JOURNAL
OF THE
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
APRIL 2008 VOL. 105(1)
JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .
Executive Editor
Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai
Copy and Production Editor
Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.
Editorial Board
Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.
National Centre for Biological Sciences,
GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru
C.R. Babu, Ph. D.
Professor, Centre for Environmental Management
of Dedraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi
M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D. Sc.
Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre
for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru
Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph D., D Sc.
The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati
Indraneil Das, D. Phil.
Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,
Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia
Y.V. Jhala Ph. D.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun
K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D
Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,
Bengaluru, Karnataka
T.C. Narendran. Ph D , D. Sc.
Professor, Department of Zoology,
University of Calicut, Kerala
Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.
Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,
Hyderabad
G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun
K. Rema Devi, Ph. D.
Zoological Survey of India, Chennai
J.S. Singh, Ph D.
Professor, Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
S. Subramanya, Ph D.
University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,
Hebbal, Bengaluru
R. Sukumar, Ph. D
Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,
Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru
Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.
Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,
Tamil Nadu
S.R. Yadav, Ph. D.
Shivaji University, Kolhapur
Senior Consultant Editor
J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.
Consultant Editors
Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph D
Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru
Nigel Collar, Ph. D
BirdLife International, UK
Rhys Green, Ph. D.
Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK
Qamar Qureshi, M Phil.
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun
T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.
World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan
Rachel Reuben, Ph D.
Mumbai
Editorial Assistant: Sonali P. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.
Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu
© Bombay Natural History Society 2008
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries
concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.
VOLUME 105(1): APRIL 2008
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD
UNICORNIS IN CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL
Ram Chandra Kandel and Yadvendradev V. Jhala
1
5
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS
Mitsuru Kuramoto and S. Hareesh Joshy 14
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS HYLOBATES HOOLOCK HARLAN 1834
IN BANGLADESH
M. Anwarul Islam, Mostafa M. Feeroz, Sabir Bin Muzaffar, Mofizul Kabir, Sajeda Begum, K. Hasan,
Shahriar Mahmud and Suprio Chakma 1 9
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK,
NORTH-WEST INDIA
Amirtharaj Christy Williams, Asir J.T. Johnsingh, Paul R. Krausman and Qamar Qureshi 24
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST OF DOON VALLEY
Neelam Sharma and S.P. Joshi 34
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Faiyaz A. Khudsar, Koustubh Sharma, R.J. Rao and R.S. Chundawat 42
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION USING ECOLOGICAL NICHE MODELLING
Abi Tamim Vanak, Mohammed Irfan-Ullah and A. Townsend Peterson 49
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW TUPAIA NICOBARICA ZELEBOR 1 869 ON GREAT
NICOBAR ISLAND, INDIA
Meera Anna Oommen and Kartik Shanker 55
TIGER PREY IN ATROPICAL DRY FOREST: AN ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND OF BIOMASS ESTIMATION
DERIVED FROM DISTANCE SAMPLING
Raghunandan Singh Chundawat and Koustubh Sharma 64
QUANTIFICATION OF THREATS AND SUGGESTED AMELIORATIVE MEASURES FOR THE CONSERVATION
OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON’S COURSER RHINOPTILUS BITOROUATUS AND
ITS HABITAT
Panchapakesan Jeganathan, Asad R. Rahmani, Rhys E. Green, Ken Norris, loannis N. Vogiatzakis,
Chris Bowden and Debbie Pain 73
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BLACUS NEES (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE), ALONG
WITH A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES
Z. Ahmad and Z. Ahmed 84
OBITUARY
HIMMATSINHJI 86
REVIEWS
1 . ECOLOGICAL ENTOMOLOGY: INSECT LIFE IN ODD ENVIRONMENT
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 87
2. AN INTRODUCTION TO ORNITHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE ROCK PIGEON
Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 87
3. PLANTS OF BASTAR, CHHATTISGARH: A FIELD GUIDE
Reviewed by Pippa Mukherjee 88
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
MAMMALS
1 . Preliminary investigations confirming the occurrence of
Indus River Dolphin Platanista gangetica minor in
River Beas, Punjab, India
Sandeep K. Behera, Asghar Nawab and
Basanta Rajkumar 90
BIRDS
2. Locations of Sind Sparrow sightings along the Rajasthan
Canal and the River Sutlej
Harkirat Singh Sangha and Manoj Kulshreshtha 91
3. Sighting of Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis
(Swainson) in the Purbasthali-Ganges Islets, Burdwan
district, West Bengal
Arunayan Sharma 92
4. First record of Caspian Gulls Larus cachinnans in the
Indian Sunderbans Delta
Arunayan Sharma and Christoph Zockler 93
5. A recent observation of White-headed Duck Oxyura
ieucocephaiaaX Gajaldoba barrage, West Bengal, India
Mathias Ritschard and Andreas Taschler 95
6. A large congregation of Cotton Teal Nettapus
coromandelianus observed at Chilika Lake, Orissa, India
P. Sathiyaselvam, S. Balachandran and D.K. Parmanik 96
7. Record of large congregation of Large Whistling-duck
Dendrocygna bicolor in the Purbasthali-Ganges Islets,
Burdwan district, West Bengal
Arunayan Sharma 97
8. Two observations of Malayan Night-heron Gorsachius
melanolophus from West Bengal, India
Mathias Ritschard, Peter Logtmeijer and
Andreas Taschler 97
REPTILES
9. New distribution record for Calotes nemoricola Jerdon,
1853 from the Kudremukh Hills, Karnataka, India
Rohit Naniwadekar and V. Deepak 99
10. Record of Burmese Python Python molurus bivittatus
and its conservation status in Corbett Tiger Reserve,
Uttarakhand, India
Asghar Nawab and Amit K. Srivastava 100
FISH
11. Redescription of Garra abhoyai Hora (Teleostei:
Cyprinidae: Garrinae) with a note on Garra rupeculatrom
Manipur, India
W. Vishwanath and I. Linthoingambi
INSECTS
12. Natural history and early stages of the Western Ghats
endemic Golden Flitter Quedara basiflava (Hesperiidae,
Lepidoptera) from south-western India
Krushnamegh Kunte 104
13. Range extension of the Wavy Maplet Chersonesia
intermedia (Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera), from Pakke
Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Krushnamegh Kunte 108
OTHER INVERTEBRATES
14. Intraspecific colour variation in Spider Parawixia dehaami
(Doleschall) (Araneidae; Araneae), a case study in Sanjay
Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Mumbai, Maharashtra,
India
Dharmendra Khandal and D.B. Bastawade 109
BOTANY
15. Bothriochloa insculpta (Hochst.) A. Camus (Poaceae)
- a new record for Rajasthan
Chandan Singh Purohit and Suman C. Sharma Ill
16. Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl) K. Schum. ex Engl.
(Poaceae) - a new record for Rajasthan
Suman C. Sharma, Chandan Singh Purohit and
Jeetendra Kantiya 112
17. Poa supina Schrad. (Poaceae) - a new record for
Rajasthan
Suman C. Sharma, Chandan Singh Purohit and
Rohitash Kumar Bhatia 113
18. Curcuma yunnanensis N. Liu & S.J. Chen
(Zingiberaceae) - a new record for India
M. Bhaumik and H. Samati 113
19. Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston (Papilionaceae) -
a new record of Rajasthan
Suman C. Sharma and Ramesh K. Aggarwal 114
20. Pollination biology of the Orchid Tree Bauhinia variegata
L. (Caesalpiniaceae) in the Eastern Ghats, India
A.J. Solomon Raju, S. Purnachandra Rao and
K. Henry Jonathan 115
21 . Cerastium fontanum Baumg. (Caryophyllaceae) - a new
record for Rajasthan
Suman C. Sharma and Jeetendra Kantiya 118
22. Studies on the genus Herbertus Gray from Meghalaya,
India
Ajit Pratap Singh, Virendra Nath and A. K. Asthana .... 119
Cover Photograph: Greater One-horned Indian Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros unicornis
By Asad R. Rahmani
li
Editorial
Need for a Think Tank’ for wildlife conservation in India
Indian wildlife is passing through an extremely critical period where almost all the protected areas and
species are under human-related pressures in some way or the other. Common species such as House Sparrow,
Black Drongo, Indian Roller are becoming uncommon, the countryside which used to harbour Indian Fox, Jackal,
Blackbuck, Black-naped Hare in large numbers is now becoming unfavourable to them. Most protected areas are
threatened by all of the following or some of them: roads, railways, dams, urban expansion, over-grazing, invasive
species, encroachment, illicit wood cutting, unrestricted tourism and mismanagement or plain neglect. Political
exigencies have reduced the Chief Wildlife Warden to a mere rubber stamp who allows activities detrimental to
wildlife and wild areas because he has to keep his job.
The fight between wildlife guardians and human right defenders is not going anywhere although both
appear to agree for protection of forest and wildlife for human welfare. On top of all this are the looming threats of
climate change and human population increase - according to demographic estimates India’s population will grow
to 1 .4-1.5 billion in another 40-45 years before stabilizing. The world population is estimated to grow from the
present 6 billion to 10-12 billion. If one adds the increase in the consumption level (the Indian middle class will be
600 to 800 million) in another 40 years, the future of wildlife looks very bleak.
However, there is also a silver lining. There is tremendous awakening and appreciation of wildlife and wild
places in the general public and corporates. There are hundreds of examples of community-based and community-
led environmental protection. India has strong wildlife laws, and protection of wildlife is in the Concurrent List of
the Indian Constitution. The Government of India and many state governments proudly advertise about India’s
wildlife and protected areas, wildlife tourism is increasing, conservation NGO lobby is strong, the Indian Army
guards wildlife under its jurisdiction, and India has signed all important international treaties concerning wildlife
and wild areas, and we have not lost any (known) species since Independence.
All this is very good, but predictions appear gloomy. Due to pressure on land (going to increase manifold in
future), the innocent days of wildlife protection are over where a Salim Ali has to write to a Prime Minister and a
sanctuary is declared or a species brought under protection, or an Indira Gandhi has to lift the phone and advice
a chief minister to protect an area and her diktat is complied. It is now more complicated and difficult. The political
equation has changed. A government dependent on the support of various political parties, a prime minister or
chief minister has to keep in mind the political fallout of stopping mining or shifting a village from the core area of
a critical wildlife habitat. The centre and states are not necessary ruled by the same parties so any advice of the
Centre, no matter how useful it may be, is judged politically and not on its merit.
Bickering between wildlife lobby and tribal lobby has reached its zenith, thanks to the controversial Scheduled
Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. The "wildlife lobby’ says
that the Act will destroy the remaining forests, while the tribal lobby says that it will reverse the historical wrong
done by the British and perpetuated by the Government of India even after Independence on the original forest
dwellers. Interestingly, both the lobbies agree that forests need protection from the bigger threats of mining, dams,
roads and land sharks that are waiting to pillage the forest. Can we have some common ground when our aims are
same - protection of nature? With proper dialogue and mutual understanding with tribal and forest dwellers, we
can even use the Forest (Rights) Act to fight destructive mining and dam projects.
Some wildlife enthusiasts say that people and wildlife, particularly large carnivores, cannot live together so
villagers should be shifted from certain identified wildlife areas, while the community-oriented organisations say
that people have been living with wildlife for thousands of years, and there are numerous examples of this
co-existence, so why shift villagers. The government says that remote villages need electricity, roads, medical
facilities, clean water and protection from crop depredation by wildlife, while the wildlife lobby demands shifting
of these villages outside the forests to provide them all the facilities of modem life. Wildlife lovers are blamed for
their indifference to poor tribals and forest dwellers and their ( wildlifers) over-reliance to the creaky enforcement
machinery of the foresters and the police. If tribal activists romanticise forest communities, the wildlifers sometimes
seem totally uninterested in the welfare of the forest dwellers, except perhaps to click some questionable pictures
of tribals.The community-based organisations romanticise the sustainable lifestyle of tribal as a ‘Noble Savage’,
while the wildlife lobby says that such romantic days are over! Look at the reality. It was okay when forests were
vast and human population was small and people’s aspirations were low. Now which tribal does not deserve or
need electricity, modem medical facilities and education for his/her children like everyone else? So, provide them
outside the forests, advice the wildlife supporters. But we can also have a middle path. We can find ways of
integrating forest conservation with appropriate development facilities through a mix of zoning, alternative livelihood
in situ , and where necessary relocation of villagers.
The Wildlife (Protection) Act (WPA) was mainly based for the protection of sanctuaries and national
parks, and large vertebrates living therein. It is inadequate to protect seascapes, wetlands, and species living in
large landscapes. Most of the large sanctuaries, having multiple-use areas established under the WPA, have
failed as they do not consider the rights, knowledge, practices, aspiration and increasing/changing demands of
people living inside them. Is it right to stop improvement of a road going to a remote village under the Pradhan
Mantri Sadak Yojana inside 3,162 sq. km Desert National Park? Is it right to stop sale of private land in the
Sardarpur Florican Sanctuary? Or, should we stop construction of a new border road in the Changthang Wildlife
Sanctuary as the area falls inside a sanctuary? Did we consult the local people, and in case of Changthang, the
army, before declaring such sanctuaries? Can we develop a new legislation to take care of the protection of large
natural and semi-natural landscapes with multiple users?
There is a dire need for landscape and seascape level approaches of conservation, which combine all forms
of conservation from the standpoint of the management functions or objectives - those that provide strict
protection to those that allow multiple uses of the land. From the standpoint of the governance, within the land/
sea scapes, we need areas managed by the government agencies and those managed by communities, and the
whole range between them. This will become more important as climate change makes ecosystems and species
move - they need to have spaces to move into and corridors in between. I think the present PA system in India is
inadequate to face such challenges.
With depletion of marine fish stocks (and increasing fish demands), there is a need to develop large Marine
Protected Areas (MPAs) where fish and other marine life forms are allowed to breed and recover. Do we have the
necessary laws to establish MPAs and wherewithal to monitor them? The IUCN hosted its first International
Marine Protected Areas Conference in Australia in 2005, followed by Marine Summit in 2007. The IUCN has called
for setting up a global network of MPAs by 2012. Experts say that in order to protect marine biodiversity and allow
sustainable fisheries, 20-30 per cent of the seas must be under protection. However, presently only 1 per cent is
under protection. Many of these MPAs have to be trans-boundary. Do we have necessary laws and capacity to
establish MPAs in the Indian territorial waters? Due to multiplicity of users and stake holders, and large sizes,
MPAs need a different approach of protection. They cannot be governed by the WPA, and certainly not managed
by the Forest Department. Some could be ‘no-take’ MPAs (where no extractive uses are permitted) and others
could be ‘traditional-use’ MPAs. Unlike terrestrial PAs, MPAs need not be site specific all the time they can be
shifted spatially and temporally. Do we have laws and databases to develop such large MPAs, which can be
shifted every five years as the species recover?
It is rightly said that a good war strategist prepares his army keeping the worst-case scenario in mind and
has many alternative plans. Unfortunately, we do not have a long-term conservation strategy and our wild-lifers
still feel that making a few more sanctuaries (more specifically Critical Wildlife Areas), stopping a road or mine,
forcing the government to make WPA more stringent, will save wildlife. Most of our PAs do not even have a
vision, conservation targets and long-term plan. Things which have not worked for 60 years will not work in
future also, but for many species, we do not have the luxury of time. We have to think ‘out-of-the-box’ to save
them. Can we have a new paradigm shift in our protection and management approach? Should we commercialise
wildlife protection, like it is done in South Africa, Tanzania, Kenya, Botswana with great success. Should we
allow private parks and sanctuaries in India? Should many more community conservation areas be encouraged?
Should we import tourism-based African model of conservation or should it be ‘Indianised’ to keep our cultural
and social sensitivities.
2
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Some of our PAs are suffering from their own success. For example, in Ranthambore and Bandhavgarh there
is now a restriction on the number of vehicles entering each day in the park. Nature-based tourism traffic will
increase as Indians become rich. Can we replicate the success of Ranthambore in other forests, which are at
present neglected? Unfortunately, local people who have to make way for luxury tourist resorts hardly benefit from
tourism. Can we provide resources and training to locals to provide home-stays? Home-stay concept is a great
success in Ladakh and other remote hill areas. Can this more socially responsible tourism model be replicated in
other areas. When we have many good examples of community conservation, why not involve grass-root
communities in protection and co-management?
In the absence of proper land use plan of the whole country, we suffer from increasing conflicts for location
of factories, dams, ports. Special Economic Zones, mines, oil explorations etc. in or near PAs and other natural
areas. We do not even have a national grazing policy as a result of which a bank will loan to a villager to purchase
livestock in an area which is already suffering from over-grazing, or an irrigation canal is built in the main grassland
of shepherds, displacing and marginalizing them.
As far as I know, no one has done predictive modelling on our PAs and wildlife keeping in mind climate
change and resulting demographic shifts of human populations (including from Bangladesh), general increase in
human population and consumerism, changing consumer demands both nationally and globally, world trade,
social unrests, terrorism and its linkage with smuggling of wildlife product, globalization, increasing consumption
of wildlife products by our giant neighbour, and biofuel demands. Can we have various models predicting scenarios
at different time intervals to indicate what the future of our wildlife will look like in 20 1 5, 2020, 2025, and so on.
Looking at the increasing complexities of wildlife protection, I suggest that we should establish a Wildlife
Think Tank in India consisting of wildlife field scientists, activists, PA managers, foresters, grass-root community
leaders, social scientists, corporates, planners, thinkers, armed forces, lawyers, judges, strategists, intellectuals,
grass-root social workers, economists, climatologists and visionaries who can talk to each other and come up with
issue-based guidelines and strategies. Such think tanks or policy research institutes exist in other fields such as
defence, economics and foreign policy, so why not for wildlife?
The days are over when only the mandarins of Ministry of Environment and Forests are expected to show
concern about wildlife. Wildlife concerns and interest have to be integrated and internalised by all the departments
of the governments. We need visionaries who can tell us what will be the situation of wildlife in India when it
becomes as developed as Europe in another 40-50 years. Outdated ways of thinking and repeating failed models
of wildlife conservation in ‘developed’ India will only spell further disaster for our wildlife and wild places.
Asad R. Rahmani
(I would like to thank the following persons for commenting on the draft: Prof. Mahesh Rangarajan, Delhi University;
Mr. Ashish Kothari, Kalpavriksh; Dr. Koustubh Sharma, Snow Leopard Trust; Mr. Anand Chandrasekhar, Advocacy Officer, IBA
Programme; Dr. Irfan-Ullah, Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE))
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,
Govt of India,
FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.
4
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(1), Jan-Apr 2008
5-13
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS
OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS IN CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL
Ram Chandra Kandel1 and Yadvendradev V. Jhala2
'Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, P.O. Box 860, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: rckandelOl @yahoo.com
-Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]
We studied the time activity budgets, habitat preference, food habits and population structure of the Greater
One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis in Chitwan National Park, Nepal by monitoring eight different free
ranging rhinos from elephant back for 94.5 hrs (7-24 hours per rhino) and by an intensive survey of rhino habitats from
elephant back and a four-wheel drive vehicle in early 2003. We classified 92 rhino sightings into seven age and gender
groups. There was a calf for every 2.54 adult female rhino. We found that the adult sex ratio was equal, the proportion
of adult rhinos had increased and the calfxow ratio had decreased compared with earlier studies. We found that rhinos
spent most of their time resting (42.9% ±7 SE) and foraging (32.7% ±6.1 SE). There was a foraging peak in the
morning and afternoon, and rhinos rested or wallowed during the noon hours. Rhinos were observed to use grasslands,
riverine mixed forests and ecotones (grasslands interspersed with mixed forests) and were not observed to use Sal
forests and agricultural fields. They preferred to forage in grasslands (50.7% ± 9.9 SE) and ecotones ( 18.5% ±7.7 SE),
preferring riverine mixed forests for resting (73.2% ±16 SE). Food habits of rhinos were estimated from 11,101 bite
counts from seven rhinos (155 to 2,785 bites from each rhino) from different habitats. Bite counts were corrected for
proportional use of a habitat for foraging and for dry weight per bite, to compute the dry biomass contribution of a
food plant to the rhino’s diet. Rhinos were observed to feed on 42 different plant species. However, only seven species
contributed 85% of the dry biomass consumed by rhinos: these were Saccharum spontaneum (33%), Phragmites
karka (16.7%), Imperata cylindrica ( 16.2%), Saccharum bengalense (6%), CaUicarpa macrophylla (5.1 %), Neranga
porphyrocoma (5%) and Hemarthrea compressa (4.8%).
Key words: Indian Rhinoceros, diet composition, population structure, ranging patterns
INTRODUCTION
The Greater One-horned Rhinoceros Rhinoceros
unicornis henceforth rhinos, once ranged throughout the
Gangetic Floodplain (Gee 1959, 1963), but at present, its
range has been drastically reduced (Stracey 1957;
Rookmaaker 1984; Dinerstein 2003). In recent times, the
Greater One-horned Rhinoceros has received much scientific
and conservation attention with successful introductions and
reintroductions (Laurie 1978, 1982;Jnawali 1995; Dinerstein
2003; Sinhaef al. 2005). The two largest populations of rhinos
are located in Kaziranga National Park (>1 ,500 rhinos, Vasu
2003) and in Chitwan National Park (>500 rhinos, DNPWC
2000). These two populations hold promise for the long-term
viability of the rhino and as a potential source for
reintroductions of rhino to parts of their historic range
(Dinerstein and McCracken 1990; Sinha and Sawarkar 1993;
Dinerstein 2003). Due to ever increasing threats to the habitats
in these areas from anthropogenic pressures it is imperative
that some form of scientific monitoring be implemented for
the species. Herein, we present the findings of a short intensive
study on habitat use, activity patterns, food habits and the
population structure of the Greater One-horned Rhinoceros
in Chitwan National Park, Nepal.
STUDY AREA
The present study was carried out in the Chitwan
National Park of Nepal between November 2002 and May
2003. The park is located in the terai region bordering India,
in the southern portion of the Chitwan Valley between 27°
19' N 83°55' E and 27°33' N 84°58/ E (Fig. 1). The Park
covers a pristine area of the Siwalik Hills and river valleys
that harbours an unique ecosystem of world significance and
is designated as a World Heritage Site. The hillsides (762 m
above sea level) are forested with deciduous and semi-
deciduous trees, mainly Sal Shorea robusta, and the
low-lying areas (altitude varies from 107 m to 183 m above
sea level) along the rivers in the Park are a mosaic of
riverine forest types and grasslands (Laurie 1982). There
are substantial areas of floodplain habitat with grassy
meadows where grassland communities flourish (Lehmkuhl
1993).
The maximum and minimum temperatures are 38 °C
in May and 11 °C in January respectively. The climate is
monsoonal, and the average yearly rainfall is more than
2,330 mm; nearly 2,000 mm of precipitation occurs during
the monsoon between June and September. Though the
study site is north of the tropics, its climate is tropical to
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
Royal Chitwan
N
Kilometers
Habitat Types
| Ecotone
|g£W Riverine mix forest
| /A| Grassland
Agrlc uRure
| River-bed
| Sand/barren land
JL_J Intensive study area
Movement Paths of Different Rhinos
Sampled in Suhara. Chitwan
24 hrs
12:6 hrs
/\/ 7.1 hrs
A/ 10 hrs
A/ 10 hrs.
10.5 hrs.
/\/ 9.2 hrs
10.6 hrs.
Fig. 1 : Habitat types of Sauraha in Chitwan National Park, the minimum convex polygon defining the intensive study area
with movement paths of sampled rhinos is shown
subtropical due to the protection of the Great Himalayan
Massif running east to west. There are three distinct seasons:
winter, spring and summer. The soils in the valley are deep
and rich. Surface water is well distributed and available year
round.
The Park supports the largest populations of Rhino and
Tiger Panthera tigris in Nepal. Some other large animals
found are Leopard Panthera pardus , Gharial Gavialis
gangeticus, Marsh Crocodile Crocodylus palustris and
ungulates such as Gaur Bos gaums , Sambar Cervus unicolor ,
Spotted Deer Axis axis , Hog Deer Am porcinus , Barking Deer
Muntiacus muntjak and Wild Pig Sits scrofa. Livestock are
sympatric with rhinos along the fringes of the National Park
and in the buffer zone community forests.
METHODOLOGY
Habitat use, activity, and foraging by rhinos was studied
in the Sauraha area comprising the floodplain of the Rapti
river with grasslands, riverine forests, mixed forests and
ecotonal forests, since this area was easily accessible and had
a good rhino density. It was also the study site for earlier
studies on rhinos by Laurie (1978), Jnawali (1995) and
Dinerstein (2003), thus enabling us to compare our data with
those studies. Data from rhino habitats throughout Chitwan
were obtained for estimating the demographic structure of
the rhino population.
Population Structure of Rhinoceros
Since rhinos are primarily restricted in their distribution
to riverine mixed forest, floodplain grasslands and low
elevation forests, and rarely venture far from water (Dinerstein
2003), we intensively surveyed such habitats using a four
wheel drive vehicle and on elephant back to obtain rhino
sightings. Areas were systematically searched once so as to
minimise repeated counts of the same individual rhinos. All
rhino sightings (n=92) were classified into age and gender
groups. Most adults and many immature animals could be
distinguished individually using variations in horn size and
shape, skin folds and tubercles, scars, ear nicks and tail cuts
(Laurie 1982; Dinerstein 2003). These characteristics along
with the geographical location of the animals permitted us to
identify and exclude rhinos that were encountered more than
once during our survey. In order to avoid the biases on exact
aging, animals were divided into seven age categories (Laurie
1982; Dinerstein 1991, 2003). These were young calf (<6
months), old calf (>6 months-2 years), juvenile (2-3 years),
subadult (3-5 years), young adult (5-10 years), prime adult
(10-15 years) and old adult (> 1 5 years) based on body size,
condition of skin folds, and shape and size of the horn. Calves
that were shorter than their mother’s belly line were classified
as young calves; they were observed to have smooth skin
and were totally dependent on their mother’s milk. Older
calves, though dependent on suckling also attempt to sample
vegetation and were slightly taller than their mother’s belly
6
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
•line. The height of juvenile rhinos matched that of their
mother’s chest. Though still associated with their mothers,
they tended to venture and often foraged some distance away.
Subadult rhinos were almost adult size; they formed a loose
association with their mothers and were often seen by
themselves or in small groups of similar age and sex. Subadult
rhinos had facial characteristics between those of adult and
juvenile rhinos. Their skins folds are not fully formed like
those of the adults. Rhinos in the adult categories were
differentiated based on their height, horn and body size, skin
folds and tubercles, and physical and social maturity. Age
categories for adult rhinos were developed with the assistance
of local field experts who could recognise animals
individually and had known them for several years. Age
categories were tested for consistency and replicability
between local field experts and the authors on several known
rhinos prior to field sampling. Average and typical group sizes
were calculated (Jarman 1974).
Behavioural observations and ranging patterns
We located rhinos in the early morning hours in the
intensive study area and continuously followed the focal
animal on elephant back. Rhinos were followed until light
conditions prevented observation; night monitoring was done
on one night. Eight free ranging rhinos were continuously
monitored for 7 to 24 hours each. Data were recorded as
duration for all behaviour states and as frequency for events
using all occurrence sampling and focal animal sampling
(Altmann 1974; Lehner 1996).
Behavioural states were defined in broad categories as
(a) foraging, (b) resting, (c) wallowing, (d) walking,
(e) running, and (f) standing. A behavioural state was recorded
if it lasted more than one minute. Position coordinates
obtained using a hand held GPS unit were recorded for all
behavioural states and when a rhino moved over 30 m. The
habitat types within 10 m and 50 m radii of the rhino were
recorded for each behavioural state.
Food Habits
A record was kept on the duration of feeding bouts in
different habitats. The total number of bites of each plant
species by focal rhinos in different habitats was recorded
(Wallmo and Neff 1970; Field 1972; Hobbs etal. 1981; Butts
etal. 1982; Jhala 1997). This was possible in most cases since
rhinos permitted a close approach (5-10 m) on elephant back.
Most items eaten could be identified from this distance. In
cases where identification of forage species was in doubt,
direct observation was followed by on-site inspection and
collection of samples that were later identified using published
checklists (Thapa 1994) and by local plant taxonomists.
Bite Weight and Proportional Consumption of
Forage by Rhino
Twenty simulated rhino bites of all major food plants
were hand plucked. The fresh weight and dry weight of these
simulated bites were determined by oven drying at 60 °C to
constant weight (Neff 1967; Wallmo et al. 1973). The total
number of bites recorded for each food item in each habitat
was multiplied by the proportional grazing activity of wild
rhinos in that habitat (Jhala 1997). This provided the
proportional contribution of different food item bites to the
rhino’s diet from each habitat type. The dry biomass
contribution of different food items to the rhino’s diet was
computed following Hobbs et al. (1981) and Jhala ( 1997).
Habitat Availability, Use and Ranging Pattern
Satellite imagery (LANDSAT) of Sauraha for February
2002 was classified into eight relevant habitat types using
unsupervised and supervised classification (Schowengerdt
1997). These were (1) riverine mixed forest, (2) grassland,
(3) ecotone (between grassland and riverine mixed forest),
(4) sal forest, (5) agriculture, (6) river/water body, (7) riverbed
and (8) sand/barren land using ERDAS IMAGINE (Pouncey
et al. 1 999 ). The classified image was then imported to Arcview
(Arc view 3.1 GIS 1996) for further analysis (Fig. 1).
Movements of each rhino were plotted on the classified
image, and the rate of movement was calculated. The extreme
rhino locations were connected to define the intensive study
area using the 100% minimum convex polygon (MCP)
method (Mohr 1947) using the “Animal movement” extension
in Arcview. The polygon defining the intensive study area
was plotted on the classified imagery using Arcview and the
proportions of available habitats within the MCP were
obtained. The proportion of time spent in various activities in
different habitats was considered as the use of that habitat for a
particular activity (Johnson 1980). The analysis for habitat use
and availability was carried out using Compositional Analysis
( Aebischer et al. 1993) to determine habitat preference.
RESULTS
Age and Sex Composition of the Rhino Population in
Chitwan
In 92 rhino sightings, 14% of the population was calves
and juveniles; more than 70% was adult rhinos (Fig. 2). The
adult sex ratio was equal, yielding an estimated calf for every
2.54 adult females. Most rhinos were observed to be solitary.
Groups consisted of females with young calves, mating pairs,
and male groups of subadult rhinos (Fig. 3). Groups ranged
from one to a maximum of seven Rhinos. The average group
size was 1.33 and the typical group size was 2.35.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
7
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
Time Activity Budget and Temporal Variation in Activity
Patterns
Over 90 hours observations were recorded from
eight free ranging rhinos. Rhinos spent most time resting
(43% ±7 SE) followed by foraging (33% ±6.1 SE) (Table 1).
The frequency of urination was 0.46 per hour (±0.25 SE);
this was because one of the sampled rhinos was a dominant
male that was actively scent marking (Fig. 4). Rhinos were
seen feeding mostly between 1600 and 1900 hrs (59%
±14.6 SE) followed by 1300 and 1600 hrs (44.9% ±1 1.6 SE).
Only one adult female rhino with a calf was monitored through
the night in addition to a full day session (24 hours): this
rhino showed a foraging peak (60.14%) followed by resting
(23.59%) during the night time. Rhinos were seen wallowing
during the hotter hours (1300 to 1600 hrs with 18.70% ±
10.02 SE) (Table 1).
Habitat- wise Activities and Preferences
The habitats used by rhinos were grassland, riverine
mixed forest and ecotone (riverine mixed forest interspersed
with grassland). The area enclosed by the 100% MCPjoining
all extreme rhino locations was 7.45 sq. km. This intensive
study area was dominated by grassland habitats (34.76%).
Other habitats were riverine mixed forest (33.55%), ecotone
(12.88%), river bed (16.64%) and barren land/sand (2.16%).
calf calf adult adult adult
Fig 2: Age structure of the rhinos population in Chitwan,
Nepal, 2002-2003
Single Single Male- Male- Female- Female Male- Un-
male female female male female with female identified
calf with calf
Fig. 3: Group composition of rhinos in Chitwan,
Nepal, 2002-2003
Rhinos spent about 30% of the time in the grassland,
57% in riverine mixed forest and 12% in the ecotone. The
maximum proportion of time spent feeding was in the
grassland (50.76% ±9.9 SE) followed by riverine mixed forest
(30.71% ±12.12 SE) and 18.52% (±7.7 SE) in the ecotone
(Fig. 5). Rhinos used riverine mixed forests a lot (73.2%
±16 SE) for resting during the afternoon hours (Fig. 5).
Standing, moving and wallowing were also more in riverine
forests. Compositional Analysis showed that rhinos did not
use habitats in proportion to their availability (F = 3.228,
p < 0.05). Compositional analysis for overall habitat use by
rhinos (Fig. 6a) ranked the habitats in order of preference as:
riverine mixed forest>ecotone>grassland>barren land>river
bed. The habitat preference for foraging by rhinos (Fig. 6b)
was rated as: grassland>ecotone>riverine mixed forest>barren
land>river bed. On the other hand, riverine mix forest was
used (66.2%) more than its availability (33.6%) for resting
(Fig. 6c). The preference ranking by composi-
tional analysis for resting was: riverine mixed
forest>grassland>ecotone>barren land>river bed.
Food Habits
Forty-two species of plants were recorded to be eaten
by rhinos during this study (Table 2). The Shannon-Weiner
diet diversity was computed to be H’ = 1.06. Of these
42 species, 16 species contributed more than 1% to the total
dry biomass consumption. These 16 species summed up to
Table 1 : Proportion of time (mean ± SE) spent in different activities by eight free ranging rhinos during different time intervals of the day
8
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
Fig. 4: Frequency of activity events (per hour) of eight free
ranging rhinos in Sauraha, Chitwan National Park, Nepal
(n= 94.5 hours observation, error bars are SE)
95.3% of the total bite counts. The maximum number of bites
was recorded for Saccharum spontaneum (34.20%) followed
by Imperata cylindrica (10.98%), Dryopteris cochleata
(9.42%) and Coffea bengalensis (8.18%).
On converting bite counts to dry biomass consumption
based on hand simulated rhino bites and further correcting each
food species’ contribution by the proportional foraging activity
in different habitats, the rhinos’ actual diet in the Sauraha area
was estimated (Table 3). Saccharum spontaneum contributed
32.69% dry biomass to the diet of the Rhino, followed by
Phragmites karka (16.71%) and Imperata cylindrica ( 1 6.22%)
□ Grassland
Fig. 5: Proportion of time spent in different activities by
wild rhinos in different habitats in the Sauraha area
of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
(Table 3). These three species together contributed more than
65% of the dry biomass to the rhino’s diet. Other species such
as Clerodendron viscosum , Tetrastigma serruiatum , and
Equisetum debile , though avidly eaten, contributed <1% dry
matter to its overall diet due to limited availability.
DISCUSSION
Age and Sex Composition
Information on the age and sex composition of the
rhino population provides a valuable insight into the
Table 2: List of plant species eaten by rhino in Sauraha, Chitwan National Park, Nepal
* Species that contributed >1% (dry matter) to the Rhinoceros’ diet.
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
9
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
demographic process and the health of the population
(Caughley 1977). The population structure reported by Laurie
(1978) in Chitwan was 52% adult, 21% subadult and 26.5%
juvenile, and the adult sex ratio was 62 males to 100 females.
Seidensticker (1976) reported 38 males to 100 females with
83 young Rhinos, and Dinerstein (1991) reported a calf for
every 1.64 adult females, an adult sex ratio of 66 males to
100 females and a population structure of 23% calves, 1 3%
subadult rhinos and 63% adult rhinos in the same place.
Spillet ( 1 967 ) reported 8 1 males to 1 00 females in Kaziranga
National Park (India). Comparing the population over time
(Laurie 1978; DNPWC 2000) suggests that the proportion
of adult Rhinos in the population is increasing in relation to
the subadults and calves.
The population of Black Rhinos Diceros bicornis was
reported to have an excess of males with >60% adults, and
<20% of sub-adults and juveniles, while the White Rhino
Ceratotherium simum population was composed of adult
males (19%), females (27%), subadults (32%) and calves
(22.5%) (Owen-Smith 1988). The adult sex ratio of Black
Rhino was similar to the present adult and male/female ratio
of the Greater One-horned Rhino in Chitwan. Seidensticker
(1976) reported a rhino calf for every 1 .2 adult females while
Laurie (1982) reported a calf for every 1.31 adult females
for the late 1970s in Chitwan. The present study reports
1 calf for every 2.54 adult female rhinos with calves forming
14% of the population. The adult female population was 36%,
adult males 35% and subadults 1 5% of the population. These
statistics are comparable to the 1975 population (Laurie
1978), and the 1988 population as reported by Dinerstein
(2003). A greater proportion of adult rhinos and a smaller calf-
to-cow ratio is suggestive of a decline in the growth rate of the
rhino population in Chitwan. This trend is a cause for concern
since the Chitwan rhino population serves as a source population
for introducing and supplementing rhino populations in other
areas of Nepal (DNPWC 2000; Dinerstein 2003).
Table 3: Dry biomass contribution of different plant species to the Rhinos’ diet from bite count and habitat use data
in Sauraha area of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
feeding in each habitat (SE)
* Percentage of bites of a food item in the grassland multiplied by proportional grazing activity in grassland (GL).
** Percentage of bites of a food item in the riverine mixed forest (RMF) multiplied by proportional grazing activity in the riverine mixed forest.
*** Percentage of bites of a food item in the ecotone forest (EF) habitat multiplied by proportional grazing activity in the ecotone.
A= sum of proportions for each food species from all the three habitats.
B= contribution by dry weight of food items in 100 bites (A* dry weight per bite).
C= percentage contribution in dry weight to the actual diet, (B/£B)*100.
10
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
(a)
15-i
1 -
0.5 -
0 L_
Riv. mix
■°5- Forest
-1-
-1.5-
-2-
-2.5-
n □
E cot one Grassland
R
ver t> d
Barren land
(b)
1.5 -|
1 -
0 5 -
0--
-0.5-
-1 -
Riv. mix
Forest
-1.5-
-2-
-2.5-
Ecotone
Grassland
'er b
T
Barren land
(C)
2-i
1.5-
1 -
0.5-
o--
-0.5-
-1-
-1.5-
-2-
Riv. mix
Forest
Ecotone
JZL
Grassland
/er b(
Barren land
-2.5-1
Fig. 6: Results of the difference matrix of Compositional
Analysis: (a) overall habitat preference; (b) habitat preference
for foraging; (c) habitat preference for resting by Rhinos in the
Sauraha area of Chitwan National Park, Nepal
Habitat Use
Rhinos are obligate floodplain habitat specialists
(Dinerstein 2003). In this study we defined the intensive study
area by joining the outermost rhino locations, thereby
restricting further analysis of use and preference within rhino
habitats. In the intensive study area, rhinos had access to a
variety of habitats including Sal forests and agricultural fields.
Rhinos clearly preferred riverine mixed forest and grasslands.
However, from the Compositional Analysis results for specific
activities, it was evident that rhinos have different habitat
preferences for different activities. For foraging they preferred
grasslands and ecotones, and for resting there was a clear
preference for riverine mixed forests. Thus, by just
considering the overall habitat preference of rhinos, one would
tend to miss the critical needs of certain habitats for specific
activities. It is evident that a landscape that has a mosaic of
grassland, ecotone and riverine forests would be ideal for
rhinos since these would meet all the various needs of the
species.
Diet
The major portion of the rhino’s diet was composed of
Saccharum spontaneum , Imperata cylindrica and Phragmites
karka ; this shows that they largely rely on short grasslands,
as also reported by Litvaitis et al. (1996),
Peet et al. (1999), Laurie (1982) and Owen-Smith (1988),
for obtaining food. Dinerstein (2003) reports that Rhinos attain
their highest densities in Saccharum spontaneum grassland
habitats. Other species such as C lerodendron viscosum ,
Tetrastigma serrulatum and Equisetum debile were eaten
avidly, but they contributed <1% dry matter to the overall
Rhino diet due to their low availability and highly seasonal
habit. A greater proportion of time was spent in riverine forest
and ecotones where food, shelter and wallowing places are
in close proximity. Rhinos were observed to move between
habitats for food resources, resting places or water. In Rhino
habitats where water is scarce, the management of water
sources in a well-dispersed manner is essential.
None of the study rhinos visited agricultural fields or
sal forests that were in close proximity. This is likely due to a
high risk of contact with humans in agricultural areas and
poor forage availability and quality in the sal understorey.
Rhino shared the Saccharum spontaneum dominated
grassland areas with Spotted Deer, Sambar, Hog Deer and
domestic livestock (cattle and buffalo). Domestic livestock
used grassland habitats during the day. Though none of the
sampled rhinos visited agricultural fields, crop raiding by
rhinos in fields adjoining the protected area was known to
occur. The magnitude of this conflict was not severe,
suggesting that most rhinos obtained their nutritional needs
from the protected area. Based on discussions with local
villagers, rhinos were understood to raid crops at night. Since
this study did not employ radio-telemetry, it was difficult to
monitor rhinos through the night. Our limited sample of only
one female rhino and calf pair that was followed through the
night may under represent the use of agricultural fields by
rhinos. However, data from an earlier study on radio-collared
rhinos in the same study area (Dinerstein 2003) also do not
highlight utilisation of crop fields for foraging.
Food Habits
The high proportion of grasses in the diet of rhinos
during the hot season in Chitwan was explained by the
availability of high quality Saccharum spontaneum that keeps
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
11
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
sprouting immediately after grazing and grass cutting
(Dinerstein and Price 1991) and burning (Laurie 1978) due
to a high substrate moisture (Jnawali 1995). Rhinos ate a
wide variety of food items, but the bulk of the diet consisted
mainly of relatively few types, as also reported by Laurie
( 1982) and Dinerstein (2003). Rhinos are considered to be
generalist bulk feeders (Owen-Smith 1988). However, Indian
Rhinos are relatively selective of more preferable food parts
for nutrients and palatability using their prehensile upper
lip. Rhinos were observed to selectively feed on the tenderest
of shoots of even the coarse grasses.
Laurie (1978) recorded over 100 species of plant eaten
by rhino during a year-round study of a larger area from
direct observations. Jnawali ( 1 995 ) reported 28 species based
on faecal analysis with a Shanon-Weiner diet diversity of
H’= 1.12 in the same area of Sauraha where the current study
was conducted. The present study reports a higher diet
richness of 42 species of plants eaten with a diet diversity of
H'=l .06. Most species reported to be important in the rhino's
diet by Jnawali (1995) and Dinerstein (2003) were also
observed to be avidly eaten in this study, e.g. Saccharum
spontaneum , Imperata cylindrica and Phragmites karka.
However, Jnawali (1995) reported a high occurrence of
Narenga porphyrocoma in faecal analysis, which
constituted only 5% of the dry biomass to the rhino’s diet
in this study. This could likely be due to a change in N.
porphyrocoma' s availability or due to its coarse nature
leading to a high content of undigested residue in the
faeces.
Rhinos were observed to feed on 29 different species
in the ecotone forests, 20 species in grasslands and 16
species in mixed forests. We did not observe rhinos
feeding on the fruit of Trewia midiflora since our study
did not include the fruiting season of this species.
Jnawali’s (1995) report Trewia nudiflora fruits
constituting 13.4% of the rhino’s diet highlights the
seasonal importance of certain food items to the rhino’s
diet (Dinerstein and Wemnter 1988; Dinerstein 2003).
Though such seasonally available food items may
contribute significantly to the micro-nutrient needs of the
rhino (Robbins 1983), the bulk of the annual biomass and
energy needs are met from the seven important food plant
species, namely Saccharum spontaneum , Imperata
cylindrica , Phragmites karka, Saccharum bengalense,
Callicarpa macrophylla, Narenga- porphyrocoma and
Hemerthrea compressa, which constituted >85% of the
dry biomass consumption by rhinos. This highlights the
importance of managing short grasslands for productivity
and reducing livestock pressure in these areas.
Management Perspectives
The single most important natural force that maintains
the successional mosaic of habitats so critical for rhinos is
the periodic floods of the Himalayan region (Burton et al.
1989). These floods destroy existing habitats, create new ones
and enrich them with fertile sediments. Rhinos further modify
their habitats like other mega herbivores, making them
favourable for other ungulates (Dinerstein 1980, 2003).
Ironically, these very rhino habitat sustaining Hoods now
cause havoc to rhinos. This is because there is only a limited
area available for rhinos to live in, the rest having been taken
over permanently by humans for agriculture and settlement.
When floods destroy existing rhino habitats, there are no
“new” habitats formed that are available to rhinos. The Park
management now needs to intervene with these natural
processes and ensure that critical needs for the rhinos are
met, e.g. by creating artificial wallows or by arresting the
succession of grasslands to woodlands artificially (by burning
and/or cutting woody species) (Dinerstein 2003). Areas likely
to be utilised by rhinos for drinking such as streams, rivers,
ox-bow lakes, small puddles and wallows need to be regularly
maintained.
Though the duration of the study was short, it covers
the pinch period for rhinos in Chitwan (late winter and dry
season). The study highlights the importance of intermittent
intensive studies to find the pulse of tropical systems. The
population structure of rhinos with fewer calves per adult
female is indicative of a reduction in the rate of increase
(Caughley 1977). Based on the food habits and habitat
use by rhinos, we highlight the importance of a few food
plants like Saccharum spontaneum, Phragmites karka and
Imperata cylindrica which constitute more than 65% of the
dry matter intake by rhinos. The study highlights the relative
importance of short grasslands and riverine mixed forest
habitats for effective conservation of rhinos in Chitwan
and similar Terai habitats as also reported by Dinerstein
(2003).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The study was funded by WWF Nepal Program, Wildlife
Institute of India and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. We are
grateful to the Dept, of National Parks & Wildlife Conservation,
Nepal, National Nature Conservation Trust, and International
Trust for Nature Conservation for facilitating this research. We
thank T. Maskey, S. Amatya, U.R. Sharma, N. Poudel, F. Bagley,
PB. Shrestha, N. Dhakal, D. Thapa, S. Bajimaya. G Upadhyay,
Q. Qureshi and V.B. Sawarkar for encouragement and logistic
support. B.B. Lama’s local field knowledge was indispensable.
12
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DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS
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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
13
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
14-18
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS1
Mitsuru Kuramoto2 and S. Hareesh Joshy3
'Accepted May 2006
23-6-15 Hikarigaoka, Munakata, Fukuoka 811-3403, Japan. Email: [email protected]
'Rondano Biodiversity Research Laboratory, St. Aloysius College, Mangalore 575 003, Karnataka, India.
Acoustic characteristics of the advertisement calls of five Indian and one Sri Lankan frog are described, of which
three ( Euphlyclis hexadactylus , Sylvirana aurantiaca and Ramanella obscura ) are reported for the first time. Temporal
and spectral parameters of the calls are given for each species, together with field observations of the environment
where the males were located during calling. The results are compared with available acoustic data on the same or
related species.
Key words: advertisement calls, frogs, India, Sri Lanka
INTRODUCTION
Call structures are one of the most important attributes
of frog species. The most common frog call, the advertisement
call, plays an important role in attracting conspecific females
and is hence species-specific (e.g. Sullivan etal. 1995). Thus,
we can identify frog species readily based on call
characteristics, even if we cannot observe the calling frog
itself. This is a very useful means of surveying anuran fauna
in a given locality, and many morphologically similar species
have been described based primarily on acoustic differences
(Johnson 1959; Kuramoto 1980).
Calls of about 40 Indian frog species have been
analyzed (Kanamadi et al. 1994, 1995; Roy 1996, 1997;
Kadadevaru et al. 2000, 2002; Kuramoto and Joshy 2001).
Here, we give acoustic analyses of five Indian and one
Sri Lankan frog species, of which call structures of Euphlyctis
hexadactylus (Lesson), Sylvirana aurantiaca (Boulenger) and
Ramanella obscura (Gunther) are reported for the first time.
Encounter calls of R. obscura are also reported.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Advertisement calls of the six frog species were
recorded in the field using a cassette-recorder (TCM-AP5)
or MD-recorder (MZ-B10). The calls of Bufo scaber
Schneider were recorded in Mudigere, Chickmagalur district,
Karnataka, on July 9, 2005 at an air temperature of 21 °C;
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider) in Kamoor, Dakshin
Kannada district of Karnataka, on July 10, 2004 at 27 °C;
Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson) in Adyar, Mangalore, on
July 19, 2005 at 25 °C; Sylvirana aurantiaca Boulenger in
Karnoor (date and temperature were the same as in
E. cyanophlyctis ) and in Aralam, Kannur district, Kerala, on
July 14, 2005 at 25 °C; Ramanella montana (Jerdon) in
Talagini, Shimoga district, Karnataka, on July 23, 2004 at
24 °C; and Ramanella obscura (Giinther) in Kandy, Central
Province, Sri Lanka, on May 30, 2000 at 23 °C. Recorded calls
were analyzed using Avisoft SAS Lab Light software. Voucher
specimens have been deposited in Rondano Biodiversity
Research Laboratory (RBRL), St. Aloysius College, India.
Generally, the calls of many frog species are a series of
pulse groups, herein referred to as ‘notes’. Some calls are a
series of single pulses, also referred to here as ‘notes’. Thus,
the calls are composed of either multi-pulse or single-pulse
notes. Note-interval means the time between the beginning
of a note and the beginning of the next note, and the pulse
repetition rate is the number of pulses per sec. Measurement
values are expressed as the mean ± standard deviation with
sample size (n) in parenthesis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Bufo scaber Schneider
Male calls were heard in paddy fields from individuals
floating in shallow water among the rice plants. The toads
were whitish in colour at night and dark brown during the
day. There were many calling males of Eejervarya sp. on the
bunds of the paddy fields.
