<2H

1

,UC *5

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

DECEMBER 2008 VOL. 105 (3)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran, Ph. D , D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala. Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D.. D Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S.R.Yadav, Ph D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph D

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 105(3): DECEMBER 2008

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 245

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS (PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS) IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

D. Avinandan, K. Sankarand Qamar Qureshi 247

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINNAEUS 1758) IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY OF BANGLADESH

M. Monirul H. Khan 255

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE DIVERSITY OF SPIDER FAUNA (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA) IN PARAMBIKULAM

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IN WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

Sunil Jose K., A.V. Sudhikumar, Samson Davis and P.A. Sebastian 264

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND THE BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY,

SRI LANKA

A.D. Ilangakoon 274

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE MACACA NEMESTRINA LEONINA IN SOME

FORESTS OF ASSAM IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Anwaruddin Choudhury 279

THE ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR DISTRICT

OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA

Tathagata Chakraborty and Soumen Bhattacharjee 292

NOTE ON A COLLECTION OF SNAKES FROM SOUTH INDIA, WITH EMPHASIS ON THE SNAKE FAUNA OF THE

MEGHAMALAI HILLS (HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS)

Angus F. Hutton and Patrick David 299

THE ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS WITHIN

BHADRA TIGER RESERVE, INDIA

Karthik Teegalapalli, Ankila J. Hiremath and Devcharan Jathanna 317

NEW DESCRIPTION

A NEW TRIBE AND A NEW GENUS OF OSCINELLINAE (DIPTERA: CHLOROPIDAE) FROM INDIA

P.T. Cherian and A.K. Shinimol 323

1.

2.

3.

REVIEWS

SPECIATION IN BIRDS

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

A FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

A CELEBRATION OF INDIAN TREES

Reviewed by Swapna Prabhu

327

328

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . A note on the observation of a Palm Squirrel in Thekkady,

Periyar Tiger Reserve, southern India

Kumaran Sathasivam 329

2. Burrow structure of Indian Bush Rat Golunda ellioti and

Brown Spiny Mouse Mus platythrix in Tiruchirappalli

district, Tamil Nadu

P. Sakthivel and P. Neelanarayanan 329

3. Distribution and status of the Wild Water Buffalo Bubalus

arnee in Bhutan

Anwaruddin Choudhury 332

4. Two new records of distribution of Four-horned Antelope

Tetracerus quadricornis

Sanjay Gubbi, Ravi Kumar and

B.M. Akarsha 335

BIRDS

5. First record of Merlin Falco columbarius pallldus from

Maharashtra, India

Trishant Simlai and Girish Punjabi 337

6. Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus\ an addition

to the avifauna of India’s western seaboard, south of

Jamnagar area

Samir Mehta 338

7. High-altitude records of the House Crow Corvus

splendens in western Arunachal Pradesh, India

Lohit Gogoi, Pema Wange, P.K. Dutta and

Rakesh Soud 339

8. Status and conservation of Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis

striata in Corbett National Park

Manoj Sharma 339

REPTILES

9. Occurrence of Salea anamallayana Beddome, 1878

in High Wavy Mountains, Western Ghats, India

G. Srinivas, S Bhupathy and A. Madhivanan 341

10. Records of Eryx/obn/7(Russell, 1801) (Ophidia: Boidae)

and Echis carinatus (Schneider, 1801) (Ophidia:

Viperidae) from the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India, with

distributional notes on other snakes

Bikramjit Sinha and R.C. Sharma 342

11. Hardwick's Spiny-tailed Lizard (Uromastyx hardwickii,

Gray 1827) preyed on by Indian Sand Boa (Eryxjohnii,

Russell 1801)

Manojkumar Pardeshi, V. Vijay Kumar, Nikunj Gajera

and Ashish Kumar 343

12. Discussion on the snake fauna of Gujarat state, with

some notable records

Raju Vyas 344

FISHES

1 3. Occurrence of White Suckerfish Remorina albescens

on the south-east coast of India

V. Venkatraman, J.T. Jothinayagam, C. Raghunathan,

P. Krishnamoorthy, G Sivaleela and A. Manimekalan.. 348

14. Sexual dimorphism in ‘Spotted Scat’ - Scatophagus

argus (Linnaeus)

Jency Paul, Honey Sebastian, N.D. Inasu and

C.O. Joshi 349

INSECTS

1 5. Motion camouflage and spinning wheels

Peter Smetacek 351

1 6. Abundance and diversity of Odonata (Insecta) in some

hilly regions of Tamil Nadu

R. Arulprakash and K. Gunathilagaraj

17. Status and distribution of Appias lalage butterfly

(Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in the Western Ghats, south-

western India

Krushnamegh Kunte, E. Kunhikrishnan, M. Balakrishnan

and C. Susanth 354

18. A new record of host plant Embelia acutipetalum of Atlas

moth Abacus atlas Linnaeus from Konkan

Sachin Balkrishna Palkar 357

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

19. Abundance of three species of the Horseshoe Crab

along the coast of Malaysia

Anil Chatterji, Zaleha Kassim, Hasnorhiyam Shahuddin

and Faizah Shaharom 357

BOTANY

20. First record of the Mangrove associate Derris trifoliata

Lour, from Gujarat

Dharmendra G. Shah and Sweta Bhatt 359

21. Preliminary observations on Yellow Morning Glory

Ipomoea hederifolia Linn. (Convolvulaceae)

Vinay M. Raole, Kishore S. Rajput and Rinku J. Desai 360

22. Ornithogalum erythraeum (Webb & Berthel.) Manning

and Goldblatt (Hyacinthaceae) - a new record for

Maharashtra

K.V.C. Gosavi, U.S. Yadav and S.R. Yadav 361

23. Habenaria commelinifolia Wall. (Orchidaceae) - a new

addition to the flora of Andhra Pradesh

S. Karuppusamy, S. Sandhya Rani andT. Pullaiah .... 363

Cover Photograph: Babul-root Boring Longicorn

Coelosterna scabrata

By Rushikesh Chavan

it

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

■ . «&. .... .

Editorial

Indian Conservation Service?

T'he Indian Forest Service was started by British colonists mainly to extract forest resources and export them to Britain, and

to strengthen colonization in India. Conservation and sustainable use practiced by some forest communities and private

forest owners at that time was of least consideration for the British. The officers were trained in forestry operations for

extracting timber and other resources, and making profit. Therefore, the Service needed ‘custodian’ officers, some ruthless,

who could use the ‘native labour’ for the ‘operations’. Providing shikar to the visiting dignitaries was a welcome distraction,

which many officers liked because they themselves enjoyed hunting. Whatever wildlife conservation was undertaken, was

with the aim to provide ‘good game’ to the Bada Sahib and the royalty. For this job, one did not need a qualified officer with

biology background, as the biology aspect in this extractive forestry was rather limited to knowing some commercial trees and

‘game’ animals; this could be taught easily during the 2-year training in the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. There was no

doubt that there were some fine officers in the service who based forest management on good science, but these were

exceptions. Moreover, most of their research was confined to study the growth of commercial plant species, how, where and

when to plant these species to maximize results, thinning or removal of unwanted trees and undergrowth, and how to protect

them from frost, rain/drought or wild animals, and introduction of fast-growing exotic trees for commercial puipose. Graduation

was the only basic degree one required to appear for the Forest Service examination.

Unfortunately, even after Independence in 1947, we carried on the legacy of the British. As far as forests (and forest

dwellers) were concerned, only the exploiters had changed but not the exploitation of forest resources. As these resources

shrunk, the number of forest officers went up, ostensibly to ‘protect’ the forest. As wildlife decreased due to hunting and

poaching, sanctuaries were established, but they were ‘managed’ mostly by territorial forest officers who rarely had time to

look after wildlife, as extraction of timber brought more money, accolade and promotion. Generally, individuals not wanted in

forestry operations, or with no appropriate contacts to manage a lucrative forestry posting, were made wildlife warden, if that

post ever existed in a forest division ! After enactment of the Wildlife ( Protection) Act in 1 972, many more wildlife sanctuaries

were declared, mainly due to the interest of Mrs. Indira Gandhi, but the working of the Forest Department did not change. Most

of the new IFS officials were still from a non-biology background, and most of them with no inherent interest in forest and

wildlife. From the mid 1970s, the role of Forest Department changed from exploitation to conservation. By early 1980s, there

was a total ban on cutting of natural forest. The pressure on reserve forests and protected areas increased due to human

population increase, the so-called ‘development’ projects, political exigencies and societal demands, but the attitude of the

forest officers remained unchanged due to their academic background and training. Both systematic ecological knowledge and

local community knowledge remained by and large not integrated in wildlife management.

India now has more than 600 sanctuaries and national parks, and some conservation and community reserves. Moreover,

wildlife also lives outside the PA system in reserve forests and in larger landscape and seascape. Wildlife management concept

has changed from ‘no-hands’ approach to active management, particularly considering the size of our PAs, including taking

the landscape approach, trying out community-based methods, and so on. New conservation concepts have been developed,

new methodologies are available, but wildlife officialdom remains in its fossilized shell, impervious to the changes taking place

all around. Other than a handful of officials who are trained in institutions like the Wildlife Institute of India, the Forest

Department remains ecologically illiterate. There are some exceptionally good forest officers in every state of India, who do

their duty with dedication. The days when the fate of our wildlife is left to an uninterested middle-age wildlife guard and his

equally uninterested bosses should be over. In this age of super-specialization, would one appoint a general practitioner for

the job of a specialist in a medical institute? Unfortunately, only in the Indian Forest Service a non-biologist or non-ecologist

is appointed to look after issues of ecology, habitat management, wildlife diseases, man-animal conflicts, conservation breeding,

etc., and local community experts with their generations of experience still have no role in official wildlife management.

What are the fresh candidates of Forest Service taught? I quote from the Indian Forest Service (Probationers Final

Examination) Regulations, 2005, gazette notification: Elementary Biology/Mathematics, Elementary Biology Practical, Overview

of Forestry, Forest Statistics, Geology, Soil Science, Soil, Water and Land Management, and Computer Awareness and

Applications in Forestry. This is in the Introductory Phase. In the Professional Phase I, they have the following subjects:

Forest Mensuration, Forest Biometry, Systematic Botany, Forest Ecology, Silvicultural Practices, Forest Economics, Silvicultural

Systems, Forests Policy, Law and Conventions, and Biodiversity Conservation. There is another phase, which the EFS notification

calls Phase II, where Forest Survey, Remote Sensing and GIS, Forest Engineering, Wildlife Management, Forest Production,

Non-timber Forest Produce, and Wood Technology, Harvesting and Industries. Many of these topics are taught in 5-6 lectures!

And what are the subjects taught in these various topics? Taking only two subjects, ‘Elementary Biology’ and ‘Wildlife

Management’ as an example, see what an IFS probationer is taught: Botany: Morphology - classification of plant kingdom;

parts of an angiospermic plant, the seed, germination, root, stem - their functions and modification; the leaf, inflorescence,

flower and fruit. Histology - the cell, the tissues, cell division, histology of stems, root and leaf. Secondary growth. Physiology

- absoiption, and conduction of water and mineral salts, metabolism - photosynthesis, respiration, nitrogen fixation and

reproduction. Tree Genetics - genetics and its application to plant improvement, and DNA finger printing.

Zoology: Classification of animal kingdom - economic importance and distinguishing features of different classes.

Theory and Practical are of 10 marks each, out of the total of 865 marks! Interestingly, ‘Wildlife Management’, which a manager

of a PA has to look as his/her main job is of only 35 marks, and that also only theory, no practical. Practical wildlife management

is taught during various field visits of other subjects or during whirlwind all-India tour of the probationers.

Just imagine, in this age when wildlife management has become a highly professional job all over the world, we still have

forest officers with elementary biology background*. In the complex world of ecology, even after 30 years of research one

learns everyday, but an IFS officer with non-biology background, in a 2-year training programme becomes an expert on wildlife

management! For many such officers, real wildlife experts (even amongst their own colleagues) are either a nuisance or an

irritant to be disdainfully tolerated.

Equally important, most forest officials are not taught to deal with the real life social and political issues that confront

wildlife management both within protected areas and in the larger landscape, including relations with local communities, issues

of land and resource rights, the challenges of ‘development’ policies, issues of poverty, and so on.

As India becomes developed, there is an urgent need to bring drastic change in the way our forest officers are selected.

The first requirement is that the basic qualification for appearing in the Indian Forest Service should be biology or

environmental science, or science at undergraduate level. Secondly, we should have a special Wildlife Service of wildlife

professionals to look after protected areas and wildlife management. This Indian Wildlife Service should have land managers,

field biologists, wildlife vets, wildlife crime detectors, and social scientists who work with local communities, as also people

who come from the communities themselves. Like we have a highly trained and dedicated professional army, India needs a

dedicated Indian Wildlife Service with a human face, as local communities share space with wildlife in most of our PAs; to put

it another way, wildlife has to share the space in our crowded country with more than a billion people in 6 per cent of the world’s

land. Many countries, such as South Africa, Kenya, Tanzania, Botswana, and USA have shown that highly trained, dedicated

and professional wildlife managers can restore degraded lands and depleted wildlife. We also have some very fine officers, but

most of our PAs are still ‘managed’ by non-professionals who do not have interest to leam/use new methodologies. Thirdly,

instead of Indian Forest Service, it should be called Indian Conservation Service or Indian Ecosystem Protection Service

because these days most of the job of a forest officer is protection of several kinds of ecosystems, not only forests. When we

have changed the term ‘District Collector’ to ‘District Magistrate’, why can’t we change the term Indian Forest Service to

Indian Conservation Service or something similar? During the British period, the main job of a collector was to collect revenue

for the colonial power, but now it is to administer the district, with revenue generation being only a small part of the job.

Similarly, the main job of an IFS officer was forestry operations - cutting timber and generating revenue. During the last 60

years as we have changed from production forestry to conservation of forest, therefore there is a need to change the title. The

Government of India is planning a string of marine protected areas, some of them will be entirely underwater. Will it be

appropriate for a marine protected area to be ‘managed’ by an officer of the Forest Service, where marine ecology is not even

taught?

AsadR. Rahmani

* Recently Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, Dehradun has prepared a draft of the syllabus on Wildlife Management to be taught to IFS

probationers in about 200 lectures by experts and experienced forest officers. This is a very good step in the right direction.

(I want to acknowledge the following people for comment/discussion on the earlier draft: B.C. Choudhury, Ashish Kothari, Qamar Qureshi,

Koustubh Sharma, Jayant Kulkami and Prachi Kulkami. However, the views expressed in the editorial are mine.)

246

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(3), Sep-Dec 2008

247-254

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS ( PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS )

IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

D. Avinandan1'2, K. Sankar1'3 and Qamar Qureshi14

‘Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box No. 18, Dehradun 248 001, Uttarakfiand, India.

2Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]

Prey selection by tigers ( Panthera tigris tigris) was studied in Sariska Tiger Reserve, Rajasthan, India, from November

2002 to April 2003. The line transect method was used for estimating prey availability and prey selection was determined

from scats. Sariska was observed to have a high wild ungulate density of 42.8 animals/sq. km, Chital (Axis axis) was

the most common ungulate species (27.6/sq. km) followed by Sambar (Cervus unicolor) (8.4/sq. km) and Nilgai

(Boselaphus tragocamelus ) (5.2/sq. km). Seventy-seven tiger scats were collected and analyzed for prey remains. Scat

analysis revealed that Sambar constituted the major prey species in terms of number and biomass. It was the principal

and preferred prey (P<0.05) of tigers. Other medium to large sized prey species, including domestic livestock, contributed

significantly to the tiger diet. The order of selection on the basis of prey occurrence in scats was

sambar>chital>nilgai>cattle-buffalo>common langur>wild pig. It was evident that tigers were heavily dependent on

sambar in greater proportion to their availability. This study provides food habits of now extinct tiger population. Two

tigresses and a tiger were recently reintroduced from Ranthambhore to revive the population.

Key words: Food habits, prey selection, tiger, Panthera tigris , line transect, scat analysis, ungulate density

INTRODUCTION

The Tiger ( Panthera tigris Linnaeus) occurs in a large

variety of habitats showing remarkable tolerance to variation

in altitude, temperature and rainfall regimes (Sunquist et al.

1999). There has been a drastic reduction in the distribution

of the tiger in the last 100 years resulting in the extinction of

three subspecies (Caspian, Javan and Bali) and massive

reduction in numbers of the rest (Seidensticker 1986, 1987,

1997; Sunquist et al. 1999; Qureshi et al. 2006; Jhala et al.

2008). The depletion of prey populations, habitat

fragmentation, disturbance and poaching are the major factors

responsible for the decline of tigers in the wild (Karanth 1991;

Chapron et al. 2008).

The tiger is the largest obligate terrestrial carnivore in

any of the mammalian assemblages in which it occurs and

preys on the larger ungulates living in those assemblages

(Seidensticker 1997). Despite their potential to hunt a wide

variety of prey animals, ranging from small mammals to large

bovids, the mean weight of species hunted is around 60 kg

(Biswas and Sankar 2002). This is obtained predominantly

from cervids, which constitute up to 75% of the prey biomass

requirement in most parts of the range (Sunquist et al. 1999;

Biswas and Sankar 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003). Food habits

comprise one of the major determinants of various life history

patterns including spacing pattern, movement, habitat

selection, social structure, success of reproduction and

geographical distribution (Krebs 1978; Beckoff et al. 1984;

Sunquist and Sunquist 1989). The factors affecting prey

choice are a result of a complex interplay of various ecological

parameters, which vary at the extremes of distribution of the

same species (Sunquist and Sunquist 1989). Carbone and

Gittleman (2002) estimated 10,000 kg/100 sq. km would

support 0.33 tigers/100 sq. km. The effective size of the

territory is a function of density and biomass of larger prey

species in its habitat (Sunquist 1981; Karanth 1991). This

makes the species vulnerable to changes in the habitat and

prey abundance (Karanth 1991).

STUDY AREA

The study was conducted in Sariska Tiger Reserve

(Sariska TR) (25° 5'-27° 33' N; 74° 17'-76° 34’ E), Rajasthan.

The total area of the Tiger Reserve is 800 sq. km, of which

302.2 sq. km is a buffer zone and 497.8 sq. km is the core

zone. Sariska National Park of 273.8 sq. km was notified in

1982. The intensive study area was 45 sq. km situated in core

zone I. The terrain is undulating to hilly in nature and has

numerous narrow valleys and two large plateaux, Kiraska

(592 m above mean sea level) and Kankwari (524 m above

mean sea level).

The climate of this tract is subtropical, characterised

by a distinct summer, monsoon, post monsoon and winter.

Summer commences from mid-March and continues till the

end of June (max temperature recorded was 44 °C in March

(Sankar 1994)). The monsoon extends from June to September

with the annual average rainfall ranging from 60 to 70 cm. In

winter the temperature has been observed to drop to 3 °C

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

(Sankar 1994). The vegetation of the region falls under

Northern Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest (subgroups 5 B:

5/El and 5/E2) and Northern Tropical Thorn Forest (sub

group 6 B) (Champion and Seth 1968).

Prey species of tigers in the area include Chital ( Axis

axis Erxleben), Sambar (Cervus unicolor Kerr), Nilgai

(Boselaphus tragocamelus Pallas), Common Langur

( Presbytis entellus Dufresne), Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa

Linnaeus), Four-horned Antelope or Chowsingha ( Tetracerus

quadricornis Blainville), Chinkara (Gazella bennettii Sykes),

Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatto Zimmermann), Indian

Porcupine (Hystrix indica Kerr), Rufous-tailed Hare (Lepus

nigricollis ruficaudatus Geoffrey), and Indian Peafowl ( Pavo

cristatus Linnaeus). The predominant domestic livestock

found inside the reserve are buffaloes ( Bubalis bubalis

Linnaeus), Brahminy cattle ( Bos indicus Linnaeus) and goats

( Capra hircus Linnaeus).

METHODS

Estimation of prey availability

The variable distance line transect method was used to

estimate prey density in the study area (Burnham et al. 1 980;

Buckland etal. 1993). This method has been extensively used

to determine animal densities in similar habitats (Sunquist

1981; Karanth and Sunquist 1995; Varman and Sukumar

1995; Chundawat et al. 1999; Biswas and Sankar 2002;

Sankar and Johnsingh 2002; Bagchi et al. 2003; Karanth

et al. 2004). Twelve transects were laid in the study area in a

random manner. The lengths of each transect varying from

2 km to 2.4 km. All transects (24.8 km) were walked seven

times during the course of the study period totalling to

1 73.6 km. Transects were walked early in the morning in the

first three hours after sunrise when the animals are said to be

most active (Schaller 1967 ). For each cluster of prey animals

encountered on transects, the following variables were noted:

( 1) time (2) species (3) cluster size (4) radial distance (Using

Yardage Pro 400 Rangefinder) (5) sex and age (6) sighting

angle.

The density of all prey species was calculated using

the program Distance (Thomas et al. 2005). The analysis

involved fitting of different detection functions to the observed

data for estimation of densities. The best model was selected

on the basis of the lowest Akaike Information Criteria ( AIC)

values (Burnham et al. 1980; Buckland et al. 1993).

Reconstruction of tiger diet

Hairs from the scats were observed for prey

identification, because they pass undigested through the gut

and can be used for species identification (Sunquist 1981;

Mukherjee et al. 1994a,b; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). Scat

analysis was used to estimate the proportion of different prey

species consumed by tiger, since it is non-invasive, cost and

time effective (Schaller 1967; Sunquist 1981; Johnsingh

1983; Johnsingh et al. 1993; Karanth and Sunquist 1995).

Tiger scats were collected wherever encountered in the

intensive study area. They were distinguished from leopard

scats by the size of the scat and associated pugmarks as

described by Sunquist (1981), Karanth and Sunquist (1995),

and Biswas and Sankar (2002). Scats were washed in water,

and held over a sieve. The washed hairs were sun dried and

kept in zip lock bags for further analysis.

Prey species in the scats were identified based on

the variables described by Mukherjee et al. (1994b). Sample

slides were compared with reference slides available

in the laboratory of the Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehradun.

Estimation of biomass and number of prey

The biomass and number of individuals of the prey

consumed by tiger was estimated using Ackerman’s equation

(Ackerman et al. 1984; Karanth and Sunquist 1995; Biswas

and Sankar 2002; Sankar and Johnsingh 2002; Bagchi

et al. 2003).

Y = 1. 980+0. 035X, where X = average weight of a

particular prey type and Y = kg of prey consumed per field

collectible scat (Ackerman et al. 1984).

The assumption for extrapolation of the above equation

is that the tigers and cougars ( Felis concolor concolor

Linnaeus) have similar utilization and digestibility (Karanth

and Sunquist 1995). We also presume that the scats containing

various prey items have similar decay rate and their detection

is equally probable.

Estimation of prey selectivity

Prey selectivity by tigers was estimated for each species

by comparing the proportion of prey species recovered from

scats with the expected number of scats in the environment

for each of the prey species consumed. Frequencies of the

identifiable prey remains in the scat do not tell us about the

actual proportion of prey type eaten. This is more so when

the prey types vary in size to a considerable degree. Smaller

prey species have more undigested material (i.e., hair) due to

higher body surface to mass ratio. Hence, intake of smaller

body sized prey induces relatively more amount of scat

production per unit mass of prey consumed leading to an over

estimation of smaller prey species in the diet studies of

carnivores (Floyd et al. 1978; Ackerman et al. 1984).

The average weight of prey species of the tiger required for

biomass estimation was taken from Karanth and Sunquist

248

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Density

SE

Group Density

ESW

Encounter rate

: Individual density

: Standard Error

: Mean group density of each species encountered during the transect walks

: Effective Strip Width

: Number of animals encountered per kilometer of transect walk. Total transect length walked 173.6 km.

(1995), Khan et al. 1996, Sankar and Johnsingh (2002).

Prey selectivity by tigers was estimated for each prey

species by comparing their availability and utilization data.

The expected proportion of scats in the environment

(i.e., availability) was calculated using the following equation

(Karanth and Sunquist 1995):

fi - [ (di /dt) * X\ ]/ X [ (di/dt) * ],

where fi= expected scat proportion in the environment,

di= density of i th species, dt = sum of density of all species,

A.i = X/Y the average number of collectible scats produced

by tiger from an individual of i th prey species, X = average

body weight of the species and Y = 1.980 + 0.035X.

Multinomial likelihood ratio test was used to evaluate

prey selection of tigers in the study area (Manly et al. 1972;

Chesson 1978; Reynolds and Aebischer 1991; Link and

Karanth 1994; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). The exact

variability of prey items in scats is not known and in order to

account for it sensitivity analysis was done by changing

coefficient of variance from 10 to 40% (Link and Karanth

1994). Program Scatman (Hines 1999) was used to do

multinomial test and sensitivity analysis by bootstrapping data

5,000 times. Sample size needed to construct tiger diet was

estimated by bootstrapping prey presence data in scats using

program Simstat® 2.0 (Provalis Research). The variance in

data significantly reduced after 60 scats suggesting that the

sample size collected was adequate to reconstruct tiger diet.

RESULTS

Availability of prey species

The uniform key model fitted for density estimation of

chital, common langur and nilgai. Half normal cosine was

the best-fitted model for sambar, wild pig, cattle, buffalo, and

peafowl (Table 1). All density estimates were done after

1% truncation of the farthest sighting data from the line

transect. The highest density was of chital 27.62, followed

by peafowl 20.81, common langur 14.13, sambar 8.44,

livestock 6.47, nilgai 5.19 and wild pig 1.64 (Table 1).

Amongst wild prey cervids contribute maximum biomass of

which chital contribute maximum ( 1 ,243 kg/sq. km) followed

by sambar (Table 2).

