor

Etymology: The species is named in honour of Professor

G. Viggiani, University of Naples, Portici, Italy, for his

outstanding contribution to the Family Eulophidae.

Euplectrus longiscapus sp.nov.

(Figs 34-43)

Head (Fig. 34): Dark brown with metalhc reflections,

sparsely setose; finely reticulate, wider than long in facial view

(0.55:0.43); frontovertex less than 3 times as wide as long

(0.63:0.22), vertex with 6 very long setae; oceUi pale, arranged in

obtuse angled triangle, POL: OOL 0. 14: 0.09; eyes dark brown

and smooth; antennae inserted well above lower level of eyes;

prominence between antennal toruh shghtly more than l/4th

the width of frons between eyes (0.08: 0.33); apex of the scape

not reaching up to the median ocellus; malar sulcus absent;

length of malar space longer than eye width (0.18:0.11);

322

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

mandibles bidentate maxillary palp (Fig. 35 ) and labial palp two

and one segmented respectively. Antennae (Fig. 36): Scape white,

pedicel, anelli segments and first two funicle segments yellow

and rest of the flagellum infuscated; uniformly setose; pedicel

with a very long setae; 8-segmented excluding 2 anelli; scape

cylindrical, 5 times as long wide (0.2:0.05); pedicel 2 times as

long as wide (0.08:0.04), as long as FS 1 ; funicle 4-segmented;

FS 1 longest and less than 1 .5 times as long as wide (0.08: 0.05),

FSs 2-4 subequal in size (0.07:0.055); club 2 segmented, less

than 3 times as long as wide (0. 15:0.055), longer than preceding

two funicle segments together.

Thorax: Dark with metallic reflections and reticulate

sculpture; pronotum (Fig. 37) with anterior margin concave in

the middle, anterolateral arms moderately long, not much

narrow, posterior margin convex bearing 6 long setae; notauli

well developed; mesoscutum wider than long; scutellum

longer than wide; side lobe, mesoscutum and scutellum with

2, 4 and 4 long strong setae respectively; axillae bare;

propodeum (Fig. 38) with a median carina. Forewings (Fig.

39): hyaline, less than 3 times as long as wide (1.68:0.68);

costal cell broad, setose, setae arranged in an apical row, 1 2 in

number; basal vein with 3 setae; basal cell bare; speculum

short, closed below; cubital vein sinuate; 10 admarginal hairs

present; SMV (0.57)longer than MV (0.5);PMV (0.19) longer

than SV (0.17); marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance

equal to l/3rd of their length. Hind wings: Hyaline, more than

5 times as long as wide with apex blunt; sparsely setose;

marginal fringe short, spaced by a distance equal to 1/2 their

length. Legs (Figs 40-42): yellow, apex of each femora with a

long setae; mid tibial spur as long as basitarsus (Fig. 41);

hind legs with two stout tibial spurs (Fig. 42), longest tibial

spur shorter than the length of basal two tarsal segments

together.

Gaster: (Fig. 43) Dark brown except a white broad patch

on middle of dorsum; densely setose, petiolate, petiole less

than 2 times as long as wide; ovipositor concealed, arising

from apical l/3rd of gaster; first valvifers (Fig. 43) triangular

with basal and apical angles at different levels, basal margin

concave; second valvifers (Fig. 43) of uniform width; third

valvulae (Fig. 43) rudimentary, articulated with second valvifers;

outerplates of ovipositor (Fig. 43) narrow at base, widened at

apex, subgenital plate of uniform width, anterior margin straight,

posterior margin with a wide notch in the middle.

Length: 1.75 mm.

Male: Not known.

Material Examined: Holotype: ? . india: Uttaranchal,

Nainital, Pantnagar ex. Lamprosema indicata (Fabr.)

(Lepidoptera: Pyraustidae) on Phaseolus aureus (Green Gram)

6.iii. 1994. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 1003 (M.A. Khan). Paratype: 9 , data

same as holotype. Hym: Eulo. Nr. 1003 (M.A. Khan). Holotype

and Paratypes have been deposited in the Entomological

Museum, GB.P.U. A. & T., Pantnagar, India.

Etymology: The species name is from the long nature of

the scape.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. G.C. Sachan, Professor and Head,

Department of Entomology, GB. Pant University of Agric. &

Tech., Pantnagar, for providing necessary facilities. Einancial

assistance from Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi, in the research project is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). CAB

International Wallingford, U.K. Pp. 584-758. ‘Eulophidae Part’.

Brethes, J. (1918): Sobre Algunos Heminopteros utiles Del sud del

Brasil. Ann. Soc. Rural Argentina, 52: 7-11.

Cameron, P. (1904): New Hymenoptera mostly from Nicaragua.

In: Invertebrata Pacifica, Baker, C.F. 1: 65.

Dahlbom, A.G. (1857): Svenska sma - Ichneumonems familjer och

slagten. Ofvers. Vetensk. Acad. Fork. 14: 289-298.

De Santis, L. (1981): Nueva Sinonimia, nueva combination nuevas

citas de himenopteros chalcidoideos para la republica Argentina.

Neotropica 26: 153-154.

Gahan, A.B. & M.M. Fagan ( 1923): The type species of the genera of

Chalcidoidea or chalcid flies. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus. 124: 1-173.

Howard, L.O. (1897); On the Chalcididae of the Island of Grenada.

J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.j 26: 129-178.

Kerrich (1974): Systematic studies on Eulophidae of economic

significance (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Bull. Ent. Res. 63:

629-639.

Khan, M.Y. & S.A. Shafee (1980): Taxonomic studies on some Indian

eulophid parasites (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 76: 324-334.

Nikol’skaya, M.N. ( 1952): The chalcid fauna of USSR (Chalcidoidea)

Opred. Faune Zool. Inst. Akad. Nauk. SSR. 44: 575.

Peck, O. (1951): Superfamily Chalcidoidea. In: Hymenoptera of

America North of Mexico Muesebeck; Krombein & Townes (Eds.)

Synoptic catalog. USDA Agriculture Monograph, 2: 410-593.

Peck, O., Z. Boucek & A. Hoffer (1964): Keys to the Chalcidoidea of

Czechoslovakia (Insect: Hymenoptera). Mem. Ent. Soc. Canad.

34: 120.

*Westwood, J.O. (1832): Description of several new British forms

amongst the parasitic Hymenopterous insects. Land Edinb. Dubl.

Phil Mag. 3: 127-129.

Woesekara, GA.W. & M.E. Schauff (1994): Revision of the tribe

Euplectrini of Sri Lanka (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). Orient Ins.

28: 1-48.

*Original not seen

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

323

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

324-325

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS DOLICHOGENIDEA VIERECK

(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA*

K. Pandey-'^, Z. Ahmad-- \ A. A. Haider--^ and Shujauddin-- ®

'Accepted July, 2004

-Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India,

3Email: [email protected]

-’Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

^Email: [email protected]

A new species of the genus Dolichogenidea Viereck, namely D. masoni sp. nov. is described and illustrated.

Key words: Hymenoptera, Braconidae, Microgastrinae, Dolichogenidea, new species, India

INTRODUCTION

The genus Dolichogenidea Viereck (1911) was

synonymized with Apanfp/es Foerster by Muesebeck ( 1920).

Later, Nixon (1965) treated the species described in

Dolichogenidea as ultor species group of Apanteles.

However, the genus Dolichogenidea was revalidated by

Mason (1981). Dolichogenidea is closely related to the genus

Apanteles, but it is easily distinguished in having margin of

vanal lobe convex, rarely flattened and uniformly hairy;

punctures of scutum distinct and well separated and T^ parallel

sided or slightly broader apically.

Nixon (1967) provided a key to the Indo- Australian

species of the ultor group of Apanteles, and included

9 species from India. Recently, Sumodan and Narendran ( 1990)

and, Sathe and Bhoje (2000) added 4 species to

Dolichogenidea. In the present work, a new species, namely

D. masoni sp. nov. is described from India.

Dolichogenidea masoni sp. nov.

(Figs 1-3 )

Female: 3.0 mm long.

Head: Transverse, 1 ,8x wider than long in dorsal view,

with moderately dense white pilosity including eyes; vertex

indistinctly punctate with hairs; OOL: POL: AOL: 0OD = 5:5:

2: 2; frons concave smooth and shiny medially, punctate

elsewhere; face indistinctly punctate, 1.2x wider than long

with an indistinct median dorsal node; clypeus indistinctly

punctate; antennae slightly longer than the body.

Mesosoma: 1.6x longer than wide with moderately

dense, white pilosity except mesopleuron medio-posteriorly

and metapleuron; scutum 1.4x wider than long, coarsely

punctate with hairs, punctures become dense and more

distinct at imaginary course of notauli; scutellum smooth and

shiny except for few indistinct setigerous punctures

associated with hairs; sides of pronotum smooth and shiny

with a crenulate groove dividing into postero-dorsal and

postero-medial arms; mesopleuron coarsely punctate

anteriorly, smooth and shiny medio-posteriorly, metapleuron

smooth and shiny; propodeum (Fig. 3) with U shaped areola,

somewhat smooth and shiny anteriorly while very finely

rugulose posteriorly; hind coxae large, smooth and shiny,

almost reaching up to T^; hind tibia 1.25x longer than hind

femur; hind basitarsus 1 ,2x longer than outer tibial spur.

Wings: Fore wing (Fig. 1 ) with sparse pilosity in basal

half, densely and evenly pilose in apical half; stigma 2.75x

longer than wide, 0.9x longer than 1 -R 1 ; vein r about as long

as maximum height of pterostigma and 1 ,6x longer than 2-SR,

Figs 1-3: Dolichogenidea masoni sp. nov. ?

1 . Fore wing; 2. T, and T^; 3. Propodeum

Scale Line: Fig. 1=1.0 mm, 2 & 3 = 0.5 mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

angle between them distinct; discal cell slightly wider than

long; vanal lobe of hind wing with long hairs basally, short

and even hairs apically.

Metasoma: (Fig. 2) approximately 1.5x longer than

wide, almost equally broad anteriorly as posteriorly, but

slightly bulging sub-basally and slightly narrower medially,

longitudinally rugulose-punctate over 0.6 of apical tergite;

Tj (Fig. 2) finely sculptured, 4.2x wider than long with slightly

convex posterior margin; hypopygium large, medially folded;

ovipositor sheaths 1 .2x longer than hind tibia, uniformly hairy

all along the length; ovipositor thick and stout and slightly

curved downwards.

Colour: Black except for the following: mandible,

antennae reddish brown; maxillary palpi, labial palpi and tibial

spurs pale yellow; scape beyond apical rim, hind leg beyond

coxae, basal part of basitarsus, mid leg beyond coxae, and

fore leg are yellowish; apical hind tibia, apical segment of

hind basitarsus, stigma brown and wings hyaline.

Male: Same as female except for following: Length 2. 1

mm; antenna longer.

Holotype: ?, India: Uttar Pradesh, Aligarh; 15.x. 2001

ex. Parotis sp. on Tabernaemontana divaricata. Coll. Kavita

Pandey, deposited in the collections of ZD AMU (Catalogue

No. HB. 1030). Paratypes: 10 9 9 and 10 <S c?, data same as

holotype.

Host: Reared imm Parotis sp. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

on Tabernaemontana divaricata.

Cocoons: White and heaped together in masses.

Distribution: india: Uttar Pradesh.

Etymology: The species is named after Dr. William R.

Mason for his valuable contribution to our knowledge of

microgastrine wasps.

Remarks: Dolichogenidea masoni sp. nov. closely

resembles the Indian species D. mohandasi (Sumodan &

Narendran), but differs in having (i) vertex indistinctly punctate

(vertex finely rugulose in mohandasi), (ii) head 1.8x wider

than long (head 1.5x wider than long in mohandasi), (iii)

ovipositor slightly curved downwards (ovipositor uniformly

curved in mohandasi), (iv) scutellum with few indistinct

punctures (scutellum completely smooth and shining in

mohandasi).

Abbreviations used: OOL- ocello-ocular hne; POL- post-

ocellar line; AOL- anterior-ocellar line; 0OD- diameter of an

ocellus; ZDAMU- Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim

University.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof. M. Hayat for reviewing the manuscript

and offering useful suggestions. The second author also

acknowledges Department of Science & Technology, New

Delhi for financial assistance (Grant NO. SR/FT/L-92/2003).

REFERENCES

Mason, W.R.M. (1981): The polyphyletic nature of Apanteles Foerster

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae) a phylogeny and reclassification of

Microgastrinae. Mem. ent. Soc. Can. 115: 1-147.

Muesbeck, C.F.W. (1920): A revision of the North-American species

of the Ichnemon flies belonging to the genus Apanteles. Proc.

U.S. nat. Mus. Wash. 58\ 483-576. aasssssss

Nixon, G.E.J. (1965): A reclassification of the tribe Microgastrinae

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ent.

Suppl. 2: 1-284.

Nixon, G.E.J. (1967): The Indo-Australian species of the ultor group

(Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ent.

Suppl. 21: 1-34.

Sathe, T.V. & P. Bhoje (2000): Biological pest control. Daya Publishing

House, New Delhi. 122 pp.

Sumodan, PK. & T.C. Narendran (1990): Five new species of

Apanteles Foerster (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) from India.

J. Ecobiol. 2(3): 239-248.

ViERECK, H.L. (1911): Description of six new genera and thirty

new species of Ichneumon flies. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 40: 170-

196.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

325

Journat of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

326-329

THREE NEW SPECIES OE LASIACANTHA EROM SOUTHERN INDIA

WITH A KEY TO THEIR IDENTIFICATION (HETEROPTERA; TINGIDAE)'

David Livingstone- and Jeyanthi Bai ^

■Accepted October 2004

-Madras Christian College, Tambaram, Chennai 600 059. Tamil Nadu, India.

^Department of Zoology, Government Arts College, Cheyyar 604 407, Tamil Nadu, India.

Three new macropterous species of Lasiacantha on three different species of Acanthaceae have been described as the

third, fourth and fifth species of this genus of Tingidae from the Indian region. A key for identification of the four

exclusively south Indian species has been given. Relative expansion of the cephalic end of the median carina of the

pronotum as a hood, the architecture of the paranotal expansions of the pronotum and the pattern of areolations of the

hemelytra are the major diagnostic features of each species. Dense sharp spinocity characterize all species of Lasiacantha.

Key words: Insecta, Heteroptera, Tingidae, Lasiacantha justiciaii sp. nov„ L. peristrophii sp. nov., L. ruellii sp. nov.

INTRODUCTION

Out of the twenty one species of Lasiacantha

catalogued by Drake and Ruhoff (1965) in their monograph

on the Lace Bugs of the world, only two species - L. cuneata

and L. altimitrata were reported to have been described from

India. Of these, only Lasiacantha cuneata (Distant)

(Jannaeiis ciineatus Distant 1909) was known to have been

described from south India its host plant was not recorded.

Lasiacantha altimitrata (Takeya) was reported from China

and India; on Labiatae. In the present survey, three more

species have been discovered from southern India and

described. A key to the identification of all the four known

south Indian species has been given.

The genus Lasiacantha is characterized by the

largeness of its size (3.89 to 3.9 mm); presence of five

prominent porrect cephalic tuberculate spines (two loral, a

median frontal and two post genal); elytra beset with sharply

pointed pedicellate spines; pronotum tricarinate, the median

carina expanding cephalad as hood; paranotal expansion and

bucculae broadly expanded; hemelytra terminally constricted

and differentially pigmented.

I . Lasiacantha justiciaii sp. nov.

(Fig. 1 )

Large, testaceous, narrow transverse band traversing

middle of subcostal area and another median oblique band

on apical sector of elytra; length 3.6 mm, width across

pronotum 1.32 mm.

Head, testaceous, armed with five elongately porrect,

stramineous, tuberculate spines; antennae moderately

elongate, testaceous, densely packed with long, pedicellate,

sharply pointed spines, proportionate length of the

antennomeres 1 : 1 .2:5.2; 1 ; apical flagellar segment fuscus; eyes

ochraceous; antenniferous tubercles moderately robust.

almost passing scape; rostrum stramineous, apically

testaceous, reaching middle of mesostemum; sternal lamina

non-areolate; bucculae broadly elongate, biseriate, closely

occluding basirostrum.

Pronotum, moderately convex, anteriorly punctate,

proscutellum broadly areolate, proscutum tricarinate, median

carina biseriate, interrupted midway by abrupt development

of median anterior, vertically elevated hump like prominent

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

hood, anteriorly terminating subapically and posteriorly

terminating at posterior tip of proscutellum; lateral earinae

elongate, uniseriate, deviating posteriorly to terminate at base

of proscutellum; paranotum, broad, four serially areolated,

confluent with the lateral margin of the proscutum and

strongly reflexed to lie juxtaposed to almost half the lateral

area of proscutum on either side; densely spinous marginally,

anterolateral areas of pronotum and subapical areas of earinae

darkly pigmented.

Hemelytra, extending far behind abdomen, subapically

constricted; sub-costal area biseriate, having broad areolae,

confluent with post-cubital area; a darkly pigmented band

running across middle; radial area moderately broad, triseriate,

apically confluent with sutural area; discoidal area broad,

multiseriate across middle; sutural area broad, multiseriate,

areolae broad, apically infuscated; margins of elytra, media,

cubitus and all veins beset with long pedicellate, less sharp

spines, rest of the areas of elytra with long non-pedicellate

recurved wavy spines; clavus proximally triseriate, distally

biseriate, media, darkly pigmented midway; hypocostal lamina

uniseriate.

Femur fuscus, fringed with long, pedicellate, porrect

spines; tibia, stramineous, beset with long, pedicellate, sharp

spines.

Holotype: Male (macropterous); locality:

Malumichampatty in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu; host plant;

Justicia simplex (Acanthaceae), 12.xi. 1979; Allotype: Female;

Paratype: sixteen specimens; data same as holotype. Collector

M.H.S. Yacoob. Deposited in Livingstone’s Collection, Reg.

No. 18T, Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore.

Etymology: Named after the host plant.

Lasiacantha justiciaii sp. nov. resembles L. peristrophii

sp. nov. in the architecture of their hemelytra and spinocity;

but differs from it by its shorter III & IV antennal segments

and the extent of development of antenniferous tubercles,

almost passing scape. Presence of biseriate bacculae, biseriate

subcostal area and triseriate radial area are yet other

delineating features. It can be readily differentiated from L.

ruellii sp. nov. by the presence of simple (nonbifid) nature of

the post-genal pair of cephalic tubercles. It differs from

L. cuneatus (Distant) by the presence of more compressed

pronotal median anterior hood, longer III & IV antennomeres

and more prominently incrassate femora.

2. Lasiacantha peristrophii sp. nov.

(Fig. 2)

Moderately large, stramineous, clothed with non-

pedicellate spines, length 3.00 mm and width across pronotum

1.14mm.

Head, fuscus, anned with usual five tuberculate spines,

median frontal tubercle longest, porrect and post-genal pair

forked apically; antennae moderately elongate, stout,

testaceous, densely beset with long pedicellate spines, scape

and pedicel short, subequal, first flagellar segment IV2 times

longer than terminal segment; proportionate length of

antennomeres 1 : 1.2 : 3.4 : 2.3; eyes ferruginous; antenniferous

tubercles not passing middle of scape; rostrum not passing

middle of mesostemum, stramineous, apically testaceous,

fringed with hairs, rostral lamina lining rostral furrow broad,

non-areolate; bucculae tetra-seriate, broadly elongate,

occluding basirostrum.

Pronotum convex, proscutum punctate, tricarinate,

median carina disrupted midway by the anterior, vertically

elevated prominent hump-like hood and posteriorly merging

with the broadly areolate scutellum; paranotal expansion three

areolae deep, vertically deflected.

Hemelytra, passing abdomen, subapically constricted;

subcostal area biseriate, cells rectangular, confluent with post-

cubital area; a dark pigmented band traversing middle of

subcostal area; radial area broad, tetraseriate, confluent with

sutural area; discoidal area equally broad, six areolae deep

across middle; sutural area broad, a few cells at its apical

region infuscated; hypocostal lamina uniseriate; clavus

proximally triseriate and distally biseriate; median vein darkly

pigmented at middle; femur feebly testaceous, fringed with

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

327

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

long pedicellate blunt spines; leg, segments beyond femur

stramineous; tibia proximally brownish.

Holotype: Female (macropterous); locality; Andipatti,

Madurai District, Tamil Nadu; host plant: Peristropha

bicalyculata (Acanthaceae) on 4. v. 1981; Allotype: male;

Paratype: nine specimens. Collector; M.H.S. Yacoob, data

same as the holotype; deposited in Livingstone’s Collection,

Reg. No. 19 T, Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore.

Etymology: Named after the host plant.

Lasiacantha peristrophii sp. nov. differs irom L. justiciaii

sp. nov. in the presence of tetraseriate broadly elongate

bucculae; paranotum three areolae deep; biseriate subcostal

area and tetraseriate radial area and by the presence of apically

forked post-genal pair of cephalic tuberculate spines. It further

differs from L. ruelii sp. nov. by the relative length of

antennomeres and by the tetraseriate radial area.

3. Lasiacantha ruellii sp. nov.

(Fig. 3)

Moderately large; stramineous; a darkly pigmented band

across subcostal area and subapical area of elytra; 3.9 mm

long and 1 .2 mm broad across pronotum.

Head, stramineous; pubescent, armed with five

moderately long, stramineous, porrect cephalic tubercles,

median frontal tubercles longest, postgenal pair of tubercles

bifid apically; antennae moderately elongate, stramineous,

1 and II antennomeres short, stout and subequal, first flagellar

segment slender, elongate, beset with long pedicellate blunt

spines, terminal segment fringed with much elongated

pedicellate hairs; proportionate length of antennomeres

1: 0.9: 4.1: 1.8; eyes reddish brown; antenniferous tubercles

testaceous, short, not passing middle of scape, beset with

long pedicellate spines; rostrum stramineous, apically

testaceous, reaching anterior margin of mesostemum; sternal

furrow shallow, sternal lamina non-areolate, broad; bucculae

broadly elongate, triseriate, pubescent, occluding basirostrum.

Pronotum, pubescent, coarsely punctate, proscutum

convex with dense vestiture of long slender hairs; tricarinate,

median carina abruptly disrupted at middle by anterior

segment developing as broadly areolated hood, occluding

middle of head up to anterior margin of eyes, pronotal hood

5-6 rows of areolae deep on either side; lateral carinae narrow,

uniseriate, sinuous, posteriorly terminating at origin of

scutellum; paranotum broadly expanded, almost vertically

reflexed, 5-6 areolae deep at middle, sharply spinous

marginally, paranotal margin and median carina testaceous,

scutellum broadly and coarsely areolate.

Hemelytra, reaching far beyond the abdomen,

subapically constricted; subcostal area triseriate, proximally

and distally biseriate, confluent with post-cubital area; radial

area triseriate, confluent with sutural area; discoidal area six

areolae deep across middle; hypocostal lamina uniseriate;

clavus proximally triseriate, distally uniseriate; sutural area

broadly areolate, 5-6 areolae deep; outer margin of hemelytra,

media and cubitus with dense vestiture of long pedicellate,

sharply pointed spines; subcostal, radial and discoidal areas

pubescent; sutural area sparsely beset with non-pedicellate

spines.

Legs, testaceous, femur incrassate, both femur and tibia

fringed with long pedicellate, sharply pointed spines.

Holotype: Female (Macropterous); locahty: Semponvilai,

in Kanyakumari District, Tamil Nadu; host plant: Ruellia

prostata (Acanthaceae). 9.v. 1981; Allotype: male; Paratype:

Fourteen specimens; data same as the holotype. Collector:

M.H.S. Yacoob. Deposited in Livingstone’s collection, Reg.

No. 20 T, at the Division of Entomology, Bharathiar University,

Coimbatore.

Etymology: Named after the host plant.

Lasiacantha ruellii differs from L. justiciaii sp. nov. in

the presence of bifid post-genal pair of cephalic tubercles

and antenniferous tubercles not passing middle of scape. It

can be readily distinguished from L. peristrophii sp. nov. by

its triseriate bucculae and triseriate radial area.

328

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Key to Genus Lasiacantha

1 . Post-genal tuberculate spines apically biramus; antenniferrous

tubercles not passing middle of scape; paranotal expansions

fusing with pronotum, after reflecting vertically upward 2

— Post-genal cephalic tubercles simple; antenniferous tubercles

passing middle of scape; paranotal expansions fusing with

pronotum, without vertically reflecting upward 3

2. Bucculae triseriate; pronotal lateral carinae uniseriate; paranotal

expansion six areolae deep; subcostal and radial areas triseriate;

discoidal area six areolae deep Lxisiacantha ruellii sp. nov.

— Bucculae tetraseriate; paranotal expansion three areolae deep;

radial area four seriate and discoidal area six seriate; tibiae

proximally bearing two brown spots

Lasiacantha peristrophii sp. nov.

3. Bucculae broadly areolate and biseriate; pronotal median carina

biseriate; lateral carinae uniseriate; paranotum 5-6 areolae deep;

subcostal area biseriate; radial area triseriate and discoidal area

five seriate Lasiacantha justiciaii sp. nov.

— Paranotum more than six areolae deep; subcostal and radial

areas equal and biseriate to triseriate; median carina 4-5 areolae

deep Lasiacantha cimeata (Distant)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Indian Council of Agricultural

Research, New Delhi for financial support and the authorities

of the Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for providing facihties

and encouragement.

REFERENCE

Drake, C.J. & F.A. Ruhoff ( 1965): Lace bugs of the world: a catalogue (Hemiptera: Tingidae). US. National Mus. Bull. 243: 1-634.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

329

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

330-335

REVIEWS

1. CHANGING FAUNAL ECOLOGY IN THE THAR DESERT, edited by B.K. Tyagi and

Qaiser H. Baqri. Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur, 2005. xii + 367 pp. (Size: 16.2 x 24.6 cm).

Rs. 1850/-. Hardback.

This is a scholarly book with chapters written by experts

and edited by two eminent zoologists of the Zoological Survey

of India. The book is produced in commemoration of the

distinguished zoologist Prof. Ishwar Prakash, father of

rodentology in India (study of rodents), whose scientific

bibliography mns into 21 pages! The first scientific publication

of Prof. Prakash was in JBNHS in 1953, where he describes

cannibalism in hedgehog. Since then, he has been associated

with the Bombay Natural History Society. I know Prof. Prakash

since 1981, when I first met him in Jodhpur during my survey

of the Thar desert. For the next 20 years, till he passed away

in 2002, whenever I used to pass through Jodhpur, I would

meet him, to learn from his vast field experience of the desert.

The Thar is one of the smallest deserts in the world, but

has very rich biological and cultural diversity. It is undergoing

tremendous ecological, social, environmental and demographic

changes, due to increase in human and cattle populations,

military activities and tourism, and development of the Indira

Gandhi Nahar Project (IGNP). This book discusses the

changes in the faunal ecology of the Thar desert. The chapters

are diverse and cover topics such as soil bioresources,

reproduction in desert rodents, diversity, abundance and

dominance of avian species, and the impact of changing

ecology on termite fauna. Each chapter is written in a scholarly

manner by experts, with abstract, introduction, methodology,

results, discussion and references. After reading this book, I

can say that each contributor was influenced by Prof. Prakash,

sometime in his/her career. Such was the diversity of

Prof. Prakash’s interests and understanding in the field of

desert ecology. This book is perhaps the best contribution to

his memory. The editors and contributors need to be

congratulated for bringing together such a vast storehouse

of knowledge in 367 pages.

However, the book is not without the usual blemishes.

At Rs. 1850/-, it is beyond the purse of most researchers and

scholars. Secondly, the binding is shabby; the pages came

loose even while I was reading it for review. While I cannot

comment on the topics that I do not know properly, the chapter

on birds written by C. Sivaperuman, Sumit Dookia,

P.L. Kankane and Qaiser H. Baqri has many mistakes. They

have listed 27 1 species, including 23 bird species seen for the

first time in the Thar desert (Chapter 11). While some species

are likely to occur due to the ecological changes brought by

the IGNP (e.g. Marbled Teal Marmaronetta angustirostris.

Osprey Pandion haliaetus, Dalmatian Pelican Pelecanus

crispus), others need photographic or specimen evidence

before these records could be accepted (e.g. Buff-breasted

Sandpiper Tryngites subruficoUis and European Calandra-

Lark Melanocorypha calandra). The Buffbreasted Sandpiper

has been reported as vagrant in India (Grimmett et al. 1999).

Ali and Ripley (1987, p. 174) mention that a solitary specimen

was collected in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and another sight-

recorded in the same country. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005)

have mentioned a vagrant record from Goa without giving

details. Its purported sighting in Ganganagar district on March

30, 2001 by the authors of this chapter needs further

corroboration before it is accepted. Similarly, the European

Calandra Lark is not even listed in the Indian avifauna (Ali

and Ripley 1987, Grimmett et al. 1999). Rasmussen and

Anderton (2005) have listed it only in Afghanistan.

Sivaperuman et al. ’s casual listing of this species in this book

puts a question mark on their ability to recognise birds

properly. Other questionable records are their ‘sighting of 22

individuals of White-headed Babbler Turdoides ajfinis in a

grassland near Suratgarh in Ganganagar district, and 12 birds

in Kola forest farm in Hanumangarh district’ . This babbler is

found only in southern India, not seen north of Andhra

Pradesh (Ali and Ripley 1987), how could they have see this

non-migratory species in northern Rajasthan? They have

probably misidentified the species. Ten species are listed as

‘range extension’, but most of them have already been

recorded earlier. Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca is a

migratory species and can be seen in any good wetland in

northwest India. I had seen eight Ferruginous Ducks or White-

eyed Pochards on three wetlands in Gajner, Guda Vishnonian

and Kolayat during 1993-94 surveys (Rahmani 1997). Similarly,

White-tailed Lapwing Vanellus leucurus is another common

species of marshes and damp fields in northern India. It was

reported at Gajner, Badopal and a seepage wetland (RD507)

of the IGNP (Rahmani 1997). The remaining eight species listed

by Sivapemmun et al. are also common and have been reported

earher (see Rahmani 1997 for the full checklist), so they cannot

be called as ‘range extensions’.

Sivapemmun et al. have also listed Himalyan Griffon

Gyps himalayensis from Jalore district. Looking at the

questionable identity of other species, they could have

misidentified the Eurasian Griffon Gypsfulvus as Himalayan

Griffon as both look similar, except for some differences in

REVIEWS

plumage. There are not many confirmed sight or specimen

records of the Himalayan Griffon in Rajasthan, while the

Eurasian Griffon is very common in winter.