The call was long and consisted of many fast-repeated
notes (Fig. 1). The number of pulses in a note was 8.0 ±0.67
(n=19), the note duration was 0.30 ±0.03 sec, and the pulse
repetition rate was 23.7 ±0.94 pulses/sec. Notes were repeated
at an interval of 0.42 ±0.02 sec. The dominant frequency was
about 3 kHz, and there seemed to be a second harmonic band
at about 6 kHz.
Kanamadi et al. (1995) reported detailed analysis of
the advertisement calls of B. scaber (as B. fergusonii
Boulenger). Their calculations of temporal features included
initial stages of calls with notes consisting of a few pulses,
thus their mean values were slightly lower than those in the
present study. The pulse repetition rate was much higher in
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS
TIME (sec)
Fig. 1 : Three successive notes in the advertisement call of Bufo scaber Schneider
Kanamadi et al. ( 1995), possibly, to some extent, due to the
higher temperatures during their sound recordings.
Voucher specimen: RBRL05070925.
Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider)
Calling males were observed in wetland areas with
shallow water, together with those of Fejervarya sp. and
Microhyla ornata (Dumeril and Bibron). The calls were loud,
metallic and prominent among the choruses of the breeding
aggregations of many frog species.
The entire advertisement call was a series of short sharp
notes. Typically, a series began with several notes composed
of a single pulse, followed by notes composed of double
pulses (Fig. 2), although there were variations. Single-pulse
notes were repeated more rapidly than double-pulse
notes (2.28 ±0.28 vs. 1.52 ±0.15 notes/sec, n=7), and the
pulse interval between two pulses in the latter notes was
about 0.085 sec. The dominant frequencies were about
3.5 and 1.5 kHz, and the calls showed a weak harmonic
structure.
Call structures of E. cyanophlyctis were previously
described by Roy and Elepfandt (1993), Kanamadi (1996)
and Roy ( 1996, 1997). The general call pattern in the present
study resembled that of Kanamadi ( 1996), who documented
calls consisting mainly of double-pulse notes, but differed
remarkably in the pulse repetition rate (c. 20 pulses/sec in
Kanamadi). The calls in Assam and Meghalaya (Roy and
Elepfandt 1993; Roy 1996, 1997) differed from those in the
present study, primarily due to the greater number of pulses
in a note (mean=7). Whether these conspicuous differences
indicate geographical or ecological variations should be
examined in future studies. Moreover, the presence of a
cryptic species cannot be excluded.
Voucher specimen: RBRL0407 1140.
N
X
>
O
z
LU
ZD
o
LU
oc
Li_
Fig. 2: Two successive double-pulse notes in the advertisement call ot Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis (Schneider)
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
15
N
X
>
o
LU
D
O
LU
tr
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
TIME (sec)
Fig. 3: Two successive notes in the advertisement call of Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson)
Euphlyctis hexadactylus (Lesson)
Calling males were observed in relatively shallow water
among vegetation in a flooded wetland near a pond previously
used to observe this large species. Sylvirana aurantiaca
Boulenger calls were also heard at this location.
The advertisement call was composed of slowly
repeated multi-pulse notes (Fig. 3). The number of pulses in
a note was 5.0 ±1. 18 (n=24), the note duration was 0.25 ±0.07
sec, and the pulse repetition rate was 16.8 ±0.56 pulses/sec.
The notes were repeated at an interval of 1.10 ±0.15 sec. The
first pulse in a note was weak, with a relatively low dominant
frequency (2.09 ±0.10 kHz, n=8). The dominant frequency
tended to decrease from the second (2.43 ±0.09 kHz) to the
last pulse (2.29 ±0. 1 1 kHz), and there was a second harmonic
band at 5.20 ±0.32 kHz (second pulse) and 4.68 ±0. 17 kHz
(last pulse).
The call of E. hexadactylus differed completely from
that of E. cyanophlyctis. It was rather high-pitched, which
was unexpected considering its large body size. Also
unexpectedly, male calls were heard in relatively shallow
waters, but not in a pond. Daniel (2002) described that the
eggs of this species are thought to be laid in paddy fields.
The spawning site of this species should be confirmed in future
studies.
Voucher specimens: RBRL05071901, 05071902.
Sylvirana aurantiaca Boulenger
In Kamoor, male calls were heard on the grassy bank
of a creek, while in Aralam they were heard among low
vegetation, together with those of Fejervarya ( Minervarya )
sahyadris (Dubois, Ohler and Biju). In Mangalore, calling
males were observed near ditches around paddy fields on a
hillside, where Polypedates maculatus Gray is known to
breed. The calls were weak and could not be heard from a
distance.
The calls began with a series of single-pulse notes (0.03-
0.05 sec in duration) followed by a series of double-pulse
notes (Fig. 4). In the calls recorded at Aralam, the note-interval
between single-pulse notes was 0.66 ±0. 12 sec (n=9) and that
between double-pulse notes was 0.57 ±0.12 sec (n=15). The
length of a single-pulse note was 0.03-0.05 sec and that of a
double-pulse note was about 0. 1 sec. The dominant frequency
was about 3.7 kHz. An indistinct harmonic structure and weak
frequency modulation were recognized.
The advertisement calls of Sylvirana aurantiaca
resembled those of Sylvirana temporalis ( Gunther) (Kuramoto
and Joshy 2001), but the call length was shorter and with a
higher dominant frequency in the former. The general
similarity in the call structures of these two morphologically
similar species supports their close relationship as members
of the subgenus Sylvirana.
Voucher specimen: RBRL04071136.
Ramanella montana (Jerdon)
Calls were heard from individuals floating on shallow
water in paddy fields, among loud choruses of Fejen>arya sp.;
the males were observed calling only from the bank. The call
of Ramanella montana was easily recognizable due to its
unique tune. Like B. scaber , the body colour of this species
was whitish in the night and dark brown during the day.
The calls were 0.20 ±0.01 sec in duration (n= 14) and
composed of 5-6 pulses repeated at a rate 23.4 ±2.7 pulses/
sec (pulse interval: 0.043 ±0.006 sec; Fig. 5a). The dominant
frequency was about 2 kHz, and there was always a seemingly
continuous frequency band of about 0.53 kHz. Frequencies
higher than 4 kHz were almost lacking.
Within the series of the common call described above,
there were a few calls that differed in pulse structure
16
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS
N
X
>
o
2
LLI
ID
o
LU
DC
Ll
Fig. 4: Three successive double-pulse notes in the advertisement call of Sylvirana aurantiaca Boulenger recorded at Aralam
(Fig. 5b). They contained about 10 short pulses with a pulse
interval of 0.02 sec and a pulse repetition rate of about
50 pulses/sec; frequency features were similar as in the
common calls. The role of this call is unknown at present.
Call structures of R. montana were previously reported
by Kadadevaru et al. ( 1998). In their sonogram we recognized
five or six pulses; they apparently enumerated the number of
peaks in a waveform envelope as the pulse number. The
dominant frequency band was about 2 kHz in their report
and no higher frequencies were reported as in our results.
However, a rather distinct first pulse and clear fine harmonic
bands in their sonogram were not obvious in our sonograms.
Differing from R. montana, R. variegata (Stoliczka) seems to
have a single-pulsed call of about 0.2 sec duration (Kanamadi
et al. 1993).
Voucher specimens: RBRL04072302, 04072303.
Rumanella obscura (Gunther)
Calls of this species was heard in ditches along a
mountain roadside from individuals floating on the water
surface. No other frog species was observed in these ditches,
whereas many Philautus species were heard calling among
nearby bushes.
The calls were 0.21 ±0.04 sec in duration (n=12;
Fig. 5c), consisting of 7-17 (1 1.9 ±2.9) indistinct irregular
pulses. The pulse interval was 0.02 ±0.003 sec and the pulse
repetition rate was 51.7 ±7.5 pulses/sec. The dominant
frequency band was about 2.6 kHz with a lower frequency
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
17
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS
Fig. 6: Encounter calls of Ramanella obscura (Gunther) in breeding aggregations
band of about 0.75 kHz. The calls were emitted at about
0.96 sec intervals.
In breeding aggregations where many males were heard
calling in close proximity, higher frequencies became evident
(Fig. 6). This call is apparently an encounter call, which has
an agonistic function.
Ramanella obscura resembled R. montana in call
duration and frequency constitution, but differed in the
number of pulses. Regarding the number of pulses, the call
of R. obscura resembled the multi-pulse call of R. montana
(Fig. 5b). Ramanella nagaoi Manamendra-Arachchi and
Pethiyagoda, another Sri Lankan species for which acoustic
data are available, has a completely different call
(Manamendra-Arachchi and Pethiyagoda 2001).
No voucher specimens.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank P.K. Bhat and T.B.R. Hegde for their help in
the field.
REFERENCES
Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.
Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press.
Johnson, C. (1959): Genetic incompatibility in the call races of Hyla
versicolor Le Conte in Texas. Copeia 1959 : 327-335.
Kadadevaru, GG... R.D. Kanamadi & H. Schneider (1998): Mating
call of the burrowing frog, Ramanella montana (Jerdon 1859).
J.Adv. Zool. 19: 91-93.
Kadadevaru, G.G., R.D. Kanamadi & H. Schneider (2000):
Advertisement call of two Indian ranids, Indirana beddomei and
Tomoptema rufescens. Amphibia-Reptilia 21: 242-246.
Kadadevaru, G.G., R.D. Kanamadi & H. Schneider (2002):
Advertisement call, courtship and mating behaviour of the frog,
Limnonectes sahyadrensis from Western Ghats, India. Curr. Sci.
82: 503-505.
Kanamadi, R.D. (1996): Acoustic communication in some Indian
anurans: a review. Zoos ' Print 11(8): 26-35.
Kanamadi, R.D., C.R. Hiremath & H. Schneider (1993): The
advertisement call of the south Indian frog Ramanella variegata
(Microhylidae). J. Herpetol. 27: 218-219.
Kanamadi, R.D., C.R. Hiremath & H. Schneider ( 1994): Advertisement
calls of two anuran amphibians, Rana tigerina and Tomoptema
breviceps. J. Biosciences 19: 75-80.
Kanamadi, R.D., C.R. Hiremath & H. Schneider ( 1995): Vocalization
of tropical Indian toads, Bufo melanostictus and Bufofergusonii.
J. Adv. Zool. 16: 5-11.
Kuramoto, M. (1980): Mating calls of treefrogs (genus Hyla) in the
Far-East, with description of a new species. Copeia 1980:
100-108.
Kuramoto, M. & S.H. Joshy (2001): Call structures of Indian frogs,
with some ecological and taxonomic notes. Curr. Herpetol. 20:
85-95.
Manamendra-Arachchi, K. & R. Pethiyagoda (2001): Ramanella
nagaoi , a new tree-hole frog (Microhylidae) from southern
Sri Lanka. J. South Asian Nat. Hist. 5: 121-133.
Roy, D. (1996): Importance of bioacoustic analysis in amphibian
taxonomy and conservation. Zoos’ Print 11(8): 22-25.
Roy, D. (1997): Communication signals and sexual selection in
amphibians. Curr. Sci. 72: 923-927 .
Roy, D. & A. Elepfandt (1993): Bioacoustic analysis of frog calls from
northeast India. J. Biosci. 18: 381-393.
Sullivan, B.K., M.J. Ryan & PA. Verrell (1995): Female choice and
mating system structure. Pp. 469-517. In: Heatwole, H. (Ed.):
Amphibian Biology. Vol. 2. Social Behaviour. Surrey Beatty &
Sons, Chipping Norton.
18
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(1), Jan-Apr 2008
19-23
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS
HYLOBATES HOOLOCK HARLAN 1834 IN BANGLADESH1
M. Anwarul Islam2, Mostafa M. Feeroz3, Sabir Bin Muzaffar4, Mofizul Kabir3, Sajeda Begum3,
K. Hasan3, Shahriar Mahmud2 and Suprio Chakma2
'Accepted September 2006
’Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh.
’Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh.
4School of Environmental Science and Management, Independent University, Bangladesh.
Present address: Department of Biology, College of Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, P.O. Box 1755, A1 Ain,
United Arab Emirates. Email: [email protected]
Hoolock Gibbon ( Hylobates hoolock Harlan 1834) is the only ape that occurs in the Indian subcontinent. The species
is classified as endangered and their numbers have declined throughout their geographic range primarily due to habitat
destruction. We determined the current status of the Hoolock Gibbons in Bangladesh. A total of 35 sites
(10 in the north-eastern region and 25 in the south-eastern region) were surveyed for Hoolock Gibbons from 2002 to
2005. A total of 282 Hoolock Gibbons in 96 groups was estimated to live in 24 of the 35 sites visited. Several sites have
lost all their Hoolock Gibbons within the last 15 years. Kamafuli (part of Kaptai National Park) in the south-east and
Lawachara National Park in the north-east were recognised as two major strongholds of Hoolock Gibbons. Conservation
of the remaining Hoolock Gibbons of Bangladesh rests on the future management of their patchy forest habitats. We
recommend the cessation of illegal deforestation, habitat restoration and translocation of individuals to maintain these
last Hoolock Gibbon populations in Bangladesh.
Key words: Hoolock Gibbon, Hylobates hoolock , status, conservation, Bangladesh
INTRODUCTION
Gibbons are socially monogamous small apes that hold
a very important position in the ecology of tropical forests
(Preuschoft etal. 1984; Chivers 2001 ). They have been under
considerable threat primarily due to habitat destruction
throughout their range. Among the 13 gibbon species,
Hoolock Gibbons Hylobates hoolock are the only ones that
occur within the Indian subcontinent and are perhaps under
the greatest threat throughout their geographic range
(Mootnick et al. 1987; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987;
Islam and Feeroz 1992; Feeroz 1999, 2001 ; Choudhury 2001 ).
Habitat destruction is the principal cause of population decline
(Gittins and Akonda 1982; Gittins 1984; Gittins and Tilson
1984; Chivers 2001 ; Islam et al. 2004). They are distributed
in various north-eastern states in India, with a current total
population of more than 2,600 individuals (Molurcf a/. 2005).
Their distribution in southern China and Myanmar is
recognised, but population estimates are from the 1980s
(Mootnick et al. 1987; MacKinnon and MacKinnon 1987).
In Bangladesh, Hoolock Gibbon populations were estimated
to be around 3,000 individuals in the mid 1980s (Gittins and
Akonda 1982). This number had subsequently crashed to
about 200 individuals in the 1990s (Feeroz and Islam 1992).
The declining trend continued in many areas of Bangladesh,
with some areas having lost all of its Hoolock Gibbons (Feeroz
200 1 ; Das et al. 2003 ; Islam et al. 2004 ). The observed decline
are concomitant with the ongoing deforestation throughout
the country’s forested areas (Gain 2002). Hoolock Gibbons
are apparently holding on tenaciously to some last extant
forests in Bangladesh. Currently, the species are globally
endangered (IUCN 2004) and in Bangladesh, they are
classified as Critically Endangered (IUCN 2000).
Assessing the number of Hoolock Gibbons is a key to
the understanding of their status and for developing a
conservation plan to prevent extinction of the species.
Generally, assessing primate populations is a difficult task
that invariably leads to inaccurate estimates (Ross and Reeve
2003; Nijman 2004). This is particularly true for gibbon
species, due to the fact that they use the forest canopy for
movement and foraging (O'Brien et al. 2004). The objective
of this study was to determine the population status of Hoolock
Gibbons, in all the remaining habitats.
STUDY AREA
The present study was conducted in all the known
Hoolock Gibbon habitats in Bangladesh, along with some
habitats previously not surveyed. Thirty-five sites were
surveyed (Fig. 1 ). The north-eastern and south-eastern regions
of Bangladesh consist of semi-deciduous and moist evergreen
forest patches with a wide variety of tree species (Rashid
1991; Ahsan 2001). Each region has its distinct tree
composition and forest canopy characteristics (Ahsan 2001 ).
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS IN BANGLADESH
Fig. 1 : Hoolock Gibbon survey sites in Bangladesh. Some sites
are combined due to their close proximity.
I. Baralekha, 2. Lathitila, Sagarnal, 3. Adampur, Gazipur Tea
Estate, Horinchara, 4. Rema-Kalenga, 5. Lawachara, Chautoli,
6. Satchari, 7. Dighinala, Ramgar, 8. Pablakhali, Kudhukhoza,
9. Korerhat, Hazarikhil, 10. Rampahar, Karnafuli,(Kaptai)
II. Dopachari, 12. Chunati, Satghar, 13. Bamu, 14. Thanchi,
15. Alikadam, 16. Sangu, 17. Fashiakhali, Bhomarighona,
Bangdepa, Bishari, Rajghat, Apar Rezu, 18. Inani, 19. Ukhia,
20.Teknaf.
Ten sites were identified from the north-eastern region (Fig. 1
and Table 1 ). Most of the sites fall under the jurisdiction of
different forest divisions and have suffered extensive
deforestation over the last two decades (Gain 2002). However,
many of the sites contain habitats that may be regarded as
suitable for Hoolock Gibbons (Feeroz 1999, 2001; Islam et
at. 2004, 2006).
METHODOLOGY
At each site, locals were consulted for identifying
possible locations of Hoolock Gibbon groups. One local guide
was taken and existing paths within the forest patch or streams
were walked on by a team of 2-4 individuals. The team
conducted census walks between 0500 and 1730 hours with
a total of two hours break throughout the entire period. Every
5-10 minutes the members of the team would stop to look
around for signs of Hoolock Gibbon presence. This included
hearing of calls; scanning the tree line with binoculars for
Hoolock Gibbons in the canopy; looking for important fruiting
trees (such as species of Artocarpus and Ficus etc.). When
calls were heard, an attempt was made to assess the direction
of the call and then to locate the group. Once located, the
age-sex structure of the group was ascertained, with the
assignment of each individual to either adult male, adult
female, subadult male, subadult female, subadult
(undetermined sex), juvenile or infant following Feeroz
(1991) and Ahsan ( 1 994). When counting Hoolock Gibbons
in high-density areas (such as Lawachara and Kaptai), extra
time and effort was given to ensure that double counts were
not made by visiting the sites repeatedly and ascertaining
numbers and age-sex structure. The coordinates of the
encounter sites were determined using a hand-held Global
Positioning System (GPS). The GPS coordinates were
recorded into a computer and the locations of the groups
plotted on digital and paper maps of the area. When the group
could not be located, the group size was conservatively
assumed to be two individuals and the coordinates were
recorded, along with the direction and approximate distance
from the calling group. The total distance travelled during
walks was estimated from the GPS readings of the starting
and ending points, and from the GPS coordinates taken from
various locations during the census walk (including those of
Hoolock Gibbon encounters).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Two hundred and fifty eight Hoolock Gibbons in
80 groups were recorded during this survey at all the sites
(Table 1). Additionally, 12 distinct groups with an estimated
24 individuals were heard calling, making the total population
to be an estimated 282 individuals in 92 groups.
It is clear that Hoolock Gibbon populations have
undergone massive decline since the 1980s, primarily due to
habitat destruction, although they continue to survive in small
pockets of fragmented forests in Bangladesh. The largest
population in the north-eastern region is in Lawachara National
Park, within west Bhanugach Reserve Forest (Table 1).
Additional populations in Adampur and Baralekha are of
importance, each having larger than or equal to ten
individuals, assumed to be required for long-term viability
(IUCN 1994; Islam et at. 2006). In recent years, the south-
eastern region had been deemed unsuitable for Hoolock
Gibbons due to acute habitat loss and political unrest (Gain
2002; Islam et at. 2004). We identified Kamafuli (within
Kaptai Forest range), a series of highly fragmented secondary
20
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS IN BANGLADESH
Table 1 : Hoolock Gibbon (HG) populations recorded at 35 sites during 2002-2005 (based on observed groups and calling groups)
a. number of HG groups calling x 2 (individuals/group)
b. number of HG groups counted + number of HG groups calling.
c. number of HG individuals seen + estimated number of HG calling
forest patches, having sufficient habitat to hold large number
of Hoolock Gibbons (Islam et al. 2004 ). Extended monitoring
activity in the area revealed the largest stronghold of Hoolock
Gibbons in the country with 84 individuals. Rampahar Beat
(also within Kaptai Range), slightly separated from Kamafuli
was noted to have 16 individuals, further increasing the
number of Hoolock Gibbons in the area.
The rest of the scattered populations of less than
9 individuals vary in terms of importance. Some have been
evaluated entirely (e.g. Lathitila, Rema-Kalenga, north-east;
and Dighinala, Pablakhali, Hazarikhil, Teknaf, south-east) and
are unlikely to have any more individuals. Other populations
have not been surveyed adequately (e.g. Thanchi, Kudhukoza,
Dopachari, Sangu, all in the south-east) and more thorough
surveys in these areas could yield more Hoolock Gibbons,
although the south-eastern region, in general, has had a more
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
21
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS IN BANGLADESH
devastating history of deforestation (Gain 2002).
The “forested lands” administered by Bangladesh
officially represent about 17% of the total land area of
Bangladesh, although the true area of forest cover is likely to
be less than 6% (Gain 2002). Within the forestlands, there
are about 16 protected areas categorised into National Parks,
Wildlife Sanctuaries or Game Reserves (Kabir and Muzaffar
2002). These protected areas are recognised merely on paper.
Illegal harvesting of forest products (timber, fuel wood etc.)
continues unabated, often in connivance with the forest
officials. Most of the areas within protected forest patches
are fragmented and have areas of agricultural land, small
villages, grazing land and other human altered habitats that
make the quality of these areas extremely poor. In spite of all
these major habitat problems, the Hoolock Gibbons present
in various protected and unprotected forest patches show
extraordinary resilience. The minimum assumed viable
population of Gibbons is 10 individuals (IUCN 1994) and
this is supported to a certain extent by mathematical models
(Molur etal. 2005; Islam etal. 2006). Many of the populations
noted in this study are much smaller in size than this
theoretically viable minimum and thereby regarded as
genetically destined to extinction.
Immediate cessation of deforestation in all the areas
above is required. Since this is very difficult to accomplish
given the socio-political dynamics of each region, at least
safe-guarding the important fruiting and sleeping trees, along
with protection of some closed canopy forest patches is
essential (Islam et al. 2006). To supplement the protection
and preservation of forests, habitat improvement and
restoration in many of these areas should be done. Plantation
of mixed fruiting tree species may be carried out on a large
scale to attempt to restore degraded habitat where suitable.
Careful examination of all areas with Hoolock Gibbons is
also needed to assess the feasibility of translocation of doomed
Gibbon populations into areas that are doing relatively better.
Populations such as the single Gibbon in Rema-Kalenga and
the few odd individuals each in Shagarnal, Hazarikhil,
Teknaf, Inani and Himchari may have a better chance of
survival if moved to areas with better habitat (e.g. Satchari
in the north-east, and Bamu and Ukhia in the south-east).
These manipulative methods may be the only hope for these
individuals and need to be seriously considered.
We conclude that the total population of Hoolock
Gibbons in Bangladesh in the current estimate is higher than
that made in the nineties (around 200 individuals, Feeroz and
Islam 1992). However, many of the previously important sites
(e.g. Horinchara, Chunati) are now devoid of Hoolock
Gibbons and this is cause for great concern. Conservation
action should be directed towards protecting the remaining
Hoolock Gibbon strongholds from further degradation,
translocating genetically compromised populations and
restoring forest lands through plantations of mixed native
plant species (Islam et al. 2006). Public awareness is on the
rise and the Government of Bangladesh is a signatory to
various biodiversity conventions, the future could hold some
promise if immediate action is taken in attempting to save
the remaining Hoolock Gibbons.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the US Fish and Wildlife Service for funding
this project through its Great Ape Conservation Program. We
are grateful to the Forest Department of the Government of
Bangladesh for access and accommodation at many of the
study sites. The work would have been impossible without
the efforts of many students and volunteers. We thank the
Departments of Zoology, Jahangimagar University and the
University of Dhaka; and the School of Environmental
Science and Management of Independent University,
Bangladesh for permitting and facilitating research activities
at different study sites.
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and captive management of Hoolock Gibbons in the Social
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population estimates, local extinctions, and conservation
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O'Brien, T.G., M.F. Kinnaird, A. Nurcahyo, M. Iqbal & M. Rusmanto
(2004): Abundance and distribution of sympatric Gibbons in a
threatened Sumatran Rain Forest. Inti. J. Primatol 25: 267-284.
Preuschoft, H., D.J. Chivers, W.Y. Brockelman & N. Creel (1984):
The Lesser Apes: Evolutionary and Behavioural Biology.
Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 400 pp.
Rashid, H.E. ( 1991 ): Geography of Bangladesh. Dhaka University Press
Ltd. pp. 529.
Ross, C. & N. Reeve (2003): Survey and census methods: population
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D.J. Curtis (Eds): Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
24-33
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS
ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK, NORTH-WEST INDIA1
Amirtharaj Christy Williams2, Asir J.T. Johnsingh3, Paul R. Krausman4
AND QAMAR QURESHI5
'Accepted October 2006
Kilo WWF Nepal Program, P.O. Box 7660, Baluwatar, Kathmandu, Nepal. Email: [email protected]
31 0 1 , Magnolia, Esteem Gardenia, Sahakara Nagar, Bengaluru 560 092, Karnataka, India.
Email: [email protected]
AVildlife and Fisheries Program. School of Renewable Natural Resources, The University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721, USA.
Email : paul .krausman @ umontana.edu
'Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]
We collected data on Asiatic Elephant Elephas maximus ranging and habitat selection in Rajaji National Park (RNP)
in Uttarakhand state, India using radio telemetry from December 1996-March 1998. Elephant home ranges were
estimated (using 100% Minimum Convex Polygon) to range from 1 88 sq. km to > 400 sq. km. We could not detect any
difference between male and female home ranges. Summer ranges were the smallest due to limited availability of
water in the study area; however, we could not detect statistically significant differences between sexes or seasons.
The six Elephants that were radio-tracked for over two years showed variability in ranging patterns between the 1st
and the 2nd years. The overall Elephant population used the Shorea vegetation significantly less than the other major
vegetation types (Shorea-mixed, Miscellaneous and Mixed plantations). This was due to the higher diversity of Elephant
food plants in S/iorea-mixed and miscellaneous vegetation types when compared to Shorea vegetation type. However,
radio-tracking data from individual female Elephants that had young calves at heel indicated a strong preference for
the Shorea vegetation type. This was due to the fact that very few species, which can be lopped as fodder for cattle,
were found in the Shorea vegetation type and thus had fewer disturbances that made it attractive for females with
young calves. Thus, females with young calves clearly preferred to trade off food for safety. The mean cattle densities
in the home ranges of radio collared females, who were either pregnant or had young calves at heel, were significantly
lower when compared to that of male home ranges. This study has proven beyond doubt that a major influence on
ranging and habitat use in the study population is disturbance.
Key words: Asian Elephants, Elephas maximus , ranging, home-range, radio-tracking
INTRODUCTION
The size of an elephant's home range gives an indication
of the availability of essential resources, restrictions imposed
by the size of the respective conservation area or other artificial
barriers and the degree of disturbance to which the animal is
exposed (Whyte 1996). Areas with plentiful food and water,
and minimal disturbance will have smaller home ranges. It can
also be small where artificial barriers (e.g. dams, canals and
habitat loss due to agricultural settlements in corridor areas)
prevent elephants from using a part of their home ranges
(Joshua and Johnsingh 1995). It is important from the
management point of view to know which elephant groups/
clans have been affected due to such developments because
concentration of elephants in a restricted area could also lead
to habitat degradation. In several cases, the ecological
boundaries and administrative boundaries do not match
(Joshua and Johnsingh 1995) and knowledge of elephant
movements is critical for preparing management plans in such
an area. In addition to crucial information about home ranges,
it is also important to understand the foraging behaviour and
spatial use of the resources within the home range.
To collect data on the above aspects. Elephants in Rajaji
National Park (RNP) have been intensively studied since
December 1996 using radio telemetry. Rajaji National Park
in conjunction with Corbett Tiger Reserve and the adjoining
forest areas have been designated as one of the eleven elephant
reserves in India. An estimated population of about 1000
Elephants is found within this tract (Singh 1995). The
Elephants in this area have been under assault from human
induced causes, such as diversion of land for non-forestry
purposes, over-grazing and excessive lopping of trees for
fodder, construction of a canal and, road and rail network
resulting in habitat fragmentation (Johnsingh et al. 1990).
RNP, due to its linear shape, has a long boundary, with a
sizeable pastoral Gujjar population inside and villages all
around the periphery. The main livelihood of the villagers is
agriculture. Therefore, to ensure the long-term survival of
Elephants, a thorough understanding of their ranging and
habitat requirements is indispensable. We conducted a study
on Elephants and their habitats with the following objectives:
1. To describe and explain the ranging behaviour of
Elephants in the study area and,
2. To analyze seasonal use of vegetation types by
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
Fig. 1 : Map of Rajaji National Park
elephants within the study area and to identify the major
factors influencing habitat selection
STUDY AREA
The study was conducted in Rajaji National Park (RNP)
west of the River Ganga (Fig. 1 ). The area includes the Rajaji
and Motichur sanctuaries and portions of the Siwalik and
Dehradun East Forest Divisions covering an area of
approximately 600 sq. km. Topography in the Rajaji Sanctuary
area consists of deeply dissected steep southern slopes of the
Siwalik hill range, which form a series of sharp ridges
interspersed with V-shaped valleys running from north-east
to south-west. The southern portion of the Sanctuary is flat
land constituting the northern fringe of the Gangetic plain.
The altitude ranges from 400 to 1 ,000 m. There are >4,000
nomadic pastoralists (i.e. Gujjars) and about 8,300 of their
livestock (e.g. buffalo, goat etc.) within the study area. These
Gujjars are dispersed throughout the study area in small
settlements. Over 1,40,000 people live along the periphery
of the study area. Their main form of livelihood is agriculture.
The study area is bounded by intense cultivation to the north
and south, and to the east it is bounded by the suburbs of the
town of Haridwar on the bank of the River Ganga. To the
west, the Delhi-Dehradun highway separates the Rajaji NP
from the Siwalik Forest Division.
Rainfall ranged from 1,300 to 1,900 mm / year during
1996-1999, with most of the rain falling during the monsoon
months of July to October. However, there are brief periods
of rainfall throughout the year. Three distinct seasons are
recognised: winter (November to March), summer (April to
June) and monsoon (July to October).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Four male and four female Elephants were immobilized
with Immobilon (a mixture of Etorphine hydrochloride and
Acepromazine) delivered with a dart gun, and fitted with radio
transmitters embedded on an acrylic collar in Rajaji National
Park (Fig. 1 ). We radio-tracked three males and four females
for periods ranging from 1 to 3 years. The Elephants were
located 1 to 3 times per week. All animals were located by
homing in on the signal and a GPS was used to take a position.
All the data was entered into a lotus spread sheet.
We acquired satellite images of approximately of
200 x 200 m resolution and did unsupervised classification
using ERDAS IMAGINE (ESRI Inc.) image analysis
software. The initial output consisted of 10 different categories
of land use as defined by their reflectance values. We then
supervised classification and specified five major categories
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
25
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
of land use/Forest types. The whole study area was divided
into 2x2 km grids and 5 random grids were chosen in each
of the four categories, which corresponded to the different
vegetation/forest type. In these grids, we placed a 2.8 km
transect along the diagonals in each grid that had the best
access. Along each transect, we measured trees in 10 m radius
circular plots every 300 m. For each tree >20 cm diameter at
breast height (dbh) within the circular plot, we noted the
species and number of branches cut. We also counted the
saplings (< 20 cm dbh) of the different tree species in a 5 m
circular plot centered within the 10 m circular plot. We then
summarised the data to define the four major vegetation types.
They were: Sal Shorea robusta vegetation, Sal mixed
vegetation, Plantation, Miscellaneous vegetation type.
Agriculture and, open areas/degraded scrub/rau (dry river
beds).
The vegetation types defined here corresponded very
closely with the tree species communities defined during an
earlier analysis of data, using program TWINSPAN (Two Way
INdicator SPecies ANalysis), collected in the study area using
similar methods. We chose to limit our analysis to these four
major broad vegetation types due to the large home ranges of
Elephants in the study area and due to the difficulty in
identifying fine differences in vegetation composition in the
field.
We then imported the land use/vegetation image into
ARCVIEW 3.02a (ESR1 Inc.) GIS software to analyze the
data on animal locations, Gujjar cattle densities and other
information like water availability. We used the ARCVIEW
extension ANIMAL MOVEMENT ANALYST (Hooge and
Eichenlaub 1997) to analyse the radiolocation data of the
seven Elephants. Animal home ranges were defined by
100% Minimum Convex Polygons (MCP) (Mohr 1947) and
95% Fixed Kernels (Worton 1989) of all the locations pooled
across seasons and years. MCP method was used so that
comparisons of elephant home ranges from other studies could
be done. To look at seasonal ranging and habitat use by
individual elephants, we used 95% Fixed Kernels (FK) of
the seasonal data. We used original Adhoc and LSCV
smoothing parameters to provide a less biased estimator than
a user selected or Worton's corrections (Hooge and Eichenlaub
1997). We carried out regression analysis of the % increase
in home range against the number of locations to see if
adequate sampling had been done to describe the seasonal
range of the elephant(s).
We plotted the nomadic pastoral habitats within the
study area with the help of a hand held GPS (Magellan
Trailblazer, Magellan Inc.) and counted the number of
pastoralists and their livestock in each of the habitats. We
plotted the data and analysed it using ARCVIEW SPATIAL
ANALYST extension and created cattle density maps of the
study area over which we overlaid the seasonal ranges to
calculate the cattle densities within each Elephant’s seasonal
range.
RESULTS
We captured and collared four adult male and four adult
female Elephants between December 1996 and March 1998.
One of the collared males was followed only for five months,
and hence the data was not used for analysis. The remaining
seven animals were followed for periods ranging from ten
months to over three years (Table 1 ). Since the data beyond
two years did not significantly add new information to what
was analyzed after two years of tracking, we chose to use
only 24 months of data to understand the habitat use patterns.
The number of collared males represented approximately 10%
of the estimated adult male population size in the study area
(Williams et al. 2007). Female Elephants live in groups of
related females and their associated young. Females and young
associated with groups containing the collared females
represented approximately 33% of the total estimated female
and associated young population numbers (Williams et al.
2007). The radio-tracked individuals ranged over an area of
about 600 sq. km (Fig. 2). Little dung (<1%) was encountered
outside this area during the dung surveys, indicating that the
entire elephant population (c. 180-200) west of the River
Ganga largely used this 600 sq. km. However, there were
cases of elephant bulls and family groups straying towards
Yamuna in the Siwalik Forest Division (Fig. 1). On eastern
side, only a few bulls crossed over the Ganges through the
Chilla-Motichur corridor. Females did not cross the Rishikesh-
Haridwar road.
Ranging
Minimum number of location needed
For the study animals, since ranging and habitat use
within a season was of interest, it was necessary to find the
Table 1: Annual home ranges (sq. km) of radio-tracked
elephants as calculated by the minimum convex polygon
method (MCP) in Rajaji National Park, 1996-2001
26
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
Legend
Study area
Rajaji NP boundary
Male A
-4- Male S
=-=- Male T
-L-^Female A
f=»= Fenale M
a=3=Female D
'"~n~rr-Female K
Habitat Type
I- - -- 1 Sal Forest
§23 Mixed Forest
Plantation
Crop Field
'//A Open Scrub
[ : M'SC Forest
I I River area/No vegetation/Rau
“T
Fig. 2: Home ranges (100% MCP) of the radio collared elephants within the study area
minimum number of locations needed to be sure that the
seasonal range had been well described. The relationship
between mean percent change in home range estimates and
the number of locations needed was asymptotic (Fig. 3). The
minimum number of locations needed to estimate fairly
accurate seasonal home ranges should have at least two
characteristics (Mares et al. 1980).
1) All the intervals past the minimum estimate should
have mean percent changes in home ranges that are
indistinguishable from zero;
Fig. 3: Mean and SE of % change in home ranges
(N=7 elephants) with successive locations
2) A constant relationship should exist for all locations
intervals past the minimum estimate (i.e. a regression line
whose slope is zero should exist).
Both of these criteria were met for Elephants at between
20 and 30 relocations per season (Fig. 3). The mean ±1 SE
for all points between 20 and 30 locations contain zero and
an insignificant linear relationship (Table 2) exists for data
points greater than the 25th location (i.e. the slope of the
regression line is not statistically distinguishable from zero).
Annual and seasonal range estimates
Elephants had home ranges ( 100% MCP) from 1 88 sq. km
to >400 sq. km (Table 1). However, there seems to be no
difference in annual home ranges between males and females.
There was large variability in the seasonal ranges between
elephants, seasons, and years (Table 3). There were no
Table 2: Linear regression in an ANOVA setting
(Excel spreadsheet function); mean percent change in home
range as a function of number of locations
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
27
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
difference in ranges between seasons when pooled across
sexes and years (Kruskal-Wallis one way ANOVA,
X2 = 1.7709, 2 df , P = 0.41). Summer ranges (95% FK) were
the smallest of the three seasons (Table 4). Males had larger
summer seasonal ranges than females (Mann-Whitney test,
U = 2.0, P = 0.01). There was no difference in the seasonal
ranges between male and female elephants in winter and
monsoon. All the 6 elephants (2 males and 4 females) that
were tracked for 2 annual cycles showed variability in ranging
patterns between the 1st and 2nd years. Summer ranges were
rather small or linear in shape when compared to the ranges
of the same individual or group for monsoon and winter. For
example, Male T and Female A ranged more widely in the
monsoon of 1998 when compared to the same season in the
previous year (Tables 3 & 4). The MCP estimates in Table 3
were better suited at reflecting occasional wandering by the
Elephants than the 95% FK estimates in Table 4. Hence, the
following section refers mainly to estimates from Table 3.
Males T and A came into musth in winter while Male S came
into musth in summer. All the males consistently used large
ranges during their musth period and were wandering widely
(Table 3). Females M and D gave birth to calves in 1997 and
1998 monsoon season respectively. Their seasonal ranges in
winter and summer following calving were approximately
25 to 50% of their seasonal ranges the previous year (Table 3).
There was a vast difference in ranging patterns of the female
M and her group between the two years that they were tracked.
In the year 1998-99, she altogether abandoned the southern
side of the Park and spent the entire period in the northern
half of the Park before being run over and killed in a train
accident near the main road on the east.
Female D exhibited similar behaviour by spending most
of the time in areas of fewer disturbances during winter and
summer following the birth of her calf. However, her monsoon
ranging pattern remained unchanged.
Seasonal use of vegetation types
Males avoided the use of Shorea forests during winter
and monsoon, and to a large extent used the other vegetation
types in proportion to their availability (Table 5). Females,
on the other hand, used the mixed-plantations, miscellaneous
vegetation, open degraded scrub and riverbeds (Table 5) less
than expected. Females (M, D and K) which were either
pregnant or had young calves at heel during the period that
they were radio tracked showed either strong selection or
avoidance of vegetation types (Table 7). Shorea- mixed
vegetation type was either selected or used in proportion to
availability by all the females (Table 5). All the Elephants
Table 3: Seasonal home ranges (sq. km) of elephants calculated by the Minimum Convex Polygon method (MCP)
in the various seasons in Rajaji National Park (1996-1999)
Season
28
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
avoided Shorea forests during the 1997 monsoon (Table 5).
The same ranging pattern was observed in the monsoon of
1998, when the Elephants largely avoided Shorea forest,
except for females D and M which had young calves at heel.
Human and cattle densities within the study area were
highly correlated (Spearman’s r = 0.66, P<0.0001, n=321).
Hence, we used only cattle densities as an index of
disturbance. The density of cattle was higher inside the home
ranges of collared males when compared to that of collared
females (Table 6). Only Female K tolerated disturbance (as
measured by cattle densities) at levels tolerated by males in
the monsoon season (Table 6). If the monsoon season was
excluded from the analysis, the mean cattle density in the
home ranges of females (K, D & M) that were pregnant or
had young calves at heel was much lower when compared to
the males (Table 6). However, Female A, which was neither
visibly pregnant nor had a young calf at heel, used areas with
disturbance comparable to the area with cattle density
(mean = 27.7 cattle/sq. km and S.D.= 1.5) used by males.
The densities of important food plants of Elephants were
highest in Shorea vegetation type (Table 7). Even when
Shorea was excluded from the plants considered, Shorea
vegetation type still had the highest densities of important
elephant food plants (Table 7), and this was mainly due to
the contribution of Mallotus phillippensis. However, Shorea
was the least used among the vegetation types (Table 5),
except for females that had young calves at heel. When we
looked at diversity and density of major elephant food plants
in the four vegetation types, Shorea- mixed and miscellaneous
vegetation type had the highest diversity of elephant food
plants.
Water was available everywhere during the monsoon
season and therefore, we did not consider the monsoon season
when testing for differences between seasons. We could not
detect a statistical difference in the distance to water between
winter (Mean ± SE=1,311.69 ±83.59) and summer
( Mean ± SE = 1 ,299 ±41.48) seasons pooled across animals
(T = 0. 13, df = 17 , P = 0.89) and years.
DISCUSSION
Ranging and habitat use by elephants have been studied
before in African and Asian elephant populations (Douglas-
Hamilton 1972; De Villiers and Kok 1997; Baskaran et al.
Table 4: Seasonal home ranges (sq. km) of elephants calculated as 95% fixed kernels (FK)
in the various seasons in Rajaji National Park (1996-1999)
Season
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
29
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
Table 5: Selection and Avoidance of the vegetation associations by elephants in Rajaji National Park
30
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
1995; Mckay 1973). This is the first study in Asia where the
proportion of elephants, for whom ranges have been
described, has been reported (see results). After this study,
we have an accurate and fairly descriptive measure of the
ranging patterns of adult males and female groups in RNP.
Most of the elephant ranging seems to be confined to the
National Park boundaries to the west of River Ganga unlike
on the other side, where Joshua and Johnsingh ( 1995) found
that 40-60% of two elephants home ranges were outside the
RNP area boundary. There seems to be very few groups using
the Siwalik Forest Division. However, as the densities inside
the Park increase more and more elephants will start using
areas outside, such as the Siwalik and Dehradun Forest
divisions. The population seems to be a closed one; we could
find evidence for only about 3 bulls’ crossing over Ganga
from Motichur to Chilla side of RNP.
Elephant home ranges recorded, so far, vary widely
depending on the elephant population and the ecological
conditions under which they were studied. The results from
this and earlier studies (Joshua and Johnsingh 1995) indicate
that adult male home ranges in RNP vary widely ranging from
about 160 sq. km to over 400 sq. km. An earlier study on the
Chilla side of RNP concluded that the small home range
recorded (approx. 39 sq. km) for a single adult female was
due to her home range being lost to developmental activity
(Joshua and Johnsingh 1995). This seems to be supported by
the results of our study where the smallest female home range
was about 200 sq. km. Most studies on African elephants
have showed a strong relationship between rainfall and home
range size. Home ranges of elephants in areas of higher rainfall
(Tsavo west - 750 sq. km) were smaller than the ranges of
elephants in areas of low rainfall (Tsavo east - 1 ,600 sq. km).
Thouless (1996) showed similar results from his study in
northern Kenya, where the home ranges varied between
102 sq. km (high rainfall area) to 5,527 sq. km (low rainfall
area). However, human disturbance also played a significant
Table 6: Cattle densities (No./sq. km) in the seasonal
home-ranges of male and female elephants in
Rajaji National Park 1996-99
1 = Densities calculated for females, K, D & M, that were either
pregnant or had calves at heel during the study period.
role in influencing the range sizes. The home ranges of two
adult females tracked in northern Cameroon were 3,066 sq.
km and 2,484 sq. km respectively (Tchamba etal. 1995), and
it is thought that intensity of the elephant-human conflict
forced the two elephants to move long distances resulting in
large home ranges. De Villiers and Kok (1997) estimated,
after six years of radio tracking in two nature reserves adjacent
to Kruger National Park, that female home ranges varied
between 1 15 sq. km and 342 sq. km, whereas male home ranges
were between 150 sq. km and 342 sq. km. They showed that
availability of water played an influencing role on the size of
the elephant home ranges in the two reserves. In Asia,
however, home range sizes reported (males: 160-400 sq. km;
females: 40-650 sq. km) are much lower due to the elephants
living in mainly forested habitats with higher rainfall than
recorded across many of the African studies sites (Joshua and
Johnsingh 1995; Baskaran et al. 1995).
Individual home ranges also overlapped considerably
within and between sexes in the study area as noticed in other
studies on elephants elsewhere (Leuthold 1977; Jachmann
1992; Thouless 1995; Sukumar 1991; Baskaran et al. 1995;
Joshua and Johnsingh 1995). However, De Villiers and Kok
(1997) found that females tend to avoid each other inside
their core areas (defined as 10% of their home range) and
explained this as a mechanism under which high densities of
elephants are able to tolerate each other in a small area. The
density of elephants in our study area was low (<0.4/ sq. km)
compared to that of other areas (1-4/sq. km) where detailed
elephant studies have been carried out. We could not carry
out this analysis, since there were groups which did not have
radio collared individuals overlapping with our study animals.
We, however, noticed that even though three radio collared
female groups were in the general vicinity during the dry
season, we located them together only once in two years of
tracking. There seems to be very little temporal overlap
between the female groups within the study area.
The summer ranges were smaller than other seasons
due to the limited availability of water in the study area
Table 7: The densities (No./Ha) of important elephant forage
trees in four vegetation types in Rajaji National Park
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
31
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
(Tables 3 & 4). Elephants showed a greater fidelity in the dry
season than in the other seasons, except for Female K who
showed a high degree of fidelity across all seasons. This is
consistent with other studies on elephants where water was a
limiting factor in Africa (Leuthold 1977; Viljoen 1989a, b;
Thouless 1995).
Elephants in this area also showed a high degree of
fidelity with regard to dry and wet season, which was in
contrast to the elephants of Tsavo (Leuthold 1977). Another
point to note in the present study was that both females D
and M changed their ranging pattern from previous years
immediately following the birth of a newborn calf. Thus, this
study also proves that elephants show considerable flexibility
in ranging behaviour to improve their chances of survival.
They also had smaller dry season home ranges, a result similar
to the one reported by De Villiers and Kok (1997). The
temperatures in the study area rose as high as 42 °C during
summer. Females remained near permanent water sources
during summer, as it would probably be detrimental to the
survival of calves to move widely in search of food during
such temperatures. Also the females with young calves (D,
M and K) used permanent water sources in areas of low
disturbance.
Very few studies have reported increases in seasonal
ranges due to adult males coming into musth (equivalent to
rut) (Joshua and Johnsingh 1995). T and A came into musth
in winter, while S came into musth in summer. We found that
all three adult males that we followed were given to wandering
widely in search of females during musth and consequently
had large ranges during musth when compared to other
seasons (Table 3). In rainy season of 1997-98 Male T shifted
between two areas, and hence a large home range was
recorded. Similarly, Joshua and Johnsingh (1995) reported
that a male, which was radio-tracked for over two years,
increased its seasonal range from 22 sq. km in the monsoon
to over 200 sq. km in winter (it’s musth season).
Elephants in RNPseem to use Shorea- mixed vegetajion
type much more than the other vegetation types (A. Christy
Williams, unpubl data). This seems to be consistent even with
selection at an individual level, where Shorea-mixed
vegetation was the least avoided. Shorea vegetation had the
lowest dung densities indicating minimal elephants use
(A. Christy Williams, unpubl data). However, individual
elephants, having young calves that were radio tracked for
over two years showed strong selection for the Shorea
vegetation. This is mainly due to the fact that very few species
that can be lopped are found in this vegetation type and
therefore avoided by the Gujjars to a large extent, and thus
less disturbed than the other vegetation types (Williams etal.
2002). During the monsoon season females and males used
the miscellaneous vegetation in proportion to availability or
selected it in a few cases. We believe this is due to the
abundance of green grasses such as Dolichostachya and the
presence of the bamboo Dendrocalamus st rictus, important
food sources for elephants during monsoon. Elephants in the
study area eat a large amount of grass in the wet season, even
if they appear to like browse at other times and this seems to
be consistent from other studies in Africa (Buss 1961; Field
1971; Laws etal. 1975). Seasonal changes in habitat selection
and diet have been observed in different elephant populations
across Africa and Asia (Buss 1 96 1 ; Field 1971;Mckay 1973;
Laws etal. 1975; Leuthold 1976; Olivier 1978; Barnes 1982;
Sukumar 1991 ; Sivaganesan and Johnsingh 1995) indicating
the relative opportunistic nature of the diet of elephants. They
are able to utilize a wide selection of food available from ground
level up to 4-5 m, and thus are able to survive even tough
environmental conditions like drought and unpredictable
rainfall.
The distribution and availability of water governs the
distribution of elephants (Laws 1970; Kerr and Fraser 1975).
Outside the monsoon season water availability in the study area
is restricted to the foothills of the Siwaliks. In summer, water
availability becomes restricted to small pools along the raus.
Yet, we failed to detect any differences in distance to water
between the winter and summer seasons for the study animals
indicating elephants at all times used areas nearer to water.
This study has proved that a major influence on ranging
and habitat use in Elephants is disturbance. Female Elephants
with calves do not tolerate disturbance and females respond
to disturbance by moving into areas with fewer cattle. Thus,
resettling Gujjars outside the Park area has to be given priority
and encouraged to free more areas of human disturbance. We
have already seen that the Elephant population in the study
area is demographically very viable (Williams et al. 2007)
and therefore, as the elephant population increases, need for
more areas with fewer disturbances is essential. The Elephants
in the study area are still using a compact block of forest and
hence elephant-human conflict can be managed easily. As
the density of elephants increase in the study area, elephant
groups at the periphery of this range will be forced to use
areas outside the Park boundaries. It is these areas which have
a very high level of disturbance where elephant-human
conflict would be severe. Therefore, it is necessary to plan an
elephant habitat management plan for this elephant range that
takes into account all the above factors and addresses the
issue of habitat degradation outside the study area in the
adjacent Siwalik and Dehradun Forest divisions. A positive
step in this direction is the recent moves to resettle Gujjars
outside the Park. The impact of this reduction in disturbance
on elephant ranging will be interesting to study in the future.