Composition of tiger diet

Altogether 87 prey items were found in 77 tiger scats

collected from the study area (Table 3). The analysis of

77 tiger scats revealed the presence of seven prey species

with a high preponderance of medium to large sized ungulates

in the tiger’s diet (Table 3). Eighty-seven per cent of tiger

scat contained single prey species and 1 3% contained two

prey species. The wild prey species in tiger scats constituted

83.9% and remaining 16.1% by domestic livestock (cattle

and buffalo). Of the wild prey species sambar constituted

48.2% followed by chital (18.1%), nilgai (14.5%), common

langur (4.8%) and wild pig (1.2%). Cattle and buffalo

constituted 1 1.5% and 5.7% of the remains encountered in

the tiger scats.

The wild prey base in total contributed 74.5% in terms

of relative biomass of prey consumed by tiger (Table 3),

of which cervids contributed 73.9% of the total biomass, and

livestock (buffalo and cattle) contributed 25.5% (Table 2).

Sambar contributed 254.2 kg biomass to the diet of tiger

followed by nilgai (99.36 kg), cattle (82.8 kg), buffalo

(57.67 kg), chital (53.32 kg), common langur (9.04 kg) and

wild pig (3.31 kg) (Table 3).

Estimation of prey selectivity

Sambar was consumed by tiger more than expected

on basis of the availability of individuals and groups

(Tables 4a,b and 5). Chital utilization was proportionally less

than available group and individual density. Common Langur

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Table 2: Frequency of occurrence of food items in 77 Tiger scats and contribution of different prey species in terms of biomass

to the Tiger diet in Sariska Tiger Reserve (November 2002 to April 2003)

Prey species Average Prey Percent Relative Number of Prey biomass Percentage relative

559.71

X = Average body weight of an individual prey type in kg

Y (kg of prey consumed per field collectible scat) = 1.980+0.035 X (Ackerman et al. 1984)

and Wild Pig were used in proportion to their available

individual density and in less proportion to their group density

(Tables 4a,b and 5). Nilgai was utilized in proportion to their

available individual and group density (Tables 4a,b and 5).

Based on the index of selection at individual level the prey

species used by tiger were ranked as sambar > nilgai > wild

pig > cattle and buffalo > common langur > chital. Ranking

on the basis of group density was in the following order:

sambar > cattle and buffalo > nilgai > chital > wild pig >

common langur. The order of selection on the basis of prey

occurrence in scats was sambar > chital > nilgai > cattle-

buffalo > common langur > wild pig.

DISCUSSION

Availability of prey species

Chital were the most abundant wild ungulate species

in Sariska study area. However, the crude density estimates

for Chital in Sariska were less than other protected areas in

India; Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002), Kanha, Nagarhole

(Karanth and Nichols 1998), Gir (Khan et al. 1996) and

Bandipur (Johnsingh 1983). Chital was also the least

widespread of the three large wild ungulates found in the

study area. Chital had a clumped distribution pattern, largely

encountered in the valleys interspersed between the hills and

in areas in the plains, which had a tall vegetation cover with

least disturbance.

Sambar density in the study area (8.44 animals/sq. km)

was higher than the density figures obtained for Kanha,

Nagarhole (Karanth and Nichols 1998), Mudumalai (Varman

and Sukumar 1995), Chitwan (Seidensticker 1976). Sambar

densities in Sariska can be compared with protected areas

like Pench (Biswas and Sankar 2002) and Bandipur

(Johnsingh 1983). Sambar is predominantly a browser and

has evolved in forest environment (Eisenberg and Lockhart

1972). Its abundance in any particular area probably is limited

by the dispersion of browse species in the forest, the

phenophase of browse species and water availability (Sankar

Table 3: The estimated biomass of prey species in Sariska Tiger Reserve (November 2002 to April 2003)

Confidence Interval Confidence Interval

Total (kg)

5,503.37 3,797.33 7,207.25

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Table 4a: Preference of prey species by tiger in Sariska Tiger Reserve based on availability of individuals

and utilization based on scat data (November 2002 to April 2003)

1994; Biswas 1999). Of the two cervids, sambar was the most

widely distributed in the study area. This may be attributed

to the fact that a large portion of the terrain is hilly in the

study area that was relatively undisturbed.

Nilgai density in the study area was observed to be

5.2 animals/sq. km, which is comparable to the Royal Bardia

National Park (RBNP) (Dinerstein 1980). It is higher than

the nilgai densities recorded in Pench (Biswas and Sankar

2002) and Gir (Khan et al. 1996). Nilgai was observed to be

widely distributed across the entire study area. However, their

occurrence was recorded more in the plains than in the hills.

This could be attributed to their higher tolerance of

anthropogenic pressure than the cervids. The nilgai’s wide

dispersal in Sariska TR was attributed to its tolerance of

disturbance (Sankar and Johnsingh 2002).

The observed density for wild pigs (1.64 animals/

sq. km) was lower than recorded densities in other studies -

Pench: 2.6 animals/sq. km (Biswas and Sankar 2002),

Nagarhole: 3.3 animals/sq. km(Karanth and Sunquist 1995),

Bandipur: 2.5 animals/sq. km (Johnsingh 1983), Royal Bardia

National Park: 4.2 animals/sq. km (Dinerstein 1980) and

Chitwan: 5.8 animals/sq. km (Seidensticker 1976) (Table 5).

Though Chowsingha was not encountered during transect

walks, their pellet groups were recorded along transects. This

showed the presence of chowsingha in the study area. Sankar

(1994) reported low occurrence of chowsingha in Sariska.

Common Langur density in the study area was observed to

be 14.1 animals/sq. km. It was observed to be very low

compared to the density recorded in Pench, which was

77.2 -animals/sq. km (Biswas and Sankar 2002).

Domestic cattle and buffalo were distributed largely in

the plains, their combined density was 6.47 individuals/

sq. km. Buffaloes and goats were accompanied by villagers

in the forest, whereas the cattle were left unattended.

Prey Selection by tigers

Sambar were observed to be the principal prey species

for tigers as inferred from the percentage occurrence of prey

remains in scats (Table 3). Sambar also contributed to the

highest biomass of prey consumed by the tiger. Sambar was

selected in greater proportion than its available group and

individual densities.

Of the prey remains encountered in scats, sambar

constituted the maximum amounting to 46% of the total. This

is high compared to the frequency observed in Pench - 13.8%,

(Biswas and Sankar 2002), Kanha - 10.4% (Schaller 1967)

and Nagarhole - 34.9% (Karanth and Sunquist 1995)

(Table 6). Sambar ranked first in terms of frequency of

occurrence in scats, which is not observed in all previous

studies (Table 6). Chital constituted 17.2% of the total prey

Table 4b: Preference of prey species by tiger in Sariska Tiger Reserve based on availability of groups

and utilization based on scat data (November 2002 to April 2003)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

251

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

Table 5: Densities of ungulate species from different areas in south Asia

PNP (Pench National Park) - Biswas & Sankar (2002); RAN (Ranthambhore) - Bagchi et at. (2003); KNH (Kanha) & NGH (Nagarhole) -

Karanth & Nichols (1998); BDP (Bandipur) - Johnsingh (1983); MML (Mudumalai) - Varman & Sukumar (1995); RBNP (Bardia) - Dinerstein

(1980); CTW (Chitwan) - Seidensticker (1976), STR (Sariska) Present study 2002

remains in tiger scat in Sariska, which is less than that was

observed in other studies - Pench 53%, (Biswas and Sankar

2002), Kanha 52.2% (Schaller 1967), Nagarhole 31.2%

(Karanth and Sunquist 1995) and Bandipur 39% (Johnsingh

1 983) (Table 6).

Nilgai remains were observed in 13.7% of the scats.

This is higher than the percentage observed for all other areas

mentioned above. Sankar and Johnsingh (2002) reported the

occurrence of remains of rodents, insectivore, chowsingha,

peafowl (Pavo cristatus ) and Grey Francolin ( Francolinus

pondicerianus ) in tiger scats in Sariska. However, during

the present study the remains of these species were not

observed. Remains of domestic cattle was recorded in the

present study, but not reported earlier (Sankar and Johnsingh

2002).

The preference for sambar could be attributed to the

larger body weight and wide distribution of sambar across

the study area thereby the higher frequency of encounter.

The tiger distribution range also coincided with the good

sambar habitat in the reserve. Nilgai were selected in

proportion to their available individual density and were

second in terms of biomass contribution to the tiger diet. Chital

were selected in less proportion to their available individual

and group density, and were fifth in terms of biomass

Table 6; Frequency of occurrence of major prey species in Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) scats

from different areas of the Indian subcontinent

a: Includes percent occurrence of Chital, Hog Deer and Muntjac

b: Both domestic and Wild Pigs

c: Domestic livestock as a whole

Kanha - Schaller (1967); Bandipur - Johnsingh (1983); Nagarhole - Karanth & Sunquist (1995); Chitwan-1 - McDougal (1977);

Chitwan-2 - Sunquist (1981); Bardia - Stoen & Wegge (1996); Pench - Biswas & Sankar (2002); Sariska-1- Sankar & Johnsingh (2002);

Ranthambhore - Bagchi et at. (2003)

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN SARISKA TIGER RESERVE

contribution to the tiger diet. Chital were the least widespread

of the three ungulates and their distribution was clumped

thereby reducing the frequency of encounter.

Different factors like abundance of the prey species,

temporal and spatial distribution, size, defences, and anti-

predator tactics determine the predator choice (Sunquist and

Sunquist 1989). For tigers in the Indian subcontinent, sambar

and chital constituted the main prey base wherever they occur

in considerable numbers (Schaller 1967; Tamang 1979;

Sunquist 1981 ; Johnsingh 1983; Johnsingh effl/. 1993;Stoen

1994; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). Other common prey

species of tiger are wild pig, gaur and nilgai (Biswas and

Sankar 2002; Sankar and Johnsingh 2002).

Mammalian carnivores are characterized by classic

relationship with their prey. It seems that carnivores are

closely tied not only to prey size, but also to prey biomass

(Karanth and Nichols 1998; Carbone and Gittleman 2002;

Karanth etal. 2004). Carbone and Gittleman (2002) suggested

that 10,000 kg of prey support about 90 kg of a given species

of carnivore irrespective of body mass and that the ratio of

carnivore number to prey productivity scales to carnivore

mass near -0.75, and that the scaling rule can predict

population density across more than three order of the

magnitude. Prey density is critical to maintenance of a large

carnivore population. Habitat loss, poaching and prey loss

are most critical factors determining tiger population (Cardillo

etal. 2004; Chapron etal. 2008). Looking at the current socio-

political scenario it is important to maintain core-breeding

areas for tigers at landscape level. In any given Protected

Area it is important to maintain mini-cores as a source area

for tiger and its prey. In Sariska Tiger Reserve, the Sariska-

Kalighati - Pandupole valley (c. 80 sq. km) is the only area

that can be considered as mini-core. As the rest of the Park

area is disturbed due to the anthropogenic pressure, having

very low wild ungulate density, and hence it can support only

a few tigers (Johnsingh et al. 1997).

Wikramanayake et al. (1999) classified the Sariska

Tiger Reserve as Tiger Conservation Unit 3 (TCU 3) among

the dry deciduous habitat types. The long-term survival of

tigers in such units is threatened due to various anthropogenic

factors. These areas require active interference to prevent the

extinction of tigers. In the study area, evidences of tiger

(tracks, signs, scats) were recorded only from the hilly tracks,

which is relatively undisturbed. This forms a very small area

(c. 80 sq. km) of the Core Zone I and corresponds to the area

where there is a high wild cervid density (Sankar 1 994; Sankar

and Johnsingh 2002). The reported total tiger population in

the entire Tiger Reserve was 26 (Anon. 2002), a gross over

estimate. The maximum of 15 tigers would have been

supported by prey density, based on the equation of Karanth

et al. (2004). Tiger population got extinct in 2004 due to

poaching, but proximate causes were isolation, habitat

degradation and loss of prey from a large area.

Denial of poaching, long history of passive

management, inaction, carnivore-people conflict, lack of

interest and organized poaching were the reasons of extinction

of tiger. If we forget these and fail to respond in appropriate

time, there might be many more extinctions. It is now

extremely important to relocate villages with appropriate

package to make available the meaningful area to sustain

demographically viable tiger population. There are 12 villages

located in the proposed national park of the tiger reserve and

are due for relocation (Sankar 1994; Johnsingh et al. 1997).

In 2006-07, Bhagani village was relocated; rest are in process

of relocation. This will make available 1 20 sq. km of intact

forest (Sankar 1994; Johnsingh et al. 1997). Two tigresses

and a tiger were reintroduced in 2007-2008 from

Ranthambhore.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

255-263

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINNAEUS 1758)

IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY OF BANGLADESH

M. Monirul H. Khan1

'Wildlife Research Group, Department of Anatomy, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3DY, UK.

Present Address: Department of Zoology, Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342, Bangladesh. Email: [email protected]

This study was conducted to determine prey selection by Tigers Panthera tigris in the Sundarbans East Wildlife

Sanctuary of Bangladesh. A total of 145 scats were analysed and 78 kills were studied. The frequency of occurrence of

different prey species in scats and kills was significantly different. On an average, the Spotted Deer Axis axis was the

most frequent prey in scats and kills (78%). Most Spotted Deer kills were adult animals and were in good condition

before they were killed. The frequency of occurrence in scats was converted to the relative number of kills, which

showed that the Spotted Deer was still the most frequent prey (29.9%). Other than the Spotted Deer, tigers also preyed

on Wild Boar Sus scrofa , Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatto , and Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus. Soil and

sungrass blades were found in scats as non-food items. Scats with soil were more available in winter than in summer.

In general, the trend of prey selection appeared to follow prey size and abundance, but Wild Boar and Lesser Adjutant

were two most high-ranking prey species, because their selectivity was higher in comparison to their abundance.

Key words: mangroves, tiger food habit, tiger kills, tiger scats, spotted deer

INTRODUCTION

The acquisition of food is a fundamental component

of every predator’s daily existence. Hence, knowledge of

food selection is critical to understanding life history

strategies and developing sound conservation

recommendations (Miquelle etal. 1996). Predatory strategies

are shaped and refined by natural selection to maximise

nutrient intake within the bounds of a wide range of

biologically relevant ecological constraints (Clutton-Brock

and Harvey 1983; Sunquist and Sunquist 1989). Carnivores

often regulate or limit the numbers of their prey, thereby

altering the structure and function of entire ecosystems

(Schaller 1972; Smuts 1978; Berger et al. 2001; Terborgh

et al. 2002). The role Tigers Panthera tigris play as top

predators is vital to regulating and perpetuating ecological

processes and systems (Sunquist et al. 1999;Terborgh 1999).

The analysis of food habits provides practical and

immediately useful information for the management of a

particular species, and occasionally aids law enforcement

and management needs (Korschgen 1971).

The general objective in this research is to identify

whether Tigers in the Sundarbans have any preference for

prey in terms of species, availability, age and health. The

specific questions are; 1) What are the proportions of

different prey species in Tiger scats and kills? 2) Do Tigers

sometimes ingest non-food items? 3) Does prey abundance

have any effect on prey selection? 4) What are the

proportions of kills in different age and health classes?

5) Does the abundance of the Spotted Deer Axis axis in

different age classes have any effect on its selection?

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study area

The study was conducted in a part of the Sundarbans.

The entire Sundarbans is an area of about 10,000 sq. km in

the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta of Bangladesh and India, but

roughly 60% of this forest lies in the south-west of Bangladesh

and the rest 40% is in the south-east of the Indian state of

West Bengal. The monthly mean temperature and relative

humidity normally varies from 23 °C (during December-

January) to 35 °C (during May-June) and from 70% to 80%,

respectively. There are three wildlife sanctuaries in the

Bangladesh Sundarbans that together form a UNESCO World

Heritage Site. The Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary ( WS)

(312 sq. km) is one of these three sanctuaries where this

research was concentrated (Fig. 1)- Geographically the area

is located between 21° 47'-22° 03' N and 89° 44’-89° 56' E.

Scat analysis

The scat samples were collected from the field, on a

monthly basis, for 18 months (September 2001 to February

2003). Since the Tiger is the only large carnivore in the

Sundarbans, Tiger scats could be identified without any

confusion. The samples were sun-dried whenever necessary,

preserved in a tagged polythene bag, and brought to the

laboratory for analysis. At first, each of the dried scats was

classified according to the relative volume, weighed using the

Lark JPT-2 (range: 0. 1-200 gm) beam balance (big scats were

weighed in sections), and were classified according to their

wejght. Then each scat was broken and carefully soaked in water

to separate prey remains, such as hair, bones, hooves, teeth.

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Fig. 1 : The Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India showing the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

feathers. The separated items were studied with the unaided

eye and with a magnifying glass, as well as under a light

microscope, if necessary, and were identified by comparing with

a reference collection (from different species of kills and from

captive animals) using features such as structure, colour, and

medullary configuration to identify prey species ( Koppikar and

Sabnis 1976; Amerasinghe 1983; Kitsos et al. 1995;

Ramakrishnan et al. 1 999). The remains of one prey species in

one scat were considered as frequency one. If there were remains

of two prey species in a scat (which was a rare case; found only

in a few scats), the frequency was divided into 0.5 for each prey

species. The non-food items were recorded when the item

formed more than 50% of the scat volume (Schaller 1967;

Johnsingh 1983), but these were excluded while estimating diet

composition and the biomass of food consumed (Reynolds and

Aebischer 1991 ). Reynolds and Aebischer (1991 ) defined non-

food items in the scats as remains of ingesta that have little or

no nutritive benefit (i.e., soil and sungrass in this study).

To determine whether the scat sample size is sufficient,

the method was followed from Mukherjee et al. (1994), who

studied the effect of scat sample size on frequency of occurrence

in scats of a given prey species and identified the minimum

reliable sample size (MRSS) as that which does not cause any

further change in a prey with increase in sample size.

Although the frequency of occurrence of prey species

in carnivore scats is a commonly-used parameter in the study

of carnivore food habits, if prey size is highly variable (as in

this study), the frequency of occurrence can considerably

distort the relative numbers of different prey species in the

diet (Panwar 1990; Karanth and Sunquist 1995). However,

the frequency of occurrence of different prey species in the

scats of Tigers can be converted to relative numbers and

biomass of different prey taken, which represents the actual

selectivity pattern (Floyd et al. 1978; Ackerman et al. 1984;

Karanth and Sunquist 1995). In the light of the previous

approaches (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh 1983; Putman 1984;

Emmons 1987; Karanth and Sunquist 1995), the method

developed by Ackerman et al. (1984) for Puma Puma

concolor , to convert the frequencies of occurrence into relative

numbers and biomass of individuals killed, was used.

Assuming that the digestive system and the degree of carcass

use of the Tiger is comparable to that of the Puma, the

following regression was used to relate live weight of prey

killed (A) to the weight of that prey represented in one field-

collectable Tiger scat ( Y) -

Y= 1 .980 + 0.035 X

The average number of collectable scats produced

by a Tiger from an individual animal of each prey species

(X. = X/Y), and the relative numbers of each prey killed were

computed from the above equations (Ackerman et al. 1984).

The relative numbers were then converted to relative biomass

by multiplying with the minimum adult weight.

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Prey selectivity index

The selectivity index (S) (Sourd 1983; Julliot 1996),

used to compare the abundance of each edible prey species

in the habitat and its proportion in the Tiger diet, was

calculated by using the equation mentioned below -

S = (PC -PA )/(PC + PA )

' sp sp7 v sp sp'

Here PC = proportion of one particular prey species

sp

in the Tiger diet as a percentage of the relative number of that

prey species in the Tiger diet (Spotted Deer Axis axis = 43.4,

Wild Boar Sus scrofa = 8.5, Rhesus Macaque Macaca

mulatto = 22.2, Lesser Adjutant Leptoptilos javanicus = 8.5,

Red Junglefowl Gallus gallus - 1 7.4, Water Monitor Varanus

salvator = 0; Table 3), and

PA = proportion of the same prey species available in

the habitat as a percentage of the individual density of that

prey species in total prey population (Spotted Deer = 48.2,

Wild Boar = 1.1, Rhesus Macaque = 15.0, Lesser

Adjutant = 1.4, Red Junglefowl = 16.1, Water Monitor = 18.2;

Khan 2004).

The species was then considered as: a) a high-ranking

species, when S > 0.3 (PC at least double than PA );

b) a middle-ranking species, when S lies between -0.3 and

0.3 (PC sp similar to PA ); c) a low-ranking species, when

S < -0.3 (PC at least half than PA ); and d) an uneaten

v sp sp 7 7

species, when S = -1 (PC p = 0, non-used edible species).

Kill study

Crows and vultures are good advertisers of Tiger kills

in most of the Tiger ranges of the Indian subcontinent

(Schaller 1972; Johnsingh 1983; Karanth and Sunquist 1995),

but the dense vegetation, and the rarity of crows and vultures

in the Sundarbans, forced me to depend mainly on odour and

dragging signs. In addition to the species of prey killed, if the

kill was relatively intact, the age class and health of the killed

individual was recorded on the basis of the size, colour and

overall condition of the animal. Whenever possible, the colour

and texture of femur marrow fat were examined in order to

record the health condition of the kill more accurately

(Schaller 1967; Sinclair and Duncan 1972;Riney 1982). The

lower jaws were collected whenever available, and taken to

the laboratory where the total length and diastema length were

measured, and used to classify the kills into age categories as

adult, yearling/juvenile and fawn/young on the basis of

eruption and wear of premolar and molar teeth ( Schaller 1 967 ;

Riney 1982; van Lavieren 1983). I also tried to determine the

age of kills by counting tooth cement rings (Ashby and

Santiapillai 1986; Ballard et al. 1995; Landon et al. 1998),

but no distinct annuli were found.

Selectivity of the Tiger predation for age classes of the

Spotted Deer was assessed by Ivlev’s selectivity index (D)

(Okarma et al. 1997; Khorozyan and Malkhasyan 2002) -

D = (ffi - fL)/(fE + fL - 2fEfL)

Here fE = fraction of a given age class among Spotted

Deer eaten by Tigers (adult = 0.765, yearling = 0.176 and

fawn = 0.059; ages identified on the basis of the eruption

of the teeth (Table 5), and fL is the fraction of a given age

class in the habitat (adult = 0.722, yearling = 0.205 and

fawn = 0.073; Khan 2004). The positive or negative value of

D for a certain age class means that the individuals of that

age class were positively or negatively selected.

RESULTS

Scat volume and weight, and minimum sample size

In terms of relative volume, there were no significant

difference in the frequencies of small, medium and large scats

(yp — 0.68, df = 2, p - 0.713), but medium-sized scats

were the commonest (36.6%). On the other hand, classes

based on dry weight show that there were significant

differences in the frequencies of scats in three different weight

classes (y2 = 25.00, df = 2, p < 0.001), but relatively light

weight (<100 gm) scats were the commonest (51.0%)

(Table 1). The mean weight of dried scats was 124.9 gm

(n = 145, range = 10.6-406.6 gm, sd = 94.8).

The results of the test for minimum sample size of the

scats, required for actual presentation of the proportion of a

prey species in the scats is illustrated in Fig. 2. It is evident

that even 34 samples are sufficient to represent adequately

the occurrence of the Spotted Deer in the Tiger diet, which

stays virtually steady-state regardless of the larger sample

size.

Prey selection

The frequency of occurrence of different prey species

in scats and kills (Table 2) shows that excluding zero values,

the frequencies of different prey species were significantly

different (in scats: yj = 545.71, df = 7, p < 0.001; in kills:

yj - 316.15, df = 6, p < 0.001). On an average. Spotted Deer

Table 1 : Scat size of the Tiger on the basis

of volume and weight

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Fig. 2: Relationship between the sample size of Tiger scats and

percentage of the frequency of occurrence of the Spotted Deer

in scats in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

was the most frequent (78%), but Tigers also consumed Wild

Boar, Rhesus Macaque, Porcupine (Indian Crested Hystrix

indica or Brush-tailed Atherurus macrourus ), Leopard Cat

Prionailurus bengalensis , Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaella

brevirostris (died in the fishing net, which was thrown away

and floated to the bank, and finally eaten by the tiger). Lesser

Adjutant, Red Junglefowl, Mud Crab Scylla serrata and Water

Monitor Varanus salvator , which together form the rest of

the frequency percentage (Table 2). Since the prey sizes varied

considerably, the frequency of occurrence was converted to

the relative numbers of prey animals killed, and it was found

that Spotted Deer was still the most frequently consumed

(29.9%) (Table 3). When relative numbers of different prey

animals consumed by Tigers were converted to the relative

biomass, it shows that the Spotted Deer forms the bulk of the

diet (80%) and Wild Boar is the second-most consumed (11%)

(Fig. 3). These are the two species on which Tigers in the

Sundarbans are thriving.

Non-food items in scats

Other than the prey animal remains, 74 (51%) scat

samples had large quantities of soil (more than 50% of the

volume). Sungrass (Imperata sp.) blades, and rarely leaves.

Unidentified

Fig. 3: Proportions of the relative biomass of different prey species

consumed by Tigers in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

were also found in a number of scats, but only one scat

(collected in January 2002) had sungrass more than 50% of

the volume. In almost all cases the soil was very hard in the

scat, probably due to contraction in the intestine. The

occurrence of scat samples with more than 50% soil in

different periods of the months was significantly different

(yp = 27.19, df = 8, p = 0.001). More than 80% of the scats

with soil were found in winter/dry season (October-March),

with the peak in November-December (c. 15%), which

indicates a strong seasonality in soil ingestion by Tigers

(Fig. 4). Notably, the monthly total collection of scats was

almost equally proportional in different seasons. The presence

Table 2: Occurrence of different prey species in scats and kills of Tigers

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 3: Estimated average number of collectable scats produced from individual prey animals and relative numbers of different

prey species killed by Tigers in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary

5Source: www.international.tamu.edu; 6Source: local crab collectors; 7Source: arbitrarily assumed, as in Karanth & Sunquist (1995)

of a large amount of soil proves that these were not

accidentally ingested.