In Plate 2 of this chapter, one map is missing. Another

major problem with this chapter is the estimated number of

different bird species and their relative dominance (Table 1,

pp. 206-213). Coot, a purely wetland bird, with a sighting of

total 13,186 individuals is the dominant species with the rank

of 1 8.20. Imagine, a purely wetland bird being reported as the

most dominant species of a desert! Didn’t they see millions

and millions of Greater Short-toed Larks Calandrella

brachydactyla longipennis, hundreds of thousands of

Eastern Calandra-Lark Mekmocorypha bimaculata, and

Au. S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett. R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp ( 1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Rahmani. A.R. (1997): The effect of Indira Gandhi Nahar Project on

thousands of Ring Dove Streptopelia decaoctal Even Rose-

ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri, a relatively new entrant

in the Thar desert (Rahmani 1997), has a higher dominance

rank than larks? Unless all the habitat types of the Thar desert

are surveyed equally, it does not make sense to give

dominance ranks or list the total numbers seen. We will see

more wetlands birds if we visit more wetland habitats.

Moreover, analysis and data presentation should make some

ecological sense. Merely giving long tables, clumping species

just on the basis of the numbers sighted, and giving them

some sort of dominance rank is not good science.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

the avifauna of the Thar Desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2):

233-266.

Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia: The

Ripley Guide. Vols. 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx

Edicions, Washington, D C. and Barcelona.

2. RAPTORS OF THE WORLD: A FIELD GUIDE, by James Ferguson-Lees and David Christie,

Illustrated by Kim Franklin, David Mead, Philip Burton and Alan Hams. Christopher Helm, London.

2005. 320 pp. (Size: 15.6 x 23.4 cm). Price £19.99. Paperback.

This is a lavishly illustrated field guide for experts and

birdwatchers, particularly raptor enthusiasts, who travel all

over the world for raptor watching. Among birds, raptors are

some of the most difficult groups to identify, especially

members of AquUa, Buteo and Circus. They have confusing

sex and age-related plumages, and also local variations. Even

some common species of raptors such as the Black Kite Milvus

migrans are not easy to identify in their juvenile plumage.

Many birds such as cormorants, storks and egrets prey

on other animals, but the tenn 'birds of prey’ is generally

applied to kites, vultures, hawks, falcons and eagles. These

days, they are more often called ‘raptors’, or more precisely

'diurnal raptors’ to separate them from nocturnal owls, which

also prey on other animals. About 338 species of diurnal

raptors are now identified in the world, and all are covered in

this book. As raptors have age, gender and subspecies/race

related plumage differences about 2, 1 80 individual birds are

illustrated in 1 1 8 plates, of which 1,200 are in flight.

This is an excellent, but complicated book. To keep the

book at a size suitable for use in the field much of the

information is abbreviated or codified. Even the authors

advise the readers to refer back to abbreviations, as it would

take some time to get familiar with the codes. While reviewing

this book, I had to constantly refer back to the codes and

abbreviations explained in the introductory section, especially

on pages 76-77. The most confusing part was when a species

is compared with similar looking species or with the plumage

of totally unrelated species, sometimes not occuiring in the

same region or the country. Even after repeated attempts, I could

not understand the codes. Perhaps we have to use this book in

the field to understand cross-referencing. Another intriguing

point was that while total length, wingspan and tail length are

given in centimetres, their respective average is given in inches.

Some information in this book is new, e.g. the size of

male in proportion to the female. In many raptors, the female

is much larger than the male so this information is quite useful.

The first three plates describe the key to genera of mainly

larger, medium-sized and smaller raptors. To know the size of

different genera, instead of a scale, as given in most books,

sizes of two most common raptors are given for comparison:

Swainson’s Hawk Buteo swtunsoni of the New World and

Black Kite of the Old World. Another bit of information not

seen in other books, at least in coded form, is the population

size of a species. For example, 1 means the population is

between 1-10 birds, 2 means 11-1 00, 3 means 101-1 ,000. . . and

7 means the population is more than 1,000,000. A quick glance

at Indian raptors reveals that the Black-shouldered Kite Elanus

caendeus, the Northern Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus and

the Shikra Accipiter badius have populations of more than

1 ,000,000. All have extremely wide distribution in Asia, Europe

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

331

REVIEWS

and Africa. However, three-quarter raptors worldwide are not

above the population order 5, i.e. their estimated population

ranges from 10,001 to 100,000 birds. This is quite worrying as

some of them have a wide range of distribution and should be

occurring in much larger numbers.

This book is a much smaller and handier version of the

authors’ earlier book raptors of the world, published by

A & C Black in the ‘Helm Identification Guides’ in 2001 . Since

then, 25 raptor species have been added, mostly subspecies

or races elevated to species level, but one species. Cryptic

Forest Falcon Micrastur mintoni is new to science. Among

the species added to the Indian subcontinent, we have the

Black-eared Kite Milviis Uneatus, Slender-billed Vulture Gyps

tenuirostris. Eastern Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus, Indian

Spotted Eagle Aquila hastata, Indian Tawny Eagle Aquila

vindhiana. Dimorphic Hawk Spizaetus limnaeetus, and

Andaman Hawk Eagle Spizaetus andamanensis .

The book is full of interesting details about raptors,

such as how to measure their length and wingspan, sex and

age differences in sizes and shapes, wing positions in gliding

and soaring, migration, their main routes of migration and

watching points, moult patterns, polymorphism etc. I

recommend this book, not only to those interested in raptors,

but to all birdwatchers, who can afford this pricey book.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

3. BIODIVERSITY OF MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS, by K. Kathiresan and S.Z. Qasim.

Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), New Delhi, 2005. xii -i- 251 pp. (Size: 18.4 x 24.3 cm).

Price Rs. 875/-. Hardback.

It would be cliche to say that mangroves are one of the

most diverse and endangered ecosystems in the world. This

book is written by two of the most prominent marine biologists

of India. Prof. K. Kathiresan is associated with the Centre for

Advanced Study in Marine Biology of Annamalai University

and spent almost all his research career studying mangroves.

Prof. S. Zahoor Qasim is an authority on Indian Ocean. He

has written nine books and several hundred scientific papers.

As the blurb of this book says, this book describes the

energy flow and ecological role of mangroves, their uses, the

causes of their destruction and degradation, and the

conservation strategies adopted in different countries.

Unfortunately, the book is full of mistakes, mainly in the tables

that appear to be compiled from many sources. The authors

should have shown the chapters to subject experts, before

including them in their book.

More than 400 bird species are listed from the mangroves

of India (Table 28, pp. 138-146). A quick glance of the list

shows that most of them are not mangrove species and it is

wrong to say, “Some of the resident species are highly

dependent on mangroves for their survival”. Except for the

Mangrove Whistler Pachycephala grisola and Masked

Einfoot Heliopais personata, the remaining species are found

in many other habitats, and mangroves happen to be one of

those. Therefore, mangroves cannot be considered as the

habitat for many species in this list. Eor example, Houbara

Chlamydotis undidata is found on the sand dunes on Gujarat

coast, but by no stretch of imagination can this arid zone bird

be considered as a mangrove bird! Similarly, Swamp Francolin

Francolinus gidaris is not found in the mangrove, as it prefers

tall wet grasslands of the Gangetic and Brahmaputra plains.

There could be some old records of its existence from the

grasslands of the river flood plains where they meet the

mangroves of Sundarbans, but this does not make it a

mangrove species. Similarly, there is no record, as far as I

know, of Striated Babbler Turdoides earlei from the west coast

of India. This bird is found in the river systems of north India

and Indus in Pakistan. Who has seen it in the mangroves of

the west coast? The bird list is so full of mistakes that I can go

on and on.

As the first author is an authority on mangrove and

botany, there are not many technical mistakes in these

sections, but the tables are full of mistakes. Presumably, the

authors have relied on other workers to compile these tables,

so errors in spelling and obsolete taxonomical nomenclature

have crept in. While the relative paucity of faunal diversity

on the west coast of India compared to that on the east coast

may be partially attributed to the greater extent of mangroves

on the east coast (and thus more attention having been paid

to them), it appears that the fewer number of animals on the

west coast may be because the authors included those forms

which have been specifically mentioned by other authors as

‘inhabitants of mangroves’. Thus, in Table 21 (pp. 75-77),

species numbered 2, 4, 5, 11, 14, 16, 26, 30, 32, 36,38,47,51,57,

60, 64, 66, 68, 70, 72, 78, 79, 83, 88, 91, 93, 97, 98, 99, 100, 102,

104, 108, 109, 1 10, 1 12, 1 14, 1 15, 1 17, 125, and 126 occur on the

west coast of India. Incidentally, the title of this table is

“Species of Crabs found in the Mangroves along the East

and West Coasts....”. Strictly speaking, crabs fall under

Brachyura, however, the table includes Petrolisthes (porcelain

crabs), Diogenes (hermit crabs), Tachyphleus and

Garcinoscopriiis (both horseshoe crabs), which fall under

Anomura and Xiphosura. One of the major blunders is that

authors have placed Argulus in Brachyura (crabs) instead of

332

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

REVIEWS

Branchiura, where it belongs.

There are many other en'ors. For example, on p. 26

Veraval is mentioned in Mumbai instead of Gujarat. The book

is also full of spelling mistakes, mainly in scientific names.

Some are mentioned below (page number given in brackets);

carinicanda instead of carinicauda (p. 7 1 ); concinnus instead

of carcinnus (p. 72); Bernad instead of Bernard (p. 96);

Carcinocarpius instead of Carcinoscopius (p 77); Edwarsia

instead of Edwardsia (p. 103); Covernalunia instead of

Cavernulania (p. 103); Lumbriconeries instead of

Lumhriconereis (p. Ill); dibranchis instead of dibranchia

(p. 1 1 1 ); decorate instead of decorata (p. 1 17; and annandeli

instead of annandelei (p. 1 18).

It is recommended that the next edition of this book

should be shown to subject experts to avoid such mistakes.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

(With inputs from Dr. B.F. Chhapgar)

4. BIRDS OF SOUTH ASIA: THE RIPLEY GUIDE, VOL. 1; FIELD GUIDE, VOL. 2:

ATTRIBUTES AND STATUS, by Pamela C. Rasmussen and John C. Anderton. 2005.

Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington D.C. and Barcelona. Vol. 1 378 pp., Vol. 2

683 pp. (Size; 15.7 x 22.6 cm). Price 55 Euros (includes both volumes). Hardback.

For me a good book is a gift from God. This book can be

considered as one such gift. The more I read it, the more I like

it. This was one of the most awaited bird books in South Asia,

not only because of its anticipated high quality, but also

because of the numerous taxonomic changes that we all knew

Pamela was working on. While there could be doubts and

debates about the splits, no one can doubt the quality of

illustrations, design of the book, good description, with the

latest infomiation, good quality maps and the general feel of

the book.

This book is in two volumes. Volume I is a Field Guide,

while Volume II deals with Attributes and Status. I have written

this review after using the book, especially Volume I, in the

field and vouch that it is the best field guide for the birds of

South Asia. Among the four field guides available to Indian

birdwatchers (pictorial guide by Ali & Ripley, a field guide

TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Krys Kazmierczak.

BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Grimmett et ai, and this

book), I would say Pamela and Anderton’s book is the best.

The BIRDS OF SOUTH ASIA is Unique in many ways among

all the other available field guides. It contains 3,400

illustrations in 180 plates, 1 450 colour maps, 1000 sonograms

of vocalization - the first time in a bird book of South Asia,

specimen measurements, alternative names, complete data

on identification, status and distribution, and habits for each

species, comprehensive index, list of endemic and near

endemic species, brief ornithological histories of hypothetical

species, new information and many taxonomic changes. The

book also includes for the first time Afghanistan and Chagos

Archipelago, traditionally excluded from South Asia (India,

Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan and

Maldives); the authors justify “These countries form a natural

biogeographic region largely bounded by mountains and

ocean. Several West Himalayan species reach the western

limit of their ranges in the mountains of north-eastern

Afghanistan, while the Chagos form a natural part of the chain

of atolls of the Maldives Ridge.”

Pamela C. Rasmussen (PCR) is the author of the text,

while John C. Anderton is the chief illustrator. John has worked

as illustrator for many books and journals, but this is his first

comprehensive ornithological publication. Some well-known

experts on Asian birds, like Per Alstrom, Nigel Collar, Bruce

Beehler, Willian C. Clarke, Pratap Singh, Craig Robson, Philip

D. Round, Deepal Warakagoda, have also contributed content

for the book. PCR has exhaustively examined the status of

species, particularly those included by Meinertzhagen, a

notoriously dubious character, and the prolific E.C. Stuart

Baker, who had a tendency to drift from the truth. In the

taxonomy, 1441 species are listed, 1289 without any reasonable

doubt, 58 are vagrants, 85 species are considered

‘Hypothetical’, requiring further data to be definitely included

in the avifauna of the region (Appendix I). These are presented

in a darker shade of text type. Twenty-four species have been

rejected for which reasons are given (Appendix II). Taxonomic

changes have been effected in 198 species from Ali & Ripley’s

HANDBOOK and 128 from Inskipp et ai, conspecific and

composite species have been indicated (Appendix III). Species

likely to occur in the region have been described, but not

illustrated.

Although I am also very cautious while accepting sight

records, especially from notoriously unreliable e-groups, I

think not including published sight records of common

species, by reputed ornithologists, is a handicap of this book.

The use of mainly museum specimen data, some more than

hundred years old, has distorted the picture of present

distribution of many species. Habitat destruction and

fragmentation and development of man-made water bodies,

in case of wetland species, have altered the distribution of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

333

REVIEWS

many species. There are now many bird watchers and good

bird field guides, so we regularly get new sight records and

range extensions. Lastly, the days of collecting bird specimens

are over - it is illegal and undesirable to kill birds for records.

Therefore, for new sight records one has to depend on

pictures, field notings and the honesty of the observer.

Looking at Meinertzhagen's fraud, some museum records

could also be as wrong as the sight records!

One of the major criticisms for this book has been the

inclusion of a large number of splits or taxonomic changes - a

total of 198 species. Conventionally, a taxonomic split or a

new species is first described in a peer-reviewed journal before

it is included in popular field guides. This was done in some

cases, e.g. Slender-billed Gyps tenuirostris and Long-billed

G. indicus vultures, Seicerciis sp. warblers; but for most

taxonomic changes listed in this book, detailed papers have

not been published yet. I think including new taxonomic

changes is another strength of this book. At least, birdwatchers

will start looking more critically at the species that PCR has

suggested to be considered as new taxonomic splits. Till full

papers are published, can we not consider these splits as

‘proposed’ ? PCR has shown that 7 1 splits are from extralimital

species, 141 splits are within the region, 9 are new or

overlooked species, 13 are reallocation of race(s) and 2 are

deletions as they are not considered as valid species. Fifteen

species are splits from extralimital as well as within the region.

In total, PCR has added 128 species-level differences; of these

83 are additional species for the region (including splits and

overlooked species), the rest are extralimital splits or

reallocation of races.

Mercifully, PCR has followed the classification of Peters

and Ali & Ripley (later used in the BNHS ENVIS Newsletter

No. 6, by R. Manakadan and A. Pittie). For old timers like me,

changes brought by Grimmett et al. both in the order and

English names were quite painful and I always found it a little

difficult to find a particular species in Grimmett etal. despite

having used the book in the field for almost seven years. PCR

has restored my confidence that I have not forgotten Indian

birds !

The strength of any bird field guide is its illustration

and morphological description through which species are

identified; description is minimal in Volume I due to space

constraints. Unlike Grimmett etal., the plates are not cluttered,

so finding a species is quick. Although John C. Anderton is

the principal artist, he has illustrated only 70 of 180 plates;

the plates are of variable quality. John Schmitt has illustrated

3 1 plates (including three which he shared). Schinitt is a master

of raptor illustrations, as can be seen in the book. The raptors

in flight are excellent, with the minutest details. I particularly

like his illustrations of harriers in flight. Other noteworthy

illustrators for the book are T. Schultz (thrushes), H. Bums

(parakeets, sandgrouse), McQueen (owls, small passerines)

and B. Zetterstrom (larks).

A major drawback for such books is the distribution

maps, especially when they are drawn mainly based on

museum specimens and authentic published records. For a

region like South Asia, with rather limited number of serious

ornithologists and birdwatchers, such maps show more the

distribution of collectors/ornithologists than the actual

distribution of birds !

While the breeding distribution of Bronze-winged

Jacana is illustrated with green (year round resident), the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana is shown as breeding migrant (yellow);

(Plate 50, p. 110). The Bronze-winged Jacana is frequently

recorded in south India. My experience is that both these

species show great movement, especially in summer, in search

of suitable water bodies, so why has this not been shown in

the case of Bronze-winged Jacana?

The other qualities of this book are the size,

morphological and habitat tips given along the distribution

maps. For example. Purple Swamphen is larger in the north

than in the south (Plate 49); the Gold-fronted Leafbird in the

north has a blue throat, while in the Western Ghats and south

India it has a black throat (Plate 108); and the Tibetan Lark is

found in alpine bogs, steppe. However, for difficult and

confusing species such as warblers (Phylloscopus,

Hippolais, Acrocephalus, Seicercus), the field guide is not

very useful, and one has to refer to the bulky Vol. II for details

of plumage and song. Volume II weighs 1 .5 kg and will not be

easy to carry in the field.

Volume II intriguingly called “Attributes and Status”

deals with more detailed text. The Preface is written by Bmce

Beehler, another famous student of Dr. S. Dillon Ripley. This

book was originally planned by Ripley but due to his long

debilitating illness, which kept him bed-ridden, he could not

fully supervise the work. The book was released 4 years after

his death. As a tribute to this doyen of Asian ornithology, the

subtitle for the book is “The Ripley Guide”. The Introduction

covers 23 pages and deals with scope or coverage of the

book. Geography and avifauna. Moult and plumage.

Measurements, Illustrations, Identification, Vocalizations,

Taxonomy, Maps, Records, History of ornithology in South

Asia, and Conservation. Families or groups are identified by

blue strip (in both volumes).

For each species, the English, scientific and alternative

names are given, followed by the handbook number. Then

comes the identity (ID) description - the chief distinguishing

characters are given in bold. For example. White-throated

Brown Hombill Ptilolaemus austeni ID is “A mid-sized brown

hornbill with a low casque on pale yellowish bill. Male has

334

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

REVIEWS

white cheek and throat Another example, the ID of White-

bellied Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis is ""Very large black

woodpecker with whitish-buff flanks and upper belly and

frilly red crest I find the bold tips in the description very

useful for quick identification. ID is followed by ‘Size’, and

then distribution, termed ‘Occurs’. Unfortunately, the ‘Habits’

section is not in detail, perhaps to keep the number of pages

down. To know the habits and behaviour of birds of South

Asia, I find that there is still no Substitute for the handbook

by Ali and Ripley. The ‘Voice’ section is more detailed than

‘Habits’ for most species. This section is also one of the main

attractions of this book. For people who can understand

sonograms, this book is an asset. PCR should be congratulated

for giving attention to call/songs of birds, because for many

species this is the easiest way to recognize them (e.g.

warblers). ‘Taxonomy’ description is included only for the

new taxa or splits. It is reasonably detailed, but not as detailed

as one expects in a research paper.

The second and third covers have thumbnail images of

birds, which act as the plate key. This is extremely helpful to

quickly find a particular group/species. Small identification

differences such as ‘Pale Sterna terns’, ‘Dark terns and

skimmer', ‘Larger pied woodpeckers’ and “Green and brown

woodpeckers’ are given in these images, which further help in

the field.

All in all, this is a fine and useful book and a landmark

publication on Asian birds. The production quality is high -

nothing less can be expected from Lynx Edicions, the publisher

of another remarkable book, handbook of the birds of the

WORLD. The price is a little stiff for many bird watchers in

India, but it is worth the investment. If you do not have this

book, ask your nearest book shop to get it for you.

■ ASADR.RAHMANI

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

335

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

336-383

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUSTYSPOTTED CAT PRIONAILURUS RUBIGINOSUS (GEOFFROY)

IN SRIHARIKOTA, NELLORE DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

The status and distributional range of the Rustyspotted

Cat Prionailurus mbiginosus remains a mystery. Earlier, its

range was considered to be confined to south-western India.

However, since the 1970s, reports were also obtained from

Jammu and Kashmir, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa,

Maharashtra and Gujarat (Jackson 1998; Mukherjee 1998). In

Andhra Pradesh, the Rustyspotted Cat has been recently

recorded in the Godavari and Telengana regions. Very little is

known of the ecology and habitat of the species, reported to

range from grassland, scrub and forest, rocky outcrops, areas

around human habitation and even in house attics (Jackson

1998;Mukheijee 1998).

In this communication, we report a sighting of the

Rustyspotted Cat in Sriharikota, Nellore district, Andhra

Pradesh. Sriharikota is an island (181 sq. km), bounded on the

west by Pulicat Lake and on the east by the Bay of Bengal.

Openings of the Pulicat Lake into the Bay of Bengal skirt the

northern and southern boundaries of the Island. The

vegetation of the Island comprises of a mixture of tropical dry

evergreen forest, scrub jungle, abandoned village forest,

grasslands with scattered trees, mangrove-salt marsh patches,

and plantations of eucalyptus, casuarina and cashew. The

Island is a restricted area under the control of the Indian

Space Research Organisation (ISRO). ISRO has a

Conservation and Landscape Division for the conservation

and management of the biodiversity of the Island.

The BNHS has an on-going 3-year ISRO funded project

on the faunal diversity of the Island, and the Rustyspotted

Cat has been recorded during some of the field visits during

the first year of the project. The first record was of a road kill

on October 12, 2002 near the Penubakkam Labour Colony -

the skin and skull has been preserved. Two weeks later, we

sighted another individual during night census in a mixed

forest of eucalyptus and natural forest. This was followed by

two sightings of a male (probably the same individual) during

the day in scrub-natural forest habitat on the 23"'* and 24* of

the same month. The fourth sighting was of a three-quarter

grown individual during a night census on November 24,

2002 in a casuarina plantation on the coast.

According to the tribal Yanadis, the Rustyspotted Cat,

locally known as Mottabala Pilli, is common on the Island. It

is said to be much more common than the Jungle Cat Felis

chaus (Jangan Pilli). Yanadis say that the Rustyspotted Cat

keeps to the forest, and unlike the Jungle Cat, does not venture

into villages to prey on domestic fowl.

July 1 8, 2003 RANHT MANAKADAN

S. SIVAKUMAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email; [email protected]

REFERENCES

Jackson, P. ( 1998): Conserving the smaller cats, 1-4. ENVIS Newsletter

(Wildlife & Protected Areas): Vol. 1, No. 2. Wildlife Institute

of India, Dehradun.

Mukherjee, S. (1998): Cats: Some large, many small, 5-13. ENVIS

Newsletter (Wildlife & Protected Areas): Vol. 1, No. 2. Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun,

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE RUSTYSPOTTED CAT PRIONAILURUS RUBIGINOSUS (GEOFFROY)

IN NUGU WIEDEIFE SANCTUARY, KARNATAKA

As part of our study on lesser-known mammals in

Karnataka, we surveyed the Nugu Wildlife Sanctuary (3032 ha)

for small and nocturnal mammals. The Sanctuary lies between

1 1 ° 52’ 47" - 1 1° 59' 00" N and 76° 26' 10"-76° 28’ 37" E. The

altitude varies between 742 and 959 m above msl and the

mean annual rainfall is about 1000 mm. The major vegetation

type in the Sanctuary is scrub forest. The survey was carried

out during nights by flashing light from a jeep moving at the

speed of 10 km/hr. On April 16, 2003 at 1950 hrs, we spotted a

Rustyspotted Cat (Prionailurus rubiginosus). The animal was

in a Fig (Ficus bengalensis) tree at a height of about 5 m, and

the tree height was about 16 m. The animal was sitting on a

branch with thick foliage. Because of the disturbance caused

by our presence, the animal moved to an open area and became

completely visible to us. We watched the animal for about 20

minutes. The white ventral portions were dotted with black

spots. The dorsal grey hair with a reddish tinge had rusty

spots, and the tail was without any spots or markings. Without

any hesitation, we identified the animal as Rustyspotted Cat

and later confirmed it by referring to Prater (1998) and Gurung

and Singh (1996). The animal was in a tree at the border

between the Sanctuary and cultivated croplands. The closest

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

village was at about half a kilometer.

The distribution of Rustyspotted Cat in India is based

only on a few reports about its occurrence: Chakraborty (1978)

in Jammu and Kashmir, Pathak ( 1990) in Gujarat, Chavan etal.

(1991) in Gujarat, Tehsin (1994) in Rajasthan,

Digveerendrasinh ( 1995) in Madhya Pradesh, Acharjyo etal.

(1997) in Orissa, Dubey ( 1999) in Maharashtra, and Rao etal.

( 1999) in Andhra Pradesh. Although the species is reported

to be widespread, from southern India to some parts of Kashmir

(Prater 1998), the only published report from southern India

was from Andhra Pradesh (Rao et al. 1999). However,

Mukherjee (1998) mentions its occurrence in Mundanthurai

plateau on the basis of personal communications from field

researchers. Mudappa (pers. comm. ) reported its occurrence

in Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary. Our report confirms its

occurrence in the state of Karnataka.

All published papers on Rustyspotted Cat are only

occurrence reports, and no detailed studies are available on

this species. However, each of such reports contributes in

understanding its distribution, locality and habitat type. Hence,

the present sighting is important, since it marks the ‘southern

most sighting location’ of its distribution in India. The scrub

forests of Nugu Wildlife Sancmary and its edges continuing

Acharjyo. L.N., K.L. Purohit & S.K. Patnaik (1997): Occurrence of

the Rustyspotted Cat (Fells ruhiginosa) in Orissa. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 554-555.

Chakraborty, S. (1978): The Rustyspotted Cat, Fells ruhiginosa

I. Geoffroy in Jammu and Kashmir. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

75: 478-479.

Chavan, S.A., C.D. Patel., S.V. Pawar., N.S. Gogate & N.P. Pandya

(1991): Sightings of the Rustyspotted Cat, Felis ruhiginosa

Geoffroy in Shoolpaneshwar Sanctuary, Gujarat. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 88: 107-108.

Digveerendrasinh (1995): Occurrence of the Rustyspotted Cat (Felis

ruhiginosa) in Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92:

407-408.

Dubey, Y. (1999): Sighting of Rustyspotted Cat Prionailiirits

rubiginosus in Tadoba Andhari Tiger Reserve, Maharashtra.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 310-311,

with croplands had only few tall trees of more than 5 m in

height. Since the Rustyspotted Cat is an arboreal species,

inhabiting scrub forests, grasslands, and ruins near villages

(Gurung and Singh 1996; Prater 1998), special attention must

be paid to the maintenance of large trees dispersed throughout

such regions where it occurs, as such trees are essential to

provide a viable habitat for this species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the financial support (Grant No. SP/

SO/C- 1 6/99 ) from the Department of Science and Technology,

Government of India. We thank the Karnataka Forest

Department for permissions. Special thanks are due to

Mr. Devraj, ACF, Mr. Basavaraju, RFO, and their field staff at

Nugu.

September 4, 2003 H.N. KUMARA

MEWA SINGH'

Biopsychology Laboratory

University of Mysore,

Mysore 570 006, Karnataka, India.

'Email: [email protected]

Gurung. K.K. & R. Singh ( 1996): Field Guide to the Mammals of the

Indian Subcontinent. Academic Press, San Diego.

Mukherjee, S. (1998): Cats: Some large, many small, 5-13. ENVIS

Newsletter (Wildlife & Protected Areas): Vol. 1, No. 2. Wildlife

Institute of India, Dehradun.

Pathak. B.J. ( 1990): Rustyspotted Cat, Felis ruhiginosa Geoffroy: A

new record for Gir Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 445.

Prater, H.S. (1998): The Book of Indian Animals. Revi.sed Edn. Bombay

Natural History Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Rao, K.T., D. Sudhakar, V. Vasudevarao, V. Nagulu & C. Srlnivasulu

( 1 999): Rustyspotted Cat Prionailiirus rubiginosus, A new Record

for Nagaijunasagar Srisailam Tiger Reserve, Andhra Pradesh.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 463-464,

Tehsin, R. ( 1994): Rustyspotted Cat Felis ruhiginosa Geoffroy sighted

near Udaipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 9J: 136.

3. DISAPPEARANCE OF ELEPHANTS IN UTTARA KANNADA

We carried out a survey of mammals in Uttara Kannada,

Karnataka, between February and April, 2002. During a walk

of 198 km in several regions, in addition to direct sightings,

the locals, officials of the Public Works Department and

Karnataka Forest Department were interviewed to gather

information on the occurrence of different animal species in

each region. We found that an elephant herd had disappeared

from Gersoppa region. Locals and officials stated that during

1 992, two elephants were found dead in the backwaters of the

Gersoppa Dam. In 1995, three more elephants were found

dead in the water. Only one old adult male was left that used

to range in the forests between Mastimane and Votehalla on

Joga-Gersoppa road. During our survey, we had also found

dung and signs of fresh movement of the elephant. But this

elephant was also reported dead by the end of 2002. The

details on the death of this elephant were not available and

not revealed by anyone. However, there are no elephants in

the region anymore.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

337

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Nair and Gadgil (1978) had reported a herd of elephants

from the Gersoppa region that used to range north of River

Sharavati, especially in the forests at Badal, Jankadkal, Medini,

Herebail, Mahime and Gersoppa. A few herds of elephants

were also reported south of Sharavati river at Meginavalley,

Kollur Ghat and Nagavalli. Towards the north, a few herds

were reported from Dandeli forest area. Nair and Gadgil ( 1978)

also reported two elephants that were shot dead on the banks

of Sharavati.

The disappearance of the elephant herd from Gersoppa

region has created a more than one hundred kilometre gap

between the existing populations at Meginavalley (in the

south) to Dandeli (in the north). This is one more example of

the local disappearance of a species. It is such processes that

result in population fragmentation, and isolation between

populations. Another notable result of such local extinctions

is also the reduced overall area of occupancy of a species.

We acknowledge the financial support from Department

of Science and Technology, Government of India (Grant No.

SP/SO/C- 16/99).

July 1 1 , 2003 H.N. KUMARA

MEWA SINGH'

Biopsychology Laboratory,

University of Mysore,

Mysore 570 006, Karnataka,

India.

'Email: mewasingh(g)sanchamet.in

REFERENCE

Nair, P.V. & M. Gadgil ( 1978): The status and distribution of elephant populations of Karnataka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75\ 1000-1016.

4. MANDARIN DUCKS AIX GALERICULATA (LINNAEUS) ON THE SAT TAL LAKES

NEAR NAINITAL, UTTARANCHAL

The Mandarin Duck Ai.x galericidata is an East Asian

species whose native breeding range is restricted to the

eastern part of Russia, northern China and Japan. Its main

wintering areas are in the lowlands of eastern China and

southern Japan. There is also an introduced feral population

in the United Kingdom (Madge and Burn 1988).