32
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS IN RAJAJI NATIONAL PARK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Officers of the Uttarakhand Forest
Department, the Additional Inspector General of Forests
(Wildlife), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government
of India and Director, Project Elephant, Government of India
who granted the permissions for this study. We wish to thank
the faculty and staff at the Wildlife Institute of India and the
University of Arizona who helped us during analysis and
writing the first authors’ Ph.D. which led to this manuscript.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service funded this
project and we particularly thank Dave Ferguson and Fred
Bagley for all the encouragement and support rendered to
carry out this research.
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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
34-41
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
OF DOON VAFFEY 1
Neelam Sharma2-3 and S.P. Joshi2’4
‘Accepted September, 2007
“Ecology Research Laboratory, Botany Department, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakhand, India.
’Email: [email protected]
4Email: [email protected]
Doon Valley has many freshwater swamps, due to its unique topography and peculiar situation in the foothills of the
Himalaya. One such swamp is Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp, where the present study was carried out. It occurs as
a compact area between 30° 15' N and 78° 2' E, with an average altitude of 600 m above msl. In this paper, we have
attempted to study the structure of the vegetation of Mothronwala Swamp. Dakshini (1970, 1974) had reported
356 species of flowering plants with 261 genera and 71 families from this Swamp. The Mothronwala Swamp Forest
was resurveyed after four decades and a number of changes were recorded in its vegetation. There is a decline in
number of species; only 278 species of flowering plants in 218 genera and 71 families were recorded during the
present study (2002-2003).
Key words: Doon Valley, floristic diversity, Mothronwala, swamp
INTRODUCTION
Freshwater swamps are locally known as oogals and
are dominated by unique plant species. They often have
standing water for most of the growing seasons (Mitsch and
Gosselink 1986). Swamps and marshes are considered as the
source of mosquitoes that cause malaria. However, swamps
are known to absorb toxic chemicals and even clean up
polluted water as in natural treatment plants (NTPs). Swamp
forests are an integral part of wetland ecosystems, serving as
habitats, spawning areas and sources of food for many
organisms (Brown et al. 1979; Wharton and Brinson 1979).
Indian freshwater swamps are found along the sub-montane
tract of the Himalaya. These generally occur along the banks
of terai streams in the outer range of the Himalaya up to an
elevation of 2,580 m.
References to the Mothronwala Fresh Water Swamp
are found in the flora of the upper Gangetic plain, and the
adjacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan Tracts by Duthie ( 1 903-
1922) and ‘Herbaceous flora of Doon’ by Babu ( 1977). The
flora of Chakrata, Dehradun and Saharanpur divisions has
been studied by Kanjilal (1901). In Doon Valley, the
freshwater swamps occur as localised habitats that have come
up as a result of special topography, where water oozes out in
perennial streams and sub-soil water maintains a constant level
throughout the year above the surface of the soil (Dakshini
1968). This results in a unique wetland ecosystem with
vegetation entirely different from the surrounding area.
However, the urban expansion of the valley has led to
continuous encroachment of forestland, and swamps are no
exception. Presently, only a few small and scattered patches
of swamps are left between the base of the outer hills of the
Himalaya in the north and the Siwalik Hills in the south.
Among these, Mothronwala is the most accessible nearest
and among the most important swamp forests of Doon valley.
Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp Forest used to possess
a peculiar floristic diversity due to its topographic and edaphic
variation. The forest of this region has depleted during the
last four decades due to its exploitation for fuel, food, fodder
and timber. The Mothronwala Swamp Forest has experienced
very high pressure, and a lot of changes have been recorded
in the vegetation of the Swamp.
Som and Aswal (1974) have studied the vegetation of
Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp, apart from the detailed
study on the vegetation of the swamp conducted by Dakshini
(1960a, b, 1965, 1968, 1970, 1974). The present paper
attempts to re-explore the floristic diversity of Mothronwala
Swamp and compare it with Dakshini (1970 and 1974).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Doon Valley is located between 29° 30'-30° 32' N and
77° 39'-78° 18' E in Uttarakhand, India. The present study
was conducted during 2002-2003 in the Mothronwala
Freshwater Swamp Forest (Fig. 1 ). Care was taken to
re-survey the areas surveyed by Dakshini (1960). The usual
methods of collection, preservation and maintenance of
specimens in herbarium were followed (Jain and Rao 1977).
A total of 42 trips was made for collection in different seasons.
During the field study, specimens of plants with flower and
fruit were recorded. Collections of plant species were made
throughout the year. The field data namely the habit, habitat,
flower colour and vernacular name of each taxon were
recorded.
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
After collection, the specimens were processed,
preserved and mounted on herbarium sheets. The herbarium
sheets were identified in the BSD Herbarium and deposited
in the Herbarium of the Ecology Research Laboratory, Botany
Department, D.A.V. (P.G.) College, Dehradun. The
descriptions of plants in the available literature were studied
(Gaur 1999; Babu 1977). All plant species are arranged
according to Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the study, 278 species of angiosperms in
218 genera and 71 families were collected from the study
site. Out of 278 species, 219 species in 173 genera are
Dicotyledons, and 59 species in 45 genera are
Monocotyledons. The floristic diversity of Mothronwala fresh
water Swamp Forest during the study period 2002-2003 is
presented in (Table 1 ).
Dakshini (1970, 1974) reported 356 species of
flowering plants belonging to 26 1 genera and 7 1 families. Sixty
families represented dicots of 201 genera and 276 species.
A total of 11 families of monocots had 60 genera and
80 species (Table 2).
Fabaceae and Asteraceae are the dominant families of
dicots. Family Fabaceae includes the largest number of
species (30) and genera (20); Asteraceae includes (26) species
and (21) genera. Dakshini (1960a, 1974) also reported
Fabaceae and Asteraceae as the dominant families of dicots.
Comparison of dominant genera and species of various
families of dicots in Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp is
shown in (Fig. 2). Among the monocots. Family Poaceae is
dominated with 28 genera and 34 species followed by
Cyperceae with 4 genera and 12 Species (Fig. 3).
Dakshini ( 1965) reported 38 tree, 52 shrub, 42 climber
and 235 herb species. The present study indicates that the forest
of this region has depleted at a very fast rate during the last four
decades. Presently, the vegetation structure of the swamp is
25 tree, 34 shaib, 25 climber and 194 herb species (Table 3).
A clear decline of 13 tree, 18 shrub, 17 climber, and 41 herb
species is evident from the vegetation structure.
The dominant families of the present study are Fabaceae,
Asteraceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Scrophulariaceae and
Con volvulaceae. A comparison of a number of taxa recorded
by Dakshini and in the present study are presented in Table 4.
Fourteen new families which includes 4 species of trees and
1 1 species of herbs, have been recorded from the Mothronwala
Freshwater Swamp (Table 5).
Table 6 indicates the plant species of Mothronwala
Swamp reported by Dakshini (1970, 1974), but absent in the
present area. A very common tree species of Doon valley swamps
Table 1 : Floristic diversity of Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp
during the study period (2002-2003)
Table 3: Comparison of the vegetation structure of the Swamp
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
35
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
Table 4: Comparison of number of genera and species reported in the present study and by Family in Dakshini
Bischofia javanica, reported by Kanjilal (1901) and Dakshini
(1970, 1974), was not recorded during the present study.
Dakshini (1970, 1974) reported 356 species of angiosperms,
out of which 238 species were not found during the present
study. Similarly, 135 new plant species reported during the
present study, were not reported by Dakshini (1970, 1974)
(Table 7).
CONCLUSION
Local extinction of 2 1 1 plant species and immigration
of 135 tolerant, opportunistic species in the last three decades
can be due to the fact that Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp
has witnessed a continued increase in human population due
to various reasons; namely its proximity to the expanding
36
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTH RON WALA SWAMP FOREST
Fig. 2: Comparison of dominant dicot genera (G) and
species (S) of Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp
Fig. 3: Comparison of dominant monocot genera (G) and
species (S) of Mothronwala Freshwater Swamp
Dehradun city, fear of swamp as a disease source, drainage
of swampy water for drinking water requirements, farming
Table 5: New families reported from Mothronwala Swamp
on encroached forest lands, urbanization on its periphery
and unmindful destruction of forest wealth by peripheral
villagers for various wood and non-wood products.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. Sumer Chand, Scientist Botany
Branch, FR1 and Dr. P.C. Pant of BSI (NC) Dehradun for
assisting in identification and to reviewing the manuscript.
Table 6: Plants reported by Dakshini but absent in the present study
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
37
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
Table 6: Plants reported by Dakshlni but absent in the present study (contd.)
Plant spp
Family
Plant spp
Family
38
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
Table 6: Plants reported by Dakshini but absent in the present study ( contd .)
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
39
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTFIRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
Table 7: New plant species in the study area (contd.)
Plant species
Family
Plant species
Family
Momordica charantia Linn. Cucurbitaceae
Trichosanthes cordata Roxb. Cucurbitaceae
Trichosanthes cucumeria Linn. Cucurbitaceae
Mollugo perttaphylla Linn. Aizoaceae
Cornus oblonga Wallich. Cornaceae
Galium asperifolium Wallich. Rubiaceae
Oldenlandla cocinea (Royle) Hook.f. Rubiaceae
Randia tetraspermea (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook.f. Rubiaceae
Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Asteraceae
Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Asteraceae
Artemisia rouxburghiana Wallich ex Besser Asteraceae
Cichorium intybbus Linn. Asteraceae
Cnicus arvensis (Linn.) Hoffm. Asteraceae
Cnicus wallichii (DC.) Hook.f. Asteraceae
Dicrocephala latifolia DC. Asteraceae
Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk. Asteraceae
Enhydra fiuctuans Lour. Asteraceae
Eupatorium adenophorum Sprengel. Asteraceae
Galinsoga ciliata (Rafinesque-Schmatz) Asteraceae
Lauanea nudicaulis (Linn.) Hook.f. Asteraceae
Saussurea heteromalla (D. Don) Hand-Mazz Asteraceae
Synedreita vialis (Lees) A. Gray Asteraceae
Taraxacum officinale Weber Asteraceae
Vernonia anthelmintica (Linn.) Willd. Asteraceae
Xanthium indicum Koenig. Asteraceae
Carissa congesta Wight Apocynaceae
Marsdenia roylei Wight Asclepiadaceae
Cynoglossum lanceolotum Forsk. Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum wallichii G. Don Boraginaceae
Cynoglossum zeylanicum Boraginaceae
(Vahl. ex Hornem).
Evolvulus alsinodes (Linn.) Linn. Convolvulaceae
Evolvulus nummularius (Linn.) Linn. Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea carnea Jacquin Enum. Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea cairica (Linn.) Sweet Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea quamoclit Linn. Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea nil (Linn.) Roth Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea purpurea (Linn.) Roth Convolvulaceae
Datura alba Nees Solanaceae
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viviani Solanaceae
Petunia violaceae Lindl. Solanaceae
Solanum xanthocarpum Schard. & Wendl. Solanaceae
Bacopa procumbens (Miller) Greenman Scrophulariaceae
Lindenbergia indica (Linn.) O. Kuntze Scrophulariaceae
Mazus delavayi Bonati. Scrophulariaceae
Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steen. Scrophulariaceae
Scoparia dulcis Linn. Scrophulariaceae
Veronica agrestis Linn. Scrophulariaceae
Veronica persica Poiret Scrophulariaceae
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Babu, C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehradun. Pub. & Inf.
Directorate, CSIR, New Delhi.
Brown, S.L., M.N. Brinson & A.E. Lugo (1979): Structure and function
of Riparine wetlands. Pp. 17-31. In: Johnson, R.R. &
J.E. Me (Eds): Strategies for protection and management of flood
plain wetlands and other riparine ecosystems. United States
Forest General Technical Report WO- 12, Washington.
Dakshini, K.M.M. (1960a): The vegetation of Mothronwala Swamp
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PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST
Forest, A preliminary Survey. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 9: 57-59.
Dakshini, K.M.M. (1960b): The vegetation of Mothronwala Swamp
Forest (Plant communities of swamp zone). Indian Forester 86 :
728-733.
Dakshini, K.M.M. (1965): A study of the vegetation of Mothronwala
Swamp Forest Dehradun. India. Jour. Ind. Bot. Soc. 44:
441-448.
Dakshini, K.M.M. (1968): Conservation of natural vegetation from the
point of view of productivity of vegetational stand. Advance
note on symposia and discussion. 55,h Indian Congress. Varanasi
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Dakshini, K.M.M. ( 1970): The flora of Mothronwala Swamp. ./. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 176-186.
Dakshini, K.M.M. (1974):The flora of Mothronwala Swamp. ./. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 71(2): 235-243.
Duthie, J.F. (1903-1922): Flora of the upper Gangetic plain and of the
adjacent Siwalik and sub-Himalayan tracts, 3 Vols.
Gaur, R.D. (1999): Flora of District Garhwal North-West Himalaya
(With ethnobotanical notes). Transmedia Publisher, Srinagar
(Garhwal) India. Pp. 81 1 .
Jain, S.K. & R.R. Rao (1977): A Handbook of Field and Herbarium
Methods. Today & Tomorrow’s Printers & Publishers, New
Delhi.
Kanjilal, U.N. (1901): Swamp forest in Dehradun, N.W. Province.
Indian Forester 27: 228-230.
Mitsch, W.J. & J.G. Gosselink (1986): Wetlands. 2"d edition, pp. 772.
Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. USA.
Som, Deva & B.S. Aswal (1974): Taxonomy and Ecology of
Mothronwala Swamp; A reassessment. Ind. For. 100 : 12-19.
Wharton, C.H. & M.M. Brinson ( 1979): Characteristics of Southeastern
river system. Pp. 32-40. In: Johnson, R.R. & J.F. Cormick (Eds):
Strategies of protection of Management of flood plains wetlands
and other Riparian ecosystems. United States Forest Service
General Technical Report WO- 12, Washington DC.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
41
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
42-48
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Faiyaz A. Khudsar1-2, Koustubh Sharma3, R.J. Rao1 and R.S. Chundawat4
'School of Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India.
:Present Address: Centre for Environmental Management of Degraded Ecosystem, School of Environmental Studies, University of
Delhi, Delhi 1 10 007, India. Email: [email protected]
'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.
Email: [email protected]
4BAAVAN (Bagh Aap Aur Van), S-17 Panchsheel Apartment, A-l Panchsheel Enclave, New Delhi 1 10 017, India.
Email: [email protected]
The Asiatic Lion Panthera leo persica is restricted to the Gir National Park and Sanctuary in India, which is the only
site holding the last surviving wild population of Asiatic Lion in the world. Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary ( WLS) in northwest
Madhya Pradesh was selected as the site to establish a second home for the Asiatic Lion. Twenty-four villages were
rehabilitated outside the Sanctuary to create a large forest habitat free from human disturbance for the Lions. To assess
wild prey availability for the Lions in the Sanctuary, distance sampling method was used to collect and analyse data
from roads traversed as transects. Cattle population was estimated using direct head counts at yarding sites. The study
was carried out in 2004. The estimated combined density of all the major prey excluding Common Langur and cattle
in the Sanctuary was 12.11 animals/sq. km. It was found that the total available prey base including feral cattle and
wild ungulates was 1993 kg/sq. km, which is still less than the wild prey biomass of 2784.9 kg/sq. km reported from
Gir. While this prey base can support a small reintroduced population of 6-10 Lions, it is recommended that efforts to
develop a sufficient wild prey base be given the highest management priority.
Key words: Asiatic Lion, extinction, prey base, distance sampling, prey biomass, habitat recovery.
INTRODUCTION
The only free-ranging population of Asiatic Lions
Panthera leo persica survive in Gir National Park and
Sanctuary (Gir forest) of the western Indian state of Gujarat.
In the past, their population declined to its lowest number in
1893 when only 18 individuals remained (Saberwal et al.
1994; Divyabhanusinh 2005). Following conservation efforts,
the species has made a remarkable recovery (Joslin 1973;
Berwick 1974;Chellam 1993; Jhalacto/. 1999; Divyabhanusinh
2005). This isolated, small and single population of Asiatic
Lion in Gir faces a variety of extinction threats (Soule 1987)
and reintroduction is one of the measures advocated to ensure
its long term survival (Sale 1986; IUCN/SSC-RSG).
In 1993, during a workshop on Population and Habitat
Viability Analysis at Vadodara (now Baroda), a list of
protected areas that could potentially serve as an alternate
home for some lions was drafted in consultation with the forest
departments of Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Haryana. After an extensive survey of several
potential sites, three locations were short-listed as possible
re-introduction sites for this population. These were Darrah
and Jawaharsagar Wildlife Sanctuaries (WLS) and Sitamata
WLS in Rajasthan, and Kuno WLS in Madhya Pradesh. After
an assessment of these sites, Kuno WLS was selected as the
most suitable site for translocation of Lions from the Gir forest
to establish a second free-ranging population in India
(Chellam et al. 1995). After its selection as the site for
translocation of the Asiatic Lions, one of the first tasks
undertaken by the Kuno WLS management was the
rehabilitation of the twenty four villages situated within the
Sanctuary. This was considered necessary to create a large
inviolate core area, which is free from anthropogenic pressures
(Khan etal. 1996; Chundawat 2001; Biswas and Sankar 2002;
Bagchi et al. 2003) to ensure survival of the introduced Lion
population. Creation of a large core area free from
anthropogenic disturbance also provided an ideal opportunity
to study the recovery of the habitat and existing prey
populations, and establish baseline information for future
reference and monitoring of this important and critical habitat.
The information presented in this paper is an attempt
to quantitatively assess prey base by estimating its density
and biomass that could support the proposed Lion introduction
in the Sanctuary.
STUDY AREA
The Kuno WLS is located between 25 301- 25 53' N
and 77 07'-77 26' E, in the Sheopur district situated in the
north-west of the state of Madhya Pradesh. The total area of
Kuno WLS is 345 sq. km and an additional 924 sq. km of the
surrounding territorial forest is added under the same
management programme. The entire area of 1,269 sq. km is
now managed as Kuno Wildlife Division with an objective
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
to establish a second home for the Asiatic Lion. The forests
of Kuno WLS represent the Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous
Forest (Champion and Seth 1968) and is dominated by
Anogeissus pendula, Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata
and Acacia catechu with extensive Savannah woodlands
forming an ideal habitat for the Asiatic Lion. The river Kuno
runs through the Sanctuary and is the main source of water.
The major prey species for Lion in the Wildlife Sanctuary
are Chital Axis axis , Chinkara Gazella bennettii, Sambar
Cen’us unicolor. Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus, Wild Pig
Sus scrofa, Blackbuck Antelope cervicapra. Four-horned
Antelope Tetracerus quadricornis and Common Langur
Semnopithecus entellus. Leopard Panthera pardus. Dhole
Cuon alpinus and Grey Wolf Canis lupus are the main
carnivores found in the area, apart from some occasional
reports of Tiger Panthera tigris.
METHODS
A) Population estimation of wild prey species
Distance sampling (Anderson et al. 1979; Burnham
et al. 1980; Buckland et al. 1993) is a widely used reliable
(Anderson et al. 2001) method for estimating wild animal
populations in the tropical forests (Karanth and Sunquist 1992;
Varman and Sukumar 1995; Khan et al. 1996; Biswas &
Sankar 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003).
We used both foot and vehicle transects to monitor and
estimate herbivore densities in the Kuno WLS.
Seventeen line transects were monitored, but data collected
was not sufficient to estimate population densities. As a
surrogate method, the extensive network of roads in the forest
were used as vehicle transects to estimate prey densities. These
roads were monitored on a very systematic schedule from an
open hooded jeep travelling at speeds less than 20 km/hr by
two observers. Vehicle transects allowed larger distances to
be covered in shorter time. This facilitated sufficient sightings
of animals to employ distance sampling methodology for
analysis. In Kuno, animals are more active during early
mornings and late evenings, hence higher encounter rate is
expected, which maximises efficiency in terms of effort
(Karanth et al. 2002). Road transects were travelled between
0545 hrs and 0820 hrs, and 1645 hrs and 1910 hrs. Nine road
transects were established for monitoring wild prey and the
transect lengths varied from 10 to 31 km. Each road transect
was traversed several times in the months of April and May
2004. Total length covered in the entire sampling effort was
760 km. For each animal sightings on transects, data about
species, group size, age class, sex and perpendicular distance
from the road were recorded. Laser rangefinder was used to
estimate distance of animal group from the road.
These roads were selected considering maximum
coverage of the study area. Since human movement in Kuno
Wildlife Sanctuary is minimal, most of the roads are mere
clearings with negligible disturbance affecting animals. There
was little traffic on the roads and hence we can assume a
uniform distribution of animals with respect to the line (roads).
However, there were limitations in this case considering the
coverage of the study area by the roads and behavioural
response by animals where they would have avoided or
preferred the roads. Despite the shortcomings, the results can
still be used as useful baselines for an area where no prior
data is available on the prey base density.
For analyses, detection functions of all species were
estimated separately. This was done to incorporate the effect
of size and behavioural differences between species in
modelling the detection probability. Empirical data were also
used to test for evidence of any evasive or invasive movement
of animals towards the line of movement, which were the
forest roads in this case.
B) Population estimation of feral cattle
Despite successful rehabilitation of 24 villages from
within the Sanctuary, a large population of livestock has been
left behind. This cattle population has now become feral. This
feral livestock population forms a substantial herbivore
biomass and is a potential prey for the large carnivore
population in the Sanctuary. This population can grow fast
and may compete with wild prey population thereby affecting
the habitat and wild prey recovery. Therefore, it is important
to assess the size of this feral livestock population, and its
regular monitoring will be necessary for the management to
make crucial decisions. This feral livestock population has
formed several large herds and they return to the same yarding
sites (night shelter) every night. The research team conducted
a detailed survey of each of the identified yarding sites (night
shelter) to conduct a head count.
RESULTS
A) Population estimation of wild prey species
During the road survey 507 groups comprising of 2,334
animals were sighted, of which 1 , 104 could be aged and sexed.
These included 823 Chital, 388 Chinkara, 122 Nilgai,
36 Sambar, 17 Four-homed Antelopes and 10 Blackbuck.
The sex ratio was found biased towards the female for
Chinkara ( 100F:54M) and Chital ( 100F:42M) but this ratio
was close to unity in Nilgai (T00F:90M) and Sambar
(100F:107M) populations (Fig. 1). The female to fawn and
female to yearling ratios for all species were very low except
in Blackbuck population, but it is based on a very small
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
43
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Fig. 1 : Demography of main prey species in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary
population. Female to fawn ratio ranged from a minimum of
100F:6 fawns in Chinkara to 1 OOF: 1 8 fawns in Chital.
Similarly, yearling to female ratio was also low, ranging from
a minimum of 100F:2 yearlings in Chinkara to a maximum
of 1 OOF: 13 yearlings in Nilgai.
No evidence of evasive movement away from the line
of movement, or aggregation of animals towards the line of
movement was obtained for species other than the Chinkara,
Wild Pig and Common Langur. While the histogram of Chinkara
and Common Langur showed a spike near zero distance, the
Wild Pig exhibited slight evasive movement or avoidance of
the roads (Figs 2a-2f).
Detailed information on the group densities and group
size is given in Table 1. Average group size (Table 1) of all
the major prey species observed in Kuno WLS is smaller than
other prey populations studied in dry forest ( Khan et al. 1 996;
Chundawat 2001; Biswas and Sanker 2002; Bagchi el al.
2003). Largest average for group size was recorded for Chital
population 4.29 (±3.51), followed by Wild Pig 4.2 (±4.83),
Nilgai 2.35 (±1.86), Chinkara 1.88 (±1.18) and Sambar 1.57
(±0.9).
Table 1 : Average group size of the major prey species in KWS
The density of all the wild prey, excluding Common
Langur and feral cattle, in the Sanctuary is 12.11 /sq. km
(Table 2). The combined density of all wild herbivores,
including langur (5.26/sq. km) and feral livestock (5.77/sq.
km) estimated by the road transect distance sampling was
23. 1 2 animals/sq. km. Chital is the most abundant wild prey,
with a density of 6.61/sq. km followed by Chinkara. Other
prey species are found in very low densities (« 1 animal/
sq. km). Chital was also the most frequently encountered prey
species followed by Chinkara, Nilgai, Sambar, Common
Langur and Wild Pig. Abundance of Sambar, which is one
the major prey animals of Lions in Gir forest, is relatively
low in Kuno WLS.
B) Population Estimation of Feral Cattle
Cattle were found to be distributed almost in the entire
Sanctuary. Initially a head count of the cattle was carried out
in all of the evacuated village sites. In addition to this, cattle
were also recorded during the road transect exercise. Head
count of the cattle provided an estimate of 1,934 individuals
in 16 yarding sites. The largest livestock population was
counted in Palpur (680) and Paira (332) villages. This count
translates into a density of 5.6 feral cattle/sq. km accounting
for 1400 kg of biomass per square kilometre (mean weight
250 kg per cattle).
Fig. 2a: Detection Function of Chital Hazard rate model key Fig. 2b: Detection Function of Nilgai Hazard rate model key function
function (Ph =0.49) (P . . nuar = 0.32)
' chi square ' ' chi square '
44
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Fig. 2c: Detection Function of Sambar Uniform key function with
cosine adjustment (Pchisquare = 0.32)
DISCUSSION
The low ratios of fawn and yearling to female suggests
a very low recruitment and could be affecting the fast recovery
of wildlife populations in Kuno WLS. These ratios are well
below other documented wildlife populations of the dry forest
habitat across the country ( Khan et al. 1 996; Chundawat 200 1 ;
Biswas and Sanker 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003). This needs to
be investigated in greater detail and requires intensive
monitoring to determine the ratios at birth (or ratios at first
two months after fawning in October and November). In
addition to this, to facilitate higher recruitment and survival
in these age classes, information on mortality rates in different
seasons will be critical for the management to take necessary
action. Simultaneously, a detailed study to gather information
on the ecological factors responsible for such low productivity
of the population is essential. Since, transects were monitored
at the end of the winter season, it is likely that most of the
mortality had occurred by then in these age groups. The
prevailing drought conditions could be responsible for most
of the mortalities, and this dataset could be reflecting an
unusually low female to fawn and yearling ratio. Further
monthly monitoring of the prey population shall provide more
detailed information and would be helpful in making
appropriate management decisions.
We are considering density of groups rather than
Perpendicular distance in meters
Fig. 2e: Detection Function of Wild Pig Uniform key with cosine
adjustment (Pchisquare = 0.84)
Perpendicular distance in meters
Fig. 2d: Detection Function of Chikara (note the spike in detection
probability at zero distance indicating either greater visibility or
aggregation of animals in the roads serving as micro habitats). Before
truncation: Half normal key (P , = 0.66)
animals as one of the factors in assessing the possibility of
introducing Lions in the area. Density of groups is likely to
affect encounter rates of prey species and can thereby
influence predators’ ecology, predation, ranging, and space
use patterns. Group densities of wild prey population in Kuno
WLS are considerably lower than other PAs that support
viable populations of large carnivores. This could be a crucial
ecological factor for successful introduction of Lions in Kuno
and therefore require immediate management attention.
Plots of detection probability of each species are useful
to investigate various effects of animal response and
distribution that may have affected the detection probability
and hence density estimates. The spike can be interpreted
either as an evidence of preference of roads as micro habitats
or a sign of improved visibility. Similarly, evasive movement
can be interpreted as the avoidance of roads or effect of
disturbance due to the movement of observers. While the
evasive movement away from the line of movement could be
detected using the plots, it was not too profound to discard
the results, and with little adjustments in the model, data was
made usable. The density estimates presented here may be
slightly biased due to the constraints in the methodology
where we used forest roads instead of proper lines.
The density estimate of 12.1 1 Wild ungulates/sq. km is
also lower than those reported in other similar dry forest
habitats (Khan et al. 1996; Chundawat 2001; Biswas and
Perpendicular distance in meters
Fig. 2f: Detection Function of Common Langur (left truncation done
to adjust spike) Hazard rate key model (Pchisquare = 0.84)
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
45
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Sanker 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003). Among the ungulate prey
species found in Kuno WLS, Chital was recorded with the
highest density (6.61/ sq. km) and it accounts for over fifty
percent of the entire wild prey base available (Table 2). The
contribution from other major wild prey species, Sambar and
Nilgai in Kuno WLS was small (only 9%). Kuno’s large span
of open forest habitat and mosaic of open and closed canopy
forest are suitable for species like Chital, Nilgai and Chinkara
and these species are widely distributed. Large and social
herbivores such as Nilgai are partial to more open habitats,
and therefore Nilgai and to some extend Chital can prove to
be ideal prey for Lions (Chellam 1993). In a dry forest, such
as the Kuno WLS, contribution from Nilgai population is
substantial to the prey availability (Khan 1996; Chundawat
2001 ; Biswas and Sanker 2002). It can play a significant role
in the ecology of introduced Lions in Kuno WLS, where large
expanses of open habitats have been created after the
rehabilitation of the villages. Therefore, monitoring of these
open habitats in term of its recovery and utilisation by different
prey population is essential to assess the suitability of these
habitats in managing the introduced Lion population.
Current density estimate of wild prey in Kuno WLS is
substantially lower than the reported density of 56.2 ungulates/
sq.km from Gir National Park (Khan 1996). This abundant
ungulate prey biomass of Gir forest is able to support a large
population of Asiatic Lion (approximately 15.86 adult Lions/
100 sq. km) and leopards (Khan etal. 1996; Jhalacro/. 1999).
The predator to prey ratio estimated in terms of number of
prey animals for every Lion in Gir forest is 353 wild prey
animals per Lion (excluding cattle and langur). Whereas, with
the current ungulate density (i.e. 12.11 animals/sq. km) in
Kuno WLS, based on ratio obtained from Gir forest, the
number of Lions that Kuno’s wild prey base can support is
just 1 1 or 12. Considering the low density of prey causing
scattered distribution, each kill will have a higher energy cost
attached to it (Gittleman 1996). This may result in increased
search activity and hence introduced Lions are likely to roam
widely in search of prey. During this search Lions can easily
Table 2: Estimated density of wild ungulates, prey of proposed
introduce lion population in KWS
stray out of the core area, which can increase the chances of
Lion entering into conflict with neighbouring human
habitation on a regular basis.
Estimated abundance and biomass of wild prey alone
is certainly not sufficient to support an introduced Lion
population. When these density figures are used to estimate
the prey biomass, it is observed that the share per Lion in
Kuno will be 93 kg/sq. km of wild prey. In Gir forest this
share is about 437.87 kg/sq. km, which is about five times
higher (Table 3). This indicates that if Lions are introduced
now, their survival and establishment will depend largely on
how they respond to this limited wild prey availability in
Kuno WLS. Straying in search for prey and frequent encounter
with human population may not be an ideal situation for an
introduction programme of a large cat.
The feral livestock population is an important prey
resource for Lions in Gir forest (Joslin 1973; Chellam 1993).
When taken into account as a potential prey biomass for the
introduced Lion population, livestock biomass in Kuno WLS
is around 1990 kg/sq. km (mean weight 250 kg per cattle).
This is still far less than reported for wild prey in Gir forest,
i.e. 2,784 kg/sq. km (Khan et al. 1996) but it is large enough
to support a small introduced population of 6-10 Lions in the
Kuno WLS. Livestock can at best be considered as
supplementary prey. Dependence of Lions mainly on the feral
livestock population has always been a debatable subject. With
active management, dependence of predators on livestock can
be reduced over time, and significant shifts in predator diets
have been reported (Kitchener 1991; Chellam 1993) in
response to enhanced wild prey availability. During the
16 years between 1973 and 1989, Chellam (1993) reports a
Table 3: Estimation of prey biomass in Gir and Kuno
'(Since only 1 7 Four-horned Antelopes were seen in our study, it was
not possible to develop a detection function and hence estimate density
reliably)
46
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
substantial drop in frequency of livestock remains in scats of
Asiatic Lions from 78.5% to 25.9%. Our preliminary results
clearly indicate that immediate management attention and
intensive monitoring of wild prey and livestock population
is urgently required.
Despite the relatively high variance associated with
the present estimates, herbivore density in Kuno Wildlife
Sanctuary is low when we compare it with other PAs. The
reason for this could be the presence of 24 villages within
the Sanctuary until recently. Additionally, their livestock and
a fairly large migratory cattle population coming from
Rajasthan for traditional grazing till the recent past had
severely affected the wildlife population and their forest
habitat. Despite the strict protection and intensive
conservation measures that have been initiated in the last
couple of years after voluntary relocation of villages from
within the Kuno WLS, it is still too early to expect a
spectacular change in the wild herbivore population. But
several case studies have been documented where wild
herbivore populations have shown significant recoveries after
removal of biotic pressures (Panwar 1991; Karanth and
Sunquist 1992; Khan et al. 1996). In Gir, Chital population
increased by 1,320% in 19 years (Khan etal. 1996), whereas
in Kanha, it was the highly threatened Cerxrns duvauceli
branderi which benefited from such management
interventions (Gopal 1995).
The management of Kuno WLS has achieved a
significant conservation goal by eliminating anthropogenic
biotic pressure and creating a habitat suitable for Lion prey
such as Chital, Sambar, Nilgai and Wild Pig. It has to be
considered that recovery of these wildlife populations will
take its time as documented for other PAs (Panwar 1991;
Karanth and Sunquist 1992; Khan et al. 1996). A large feral
livestock population can become a major factor affecting
the recovery of the wild prey populations in Kuno WLS, if it
continues to grow. For a fast recovery of wildlife population,
a systematic management of feral livestock population is
essential. This may reduce interspecific competition for
forage, especially for Chital and provide them access to their
preferred habitats that comprise mainly of ecotones and
perennial water sources (Mishra 1982). Feral livestock
population can at best be considered as a supplementary prey
base, whereas efforts to develop a wild prey base sufficient
to support the introduced Lions should be given the highest
management priority. These are warranted for achieving the
proposed goal of establishing a second home for the Asiatic
Lions in Kuno WLS.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are thankful to the Chief Wildlife Warden, Govt,
of Madhya Pradesh for providing necessary permits to carry
out the fieldwork in Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary. Our sincere
thank to Shri J.S. Chauhan and the frontline staff of Kuno
WLS for their help. We wish to thank the Bom Free Foundation
for financial support. We also thank BAAVAN and BCTI,
Delhi for their support. We are also thankful to the School of
Studies in Zoology, Jiwaji University, Gwalior.
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48
J. Bombay Nat. Flist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(1), Jan-Apr 2008
49-54
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION USING ECOLOGICAL NICHE MODELLING
Abi Tamim Vanak1, Mohammed Irfan-Ullah2and A. Townsend Peterson3
'Wildlife Conservation Society-lndia Program, Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences,
University of Missouri, Columbia, MO 65211, USA, Email: [email protected]
2Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru 560 024, Karnataka, India.
Present Address: RMSI Pvt Ltd, A7 Sec 16. Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Email: [email protected]
Natural History Museum and Biodiversity Research Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, USA.
Email: [email protected]
We used ecological niche modelling to predict the geographic distribution of the Indian Fox, a canid endemic to the
Indian subcontinent. This little known canid, while not yet endangered, is threatened due to rapid habitat loss and
poaching throughout its range. We analysed 58 known occurrence locations from survey data collected from three
states in peninsular India using the software Desktop GARP. We created an ecological niche model for India using
vegetation and topographic data and further refined it by including 18 additional bioclimatic data sets. Based on the
ecological niche modelling results, a gap analysis of protection offered to potential Fox habitat in two states of southern
India was conducted by overlaying existing protected area boundaries on the refined distribution and calculating the
extent of protection. Our analysis showed that the Indian Fox habitat consists primarily of low elevation semi-arid
grassland, scrub and thorn forests, which rank among the most vulnerable in India owing to conversion to agriculture,
industry and urban areas. The gap analysis showed that a little over 1% of predicted Fox distribution is covered by the
protected area network. The under representation of these habitats is deleterious not only to the Indian Fox but also to
a range of other species, such as the endangered Great Indian Bustard, Indian Grey Wolf and Blackbuck.
Key words: Indian Fox, Vulpes bengalensis, ecological niche modelling, gap analysis, distribution, protected areas
INTRODUCTION
The Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis , a canid endemic
to the Indian subcontinent, is widespread, ranging from the
foothills of the Himalaya in the north to the southern tip of
the Indian peninsula, and from Sindh Province of Pakistan
east to Bangladesh (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004; Gompper and
Vanak 2006). Even though this species is believed to be
common (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004), little is known about
its ecology or the details of its geographic distribution, or
population status. The IUCN Canid Specialist Group classes
this species as ‘Least Concern,’ (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004);
it is listed under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972 (as amended up to 2002), which prohibits hunting
of this species (Anonymous 2002). Despite this protection,
Indian Fox populations are declining owing to habitat loss
from conversion to intensive agriculture, industry and
development projects (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004).
The Indian Fox is found in semi-arid, flat or undulating
terrain in biogeographic zones 3, 4 and 6 of India (Rodgers
et al. 2000), which are typically drier biomes characterised
by low rainfall, scrub, thorn, or dry deciduous forests or short
grasslands (Manakadan and Rahmani 2000; Rodgers et al.
2000; Vanak 2005). Indian Foxes avoid dense forest, steep
terrain, tall grasslands and true desert (Prater 1980; Johnsingh
and Jhala 2004). Recent surveys indicate that though the
species is widespread, it is not common through most of its
range and is encountered at highest frequencies in protected
semi-arid short grasslands and dry scrub areas (Vanak 2003,
2005; Vanak and Gompper 2007). Although these habitats
rank among the most endangered in India (Rahmani 1989)
and are subject to constant human encroachment, they are
rarely the focus of conservation attention. Moreover, these
habitats have been categorised as wastelands by various land
management agencies and are subject to intense pressure to
be transformed into agricultural and pastoral landscapes (http:/
/dolr.nic. in/wasteland. htm accessed on January 28, 2008).
In the southern Indian states, Indian Fox habitats are
decreasing, and the continued survival of the species is
seriously threatened (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004). Despite a
reported presence in some protected areas (PAs), most
populations of this species remain outside the PA network
(Vanak 2005). In the absence of systematic proactive efforts
for its conservation, this species might suffer a substantial
reduction in potential habitat, affecting its future survival.
We thus developed a gap analysis of the protection currently
afforded to Fox distribution areas in the southern Indian states
of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION
Gap analysis is a proactive approach to planning timely
action for species conservation that focuses on evaluating
the degree to which native species are represented in PAs.
Species not adequately represented in the existing PA network
constitute ‘gaps’ in the conservation program. Gap analysis is
intended to prevent additional species from becoming threatened
or endangered, and in this sense is proactive, rather than reactive
(Scott etal. 1993; Flather et al. 1997; Davis etal. 1998).
Mapping the distribution of a species exhaustively
through on-ground surveys would be prohibitively expensive
and time-consuming, if not simply impossible. The alternative
used here is that occurrence data available from regions
sampled in detail can be used to reconstruct the species’ overall
distributions using Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM)
(Peterson and Kluza 2003; Peterson 2005). The ecological
niche of a species can be defined as the set of ecological
conditions within which it is able to maintain populations
without immigration (Grinnell 1917; Holt and Gaines 1992).
Several approaches have been used to approximate species’
ecological niches ( Austin et al. 1 990; Walker and Cocks 1991;
Scott et al. 1996; Scott et al. 2002); of these, one that has
seen considerable testing is the Genetic Algorithm for Rule-
set Prediction (GARP), which includes several inferential
approaches in an iterative, evolutionary computing
environment (Stockwell and Peters 1999). All modelling in
this study was carried out on a desktop implementation of
the GARP algorithm (Stockwell and Noble 1992; http://
www.lifemapper.org/desktopgarp).
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Ecological Niche Modelling (ENM) has been used in
numerous applications and subjected to various tests, based
on diverse analytical approaches (Miller 1994; Csuti 1996;
Tucker etal. 1997; Gottfried etal. 1999; Manel etal. 1999a,b).
The particular approach to modelling species’ ecological
niches and predicting geographic distributions used here
(summarised below) is described in detail elsewhere
(Stockwell and Peters 1999; Peterson et al. 2002). Previous
tests of the predictive power of this modelling technique for
diverse phenomena in various regions have been recorded
elsewhere (Peterson 2001; Peterson et al. 1999; Peterson et
al. 2002; Peterson and Vieglais 2001; Anderson et al. 2002,
2003; Stockwell and Peterson 2002).
GARP works in an iterative process of rule selection,
evaluation, testing and incorporation or rejection: first, a
method is chosen from a set of possibilities (e.g. logistic
regression, bioclimatic rules), and is then applied to the
training data, and a rule is developed; rules may evolve by a
number of means (e.g. truncation, point changes, crossing-
over among rules) to maximise predictability. The predictive
accuracy is then evaluated based on 1,250 points resampled
with replacement from the intrinsic testing data and
1,250 points sampled randomly from the study region as a
whole to represent pseudo-absences. GARP is designed to
work based on presence-only data; missing information is
included in the modelling via sampling of pseudo-absence
points from the set of pixels where the species has not been
detected (Stockwell and Peters 1999). The change in
predictive accuracy from one iteration to the next is used to
evaluate whether a particular rule should be incorporated into
the model, and the algorithm runs either 1,000 iterations or
until convergence.
We used 58 unique point occurrences of the Indian Fox
sampled from the states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Maharashtra, in 2003 and 2005 (Vanak 2003, 2005) (Fig. 1)
for analysis. We used ‘monthly’ composites of the maximum
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) images from
the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
satellite (Eidenshink and Faundeen 1994) for 2003, as well
as elevation, slope, aspect and Compound Topographic Index
(CTI) from the Hydro- IK data set (USGS 2001) and a global
landcover coverage (Hansen et al. 1998, 2000). All
environmental datasets were resampled to pixels of about
1 km x 1 km for analysis.
Table 1: Bioclimatic variables used for refining the distribution
of the Indian Fox in the two southern states
50
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION
Fig. 1 : Predicted distribution of Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis in
India based on NDVI and topographic variables
Note: The Model over-predicts distribution in some areas,
such as north east India and Kashmir, where the
species is not reported to occur
An arbitrary set of 100 model runs was developed for
each analysis. In general, 25% ( c . 14 points) of available
occurrences were used for rule development (training data)
and 25% (c. 14 points) for rule selection and refinement
(intrinsic testing data), and the remaining 50% (c. 29 points)
point locations were set aside for an independent test and
filter of best quality models (extrinsic testing data). To choose
the best models from among the 100 replicates, we filtered
models on the basis of omission and commission error
Table 2: Predicted distribution of Indian Fox Vulpes bengalensis
across landcover types in India
estimates, following recent recommendations (Anderson
et al. 2003). First, 20 models with 0% omission errors were
chosen, and of these 10 models within the central 50% of the
commission values were selected as the best models.
To provide an independent validation of model
performance, we randomly created four independent
replicates of 40 point locations each from the original data
set (n= 58). The remaining 18 points of each of these replicates
were set aside for an independent test of the predictive
accuracy for each replicate. Coincidence between independent
testing points and model predictions for each replicate was
used as a measure of model predictive ability. Binomial tests
were used to compare the observed predictive success with
that expected under random (null) models of no association
between predictions and test points. The test results are in
the form of a ‘ramp’ of model agreement from 0 (all models
predict absence of 18 validation points) to 10 (all models
predict presence of 1 8 validation points). Therefore, for each
replicate, we calculated binomial probabilities at each of the
10 predictive levels (Anderson et al. 2003).
To characterise modelled distributions further, based
on the existing knowledge of the species’ habitat preferences,
we overlaid the predicted Fox distribution on a global
landcover data set (Hansen et al. 1998, 2000) for all of
mainland India and calculated proportions of landcover types
within the predicted distribution.
Since the potential distribution of the Indian Fox is
limited in southern India and is decreasing, given growing
urbanisation, change in land use patterns and human-induced
disturbance (Johnsingh and Jhala 2004), we developed a gap
analysis for the species with respect to the PA network within
the states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. We obtained PA
boundaries for the two states and updated/corrected them
using topographic maps. We repeated the modelling process
by restricting ourselves only to the geographic limits of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh to limit overprediction. We
additionally incorporated 19 ‘bioclimatic’ variables (Hijmans
et al. 2004) in the analysis to improve the algorithm’s
resolving power and to obtained a refined estimate of the
Fox distribution within the two states. We then overlaid
existing PA boundaries to determine gaps in the protection of
Indian Fox habitat. The reason we have done this for only
these two states is that this is where the majority of the data
comes from, and this allows us to better represent Fox
distribution within a smaller geographic area. We believe the
coarser analysis at a larger scale allows us to delimit the
broader distribution of the species at a countrywide level,
while the refined analysis allows us to overcome the inherent
over-prediction of GARP distribution for gap analysis at the
state level.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
51
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION
Fig. 2: Predicted distribution of Indian Fox Vulpes bengatensis in India based on NDVI and topographic variables
RESULTS
We used model stacking to combine the results of the
10 best models for predicting the distribution of the Indian
Fox. Independent validation of the predictive success of these
models ranged from 1 1 to 18 correctly predicted occurrences
out of the 18 testing points for each of the four replicates.
Binomial probabilities at each of the 10 predictive levels in
all cases (4 replicate tests x 10 predictive levels each) were
significantly better than random (binomial tests, all P « 0.05).
This success in predicting independent tests of occurrence
data gave confidence in the model accuracy; as a result, we
used all available points to develop final models (Fig. 1).
Further exploration of these final models illustrated the
species’ potential distribution in ecological dimensions. The
Indian Fox occupies an elevation range of 100-900 m with
low rainfall (500-1,000 mm) and moderate annual mean
temperatures (25-30 °C). Peak NDVI values of the post-
monsoon season (0.5-0. 8) correspond closely to areas holding
wooded grasslands, scrub and thorn forest systems. Cross-
tabulating the predicted distribution with landcover data
showed that ‘open scrub forest' (50%) and ‘grassland and
tropical thorn forest’ (47%) were the dominant representative
landcover types within the species’ distributional area
(Table 2). Focusing within Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
and adding in the bioclimatic variables, the predicted distribution
of the species was further refined to 4,70,951 sq. km (9%) of
the total area of the states (Table 3, Fig. 2).
Overlaying the protected area network of the two states
on the refined distribution map revealed that only seven PAs
Table 3: Area statistics of Indian Fox Vulpes bengatensis
distribution in the states of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, India
52
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION
coincided with some part of the predicted range, protecting
approximately 588 sq. km (c. 1%) of the species’ potential
distribution.
DISCUSSION
The predicted range of the Indian Fox developed here
agrees well with current knowledge of the species’ distribution
(Johnsingh and Jhala 2004). It excludes regions such as the
Himalaya, the deserts of Rajasthan and the hill ranges of the
Western and Eastern Ghats, from where the species has never
been reported (Gompper and Vanak 2006) (Fig. 1). Despite
the geographically limited sampling (limited areas in three
states from peninsular India), the model performed well in
capturing the species’ ecological niche, as well as its
geographic distribution, across a much broader region. Studies
elsewhere have demonstrated a similar predictive performance
of the GARP algorithm based on small numbers of training
locations (Peterson 2001; Anderson etal. 2003; Peterson and
Kluza 2003).
Our original models (NDVI and topography ) predicted
about 46% area of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh as suitable
(Table 3) while the analysis using an additional 19 variables
permitted us to refine distributional estimates for this species,
reducing it to 20% of the total extent of the states as the
potentially suitable range. This analysis confirmed that low
elevation grasslands, open scrub forest and tropical thorn
forest constitute the bulk of the distribution of this species.
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It is therefore clear that key habitats for the Indian Fox
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only for the Indian Fox but also for other obligate dry
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first author was supported by a Wildlife
Conservation Society-India Program Small Grant, and
logistic support was provided by the Centre for Wildlife
Studies, Bangalore. The second author acknowledges the
support of the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India, and the Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
state forest departments for permits. The Ford Foundation
and the Indo-US Science and Technology Forum provided
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54
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(1), Jan-Apr 2008
55-63
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW TUPAIA N1COBARICA ZELEBOR 1869
ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND, INDIA
Meera Anna Oommen1 and Kartik Shanker2
'Centre for Herpetology/Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Post Bag 4, Mamallapuram 603 104, Tamil Nadu, India.
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
Current Address: Dakshin Foundation, 88/3, Samvriddhi Gardenia Bytarayanpura, Bengaluru 560092, and Ashoka Trust for Research
in Ecology and the Environment, No. 659, 5,h ‘A’ Main Road, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560 024, Karnataka. India.
Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru 560 012, Karnataka, India and
Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India.
Email: [email protected]. in; [email protected]
The Nicobar treeshrew Titpaia nicobarica is an endemic mammal restricted in its distribution to Great and Little
Nicobar islands in the Andaman Sea. This article aims to report basic information on the ecology and behaviour as
well as a preliminary population assessment of this species on Great Nicobar Island. Nicobar treeshrews spend more
than 60% of the day foraging, followed by resting or sleeping ( 1 2%). The proportion of time spent on major activities
was significantly different across different time periods, with much of the feeding activity in the mornings and evenings.
Nicobar treeshrews were observed largely solitarily or as breeding pairs. Observations on mating, aggression and
vocalisation are also reported. Most of the ecological and behavioural traits are shared with one or more species of
Tupaia in the region. Observations on this species point to its extreme arboreality in comparison to other Tupaia. The
species also exhibited a high degree of insectivory during the study period. A combination of these two traits makes
this species one among a handful of nonvolant foliage gleaning insectivorous small mammals that exist in the world
today. The species was observed in moderate numbers both in the littoral forests as well as in the rainforests in the
interior of the island. Although formally classified as endangered (on account of its restricted range), the species is
common locally. The current status of the species seems to be stable in the Great Nicobar Island which has some of the
best preserved forests in India.