Prey abundance versus prey selection

The selectivity index (S) for six potential prey species

shows that Wild Boar and Lesser Adjutant were high

ranked; Spotted Deer, Rhesus Macaque and Red Junglefowl

were middle ranked; and Water Monitor was a non-used

species (Table 4). It is notable that the two least-available

prey species were highest in the ranking, i.e., rates of their

selectivity by Tigers were highest in comparison to their

abundance.

Age and health of kills

The mean lengths of lower jaw bone and diastema of

the Spotted Deer were 18.7 cm(n = 34, range = 12.0-21.7 cm,

sd = 2.1) and 5.0 cm (n = 34, range = 3. 2-6. 3 cm,

sd = 0.8), respectively. Other than the Spotted Deer, only two

intact lower jaws of Wild Boar were found. The lower jaw

lengths of these two specimens were 20.5 and 21.7 cm,

and the diastema length in both cases was 0.5 cm. Most of the

kills were adult animals (based on fresh kills - 56.5%, based

on eruption of teeth - 76.5%) (Table 5), and were in good

condition before they were killed (78.8%) (Table 6).

Abundance and selection of Spotted Deer in different age

classes

Based on Ivlev’s selectivity index, the values of D

for adult, yearling and fawn age classes of the Spotted Deer

were calculated at 0. 1 12, -0.094 and -0. 1 1 3, respectively. Since

the value is positive only for adult age class and negative for

yearling and fawn classes, it can be concluded that the adult

Spotted Deer were positively selected, whereas the yearling

and fawn Spotted Deer were negatively selected. In other

words, the predation was higher than the abundance of adults,

but lower than the abundance of yearling and fawn.

DISCUSSION

S-0 N-D J-F M-A M-J J-A S-0 N-D J-F

2001 2002 2003

Collection months

Fig. 4: Bi-monthly occurrence of Tiger scats with soil consisting

of more than 50% of the volume in the Sundarbans East

Wildlife Sanctuary

Prey selection

The preference for large prey species (Spotted Deer),

as found in this study, supports the hypotheses related to

foraging theory (Stephens and Krebs 1987), which suggest

Table 4: Prey species ranking based on selectivity index

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

that predators may select species containing the most

'profitable’ prey, as measured by the ratio of energy gain to

handling time (MacArthur and Pianka 1966; Schoener 1971;

Charnov 1976; Scheel 1993; Karanth and Sunquist 1995).

For large felids the most profitable prey type would seem to

be the largest available prey that could be safely killed, but

the importance of search time, encounter rates, and the

energetic costs of capture for various prey types also need to

be considered (Sunquist and Sunquist 1989). Tiger and

Leopard Panthera pcirdus usually catch the kill when it is

large enough to afford more than one meal (Johnsingh 1983).

It has been reported that Tigers prefer to hunt larger

prey species (>176 kg), especially when there are other

carnivores like Leopards and Asiatic Wild Dogs Cuon alpinus

in the same habitat (Schaller 1972; Karanth and Sunquist

1995, 2000; Bagchi et al. 2003). In the Sundarbans, Tigers

mainly hunt the largest available prey species, i.e., the Spotted

Deer, despite the fact that there is no Leopard over there.

Reza et al. (2001 ) reported that in the Sundarbans East

WS the average percentage by weight of Spotted Deer, Wild

Boar and Rhesus Macaque hair, and unidentified animal parts

and soluble material were 69, 15,5,4 and 6, respectively. Their

methods were questionable, because the weight, size and

density of hairs of these three species were not uniform. Hence,

the relative weights of hair samples in scats do not accurately

represent either relative biomass or relative numbers of different

prey species consumed. They have found the mean weight of

scat as 1 22 gm and the Spotted Deer as the principal prey, which

was generally the same as in this study.

According toTamang ( 1993), the principal prey of the

Tiger in the Sundarbans are Spotted Deer and Wild Boar, but

Tigers are opportunist feeders and there are records of

predation of Rhesus Macaque, Barking Deer Muntiacus

muntjak, otters, small carnivores, birds (mainly Red

Junglefowl), lizards ( Varanus spp.), other reptiles, frogs, fish,

crabs, and occasionally humans. My findings generally agree

with this.

In India, the Spotted Deer is the main prey of the tiger

in Kanha, Bandipur and Nagarhole (Schaller 1967; Johnsingh

1983; Karanth and Sunquist 1995), but it is the second or

third main prey in Ranthambhore, Panna and Melghat

(Koppikar and Sabnis 1979; Gogate and Chundawat 1997;

Bagchi et al. 2003). In Huai Kha Kheng, Thailand, the Barking

Deer is the main prey species (Rabinowitz 1989). In the

Russian Far East, Elk Cervus elaphus and Wild Boar were

consistently the two key components of the Tiger diet

(Abramov 1962; Miquelle etal. 1996). Karanth and Sunquist

(1995) reported that in Nagarhole, India, the biomass of the

Spotted Deer, Sambar, Gaur Bos frontalis. Wild Boar, Barking

Deer and Common Langur Semnopithecus entellus comprised

97.6% of the biomass killed by Tigers. In contrast, I have

found that the Spotted Deer alone was 80.1% of the biomass

consumed by Tigers in the Sundarbans.

Non-food items in scats

Other than typical food items, soil and sungrass blades

have been reported in Tiger scat samples (Powell 1957;

Schaller 1967; Johnsingh 1983; Reza et al. 2001). During

this study, soil was found in large quantities (more than 50%

of the volume) in 5 1 % of the scat samples, which is the highest

proportion of soil-containing scats ever reported. Schaller

(1967) reported that scats with soil and grass (more than 50%

of the volume) represented 3.8% and 2.3% of all types of

items eaten by Tigers in Kanha, India. He found most of the

soil-containing scats during October-December, i.e., early

winter, and suggested a seasonal incidence of soil-eating.

A similar trend was found in this study, in which more than

80% of the soil-containing (more than 50% of the volume)

scats were found in winter (October-March), with the peak

in November-December (c. 15%). In Bandipur, India, Johnsingh

(1983) found that out of 36 scats, three contained soil and two

contained grass (more than 50% of the volume). Reza et al.

(2001) mentioned the occurrence of an average 6% weight of

scats composed of soil in the Sundarbans, but in this study, soil

was found to constitute more than half of the volume of 5 1 % of

scat samples. This means that the percentage of weight of soil

was definitely much higher than 6%. Other than soil, I have

found significant amount of sungrass blades in one scat. The

ingestion of soil and sungrass blades by Tigers is probably to

meet mineral requirements, for better digestion and/or to scour

the digestive system for internal parasites. In Kanha, India, one

grass-blade-rich Tiger scat had a tapeworm (Schaller 1967).

Table 5: Age of Spotted Deer kills based on observation of kills

and on the eruption of teeth in the lower jaw Table 6: Condition of Spotted Deer kills

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PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Prey abundance versus prey selection

In Nagarhole, India, Karanth and Sunquist (1995)

studied prey selection by Tiger, Leopard and Asiatic Wild

Dog. They concluded that all three predators selected prey

species non-randomly, which was mainly based on the prey

size and encounter probability. In the Sundarbans, I have also

found that Tigers non-randomly selected the prey species and

the largest and commonest available ungulate (Spotted Deer)

forms the bulk of the diet.

In Bandipur, India, Tiger scat and kill data reveal that

proportionately fewer Spotted Deer were killed than were

present in the population (Johnsingh 1983, 1993). This can

be attributed to the anti-predator behaviour of the Spotted

Deer, which assemble in open areas to spend the night, where

they are relatively less vulnerable to Tiger predation. The

Spotted Deer was virtually the only large prey in the

Sundarbans, so it is difficult to compare my conclusions with

those of Johnsingh (1983, 1993). In general, prey size together

with the abundance is the most important factor driving the

prey consumption. However, there are many other factors

that might be involved in Tiger predation, such as anti-

predator behaviour, detectability, and ‘profitability’ in terms

of energy gain.

Based on prey selectivity in comparison to abundance,

the index of selectivity of the six potential prey species in the

Sundarbans East WS identified Wild Boar and Lesser Adjutant

as the two highest-ranking species. These two species,

however, contribute little in biomass abundance and biomass

consumed by Tigers in the Sundarbans, so highest-ranking

species should not be confused with commonly-preyed

species. Since both Wild Boar and Lesser Adjutant are largely

solitary, they are more vulnerable to Tiger predation.

According to van Orsdol (1981), Lion Panthera leo hunting

success varied with the size of prey group; single and paired

prey were more easily caught than those in larger groups.

Moreover, Tigers probably preferred Wild Boar and Lesser

Adjutant as a change in common prey item (Spotted Deer).

Although the Water Monitor was common, it has been

identified as a non-used species (there was no trace of it in

scats) probably because of its smaller size and aquatic

habitation, and like most mammalian species. Tigers might

be reluctant to hunt such a reptile.

Selectivity for age classes

Predators may preferentially select substandard

(juveniles and young) animals, because they are less adapted

to escape (Homocker 1970; Mech 1970; Schaller 1972; Curio

1976; Vitale 1989). Karanth and Sunquist (1995), and

Miquelle et al. (1996) reported that although Tigers

predominantly kill adult prey, the young or substandard prey

is killed in relatively high proportions.

In my study most of the Tiger kills were adult animals,

which do not agree with the above-mentioned findings. There

was no tendency to prefer young or substandard prey, probably

because it may not be ‘profitable’ to hunt young Spotted Deer

instead of the adult because of size. The adult Spotted Deer

is not too big to pose any challenge to the Tiger and in the

Sundarbans there is enough cover for the Tiger to ambush.

My findings from Tiger kills and their jaws, however, could

be adult-biased, because young and juvenile animals are

smaller and they are more commonly eaten completely by

predators (Schaller 1967; Sunquist 1981; Johnsingh et al.

1991). Moreover, the kill detectability by the researcher is

normally large-animal-biased (Ruggiero 1991).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I gratefully acknowledge Dr. David J. Chivers for the

supervision, and Commonwealth Scholarship (UK), WWF

Prince Bernhard Scholarship for Nature Conservation

(Switzerland), and Cambridge Commonwealth Trust (UK)

for the financial support, which made this study successful.

Also, thanks to Bangladesh Forest Department for giving

permission and providing local support.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105(3), Sep-Dec 2008

264-273

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE DIVERSITY OF SPIDER FAUNA

(ARANEAE: ARACHNID A) IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

IN WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

Sunil Jose K.1, A.V. Sudhikumar23, Samson Davis24 and P.A. Sebastian23

'Department of Zoology, Deva Matha College, Kuravilangadu, Kottayam District 686 633, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

"Division of Arachnology, Department of Zoology, Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi 682 013, Kerala, India.

"Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

147 species of spiders belonging to 82 genera and 22 families are recorded from Parambikulam. 51 species are new

records for Kerala State and 5 species are new records for India. Moist deciduous forests exhibit higher diversity of

spiders compared to evergreen forests. Spider fauna of Parambikulam exhibits affinities with Oriental and Palaearctic

regions. 45 species recorded are endemic to the Indo-Sri Lankan region. Family Mimetidae is a new record from

southern India. Key to different spider families found in Parambikulam also incorporates all the families so far recorded

from Kerala. Distributional data based on literature of all the spiders recorded are included.

Key words: Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, spiders, biodiversity. Western Ghats, endemism, affinities,

zoogeography, India

INTRODUCTION

Though spiders form one of the most ubiquitous and

diverse groups of organisms existing in Kerala, their study has

remained largely neglected. Once completely enumerated, their

species diversity will outnumber all groups other than insects.

Due to high species endemism, the Western Ghats are listed

among the twenty-five "biodiversity hotspots’ of the world.

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the thickest

undisturbed forest patches existing in the Western Ghats.

Inaccessibility of these forest areas has considerably facilitated

their protection. Due to scarcity of workers much of the

arthropodan diversity remains unexplored, and the

disappearance of many species undocumented, so that any scope

for their future utilization ceases. Considering the importance

of spiders in the natural suppression of many insect pests, urgent

efforts are needed to understand their diversity. Our knowledge

about the spiders of Kerala remains confined to the works of

Ferguson (1906), Gravely ( 1915, 1921a, 1931, 1935), Pocock

( 1900) and Sinha (1951a, b).The number of species previously

recorded from Parambikulam is only 9 1 (Patel 2003); our study

helps to raise this number to 147. Though the study of spiders

from Parambikulam is still far from complete, the present study

will form a basis for further investigations on this group.

STUDY AREA

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (10° 20'-10° 26' N;

76° 35'-76° 50' E) is situated between the Anamalai ranges of

Tamil Nadu and the Nelliampathy ranges of Kerala.

It comprises a total area of 285 sq. km with a reservoir area

of 28 sq. km. Elevation ranges from 300 m to 1,430 m, with

average elevation being 600 m. Annual rainfall is 1,720 mm,

most rain being received in June-August while the eastern

part of the Sanctuary adjoining Tamil Nadu receives most

rain in October-November. The Sanctuary has both natural

forest and plantations. Evergreen - semi-evergreen forest

(about 80 sq. km) is found along the northern and north-

western borders, moist deciduous forest (70 sq. km) is mostly

in the central portion and small patches of dry deciduous forest

in the drier parts adjoining Tamil Nadu. Plantation, mostly of

Teak, occupies 90 sq. km of area. These plantations with a

belt of deciduous forest interspersed with marshy areas

( vayals ) present a mosaic type of vegetation unique to

Parambikulam. Temperature ranges from a maximum of

27-33 °C to a minimum of 20-24 °C.

METHODOLOGY

Spiders were studied following the methods of Tikader

(1987). The study was of limited duration extending for

six days from September 08, 2001 to September 13, 2001.

Five areas (Fig. 1) were selected for study:

1) Moist Deciduous forest around Anappady (10° 26'

36.9" N; 76° 48' 50. 1 " E; 564 m),

2) Moist Deciduous forests at Kuriyarkutty, along the

former forest Tram way (10° 24' 22.1" N; 76° 43' 16.9" E;

534 m),

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

/ ANAMALAI SANCTUARY

VAZHA CHAD

ro° ~

70* 35*

Fig. 1: Map of Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary: 1. Thunacadavu, 2. Karianshola, 3. Kuriarkutty, 4. Parambikulam,

5. Vengolimala, 6. Anappady, 7. Vengoli

3) Evergreen forest located at Karianshola (10° 27' 44.3" N;

76° 49' 39.2" E; 742 m),

4) Evergreen forest tread path from Karianshola to

Vengolimalai,

5) Moist Deciduous forest at Vengoli (1,200 m) and

Vengolimala (968 m), located east of the Sanctuary.

Bushes, tree trunks, forest floor and foliage were all

searched for spiders. Observation was conducted in moist

deciduous forest around Anappady, also at night. A hand unit

of Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to determine

the exact geographical locations. To indicate the differentiation

diversity (Beta Diversity), Jaccard index was used. Jaccard

Index cj = j / r x 100 where j = the number of species found at

both sites, r = the number of species at one site.

The identification of spiders was done following

Gravely (1915, 1921a, 1921b, 1924, 1931, 1935), Koh(1989),

Majumder and Tikader (1991), Pocock (1900), Sherriffs

(1919, 1927, 1928, 1929), Sinha (1951 a,b), Tikader ( 1970,

1977, 1980, 1982). The families are arranged after Platnick

(2001). Since many changes have occurred in the taxonomic

names, older names are retained in brackets to avoid

confusion. Data regarding the general distribution is taken

from Platnick (2001) and Tikader (1980, 1982). Based on

our observations, status of each species is indicated as ‘rare’

or ‘common’. The key provided is modified from Ovtsharenko

et al. (2001); some families that are not recorded from

Parambikulam, but found in other regions of Kerala are also

included in the key.

Small dash in the Table 1 indicates that the species was

not collected during the present study, but has been previously

reported from Parambikulam. (‘-’ is present in space

corresponding to status and habit, eg. No. 15, 51, 56 etc.)

RESULTS

Key to spiders of Parambikulam

1 Eight eyes present 2

— Six eyes present 30

2 Cribellum absent 3

— Cribellum present 26

3 Chelicerae downward or downward and forward, cheliceral

fangs directed towards each other 4

— Chelicerae projecting forward, cheliceral fangs directed more

or less parallel to the main body axis Theraphosidae

4 Tarsi with three claws 5

— Tarsi with two claws 16

5 Spiders with extremely long and thin legs, II legs 4-5 times

longer than body Pholcidae

— Spiders without extremely long and thin legs 6

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

265

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

6

7

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

Tibia and metatarsi I & II with a row of long prolateral spines

Mimetidae

Tibia and metatarsi I & II without a row of long prolateral

spines 7

Tarsi IV with 6 to 1 0 serrated setae, forming a comb

Theridiidae

Tarsi without such a comb 8

Eye group in hexagonal arrangement Oxyopidae

Eye group not in hexagonal arrangement 9

Tarsi with numerous trichobothria 10

Tarsi without trichobothria 13

Tarsal trichobothria in single dorsal row 11

Tarsal trichobothria irregular, in two dorsal rows 12

The six spinnerets in a more or less transverse row

Hahniidae*

The six spinnerets in three rows Agelenidae*

Posterior row of eyes so strongly recurved that it may be

considered to form two rows Lycosidae

Posterior row of eyes slightly recurved and not forming two

distinct rows Pisauridae

Chelicerae divergent from base, usually long and strong ..

Tetragnathidae

Chelicerae not divergent from base 14

Boss present on chelicerae Araneidae

Boss absent on chelicerae 15

Posterior spinnerets enormously long, usually longer than

abdomen Hersilidae

Posterior spinnerets shorter and thicker. Tibia IV with 1 or 2

dorsal spines Linyphiidae

Eyes in three rows; first row of two eyes, second row of

four eyes, and third row of two eyes Ctenidae

Eyes in two rows 17

1 & II legs enlarged and bearing scopulae 18

I & II legs normal 19

Labium completely fused with sternum, two large anterior

spinnerets and remnants of posterior four spinnerets present,

carapace diamond shaped Stenochilidae

Labium not fused with sternum, only two spinnerets present,

carapace oval Palpimanidae*

Apex of metatarsus with a soft trilobate Sparrassidae

Apex of metatarsus otherwise 20

Chelicerae robust and provided with very long and slender

fangs Prodidomidae

Chelicerae otherwise 21

Eyes arranged in three rows, the front or anterior median

eyes much larger Salticidae

Eyes arranged in two rows, the front or anterior median eyes

not larger 22

Colulus present, legs I & II much longer than III & IV, spiders

crab-shaped Thomisidae

— Colulus absent 23

23 Tarsi I & II with scopulae Philodromidae*

— Tarsi I & II without scopulae 24

24 Anterior spinnerets cylindrical, widely separated at base ..

Gnaphosidae*

— Anterior spinnerets conical, separated by a distance much

closer than their diameter 25

25 Clypeus narrower than a diameter of anterior median eyes

(AME); if it is so, posterior median eyes (PME) separated

by a distance of their diameter Clubionidae

— Clypeus not narrower than the diameter of anterior median

eye (AME), usually twice or wider; anterior lateral eyes

(ALE) larger than AME Corinnidae

26 Posterior median eyes largest and directed forward

Deinopidae

— Posterior median eyes of moderate size and not as above .

27

27 Tarsi furnished with an ungual tufts and an inferior claw ..

Psechridae

— Tarsi otherwise 28

28 Eyes homogeneous, light in colour, tarsi with a dorsal row

of trichobothria Amaurobiidae*

— Eyes homogeneous, dark in colour, or heterogeneous, light

and dark in colour; tarsi without Trichobothria 29

29 Eyes homogeneous, dark; metatarsus IV compressed and

concave above Uloboridae

— Eyes heterogeneous, metatarsus IV of the usual shape (not

compressed and concave above) Dictynidae*

30 Six eyes, arranged in three separate groups 31

— Two, four or six eyes present and all arranged in one group

32

31 Carapace round and high behind, sternum round behind

Scytodidae*

— Carapace flat and depressed, sternum pointed behind

Loxoscelidae*

32 Eyes six; median eyes larger than laterals, located on anterior

portion of carapace Oonopidae*

— Eyes two, four or six, almost equal in size, located mostly

on central portion of carapace Tetrablemmidae*

*Not recorded from Parambikulam.

TAXONOMIC DIVERSITY

Family Diversity: Of the 59 families recorded in the

Indian region, 22 families (38%) are found in Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary. Families Araneidae, Theridiidae,

Tetragnathidae, Thomisidae, Salticidae and Theraphosidae

exhibit maximum species diversity, which is closely

associated with the diversity of habitats. Some rare families

like Prodidomidae, Mimetidae, Deinopidae and Stenochilidae

266

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

are also recorded here. Mimetidae is a new record from

southern India. Families consisting of hunting and wandering

spiders (Lycosidae, Pisauridae, Oxyopidae, Sparrassidae,

Clubionidae, Thomisidae, Philodromidae, Hersilidae and

Ctenidae) represent 55% of the spiders found. Scytodidae,

Loxoscelidae, Lyssomanidae, Gnaphosidae, Agelenidae

which are collected from other regions of central Kerala, are

not represented in our studies, perhaps because of the short

study period.

Generic Diversity: Of the 252 genera recorded from

the Indian region (Tikader 1987), 82 genera are found in

Parambikulam. High generic diversity is found in Araneidae

(11), Theridiidae (6), Thomisidae (10), Salticidae (7),

Theraphosidae (6), and Tetragnathidae (7). The number of

genera is higher than that of Andaman & Nicobar islands -

33 (Tikader 1970) Sikkim - 41 (Tikader 1977), and Calcutta

(now Kolkata) - 47 (Tikader and Biswas 1981). Genera like

Arachnura (Family: Araneidae); Perenethis, Polyboeae

(Family: Pisauridae); Pistius , Camaricus , Misumenops,

Ozyptila , Tibellus, Xysticus, Strigoplus (Family: Thomisidae);

Castianeira (Family: Corinnidae); Miagrammopes (Family:

Uloboridae); Hyllus, Phintella , Telamonia (Family:

Salticidae); Thelcticopis (Family: Sparrassidae);

Chilobrachys, Thrigmopoeus (Family; Theraphosidae);

Theridula , Argyrodes , Achciearcinea, Theridion , Dipoena,

Coleosoma (Family: Theridiidae); Linyphia (Family:

Linyphiidae); Zimiris (Family: Prodidomidae), Deinopis

(Family: Deinopidae) are new records for Kerala.

Species Richness: 147 species were recorded from a

limited area of 20 sq. km, a very high number compared to

other regions like Andaman & Nicobar Islands - 65 (Tikader

1970), Sikkim - 55 (Tikader 1977) and Calcutta (now Kolkata)

- 99 (Tikader and Biswas 1981). The three studies quoted

above were conducted over a period of one to two years while

the present study was limited to six days. Considering this,

we believe that the diversity of spiders in Parambikulam is

amongst the richest in India. A detailed survey will reveal

much greater species diversity. Of the total species recorded,

1 12 are found in moist deciduous and 46 species in evergreen

forests, and 29 in both habitats. Differentiation diversity index

between the two habitats is 0.22, indicating high dissimilarity.

New Records: New species records for India are

Dipoena ruedai, Argyrodes flagellum (Family: Theridiidae);

Hyllus diardi (Family: Salticidae); Perenethis unifasciata,

Polyboea vulpina (Family: Pisauridae). Species reported for

the first time in Kerala are Arachnura angura, Araneus

nympha, Cyclosa bifida , C. confraga, C. hexatuberculata,

C. quinque guttata, C. spirifera, Cyrtophora bidenta, Eriovixia

laglaizei, E. poonaensis, Gasteracantha dalyi, Neoscona

vigilans (Family: Araneidae); Tylorida culta, Leucauge

dorsotuberculata, L. pondae , Nephila kuhli, Tetragnatha

andcimanensis, T. vermiformis (Family: Tetragnathidae);

Camaricus khandalaensis, Misumenops andamanensis ,

Misumena decorata, M. silveryi, Strigoplus netravatlii,

Xysticus himalayensis (Family: Thomisidae); Phintella

vittata, Telamonia dimidiata (Family: Salticidae); Argyrodes

gazedes , A. ambalika, A. gazingensis , A. xiphias,

A. andamanensis, A. flagellum, Achaeranea durgae,

A. diglipuriensis, Theridula cingula, Theridion manjithar

(Family: Theridiidae); Hippasa olivaceci, H. lycosina (Family:

Lycosidae); Oxyopes shweta (Family: Oxyopidae); Linyphia

urbasae (Family: Linyphiidae); Deinopis sp. (Family:

Deinopidae); Zimiris sp. (Family: Prodidomidae);

Thrigomopoeus parambikulamensis, Plesiophrictus spp.,

Chilobrachys sp., (Family: Theraphosidae).

Mygalomorph spiders: These large spiders live in

burrows in the ground or in deep cavities or holes in large

tree trunks. After the work of early arachnologists like Pocock

(1900), Gravely (1915, 1935), Hirst (1909), the group has

been largely neglected. Of the seven species previously

reported from Kerala, five were reported from Parambikulam;

Haploclastus kayi, Plesiophrictus raja , P bhori, Anandaliella

travancorica and Poecilotheria striata (Family:

Theraphosidae). P. striata was the only arboreal mygalomorph

found in Parambikulam. In addition, four new species were

found during our study: Chilobrachys sp., Plesiophrictus sp.

1, Plesiophrictus sp. 2, Anandaliella sp., Chilobrachys sp.

were discovered from the Evergreen forest of Karianshola

and the burrows of Plesiophrictus sp. and Haploclastus kayi

were found on embankments on the side of the road to Salim

Ali Centre at Kuriyarkutty. Besides these, Poecilotheria

rufilata, Anandaliella travancorica (Family: Theraphosidae)

were also recorded in Kerala, but not in Parambikulam.