In the Indian subcontinent, the Mandarin Duck is a

very rare winter vagrant (Grimmett et at. 1998). It has only

been recorded once in Nepal and once in Bangladesh (Gardiner

1991; Grimmett et al. 1998). There are only two records of

Mandarin Duck from India, both from the northeast and more

than 50 years old. One Mandarin Duck was observed in Assam

(Baker 1902), and one in Manipur (Grimson 1934). All

observations of Mandarin Ducks from the Indian

subcontinent, except the one from Nepal, were at low altitudes.

On Eebruary 13, 1999 we were bird watching around

Nainital ( 1940 m above msl), Uttaranchal, northern India. We

were counting birds on the lakes of Sat Tal, situated in a hilly

wooded area at an elevation of 1300-1450 m above msl

( Kazmierczak and Singh 1 998 ). On the lake near the Christian

Ashram, we observed three Mandarin Ducks ( 1 male, 2

females). The birds were very shy and flew away each time

we approached within 100 metres, so we used a telescope to

observe them. The male was in colourful breeding plumage,

which is unmistakable and cannot be confused with any other

duck species (see Madge and Bum 1988; Svensson et al.

1999). The three observed Mandarin Ducks were the only

duck or waterbird species recorded in the area on that day.

This is the third known record for India, and the first in

the last 50 years. Except for the observation from Nepal it is

also the highest record ( 1400 m above msl) from the region.

According to the available data on the species distribution

(Madge and Bum 1988), the observation from the Sat Tal

lakes is the westernmost record for Mandarin Ducks from its

native Asiatic population.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank to Krys Kazmierczak for valuable

suggestions and comments on the manuscript.

August 25, 2003 ALVREZEC

National Institute of Biology,

Vecnapot 111, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Email: [email protected]

TOMAZ JANCAR

DOPPS-BirdLife Slovenia,

Prvomajska9, SI- 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Email : tomaz.j ancar (s> dopps-dmstvo . si

LUKA BOZIC

Pintaijeva 16, SI-2106 Maribor,

Slovenia.

Email: [email protected]

BORUT RUB ink:

Institute Omis balcanica,

Prazakova 1 1, SI- 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.

Email: [email protected]

338

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Baker, E.C.S. (1902): Occurrence of the Mandarin Duck in India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. I4\ 626-621 .

Gardiner, S. (1991): Mandarin Duck, Aix galericiilata: a new species

for Nepal. Forktail 6: 89.

Grimmett, R.. C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black Ltd.,

London.

GRtMSON, C. ( 1934): Occurrence of the Mandarin Duck (Aix galericiilata

(Linn.)) in the Manipur State. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

37: 490-491.

Kazmierczak, K. & R. Singh (1998): A Birdwatchers' Guide to India.

Bird Watchers' Guides, Prion Ltd., Sandy.

Madge, S. & H. Burn (1988): Wassergefliigel. Verlag Paul Parey,

Hamburg & Berlin.

SvENSSON, L., P.J. Grant, K. Mullarney & D. Zetterstrom (1999):

Collins Bird Guide. HarperCollins Publishers. London.

5. RECORD OF THE AMUR FALCON FALCO AMURENSIS RADDE ON SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND,

NELLORE DISTRICT, ANDHRA PRADESH

We sighted the Amur Falcon Falco cmntrensis on

two occasions on Sriharikota island, Nellore district,

Andhra Pradesh. The first sighting was of an adult male in

an open scrub habitat at 1630 hrs on November 23, 2002.

We saw probably the same bird in the same place, the next

morning. It was perched on an electric wire and allowed

close approach (c. 25 m). The second sighting was of a

flock of 5 falcons in the morning, on May 23, 2003. The

birds were actively hunting dragonflies along casuarina

plantations on the seashore adjoining the Bay of

Bengal.

Ah and Ripley ( 1987) mention that the Amur Falcon is a

rare migratory falcon, which breeds casually in north Cachar

(Assam); its main breeding grounds are in China (Ferguson-

Lees and Christie 2001 ). In Peninsular India, they are autumn

and spring passage migrants (observed or collected between

September and April), migrating along a NE to SW route to

East Africa (Ali and Ripley 1987; Eerguson-Lees and Christie

2001 ). Records of the Amur Ealcon in Andhra Pradesh are

very rare, being known from only two old records, one from

Nellore and the other from Rajamundry (Ali and Ripley 1987;

Grimmett etal. 1998; Kazmierczak 2000). Thus, our sighting of

the species, twice in Sriharikota, which is outside the normal

migratory route of the species in India and with a gap of

5 months between sightings, is interesting.

August 25, 2003 S. SIVAKUMAR

RANJIT MANAKADAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: bnhst® bom4.vsnl.net. in

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds

of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Ferguson-Lees, J. & D.A. Christie (2001 ): Raptors of the World. A &

C Black Ltd., London.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Kazmierczak. K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India. Sri Lanka.

Pakistan, Nepal. Bhutan, Bangladesh and the Maldives. OM

Book Service, New Delhi.

6. SIGHTING OF ORANGE-GORGETED FLYCATCHER FICEDULA STROPHIATA (HODGSON)

AT BANDHAVGARH (M.P.): A FIRST RECORD FOR PENINSULAR INDIA

In the first week of January 2002, while on a trip to

Bandhavgarh National Park (Madhya Pradesh), a rather

strange looking flycatcher drew my attention as it flitted about

in the garden of Tiger Trails Resort. The Resort is located in

Bijaria village, which is a few kilometres from the National

Park boundary. At first, I mistook this flycatcher for the Red-

throated Flycatcher (Ficedula pan’ci).

A closer look revealed that this flycatcher did have

much more than the plain red throat, though it did exhibit the

white outer tail feathers similar to the outer tail feathers of the

Red-throated Flycatcher {Ficedula pana).

The most interesting and striking feature this bird

exhibited was the white band across the forehead, which

extended up to the eyes, a black chin and an orange ‘gorget’,

which could he clearly seen through the binoculars. The bird

was not shy and one could watch it from a distance of less

than four metres. I had never seen a flycatcher of this

description earlier, which forced me to refer to the available

literature to ascertain its identification. Refening to the birds

OF INDIAN SUBCONTINENT (Grimmett et al. 1 998 ), led me to the

conclusion that this new flycatcher in the area was a male

Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher {Ficedula strophiata).

Mahinder Singh, a colleague, who was stationed at the

Resort as a naturalist, later informed me that he had first

noticed this bird around mid December 2001; and after that,

the bird was seen everyday. The bird was seen around the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

339

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

same area from day one and also had a couple of favoured

perches. A horizontal branch of a small mango tree, about a

metre from the ground was the first favoured perch; the second

being a hammock placed for tourists just outside the dining

area. I asked Mahinder Singh to keep a close watch on the bird

every day and record the sightings, as I had to leave for Kanha

in a couple of days. I returned to Bandhavgarh on March 9,

2002. The bird was still seen around the same area using the

same old favoured perches, the only difference was that it had

become bolder and allowed us to watch it from a distance of

less than 3 m. A friend of mine even photographed the bird from

close quailers. The bird eventually left Bandhavgarh around

mid March 2002 and was not seen after that.

According to Ripley (1982) and Grimmett cr <7/. ( 1 998 ),

the Orange-gorgeted Flycatcher (Ficediila strophiata), is an

altitudinal migrant that breeds in the Himalaya from Himachal

Pradesh to Arunachal Pradesh and NE India and winters in

the foothills up to c. 2400 m. Till date, there is no record of the

bird being sighted from anywhere in the Peninsula. The

sighting of this bird at Bandhavgarh in central India and its

prolonged stay, for almost three months, is the first record of

this species for peninsular India.

November 8, 2003 E.P ERIC D’CUNHA

Wild Chalet Resort,

Kanha National Park,

PO. Kisli, District Mandla 481 768,

Madhya Pradesh, India

REFERENCES

Ripley. S.D. (1982): A Synop.sis of tlie Birds of India and Pakistan. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press. Subcontinent. London: Christopher Helm Ltd.

7. OCCURRENCE OE GREY-HEADED CANARY FLYCATCHER

CULICICAPA CEYLONENSIS (SWAINSON) IN JAMNAGAR DISTRICT, GUJARAT, INDIA

While surveying parts of Jamnagar district in Gujarat

for some rare and endangered plant and animal species, we

sighted a Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher (CuUcicapa

ceykmensis). The bird was calling from a small patch of Acacia

nUotica forest on the leeward side of the main bund of

Ranjitsagar Dam in Jamnagar. We saw the bird busy feeding

along with five Oriental White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosus)

and a Common Lesser Whitethroat (Sylvia currnca).

The Grey-headed Canary Flycatcher is said to be a

common resident, which migrates; it spends winter in

southern India and summer in the north (Kazmierczak and

Singh 1998). It is said to stay in the Himalaya (up to c. 3000 m)

and NE hill states, and Bangladesh, winter in the Eastern and

Western Ghats in India and Sri Lanka, and almost the entire

Subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 1995;Ali 1996). In addition, Ali

( 1 996) mentioned that the bird is practically found in the entire

Indian Union, Bangladesh and Pakistan (except the arid north-

west portions), resident and local migrant with the species

extending its range eastwards to China and south to Malaysia.

According to Grimmett et al. ( 1 999), this species is a resident,

which breeds in the Himalaya, hills of India, Bangladesh and

Sri Lanka and winters in the Himalayan foothill and plains of

Pakistan, and E and NE India.

Earlier, this species had been sighted in Mandvi Taluka

in Kachchh (Himmatsinhji 1958), an arid part of India. Our

sighting is the first record of this species in the arid part of

Jamnagar district in Gujarat (Photographic evidence provided

- Eds). The bird was alone and was sighted in a very small

patch of Acacia nilotica thorn forest next to an orchard and

agriculture lands. It is said to be found in deciduous or

evergreen forest, sholas, secondary and mixed bamboo forest

(Ali and Ripley 1995; Ali 1996) and in forest and wooded

areas (Grimmett cm/. 1999).

August 25, 2003 JUSTUS JOSHUA

HIREN SONT

NISCHAL M. JOSHI

PANKAJ N. JOSHI

OSWIN DEIVA

Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology,

Post Box # 83, 0pp. Changleshwar Temple,

Mundra Road, Bhuj-Kachchh,

Gujarat 370 001, India.

'Present Address: Animal Sciences (Zoology),

Ashok & Rita Patel Institute

of Integrated Study in Biotechnology (ARIIBT),

New Vallabh Vidyanagar 388 121,

Gujarat, India.

Email: hirensonit® yahoo.com

340

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay Natural History

Society and Oxford University Press, Bombay, Pp: 56, 268.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1995): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society and

Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 148.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1958): More bird notes from Kutch. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 55(3): 575-576.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T, Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the

Birds of Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi. Pp. 240.

Kazmierczak, K. & R. Singh (1998): A Birdwatcher’s Guide to India.

Prion Ltd. Sandy. Devon. U.K. 334 pp.

8. LARGE PIED WAGTAIL MOTACILLA MADERASPATENSIS GMELIN IN LADAKH

On the morning of July 7, 1999, two adult Large Pied

Wagtails Motacilla tnaderaspatensi.s were observed on the

bank of the Indus river near Likeer on the Srinagar-Leh

highway. The birds were easily identified, as the species is

familiar to the observers. This is a new sighting for Ladakh,

extending the species distribution further north. There are no

previously documented records of the species from Ladakh to

the best of our knowledge. Ali and Ripley ( 1 998 ), Grimmett et al.

( 1998) and Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) do not mention

this area in the species distribution for the Indian subcontinent.

The altitudinal range of the species for the Indian

subcontinent is “up to c. 900 m (Sikkim) and locally 1 500 m

(Garhwal. Kulu) or 1 700 m (Nepal -Diesselhorst); in the hills

of southern India up to 2200 m” (Ali and Ripley 1998). The

site where the birds were observed is at an altitude c. 3000 m,

which considerably exceeds the known range of 2200 m.

August 25, 2003 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 02 1 , Rajasthan, India.

Email ; sangha @ datainfosys.net

RISHADNAOROJI

Godrej Bhavan, 4-A, Home Street,

Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email; maoroJKs’vsnl.com

REFERENCES

All S. & S.D. Ripley (1998): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 10. Second edn. Oxford University Press. Delhi.

Pp. 300-302.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm. London. Pp. 813.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Robertsbridge, U.K. Pp.

285-286.

9. GANGES SOETSHELL TURTLE ASPIDERETES GANGETICUS (CUVIER)

ATTACKING A MALE PEAFOWL PAVO CRISTATUS

The Ganges Softshell Turtle Aspideretes gcmgeticiis is

present in many water bodies of southern Rajasthan ( Shamia

2000, 2002); Madai' dam near Udaipur City is one of them. Due

to repeated drought, water in dams and ponds in the area is

declining fast; even big water bodies like Madar dam are

becoming unsafe for the Turtle.

On May 18, 2001. 1 was checking the availability of

water and safety aspects of A. gangeticus at Madar dam.

While scanning the drying bed of the dam in the morning, I

saw a male Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus drinking at the

periphery of a burrow pit, present in the bed of the dam. Since

this was not a strange or new event I ignored it and started

looking at another site of the dam. After a lapse of few

seconds, an unusual wing flapping action of the Peafowl drew

my attention. I observed the bird through my binoculars and

found that a large A. gangeticus had caught hold of the

Peafowl’s neck and was trying to pull the bird into the water.

The Peafowl was trying its best to get out of the turtle’s grip.

After a short struggle, the bird became motionless. 1 did not

disturb the turtle and left the site. The next morning, I reached

the dam and minutely checked the dead bird. A big portion of

the neck of the bird was missing.

The Ganges Softshell Turtle is an omnivorous species

and its diet comprises a wide range of aquatic vegetation

and animal food like fish, molluscs, frogs and crustaceans. It

is also a very prominent scavenger (Tikader and Sharma 1 985 ).

Adults feed on other softshells, turtles and waterfowl too

(Daniel 2002). The present observation indicates that this

giant turtle can kill big sized terrestrial birds like Pavo

cristatus and can predate on them if the opportunity is

available.

August 25, 2003 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, Udaipur district,

Rajasthan, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

341

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.

Bombay Natural History Society and Oxford Univ. Press, Mumbai.

Sharma. S.K. (2000): Drought and reptiles: an experience in Rajasthan.

Cobra 40: 9-10.

Sharma, S.K. (2002): Distribution of the Ganges Soft-shelled Turtle

Trionyx gangeticus (Cuvier, 1825) in Rajasthan. Cobra 50: 22-24.

Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma ( 1985): Handbook of Indian Testudines.

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

10. OCCURRENCE OE DEEP-SEA SHARKS OFF THE PONDICHERRY COAST

On Januat7 1 7, 2000, members of our dive group landed

on the beach at Solainagar, a suburban village of PondicheiTy

where we noticed a pile of dead shark carcasses dumped on

the sand. Investigating this discarded catch, we at once

realised that these were not ordinary sharks. These had the

characteristics of deep-sea sharks, usually seen only in

photographs taken from submersibles.

The sharks, about 200 in number and ranging from 3 to

1 40 cm, had a dull brown to blackish colour; some had bizame

fins, while others had long snouts. Some had thorn-like spines

running along the body; others had odd spines sticking out.

Their bodies were soft and flaccid and many had their internal

organs sticking out. The eyes were noticeably big and bulging.

On quizzing the fishermen, they revealed that on the

previous night they had dropped a long line in waters about

1 ,000 m deep some 30 km off the coast and had hauled up this

catch. These bizaire sharks held no commercial value for them,

and hence they were discarded.

From this discarded lot, three sharks were taken to the

Sri Aurobindo International Centre of Education (SAICE)

campus for display to students. Here they were photographed

and measured. The biggest of them ( 1 30 cm; estimated length)

had to be later thrown back onto the beach, as it was too big

to be accommodated in a museum jar, while the two smaller

ones were preserved in formalin.

A search was conducted on the Internet and we had

responses from various scientists and specialists who

expressed interest in this catch. A ‘tele-identification’ of the

specimens was done.

The biggest fish was a Long-nosed Chimaera, a

member of the genus Neoharrita. Of the three species of

this genus recorded so far, one occurs in the southern

Caribbean, the second off the West African coast and third

has been recently described from the Gulf of Aden and

eastern Somalia. Our specimen of the Chimaera, as examined

by specialists via photographs, differ from the described

species, and are probably a new species or a range extension

of the Somalian species.

The second fish (64 cm; total length) is Bramble Shark

Echinorhimis bruccus, which has a worldwide distribution,

normally occurring at water depths of 400-900 m, sometimes

shallower.

Fig. 1 : Deep-sea sharks caught off Pondichery coast:

a. Gulper Shark Centrophorus granulosus

b. Bramble Shark Echinorhinus bruccus

The third fish (44 cm; total length) is tentatively

identified as a Gulper Shark of the genus Centrophorus,

probably Centrophorus granulosus, found in all the oceans

but not recorded previously from India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Philip Hastings, Associate Professor and

Curator of Marine Vertebrates, Scripps Institute of

Oceanography for identifying the specimens, albeit via the

web and e-mail. And of course all this messy affair of dead,

stinking sharks littering the campus would not have been

possible without the understanding support of the faculty

and staff of SAICE, to whom we are grateful.

May 23, 2003 SHILPIN PATEL

ATMA REDDY

GITA DOLIA

Sri Aurobindo International Centre

of Education

Pondicherry 600 002, India.

342

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. EXTENSION OF RANGE OF PUNTIUS ARULIUS ARULIUS (JERDON) IN VARIOUS STREAMS

IN THUNGABADRA RIVER BASIN

Piintius ariiUiis (Jerdon) was described from Cauvery

river at Srirangapatanam (Jerdon 1849). Day (1875-78)

recorded the species from Nilgiri and Wynaad hills. Shaji

(1998) and Manimekalan (2000) recorded the species from

various streams in Kabini and Vythiripuzha rivers (tributaries

of Cauvery river). The distribution of the species was from

Tamil Nadu in rivers of Cauvery drainage (Jayaram 1999). It

is a rare barb having very restricted distribution and known

only from Cauvery river basin. Recently, Gopi ( 2000) reported

the occurrence of the species from Wynaad, Kottayam,

Thenmalai, Kulathupuzha, and Jayaram ( 1 999) reported it from

Periyar Lake, Kerala. Occurrence of Piintius andiiis aridiiis

from various streams inside Kudremukh National Park,

upstream of Thunga and Badra rivers (Kutch hole - 13° 12'

0.97" N, 75° 1 3' 48. 1 " E; Vimalanathi - 13° 19' 49.7" N, 75° 06'

15.7" E; Korkanhalla 13° 20' 22.3" N, 75° 10' 19.4" E and -

Kummulikheri 13° 21' 31.1" N, 75° 1 1' 26.5" E), shows its

range -extension to the other major east flowing rivers in

Karnataka (Table 1 ).

Description; D Hi 8; Aiii 5; Pi 14; Vi 8

Body laterally compressed, dorsal and ventral equally

arched, its depth 3.2 to 3.5 times in standard length.

Head small, its length 3.5 to 3.7 times in standard length.

Mouth subterminal with one pair of thin maxillary barbels.

Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of snout and base of

caudal fin, its last unbranched ray non-osseous and weak.

Scales moderate, lateral line complete with 21 to 24 scales,

predorsal scales 8. A prominent, fairly deep pectoral pit is

present. Further morphometric measurements are given in

Table 1.

Colour: In life, black olivaceous-green, blending to

silvery on belly with a reddish lustre; scales over lateral line

with numerous tiny green spots; operculum with an iridescent

green dot; three black bands on body, the transverse bars

are at the level of dorsal fin origin, and the others at the level

of anal fin and caudal peduncle. Pelvic and caudal fins

reddish, with bright red tips.

Remarks: The occurrence of Piintius andiiis andiiis

in Banatheerthem, Kil Manimuthar and Kanamparai river in

Tamiraparani river basin by Johnsingh and Vickram ( 1 987 ) is

due to misidentification of this species with Piintius andiiis

tambraparniei. A detailed study has been cairied out on the

macro-, meso- and microhabitat requirements in the Gadana

river basin (Sankaranarayanan 1999), the Manimuthar river

basin (Johnson 1999) and the Tamirapaiani river (Aamachalam

2000), and the existence of the subspecies has already been

established (Jayaram 1999; Arunachalam. etal. 2000). Variation

in phenotypic plasticity of Piintius andiiis tainhrapaniiei

Table 1 : Morphometric measurements of Puntius arulius arulius in various streams of Thungabadra river basin

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

343

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from streams, check dams, canals and wetlands in Tamiraparani

river basin has already been documented (Shanthi 2002). In

our ongoing project we also collected several specimens of

Pimtius sp. from Thenmalai, Kulathupuzha and Kottayam,

which is closely related to Pimtius aruliiis aruliiis, but it

varies widely from P. arulius in several morphometric

characters. Hence, the occunence of this species (Gopi 2000)

from this area needs further confirmation.

ACKNOWI.EDGEMENTS

The senior author (MA) is grateful for financial

assistance from NATP under the mission mode programme

of Germplasm Inventory and Gene Banking of Freshwater

Fishes. We also thank the Mission Leader and the Director

Dr. D. Kapoor and Dr. S.P. Singh, Principal Investigator of

the Lead Centre, National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources,

Lucknow for their leadership in this programme. We also

thank Shri Chakrabarti, Principal Chief Conservator of Forests,

Karnataka for official permission and Shri Murthi, Conservator

of Forests, Kudremukh wildlife Division, Karkala for his help

and co-operation in the field trips.

March 6, 2003 M. ARUNACHALAM'

J.A. JOHNSON

A. MANIMEKALAN"

A. SANKARANARAYANAN

R. SORANAM

P. SIVAKUMAR

M. MURALIDHARAN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkiirichi 627 412, Tamil Nadu, India.

'Email: [email protected]

-Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Arunachalam, M., J.A. Johnson. A. Manimekalan,

A. SANKARANARAYANAN & R. SoRANAM (2000): Cultivable and

ornamental fishes of Western Ghats river of south India.

Pp. 203-214. In: Endemic Fish Diversity of Western Ghats NBFGR

(Eds: Ponniah, A.G. and A. Gopalakrishnan). NATP Publication -

1 : 347 p. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow,

U.P., India.

Arunachalam, M. (2000): Assemblage structure of stream fishes in

the Western Ghats (India). Hydrobiologia 430: 1-31.

Da\, F. ( 1875-78): The Fishes of India: being a Natural History of the

Fishes known to inhabit the Seas and Fresh waters of India, Burma

and Ceylon. 2 vols. London, Indian Reprint by Jagmander Book

Agency, New Delhi, xx -i- 778 pp., 195 plates.

Gopi. K.C. (2000): Freshwater fishes of Kerala State. Pp. 57-76.

In: Endemic Fish Diversity of Western Ghats NBFGR (Eds: Ponniah,

A.G. and A. Gopalakrishnan). NATP Publication - 1: 347 pp.

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow, U.P., India.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp.

Jerdon, T.C. ( 1849): On the freshwater fishes of southern India. Madras

J. Ur. Sci. 15: 302-346.

JoHNSiNGH, A.J.T. & D. ViCKRAM, D. (1987): Fishes of Mundanthurai

Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay. Nat. Hist. Soc. 84(3):

526-533.

Johnson, J.A. (1999): Diversity and ecological structure of fishes in

selected streams/rivers of Western Ghats, Ph.D. Thesis,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, (Unpublished). 134 pp.

Manimekalan, A. (2000): Diversity, ecological structure and

conservation of threatened fishes by Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

Ph.D. Thesis, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

(Unpublished). 179 pp.

SANKARANARAYANAN, A. (1999): Stream-laiidscape linkage on the

resources and communities in Gadana river basin. South Tamil

Nadu, Ph.D. Thesis, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Tirunelveli (Unpublished). 164 pp.

Shaji, C.P. (1998): The distribution and habitat ecology of fishes in

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve - Kerala Region. Ph.D. Thesis, Forest

Research Institute, Dehradun, (Unpublished). 235 pp.

Shanthi, P.N. (2002): Phenotypic plasticity of stream fishes in

resources utilization lowland rivers, wetlands and man-made canals.

Ph.D. Thesis, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University

(Unpublished). 88 pp.

12. NEW RECORDS AND RANGE EXTENSION OE ERESHWATER FISHES

TO THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE, SOUTH INDIA

The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR) is spread over the

tri-junction of three states in southern India - Tamil Nadu,

Kerala and Karnataka, and hence is under the joint jurisdiction

of the forest departments of the three states. It is located at

1 0° 45'- 1 2° 1 5' N and 16° -IT 1 5’ E tind has an area of 5,520 sq. km

(Daniels 1993). It encompas.ses a complex of protected areas

and reserve forests, including Nagarahole and Bandipur

(Karnataka), Wynaad, the slope of Nilambur, Silent Valley and

Siruvani Hills (Kerala), and Mudumalai, Nilgiris and Mukurthi

(Tamil Nadu). Of these, Bandipur, Nagarahole, Silent Valley

and Mukurthi are national parks, and Mudumalai and Wynaad

are wildlife sanctuaries. Bandipur is a Tiger Reserve and also

the single largest protected area (874.0 sq. km) within the

NBR (Anon. 1981 ). The annual rainfall in the area ranges from

500 to 7000 mm (Mohanan and Balakrishnan 1991) and

elevation varies from 80 m (Nilambur plains) to over 2,600 m

344

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

above msl (Nilgiri plateau) (Gadgil etal. 1986). The NBR forms

one of the critical catchment areas in Peninsular India, as

many major tributaries of the Cauvery, Chaliyar and

Bharathapuzha river systems have their sources and

catchment area within the reserve boundary. In addition, there

are both westward flowing rivers, which include the Chaliyar,

Kadalundi and Bharathapuzha and their tributaries and

eastward flowing rivers of the Cauvery river system such as

Noiyal, Bhavani, Kundah, Coonor, Pykara, Kabini and Gundal

and their tributaries. All of these river systems provide

excellent habitats for fishes.

1. Bariliiis canarensis was reported from Karnataka

and Kerala parts of the Western Ghats (Jerdon 1849; Day

1878, 1889; Hora 1942). But in the present study, not a single

specimen could be collected from Kerala and Karnataka part

of NBR. However, it was collected at Kovaicourtalam,

upstream of Noiyal river of Bhavani river basin. This is a new

record to Bhavani river.

2. The distribution of Neolissochilus wynaadensis was

known from Wynaad and Vythiri regions of Kerala ( Day 1873,

1878, 1889; Jayaramc/c//. 1982; Daniels 1993; Easa and Basha

1995). During the present study, this species was collected

from Nilpuzha, Vythiri and Kallar. Record of this species in

Kallar of Bhavani river is a new record to Tamil Nadu part of

the Western Ghats. Earlier workers (Mukerji 1931; Easa and

Basha 1995) on Bhavani have not reported this species.

3. The distribution of Garni hiighi Silas (1954) is so far

known from the Cardamom and Palani hills (Talwar and

Jhingran 1991; Jayaram 1999); this is the first record of this

species in NBR.

4. Clarias diisswnieri was recorded from Chaliyar river

basin (Karimpuzha, Arikayampuzha and Panapuzha) and

Kabini basin (Nulpuzha). Easa and Basha ( 1 995 ) reported this

species from Karimpuzha stream. But in the present study,

this species was not recorded from Karimpuzha stream.

5. Osteobrama ueilli was reported from Bhavani river

at base of Nilgiri hills (Day 1 873; Hora and Misra 1 940; Daniels

1993). In the present study, this species was recorded from

Nugu of Kabini river basin but not from earlier reported places.

It also extended its range to Kabini river basin.

6. CrossocheUus latiiis latiiis has been reported up to

Maharashtra (Hamilton 1822;Bleeker 1860; Day 1877, 1889;

Hora and Misra 1938; David 1963; Menon 1974; Singh and

Yazdani 1991; Jayaram 1999). Later, Easa and Basha (1995)

reported this species from Kerala part of the NBR, but they

did not mention the exact location. The present study showed

the extended distribution to Belimeenthurai of Moyar river.

7. Many workers reported the distribution of the Batasio

travancoria from and outside the NBR. Hora and Law ( 1941 )

described this species from Perunterai uvi, a tributai'y of Pamba

river at Edakadathy. Later, many workers reported it from

different places. Silas (1951) reported from Anamalai Hills,

Jayaram et al. (1976) from Cardamom and Agastya hills of the

Western Ghats, Raghunathan (1989) from Coorg district,

Karnataka and Easa and Basha ( 1 995) from Chalikal of Chaliyar

river basin. The present study extends its distribution to

Nulpuzha of Kabini river basin.

8. Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994) described

Travancoria elongata from Chalakudy river near Vettilappara.

After Pethiyagoda and Kottelat (1994), this species has not

been reported from anywhere. The present record extends its

range to Kovaicourtalam upstream of the Noiyal river of

Bhavani basin.

9. Easa and Basha (1995) recorded Cliaima striatiis

from Karimpuzha, Nulpuzha, Kabini river, and AJithkumar et

al. (1999) reported it from Chalakudy river. In the present

study, this species was colleted from the same location and

Ombatta swamp of Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuai'y. The present

record extends its range to Bhavani river basin.

10. The distribution of Sdurus wynaadensis was known,

soEu-, from Wynaad hills (Day 1873, 1877, 1889; Hora 1937). It

nas not been reported subsequently from Wynaad hills. The

present study extends its range to Thavalam and Kallar of

Bhavani river.

1 1 . Eish fauna of the Silent Valley was studied by Rema

Devi and India ( 1986); Easa and Basha ( 1995) reported ten

species from Silent Valley National Park. In the present study,

ten species were collected from the same area. Danio

aeqiiipinnatiis was collected from three locations

(Madrimaramthodu, Eramalathodu and Pathrakadavu), which

is a new addition to Silent National Valley Park.

July 14,2003 A. MANIMEKALAN'

M. arunachalam’

SPK Centre for Environmental Sciences

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 4 1 2, Tamil Nadu, India.

' Emai 1 : mani mekalan @ gmai 1 .com

‘Email: [email protected]

K. REMA DEVI

Zoological Survey of India,

Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028,

Tamil Nadu, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

345

MISCELU\NEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ajithkumar, C.R., K. Rema Devi, K. Raju Thomas & C.R. Buu (1999):

Fish fauna, abundance, and distribution of Chalakudy river system,

Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2): 244-254.

Anonymous (1981): Centenary report of t he Nilgiri Wildlife Association

1877-1977. 90 pp.

Bleeker, P. (1860): Conspectus systematics Cyprinorum. Natur.

Tijdschr. Nedrl Indie. 20: 425-441

Daniels, R.J. (1993): The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and its role in

conserving India’s biodiversity. Cun: Sci. 64(10): 706-708.

David, A. ( 1963): Studies on the fish and fisheries of the Godavari and

Krishna river systems. Part I. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. India 3B(2):

236-86.

Day. F. ( 1873): A report on freshwater fish and fisheries of India and

Burma. Calcutta, Government Printing Press. 118 pp.