Key words: activity pattern, social organisation, arboreality, population assessment, breeding pairs, solitary individuals
INTRODUCTION
Treeshrews (Order Scandentia, Family Tupaiidae) are
a group of tropical small mammals found in South and
Southeast Asia. Treeshrews have been previously classified
under different orders including Primates and Insectivora, and
are considered by some to resemble primitive mammals.
Currently they are classified under the Order Scandentia
(Family Tupaiidae) and includes 19 species distributed among
five genera (Anderson and Jones 1984). Molecular evidence
supports their clustering as a separate order but places
Scandentia along with Lagomorpha (which belongs to the
cohort Glires, a sister group of Primates) ( Schmitz etol. 2000).
Treeshrews also belong to one of the four superordinal clades
(rodents, primates, flying lemurs and lagomorphs) (Murphy
et al. 2001). The present classification of treeshrews
recognises two subfamilies: Tupaiinae (including the genera
Tupaia, Anathana, Dendrogale and Urogale), and
Ptilocercinae (with the genus Ptilocercus) (Luckett 1980;
Wilson 1993). Zoogeographic, systematic and behavioural
investigations concerning many of the species are ongoing.
Although a large number of laboratory studies on captive
Treeshrews have been carried out, field observations have
been limited to a few studies (D’Souza and Martin 1974;
Chorazyna and Kurup 1975; Kawamichi and Kawamichi
1979; Langham 1982; Dans 1993; Emmons 2000; Oommen
2002). Recent studies on the ecology and behaviour of these
species have yielded many insights into their ecology
including the unique absentee parental care system (Emmons
2000). Many tupaiids survive in tropical forests where human
activities are increasing and, therefore, efforts need to be made
to understand their status, ecology and behaviour in order to
frame management guidelines and strategies for their
conservation.
Treeshrews are entirely confined to South and Southeast
Asia, and the latter region has the largest number of species.
Of the three species found in South Asia, two are confined to
the mainland, namely the Madras Treeshrew (Ananthana
ellioti Waterhouse 1 849) in peninsular India and the Northern
Treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri Wagner 1841) in north-east
India extending into Myanmar. The Nicobar Treeshrew
T. nicobarica is a small tupaiid with a restricted range and is
found only on two islands (Little and Great Nicobar islands
with an area of 150 sq. km and 995 sq. km respectively) in
the Andaman Sea. Two subspecies have been described:
T. nicobarica nicobarica Zelebor, 1 869 (on Great Nicobar
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
Island) and T. nicobarica surda Miller 1902 (on Little Nicobar
Island).
The Nicobar Treeshrew (henceforth Treeshrew) has
been classified as ‘Endangered’ in the World Conservation
Union - IUCN's Red List of Threatened Species (CBSG
CAMP Workshop, India 2000). Here, we present results from
the first field study of the Treeshrew, summarising findings
on the ecology and behaviour of the species. We also compare
the ecology and key behavioural characteristics of this species
with other treeshrew species that have been studied elsewhere
in the Southeast Asian region. Finally, we present a
preliminary population assessment of the species.
STUDY AREA
The Andaman and Nicobar islands are situated in the
Bay of Bengal between India and Myanmar and run parallel
to the coast of Myanmar. Geologically, they are the summits
of a submarine mountain range lying on the great tectonic
suture zone extending from the eastern Himalaya to the
Arakan coast and to Sumatra and the Lesser Sundas. The
Nicobars are separated from the Andaman group by the Ten
Degree Channel, and the biogeographical characteristics of
these islands are an intermixture of the two biogeographic
hotspots that border each other in the region. In terms of
primary affinities, the flora and fauna of the Andaman Islands
are similar to that of the closest biogeographical unit, the
Indo-Burma hotspot. The Nicobar Islands form a part of the
Sundaland hotspot (Davis et al. 1995). However, these
affinities are also taxa dependent, as studies on groups such
as birds and plants have shown (Elwes 1873; Ripley and
Beehler 1989; Davis et al. 1995).
The Great Nicobar Island, with an area of 995 sq. km
is situated at 6° 45'-7° 15’ N, 93° 38'-93° 55’ E in the Bay of
Bengal. It is the southern most island of the Nicobar
Archipelago, and is separated from the rest of the group by
the Sombrero Channel. Temperatures in the Nicobar group
of islands range from 22 °C to 32 °C, and the mean annual
rainfall varies from 300 cm in the south to 380 cm in the
northern region. April is the hottest month. The area comes
under the influence of the South-west monsoon from late May;
January, February and March are comparatively dry. The
island is subject to occasional gales and cyclonic storms.
Unlike other islands in the archipelago. Great Nicobar has
perennial rivers (Alexandria, Dagmar and Galathea).
Although politically a part of India, the geographical
proximity of the island is to the South-east Asian region. The
biogeographic affinities (primarily floristic affinities) are to
a large part to that region. The distance from the southern tip
(Indira Point) of Great Nicobar to the mainland of Sumatra is
approximately 100 km. The Nicobar islands host a highly
diverse flora and fauna, many of which, including the Nicobar
Treeshrew, are endemic. Other endemics include a subspecies
of Wild Pig and the Crab-eating Macaque. Species level
endemism is high, but many genera and families, including
those of the Treeshrews are shared with the nearby island of
Sumatra and much of Southeast Asia. Recent estimates of
natural vegetation cover on Great Nicobar range from 86%
to 93.5%, and although only a small percentage of forests
has been lost till date, habitat conversion poses potential
dangers to the island (Sankaran 1997; Gupta et al. 2004).
This study was carried out in areas within and adjacent
to the Galathea National Park on Great Nicobar Island. The
intensive study area was a small 5 sq. km patch of littoral
forest where it was easy to locate and observe the animals.
Basic population assessment surveys were also carried out in
other areas of the island excluding the northern part. These
included sites with both littoral as well as inland evergreen
rainforest. Specific localities that were surveyed include
Galathea, Indira Point and surrounding areas on the
southernmost tip of the island, Kophen Heat and surrounding
areas and the East- West Road to Shompen Hut.
The intensive study area was characterised by lower
forests of littoral woodland. Mangroves and Pandanus
vegetation was adjacent to the beach and further away mixed
evergreen forests intruded into the patch. Dominant species
in these mixed littoral forests included Pandanus leram var.
andamanensium, P. odoratissimus, Thespesia populnea,
Barringtonia asiatica, Pongamia pinnata, Artocarpus
gomeziana. Terminalia cattapa, T. bialata, and Lagerstoemia
ovalifolia. The interior evergreen rainforests had a luxuriant
canopy with tall evergreen trees including Calophyllum
soulattri, Sterculia macrophylla, Planchonella firma,
Palaquim semarum and Knema andamanica.
METHODS
The field study was carried out in the Galathea National
Park of Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve between October
2001 and February 2002. The Treeshrews were common in
closed canopy forests and were easily located by their loud
piercing calls. Space utilisation and behavioural observations
were made mostly by instantaneous scans covering a period
of 25 hours. A minimum target for each 3 hour time period of
the day (0500-0800 hrs, 0800-1 100 hrs, 1 100-1 400 hrs, 1400-
1700 hrs) was 60 scans. Sunrise and sunset were at
approximately 0500 hrs and 1700 hrs respectively (Great
Nicobar Island follows Indian Standard Time). During each
sampling period, the activity of the animal/ animals was noted
at 3 or 5 minute intervals, picked randomly. These data were
56
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
resting / sleeping
12%
foraging
57%
mating chases
4%
moving
9%
feeding
11%
N = 384
aggressive
interactions -
interspecific
3%
aggressive
interactions -
intraspecific
1%
mating events
1%
scent marking
(value <1%)
Fig. 1 : Overall activity budget of the Nicobar Treeshrew
utilised to determine the proportion of time the animals spent
in general activities such as foraging, resting and moving.
Instantaneous scan periods covered 25 hours, and the activity
was recorded for approximately 360 scans (28 sessions).
Focal animal sampling was also carried out to accurately
record rare events, and to identify behavioural traits that were
difficult to detect during instantaneous scans. These included
recording actual feeding successes, mating, grooming, scent
marking and interactions with same or different species. Focal
animal sampling data were collected for a total of 6 hours
24 minutes.
Population assessment was carried out in selected sites
on the island. Distance constrained sampling was carried out
in six sites, (three in the southern part, two in the western
part, and one in the east central part of the island). Transects
were walked in the morning on good weather days along
existing roads and trails. The total distance covered was
21.3 km. Locating animals in both the dense canopy rainforest
as well as the coastal forests was easy as Treeshrews call
frequently, and their presence is also indicated by that of
Greater Racket-tailed Drongo (these birds also call
characteristically), which exhibit commensal feeding. All calls
and sightings were recorded along with sighting angles and
perpendicular distances. Initial population estimates are
represented as encounter rates based on call counts.
Body measurements were available only from a single
dead individual. Body measurements included head and body
length (HB), measured as the length from the tip of the nose
to the anus, tail length (T) measured from anus to tip of tail
excluding protruding tail hairs and hind foot length (HF) or
length from heel to longest toe excluding claws.
RESULTS
Morphology
Treeshrews resemble squirrels in general appearance
but have different distinguishing features, the most distinct
being their long snouts with an absence of vibrissae and
typical dentition (the dental formula is i2/3, cl/1, pm3/3,
m3/3 * 2 = 38). T. nicobarica resembles T. glis in appearance.
The dorsal portion from the nape to tail tip is uniformly dark
brown to russet in colour, there are no prominent facial or
shoulder markings, the region from the nape to snout is lighter
brown, and so are the limbs. The underside is much paler in
comparison to the dorsal portion. Measurements of a
single adult male were obtained: HB = 135 mm;
T = 180 mm; HF = 28 mm; weight = approx. 80 g. The skull
and jaws of the specimen which we found were crushed and
too disfigured to take exact measurements. T. nicobarica is
likely to be the smallest among the three South
Asian Treeshrews and also likely to be among the smallest
tupaiids.
Activity patterns
Instantaneous scan data were analysed to construct a
behavioural repertoire of the species. Treeshrews spend more
than 60% of the day foraging (feeding or searching for food)
followed by resting or sleeping (12%), but it is important to
note here that for a 12 hour span, this amounts to 10 hours
34 minutes of activity and only 1 hour 26 minutes of actual
resting time (Table 1). Focal animal sampling provided
information on other activities such as actual feeding events,
mating, grooming, scent marking and interspecific
interactions. The activity patterns of breeding pairs were on
the whole similar to those of solitary individuals; pairs rested
more often than solitary individuals and mostly after mating
Table 1: Activity patterns during different sampling periods
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
57
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
(Table 2, Fig. 1). Resting activity of solitary individuals was
mostly during rains. The number of actual recorded feeding
events was also lower for pairs as they devoted attention to
mating and associated activities.
The proportion of time spent under major activities
(foraging, feeding, resting, moving and mating activities)
was significantly different across different time periods
(%2 = 76.20, p < 0.05, df = 15). As expected, foraging activity
was more during morning and evening scans, i.e. soon after
the animals came out or just before they retired. Resting or
sleeping was recorded almost entirely in the late morning or
afternoon scans. Bad weather affected foraging activities
adversely; the animals were less active during rain than in
sunny weather (%2 = 28.28, p < 0.05., df = 6). There was an
increase in resting activity and decrease in combined foraging
and feeding activities during rainy weather (N=384)
(Fig. 2).
Resting during daylight hours could be classified into
two types: the animals pausing while foraging, usually sitting
still on branches (average duration = 25 seconds, n=5); and
longer resting periods involving solitary individuals or
breeding pairs curling up on branches and sleeping for longer
periods of time (average duration 13 minutes). Breeding pairs
rested more often, and soon after mating. The average diurnal
resting time (for long periods of rest) calculated for the study
period was 1 hour 26 minutes for all individuals put together,
1 hour 12 minutes for solitary animals and 1 hour and
48 minutes for breeding pairs. These values incorporate
resting periods for the rainy days that occurred during the
study also. The animals rested comfortably on branches below
vine-covered canopies or subcanopies with their tails curled
around the body, staying motionless and evidently sleeping.
Some daytime resting sites were used repeatedly by the
Treeshrews. Sleeping animals were extremely well camouflaged
Table 2: Activity patterns of solitary individuals and breeding pairs
sunny
cloudy
& drizzle
□ foraging
■ feeding
□ resting / sleeping
B moving
N = 341
Fig. 2: Activity patterns of the Nicobar Treeshrew in
relation to weather
and could only be spotted when they moved or while grooming.
On two occasions, after copulation, the male was observed on
top of the female ( in the same position ) for more than 1 0 minutes.
Breeding pairs rested more often. Single resting sessions of
animals lasted for up to 39 minutes. Some of the resting sites
were exposed branches. However, it is suspected that these
animals spent the nights in the thick foliage of Pandanus
species that are found in abundance in the littoral forests of
the island. No nest sites were discovered during the study,
and there is no available information about the nesting of
T. nicobarica.
Social organisation and other behavioural observations
It was observed that T. nicobarica moved solitarily or
in pairs. Out of 3 1 1 instantaneous scans, 138 were of breeding
pairs, 168 of solitary individuals and four were of two
individuals of the same sex. Breeding pairs interacted often
and it is suspected that they are monogamous. Individuals
rested very close to each other, either with the nose of one
individual touching the base of the tail of the other, or one on
top of the other. It was not discovered if pairs spent the night
at the same or nearby roost sites. However, it was noticed
that before retiring for the night mating individuals called
repeatedly to each other and moved away together in the same
general direction.
Six mating events were recorded during scans (three
more were recorded out of scan periods). The average duration
of mating was approximately 16 seconds. Breeding pairs
could be easily identified as males usually chased females
while foraging and tried to mount them. The pairs seemed to
be monogamous, and during one scan period the pair mated
thrice within 5 minutes. Females showed aggression during
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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
Table 3: Encounter rates from different parts of Great Nicobar Island
mating. Both the male and female occasionally clambered
over each other immediately after mating. Pairs usually rested
or slept after mating.
One set of aggressive interactions was observed
between two males. An approaching male disturbed a male
that was feeding on insects on cane buds and the latter was
chased away. The intruder was chased a long way (more than
20 m) after both animals confronted each other in close
contact, screaming loudly. This interaction was bloodless and
was repeated a couple of times before the intruder retreated.
Females sometimes showed aggressive behaviour during
mating. After copulation, some females tried to push the male
away and scolded loudly. Aggression with other species was
demonstrated only with bird species in the feeding
association. Feeding individuals sometimes screamed,
scolded and chased both drongos and sparrow-hawks that
infringed on prey that was flushed.
Scent marking was a frequently observed behaviour.
They frequently rubbed their ano-genital region on branches.
Chest and chin marking was observed once during scans.
Scent marking was observed 1 5 times for a total scan period
of two hours. The male was also seen urinating on the
female on one occasion following mating. Pairs usually
rubbed against each other, especially with the chest and
chin.
T. nicobarica was observed to call frequently and to
make different types of vocalisations. These included single
noted squeals while solitary animals were foraging and
moving from place to place, continuous alarm calls in the
form of squeaks in the presence of predators, loud two or
three noted shrieks of protest while feeding with birds or other
individuals and calls of contact between individuals of a
breeding pair.
Population Assessment
Encounter rates were recorded along transects in some
accessible parts of the island (Table 3). Ninety-eight
individuals were recorded over a distance of 21.3 km. The
majority of individuals were located by their calls. Only 2%
of the records are sightings where the animals were spotted
before being heard. Therefore, absolute encounter rates are
likely to be underestimates, but will serve for a broad level
relative comparison between localities. The largest number
of individuals were recorded in the rainforests in the central
part of the island (6.25/km). The littoral forests in the southern
part of the island had lower encounter rates.
DISCUSSION
Activity patterns
Emmons (2000) reports that the Tupaia species rested
sporadically after being completely active during the first
two hours of the morning and the same could be said of
T. nicobarica as well.
The time of the day had an effect on the activities of
the animals, as did bad weather. On days when there was
heavy rain early in the morning, the Treeshrews delayed their
foraging activities. A light drizzle, however, did not prevent
them from foraging in the morning hours, probably because
they could not afford to rest without feeding following a long
night's fast. Treeshrews in Borneo are also known to respond
in a similar manner during adverse weather conditions
(Emmons 2000).
Tupaia are known to be active only during the day, and
this was true of T. nicobarica also. The individuals in the
study area were observed to be active from dawn to dusk
(0507 hrs to 1730 hrs) (Table 1). It may be noted that the
approximate sunrise and sunset times were 0500 and 1700 hrs
respectively (Great Nicobar although considerably east of the
mainland India follows Indian Standard Time). On some days
initial calls were heard only well after the sun had risen but
on most occasions the animals foraged frantically at dusk
well after 1700 hrs. The emergence time in the morning was
delayed if there was heavy rain. Tupaia in Borneo are known
to leave their nests at dawn, but evening return times varied
with feeding periods and weather conditions (Emmons 2000).
For T. minor in West Malaysia, D’Souza and Martin (1974)
report different results with late emergence times, except for
days after heavy rainfall, when they emerged very early to
forage.
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
59
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
Reproductive Behaviour
No information on the reproductive activity other than
observations of mating could be obtained during the study
period. Treeshrews are known to exhibit the ‘absentee’
maternal care system, which was first observed for captive
T. belangeri (Martin 1968) and later for captive T. minor and
T. tana (D’Souza and Martin 1974). This practice was also
recorded among wild T. tana in Borneo (Emmons 2000). The
significant feature of this system is the mother gives birth to
her young ones in a separate nest and visits them only for a
few seconds every other day to nurse. The young ones huddle
and lie motionless and noiselessly in the nest to preserve body
heat. They feed hysterically (almost 1/3 rd their body weight
in milk) when the mother discreetly returns for a few seconds.
The young ones also groom themselves from time to time as
the mother does not spend any effort in cleaning or looking
after them. The nests are clean and are known not to have
any particular odour that might attract predators, and the
mother is also known to return to the nest cautiously and
using different pathways usually in the early hours of the
morning, when few predators are about. The young grow
rapidly owing to the highly nutritious nature of Treeshrew
milk (which is known to be second only to seals’ milk in
terms of fat content). They are weaned and leave the nest in
25 to 33 days, after which the mother spends time with them
grooming them and providing them with food. The nesting
and post-partum behaviour of this species seem to be directed
at predator avoidance. Emmons (2000) describes this pattern
in detail.
It is likely that T. nicobarica also follows such an
‘absentee’ system, but no information is available. The litter
size of a single T. nicobarica individual has been reported to
be one (Lyon 1913). Although mating events were recorded
between November and February, it is not clear if this reflects
a more seasonal pattern. Tupaia species in Borneo had a broad
breeding season from August to November and a second one
from March to May and breeding is reported to be highly
related to availability of fruit and invertebrate prey (Emmons
2000). In contrast to captive situations, wild treeshrews show
low overall reproduction rates, probably due to nutritional
limitations (Langham 1982; Emmons 2000).
It may be suggested here that T. nicobarica also possibly
exhibits the ‘solitary ranging pair' system reported by
Kawamichi and Kawamichi (1979) for T. glis (= belangeri)
and probably the Bornean Treeshrews. This refers to a social
system where solitary animals that form a monogamous pair
form a territory and defend it against other individuals of its
own gender (the Type I or facultative monogamy described
by Kleinman 1977. This pattern has been reported among a
number of mammals including nocturnal prosimians, pikas.
elephant shrews and Maned Wolf (Emmons 2000). Like
T. minor, T. nicobarica pairs also sometimes spent the whole
day foraging and resting together. This is unlike other Tupaia
species that interact briefly. The pairs rested together during
the day, but unlike T. minor that rested far apart on the same
trees, T. nicobarica seem to be strongly pair-bonded and rested
close together.
Other Behavioural Observations
Adults are known to scent mark branches, tree stumps
and rocks either by rubbing their ano-genital region (with
urine) or the chest and chin (in males, there is a musky and
oily secretion from a glandular area in the neck). While urine
markings lose their effect on conspecifics in a matter of
minutes, mingling with the neck gland secretion usually cause
them to persist for hours or days (Thenius 1990). Parent
T. belangeri are known to scent mark their young ones to
recognise their offspring during aggressive encounters with
conspecifics (von Holst 1974). Stress caused to the mother
prior to or during delivery sometimes results in the protective
scents not being applied and devouring of the offspring by
the mother (Thenius 1990). Stress and related aspects such
as hormonal changes in captive treeshrews have been
extensively studied for understanding the biology of stress in
humans and other primates (von Holst 1974).
T. nicobarica are generally very alert animals. They
are difficult to locate when they are silent, but contrary to
what Emmons (2000) reports for some Bornean Treeshrews,
the study animals called loudly and frequently, and as a result
they were easily located. They were also not easily alarmed
unless the investigator got too close. Natural predators for
this animal in this area are few, as wild cats, mustelids, viverids
or other mammalian carnivores are absent. In the study area,
treeshrews were noticed to be alarmed in the presence of Crab-
eating Macaques Macaca fascicularis umbrosa. Reticulated
Pythons Python molurus and human-beings. It is possible that
they are predated on by Crested-serpent Eagles Spilornis
cheela and the young ones could be preyed on by small
raptors, reticulated pythons and rats that are found in the
island. Domestic cats belonging to settlers have been known
to predate on the Treeshrews. The species exhibited a unique
interspecific feeding association with Greater Racket Tailed
Drongos Dicrurus paradiseus and an Accipiter (probably
Chinese Sparrow-hawk, Accipiter soloensis) (Oommen and
Shanker, in review). On many occasions, the Sparrow-hawk
and Greater Racket-tailed Drongos were seen waiting a few
feet away from resting Treeshrews, and it is also possible
that these animals benefit from the alarm calls of the birds if
predators approach. However, neither Drongos nor Sparrow-
hawks made any alarm calls indicating the presence of people.
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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
On many occasions it was suspected that Greater
Racket-tailed Drongos were mimicking Treeshrew calls
possibly to detect and join the latter. Emmons (2000) reports
of a strange similarity between the alarm calls of T. minor,
and T. gracilis with those of terrestrial pittas ( Pitta baudi,
P. venusta ), but speculates this is a convergent trait. Alarm
calls were reported to be frequent in the more social species
such as Ptilocercus lowii, T. minor (Emmons 2000) and
T. nicobarica and this may be related to predator detection
strategies. Eight different vocalisations have been identified in
Tupaia by Binz and Zimmerman (1989). These include loud
‘squeals’ of aggression, modulating ‘screams’ to indicate
immediate danger, ‘chatters’ in response to disturbances and
rhythmic ‘clucking’ and ‘whistles’ associated with courtship
and mating.
T. nicobarica was observed to be a highly arboreal,
diurnal and mostly insectivorous species during the period
that it was studied. The most primitive living treeshrew
(Ptilocerus lowii) is strictly arboreal and so is T. minor , which
is similar in many ways to the study species (including the
nearby island of Sumatra). However, the high arboreality of
the Lesser Treeshrew T. minor is somewhat debated. Emmons
(2000) did not observe the species on the ground, whereas
D’ Souza and Martin (1974) reported 11% of his sightings on
the ground. Arboreality seems to be an ancestral trait among
treeshrews. Arboreal Tupaia are, however, known to be more
frugivorous. Initial results indicate a very pronounced
insectivorous diet for the species. Only a handful of non-
volant mammal species are known to forage arboreally for
insects. From the present study, it appears that T. nicobarica
is one of them.
On account of its high arboreality, insectivory and
higher sociability, it would be interesting to investigate if
T. nicobarica is an intermediary between P lowi and T. minor.
Further studies on this species may lead to solving questions
about arboreality, insectivory and absentee parental care
systems, all of which in turn could throw light on their
radiation patterns. The present viewpoint is that Ptilocercus ,
with its cohesive social behaviour, and arboreality could be
an antecedent of prosimians, but modern Tupaia seem to be
improbable ancestors of primates, as they seem to have
radiated terrestrially rather than arboreally and have different
parental care and feeding systems (Emmons 2000). The
foraging behaviour of T. nicobarica is almost identical to
that of T. minor as described by Emmons (2000). It moves
purposefully through the vegetation inspecting all types of
foliage, green or dry curled leaves, tree ferns, dead wood
and bark. Trees with a large number of climbers are often
visited and inspected carefully, very often the animal pauses
on its hind legs and pushing against twigs with the fore legs
and then leans out to investigates leaves above. The foraging
intensity is very high and sometimes the animals spend hours
on a single tree. The insect prey of T. nicobarica and T. minor
may be similar on account of the similarity in foraging
patterns and sites. Scats of T. minor examined by Emmons
(2000) contained Orthoptera of two kinds, crickets and
cockroaches (50%), beetles (21%), and caterpillars and
spiders ( 10%). Davis (1962) and Lim (1967) also found ants.
Emmons (2000) also reports that although the prey base is
extremely large (being tropical rainforests), T. minor
generally ate the most common non-flying or slow-to-fly
arthropods.
T. nicobarica is similar to T. minor in appearance,
arboreality and most of its behaviour. Therefore, it is possible
that the latter may be more frugivorous during some periods,
especially when fruiting peaks occur. A detailed study of the
phenophases of fruit trees may be required before conclusions
about the degree of frugivory of the species under study can
be reached. Emmons (2000) reports that the fruit eating
pattern in most species follows habitat-wide overall fruiting
phenologies and that during some months they were not
detected to be eating any fruits.
Conservation Status
On the basis of their geographical separation, two
subspecies have been recognised: T. nicobarica nicobarica
Zelebor 1 869 on Great Nicobar Island and T. nicobarica surda
Miller 1902 on Little Nicobar Island. Till date, molecular
studies have not been carried out to examine if these
populations are really distinct. The taxonomic references
available for T. nicobarica are (1) Cladobates nicobaricus
Zelebor 1869, Reise Novara, Zool. Theil., 1 : 17, pi. l.figs 1,
3 and pi. 2 (2) T. nicobarica Blanford (1888 - 91, p. 212)
Ellerman and Morrison-Scott ( 1951, p. 12). Napier and Napier
(1967, p. 330). (3) T. nicobarica surda Miller 1902, Proc.
U.S. Nat. Mus. 24 : 774.
T. nicobarica nicobarica and T. nicobarica surda have
been classified as endangered ( B 1 & 2C ) by the IUCN ( 1 995 ).
This status has been accorded due to the restricted distribution
of the species. The combined area of occupancy for the two
subspecies in The Great and Little Nicobar Islands put
together is less than 1,200 sq. km. No prior population
estimates were available for this species.
The numbers of T. nicobarica seem to be comparable
to those from Southeast Asia, but since the encounter rates
are underestimates, and since actual densities could not be
calculated, formal comparisons are not being made. The
densities of T. glis varied between 6-12 per ha in Thailand
(Lekagul and McNeely 1977) and 2-5 per ha in Malaysia
(Langham 1982). Emmons (2000) reports that for six species
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
61
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
of Bornean treeshrews, densities ranged from 0.13 to
1.2 individuals per ha.
There are no direct threats to the species at present.
The habitat of this species is presently well protected, and in
relative terms may be regarded as one of the least populated
and most pristine protected areas of the country (Oommen,
in press). The adequacy of the protected area network in this
area has been examined for taxonomic groups such as birds
(Sankaran 1997), and the some of the recommendations hold
true for endemic mammals such as the Nicobar Treeshrew.
For example, the need for protection of the southern part of
the island from development activities and the inclusion of
the buffer zone between the Campbell Bay and Galathea
National Park into the formal protected area network as
suggested by Sankaran (1997) would provide a large
contiguous patch of protected forest. The treeshrews are not
hunted; on the other hand Nicobari villagers keep some
individual as pets. However, owing to the highly arboreal
nature of the species, and due to recorded adverse effects on
a similar arboreal species (T. minor) to selective logging, it is
suggested that the canopy contiguity of the forests be maintained
to ensure the survival of this species. Also, introduced carnivores,
especially domestic cats are known to successfully predate on
T. nicobarica and might decimate local populations if the number
of human settlements increases. T. nicobarica may be regarded
as a species of high conservation importance for India, as it is
an endemic Tupaia and one of the three species of the narrowly
distributed and primitive order Scandentia.
Extensive areas in both the Great and Little Nicobar
islands were submerged and partially destroyed as a result
of the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 (Andrews
and Vaughan 2005). The intensive study area at the Galathea
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river mouth is believed to have been entirely flooded, and
the same applies for some of the other areas that were
surveyed. Although some amount of habitat alteration would
have taken place, it is likely that this species may not have
been adversely affected at least in the interior of Great
Nicobar, which has higher terrain. There have been some
unconfirmed reports that a great deal of wood will be
extracted from the forests to rebuild the destroyed settlements
in the area. Forest Department rules at this point of time are
likely to be relaxed and it may be inevitable that some amount
of trees will be cut for this purpose; as the number of
settlements is small, this activity may not cause significant
changes. T. nicobarica is of interest from biological and
conservation perspectives, and future studies and surveys
may provide interesting insights.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank Rauf Ali and Harry
Andrews for suggesting the study. The Andaman Nicobar
Environmental Team ( ANET) and the Madras Crocodile Bank
Trust generously supported this study with funds and arranged
logistics. Field assistants Saw Aghue and Saw Glen are
especially thanked for their contribution. We would also like
to acknowledge contributions by Mr. Khazan Singh,
Mr. Pratap Singh, Mr. Yesu Ratnam Nalli, Mr. Robert Pee
and staff of the Forest Department, Suresh Babu of Delhi
University, Manish Chandi, Shreyas Krishnan, John and
others at ANET and MCBT, Commdt. Sharad Sharma, and
Dr. Vinny Wilson of the Indian Coast Guard, Capt. Majumdar
of the MV Sentinel, Mr. Suresh Kumar, Mr. James, and the
late Mathe Budda of Kopen Heat.
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A.C. Walker (Eds): Prosimian Biology. Duckworth, London.
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of stress in Treeshrews. Nature (London) 251: 309-311.
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Zool. Soc. Lond. 1873: 645-682.
Emmons, L.H. (2000): Tupai: A Field Study of Bornean Treeshrews.
University of California Press, Berkeley.
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the tropical rainforest of Nicobar Islands: Indicators from land
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163-171.
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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND
IUCN (1995): Eurasian Insectivores and Tree Shrews - Status Survey
and Conservation Action Plan (Compiled by Stone, R.D., IUCN
/ SSC Insectivore, Tree Shrew and Elephant Shrew Specialist
Group). IUCN. Gland, Switzerland, vii + 108 pp.
Kawamichi, T. & M. Kawamichi ( 1 979): Spatial organisation and territory
of Tree Shrews Tupaia glis. Animal Behaviour 27 : 381-393.
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Biology 52: 39-69.
Langham, N.P.E. (1982): The ecology of the common tree shrew T. glis
in peninsular Malaysia. Journal of Zoology 197: 323-344.
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Lim, B.L. (1967): Note on the food habits of Ptilocercus lowii Gray
(Pentail Treeshrew) and Echinosorex gymnurus raffles Moonrat
in Malaya with remarks on ‘ecological labelling’ by parasite
patterns. J. Zool. Lond 152: 375-379.
Luckett, W.P. (1980): Comparative Biology and Evolutionary
Relationships of Treeshrews. Plenum Press, New York.
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Tupaiidae. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., U.S.A . 45: 1-188.
Martin, R.D. (1968): Reproduction and ontogeny in tree-shrews Tupaia
belangeri with reference to their general behaviour and
taxonomic relationships. Z. Tierpsychol 25: 409-532.
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S.J. O'brien (2001): Molecular phylogenetics and the origins of
placental mammals. Nature 409: 614-618.
Oommen, M.A. (2000): A short term study on the ecology and behaviour
of the Nicobar Treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica, Zelebor 1869) in
Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve, India. Report submitted to
the Andaman Nicobar Environmental Team and Madras
Crocodile Bank Trust.
Oommen, M.A. (in press): Treeshrews of India. In: Johnsingh, A.J.T. &
N. Manjrekar (Eds): Mammals of South Asia Universities Press,
Hyderabad, India.
Oommen, M.A. & K. Shanker (in review): Strange bedfellows:
commensal foraging associations of Treeshrews, Greater Racket-
tailed Drongos and Chinese Sparrowhawks on Great Nicobar
Island.
Ripley, S.D. & Bruce M. Beehler (1989): Ormthogeographic affinities
of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Journal of Biogeography
16(4): 323-332. doi: 10.2307/2845224
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Nicobar islands: The perspective of endemic avifauna.
Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 797-815.
Schmitz, J., M. Ohme& H. Zischler (2000): The complete mitochondrial
genome of Tupaia belangeri and the phylogenetic affiliation of
Scandentia to other eutherian orders. Mol. Biol. Evol 17:
1334-1343.
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Encyclopedia of Mammals. Vol. 2. McGraw Hill Inc.
von Holst, D. (1974): Social stress in the Treeshrew: its causes and
physiological and ethological consequences. Pp. 389-411. In:
Martin, R.D., G.A. Doyle & A.C. Walker (Eds): Prosimian
Biology. Duckworth, London.
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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
63
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
64-72
TIGER PREY IN A TROPICAL DRY FOREST: AN ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND
OF BIOMASS ESTIMATION DERIVED FROM DISTANCE SAMPLING
Raghunandan Singh Chundawat''2andKoustubh Sharma1-3
'Snow Leopard Trust, 4649 Sunnyside Avenue North, Suite #325, Seattle, WA 98103, USA.
2Email: [email protected]
•'Email: [email protected]
Data on animal and biomass densities of Tiger prey were collected using Distance Sampling in Panna Tiger Reserve,
India. Line transect surveys for Distance Sampling were conducted in 2000, 2001, 2003 and 2005 using different
approaches. Animal and biomass densities from 2003 are compared with estimates available from other reserves of the
Indian subcontinent. In Panna Tiger Reserve density of Tiger prey is estimated to be 46.32 animals /sq. km. Chital,
Nilgai and Sambar dominate the Tiger prey population of the Reserve. In terms of number of animals, Chital is the
most abundant followed by Nilgai and Sambar; however, Nilgai groups are the most frequently encountered prey. The
prey biomass density estimated for the Panna Tiger Reserve is 4,057 kg/sq. km. Most of the biomass is contributed by
two prey species, Nilgai and Sambar. The biomass density contribution of Chital and smaller prey is small compared
to other protected areas of the Subcontinent. In terms of the number of animals, contribution by large prey, medium
prey and smaller prey is almost equal in Panna. But in comparison to other Tiger habitats the contribution by Chital
and other medium prey in Panna Tiger Reserve is small, both in terms of the number of animals (39.24%) and of
biomass density (21.26%). However density estimates from Panna Tiger Reserve and other protected areas indicate
that Tropical Dry Forests, which are the largest Tiger habitat in the Subcontinent, can support fairly high prey populations
and sustain a viable Tiger population. In tropical forests, where ecological conditions vary drastically, February and
March appear to be the most suitable time for Distance Sampling. To minimise the errors encountered during the
surveys, a short sampling period with more lines, which are walked only once a day and repeated after a few days, is
suggested.
Key words: Tiger prey, ungulates, density estimation, line transect. Tropical Dry Forest. India
INTRODUCTION
The Tiger P anthem tigris occupies diverse habitats and
preys mainly on large ungulates (Schaller 1967; Sunquist
1981; Johnsingh 1983; Seidensticker and McDougal 1993;
Karanth and Sunquist 1995; Sunquist et al. 1999; Biswas
and Sanker 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003). Its abundance is
governed by the availability of its prey (Karanth et al. 2004;
Sunquist and Sunquist 1989). Recent studies indicate that
loss of prey is one of the major factors affecting the viability
of the Tiger populations (Karanth and Stith 1999); they
further indicate that a demographically viable Tiger
population can be protected, provided that its prey base is
managed intensively. Therefore, in order to save Tigers in
the wild, effective management of large herbivore
populations is a very important conservation issue in all Tiger
habitats. The Tropical Dry Forest is the largest Tiger habitat
in the Indian subcontinent, but very little quantitative
information is available from this ecosystem. This Tiger
habitat is highly fragmented (Wikramanayake et al. 1998)
and suffers from forest fires, poaching, competition with
livestock and loss of habitat and habitat quality (Panwar 1987;
Karanth 1991 ; Debroy 1996; Seidensticker 1997; Chundawat
et al. 1999; Chundawat and Gogate 2001). For effective
conservation measures to save Tigers in dry forests, intensive
management of prey populations requires strategies to
manage prey in densities that can support a demographically
viable Tiger population.
Estimation of large herbivore populations in the wild
has always been a very difficult task. In the past, various
approaches were used which lacked robust theoretical and
statistical basis (Schaller 1967; Eisenberg and Lockhart 1972;
Tamang 1982; Johnsingh 1983). But, in the last decade,
Distance Sampling using line transect surveys has been found
very useful for estimating biological populations (Burnham
et al. 1980; Buckland et al. 1993; Plumptre 2000; Anderson
et al. 2001; Buckland et al. 2001; Marques et al. 2001). In
India, Distance Sampling has been used widely in diverse
forest habitats for estimation of ungulate populations (Karanth
and Sunquist 1992; Khan et al. 1996; Biswas and Sanker
2002; Jathanna et al. 2003; Karanth et al. 2002; Bagchi et al.
2003). Different approaches employed for line surveys vary
from walking transects every month to walking all lines
simultaneously within a few weeks (Karanth and Sunquist
1992; Khan et al. 1996; Biswas and Sanker 2002; Bagchi et
al. 2003). Inherent spatial and temporal variability during
the sampling period can affect the precision of survey results
(Thomas et al. 2002).
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
In this paper we provide information on abundance and
biomass densities of Tiger prey from a tropical dry forest. In
addition, the paper assesses and compares various approaches
employed for estimating animal densities using line transects.
We hope that these comparisons will be useful in designing
future surveys to achieve better precision and reliability.
Data from these surveys are analysed to discuss the
best approach and season for surveys in tropical forests, where
visibility changes considerably with season and can thus affect
density estimates. These data sets are also analysed to
determine the efficiency of the survey without compromising
assumptions. We have compared the seasonal encounter rates
for “efficiency” (number of detections per km walk), detection
functions and group size over time for heterogeneity. We also
looked at the likely bias due to repeated visits on the same
day possibly causing animal movement away from the transect
line.
STUDY AREA
The Panna Tiger Reserve in central India encompasses
543 sq. km of tropical dry forest. The intensive fieldwork
was carried out within approximately 350 sq. km of the
Reserve. Extensive plateaux and gorges characterise the
terrain of the area. Its unique step topography divides the
area into the upper Talgaon and middle Hinauta plateaux and
lower Ken river valley. The River Ken passes through the
National Park and is the major perennial source of water. The
plateaux are separated by 1 0-80 m high escarpments, creating
several deep gorges at many places; these are characterised
by steep rock faces, thick forest cover and series of caves at
the base of escarpments. The average annual rainfall is 1,100
mm of which almost 60-70% falls during July and August.
This is followed by a long dry spell continuing from October
to June. Due to the hilly topography and long dry season,
water is a major limiting factor during the summer months
when temperature can regularly exceed 45 “C. There are
13 villages within the Reserve with a human and cattle
population of 6,000 and 9,500, respectively.
The dominating vegetation type is “Dry Teak Forest”
(C 1 -b. Champion and Seth 1 968). The extensive dry and short
grass habitats with open thorny woodlands support antelope
populations of Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus and Chinkara
Gazella bennettii. The more mesic habitats with tall grass
and associated closed miscellaneous forest, mainly distributed
along the major seasonal drainages, support high ungulate
densities, including Sambar Cerxnis unicolor, Chital Axis axis ,
Wild Pig Sus scrofa and Four-horned Antelope Tetracerus
quadricornis. The distribution of these habitats creates a
diverse and very heterogeneous landscape, where ecological
conditions also vary seasonally. The Tiger Reserve supports
a diverse carnivore population, which includes Tiger, Feopard
Panthera pardus , Sloth Bear Melursus ursinus. Dhole Cuon
alpinus , Grey Wolf Canis lupus, Striped Hyena Hyaena
hyaena. Jungle Cat Felis chans and Indian Fox Vulpes
bengalensis.
METHODOLOGY
In this study we used Distance Sampling to estimate
the abundance of Tiger prey in the Panna Tiger Reserve. Line
transect surveys were conducted in 2000, 2001, 2003 and
2005. Nine line transects of variable length, ranging from
1 .93 to 2.85 km, were marked and prepared for silent walking.
These nine lines were placed randomly covering almost all
the available habitat types in the intensive study area. Care
was taken to not over-clear the line for it could have caused a
spike at zero distance (animals using lines as walkways),
which is hard to model (Buckland et al. 2001 ; Gangadharan
2005). These transects were walked between sunrise and 0930
hrs and between 1 500 hrs and sunset. For every sighting of a
group, information on species, number of individuals, radial
distance (with the help of a laser range finder), and radial
angle were recorded.
In 2000, these nine line transects were walked in the
morning twice every month from October to June. Later, this
approach was modified and in 2001, all the lines were walked
simultaneously every morning and evening, for 15 days in
March. Further modification was made in the 2003 survey:
only three lines were walked simultaneously morning and
evening, and these were repeated every fourth day in February
and March. Thus, in total 24 ( 1 2 days x 2 times a day) temporal
replicate surveys for each line were conducted. In 2005, to
test the effect of repeated walks on the same day ( 19 field days),
on density estimates, we walked the same line in the morning
and later in the evening after a gap of more than two days. The
exercise was done for 19 field days.
For analysis of data, the computer program DISTANCE
4.1 (Thomas etal. 2003) was used. Biomass densities of Tiger
prey were calculated for each survey. Data from the survey
of 2003 was used to compare estimates documented from
other habitats of the Indian subcontinent.
Analysis:
We followed the standard procedures for analysis
described in Buckland etal. (2001) and Thomas etal. (2003).
For density estimates and related analyses concerning
variance, the nine transect lines were considered as spatial
replicates, and all the temporal replications on particular
transect lines were pooled. We estimated encounter rates of
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
65
Detection Probability Detection Probability Detection Probability Detection Probability
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
1.2 - "
Perpendicular distance (metres)
Fig. 1 : Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Chital
(2003). Uniform key model (KS test D„n = 0.06, p = 0.37)
Fig. 2: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Chital
(2001). Flazard rate key model (KS test D_n = 0.03, p = 0.95)
Perpendicular distance (metres)
Fig. 3: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Chital
(2000). Half normal key model (KS test D_n = 0.12, p = 0.82)
Fig. 4: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Sambar
(2003). Uniform key model (KS test D_n = 0.07, p = 0.23)
Tiger prey as n (clusters seenj/L (total length traversed) for
comparing the sampling efficiency. Appropriate models were
selected from half-normal, uniform key and hazard rate based
Fig. 5: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Sambar
(2001). Hazard rate key model (KS test D_n = 0.04, p = 0.89)
Fig. 6: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Sambar
(2000). Half normal key model (KS test D_n = 0.04, p = 0.99)
Fig. 7: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Nilgai
(2003). Uniform key model (KS test D_n = 0.05, p = 0.38)
Fig. 8: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Nilgai
(2001). Uniform key model (KS test D_n = 0.06, p = 0.23)
on minimum Akaike Information Criterion ( AIC) values for
each year (Figs I to 9). Each of the individual species and
their respective year’s data were used separately to model
66
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
Detection Probability
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
Perpendicular distance (metres)
Fig. 9: Detection function model and histogram of sightings of Nilgai
(2000). Flalf-normal key model (KS test D_n = 0.01 , p = 0.29)
this detection function. Cluster sizes were estimated using
Size-bias Regression method by regressing the natural log of
the cluster size against the estimated probability of detection
at distance x, g(x). The Kolmogorov-Smimov test was used
to test how well our data fitted different models. Histograms
were also scrutinised to understand how our data were
behaving with respect to the assumptions of the Distance
Sampling methodology.
In tropical forests of the subcontinent, ecological
conditions change drastically over time and space, and this can
affect animal distribution and detection (Thomas et al. 2002).
After the monsoon (July to October), visibility in forest habitats
gradually increases as the long dry season progresses and leaves
fall. Loss of foliage makes it easier to detect animals, and they
can be sighted from longer distances. In addition to this, changes
in group size across seasons is expected to affect the encounter
rate of groups of animal. Moreover, during peak summer
ungulates congregate near water holes, resulting in a clustered
spatial distribution. Therefore, we pooled the 2000 Distance
Sampling data bi-monthly to estimate detection functions for
each group separately. Changes in encounter rates, group sizes
and sighting distances and their likely effects on density
estimates were analysed.
To compare seasonal and morning-evening estimates
obtained using distance software, one factor ANOVA was
used with the available estimates and respective standard
deviations (Zar 1984). The technique is valid for such
comparisons since different detection functions are estimated
for each group compared, and this makes the estimates
independent. Changes in other parameters, such as seasonal
group size and detection function were tested using one factor
ANOVA. Separate detection functions for the morning and
evening data sets of the 2001, 2003 and 2005 surveys were
estimated. Trends were tested with the help of the maximum
R2 value and with Student’s t-test for testing the significance
of a regression.
RESULTS
Line transect sampling
In the monthly surveys of 2000, the total length walked
was 233.6 km, and 339 animal groups were sighted. In the
2001, 2003 and 2005 surveys, the total length walked was
520.7, 466.06 and 214 km respectively. The total number of
animal groups seen was 1,014 during the 2001 survey, 1,023
in the 2003 survey and 520 in the 2005 survey.
Encounter rates of all the prey species varied
significantly between the two-month groups (Chital2000:
F=3.538, p<0.05; Nilgai2000: F=7.494, p<0.001; Sambar2000:
F=5.049, p<0.005). The encounter rates of most of the prey
species of Tigers found in Panna Tiger Reserve reach the
highest level during February and March (Fig. 10). We used
Multiple Covariate Distance Sampling (MCDS) to incorporate
the seasonal changes in the detection function. The data were
classified into groups of two months each before analysis
and these two-month groups were used as factor covariates
at the time of analysis. Density estimates of the ungulates
varied significantly between the two-month groups (Chital2000:
F=3.066, p<0.05; Nilgai2000: F=2.87, p<0.05; Sambar2000:
F=4.031, p<0.01). Assuming that the area sampled is closed
for changes in population, one would not expect density to
change across seasons. This variation can be attributed to
either insufficient spatial sampling or actual changes in the
study population, which was unlikely.
Mean group size for most of the species did not change
significantly during the 2001 (15 days) and 2003 (45 days)
surveys. We used Multiple Covariate Distance Sampling
Engine (Thomas et al. 2003) to address the varying detection
function using time period as the covariate. In 2001 and 2003
temporal variation in the detection function was primarily due
to fire on the transect lines towards the end of both the surveys.
After the fires, visibility increased and could have been
responsible for the changes observed. Encounter rates changed
significantly only in the case of Nilgai, in the 2003 survey,
and show a gradual increase from 0.6 to 0.9 per km (p <0.01 ).
Fig. 10: Bi-monthly (pooled) encounter rates of major prey species
of Tiger during the 2000 survey in Panna Tiger Reserve
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
67
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
During the surveys of 2001 and 2003, the encounter
rates for most species differed significantly from morning
to evening (Sambar2003: F=5.59, p=0.05; Nilgai2003: F=11.35,
p=0.005; Sambar2001: F=9.24, p=0.01), and these rates were
consistently lower in the evening for all the species. Despite
calculating separate detection functions for morning and
evening, a significant difference in density estimates is
observed for Sambar and Nilgai in 2001 and 2003 (one-tailed
tests Nilgai2003: F = 16.63, p=0.001; Sambar2001: F=11.03,
p=0.005). A difference in density estimates indicates a bias
associated with the distribution of animals with respect to
the transect. In 2003, the same transect lines were walked in
the morning and evening every fourth day to examine the
effect of disturbance from repeated walking, but the results
were similar to those of 2001, showing consistently lower
encounter rates (and hence density estimates) in the evening.
Unlike previous surveys of 200 1 and 2003, in 2005 the same
transect line was not walked twice on the same day (morning
and evening); instead these were walked for the second time
after a gap of over two days. The group size, encounter rate
and other parameters such as the detection function did not
vary between morning and evening counts of the 2005
survey. As a result no significant difference is observed in
the densities estimated from morning and evening counts of
Tiger prey in the 2005 surveys (Table 1).
Encounter rates for all the species, except Sambar,
gradually declined with the length of time spent in walking
the transect length in both the morning and evening surveys.
In the case of Chital, there was a significant negative trend in
the morning surveys (R22QO|=0.73, t2001=3.28, p=0.05;
R22003=0.76; t2003=4.33, p=0.005) and evening surveys
<R!„o,=°.88. t„,=5.43. p=0.01; R!„„=0.88, t„,=6.53,
p=0.001 ) of both years. Similarly, for Nilgai, the results show
a significant declining trend in the morning surveys of 2003
(R2200 =0.48, t2001=l .91, p=0.2; R22003=0.58, t200 =2.87, p=0.05)
and in the evening surveys of 2001 (R22om=0.93, t=7.18,
p=0.002; R2,0()1=0.26, t= 1 .47, p=0.2). Flowever, although the
Sambar encounter rate declined in the morning, it increased
marginally close to dusk (Fig. 1 1 ).
Density and Biomass estimation
The pooled prey abundance is estimated to be
46.32 prey per sq. km, (excluding Langur, 2003 survey).
Details of the estimated prey densities and other relevant
parameters are provided in Table 2. As in many of the Tiger
habitats of the Subcontinent, Chital, Sambar and Nilgai
dominate the wild prey population in Panna Tiger Reserve.
In terms of number of animals per square kilometre, Chital is
the most abundant animal. In the Reserve, the contribution
of smaller prey in terms of number of animals (<25 kg and
including Langur) is 30%, that of medium sized prey (25 kg
to <55 kg), which includes Chital and Wild Pig, is 38% and
that of large prey (>55 kg), which includes Sambar and Nilgai,
is 3 1 %. The most frequently encountered prey in the Reserve
is Nilgai (Encounter rate=0.68 per km) followed by Chital
(Encounter rate=0.49 per km) and Sambar (encounter
rate=0.45 per km).