Zoogeographic analysis: 36 species recorded in

Parambikulam are widely distributed in many places in South

Asia; 4 of these are found only in the Indo-Sri Lankan region.

Most of these species belong to Araneidae (14) and

Tetragnathidae (11). Because of bright coloration and large

orb webs, spiders of these two families are easily observed,

hence they are well represented in the literature. About

47 species found in Parambikulam are widely distributed in

Kerala. Since the distributional status of Indian spiders is poorly

known, species that are found in two widely separated regions

are considered widely distributed. 15 species recorded from

Parambikulam have so far been reported only from Kerala.

Endemism: Intensive agriculture and human

settlements have destroyed the habitat of many spider species.

Due to the disappearance of suitable habitats many species

formerly widely distributed are now restricted to forest;

Gasteracantha remifera, G dalyi , G. haselltii (Family:

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

267

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Araneidae) were earlier present in semi urban areas

(Subrahmanyam 1954). The threat posed by habitat

destruction is far greater to endemic species. Fifteen species

discovered in Parambikulam are endemic to the Western Ghats

of Kerala, while 44 are reported only from India. 5 1 species

have been identified only up to generic level, of which many

may be new species. The endemic species found in

Parambikulam are Gasteracantha geminata (Family:

Araneidae); Ctenus indicus, C. cochinensis,Acantheis indicus

(Family: Ctendiae); Psechrus alticeps (Family: Psechridae);

Strigoplus netravathi (Family: Thomisidae); Poecilotheria

striata , Haploclastus kayi , Thrigmopoeus

parambikulamensis , Plesiophrictus bhori, P. raja (Family:

Theraphosidae); Tetragnatha cochinensis (Family:

Tetragnathidae); Wadicosa ( Lycosa ) quadrifer (Family:

Lycosidae). Family Theraphosidae has three endemic genera:

Plesiophrictus and Poecilotheria endemic to Indo-Sri Lankan

region, and Thrigmopoeus found only in the Indian

subcontinent. Of the 147 species found in Parambikulam,

45 are endemic to the Indo-Sri Lankan region.

Affinities: The spider fauna of Parambikulam bears

affinities with Oriental and Palaearctic regions. Affinity with

the island fauna of Sri Lanka is also pronounced. According to

Holloway (1974), the Indian fauna was formed as a result of

displacement by invaders from other regions of the Orient,

after its separation from Gondwanaland and merger with Asia.

Species having Sri Lankan affinities are Argiope anasuja,

Cyclosa bifida , C. insulana , Eriowixia laglaizei , Gasteracantha

remifera (Family: Araneidae); Tylorida culta , /.' ventralis ,

Opadometa fasti gata , Nephila maculata, Tetragnatha ceylonica

(Family: Tetragnathidae); Peceutia viridana (Family:

Oxyopidae); Hersilia savigyni (Family: Hersilidae); Perenethis

unifasciata (Family: Pisauridae). Those with oriental affinities

are Argiope anasuja , Cyclosa bifida , C. confraga , Eriovixia

laglaizei , E. poonaensis , Gasteracantha dalyi, G. haselltii ,

Neoscona rumphi (Family: Araneidae); Eeucauge decorata ,

Nephila maculata , Tetragnatha ceylonica , T. andamanensis

(Family: Tetragnathidae); Perenethis unifasciata , Polyboea

vulpine (Family: Pisauridae); Dipoena ruedai (Family:

Theridiidae). A small fraction of species like Araneus nympho.

Eriovixia laglaizei, Gasteracantha hasseltti (Family:

Araneidae); Nephila maculata (Family: Tetragnathidae); show

Palaearctic affinities.

DISCUSSION

The spider fauna of Parambikulam is rich and

diversified. Of about 1,066 species reported from India

(Tikader 1987), 147 species were recorded from

Parambikulam. This high species diversity can be attributed

to the high diversity of plants (1,300 species) and insects

( 1 ,000 species) Sudheendrakumar et al. (2000). A high floral

diversity sustains a high faunal diversity of invertebrates. The

complex interaction of climatic factors like high rainfall and

humidity with topographical features creates many small

environmental niches within evergreen forests, semi-

evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous

forests, grasslands, bamboo areas and vayals (marshy areas).

This makes Parambikulam an important centre of speciation

in the Western Ghats.

Faunal similarity with other regions is also striking. Artema

atlanta (Family: Pholcidae); Argyrodes xiphias,

A. andamanensis, Achaearanea diglipuriensis (Family:

Theridiidae); Tetragnatha andamanensis, Nephila maculata

(Family: Tetragnathidae); Hersilia savigyni (Family: Hersilidae);

Pardosa sumatrana (Family: Lycosidae); Myrmarachne

plateleoides (Family: Salticidae) are also found in the spider

fauna of Andaman and Nicobar islands (Tikader 1 977). Theridion

manjithar, Argyrodes gazedes, Theridula angula (Family:

Theridiidae); Cyrtophora bidenta, Cyclosa insulana,

Gasteracantha hasseltii (Family: Araneidae); Eeucauge

decorata, L. tesellata, L. pondae, Nephila maculata (Family:

Tetragnathidae); Oxyopes shweta (Family: Oxyopidae) are

species represented in the spider fauna of Sikkim (Tikader 1970).

Species like Artema atlanta, Crossopriza lyoni (Family:

Pholcidae); Parawixia dehaanii, Cylosa insulana , Eriovixia

poonaensis, Neoscona rumphi, Gasteracantha haselltii, Argiope

pulchella (Family: Araneidae ); Nephila maculata, Nephila kuhli,

Tylorida ventralis, L. decorata (Family: Tetragnathidae); Pardosa

sumatrana (Family: Lycosidae); Phintella vittata, Telamonia

dimidiata (Family: Salticidae) are also found in Kolkata (Tikader

and Biswas 1981). Similarly, the collection of many South East

Asian species from here indicates the close faunal relationship

between the two regions. Gasteracantha hasseltii, Eriovixia

laglaizei, Parawixia dehaanii, Cyclosa bifida, C. insulana

(Family: Araneidae); Nephila maculata , Eeucauge decorata,

Tylorida ventralis (Family: Tetragnathidae); Argyrodes flagellum

(Family: Theridiidae); Crossoprioza lyoni (Family: Pholcidae);

Polyboea vulpina, Perenethis unifasciata (Family: Pisauridae);

Hyllus diardi, Phintella vittata, Telamonia dimidiata (Family:

Salticidae) are reported by Joseph Koh (1989) from Singapore.

Tetragnatha ceylonica, T. vermiformis, Nephila maculata,

Eeucauge decorata, Opadometa fasti gata (Family:

Tetragnathidae); Dipoena ruedai (Family: Theridiidae);

Perenethis unifasciata (Family: Pisauridae) Hersilia savigyni

(Family: Hersilidae) are reported by Barrion and Litsinger ( 1995)

from the Philippines.

Another feature of the spider fauna of Parambikulam

is the occurrence of higher species and generic diversity in

moist deciduous forests compared with evergreen forests.

268

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STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Web-building families like Araneidae, Tetragnathidae,

Psechridae, Theridiidae are more common in moist deciduous

forests. We attribute this to the presence of rich undergrowth

in moist deciduous forests, where spiders can construct webs,

whereas absence of rich undergrowth in evergreen forests

reduces the foliage area for web construction. The rich litter-

covered surface in evergreen forests increases the abundance

of ground dwelling spiders of families like Ctenidae,

Pisauridae and Lycosidae. The paucity of spiders in the

understorey of Evergreen forests may be due to their migration

to the canopy. Since spiders are predators, they reside chiefly

among foliage and flowers that attract flying insects. In

evergreen forests, foliage and flowers of tall trees occur in

the upper storey. No attempts were made to evaluate the spider

fauna of canopies during the present study.

Parambikulam holds many endemic and rare species, like

Poecilotheria striata , an arboreal mygalomorph spider that lives

in the holes in the bark of tall trees. There are some unconfirmed

reports that these spiders are now illegally trafficked out of the

country in good numbers because of the growing demand by

the pet trade to the West (Anon. 2000). Besides this, their

specialized habitat is vulnerable to deforestation and logging.

Table 1: List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study

Scientific name Habitat Status Distribution

Ground dwelling mygalomorphs like Haploclastus kayi ,

Plesiophrictus sp., Thigmopoeus sp., Chilobrachys sp. may be

destroyed by soil erosion or flooding. Conservation of natural

habitats is essential for the survival of many species as well as

adoption of appropriate conservation strategies for effectively

safeguarding genetic diversity.

Although the widely distributed spiders are more

numerous in Parambikulam, the characteristic faunal element

is the high number (45) of endemic species, whose faunistic

composition reflects the local character of the fauna. Many

of the species are not reported from any region in India other

than Kerala. This phenomenon can be explained by the

relative isolation of Western Ghats provided by mountains in

the East and the Arabian Sea in the West. The Western Ghats

thus appear to represent a major centre of speciation in Asia.

Holloway et al. (1992) observed that conversion of forest to

plantation and other man-induced disturbances lead to

reduction in the diversity of invertebrates, both in species

richness and in the taxonomic and biogoeographic quality.

Teak plantations should therefore be replaced, in the sanctuary,

with natural forest, and top priority must be given to the

conservation of its rich diversity.

Table 1 : List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study ( contd .)

Scientific name Habitat Status Distribution

Lucas, 1836

Tikader, 1970

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

269

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1: List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study ( contd .)

Gravely, 1921

Table 1 : List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study (contd.)

270

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1: List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study (contd.)

Table 1: List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study (contd.)

Scientific name Habitat Status Distribution

Family: Oxyopidae

1 02. Oxyopes ashae Gajbe, 1 999

103. Oxyopes birmanicus

Thorell, 1887

104. Oxyopes shweta

Tikader, 1970

105. Oxyopes sp. 1

106. Peucetia viridana

(Stoliczka, 1877)

Family: Stenochilidae

107. Stenochilus hobsoni

O P Cambridge, 1870

Family: Psechridae

108. Psechrus alticeps

(Pocock, 1899)

Family: Ctenidae

109. Ctenus indicus

Gravely, 1931

110. Ctenus sp. 1

111 . Ctenus sp. 2

112. Ctenus cochinensis

Gravely, 1931

113. Acanthies indicus

Gravely, 1931

Family: Clubiuonidae

114. Cheiracanthium sp .

115. Oedignatha microscuiata

Reimoser, 1934

116. Oedignatha carli

Reimoser, 1934

Family: Corinnidae

117. Castineira sp.

Family: Prodidomidae

118. Zimins sp.

Family: Sparrassidae

119. Heteropoda leprosa

Simon, 1884

120. Heteropoda sp.

121. Palystes f la vidus

Simon, 1897

122. Thelcticopis sp.

Family: Thomisidae

123. Camaricus khandalaensis

Tikader, 1980

124. Misumena decorata

Tikader, 1963

125. Misumena silvery i

Tikader, 1965

126. Misumena sp.

E R IND

M C IND; CHN, SUM

M C IND: SI; TAW

M C

M R IND: TN, WB, KL;

SLK

M R IND: TN, AP, MH,

RJ

M, E C IND: KL

E C IND: KL

E R IND: UT

E R

IND: PBKL

E R

IND: PBKL

E R

M R

M, E C IND; MAL; MYN

M C

M R IND: TN, OR, WB,

UP

M R

M R IND: MH

M R IND: KR

M R IND: MH

M R

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

271

STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1 : List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife Table 1 : List of spiders collected from Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary during the study (contd.) Sanctuary during the study (contd.)

Abbreviations used in the table: AUS = Australia, BGL = Bangladesh, BHT = Bhutan, CHN = China, COS = Cosmopolitan, EAS = Eastern

Asia, HIM = Himalaya, IDA = Indonesia, IND = India, JAP = Japan, KRK = Krakatau, MAL = Malaysia, MLC = Molucos, MLD = Maldives,

MYN = Myanmar, NEB = New Britain, NEC = New Caledonia, NEG = New Guinea, NEH = New Hebrides, NEP = Nepal, PAK = Pakistan,

PAL = Paleotropical, PAN = Pan tropical, PHL = Philippines, QSL = Queensland, SAF = South Africa, SGP = Singapore, SLK = Sri Lanka,

SLW = Sulawesi, SUM = Sumatra, TAW = Taiwan, THL = Thailand, VET = Vietnam; AN = Andaman & Nicobar Islands, AS = Assam,

Bl = Bihar, GJ = Gujarat, KL= Kerala, KR = Karnataka, LD = Lakshadweep, MG = Meghalaya, MH = Maharashtra, MP = Madhya Pradesh,

OR = Orissa, RJ = Rajasthan, SI = Sikkim, TN = Tamil Nadu, UP = Uttar Pradesh, UT = Uttarakhand, WB = West Bengal; R = Rare,

C = Common; M = Moist Deciduous forest, E = Evergreen forest; PBKL = Parambikulam.

Small dash indicates that the species was not collected during the present study, but has been previously reported from Parambikulam.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Dr. B.K. Biswas, Scientist D,

Arachnology Division, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata

for confirming the identities of many specimens, to

Dr. Andrew Smith (British Museum) for identifying

Theraphosids, to Dr. B.H. Patel (Former Head, Department

of Zoology, Bhavnagar University, Gujarat) for his

encouragement during our fieldwork. Sincere thanks to

Mr. Pugazhendi, DCF & Wildlife Warden, for permitting the

study. Help rendered by Mr. Thomas Nelson and other forest

personnel is gratefully acknowledged. Field facilities provided

by Zoo Outreach Organization as a part of their Tarantula

Workshop are acknowledged.

REFERENCES

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Wildlife Service, International Affairs.

Barrion, L.T. & A.J. Litsinger( 1995): Riceland spiders of south and

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Indian Mits. 11(3): 257-287.

Gravely, F.H. (1921a): Some Indian spiders of the subfamily

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Gravely, F.H. (1921b): The spiders and scorpions of Barkuda island.

Rec. Indian Mus. 22(4): 399-422.

Gravely, F.H. (1924): Some Indian spiders of the Family Lycosidae.

Rec. Indian Mus. 26: 587-613.

Gravely, F.H. (1931): Some Indian spiders of the families Ctenidae,

Sparassidae, Selenopidae and Clubionidae. Rec. Indian Mus.

33(3): 211-282.

Gravely, F.H. (1935): Notes on Indian Mygalomorph Spiders, II. Rec.

Indian Mus. 37(1): 69-84.

HtRST, S. (1909): On some new or little known Mygalomorph spiders

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Holloway, J.D. (1974): Ecology and Biogeography of India.

In: Mani, M.S. (Ed.) Junk den Haag. 771 pp.

Holloway, J.D., A.H. Kirk-Spriggs & C. Y. Khen (1992): The response

of some rain forest insect groups to logging and conversion to

plantation. Phil. Trans. Royal. Soc. Lond. (B) 335: 425-436.

Koh, J.K.H. (1989): A Guide to Common Singapore Spiders. Malaysian

Nature Society, Singapore. 1-160 pp.

Majumder, S.C. & B.K. Tikader (1991): Spiders of the Family

Clubionidae. Rec. Indian. Mus. 102: 1-172.

Ovtsharenko, V.I., V.A. Tanasevitch & K.M. Catley (2001 ): A key to

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STUDIES ON SPIDER DIVERSITY IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Spiders of black Rock Forest. American Mus. Nat. Hist.,

New York, Web Document, http://research.amnh.org/

entomology/blackrock2/key. htm.

Patel, B.H. (2003): A preliminary list of spiders with descriptions of

three new species from Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kerala. Zoos Print J. 18: 1207-1212.

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http://research.amnh.org/entomology/spiders/catalog.

Pocock, R.I. ( 1900): The Fauna of British India, Arachnida. Taylor and

Francis, London. 272 pp.

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Arachnology. Part I. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 9(4): 220-253.

Sherriffs, W.R. (1927): A Contribution to the study of South Indian

Arachnology. Part II. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 9(19): 533-542.

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Survey of India (Indian Museum) with critical notes on the

species. Rec. Indian Mus. 48(2): 9-52.

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Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2): 193-201.

Tikader, B.K. (1970): Spider fauna of Sikkim. Rec. zool. Surv. India.

64(1-4): 1-84.

Tikader, B.K. (1977): Studies on Spider fauna of Andaman & Nicobar

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Tikader, B.K. (1980): Fauna of India, Araneae (Thomisidae &

Lycosidae). Rec. zool. Surv. India 1(1-2): 1-448.

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Ganphosidae). Rec. zool. Surv. India. 2(1-2): 1-533.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

274-278

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND

THE BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY, SRI LANKA

A.D. Ilangakoon1

'Member Cetacean Specialist Group of IUCN Species Survival Commission, 215 Grandburg Place, Maharagama, Sri Lanka.

Email: [email protected]

The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary, off north-western Sri Lanka, and its adjacent waters were suspected to be an important

Cetacean habitat, but a dedicated survey had never been undertaken. Therefore, a one-year survey was carried out

from April 2004 to May 2005 to fill the vacuum of knowledge on Cetacean species of the area, and to gather baseline

data for management and conservation. Surveys were carried out twice every month. Thirty three sightings of eight

cetacean species were documented. The species recorded were Balaenoptera acutorostrata, Balaenoptera musculus,

Physeter macrocephalus , Kogia sima, Peponocephala electra, Stenellci longirostris, Tursiops truncatus and Sousa

chinensis. The first confirmed sighting of S. chinensis in Sri Lanka’s waters was recorded while K. sima and P. electra

were sighted off the west coast for the first time. The northern and central parts of the Sanctuary can be termed as

’cetacean hotspots’ due to high species richness and year-round abundance. Baseline data from this survey can be used

immediately for management purpose, though further research is recommended. S. chinensis needs special consideration

as the newly discovered population is heavily dependent on the Puttalam Lagoon which is under intense human use,

making these dolphins vulnerable to a multiplicity of anthropogenic threats.

Key words: Cetacean, species richness, relative abundance, Sousa chinensis, Kogia sima , Peponocephala electra ,

Sri Lanka

INTRODUCTION

The Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary (BRMS) is one of

the few marine protected areas in the waters off the northern

Indian Ocean island of Sri Lanka. This Sanctuary

is 306.7 sq. km in area and is located between 8° 16' 00"-

8° 32' 00" N and 79° 44' 00"-79° 46’ 70" E off the Kalpitiya

Peninsula on the north-western coast of Sri Lanka. It was

demarcated under the countries Fauna and Flora Protection

Ordinance in 1 992, and is divided into a buffer zone and core

area, within which varying degrees of human activity take

place (Rajasuriya et al. 1995).

The BRMS and its surrounding waters were suspected

to be important for cetaceans on the basis of opportunistic

observations and sporadic sightings in the area (Leatherwood

et al. 1984; Rajasuriya el al. 1995; Dayaratne et al. 1997;

Ilangakoon 2002). Though some information was available

for the area, a dedicated cetacean survey had never been

carried out in this marine sanctuary or its immediate

surroundings. Therefore, the waters within the BRMS, the

Puttalam Lagoon immediately adjacent to it, and the deeper

waters immediately seaward of it were selected as the study

area for the present survey. The water depth within the

Puttalam Lagoon varies from 1 to 5 m, while the waters within

the BRMS straddle the 20 m contour towards its western

boundary. Beyond the Sanctuary’s western boundary, the

depth increases rapidly, with the 20 m and 100 m contours

located in close proximity to each other.

The present survey was undertaken to fill the

information lacuna on cetacean fauna in and around BRMS.

The survey was designed with the primary objective of

gathering data on the species richness and relative abundance

of cetaceans occurring in the area. This was deemed

necessary in order to make informed management decisions

based on scientific data, which would lead to a long-term

conservation and rational management of important marine

fauna.

METHODOLOGY

Vessel-based cetacean sighting surveys were conducted

twice a month from April 2004 to March 2005. One survey

was done within the Sanctuary, using a 25-hp outboard engine-

powered fibreglass vessel and one offshore survey was done

seaward of the Sanctuary boundary using a larger 3.5 ton

motorised fishing boat. A pre-planned saw-tooth patterned

transect line was covered each month in order to maximise

the coverage area in the available time and resources.

Offshore surveys to look for cetaceans beyond the

seaward boundary of BRMS were conducted during all

months except in June 2004 when the survey had to be

abandoned half way through due to adverse weather

conditions. The Sanctuary survey was not conducted during

May, June and July as the weather was very rough. In all,

21 days were spent at sea actively searching for cetaceans

during the one-year survey period.

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY

The data on cetaceans encountered was recorded on a

standard data sheet with particular attention to position at

sighting, species identification, group size, presence of calves

and general behaviour. Other parameters such as

environmental conditions and associated fauna were also

recorded. Positions were recorded using a hand-held

GARMIN e-trex global positioning system; photographs were

taken once the cetaceans were approached.

RESULTS

The survey yielded a total of 33 sightings of eight

cetacean species. The eight species of cetaceans included two

species from Suborder Mysticeti, Family Balaenopteridae,

namely Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus and Minke Whale

Balaenoptera acutorostrata. The other six species belonged

to Suborder Odontoceti and included the Sperm Whale

Physeter macrocephalus of Family Physeteridae, Dwarf

Sperm Whale Kogia sima of Family Kogiidae, and Melon-

headed Whale Peponocephala electra , Indo-Pacific

Humpback Dolphin Sousa chinensis , Long-snouted Spinner

Dolphin Stenella longirostris and Common Bottlenose

Dolphin Tursiops truncatus all of Family Delphinidae.

Cetaceans were sighted in all months except June, when

the survey was abandoned midway due to bad weather

(Table 1). Species richness was high in February, April,

August, and September. Approximately 50% of the sightings

were within the BRMS (Fig. 2). Species richness was high

within the Sanctuary, with six of the eight species sighted at

least once. Most sightings were clustered around the western,

seaward boundary of the northern and central parts of the

Table 1 : Number of Cetacean sightings by month and species in and around the Bar Reef Marine Sanctuary

Month B. mus B. acu P. mac K. sim P. e/e T. tru S. Ion S. chi Total

Note: Complete species names in column headings of the above Table

B. mus = Balaenoptera musculus, B. acu = Balaenoptera acutorostrata, P mac = Physeter macrocephalus, K. sim = Kogia sima,

P. e/e = Peponocephala electra, T. tru = Tursiops truncatus, S. Ion = Stenella longirostris, S. chi = Sousa chinensis

35.0%

30.0%

25.0%

OS)

3 20.0% ■

a

S 15.0% ■

a>

a.

10.0% ■

5.0% ■

0.0%

vp A')5’ A* ^

AT # \«Y

* j* y / y

M2>

^ / /

r

0oT

Species

Fig. 1 : Relative abundance of Cetaceans (N=33 sightings)

There were three observers on board to look for

cetaceans. The observers rotated through three positions -

port observer, bow observer and starboard observer - at

30-minute intervals. The port and starboard observers

surveyed the area from the beam of the vessel to

approximately 10 degree from the bow, while the bow

observer surveyed the area directly ahead of the vessel in a

20 degree cone, and also acted as the data recorder. The survey

effort was made when the sea state was below Beaufort 4 and

visibility was good. When the sea state exceeded Beaufort 4

or heavy rain made visibility poor, the effort was suspended.

Cetaceans or cetacean groups encountered were approached

to a distance where species identification and group size

estimates were possible. A pair of 7x50 binoculars was used

to verify the distant sightings and determine species.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

275

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY

BRMS, with no sightings towards the southern boundary.

The most common cetacean encountered was Long-

snouted Spinner Dolphin Stenella longirostris (33.3%)

(Fig. 1). It also had the widest distribution and was recorded

throughout the central part of the BRMS and in deeper waters

seaward of the Sanctuary boundary. This species was also

sighted in very large schools during February, April,

August, and September, with some groups containing over

1,000 animals, including many juveniles. Sighting of the Indo-

Pacific Humpback Dolphin Sousa chinensis (30.0%) was

restricted to the Puttalam Lagoon and the north-western

extremity of the Sanctuary (Fig. 2). These are the first

scientifically documented sightings of this species in

Sri Lankan waters.

Minke Whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata , Sperm

Whale Physter macrocephalus and Common Bottlenose

Dolphin Tursiops truncatus accounted for 9.0% each of the

total recorded sightings. Minke Whale sightings were

clustered in a small area within the north-central part of the

BRMS (Fig. 2). Common Bottlenose Dolphin were sighted

from north to south along the seaward (western) boundary of

the Sanctuary, and Sperm Whale sightings were limited to

deep offshore areas beyond the seaward boundary of the

Sanctuary (Fig. 2).

Blue Whale, Dwarf-Sperm Whale, and Melon-headed

Whale were recorded only once (3.0%) each. While Dwarf-

Sperm Whale and Melon-headed Whale were sighted in deep

waters, the Blue Whale sighting was within the BRMS where

water depth ranges from shallow to moderate (Fig. 2).

DISCUSSION

Twenty-seven cetacean species have been recorded

from Sri Lanka's waters to-date (Ilangakoon 2002). The eight

species recorded in this survey account for about 30% of all

the species. It is noteworthy that a survey earned out over a

short period of one year, with 2 1 field days, recorded almost

30% of all species in the Sri Lankan waters within this small

survey area off the north-west coast.

The Long-snouted Spinner Dolphin was the most

common species of cetacean in this area. This agrees with

the other surveys conducted off Sri Lanka’s west, south and

east coasts in the 1980s and 1990s (Leatherwood etal. 1984;

Ailing 1986; Leatherwood and Reeves 1989; Ilangakoon et

al. 2000; Ilangakoon 2002). However, the very large schools

sighted during February, April, August, and September, often

in association with the Yellow-fin Tuna Thunnus albacares,

during the present survey have not been reported before.