Day, F. ( 1875-78): The Fishes of India: being a natural history of the

fishes known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma

and Ceylon. Text and Atlas in 4 parts. London, xx-i- 788 pp., 195

pis.

Day. F. (1878): The Fishes of India: being a natural history of fishes

known to in habit the seas and fresh waters of India. Burma and

Ceylon. Today and Tomorrow’s Book Agency. New Delhi.

Day, F. ( 1889): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma.

Fishes, Taylor and Francis, London. 1,548 pp; 2,509 pp.

Easa, PS. & S.C. Basha( 1995): A survey on the habitat and distribution

of stream fishes in the Kerala part of Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.

KFRl Research Report No: 104. Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi, Trichur.

Gadgil. M., S.S.C. Nair & R. Sukumar (1986): Scientific Programme

for the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Proposalfor an action plan.

Technical Report. Centre for Ecological Sciences, l.I.Sc. Bangalore,

Dec. 1986

HAMtLTON, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river

Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh and London, viii-t-405 pp, 39

pis.

Hora. S.L. (1937): Notes on fishes in the Indian Museum xxix. On

three collection of fish from Mysore and Coorg, South India.

Rec. Ind. Mus. 39: 5-28.

Hora, S.L. ( 1942): A list of fishes of Mysore state and of the neighbouring

hill ranges of the Nilgiris, Wynaad and Coorg. Rec. Ind. Mus. 44:

193-200.

Hora, S.L. & Law, N.C. ( 1941 ): Siluroid fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon. IX Fishes of the genera Gagata Bleeker and Nangra Day.

Rec. Ind. Mus. 43(1): 9-27.

Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1938): Fishes of Deolali. III. On the two new

species and notes on some others forms. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 40(1): 20-38, 3 pis.

Hora, S.L. & K.S. Misra (1940): On fishes of the genus Rohtee Sykes.

Rec. Indian Mus. 42(1): 155-172, I pi.

Iayaram, K.C., T.I. Indra & M. Sunder Singh (1976): On a collection

of fish from the Cardamom Hills, South India. Madras J. Fish. 7:

1-7.

Iayaram, K.C., T, Venkateswarulu & M.B. Raghunathan (1982): A

survey of the Cauvery river system with a major account of its

fish fauna. Rec. Zool. surv India, Occ. pap 36: 1-1 15, 8 pis.

Iayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian region.

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp.

Ierdon, T.C. (1849): The fishes of Southern India. Part 111. Madras

J. Lit. and Sci. 15: 320-321.

Menon, A.G.K. (1974): Checklist of fishes of the Himalayan and Indo-

Gangetic plains. Inland fisheries Soc. India, Spl. Pub!. No. 1,

Banackpore: 136.

Mohanan, M. & N.P. Balakrishnan (1991): Endangered orchids of

Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India. In: Proceedings of the Symposium

on rare, endangered and endemic plants of the Western Ghats.

Kerala Forest Department - Wildlife Wing, Thiruvananthapuram.

Mukerji, D.D. ( 1931 ): On a small collection of fish from the Bhavani

river (S. India): J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35(1): 162-171.

Pethiyagoda, R. & M. Kottelat (1994): Three new species of

fishes of the genera Osteochilichthys (Cyprinidae), Travancoria

(Balitoridae) and Horabagrus (Bagridae) from the

Chalakudy river, Kerala, India. J. South Asian. Nat. Hist.

I: 97-116.

Raghunathan, M.B. ( 1989): A study on the fish fauna of Coorg district,

Karnataka. Fishery Tech. 26(1): 19-21.

Rema Devi, K. & T.I. Indra (1986): Fishes of Silent Valley. Rec. Zool.

surv. India 84(1-4): 243-257.

Silas, E.G. (1951): Fishes from the high ranges of Travancore.

J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 50: 323-330.

Silas, E.G. (1954): Garra hiighi, a new Cyprinid fish from the Western

Ghats; Peninsular India, with notes on its bionomics. Rec. Indian

Mus. 52: 1-14.

Singh, D.F & G.M. Yazdani (1991): Studies on the Ichthyofauna of

Nasik district. Maharashtra, India. Rec. Zool. surv. India 90(1-4):

1-9.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Ihingran (1991): Inland Fishes, Vol. I and II.

Oxford-IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India.

13. NOTES ON THE LIEE HISTORY OE LACCOPTERA (SINDIA) SULCATA (OLIVIER)

(COLEOPTERA: CHRYSOMELIDAE: CASSIDINAE)

In the Fauna of British India, Maulik (1919) had included

3 species under the genus Sindia: namely S. clathrata

(Fabricius), S. foveolata (Bohenian) andS. sedecimmaculata

(Boheman). Spaeth later added one more species, namely

S. jawcdagiriana Spaeth (Borowiec 1999). Borowiec (1994)

expressed the opinion that Sindia Weise should be treated as

a subgenus of Laccoptera Boheman. According to this recent

revision, only two species are retained under the subgenus

Sindia - S. clathrata (= sulcata) and S. sedecimmaculata

(Borowiec 1999). The name Sindia clathrata (Fabricius) has

been synonymised under S. sulcata (Olivier) (Hincks 1952;

Borowiec 1996, 1999). Thus, the valid name today is

Laccoptera (Sindia) sulcata (Olivier).

The species has been recorded from various parts of

India, such as Nasik (Maharashtra), Kolkata (West Bengal)

and ‘Malabar’ (Maulik 1919); Vissanpeta and Madras (Tamil

Nadu), Pondicherry (Borowiec 1990); Pudukkotai (Tamil Nadu)

(Borowiec and Takizawa 1991 ); Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh)

(Borowiec 1996). Some other records are given in the latest

Catalogue of the World Cassidinae (Borowiec 1999).

Apparently, this insect is widely distributed, though there

are only a couple of records from Maharashtra.

For Laccoptera, scanty records are available on the life

history of only 4 species, although there are more than 60

346

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

species under this genus (Borowiec 1999). The species whose

life history stages are briefly known include:

L. quatiiordecinmotato Boheinan and L. quadrimacukita

Thunberg (now = Laccoptera nepcdensis Boheman), both

from India (Takizawa, 1980). Some aspects of the life history

of an African species L. excavata Boheman have been

reported by Muir and Sharp ( 1 904).

Major Hingston ( 1928) presented an interesting natural

history account of the larvae of Laccoptera sulcata, which

contained some detailed information about how the larva

constructs the faecal shield on its back. Maulik ( 1948) later

obtained part of Hingston ’s material from the British Museum

of Natural History and published his additional observations.

In this paper, we are giving details about the larvae not

mentioned earlier. Besides, we describe the ootheca, pupa

and eclosion process for the first time.

Four adults (including one mating pair), two freshly

hatched larvae and one ootheca were collected on June 24

and 26, 1999, from a Convolvulaceae plant, Rivea

hypocrateriformes, at Anand Gram Society’s Leprosy

Rehabilitation Centre, Dudulgaon, Alandi (about 20 km North

of Pune City). Subsequently (July- August, 1999), a population

was also located near NDA, Pune; we could follow the

development of the larvae in the field at this place.

The adults, larvae and oothecae were hand-picked and

brought to the laboratory in small plastic bottles, along with

leaves of the host plant, and then transferred to large 11 Pet

jars. The jars were covered with muslin cloth and kept at 25°C

in a B.O.D. incubator. The jars were regularly cleaned and the

insects were provided with fresh leaves of the host plant.

Observations were canied out with a KYOWA stereozoom

microscope, which is calibrated for measurement using stage

micrometer. Line drawings to the scale were prepared using

an ocular grid. Colour photographs were exposed on

Kodacolor Gold (negative) using either Honeywell Pentax or

Vivitar V3000 SLR camera. We reared the beetles and larvae

under laboratory conditions and studied all the life history

stages.

The imago is brightly coloured, with distinct elytral

costae and a characteristic pattern of black patches on red

background (Fig. 1). Important taxonomic features of this

species have already been published (Maulik 1919). The insect

can be easily spotted against the background of green leaves

in the field because of bright colouration. It cuts large holes

in the leaves of Rivea. When disturbed, the beetle just moves

on to another leaf or falls down, but does not attempt to tJy.

Copulation was found to be of usual cassidine pattern.

The mated female laid the first ootheca after 5 days. A total of

6 oothecae were laid by the female in two days, on both sides

of the leaf, in the early hours of the morning. Each ootheca

wascircular (diameter 3. 8-4. 5 mm) and generally had 6-8 eggs

arranged in three tiers (generally with 3 eggs in the basal tier).

A thin transparent membrane covered each egg. A layer of

faecal matter covered each ootheca so that it looked like a

black blotch on the leaf (Fig. 2). The arrangement of the eggs

within the ootheca is shown in Fig. 7.

The first instar larvae, which hatched out on the fifth or

sixth day, were faint yellow brown, with veiy small black spots

scattered throughout the body. The lateral processes were

without spinules, except for the base of the first two processes.

After 2-3 hours the first instar larvae started depositing faecal

matter on each of the supra anal process, forming a more or

less ‘Y’ shaped structure. The first larvae moulted after 3

days.

The second instar larvae showed well-developed

spinules on the lateral processes. The supra anal processes

earned a shield of dark faecal matter and the previous larval

skin as an inverted triangular structure. The larvae moulted

after 3 or 4 days.

The third instar larvae moulted after about 3 days. Up

to the fourth instar, the larvae showed two distinct brown

patches on the prothorax while the rest of the body was pale

yellow brown. The fifth instar larvae showed usual growth

pattern in the first 2-3 days of the instar, but there was

acceleration in growth during the last 3 days of the instar. At

the end of this accelerated growth phase, the larvae increased

in length by more than 1.5, reaching to more than 10 mm.

Generally, the last two instar larvae are a darker brown (almost

black) compared to the preceding stages.

The first two larval instars fed only on the epidermis

and mesophyll of the leaf and did not bore through the entire

thickness of the leaf. The fourth and fifth instars, however,

cut complete holes and skeletonized the leaves.

Larva (late S"" instar):

The larva has an oblong body, which is broad at the

anterior end and somewhat narrow at the posterior end.

Overall, it is brownish black dorsally and yellow brown

ventrally. Lateral margin has 16 pairs of processes carrying

spinules of variable length. Bases of all processes are deep

brown or black. The L‘ and 2"^' lateral processes are fused at

the base. Processes 1 -4, 6‘*', 8- 1 0 are long, almost of the same

length, while 5*, T'^ and 1 1 - 1 4 are smaller than the others. The

last 2 processes are the longest. There are 2 small black

spinules between the 2'’^' and 3'^'^ processes. Prothorax is large,

rectangular, almost twice as broad as long, with a distinct

brownish black patch separated by a faint yellowish brown

line medially. There is a light yellow brown patch in the centre

of the dark patch on either side. Laterally, at the base of the 4“’

projection, is a circular, broad and tubular spiracle. The area

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

347

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 1-4:1. Laccoptera (Sindia) sulcata, Imago, 2. Ootheca on leaf. Note black covering of faecal matter,

3. Larvae carrying a triangular shield (arrow) composed of faecal matter and previous larval skins,

4. Pupa. (Note the colour pattern. The faecal shield that normally covers dorsal surface is purposely displaced)

surrounding the base of the spiracle is light yellow brown.

Mesothorax and metathorax are almost of the same length

and possess deep brownish black lateral margins. Prothorax

is longer than the two thoracic segments.

There are nine abdominal segments. Viewed from the

dorsal side, each abdominal segment shows two transverse

rows of small tubercles separated by a depression. Laterally

placed, at the base of the lateral processes of first seven

abdominal segments, are broad, circular spiracles. The base

of each spiracle is surrounded by a broad, black patch, which

nari'ows as it extends medially. The 9* abdominal segment is

very small with brown supra anal processes. The basal region

of each supra anal process has very small, fine spinules /

setae (Fig. 5)

The larva carries large amount of black faecal matter,

mixed with larval exuviae, in the fonri of an inverted, triangular

shield that covers nearly the whole body of the larva (Fig. 3).

The faecal matter is deposited with the help of highly

manoeuvrable, telescopic anal tube, which can extend almost

up to the head region dorsally. In this stage, the larva appears

as a dark black blotch or dropping of a bird and is often

mistaken as such. In some cases one can notice a healthy

growth of fungus on this faecal shield, both in laboratory

reared and wild population of larvae.

Head is large, somewhat oval, deep brown in colour,

with 5 ocelli on either side. Proximal margin of clypeus is

black and distal margin is yellow brown. Labmm is somewhat

rectangular, black, with a median, transverse, yellow patch.

Mandibles are yellow with heavily chitinised, dark brown

denticles (Fig. 9). There are three pairs of stout, black thoracic

legs; each leg has a single hook like claw (Fig. 1 1 ). Ventrally,

the body is finely tuberculate.

348

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2 mm

Fig. 5: Prepupal larva (dorsal view, without faecal shield).

Note typical cassidine features

The fifth instar larva becomes sluggish and stops

feeding about a day before pupation, which takes place after

6-8 days. Before pupation, the larvae are firmly attached to

the leaf surface (generally upper surface) by means of some

adhesive material secreted by the first two abdominal

segments.

Pupa

The pupa is more or less rectangular, dorsally copper

brown when alive and yellow brown when preserved, with a

distinct black pattern. Prothorax is almost twice as broad as

long, with an anterior median notch. The prothoracic margin

has a row of spinules of variable length. The first six pairs of

spinules are almost of the same length, the 6‘'' and 7"’ pair is

the longest, broad and branched. All spinules are partially

red brown. There is a median black band more than 3/4'^’ of the

length of prothorax. A prominent inverted T’ shaped yellow

patch marks this band. Lateral and posterior margins of

prothorax show prominent black patches (Fig. 4). Mesothorax

2mm

Fig. 6; Pupa (dorsal view, without faecal shield) showing specific

colour pattern and other details

and metathorax possess ‘V’ shaped black marking medially.

Lateral margins possess very small black tubercles that appear

like black patches. These patches are bilaterally symmetrical.

There are eight visible abdominal segments with a black

median band on first six segments. The segments 1-5 bear

leaf like lateral projections. Each lateral projection has spinules

of variable length. The first projection is long and broad

apically and is directed anteriorly, the second is anterolateral

and each of the 3rd to 5‘'’ is directed laterally. All lateral

processes become successively shorter. The terminal spinule

of each lateral process is strongly chitinised, red coloured

and long in all the processes. At the base of the lateral

processes of the first five abdominal segments, there are

dorsolaterally placed, broad, tubular spiracles. The size of

the spiracles becomes smaller posteriorly. A black patch

surrounds the anterior basal margin of the spiracles. In

Fig. 7: Cross-section of ootheca to show

arrangement of the eggs

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

349

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 8-12: 8. Adult antenna showing 6 smooth basal joints and 5 dark and hairy apical joints, 9. Larval mandible showing 6 visible,

strongly chitinised, denticles (arrow), 1 0. Adult mandible showing 6 visible, strongly chitinised, denticles (arrow).

1 1 . Apical region of the larval leg showing a single chitinised claw (arrow), 1 2. Apical region of imaginal leg showing a paired claw

with pecten on inner face (arrow)

Table 1 : Morphometry of the various stages of Laccoptera sulcata

Length of the larvae is measured from the head to the base of the

supra-anal processes while breadth is the maximum breadth,

excluding lateral processes in larva and In pupa; It is the breadth of

the prothorax.

Sizes mentioned are minimum and maximum of 1 0 different specimens

of a given stage. Exact measurements of freshly moulted larva are

not available.

All measurements are of formalin fixed material, except for adults,

which were measured when alive.

between the spiracles and the median dorsal black band, there

is another longitudinal black band on first four abdominal

segments, but it is more prominent on segments 2-4. The 7*

abdominal segment gives out a long spiny projection, directed

inward and posteriorly. Apical processes are thin, chitinised

(except at the tips) and long (length about 3.2 mm), carrying

faecal matter and previous larval skins or exuviae (Fig. 6, faecal

matter and exuviae removed for clarity )

Imago:

The imago eclodes after about 6 days; the eclosion

process is completed within 3 minutes. The fresh imago is lemon

yellow and it turns yellow brown later. Tliere are no black spots

on elytra at the time of eclosion. The prothoracic black spots

are, however, well developed. The elytral spots develop after 2-

3 hours. The ventral side of the abdomen becomes deep black

after about 3 hours. The adult attains the typical orange red

colour after 13-14 days. The other imaginal characters, such as

antenna with 5 black apical segments (Fig. 8), chitinised and

denticulate mandibles (Fig. 10) and pectinate claws (Fig. 12)can

be obseiwed under the microscope.

350

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

segment, and the precision with which the faecal shield is

made is astonishing. Pupa retains this faecal shield until

eclosion. Eggs and larval / pupal protection by faeces and

exuviae has been mentioned earlier (Rane et al. 2001 ) and

discussed in detail by others (Hilker 1994; Olmstead 1994);

and appears to be a common character among many cassidine

beetles. Apparently both Hingston (1928) and Maulik ( 1948)

did not mention faecal covering on the ootheca in this beetle

and although the comments were made on the process of

larval emergence, there was no record as to how many eggs

are there per ootheca. Further, neither of them provided

diagrams or structural details of the pupa and the period

required for eclosion. The photographic record of the life

history of this beetle, presented in this paper, will help

naturalists and others to identify this colourful beetle.

The change in colouration of the imagines after a gap of

about 10-14 days is similar to that reported in Conchyloctenia

nigrovittata (Boheman) (Rane et al. 2001) and Aspidimorpha

miliaris (Fabricius) (unpubl. data). Apparently many other related

beetles, for example Cassida miirraea L., undergo such colour

change and this phenomenon is related in some cases with

acquisition of chemicals like beta-carotene. Jolivet (1994) has

recently reviewed these interesting aspects of colour change in

adult cassidine beetles.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Mr. Jay Kadapatti (Secretary, Anand

Gram Society, Leprosy Rehabilitation Centre, Dudulgaon, Near

Borowiec, L. (1990): New records and new synonyms of Asiatic

Cassidinae (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Pol. Pismo. Entomol. 59:

677-711.

Borowtec, L. (1994): New synonyms in the Cassidinae (Coleoptera:

Chrysomelidae). Genus 5: 161-164.

Borowiec, L. (1996): New Records of Asiatic Cassidinae (Coleoptera:

Chrysomelidae). AnnaA of r/ic Upper Silesian Museum. Entomology

6-7: 5-47.

Borowiec, L. (1999): A World Catalogue of Cassidinae. Biologica Silesia,

Wroclaw, Poland.

Borowiec, L. & H. Takjzawa (1991): Notes on chrysomelid beetles

(Coleoptera) of India and its neighbouring areas. Part 10. Jpn. J.

Ent. 59: 637-654.

Hilker, M. (1994): Egg deposition and protection of eggs in

Chrysomelidae. Pp. 263-276. In: Novel Aspects of the Biology of

Chrysomelidae, (Eds: Jolivet, P.H., M.L. Cox and E. Petitpierre).

Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.

Heron, H.D.C. (2004): The biology of Laccoptera cicatricosa

(Boheman, 1855) (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Cassidinae). Pp. 455-

468. In: New Developments in the Biology of Chrysomelidae, (Eds:

Jolivet, P, J.A. Santiago-Blay and M. Schmitt). SPB Academic

Publishing bv. The Hague, The Netherlands.

Hingston, R.W.G (1928): A shield-making beetle (Sindia clathrata

R). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. S3: 60-64.

Hincks, W.D. (1952): The genera of the Cassidinae (Coleoptera:

Chrysomelidae). Trans. R. Ent. Soc. bond. 103(10): 327-358.

Jolivet, P. (1994): Physiological colour changes in tortoise beetles.

Alandi, Pune) for bringing this beetle to our notice and for

providing facilities to visit the area for field survey. We are also

grateful to Prof Lech Borowiec, University of Wroclaw, Poland,

for verifying our taxonomic studies and for extending constant

help and encouragement to carry out work on this group of

beetles. We are also indebted to the Authorities of the Natural

History Museum, London, and especially to Anne Freeman and

Zoe Gerrart, for providing an essential reference from NHM

library (Entomology Section). We thank Mr. Sagar Pandit for his

help with plant taxonomy and to Mr. Sachin Ranade for helping

us during field work. The facilities and encouragement by the

authorities of Modem College and financial assistance provided

by the University Grants Commission, (F. No. 23- 1 57/99; UGC,

WRO, Pune) allowed us to carry out this work.

Note: Three important papers have been published since the original

submission and subsequent revision of this paper on Laccoptera (Sindia)

sulcata. The first is an important paper that reviewed the status of the

genus Laccoptera in the Oriental region (Swietojanska 2001 ); second is

a detailed paper on morphology of the first / last larva (including

details of setae) and bionomics of Laccoptera foveolata (Boheman)

(Ranade et al. 2004) and third, a comprehensive paper on the biology

of an African species, Laccoptera cicatricosa (Boheman) by Heron

(2004).

July 24, 2003 NILESH RANE

H.V. GHATE'

Post-Graduate Research Centre,

Department of Zoology, Modern College,

Pune 41 1 005, Maharashtra, India.

'Email: [email protected]

NCES

Pp. 331-335. In: Novel Aspects of the Biology of Chrysomelidae,

(Eds: Jolivet, P.H., M.L. Cox and E. Petitpierre). Kluwer Academic

Publishers, The Netherlands.

Maulik, S. (1919): Fauna of British India. Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae

(Hispinae and Cassidinae). Taylor and Francis, London.

Maulik, S. (1948): Early stages and habits of Sindia clathrata Fabr.

Ann. Mg. Nat Hist 12: 368-371.

Muir F. & D. Sharp (1904): On the egg-cases and early stages of some

Cassididae. Trans. Entomol. Soc. Land. 37: 1-23.

Olmstead, K. (1994): Waste products as chrysomelid defenses. Pp.

311-318. In: Novel Aspects of the Biology of Chrysomelidae, (Eds:

Jolivet, P.H., M.L. Cox and E. Petitpierre). Kluwer Academic

Publishers, The Netherlands.

Ranade, S.P., H.V. Ghate & J. Swietojanska (2004): Detailed

descriptions of first and last instar larva and pupa of Laccoptera

foveolata (Boheman, 1856) from India with notes on its bionomy

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae). Annales Zoologici 54(4):

783-796.

Rane, N„ S. Ranade & H.V. Ghate (2001 ): Notes on the life history of

Conchyloctenia nigrovittata (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae:

Cassidinae). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(1): 47-52.

Swietojanska, J. (2001 ): A revision of the tribe Aspidimorphini of the

Oriental Region (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae). Genus,

International Journal of Invertebrate Taxonomy: supplement. Pp.

318.

Takizawa, H. (1980): Immature stages of some Indian Cassidinae

(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Ins. Matsiim. n. s. 21: 19-48.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

351

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. BATESIAN MIMIC BUTTERFLIES TAKEN IN BY THEIR MODELS AND

THE MIMETIC STATUS OF ARGYREUS HYPERBIUS L. (NYMPHALIDAE)

Two types of inter-butterfly mimicry are known:

Batesian mimicry, where palatable butterflies mimic

unpalatable species in order to escape predation; Mullerian

mimicry, where unpalatable species, often unrelated, develop

very similar wing patterns and behaviour in order to

reduce the cost of advertising their unpalatability to naive

predators.

The phenomenon of Batesian mimicry involves three

participants: a model, a mimic and an audience who is intended

to be deceived by the mimic. The audience is believed to

consist of insectivorous birds, lizards and perhaps some

amphibians. In many cases, mimicry is restricted to the

females, while males of the mimic look and behave very

differently from the models.

It sometimes happens that there are unintended victims

of deception. Peile ( 1937) mentioned two such instances. He

stated “I have on several occasions seen a male Hypolimnas

misippus L. (Danaid Eggfly) chasing a Danaus chrysippus L.

(Plain Tiger)....” And “The female (of Argyreus hyperhius

Johannsen, the Indian Fritillary) somewhat resembles Danaus

(now Salatura) genutia Cramer (Common Tiger), and 1 have

taken it in company with that species at flowers. The male (of

A. hyperbius) is a fast flier, whereas the female, I observed,

got up in a leisurely way and sailed, Danaid-like, over the

bushes, and 1 have netted female. A. hyperbius, mistaking it

for a D. genutia."

In the morning, on October 8, 2001, 1 witnessed an

interesting interaction. A worn male A. hyperbius had

established a beat on our front lawn which, after the rainy

season, was covered with a rank profusion of grasses and

low growing plants, interspersed with stands of Cosmea 1 to

3 m high. At 1015 hrs, what appeared to be a female

A. hyperbius came by from the east and was immediately

pounced upon by the male A. hyperbius, who forced her to

the ground six or eight times in a typical preliminary act of

courtship. The female arose each time and made a few yards

progress before being forced down again. I thought nothing

of the matter until the pair came nearer and I felt that the flight

of the female was too perfectly like a D. chrysippus for a

female A. hyperbius to maintain under the circumstances.

The female settled briefly on a Cosmea plant, enabling

me to see that it was, in fact, a D. chrysippus, not an

A. hyperbius. Meanwhile, the A. hyperbius male settled on a

low growing shrub behind the Cosmea stand. When the

D. chrysippus took wing a little over a minute after settling, it

made off fast and low behind the Cosmea, out of the line of

vision of the male A. hyperbius. The latter, perhaps having

realised his mistake, made no move to harass the D. chrysippus

further.

During the next hour, the male A. hyperbius also checked

some passing individuals of Neptis sappho Pallas (Pallas’

Sailer), Papilio polytes L. (Common Mormon) and a fresh

male A. hyperbius who did not challenge the worn A. hyperbius

for the beat and moved on without stopping.

Evans (1932a) and Wynter-Blyth (1957) treat female

A. hyperbius as a Batesian mimic of D. chrysippus, while Peile

( 1937) found female A. hyperbius in the company of S. genutia

and even mistook female A. hyperbius for S. genutia. Larsen

(1987) stated that A. hyperbius females are very respectable

mimics of S. genutia. The worn A. hyperbius male mentioned

above mistook a D. chrysippus for his mate. Although it is

difficult for an experienced human eye to confuse

D. chrysippus and S. genutia on the wing, from the above

references, it appears that A. hyperbius females can evidently

pass themselves off as either of these species.

Perusal of the literature revealed that the putative

Batesian relationship between S. genutia and D. chrysippus

on the one hand and female A. hyperbius on the other (Evans

1932a; Wynter-Blyth 1957) had not been empirically proven,

in that although the unpalatability of S. genutia and

D. chrysippus are well known (Emmel 1976; Watson and

Whalley 1983; Larsen 1987), the monotypic ge.vms Argyreus

Scopoli was not definitely known to be palatable. There is a

brief account of attacks on A. hyperbius males (but not

females) by Red- whiskered Bulbuls (Pycnonotus jocosus) at

Longwood Shola near Kotagiri in the Nilgiris (Larsen 1 987 ).

In order to confirm the palatability of A. hyperbius, I

offered three female and eight male A. hyperbius to wild, free

ranging, foraging parties of generalised insectivorous birds

(mainly Garrula.x albogularis and Garrulax leucolophus).

The freshly collected, dead butterflies were presented with

the wings closed, so that the mimetic pattern on the recto

surface of the female’s wings was not visible, thus precluding

possible preconditioned visual aversion to the female

butterflies on the part of the birds. The butterflies were offered

sporadically over a period of three years as part of a larger

experiment involving other butterfly species. Nine of the

A. hyperbius specimens were eaten, of which eight were

entirely eaten, including all three females. The birds showed

no aversion to the butterflies and no distress behaviour was

noted while the butterflies were being tasted and manipulated

prior to being swallowed or immediately after they were

swallowed.

A. hyperbius is known from Abyssinia and along the

352

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELU\NEOUS NOTES

Himalaya to Mount Abu, the Nilgiris, Palnis, High Wavys and

Sri Lanka north to Japan and Korea and south to eastern

Australia. Both the models also occur throughout this range

except in Abyssinia and Papua New Guinea, where S. geuutia

does not occur (Shirozu 1960; Lewis 1974;Larsen 1987, 1988).

However, the very similar Salatura philens Cramer occurs in

Papua New Guinea. In Japan, the status of the mimetic

relationship is unclear, since both the models are migrants

while A. hyperbiiis is a common resident, with up to five annual

generations (Kudma 1974).

Of the eight subspecies of A. hyperbiiis known (Shirozu

1960; Samson 1976), seven are sexually dimorphic with mimetic

females, while females of the race castetsi Oberthiir, from the

Western Ghats south of Palghat and the Palni Hills are

apparently non-mimetic. A. hyperbiiis is common in suitable

localities in the Palni Hills (Evans 1910; pers. obs. ) all the year

round, so its abstinence from mimicry does not seem to have

greatly affected its capacity to survive or thrive.

In terms of altitude, A. hyperbiiis is found from nearly

3000 m in Papua New Guinea (Samson 1976) to 400 m on the

plains of northern India (Larsen 1988), but it is commonest

between 1 200 m and 2200 m in India ( iiiihi) and from 2000 m to

3000 m in Papua New Guinea (Samson 1976). In India, both

models are common at low elevation, rarely ascending over

2000 m. The zone in the Himalaya, where all three species are

common, is between 1200 m and 1600 m.

The flying time of all three species coincides in all the

areas for which information is available, i.e. Baluchistan (Evans

1932b), Chitral (Leslie and Evans 1903), Shimla (de Rhe Philipe

1931), Mussoorie (Mackinnon and de Niceville 1 897-98), Nepal

(Bailey 195 DKumaon (pers. obs.), the Palni Hills (Evans 1910)

and the Naga Hills (Tytler 1911-12).

In view of the above facts, namely that A. hyperbiiis

and the danaines are sympatric; are on the wing at the same

time; are found in each other's company; in the case of

A. hyperbiiis, females have a wing pattern similar to the

danaines and often affect a flight and other behaviour patterns

very similar to the danaines; and that the danaines are known

to be unpalatable while A. hyperbiiis is palatable to birds, at

least in some parts of its range, e.g. The Kumaon Himalaya

and the Nilgiri Hills, it is possible to state with reasonable

certainty that A. hyperbiiis females are Batesian mimics of

D. chiysippiis and S. geniitia in India and possible of some

additional, similar looking models in other parts of its range,

e.g. Papua New Guinea.

Therefore, the observation of the interaction between

the male A. hyperbiiis and the D. chrysippus described above

is a case of a Batesian mimic taken in by its model.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to the anonymous referee for valuable

suggestions.

November 20, 2003 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal,

Nainital 263 136, Uttaranchal, India.

Email : petersmetacek @ rediffmail .com

REFERENCES

Bailey, F.M. (1951): Notes on butteiflies from Nepal. Part I,./. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 64-87.

DE Rhe Philipe, G.W.V. (1931): The butterflies of the Simla Hills.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 172-183; 415-429.