The ungulate prey biomass density estimated from the
2003 survey for Panna Tiger Reserve (4,057 kg per sq. km)
is on the higher side for the Subcontinent. But most of the
biomass (over 70%) is contributed by two prey species. Nilgai
and Sambar. The contribution of Chital, the Tiger’s most
common and major prey throughout the Subcontinent, is only
19.69%. The contribution from other smaller prey species is
less than 7%.
DISCUSSION
Due to the prevailing phenological conditions in the
tropical dry forests, the encounter rate and detection function
are expected to vary seasonally. The changes observed in
density estimates despite applying different detection
functions for each two-month group indicate insufficient
sampling of the study area. We were limited to use MCDS
(Buckland et al. 2004) because not only the detection function,
but their shapes were also changing. Therefore, pooling data
from surveys conducted across seasons in changing ecological
circumstances may not be a reliable way to estimate densities
in a tropical dry forest.
Table 1 : Comparison of morning and evening density estimates of three major Tiger preys
calculated from the 2005 survey in Panna Tiger Reserve
**= no significance
68
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
(b)
Fig. 1 1 : Encounter rates (groups per hour) pooled for every 1 5 minutes
time interval of three species in the morning (between 0645-0830 hrs)
and evening (between 1630-1815 hrs), in Panna Tiger Reserve.
Dotted line: trend for evening; continuous line: trend for morning,
(a) Chital; (b) Sambar and (c) Nilgai
The highest encounter rates for most ungulate prey were
obtained during February and March. During these months
the group sizes were also close to the mean estimated for the
year; moreover, the prey population was not clustered.
Therefore, for estimation of wild herbivore populations in a
tropical dry forest, February/March appears to be the most
suitable time. Walking several transect lines simultaneously
and repeatedly every morning and evening maximised the
number of detections for the effort ( Karanth et al. 2002). The
error associated with varying encounter rates, change in group
sizes and effect of visibility on radial distance and ESW is
minimised effectively when the surveys are conducted within
a short time span (ranging from 15 to 40 days). Our data
suffers from high CVs for a few species, which could be
accredited to the small number of lines. Flowever, an
estimation of the number of lines required to bring down this
CV to a reasonable range of about 20-25% gives an unfeasible
number of more than 60 lines. Since the animal distribution
is greatly influenced by the various habitat types in the study
area, a more logical approach would be to have more lines
and stratify the study area on the basis of habitats.
Disturbance from repeated walks on a line in the same
day may be enough to cause animals to move away from the
area resulting in consistently low density estimates for evening
counts. The 2005 experimental survey results show no
difference in the density estimates of morning and evening
when the line is walked two days after the previous walk.
This confirms that disturbance caused by repeated walking
on the line was resulting in lower estimates for the evening
count of the same day in other surveys. As a result, density
estimates from walks repeated on the same day may be under-
estimating prey populations of the area.
The activity pattern of prey species during the sampling
period can be another factor which can affect density
estimates. It is generally assumed that most of the animals
are active in the morning and evening (Karanth and Sunquist
1992). This is a factor likely to affect sighting of animal groups
and density estimates. The survey results highlight an
additional point that counting animals for more than 2 hours
can affect the density estimate because of the shift in animal
activity patterns within a single walk. Hence, it is important
to incorporate survey time as a covariate in the analysis for
transects whenever the activity is expected to change within
the survey.
To minimise the error encountered in the morning and
evening counts of the 2001 and 2003 surveys, and the
variability in group size and encounter rate in the 2000 survey,
a new survey design is needed. A sampling period (as short
as possible) with more randomly or systematically placed
lines, which are walked once a day and repeated after a few
days, can possibly minimise the errors.
The density estimate of 46.32 prey per sq. km in Panna
Tiger Reserve is fairly high for a tropical dry forest of the
Indian subcontinent (Karanth and Sunquist 1992; Khan et al.
1996; Biswas and Sanker 2002; Bagchi etal. 2003). Because
mega-herbivores such as Wild Buffaloes Bubalus bubalis ,
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
69
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
Table 2: Density estimates and biomass density (kg per sq. km) of Tiger prey in Panna Tiger Reserve
obtained from 2000, 2001 and 2003 surveys
N = number of detection; D = density of animals per sq. km; DCV = coefficient of variation density; 95% CL = 95% confidence interval;
Dg = group density per sq. km; Dg CV = coefficient of variation of group density; Wt in kg = average weight of the species; LCL = lower
confidence limit; UCL = upper confidence limit
Rhinos Rhinoceros unicornis and Elephants Elaphus
maximus , which contribute very little to the diet of the Tiger,
are absent from a large part of the tropical dry forest, they are
excluded for comparison of the prey populations (Table 3)
based on this study, and Karanth and Nichols (2000). Biomass
densities from these other Tiger habitats indicate that, on
average, medium sized prey (46.64%) and large prey
(52.27%) contribute almost equally to the prey availability.
Interestingly, in terms of number of animals, medium sized
prey, such as Chital, Wild Pig and Hog Deer contribute, on
average, over 70% of prey availability (Table 3). In contrast
to this, in Panna Tiger Reserve, the contribution by Chital
and other medium prey to the prey population is small, both
in term of biomass density (21.26%) and the number of
animals (39.24%).
The low abundance of Chital, one of the Tiger’s major
preys, could be an important factor in the Tiger ecology in
*/
Panna. Being the only grazing wild herbivore (Eisenberg and
Seidensticker 1976; Putman 1988; Khan et al. 1996), the
Chital is particularly and highly susceptible to the grazing
pressure of domestic livestock populations (Khan 1996;
Jathanna et al. 2003). A large population of over 9,000
domestic cattle within Panna Tiger Reserve and extensive
accidental fires in the past could be the factors limiting the
Chital population here. Chital prefer grasses despite their low
nutritive value even during the dry summer months (Khan et
al. 1996). Dry season fires are devastating in Panna,
completely eradicating grasses from the burnt areas. In the
recent past, rehabilitation of three villages and intensive fire
Table 3: Biomass density (kg per sq. km) and density (animals per
sq. km) of medium and large Tiger prey in different Protected Areas
of the Indian subcontinent, (Large prey = Sambar, Swamp Deer,
Nilgai; medium prey = Chital, Hog Deer, Wild Pig)
Important tiger habitat Biomass Density (%) Animal density,
Large prey Medium prey medium prey
'Karanth and Nichols 2000; 2This year
70
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND BIOMASS ESTIMATION OF TIGER PREY
protection measures have created extensive grasslands and
restored them as suitable habitats for Chital. As a result the
Chital population is recovering, mainly in areas recently made
free from human pressure, as has been documented in other
protected forests of the Subcontinent (Karanth and Sunquist
1992; Khan et al. 1996).
The Tropical Dry Forest of Panna supports ungulate
populations that have evolved in different environments, one
in open habitats, and the other in forest mosaics. Nilgai and
Chinkara represent prey populations partial to open habitats
whereas Sambar and Chital are forest and forest-edge
dwellers (Schaller 1967; Prater 1988; Eisenberg and
Seidensticker 1977). Because the Tiger has evolved as a
specialised forest-edge predator following the cervid
radiation in Asia (Sunquist et al. 1999), its survival and
hunting strategies are more cued to cervids than other prey
species that occupy the open habitats, such as Nilgai.
Therefore, in dry forests, a high abundance of prey in open
habitats (such as Nilgai) does not entirely translate into Tiger
prey availability. Thus, an appropriate balance of prey species
needs to be maintained in order to support healthy Tiger
Anderson, D.R., K.P. Burnham, B.C. Lubow, L.Thomas, P. Stephen
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The work presented in this paper was supported by
Global Tiger Patrol, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation
and Wildlife Conservation Society. We would especially like
to thank the State Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh for
permission to conduct the study in Panna National Park. We
are grateful to Dr. Ullas Karanth, Shri Samba Kumar and other
volunteers from Centre for Wildlife Studies for their help and
assistance in the field exercise in 2002. We deeply appreciate
the field work done by the project staff and are grateful for
their dedicated assistance throughout the study. We are highly
thankful to Ajith Kumar, James Nichols and Len Thomas for
their constructive comments on the draft, and to Joanna Van
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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(1), Jan-Apr 2008
73-83
QUANTIFICATION OF THREATS AND SUGGESTED AMELIORATIVE MEASURES
FOR THE CONSERVATION OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON’S COURSER
RHINOPTILUS BITORQUATUS AND ITS HABITAT
Panchapakesan Jeganathan15, Asad R. Rahmani1,6, Rhys E. Green2, Ken Norris3,
Ioannis N. Vogiatzakis3, Chris Bowden4 and Debbie Pain4
'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.
Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK.
Email: [email protected]
Centre for Agri-Environmental Research, School of Agriculture Policy and Development, University of Reading,
Earley Gate RG6 6AR, Reading Berks, UK.
4Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, SGI 9 2DL, UK.
"Email: [email protected]
'’Email: [email protected]. in
Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus is a noctumally active cursorial bird that is only known to occur in a small
area of scrub jungle in and around Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh, India,
and is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN. Jerdon’s Courser prefers a specific type of scrub jungle with open
areas, and there is considerable pressure from human use of apparently suitable habitats. Although major threats to the
survival of the Jerdon’s Courser have been indentified, there is no quantitative information available. During our
study, nine specific threats were identified to the survival of the Jerdon’s Courser and its habitat. Habitat destruction
and alteration is the major threat among them. However, the immediate threat for the only known population of the
Jerdon’s Courser in the world and its habitat is the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal near
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary. The presence of the Jerdon’s
Courser was detected in three new locations in and around the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, and one of
these sites was destroyed due to the canal construction. There is an urgent need to save the scrub jungle habitat in and
around the sanctuaries. We suggest several ameliorative measures for the conservation of the Jerdon’s Courser and its
habitat.
Key words: Jerdon’s Courser, Rhinoptilus bitorquatus, conservation issues
INTRODUCTION STUDY AREA
Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus is a nocturnal
cursorial bird which is categorised as Critically Endangered in
the IUCN Red List (BirdLife International 2001) since it is
believed to have a single, small, declining population. It is listed
under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972
and is considered as a priority species under the National Wildlife
Action Plan (2002-2016) of the Government of India
(Government of India 2002). Although reported from other sites
in the 1980s (Bhushan 1990), since that time it has only been
reported from the small patch of scrub jungle in and around
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, Cuddapah district,
Andhra Pradesh, India. Exploitation of scrub jungle habitat,
livestock grazing and quarrying are the major threats identified
so far to the Jerdon’s Courser (Birdlife International 2001).
Bhushan (1990) stated that major threat for the Jerdon’s
Courser and its habitat was the collection of minor forest
produce such as fuel wood and timber by the local villagers
in and around the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
However, there is no comprehensive study to identify and to
quantify the specific threats to this critically endangered bird
and its habitat. In this paper we have discussed the recent
threats faced by the Jerdon’s Courser and its habitat.
This study was conducted from September 2000 to
December 2005 in scrub jungle in the Sri Lankamaleswara
and Sri Penusula Narasimha wildlife sanctuaries, in Cuddapah
district, Andhra Pradesh (Fig. 1 ). The forest type in the main
study area is defined as southern tropical thorn scrub
(Champion and Seth 1968). The major vegetation in the scrub
forest consists of Acacia spp., Ziziphus rugosa and Carissa
carandas, and the major tree species are Hardwickia binata
and Anogeissus latifolia. The scrub jungle is bordered by dry
mixed deciduous and Red Sanders-bearing forest consisting
of Pterocatpus santalinus, Terminalia chebula and T. tomentosa.
There are patches of dry savannah forest consisting of
Anogeissus latifolia and Phyllanthus emblica. Generally hot
weather prevails throughout the year in the study area. Records
for Cuddapah from 2001 to 2004 show that the mean monthly
daytime temperature ranges between 17. 1 °C in December and
42 °C in May. Cuddapah is one of the drought-prone districts
of Andhra Pradesh, and the average rainfall for 50 years (1901-
1950) was 744 mm (Jagannadha Sarma 2002).
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary
A major part of the study was carried out in and around
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
270000
300000
310000
1040000
■1640000
srvb reservoir!
1030000
1630000
SRI PEMUSULA NARASIMHA WLS
1020000
1620000
SRI LANKAMALESWARA WLS
1610000
■1810000
■1600000
SOMASILA RESERVOIRS
■1590000
260000 270000 280000 290000 300000 310000
5 0 5
Kilometers
• NEW SETTLEMENTS O SETTLEMENTS DURING 1980s
N
Fig. 1 : Settlements near the Sri Lankamaleswara and Cuddapah Division of Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife sanctuaries
Yellow dots: old settlements (during 1980s) are taken from Survey of India toposheets, and red dots: new settlements
(formed within 10-15 years) mapped during this study. Map overlaid on Landsat 7 ETM satellite image (path/row 143/050)
of December 06, 2000. (Co-ordinates are in UTM)
the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary (SLWLS),
Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh, India. Geographically,
SLWLS lies between the Nallamalais and the Sechachalam
hill ranges in the central part of the Eastern Ghats. SLWLS
extends over 464 sq. km and is located between 14°45'-
14°72' N and 79°07'-78°80' E. The Sanctuary ranges from
about 137 m to 784 m above mean sea level in elevation
(Fig. 1). The study area was bordered in the west by dense
scrub and dry Red Sanders-bearing forest as well as southern
dry mixed deciduous forests on the higher elevations of the
Lankamalai Hills. To the east, agricultural fields, orchards and
croplands are found in the valleys of the semi-perennial Sagileru
river. Sagileru joins the Pennar river, which borders the southern
part as well as a part of the western side of the Sanctuary
(Fig. 1).
Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary
Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary (SPNWLS)
spreads across the districts of Cuddapah and Nellore, Andhra
Pradesh (14°18'-1404T N; 79°05'-79° 37' E). SPNWLS is
adjacent to the SLWLS region and covers 1,031 sq. km
(Fig. 1 ). This area encompasses the Turupukonda Hills, part
of the Velikonda hill ranges, Somasila dam and Kandaleru
reservoir. SPNWLS is separated from SLWLS by the River
Sagileru. This study was conducted mainly on the western
slope of the Turupukonda Hills for about 6 months in the
scrub jungle habitat. This place is accessible from the eastern
part of the SLWLS and falls within Cuddapah district. The
climate of SPNWLS is similar to that of the SLWLS region.
The vegetation and forest types do not differ much from
those of SLWLS at least in the western part this Sanctuary.
Moist deciduous forest and dry thorn forest are present at the
foothills of the Velikonda hill ranges.
METHODS
Disturbance of the scrub jungle habitat from
anthropogenic activities such as livestock grazing were
documented near the Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula
Narasimha wildlife sanctuaries from 2000 to 2005. The
74
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
Fig. 2: Scrub jungle clearance and Jerdon’s Courser records in and around Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary (Co-ordinates are in UTM)
presence of Jerdon's Coursers was detected by playing tape
recordings to elicit calls (Jeganathan and Wotton 2004) and
following the tracking strip method (Jeganathan etal. 2002).
Tracking strips were placed in the eastern part of Sri
Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and in the western part
of the Turupukonda forest, which is situated in the Cuddapah
part of the Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary, and
on the western side of the Velikonda hill ranges. Tree and
bush species were counted and identified, and the substrates
and ground vegetation described within 10 x 10 m plots at
the locations of tracking strips. By relating the rate of tracking
of the Jerdon’s Courser to these habitat traits, the preferred
habitat of the Jerdon’s Courser was identified as scrub jungle
with open areas where the density of large bushes (> 2 m tall)
is in the range 300 - 700 per ha and the density of small bushes
is < 1,000 per ha (Jeganathan et al. 2004).
Scrub jungle with open areas, which are potentially
suitable habitat of the Jerdon’s Courser were cleared and
developmental activities took place in and around the
Sanctuary areas during the study period. The Telugu-Ganga
Canal was constructed in and near the Sanctuary areas during
October 2005. All anthropogenic activities were recorded.
and the places where such activities occurred were marked
using a GPS. The potentially suitable habitat of the Jerdon’s
Courser was mapped with the help of satellite imagery
(Jeganathan et al. 2005). The extent of the area cleared was
mapped by walking along the edge with a GPS. A map of the
cleared areas was kept as an overlay on the potentially suitable
habitat of the Jerdon’s Courser to find out the extent of the
habitat loss. This was achieved with the help of ERDAS
imagine 8.5 and Arc View GIS 3.2a software.
Instances of livestock grazing were established using
the footprints of goats, sheep and buffalo on tracking strips
and the rate of tracking was calculated. The number of
households and the cattle population were determined in
November 2005 by interviewing locals from the 14 villages
around the northern and eastern boundaries of the
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
The amount of wood cut was quantified by noting the
scrub and tree species cut in the 10 m square habitat recording
plots. Totally 294 plots were surveyed in and near the
Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha wildlife
sanctuaries, as well as in the reserved forest areas of the
Velikonda foothills. Apart from this, the extent of human use
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
75
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
of these forest areas was quantified by calculating the rate of
encountering head loads, cart loads and tractor loads of timber
and non-timber forest produce (NTFP).
Threats to the Jerdon’s Courser Habitat
Previously the presence of the Jerdon’s Courser was
only confirmed inside and near Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary (Bhushan 1986). Through the tracking strip and
tape playback survey it was detected in three new places.
Nine specific threats were identified to the survival of
the Jerdon’s Courser and its habitat. Habitat destruction and
alteration is the major threat among them. However, the
immediate threat to the only known world population of the
Jerdon’s Courser is the construction of the Telugu-Ganga
Canal near the two sanctuaries.
1. Scrub jungle clearance for farming and plantation
An area of about 480 ha of the scrub jungle was cleared
during the study period (2001-2004) in and around the
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. Of this, nearly 275
ha of the scrub jungle, which is potentially suitable for the
Jerdon’s Courser, was cleared to provide land for agriculture
to people who were displaced by floods, and for lemon
farming and forestry plantations. These cleared places fall
within about 1 km from the previously known and newly
detected Jerdon’s Courser areas (Fig. 2). Scrub jungle habitat
was cleared inside the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary mainly for raising forestry plantations consisting
of Pongamia pinnata, Terminalia arjuna , Cassia siamea ,
Eucalyptus sp. and Syzygium cumini. Analysis of Landsat
satellite imagery showed that the clearance of scrub jungle
in this region has been happening before the beginning of
our field study in 2000. Analysis of satellite images show
that between 1991 and 2000 1 1-15% of the scrub jungle has
been cleared, especially close to human settlements
(Senapathi et al. 2007).
2. Developmental activities inside the Sri Lankamaleswara
Wildlife Sanctuary
Apart from the plantations, several other developmental
activities such as the construction of check dams and digging
of percolation ponds and trenches were noticed during the
study period. It should be noted that trenches were dug in the
places where the Jerdon’s Courser has been seen regularly
since its rediscovery in 1986. The trenches stretch over
different lengths from 50 m to 1 .3 km; they are 2 m deep, and
the width varies from 2 to 5 m. The trenches were dug at
intervals of 20 to 50 m. Five percolation ponds were
constructed near the main Jerdon’s Courser area during the
study period. About 0.5 to 1 ha of scrub jungle was cleared
for each pond and an earthen bund was constructed by piling
up the soil dug for the pond. On the bund, exotic plant species
were planted. Apart from this, in the scrub jungle habitat
another type of forestry practice called thinning and singling
was noted in which all the scrub species were cleared except
the saplings (1-2 m in height) of tree species such as
Hardwickia binata, Anogeissus latifolia , Manilkara hexandra
and Soymida febrifuga. Later, circular pits were dug around
these trees, which facilitates collection of rain water. Also,
several small pits were dug for rain water collection in the
cleared open areas where this thinning was carried out.
3. Quarrying in and around Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary
Stones of different sizes present on the ground were
collected for road construction every year from the scrub
jungle habitat both in and outside Sri Lankamaleswara
Wildlife Sanctuary. Apart from this, bigger stones below the
ground were dug up using crowbars and broken into pieces
and collected in heavy vehicles. These stones were collected
for house construction by the nearby villagers. Large pits were
dug up in about 15 places in and outside the eastern part of
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. However, no
instance of using explosives for quarrying was noted during
the study period.
4. Increasing number of settlements near the sanctuaries
Bhushan (1995) reports that the construction of the
Somasila dam resulted in the displacement of 57 villages,
which moved closer to Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary. The construction of the Somasila dam was
completed in 1989 (Nikku 2004). The locations of the villages
near the study area were obtained from Survey of India
toposheets, which were based on surveys conducted in 1986
prior to the construction of the Somasila dam. GPS locations
of villages near Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary were
taken. These locations were plotted, and a map was produced.
Village locations taken from the toposheets plotted on the
Landsat ETM Satellite image of December 06, 2000 shows
that nearly 45 villages were submerged under the Somasila
reservoir (Fig. 1). There are about 146 villages present
between the eastern part of Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary and the western side of the Cuddapah Division of
Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary. Of these
146 villages, 25 were formed in recent times (within 10 to
15 years). This was established by interviewing the local
people from these villages. It should be noted that most of
these villagers moved from the bank of the Sagileru river,
which runs in-between Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula
Narasimha wildlife sanctuaries. It was observed during the
76
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
study period (from 2000 to 2005) that Sagileru river was flooded
three times in the rainy season. Villagers near the bank of the
Sagileru river moved towards the west, near the Badvel-
Siddavatam road, which is about 2 km away from the eastern
boundary of Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
Besides this, about 15 villages were displaced due to
the construction of Sri Potuluri Veera Brahmendraswamy
(SPVB) Reservoir in the place called Bramhamgarimatam,
which is about 12 km north of Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary (Fig. 1). Twelve villages are present within 1 km
from the northern boundary of Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary, of which seven villages were resettled due to the
construction of the SPVB reservoir near the Badvel-Mydukur,
which partly forms the northern boundary of this Sanctuary.
It should be noted that there are even more villages in
the flood-prone area of the Somasila and SPVB reservoirs
which are likely to be resettled near the sanctuaries in the
future. Also, there are plans to increase the height of the
Somasila dam, which will result in the displacement of more
villages to areas near the south-eastern part of
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
5. Agricultural transformation
The major crops around Sri Lankamaleswara and
Sri Penusula Narasimha wildlife sanctuaries are Paddy Oryza
sativa, Sunflower Helianthus animus, Cotton Gossypium sp.,
Groundnut Arachis hypogaea. Finger Millet Eleusine
coracana , Turmeric Curcuma longa and Onion Allium cepa.
However, in recent times, several agricultural fields have been
transformed into Lemon farms. Species such as Lemon Citrus
limon. Bitter Lime Citrus aurantium , Sweet lime Citrus
sinensis and Key Lime Citrus aurantifolia are grown since
they need relatively little water and maintenance, and are
lucrative. This agricultural transformation, from dry irrigated
crops to lemon farms, was mainly due to erratic and failed
seasonal rains. Lemon farms present near the eastern part of
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary were mapped in June
2004. Farms extend to about 1.5 km on either side of the
Badvel-Siddavatam road. The extent of the lemon farms in
this region was calculated to be 198 ha. It should be noted
that about 215 ha of scrub jungle habitat was cleared outside
the Sanctuary from 2000 to 2005 (Fig. 2). Most of these
clearance were not yet cultivated and are most likely to be
converted into lemon farms in future.
6. Livestock grazing
Three types of livestock grazing were observed in and
around Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha
wildlife sanctuaries. In the first type, shepherds brought their
goats, sheep and buffalo regularly every morning from the
villages into the scrub jungle habitat in and around the
sanctuaries. The animals stray inside the forest for about
2-3 km and return to their villages in the evening. Another
type are nomads who possess 200 to 300 cattle. They rear
only cows. However, these are not for milk but mainly for
the cow dung. They were generally invited by the lemon farm
owners to enrich their farms. The graziers stay up to 3 to
4 months in one place before moving to another. All these
cattle were seen grazing in the forested areas in and around
the sanctuaries. The third type stays with their sheep inside
the sanctuaries for grazing throughout the year except during
the rainy season. However, this type of grazing was not
observed in the scrub jungle habitat.
Tracking strips (a total of 410) were deployed in and
around Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha
wildlife sanctuaries as well as in the reserve forest areas of
the Velikonda foothills in 24 blocks. Each block consists of
15-20 tracking strips, usually placed in a regular rectangular
or square array. While recording bird footprints in the tracking
strips, tracks of goats, sheep and buffalo were also recorded.
Footprints of human beings observed in the tracking strips
were also recorded. The tracking rate of the cattle and human
beings was relatively higher than that of the wild ungulates
present in the study area. Goats and sheep tracked were found
on 78.5% of the tracking strips. Buffalo and human tracks
were recorded in 47% and 72% of the tracking strips,
respectively. Details of the tracking events of cattle and humans
in the 24 blocks of tracking strips are given in Table 1 .
Data on the cattle population and number of households
were collected in November 2005 from 14 villages situated
in the eastern ( 10 villages) and northern (four villages) parts
of the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. The goat and
sheep populations were higher (38% and 36% of the total
population, respectively) than that of buffalo (23%). The total
number of households recorded in these villages was 1,684.
The largest number of households was recorded in Reddipalli
(300 households), which is close to the main Jerdon’s Courser
area. The cattle population exceed 1,000 in three of the
villages surveyed (Fig. 3).
7. Use of forest by the villagers
During field visits to the Sri Lankamaleswara and
Sri Penusula Narasimha wildlife sanctuaries, the removal of
timber and non-timber forest products from the forest area
by head loads, cart loads and tractor loads was noted from
2001 to 2003. It should be noted that these observations
include encounters with fuel wood, wood collected illegally,
grass, bamboo and other non-timber forest produce (NTFP).
Most of the NTFP, fuel wood, fodder leaves for cattle and
single large timbers (DBH approximately 60 to 80 cm) of
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
77
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
c. 2-3 m length were carried by head loads whereas large
quantities of timber, fodder leaves and grass were carried
either by bullock cart or by tractor. Such events were noted
only if they were seen on the forest roads. Although several
hundred visits were made to the field, these events were
studied only during 256 visits (Table 2). It should be noted
that the data collection was not very systematic, as only
opportunistic data was collected. Of the 256 visits, these
events were encountered on 65% of the total visits. The mean
encounter rate of head loads was highest (0.49 ±0.06 per visit),
followed by cart loads (0.2 1 ±0. 1 per visit) and tractor loads
(0.15 ±0.05 per visit) (Fig. 4).
In the scrub jungle habitat, wood cutting was observed
regularly. Mainly Hardwickia binata was pollarded during
summer for thatching above the front door of houses. Also
graziers cut and bend the branches of scrub and tree species
to facilitate better access for browsing by goats and sheep,
inside the scrub jungle. While recording the habitat in a 10 m
square plot centred on the tracking strips, on a total of 294
plots surveyed, and cut marks in 28 scrub and tree species
Table 1 : Tracking rates of goats and sheep, buffalo and humans in
24 blocks of tracking strips deployed in and around
Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife
sanctuaries and in the reserved forest areas of Velikonda foothills
from 2000-2003
Tracking rates
were noted. The maximum of cut marks was observed in
Zizyphus rugosa (39% of the plots surveyed). Only 8% of
plots surveyed had no cut marks (Fig. 5).
8. Bird trapping
Illegal bird trapping by a particular section of people
in the peripheral areas of the eastern part of
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary was noticed on a few
occasions only (<5 encounters on several hundred field visits
in four years). It should be noted that on one occasion, a bird
trapper was seen near the main Jerdon’s Courser area. Traps
used by these trappers are nooses and nets. They mainly target
Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicericinus and Quail spp.,
which commonly occur in this area. Although trapping,
exclusively for the Jerdon’s Courser was not reported, it is
likely that it maybe caught accidentally in the nooses and
nets set for other bird species.
9. Telugu-Ganga Canal
At the time of the rediscovery in 1986, the Jerdon’s
Courser site was under threat from a plan to construct the
Telugu-Ganga Canal across it. Officials from the Forest
Department and the State Government of Andhra Pradesh
recognised the ornithological importance of the area and
declared it as Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary for the
Jerdon’s Courser, which included the rediscovery site on its
eastern fringe. The proposed course of the canal was adjusted
to avoid the Sanctuary (Bhushan 1995). Recently canal
construction was started for irrigating land in Sagileru valley.
The canal construction was noticed during the last week of
October 2005 near Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
The origin of the canal is from SPVB (Sri Potuluri Veera
Brahmendraswamy) Reservoir near Bramhamgarimatam
(Fig. 1). This canal comes southwards and ends 2 km away
from Nandhipalli near the Badvel-Mydukur road. It is also
referred as the Right Canal. Apart from this, one more canal
is being excavated southwards to the east of the Sagileru river,
and it goes along the western boundary of Sri Penusula
Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary (Fig. 6). This part of the
Table 2: Observation of collection of forest produce from
Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha wildlife
sanctuaries from 2001 to 2003
n: number of visits
78
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
Number of Houses
» 50-100
» 101-200
• 201-300
/V Road
Cattle population
fra-.. | Goats S Sheep
I I Buffalo
I ■; ■ I Cow & Ox
Fig. 3: Number of households and cattle population in 14 villages situated within 2 km from the eastern and northern boundaries
of the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. (Map not to scale)
Sanctuary falls under the Cuddapah Forest Division.
This canal is referred as the Left Canal. Both the canals were
stopped as they were constructed in the forest areas without
obtaining prior permission (Jeganathan et al. 2005).
The canal route and disturbances noted while
constructing the canal, such as new roads to the canal sites
and quarrying soil for canal construction in the forest area
were documented from November 21 to 28, 2005. The canal
was 16 to 20 m wide, but the area cleared for preparing this
canal was 80 to 100 m wide. Stones and the soil were dug up
and piled all along the canal route. Roads were constructed
on either side of the canal using this soil as well as soil dug
up from nearby areas.
The canal route was mapped with the help of a GPS
by driving the jeep along it and/or walking on it. Tracks of
the canal route and other coordinates marked in the field
were converted to Arc coverage format. On the screen,
simulated lines were drawn on either side of the canal tracks
for not less than 40 m to mark the width of the area cleared.
This was marked as a polygon and the area was obtained. It
should be noted that the area falling inside this polygon has
different kinds of habitats such as open ground, rocky terrain
and scrub jungle. This coverage was kept as an overlay on a
map of potentially suitable habitat of the Jerdon's Courser
to find out the habitat loss. Where there was a forest cleared
with no canal, it was mapped by walking along the forest
Table 3: Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and Cuddapah Division of Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuary*
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
79
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
Fig. 4: Mean encounter rate of the observation of collection of forest
produce by villagers around Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula
Narasimha Wildlife Sanctuaries from 2001 to 2003
clearing. So the width was not simulatend and the track
itself was transformed into a polygon and the area was
obtained.
The total area cleared estimated for the Right Canal is
114 ha, of which c. 22 ha of potentially suitable habitat
for the Jerdon’s Courser was lost due to the construction of
the canal in the eastern part of Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary. Construction work has also destroyed one
of the places where the Jerdon’s Courser was recorded in
2001.
The proposed route for the canal construction goes
along the Sanctuary boundary and ends at 45 km from its
origin near Atlur. Alarmingly, when this canal route reaches
its 40th km it goes very close (about 500 m) to the place
where the Jerdon’s Courser has been sighted regularly
from 1986. The scrub jungle in and around this area is the
only place where Jerdon’s Courser has been sighted
frequently, its footprints obtained and its calls heard regularly.
This is the only place in the world at the moment where
the Jerdon’s Courser is known to be present. It was estimated
that if excavation for the proposed canal proceeds further,
it would destroy c. 650 ha of suitable habitat of the
Jerdon’s Courser around Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary.
The total area cleared estimated for the construction of
the left canal in and around Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife
Sanctuary is c. 163 ha. The forest area cleared is c. 8 ha.
Further this canal route passes very close to the Sanctuary
boundary. A large extent of favourable habitat is present at
the foothills of Turupukonda.
Fig. 5: Cut marks seen in top five scrub and tree species
(10% to 40%) of the 294 10-m square plots surveyed.
Percentage of plots that do not have any species is also given
DISCUSSION
The Jerdon’s Courser uses a specific type of scrub jungle
habitat for feeding and breeding. Studies show that the
extinction risk of birds increases when habitat loss is severe,
especially for habitat specialists (Owens and Bennett 2000;
Norris and Harper 2004). The Jerdon’s Courser possesses
other traits which increase its extinction probability: small
geographical range, small population size and occurring at a
low elevation (Gaston 1994; Purvis et al. 2000; Gage et al.
2004).
Settlements near Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary already pose a severe threat and more settlements
in the future would worsen the threat as this would result in
clearing of more scrub jungle habitat, increasing the livestock
population and grazing, wood cutting and bird trapping. It
should be noted that, out of the 14 villages surveyed around
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary, the largest number
of households and the largest livestock population were
recorded in Reddipalli, which is near the main Jerdon’s
Courser area (Fig. 3). Increasing the number of households
and the population around the Sanctuary would pave the way
to intense use of the scrub jungle habitat.
Highly populated areas, especially in rural India, are
likely to have higher livestock populations. The total livestock
in Andhra Pradesh has increased from 36.01 million to
48.20 million between 1999 and 2003 showing an overall
increase of 33.8 % (Government of India 2005). Increasing
the number of settlements near the Sanctuary is likely to bring
more livestock in the future as the livelihood of most of the
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CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
Jerdon’s Courser Records
Villages
Telugu-Ganga Canal
Cleared area
Road
Fig. 6: Route of Telugu-Ganga Canal in and around Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife sanctuaries
in Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh
villagers is cattle rearing, second to agriculture. In rural areas
of India, the primary source of energy for cooking is fuel
wood. The encounter rate of forest produces carried through
head loads was higher compared with cart loads and tractor
loads in this study. It should be noted that though the head
load category consists of NTFP, grass and illicit wood, the
frequency of head loads of fuel wood was greater than that of
other forest produce.
Although a moderate amount of grazing and wood
cutting would benefit in maintaining the structure of the scrub
jungle habitat preferred by the Jerdon’s Courser, over-grazing
and intense human use would result in deterioration of the
habitat.
Although an area covering 43,600 ha was declared as
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary mainly for the
Jerdon’s Courser, only c. 15% of the land has scrub jungle
habitat. Even though the Jerdon’s Courser has been recorded
at three new places, these are all within 15 km of the original
rediscovery site. Most of the anthropogenic activities described
above have been witnessed both in and outside the Sanctuary
area. Intense human use, over-grazing and increasing number
of settlements will surely have a gradual negative impact on
the scrub jungle habitat. However, the immediate threat facing
the scrub jungle habitat around Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary is the construction of the Telugu-Ganga Canal.
Although the ‘Right Canal’ has been stopped for the time
being, it is estimated that if the canal had been continued, it
would have resulted in the loss of c. 650 ha of scrub jungle
habitat around the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
The new Telugu-Ganga Canal poses at least three types
of threat to the Jerdon’s Courser:
( 1 ) Construction will destroy the remaining scrub jungle
habitat of the Jerdon’s Courser in the eastern part of
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. Furthermore,
because the population survey work is at an early stage, other
Jerdon’s Courser sites where the species has not yet been
detected will also be destroyed. This will further diminish
the population. Absence of Jerdon’s Courser records does not
imply an absence of the bird, as most of the areas outside the
Sanctuary have not been surveyed yet. Therefore, it is
imperative to protect the potentially suitable habitat outside
the Sanctuary.
(2) The Canal will permit the extension of irrigated
agriculture to many areas outside the Sanctuary that are scrub
jungle at present. Rapid replacement of forested landscapes
by cultivated lands along with a change in cropping pattern
has caused deterioration in the Jerdon’s Courser’s habitat.
(3) Extension of agricultural use will lead to increased
human activity in and near the Sanctuary. In turn, this is likely
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
81
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
Fig. 7: Distribution ot the scrub jungle habitat in and around the Sri Lankamaleswara and Sri Penusula Narasimha Wildlife sanctuaries.
Forest compartment numbers in which the scrub jungle occurs are also given. (Co-ordinates are in UTM)
to increase unauthorised human use of the Sanctuary and any
remaining scrub jungle outside it. All known Jerdon’s Courser
sites are already used for grazing of livestock and wood
cutting, but at moderate levels, which may help to maintain a
suitable vegetation structure for the Jerdon’s Courser.
However, increased use is likely to reduce the density of
bushes below suitable levels for the species. Other
unauthorised uses of the Sanctuary include hunting of
mammals and bird trapping.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. The Right Canal should be realigned near
Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary and diverted well
away from the potentially suitable habitat of the Jerdon’s
Courser.
2. Areas west of the proposed Right Canal up to the
boundary of the Sanctuary consist of potentially suitable
habitat for the Jerdon’s Courser. So this entire area should be
included in the Sanctuary.
3. In and near the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary and Cuddapah Division of Sri Penusula Narasimha
Wildlife Sanctuary, the scrub jungle habitat is distributed over
nine Forest Blocks (in 55 compartments) as shown in
(Fig. 7). Forestry activities such as construction of percolation
ponds and trenches, and singling, thinning, and clearing the
scrub jungle for planting exotic tree species should not be
allowed in the Sanctuary and in blocks with suitable scrub
jungle habitat owned by the Forest Department, but currently
outside the Sanctuary boundaries. These areas are vital for
the survival of the Jerdon’s Courser.
4. Over-grazing should be controlled and illegal bird
trappers around the Sanctuary should be identified, and
measures should be taken to prevent hunting.
5. Before 2000, substantial numbers of foreign
birdwatchers came to visit the area to see Jerdon’s Coursers.
They were guided by a local man and did no harm to the
birds. This no longer occurs regularly, resulting in a loss of
income from tourism in local villages. The scope for carefully
controlled eco-tourism with the possibility of seeing or
hearing Jerdon’s Courser as the centrepiece should be
investigated.
6. A species recovery plan for the protection of the
Jerdon’s Courser should be prepared based on scientific studies
in and around the two sanctuaries and the reserved forests,
including detailed plans for all the activities listed above.
82
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
CONSERVATION ISSUES OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON'S COURSER
REFERENCES
Bhushan, B. (1986): Rediscovery of the Jerdon’s or Double-banded
Courser Cursorious bitorquatus (Blyth). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.
Soc. 83: 1-14.
Bhushan, B. (1990): Jerdon’s Courser - rediscovery and survey.
Pp. 127-134. In: Anon: Status and ecology of the Lesser and
Bengal Floricans with reports on Jerdon’s Courser and Mountain
Quail. Bombay Natural History Society.
Bhushan, B. (1995): Jerdon’s Courser - status and conservation
perspectives. Pp. 29-30. In: Vijayan, L. (Ed.): Avian conservation
in India. Coimbatore. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and
Natural History.
BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife
International Red Data Book. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife
International.
Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): The revised survey of the forest
types of India. Manager of Publications. Govt, of India. New
Delhi. 404 pp.
Gage, G.S., M. de L. Brooke, M.R.E. Symonds & D. Wege (2004):
Ecological correlates of the threat of extinction in Neotropical
bird species. Animal Conservation 7: 161-168.
Gaston, K.J. (1994): Rarity. London: Chapman & Hall. pp. 1-192.
Government of India (2002): The National Wildlife Action Plan
(2002 - 2016), Ministry of Environment and Forests. Pp. 1-46.
Government of India (2005): Seventeenth Indian livestock census -
All India summary report: Livestock, Poultry Agricultural
Machinery & Implements and Fishery Statistics - 2003.
Downloaded from http://mospi.nic.in. Downloaded on
October 13, 2006.
Jagannadha Sarma, V.V. (2002): Hydrology of Cuddapah district with
special reference to its rainfall and tanks. Pp. 393-406.
In: Proceedings of the National Seminar on Conservation of
Eastern Ghats. EPTRI Envis, Hyderabad, India.
Jeganathan, P. & S.R. Wotton (2004): The first recordings of call of
the Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 101(1): 26-28.
Jeganathan, R, R.E. Green, C.G.R. Bowden, K. Norris, D. Pain &
A.R. Rahmani (2002): Use of tracking strips and automatic
cameras for detecting critically endangered Jerdon’s Coursers
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus in scrub jungle in Andhra Pradesh. Oryx
36(2): 182-188.
Jeganathan, R, R.E. Green, K. Norris, I.N. Vogiatzakis, A. Bartsch,
S.R. Wotton, C.G.R. Bowden, G.H. Geoffrey, D. Pain &
A.R. Rahmani (2004a): Modelling habitat selection and
distribution of the critically endangered Jerdon’s courser
Rhinoptilus bitorquatus in scrub jungle: an application of a new
tracking method. J. Appl. Ecol. 41(2): 224-237.
Jeganathan, P., A.R. Rahmani, R.E. Green, K. Norris, C.G.R. Bowden,
S.R. Wotton & D. Pain (2004b): Conservation of the critically
endangered Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus in India.
FinalReport, Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai, India.
Pp. 32.
Jeganathan, R, A.R. Rahmani & R.E. Green (2005): Construction of
Telugu-Ganga Canal in and around two protected areas in
Cuddapah District, Andhra Pradesh, India. Immediate threat to
the world population of the critically endangered Jerdon’s
Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus. Survey Report. Bombay
Natural History Society, Mumbai, India. Pp. 19.
Jeganathan, R, R.E. Green, K. Norris, S.R. Wotton, C.G.R. Bowden,
D. Pain & A.R. Rahmani (2006): Conservation of the critically
endangered Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus in
India. Centenary Journal Proceedings. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
103 (2-3): 227-230.
Nikku, B.R. (2004): “Water Rights, Conflicts and Collective Action:
Case of Telugu Ganga Project, India.” Paper Presented at "The
Commons in an Age of Global Transition: Challenges. Risks
and Opportunities," the Tenth Conference of the International
Association for the Study of Common Property, Oaxaca, Mexico,
August 9-13.
Norris, K. & N. Harper (2004): Extinction processes in hot spots of
avian biodiversity and the targeting of pre-emptive conservation
action. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B.
271: 123-130.
Owens, l.P.F. & P.M. Bennett (2000): Ecological basis of extinction
risk in birds: habitat loss versus human persecution and
introduced predators. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. USA. 97: 12144-12148.
Purvis, A., J.L. Gittleman, G. Cowlishaw & G.M. Mace (2000):
Predicting extinction risk in declining species. Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series B. 267: 1947-1952.
Senapathi, D., I.N. Vogiatzakis, P. Jeganathan, J.A. Gill, R.E. Green,
C.G.R. Bowden, A.R. Rahmani, D. Pain & K. Norris (2007):
Use of remote sensing to measure change in the extent of habitat
for the critically endangered Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus
bitorquatus in India Ibis 149: 328-337.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
83
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
84-85
NEW DESCRIPTION
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BLACUS NEES
(HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE), ALONG WITH A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES1
Z. Ahmad2 and Z. Ahmed
'Accepted February 13, 2008
^Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Email: [email protected]
A new species of the genus Blacus Nees, namely Blacus (Ganychorus) hayati sp. nov., is described under the subgenus
Ganychorus from India. A key to the Indian species of Blacus is also given.
Key words: Hymenoptera. Braconidae, Blacinae, Blacus, new species, India
INTRODUCTION
The genus Blacus Nees belongs to the subfamily
Blacinae of Braconidae. Aehterberg (1988) revised the
subfamily and included four species under the genus Blacus
from India. Recently, Ahmad and Shujauddin (2001) added
one species to the genus Blacus from India. In the present
work, a new species is described and a key to the Indian
species of Blacus is provided. Aehterberg (1988) has been
followed for terminologies.
The following abbreviations are used in the text: OOL
— ocello-ocular line (distance from the outer edge of a lateral
ocellus to the compound eye); POL - post-ocellar line
(distance between the inner edges of the two lateral ocelli);
AOL- anterior-ocellar line (distance between the inner edges
of anterior and lateral ocellus), OD - diameter of an ocellus;
ZDAMU-Zoology Department, Aligarh Muslim University.
Key to Indian species of the Genus Blacus Nees
1 . Eyes conspicuously setose; medio-posterior propodeal area
small and rectangular
Blacus ( Contochorus ) turbidus Papp.
— Eyes glabrous or nearly so; medio-posterior propodeal area
different or small 2
2. Propodeal carina comparatively weakly developed; antenna
1 7 segmented; fore claw of female only setose
Blacus ( Blacus ) imitator Papp.
— Propodeal carina distinctly developed; antennae
20 segmented; fore claw of female with blackish bristles or
simple 3
3. Scutellar sulcus smooth; middle tarsal claw of female simple;
second metasomal tergite largely costate
Blacus (Tarpheion) votrus Papp.
Scutellar sulcus crenulate; middle tarsal claw of female with
blackish bristles; second metasomal tergite smooth 4
4. Fore wing shorter than the body length; ovipositor sheaths
approximately 0.2x as long as fore wing; pterostigma uniform
Blacus ( Ganychorus ) indicus Ahmad and Shujauddin
— Fore wing longer than the body length; ovipositor sheaths
approximately 0.1 6x as long as fore wing; pterostigma with
apical margin infuscate 5
5. Frons densely setose; face largely and transversely rugulose;
precoxal sulcus widely rugose; dorsal carina of first
metasomal tergite only near dorsope
Blacus ( Ganychorus ) setosifrons Aehterberg
— Frons sparsely setose; face smooth; precoxal sulcus and its
surrounding striate; dorsal carina of first metasomal tergite
almost reaching up to the apical margin
Blacus (Ganychorus) hayati Ahmad, sp.nov.
Blacus ( Ganychorus ) hayati Ahmad, sp. nov.
(Figs 1-4)
Female: Body length 2.5 mm; fore wing length 3 mm.
Head: Antennae 20 segmented, densely setose with
short silvery-whitish setae; FI 1.5x as long as F2, terminal
segment 2x as long as penultimate segments; length of FI, F2
and terminal segment 6, 4 and 3.5x their width; frons smooth
and sparsely setose; OOL: POL: AOL: OD = 4:3:2. 5:1;
occipital margin somewhat crenulate; eyes in dorsal view
about as long as temple; face smooth with a somewhat weak
tubercle between antennal sockets; malar suture present;
length of malar space about 1.2x basal width of mandible.
Mesosoma: Length of mesosoma 1.6x its height; sides
of pronotum extensively reticulate rugose, but smooth
dorsally; precoxal sulcus and its surrounding striate, few striae
reaching up to prepectal carina and postpectal carina; notauli
complete rather narrow and crenulate; mesoscutal lobe rather
convex and setose; scutellum with few rugulae, lateral carinae
not protruding dorsally; propodeal tubercles absent, surface
NEW DESCRIPTION
1.0 mm
Figs: 1-4: Blacus (Ganychorous) hyati sp. nov.
1 . Fore wing; 2. Head, frontal view; 3. Mid tarsal claw;
4. Propodeum, T 1 and T2
of propodeum largely smooth, its median area absent; fore
wing with first discal cell truncate anteriorly; 2-CU1 about
2. Ox as long as 1-CU1; parastigma rather large; length of
hind femur, tibia and basitarsus 6x, 9x and 8x their width
respectively; fore and middle claw with blackish bristles and
teeth; hind claw simple, only whitish (bristly) setose.
Metasoma: Length of first tergite 1 ,65x its apical width,
longitudinally rugose, dorsal carinae almost reaching up to
the apical margin; second tergite smooth; length of ovipositor
sheaths approximately 0.1 6x of fore wing.
Colour: Dark reddish brown; palpi, mandible, ventral
clypeus, tegulae, pterostigma (except infuscated margin of
apical half), fore leg, mid leg, hind leg (except telotarsus),
second and third tergite largely pale yellowish; face, vertex
behind eyes, mesoscutum and apex of hypopygium yellowish
brown; wings hyaline membrane, veins largely dark brown.
Male: Unknown
Holotype: ?, India: Uttar Pradesh, Rampur;
13.iii.2003, Coll. Z. Ahmed (ZD AMU).
Paratypes: 1 9, same as holotype (ZDAMU)
Host: Unknown.
Distribution: India: Uttar Pradesh.
Etymology: The species has been named in honour of
Dr. Mohammed Hayat for his contribution towards the
knowledge of parasitic Hymenoptera.
Remarks: Blacus ( Ganychorus) hayati Ahmad sp. nov.
closely resembles Blacus ( Gancychorus ) setosifrons
Achterberg, but differs in having frons sparsely setose (frons
densely setose in setosifrons ); face smooth (face largely
transversely or obliquely rugulose in setosifrons ); precoxal
sulcus and its surrounding striate (precoxal sulcus widely
rugose in setosifrons ); dorsal carinae of first metasomal
tergite almost reaching up to the apical margin (dorsal carinae
of first metasomal tergite only near dorsope in setosifrons).
The type material is deposited in Zoological Museum,
Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Dr. M. Hayat and Dr. Shujauddin for
reviewing the manuscript and offering useful suggestions.
We are also thankful to Chairman, Department of Zoology
for laboratory facilities.
REFERENCES
Achterberg, C. Van (1988): Revision of subfamily Blacinae Foerster
(Hymenoptera, Braconidae). Zool.Verh-hand. Leiden. 249:
1-324.
Ahmad, Z. & Shujauddin (2001 ): A new species of the genus Blacus
Nees (Blacinae: Braconidae: Hymenoptera) from India. Shashpa
8(1): 15-18.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
85
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
86
OBITUARY
HIMMATSINHJ1
October 09, 1928 to February 22, 2008
With the passing away of Himmatsinhji on 22nd
February, 2008, a remarkable tradition came to an end. Bawa
Saheb, as he was affectionately called by the many recognized
birdwatchers of Kachchh (the newly spelt name of Cutch),
joined the Society as a Life Member on January 29, 1952
shortly after he completed his education. He already had a
great knowledge of the birdlife of his area being the youngest
of four sons of His Highness Maharajdhiraj Mirza Maharao
Vijayrajji Sawai Bahadur, the Maharao of Cutch, who
commissioned the Kachchh Ornithological Surveys by
Dr. Salim Ali during 1943-44 and financed the birds of cutch
incorporating his and updating earlier publications of the birds
of the region by several 19 century British ornithologists.