While this dolphin species has been documented in Tuna-

Dolphin associations in other parts of the world, such as the

□ In the Sanctuary E3 Seaward of Sanctuary ■ In Lagoon

Fig. 2: Distribution of cetacean species in relation to sighting area

Eastern Tropical Pacific, the association with the Yellow-fin

Tuna in northern Indian Ocean has not been extensively

documented (Ilangakoon 2002). While Ilangakoon (2000)

mentions that some sightings during a 1994 study on the west

coast indicated an association between these two species, the

present survey shows a very strong association in which the

occurrence of large schools of this dolphin coincides with

the Tuna fishing season during September-October. Tuna

fishermen in the BRMS study area were aware of this and

actually looked for dolphins to find the Tuna. Despite

containing many juveniles, these dolphin schools interacted

freely with the tuna fishing boats and our survey vessel,

bow-riding often and showing no fear.

Although the Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin

accounted for 30% sighting during the present survey, the

occurrence of this species has never before been documented

in any part of Sri Lanka’s waters. Although the species was

known to be present around the west coast, based on two

museum specimens collected in the 1880s and 1934

respectively (Blanford 1891 ; Deraniyagala 1945; Ilangakoon

2002) and a possible unconfirmed sighting from an aerial

survey for dugongs in the early 1980s around Dutch Bay in

the Puttalam Lagoon (Leatherwood et al. 1984), there have

been no confirmed sightings of the Indo-Pacific Humpback

Dolphin till the present survey. It is possible that the species

is common only off the north-west coast of Sri Lanka

including the shallow Puttalam Lagoon, and was never

properly documented due to the lack of dedicated previous

cetacean surveys in the area. This is substantiated by the fact

that the skull collected in 1891 was from the Gulf of Mannar

off north-west Sri Lanka and the unconfirmed sighting in the

1980s was also in the Puttalam Lagoon.

The Minke Whale accounted for 9% of the sightings in

the present survey, but this species has not been commonly

sighted during the surveys of other parts of Sri Lanka.

Leatherwood et al. (1984) reported a single sighting off the

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CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY

east coast, and Ilangakoon (2002) reported one sighting off

the west coast and another off the north-west coast near

Thalawila, just south of the present study area. Accordingly,

the present results in conjunction with the previous

observation by Ilangakoon (2002) indicate that the waters in

and around the BRMS may be an important habitat for this

species in Sri Lanka.

The Sperm Whale and the Common Bottlenose Dolphin

also accounted for 9% each of the total number of sightings

recorded in the present study. Several studies and surveys off

Sri Lanka have reported that the Sperm Whales are common

in deeper waters all around the islands and this has been

particularly well-documented off the east coast (Ailing et al.

1982; Whitehead et al. 1983; Leatherwood et al. 1984;

Ilangakoon 2002). While Ilangakoon (2002) reported previous

sightings off the north-west coast, more recently the Ocean

Alliance research vessel R/V Odyssey reported large numbers

in the deeper waters of the Gulf of Mannar off north-western

Sri Lanka (Ocean Alliance 2003). The Common Bottlenose

Dolphin was not as numerous or common in the present study

area as has been reported for other areas off Sri Lanka. The

species has been reported as being commonly sighted off the

east coast (Ailing 1986) and off the south and west coasts

(Ilangakoon et al. 2000; Ilangakoon 2002). The present data

is not sufficient to offer an explanation for the Common

Bottlenose Dolphin being less common in the study area, but

sightings along the seaward boundary of the BRMS, where

there is a change in water depth, indicate that this may be a

preferred feeding area for the species.

The Blue Whale, Dwarf-Sperm Whale and Melon-

headed Whale were not commonly seen but were recorded

only once each during this survey. However, the Blue Whale

is common around Sri Lanka, especially off the east, south

and west coasts (Ilangakoon 2002). It is of interest to note

that the Blue Whale sighting during the present survey was

within the BRMS in moderately shallow waters and not in

the deeper waters beyond as would be expected. However, as

stated by Ilangakoon (2002), the species has previously been

sighted in near-shore continental shelf waters in other areas

off the west coast of Sri Lanka. Both the Dwarf-Sperm Whale

and the Melon-headed Whale are not commonly sighted

species anywhere in Sri Lanka’s waters, but have been

frequently recorded in the fisheries by catch around the island

(Leatherwood and Reeves 1989; Ilangakoon 1997, 2000;

Ilangakoon et al. 2000). While there have been no previous

sightings of either species off the west coast of the island.

Ailing ( 1986) reported a single sighting of the Dwarf-Sperm

Whale from the east coast. A possible, but unconfirmed,

sighting of the Melon-headed Whale was also previously

reported from the north-east coast (Leatherwood et al. 1984).

During the present survey both these species were encountered

in deeper offshore waters beyond the BRMS, and sightings

of both species were recorded off the west coast for the very

first time.

To conclude, the survey succeeded in filling the lacunae

on information on cetacean species richness and relative

abundance in this area and added new knowledge on the

distribution of the cetaceans in Sri Lanka’s waters as a whole

by documenting one species never sighted previously and

two others that had not been sighted off the west coast of

the island. While the entire study area off north-western

Sri Lanka has a rich cetacean diversity, it is suggested that

the area from the northern boundary of the BRMS to its

central section be considered a ‘cetacean hotspot’ due to the

high species richness and numerous sightings made

throughout the year. This should also be taken into

consideration while planning future conservation and

management strategies for the BRMS, and ideally the core

area should be extended in order to provide better protection

to these cetaceans. The role of the Puttalam Lagoon in

providing an essential habitat to the newly discovered

population of the Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin should

be investigated. Since this population was only discovered

through the present survey, more detailed studies are needed

to ensure its long-term survival through management

measures based on sound scientific data. This is urgent and

extremely important because the Puttalam Lagoon is under

intensive human use posing a multiplicity of anthropogenic

threats to these dolphins. Finally, it should be noted that the

data from this survey have only provided a baseline upon

which further studies could be undertaken on the cetacean

fauna of the area. While these baseline data can be used

immediately for management purposes more detailed studies

are recommended as the area appears to provide a habitat

for globally threatened species, such as Blue Whale and

Sperm Whale.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Financial support for this survey was provided by

the Asian Development Bank and the Government of the

Netherlands, through the Coastal Resources Management

Project of the Coast Conservation Department in Sri Lanka.

I thank Koen Broker and Ramani iayewardene who

were involved with the field work throughout the project,

all others who participated in surveys and the Coastal

Resources Management Project staff for providing

invaluable logistical support and assistance during the

project.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

277

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND BAR REEF MARINE SANCTUARY

REFERENCES

Alling, A., J. Gordon, N. Rotton & H. Whitehead (1982): WWF-

Netherlands Indian Ocean Sperm Whale Study, 1981-1982

interim Report. Zeist, Netherlands.

Alling, A. ( 1986): Records of Odontocetes in the northern Indian Ocean

(1981-1982) and off the coast of Sri Lanka (1982-1984).

J. Bombay Nat.Hist. Soc. 83(2): 376-394.

Blanford, W.T. (1891): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Taylor and Frances, London, UK. 617 pp.

Dayaratne, R, O. Linden & R. de Silva (1997): The Puttalam/Mundel

estuarine system and associated coastal waters Sri Lanka. NARA,

Colombo, Sri Lanka. 98 pp.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1945): Some Odontoceti from Ceylon. Spolia

Zeylanica 24(2): 1 12-120.

Ilangakoon, A. (1997): Species composition, seasonal variation, sex

ratio and body length of small Cetaceans caught off the west,

south-west and south coasts of Sri Lanka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 94(2): 298-306.

Ilangakoon, A.D., W.D. Ratnasooriya & S. Miththapala (2000):

Species diversity, seasonal variation and capture method of small

Cetaceans on the west coast of Sri Lanka. Vidyodaya Journal

of Science 9: 37-52.

Ilangakoon, A. (2002): Whales and Dolphins Sri Lanka. WHT

Publications Ltd., Colombo 8, Sri Lanka. 99 pp.

Leatherwood, S., C.B. Peters, M. Santerre & J.T. Clarke (1984):

Observations of marine mammals in the northern Indian Ocean

Sanctuary, 1979-1983. Report of the International Whaling

Commission 34: 509-520.

Leatherwood, S. & R.R. Reeves (1989): Marine Mammal Research

and Conservation in Sri Lanka 1985-1986. Marine Mammal

Technical Report No.l, UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya.

Ocean Alliance (2003): Voyage of the Odyssey Sri Lanka Regional

Report, 29th March to 17lh June, 2003. Ocean Alliance, USA.

14 pp.

Rajasuriya, A., M.W.R.N. de Silva & M.C. Ohman (1995): Coral reefs

of Sri Lanka: human disturbance and management issues. AMBIO

24(7-8): 428-437.

Whitehead, H., P. Gilliagan, C. Smythe, L. Weilgart & C. Converse

(1983): WWF/IUCN Indian Ocean Sperm Whale Project, Interim

Report Oct. -Dec. 1983. World Wildlife Fund, Zeist, Netherlands.

27 pp.

278

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

279-291

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE MACACA NEMESTRINA

LEONINA IN SOME FORESTS OF ASSAM IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Northern Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina leonina is among the poorly studied primates of South-east

Asia. Its ecology and behaviour in some rainforest pockets of Assam in north-eastern India are presented and discussed

here. The study period extended between 1986 and 2006, but detailed observations were carried out during 1992-94

and in 2004 with 290 hours of direct contact. This dense forest-dwelling macaque is largely arboreal. Resting including

roosting accounted for about 45% of their diurnal time. Feeding activity followed with 23.5%. Locomotion is a major

activity accounting for 17 to 19.4% of their diurnal time. The Pig-tailed Macaque’s diet included 65.9% fruits. During

feeding, occasionally a group may split into two subgroups for a short period. They live in multi-male and multi-

female groups. The group size ranged from 16 to 33. The sex ratio of the adults was 1 :5.5. Interactions within group

members and with other groups were largely peaceful. The home ranges were between 83 and 347 ha and the overlapping

was 25 to 48%. The range length in a day varied between 690 and 2,240 m. Estrous females were observed from

August to February. Newborns were observed from mid-January to early May. Females copulated with several males.

The time taken for each mounting bout ranged from 2 to 16 seconds and the number of thrusts given by the male

partner ranged from 3 to 23. The inter bout gap was 1 to 65 min. After copulation bouts, the male usually uttered a low

bark. The female normally groomed the male after a copulation bout. The male remained completely lifted while

copulating as his legs held those of the female. The gestation period was estimated to be 171-180 days.

Key words: Macaca nemestrina leonina , Northern Pig-tailed Macaque, Assam, ecology, social behaviour, feeding,

ranging, reproduction

INTRODUCTION

The Pig-tailed Macaque Macaca nemestrina Linnaeus,

1 766 is among the poorly studied primates of South-east Asia.

Because of their elusiveness and furtive behaviour in the wild,

their ecology and social behaviour are difficult to study

(Bernstein 1967; Caldecott 1986). It is widely distributed

throughout South-east Asia - in north-east India, south-west

China, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia,

Vietnam, Malaya, Mergui Archipelago, Sumatra, Bangka Island,

Pagai Island, Mentawai Islands and Borneo (Napier and Napier

1967; Yin 1967;Eudey 1987;Groves 1993, 200 RLeXuanCanh

etal. 1997; Duckworth et al. 1999; Choudhury 2003a).

In India, its distribution is restricted to the south of the

Brahmaputra river where it occurs in all the states (Choudhury

1988a, 1989, 2003a). Anon (1997) had erroneously reported

its occurrence to the north of the Brahmaputra. The Northern

Pig-tailed Macaque is found in the forests, both in the plains

and hills up to 2,000 m elevation (Choudhury 2003a). For

quite a long period, the distribution of leonina in India was

imperfectly known and vaguely referred to “eastern India

(probably some districts east of the Ganges)” (Pocock 1939),

and “Assam” (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977). Corbet and Hill

( 1 992) did not include north-east India as well as Bangladesh

within the range of this species although its occurrence has

been mentioned in Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951),

Choudhury (1988a, 1989, 1995a) and Khan (1981).

The subspecies found in north-east India is leonina

(Fooden 1975). The subspecies M./?. blythii Pocock, 1931: 305,

has been synonymised with leonina by Fooden ( 1975). Groves

(2001 ) proposed full specific treatment for this subspecies.

Till the mid 1980s, the scanty literature available for

leonina was restricted to publications by Pocock (1931, 1 939,

1941 ) and McCann ( 1933). General information is also found

in Blanford ( 1 888-91), Finn ( 1929), Prater (1948), Ellerman

and Morrison-Scott (1951), Gust et al. ( 1996), Napier and

Napier (1967), and Roonwal and Mohnot (1977). Some

studies were carried out since then in north-eastern India

(Mukherjee 1982;Tilson 1982; Choudhury 1983, 1988a,b,

1989, 1995a,b, 1996a,b, 2001, 2002, 2003a,b), and in

Bangladesh (Feeroz et al. 1994). A comprehensive account

on its distribution and status in India is found in

Choudhury (2003a) while its range in the region has also

been mapped in detail by Choudhury (2003a,b). Elsewhere,

the taxonomy and evolution of M. nemestrina have been

reviewed by Fooden (1975). The Southern Pig-tailed

Macaque M. nemestrina nemestrina, on the other hand, is

relatively better studied in the field in Malaya (McClure

1964; Bernstein 1967, 1969; Medway 1969) and Sumatra

(Oi 1990). Some other noteworthy publications are those of

Crockett and Wilson (1980) and Caldecott (1986).

The ecology and behaviour of the Northern Pig-tailed

Macaque as observed in the field are presented here in this

paper.

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

METHODS

Study area

Although the general survey covered the north-eastern

India, which comprises the states of Arunachal Pradesh,

Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura

(21° 58'-29° 27 N; 89° 42’-97° 24' E), the main observations

were made in some forests of Assam (Fig. 1). The location,

topography, vegetation and climate of these areas are given

in Table 1.

Between February 1986 and May 2006, 1 was able to

carry out field surveys in some potential habitats of the

Northern Pig-tailed Macaque in north-east India as a part of

a broader survey of wildlife. During 1992-94 and in 2004,

I carried out some detailed observations on Northern

Pig-tailed Macaque. While travelling widely in Assam,

Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, and Mizoram, I also visited

Nagaland, Manipur, and Tripura. In July 2006, 1 made a brief

visit to Thailand to observe the macaques for comparison of

their external characters and human imprint.

Field procedures

During field study, the presence or absence of the

macaque was ascertained by direct sighting, preserved skulls

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

in the tribal villages, and by interviewing local forest staff,

villagers and hunters with the help of visuals (photos and

drawings). Some of the skulls were identified at the Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata. For direct observation, foot-

transects and elephant-transects (using trained elephants)

along existing paths, newly cut paths and trails, vehicle-

transects along roads and motorable tracks, boat-transects

along nullahs and rivers were made. Total 290 hrs were spent

in direct observation of the macaques (133 hrs in Bherjan,

40 hrs in Borajan, 31 hrs in Nambor-Garampani, 20 hrs in

Podumoni, 13 hrs in Upper Dihing west block and 53 hrs

elsewhere). Dense vegetation and elusiveness of the macaques

were the main constraints in the field (for e.g., total time spent

in a tiny forest such as Bherjan with 105.5 ha was 360 hrs;

however, the macaques were in direct contact for only

133 hrs).

Detailed observations were made in select localities

depending upon visibility, relative abundance and less

shyness of the macaques. Daily activity budget was recorded

by scan sampling at intervals of 5 mins (against 1 0 min interval

of Martin and Bateson 1993) for greater details; however,

any interesting behaviour and changes in activity in between

was also recorded, from dawn to dusk. The home ranges

were calculated from 1:50,000 scale maps enlarged

photographically to about 1 :20,000. All the sighting localities

of a particular group observed at different times of the year

were plotted on the map. The daily range is the distance

covered by a group during its daily activity patterns

while the home range was determined here by closed traverse

made by joining the outermost traces of movement of a

group during the period of observation (more than a year in

the groups considered here). A closed traverse (polygon),

made up of all the sites, was considered as the home range.

The area of the home ranges was calculated by superimposing

a scaled grid ( 1 .25 ha per grid). The daily range was calculated

by measuring the ground distance covered by a group from

morning to evening. The data on food items were collected

across groups and study areas, and not necessarily confined

to the study groups. The proportion of feeding on fruits

and other items was calculated on the basis of time spent

on feeding on those items. Herbarium sheets were prepared

for the food species, which could not be identified in

the field. These were then identified at the Botanical

Survey of India, Shillong. The book by Kanjilal et at. (1938)

also helped identify some of the common species. For

analysing the species diversity of vegetarian food items

(Fig. 3b), a tree species providing two types of food

items such as leaf and fruit, has been counted twice, once

each under the category ‘leaf’ and ‘fruit’ to have a logical

visual presentation in a diagram. Observations were done

with the help of naked eye, a pair of binoculars, a 10 x 50

telescope and a 10 x 46 monocular. Photographs were taken

with a Canon T50 camera with 200 mm tele and a Nikon

FM2.

Table 1: Detailed features of the field study sites

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Time budget of a female Pig-tailed Macaque Time budget of an alpha male

in estrous, Bherjan Pig-tailed Macaque in Bherjan

Fig. 2: Daily activity patterns in Pig-tailed Macaques

RESULTS

Fig. 3a: Proportion of food items of Pig-tailed Macaque

The Northern Pig-tailed Macaque is among the most

arboreal of the macaques found in north-east India. They come

down to the ground for crossing clearings and also for

foraging, especially in degraded areas. Of the total 1 33 hrs of

observation in Bherjan, the macaques were observed for only

120 mins on the ground (mostly lone males; once a female

with infant, and two immatures). The group may not come to

the ground at all for many days in forests with relatively good

canopy cover (e.g., Bherjan). However, in the nearby Borajan,

where the canopy was broken, the macaques were frequently

observed on the ground, crossing roads and clear-felled

patches.

Daily activity pattern

Northern Pig-tailed Macaques become active just after

dawn. The daily time budget of two groups in Bherjan showed

an activity pattern with three peaks of feeding, and a long

midday rest. There was a shorter spell of resting around mid-

morning and late afternoon. In winter, most macaques went

for basking in sun, and the mid-morning rest was often utilised

for this activity. Resting including roosting (till dusk)

accounted for about 45% of their diurnal time; feeding activity

followed with 23.5%. In August, in Bherjan forests, three

important feeding periods were from 0610 to 0640 hrs,

0900 to 0940 hrs and again from 1 230 to 1400 hrs. In January

in Borajan forests, the three important feeding periods of the

crop-raiding group were from 0615 to 0650 hrs (in forest),

0800 to 0950 hrs and again from 1225 to 1405 hrs (both in

the harvested paddy field).

The copulating alpha male of the Eastern Group in

Bherjan spent as much as 54.4% of the diurnal time in resting

and 19% feeding. During mating time, the alpha male and an

Others

estrous females respectively spent as much as 33.7% and

56.5% in copulation, and its related activities such as post-

copulation grooming and resting between repeated

copulations. It was more in case of the female as two males

had copulated with it (Fig. 2).

Locomotion

Northern Pig-tailed Macaques were observed using

both arboreal and terrestrial paths. They travel quadrupedally

both on the ground and through trees. Occasionally they stand

up on their hind legs to see any intruder. The crop raiding

groups at Borajan forests were observed doing so while

feeding on the ground. In closed canopy forest, they usually

travel through trees leaping or jumping when the distance is

not within reach, and walking on all fours on tree trunks. In

broken habitat, they did not hesitate to come down to the

ground and walked across. They jumped from tree to tree,

bending and breaking branches under their weight. The groups

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

usually travel in single-file through trees, shrubs or bamboos,

and each individual may pass along the same route or the

same branches as the preceding ones (observed repeatedly in

Bherjan forests). In the Western Group at Bherjan, the alpha

male moved first followed by juveniles, subadults, other adults

and lastly the females with infants. They communicate by

uttering pno,pno, etc., while travelling. They may also travel

in small subgroups, foraging as they move and keeping in

contact with other subgroups through vocalizations pno, po.

Locomotion in Northern Pig-tailed Macaques

accounted for 17 to 19.4% of their diurnal time (feeding and

resting for short stints during locomotion have been included

in those activities).

Food and feeding

Northern Pig-tailed Macaques were observed feeding

on fruits, seeds, mature and tender leaves, leaf buds, leaf

petioles, stems, climbers, roots, flowers, flower-buds,

inflorescence, bamboo shoots, as well as gums, insects and

larvae, termite eggs and spiders. They also take some earth

occasionally (may be for minerals). At a few places, they

raid crops for grain, fruits and vegetables. The dominance of

fruits in its diet was very conspicuous whether it is number

of species involved or the time spent on it. In the study groups

of Bherjan forests, fruit comprised 65.9% of the macaque’s

diet (Fig. 3a). The Northern Pig-tailed Macaque eats more

than 91 kinds of plants, many of which could not be identified.

The different types of fruits, flowers and other items are shown

in Fig. 3b. Appendix 1 lists the plant species with parts eaten.

Fruits were eaten either partially (e.g., Lcigerstroemici

flosreginae, Artocarpus chaplasha ) or wholly (e.g., Sapium

baccatum). In case of latter, they usually break the twigs with

a large number of fruits (bunches) and actually consuming

partially, thus wasting many. Flowers were eaten completely

but in some cases only selected parts were consumed. It also

licked from the branches for insects and larvae. Insects were

also picked up from leaves and spider’s web. Spiders were

taken both from tree branches as well as webs. The only root

taken was that of an epiphytic orchid while the tender tops of

two unidentified climbers were also taken. Northern Pig-tailed

Macaques feed on small leaves and figs by pulling branches

towards them, and then plucking them directly off the

branches. To remove a number of smaller leaves at a time,

the macaque holds the twig in one hand, and with a single

sweep of the other hand, takes off all the leaves. Larger leaves,

fruits and flowers are pulled off the branches with either of

the hands, and then eaten. Often the macaques were seen

carrying a twig with fruits and taken to a comfortable branch

for feeding. During feeding, occasionally a group may split

into two subgroups for a short period. It spends nearly one

fourth of the diurnal time in feeding (23.5% in August).

A group in Borajan spent 32.9% of their diurnal time on

feeding, mostly in the harvested paddy fields. The feeding

time ranged from 158 to 229 minutes in a day. It has three

peaks of feeding (for details of feeding periods, see ‘daily

activity pattern’).

While feeding, the members of a group were loosely

dispersed over a sizeable area and were observed to even

split up into two subgroups. The maximum distance observed

between two extreme individuals of foraging subgroup was

about 150 m (Bherjan forests, August 21, 1992).

Social organization

Northern Pig-tailed Macaques have a multimale-

multifemale social system. The normal group size varied from

16 to 33 (n=7). These were the groups where exact counting

was possible and were repeatedly counted for several days.

In most cases, exact counting was difficult due to dense forest.

Table 2: Group size and composition in Pig-tailed macaque

NB: At least another 1 5 groups in Innerline RF, Dhansiri RF, Upper Dihing (west block) RF, Dum Duma RF, Kumsong RF and Patharia

Hill RF were recorded to have 20+ macaques but details are lacking

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Hence, only seven groups were considered although partial

count was possible for another six while many sightings were

recorded when only partial count was possible. Single adult

males have also been encountered in the forest. Table 2 lists

the group size and composition of some troops where count /

estimate were possible. The mean of seven groups was 23.3.

In at least another 1 5 groups, the size was >20.

Six smaller groups were also encountered with size

varying from 5 to 12 with a mean of 7.2 (Table 2), but detailed

observation of 22 groups indicated that these were in all

probability subgroups, formed temporarily for foraging. The

proportion of adult females was 40.5% against 7.4% males.

The sex ratio of the adults was 1 :5.5.

Social behaviour

(i) Mother-infant relationship: Mother-infant

relationship in Northern Pig-tailed Macaques is intimate.

Mothers protect their infants from other group members and

sympatric species. Until it is about a month old, the mother

rarely broke contact with the infant. Then the infant began to

leave the mother and explore the surroundings within a metre

or so. The infant began to move out 2-4 m away by about

2 months of age. The infant also started foraging, however,

still maintaining close contact with the mother. When about

a year old, the infant (could be termed as juvenile) spent most

of the time moving along with the group, only to return to its

mother during resting and night roosting. Infant grooming

by mother was common, especially during the midday resting

period. The infant's vocalisation consisted mostly of squealing

and screaming, usually when left alone by mother or

inadvertently threatened by an adult or subadult. Adult males

were observed to be rather indifferent to the infants.

(ii) Play: Play behaviour was observed mostly in

infants and juveniles, and only occasionally in subadults. They

indulged in play during morning resting, and during and after

the midday resting period. Infants sometimes played with their

mother. Friendly wrestling bouts among juveniles and

subadults and short-distance chases were among the common

plays. Some subadult and juveniles also mock mate as a part

of play. The younger macaques spent maximum time of their

total social behaviour in play. Infants and juveniles were

observed to spend more time playing followed by subadults.

Virtually no play was observed among the adults. Self-play

was also observed among the juveniles and infants. Once a

subadult female teased an infant by touching it and making

frightening gesture, the infant screamed. The mother then

chased the subadult.

(iii) Agonistic behaviour: This occurred infrequently

and usually involved momentary squabbles over food between

adult females, subadult males or both. However, aggressive

threats and chasing of adult and subadult males by the alpha

male was observed, especially when any female was in

estrous. The other males were observed to submit without

actually coming into conflict. No rigid dominance hierarchy

was observed among the adult females of a group.

(iv) Grooming: Grooming was one of the major

activities of social behaviour, with each grooming bout lasting

from a few seconds to more than 60 mins, which forms nearly

6 to 8% of the total activity period. Males busy in copulation

groomed less (3.5% of the total activity period). Grooming

was usually done with one or both hands. Grooming took

place between individuals of all age/sex classes, except infants

who mostly received. During grooming, extraneous matters

were removed by hands or with the mouth. The groomed

individual sits relaxed often with the eyes closed. After mating,

the female usually groomed the male. Grooming, except when

performed after mating, was usually done during the midday

resting period and late in the afternoon. Self grooming of

tail, abdomen, limbs and genital portions (by male only) were

also observed. The estrous females were groomed in their

genital portion by adult males. Scratching of the body was

done with hands and feet.