Emmel, T.C. (1976): Butterflies: their world, their life cycle, their

behaviour. Thames & Hudson, London. 260 pp., 1 18 pi.

Evans, W.H. ( 1910): The butterflies of the Palni Hills. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 20: 380-391.

Evans, W.H. (1932a): The Identification of Indian Butterllies. 2"'* edn.

Bombay Natural History Society, x -i- 454 pp., 32 pi.

Evans, W.H. (1932b): The butterflies of Baluchistan. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 36: 196-209.

Kudrna, O. ( 1974): An annotated list of Japanese butterflies. Atakmta

B 5: 92-120.

Larsen, T.B. (1987): The butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern

India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 291-316; 560-584.

Larsen, T.B. (1988): The Indian Fritillary (Argyreus hyperbius) in the

Chambal area of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan (Lep.: Nymph. ).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 221-222.

Leslie, G.A. & W.H. Evans (1903): The butterflies of Chitral and the

Shandur Pass. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 666-678.

Lewis, H.L. (1974): Butterflies of the World. Harrap, London 16 -i-

104 pp., 208 pi.

Mackinnon, PW, & L. de Niceville (1897-98): Butterflies from

Mussoorie and the Dun valley. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 11:

205-221; 368-389; 585-623.

Peile, H.D. ( 1937); A guide to collecting butterflies of India. Staples,

London. 14 -i- 361 pp., 25 pi.

Samson, C. (1976); A new subspecies of Argyreus hyperbius

(Nymphalidae) from New Guinea. J. Lep. Soc. 30: 12-15.

Shirozu, T. ( 1960): Butterflies of Formosa in colour. Hoikusha, Osaka.

481 pp., 76 pi.

Tytler, H.C. (1911-12): List of butterflies from the Naga Hills.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 48-65; 588-605.

Watson, A. & P.E.S. Whalley (1983); Dictionary of Moths and

Butterflies in colour. Peerage Books, London pp. 296 -i- pi.

Wynter-Blyth. M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay. 20 -t- 523 pp., 72 pi.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

353

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

15. COSMOSTIGMA RACEMOSA WIGHT, A NEW HOST PLANT RECORD

OF THE DARK BLUE TIGER BUTTERFLY TIRUMALA SEPTENTRIONIS (BUTLER)

(LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE: DANAINAE) FROM KERALA

Faunistic exploration and larval rearings of Lepidoptera

during October 2002 at the Government College Campus,

Madappally, Vatakara, Kozhikode district, Kerala resulted in

a new larval host plant record of the Dark Blue Tiger butterfly,

Tirumala septentrionis (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae:

Danainae).

During the study, I collected some butterfly larvae from

a small climbing shrub with thin, heart shaped leaves. Upon

rearing to maturity, the butterfly was identified as the Dark

Blue Tiger Tirumala septentrionis (Butler) (Lepidoptera:

Nymphalidae: Danainae).

The new food plant was Cosmostigma racemosa Wight

(Asclepiadaceae). The Dark Blue Tiger has been reported to

feed on Wattakaka volubilis (Asclepiadaceae), Vallaris

glabra, Vallaris solanacea and Vallaris heynei (all

Apocynaceae) (Wynter-Blyth 1957; Gunathilagaraj 1998;

Kunte 2000). Recently, a closely related tiger butterfly, the Blue

Tiger, Tirumala limniace (Cramer) was reported utilizing

Cosmostigma racemosa as larval food plant (Nair 2002).

The occurrence and successful rearing of the Dark Blue

Tiger Tirumala septentrionis (Butler) on Cosmostigma

racemosa (Asclepiadaceae) confirms it as a new larval host

plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. C. Radhakrishnan (Joint Director, ZSI, WGRS,

Kozhikode), Md. Jafer Palot (ZSI, Kozhikode) and Dr. P.M.

Sureshan (ZSI, Pune) for their constant encouragement. I am

grateful to Dr. A.K. Pradeep, Curator, Dept, of Botany,

University of Calicut for identifying the host plant. I also

thank Rev. Fr. V.T. Joseph CMI, Principal, St. Joseph’s College,

Devagiri and Prof. A.T. Thomas, HoD of Zoology Department

for facilities.

October 20, 2003 VINAYAN P. NAIR

XV/446 A 1 , Nethaji Housing Colony,

Trichambaram, Taliparamba P.O.,

Kannur, Kerala 670 141, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Gunathilagaraj, K., T.N.A. Perumal, K. Jayaram & M.G. Kumar

(1998): Some South Indian Butterflies. Nilgiri Wildlife and

Environment Association. Udhagamandalam.

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press,

Hyderabad.

Nair, Vinayan P. (2002): New larval food plant of the Blue Tiger

Butterfly Tirumala limniace (Cramer), (Lepidoptera: Danainae).

J. Bombay Mat. Hist. Soc. 99{2y. 'iAl .

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, 523 pp + 72 pis.

16. PARSONSIA SPIRALIS: NEW LARVAL HOST PLANT OF ENDEMIC BUTTERFLY

MALABAR TREE NYMPH, IDEA MALABARICA MOORE (DANAINAE, NYMPHALIDAE)

Malabar Tree Nymph Idea malabarica Moore is a

butterfly endemic to semi-evergreen and evergreen forests

of the Western Ghats of south-western India. In the larval

stages, it is considered a monophagous species on Aganosma

cymosa (Kunte 2000; Wynter-Blyth 1957). In this note, I report

a previously unknown host plant for this species.

Malabar Tree Nymph is a common sight at Arippa

Ammayambalam pacha in Kulathupuzha Reserve Forests and

Shendumey Wildlife Sanctuary (c. 8°-8° 5' - 8° 55' N 77° 1 5' E)

near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. The vegetation is a mosaic

of degraded evergreen and semi-evergreen forests and

Myristica swamps. On July 16, 1996, during my visit to this

area, I observed a female ovipositing on Parsonsia spiralis

(Apocynaceae). Parsonsia is a creeper-straggler found in

mangrove, riverine moist deciduous and evergreen forests

and Myristica swamps. I collected the eggs and successfully

reared butterflies from them. Since then, I have repeatedly

collected caterpillars from this plant and reared them

successfully. It seems, therefore, that Parsonsia spiralis is a

stable larval host of this butterfly in this area. It is,

however, not known whether Aganosma is also used

here.

Malabar Tree Nymph co-occurs with Parsonsia in other

forests in southern Western Ghats. It is possible that it uses

this plant in these patches as well, but that usage of this host

plant has gone unnoticed. Given that this is an endemic and

endangered butterfly, it will be important to delineate

geographic boundaries or overlap between usage of its two

known host plants as this may provide us with an insight into

its evolution. It will also be interesting to explore the possibility

that it uses other Apocynaceae species in other smaller habitat

pockets.

354

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. N. Ravi, former professor of Botany

of Sree Narayana College, Kollam (Kerala) and Dr. K.N.

Subramanian (Director (retd.) ICRE, Coimbatore) for

identifying and confirming the species. I am thankful to

Mr. K. Rafeek, Mr. K.A. Kishore, Mr. B.V. Premkrishnan and

Mr. R. Murukesh who extended full field support and

encouragement.

July31,2(X)3 C. SUSANTH

Prakriti, Indira Nagar, Peroorkada P.O.

Thiruvananthapuram 695005, Kerala, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. University Press, Wynter-Blyth, M. A. ( 1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Hyderabad, and Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore. Natural History Society, Mumbai.

17. A NEW FOOD PLANT OF THE GREAT EGGFLY (LEPIDOPTERA: NYMPHALIDAE)

While working on the “Ecology of Ants of the Sanjay

Gandhi National Park”, during September 2000, the larva of a

butterfly was found on the herb Triumfetta pentandra, Eamily:

Tiliaceae. The larva was collected and reared in captivity to

confirm the species. It was given leaves of T pentandra on

which it fed voraciously. The larva was velvety brownish-

black, with spines on the body, and the head bearing two

black horns. The pupa was thick, stout and dark brown (Bell

1910). The butterfly emerged after 12 days from the date of

pupation and was identified as the Great Eggfly Hypolimnas

bolina.

The female H. bolina mimics the Common Indian Crow

Euploea core. Earlier records state that the food plants of

Hypolimnas bolina are Fleurya interrupta, Sida rhombifolia,

Elatostemma ciineatum (Family: Urticaceae), Portulaca

oleracea (Family: Portulacaceae), Laportea interrupta

(Family: Urticaceae) (Bell 1910).

The occurrence and the successful rearing of

Hypolimnas bolina on Triumfetta pentandra confirms it as

its new larval food plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. M.R. Almeida for his help in identifying the

herb T. pentandra. I am grateful to Mr. Naresh Chaturvedi,

Curator, BNHS for guiding and encouraging me to submit

this paper.

March 1 9, 2004 ANURADHA RAJ AGOPALAN

B-206, Haritara Apartments,

B.T. Road, Dahisar (W ),

Mumbai 400 068, Maharashtra,

India.

E-mail: [email protected]

REFERENCE

Bell, T.R. (1910): Common Butterflies of Plains of India J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 20(2): 287-289.

18. UVARIA NARUM WALL., (ANNONACEAE), A NEW HOST PLANT RECORD

OF THE TAILED JAY BUTTERFLY, GRAPHIUM AGAMEMNON (LINNAEUS)

(LEPIDOPTERA: PAPILIONIDAE) FROM KERALA

Lepidopteran fauna explorations and larval rearing at

the Government College Campus Madappally, Vatakara, Kerala

resulted in a new host plant record for the Tailed Jay butterfly,

Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera:

Papilionidae).

During November 2002, I collected some papilionid

larvae from a climbing shrub. Upon rearing to maturity, the

butterfly was identified as Tailed Jay, Graphium agamemnon

(L.). The new larval food plant Uvaria narum Wall.

(Annonaceae) is a woody climbing shrub common in this

area.

The reported food plants of Tailed Jay are Polyalthia

longifolia, Atinona discolor, A. muricata, A. squamosa,

A. reticulata, Saccopetalum tomentosum, S. gaultheria

(Annonaceae), Miliusa tomentosum, Cinnamomum

zeylanicum (Lauraceae) and Michelia champaka, M. doltsopa

(Magnoliaceae) (Wynter-Blyth 1957; Sevastopulo 1973;

Gunathilagaraj et al. 1998; Kunte 2000). Chaturvedi ( 1999)

reported Artabotrys hexapetalus and Polyalthia cerasoides

(Annonaceae) as host plants of Tailed Jay Butterfly.

The occurrence and successful rearing of Tailed Jay

Graphium agamemnon (Linnaeus) on Uvaria narum Wall.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

355

MISCELU\NEOUS NOTES

(Annonaceae) confirms it as the new larval food plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. C. Radhakiishnan (Joint Director, ZSI, WGRS,

Kozhikode), Md. Jafer Palot (ZSI, Kozhikode) and Dr. P.M.

Sureshan (ZSI, Pune) for constant encouragement. I am

grateful to Mr. Joby Paul, JRF, Dept, of Botany, St. Joseph’s

College, Devagiri for confirming the identity of the host plant.

Chaturvedi, N. (1999): New lai'val food plants of the Tailed Jay Butterfly

Graphium agamemnon Linn., Papilionidae. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Sac. 96(1): 168.

Glinathilaoaraj, K., T.N.A. Perumal, K. Jayaram & M.G. Kumar

(1998): Some South Indian Butterflies. Nilgiri Wildlife and

Environment Association. Udhagamandalam.

I also thank Rev. Fr. V.T. Joseph CMI, Principal, St. Joseph’s

College, Devagiri and Prof. A.T. Thomas, HoD, Zoology

Department for facilities.

October 20, 2003 ’VINAYAN P. NAIR

XV/446A1, Nethaji Housing Colony,

Trichambaram, Taliparamba P.O.,

Kannur, Kerala 670 141, India.

Email: [email protected]

Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press,

Hyderabad.

Sevastopulo, D.G (1973): The food plants of Indian Rhopalocera.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 70(1): 156-183.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, 523 pp. -i- 72 pis.

19. DESCRIPTION OF HITHERTO UNKNOWN EGG AND INSTAR NYMPH

OF CINARA MACULIPES HILLE RIS LAMBERS (APHIDOIDEA: LACHNIDAE)

FROM SHIMLA, HIMACHAL PRADESH

Pine is infested by about 170 species of aphids,

including more than 100 species of Cinara (Blackman and

Eastop 1994). Cinara maciilipes Hille Ris Cambers principally

feeds on Pimts walUchiana, Himalayan Blue Pine, abundant

in the northwest Himalayan region of India. However, Ghosh

(1982) studied one apterous viviparous female collected from

Figs 1 -3: 1 . Egg of Cinara maculipes] 2. Apterous viviparous female;

3. Newly hatched 1 st instar nymph and eggs on pine needles

356

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 4-10: 4. Head; 5. Cauda;

6. Antennal segment IV and part of III; 7. URS (IV-i-V);

8. Hair on head; 9. Dorsal view of siphunculus;

1 0. Lateral view of siphunculus

Pinus panda, Mexican Weeping Pine - an exotic to India.

Detailed descriptions of apterous and alate viviparous

female, alate male and 2"‘' instar apterous nymph are available

in literature (Hille Ris Lumbers 1966; David etal. 1969; Ghosh

1982). Cinara maculipes is distributed in Himachal Pradesh,

Jammu and Kashmir, and in Pakistan (Ghosh 1986). So far,

eggs and P‘ instar nymphs were unknown from this region.

During January 2002, several thick colonies of Cinara

maculipes (Fig. 2) were noticed feeding among needles and

young shoots of Himalayan Blue Pine (local name; Kail) in

and around Conifer Campus of Himalayan Forest Research

Institute (HFRI), Shimla. In this communication, hitherto

unknown eggs and the P‘ instar nymphs (Fig. 3) are described.

Material Examined; 65 eggs from pine needles, ten 1st

instar nymphs, nine apterous viviparous females and two

alate viviparous females (in permanent microscopic slides;

whole mount), host; Pinus wallichiana, locality: Conifer

Campus, HFRI, Shimla, Coll.: S. Chakrabarti, 8.i.2002.

Egg: Elliptical, shiny black, and tough. Longitudinal

narrow furrow along the mid dorsal surface of the egg. Length

1 .6 ±0. 14 mm, width 0.65 ±0.095 mm. Eggs laid on the pine

needle, serially glued on the upper surface at an average of

6.73 ±1 .09 eggs per needle. Maximum eggs laid per needle are

9 and minimum 5. Egg surface is often covered with minute

white waxy particles (Eig. 1).

Eirst instar apterous nymph: Oval, pale yellowish, legs

slightly brown, rostrum darker. Body 1 .64 ±0. 13 mm long, width

0.68 ±0.09 mm at widest area of abdomen. Eyes multifaceted.

Length of head (Fig. 4) across eyes 0.6 mm, bears 26 dorsal

hairs, short hair 0.029 ±0.01 mm. long hair ( Fig. 8 ) 0.06 ±0.0 1 8

mm. Antennae 4 segmented, yellowish, 0.74 mm long, 0.45 x

body. Antennal hairs on segment III slender, hyaline,

acuminate, 0. 1 2x basal diameter of segment III. One prominent

rhinaria apically on antennal segment III. Processus terminalis

(Fig. 6) 0.17 mm long, spindle shaped, bears 2 apical and 8

other hairs, having one prominent rhinaria and 6 semicircular

conjugant plates. Number of hairs on segments I, II, and III;

5, 4 and 30 respectively. Rostrum 1 .35 ±0.09 mm long, slender,

acuminate, reaches caudal tip. ultimate rostral segment (URS )

distinctly divided into segments IV and V. URS darker, 0.23

±0.06 mm long, bears 8 hairs each, on segment IV and V (Fig.

7). Legs stout, profusely hairy, length of leg I, II, and III, are

1.53 mm. 1 .48 mm, and 1 .86 mm respectively. Tarsal claws 0.059

±0.02 mm long, paired, dark brown, sickle shaped. Length of

hind tarsus^ 0.284 mm. Dorsal hairs on tibia larger than lateral

and ventral hairs, except for hind tibia where most hairs long.

Length of long hairs 0.099 to 0. 1 32 mm and short hairs 0.029

to 0.049 mm. Abdominal tergites faint but distinguishable,

hairy, pigmented spots or muskelplatten semicircular to

irregularly square, 0.028 ±0.06 mm, present laterally.

Siphunculus circular with a chitinized rim inside (Fig. 9),

slightly elevated on small sparsely haiiy, pigmented cone (Fig.

10), diameter 0.053 ±0.09 mm. Cauda small, dusky, crescent

shaped ( Fig. 5 ), length 0.083 mm, width 0.2 mm, bears 0.07 1

±0.016 mm long 8- 1 0 hairs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the Coordinator, Himalayan Forest Research

Institute, Shimla. Himachal Pradesh for laboratory facilities.

October 3 1 , 2003 SUMIT CHAKRABARTI

Forest Protection Division,

Himalayan Forest Research Institute,

Conifer Campus, Panthaghati,

Shimla 1 7 1 009, Himachal Pradesh,

India.

‘Email: tisum200l (Syahoo.co.in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

357

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Blackman, R.L. & V.F. Eastop (1994): Aphids on the world’s trees: An

identification and information guide, CABI, UK.

David, S.K., K. Narayanan & S.G Rajsingh (1969): New records of

aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) in India. Bull. Ent. 10(2): 158-

159.

Ghosh, A.K. (1982): Fauna of India and the adjacent countries:

Homoptera, Aphidoidea, Part 2, Subfamily Lachninae. Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Ghosh, L.K. (1986): A conspectus of Aphididae (Homoptera) of

Himachal Pradesh in Northwest Himalaya, India. Technical

Monograph No. 16, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Hille Ris Lambers, D. (1966): New or little known aphids from

Pakistan (Homoptera: Aphididae). Tijdschr. voor Ent. 109(8):

193-221.

20. A NEW RECORD OF THE CORAL PAVONA VENOSA (EHRENBERG, 1834)

(SCLER ACTINIA, AGARICIIDAE) FROM ANAIPAR ISLAND,

GULF OF MANNAR BIOSPHERE RESERVE

A total of 208 species under 15 families and 60 genera

of Scleractinian corals are reported from India (Venkataraman

et al. 2003). According to a recent revision, among the four

major zones of coral reefs of India, Andaman and Nicobar

Islands are the most diverse in coral species (177 forms).

Lakshadweep Archipelago ranks second (91 forms) and Gulf

of Mannar Biosphere Reserve (GoMBR) ranks third (82 forms)

in coral species diversity. The pioneer workers on the Gulf of

Mannar (Thurston 1890;Brook 1893;Bemard 1897, 1905;Pillai

1967a, b, c) reported the richness of coral species diversity in

this region and described the area as one of the hotspots for

marine diversity. Although studies have been conducted on

the coral reefs of GoMBR, information about the species

diversity is still incomplete. The present report deals with the

new record of Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg 1834) (Scleractinia:

Agariciidae) from Anaipar Island, Gulf of Mannar Biosphere

Reserve.

Description

Phylum: Cnidaria

Class: Anthozoa

Subclass: Zoantharia de Blainville, 1 830

Order: Scleractinia Bourne, 1905

Family: Agariciidae Gray, 1847

Genus: Pavona

The Family Agariciidae includes six extant hermatypic

genera - Agaricia, Coeloseris, Gardineroseris, Leptoseris,

Pachyseris and Pavona - of which five genera, except

Agaricia, are reported from India. Most of the genera are

colonial. Colonies are massive, laminar or fohaceous. Coralhtes

are immersed with poorly defined walls formed by thickening

of the septo-costae. Septa seldom fuse and are continuous

between adjacent corallite centres. Species of Family

Agariciidae are most similar to those of Family Siderastreidae

(Veron 2(XX)).

Fig. 1 : Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1 834)

Fig. 2: Corallites of Pavona venosa

358

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The colonies of the genus Pavona are massive, laminar

or foliaceous, the latter usually being bifacial. The corallites

have poorly defined walls. They are small shallow depressions,

usually with a central columella, sometimes separated by

ridges. The corallites are interconnected by exert septo-costae.

Pavona closely resembles Leptoseris, which has similar

corallites but has fine septo-costae. Foliaceous colonies are

unifacial in Leptoseris, but the distinction between genera

may sometimes be unclear. Nine species representing the

genus Pavona have been recorded in India (Venkataraman et

al. 2003).

Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg, 1834) (Figs 1, 2)

Pavona (Polyastra) venosa (Ehrenberg), Wells 1936.

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. Ser. 10; 550, pi. 9, figs. 4, 5.

Pavona {Polyastra) venosa (Ehrenberg), Umbgrove 1939.

Zool. Meded. Rijksmus. nat. Hist. Leiden 22: 48, pi. 15, figs. 1-5.

Pavona (Polyastra) obtusata (Quelch); Nemenzo 1955.

Nat. Appl. Sci. Bull. 15(1): 16, pi. 9, fig. 4.

Pavona (Polyastra) obtusata (Quelch); Reddiah 1977.

Rec. zool. Surv. India 72: 322.

Pavona venosa (Ehrenberg); Veron and Pichon 1979.

Australian Inst, of Mar. Sci., Australia. Vol. 4: 30-33.

Material: During the status survey on GoMBR (May 21,

2003), two colonies were observed while snorkeling in the

intertidal reef flat from the Anaipar Island, GoMBR (9° 9' 04" N ;

78° 41' 38" E) by K.P. Raghuram, Marine Biological Station,

ZSI, Chennai (Reg. No. ZSI/MBS-C/0001 dt. July 12, 2003).

Distribution: In India, it has been recorded only from

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Reddiah 1 977). Worldwide

it is distributed throughout the Red Sea, Indonesia, Marshall

Islands and the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Characters: Colonies are massive. Corallites are

arranged in shallow sinuous valleys (Fig. 2). The valleys are

Bernard, H. (1897): The genus Montipora. The genus Anacropora.

Catalogue of the Madreporarian corals in the British Museum

Nat. Hist. 3: 1-192.

Bernard, H. (1905): Porites of the Indo-Pacific region. Catalogue of

the Madreporarian corals in the British Museum Nat. Hist. 5: 1-

103.

Brook, G. (1893): The genus Madrepora. Catalogue of the

Madreporarian corals in the British Museum Nat. Hist. 1: 1-212.

PiLLAi, C.S.G. (1969a): Report on a new species of Montipora

(Scleractinia, Acroporidae). J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 9(2): 399-

401.

PiLLAt, C.S.G. (1969b): Report on a new species of Goniopora and

three new species of Porites (Scleractinia, Poritidae). J. Mar.

2.5-3 .5 mm wide and 0.8- 1 .3 mm thick. Columella may be presenL

but is not well distinguished, or absent; the corallites are 1 .54

to 2.43 mm in diameter. Calices range from 1.26-1.43 mm in

diameter. There are three orders of septa; the septa are

granulated and the primary septa are joined at the base; the

corallites are interconnected by exert septo-costae (Fig. 2),

coenosteum absent. The average (n=2) length, width, height

and circumference of the colonies are 1 .25 m, 1 .01 m, 0.23 m,

3.1 1 m respectively. The colonies are yellowish brown in colour.

Habitat; Found on intertidal reef flat.

Remarks; The coral is uncommon. Silt gets deposited

in the upper portion of the colonies due to sedimentation

along the intertidal region. While describing the coral reefs of

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Reddiah (1977) included

the present species as P. (Polyastra) obtusta and stated that

it is not found in the Andaman Islands, but is common in

Nicobar Islands. However, Reddiah (1977) did not mention

the exact location of the collection of the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata for encouragement and facilities provided. Thanks

are due to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for

financial support under the All India Co-ordinated Project on

Marine Biodiversity on the east coast of India.

August 22, 2003 K.P. RAGHURAM'

K. VENKATARAMAN

Marine Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

130, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

'Email: raghurambut(s> yahoo.com

hiol. Ass. India 9(2): 402-406.

PiLLAJ, C.S.G. ( 1969c): Preliminary report on new record of hermatypic

corals of the suborder Astrocoeniina. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India 9(2):

412-422.

Reddiah, K. ( 1977): The coral reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Rec. zool. Surv. India. 72 : 315-324.

Thurston, E. (1890): Preliminary report on the marine fauna of

Rameswaram. Madras Govt. Mus. Bull. I: 1-41.

Venkataraman, K., Ch. Satyanarayana, J.R.B. Alfred & J.

WoLSTENHOLME (2003): Handbook on Hard Corals of India.

Zoological Survey of India 266 pp.

Veron, J.E.N. (2000): Corals of the world. Australian Inst, of Mar. Sci.

2: 429 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

359

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

21. ANEW RECORD OF TURBIN ARIA PATULA (DANA, 1846) (SCLERACTINIA, DENDROPHYLLllDAE)

IN TUTICORIN, GULF OF MANNAR BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Family Dendrophylliidae is solitary or colonial, mostly

azooxanthellate except the genera Turbinaria,

Duncanopsammia and Heteropsammia which are hennatypic

(reef building; Balanophyllia, Endopsammia, Tuhastrea,

DendrophylUa and Enallopsammia are ahermatypic (non-

reefbuilding). In Turbinarku most of the species are foliose

forms (leaf-like or vertical/horizontal plates). The present

genus is recorded in all the four major coral reefs in India

( Venkataraman etal. 2003). Worldwide, eleven species of the

genus Turbinaria have been recorded till date (Veron 2000).

In India, only three species of Turbinaria (T. peltata.

T. reniformis and T. mesenterina) are reported, so far, from the

four major reefs. The present note reports an additional species

to the above genus.

Description

Phylum; Cnidaria

Class: Anthozoa

Subclass: Zoantharia De Blainville, 1830

Order: Scleractinia Bourne, 1905

Family: Dendrophylliidae Gray, 1 847

Genus: Turbinaria Oken, 1815

Turbinaria patu la (D and, 1846) (Figs 1-2)

1 846. Gemmipora patula Dana, U.S. Exploring Exped.

1838-1842.7,1-740.

1886. Turbinaria patula (Dana); Quelch, Rep. Sci.

Results Voyage H.M.S. Challenger Zool. 16(3), 1-203,

pis. 1-12.

1980. Turbinaria patula (Dana); Veron and

Pichon, Scleractinia of Eastern Australia, Part 111, 379-380, pis.

663-669.

2000. Turbinaria patula (Dana); Veron. Corals of the

World, 2, 389, pis. 1-4.

Representatives of Family Dendrophylliidae are solitary

or colonial, mostly ahenuatypic. Corallite walls are porous,

usually composed of coenosteum. Septa are fused in a

distinctive pattern called Pourtales Plan (Inner margins of

higher order septa curve to adjacent septa and fuse) (Veron

and Pichon 1 980; Venkataraman et al. 2003 ).

The colonies of genus Turbinaria are hermatypic, large

explanate, craterifonn, contorted or foliaceous. Corallites are

united nearly to the summits by an extensive coenosteum

and have porous synapticulothecate walls. Pourtales plan is

apparent only in early stages. The columella is well developed

(Veron 2000; Venkataraman etal. 2003).

Material collected: During the status survey on

Fig. 1 : Turbinaria patula colony

Fig. 2: Corallites of Turbinaria patula

GoMBR (December 8, 2001), a colony of T. patula was

collected in the shore near Tuticorin, Gulf of Mannar

Biosphere Reserve, by K.P. Raghuram, Marine Biological

Station, ZSI, Chennai.

Characters: Colonies are foliose and unifacial, corallites

are not closely packed in the centre of the colony (Fig. 1).

Corallites are tubular and inclined towards the margin (Fig. 2).

Corallites are 3.7-4.0 mm in diameter and the distance between

neighbouring corallite measures 7.8 ±4. 1 mm (n = 14). Septal

cycles are obvious and dentate. Columellae are well developed

and broad. Coenosteum is porous.

Distribution: This is a new record to India. Worldwide

it is distributed throughout Indonesia, Marshall Islands and

the Great Barrier Reef, Australia.

Remarks: Turbinaria patula is similar to T. peltata. In

the Gulf of Mannar, Turbinaria colonies are mostly found in

turbid environment. T. peltata (Esper 1794) and T. mesenterina

(Lamarck 1816) have been recorded by Pillai ( 1983).

360

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata for encouragement and facilities provided. Thanks

are also due to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for

financial support under All India Co-ordinated Project on

Marine Biodiversity on the East Coast of India.

September 1 6, 2003 K.P. RAGHURAM '

K. VENKATARAMAN

Marine Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India,

130, Santhome High Road,

Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

'Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

PiLLAi, C.S.G. (1983); Studies on corals. J. mar. biol. Assoc. India 25(1 & 2): 78-90.

Venkataraman, K., Ch. Satyanarayana, J.R.B. Alfred & J. Wolstenholme(2003): Handbook on Hard Corals of India. Zoological Survey of India.

266 pp.

Veron, J.E.N. (2000): Corals of the World. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Australia, 2: 429 pp.

Veron, J.E.N. & M. PiCHON (1980): Scleractinia of Eastern Australia. Aus. Inst, of Mar. Sci. Vol. 4, 421 pp.

22. PARASITIC INFESTATION OF THE CLAM, MARCIA OPIMA (GMELIN)

Reproductive studies on the clam Marcia opima from

two geographically separated areas were conducted at the

Tuticorin Research Centre of Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute. The clams were collected from Tuticorin

Bay, Tamil Nadu (8° 45' N and 78° 12' E) and fromAshtamudi

Lake, Quilon (9° 28' N and 76° 28' E). Sampling was done from

December, 1998 to January, 2000. To identify the sex and

maturity stages of the collected clams, gonad smears were

observed under a microscope.

During the course of the study, infestation of the gonad

by the larvae of trematode parasite Bucephalus sp. was

observed in the clams collected from Tuticorin Bay.

Infestation was noticed during December 1998, January 1999

and May 1999. The lengths of the infested clams ranged

from 3 1 .6 mm to 34.6 mm. The percentage of infection ranged

from 5 % to 10% of the total sampled population.

There was no trematode infestation in the clams

collected from Ashtamudi lake. However, a single incidence

of fungal infection was observed in a clam 51 mm long in

March, 1999. In May 1999, 10% of the sampled clams, with

length ranging from 34.8 mm to 40.7 mm, were found to be

infested by the pea-crab. Pinnotheres sp.

Bucephalid infestation in Meretrix casta was reported

by Durve ( 1964). Silas and Alagarswami ( 1 967 ) and Harkantra

(1976) reported Pinnotheres infestation in Meretrix casta.

Thangavelu and Sanjeevaraj (1985) reported occasional

occurrence of larval forms of the trematode parasite

Bucephalus haemanus in M. casta. Hesselman et al. (1989)

Durve, V.S. (1964): Preliminary observation.s on the seasonal gonadal

changes and spawning in the clam Meretrix casta (Chemnitz)

from the marine fish farm. J. mar biol. Ass. India 6(2)-. 241-

248.

observed trematode infestation in Mercenaria sp. Parasitic

infestation of the clam M. opima has not been reported earlier,

and this is the first report.