These latter had all come in close contact with the Princely
family and Himmatsinhji’s Great Grandfather Maharao
Pragmalji had commissioned a natural history museum in
Bhuj. His Grandfather Maharao Khengar was among the
founding members of the Bombay Natural History Society!
It was he who informed the ornithological world of the
existence of the immense nesting colony of Large Flamingos
in the Great Rann of Kachchh and provided support for a
visit to the site by the Society’s McCann in 1939.
During the year preceding his passing away,
Himmatsinhji was updating birds of cutch and he and I had
a series of telephonic discussions on specific species, the last
being a rather lengthy one on the Black-necked Stork. His
phone came while I was actually watching a pair of the storks
on the Jamnagar side of the Gulf of Kachchh! We agreed to
meet in Kachchh during the first half of the next year (2008):
to my eternal regret, it was not to be.
The era in which Himmatsinhji grew up with its
English governesses, and British and Indian private tutors
effectively ended to the swirling bagpipe tunes of regimental
bands as the English marched through the India Gate of
Bombay (now Mumbai) to embark on the waiting barges to
take them to the troop ships lying in the harbour followed
by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru’s midnight “Tryst with Destiny”
speech to the Indian Parliament. He had just left the Rajkumar
College, Rajkot in June of 1947, and gone up to the Bombay
University to study agriculture at the Wadia College, Pune.
He took to the new era with considerable verve entering the
hurly burly of politics and defeating the then formidable
Congress Party to represent Kachchh as the Member of
Parliament from 1962 to 1967. 1 had the privilege of touring
Kachchh with him at the wheel on a couple of occasions and
I vividly remember the visit we made to the Chachhlo Dhand
where I photographed a magnificent male Great Indian
Bustard with the massif of the extinct volcano Dhinodhar in
the background. He delighted in taking us to Vijay Villas
Palace set amidst fine mango orchards on the Mandvi
seacoast and I could visualize his childhood there getting
familiar with the great variety of birds that visited the gardens.
In the background were Casuarina plantations and
magnificent sand dunes overlooking the Mandvi beach.
He spoke of the Houbara Bustards that wintered there and
the several species of Falcon that hunted for Larks and
Buntings among the grass covered dunes. It was here that he
recorded the Racquet-tailed Drongo and the Scarlet Minivet.
The former he collected and sent to the BNHS, the latter
observation accepted by the Society reflecting the total faith
that Salim Ali reposed in his expertise. Years later, when
I suggested that he might have seen the migratory Long tailed
Minivet from the Western Himalaya, his response was so
typical of him: “You have totally floored me!” There was a
great mutual respect between us throughout the long
association which his passing away terminated. I had always
felt he should have far, far more notes and articles on the
birds of his area than the few notes that he did write, but
when I did once remonstrate, he gently smiled and responded
"This like a pot calling the kettle Black!”
The birdwatchers of Gujarat had arranged a grand meet
at Hingol gadh on February 24, to remember all the
past ornithologists like Maharajkumar Dharmakumarsinhji,
Dr. Salim Ali, and Shivrajkumar Khachar and to felicitate
me on entering my 78 year. While not expecting him to
attend in person, we had anticipated a message from him,
instead, his passing away on February 22, converted the get
together into a meeting of condolence for a much loved
member of our fraternity.
Himmatsinhji married Princess Padmini Kumari of
Wankaner, a family of naturalists in their own rights. She
preceded him by a little over a year. Himmatsinhji is survived
by a daughter and two grandsons and one granddaughter. The
several knowledgeable birdwatchers of Kachchh feel
orphaned and the Society has lost a loyal member who
cherished memories of Dr. Salim Ali and other staff of the
Society who had worked in Kachchh during the “Mist Net”
operations in the late 1950s and early 1960s.
LAVKUMAR KHACHAR
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
87-89
REVIEWS
1. ECOLOGICAL ENTOMOLOGY: INSECT LITE IN ODD ENVIRONMENT by
T.N. Ananthakrishnan and K.G. Sivaramakrishan. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur, 2008. 142 pp.
Size: 24.5 cm x 16.5 cm. Hardback. Price not given.
This technical book is written by two professors who
are expert in this field, so the book is full of interesting
information and erudite statements. But, unfortunately, it
suffers from very serious editing problem. Scientific
Publishers chums out scientific books regularly and should
hire a good editor as most of the books published by them,
which I have read or reviewed, have this problem. In this
book, for example, there are many spelling mistakes, hyphen
is missing (microarthropods instead of micro-arthropods),
quotation marks begin but do not end (p. 8), words are
wrongly placed ( ‘ Tritaeniorhynchus (Fig. 4) sp.,’ instead of
‘ Tritaeniorhynchus sp. (Fig. 4),’ p. 15), a number of references
are not listed under 'References’, e.g. Hanski (2005) on p. 6,
La Salle and Gauld, 1993. Some references are incomplete,
e.g. Kumar and Prasad on p. 136 does not mention the year
of publication and the complete title of the paper. In a scientific
book, the term 'etc.’ should be avoided. For instance, after
mentioning the names of 2-3 species, if a person writes 'etc.’,
a layman would not know the names/numbers of additional
species. Sometimes there are very complicated sentences,
while in other places, disjointed statements are given. Due to
bad editing, there is lack of clarity in many statements. For
all these mistakes, I would blame the editor and the publisher
of the book. I hope that Scientific Publishers avoid such
mistakes in their future books.
The science in he book is good. The only problem
is that too many ideas and facts are cramped in one small
book. Perhaps the writers, both distinguished scientists,
should write a more detailed book on this very important
aspect of biodiversity, which is generally neglected.
Interesting information is given which should be extensively
quoted by conservationists to emphasize the importance
of maintaining natural ecosystems, not only for glamorous
large vertebrates, but also for maintaining our life-support
systems. For example, on p. 1 3, the authors have mentioned
how “the aquatic insect family and generic richness was
higher in the streams with natural riparian vegetation than
with the human modified ones ...” As biologists, we all
know this but let the decision makers, who do not think
even once before allowing a stream to be dammed or allowing
a polluting factory to be built, should also know such
facts.
I think such books are required to learn the importance
of so-called lower organisms in the functioning of our natural
world. The last chapter “Conservation for Healthier
Environment” is rather brief (3 pages), but full of advice.
I hope some of our decision makers will read this book, or at
least the last chapter.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
2. AN INTRODUCTION TO ORNITHOLOGY AND BIOLOGY OF THE BLUE ROCK
PIGEON by B.N. Bhattacharyya. New Central Book Agency (P) Ltd, Kolkata, 2008. 383 pp.
Size: 24 cm x 18 cm. Hardback. Price not given.
This is a strange book, with a strange title. It is not
clear whether the author wants to write a book on ornithology
in general, or a book on the biology of the Blue Rock Pigeon.
It is also not known whether this book is for experts or for
students. If it is for experts, there is nothing new in this book
that is not available in other more scholarly books. And, if it
is for students, the zoological aspect is fine, but the natural
history aspect has numerous mistakes. The diagrams of birds
would not inspire any young student to take up ornithology
as a profession.
The book is not well-researched, resulting in many false
or wrong statements. For example, it is wrong to say that
“Black Drongos (Dicrurus sp.) ... have almost equal
preference for fruits, berries, figs, flower-nectar and insects.”
I have never seen a drongo feeding on berries and fruits.
According to this book, gulls and terns feed on fishes,
curstaceans (sic), insects, slugs and shoots of various crops.
I still have to see terns feeding on shoots of 'crops’.
The book has outdated information. The preface was
written by the author in October 2007 and the book was
published in 2008, but the author still writes that the White-
backed vulture (p. 251) “has fast declined in numbers since
1990s, possibly due to some infectious viral or bacterial
diseases or toxicity and indiscriminate use of pesticides in
carcasses.” In the following paragraphs, he is more sure about
the cause. “It is now been found that the infectious disease
is possibly caused by a viral attack.” By 2004 it was
conclusively proved that diclofenac sodium, a pain-killer
REVIEWS
given to cattle, is the sole cause of the dramatic decline of
Gyps species of vultures in South Asia. It is rather strange
that the author has not seen latest scientific papers on this
issue.
As an introduction to the author, it is mentioned that he
has published “number of research papers in several national
and international journals of high repute. Four of his important
papers were published in Germany in the internationally
acclaimed Morphological Journal (Morph. Jb)”. However, a
quick glace at the Reference section shows that only four of
his papers, all published in India, have been referred in this
book (p. 357). There is one more paper, in Bengali (p. 367)
with Bhattacharyya as a second author. It is rather strange
that the author has not referred to his own four important
papers (on morphology of birds, I presume) in his book on
the subject of morphology which is dealt in great detail in
seven chapters. The second part of the book, about the Blue
Rock Pigeon, basically deals with its morphology and internal
organs in about 90 pages.
I suggest that if the author plans to revise this book or
write another book, he should consult the latest literature
(easily available on the internet these days), and also hire a
good artist. Our feathered friends, including the dowdy Blue
Rock Pigeon, deserve a better treatment.
■ ASAD R. RAHMANI
3. PLANTS OF BASTAR, CHHATTISGARH: A FIELD GUIDE by Madhu Ramnath, Published
by the Netherlands Committee for the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN-
NL), 2006. 568 pp.. Size: 24.2 cm x 16.7 cm. Hardback Price not given.
PLANTS OF BASTAR CHHATTISGARH, A FIELD GUIDE by Madhll
Ramnath has been in the making for nearly 15 years. This
comprehensive work has been undertaken by a dedicated
scientist and covers many species and genera not usually
studied with the vegetative characteristics of plants in mind.
The book came into being as the author found the
existing floras for the region quite unhelpful for a major part
of the year as the usual plant keys depend mostly on flowers
and fruit for plant identification. The lack of field guides for
plant identification made the author attempt one for the limited
area of central Bastar; however, many of the plants found in
this region are also a part of the larger Indian landscape.
Bastar is the southern most district of Chhattisgarh
which borders onto the Indian states of Orissa to the east,
Andhra Pradesh to the south and Maharashtra to the west.
Most of the Bastar district is a plateau with varied elevations
between 284 and 1,200 m above msl. The rock structure of
the plateau has been denuded over millions of years and is of
crystalline formation. The average rainfall is 1,538 mm most
of which occurs during the south-west monsoon months
between June and September. There are, on average about
75 wet days in the year with the rest of the seasons being
relatively dry and cool, although no frost occurs. The forests
of Bastar are dominated for the most part by Sal Shorea
robusta although there are some stands of Teak Tectona
grandis in certain areas, but Sal gives the area its specific
character. On some hill slopes trees of the genera Tenninalia ,
Haldinia and Pterocarpus are predominant. In the rocky areas
are found trees of Sterculia, Gardenia, Phoenix, Xylia and
Euphorbia with some types of bamboo. And along streams
and watercourses the predominant trees are the mango, and
Diospyros.
The people of Bastar with whom the author lived and
worked for several years have been invaluable with their
knowledge of plants as their lives depend on the products of
the forests. It is with their help that the author travelled
extensively in the forests of Bastar, often camping overnight
along streams, and learnt to notice characteristics of plants
not mentioned in most traditional keys. The local uses and
names of many of the plant species listed in the book are also
clearly indicated.
An important purpose of this book is to reveal the
traditional use of plants as practised by the Durwa and Koitoor
peoples of Bastar and adjacent parts of Orissa. Many of the
plants used such as Mangifera, Holarrhena, Semecarpus ,
Bauhinia and Buchanania are never planted; though used on
an almost daily basis and form the predominant vegetative
composition of the forest. As the author points out ‘In these
times of forest loss and skewed development programmes it
might be rewarding to extend such methods and practices of
plant use that have stood the test of time to a long-term vision
of forest conservation.’
The classification followed in the book is the sequence
of families and order given by G.L. Stebbins from his
FLOWERING PLANTS - EVOLUTION ABOVE THE SPECIES LEVEL (1974)
and Hey wood's flowering plants of the world.
While using this book I have found the vegetative key
most useful both for the line drawings, done by Elly Oenema,
and the elaborate vegetative descriptions of plants. The
excellent index at the back of the book gives both vernacular
and scientific names. I have also appreciated the section of
tree barks clearly photographed for quick identification and
the clarity of language and illustrations of the various genera
and species described. The print is large and easy to read and
88
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
REVIEWS
the descriptive word usage simple. Another feature is that
flowering times are noted and under each species is a list of
species numbers available in both India and the world if this
is known. A useful addition is the translation of Latin words
describing the various species and genera in the botanical
nomenclature. This clarifies, on many occasions, the very
substance, location, or meaning of the words which scientists
used in naming the plant or tree.
The additional keys for fruit and flower characteristics
is extremely helpful in cross-referencing, especially since
many plants remain without flowers or fruit for a very large
part of the year. This additional set of keys should be of
great value to the field botanist. I hope that the plant families
that have not been included in this volume will be added to
in the future; I have found this book extremely useful to
enhance my knowledge even though many of the genera and
species in Tamil Nadu, where I live, are different. The book
is easy to use for the less experienced plant lover because of
its clarity.
The book has been published by the Netherlands
Committee of the IUCN who, along with the Stichting van
Tienhoven, at Leiden in the Netherlands, provided the
financial support. The Kew Gardens in London, the
Rijksherbarium in Leiden, and the Rapinat Herbarium in
Tiruchirapalli have helped the author with technical support
and access to their collections.
I highly recommend this volume to plant lovers and
curious field botanists both from India and abroad.
■ PIPPA MUKHERJEE
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
89
Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
90-126
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1. PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATIONS CONFIRMING THE OCCURRENCE
OF INDUS RIVER DOLPHIN PLATANISTA GANGETICA MINOR
IN RIVER BEAS, PUNJAB, INDIA1
Sandeep K. Behera24, Asghar Nawab2'5 and Basanta Rajkumar3
'Accepted January, 2008
"Freshwater & Wetlands Programme, World Wide Fund for Nature-India (Secretariat), 172-B Lodi Estate, New Delhi 1 10 003, India.
’Divisional Forest Officer, Ferozepur 152 001, Punjab, India. Email: [email protected]
4Email: [email protected]
’Email: [email protected]
The Indus River Dolphin Platanista gangetica minor ,
or ‘Bhulan’ as it is locally called, was considered endemic to
Pakistan as it was reported only in the Indus river system.
More than a hundred years ago, the Bhulan occurred in the
Indus and its four major tributaries, the Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej
and Jhelum, where it was distributed from the foothills of the
Karakoram range to the Indus Delta (Anderson 1 878; Roberts
1998). It is currently found in only a small portion of its former
range, a stretch approximately 600 km long. Small scattered
populations consisting of 2-3 individuals are found, isolated
between irrigation barrages. These subpopulations are not
ecologically and genetically viable (Reeves et al. 1991;
Reeves and Chaudhry 1998). The Indus Dolphin has been
classified as ‘Endangered’ (IUCN 2006) (Criteria; A2abcde;
Blab(i,ii,iii.iv); Cl) (Population Trend: Decreasing).
On the request of the State Forest Department of Punjab,
the World Wide Fund for Nature - India conducted field surveys
from December 20-22, 2007 to confirm the occurrence of the
dolphins in the Harike Wetland Sanctuary. Surveys were
conducted using a motor boat and the observations were
recorded using binoculars and reading of locations was made
using a GPS. Photographs and high definition videographs
were also taken. A stretch of 60 km was intensively searched
from Harike Lake Notch (31° 9.03' N; 74° 57.09’ E) to
Karmowala Village (31° 10.57' N; 075° 2.46' E), and back to
the Harike Lake Notch, covering different channels. Informal
interviews with locals were also conducted to ascertain the
presence of the dolphins.
Failing to record any dolphin on the first day, we
modified the survey methodology slightly on the second day
by deputing four observers at different vantage points within
the identified habitat of dolphins and instructed them to
contact the team members in the motorboat as soon as they
sighted dolphins. For the first half of day two, between 0930
and 1330 hrs the field survey was conducted in the
downstream of the confluence of the rivers Beas and Sutlej,
but no dolphin was sighted. It was then decided by the first
author (SKB) to visit the nearby upstream villages and conduct
interviews with locals. We covered about 40-50 km along
the banks of the River Beas, interviewing local villagers and
at about 1700 hrs we reached the Karmowala village (Tam
Taran district), about 25 km upstream of the Sutlej-Beas
confluence. We came across a local ferry service man who
immediately took the team to the place where he had earlier
seen the dolphins. When the team reached the site at 1730 hrs
after walking along the banks for 2-3 km, a group of dolphins,
which consisted of two adults and three calves, was sighted.
On the third day of field visit, few more habitats suitable for
dolphins were identified in the Beas river from the Harike
lake, and 25 km upstream. Dolphins were sighted in two of
these habitats (31° 13.37' N; 75° 3.79' E) and (31° 13.33' N;
75° 4.02’ E).
Interviews with the fishermen and local community
revealed the sightings of a small population of dolphins in
the recent past, namely the last three months at the same
locations where we sighted the dolphins. Elderly people from
the village community and the fishermen informed us of the
presence of dolphins in the Beas river stretch over the last
few decades. The villagers also informed us about the presence
of Gharials in 1980s and confirmed the presence of otters
and turtles.
Although the dolphins we sighted in River Beas looked
like the Indus River Dolphin we need further confirmation.
It is assumed that this is a sub-population of the Indus River
Dolphin, separated from the main population after the
construction of barrages along the Indo-Pakistan border in
the 1950s.
Gill Braulik informed “Earlier this year we (Pakistan
Wetlands ProgrammeAVWF-Pakistan) conducted interview
surveys on all of the Indus tributaries in Punjab to establish
the date of extirpation of dolphins in these rivers. There is
evidence that the Indus dolphins existed upstream of
Suleimanki Barrage on the Sutlej until 1989. Suleimanki is
140 km downstream of Harike. Given that the Sutlej in
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Pakistan was recently inhabited by dolphins, it seems likely
to me that the dolphins in India are a remnant, previously
undiscovered subpopulation, rather than that they moved here
recently from elsewhere. The closest Indus dolphins are
approximately 600 km away in the Indus River”. Looking at
the present situation on the Sutlej and Beas rivers in India, it
is quite impossible for the movement of the species as the
barrage gate on the Indo-Pak border area is totally blocked
with limited seepage water flowing into Pakistan. As per the
information gathered from the locals, Beas is a free flowing
river after the Pong dam and has a good depth and flow with
less visible pollution. River Beas and its tributaries may have
other dolphin populations that need to be identified through
detailed surveys.
The River Sutlej was found to be visibly polluted (black
coloured water) with a limited flow (shallow) and heavy
growth of the Water Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, and is
therefore an unsuitable habitat for dolphins. The confluence
with River Beas presents a contrasting picture. River Beas is
comparatively less polluted (murky water) with a high flow
and presence of deep pools/counter eddy currents/shallow
riffle areas/islands in lower stretches (from the confluence
upstream 25 km) and forms a suitable habitat for dolphins.
However, upstream of the Harike Lake, the habitat is subjected
to disturbances such as agricultural activities, ferry services
and fishing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the encouragement and support of
Mr. Ravi Singh (Secretary General & CEO) WWF and
Dr. Parikshit Gautam (Director, Freshwater & Wetlands
Programme) to take up this study. The forest personnel of
Punjab State Forest Department, in particular to Malkit Singh
and Sukhpal Singh are thanked for providing infrastructural
support. Dr. Anish Dua and Mr. Chander Prakash (Guru
Nanak Dev University, Punjab), and the local villagers are
also thanked for their support in field work. We are grateful
to Dr. Asad R. Rahmani (Director-BNHS) for revising the
earlier draft of the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. (1878): Anatomical and Zoological Researches:
Comprising an Account of Zoological Results of the two
Expeditions of Western Yunnan in 1868 and 1875; and a
Monograph of the two Cetacean Genera Platanista and Orcaella.
B. Quaritch, London, 2 vols.
IUCN (2006): IUCN Red List of Threatened animals. IUCN, Gland,
Switzerland and Conservation International, Washington DC.
Reeves, R.R & A. A. Chaudhry ( 1998): Status of the Indus River Dolphin
Platanista minor. Oryx 32(1): 35-44.
Reeves, R.R., A. A. Chaudhry & U. Khalid( 1991 ): Competing for Water
on the Indus Plain: Is there a Future for the Pakistan's River
Dolphin? Environmental Conservation 18: 341-349.
Roberts, T.J. ( 1998): Mammals of Pakistan. 2nd Revised Edition. Oxford
University Press, Pakistan. 561 pp.
2. LOCATIONS OF SIND SPARROW SIGHTINGS ALONG THE RAJASTHAN CANAL
AND THE RIVER SUTLEJ1
Harkirat Singh Sangha2 and Manoj Kulshreshtha3
'Accepted December 19, 2003
2B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
3B-33, Sethi Colony, Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
In the Indian subcontinent, the Sind Sparrow Passer
pyrrhonotus is virtually restricted to the floodplains of the
River Indus delta and its major tributaries, the Sutlej and Ravi
rivers, north to about 34° 6' N (Clement etal. 1999). Its Indian
range is described as the Indian Punjab on the Beas river
near Gurdaspur and along the Sutlej from Harike, east to the
bridge on the main road between Ludhiana and Jullunder
(Jalandhar), but not further upstream at Rupar (Summers-
Smith 1988). It has recently colonised the Yamuna flood plain
in eastern Haryana and north Delhi, but remains extremely
scarce and local everywhere (Harvey and Sharma 2002).
This note concerns its recent occurrence in
Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. We have been regularly
visiting this area since the last fifteen years or so, but have
never come across this species before.
On April 23, 2001 one male and two female Sind
Sparrows were found on a Kikar Acacia nilotica , on the bund
of the Rajasthan Canal (Indira Gandhi Nahar) near Kulchandar
and Saharni villages (c. 22 km from Sangaria) in
Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan. On both sides of the canal
there is a variety of Acacia scrub, tamarisk and grass jungle
broken by large Kikar and Tali Dalbergia sissoo. These native
trees are also present along the bunds of the canal to stabilize
the soil.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
91
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Locations of Sind Sparrow sightings along the Rajasthan
Canal and the river Sutlej
The species was sighted again in Hanumangarh district
at Badopal lake near Suratgarh on March 01, 2002. Eight
males and five females were counted in two separate groups
on Acacia tortilis trees along the road. Two to three birds
were observed picking food off the seed pods of the tree.
Apparently, the Sind Sparrow has had a restricted range
since it was discovered, with only circumstantial evidence of
even short distance migrations. It is a bird of tamarisk and
Acacia scrub with tall grass or reeds along rivers, pools or
marshes, invariably in close association with water (Clement
et al. 1999). Although basically non-commensal, it has
benefited from human activity. The extensive irrigation schemes
undertaken after independence in 1947 have transformed the
arid plains of the Punjab and Haryana. The lengthy canals,
reservoirs and water bodies due to seepage from the canals
have facilitated the species to colonise new areas.
The earliest records of the Sind Sparrow in the Indian
Punjab are from the R. Sutlej side of Ludhiana, Phillaur and
Ferozepur (Whistler 1911, 1913). A hitherto largely sedentary
and localized species was first found in Haryana in 2001.
The species successfully bred and was recorded from twelve
sites in eastern Haryana and north Delhi during January-
August, 2001 (Harvey and Sharma 2002).
Apart from the proximity of water, the major constant
in the ecological requirement of Sind Sparrows appears to be
the Acacia nilotica (Harvey and Sharma 2002).
Circumstantially, the evidence is that the species has moved
into northern Rajasthan recently along the Rajasthan Feeder
Canal (Fig. 1). The canal starting from Harike, Punjab
evidently provided the known ecological requirements for
the species to expand its range. What other factors have helped
the species to colonise new areas is not known yet, but it is
clearly on the move.
REFERENCES
Clement, P., A. Harris & J. Davis (1999): Finches and Sparrows. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 448.
Harvey, B. & S.C. Sharma (2002): The initial colonisation of the Yamuna floodplain by the Sind Sparrow Passer pyrrhonotus.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99: 35-43.
Summers-Smith, J.D. (1988): The Sparrows. T & A.D. Poyser, Calton. Pp. 194-198.
Whistler, H. (1911): The Rufous-backed Sparrow (Passer pyrrhonotus Blyth). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 1151.
Whistler, H. (1913): The Rufous-backed Sparrow Passer pyrrhonota Blyth. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 392.
3. SIGHTING OF INDIAN SKIMMER RYNCHOPS ALBICOLLIS (SWAINSON)
IN THE PURBASTHALI-GANGES ISLETS, BURDWAN DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL'
Arunayan Sharma2
'Accepted July 30, 2007
2Centre for Ecological Engineering, Netaji Subhash Road, In front of T.O.P. Malda 732 101, West Bengal, India.
Email: [email protected]
The globally threatened Indian Skimmer Rynchops of Occurrence’ of 2,52,000 sq. km. It has a global population
albicollis has a large range with an estimated global ‘Extent estimated to be 6,000-10,000 individuals (Wetlands
92
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
International 2002). This species is listed as Vulnerable
(Birdlife International 2007) because its population is
undergoing a rapid decline as a result of widespread
degradation and disturbance of lowland rivers and lakes.
The Indian Skimmer is confined to Pakistan, India, Bangladesh
and Myanmar. A large proportion of the population of this
species winters in Bangladesh, principally in the
Padma-Meghna delta, and Myanmar. It is a rare visitor to
Nepal. It was formerly widely distributed across the Indian
subcontinent, along the major rivers of Myanmar, and along
the Mekong in Indo-China. In India its distribution range is
mainly confined to the River Ganga. It has declined in
India and Pakistan (Birdlife International 2007). As per the
published account, from West Bengal it has been recorded
from the Buxa Tiger Reserve (Allen et al. 1996) in the
Jalpaiguri district, from the Farakka Barrage in the Malda
district (Jha 2006; Sharma 2001 ) and from the Chattaranjan
Bara Dam in the Burdwan district on January 30, 2003
where nine individuals were recorded (Bombay Natural
History Society 2007).
From January 26-28, 2007, 1 went to Purbasthali-Ganga
Islets for a survey on waterbirds. The Purbasthali-Ganga
Islets situated in the Burdwan district is adjacent to Nadia
district in West Bengal. The vast riverine tract of Purbasthali
is located close to Kasthashali in Chupi Char along River
Allen, D., J. Anderton & K. Kazmierczak (1996): Report on an
ornithological visit to Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, India,
February 17 to March 6, 1992. ForktaiI( 12): 31-37.
BirdLife International (2007): Species factsheet: Indian Skimmer
Rynchops albicollis. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org.
Bombay Natural History Society (2007): Statewise Asian Waterfowl
Report for 2003, 2004 and 2005. Downloaded from
http://www.bnhs.org.
Jha, S. (2006): Records of some rare birds from Farakka Barrage (West
Bengal, India) Indian Birds, Vol: 2, No: 4. New Omis Foundation,
Hyderabad.
Ganga. This wetland complex is actually a cluster of riverine
isles, ox-bow lakes and river channels. A large number of
migratory waterbirds, especially waterfowl are found here.
As the Indian Skimmer is a Vulnerable species, here
I give recent sight records. On January 26, 2007 at 1220 hrs
I noticed four Indian Skimmers resting along the riverbank
at the Nidoya Char. Further upstream of the river at 1345 hrs
two individuals were sighted hovering above the waterline at
the Rajar Char. On January 27, 2007 at 1 1 50 hrs two individuals
of this species were sighted at the same spot at the Nidoya
Char. On the same day at 1410 hrs at the Rajar Char a group
of four individuals was sighted on the riverbank side. On
January 28, 2007 at 1215 hrs a group of six individuals was
sighted at Nidoya Char. It appears that the Nidoya Char is a
suitable foraging ground for this species, as this species was
sighted only here everyday.
The Purbasthali-Ganga Islets is an unexplored
waterbird habitat of West Bengal. It is estimated that the
Purbasthali-Ganga Islets support at least 72 species of
waterbirds and are ranked as a top priority list to be designated
as a Ramsar Site (Vijayan et al. 2004). Recently, I recorded
101 species of waterbirds from the Purbasthali-Ganga
Islets (Sharma 2007). It was found that this wetland area is
suitable for Indian Skimmers also, where it may occur
regularly.
Sharma, A. (2001): Birds of Farakka Barrage. Environ. 7(4&5).
Sharma, A. (2007): Waterbirds of Purbasthali-Ganges Islets, Burdwan
district. West Bengal. Indian Birds (Submitted). New Ornis
Foundation, Hyderabad.
Vijayan, V.S., S.N. Prasad, L. Vijayan & S. Muralidharan (2004):
Inland Westlands of India-Conservation Priorities.
Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Coimbatore.
Wetlands International (2002): Waterbird Population Estimates -
Third Edition. Wetlands International Global Series 12,
Wageningen, the Netherlands.
4. FIRST RECORD OF CASPIAN GULLS LARUS CACHINNANS IN THE INDIAN SUNDERBANS DELTA1
Arunayan Sharma2 and Christoph Zockler3
'Accepted July 30, 2007
Ventre for Ecological Engineering, Netaji Subhash Road, In front of T.O.P., Malda 732 101, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]
3ArcCona Ecological Consulting, Cambridge CB3 0HY, United Kingdom. Email: [email protected]
On January 24, 2005, we approached Halliday Island
Sanctuary, located at the extreme end of the Indian Sunderbans
delta near the Bay of Bengal coastline, which is a part of the
Sunderbans Biosphere Reserve, to look for waders. The
survey was a part of an international ornithological expedition
looking for the globally threatened Spoon-billed Sandpiper
Eurynorhynchus pygmeus (Zockler et al. 2005). The Island
is situated south-east of Kolkata in South 24 Parganas district.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
93
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
West Bengal, India, a World Heritage Site (Project Tiger
2001).
While approaching the island, we noticed a group of
gulls hovering above the waterline flying along our launch,
the birds appeared to be following us. We arrived at the
Halliday Island Sanctuary at c. 1 245 hrs and began identifying
and counting the waders present there. After completing the
wader count we turned our attention to the gulls, which were
still hovering above the waterline near the shoreline. After
close observation from a distance of c. 200 m, through
telescopes, we noticed there were fifteen gulls in the group of
which nine were Caspian Gulls Larus cachinnans , five were
Pallas’s Gulls Larus ichthyaetus and one Sooty Gull Larus
hemprichii. All the gulls were in their adult winter plumage
(Grimmett et al. 1998; Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2000;
Couzens 2005; Ripley et al. 2005).
The plumage of the Caspian Gulls Larus cachinnans
was recorded as: Overall appearance dark uniform brown and
considerably smaller than the neighbouring Pallas’s Gulls;
head, nape and throat slightly brownish with a short whitish
eyebrow. Underparts whitish. Mantle and wings brown. Wings
dark brown with darker blackish primaries (did not show
underparts). Through the telescope the bill looked heavy, quite
slim with little gonydeal angle; moderate to steep curve to
culmen. Head small and rounded, on a rather slim, graceful
neck; impart a more delicate look (Grimmett et al. 1998;
Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2000; Ripley et al. 2005).
However, other individuals of the same species on the island
had yellow legs, gray back, slightly darker and more
extensively black wing tips with a few white spots. A red
spot on the bill and a red ring around the eye; orb ring red to
orange-red in colour. Tail and rump white. Head white with
variable fine streaks from eye to rear crown. Iris noticed
dull gray-yellow to bright lemon. Bill colour bright to
orange-yellow. Gonydeal spot large and red.
The breeding range of the Caspian Gull is concentrated
on the Mediterranean Sea. In North Africa it is common, and
in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia the population is known to
BirdLife International (2007): Species factsheet: Caspian Gull Gull
Larus cachinnans. Downloaded from http://www.birdlife.org.
Birdlife International.
Couzens, D. (2005): Identifying Birds by Behaviour. HarperCollins
Publishers Ltd. London. Pp. 118-130.
Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian
Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Delhi. Pp. 503-508.
Jhonson, D„ P. Thompson & J. Woolner (1992): Birds of Bangladesh
(Revised). University Press, Dhaka.
Kazmierczak, K. & B.V. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the
Birds of India, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan,
Bangladesh and Maldives. Om Book Service, New Delhi.
be increasing. Recently, breeding of this species in Libya and
Egypt has been recorded. In the Middle East, a few breed in
Israel and Syria with large numbers in Cyprus and Turkey. In
Europe, there are colonies all along the Mediterranean coast
and it also breeds on the west side of the Black Sea. The
Caspian Gull is also common in the Canary Islands, Madeira
Islands and the Azores. Many birds remain in the same area
all year round, but others migrate to spend the winter in
warmer areas of Western Europe or head southwards, as far
as Senegal, the Gambia and the Red Sea. It is reported as a
vagrant to north-eastern North America and Nigeria (BirdLife
International 2007).
Caspian Gulls, a widespread winter visitor to the Indian
subcontinent, have been recorded from various parts of India;
but unfortunately the status of this species from India is
uncertain and uncommon (Grimmett et al. 1998). Caspian
Gull was not recorded from West Bengal as indicated in the
range maps of this species (Grimmett et al. 1 998; Kazmierczak
and van Perlo 2000). In the neighbouring country of
Bangladesh it is a scarce winter visitor, mainly in the
Bangladesh Sunderbans (Jhonson et al. 1992; Grimmett et
al. 1998). We are sure that the species occurs in the Indian
Sunderbans delta in considerable numbers and may have been
overlooked. The recent sighting of Caspian Gulls from the
Halliday Island Sanctuary is probably the first record of this
species from the Indian Sunderbans delta and West Bengal,
India.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge Mr. Mrinal Chatterjee and
Mr. Debdas Bhakta of the Institute of Climbers & Nature
Lovers, Anpur, Satjelia Island, Sunderbans for their
cooperation and assistance and all the individuals who took
us to the remote areas of the Indian Sunderbans delta for bird
surveys and protected us while we counted waders in known
tiger areas. Finally, we thank the German Manfred Hermsen
Foundation, Bremen for generously funding the survey.
Pp. 128-131.
Project Tiger (2001): Project Tiger Status Report. Ministry of
Environment and Forests. Government of India. New Delhi.
Pp. 168-175.
Ripley, S.D., P. Rasmussen & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South
Asia The Field Guide. 2 vols. Washington D.C. and Barcelona:
Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions.
Zockler, C., S. Balachandran, GC. Bunting, M. Fanck, M. Kashiwagi,
E.G. Lappo, G. Maheswaran, A. Sharma, E.E. Syroechkovski &
K. Webb (2005): The Indian Sunderbans: an important wintering
site for Siberian waders. Wader Study Group Bull. 108: 42-46.
International Wader Study Group.
94
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
5. A RECENT OBSERVATION OF WHITE-HEADED DUCK OXYURA LEUCOCEPHALA
AT GAJALDOBA BARRAGE, WEST BENGAL, INDIA1
Mathias Ritschard2 and Andreas Taschler3
'Accepted October 03, 2006
2Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Strasse, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany. Email: [email protected]
Lfohannisbergstrasse 8, 8645 Jona, Switzerland. Email: [email protected]
On February 03, 2006, while scanning a few thousand
waterbirds at the Gajaldoba Barrage, Jalpaiguri district. West
Bengal, India, we observed a female White-headed Duck
Oxyura leucocephala, loosely associated with a large mixed
group of anatids (mostly the Common Teal Anas crecca and
the Gadwall Anas strepera, with smaller number of Northern
Shoveller Anas clypeata, Northern Pintail Anas acuta ,
Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope, Mallard Anas platyrhynchos.
Falcated Duck Anas falcata, Red-crested Pochard Netta
rufina , Tufted Pochard Aythya fuligula , Common Pochard
Aythya ferina and Ferruginous Pochard Aythya nyroca). The
bird was easily identified by its typical shape with a long tail
held in upright position, a large head and swollen-based bill,
its uniformly rufous-brown body and the black and white
head pattern. Sex identification was based on the extensive
black cap reaching below the eye, off-white face with broad
dark cheek-stripe and blackish bill.
Most of the time the White-headed Duck was not
closely associated with other ducks but was observed
swimming around busily in open water at the edge of the
flock near to the dam. Although the bird was very active, it
did not seem to be in a sound health condition as it was
continuously opening its bill, giving the impression that it
had respiratory problems.
Gajaldoba Barrage is an artifical wetland created by
retaining the water of Teesta river. It is an important wintering
and stopover site for migratory ducks and shorebirds, and
has a considerable potential of attracting rare birds. Other
significant species which were observed during two visits on
January 15 and February 03, included the Black-necked Grebe
Podiceps nigricollis , the Common Shelduck Tadoma tadoma ,
the Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula and the White-
tailed Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla.
Discussion
The White-headed Duck is distributed in Central Asia
and some parts of Europe. It is globally threatened and
classified as Endangered by BirdLife International and IUCN
(BirdLife International 2006). Its world population has
decreased from probably over 100,000 individuals in the
early 20th century to an estimated 19.000 in 1991, and has
probably declined to less than 10,000 since (BirdLife
International 2006). Main threats include the habitat loss in
Central Asia, where approximately 50% of breeding habitat
has been drained during the 20lh century, pollution and recent
droughts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (BirdLife
International 2006). In the Indian subcontinent, the wintering
population of the White-headed Duck is mainly restricted to
Pakistan, where the number has dropped from 1,039 birds in
1968 to only 5-33 between 2002 and 2004 (Li and Mundkur
2003; Zulfiqar and Akhtar 2005; BirdLife International 2006).
In India, the species is now very rarely recorded with only
two observations since 1980: single birds at Harike Lake,
Punjab, in 1984, and at Amakhera wetland, Uttar Pradesh, in
1997 (Li and Mundkur 2003). The present record of White-
headed Duck from Gajaldoba Barrage is far east from its usual
occurence in South Asia. However, there are old specimens
from Calcutta market. West Bengal, which have presumably
been taken nearby (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). In China,
where the species is very rare, single birds have been observed
as far east as Hunan and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous
Region (Li and Mundkur 2003). These records, as well as the
recent observation from Gajaldoba Barrage, most likely refer
to vagrants.
REFERENCES
BirdLife International (2006): Oxyura leucocephala. In: IUCN 2006.
2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
<www.iucnredlist.org>.
Li, Z.W.D. & T. Mundkur (2003): Status overview and recommendations
for conservation of the White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala
in Central Asia. Wetlands International Global Series 15, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia.
Rasmussen, RC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The
Ripley Guide. Vol. 1: 68. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx
Edicions, Washington D.C. and Barcelona.
Zulfiqar, A. & M. Akhtar (2005): Bird surveys at wetlands in
Punjab, Pakistan, with special reference to the present
status of White-headed Duck Oxyura leucocephala. Forktail 21 :
43-50.
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
95
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
6. A LARGE CONGREGATION OF COTTON TEAL NETTAPUS COROMANDELIANUS
OBSERVED AT CHILIKA LAKE, ORISSA, INDIA1
P. Sathiyaselvam2-4, S. Balachandran2-5 and D.K. Parmanik3
'Accepted October 03, 2006
-’Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.
'Office of the Chief Wildlife Warden, Government of Orissa, BD A Apartment, 5lh Floor, Nilkantha Nagar, Nayapalli, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa, India.
'Email: sathiyaselvam 1 [email protected]
"Email: [email protected], [email protected]
On January 1 1, 2003, one of us (PS) participated as a
group leader of one of the 14 groups formed among the
participants of the Mid-winter Waterfowl Count organised
by the Chilika Wildlife Division at Chilika Lake, Orissa. The
area allotted to the group was Tinimuhani, the confluence
point of the three tributaries of Mahanadi, namely the Daya,
Bhargavi and Nuna, in the northern sector of the Lake. The
bulk of the freshwater inflow into the Lake is through these
three tributaries. The census team left Balipatpur Jetty
(19° 0.92' N; 85° 0.49' E) at 0900 hrs. PS was counting the
bird numbers species-wise and D.K. Parmanik, an Assistant
Conservator of Forests, was recording the numbers in the field
notebook. Around 1 200 hrs the group approached a major bird
congregation area at Tinimuhani. The area was filled with
waterfowl; predominantly - Eurasian Coot Fulica atra.
Cotton Teal Nettapus coromandelianus, Red-crested Pochard
Netta rufina , Pheasant-tailed Jacana Hydrophasianus
chirurgus and Tufted Duck Aythya fuligula. Over one
thousand Whiskered Tern Chlidonicis hybrida over-flying and
often resting on the fish net poles were also observed.
We counted about 5,400 Cotton Teals.
When SB visited the same area for a fortnightly bird
monitoring along with PS during the first week of March,
the former saw about 1 ,600 Cotton Teals. When PS mentioned
the earlier sighting of 5,400 birds to SB, during the Mid-winter
Waterfowl Count, he was surprised. We realised that this
record was the largest known congregation of this species.
Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan.
Compact edition, Oxford Univ. Press, New Delhi. Pp. 190-192.
Benthall, E.C. & L.A. Craven (1950): Geese and Duck on the Chilika
Lake, Orissa. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 49(2): 312-313.
Sridharan, U. (1989): Comparative ecology of resident ducks in
The handbook (Ali and Ripley 1983) records 500 birds as
the congregation of Cotton Teal in an area. Sridharan (1989)
recorded 562 individuals of the species from the Keoladeo
National Park. It is worth to mention that Benthall and Craven
(1950) stated that the Cotton Teal was scarce in the Chilika
Lake. Moreover, this record of 5,400 Cotton Teal is also more
than 5.4% of its biogeographical population as per the
estimates given by the Wetlands International Waterbird
Estimates of 2006 (Wetlands International 2006). On another
occasion a total of 5,200 birds were recorded by SB during
the first week of January 2006 from the same area. These
records suggest that a large occurrence of Cotton Teal at
Chilika is regular, not occasional. This also highlights the
importance of the Chilika lake for the resident waterfowl
species, besides its global importance of holding the largest
migratory waterbird congregation in India.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Mr. J.C. Daniel, Honorary Secretary,
and former Director BNHS for reading the manuscript
We would like to express our sincere thanks to the Chilika
Development Authority, Govt, of Orissa, for funding this
project, and Chief Wildlife Warden of Orissa for granting
necessary permission for the study. We greatly appreciate the
hard work rendered by our field assistants Mr. P. Guruswamy
and Mr. Niranjan Dalei.
Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Bombay, Bombay. Pp. 31-35.
Wetlands International (2006): Waterbird Population Estimates -
Fourth Edition. Wetlands International, Wageningen,
The Netherlands. Pp. 84.
96
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
7. RECORD OF LARGE CONGREGATION OF LARGE WHISTLING-DUCK
DENDROCYGNA BICOLOR IN THE PURBASTHALI-GANGES ISLETS,
BURDWAN DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL1
Arunayan S harm a2
'Accepted July 30, 2007
^Centre for Ecological Engineering, Netaji Subhash Road. In front of T O P, Malda 732 101, West Bengal, India.
Email: [email protected]
Between January 26 and 28, 2007 I went to the
Purbasthali-Ganga Islets for surveying waterbirds. During the
survey I recorded a large number of Large Whistling-ducks
Dendrocygna bicolor at various places in this freshwater river
system. The Purbasthali-Ganga Islets is situated in the
Burdwan district in West Bengal. The vast riverine of
Purbasthali is located close to the Kasthashali in the Chupi
Char along the River Ganga. This wetland complex is actually
a cluster of riverine isles, ox-bow lakes and river channels.
A large number of migratory waterbirds, especially waterfowl
winter here.
On January 26, 2007 at 1015 hrs I first noticed a group
of Large Whistling Ducks resting at the Kashthasali Char; I
counted 895 individuals. Down the river at Idrakpur Char,
another group of 780 individuals was recorded. Further down
the river large groups of this species were found at Rajar
Char (1,020), Kamal Nagar Char (982) and Rukunpur Char
(743). The total numbar recorded on January 26, 2007 was
4,420 individuals. On January 27 and 28, the total number of
Large Whistling Ducks was found to be 4,190 and 4,367
individuals respectively.
The total breeding population of the Large Whistling
Duck in South Asia is 20,000 (Wetlands International 2002).
The present record of Large Whistling Ducks from the
Purbasthali-Ganga Islets indicates that this wetland complex
supports more than 20% of the existing population of Large
Whistling-duck in South Asia. The Purbasthali-Ganga Islets,
therefore meet the criteria to be protected and designated as
an Important Bird Area under the A4i category (Islam and
Rahmani 2004). The Purbasthali-Ganga Islets has been
evaluated as a top priority for designation as a Ramsar site
(Vijayan et al. 2004).
REFERENCES
Islam, M.Z. & A.R. Rahmani (2004): Important Bird Areas in India: Wetlands of India-Conservation Priorities. Salim Ali Centre for
Priority sites for conservation. Indian Bird Conservation Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore.
Network: Bombay Natural History Society and Birdlife Wetlands International (2002): Waterbird Population Estimates -Third
International, U.K. Edition. Wetlands International Global Series 12, Wageningen,
Vijayan, V.S., S.N. Prasad, L. Vijayan & S. Muralidharan (2004): Inland the Netherlands.
8. TWO OBSERVATIONS OF MALAYAN NIGHT-HERON GORSACHIUS MELANOLOPHUS
FROM WEST BENGAL, INDIA1
Mathias Ritschard2, Peter Logtmeijer’and Andreas Taschler4
'Accepted October 03, 2006
2Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Eberhard-Gwinner-Strasse, 82319 Seewiesen, Germany. Email: [email protected]
3Bloemhof 55, 1403 NB Bussum, The Netherlands. Email: [email protected]
4Johannisbergstrasse 8, 8645 Jona, Switzerland. Email: [email protected]
On May 03, 2005 around noon, Peter Logtmeijer (PL)
and Wouter Puyk observed an adult Malayan Night-Heron
Gorsachius melanolophus at Mahananda Wildlife Sanctuary
(WLS) near Siliguri in Jalpaiguri district. West Bengal, India.
The bird was flushed from near a fallen tree in a dry and
stony riverbed in the eastern part of the Sanctuary, along the
Siliguri -Kalimpong road. The Night-Heron was seen well at
a distance of 20-30 m before it disappeared into the forest.
The first impression of the bird was that of a small Eurasian
Bittern Botaurus stelloris , with a large head and stout bill,
broad rounded wings and legs projecting behind the tail.
It looked smaller in size than a Black-crowned Night-Heron
Nycticorax nycticorax. The upperparts and sides of the neck
were rufous-brown except for the black crown/crest, which
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
97
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
reached down to the neck. The wing coverts were also rufous-
brown, with the primaries and secondaries appearing black.
The primary coverts and/or the base of the primaries showed
distinct white barring.
On February 03, 2006 before dawn, AT and MR
watched birds from a bridge crossing a small stream inside
Baikuntapur Forest, which adjoins the south-eastern part of
Mahananda WLS. The stream had dried up except for two
large puddles near the bridge. While watching a number of
passerines, including the White-tailed blue Robin Myiomela
leucura , the Pale-chinned Flycatcher Cyomis poliogenys and
the Snowy-browed Flycatcher Ficedula hyperythra, dropping
in for a bath, AT spotted a small stocky night-heron slowly
moving towards us underneath a line of bushes at the edge of
the stream. The initial distance was about 30 m. The head,
neck and breast were rich rufous, the crown and the longish
crest were black. Upperparts and wings showed dark
vermiculations on rufous background. Foreneck and breast
showed black streaking, and the belly was whitish with dark
markings. The short, stout bill was yellowish; eyes were
yellow with black pupils. The facial skin and legs showed
bluish-green coloration. The bird was easily identified as an
adult Malayan Night-Heron. We watched it through binoculars
and a telescope down to a distance of 15 m, as it slowly moved
along the pond in search of food for about 20 minutes, after
which it got too dark. It showed a very striking behaviour,
constantly moving the neck slowly sidewards, describing a
sinuous line.
Both observations were in subtropical lowland evergreen
Sal forests, which are veined by a mosaic of rivers and small
streams. The soil is covered with low shrubbery, while mid-
height vegetation is scarce and mainly found along streams.
The Malayan Night-Heron is locally distributed in India,
China, Southeast Asia and the Philippines, and is
migratory, at least in the northern parts of its range. It is
generally uncommon and secretive, living in swampy areas in
dense lowland broad-leafed evergreen and mixed deciduous
forests, and feeding mainly at night. In the Indian
subcontinent, where it is local and scarce, it is said to be
resident or partly resident in the Western Ghats and the central
and southern Nicobar Islands, and a summer visitor in the
area of Assam Valley to Manipur. In Sri Lanka, it is a regular
winter visitor (Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). However, it
has not previously been reported from West Bengal, and
records from the north-eastern states of India are scarce. In
Assam, it occurs among other places, in Kaziranga National
Park, where it is said to be an uncommon migrant (Barua and
Sharma 1999), Nameri National Park (rare migrant; Barua
and Sharma 2005) and Dibru-Saikhowa National Park (rare;
Choudhury 1997; Choudhury 1998). Malayan Night-Heron
has also been reported from Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram
and Meghalaya (Choudhury 2001; Birand and Pawar 2004).
Our two observations from West Bengal are from
locations about 10 km apart and are connected by a
continuous protected forest. The Mahananda WLS and
adjoining Baikuntapur Forest provide good habitat for the
species, where it may occur regularly and perhaps even
breeds, but hitherto it has been overlooked in the area due to
its secretive habits. Intriguingly, the species is considered a
summer visitor in India outside the Western Ghats and the
Nicobar Islands. The north-east Indian population of Malayan
Night-Heron is said to migrate south through the Haflong
district (Ali 1962) and Burma (=Myanmar) between
August and October, probably wintering in the Malay
Peninsula (Glenister 1951) and Greater Sundas. Passage
through the Malay Peninsula has been noted in October-
December and April, and wintering birds have been recorded
in Sumatra from November to May (del Hoyo et al. 1992).