(v) Interaction within group members: Adult males

were dominant over adult females while in the multimale

groups, the alpha male was dominant over other males.

Although in multiple male groups, the males coexisted

peacefully, there was a linear dominance hierarchy, which

was conspicuous in a group during sexual cycle. After an

alpha male completed its copulation bouts and left for resting

a little distance away, the second male came and copulated

several times. Then a third adult male approached only to be

chased away by the second male. On a few occasions, subadult

males were seen copulating when the adult males were not

around. The second adult male of Eastern Group in Bherjan

once observed mock mounting the alpha male after latter

stared at him following his copulation with a female in estrous.

On a few occasions, the alpha male had copulation bouts when

the second male was sitting close by (only a metre away).

Two infants, which were earned by their mothers, but

which also foraged (less than a year old) had begged two

adult females (not their mothers) for Anthocephalus cadamba

fruits. The adults complied with, then both the infants left

with fruits in their hand (Bherjan forests; July 30, 1992).

Juveniles often curiously observed copulation bouts.

(vi) Interaction with other groups: On the whole,

relations between Northern Pig-tailed Macaque groups were

peaceful and actual fights were not seen. Two groups

peacefully feeding within 60 to 100 m have been observed

repeatedly in Bherjan and Borajan. In fact, their respective

home ranges overlapped in the study sites. However,

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

occasional exchange of visual and vocal displays with chasing,

usually by subordinate males, took place. Shaking of tree

branches by the adult males was also observed. Two groups

were observed on many occasions foraging and even

copulating within 60 m with no agonism.

(vii) Interactions between groups and solitary male:

Direct interaction between a solitary male and a troop was

observed only once in Nambor Wildlife Sanctuary on March

02, 1992. A solitary male had approached a group feeding on

sugarcane near the highway, when two adults, a male (not

the alpha) and a female chased it to a tree with less foliage.

Then they forced it to move to another tree with dense foliage

while they remained in the tree with less foliage. When the

solitary male again tried to come to the tree with less foliage,

they again chased him by jumping to the tree with foliage.

That time the solitary male had to flee from the scene. While

chasing, the male was ahead of the female. Then the female

groomed the male for about 3 mins in the tree with foliage.

The pair was also observed copulating. After about 10 mins,

the alpha male among the group that was feeding on sugarcane

near the highway was silent when the earlier confrontation

took place growled hrrr-hrrr and rushed towards the couple/

site of confrontation. The macaques were not visible due to

dense vegetation and further developments could not be

observed. At about 1600 hrs, the lone male was visible but at

about 400 m away from the main group, and was moving

about on the ground.

Reproduction and sexual behaviour

In Bherjan forests, several females in estrous were

observed from August to early December, and in Nambor till

February.

When the female was ready to mate, the hairless area

of her buttocks swelled up and turned red. During that period,

copulation was a major activity for the adult males and females

in estrous. Newborns were observed from mid-January to

early May. The Northern Pig-tailed Macaque gave birth to a

single offspring. For copulation, females were observed

soliciting males by presenting their rump after approaching

them from behind and standing in front of males mostly

without any hint. On a few occasions the males were seen

touching the rump of sitting or foraging females when the

latter stood up and presented often looking back over one

shoulder. Sometimes the female may run away also. Once

after nine copulation bouts, the female ran away but the male

followed it and mounted for another nine bouts.

A female was observed copulating with two adult males

of the group, one in the forenoon another in the afternoon.

With first (alpha male), she had seven copulations while with

the second nine. A third male also tried to copulate but was

Fig. 4: Map of Bherjan forests and adjacent areas showing the

home range of two Pig-tailed Macaque groups

chased away by the 2nd. However, on another day, a subadult

took the opportunity of absence of adult males and copulated.

It has been recorded that the copulations took place between

0700 hrs and 1440hrs in Bherjan forests. The time taken for

each mounting bout ranged from 2 to 16 seconds and the

number of thrusts given by the male partner ranged from

3 to 23. A female was observed having copulation bouts for

20 days (from November 10 to 30, 1992; Bherjan forests).

In the Eastern Group in Bherjan, the alpha male was

observed having seven mounting bouts in the forenoon within

2 hr 23 mins. In between, once he refused to mount although

insisted by the female. In the afternoon, the 2nd male copulated

taking the advantage of absence of the alpha male, which

was resting some distance away. It had nine bouts within a

time span of just 20 mins. The gap between two bouts in

alpha male ranged from 2 to 65 mins (mean=20.4 mins) while

in case of second male 1 to 4 mins (mean=2.5 mins). On a

subsequent day, the alpha male had 1 6 copulation bouts within

a span of 30 mins, this time the inter-bout gap was 1 to

4 mins (mean= 1 .9 mins). After that he refused twice despite

presentation by the female.

The thrusts of the second male were relatively slower

and gentler than the alpha male. After each copulation, the

male in most cases uttered khek-khek or ghek-ghek or agh-

agh or kheh-kheh (just after dismounting). During

42 copulations, the male uttered these on 1 5 occasions. Post-

copulation grooming was observed on 21 occasions in

42 copulation bouts. Females were mostly silent except for

one young female that made low scream. While mounting,

the males may hold the thigh or waist of the female by one or

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

285

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

both arms. The male also remains completely lifted while

copulating as his legs hold those of the females. All the

copulation bouts in Bherjan forests were observed in trees, at

height ranged from 5 to 23 m. In Borajan, copulation on the

ground was also observed.

Despite best efforts the exact gestation period could not

be found as the two pregnant females, which were under

observation remained elusive for a few days when the young

ones were delivered but gave a probable range of 1 7 1 - 1 80 days.

Ranging behaviour

Northern Pig-tailed Macaques made no effort to defend

their home ranges. The overlapping of home ranges and

tolerating other groups at close range also indicates the same.

The home ranges of Northern Pig-tailed Macaque groups

ranged between 83 and 347 ha; the home ranges overlapped

by 25 to 48%. In Bherjan forests, the home ranges covered

83 (Western Group) and 101 ha (Eastern Group); the home

ranges overlapped by 39 to 48%. In the home range of the

western group, around 14% was outside the reserved forest,

mainly in Chandmari Tea Estate. In case of the eastern group,

around 35% was outside the reserved forest in Athelbari and

Dhelakhat Tea Estates (Fig. 4). In Borajan forest, it was about

298 ha (Northern Group) and 347 ha (Southern Group) in

1992-94; home ranges overlapped by 25 to 29%. In the heavily

degraded Podumoni forest, it was 150 ha. In Patharia Hill

Reserved Forest, the partial home range of a group inside

India was >1 10 ha the remaining being inside Bangladesh.

The border fencing has disturbed their movement; however,

they move across through select routes, either along rivulets

through ground or through trees having canopy links.

The day range length varied between 690 and 2,240 m.

The day range of the western group in Bherjan was between

690 and 1,400 m, that of eastern group between 830 and

1,850 m, southern group in Borajan between 780 and

2,240 m and northern group 750 and 2,190 m. The partial

day range of a group in Nambor was >1,500 m, in Patharia

Hill >900 m, and Dhansiri >2,200 m. Fast travelling of

160 m in 12 mins to slow one, 205 m in 70 mins were

observed. A lone male not attached to any group had travelled

>500 m in 45 mins in Nambor.

DISCUSSION

So far, this is the first comprehensive study on the

ecology and behaviour of the Northern Pig-tailed Macaque

M.n. leonina. Although this paper is the first such detailed

account, its elusiveness and poor visibility had its sway by

wasting invaluable time in the field. Earlier observers had

also commented similarly (Bernstein 1967; Caldecott 1986).

Although a dweller of dense forest, wherever degradation

took place it adapted itself to a great extent (e.g., Podumoni

forests). It also haunts tea plantations and vicinity of human

settlements (Choudhury 2003a). Crop raids are rare unlike

its southern counterpart (Crockett and Wilson 1980). The

Northern Pig-tailed Macaque is mostly arboreal in dense forest

although they do not hesitate to come down to the ground for

crossing clearings and also for foraging, especially in

degraded areas. The Southern Pig-tails were largely terrestrial

(Cawthon Lang 2005). McCann (1933) also mentioned that

it is more arboreal. In case of leonina , most of the longer

duration terrestrial activity were found to be human induced,

i.e., raiding crops and feeding on sugarcanes on the highway

or crossing clear-felled areas. As a rule, the Northern Pig-

tailed Macaque is not very shy, however, in areas where it is

hunted for food, it was extremely so.

According to Bernstein (1967) and Medway (1969),

when in flight from humans, the Southern Pig-tailed Macaque

descends to the ground and flees, but in case of leonina , their

Bight was through trees, either canopy or other layers. Even

when on the ground, leonina may Bee through forest Boor or

climb trees and flee.

The daily time budget showed rest including roosting

(till dusk) accounted for about 45% of their diurnal time. It

should be noted that they take up roosting position well before

dusk and hence, the proportion of ‘inactive’ time increases.

Female copulating with more than one male as well as

subadults as has been found in leonina was also observed in

the Southern Pig-tails by other observer (Oi 1996). Their

locomotion is somewhat like the Southern Pig-tailed females,

but they were not seen to lead the movement. In fact, alpha

male was found to take lead at least in one of the intensively

studied groups. Elsewhere, during sporadic observations, it

was the alpha male that was ahead of others.

The dominance of fruits in diet was conspicuous (hence,

frugivorous); however, it may not be out of the way to call

the Northern Pig-tailed Macaque an “omnivore” as it takes

innumerable small animal matters, most of which could not

be identified, and an array of vegetables, gums and a bit of

earth. Comer ( 1941 ) and Bernstein (1967) also listed the Pig-

tailed Macaque as omnivorous. The dominance of fruit in the

Pig-tailed Macaque's diet was evident in all the earlier studies,

although all were on nominate subspecies (Fooden 1971;

Crockett and Wilson 1980; Caldecott 1986). Some tree species

play a particularly important role in Pig-tailed Macaque

ecology, by providing a major component of food supply in

certain seasons, e.g., Anthocephalus cadamba (fruit; in

September, October, November, 15-20% of the observed

feeding time was spent on this), Sapium baccatum (fmit; in

August, September, October, 25-30 %),Artocarpus chaplasha

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

(fruit; in June and July, 35%) and Castanopsis indica (fruit;

in September, October, 15-20%). In two other interesting

cases, which may not be applicable for most of the normal

forest groups, sugarcane (stem; in February and March, 42%

of the feeding time of the study groups was spent on this) and

fallen paddy (grain or seed; in January, 65% of the feeding

time was spent on this) formed major diet for certain periods.

According to McClure (1964) and Medway (1969,

1970), the group size in disturbed forests in Peninsular

Malaysia was 3-15. Apparently, ‘3’ was not a group but a

splinter unit. Fooden (1971 ) found groups of 12-40 animals.

The present study found that the mean of typical groups was

23.3 (range was 16-33). The mean of at least another 15 groups

was also >20 where exact number and composition could not

be counted. It appears that 20-33 is the ideal range (n=21).

Tilson (1982) found 26 in a group at Hollongapar.

The 16 member group was from Podumoni forests,

where three-fourth of the forests was in a degraded state and

a few monkeys were reportedly killed by village dogs and

leopards. The groups of 50- 1 50 Northern Pig-tailed Macaques

in Vietnam (Le Xuan Canh et al. 1997) and elsewhere,

including Khao Yai National Park, Thailand (Duckworth et

al. 1999), were in all probability of two or more groups

feeding/foraging together. This researcher had observed two

groups in Khao Yai where he encountered two groups with

25-35 animals. These groups often come closer (looked like

a single group) looking for food when visitors stop their

vehicles although located deep inside the Park with no

opportunistic hunting. In Bherjan, Borajan and Nambor

forests, consisting respectively of 59, 43 and 43 macaques

were at the end of the day found to be six different groups

having overlapping home ranges. Similar temporary

‘congregation’ was also observed in case of Assamese

macaques, putting a casual observer into confusion.

The sex ratio was biased toward females. Females

comprised of the major share of any group, 39.9% were adult

females (n=7) in this study, while in case of Southern Pig-

tails it was 30.4% (n=3) (Oi 1990).

Contact between members within a group or with other

groups was largely peaceful, a feature also observed in

Southern Pig-tails (Bernstein 1967).

The information on the home range and day range of

leonina was poorly known prior to this study. It was

83-347 ha against 60-828 ha in Southern Pig-tails. In Nambor

and Upper Dihing, the home range could be more than

400 ha (details could not be worked out) while in the colder

subtropical forests of Nagaland, it could be much more. The

overlapping in this study was up to 48%, which is almost

similar to the 50% of southern pigtails (Sponsel et al. 2002).

The day range length in present study varied between

690 and 2,240 m, which is also not much different from the

Southern Pig-tail’s 825 and 2,964 m (Caldecott 1986).

Weather conditions and seasonal fruit availability had

influenced the day ranges to a great extent. With easy food

supplements available in large quantity at a fixed place such

as paddy (in Borajan) and sugarcane left overs (in Nambor),

the day ranges were shorter. During monsoon, often heavy

shower also affected the day range to be shorter (the adults

look for cover of dense foliage where they sit for quite

sometime). In degraded forest, where the fruiting trees were

located far apart, the day range increases significantly

(e.g., Borajan forests and Patharia Hills).

McCann (1933) stated that the Northern Pig-tailed

Macaque probably breeds in April and May, judging from

the condition of embryos. Fooden ( 197 1 ) found lactating and

pregnant females in February (early pregnancy) and April

(late pregnancy) in western Thailand. According to Crockett

and Wilson (1980) and Rowe (1996), Southern Pig-tailed

Macaques are not seasonal breeders and mating occurs year-

round though there is a slight peak from January to May. The

present study on leonina shows that several females in estrous

were observed from August to December with a few till

February while newborns were seen from mid January to May

(few in June also). It could be inferred that climate, especially

rainfall might have a role in case of leonina, which seems to

have a marked winter-spring breeding season. This is contrary

to the year-round breeding of southern subspecies.

Blanford ( 1888-91) believed that the gestation period

was 2 10 days. Bernstein (in Roonwal andMohnot 1977) stated

that it is 175 days while Maestripieri (2002) has put it as

170 days. In captivity, it was 162-186 days (Kuehn et al.

1965) and 167-179 (Tokuda 1968). The present study,

although could not fix any day, but confirmed a probable

range of 171-180 days ( n=2).

Information on mounting in the wild of leonina has

also been dealt with in details for the first time. Captive

macaques were observed since long (Tokuda et al. 1968).

They observed mounts that lasted for 2-18 seconds (in this

study, it was 2-16 seconds); the mean interval between mounts

was about 3 mins (in this study, it was variable greatly between

individuals; 20.4 mins in alpha male while in case of second

male 2.5 mins). The reason seemed to be that the alpha male

is relaxed and it carried on copulation bouts at his will and

often leisurely (once after a gap of 65 mins) but the second

male was in a hurry. It had mounted only when the alpha

male was away resting. The mean of pelvic thrusts per mount

was recorded as 13 (in this study, it was 10). Oi ( 1996) and

Gouzoules et al. (1998) found that the percentage of

copulations followed by calls was 98.79% and 45% in two

different studies of Pig-tailed Macaques. In this study, it was

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

36% in case of male only while females were mostly silent

(only 2.5%), i.e., no post-copulatory vocalizations.

Maestripieri and Roney (2005) put forth one of the hypothesis

that copulation calls reflect an orgasm-like reaction.

In Khao Yai National Park, Thailand, a few groups have

become habituated and a major part of their diet comes from

biscuits, fruits, etc., offered by tourists. Although these groups

(at least two groups were observed in July 2006) are deep

inside the Park, somehow they developed this habit and are

now depending upon it substantially. Despite habitat

fragmentation and venturing near human habitations, the Pig-

tailed Macaques in Assam and elsewhere in north-east India

did not develop this habit although there are Rhesus Macaco

mulatto and Assamese macaques doing this in some temples

and in a few roadside localities (northern Bengal).

The forests of Bherjan, Borajan, Podumini,

Hollongapar, Upper Dihing (west block), and Nambor, which

were recommended for protected area status after this study

(Choudhury 1989, 1995b, 1996c) have been declared as

wildlife sanctuaries by the Government of Assam in 1997

(Hollongapar as Hollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary), 1999

(Bherjan, Borajan and Podumini as Bherjan-Borajan-

Podumini Wildlife Sanctuary) and 2004 (part of Upper Dihing

as Dihing Patkai Wildlife Sanctuary).

Habitat loss and fragmentation due to felling, jhum

cultivation and expansion of agriculture, and hunting for meat

are the main threats to leonina in its range in India (Choudhury

2003a). It is protected under Schedule II (part I) of The

Wildlife (Protection) Act of India while IUCN has listed it as

Vulnerable (IUCN 2004). At least 30 protected areas in north-

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During the field study, I got support from many civil

and forest officials, and NGOs of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,

Nagaland and Meghalaya; and a large number of villagers,

relatives and friends, and I thank them all collectively. I am

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and his wife, R. Lalvuana, S. Saikia, P. Rahlo, Ms Bawitei,

J. Mazumdar, and A. Goswami for their help during field

works. Nur Husain, Sarsing Rongphar, S. Tana Hmar,

B. Suchiang, Havildar K. Das, and drivers, late Sakul, Dilip,

Babul, Chakravarty, and Hakeem have accompanied me in

many of the field trips. I further wish to acknowledge the

partial financial assistance from ASTEC (Assam Science

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ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Appendix 1: Food plants and items eaten by Pig-tailed macaques (across groups and study areas)

Species (Family)

Leaves, Leaf petioles Fruits Flowers, Seeds Shoots Others

leaf buds Buds

Aerides sp. (Orchidaceae)

Albizzia lucidor (Mimosaceae)

Amblyanthus sp. (Myrsinaceae)

Amoora wallichii (Meliaceae)

Anthocephalus chinensis/ cadamba (Rubiaceae)

Ardisia sp. 1 (Myrsineceae)

Ardisia sp. 2 (Myrsineceae)

Artocarpus chaplasha (Moraceae) +

Artocarpus lakoocha (Moraceae)

Baccaurea ramiflora (Syn. sapida)

(Euphorbiaceae)

Bambusa tulda (Bambusaceae) +

Bambusa balcooa (Bambusaceae) +

Bauhinia purpurea (Caesalpiniaceae)

Bauhinia variegata (Caesalpiniaceae)

Bischofia javanica (Euphorbiaceae)

Bombax ceiba (Bombasaceae)

Carica papaya (Caricaceae)

Castanopsis indica (Fagaceae)

Cinnamomum glanduliferum (Lauraceae)

Cinnamomum bejolghota (Syn. C. obtusifolia)

(Lauraceae)

Citrus reticulate (Rutaceae)

Crateva magna var. magna (Syn. Crateva nurvaia)

(Capparidaceae)

Croton joufra (Euphorbiaceae)

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Bambusaceae) +

Dillenia indica (Dilleniaceae) + bud

Dillenia scabrella (Dilleniaceae)

Dysoxylum gobara (Syn. D. procerum) (Meliaceae)

Ficus benjamina (Urticaceae)

Ficus hispida (Moraceae)

Ficus glaberrima (Urticaceae)

Ficus hirta (Urticaceae) +

Ficus mysorensis (Urticaceae)

Ficus nervosa (Urticaceae)

Ficus religiosa (Urticaceae)

Ficus rhododendrifolia (Urticaceae)

Ficus rostrata (Syn. sinnuata) (Urticaceae)

Ficus sp. 1 (Moraceae)

Ficus sp. 2 (Moraceae)

Garcinia morella (Guttiferea)

Garuga pinnata (Burseraceae) +

Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae)

Gynocardia odorata (Flacourtiaceae/Bixaceae)

Hoya parasitica (Asclepiadaceae)

Ipomoea sp. (Convolvulaceae) +

Jasminum dispermum (Oleaceae) +

Lagerstroemia flos-reginae (Syn. speciosa)

(Lythraceae)

Ligustum sp. (Oliaceae)

Litsea polyantha (Lauraceae)

Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Loranthaceae)

Mallotus philippensis (Euphorbiaceae)

+

-i-Stem /

root

+

290

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Appendix 1: Food plants and items eaten by Pig-tailed macaques (across groups and study areas) (contd.)

Species (Family)

Leaves, Leaf petioles Fruits Flowers, Seeds Shoots Others

leaf buds Buds

V - food items consumed

'?’ - ambiguous whether consumed or not

[Synonyms are important as many authorities still use earlier names.

Two Ficus spp. could not be identified but were two distinct species and hence, listed to show the diversity]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

291

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

292-298

THE ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

DISTRICT OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA

Tathagata Chakraborty1 and Soumen Bhattacharjee2

'Department of Zoology, Balurghat College, P.O. Balurghat, District South Dinajpur 733 101, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected]

^Department of Zoology, University of North Bengal, P.O. North Bengal University, Raja Rammohunpur,

Dt. Darjeeling 734 013, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]

A steady decline in fish catch per year through the past decades, and selective decline of certain prized small table

fishes in the rivers of the district have not been addressed so far. This study, therefore, aims to estimate the present

status of the annual fish catch of South Dinajpur district. West Bengal, with reference to the species composition of the

rivers and kharis during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. In this two-year long survey, we have

identified 5 orders, 6 suborders, 17 families, 11 subfamilies, 40 genera and 49 fish species and a few rarely caught

species from the rivers, kharis and heels of the district.

Key words: riverine ichthyofaunal diversity. South Dinajpur, species composition

INTRODUCTION

The aqua resources of India include 2.02 million sq. km

of an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of surrounding seas,

approximately 29,000 km length of rivers, c. 1,13,000 km of

canals, c. 1 .75 million ha of existing water-spread in the form of

reservoirs, c. 1 million ha in the form of tanks and ponds, and

c. 0.6 million ha of stagnant, derelict, swampy waterspread areas

(Jhingran 1991). About 2,200 tin fish species have been recorded

from different ecosystems of India, which is 1 1% of the world

fish germplasm (Sinha 1998). Of these, 400 species are

commercially important. These include cultured, cultivable and

wild species. The ecosystem-wise distribution of fish germplasm

resources of India are: cold water (73; 3.3%), warm waters of

the plains (544; 24.73%), brackish water ( 143; 6.50%) and marine

water ( 1440; 65.45%) (Anon 1992-93; Das 1994).

This study aims to estimate the species composition of

the rivers, kharis, khals and heels of South Dinajpur district.

West Bengal. The South Dinajpur district forms a part of the

erstwhile undivided West Dinajpur, created out of the Dinajpur

district in 1947 at the time of partition of India. It was then split

into two districts in 1 992 - one being Dakshin or South Dinajpur

and the other Uttar or North Dinajpur (Table 1 ; Fig. 1 ).

The district has four north to south flowing major rivers,

namely Atrai, Punarbhaba, Tangon and Jamuna. Atrai and

Punarbhaba originate in India, at the foothills of the Himalayas

and pass through Bangladesh to enter India again in South

Dinajpur. These rivers have connections with Teesta drainage

system, especially during the monsoon. Besides these rivers,

there are a number of drainage channels, locally known as

kharis, khals, or heels (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5). The relevant

details of resources available for development of fisheries in

the district are shown in the Table 6 (Rao 2001 ). Almosuill the

rivers and streams enter the district from Bangladesh and leave

the district to enter again to either Bangladesh or a neighbouring

district. However, many rivers originate from other major river

systems north of Bangladesh, and also from India.

The productivity of the cultured fish is less than 2 tons

per hectare per year in the district, which can be enhanced

considerably with the help of scientific extension programmes

(Rao 2001 ). However, there is no concrete data regarding the

status of fish catch from the open water bodies. A steady decline

in fish catch per year through the past decades, and selective

decline in the catch of certain prized, small table fishes in the

rivers of the district have not been addressed so far. Therefore,

the present study aims towards estimating the present status

of the annual fish catch in capture fisheries of the district with

reference to the species composition of the rivers and kharis

during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons.

To the best of our knowledge, no such study with regard to

cataloguing the fish species has been undertaken prior to this

study in this district. Therefore, this study gives an idea

regarding the ichthyo-biodiversity status of the endemic fish

stocks of the district. Two potential breeding grounds were

also identified, namely the Danga Beel, near Balurghat

aerodrome and Gochina Beel, near Trimohini, Hili block.

List of abbreviations used in text:

EEZ - Exclusive Economic Zone

ZSI - Zoological Survey of India

METHODOLOGY

Surveys in different rivers and kharis of the district

A two-year survey (2004-2006) was undertaken in major

rivers, like Atrai, Punarbhaba, Tangan, Jamuna, in minor rivers,

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

Fig. 1 : District map of South Dinajpur, West Bengal. Map shows district blocks, major and minor rivers and adjoining districts

of Bangladesh besides, two Beets namely, Danga and Gochina. Fish sample collection stations are marked as filled circles by the side

of each major river (Map not drawn to scale)

like Ichhamoti, and in kharis like, Kalkali, Kashiani and

Brahmani. Beels visited were Danga and Gochina. Surveys

were also undertaken at different landing centers and fish

markets.

Field Surveys

In total, forty-six field studies were undertaken in major

rivers with assistance from fishermen (Haidars), who provided

boats, and various types of nets and manpower. The rivers

and kharis were divided into well-marked zones keeping in

mind the flow patterns, average water depth, location of

villages of local fishermen community and accessibility of

the regions. Nettings were done extensively in these landing

stations during three periods, namely pre-monsoon (February-

May), monsoon (June-September) and post-monsoon

(October-January). In case of habitat ground surveys,

photographs of the area and streams in different seasons were

taken.