In the present study, it was observed that the presence

of parasites caused gonad destruction. Hence, the sex of the

infested clams could not be made out. The meat of the clams

was found to be thin, transparent and watery. The same

manifestations were observed by earlier workers also.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Central Marine Fisheries

Research Institute, Cochin, for providing facilities to carry

out the work. The first author also acknowledges financial

assistance provided by the Central Institute of Fisheries

Education, Mumbai.

August 4, 2003 N. SUJA

C/o Dr. Ram Mohan M.K.

MPEDA Regional Office,

Bhidiya, Veraval 362269,

Gujarat. India.

Email; [email protected]

P. MUTHIAH

Molluscan Fisheries Division,

Tuticorin Research Centre of CMFRI,

Tuticorin 628001, Tamil Nadu, India.

Harkantra, S.N. (1976): Benthos of the Kali estuary, Karwar.

Mahasagar 8(1): 53-58.

Hesselman, D.M., B.J. Barbel & N.J. Blake (1989): The reproductive

cycle of adult hard clams, Mercenaria sp. in the Indian River

J, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

361

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

lagoons, Florida. J. Shellfish Res. 8: 43-49.

Silas, E.G & K. Alagarswami (1967): On an instance of parasitisation

by the pea-crab (Pinnotheres sp. ) on the backwater clam Meretrix

casta (Chemnitz) from India with a review on the work on the

systematics, ecology, biology and ethology of pea-crabs of

Pinnotheres latereilla. Proc. Symp. Crustacea, Mar. BW Asi.

India 3: 1161-1227.

Thangavelu, R. & RJ. Sanjeevaraj (1985): Fishery and biology of the

clam Meretrix casta (Chemnitz) in the Pulicat Lake. J. mar.

biol. Ass. India 27(1 & 2): 75-83.

23. ADDITIONS TO THE GRASS FLORA OF TAMIL NADU

While working on the flora of Mukurthi National Park

( 1 1 ° 10'- 1 1 ° 22' N, 76° 26'-76° 34' E) and the Tropical Gene Pool

Garden, Nadugani(ll° 15'-11°39'N, 76° 15'-76° 30' E) Nilgiris,

Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, we came across four rare, endemic

and interesting grasses. On critical examination, they were

identified as Arthraxon lancifoliiis (Trin.) Hochst.,

Bothriochloa par ante swaranii Sreekumar et al., Eragrostis

zeylanica Nees & Mey. and Isachne gracilis C.E. Hubb. The

voucher specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of

Kongunadu Arts & Science College, Coimbatore for reference.

Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst, in Flora 39:

188.1856;FischerinGamble, El. Pres. Madr. 1729. 1934 (Repr.

ed. 3: 1193. 1957); Bor, Grass. Bur. Cey. Ind. Pak. 100. 1960;

JaininJ. Ind. Bot. Soc. 51: 176. 1972: vanWelzeninBlumea27:

288. 1981; Manilal & Sivaraj. El. Calic. 334. 1982; Sreekumar&

Nair. Kerala Grass. 38. 1991 . Andropogon lancifolius Trin. in

Mem, Acad. Sci. Petersb. Ser. 6(2). 271. 1832. Arthraxon

microphyllus (Trin) Hochst. in Flora 39: 188. 1850; Hook, f, El.

Brit. Ind. 7: 147. IS96. Andropogon microphyllusTrin. l.c 275.

(Fig. 1)

So far, this grass is reported only from the states of

Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Maharashtra.

The available literature pertaining to the grass flora of Tamil

Nadu has not included this species. Hence, the present

Fig. 1 : Arthraxon lancifolius (lr\n.) Hochst., a. Habit; b. Sessile Spikelet; c. Pedicelled Spikelet;

d. Lower Glume; e. Upper Glume; f. First Lemma; g. Second Lemma; h. Stamen and Pistil

362

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Eragrostis zeylanica Nees & Mey., a. Habit; b. Spikelet; c. Lower Glume; d. Upper Glume;

e. Lemma; f. Palea; g. Stamen and Pistil; h. Grain

gathering from Mukurthi National Park indicates its presence

in Tamil Nadu, and it was observed that it is restricted to the

hilltops above 2300 m above msl. The present report will form

an addition to the existing grass flora of Tamil Nadu.

Annual. Culms up to 20 cm high, glabrous, nodes hairy.

Sheaths keeled, glabrous or hairy. Blades 1.5-3 x 0.2 cm;

margins laxly hairy, all over; upper and lower surface glabrous.

Joints 2 mm long. Sessile spikelets 3 x 0.5 cm; callus hairy.

Lower glume 3 x 0.5 mm, apex acuminate, 3-nerved; upper

glume 3 X 0.5 mm, 3-nerved; lower lemma 2.5 x 0.2 mm,

nerveless; upper lemma 2.5 x 0.4 mm, 1 -nerved, awn 4 mm

long; palea absent. Anthers 2, 0.5 x 0.2 mm. Styles 0.3 mm

long, stigmas 0.7 mm. Pedicellated spikelets sterile, up to

4 mm long. Lower glume 3 x 0.4 mm, 3-nerved; upper glume 2

X 0.5 mm, 3-nerved; lower lemma 1 .5 x 0.3 mm; upper lemma 1 .5

X 0.2 mm, anthers 2, without pollen, up to 0.5 mm.

Distribution; Throughout India.

Ecology; Rare along the fringes of shola forests above

2300 m in hills.

Specimen examined; Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris, Mukurthi

National Park, ± 2300 m. November 16, 2000; in flowering, V.S.

Ramachandran & C.P Anil Varghese 2650.

Bothriochloa parameswaranii P.V. Sreekumar, C.P.

Malathi & V.J. NairinJ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 163-165.

1988; Sreekumar & Nair, Kerala Grass. 52. 1991.

A neo-endemic species was described by Sreekumar et

al. (l.c.) from Eravikulam National Park, Idukki district, Kerala

in 1988. Subsequent to type, this species was collected from

Mukurthi National Park, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu and is an addition

to the grass flora of Tamil Nadu.

Perennial. Culms 10-20 cm high, erect, glabrous. Leaves

lanceolate, 2-10 x 0.2-0.3 cm, base rounded, midrib prominent;

ligules ovate, acute, 1 mm. Racemes digitate, purplish, joints

4 mm long, linear, ciliate. Sessile spikelets oblong, 6 mm long,

callus bearded. Lower glume oblong, 7 x 1 .25 mm long, acute,

chartaceous, 7-nerved, keels pectinate towards apex, margins

hyaline; upper glume ovate - lanceolate, acuminate, 7 x

1 .25 mm, chartaceous, 3-nerved, margin hyaline, villose at the

upper half. First lemma ovate-oblong, 5.5 x 1 mm, acute,

delicate, hyaline. Palea absent. Second lemma stipitate, 4 mm

long; awn 10 mm long, column 6 mm long, chestnut-brown.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

363

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Stamens 3, anthers 1-1.25 mm long, ovary oblong, 0.5-0.75

mm, styles c. 1 mm long. Stigmas 1 mm, feathery. Pedicellated

spikelets oblong-lanceolate, 7 mm long, Rachis 3 mm long.

Distribution; Kerala and Tamil Nadu (Endemic to

Western Ghats).

Ecology: Common in Grasslands, above 2300 m in hills.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris, Mukurthi

National Park, ± 2300 m. November 16, 2000; in flowering, V.S.

Ramachandran & C.R Anil Varghese 2611.

Eragrostis zeylanica Nees & Mey. in Nov. Act. Nat.

Cur. 19.Suppl. 1:204. 1843;Bor, Grass. Bur. Cey.Ind.Pak. 515.

1960; Nair & Ramach. in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 22: 193. 1980

( 1 982); Sreekumar & Nair, Kerala Grass. 394. 1 99 1 . E. elongata

sensu Stapf in Hook.f , FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 319. 1896, non Jacq.

1813. (Fig. 2)

Earlier known only from Eastern India, Andaman and

Nicobar Islands, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Nair & Ramach. (/.c.)

have reported its occuixence for the first time from southern

India. The present collection from Tropical Gene Pool Garden,

Nadugani, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu records its presence in Tamil

Nadu and also forms a new addition to the flora of Tamil

Nadu.

Annuals. Culms up to 8 cm high, erect, nodes glabrous.

Leaves lanceolate, 2.5 x 0.5-0.2 cm, rounded at base, glabrous,

hgules fimbriate. Panicles oblong or ovate-oblong, 3.5 cm long,

congested. Spikelets oblong-lanceolate, 2-3 mm. wide, acute,

8- 1 0 flowered. Lower glume ovate-lanceolate, 1 .5-2 x 1 - 1 .5 mm;

palea elliptic 1-1.5 x 0.5-1 mm long. Anthers 3, 0.25 mm long.

Grain ovate.

Distribution: Eastern and southern India.

Ecology; Rare, along the forest margins of evergreen

forests.

Specimens examined; Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris, Tropical

Gene Pool Garden, Nadugani, ± 1000 m. November 16, 2000;

in flower and fruit, V.S. Ramachandran & K.R. Devi

KM26.

Isachne gracilis C.E. Hubb. in Kew Bull. 1927; 77. 1927;

Fischer in Gamble, El. Pres. Madr. 179. 1934 (Repr. Ed. 3: 1244.

1957); Bor, Grass. Bur. Cey. Ind. Pak. 581. 1960; Vajravelu &

P. Daniel in Jain & Sastry, Mat. Cat. Threat. PI. India, 43. 1983;

VedPrakash&JaininFasc. El. Ind. 14:25. 1984; 1:227. 1984;

Ahmedullah & Nayar, Endemic PI. India. 1 : 67: 1986; Sreekumar

& Nair, Kerala. Grass, 422. 1991.

This is one of the neo-endemic grasses of Western

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1986): Endemic Plants of Indian

Region (Vol I). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.

Ghats and its type locality is in Karnataka. However, Ved

Prakash and Jain (1984) have reported its occurrence from

Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, showing its disjunct

distribution in India. Sreekumar and Nair (Z.c.) have recorded

it from Kerala for the first time from Silent Valley. This rare and

endemic species was also collected from Tropical Gene Pool

Garden, Nadugani, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu; extending its

distribution to southern Western Ghats, and forming an

addition to the grass flora of Tamil Nadu.

A small elegant grass 5-25 cm high; stems soft,

geniculate below, with slender fibrous roots. Leaves oblong-

elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate 1-3 x 0.2- 1.5 cm; acute, sparsely

villous. Ligules membranous to obscure. Panicles lax, 1- 10 cm

long. Spikelets globose, 0.5-1 mm long. Lower glume oblong,

0.5 X 0.25 mm, chartaceous, faintly 5- 7-nerved, softly hairy, 7-

9-nerved, sparsely hairy. First lemma ovate-oblong. 0.5-1 x

0.5 mm, chartaceous; palea oblong, 0.5-1 x 0.5 mm, delicate;

second lemma obovate, 0.5 x 0.5 mm, coriaceous, softly hairy,

palea obovate or orbicular 0.5 x 0.5 mm, coriaceous, softly

hairy. Anthers 0.25-0.5 mm long.

Distribution; Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,

Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.

Ecology: Occasional, on moist rocks and prefers dense

shade.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu, Nilgiris, Tropical

Gene Pool Garden, Nadugani, ± 1000 m, November 16, 2000;

in flower and fruit, V.S. Ramachandran & KR. Devi 10413.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. P. Daniel, Joint Director, Botanical Survey

of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore for permission to consult

the herbarium and library. We are also grateful to Dr. M.

Aruchami, Secretary and to Dr. K. Kumaraswami, Principal,

Kongunadu Arts and Science College for providing necessary

facilities and encouragement.

September 10, 2003 V.S. RAMACHANDRAN'

V. BALASUBRAMANIAM

P. PANDIKUMAR

P.G and Research Department of Botany,

Kongunadu Arts & Science College,

Coimbatore 641 029,

Tamil Nadu, India.

'Email; vsrbot(§>yahoo.co.in

Pergamon Press, London.

Nair, V.J. & V.S. Ramachandran (1982): Five plant records from

Kerala. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 22:193.

364

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sreeklimar, P.V. & V.J. Nair ( 1991 ): Flora of Kerala Grasses. Botanical

Survey of India. Calcutta.

Vajravelli, E. & P. Daniel (1983); Enumeration of

Threatened Plants of Peninsular India. Pp. 8-43. hr. Material

for a Catalogue of Threatened plants of India (Eds: Jain. S.K.

24. NEW GENERIC RECORDS OF

1500 specimens of about 300 species of grasses and

bamboos have been collected during our extensive field

survey over the past three years. Some of the specimens

collected from Gondiya district of Maharashtra were of

Dieclomis fastigiatcr, specimens collected from Ajara of

Kolhapur district were identified as Lepturus radicans. As

both Diectomis and Lepturus form new generic records for

the state, a detailed description along with illustration and

field notes are presented in this paper. The specimens have

been deposited in the herbarium of Shivaji University.

Kolhapur.

Monotypic genus Diectomis Kunth is widely

distributed in China, Myanmar, tropical America, Africa and

India.

Diectomis fastigiata (Sw.) Kunth in Humb. Et Bonpl.,

nov. gen. et Sp. 1, 193(1816) t. 64; Bor, Grass. Bur. Ceyl. Ind.

Pak. 135. 1960; Moulik, Grass. Bam. Ind. 1:275. 1997.

Amiropogou fastigiata Swartz, Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 26, 1788;

Hook. F., FI. Brit. India7: 167, 1896 (Fig. 1 ).

Annual. Culms terete, erect or geniculate at base, 20-

80 cm high; nodes glabrous. Leaf; Sheaths terete, 1.5-5 cm

long, glabrous; ligule membranous, 3.5-4 mm long; blades

linear, 2.5-20 x 0. 1-0.2 cm long, glabrous, setaceous. Raceme

single, enclosed by spathe, 2-3.5 cm long, joints turbinate,

slightly compressed, 2.6-3 mm long, ciliate on both margins

with white hairs. Callus short, bearded. Sessile spikelets

coriaceous, linear-lanceolate, 3.3-4 x 0.4-0. 5 mm. Lower glume

coriaceous, linear-lanceolate, 3.8-4 x 0. 4-0.5 mm, 6-nerved,

deeply grooved on the back, 2-keeled, ciliate in the groove in

upper half, apex 2-toothed. Upper glume coriaceous, boat

shaped, 3. 3-3. 5 xO. 8-0.9 mm, 3-nerved, 1 -keeled; keels ciliate,

running into a capillary, 10-12 mm long awn, apex 2-toothed.

Lower lemma membranous, ovate-lanceolate, 2.8-3 x 0.4-

0.5 mm, strongly 2-keeled, 2-nerved, deeply grooved on the

back, margins ciliate, apex obtuse, epaleate. Upper lemma

membranous, boat shaped 2.6-2.7 x 0.6-0.7 mm 1 -nerved, apex

2-fid, awned from the sinus; awn 20-25 mm long, scaberulous.

Palea hyaline, oblong-elliptic, 2-2.2 x 0.4-0. 5 mm, nerveless,

obtuse, stamens 3; anthers 0.8-1 .0 x 0.2-0. 3 mm, ovary linear,

0.4-0. 5 X 0.2-0. 3 mm. Lodicules 2, cuneate, 0.4-0. 5 mm.

Caryopsis elliptic-obovate, 1 .7- 1 .8 x 0.4-0.5 mm. Pedicle of

pedicelled spikelet turbinate, slightly compressed, 2. 3-2.5 mm,

densely ciliate on the margins. Pedicelled spikelet ovate-

& A.R.K.Sastry). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

van Welzen. P.C. ( 198 1 ): a taxonomic revision of the genus Arthraxon

Beauv. (Graminae). Bliimea 27\ 255-300.

Ved Prakash & S.K. Jain (1984): Poaceae: Tribe Ischneae in Fascicles

of Flora of India 14\ 1 -42. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

GRASSES FOR MAHARASHTRA

lanceolate, 6.8-7 mm long. Lower glume membranous, ovate-

lanceolate, 6.8-7 x 1.5- 1.7 mm, 1 5-nerved, central nerve distinct,

2-keeled; keels obscurely winged, scabrid, 2-toothed at apex,

median awn 5 mm long. Upper glume membranous, ovate-

lanceolate, 3. 2-3.4 X 0.4-0. 5 mm, 5-nerved, 1 -keeled, slightly

2-toothed at apex, awned; awn 3 mm long, ciliate on margins.

Lemma membranous, ovate-lanceolate, 1.8-2 x 0.3-0. 4 mm,

nerveless, margins ciliate, acute, epaleate.

Growing in sandy soil and on rocky slopes.

FI. & Fr.: September-November.

Note: Diectomis fastigiata has been reported from Uttar

Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. It

grows in sandy soils and on rocky slopes in Gondiya district

in Eastern Maharashtra. It is a very good fodder grass in

young stages before the awns begin to form (Bor 1960). It

turns red as it dries. It is very distinct in its 1 5-nerved lower

glume of pedicelled spikelet.

Exsiccata: Borkanhar (Gondiya District) Potdar 1477,

Mandodevi (Gondiya District) Potdar 1482.

Genus Lepturus R. Br. with about 8 species is distributed

in coastal east Africa, Madagascar to Australia and Polynesia.

So far, Lepturus radicans is the only species reported for

India from Karnataka, which was recently collected from

Maharashtra.

Lepturus radicans (Steud.) A. Camus in Ann. Soc. Linn.

Lyon, 1922, n.s., 69, 87 (1923); Bor, Grass. Bur. Ceyl. Ind.

Pak. 585. 1960; Moulik, Grass. Bamb. Ind. 2; 463. 1997

(Pig. 2).

Perennial, stoloniferous. Culms prostrate, 10-30 cm high,

rooting at nodes, nodes glabrous. Leaf; sheath terete, 1-4 cm

long, glabrous, ligule membranous 0.5-0. 8 mm long; blades

linear, 3-12 x 0.2- 0.6 cm long, glabrous, base with bulbous

based hairs. Spike single, 2-6 cm long. Joints not breaking

easily, 3 mm long, joints hollow on one side alternately.

Spikelets sessile, coriaceous, linear-lanceolate, 4-4.5 mm long,

sunken in hollow of rachis. Lower glume absent. Upper glume

coriaceous, flat, linear-lanceolate, 3.5-4 x 0.6-0. 8 mm, 10-

1 2- nerved apex acute to acuminate. Lower lemma membranous,

boat shaped, 2. 6-2.8 x 0.5-0.6 mm, 3-nerved, apex acuminate.

Palea membranous, margins inflexed, 2. 5-2.6 x 0.5-0. 6 mm,

2-nerved, apex acute, stamens 3, anthers 1.3-1.5 xO.1-0.2 mm,

ovary obovate, 1.5-2 x 0.4-0. 5 mm. Lodicules 2, cuneate.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

365

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Diectomis fastigiata (Sw.) Kunth; a. Habit; b. Collar; c. Pedicel; d. Joint; e. Raceme; f. & g. Pedicelled and Sessile spikelets;

h. Sessile spikelet; i. & j. Lower glume; k. Upper glume; I. & m. Lower lemma; n. Upper lemma; o. Palea; p. Stamens; q. Pistil and Lodicules;

r. Grain; s. Lower glume of pedicelled spikelet; t. Upper glume of pedicelled spikelet; u. Lemma.

366

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Lepturus radicans (Steud.) A. Camus; a. Habit; b. Collar; C. Spike; d. Adaxial view of upper glume; e. Abaxial view of upper glume;

f. Lower lemma and Palea with upper rudimentary floret; g. Lower lemma; h. Palea; i. Stamens; j. Ovary; k. Lodicules; I. Grain.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

367

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

0.4-0.5 mm. Caryopsis elliptic-obovate, 1.8-2 x 0.6-0. 8 mm.

Upper floret reduced to a rudimentary structure.

FI. & Fn: July-October.

Exsiccata: Ajara, Potdar 1566.

Note: Lepturus radicans was collected by us from

Dandeli forest of Karnataka in June 2003. Recently, it was

collected from forests around Ajara region in Kolhapur district

of Maharashtra. It is common in shady places along roadsides

and forest margins. The spikelet is two flowered, but the upper

floret is highly reduced and represented by a small appendage

on protruded rachilla.

Dr. T. A. Cope, Royal Botanical Garden, Kew for confirmation

of identity; Head, Department of Botany, Shivaji University,

Kolhapur for providing facihties and Ministry of Environment

& Forests, New Delhi for financial assistance.

September 1 0, 2003 GG POTDAR

P.D. MAHEKAR

Department of Botany,

Shivaji University,

Kolhapur 416 004,

Maharashtra, India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. S.M. Bhuskute, Bhawbhuti

Mahavidyalaya, Amagaon for his help during collection;

REFERENCES

S.R. YADAV

Department of Botany,

University of Delhi,

Delhi 110 007, India.

Bor, N.L. (1960): Grasses of Burma Ceylon, India and Pakistan.

Pergamon Press, Oxford.

Moulik, S. (1997); The Grasses and Bamboos of India. Vol. I & II.

Scientific Publisher, Jodhpur.

25. NERVILIA INFUNDIBULIFOLIA BLATTER & MCCANN (ORCHIDACEAE):

A NEW RECORD EROM SIKKIM HIMALAYA

Nervilia infundibulifolia (Orchidaceae) was first

described by Blatter & McCann from North Canara of

Karnataka, India; based on the specimen from Yellapur,

N. Canara, TR. Bell mss. Icon. E. Bell.

Later, the occurrence of this taxon was known both

from Western Himalaya (Garhwal) and Eastern Himalaya (only

Arunachal Pradesh) (Deva and Naithani 1986; Chowdhery

1998) leaving Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

The species was reported from Bhutan in 2002 for the

first time by Pearce and Cribb (2002). However, it is hitherto

unknown from Nepal and Sikkim. Recently, a collection of

this taxon from Sikkim Himalaya (between Yoksum and Bakhim,

West Sikkim) was made and is a new record for Sikkim

Himalaya. Thus, it is expected that this species has a

continuous distribution from Western Himalaya to Eastern

Himalaya and extends eastwards to Thailand, Malay and

Borneo (Pearce and Cribb 2002), along with its first record

from the Western Ghats region, Maharashtra and Orissa, in

India. It is possible that the species occurs in Nepal and

Myanmar and also Yunnan and Hupeh region of China.

A detailed description of the taxon along with the

present known distributional records is given below.

Nervilia infundibulifolia Blatter & McCann in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 725. t.3.1932; Deva & Naithani,

Orchid El. N.W. Himalaya 85. t. 83. 1986; Chowdhery, Orchid

FI. Arunachal Pradesh 529. t. 530. 1998; Pearce & Cribb,

El. Bhutan 3(3- Orchids of Bhutan); 58. t.59.2002.

a. Habitat; b. Lip

368

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Nervilia hallbergii Blatter & McCann in J. Bombay

Nat. Hist.Soc. 35:726.1932.

N. calcicola Kerr in J. Siam Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. 9(2):

242. t.7. 1933.

Pwteranthous, tuberous herb up to 15 cm tall (scape).

Tuber sub-globose, 0.6- 1 .5 cm diam. Leaves broadly ovate to

suborbicular, 2-4 cm across, base cordate, margin undulate to

crenulate, apex acute to acuminate, glabrous, spreading on

ground; petioles sheathing at base. Flower solitary, at right

angle on scape; scape with two intemodes; scape sheaths

two, linear-oblanceolate, 1.5-3 cm long, apex acute to

acuminate, clasping, glabrous; floral bract solitary, linear-

lanceolate, 0.3-0. 7 X 0.2 cm. acuminate. Flowers (sepals and

petals) light maroon-green to greenish-purple to greenish-

brown; nerves deep-coloured; lip apple-green to white, tinged

with pink; sepals hnear-oblanceolate, 1 .3- 1 .8 x 0.2-0.3 cm, acute,

3-nerved; petals linear-oblanceolate, 1.2- 1.7 x 0.15-0.2 cm,

acute, 1 -nerved; lip 1.5-2 x 0.2-0. 3 cm, distinctly 3-lobed,

weakly saccate at base, with 2 hairy lines on hypochile and

one papilose line on epichile; lateral lobes triangular, about

0. 1 X 0. 1 cm; middle lobe larger, obovate to ovate, about 1 x 0.3

cm, margin entire; column straight. Fruits cylindric.

Specimen examined: West Sikkim, Yoksum to Bakhim,

1800 m. May 12, 2002, D. Maity & N. Pradhan 23403 - BSHC

(two gatherings).

Field notes: “Terrestrial, bulb globose, juicy; sepals and

petals greenish-brown; lip white, tinged with pink dots; middle

lobe flat; lateral lobes very small.”

Distribution: india: Himalaya: Uttaranchal; Uttar

Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Orissa, Karnataka,

Maharashtra; Bhutan; Thailand; Malay; Borneo; grows on

open slopes, loose soils, along road sides in warm subtropical

forests ascending up to 1 800 m altitude.

FI. and Fr.: May-July.

July 14,2003 D. MAITY

N. PRADHAN

A.S. CHAUHAN

Botanical Survey of India,

Sikkim Himalayan Circle

Gangtok 737 103,

Sikkim, India.

26. BULBOPHYLLUM REPTANS (LINDL.) LINDL. (ORCHIDACEAE):

A CRITICAL STUDY

Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. is known for its

wide distribution from India (Garhwal Himalaya, Sikkim,

Arunachal Pradesh) to Vietnam including Nepal, Bhutan,

Bangladesh, China, Myanmar and Thailand (Seidenfaden

1979). This taxon is further enriched by two more varieties to

the typical one as var. subracemosa Hook.f. and var. acuta

Malhotra and Balodi.

The variety subracemosa Hook.f. was established by

Hooker (1890) based on differentiating characters, like

presence of smaller pseudobulbs; much shorter length of

oblong, obtuse floral bracts than the longer pedicellate ovary.

This variety was recognized by King and Pantling (1898),

Sri vastava ( 1 996 ) and Chowdhery (1998).

The other variety acuta Malhotra and Balodi (1984) is

differentiated by longer floral bracts than the pedicellate

ovary, based on collection from Gorpatta, Gori Valley,

Pithoragarh, India (M.A. Rau, 35340-CAL).

Seidenfaden (1979) had quoted the opinion of

Guillaumin regarding the further taxonomic treatment of this

taxon, that the flower of the Langbian plant is yellow with

small dark red spots at tips of the petals and dark red lip with

a green median line, which is not quite different from the

colour description given by Hooker f. and King and Pantling,

and therefore perhaps a Vietnamese variety should be

recognized as a separate identity. In the Thai plant, the flowers

are yellow, the dorsal sepal with three faint purple lines at

base and the proximal edges of the lip being purple.

Thus, the taxon Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl.

is now considered to have two more varieties var.

subracemosa and var. acuta in addition to the typical one,

and a proposed unnamed (?) variety (Vietnamese variety)

based on the colouration of petals and lips. Of course,

Seidenfaden (1979) did not recognize the separate entity of

the variety subracemosa Hook.f. In this regard, he had

referred to Bulbophyllum ombrophyllum Gagnep.

Regarding the variety acuta Malhotra and Balodi, the

distinguishing character such as the larger floral bracts than

that of the pedicellate ovary, cannot be considered good

taxonomic characters to establish a new variety.

While working on the floristics of Kanchenjunga

Biosphere Reserve of Sikkim Himalaya, specimen (D. Maity,

24275-BSHC) was collected with the smallest pseudobulb (c.

7-8 X 7-8 mm), slightly smaller to equal to slightly longer floral

bracts (c. 5.5 x 2 mm) than the pedicellate ovary; sepals with

distinct characteristic shape as stated by Lindley in 1830

with prominent three nerves and light yellow colour; the

spathulate c. 3.5 mm long petals having brownish- purple

coloured lip.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

369

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 ; Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl., a. Habit; b. Bract; c. Floral parts; d. Column (from Maity, 24275-BSHC);

e. Petal (J.S. Gamble, 10307-CAL); f. Petal (King & Pantling, 1896; Maity & Pradhan 2572^ -BSHC)]

g. Pseudobulbs: g1. Polunin, Sykes & Williams, 1825-CAL; g2. Seidenfaden, 1979, p. Ill, Fig. 70-L. & C. 148;

g3 & g4. Mokin, sn., Acc. no. 452304-CAL (Drawn by D. Maity)

This specimen led to a critical study of the literature

and the specimens were deposited at CAL. The analysis of

the characters stated below shows variation of a good

number of characters in Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl.

and the varieties based on the shape and size of pseudobulb,

shape and size of floral bracts, sepals, petals and lip cannot

be considered or treated as distinct to merit varietal status.

Moreover, the colour of sepals, petals and lip etc. is not a

constant character for this widely distributed species ranging

from India to Vietnam. Few line-drawings are also

supplemented in support of this opinion along with the

citation of specimens studied at CAL gathered from different

countries by different collectors (Fig. 1).

The characters of the pseudobulb: Obpyriform (Polunin,

Sykes and Williams, 1825-CAL), oblong (Seidenfaden, 1979,

p. 1 1 1, fig- 70-L. & C. 148), orbicular to sub-obpyriform (D.

Maity, 24275-BSHC); floral bracts variable in length along the

scape, often longer to the lower and successively smaller

upwards or equal in size having uniform distribution from

base to apex or it may be a mixture of longer, equal in size or

smaller in the same inflorescence; the shape of the bract varies

from lanceolate to oblanceolate to somewhat oblong (J.S.

Gamble, 10307-CAL); petals are different in shape as oblong

(King and Pantling, 1898-Fig. l.F; Baneiji and Pradhan, 1984;

Maity & Pradhan 25721-BSHC), obovate-oblong (Bhutan,

J.S. Gamble, 10307-CAL-Fig. \ .E\ Polunin, Sykes and Williams

370

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1825-CAL; Mokin, s.n.-Acc. No. 452304-CAL); spathulate

(D. Mfl/fv, 24275-BSHC-Fig. l.C). The colour of the petals as

well as lips is often considered in the treatment of variety

(vide King and Pantling 1896; Seidenfaden 1979). The present

study of literature and field notes of the collections is given

below, which proves that the colour is variable due to its

wide range of distribution in different geographical regions:

yellowish with purple spots (King and Pantling 1898;

Srivastava 1996; Chowdhery 1998), yellow with small dark

red spots at tips of the petals and dark red lip with green

median line (Guillaumin 1958), yellowish-green (Banerji and

Pradhan 1984), greenish-yellow ( Hynniewta etal. 2000), light

yellow with purple veins, lip brownish-purple (D. Maity,

24275-BSHC).

Thus, B. reptans is a variable species and the existing

varieties and the variety of Seidenfaden ( 1979) do not deserve

separate status. The variety acuta Malhotra and Balodi is

reduced to a synonym here [syn. nov. of bulbophyllum

reptans (Lindl.) Lindl.]