Our observation from early February is clearly out of season
and may in fact be the first winter record of this species from
the north-eastern part of India. We strongly recommend
further search for the secretive and easily overlooked Malayan
Night-Heron in the Mahananda WLS and neighbouring
forests to resolve questions about its local status.
REFERENCES
Ali, S. ( 1962): The BNHS/WHO bird migration study project. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. 59(1): 128-130.
Barua, M. & P. Sharma ( 1999): Birds of the Kaziranga National Park,
India. Forktail 15: 47-60.
Barua, M. & P. Sharma (2005): The birds of Nameri National Park,
Assam, India. Forktail 21: 15-26.
Birand, A. & S. Pawar (2004): An ornithological survey in north-east
India. Forktail 20: 15-24.
Choudhury, A. (1997): The status of the birds of Dibru-Saikhowa
Sanctuary, Assam, India. OBC Bulletin 25: 27-29.
Choudhury, A. ( 1998): Mammals, birds and reptiles of Dibru-Saikhowa
Sanctuary, Assam, India. Oryx 32: 192-200.
Choudhury, A. (2001): Some bird records from Nagaland, north-east
India. Forktail 17: 91-103.
Glenister, A.G. (1951): The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Singapore
and Penang: 103 Oxford University Press, London.
del Hoyo, J„ A. Elliott & J. Sargatal (1992): Handbook of the Birds
of the World. Volume 1: Ostrich to Ducks: 421. Lynx Edicions,
Barcelona.
Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The
Ripley Guide. Vol. 1: 60. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx
Edicions, Washington DC and Barcelona.
98
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
9. NEW DISTRIBUTION RECORD FOR CALOTES NEMORICOLA JERDON, 1853
FROM THE KUDREMUKH HILLS, KARNATAKA, INDIA1
Rohit Naniwadekar23 and V. Deepak2
'Accepted February 24, 2007
2Nature Conservation Foundation, 3076/5, IV Cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002, Karnataka, India.
3Email: [email protected]
Kudremukh National Park (KNP) is one of the less
explored mountain ranges of central Western Ghats
(Vasudevan et al. 2006). We conducted herpetological
surveys for the Karnataka Forest Department from October
2005 to February 2006 in the KNP. On November 27, 2005,
at 1600 hrs we came across a single specimen of Calotes sp.
moving on the ground in an Areca nut plantation in the
Pela village of the Belthangady range of KNP. This plantation
is about 100 m from an evergreen forest at 400 m above msl.
The specimen was fixed in 70% Ethanol and deposited in
the Collections of the Bombay Natural History Society,
Mumbai (BNHS Regn No. 1778).
The specimen was identified as C. nemoricola Jerdon
(Smith 1935). The morphological and meristic data
is given in Table 1. The coloration of this specimen was
similar to Smith’s description except for the presence of
blue colour on the head and maroon colour on the nape.
The sex of the specimen was not determined.
C. nemoricola is known from Munnar, Nelliampathy,
Ponmudi hills and Wayanad in Kerala; Annamalai,
Ashambhu, Mudumalai and Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu
(Gunther 1864; Smith 1935; Whitaker and Das 1990;Tikader
and Sharma 1992; Karthikeyan et al. 1993, Bhupathy and
Kannan 1997; Thomas et al. 1997; Ishwar 2001; Ishwar et
al. 2001). Thus, this new locality information extends the
distribution of the species by c. 300 km north. It suggests
that the species ranges widely throughout the central and
southern Western Ghats.
Bhupathy, S. & P. Kannan (1997): Status of Agamid lizards in the
Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, India. Salim Ali Centre for
Ornithology and Natural History, Technical Report, No. 5.
Gunther, A. (1864): The Reptiles of British India. R. Hardwicke.
London, pp. 444 + 26 plates.
Ishwar, N.M. (2001 ): Reptilian species distribution in response to habitat
fragmentation and microhabitats in the rainforests of southern
Western Ghats, India. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, FRI
Deemed University, Dehradun.
Ishwar, N.M., A. Kumar & R. Chellam (2001): Distribution of forest
floor reptiles in the rainforest of Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger
Reserve, South India. Current Science 80(3): 413-418.
Karthikeyan, S., R.M. Athreya & J.N. Prasad (1993): Range extension
of Calotes nemoricola from the Anamalais, Western Ghats.
Table 1: Measurements (in mm) of C. nemoricola
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Karnataka Forest Department and their
staff for funding, permission and support. We thank
Dr. Karthikeyan Vasudevan and Shri. M.S. Chaitra for their
guidance, support and encouragement. We are grateful to
Mr. Dilip Venugopal and Mr. N.M. Ishwar for providing old
site records of C. nemoricola. We thank Mr. Varad Giri for
the information provided. We thank Mr. Shashank Dalvi and
Ms. Swapna N. for their support during the survey and
Mr. S.P. Vijayakumar for his critical comments on the
manuscript. We express our sincere thanks to the anonymous
referee for the valuable comments.
NCES
Hamadryad 18: 45-46.
Smith, M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and
Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia. Vol. 2: Sauria. Taylor & Francis,
London.
Thomas, J., J. S abu & PS. Easa (1997): Status and distribution of reptiles
in Wyanad, Kerala. Cobra 28: 25-30.
Tikader, B.K. & R.C. Sharma (1992): The Handbook of Indian Reptiles.
Zoological Survey of India Publication, pp. 250 + 42 plates.
Vasudevan, K„ M. Singh, V.R. Singh, M.S. Chaitra, R.S. Naniwadekar,
V. Deepak & N. Swapna (2006): Survey of biological diversity
in Kudremukh forest complex, Karnataka. Final Survey report
of Kudremukh WL Division.
Whitaker, R. & I. Das (1990): Scrubland Calotes nemoricola ?
Hamadryad 15: 29-30.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
99
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
10. RECORD OF BURMESE PYTHON PYTHON MOLURUS BIVITTATUS
AND ITS CONSERVATION STATUS IN CORBETT TIGER RESERVE, UTTARAKHAND, INDIA1
Asghar Nawab2 and Amit K. Srivastava3
‘Accepted February 21, 2008
“Freshwater & Wetlands Programme, WWF-India (Secretariat), 172-B Lodi Estate, New Delhi 1 10 003, India.
Email: [email protected]
?A-106, Beta 1, Greater Noida 201 301, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]
Two species of python (Family: Boidae) - Python
molurus (Linnaeus) and P. reticulatus (Schneider), and two
subspecies of Python molurus - P.m. molurus and
P.m. bivittatus - are reported from India. These subspecies
differ based on the following morphological characters: in
P.m. molurus 6th or 7th labial contact the eye, lance-shaped
mark on the top of the head is indistinct in adults and the
tongue is pink, while in P.m. bivittatus the labials are separated
from the eye by suboculars, lance-shaped mark on the head
is distinct (even in adults) (Fig. 1), and the tongue is blue-
black (Smith 1943; Daniel 2002; Whitaker and Captain 2004).
Both the subspecies grows up to 6-8 m in length, occur in
dense as well as in open grasslands or in rocky outcrops along
rivers and jheels (Daniel 2002). They mostly feed on warm-
blooded animals, such as birds and mammals. Python molurus
has a wide distribution in India (Smith 1943; Daniel 2002;
Bhupathy 1995; Whitaker and Captain 2004). Though
confirmed distributional records of P.m. bivittatus from India
are sketchy, confirmed reports are available from North-east,
Orissa (Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary) and Uttarakhand
(Rajaji National Park) (Bhupathy 1995).
Two consecutive observations of adult P.m. bivittatus
were made in the Corbett Tiger Reserve (29° 25'-29° 40' N;
78° 5'-79° 5' E) in Uttarakhand, India. The first observation
was made on December 28, 2004 in the grasslands (locally
called chaur ) of Dhara Range, and the other was made on
Fig. 1 : Schematic diagram to illustrate the identifying features
of the Burmese Python Python molurus bivittatus
June 19, 2006 near the Dhangari gate in the Dhikala Range.
On both the instances, the identification features described
by Smith (1943), Daniel (2002), and Whitaker and Captain
(2004) fitted well. These observations constitute the first
record from this protected area and form an additional locality
record for this subspecies in northern India. Moreover, it forms
an addition (at subspecies level) to the existing checklist of
22 species of snakes reported from the Reserve (Chopra 1979).
It is worth noting that P.m. molurus and P.m. bivittatus
occur sympatrically. Are they really subspecies or distinct
species is yet to be determined based on DNA studies. How
do they share the resources in their sympatric ranges if they
are distinct species? Moreover, P.m. bivittatus is a Malayan
faunal element, and there are a few recent records of species
such as (1) Tree Frog Chirixalus sp. (2)Tricarinate Hill Turtle
Melanochelys tricarinata and (3) Copper-head Ratsnake
Elaphe radiata near Dehradun, Uttarakhand (Bhupathy 1995),
knowledge on the extent of invasion of Malayan reptilian
elements in India remains scanty and is largely based on old
records by Smith (1943).
The Corbett Tiger Reserve forms an important
repository of the natural heritage of Uttarakhand and is one
of the best-protected areas of the Sal forest in Siwalik ranges,
perhaps the last refuge of a number of threatened animal
species in the Himalayan Bhabar tract.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The observations were made during the Study on Ecology
of Otters in Corbett Tiger Reserve : Impact of Kalagarh reservoir
on habitat use pattern. We wish to place on record our
indebtedness to the Forest Department, Uttarakhand; Director,
Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun and Dr. S.A. Hussain,
Principal Investigator of the Project. We are grateful to
Romulus Whitaker and Ashok Captain for helping us identify
the photographs and Dr. Subramanian Bhupathy (SACON-
Coimbatore) reviewed the manuscript. We express our sincere
gratitude to Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director, BNHS for his
encouragement and valuable comments on the manuscript.
The kind help rendered by our colleagues: Dr. Basudev Tripathy
and Ishan Agarwal (Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun)
100
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
and Dr. Parikshit Gaumtam & Dr. S.K. Behera (WWF-India) Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (HRD Group),
is highly appreciated. The first author acknowledges the New Delhi for awarding a research grant.
REFERENCES
Bhupathy, S. ( 1995): Distribution of Python molurus bivittatus in India.
Cobra 21: 2-5.
Chopra, R.N. (1979): Fauna of Corbett National Park, Uttar Pradesh -
Reptiles and Amphibians. Cheetal 21(1): 30-31.
Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.
Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press,
Mumbai.
Smith, M.A. (1943): The Fauna of British India. Reptilia and Amphibia
(Vol. Ill - Serpents). Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and
Publishers, New Delhi.
Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2004): Snakes of India: The Field Guide.
Draco Books, Chennai, India.
1 1 . REDESCRIPTION OF GARRA ABHOYAI HORA (TELEOSTEI: CYPRINIDAE: GARRINAE)
WITH A NOTE ON GARRA RUPECULA FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1
W. VlSHWANATH2'3 AND I. LlNTHOINGAMBI2’4
'Accepted May 10, 2007
^Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.
Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Email: [email protected]
Introduction:
Fishes of the genus Garra Hamilton inhabit bottoms
of fast flowing streams and are widely distributed from
southern China, across South-east Asia, India and the Middle
East to northern and central Africa ( Kullander and Fang 2004 ).
The genus is characteristic in having its mouth and its posterior
region highly modified into a suctorial disc, also called mental
disc.
McClelland (1839) described Gonorhynchus rupeculus
from Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh (Brahmaputra basin),
India. Gunther (1868) and Day (1878) considered the species
a synonym of Discognathus lamta (Hamilton). Hora ( 1921 )
described Garra abhoyai from the streams of Ukhrul district
of Manipur (Chindwin basin). Menon (1964), while revising
the genus, considered McClelland’s (1839) species as valid
and redescribed it as Garra rupecula , based on specimens
only from Chindwin basin in Manipur, an entirely different
basin from the type locality. He also considered Garra
abhoyai , a synonym of Gonorhynchus rupecula. Vishwanath
(1993) and Vishwanath and Joyshree (2005) also followed
earlier literature in treating the validity of Garra rupecula of
Manipur.
In the present study, several specimens of Garra ,
confirming the description of Hora’s (1921) G. abhoyai were
collected from the hill streams in the Ukhrul and Imphal west
districts of the State. The species is considered valid and
redescribed here. The status of G. rupecula of Manipur is
also discussed.
Measurements and counts follow Kullander and Fang
(2004), and that of head depth follow Menon (1964). Scale
counts follow Kottelat (2001 ). Specimens examined for the
study are deposited in the Manipur University Museum of
Fishes (MUMF). Number in parentheses after a particular
count indicates number of specimens examined.
Garra abhoyai Hora
(Figs 1-3)
Garra abhoyai Hora 1921: 664 (type locality Naga
Hills, Ukhrul district, Manipur).
Material Examined: MUMF 6296-6305, 10, 49.3-
54.90 mm SL, Iril R. at Phungdhar, Manipur, 174.2003,
K. Nebeshwar, M. Shantakumar and I. Linthoingambi,
MUMF 8048-8054 and 8103-8112, 17, 45.0-53.0 mm SL,
Nambul R. at Singda, Manipur, 3.xi. 2005, H. Joyshree.
Diagnosis: A small species of Garra with smoothly
rounded snout tip; rostral lobe absent; proboscis absent;
predorsal scales present but those towards head very reduced,
irregularly arranged and covered by mucus almost making it
appear to be absent; chest and abdominal region naked,
however, area just in front of pelvic fin scales covered by
mucus; papilliferous tissue absent along the upper jaw;
papillations present at an angle of upper and lower lip; lateral
line scales 30-33 + 1-3.
Description: General appearance as in Fig. 1. Table 1
presents morphometric data. Body small, maximum standard
length 58.7 mm, elongated, predorsal contour straight; body
depth almost uniform; ventral aspect flattened from head to
anal fin base; snout rounded without transverse groove.
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
101
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Lateral view of Garra abhoyai
proboscis absent; rostral lobe absent; head wider than deep,
orbit in mid HL. Anterior barbel not reaching margin of rostral
cap. Central pad oval shaped, wider than long. No
papilliferous tissue along the upper jaw. Papillations present
at an angle of upper and lower lip. Caudal peduncle short
almost as deep as long.
Fins: Dorsal fin origin equidistant between anterior
margin of eye and caudal fin base, posterior margin straight,
bearing ii, 6, i rays, posterior end at same level with that of
pelvic fin. Pectoral fin with round posterior margin, bearing
i, 13 rays, fourth branched ray longest extending halfway the
distance between its anterior base and pelvic fin. Pelvic fin
longest, fin extending to vent. Anal fin short but extends
beyond mid of caudal peduncle, straight posterior margin,
bearing ii, 4, i rays. Caudal fin emarginated, bearing 9+8 rays.
Scales: Predorsal region appears to be naked due to
thick mucous cover (Fig. 3a). On scraping, it is observed that
scale boundaries are not well distinguished, becoming much
reduced and irregularly arranged (Fig. 3b). Chest and abdominal
region naked, however area just in front of pelvic fin has scales
covered by mucus (Fig. 2). Scales behind dorsal fin up to caudal
fin base distinct with well defined margins, 11-14 [11(5), 12(6),
13(8), 14(8)] in number. However, in larger specimens
45.7 mm SL onwards, scales just behind dorsal fin tend to be
reduced and irregularly arranged. Lateral line 30-33 + 1-3,
i.e. 30(4), 32(7), 33(16) + 1(5), 2(17), 3(5). Scales between
dorsal fin base and lateral line Vi 4 and that between lateral line
and pelvic fin base 4V2. Circumpeduncular scales 16.
Colour: Greenish brown on back, paler ventrally. Dorsal
fin with a submarginal black band, band present only on the
rays. Caudal fin with a distinct W-shaped black band.
Distribution: india: Manipur: Iril R., Nambul R.
(Chindwin Basin).
Discussion: Specimens of Garra from Iril and Nambul
rivers under study agree with the original description of
G. abhoyai Hora. In the identification of Garra spp., lepidosis
has been considered as an important character. Hora (1921)
reported that in the above species, the scales on the sides and
postdorsal region were well marked while those in front of
the dorsal were reduced and appeared to be almost devoid of
scales to the naked eye. Similar observations were also made
in the present study.
Garra abhoyai is distinguished from G. lissorhynchus
in having the angle of upper and lower lips papillated vs.
ridged; predorsal scales reduced and irregular vs. well defined;
scales between lateral line and pelvic fin base Vi 4 vs. Vi 3;
anal fin rays ii, 4, i vs. i, 4.
McClelland (1839) described Gonorhynchus rupeculus
from Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh (Brahmaputra basin),
India. Gunther (1868) and Day (1878) considered the species
102
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 2: Ventral view of Garra abhoyai
a synonym of Garra lamta (Hamilton), a species with no wavy
or W-shaped black bar across the caudal fin. The species does
not occur in Chindwin basin. Hora (1921) considered
McClelland’s species as Garra rupeculus based on
examination of specimens of maximum 2 inches length from
the hill streams of Manipur valley (Chindwin basin), an
entirely different drainage from the type locality. The
important characters he observed in the fish are: a light black
streak near the free margin of the dorsal, a deep black bar across
the base of dorsal and a wavy band in the middle of caudal fin;
rows of open pores on snout extending to lateral line; origin of
dorsal slightly nearer to caudal base than to tip of snout; ventral
fin extends beyond anus and ventral surface naked.
G abhoyai can be easily distinguished from G rupecula
in having clear W-shaped black band marking on the caudal
fin (Hora 1921). Thus, G. abhoyai is resurrected from the
synonymy of G rupecula.
Hora’s (1921) Garra rupecula from Manipur shares
similar characters with G nambulica Vishwanath and Joyshree
(2005) in having open pores on snout continuing with lateral
line, black bands across dorsal and caudal fins, and absence
of scales on ventral surface. It is also similar to
G. paralissorhynchus Vishwanath and Shanta (2005 ) in having
similar types of colour bands on dorsal and caudal fins
also. His descriptions were based probably on a mixture of small
specimens (29.7-34.4 mm TL) of both the latter two species.
Fig. 3: Dorsal view of Garra abhoyai:
a. showing mucous covered predorsal region; b. predorsal region after scrapping mucous
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
103
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Decisions in fish taxonomy of earlier days were often
based on a few samples of very dissimilar sizes and poorly
preserved as a result of the logistical problems and difficult
technical conditions of field work at that time. Authors often
observed variability, but the available material did not allow
them to conclude whether the variability was ontogenic,
geographic, intra- or interspecific; and with the then prevailing
species concepts it was usually conservatively concluded for
intraspecific variability (Ng and Kottelat 2000).
The present concept is that fresh water fishes are
distributed in a particular river basin and their congeners
in an entirely separated different basin are proved to
be different species. Various revisional studies of ‘such highly
variable’ and widely distributed forms of earlier days have
now shown to be aggregates of distinct, often not even
closely related species (Kottelat and Lim 1993; Kottelat
1996; Roberts and Ferraris 1998; Ferraris and Runge 1999;
Ng and Kottelat 2000; Ng 2003; Chakrabarty and
Ng 2005).
Thus, the distribution of Garra rupecula in the
Chindwin basin of Manipur may be considered invalid with
the validation of G. abhoyai.
REFERENCES
Chakrabarty, P. & H.H. Ng (2005): The identity of Catfishes identified
as Mystus cavasius (Hamilton, 1822) (Teleostei: Bagridae), with
a description of a new species from Myanmar. Zootaxa 1093 :
1-24.
Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India: being a natural history of the fishes
known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma and
Ceylon. Fishes India, Part 4, Berdnard Quaritch, London,
p. i-xx + 553-779.
Ferraris, Jr. C.J. & K.E. Runge (1999): Revision of the South Asian
Bagrid Catfish Genus Sperata, with the description of a new
species from Myanmar. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 51(10):
397-424.
Gunther, A. (1868): Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum.
Trust. British Mus. London 7: i-xxii + 69.
Hora, S.L. (1921): Indian Cyprinoid fishes belonging to the genus
Garra. with notes on related species from other countries. Rec.
Indian Mus. 22(pt 5, no 29): 633-683.
Kottelat, M. ( 1996): The identity of Puntius eugrammus and diagnoses
of two new species of striped barbs (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from
Southeast Asia. Raffles Bull. Zool. 44: 301-316.
Kottelat, M. (2001): Fishes of Laos. WHT Publications (Pte) Ltd.,
1-198, pis 1-48, figs 1-65.
Kottelat, M. & K.K.P. Lim (1993): A review of the eel loaches of the
genus Pangio (Teleostei: Cobitidae) from the Malay peninsula,
with description of six new species. Raffles Bull. Zool. 41:
203-249.
Kullander, S.O. & F. Fang (2004): Seven new species of Garra
(Cyprinidae: Cyprininae) from the Rakhine Yoma, southern
Myanmar. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwater 15(3): 257-278.
McClelland. J. (1839): Indian Cyprinidae. Asiatic Researches 19(2):
217-471.
Menon, A.G.K. ( 1964): Monograph of the cyprinid fishes of the genus
Garra Hamilton. Mem. Indian Mus. 14(4): 173-260.
Ng, H.H. (2003): A revision of the south Asian sisorid catfish genus
Sisor (Teleostei: Siluriformes). J. Nat. Hist. 37: 2871-2883.
Ng, H.H. & M. Kottelat (2000): A review of the genus Amblyceps
(Osteichthyes: Amblycipitidae) in Indochina, with descriptions
of five new species. Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwaters 11(4):
335-348.
Roberts, T.R. & Jr. C.J. Ferraris (1998): Review of South Asian Sisorid
Catfish genera Gagata and Nangra. with descriptions of a new
genus and five new species. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 50(14):
315-345.
Vishwanath, W. (1993): On a collection of fishes of the genus Garra
Hamilton from Manipur, India, with description of a new species.
J. Freshwater Biol. 5(1): 59-68.
Vishwanath, W. & H. Joyshree (2005): A new species of genus Garra
Hamilton-Buchanan (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) from Manipur,
India. Zoos’ Print J. 20(4): 1832-1834.
Vishwanath, W. & K.D. SHANTA (2005): A new fish species of the
genus Garra Hamilton-Buchanan (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae)
from Manipur, India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 102(1): 86-88.
12. NATURAL HISTORY AND EARLY STAGES OF THE WESTERN GHATS ENDEMIC GOLDEN
FLITTER QUEDARA BASIFLAVA (HESPERIIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA)
FROM SOUTH-WESTERN INDIA1
Krushnamegh Kunte2
'Accepted November 07, 2006
^University of Texas at Austin, Section of Integrative Biology, 1 University Station C 0930, Austin, Texas 78712-0253, USA.
Email: [email protected]
The genus Quedara Swinhoe, 1919 (Family
Hesperiidae, Lepidoptera) has five species, which are
distributed from southern India to Borneo and Sumatra in
South-east Asia. The genus is represented by a single species
in the Western Ghats, south-western India: the Golden Flitter
Quedara ( =Hyarotis ) basiflava de Niceville. The genus is
allied to Hyarotis , which has two representatives in the
Western Ghats: the Tree Flitter H. adrastus Stoll and the Brush
104
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Flitter H. (- Kineta ) microstictum Wood-Mason & de
Niceville. Early stages of H. adrastus were described by Bell
(1927), but those of H. microstictum and Q. basiflava have
so far been unknown. Nothing is known about Q. basiflava
apart from its taxonomic status, and this is the first report of
the natural history and early stages of the species.
This article is based on work carried out mainly in the
Karian and Varagaliar sholas in the Anamalai Hills (10° 13'-
10° 31' N; 76° 52'-77° 23' E) over eight months (November
1998-May 1999, and additional field work during 1999-
2001). During this period I successfully reared nine adults
from first or second instar caterpillars, and observed more
than 500 caterpillars. The natural history of this species has
also been studied in recent years in Ponmudi-Kallar Valley
and in Arippa and Schendurni wildlife sanctuaries (WLS)
near Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, by C. Susanth,
B.V. Premkrishnan, S. Kalesh and Satya Prakash. Their
observations, if different from mine in the Anamalai Hills,
are also reported below.
Status and distribution: The species is narrowly
endemic to the Western Ghats. It occurs south of Coorg up to
the southern tip of the Western Ghats, both north and south
of the Palghat Gap, on the eastern as well as the western slopes.
It is most common in the Anamalai Hills southwards up to
Arippa and Schendurni WLS in Kerala. It has always been
considered a very rare species and some of the earlier authors
had missed it south of the Palghat Gap (Evans 1910, 1932;
Ugarte and Rodricks 1960; Larsen 1988). However, judging
from the abundance of the caterpillars, I propose that the
species is actually common in its habitat, but, as described
below, the adults are rarely seen possibly because of their habits.
The exception is the Rosemala area of Schendurni WLS, where
adults are seen in fair numbers (C. Susanth pers. comm.).
Habitat: The habitat described here is only for
caterpillars because adults were seen rarely. In the Anamalai
Hills the host plants were various species of canes ( Calamus
spp.); hence, the caterpillars were commonly seen in dense
evergreen forest patches as well as close to small natural
openings and around forest paths, but not in large man-made
openings. They were found between 500 and 1,400 m above
msl although the numbers declined significantly above 900 m.
The occurrence of the species in the Grass Hills and
Eravikulam national parks, and in small forest fragments in
the Akkamalai area close to Valparai, was confirmed by
sightings of a few caterpillars and indirect evidence, such as
bite marks (and characteristic leaf damage) and cells made
on the host plants by the caterpillars. However, at these high
elevations (>l,100m) they were uncommon even when at low-
and mid-elevation evergreen forests I found dozens of
caterpillars on single cane plants, and presence on a high
proportion of individual plants.
Breeding season: Breeding was continuous throughout
the year, but peaked from October to February in the Anamalai
Hills and from June to August in Schendurni WLS (C. Susanth
pers. comm, for Schendurni WLS). There were two brief lulls
in breeding activity, one during March-April and the other
during August-September. It is not known whether these
periods were spent in egg, caterpillar or pupal stage. One
caterpillar stayed dormant in captivity for three months from
August to October and pupated at the end of it, but the length
of the pupal stage was normal (C. Susanth pers. comm.).
Host plants: Three species of cane were identified on
which caterpillars were seen for many months: Calamus
pseudo-tenuis Beccari ex Beccari & Hook, C. rotang Beccari
ex Beccari & Hook and C. thwaitesii Beccari ex Beccari &
Hook (Arecaceae). Whether any of these cane species is
preferred over others is still unknown.
Eggs: The eggs were faintly shiny white and dome-
shaped with vertical ribs, but their detailed structure was not
studied. They were laid in batches of 2-13 eggs (5.9 ±2.9,
N = 20 clutches), mostly on the underside of Calamus leaves.
The eggs were laid in one or two rows, touching each other,
mostly on fresh leaves, but a few were on older leaves, which
were later eaten by the caterpillars. 1 did not notice a
preference for Calamus in shaded or open areas: the caterpillar
density seemed equal on plants inside the forest or near natural
forest edges and on forest paths.
Caterpillars: The caterpillar was white with a light
reddish-brown head (Fig. la). There were three pairs of
markings on the face: the first pair - large, tear-shaped, sharply
defined prominent yellow markings above the mandibles with
yellowish area in between, the second pair - much smaller
and faint yellow spots above the first pair, and the third pair
- faint whitish-yellow markings above the second pair of
markings, close to the top of the head (Fig. lb). The mandibles
were darker in colour, almost chocolate-brown, and the eyes
were initially brown but turned white in later instars. The
sides and the back of the head, towards the second segment,
were darker reddish brown or almost black. The head of the
recently moulted caterpillar was light green with the yellowish
markings paler; the markings darkened within a few hours.
The coloration of the caterpillar remained unchanged
throughout, except for markings on the head that became
progressively more prominent in successive instars. The head
had a distinct groove on top. The anal flap was rounded,
prominent and covered with fine white hair. Approximately
three days before pupation a pair of white lines appeared on
the back of the caterpillar. These lines were a continuation of
the two white bars present on the anal flap of the caterpillar
throughout its life.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
105
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. la: Caterpillar of Quedara basiflava-
1b: close-up of the head
Fig. 2: Cells made by the first instar larvae
Fig. 3: Cells made by third to fifth instar larvae
The caterpillars dispersed immediately after consuming
their eggshells. Each caterpillar occupied an entire leaflet to
make its cell and feed, and caterpillars from the same clutch
occupied adjacent leaflets. Early larval cells were small
( c . 2-4 cm in length) and made in the middle of the leaf margin.
These were simple tubes made by turning the leaf margin
downwards and holding it in place by silk threads (Fig. 2).
■
|U|' * - f I
.. «
Fig. 4: Pupa of Q. basiflava a day before eclosion, showing
change in wing coloration
a: lateral view; b: dorsal view; c: ventral view
Fig. 5: Freshly eclosed Q. basiflava drying its wings
Fig. 6: Underside of freshly eclosed Q. basiflava
106
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
After the second instar, caterpillars made larger cells by
putting the two margins of a leaf together, bending the leaf
longitudinally at the midrib (Fig. 3). The caterpillars
consumed portions of the leaf between their resting spots
inside the cells and the terminal portions of the leaf, usually
leaving the midribs and edges of leaves intact, which
produced characteristic leaf damage. This characteristic
pattern allowed distinguishing between the leaf damage
caused by this species and that by other sympatric Calamus-
feeding species: the Common Palmfly Elymnias
hypermnestra Linnaeus and the Giant Redeye Gangara
thyrsis Fabricius that damaged the leaves more extensively,
and the Maculate Lancer Salanoemia sala Hewitson that did
not leave the leaf margins intact, and had more elaborate
cells.
The caterpillars stayed stretched on the roof of the
cells, their heads pointing towards the leaf apex,
without turning their heads on their sides, as many
hesperiids do. They fed mainly at dusk and at night. The
frass pellets, which were considerably dry, were shot
away with force, and so the cells and surroundings were
always clean. The caterpillars were shy, and their
movements were slow. They made very thick mats of
silk to line their larval and pupal cells, which remained bright
white and quite conspicuous for many months after
they had been abandoned. Just before pupation, caterpillars
discharged light brown rather than greenish droppings. The
total length of the caterpillar, just before pupation, was
40 mm.
Pupae: Pupae were pale green and slender, with
a pointed projection at the anterior end and the proboscis
running free beyond the wing cases almost up to the
tip of the abdomen (Figs 4a,b,c). There was a brown
longitudinal line on the dorsal side of the pupa. Unlike
many southern Indian hesperiids (e.g. G. thyrsis Fabricius
and the Common Banded Awl Hasora chromus Cramer
(Kunte 2000)), pupae of this species did not form cereus
powder.
The caterpillars always wandered off before pupation,
so the pupae were never found on the host plant. Pupal cells
were probably formed close to the ground on other plants or
Table 1: Morphometric measurements
of adult Ouedara basiflava
among the leaf-litter as in spite of extensive searching pupal
cells could not be located. The pupal cells made by
caterpillars that were confined to host plant twigs, using
mosquito netting, were structurally similar to the larval cells
of late instars.
Pupae were 30 mm long, with a maximum
circumference of 6 mm. The average pupation period was
13-15 days, and the adults always eclosed during the early
half of the day, between 0800 and 1 300 hrs.
Morphometric measurements: Morphometric
measurements were taken (in millimetres) with callipers on
two newly emerged specimens (Table 1).
Imago: Although caterpillars were abundant, I saw
only two adults in nature. Whether they were crepuscular or
inhabited some microhabitat that was mostly inaccessible to
human observers, such as the canopy of tall evergreen forests,
is still unknown (although no adults were seen during canopy
observations totalling approximately 30 hours). On May 1 2,
1999, at 1415 hrs, I saw an old specimen - the colours had
faded and scales had been lost, but the wings were not torn -
in a small clearing in Karian shola. It was sunny, but light
penetrated to the forest floor in stray beams. The butterfly
was perched on the upper side of a leaf, 1 m off the ground,
in a partly shaded part of a sapling. It was basking in the
usual hesperiid fashion - hindwings spread flat, forewings
at an angle. Its flight was similar to that of the Common
Banded Demon Notocrypta curvifascia Felder and Felder, a
sympatric hesperiid. In fact, this species may be confused
with N. curvifascia when it is basking when the underside
of the wings is not visible because the markings on the
upperside of their forewings are similar particularly from a
distance.
The newly eclosed adults dried their wings while
spreading them in the fashion of a noctuid moth, forewings
covering the hindwings (Fig. 5), but otherwise they kept the
wings closed, revealing the characteristic yellow base of the
chocolate-brown hindwings (Fig. 6).
Parasitoids: Bell (1927) noted that parasitism
by parasitoid wasps seemed to be a big factor contributing
to mortality in the early stages of a related species,
H. adrastus, in which up to 80% of the eggs and caterpillars
were parasitised by Ichneumon wasps. However, parasitism
on Q. basiflava was not significant; none of the caterpillars
that were observed were parasitized.
In this note I have presented the first detailed account
of the natural history of this endemic hesperiid butterfly of
the Western Ghats. However, early stages, habitat
requirements, population and conservation status remain
unknown for other Western Ghats endemic hesperiids such
as the Coorg Forest Hopper Arnetta mercara Evans, the Sitala
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
107
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Ace Thoressa sitala de Niceville and the Evershed’s Ace
T. evershedi Evans, 1910. We cannot assess relevant
conservation issues for these butterflies if we do not have
any information about them. Considering the rapid habitat
degradation and destruction that is taking place in the
biologically diverse southern Western Ghats, I hope such
basic information on these species will be available soon
through a more collaborative effort from naturalists in
southern India. This will ultimately help us protect these
endemics and their habitats.
Bell, T.R. (1927): The common butterflies of the plains of India
(including those met with in the hills stations of the Bombay
Presidency). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 951-974.
Evans, W.H. ( 1910): A list of the butterflies of the Palni Hills with the
descriptions of two new species. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 20:
380-392.
Evans, W.H. ( 1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies (2nd ed.).
Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 454.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I thank V.V. Sivan for his help in identifying the host
plants, and Deepa Agashe, Ramana Athreya, S. Kalesh, Satya
Prakash and C. Susanth for comments on an earlier draft of
the manuscript. Thanks are due to the Principal Chief
Conservator of Forests (Tamil Nadu) for granting research
permission, and to the local staff of the Forest Department at
the Indira Gandhi National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary, the
Anamalai Hills, for providing local permits and cooperation.
Kunte, K. (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India. Universities Press
(Hyderabad) and Indian Academy of Sciences (Bangalore).
Pp. 254.
Larsen, T.B. (1988): The butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of southern
India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85:
26-43.
Ugarte, E. & L. Rodricks (1960): Butterflies of the Palni Hills:
a complementary list. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 270-277 .
13. RANGE EXTENSION OF THE WAVY MAPLET
CHERSONESIA INTERMEDIA (NYMPHALIDAE, LEPIDOPTERA),
FROM PAKKE TIGER RESERVE, ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1
Krushnamegh Kunte2
'Accepted November 06, 2007
2Section of Integrative Biology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station, C 0930, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
Email: [email protected]
Tribe Cyrestini (Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera) is
represented in India by two genera: (a) Cyrestis Boisduval,
1832, and (b) Chersonesia Distant, 1883; commonly known
as Maps and Maplets. Of these, Chersonesia is highly
restricted in distribution: Chersonesia risa (Doubleday, 1848),
the Common Maplet, occurs in the Himalaya from Kumaon
and Nepal eastward to north-east India, extending to Lndo-China
and south-east Asia (Smith 1989). Chersonesia intermedia
Martin, 1895, the Wavy Maplet, is also distributed in Indo-China
and south-east Asia, but is more restricted in India. It has been
collected from Manipur and Naga Hills in north-east India and
is reportedly very rare (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957).
Note that the subspecies of C. intermedia that occurs in
NE India, i.e. C.i. rahrioides Moore, 1896, was previously
treated under C. rahria (Evans 1932). Chersonesia rahria
(Moore, 1 858), as currently classified, does not occur in India.
On May 30, 2007 I photographed C. intermedia mud-
puddling in a stream-bed running through the evergreen forest
on the road to Khadi in Pakke Tiger Reserve in West Kameng
district of Arunachal Pradesh. The species could be easily
distinguished from C. risa in having: (a) the fifth line on the
upper side of the wings reddish-brown and diffused, and
(b) the sixth line from the wing-base curved and prominently
angled near costa (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957; Corbet
and Pendlebury 1992; Pinratana and Eliot 1996). The fifth
and sixth lines in C. risa are black, straight and of equal width,
similar to the first four lines.
The precise localities from which C. intermedia was
previously collected in Manipur are unknown but the sighting
reported here comprises the first record of the species from
Arunachal Pradesh and in the eastern Himalayas, at least
400 to 600 km away from the previously known distributional
range of the species. It will be useful to find out whether the
species also occurs in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam or
whether it reaches Pakke only through the forested mountains
of the south-eastern and northern Arunachal Pradesh.
The field trip on which this sighting was made was funded
by the American Philosophical Society's Lewis and Clark Fund
for Exploration and Field Research. Local arrangements made
by Mr. Tana Tapi, DFO, Pakke TR, are gratefully acknowledged.
108
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Corbet, A.S. & H.M. Pendlebury ( 1992): The Butterflies of the Malay
Peninsula. Kaula Lumpur, Malayan Nature Society, pp. 595.
Evans, W.H. ( 1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. Mumbai,
Bombay Natural History Society, pp. 454.
Pinratana, A. & J.N. Eliot (1996): Butterflies in Thailand. Vol. 3. Bosco
Offset, Bangkok, pp. 140.
Smith, C. (1989): Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalaya). Tecpress
Service L.P, Bangkok. Pp. 352.
Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Mumbai,
Bombay Natural History Society, pp. 523.
14. INTRASPECIFIC COLOUR VARIATION IN SPIDER PARAWIXIA DEHAANII
(DOLESCHALL) (ARANEIDAE; ARANEAE), A CASE STUDY IN SANJAY
GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, BORIVLI, MUMBAI, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA1
Dharmendra Khandal2 and D.B. Bastawade3
'Accepted December 04, 2003
Ky o Mr. R.S. Sharma, Kalyan Market, Ramgarh-Swhekhawati, Sikar 331 024, Rajasthan, India.
Email: [email protected]
’Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Acurdi, Pune, Maharashtra, India.
The Araneid genus Parawixia was raised by F.O.P.
Cambridge in 1904 with the type species P deschricta (F.O.P.
Cambridge); the genus has a wide range of distribution in
South America, Mexico, India, Malaysia and Japan.
P dahaanii (Doleschall) is the only known Indian species so
far reported from Karnataka, West Bengal, Gujarat and Sikkim
states. The present report is the first report from Maharashtra
in Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivli, Mumbai. Recently,
the species has been reported by about 15-16 female
specimens almost in the same locality of SGNP It was very
surprising to note the different colour morphs among the same
population of this species.
The broad identification characteristics of Parawixia
dehaanii (Doleschall) total body size ranges between
18-22 mm in length, cephalothorax longer than wide,
narrowing in front, typically clothed with white pubescence
in middle portion, spines and hair with granular base on
cephalic region elevated in the middle, forming a bulge just
behind the ocular area, ocular quad slightly wider in front
than behind and situated on elevation, lateral eyes nearly same
in size, placed closely and situated at the base of horn-like
tubercles; chelicerae strong, reddish-brown with moderate
boss at the base; legs long and strong without band but darker
on tarsi; abdomen triangular acutely pointed posteriorly and
on anterior lateral spine like shoulder humps, five pairs of
sigilla on dorsum arranged mid-longitudinally, epigynum with
swollen base provided with stout, beak-like pointed ,
unwrinkled scape, bent at right angle with the base.
The described colour pattern shows chalk white
transverse band extending between the pair of anterior lateral
shoulder humps, dark brown on rest of the abdomen dorsum,
ventrum grayish brown patches (Fig. la).
The female specimens recently collected at SGNP show
four variants of abdominal colour pattern.
( 1 ) Abdomen grayish with light brown tinge and a
conspicuous ‘V’ like darker brown patch in the center of the
abdomen giving more pointed appearance to the anterior
lateral shoulder humps (Fig. lb).
(2) Abdomen is completely light reddish brown with
only two white dots between the anterior lateral shoulder
humps. (Fig. lc).
(3) Abdomen yellowish brown with some black patches
in ‘V’ shape manner and rest of the abdomen blackish
(Fig. Id).
(4) Abdomen completely blackish brown without any
markings (Fig. le).
The colour morphs in spider are known and have been
discussed by different workers, unfortunately except Tikader,
there are almost no authentic reports on such aspects from
India. Tikader (1982) have reported as many as 18 colour
morphs in Neoscona mukerjai (Tikader), a common colonial
species in and around Pune city (Maharashtra). Campon
(2001) reported colour variations in the colonial species
Parawixia bistriata, he states that adult females are
present in two distinct colour morphs (brown and yellow
opisthosomes), which make the individuals cryptic on the
substrates they are found during their solitary stage prior to
oviposition; leaf substrates or on the branches and trunks of
trees. His experiment showed that the yellow morph
individuals exhibit substrates preference whereas the
brown morph individuals do not.
Tikader (1982) has discussed the possible factors
associated with colour variation in animals, such as
(a) altitude, latitude and longitude, (b) climate, (c) rainfall.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
109
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1: Colour variation in Parawixia dehaanii (Doleschall):
a. chalk white transverse band extending between the pair
of anterior lateral shoulder humps; b. a conspicuous ‘V’ like
darker brown patch in the center of the abdomen;
c. Abdomen with only two white dots between the anterior
lateral shoulder humps; d. Abdomen with some black patches
in ‘V’ shape; e. Abdomen without any markings
surrounding, vegetation. Rainbow (1898) pointed
out that spiders could change their colour according to the
colour of flowers where they hide for hunting insect prey.
This is very common in Thomisus sp. (Crab spiders),
but this is changeable colour form not fix colour patterns.
The spiders of the genus Parawixia are orb web
weavers, and wait away from the web in a retreat made up of
leaves of an inhabiting plant and fastened together with a
silk thread, placed a little away above or on sides of the web.
The spider may change its colour to camouflage the leaf
110
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
substrate or the branches and trunk of the tree. The present
variant morphs of Parawixia dehaanii have been observed
in the same population of the same locality, but were not
communally colonized.
The authors are of the opinion that spiders being
carnivorous animals, feed on various invertebrate biomasses
which might have a role to play in the colour variation among
the spider populations inhabiting the same macro-ecosystems.
REFERENCES
Campon, F.F. (2001 ): “Colony variation in communal feeding behavior
and habitat association/color pattern in the colonial species
Parawixia bistriata (Araneidae)”. Department of Ecology &
Evolutionary Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville
TN37996-1610, USA.
Rainbow, W.J. (1898): Contribution to a knowledge of the Arachnidan
fauna of British New guinea. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 23:
328-356.
Tikader, B.K. (1982): The fauna of spider: Araneae. Zool. Surv. India
2(1): 248-253.
15. BOTHRIOCHLOA INSCULPTA (HOCHST.) A. CAMUS (POACEAE)
- A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1
Chandan Singh Purohit2 and Suman C. Sharma3
'Accepted January 31, 2007
:A-187, Antodya Nagar, Behind ESI Hospital, Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan. India.
36-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 001. Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
During a plant collection visit to Sadhuwali,
Sriganganagar district, north-west Rajasthan, we collected
Bothriochloa insculpta (Hochst.) A. Camus from the beds of
IGC and nearby fields. A perusal of the literature shows that
this species has hitherto not been reported from Rajasthan
(Shetty and Singh 1987-93).
It is known so far from Madras (now Chennai) (Gamble
1967). The specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium,
Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar College, Bikaner,
Rajasthan. The identification of the species is based on Bor
(I960).
Bothriochloa insculpta ( Hochst. ) A. Camus in Ann. Soc.
Linn. Lyon, 1930, n.s. 76, 165 (1931) (Fig. 1 ). Andropogon
insculptus Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. FI. Abyss. 2, 458 ( 1851 ).
Amphilophis insculpta (Hochst.) Stapf in Prain, FI. Trop.
Afr. 9, 176(1917).
A stoloniferous perennial, 30-100 cm high. Sessile
spikeletes shiny, shallowly grooved below the pit
and glabrous, rarely with the margins finely hairy,
pedicelled spikelets with one pit. It being scented and
having a pit on one side of the seed hull. Leaves, stems
and seed-heads are aromatic and aroma persists in stored
hay.
Ecology: Fairly common in marshy and hilly
habitats.
Specimen Examined: Near IGC, Sadhuwali,
Sriganganagar. Sharma & Purohit DCH 67 1 .
FI. & Fr.: November-January.
We are grateful to Dr. R.P. Pandey, Senior Scientist,
Botanical Survey of India, Port Blair for encouragement.
D. Lower Sterile Spikelets; E, F. Seed; G. Nose
1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
111
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
REFERENCES
Bor, N.L. ( 1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
Vol. I. London. Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987-93): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. I-III,
Gamble, J.S. (1967): Flora of the Presidency of Madras Vol. III. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
16. ENTEROPOGON MONOSTACHYOS (VAHL) K. SCHUM. EX ENGL. (POACEAE)
- A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1
Suman C. Sharma2, Chandan Singh Purohit3 and Jeetendra Kantiya3
'Accepted April 28, 2007
26-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
’A- 187, Antodya Nagar, Behind ESI Hospital, Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.
During one of the plant collection visits to Kailana lake,
district Jodhpur, Rajasthan, we collected Enteropogon
monostachyos (Vahl.) K. Schum. ex Engl. (Fig. 1) from a
rocky area near the Lake. A perusal of the literature shows
that this genus has not been reported from Rajasthan (Shetty
and Singh 1987-93).
It is known so far from the states of Maharashtra and
Tamil Nadu (Moulik 1997), India. The specimens have been
deposited in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Govt.
Dungar College, Bikaner (Rajasthan). The identification of
the species is based on Bor (1960).
Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl.) K. Schum. ex
Engl, in Abh. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 17. 1894.
Cynosurus monostachyos Vahl, Sym. Bot. 2: 20. 1791.
Rottboellia pilosa Roth in Roem. et Schult, Syst. Veg.
2: 785. 1817.
Rottboellia triacatha Roth, Nov. PI. Sp. 43. 1821.
Enteropogon badamicus Bhide in Joum. et Proc. Asiat.
Soc. Beng.n.s. 7: 517. 1912.
Slender, Perennial grass; Inflorescence a solitary spike;
Spikelets 2 flowered; Lower flower hermaphrodite; Upper
male or barren; Glumes unequal, 1 -3 nerved; Lemma awned,
3 nerved; Awns of the spikelets 8 mm long.
FI. & Fr.: April-October.
Specimen Examined: Rocky Area, Near Kailana Lake,
Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Purohit & Sharma, 3464.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to Dr. R.P. Pandey, Senior Scientist,
Botanical Survey of India, for encouragement.
Fig. 1 : Enteropogon monostachyos (Vahl.) K. Schumach ex Engl.
A1 & A2. Plant; B. Spikelet; C & G. Lower Glume;
D. Upper Glume; E. Palea; F. Grain
REFERENCES
Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan Vol. I. London.
Moulik, S. (1997): The Grasses and Bamboos of India. Vol. I-II. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987-93): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. I-III. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
112
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
17. POA SUPINA SCHRAD. (POACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1
Suman C. Sharma2, Chandan Singh Purohit3 and Rohitash Kumar Bhatia3
'Accepted May 23, 2007
26-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
’A-187, Antodya Nagar, Behind ESI Hospital. Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.
During one of the plant collection visits to Malcoat,
district Sriganganagar, Rajasthan, we collected Poa sitpina
Schrad. from a cultivated field. A perusal of the literature
shows that this species has not been reported from
Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh 1987-93).
It is known so far from Jammu-Kashmir and
Himachal Pradesh, in India (Moulik 1997) and from Pakistan
(Nasir and Ali 1982). The specimens have been deposited
in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Govt. Dungar College,
Bikaner (Rajasthan). The identification of the species is based
on Bor (1960).
Poa supina Schrad. FI. Germ. 1:289; Nasir & Ali,
FI. of Pakistan, no. 143, 399. 1982; Bor, Grasses Burma
Ceyl. Ind. Pak. 561. 1960; Moulik, Grasses and Bambusa
of Ind. Vol.n, 533. 1997. Poa annua Linn. var. supina (Schrad.)
Link, Hort. Berol. 1:181. 1827. Poa ustulata Frohner in Bot.
Jb. 88: 437. 1968; Bor in Rech.f., FI. Iran. 70:31. 1970.
Perennial, 18 cm high; Leaf blades flat; Ligule blunt,
1.5 mm long; Panicle pyramidal, 2-3 cm long; Spikelets
3.5 mm long; Glume 3.5 mm long; Lemma 3.5 mm long;
Anthers 1.3 mm long.
FI. & Fr.: October-February
Specimen Examined: Cultivated Field, Malcoat,
Sriganganagar, Rajasthan. Purohit & Sharma, 3398.
We are grateful to Dr. R.P. Pandey, Senior Scientist,
BSI Port Blair for encouragement.
REFERENCES
Bor, N.L. (1960): The Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India and Pakistan.
Vol. I. London.
Moulik, S. (1997): The Grasses and Bamboos of India. Vol. I-II.
Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.
Nasir, E. & S.I. Ali (1982): Flora of Pakistan. No. 143. Poaceae,
Herbarium Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, England.
Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1987-93): Flora of Rajasthan. Vol. I-III.
Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.
18. CURCUMA YUNNANENSIS N. LIU & S.J. CHEN (ZINGIBERACEAE)
-A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA1
M. Bhaumik2 and H. Samati3
'Accepted April 21, 2005
’Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, P.O. Laitumkarah; Lower New Colony, Shillong 793 003; Meghalaya, India.
Present address: Central Botanical Laboratory; Botanical Survey of India, P.O Botanic Garden; Howrah 71 1 103; West Bengal, India.