Surveys were conducted at different markets and

landing centers regularly in different seasons. Market surveys

included important fish markets in big towns that are located

by the sides of major rivers of the district. Fishes were also

collected from various fishermen.

Fishes were collected and immediately kept in neutral

1 0% Formalin in a plastic jar, and then preserved in specimen

jars containing 4-6% Formalin at the Zoology Department of

Balurghat College, Balurghat. The specimen jars were labelled

properly and stored for further studies. Local names of the

fishes were recorded on site, and size, colour and any

peculiarities, if present, were noted and the fishes photographed.

Table 1 : District profile

(Source: Dakshin Dinajpur District Profile URL)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

293

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

Table 2: Large rivers in South Dinajpur district

Identification of breeding grounds

Two potential habitats - Danga Beel, near Balurghat

aerodrome, and the Gochina Beel, near Trimohini, Hili block -

identified in the first year of survey were taken up for more

studies. Another prospective breeding ground was the

Bhaluka beel in the Hili block.

Making of an inventry

Collected and preserved fishes were identified using

standard taxonomic procedures following standard literature

(Shaw and Shebbeare 1937;Menon 1974; Jhingran 1991;Talwar

and Jhingran 1991 ; Menon 1999; Jayaram 1999) and with the

help from the Fishery Division of ZSI, Department of Zoology,

Calcutta University, and Meen Bhawan, Balurghat, South

Dinajpur. In total, forty-nine species have been identified.

RESULTS

We have identified 5 orders, 6 suborders, 17 families, 1 1

subfamilies, 40 genera and 49 fish species from the rivers,

kharis and beels of the district during the two-year long

survey (Table 7).

Table 3: Small rivers in South Dinajpur district

Table 4: List of Khari and Khals in South Dinajpur district

Fishes like Bhada Badis badis (Hamilton-Buchanan),

Nandos Nandus nandus (Hamilton-Buchanan) and Khursa

Labeo dero (Hamilton-Buchanan) have not been reported

from the rivers of the South Dinajpur district for the last fifteen

years. We report presence of two specimens of Badis badis ,

one each from Atrai and Jamuna rivers (Table 7). Hilsa [Hi Isa

( Tenualosa ) ilisha (Hamilton-Buchanan)] earlier reported from

Atrai river (local fishermen’s catches) during late monsoon

was not found in this study.

Another interesting find was a single specimen of

Amblyceps mangois (Hamilton-Buchanan) (local name: Tele

Tengra) from Jamuna river of Hili Block (Table 7). This fish is

found usually on the pebbly beds of fast flowing rivers at the

base of hills (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Shaw and Shebbeare

( 1 937) have also reported this fish from Jamuna river. A single

specimen of Acanthophthalmus pangia (Hamilton-Buchanan)

(local name: Pahari Puye) was collected from Jamuna river

(Table 7). This fish is reported from the terai and duars area of

north West Bengal (Shaw and Shebbeare 1937; Talwar and

Jhingran 1991). We collected a few specimens of Conta conta

(Hamilton-Buchanan) from Atrai river; it is usually found in the

rocky streams of north West Bengal at the base of the Himalayas

(Talwar and Jhingran 1991).

Waterbody-wise categorization and documentation of

available fishes has been depicted in Table 7.

DISCUSSION

Over the past few years, there has been a steady and

un-replenishable decline in the fish catch. A few species have

become rare in the markets over the past couple of decades.

This decline can be attributed to a few apparent causes: rising

river beds, less precipitation and water flow, rampant use of

drag nets made up of mosquito nets and degradation of the

breeding grounds, in the district or probably in the upstream

regions of the neighbouring country Bangladesh. There was

also a possibility of the presence of polluting substances

from the agricultural run-offs entering the riverine system,

which contributed to the decline of fish population. In order

to take measures to conserve the fish germplasm and replenish

294

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

Table 5: List of Beels

the dwindling natural fish population, it is imperative that

we assess the current status of the ichthyofaunal diversity

of the rivers and natural water bodies of the district. Since no

known published data regarding the diversity of riverine

fishes of the district was available, we intended to build

up the initial inventory, through a two-year long survey

(2004-2006).

During this survey, we assessed the total number of

fish species present in the major and minor rivers of the South

Dinajpur district. A few species like Salmostoma bacaila,

Amblypharyngodon mold , Barilius barna , Barilius shacra,

Esomus danricus, Lepidocephalus guntea , Botia dario,

Danio devario , Mystus bleekeri , Mystus vittatus, Ailia

punctata , Eutropiichthys murius , Eutropiichthys vacha ,

Xenentodon cancila , Chanda nama , Glossogobius giuris,

Channa punctatus, Macrognathus pancalus and

Mastacembelus armatus were numerous. However, species

like Badis badis, Amblyceps mangois , Acanthophthalmus

pangia, Conta conta , and Crossocheilus latius lathis were

rare and only one or two specimens of each were caught.

Some of the fish species may be accidental finds in this

area, like Amblyceps , Acanthophthalmus and Conta which

are adapted to and reported from the fast flowing rivers and

streams of the Himalayan foothills. Indian Torrent Catfish

(Billi Fish) Amblyceps mangois (local name: Tele Tengra) is

Table 6: Details of resources of the district

(Source: Rao 2001)

distributed along the foothills of Himalayas from the Kangra

Valley (Himachal Pradesh) to Assam in India and attains a

length of about 12.5 cm (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). The

specimen obtained by us from Jamuna river of Hili Block, is a

juvenile of about 6.35 cm. Acanthophthalmus pangia (local

name: Pahari Puye) is distributed in north-eastern West

Bengal and Manipur, and attains a length of about 6.5 cm

(Talwar and Jhingran 1991 ). The single specimen obtained by

us from Jamuna river of Hili Block is about 5.08 cm. Conta

Catfish or Conta conta (local name: unknown) is reported to

be distributed at the base of Himalaya in north West Bengal,

Assam and Meghalaya and attains a length of 7.8 cm (Talwar

and Jhingran 1991). Conta Catfishes collected from Atrai river

are of various sizes, attaining about 7.62 cm. Further ecological

and genetical studies are needed to compare these species

with those found in the northern regions and to explore the

possibility of their adaptive radiation.

Table 7: River-wise categorization of fish catch

Species Atrai Punarbhaba Tangon Jamuna

Class Osteichthyes

Subclass Actinopterygii

Subdivision Teleostei

Order Cypriniformes

Family Cyprinidae

Subfamily Cyprininae

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.; 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

295

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

Table 7: River-wise categorization of fish catch (contd.)

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

Table 7: River-wise categorization of fish catch ( contd .)

In the habitat ground surveys, we have found numerous

small hatchlings and fries of minor carps, spiny eels, snake

heads, gobies and perches during the early monsoon.

Prospective breeding ground, like Danga beel remains almost

dry during the dry periods with only a thin stream (Kalkali

Khari) flowing through it. The area is used for cultivation

during this period, which often gets over flooded during

monsoon. The fish fries are carried along the khari that opens

to Atrai river at Balurghat town. The habitat survey with regards

to physico-chemical parameters and water quality assessment

vis-a-vis fish species availability will be published later.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was financially supported by the University

Grants Commission Minor Research Project [MRP No. F. PSW-

069/03-04 (ERO)] awarded to the corresponding author

(Principal Investigator) at the Department of Zoology,

Balurghat College (Govt. Sponsored), South Dinajpur. The

authors also acknowledge the help extended by the Principal,

Balurghat College, Assistant Director of Fisheries, Dakshin

Dinajpur, Balurghat and Zoological Survey of India, Fishery

Division, Kolkata.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

297

ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR

REFERENCES

Anon (1992-1993): National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Annual

Report, pp. 65.

Das, P. (1994): Strategies for conserving threatened fishes.

Pp. 307-310. In: Dehadrai, P.V., P. Das & S.R.Verma (Eds):

Threatened fishes of India. Natcon Puh. No. 4, Muzaffernagar.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, pp. xxvii + 551, Narendra Publishing

House, New Delhi.

Jhingran, V.G. ( 1991 ): Fish and Fisheries of India. Hindustan Publishing

Company, New Delhi, pp. 727.

Menon, AG.K. (1974): A Checklist of the Fishes of the Himalayan and

Indo-Gangetic Plains. Inland Fish. Soc. India (Barrackpore),

pp. viii + 136.

Menon, A.G.K. ( 1999): Freshwater Fishes of India. Occasional Paper

No. 175, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, pp. xxix + 366.

Rao, T.R.K. (2001): Potential Linked Credit Plan, 2002-2003 to

2006-2007, with detailed Projections for 2002-2003. National

Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), Kolkata.

Shaw, G.E. & E.O. Shebbeare (1937): The fishes of north Bengal.

Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Science 3: 1-137.

Sinha, M. (1998): Impact of environment on fish germplasm.

Pp. 1-11. In: Ponniah, A.G, P. Das & S.R.Verma (Eds): Fish Genetics

and Biodiversity Conservation. Natcon Pub. No. 5, Muzaffernagar,

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991 ): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent countries. Pp. xix + 1158, Vol. I & II, Oxford and IBH

Co. Pvt. Ltd. (New Delhi).

298

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

299-316

NOTE ON A COLLECTION OE SNAKES FROM SOUTH INDIA,

WITH EMPHASIS ON THE SNAKE FAUNA OF THE MEGH AM ALAI HILLS

(HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS)

Angus F. Hutton' and Patrick David2

'Garaina Farms, 385 Scrubby Creek Road, Gympie, Queensland 4750, Australia. Email: [email protected]

2Departement Systematique et Evolution, USM 602 Taxonomie-collection - Reptiles & Amphibiens, Case Postale 30, Museum National

d’Histoire Naturelle, 57 rue Cuvier, F-75231 Paris Cedex 05, France. Email: [email protected]

This paper deals with two collections of snakes obtained in south India by the senior author in the years 1946-48 and

1949-52 respectively. Specimens were obtained from the Meghamalai Hills, also known as the High Wavy Mountains,

from the Anaimalai Hills, located in the State of Tamil Nadu, and in Wayanad district, Kerala, at the northern edge of

Nilgiri Hills. A total of 39 snake species are recorded from Meghamalai Hills. This area, now mostly planted with tea,

includes Cloudlands, Highwavys and Manalaar estates, the access to which is now largely restricted, still includes

large untouched remnants of evergreen forest. The description of a rare Hutton’s Pitviper Tropidolaemus huttoni

Smith (1949) is completed on the basis of unpublished notes from the senior author.

Keywords: Serpentes, Tropidolaemus huttoni , India, High Wavy Mountains, Meghamalai Hills, Tamil Nadu, Anaimalai

Hills, Nilgiri Hills, Collection

INTRODUCTION

Hutton (1949a) reported on a collection of snakes

obtained in the High Wavy Mountains, south-west of Madurai,

in the State of Tamil Nadu, South India (see below for the

exact position of this range). Subsequently, Hutton (1949b)

described the mammals of this poorly known area. The paper

on snakes was based on collections and observations made

in 1946-48. This earlier collection contained two specimens

of new species of pitviper previously mentioned as a nomen

nudum by Hutton ( 1 949a), which was later described by Smith

(1949a) as Trimeresurus huttoni. Since its description, no

other specimens have ever been collected. On the basis of

the sole holotype, David and Vogel (1998) concluded that

this species shares most characters with Tropidolaemus

wagleri (Boie 1827) and referred it to the genus

Tropidolaemus Wagler, 1830. Nevertheless, Tropidolaemus

huttoni remains the most poorly known Hutton’s pitviper and

one of the rarest of all snake species.

In the present paper, largely on the basis of Angus

Hutton’s notes, we present a general description of the High

Wavy Mts., one of the least known places in south India, as

far as zoology is concerned, but now definitely not as remote

and forgotten as suggested in David and Vogel (1998). We

publish data on specimens of snakes of this second collection.

We take this opportunity to present new data on

Tropidolaemus huttoni.

In contrast to the information published in David and

Vogel (1998), the paratype of this species retained by Hutton

was not lost but had been donated personally by him in 1962,

while on his way to Australia, to Dr. V. Chari, Curator of

Reptiles at the Prince of Wales Museum (now Chhatrapati

Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya [CSMVS]), Bombay

(now Mumbai), as instructed by Mr. Humayan Abdulali, the

then Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History

Society (BNHS), Mumbai. The specimen was sighted in 1973

by Hutton (and his wife), while on a holiday, and he advised

the new Curator that the spirit had evaporated and it needed

urgent attention. He examined it again in 1986 while on a

UN / FAO Consultancy for the Gol and UN, and was

disappointed that it had not been attended to!

Although this specimen is in bad condition, it allowed

us to expand the variation in this species. On the basis of the

1946-48 and 1949-52 collections, which contain a total of

39 snake species, we tentatively compare the fauna of this

isolated range with the known fauna of three other ranges of

south India.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The following list is based on preserved specimens

deposited in the Natural History Museum, London in 1952,

namely the second collection of the senior author examined

by the second author. Some other snakes were deposited in

the collection of the BNHS, Mumbai and CSMVS, Mumbai.

The exact localities of collect are as follows:

Anaimalai Hills: Injapara and Monica Tea Estates,

Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu, 1949-51; High Wavy Mts.:

Meghamalai Hills, (1946/48) see above; Mysore: Kadamane

Estate, near Sakleshpur, Hassan district, Karnataka, 1951; Nilgiri -

Wayanad: Rockwood Estate, Wayanad district, Kerala (1952).

Interesting specimens are described in detail below.

Biological notes are exclusively based on Angus Hutton’s

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Fig. 1 : Map of South India showing the general position of the Meghamalai Hills. Thick line on the South: general

limit of the Meghamalai Hills; Thin line on the North: the Varushanad Hills

Fig. 2: Tropidolaemus huttoni (Smith, 1949), lateral view of the head of the

paratype. Colorised view based on a B&W photograph dating from 1947.

In life the red hue of the snout was slightly more brown (brick red). Note upturned

snout and the yellow mental shield and postocular streak

Fig. 3: A composite panorama taken in October 1 993 of part of the Manalaar Tea Estate just below the junction of Manalaar and

Chinna Manalaar rivers. Downstream of the confluence the stream becomes the Suruli river. Note the jungle corridors left in place.

Manalaar is at the extreme right of the panorama; Mt. Pakkadi Mettu, c. 1,898 m, is at the centre of the picture

300

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

field data. The spelling of Indian names of localities follows

Ravi (2001).

Measurements were measured to the nearest millimetre.

Ventral scales were counted according to Dowling (1951).

The terminal scute is excluded from the number of subcaudals.

The number of dorsal scale rows at inid-body is counted at

the level of the ventral plate corresponding to half of the total

ventral number. Values for symmetric head characters are

given in left / right order. The number of examined specimens

appearing under each species details may differ in tables, as

specimens in bad condition were not examined in details.

Abbreviations: SVL: Snout-vent length; TaL: Tail

length; TaL/TL: ratio tail length/total length; TL; total length.

Scalation characters: ATem: anterior temporals;

C-SL3: number of scale(s) between the 3rd supralabial scale

and the subocular; CEP: number of cephalic scales on a line

between the eyes; DSR: dorsal scale rows; IL: infralabial

scales; Lor: loreal scales; MSR: number of dorsal scale rows

at midbody; PreOc: preocular scales; PSR: number of dorsal

scale rows before vent; SC: subcaudals; SL: supralabials;

SL-orb: number of supralabial(s) entering orbit;

Tern: temporal scales; VEN: ventral scales.

Museum abbreviations: BMNH: The Natural History

Museum, London, UK; BNHS: Bombay Natural History

Society, Mumbai, India.

RESULTS

Historical background

The first herpetological paper by Hutton ( 1949a) was

based on collections and observations made in 1946-48. At

that time, the senior author of this paper, then aged 1 8 who

was bom in Mysore State (now Karnataka state) and had the

advantage of being fluent in Tamil and several dialects, had

commenced work in the High Wavy Mts. as Assistant Manager

with Tea Estates (India) Ltd, a subsidiary company of Brooke

Bonds of England, one of the leading Tea producing

companies of the time in India.

His work involved surveying and clearing the jungle

for planting up a thousand acre Cinchona and Tea estate,

leaving the natural vegetation on the river systems untouched

and also preserving essential jungle corridors for migrating

Elephants and other wildlife. Windbreaks were left intact on

the ridges as protection from the South West monsoon winds.

This work provided a unique opportunity for collecting

specimens of flora and fauna, as upwards of 500 contract

workers were employed at any one time. He also assisted the

manager and engineers with the survey and construction by

some 300 workers of the access ghat road from Chinnamanur,

in the Kambam valley, that took two years to build and this

provided even more opportunities for collecting.

As the ‘ tapped ’ (Mail) runner complained about the

weight of pickled snake specimens, sealed in tins of spirit,

that he had to carry for 8 hours to the Kambam Post Office,

Angus Hutton ascertained from the BNHS that, provided the

head and tail ends were preserved intact, it was quite

acceptable to skin out the intermediate section to save weight.

It is for this reason that such a large number of specimens are

described as skinned!

In August 1948 Hutton went to the UK on four months

furlough with more snake and lizard specimens, which were

deposited with Dr. Malcolm A. Smith in the collection of the

then BMNH, now the Natural History Museum, London, to

add to others preserved in spirit, which had been forwarded

by the BNHS for identification.

Hutton’s 1948 collection also included the second

known specimen of the Skink Dasia subcaerulea (Boulenger

1891) collected in the High Wavy Mts., 1 ,798 m above msl,

some 16 km from the type locality of this species located

near Bodinaikkanur, c. 335 m (Boulenger 1891). This second

specimen was described by Smith (1949b).

On returning to India in January 1949 Hutton was

transferred to the Anaimalai Hills to the Company’s Monica

and Injapara tea estates as senior assistant, for 2 years,

followed by 6 months relieving on Kadamane tea estate in

Mysore and finally appointed manager of Rockwood tea estate

in the Nilgiri Wynaad where he remained till July 1952 where

he completed his contract

Each year in India, during his 2 weeks local leave he

visited the High Wavy Mts.. now known as the Meghamalai

Hills, Teni district, Tamil Nadu hoping to obtain more

specimens of T. huttoni , alas without success, though the patch

of Bamboo at the confluence of the Manalaar and Chinna

Manalaar rivers where the original capture was made was

totally intact as it was in one of the jungle corridors that had

been left for migrating elephants.

The author collected a good number of reptile

specimens both in the High Wavy Mts. and also in two other

ranges of South India, the Nilgiri Wayanad (now the Wayanad

district, Kerala) and the Anaimalai Hills (Coimbatore district,

also in Tamil Nadu) and took these specimens with him to

UK and deposited them in the BMNH, London in July 1952.

Specimens were identified by the curator, J.C. Battersby

(in litteris , dated November 29, 1954). This collection is rich

with 6 lizard species, all common species, and 136 snake

specimens, of which 129 are still in the collections of the

BMNH. Up to now, the contents of this second collection

had never been published in detqil.

The High Wavy Mts. received little attention prior to

the publications of Angus Hutton. Blatter and Hallberg (1917)

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

301

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

reported on a botanical tour, whereas Wroughton (1917)

published data on the mammals. These authors put emphasis

on the poor knowledge of this hilly range, the top of which

was then still covered with dense evergreen forests.

It should be pointed out that, at that time and up to the

establishment of Tea estates that first commenced at

Cloudlands, just before World War II, to around 1946, the

High Wavy Mts. were still a remote area. It took the senior

author an 8 hour walk or ride on a horse to reach the estates

from the nearby city of Kambam prior to the construction of

the vehicular ghat road.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE HlGH WAVY MOUNTAINS

A short description of the High Wavy Mountains was

provided by David and Vogel (1998), but it was both

incomplete and erroneous: this plateau is definitely no longer

the remote, unexplored and uninhabited area described by

earlier naturalists who visited this mountain range!

The High Wavy Mountains are now known as the

Meghamalai Hills (Fig. 1), from the Tamil words Megha , a

cloud, and Malai , a hill. During A. Hutton’s service days,

this name only applied to the eastern end where Cloudland

Estate was the earliest planted area. The High Wavy Mts.

area was always called Patchakumachi, from the Tamil word

Patcha , green, and Kumachi , a jungle, which may be loosely

translated as “Green jungle”. The name "High Wavy

Mountains” was applied by the earlier explorers who just

noted the appearance from the then Cumbum (Kambam)

valley - that is just how they appear. In those days, the 198 m

drop of the Suruli river waterfall was a scenic beauty, though

the Hydro Electric Scheme dam above the falls has now cut

the flow of water to a small trickle.

This elevated plateau constitutes a spur from the

Cardamom Hills oriented southwest-northwest on the south-

western edge of the Varushanad Hills (or Varusanadu Hills).

The Varushanad hills extend in a north-east direction; east

near Thekkadi from the junction of Cardamom Hills and

Pandalam Hills towards the Andipatti Hills just west of

Madurai. The Meghamalai Hills constitute the western edge

of the Varushanad Hills along the deep Kambam Valley.

The city of Kambam (formerly Cumbum; 9° 43' 60" N; 11°

1 7' 60" E) is about 15 km north-west of the Meghamalai Hills,

whereas Gudalur is closer, at about 1 0 km east of the southern

part of the range. The Meghamalai range is located in Teni (or

Theni) district of the state of Tamil Nadu, in southern India.

The southern tip of this range is located very close to the limit

between the limit of the State of Kerala. The south

westernmost edge of the Meghamalai Hills borders the Idukki

district of Kerala. Lastly, the south-western part of the range

is adjacent to the famous Periyar lake and Tiger Reserve in

Kerala.

The Meghamalai Hills are made of steep slopes and

precipitous hills, which culminate by a cool and misty

plateau approximately only 45 sq. km in area, with

undulating hills at an average elevation of about 1,550 m

above sea level. The highest point of the range, Brook’s

Peak, top at 1,965 m above sea level.

According to ancient reports such as Blatter and Hallberg

(1917) and Wroughton (1917), the High Wavy Mts. were

heavily covered with dense, dark evergreen forests with thick

undergrowth. Only a few patches of ground remained bare.

Nowadays, the Meghamalai Hills are subject to much

pressure. This plateau has become quite a tourist spot, for

some parts open to the public, especially around the Suruli

river waterfall. Other parts have been cleared since 1946 and

extensive plantations established.

Most of the cultivated area is now covered with Tea

estates of which the access is highly restricted. This area has

about 12.15 sq. km of the world’s finest tea and two ultra

modern Tea factories. For example, the locality where

specimens of Tropidolaemus huttoni were collected is at about

one kilometre east of Brook’s Peak. This area is now enclosed

in the Manalaar Tea estate, which produces one of the most

famous Teas in India, a clonal selected high yielding Tea.

According to the website www.teabungalows.com (accessed

on May 02, 2008), the largest Tea plantation, the Highwavys

Group, is owned by the Woodbriar group. Other plantations

nearby include Cardamom, Pepper and Coffee. However, the

southernmost part of the Meghamalai Hills, close to the

Periyar Reserve, is still covered with dense forests.

Currently, the vegetation ranges from dry scrub forests

on the foothills up to about 915 m above msl, then to the

plantations cited above on the plateau, which replaced the

evergreen forests of the past. Ridges overlooking the valleys

are covered with grass whereas the hill-bamboo Ochlandra

travancorica edges the tracts of evergreen forest. Large

patches of evergreen forests are still present only on the higher

summits. However, even within the extensive Tea estates,

extensive tracts of undisturbed forests and of bamboo have

been deliberately left and preserved as windbreaks and to

protect the rivers and preserve natural wildlife corridors. These

natural corridors allow the annual migration of wild elephants,

which are still abundant, across the range (Fig. 3) and are

used by monkeys, deers (Sambar) and birds. All natural ridges,

as well as watercourses were left.

Description of the collection of 1952

The senior author took this collection to the BMNH

302

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

(London) in 1952, but specimens were entered in collection in

1955.

Uropeltidae Muller, 1831

Melanophidium punctatum Beddome, 1871

Material Examined: 3 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.2.93-94 (2 females), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai

Hills. BMNH 1955.1.2.95 (female), “High Wavy Mts.”, now

Meghamalai Hills.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl in the

Meghamalai Hills.

Note: These specimens agree well with the descriptions

provided in Smith ( 1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Description: BMNH 1955.1.2.93: SVL 457 mm, TaL

23 mm; VEN 177, SC 16; 16-15-13 DSR. Ochre-brown above,

with scales edged with brown on their lower part (Table 1 ).

Plecturus perroteti Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.2.92

(female), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala,

at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943), Rajendran (1985) and Whitaker

and Captain (2004).

Description: SVL 217 mm, TaL 8 mm; VEN 168,

SC 8; 15-15-15 DSR. Ochre-brown above, with scales edged

with brown on their lower part.

Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier, 1 829

Material Examined: lOspecimens; BMNH 1955.1.2.82-

83, BMNH 1955. 1 .2.90 (3 males), BMNH 1 955. 1 .2.8 1 , BMNH

1955.1.2.84-85, BMNH 1955.1.2.91 (4 females), “Nilgiri-

Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border between

the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. BMNH

1955.1.2.86 (1 female). High Wavy Mts. BMNH 1955.1.2.87-

88 (2 females), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl in the Nilgiri

Hills, between 914 and 1,066 m in the High Wavy Mts. and

between 609 and 1,981 m in the Anaimalai Hills.

Note: These specimens agree well with the descriptions

provided by Smith ( 1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Main morphological characters are summarized in Table 2.

In all specimens, the portion of the rostral visible from above

is distinctly shorter than the distance rostral-frontal. The

venter is yellow, either only speckled with dark brown

(BMNH 1955.1.2.81) or with dark brown spots, or largely

barred with black crossbars wider than the yellow areas

(BMNH 1955.1.2.82 and BMNH 1955.1.2.86).

We could not find any previous published record of

this species from the Nilgiri Hills, either in Smith ( 1943), in

Rajendran (1985) or Murthy (1990).