Bulbophyllum reptans (Lindl.) Lindl., [Wall. Cat. 1988,

1829 nom. nud], Gen. & Sp. Orch. 51 .1830; Hook.f. in FI. Brit.

India 5: 768. 1 890; King and Pantling in Ann. Roy. Bot. Card.

Calcutta 8: 77, t. 106. 1898; Pottinger and Prain in Rec. Bot.

Surv. India 1: 268. 1898; Duthie in Ann. Roy. Bot. Card.

Calcutta 9(2): 105. 1906;BurkillinRec. Bot. Surv. India 10(2):

377. 1925; Biswas in hid. For. Rec. Bot. 3(1): 49.1941 ; Merrill in

Brittonia 4(1): 35. 1941; Tuyama in Hara, FI. E. Himalaya

426.1966; Deh etal. in Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 22:212. 1970;

Rao and Joseph in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 12(1-4): 152.1965;

Matthew in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8(2): 166. 1966; Banerji and

Thapa in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 66(2): 292.1969; Hu in

Quart. Journ. Taiwan Mus. 25 (1-2): 63. 1972; Rao and

Balakrishnan in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 20(2): 206. 1973; Deb

and Duttain J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2): 285. 1974; Hara

etal. in Enum. FI. PI. Nepal 1: 33. 1978; Seidenfaden in Or.

Banerji, M.L. & P. Pradhan ( 1984): The Orchids of Nepal Himalaya.

J. Cramer, Vaduz, p. 386.

Chowdhery, H. (1998): Orchid Flora of Arunachal Pradesh. Bishen

Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, p. 136.

Guillaumin, A. (1958): Plantes nouvelles, rares ou critique. Notules

Sur quelques Orchidees d’Indochine 18. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat.

(Paris) 2. ser 30, 3: 302-304.

Hooker, J.D. (1890): The Flora of British India. Vol. V, p. 768. L.

Reeve & Co., Ashford. Kent, London.

Hynniewta, T.M., S.K. Kataki & B.M. Wadhwa (2000): Orchids of

Gen. Thailand 8: 109. 1979. [Pl.-I].

Tribrachia reptans Lindl., Coll. Bot. t.41a, 1 825.

Bulbophyllum grandiflorum Griff., Itin. Not. 146. 1 848;

Not. 3: 293; Ic. 3. T. 294, 1, 1851 (sphalm.).

B. c/flrte Reichb./.,Flora71:155. 1888.

Phyllorchis reptans (Lindl.) Ktze., Rev. Gen. PI. 2: 611 .

1891.

Bulbophyllum ombrophyllum Gagnep., Bull. Mus.

Palis 2. ser.22:40 1 . 1 960.

Bulbophyllum (Lindl.) Lindl. var. subracemosa

Hook.f. in FI. Brit. India 5: 769. 1890 {syn. nov.- Seidenfaden,

1979).

B. reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. var. acuta Malhotra and Balodi

in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 26 (1 & 2): 110-111. 1984, syn. nov.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Joint Director, Central National

Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, for permission

to study the herbarium. D. Maity thanks Miss N. Basak,

research scholar. Dept, of Botany, University of Kalyani and

Miss N. Pradhan, research scholar. Botanical Survey of India,

Gangtok for their help.

September 10, 2003 D. MAITY

A.S. CHAUHAN

Botanical Survey of India,

Sikkim Himalayan Circle,

Gangtok737 103, Sikkim, India.

GG MAITI

Department of Botany,

University of Kalyani,

Kalyani 741 235, Nadia,

West Bengal, India.

Nagaland. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, p. 72.

King, G & R. Pantling (1898): The Orchids of Sikkim Himalaya.

Ami. Roy. Bot. Card. Calcutta 8: 77.

Malhotra, C.L. & B. Balodi (1984): A new variety of Bulbophyllum

reptans (Lindl.) Lindl. from Gori valley. Bull. Bot. Surv India

26(1 & 2): 110-111.

Seidenfaden, G. (1979): Orchid Genera in Thailand (Bulbophyllum

Thou.) VIII: 109-111. Copenhagen.

Srivastava, R.C., (1996): Flora of Sikkim. Vol. L, p. 37, Botanical

Survey of India, Calcutta.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

371

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

27. NOTES ON RARITY AND OCCURRENCE OF DROSERA IN DIG A L. (DROSERACEAE)

IN GUJARAT STATE, INDIA

While working on the project “Plant Biodiversity

Survey in South Gujarat”, the taxon Drosera indica L. was

collected and identified for the first time from Dabkhal (Tal.

Kaprada, Dist. Valsad) forest area (South Gujarat) in Gujarat.

This taxon is found in a typical location, i.e. hilly open

grasslands, in association with Eragrostis ciliaris,

Centrantliera indica, Rhynchospora wightiana, Spermacoce

hispida, Zomia gibbosa. D. indica is an ephemeral taxon,

which blooms in September for 8 days.

Interestingly, when we collected it, it was hidden in

grasses and we were able to collect only 4-5 plants within an

area of 2-hectare open grazed pastureland. D. indica is a very

rare taxon and is a new record for Gujarat State. It has been

reported earlier from the ghats of Khandala-Mahabaleshwar

and Marathwada. Its presence here proves the continuity of

the vegetation from the Western Ghats to the forests of Gujarat

State.

The locality is on the Dharampur-Dabkhal road, four

kilometres before Dabkhal, on a roadside adjacent to

agricultural fields. It grows only on well-grazed soil among

grasses.

The location is in urgent need of conservation.

Drosera indica L. Sp. PI. 282. 1753; C.B. Clarke, in

Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 2: 424. 1878;Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay I:

499. 1958(Repr. ed.).

Herbs, slender, caulescent, up to 20 cm high with

glandular-hairy stems. Leaves exstipulate; lower leaves

recurved, upper leaves erect, filiform up to 3 cm long; shortly

petioled. Inflorescence leaf-opposed. Flowers pink; sepals 5,

acute; petals obovate. Capsules 3-valved. Seeds obovoid and

strongly ridged.

FI. & Fr.: October-November.

Distribution: Very rare, collected only once and only

4-5 plants from open grazed pastureland in Dabkhal forest

areas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the Gujarat Ecological Society, Vadodara for

financial support to complete the present work.

September 10, 2003 SANJAY R. KSHIRSAGAR

Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems,

University of Delhi,

Delhi 110 007, India.

Email: [email protected]

MINOO PARABIA

Department of Biosciences,

S.G University, Surat 395 007,

Gujarat, India.

28. A NOTE ON ATHYRIUM SCHIMPERl MOUG. EX FEE

(ATHYRIACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA) IN INDIA

Athyriiim schimperi Moug. ex Fee has been reported in

India from the western Himalaya, Sikkim, Daijeehng, Arunachal

Pradesh, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh and grows

commonly and abundantly, especially in the Himalayan region

(Clarke 1880; Beddome 1883, 1892; Hope 1902; Dixit 1984;

Fraser-Jenkins 1997; Chandra 2000; Khullar 2000; Dixit and

Kumar 2002; Pande and Pande 2003). It is made of two

subspecies - schimperi from east Africa and biserrulaturn

(Christ) Fras.-Jenk. from west Africa and Sino-Himalaya.

A. schimperi subsp. schimperi is not known to occur from

Sino-Himalaya. However, Chandra (2000) and Khullar (2000)

have placed A. biserrulaturn Christ in the synonymy of

A. schimperi.

According to Fraser-Jenkins (pers comm.), Ching (1983)

noted the close affinity of the Himalayan plant to the African

one, but was presumably unable to accept that the two could

be conspecific vicariants. The characters which Ching 1983

gave to differentiate between the two are common to both the

subspecies. It appears that Ching’s concept of the African

A. schimperi resulted from observing some specimens of the

dissected species without rhizome that were actually that of

Athyriiim scandicinum (Willd.) Presl, but commonly labelled

as A. schimperi in various herbaria. However, Ching (1983)

referred the Sino-Himalayan plant material as Athyrium

biserrulaturn and kept them separate from A. schimperi. The

East African plants, including the type of A. biserrulaturn as

stated by Khullar (2000), are slightly different in having

narrower, more cuneate pinnule lobes, which tend to be

slightly more distant from each other. However, some plants

from the drier areas are intermediate. Fraser- Jenkins (1997)

has suggested that it is best to separate the east African

plants as subsp. schimperi as opposed to the West African

and Sino-Himalayan plants, which belong to subsp.

biserrulatun (Christ) Fras.-Jenk.

Fraser-Jenkins (pers comm.) further adds that if the

rhizome is not collected it can be difficult to distinguish some

372

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

plants of A. flabellulatum (Clarke) Tard. from A. schimperi

subsp. biserrulatiim\ similarly, luxuriant plants of A. rupicola

(Edgew. ex. Hope) C. Chr. can look like narrower plants of

A. schimperi subsp. biserrulatum. But both species have

thick, upright apices to their rhizomes with the fronds arising

together in a crown-like arrangement, not the distinctively

long- creeping, thin with separate fronds of A. schimperi and

their lowest pinnae are also different.

It is therefore suggested that the Sino-Indian materials

of A. schimperi be treated as A. schimperi subsp.

biserrulatum (Christ) Fras.-Jenk. in Indian fern literature.

Athyrium schimperi Moug. ex Fee subsp.

biserrulatum (Christ) Fras.-Jenk., New Sp. Syndr.Indian

Pterid. & Ferns Nepal: 60 (1997); Athyrium biserrulatum

Christ, Bull. Acad. mt. Geogr. Bot. Mans 17: 135 (1907).

Athyrium schimperi (Moug. ex Fee) A.Br. in Schweinf.,Beitr.

FI. Aethiop. 1: 224 (1867), non (Hook) J. Smith (1875); Dixit,

Census Indian Pterid. :129 (1984); Chandra, Ferns India: 134

(2000); Khullar, 111. Fern FI. West Him. 2:73. t. 26 (2000).

Asplenium fihix-femina Bernh. var. polysporum (Clarke),

Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 2Bot. 1: 493. t. 6\{ISSS). Athyrium

filix-femina (L) Roth var. polysporum (Clarke) Bedd., Handb.

Ferns Brit. India: 170 (1883). Asplenium filix-femina Bemh.

var. schimperi (Moug. ex Fee) Clarke & Baker, J. Linn. Soc.

Lond. 8: 12 (1888). Athyrium polysporum (Clarke) Ching ex

Mehra & Bir, Amer. Fern J. 50: 289 (1960). Athyrium

wumonshanicum Ching in Ching & Hsieh, Acta Bot. Bor.-

Occ.Sin. 6: 20(1986).

Rhizome thin, long-creeping, occasionally branching.

Stipe long, with few scattered, pale brown, narrow scales

towards the base, stipe base dark, rest of stipe and rachis

pale or stramineous. Fronds arising at intervals along the

rhizome. Lamina lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, widest above

or just above the middle, the lowest pinnae with rather a wide

gap between them and the next pair, shorter than the second

pair, but frond base somewhat truncate, herbaceous; pinnae

triangular-lanceolate, wide, pinnate, becoming bipinnatifid in

large plants, widely separated below, more or less contiguous

above; pinnules nearly symmetrical above their axes or

becoming slightly more developed at their acroscopic bases,

narrowly attached to the costa but often slightly adnate and

usually joined at their bases by a narrow wing of laminar

tissue, triangular-lanceolate, apices acute, margins prominently

lobed to about half their depth on each side or sometimes

more, with somewhat narrow, acute lobes, the lobes and apices

have prominent, long-acute teeth; costae bear weak, short

setae above near the pinna-apices; costules have small

crested ridges above. Sori crowded all over the lower surface

of the lamina, usually rather large, hippocrepiform to sub-

reniform, becoming confluent, indusiate; indusia prominent,

large, but shrivelling markedly on maturity. Spores dark brown,

perinate; perine broad, translucent, convoluted into folds

forming ridges.

Ecology: Abundant throughout the western Himalaya,

becoming somewhat less common further into the Himalaya

in the east and occurs at mid- to higher altitudes in the outer

and mid-ranges of the Himalaya between 1800 and 3500 m

along streams and grassy slopes or road banks in forested

areas, sometimes forming its pure stands.

Distribution: India (Kashmir, Jammu, Himachal Pradesh,

Uttaranchal, Darjeeling, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Madhya

Pradesh, Rajasthan), Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, N. Myanmar,

S.E. Tibet, S.W. China, W. Africa (Cameroon, Nigeria, Ghana,

Liberia and Guinea).

I am grateful to C.R. Fraser-Jenkins, British Museum,

London for literature, encouragement and suggestions.

Thanks are due to Head, Department of Botany, D.S.B.

Campus, Kumaon University, Nainital for facilities.

August 1 1 , 2003 Y.P.S. PANGTEY

Department of Botany,

D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University,

Nainital 263 002, Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Beddome, R.H. (1883): A Handbook to the Ferns of British India,

Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula. Thaker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Pp. 1-500.

Beddome, R.H. (1892): Supplement to the Ferns of British India,

Ceylon and Malaya Peninsula with Supplement. Thaker Spink &

Co., Calcutta. Pp. 1-110.

Chandra, S. (2000): The Ferns of India (Enumeration, Synonyms &

Distribution). International Book Distributors. Dehradun. Pp. 1-

459.

Ching, R.C. ( 1983): Taxonomic notes on some N.W. Himalayan ferns.

Acta Bot. Austro- Sin. 1: 17-25.

Clarke, C.B. (1880): A review of the ferns of northern India. Trans.

Linn. Soc. Lond. II (Bot.) 1: 425-611.

Dixit. R.D. ( 1984): ACensus of Indian Pteridophytes. Botanical Survey

of India, Howrah, Pp. 1-177.

Dixit, R.D. & R. Kumar (2002): Pteridophytes of Uttaranchal (A

Checklist). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 1-159.

Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. (1997): New Species Syndrome in Indian

Pteridology and Ferns of Nepal. International Book Distributors,

Dehradun. Pp. 1-403.

Hope, C.W. (1902): The ferns of north-western India including

Afghanistan, the Trans-Indus protected States and Kashmir.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 252-266.

Khullar, S.P. (2000): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the West Himalaya.

Vol. II. International Book Distributors, Dehradun. Pp 1-538.

Pande, H.C. & PC. Pande (2003): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the

Kumaon Himalaya. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Pp. 1-372.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

373

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

29. ATHYRIUM NEPHRODIOIDES (BAKER) CHRIST (ATHYRIACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA);

AN ADDITION TO THE FERN FLORA OF INDIA

Dixit (1984) enumerated the total species of ferns and

fern-allies of present day political boundary of India, together

with their distribution in India and world, and reported 67

families belonging to 191 genera spread over more than 1000

species. Recently, Chandra (2(X)0) further attempted to compile

the total ferns of India primarily based on previous records

and enumerated 34 families, 144 genera and more than 1 100

species from India with a note on their distribution in India

and the world. Khullar (2000) has published an illustrated

fern flora of the western Himalaya and he too has not

mentioned its occurrence in the western Himalaya. It is

interesting to note that these authors, together with many

others, have not recorded Athyrium nephrodioid.es from India

so far. It is being reported for the first time from India and

forms an interesting addition to the Indian fern flora.

A brief description, ecology and distribution in India

and the world are provided in this paper along with voucher

specimens examined by Fraser- Jenkins in India and abroad.

Athyrium nephrodioides (Baker) Christ, Bull. Soc. Bot.

Franc. 52, Mem. 1:47 (1905).

Asplenium nephrodioides Baker, J. Bot. Lond. 1887:

1 70 ( 1 887). Athyrium tibeticum Ching in C. Y. Wu FI. Xizangica

1: 137 ( 1983). Ching (feS.K.Wu in C.Y.

WuR Xizangica 1: 137(1983).

Rhizome upright, thick, often branching to form a small

clump, surrounded by many old, pale, widened stipe bases.

Stipe short, bearing somewhat scattered, mid-or reddish-

brown, twisted scales, becoming slightly dense at base, terete,

but widened and flattened at its base, stipe and rachis pale or

stramineous. Fronds ± delicate, bipinnatifid. Lamina narrowly

lanceolate with an acuminate apex and tapering markedly to

an attenuated, very narrow base, widest above the middle,

herbaceous; pinnae many, ± short, elongated triangular-

lanceolate, or ± linear, with narrow acute apices, shallowly to

deeply pinnatifidly-lobed, the basal acroscopic pinna lobe

often longer than the rest, lowest pinnae becoming ± distant

and slightly reduced; pinna lobes crowded, ± triangular,

unlobed or only very shallowly lobed at the margins, their

apices rounded-pointed, bearing short, acute teeth at the

margins and particularly at the apex. Sori borne half-way

between the pinna-lobe midrib and margin, often becoming

confluent when ripe, small, oval or elongated, indusiate;

indusia small, thin, soon shrivelling. Spores small, bean-

shaped, ± smooth, with some minute papillae, non-perisporiate.

This species is very close in frond morphology to

Athyrium rupicola (Edgew. ex Hope) C. Chr., but differs from

it in its lamina being more markedly tapering and the pinnae

less deeply lobed, with the pinna-lobes hardly lobed and by

its non-perisporiate spores.

Ecology: Grows at high altitudes in the main Himalayan

ranges between c. 2700 and 3500 m altitudes on steep, rocky

slopes, among boulders or screes in open places or among

bushes and small shrubs.

Specimens examined: Sikkim (S. S. Bir 2242, 2245, 4998

PAN! & 2254 Kl); Kumaon: Pithoragarh district, above Budhi

in Kali valley J.F. Duthie, s.n. Kl); Arunachal Pradesh (Tawang,

Kameng), A.K. Baishya 90493 Assam!). All det. by Fraser-

Jenkins.

Distribution: India (Uttaranchal, Sikkim, Arunachal

Pradesh), E. Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, S.E. Tibet, S.W. and

C. China (Yunnan, Szechuan, Hupeh and Kansu).

August 1 1 , 2003 C.R.FRASER-JENKINS

British Museum, London

Y.P.S.PANGTEY

Department of Botany,

D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University,

Nainital 263 002, Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Chandra, S. (2000): The Ferns of India (Enumeration, Synonyms & Distribution). Dehra Dun.

Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes. Howrah.

Khullar, S.P. (2000): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the West Himalaya. Vol. II. Dehra Dun.

30. DEPARIA ACUTA (CHING) FRAS.-JENK. (ATHYRIACEAE; PTERIDOPHYTA):

A NEW RECORD FOR KUMAON HIMALAYA

While compiling the pteridophytic flora of Uttaranchal,

a few specimens of the genus Deparia Hook. & Grev.

(Athyriaceae) were collected from Pindari glacier areas in

Kumaon Himalaya and these specimens were lying with some

common species of Deparia in our Herbarium. After a detailed

study of these specimens, they turned out to be Deparia

acuta (Ching) Fras.-Jenk. This tentative identification was

later confirmed by Fraser-Jenkins. A perusal of recently

374

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

published literature, dealing with fern flora of Kumaon

Himalaya (Dhir 1980; Dixit 1984; Khullar eto/. 1991;Fraser-

Jenkins 1997; Khullar 2000; Chandra 2000; Pande and Pande

2002; Dixit and Kumar 2002), has not indicated its presence in

Kumaon so far. In fact, Ching (1964) described D. acuta from

specimens in Herb. Schagintweit s.n. collected in the year

1855 from Chamoli Garhwal (Badrinath) between 3000 and

3300 m altitude in India. Chandra (2000) has given the locality

Chamoli Garhwal in the north-western Himalaya for this

widespread Himalayan species and of high Asia. However,

Khullar (2000) has given its distributional range from Pakistan,

Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Chamoh Garhwal (Badrinath)

in Uttaranchal between 2300 and 3800 m altitude in the western

Himalaya. It was also reported from the same localities by

Dixit and Kumar (2002). However, Fraser-Jenkins (pers comm.)

indicated that he has found this species occurring throughout

the Indo-Himalaya from Pakistan, Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh

(Kulu, Shimla, Narkanda) Uttaranchal (Chamoli Garhwal,

Badrinath), Nepal, Sikkim, presumably further east, S.E. China,

S.W. Tibet.

This species is being collected and reported for the

first time from Kumaon Himalaya, and thus forms a new record

for its fern flora. Voucher specimens are deposited in the

Herbarium, Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon

University, Nainital.

Deparia acuta (Ching) Fras.-Jenk., New Sp. Syndr.

Indian Pterid. & Ferns Nepal: 104 ( 1997); Khullar. 111. Fern FI.

West Him. 2: 107. t. 37 (2000). Chandra. Ferns India: 144 (2000):

Dixit & Kumar. Pterid. Uttaranchal: 100 (2002). Limathyriiim

acMlMm Ching. Acta Phytotax. Sinica9: 73 (1964).

Ecology: Grows on hilly-forested slopes in open

situations near streams between 2600 and 2800 m altitude.

Specimens examined: Kumaon Bageshwar District,

Madhari pass (Pangtey & Samant 1415); Chakhuwa ( Pangtey

& Samant 1514); above Namik village (Pangtey & Samant

1515).

Distribution: India (Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,

Uttaranchal, Sikkim), Nepal, S.E. China, S.W. Tibet.

I thank Mr. C.R. Fraser-Jenkins, British Museum,

London for his help in the identification, literature and

encouragement. Thanks are due to Head, Department of

Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University, Nainital for

providing facilities.

August 1 1 , 2003 Y.P.S. PANGTEY

Department of Botany,

D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University,

Nainital 263 002,

Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Chandra, S. (2000): The Ferns of India (Enumeration, Synonyms &

Distribution). International Book Distributors. Dehradun.

Pp. 1-459.

Ching, R.C. ( 1964): On some confused genera of the family Athyriaceae.

Acta Phytotax. Sinica 9: 41-84.

Dhir, K.K. (1980): Ferns of north-western Himalaya. Bibliotheca

Pteridologia 1\ 1-150.

Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes. Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 1-177.

Dixit, R.D. & R. Kumar (2002): Pteridophytes of Uttaranchal (A

Checklist). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 1-159.

Fraser-Jenkins, C.R. (1997): New Species Syndrome in Indian

Pteridology and the Ferns of Nepal. International Book Distributors,

Dehradun. Pp. 1-403.

Khullar, S.P. (2000): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the West Himalaya.

Vol. II. International Book Distributors, Dehradun. Pp. 1-538.

Khullar, S.P., Y.P.S. Pangtey, S.S. Samant, R.S. Rawal & P. Singh

(1991): Ferns of Nainital. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh.

Dehradun. Pp. 1-227.

Pande, PC. & H.C. Pande (2002): Pteridology in Western Himalaya

(Kumaon). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 1-

215.

31. MATTEUCCIA INTERMEDIA C. CHR. (ONOCLEACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA);

AN ADDITION TO THE FERN FLORA OF INDIA

The fern flora of India is very well known today with

respect to taxonomy, ecology and distribution through the

works of Clarke ( 1 880), Beddome ( 1 883, 1 892), Hope ( 1900),

Dixit (1984) and Chandra (2000) and several others.

However,only one species of Matteuccia i.e. M. orientalis

(Hook.) Trev has been reported from India so far.

From the north-western Himalaya of India also, only

one species M. orientalis has been reported (Duthie 1906;

Dhir 1980; Khullar 2000; Pande and Pande 2002; Dixit and

Kumar 2002) based on the collections made by Gamble in

1894 and Duthie in 1897 from Lokandi peak / hill in Jaunsar

Garhwal Hope (1900) and Pangtey etal. (1988) from Kumaon.

There are only three collections available from western

Himalaya, two from Garhwal Himalaya by Duthie and Gamble

in Hope (1900) and one from Kumaon by S.S. Samant in

Pangtey etal. (1988).

While compiling the fern flora of Uttaranchal, I re-

examined the specimens of this species in the Herbarium of

the Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon

University, Nainital and found that these specimens differ

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

375

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

greatly from M. orientalis. The two species may be readily

separated by the following key.

Key to species

1. Sterile fronds taper gradually right down to a very narrow

base and more shallowly lobed; fertile fronds truncated but

little narrower at the base M. intermedia

2. Sterile fronds widely truncated and lobed; fertile fronds

similarly truncated at their bases M. orientalis

M. intermedia was described by C. Christensen (1913)

from west China and Sikkim. Strangely, previous workers,

especially Dixit (1984) and Chandra (2000), have made no

reference to this species in Indian fern flora so far. Fraser-

Jenkins (pers comm.) informs me that he has collected this

species from near Lachung in north Sikkim. He has collected

both, M. intermedia and M. orientalis in Nepal, but they

never grow together. Thus, the collection of this species,

from Uttaranchal, is an addition to the fern flora of the western

Himalaya, in particular and India, in general; and extends its

distributional range from Sikkim to Uttaranchal in India. This

species is so far known from India, Nepal and W. China.

In the present paper; a brief description, ecology and

distribution have been provided to facilitate its easy

identification in the field. Voucher specimens are deposited

in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus,

Kumaon University, Nainital.

Matteuccia intermedia C. Chr., Bot. Gaz. (Chicago) 56:

337(1913).

Rhizome erect, ascending, thick, densely scaly; scales

brown, lanceolate. Fronds dimorphic; stipes light-brown, 15-

30 cm long, thick, densely scaly and fibrillose; scales light-

Beddome, R.H, (1883): A Handbook to the Ferns of British India,

Ceylon and Malay Peninsula. Thaker Spink & Co., Calcutta.

Pp. 1-500.

Beddome, R.H. (1892): Supplement to the Ferns of British India, Ceylon

and Malay Peninsula with Supplement. Thaker Spink & Co.,

Calcutta. Pp. 1-110.

Clarke, C.B. (1880): A review of the ferns of northern India. Trans.

Linn. Soc. Land II (Bot.) I: Pp. 425-611.

Chandra, S. (2000): The Ferns of India (Enumeration, Synonyms &

Distribution). International Book Distributors. Dehradun.

Pp. 1-459,

Christensen, C. (1913): Filices Purdomianae. Bot. Gaz. (Chicago) 56:

331-338.

Dhir, K.K. (1980): Ferns of north-western Himalayas. Bibliotheca

Pteridologia 1: 1-150.

Dixit, R.D. (1984): A Census of the Indian Pteridophytes. Botanical

Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 1-177.

Dixit, R.D. & R. Kumar (2002): Pteridophytes of Uttaranchal (A

Checklist). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

brown, concolorous, linear-lanceolate, entire, acuminate;

rachis similar to stipe; sterile lamina, lamina pinnate, ovate-

oblong, texture herbaceous, glabrous; pinnae many pairs,

alternate, sessile, close, lanceolate, margin shallowly lobed

less than half way to costa, lobes many, broad, oblong-falcate,

acute, margin generally entire, slightly recurved, lower pinnae

gradually taper right down to a narrow base; veins free,

5-7 pairs per lobe, pinnate or forked, glabrous, costae scaly

on lower surface, scales brown, linear-lanceolate, entire,

acuminate; fertile lamina as long as sterile lamina or little shorter,

pinnate, pinnae many, very much contracted, oblong, margin

reflexed covering the entire surface, dark-brown, glabrous,

lower pinnae little narrower; sori indusiate; spores perinate,

bilateral, monolete.

Ecology: Extremely rare and grows in moist-shaded, dark

humus rich ground, along perennial streams in oak forest

c2500m altitude.

Specimens examined; Kumaon Bageshwar District, en

route Sundardhunga Glacier in Pindari valley (S.S. Samant 1243).

Distribution: India (Kumaon, Sikkim), Nepal, W. China.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. C.R. Fraser-Jenkins, British Museum, London

for his help in the identification, literature and encouragement.

Thanks are due to Head, Department of Botany, D.S.B. Campus,

Kumaon University, Nainital for facihties provided.

July 1 1 , 2003 Y.P.S. PANGTEY

Department of Botany,

D.S.B. Campus, Kumaon University,

Nainital 263 002, Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]

Pp. 1-159.

Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of the plants of Kumaon and of the

adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet based on the collections

made by Strachey and Winterbottom during the years 1846 to

1849 and on the catalogue originally prepared in 1852 by Sir

Richard Strachey. London. Lovell Reeve & Co., Limited,

London. Pp. 1-269.

Hope, C.W. (1900): The ferns of north-western India including

Afghanistan, the Trans-Indus protected states and Kashmir.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 12(1): 25-36.

Khullar, S.P. (2000): An Illustrated Fern Flora of the West

Himalaya. Vol. II. International Book Distributors, Dehradun.

Pp. 1-538.

Pande, pc. & H.C. Pande (2002): Pteridology in Western Himalaya

(Kumaon). Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 1-

215.

Pangtey, YP.S., S.S. Samant, N.S. Bankoti & R.S. Rawal (1988):

Matteuccia orientalis (Hook.) Trev. (Onocleaceae): Anew record

for Kumaon Himalaya. Indian J. For. II: 171-172.

376

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

32. PTERIS HETEROMORPHA FEE PTERIDACEAE: A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD

EOR ANDHRA PRADESH

During a recent pteridophyte exploration of Andhra

Pradesh, some rare and interesting specimens of Pteris were

collected. After thorough checking of literature, the present

report describes a rare and interesting taxon, which is

identified as Pteris heteromorpha Fee. This species was earlier

described by Nair and Ghosh (1978) and believed to be rare in

Orissa. It was recently collected by us and also G. Madulla

from the Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. This

species has not been recorded earlier from Andhra Pradesh;

hence, it is reported as a new record. A short description of

the species is given with an illustration, correct nomenclature,

brief diagnostic characters, collection site. Field Numbers,

notes on ecology and distribution of the taxa have been

recorded.

Pteris heteromorpha Fee. Gen. fil.127, 1852; Hook sp.

fil. 2; 166; 1. 1278, 1858, Hook, et Baker, syn. fil. 156.1867;

Beddome, Ferns Brit. India 1865; P. propinqua, J.m. Jour.

Bot. 3: 405 (1841); P. cretica var. heteromorpha (Fee). Bedd.

Handb. Ferns. Brit. India. 106. 1883, with supplement 106,

1892.

Rhizome short, erect covered with brownish linear

scales up to 1 cm long, hairs marginal, root wiry. Stipes 12-

30 cm long, base with very few scattered scales similar to

those on the rhizome, naked above, erect. Fronds 25-40 cm

long, 8-15 cm broad, ovate, lanceolate, subcoriaceous. Pinnae

with the lower portion sinuate and provided with a few short

linear lobes; lateral pinnae erectopatent; the higher one linear

lanceolate 7-10 cm long up to 1.5 cm broad, simple with

1-4 lobes near the base; lower pinnae 3-6 cm apart, 10-20 cm

long, cut down nearly to the costa with 2-6 linear oblong,

very long terminal segments, the lateral lobes varying from

very short to 2 cm long up to 1 cm. margin sub crenate. Veins

prominent, reaching up to the margin, usually with one fork.

Sori continuous, but not reaching to the apex. Indusium

narrow membranous (Fig. 1 ).