Email: [email protected]
’Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, P.O. Laitumkarah; Lower New Colony. Shillong 793 003; Meghalaya, India.
Email: [email protected]
Curcuma L. is a genus mainly from south-east Asia
and represented by about 50 species in the world (Delin and
Larsen 2000) and 23 species in India (Karthikeyan et al.
1989).
During an ethnobotanical plant survey in Jaintia hills
of Meghalaya in 2002 some Curcuma rhizome were collected
and planted in a garden; they flowered the next year. After
critical analysis through literature (Delin and Larsen 2000;
Baker 1890) it has been tentatively identified as Curcuma
yunnanensis N. Liu & S.J. Chen, as the type material or any
authentic specimen is not available for comparison. It is an
endemic species of China (Delin and Larsen 2000), hitherto
not reported from India.
A detailed description, illustration (Fig. 1 ) and relevant
field data based on our own collection is given here to facilitate
its easy identification in the field.
Curcuma yunnanensis N. Liu & S. J. Chen, Guihaia
7: 16. 1987; Delin & Larsen, FI. China 24: 360. 2000.
Local name: Sying iong (Khasi).
Rhizomatous herb 1.3-2 m tall. Rhizomes globose 10 x
7 cm, strongly aromatic, creamish outside, pale yellow inside,
with 2-3 sessile tubers, covered by membranous scales, root
tubers absent. Pseudo stem to 35 cm tall, terete at base, flat
above, brownish red. Leaves 5-6, distichous, petiolate, with
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
113
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 1 : Curcuma yannanensis N. Liu & S.J. Chen.
A. Habit (not in scale); B. Flower; C. Fertile Bract; D. Bracteole;
E. Calyx; F. Sepals spread out; G. Labellum showing stamen
and ovary
sheathing bases. Sheaths 29-35 cm long, brownish red, villous,
margins white hairy, lower sheath bladeless. Petiole 8-30 cm
long, glabrous, deeply channeled, green; blade
34-7 1 x 16-26 cm, oblong elliptic, acuminate, entire, glabrous,
green with distinct reddish flush on upper 3/4* part along
midrib. Spikes arise from center of the leaf sheath, 18x9.5 cm,
greenish white; flowers usually 3 in each bract, pale yellow;
peduncle to 22 cm long, 0.8 cm diameter, greenish white,
terete, glabrous. Fertile bracts 4. 2-5. 7 x 2. 8-3. 2 cm, oblong,
rounded, creamy white, glabrous, reflexed; comma bract
4-6; 5-6.2 x 1 . 1 -2.5 cm, oblong-elliptic, narrowed at rounded
apex, brightly creamy white, apex purple, glabrous; bracteoles
2; 2.8-3 x 1-1.4 cm, oblong-elliptic, boat-shaped, one keeled,
apex shortly 2-lobed to inner one; lobe triangular 2.5 mm
long, creamy white, glabrous; calyx tubular at base, unequally
3-lobed, 1-1.25 x 0.6-1 cm, creamish white, tube 7-9 mm
long; lobe 2-3 mm long, triangular in outline, apex rounded,
reddish tint outside, hirsute on outer surface; corolla tubular,
3. 5-3. 8 m long, 3-lobed at apex, tube 1.8-2 cm long, lobes
1 .6 x 1.2 cm, triangular in outline, apex rounded, entire, deep
purple, 6-nerved, glabrous; labellum tubular at base, 3-lobed,
pale yellow with deep band from base to apex; tube 2.8-3.2 cm
long, lateral lobes 1 .5-1.7 x 0.8-1 cm, oblong, rounded apex,
reflexed, creamy white, mid-lobe 2. 1-2. 3 x 1.6-1 .8 cm oblong,
rounded, reflexed, apex widen with 2 short lobules, margins
entire, glabrous; fertile stamen 1, filament flat 1.5 x 0.6 cm,
anther 2-lobed; each lobe 4-4.5 x 1-1.2 mm with 3 mm long
spurred on both sides; ovary 2.5-3 x 2-2.5 mm, hairy,
trilocular, white.
FI.: July-August.
Distribution: india: Meghalaya (Jaintia Hills); China.
Habitat: This species was found growing on moist
shaded places, on slopes, along nullahs.
Specimen Examined: Samathi-108128, Nonjugi,
Jaintia hills, 1,300 m. November 2002 (ASSAM).
Uses: Juice of rhizomes is taken for stomach pain
and paste of rhizomes is applied to whole body as it is
believed to destroy evil spirit.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) S.J. Phukan, Deputy
Director, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong,
for providing necessary facilities and encouragement.
REFERENCES
Baker, J.G. (1890): Scitamineae in Flora of British India 6: 209-216.
Ashford, Kent.
Delin, Wu & Kai Larsen (2000): Zingiberaceae in Flora of China 24:
359-362. Science Press, Beijing and Missouri Botanical Garden
Press, St. Louis.
Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P Nayar & M. Sanjappa ( 1989): Florae
Indicae Enumeratio Monocotyledonae. Pp. 291-293. Botanical
Survey of India, Calcutta.
19. STYLOSANTHES FRUTICOSA (RETZ.) ALSTON ( PAPILIONACEAE)
- A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1
Suman C. Sharma2-3 and Ramesh K. Aggarwal2
'Accepted April 18, 2006
26-K-l, South Extension. Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan. India.
’Email: [email protected]
During one of the plant collection visits to Degana tehsil, nearby fields. A perusal of literature shows that this genus
Nagaur district (Rajasthan), we collected Styloscmth.es has not been reported from Rajasthan (Shetty and Singh 1988-
fruticosa (Retz.) Alston from the dry beds of Luni river and 1999).
114
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
This paper records for the first time the occurrence of
Stylosanth.es fruticosa (Retz.) Alston from Rajasthan. It is
known, so far, from the plains of Gujarat and Tamil Nadu
(Matthew 1983). The specimens of Stylosanthes fruticosa
collected from Alniyavas, Degana tehsil, Nagaur district have
been housed in the Herbarium, Department of Botany,
Government Dungar College, Bikaner, Rajasthan. The
identification of the species is based on Matthew (1983).
Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston in Trimen, FI.
Ceylon 6 (suppl. ): 77. 1931: Nooteb, Rainwardtia 5: 449.
1961; Verda, Kew Bull. 24: 59.1970; Matthew, III. FI. Tamil
Nadu Carnatic t. 224.1982.
Stylosanthes mucronata Willd., Sp. Ppl. 3: 166. 1802,
nom. illegit.; Wight & Am. Prodr. fl. Ind. orient. 218. 1834;
Hook f. Fl. Brit. India 2; 148.1876; Gamble. Fl. Madras 1:
326 (230). 1918; Matthew, Mat. Fl. Tamil Nadu Carnatic
198.1981.
Subshrub to 75 cm; branchlets appressed tomentose.
Leaves trifoliate, to 1.5 cm; leaflets oblong-elliptic, 0.7-2. 5
x 0.5-0.7 cm, chartaceous, prominently nerved, base subacute,
margin ciliate, apex obtuse, stiff-mucronate; petiole to 8 mm;
petiolule up to 1 mm; stipules 2 mm, adnate to petiole and
sheathing. Flowers, 3-5 in terminal heads, sessile 4 mm across;
primary bracts to 1.5 cm, bristly; secondary bracts to 6 mm;
bracteoles 2. Receptacle 6 mm long, filiform, tomentose;
upper 4 calyx-lobes subconnate, to 1 mm, ciliate; lower one
lanceolate, 2 mm. Corolla yellow; petals shortly clawed,
inserted at the throat of calyx-tube; standard orbicular, 6 mm,
claw 6 mm; wings obovate, 4 mm, auriculate; keels oblong,
incurved, 4.5 mm, apex obtuse. Staminal sheath 4 mm.
Stamens monadelphous; filaments unequal, 1-2 mm; anthers
dimorphic. Ovary subsessile; ovules 2 or 3; style filiform,
1 cm, glabrous; stigma minute. Pod oblong, 4 mm, beaked;
strongly nerved; seeds reniform, 2 mm.
Flowers: November-January.
Pods: December-February.
Specimens Examined: Forest area. Near Luni river,
Alniyavas, Nagaur district Rajasthan. Sharma & Aggarwal.
1236 (Dungar College Herbarium)
Distribution: Africa, Madagascar, Sri Lanka, India.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to Dr. R.P. Pandey Scientist-C,
Botanical Survey of India, Jodhpur, for encouragement.
Thanks are also due to D.S.T. Jaipur for financial assistance.
REFERENCES
Matthew, K.M. (1982): Illustration on the Flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic. 2: plate 224.
Matthew, K.M. (1983): The Flora of the Tamil Nadu Carnatic. 1 : 463.
Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh ( 1988-1993): Flora of Rajasthan Vol. I-III, B.S.I. Howrah.
20. POLLINATION BIOLOGY OF THE ORCHID TREE BAUHINIA VARIEGATA L.
(CAESALPINIACEAE) IN THE EASTERN GHATS, INDIA1
A.J. Solomon Raju2-3, S. Purnachandra Rao2-4 and K. Henry Jonathan2-5
'Accepted March 10, 2007
department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.
3Email: [email protected]
4Email: [email protected]
5Email: [email protected]
The flowers of Caesalpiniaceae are less specialised than
those of their counterpart members of Mimosaceae and
Papilionaceae. They are open, usually with exposed pollen
and nectar available to specialised and non-specialised pollen
vectors (Hokche and Ramirez 1990). The species of
Caesalpiniaceae exhibit a great variety of pollinating agents
and mechanisms with an entomophilous trend ( Arroyo 1981).
The genus Bauhinia contains about 250 species distributed
in the tropics of both hemispheres. It has 37 Indian species
with flowers white, yellow and variegated red, and yellow.
Vogel ( 1954) reported that B. galpinii and B. mucronata are
sphingophilous in Africa, and Arroyo (1981) based on floral
characteristics suggested that many other species of Bauhinia
are probably sphingophilous. Hokche and Ramirez (1990)
reported that pollination biology in neotropics is associated
with the life form of Bauhinia species. Tree species
B. aculeata, B. multinervia, B. pauletia and B. ungulata have
large white flowers and produce more nectar with high sugar
concentration. In B. aculeata , the nectar is sucrose rich, and
in other species it is hexose rich; but all these tree species are
mainly nocturnal and bat-pollinated. Fischer (1992) also
reported bat-pollination in B. ungulata. Liana species, B. glabra,
B. guianensis and B. rutilans , produce relatively small diurnal
flowers with different colours and variations in form and colour
of the upper petal; all these are pollinated by bees, wasps,
butterflies and hummingbirds (Hokche and Ramirez 1990).
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
115
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
In India, Ali (1933) reported that B. racemosa and
B. purpurea are bird-pollinated. Subba Reddi and Bhaskara
Rao ( 1993) reported subsequently bees, wasps and butterflies
that pollinate B. purpurea. The pollination biology of the other
Bauhinia species has not been studied. B. variegata is a
species of tropical and subtropical climates with hot dry
summers and mild winters. It originated in the Eastern Asia
in India and the Chinese provinces (CAB International 2000).
Another source documented is a native to the northern India,
Vietnam and south-eastern China (www.floridata.com).
Hybridization between B. variegata and B. purpurea produces
a naturally unstable sterile cultivar of horticultural value
known as B. blakeana (Carol et al. 2005). The leaves, fruits,
pods and exudates of B. variegata are edible by humans, and
are consumed as a vegetable, and made into pickles and
chutneys (CAB International 2000).
The plants of Bauhinia variegata at the Lotugedda-
Lambasingi forest areas of the Eastern Ghats in
Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh state, India were used
for study during 2003-2005. As a deciduous tree, B. variegata
sheds leaves prior to the flowering period, which falls during
March-April. It produces large, colourful flowers in few-
flowered panicles. The flowers are large, showy, fragrant,
bisexual and zygomorphic. The sepals are green and
irregularly lobed. The petals are 5, light purplish white; one
petal is odd and 4.5 cm long with bright purple vertical streaks
on the inner side. It is partly enveloped by a pair of 4.5 cm
long lateral petals whose margins are in turn enclosed by a
pair of 3.5 cm long anterior petals. The stamens are five, of
which two are 4.5 cm long, one 4.4 cm and other two 3.8 cm;
they are curved at the tip facing the odd petal. The anthers
are dithecous and versatile in fixation. The style is long in
some flowers and small in some others. In long-styled flowers,
the style extends 1 cm beyond the anthers, and in small-styled
flowers the style lies 1 cm below or almost equal to the level
of the anthers. The style is curved at the tip and ends with a
small filiform stigma. The ovary is green, flat, and
monocarpellary with a single locule consisting of 12 to
14 ovules which arise on marginal placenta (Table 1).
The flowers open during early morning hours before
sunrise and anthers dehisce after anthesis by longitudinal slits.
The style and stigma curve upward. Nectar secretion occurs
during late mature bud stage and centered at the flower base.
The method of Dafni (1992) was used to measure nectar
volume and Hand Sugar Refractometer to record nectar sugar
concentration. A flower produces 7-10 pi of nectar with 30-
32% sugar concentration in Day-1 flowers and 40-45% in
Day-2 flowers. The corolla with stamens falls off on the
3rd day. Three hundred fresh flowers were tagged and followed
to record natural fruit set rate. The fruits produced from these
flowers were used to determine seed set rate. These flowers
showed that natural pod set rate is 11% and seed set 82%.
The pods mature within 3 weeks (Table 1 ). Each pod produces
2-11 seeds but 8-9 seeds form in most of the pods.
Bauhinia variegata shows the characteristics of
melittophilous flowers as per Faegri and van der Pijl (1979).
The most prominent characteristics are broad and distinct odd
petal with nectar guide, lateral pairs of petals providing adequate
platform for landing insects, and production of a small amount
of nectar consisting of higher sugar concentration, fragrance
and zygomorphic floral configuration. The study recorded bees
(Xylocopa latipes, X. pubescens, Ceratina simillima, Apis
dorsata, A. cerana indica, A. florea and Trigona iridipennis)
and passerine birds (Dicaeum erythrorhynchos, Nectarinia
zeylonica , N. asiatica , and Zosterops palpebrosa ) as foragers
of B. variegata. Fred (1976) stated that sucrose is the chief
sugar in the flowers of most of the plant species. The flowers
pollinated by long-tongued bees produce sucrose-rich or
dominant nectar while those pollinated by short-tongued bees
like Xylocopa species most often produce hexose-rich nectar.
The long-tongued and short-tongued bees visit B. variegata
flowers equally suggesting that the nectar of the latter may
be a mixture of sucrose and hexose sugars, and enable bees
to load nectar to a great extent. Barker and Lehner ( 1974a, b)
also experimentally proved this with honeybees. The bees,
Xylocopa species and Apis dorsata made frequent flights
between individual plants to collect nectar; the later also for
pollen, and so effect both self- and cross-pollination. All other
bees stayed on the same plant for a long period to collect both
pollen and nectar and in effect made infrequent flights between
individual plants. Such a foraging behaviour results primarily
in self-pollination. Although B. variegata is a potential pollen
and nectar source for the bees, other co-occurring and
simultaneously flowering plants, Garuga pinnata
(Burseraceae), Bauhinia racemosa (Caesalpiniaceae), Acacia
sinuata (Mimosaceae), Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae),
Alangium salviifolium (Alangiaceae) and Careya arborea
(Lecythidaceae) attract them to different levels. Their
attraction depends on the number of individuals of each of
these plant species, their flower density and standing forage
crop. The plant species such as Acacia sinuata , G arborea,
Alangium salviifolium and C. arborea have been reported to
be pollinated by these bees and birds, and the last species also
by bats (Solomon Raju and Rao 2002, 2006; Solomon Raju et
al. 2004; 2005). Therefore, melittophily does not ensure
reproductive success in B. variegata in the presence of other
species that flower and provide ample forage simultaneously to
bees in the habitat. It is in this context, the foraging activity of
passerine birds observed assumes importance to promote
pollinate rate, especially cross pollination.
116
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Table 1 : Floral characteristics of Bauhinia variegata
Bird flowers are usually red and the birds use them as
an excellent signal of a high calorific reward, but they do not
have intrinsic preference for red flowers (Raven 1972).
In the genus Bauhinia , insects and hummingbirds pollinate
B. glabra, B. guianensis and B. rutilans which produce
variously coloured upper petal (Hokche and Ramirez 1990).
In the present study also, bees and passerine birds pollinated
B. variegata. The odd upper petal seems to be the main
attractant for birds to pay visits to flowers. The birds prefer
concentrated sugar solution to dilute solution but bird flowers
characteristically produce less concentrated nectar to
discourage unwanted flowers (Bolten and Feinsinger 1978).
B. variegata flowers produce nectar with high sugar
concentration and the nectar is expected to be a mixture of
sucrose and hexose sugars in almost equal proportions; this
characteristic is important for birds to visit them. The birds
observed probe the flowers from the front to collect nectar
and effect pollination. As birds are far flying, they promote
cross-pollination in their search for nectar on different trees
located in an area and in different areas to quench their thirst.
The bird species mentioned above, utilized B. variegata as
nectar source consistently until exhausted. They foraged
throughout the day with more activity during forenoon. They
landed on the flowering branch and approached the flowers
slowly to insert their bill into the flower base for sucking
nectar. In doing so, the bill, forehead and throat of the birds
contacted the stigma first and later the anthers in long-styled
flowers and both sex organs contacted almost simultaneously
in small-styled flowers. As the nectar produced per flower is
small in quantity, the birds visited different individuals in
quest of more nectar effecting both self- and cross-pollination.
Ali (1933) reported that Nectarinia asiatica and N. zeylonica
pollinate purplish white flowers of B. purpurea and whitish-
yellow flowers of B. racemosa in the Western Ghats of India.
Subba Reddi and Bhaskara Rao (1993) later reported that
different insects pollinate B. purpurea. The present study
indicates that B. variegata with melittophilous pollination
syndrome is pollinated by bees and passerine birds. Therefore,
omithophily gains importance in B. variegata in the context
of simultaneously flowering plant species that attract bee
species to different levels of flower constancy. With both
melittophily and omithophily, B. variegata is able to set fruit
to 11% and this low fruit set seems to be compensated by a
high seed set rate. The information provided on the association
between B. variegata and bees and passerine birds is expected
to be useful for their conservation in the habitat.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Financial support from the Ministry of Environment and
Forests, Government of India, New Delhi through a Major
Research Project (No. 30/12/97-RE) is gratefully acknowledged.
We thank B. Madhu, Technical Assistant in the project for
assistance in field and laboratory work. We thank the anonymous
referees for helpful comments to revise the paper.
REFERENCES
Ali, S. ( 1933): Flower-birds and bird-flowers in India. J. Bombay Nat.
Hist. Soc. 35: 573-605.
Arroyo, K. (1981): Breeding systems and pollination biology in
Leguminosae. Pp. 723-769. In: Pohlhill, R.M. & PH. Raven (Eds)
Advances in legume systematics,. Part 2. Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, England.
Barker, R.J. & Y. Lehner (1974a): Acceptance and sustenance value of
naturally occurring sugars fed to newly emerged adult workers of
honeybees (Apis mellifera L.). J. Exp. Zool. 187: 277-286.
Barker, R.J. & Y. Lehner (1974b): Influence of diet on sugar found by
thin layer chromatography in thoraces of honeybees, Apis mellifera.
J. Exp. Zool. 188: 157-164.
Bolten, A.B. & P. Feinsinger (1978): Why do hummingbird flowers
secrete dilute nectars? Biotwpica 10: 307-309.
CAB International (2000): Forestry Compendium Global Module.
Wallingford, U.K, CAB International.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
117
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Carol, P.Y. Lau. R. Lawrence & R.M.K. Saunders (2005): Hybrid
origin of “ Bauhinia blakeana ” (Leguminosae: Caesalpinoideae),
inferred using morphological, reproductive, and molecular data.
Am. J. Bot. 92: 525-533.
Dafni, A. (1992): Pollination Ecology: A Practical Approach. Oxford
University Press, New York. pp. 250.
Faegri, K. & L. van der Pijl (1979): The Principles of Pollination
Ecology. Pergamon Press, Oxford, pp. 1 18.
Fischer, E.A. (1992): Foraging of nectarivorous bats on Bauhinia
ungulata. Biotropica 24: 579-582.
Fred, A.R. (1976): Sugars of some common Phillippine nectars.
J.Apic. Res. 15: 19-22.
Hokche, O. & N. Ramirez (1990): Pollination ecology of seven species
of Bauhinia L. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinoideae). Ann. Mo. Bot.
Gard. 77: 559-572.
Raven, PH. (1972): Why are bird-visited flowers predominantly red?
Evolution 26: 674.
Solomon Raju, A.J. & S.P. Rao (2006): Pollination by bees and
passerine birds and seed dispersal by monkeys in the White Teak
Gmelina arborea Roxb., a commercially important timber tree
species in the Eastern Ghats. Curt: Sci. 90: 232-236.
Solomon Raju, A.J. & S.P. Rao (2002): Pollination ecology and fruiting
behaviour in Acacia sinuata (Lour.) Merr. (Mimosaceae),
a valuable non-timber forest plant species. Curr. Sci. 82:
1466-1471.
Solomon Raju, A.J., S.P. Rao & V. Ezradanam (2004): Pollination by
bats and passerine birds in a dry season blooming tree species,
Careya arborea in the Eastern Ghats. Curr. Sci. 86: 509-5 1 1 .
Solomon Raju, A.J., S.P. Rao & K. Rangaiah (2005): Bird-mediated
pollination and seed dispersal in a deciduous tree species,
Alangium salviifolium (L.f.) Wangerin (Alangiaceae) in the
subtropical Eastern Ghats forests of India. J. Nat. Taiwan Museum
58: 69-81.
Subba Reddi, C. & C. Bhaskara Rao (1993): Pollination ecology
of Bauhinia purpurea (Caesalpiniaceae). J. Palynol 29:
115-124.
Vogel, S. (1954): Blutenbiologische Typen als Elemente der
Sippengliederung. Bot. Stud. 1: 1-338.
21. CERASTIUM FONTANUM BAUMG. (CARYOPHYLLACEAE)
-A NEW RECORD FOR RAJASTHAN1
Suman C. Sharma2 and Jeetendra Kantiya3
'Accepted May 23, 2007
26-K-l, South Extension, Pawanpuri, Bikaner 334 003, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]
3 A-187, Antodya Nagar, Behind ESI Hospital, Bikaner 334 001, Rajasthan, India.
During a plant collection visit to Chattargarh, Bikaner
district, Rajasthan, we collected Cerastiumfontanum Baumg
from marshy fields. A perusal of the literature shows that
this genus has not been reported from Rajasthan.
The specimens of Cerastium fontanum Baumg are
housed in the Herbarium, Department of Botany, Govt.
Dungar College, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
The identification of the species is based on the flora
of India (Sharma, B.D. and N.P. Bala Krishnan (1993),
Vol. 2, B.S.l. Calcutta)
Cerastium fontanum Baumg Soc. Zool. Bot. Fenn.
“Vanamo” 18:63. 1963. Flora of India 523, Vol 2 (1993).
Herbs, laxly caespitose, hirsute throughout or glandular-
pubescent upwards. Leaves sessile, oblong, elliptic to ovate,
acute at apex, 1-3 x 0.3- 1.0 cm, minutely hairy. Cymes
glandular-pubescent; bracts herbaceous. Sepals ovate-
lanceolate, 3-5 mm long, with scarious margins and glabrous
apex. Petals 2-fid for 1/3 to 1/5 of length, equalling or slightly
exceeding sepals. Stamens 10; filaments glabrous; anthers
yellow. Capsules narrowly cylindrical, 9-12 mm long; seeds
0.5-0. 9 mm, reddish brown, rugose-tuberculate.
FI. & Fr.: April-September.
Specimens Examined: Gowsala Chattargarh near
Khala. Sharma & Kantiya. 1332
We are grateful to the Principal & Head Department of
Botany, Dungar College, Bikaner. Thanks are also due to
U.G.C. for providing financial assistance.
A
Fig. 1 : Cerastium fontanum Baumg.
A. Plant; B. Sepal; C. Petal; D. Stamen; E. Seed
118
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
22. STUDIES ON THE GENUS HERBERTUS GRAY FROM MEGHALAYA, INDIA1
Ajit Pratap Singh2, Virendra nath3 4 and A.K. Asthana3-5
'Accepted May 13, 2006
-Department of Botany, Lucknow University, Lucknow 226 007, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]
’Bryology Laboratory, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
JEmail: [email protected]
5Email: drakasthana @ rediffmail .com
Introduction
Herbertus Gray, a sole member of the Family
Herbertaceae K. Muller from India is quite distinct in having
hamato-secund 1/2-3/5 bilobed, long, narrowed, acuminate
leaves; vitta cells elongate extending into the lobes (Schuster
1972. 1984). However, the genus Herbertus Gray was earlier
treated under Family Ptilidiaceae Limpr., along with another
genus Trichocolea Dumort. (Evans 1939). Earlier study on the
genus Herbertus Gray in India was made by Mitten ( 1 860- 1861),
Stephani (1909, 1922), Chopra (1938, 1943), Abeywickrama
(1959), Miller (1965), Bonner (1966), Hattori (1966, 1971,
1975) and Herzog (1939), where most of the species were
described from the eastern Himalayas. Udar and Srivastava
(1977) described four species, namely H. pinnata (Steph.)
Miller, H. capense ( Steph. ) Sim., H. nilgerriensis ( Steph. ) Miller
and H. sanguinea (Mont.) Aust., from southern India. Parihar
et al. (1994) listed 22 species, however, Kumar and Manocha
(2000) while describing a new species H. udarii Kumar et
Manocha from Daijeeling (eastern Himalayas) have mentioned
only 23 species of Herbertus Gray in India. During the study
on the liverworts of Meghalaya the presence of five taxa in
Khasi Hills (Fig. 1 ) has been revealed. Amongst them Herbertus
fragilis, H. ceylanicus and //. sikkimensis are being reported
here from the Meghalaya for the first time. A considerable
morphological plasticity among plant populations and species
is discussed including remarks on distribution and ecology. A
key to the species of the genus has also been provided.
The plant specimens were collected during April 1965,
November 1998 and September 2000 from heavily moist
localities, namely Elephant falls and Langkyrdum on Dawki
road, Shillong (East Khasi Hills) Meghalaya. The specimens
from various localities have been critically studied and
compared with their paratype specimens obtained on loan
from Field Museum Herbarium, USA. The collected
specimens have been deposited in Bryophyte Herbarium,
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow (LWG).
Key to the species of the genus Herbertus Gray in
Meghalaya
1. Leaves bifid Vi or less 2
— Leaves bifid 3/5 or more 3
2. Leaves larger, 1.75-1.88 mm long and 0.75-0.80 mm wide
H. sikkimensis
— Leaves smaller, 0.60-0.70 mm long and 0.15-0.18 mm wide
4
3. Leaves wider (0.83 mm wide), margin undulate with a lateral
constriction at the junction of basal disc and lateral margin,
vitta almost extending slightly above the leaf sinus furcation
H. dicranus
— Leaves less wider (0.53-0.70 mm wide), margin convex or
rarely undulate without constriction, vitta almost extending
to become the segment tip H. mastigophoroides
4. Leaves sinus lunate, lobes more divergent, vitta almost to
the base and extending to just below the tip H. fragilis
— Leaves sinus obtuse-subacute, lobes obtuse-subacute, vitta
almost to the base and extending to just slightly above the
leaf sinus furcation H. ceylanicus
Herbertus sikkimensis (Steph.) Nichols., Miller, H.A.,
J. Hattori Bot. Lab. 28; 307 (1965); In Handel-Mazzetti
Symbolae Siuicae 5: 28, 1930. (Figs 1, 2)
Plants medium-large, yellowish green or very light
brownish green, 25-30 mm long and 2.50-2.75 mm wide
including leaves. Stem 0.28 x 0. 1 7 mm in diameter and 12-13
celled across; cortical cells in 2-3 layers, thick walled, smaller,
5.0 x 7.5 pm; medullary cells thin walled, smaller, 12.5 x
25.0-27.5 pm; frequently branched, branches with numerous
attenuated flagelliform ventral intercalary branches. Leaves
secund, bifid about 1/2 with acute-subacute, 1.15-1.25 mm
deep sinus, nearly sinuately inserted, rigid, suberect-
spreading, lobes lanceolate, acute-acuminate, margin entire,
occasionally incurved, leaf lobes 1 .75-1.88 mm long and 0.75-
0.80 mm wide; leaf marginal cells 10.0-15.0 x 17.5 pm,
smooth, rather thin walled, trigonous; median cells 12.5-15.0
x 17.5-20.0 pm, thin walled, with nodulose trigones; vitta
cells elongated, thin walled, 17.5 x 37.5-57.5 pm. distinct
large nodular trigones; vitta furcate, usually only for a short
distance or 1/2 into the lobes. Underleaves greatly resembling
the leaves; generally transversely inserted, 1 . 1 3- 1 .63 mm long
and 0.68-0.70 mm wide, sinus subacute, 0.88- 1 .03 mm deep,
suberect, lobes lanceolate, acute-acuminate, entire, with
occasionally incurved margin.
Distribution and ecology; India: North-eastern
Himalaya: Meghalaya; East Khasi Hills: Elephant falls. Plants
grow on bark in association with Spruceanthus sp.. at 1 ,798 m
altitude, 23.2 °C temperature and 74% relative humidity.
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
119
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
2. Herbertus dicranus (Tayl.) Trev.
3. Herbertus mastigophoroides Miller
4. Herbertus fragilis ( Steph.) Miller
5. Herbertus ceylanicus (Steph.) Miller
Fig. 1 : Distribution of the genus Herbertus Gray in Meghalaya, India
Specimens Examined: india: Meghalaya: East Khasi
Hills: Elephant falls, 20.ix.2000, Leg. A.P. Singh, 208735-A
(LWG). Det. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana & A.P. Singh.
Herbertus sikkimensis (Steph.) Nichols, was instituted
by Stephani (1909), under the name Schisma sikkimensis
Steph., from Sikkim Himalaya. Nicholson et al. (1930) and
Miller (1965) in a monograph studies on herberta in the
Pacific and Asia described this species from Sikkim Himalaya.
Moreover, Chopra (1943), Bonner (1966) and Parihar et al.
( 1 994) listed H. sikkimensis (Steph. ) Nichols, from the Eastern
Himalaya. Hattori (1966) described H. sikkimensis as a
synonym to H. dicranus (Inoue 1977; Long and Grolle 1990).
Pippo ( 1990) listed it as a synonym of H. dicranus from China.
However, during a recent study on Indian species of the genus
Herbertus Gray, Manocha ( 1 999) suggested the independent
status of H. sikkimensis from H. dicranus on the basis of the
comparative morphological and ultra microscopic studies of
cuticle ornamentation over the leaf surface under SEM. This
revealed that H. sikkimensis possesses the poorly developed
transversely running lamellae over the laminar cells and
verrucae arranged in a linear fashion over the vitta cells, while
the laminar cells are verrucate but vitta cells show very fine
lamellae running parallel to the cell length. The taxonomic
account of the present species provided here is based on the
study of specimens collected from the various localities of
Meghalaya for the first time. The study revealed that
H. sikkimensis approaches to H. dicranus (Tayl.) Trev. in
possessing secund, spreading to somewhat recurved,
decurrent, bifid leaves with acute sinus and slightly curved
lanceolate segment with 1/2 twisted, acuminate tip. However,
H. sikkimensis differs from H. dicranus in possessing wider
plants, stem and less bifid smaller leaves, smooth vitta cells.
Herbertus dicranus (Tayl. ) Trev., Inoue, H., Bull. Nat.
Sci. Mus., Ser. B (Bot.) 3(1): 9, 1977; Miller, J. Hattori Bot.
Lab. 28: 299-412, 1965. (Figs 1, 3)
Syn.: Sendtnera dicrana Tayl., in G.L.N., Syn. Hep. p.
239. 1845; Herbertia dicrana (Tayl.) Trevis., Mem. R. 1st.
Lombardo Sci. 4: 397. 1 877; Schisma dicranum (Tayl.) Steph.,
Spec. Hep. 4: 24 (1909).
Plants medium, brown-dark brown, 30 mm long and
I. 88 mm wide including leaves. Stem 0.15-0.18 x 0.18 mm
in diameter and 9-10 celled across; cortical cells in 2 layers,
thick walled, smaller, 5.0 x 5.0-7. 5 pm; medullary cells thin
walled, larger, 1 7.5 x 20.0-22.5 pm; frequently branched with
numerous attenuated, flagelliform, ventral intercalary
branches. Leaves imbricate, secund, spreading to somewhat
recurved, decurrent, bifid about 3/5 of the lobe with an acute
sinus and slightly curved lanceolate segments with 1/2 twisted,
acuminate tips, sinus 1 .50 mm deep; leaf lobes 2.25 mm long
and 0.83 mm wide; leaf marginal cells 10.0-12.5 x
1 5.0- 1 7.5 pm, medium thick walled, trigonous; median cells
120
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
14
3-4, 8-9, 12-14, 18-19 '
5-7, 15-17*
0.05 r
Fig. 2: Herbertus sikkimensis (Steph.) Miller. 1-9. (LWG 208735-A):
1. Plant ventral view; 2. Cross-section of stem; 3-4. Leaves; 5. Leaf marginal cells; 6. Leaf median cells;
7. Leaf basal cells; 8-9. Underleaves.
Herbertus fragilis (Steph.) Miller. 10-19. (LWG 208733-B):
10. Plant ventral view; 11 . Cross-section of stem; 12-14. Leaves; 15. Leaf marginal cells;
16. Leaf median cells; 17. Leaf basal cells; 18-19. Underleaves
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
121
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 3: Herbertus ceytanicus (Steph.) Miller. 1-12. (LWG 201208-A):
1 . Plant ventral view; 2. Plant magnified view; 3. Cross-section of stem; 4-7. Leaves; 8. Leaf marginal cells;
9. Leaf median cells; 10. Leaf basal cells; 11-12. Underleaves
Herbertus dicranus (Tayl.) Miller. 13-19. (LWG 201215-B):
13. Plant ventral view; 14. Cross-section of stem; 15. Leaf; 16. Leaf marginal cells; 17. Leaf median cells;
18. Leaf basal cells; 19. Underleaf
122
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
Fig. 4: Herbertus mastigophoroides Miller. 1-10. (LWG 201214-D):
1 . Plant ventral view; 2. Cross-section of stem; 3-5. Leaves;
6. Leaf marginal cells; 7. Leaf median cells; 8. Leaf basal cells; 9-10. Underleaves
Nat. Hist.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
12.5-15.0 x 22.5 pm, slightly thick to minutely thin walled,
nodulose trigonous; basal cells or vitta cells very large,
15.0 x 55.0-62.5 |jm, trigones nodulose; vitta narrow,
concave-depressed, bifid below mid base and disappearing
below the tip, leaf cells usually verrucose. Underleaves similar
to leaves, generally transversely inserted and a little smaller,
2.00 mm long and 0.70 mm wide, sinus subacute, 1.28 mm
deep, lobes lanceolate-acuminate, margin entire.
Distribution and ecology: india: North-eastern
Himalaya: Meghalaya: East Khasi Hills: Elephant falls,
Langkyrdum Dawki Road, Nepal; China; Taiwan. Plants grow
on plant bark and soil in association with Marchantia
polymorpha, Riccardia sp., Bazzania appendiculata,
Plagiochila flexuosa , Cheilolejeunea serpentina ,
Lopholejeunea subfusca , Jungermannia sp., and Plagiochila
sp., at 1,385-1,402 m altitude.
Specimens Examined: india: Meghalaya: East Khasi
Hills: Elephant falls, 08.iv. 1965, Leg. S. Chandra, 201215-B,
201216-A, 201222-D (LWG); Langkyrdum Dawki Road,
07. xi. 1998, Leg. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana & A.P. Singh,
206058-E (LWG). Det. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana & A.P. Singh.
Other specimens examined: China: Prov. Yunnan:
Yulung Schan prope Urbem Lidjiang, 1915, Leg.
Dr. H. Handel Mazzetti, 1 136851(L), Cryptogamie exsiccatae
editae a Museo Hist. Natur. Vindobonensi Cen. XXXVII Musci,
Dec. 8 1 -83, 1 355858(E). Det. W.E. Nicholson; China: Chiayico
Mt. Alishan near the station, 09. iv. 1978, Leg. M.J. Lai,
1029735(E), 10. iv. 1978, Leg. M.J. Lai, 1029791(E). Det. M.J.
Lai; China: Drakensberg, Solitute resort Van Hayningens pass
(foot) Mountain forest, July 1978, Leg. Arnold, 1088988(E);
Africa coastale: Bujongalo (Valle mobuka), 1906, Leg. Tjediz,
Deua & Dbrazzi, In the Cryptogamie Herbarium Chicago
Natural History Museum, Det. Reurangeri; Taiwan: Between
Jichu and Mt. Ari, Chia- Yi Hsien, 26.vii.1977, Leg. M.
Michimori, 1029698(E). Det. H. Inoue.
Parihar et al. (1994) listed H. dicranus from eastern
Himalayas and southern India. However, the present study is
based on the plants collected from Elephant falls and
Langkyrdum forest Dawki road. East Khasi Hills Meghalaya
for the first time. This taxon shows similarities with
H. sikkimensis but distinctly differs in certain features as
already mentioned in the discussion part of H. sikkimensis.
A comparative study of the Meghalaya H. dicranus with
paratypes showed remarkable variation in morphological
features. It has been considered as the adaptation of the plant
against diverse environmental habitat.
Herbertus mastigophoroides Miller, J. Hattori Bot. Lab.
28: 299-412(1965). (Pigs 1,4)
Plants long, brown-greenish brown, 50 mm long and
1.55 mm wide including leaves. Stem 0.20 x 0.23 mm in
diameter and 1 1 celled across; cortical cells in 2 layers, much
thick walled, smaller, 2. 5-5.0 x 5.0 pm; medullary cells thin
walled or very slightly thick, larger, 17.5 x 22.5-25.0 pm;
frequently branched with numerous ventral intercalary
branches. Leaves imbricate to approximate, obliquely
inserted, falcate-secund when dry and erect-secund when
moist, decurrent, bifid 2/3-3/4 with an acute sinus, lobes
lanceolate with acuminate tips, sinus 1 .20- 1 .25 mm deep; leaf
lobes 1.75-2.05 mm long and 0.53-0.70 mm wide; leaf
marginal cells 12.5-17.5 x 20.0-22.5 pm, thin walled, with
nodulose trigones; median cells 10.0-12.5 x 30.0 pm, thin
walled, trigones nodulose; vitta cells narrow, slightly grooved,
yellowish, bifid nearly to the base, and extending to become
the segment tip; leaf cells poorly verrucose. Underleaves
similar to leaves but transversely inserted, 1 .63 mm long and
0.45-0.53 mm wide, sinus somewhat more rounded, 1.13-
1 .40 mm deep, lobes divergent, margin entire.
Distribution and ecology: india: North-eastern
Himalaya: Meghalaya: East Khasi Hills: Elephant falls. Plants
grow on plant bark in association with Lepidozia sp., Bazzania
appendiculata, Odontoschisma denudatum, and
Jungermannia sp., at 1,371 m altitude.
Specimens Examined: india: Meghalaya: East Khasi
Hills: Elephant falls, 08.iv.1965, Leg. S. Chandra, 201214-D,
20121 8-A (LWG). Det. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana & A.P. Singh.
Herbertus mastigophoroides Miller was instituted for
the first time by Miller (1965) from Darjeeling, Sikkim
Himalaya. Parihar et al. (1994) listed H. mastigophoroides
from eastern Himalaya. The present study is based on the
plants collected from Elephant falls, East Khasi Hills,
Meghalaya. This species shows resemblance with//, dicranus
(Tayl.) Miller and H. sikkimensis (Steph.) Nichols, in colour,
length of the plant, leaf length, nodular trigones and vitta
cells. H. mastigophoroides differs from H. dicranus in
possessing stem 1 1 celled across, 0.20 x 0.23 mm in diameter,
leaves 2/3-3/4 bifid, 1.75-2.05 mm long and 0.53-0.70 mm
wide, vitta bifid, nearly to the base and extending to become
the segment tip. On the other hand H. sikkimensis differs from
H. mastigophoroides in possessing much wider plants
(2.50-2.75 mm wide), stem 12-13 celled across, leaves 1/2 bifid,
I. 75-1.88 mm long and 0.75-0.80 mm wide; vitta furcate,
usually only for a short distance or 1/2 into the lobes having
smooth vitta cells.
Herbertus fragilis (Steph.) Miller, J. Hattori Bot. Lab.
28: 299-412, 1965; Del. Rosario, R.M., Philipp. /. Sci.
104(1-2): 28 (1975). (Pigs 1, 2)
Syn.: Schisma fragile Steph., Spec. Hep. 6: 359, 1922.
Plants small, greenish brown-dull brown, 15-20 mm long and
124
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
1.88-2.00 mm wide including leaves. Stem 0.07 x 0.08 mm
in diameter and 6 cells across; cortical as well as medullary
cells slightly distinct; cortical cells smaller, one layered, thick
walled, 5.0-7. 5 x 7.5-12.5 pm; medullary cells thin walled,
larger, 10.0-12.5 x 15.0 pm; irregularly branched, with both
normal and microphyllous branches. Leaves oblong, almost
transversely inserted, approximate-imbricate,
erect-subspreading, bifid 1/2-2/3 with an open acute sinus
and narrowly lanceolate, segments, sinus 0.40-0.46 mm deep,
leaf lobes 0.16-0.18 mm wide and 0.60-0.70 mm long; leaf
marginal cells 10.0-12.5 x 17.5-22.5 pm, rather thin walled,
indistinct to minutely trigonous; median cells 12.5-15.0 x
20.0-22.5 pm, thin walled, trigonous; basal cells or vitta cells
12.5 x 35.0-37.5 pm, distinct, with large nodular trigones;
vitta narrow, shallow, grooved, bifid almost to the base and
extending to just below the tip; leaf cells poorly verrucose.
Underleaves similar to leaves, generally transversely inserted,
0.56-0.60 mm long and 0. 1 5 mm wide, sinus subacute-obtuse,
0.39 mm deep, lobes divergent, lanceolate-acuminate, with
entire margin.
Distribution and ecology: india: North-eastern
Himalaya: Meghalaya: East Khasi Hills: Elephant falls. Plants
grow on rocks in association with Cephalozia sp., and
Cephaloziella sp., at 1,798 m altitude, 23.20 °C temperature
and 74% relative humidity.
Specimens Examined: india: Meghalaya: East Khasi
Hills: Elephant falls, 20.ix.2000, Leg. A.P. Singh, 208733-B
(LWG). Det. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana & A.P. Singh.
Herbertus fragilis (Steph.) Miller was instituted for the
first time by Stephani ( 1922) under the name Schisma fragile
Steph. from Sikkim Himalaya. Miller (1965) described this
species from Sikkim Himalaya. Parihar etal. (1994) also listed
this species from eastern Himalaya. However, the present
study is based on the plants collected from the Elephant falls.
East Khasi Hills, Meghalaya for the first time. Herbertus
fragilis shows resemblance with H. ceylanicus (Steph.) Miller,
in plant’s length, colour, leaf sinus and length, however, latter
differs from former in possessing 1.25 mm wide plants
including leaves, stem 9 cells across, 0.13 x 0.16 mm in
diameter, leaf lobes subobtuse-subacute, not divergent, vitta
bifid, nearly to the base and extending to a little bit of sinus,
vitta cells smooth.
Herbertus ceylanicus (Steph.) Miller, J. Hattori Bot.
Lab. 28: 299-412, 1965; Onraedt, M., J. Hattori Bot. Lab.
50:191-216(1981). (Figs 1,3)
Syn.: Schisma ceylanicum Steph., Spec. Hepat. 4: 22.
1909.
Plants small to medium, yellowish brown to brown,
1 5 mm long and 1 .25 mm wide including leaves. Stem 0. 1 3 x
0.16 mm in diameter and 9 cells across; cortical cells in
1-2 layers, smaller, thick walled, 5.0-7. 5 x 7.5 pm; medullary
cells larger, thin walled, 15.0 x 25.0-32.5 pm; frequently
branched, branches bearing reduced but otherwise normal
leaves for a considerable distance before becoming
microphyllous and flagelliform. Leaves imbricate- approximate,
subjulaceous when dry and erect spreading when wet, oblong,
clasping at the base but not decurrent, 0.60-0.66 mm long and
0.30-0.34 mm wide, bifid about 1/2 with a broadly acute sinus
and broad straight acute segments; sinus 0.35-0.45 mm deep;
leaf marginal cells 12.5 x 12.5-17.5 pm, thick walled, trigonous;
median cells 12.5 x 12.5-20.0 pm, thin walled, trigones
nodulose; basal or vitta cells 7.5-10.0 x 32.5 pm, thin walled,
with nodular trigones; the vitta cells bifid nearly to the base
and extending to a little bit of sinus; leaf cells usually smooth.
Underleaves similar to the leaves, 0.60-0.70 mm long and
0.28-0.30 mm wide, sinus acute-subacute, 0.42-0.43 mm deep,
lobes less divergent, margin entire.
Distribution and ecology: india: North-eastern
Himalaya: Meghalaya: East Khasi Hills: Elephant falls;
Sri Lanka. Plants grow on plant bark in association with
Chandonanthus birmensis, Cheilolejeunea sp., Plagiochila
sp., at 1,385 m altitude.
Specimens Examined: india: Meghalaya: East Khasi
Hills: Elephant falls, 08. iv. 1965, Leg. S. Chandra, 201205-
A, 201208-A (LWG). Det. V. Nath, A.K. Asthana &
A.P. Singh.
Herbertus ceylanicus (Steph.) Miller was instituted by
Stephani (1909) from Ceylon under the name Schisma
ceylanica Steph. Miller (1965) described H. ceylanicus
(Steph.) Miller from Ceylon and stated that there is a
specimen of Schisma ceylanicum Steph. in Herbarium G
(India orientalis in Mte Moolegit, Leg. Fea, 1887, Portion
du type). Hattori ( 1966) described this species from Ceylon
and India. Parihar et al. (1994) also listed this species from
eastern Himalaya. However, the present study is based on
the plants collected from Elephant falls in East Khasi Hills,
Meghalaya for the first time. The study revealed that the
H. ceylanicus approaches to H. fragilis (Steph.) Miller, but
latter differs in having leaves with lunate sinus, lobes more
divergent, vitta cells almost to the base and extending to just
below the tip.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are grateful to The Curator, Field Museum of Natural
History, Illinois USA for lending the Paratype specimens; the
Director, National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow for
his encouragement and providing the facilities. We thank the
Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for
J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (1), Jan-Apr 2008
125
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
providing the financial assistance and the Council of Scientific
& Industrial Research, New Delhi for awarding Senior
Research Fellowship and Research Associateship to one of
the authors (APS ). Thanks are also due to the Chief Conservator
of Forests, Meghalaya for his kind help during exploration
of various localities of the Khasi, Jaintia and Garo hills.
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CONTENTS
3 9088 01606 9494
EDITORIAL
DEMOGRAPHIC STRUCTURE, ACTIVITY PATTERNS, HABITAT USE AND FOOD HABITS OF
RHINOCEROS UNICORNIS IN CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL
Ram Chandra Kandel and Yadvendradev V. Jhala
ADVERTISEMENT CALLS OF INDIAN AND SRI LANKAN FROGS
Mitsuru Kuramoto and S. Hareesh Joshy
POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF HOOLOCK GIBBONS HYLOBATES HOOLOCK
HARLAN 1834 IN BANGLADESH
M. Anwarul Islam, Mostafa M. Feeroz, Sabir Bin Muzaffar, Mofizul Kabir, Sajeda Begum,
K. Hasan, Shahriar Mahmud and Suprio Chakma
RANGING AND HABITAT SELECTION BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS ELEPHAS MAXIMUS IN RAJAJI
NATIONAL PARK, NORTH-WEST INDIA
Amirtharaj Christy Williams, Asir J.T. Johnsingh, Paul R. Krausman and Qamar Qureshi
PRESENT STATUS OF FLORISTIC DIVERSITY OF MOTHRONWALA SWAMP FOREST OF DOON
VALLEY
Neelam Sharma and S.P. Joshi
ESTIMATION OF PREY BASE AND ITS IMPLICATIONS IN KUNO WILDLIFE SANCTUARY
Faiyaz A. Khudsar, Koustubh Sharma, R.J. Rao and R.S. Chundawat
GAP ANALYSIS OF INDIAN FOX CONSERVATION USING ECOLOGICAL NICHE MODELLING
Abi Tamim Vanak, Mohammed Irfan-Ullah and A. Townsend Peterson
ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF AN ENDEMIC TREESHREW TUPAIA NICOBARICA ZELEBOR 1869
ON GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND, INDIA
Meera Anna Oommen and Kartik Shanker
TIGER PREY IN ATROPICAL DRY FOREST: AN ASSESSMENT OF ABUNDANCE AND OF BIOMASS
ESTIMATION DERIVED FROM DISTANCE SAMPLING
Raghunandan Singh Chundawat and Koustubh Sharma
QUANTIFICATION OF THREATS AND SUGGESTED AMELIORATIVE MEASURES FOR THE
CONSERVATION OF THE CRITICALLY ENDANGERED JERDON’S COURSER RHINOPTILUS
BITORQUATUS AND ITS HABITAT
Panchapakesan Jeganathan, Asad R. Rahmani, Rhys E. Green, Ken Norris,
loannis N. Vogiatzakis, Chris Bowden and Debbie Pain
14
19
24
34
42
49
55
64
73
NEW DESCRIPTIONS
DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BLACUS NEES (HYMENOPTERA:
BRACONIDAE), ALONG WITH A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES
Z. Ahmad and Z. Ahmed
OBITUARY
REVIEWS
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
84
86
87
90
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