Specimen examined: India, Andhra Pradesh,

Visakhapatnam, Coll. G Madulla February 8, 2002, Manickam

(XCH21672).

Field Notes; It occurs rarely along exposed dry

deciduous forest at 450 m (G. Madulla). Pinnae with the lower

portion sinuate and provided with a few short linear lobes,

lateral pinnae erectopatent.

Distribution: Pteris heteromorpha was first discovered

from Luzon (Philippines) by Gumming, subsequently it was

reported from Java, Myanmar and Celebes (Alderberlet van

Rosenberg 1908; Christensen 1906)

Fig. 1 : Pteris heteromorpha Fee. a. Rhizome; b. Rhizome scale; c. Lamina; d. Pinna enlarged showing venation and sori; e. Sporangium

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

377

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Prof Dr. Pullaiah T., Department of Botany,

S.K. University, Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh; for guiding us

during our field work and the Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India for financial assistance.

July 14,2003 V.S. MANICKAM

A. BENNIAMIN

S. HARIKRISHNAN

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

St. Xavier’s College, Palyamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Alderberlet van Rosenberg, C.R.W.K. (1908): Handbook to the Christensen, C. ( 1906): //ide.r Hafniae, Hagerup, Koenigstein.

Determination of the Ferns of the Malayan Island, Nair, N.C. & R.K. Ghosh (1978): A new record for India. Indian

Landsdrukkerij, Batarria. forester 104(5): 373-376.

33. GRACILARIOPSIS LEMANEIFORMIS (BORY) DAWSON - A RED ALGA

REPORTED FROM CERTAIN BACKWATERS OF KERALA

A long cylindrical thalloid multifariously branched red

alga was reported from Dhalawapuram (Ashtamudi lake),

Kadalundi (Kadalundinagaram) and Mopla Bay (Kannur) and

was later identified as Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis (Fig. 1 ).

The salinity in all these regions ranged from 14 to 20 ppt

during the non-monsoon period; during the SW monsoon,

this species could not sustain drop in salinity below 8.0 ppt.

The species grows attached loosely to the sediment along

with subdominant forms of green algae such as Euleromorpha

linza and Chaetomorpha limmi. The density ranged from

300-900 gm/sq. m in Mopla bay and 150-600 gm/sq. m in

Dhalawapuram during the peak growth season of October to

January. The standing crop in both the estuarine areas of about

20 hectares was estimated to be 12-15 tonnes (wet wt. )/yr.

In India, Gracilariopsis lemaneiformis was reported

from Painban, Mandapam and Visakhapatnam by

Umamaheswara Rao ( 1972). Preliminary survey conducted in

certain areas of Ashtamudi lake revealed the presence of

agarophytes, alginophytes and carrageenophytes (Nair et al.

1982); no attempt was made to quantify them and occurrence

of this species was not reported. Resource assessment survey

conducted by Chennubhotla et al. (1988) along the Kerala

coast also did not record the occuiTence of this alga; the

present report is the first from the Kerala coast.

The polysaccharide content in this species ranged from

18 to 26% dry wt. The moisture content in the thallus was

87%. Since this alga has affinity towards sandy loam bottom,

bottom set nets/rafts can be used for cultivation trials as

polyculture with mussels or oysters.

I 114 1*1 lie ilr ji| ii» jio si) sis als ale ala ala ala ala all »» all ala all ak

HI ii! «ii cii >ii cii -tt ’ll r—

Fig. 1: Gracilariopsis lemaneiformiscoWecied from

Dhalawapuram (Ashtamudi lake)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof Dr. Mohan Joseph Modayil,

Director, CMFRI and to Dr. M. Rajagopalan, Principal Scientist

and the Head of FEM Division for encouragement. Courtesy

rendered by Prof. Umamaheswara Rao in confirming the

identification of the alga, is gratefully acknowledged.

September 10, 2003 P. KALADHARAN

Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute,

Cochin 682 014, Kerala, India.

REFERENCES

Chennubhotla, V.S.K., B.S. Ramachandrudu, R Kaladharan & S.K.

Dharmaraja (1988): Seaweed resources of Kerala coast. In:

Aquatic Botany. Bulletin of the Dept. Aquat. Biol & Fisheries,

University of Kerala Vol. V1K1991): 69-74.

Nair, B.N., V, Shoba & M. Arunachalam ( 1982): Algae from Southern

Kerala coast. Indian J. war. Sci. 11(3): 266-269.

Umamaheswara Rao, M. (1972): On the Gracilariaceae of the seas

around India. J. mar boil. Assn India. 14(2): 671-696.

378

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

34. ADDITIONS TO THE TYPE MATERIAL IN THE HERBARIUM OE BOTANICAL

SURVEY ON INDIA, WESTERN CIRCLE, PUNE

It is well known to taxonomists that names of plant

groups at the rank of family and below must be based on

nomenclatural types. Anomenclatural type is that constituent

element of the taxon on which the name of that particular

taxon is permanently attached, whether as a correct name or a

synonym. As per the International Code of Botanical

Nomenclature (ICBN), publication of the name of a new taxon

of the rank of family or below on or after January 1, 1958 is

valid only when the nomenclatural type of the taxon is

indicated.

Singh and Deshpande (1980) enumerated 465 type

sheets deposited in the Western Circle herbarium of the

Botanical Survey of India (BSI). These types belong to 91

species and 4 varieties, and include the historically important

collections of T. Cooke and W.A. Talbot.

Information on 105 type specimens and one type

photograph are presented here which were added to the type

section of the herbarium BSI, Pune in recent past. These type

materials belong to 62 taxa including 49 species, 1 subspecies

and 12 varieties under 23 families and 39 genera. Out of the

105 type specimens 7 are Holotypes, 67 Isotypes and 31

Paratypes. Category of the type is not indicated in the

photograph mentioned above.

The original publications or protologue of each taxon

mentioned in this paper was searched, and confirmed the

types deposited in the herbarium BSI. Type specimens of few

taxa published by Prof. V.N. Naik and his associates were

found in BSI. In the relevant protologues it is mentioned that

these types are deposited in the herbarium of Department of

Botany, Marathwada University (MU), Aurangabad,

Maharashtra. But later on these types were shifted to BSI for

safe custody.

Also type specimens of the few taxa published by the

researchers of some other institutes like Blatter Herbarium

(BEAT), Mumbai, Botany Department Herbaria of Shivaji

University, Kolhapur and University of Goa are also deposited

in the BSI.

Generally, isotypes and paratypes are found in BSI,

Pune and the Holotypes are usually deposited in the Central

National Herbarium (CAL) at Howrah. Including the recent

additions, at present there are a total number of 570 type

materials in BSI, Pune that includes 26 Holotypes, 208

Isotypes, 290 Paratypes, 35 Syntypes and 2 Neotypes. Also

as reported by Singh and Deshpande (1980) 5 type photos

and 4 type sheets, which are not categorized, are also included.

These type materials represent 157 taxa, including 140 species,

1 subspecies and 1 6 varieties.

Capparidaceae

Capparis cleghornii Dunn ex Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras

46. 1915(1:33. 1957, repr.).

Type photo (1): Balabroydroog (Ballalarayanadruga),

Karnataka, Cleghorn D 176, 13. iv. 1846. Kew Negative No.

5723.

Tamaricaceae

Tamarix kutchensis B.V. Shetty & R.P Pandey in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India31: 152. (1989) 1992.

Holotype: Mundra - Mandvi, Gujarat, Jain 1 1735,

2.ii. 1957.

Note: It is mentioned in the protologue that Isotype is

also in BSI, but could not be located.

Malvaceae

Ahelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik. ssp. tetraphyllus

(Roxb. ex Horn.) Borss. var. megaspermus Hemadri in Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 11: 338. (1969) 1972.

Isotype: Pimparwadi, 20 km west of Junnar, Poona Dist.,

Maharashtra, Hemadri 1068 12 B, 5.x. 1965.

Paratypes: Inglun, 20 km west of Junnar, Poona Dist.,

Maharashtra, //cwrjrfn 107380, 26.ix. 1965; Religaon, 10km west

of Junnar, Hemadri 107313, 24.ix.1965; Dhak forest,

28 km west of Junnar, Hemadri 107452, 29. ix. 1965; Bhivade

khurd, 24 km west of Junnar, Hemadri 108164, 20.i. 1 966; Gimar,

Junagadh, Gujarat, Anran 59880, 23.xii.1959; Inglun, 20 km

west of Junnar, Poona Dist., Maharashtra, Hemadri 99782,

20.x. 1964.

Tiliaceae

Triumfetta tungarensis Billore in J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 3:

62 1 . 1 982 (A synonym of Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.).

Isotypes: Mazivili R.F., Mandvi forest range, Thane Dist.,

Maharashtra, Billore 1 15873 B-C, 23.xi.1968.

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. subsp. vartakii Kothari

etal. inBull.Bot. Surv. India39: 181, f. 1.(1997)2001.

Isotypes: Rani-Amaravati, Amaravati Dist., Mciharashtra,

Kothari 173100 C-F, 6.iii. 1997.

Fabaceae

Crotalaria decasperma Nark in Indian Forester 92: 760,

f.A-D. 1966.

Isotype: Ghatangri, Osmanabad Dist., Maharashtra,

Am7:976D,15.xi.l964.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

379

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Indigofera duthiei Drumm. ex Naik in Proc. Ind. Acad.

Sci. 71 (B): 227. 1970. (Synonym of Indigofera trifolia L. var.

duthiei (Drumm. ex Naik) Sanj., Legumes of India 196. 1991).

Holotype: Ram-Ling forest, Osmanabad town,

Maharashtra, Aa/k 1319, 16.x. 1966.

Note: Naik, l.c. validated the name Indigofera duthiei

by providing the description and quoted the above mentioned

specimen (Naik 1319) as the type. Photograph provided in

the protologue is of the same specimen.

Zornia quilonensis Ravi in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

66:489. 1969.

Paratype: Residency, Quilon, Quilon (Kollam) Dist.,

Kerala, Ravi 308 A, 14.viii. 1967.

Caesalpiniaceae

Cassia kolabensis Kothari, Moorthy & M.P Nayar in

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (PI. Sci.) 90 (3): 199,f. 1.9.1981.

Isotype: Penn to Khopoli Road, Kolaba, Raigad Dist.,

Maharashtra, Aot/ian 147461 B, 27.ix.1976.

Note: Paratypes ( 147910B & 1 15377) were not found,

though mentioned in the protologue.

Apiaceae

Heracleum dalgadianum M.R. Almeida in Indian

forester 111: 158, f. 1.5.1985.

Paratype: Amboli, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

Almeida MRA-1627 C, 2.x. 1981.

Pimpinella rollae Billore & Hemadri in Indian Forester

108:712. 1982.

Isotype: BSI Experimental garden, Poona (Raised from

the seeds from Kedamath hill slope, Harishchandragarh,

Thane Dist., Maharashtra), 5///ore 1 15986 B-E, 15.vii.l969.

Note: Partypes (115489 B-F) were not found, though

mentioned in the protologue.

Rubiaceae

Tarenna agumbensis Sundararagh. in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 10: 341. 1968.

Paratype: Chytramane, Agumbe, Shimoga Dist.,

Karnataka, Sundararaghavan 80583 A-B, 14.V.1962.

Note : Singh & Deshpande, l.c. have not included the

paratypes, but Isotypes only).

Asclepiadaceae

Brachystelma ciliatum Arekal & T.M. Ramakrishna in

Curr. Sci. 50(3): 145,f. 1 A-J. 1981.

Isotype: Sonnipally, Kolar Dist., Karnataka,

Ramakrishna 1311c, 27.vi.1979.

Paratypes: Sonnipally, Kolar Dist., Karnataka,

Ramakrishna 1316, 29.vi.1979; 1340A, 24.viii.1979.

Ceropegia anantii S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai & S.P.

Gaikwad in J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101: 141. 2004.

Isotype: Salva hills, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

Yadav m,\5.ix.\99S.

Lentibulariaceae

Utricularia janarthanamii S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai

& S.P. Gaikwad in Rheedea 10(2): 107. 2000.

Isotype: Kolhapur, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra,

Sardesai MMS 233 C, 17.viii. 1997.

Utricularia naikii S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai & S.P.

Gaikwad in Rheedea 10(2): 1 10. 2000.

Isotypes: Amboli, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

Sardesai MMS 191 1 C & G 29.ix. 1999.

Gesneriaceae

Paraboea nagalandiana Deb & R. Dutta in J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 85: 168. 1988.

Paratype: Sarpung, Naga hills, Meeboldl230, Dec. 1907.

Acanthaceae

Dicleptera nasikensis Lakshmin. & B.D. Sharma in

J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 7: 481, f- l-9b. (1985) 1986.

Isotypes: Dangsaundane (Satana range), Nasik Dist.,

Maharashtra, Aara5(m/jan 163977 B-E, 20.V.1983.

Paratypes: Dangsaundane (Satana), Nasik Dist.,

Maharashtra, Aara5ra/ian 167696 A-F, 17.V.1985.

Euphorbiaceae

Croton caudatus Geisel var. obovoides Balak. &

Chakrab. in Bull. Bot. Surv. India 25: 190.(1983) 1985.

Paratype: Kuzhuthuruthy river bank, Kerala,

Subramanian 70886, 4.V.1961.

Dalechampia stenoloba Sundararagh. & B.G. Kulk. in

KewBuU. 35(2): 325. 1980.

Isotypes: Sukhalhatti forests, Lakkavah range, Chikmagalur

Dist., Karnataka, Raghavan 126547 B-C, 22.x. 1970.

Note: Coll. No. 126547 D & E were not found in BSI,

though mentioned in the protologue.

Euphorbia concanensis Janarthanam & S.R. Yadav in

Rheedea 5(2): 148. 1995.

Isotype: Achirane between Phonda and Vaibhavadi,

Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra, yanart/zfanam & Yadav 1002,

20.ix.l993.

Orchidaceae

Coelogyne schultesii S.K. Jain & S. Das in proc. Ind.

Acad. Sci. 87B: 121.1978.

Paratype: Jowai, Jaintea hills, Prain’s collector 159, May

1899.

380

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ZlNGIBERACEAE

Amomum ghaticum K.G Bhat in Ind. J. For. 1 1 ; 322, f.

1-9. 1988.

Isotype: Sampaji Ghat, near Jodu-pala, Coorg (Kodagu)

Dist. , Karnataka, Bhat 1 97 1 , 9. v. 1 986.

Paracautleya bhatii R.M. Smith in Notes R.B.G. Edinb.

35: 368. 1977.

Isotype: Manipal, near Medical college. South Kanara

(Dakshina Kannada) Dist., Karnataka, Bhat 204, 1 .vii. 1975.

Liliaceae

Camptorriza indica S.R. Yadav, N.P. Singh & B.

Mathew in Kew Bull. 48: 735, f. 1. 1993.

Isotype: Ratnagiri (Bhatia - Tisari Dharmashala),

Maharashtra, Yadav y-1867A, 20.vi.l990.

Iphigenia magnifica Ansari & R.S. Rao in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 20: 162.(1978) 1979.

Isotypes: Mukti lake area, Dhule, Dhule Dist.,

Maharashtra, Pataskar 1 18218 B-C, 5.x. 1969.

Paratypes: Mukti lake area, Dhule, Dhule Dist.,

Maharashtra, Ansari 104945, 8.ix. 1970; Matheran hill, Kolaba,

Raigad Dist., Maharashtra, 104948, 30.vii.l973.

Iphigenia sahyadrica Ansari & R.S. Rao in Bull. Bot.

Surv. India 20: 163.(1978) 1979.

Isotype: Hulical, Shimoga Dist., Karnataka, Raghavan

90209 B,25.viii. 1963.

Paratype: Hulical, Shimoga Dist., Karnataka, Ansari

104952 A-B, 24. viii. 1973.

Araceae

Arisaema sivadasanii S.R. Yadav, Patil & Janarth. in

Aroideana20:53,f. 1-4. 1997.

Paratype: Amboli, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

yar/av4695B,22.x.l995.

Note: The above mentioned specimen (4695 B ) is marked

as Isotype. It cannot be a duplicate of the Holotype (No.

4688), though collected from the same locality, but can be

treated as a Paratype.

Aponogetonaceae

Aponogeton bruggenii S.R. Yadav & Govekar in

Rheedea4( 1 ): 34. 1994.

Isotype: Nerurpar, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

Yadav 1, 10.ix.l992.

Eriocaulaceae

Eriocaulon karnatakense S.R Gaikwad, M.M. Sardesai,

U.S. Yadav & S.R. Yadav in Rheedea 14: 63. 2004.

Isotype: Khemangudi, Karnataka, Yadav GSP-3.

15.ix.2000.

Eriocaulon kolhapurense S.R Gaikwad, M.M. Sardesai

& S.R. Yadav in Rheedea 12: 133. 2002.

Isotype: Chikewadi, (Ranga Port), Kolhapur Dist.,

Maharashtra, Sardesai 5350. 30.ix.l998.

Eriocaulon ratnagiricus S.R. Yadav, S.R Gaikwad &

M.M. Sardesai in Rheedea 8: 145, f. 1. 1998.

Isotype: Dharmashala, about 3 km from Ratnagiri on

way to Pavas, Maharashtra, Gaikwad 1 B, 1.x. 1996.

Hydatellaceae

Trithuria konkanensis S.R. Yadav & Janarth. in

Rheedea 4(1): 18. 1994.

Isotype: Achirane, Sindhudurg Dist., Maharashtra,

Yadav & Janarthanani 1001, 20.ix. 1993.

Cyperaceae

Fimbristylis ambavanensis V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96 (3): 454. 1999.

Isotypes: On top of the fort, Ambavane, Pune Dist.,

Maharashtra, Venkatta Reddi 99049 A-B, 6.ix. 1964.

Fimbristylis ratnagirica V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh in

J. Econ.Tax. Bot. 21(3): 673. 1997.

Isotype: Osargaon plateau, Kasai, Ratnagiri Dist.,

Maharashtra, Kulkarni 131758A, 18. viii. 1971.

Fimbristylis simpsonii V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(3): 456. 1999.

Isotype: Kanagal gudd, Tirthahalli, Shimoga Dist.,

Karnataka, Sundararaghavan 90025 A, 19.viii. 1963.

Pycreus kanarensis V.P. Prasad & N.P. Singh in J. Econ.

Tax. Bot. 21(3): 667. 1997.

Isotypes: Karwar, Kanara, Uttara Kannada Dist.,

Karnataka, Chibber s.n. (Acc. No. 2519 & 2520), Nov. 1910.

Poaceae

Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf var.

ciliata Basappa & Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49:

378. 1983.

Isotype: Department garden, Manasagangotri (Piji

origin, introduced through USDA, USA: 355712), Mysore,

Karnataka, Basappa & Muniyamma 1004 -b, 1 l.ix.l980.

Brachiaria chennaveraiana Basappa & Muniy. in Proc.

Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 378. 1983.

Isotype: Near Gomukh, Mount Abu, Rajasthan,

Basappa & Muniyamma 2195-b, 15.x. 1980.

Brachiaria eruciformis var. divericata Basappa &

Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 379. 1983.

Isotype: Bogadi, near Mysore, Mysore Dist., Karnataka,

Basappa & Muniyamma 1451-b, 12. viii. 1979.

Brachiaria hybrida Basappa & Muniay. in Proc. Ind.

nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 379. 1983.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

381

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Isotype-. Near Tunga dam, Gajanur, Shimoga Dist.,

Karnataka, Basappa & Mimiyamma 2851-b, 10.ix.l979.

Brachiaria munae Basappa in Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.

(PlantSci.)93:53,f. 1. 1984.

Isotype-. Madurai Kamaraj University Campus, Madurai

Dist., Tamil Nadu, Basappa 3001-b, 20.xii. 1979.

Brachiaria ramosa Stapf var. pubescens Basappa &

Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 380. 1983.

Isotype-. Benakanahalli, Shimoga Dist., Karnataka,

Basappa & Mimiyamma 2 1 7 1 -b, 20. viii. 1 980.

Brachiaria reptans Card. & Hubb. var. hispida Basappa

& Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 380. 1983.

Isotype-. Govinakovi, Shimoga Dist., Karnataka,

Basappa & Mimiyamma 2302-b, 10.x. 1980.

Brachiaria semiundulata Stapf var. intermedia

Basappa & Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 380. 1983.

Isotype-. Near Doopada Bore, Bedaguli, Mysore Dist.,

Karnataka, Basappa & Muiiiyamma 2602-b, 8. viii. 1979.

Brachiaria semiundulata Stapf var. lanata Basappa

& Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 380. 1983.

Isotype-. Near Doopada Bore, Bedaguli, Mysore Dist.,

Karnataka, Basappa & Mimiyamma 2603-b, 8. viii. 1979.

Brachiaria setigera var. albistyla Basappa & Muniy.

in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 380. 1983. (Synonym of

Urochloa setigera var. albistyla (Basappa & Muniy.) Karthik.

etal., FI. Ind. Enum. Monocot. 273. 1989).

Isotype: Agriculture College Campus, Coimbatore Dist.,

Tamilnadu, Basappa & Mimiyamma 2716-b, 25.x. 1980.

Brachiaria stapfiana Basappa & Muniy. in Proc. Ind.

nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 379. 1983.

Isotype-. Near Ugra Narasimha Temple, Hampi, Bellary

Dist., Karnataka, Basappa & Mimiyamma 2l00-h, 20.ix. 1979.

Brachiaria villosa A. Camus var. glaberrima Basappa

& Muniy. in Proc. Ind. nat. Sci. Acad. B 49: 381 . 1983.

Isotype-. Near Monkey point, Kasauli, Siwalik Hills,

Chandigarh, Basappa & Mimiyamma 29 1 1 -b, 26.xi. 198 1 .

Coelachne ghaticaNaik in Reinwardtia9: 393. 1980et

in Indian Forester 106: 732, f.9. 1980. (A synonym of Coelachne

minuta Bor)

Holotype: Amboli, Western Ghats, Maharashtra, Naik

1300 a, 13.ix.l971.

Isotype-. Naik 1300 b.

Eulalia shrirangii C.B. Salunke & GG Potdar in Kew

BuU. 59: 625. 2004.

Isotype: Kas plateau, Satara Dist., Maharashtra, Salunke

8 170. 9.x. 1994.

Glyphochloa henryi Janarth., Joshi & Rajkumar in

Rheedea 10: 99. 2000.

Isotype: Tisk, Usgao, Goa, Janarthanam & Rajkumar

1661,27.ix.l998.

Glyphochloa veldkampii Fonseca & Janarth. in

Rheedea 13: 35. 2003.

Isotype: Kasauli, along the Panaji-Belgaum highway

(NH 4A), in the outskirts of Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife

Sanctuary, Goa, Janarthanam & Fonseca 1901. 21.x. 2001.

Isachne bicolor Naik & Patunkar in Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 15: \ 51. (1912) 1916.

Isotype: Mhaismal, Aurangabad Dist., Maharashtra,

Paft/ntor 1 849 D, 8.x. 1973.

Isachne swaminathanii Ved Prakash & S.K. Jain in Proc.

Ind. Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 92: 19, f. 10. 1983.

Paratypes: Mahabaleshwar, Satara Dist., Maharashtra,

Puri 2564 1 & 25642 A-B, 5.x. 1957; Near Valvan dam, Lonavala,

Pune Dist., Maharashtra, Venkata Reddi 98729 A-B,

26.ix. 1 964; Harichandragarh, Thane Dist., Wadhwa 127804,

27.ix.1970.

Note: Coll. Nos. 25641 & 25642 are not included in the

protologue, but found in BSI marked as paratypes.

Mnesithea veldkampii GG Potdar, S.P. Gaikwad, C.B.

Salunke & S.R. Yadav in Kew Bull. 59: 629. 2004.

Isotype: Mavashi plateau, Satara Dist., Maharashtra,

Yadav 1466. 6.xi.2002.

Panicum deccanense Naik & Patunkar in Reinwardtia

9:405. 1980.

Holotype: Mirzapur - Degloor, Nanded Dist.,

Maharashtra, Patunkar 2350 a, 24.ix. 1974.

Isotype: Patunkar 2350 d.

Panicum paianum Naik & Patunkar in Reinwardtia 9:

407. 1980.

Holotype: Rajghar, Nanded Dist., Maharashtra,

Patunkar 24-30 A, 26.x. 1974.

Isotypes: Patunkar 2430 C8lD.

Panicum paianum Naik & Patunkar var. minor Naik &

Patunkar in Reinwardtia 9: 409. 1980.

Holotype: Rajghar, Nanded Dist., Maharashtra,

Patunkar 2439 A, 26.x. 1974.

Isotype: Patunkar 2439 E.

Panicum phoiniclados Naik & Patunkar in Reinwardtia

9:403.1980.

Holotype: Ganjgaon, Nanded Dist., Maharashtra,

Patunkar 246^ A, 17.xi.l974.

Isotype: Patunkar 246% C.

Themeda pseudotremula GG Potdar, C.B. Salunke &

S.R. Yadav in Kew Bull. 58: 243. 2003.

Isotype: Tillari ghat, Kolhapur Dist., Maharashtra,

Potdar %0l. 12.xi.2001.

Tripogon polyanthus Naik & Patunkar in Bull. Bot. Surv.

Indial5: 158.(1973) 1976.

Isotype: Daulatabad, Aurangabad Dist., Maharashtra,

Pam/iW 1859 D, 18.x. 1973.

382

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 102 (3), Sep-Dec 2005

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical Survey of

India (BSD, Kolkata for the facilities and Dr. P.S.N. Rao, Joint

Director, BSl, Pune for encouragement.

July 11,2003 VP PRASAD

Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, 7, Koregaon Road,

Pune 41 1 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCE

Singh. N.P. & U.R. Deshpande (1980): Type material in the Herbarium of the Botanical Survey of India at Poona. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76:

24-32.

35. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF KARNATAKA

While investigating the flora of the Western Ghats and

coastal belt of Karnataka, I came across three species of

plants not recorded previously from Karnataka. The following

list gives their correct nomenclature, distribution and,

flowering and fruiting seasons. The specimens are deposited

at Botanical Survey of India (BSD and in the Herbarium of

Poornaprajna College, Udupi.

1. Cerasiocarpum bennettii (Miq.) Cogn. in DC.

Monog. Phan. 3: 729. 1881; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madr. 3: 541.

1919;Chaki‘. in Ease. FI. India 11: 18. 1982. Bryoiiopsis bennetti

Miq., El. Ind. Bat. 1 : 657. 1855. Aechiuandra zeylauica Thw.,

Enum. 125. 1858. Cerasiocarpum zeylaniciim (Thw.) Hook, f

in Gen. PI. 1 : 832. 1 862; Clarke in Hook, f., H. Brit. India. 2; 629.

1 879. (Cucurbitaceae)

There is no record of this rare cucurbit from Karnataka

so far, although Chakravaithy (l.c. ) gives the distribution range

as Peninsular India. It is quite likely that this species may

occur at many more localities in the forests of Western Ghats.

El. and Fr.: July-October

Exsicc.: ShimogaDist.: Agumbe, October 8,1989, K.G

Bhat 7169; Dakshina Kannada Dist.: Kudremukh Ghat, July

25,1999, K.G Bhat 11325.

2. Polygonum capitatiim Bitch. -Ham. in D. Don, Prod.

FI. Nep. 73.1825; Hook, f., El. Brit. India 5: 44.1886.

(Polygonaceae)

In India, this species has so far been recorded only

from the subtropical and temperate Himalaya and Palni hills.

This species seems to be an adventive plant in S. India.

El. and Fr.: September-December.

Exsicc.: Kodagu Dist.: Kodagarahalli, near Suntikoppa,

November 8, 1990, K.G Bhat 10138.

3. Spermacoce malabarica (Sivar. & Mani.) Sivar. et

al. in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 97: 355. 1987. Borreria

malabarica Sivar. & Mani. in Bull. Bot. Soc. Univ. Sagar 19:

31. 1972; Mani. & Sivtu-., El. Calicut 136. 1982. (Rubiaceae)

This endemic species is so far known only from Kerala

(Sivarajan et ai, l.c.). The recent collection of this species

from Dakshina Kannada is a new record of its extended

distribution in southern India.

El. and Fr.: August-October.

Exsicc.; Dakshina Kannada Dist.; Kaikamba, near

Mangalore, growing along roadside, August 20, 1993, K.G.

Bhat 11203.

ACKNOWI.EDGEMENTS

I thank the authorities of Botanical Survey of India,

Western Circle, Pune and Dr. M. Sivadasan of Department of

Botany, University of Calicut for their help in identifying the

plants.

July 1 4, 2003 K. GOPALAKRISHNA BHAT

Department of Botany,

Poornaprajna College,

Udupi 576 101, Karnataka,

India.

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published on September 12, 2006

by J.C. Daniel for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

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CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 263

OBSERVATIONS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY AND BEHAVIOUR OE THE PRIMITIVELY EUSOCIAL

WASP ROPALIDIA CYATHIFORMIS (FAB.) (HYMENOPTERA: VESPIDAE)

Sujata P. Kardile and Raghavendra Gadagkar 265

CAPTIVE-REARING OF SPHAEROTHECA BREVICEPS FROM EARLY EMBRYONIC STAGES TO

OVER THREE- YEAR-OLD ADULT

Mrinalini Virkar, Savita Joshi and S.L. Shinde 274

SPECIES COMPOSITION, SEX-RATIOS AND MOVEMENT PATTERNS IN DANAINE BUTTERFLY

MIGRATIONS IN SOUTHERN INDIA

Krushnamegh Kunte 280

NESTING ECOLOGY AND BREEDING SUCCESS OF CHEER PHEASANT CATREUS WALLICHlllN

GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA

M.S. Bisht, S. Phurailatpam and B.S. Kathait 287

BIRDS RECORDED DURING SEVEN EXPEDITIONS TO LADAKH FROM 1997 TO 2003

Harkirat Sangha and Rishad Naoroji 290

BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF THE BLACK-NECKED STORK EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS IN

DUDHWA NATIONAL PARK, INDIA

Gopinathan Maheswaran and Asad R. Rahmani 305

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF PTERIS L. (PTERIDACEAE: PTERIDOPHYTA) FROM WESTERN GHATS OF

SOUTH INDIA

S. Dominic Rajkumar 313

PARASITIC WASPS OF THE GENUS EUPLECTRUS WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE)

FROM INDIA

M.A. Khan and M. Agnihotri 315

DESCRIPTION OF ANEW SPECIES OFTHE GENUS DOLICHOGENIDEA VIERECK (HYMENOPTERA:

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA

K. Pandey, Z. Ahmad, A.A. Haider and Shujauddin 324

THREE NEW SPECIES OF LASIACANTHA FROM SOUTHERN INDIA WITH A KEY TO THEIR

IDENTIFICATION (HETEROPTERA: TINGIDAE)

David Livingstone and Jeyanthi Bai 326

REVIEWS 330

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 336

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]