Uropeltis maculatus (Beddome, 1878)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.2.73

(female), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala,

at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Rajendran ( 1 985) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Main morphological characters are summarized in Table 2.

Two large coral spots are present on each side of the tail.

Uropeltis ocellatus (Beddome, 1863)

Material examined: 7 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.2.74,

BMNH 1955.1.2.76, BMNH 1955.1.2.78 (3 males), BMNH

1955.1.2.75, BMNH 1955.1.2.77 (2 females), “Nilgiri-

Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border between

the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. BMNH

1955. 1.2.79 (female), BMNH 1955. 1.2. 80 (sex unknown; bad

condition), "Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills.

Biology: Specimens from the Nilgiri Hills were

collected at 1,066 m above msl. Those from the Anaimalai

Hills were obtained between 609 and 1,981 m.

Note: These specimens agree well with the descriptions

provided in Rajendran (1985) and Whitaker and Captain

(2004). Main morphological characters are summarized in

Table 2. Two large coral spots are present on each side of the

tail. Specimens from the Nilgiri are brown above, whereas

those from the Anaimalai Hills are light greyish-green.

Uropeltis pulneyensis (Beddome, 1863)

Material Examined: 7 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.2.68-

69, BMNH 1955.1.2.72 (3 males), BMNH 1955.1.2.70-71

Table 1: Main characters of specimens of Melanophidium punctatum

Number Sex SVL TaL TaL/TL VEN SC DSR

BMNH 1955.1.2.93 F 457 23 0.048 177 16 16-15-13

BMNH 1955.1.2.94 F - - - 176 15 16-15-13

BMNH 1955.1.2.95 F 440 27 0.058 186 14 16-15-13

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

303

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

(2 females), “High Wavy Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills.

Biology: Collected between 914 and 1,066 m above

msl.

Note: These specimens agree well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943), Rajendran (1985), and Whitaker

and Captain (2004). Main morphological characters are

summarized in Table 2. Two large coral spots are present on

each side of the tail.

Uropeltis rubromaculatus (Beddome, 1867)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.2.89

(1 male), “Nilgiri-Wynaad", now Wayanad district, Kerala,

at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected around 1,066 m above msl.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Main morphological characters are summarized in Table 2.

Pattern: above dark brown with each scale tinged with yellow;

six coral red blotches on each side of the anterior part of the

body; one elongated, curved, boomerang-like blotch on each

side of the tail; venter yellow with scales speckled with brown

on their anterior margin.

Boidae Gray, 1825

Eryx johnii (Russell, 1801)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.2.66

(male; SVL577 mm, TaL43 mm; skin only), “Anamallies”,

now Anaimalai Hills.

Biology: Collected between 609 and 1,981 m above

msl. Nothing else recorded.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943).

Gongylophis cotticus (Schneider, 1801)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.2.67

(female; SVL 604 mm. TaL 38 mm; skin only), “Nilgiri-

Table 2: Main morphological characters of examined specimens of the genus Uropeltis Cuvier, 1829

304 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Wynaad”, now Wayanad District, Kerala, at the border

between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl. Nothing else

recorded.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943).

COLUBRIDAE Oppel, 1811

Ahaetulla dispar (Gunther, 1864)

Material Examined: 8 specimens; BMNH 1955. 1 .3.50

(female; Table 3), BMNH 1955.1.3.51-52 (2 males), “Nilgiri-

Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border

between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.3.53-55 (3 males), BMNH

1955.1.3.56-57 (2 females), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai

Hills.

Biology: Collected at 914-1,066 m above msl in the

Nilgiri Hills, and between 609 and 1,981 m in the Anaimalai

Hills.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Ahaetulla nasuta (Laeepede, 1789)

Material Examined: 2 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.58

(male; SVL 650, TaL 398 mm), Mysore. BMNH 1955.1.3.59

(female; SVL 682 mm, TaL 368 mm), Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now

Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border between the states of

Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m in both localities.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther, 1858)

Material Examined: 8 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.42

(female; see Table 4), BMNH 1.3.43-45 (3 males), “High

Wavy Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills. BMNH 1955.1.3.46,

BMNH 1955.1.3.49 (2 females), BMNH 1955.1.3.47-48

(2 skins), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills.

Biology: Collected at 914-1,066 m above msl in the

Meghamalai Hills and between 609 and 1,981 m in the

Anamalai Hills.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith (1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Main characters are summarized in Table 4.

Coelognathus Helena monticollaris (Schulz, 1992)

Material Examined: 7 specimens; BMNH 1955. 1 .3.25

(male; SVL 540 mm, TaL 147 mm), “Anamallies”, now

Anaimalai Hills. BMNH 1955. 1 .3.26-27 (2 females; SVL 5 1 1

& 257 mm, TaL 104 & 66 mm), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now

Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border between the states of

Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.3.28

(male; SVL 770 mm, TaL 228 mm; skin only), BMNH

1955.1.3.29 (female; SVL 1,188 mm, TaL 226 mm; skin only),

Mysore. BMNH 1955.1.3.30-31 (2 males; SVL 376 &

256 mm, TaL 89 mm & tail broken), “High Wavy Mts.”, now

Meghamalai Hills.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m in the Nilgiri Mts.,

between 609 and 1,981 m in the Anamalai Hills and at

914-1,066 m in the Meghamalai Hills.

Note: This species was previously placed in the genus

Elaphe. It was transferred to the genus Coelognathus Fitzinger,

1843 by Helfenberger (2001 ) and Utiger et al. (2002).

These specimens agree well with the description provided

in Schulz (1996). All have 25 dorsal scale rows at mid-body.

Crossbars with the typical white ocelli are present only on the

anterior half of the body on a rather dark background. These

specimens are typical of Coelognathus Helena monticollaris

(Schulz. 1992), endemic to the Western Ghats, whereas the

nominate subspecies Coelognathus helena Helena (Daudin,

1803) inhabits other parts of India and Sri Lanka.

Dendrelaphis pictus (Gmelin, 1789)

Material Examined: 2 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.32-

33 (2 females; SVL 642 & 368 mm, TaL 425 & 246 mm),

Table 3: Main morphological characters of examined specimens of Ahaetulla dispar

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

305

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

“Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the

border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil

Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943) and Van Rooijen and Vogel (2008).

They are dark coloured and rather uniform in pattern at the

exception of the dark postocular stripes.

Ly codon aulicus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Material Examined: 2 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.11

(female; SVL 238 mm, TaL 42 mm), Mysore. BMNH

1955.1.3.12 (male; skin only), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai

Hills.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl. Nothing else

was recorded.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943). Both have 17 MSR and the typical

dorsal pattern.

Ly codon travancoricus (Beddome, 1870)

Material Examined: 8 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.3.13-14 (2 females; SVL 342 & 486 mm, TaL 83 &

108 mm), BMNH 1955.1.3.15 (juvenile; SVL 151, TaL

38 mm), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills. BMNH

1955.1.3.16 (male; SVL 405 mm, TaL 101 mm), BMNH

1955.1.3.17 (female; body partly cut), “Nilgiri - Wynaad”,

now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the border between the states

of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.3.18

(female; SVL 255, TaL 66 mm), BMNH 1955. 1.3.19 (male;

SVL 142 mm, TaL 36 mm), BMNH 1955.1.3.20 (unsexed

juvenile), “High Wavy Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills.

Another specimen, BMNH 1955.1.3.21, was exchanged in

1955 and is no longer present in the BMNH’s collections.

Biology: All specimens were collected between 914 and

1,066 m.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith ( 1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

They do not belong to Lycodon flavicollis Mukherjee and

Bhupathy (2007) as defined by these latter authors.

Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; Unnumbered

specimen (female; dessicated and damaged; Table 3), no

locality.

Biology: No data.

Note: These specimens agree well with the Form IV of

Smith (1943).

Oligodon travancoricus Beddome, 1877

Material Examined: 6 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.35

(male; Table 3), BMNH 1955.1.3.36-39 (4 females),

BMNH 1955.1.3.41 (sex only, head and neck only), “High

Wavy Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills. Another specimen,

BMNH 1955.1.3.40, was exchanged in 1955, and is no longer

present in the BMNH's collections.

Biology: Collected between 914 and 1,828 m.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith (1943). Their main characters are

summarized in Table 5.

Oligodon venustus (Jerdon, 1853)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.3.34

(male; Table 5; badly damaged), “Anamallies”, now

Anaimalai Hills.

Biology : Collected between 609 and 1 ,98 1 m above msl.

Note: Main characters are summarised in Table 5. This

identification is only tentative as, if specimen agree well in

scalation and pattern with the description provided in Smith

(1943), it has only 15 MSR due to a reduction at the levels of

VEN 66 & 67 at right and left respectively. Its pattern is made

of dark purple dorsal blotches and a venter chequered with

white and black.

We could not find any previous published record of

this species from the Anaimalai Hills, either in Smith ( 1943)

or Murthy (1990).

Table 4: Main morphological characters of examined specimens of Boiga ceylonensis

306

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Fig. 4: The senior author in December 1946 with the skins of

two very large specimens of Naja naja

Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758)

Material Examined: 4 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.22

(female; SVL 365 mm. TaL 126 mm), BMNH 1955.1.3.23

(male; SVL 330 mm, TaL 129 mm), “Anamallies”, now

Anaimalai Hills. BMNH 1955.1.3.24 (male; SVL 325 mm,

TaL 131 mm), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district,

Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu. Unnumbered specimen (female; SVL 360 mm,

TaL 138 mm), no locality.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl in the

Nilgiri Mts., between 609 and 1,981 m in the Anaimalai

Hills.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943).

Natriodae Bonaparte, 18401

Amphiesma beddomei (Gunther, 1864)

Material Examined: 11 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.2.96-97 (2 females), "Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad

district, Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala,

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.2.98-99 (2 males),

Mysore. BMNH 1955.1.3.1 (male), BMNH 1955.1.3.2

(female), "High Wavy Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills. BMNH

1955.1.3.3-4 (3 males), BMNH 1955.1.3.5-6 (2 females),

“Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills. Another specimen,

BMNH 1955.1.3.7, was exchanged in 1955 and is no longer

present in the BMNH’s collections. Unnumbered specimen

(female; SVL 412 mm, TaL > 128 mm, part of tail missing),

no locality.

Biology: All specimens were collected between

609 and 1,981 m. The unnumbered specimen contains a toad

in its stomach.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the descriptions

provided in Smith (1943) and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Main morphological characters are summarised in Table 6.

Other characters include: divided nasals; dorsal scales keeled

above. Body more or less distinctly patterned, with all

intermediates; a white postocular streak, edged with black

above in all specimens.

Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758)

Material Examined: 1 specimen; Unnumbered

specimen (female; SVL 390 mm, TaL 119 mm), no locality.

Table 5: Main morphological characters of examined specimens of Oligodon Boie, 1827

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

307

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Biology: No data.

Note: This specimen is typical of the species.

Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839)

Material Examined: 2 specimens; BMNH 1955. 1 .3.8-9

(2 females; skins only), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad

district, Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala,

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl. Nothing else

recorded.

Note: Only the skins of these specimens were preserved.

They agree well with the description provided in Smith

(1943).

Xenodermatidae Gray, 1849

Xylophis perroteti Reinhardt, 1836

Material Examined: 1 specimen; BMNH 1955.1.3.10

(male; skull removed), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad

district, Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala,

Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

Biology: This specimen was collected at 1,066 m.

Note: This specimen agrees well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943).

Eeapidae Boie, 1827

Bungarus caeruleus Schneider, 1801

Material Examined: 2 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.3.61-62 (2 males; SVL 762 and 880 mm, TaL > 95

and 120 mm), "Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district,

Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu.

Biology: These specimens were collected at 1,066 m.

Note: Both specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943).

Calliophis nigrescens (Gunther, 1862)

Material Examined. 6 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.3.63-65 (3 females; SVL 405, 235 and 162 mm, TaL

45, 23 and 18 mm), “Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district,

Kerala, at the border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka

and Tamil Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.3.66-68 (3 males; SVL412,

360 and 460 mm, TaL 51, 42 and 49 mm), “Anamallies”,

now Anaimalai Hills.

Biology: Collected at 1,066 m above msl. Specimen

BMNH 1955.1.3.68 contains an adult Limnonectes

limnocharis (Gravenhorst, 1829) in its stomach.

Note: The generic position follows Slovinski etal. (2001 ).

All specimens agree well with the description provided in Smith

(1943). Specimens BMNH 1955.1.3.63, BMNH 1955.1.3.64,

BMNH 1955.1.3.66, and BMNH 1955.1.3.67 belong to the

Form 1 of Smith ( 1 943), whereas others belong to Form 2.

Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758)

Material Examined: (Fig. 4): 2 specimens; Two skins

of the 1946' collection. High Wavy Ghat Road, “High Wavy

Mts.”, now Meghamalai Hills.

Biology: These specimens were not previously

discussed. Both skins are conserved in the private collection

of the senior author. However, they are worth being mentioned

here due to their size. One specimen was 179 cm long, the

other one 229 cm long.

Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836)

While no specimens were examined, this species was

encountered a few times in the High Wavy Mts. during the

construction of the Ghat Road in the lower altitude section

between Chinnamanur and the Varushanad Valley.

The senior author came across the species in all the

Tea plantation areas where he worked but never collected a

specimen of such a well known and dangerous snake, which

usually preferred to get out of the way.

Table 6: Main morphological characters of specimens of Amphiesma beddomei

308

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

It is worth recording that in 1921 Angus Hutton’s father

accidentally caught a King Cobra alive that was lying on the

overhead shade in a Tea nursery, mistaking it for a common

Rat Snake that he had planned to put in the Rice Store! He

was lucky to get out of the situation alive, after the labourers

had all fled, thanks to help by the foreman with a large stone.

The senior author still has the skin in his personal collection.

It is 325 cm long.

Viperidae Oppel, 1811

Trimeresurus ( Peltopelor ) macrolepis (Beddome, 1862)

Material Examined: 14 specimens; BMNH 1955.1.3.82,

Unnumbered specimen 1 (2 males; Table 7; skin), BMNH

1955.1.3.83-85, Unnumbered specimens 2-3 (5 females),

“Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills. BMNH 1955.1.3.86,

BMNH 1955.1.3.88-90 (4 females; see Table 7), BMNH

1955. 1 .3.87 (male), BMNH 1955. 1 .3.91-92 (2 unsexed, juvenile

specimens; damaged, scales not counted), “South India”, no

precise locality. Three other specimens, BMNH 1955.1.3.93-

95, were exchanged in 1955 and are no longer present in the

BMNH’s collections.

Biology: Specimens of Anaimalai Hills were collected

between 609 and 1,981 m above msl. Specimen BMNH

1955.1.3.88 contains a rodent in its stomach.

Note: This species was referred to the genus Peltopelor

Gunther, 1864 by Malhotra and Thorpe (2004). For reasons

explained elsewhere (David etal. 2009), we regard the genera

recognized by these authors as subgenera of the genus

Trimeresurus Lacepede, 1 804.

Trimeresurus ( Trimeresurus ) malabarieus (Jerdon, 1854)

Material Examined: 12 specimens; BMNH

1955.1.3.69 (male), BMNH 1955.1.3.70-71 (2 females;

Table 7; specimen BMNH 1955.1.3.71 as a skin only),

“Nilgiri-Wynaad”, now Wayanad district, Kerala, at the

border between the states of Kerala, Karnataka and

Tamil Nadu. BMNH 1955.1.3.72-73, BMNH 1955.1.3.75

(3 females; skins only), BMNH 1955.1.3.74 (male; skin

only), “Anamallies”, now Anaimalai Hills. BMNH

1955.1.3.76, BMNH 1955.1.3.80 (2 males; skins only),

BMNH 1955.13.77-79 (3 females; skins only), Mysore.

Another specimen, BMNH 1955.1.3.81, was exchanged in

1955 and is no longer present in the BMNH’s collections.

Table 7: Main morphological characters of specimens of Trimeresurus Lacepede, 1804

Trimeresurus malabarieus

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

309

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Biology: Specimens from Nilgiri Hills and Mysore

were collected at 1,066 m above msl, those of the Anaimalai

Hills between 609 and 1,981 m.

Note: These specimens agree well with the description

provided in Smith ( 1943).

DISCUSSION

The examination of this new collection allows us to

extend the composition of the snake fauna of the “High Wavy

Mts.” or Meghamalai Hills. We also take this opportunity to

present unpublished data on specimens of Tropidolaemus

huttoni.

A list of snake species of the Meghamalai Hills

On the basis of Hutton (1949a) and of the present

collection, we establish a preliminary list of snake species

recorded from this area as defined above in the Introduction.

A total of 39 species is listed.

We have not recorded in detail morphological characters

of the collection of 1946-48, but the determination of the

included species were checked. Morphological ecological data

of specimens of the 1946-48' collection were given by Hutton

(1949a).

Uropeltidae Miiller, 1831

Melanophidium punctatum Beddome, 1 87 1

Plecturus perroteti Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854

Rhinophis sanguineus Beddome, 1863

Rhinophis travancoricus Boulenger, 1 892

Uropeltis arcticeps (Gunther, 1875)

Uropeltis ceylanicus Cuvier, 1829

Uropeltis ellioti (Gray, 1858)

Uropeltis pulneyensis (Beddome, 1 863)

Uropeltis rubromaculatus (Beddome, 1867)

Uropeltis woodmasoni (Theobald, 1876)

Pythonidae Fitzinger, 1826

Python molurus molurus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Colubridae Oppel, 1811

Ahaetulla dispar (Gunther, 1864)

Ahaetulla perroteti (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)

Ahaetulla pulverulenta (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril,

1854)

Argyrogena fasciolata (Shaw, 1802)

Boiga ceylonensis (Gunther, 1858)

Coelognathus helena (Daudin, 1803)

Dryocalamus nympha (Daudin, 1803)

Lycodon striatus (Shaw, 1802)

Lycodon travancoricus (Beddome, 1870)

Oligodon brevicauda Gunther, 1862

Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerdon, 1853)

Oligodon travancoricus Beddome, 1877

Oligodon venustus (Jerdon, 1853)

Ptyas mucosa (Linnaeus, 1758)

Natricidae Bonaparte, 1840

Amphiesma beddomei (Gunther, 1864)

Amphiesma stolatum (Linnaeus, 1758)

Atretium schistosum (Daudin, 1803)

Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839)

Xenochropliis piscator (Schneider, 1799)

Elapidae Boie, 1827

Calliophis nigrescens (Gunther, 1862)

Naja naja (Linnaeus, 1758)

Ophiophagus hannah (Cantor, 1836)

Viperidae Oppel, 1811

Viperinae Oppel, 1811

Daboia russelii (Shaw & Nodder, 1797)

Crotalinae Oppel, 1811

Trimeresurus ( Trimeresurus ) gramineus (Shaw, 1802)

Trimeresurus (Peltopelor) macrolepis (Beddome, 1862)

Trimeresurus ( Trimeresurus) malabaricus (Jerdon, 1754)

Tropidolaemus huttoni (Smith, 1949)

An updated account on Tropidolaemus huttoni (Smith,

1949)

David and Vogel (1998) expanded the description of

Trimeresurus huttoni Smith, 1949 and referred this species

to the genus Tropidolaemus Wagler, 1830. However, the

description provided in this paper was rather incomplete. The

paratype of Trimeresurus huttoni Smith, 1949, BNHS 2658,

has been traced and examined. It had been deposited in 1962

in the collection of the then Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay

now CSMVS, Mumbai and (presumably) later transferred to

the Bombay Natural History Society. The senior author could

also provide a description of the pattern of these specimens

recorded while they were alive. The most important new

character is the bright brick red colour of the snout (Fig. 2), a

feature unknown in other species of the genus Tropidolaemus

as defined in Vogel et al. (2007). Precise biological data of

these specimens, which remain the sole known specimens,

are also made available below.

Morphology

On the basis of this new information, we expand the

description of Tropidolaemus huttoni as follows:

310

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Material: BMNH 1948.1.8.75 (male; holotype) and

BNHS 2658 (female; paratype), both from “The High Wavy

Mountains, Madura district. South India; altitude 1,854 m”,

a locality here precised as: a patch of bamboo at the confluence

of the Manalaar and Chinna Manalaar rivers, Manalaar Tea

Estate, about 1 airline kilometre full east of Brooks Peak, very

close to the border with Kerala, Meghamalai Hills, Teni district,

Tamil Nadu. Collected by Angus Hutton on November 09, 1 947.

Main morphological characters are summarized in

Table 8. Other characters are:

Body: Both juvenile snakes; body moderately stout.

Head short and wide at its base, about 1.6 times longer than

wide, triangular, clearly distinct from neck, thick, flattened

in front of the eye and depressed on the middle of the snout;

very sharp jaw angle posteriorly; snout short, flattened, about

2x as long as the diameter of the eye, slightly protracted with

its tip slightly raised, rounded and narrow when seen from

above, angulous and prominent when seen from the side, with

a sharp canthus rostral is: eye large (juvenile), diameter similar

to the distance between its inferior margin and upper lip edge;

tapering tail, cylindrical, long and prehensile. Dorsal scales

rhombohedral, all smooth at mid-body, some feebly keeled

on the posterior part of body.

Head: Rostral as high as wide, triangular, barely

visible from above; nasal triangular, undivided, with nostril

in its middle; no nasal pore visible; 1 pair of enlarged,

narrow intemasals, about twice longer but barely wider than

adjacent scales on upper snout surface, separated from one

another by 1 or 2 small scales that are about half as wide as

the internasals. 4 canthal scales bordering the canthus

rostralis between the internasal and the corresponding

supraocular, slightly enlarged compared with adjacent snout

scales; 1 small triangular loreai; 2 upper preoculars above

the loreai pit, the lower one bordering the upper margin of

the loreai pit, the upper one visible from above, both

elongated and in contact with the loreai; the lower preocular

that borders the lower margin of the loreai pit is divided

into two small scales; 2 postoculars on both sides of both

specimens; 1 supraocular, entire, long and narrow, barely

larger than the adjacent upper head scales and 0.8-0. 9 time

as large as internasals, largely indented on its inner margin;

upper snout and cephalic scales relatively large, irregular

and unequal, barely imbricate, flat, distinctly keeled both

on the snout, and on the middle and posterior part of the

head, strongly keeled and imbricate on posterior part of

head; 9 cephalic scales on a line between the supraoculars;

temporals on three rows, the lower ones enlarged, as large

as the supralabials, all strongly keeled; 1 thin, elongated,

crescent-like subocular; 9 supralabials on each side in both

specimens, third largest; 1st supralabial completely

separated from the nasal; 2nd not bordering the anterior

margin of the loreai pit and topped by a prefoveal, namely

the scale above the supralabial bordering the pit that borders

the whole of the anterior margin of the loreai pit, 1 or

2 minute scales on each side between the nasal and the 2nd

supralabial; 3rd supralabial large, rather low and elongated,

about 2.3 times as long as high, separated both from the

posterior lower preocular scale and from the subocular by

one small scale; 4th supralabial nearly as high as long than

the third one, separated from the subocular by

I small scale; 5th and other posterior supralabials much

smaller than preceding ones, not larger than lower

temporals, but smooth; 5th supralabial separated from the

subocular by two scale rows and in contact with the first

and second lower temporals; 10 pairs of infralabials in both

specimens, those of the first pair in contact with each other

and obtusely but distinctly keeled, infralabials of the first,

second and third pairs in contact with the chin shield; one

pair of elongated, keeled chin shields; 6 or 7 rows of gular

scales, distinctly keeled.

Pattern in preservative (holotype only, as the paratype

is desiccated and turned brown): Dorsal and upper tail surfaces

dull green, slightly paler on the body sides, with on each side

a series of small, vertically elongated white spots located on

the 2nd and 3rd scale rows from the vertebral row, separated

each other by about 3-5 scales; no ventrolateral stripes; end

of tail dull reddish on a length equivalent to the 25 posterior

subcaudal scales. Venter pale green.

Head dull green above and on its sides; a white temporal

streak running on the 3rd and 4th rows of temporals from eye

to the neck, edged below with a dull, rather indistinct red

streak; another white streak extending on the upper preocular

and loreai forward the eye, not reaching the nasal; this forward

white streak is bordered below with a reddish-brown,

indistinct streak that makes the snout tip rather red.

Pattern in life: Body grass green, with on each side a

series of small, vertically elongated white spots; interstitial

skin yellow. Tail green, with the last inch bright red. Venter

Table 8: Main characters of known specimens of Tropidolaemus huttoni (Smith, 1949)

Number Sex SVL TaL TaL/TL VEN SC DSR CEP InS SL C-SL3 C-SL4

BMNH 1948.1.8.75 M 98 38 0.279 146 52 25-23-19 9 1 9/9 1/1 1/1

BNHS 1955.1.2.87 F 184 35 0.160 140 48 23-21-17 9 2 9/9 1/1 2/2

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

311

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

light green with white flecks and yellow tinge on their outer

margins.

Head green as the body, with a pale yellow temporal

streak edged below with a touch of red, brighter in front of

the eye than backwards; snout distinctly brick red on its sides

and above. Below, lower labials, chin and throat pale green,

with the mental scale golden yellow.

The pattern of the head in life is depicted in Fig. 2.

This illustration was reconstructed from a black & white

picture colourized by the senior author from his own notes.

Biology

Both snakes were caught during day time through a

clump of Ochlandra travancorica , a local bamboo named

Eeta in Tamil on the side of an elephant track. The Shikari

assistant of the senior author, a jungle expert, had never seen

such a snake previously. The red, upturned snout and the red

wiggling tail distinguished immediately these two snakes from

the hundreds of babies of T. malabaricus , T. gramineus and

T. macrolepis seen by the senior author. These three latter

species are still common in the Tea and Coffee plantations,

where they adapted to the leaf litter at the base of the bushes.

When the Tea estate was being surveyed and planned

it was decided to leave intact corridors of forests in which

elephants could move from the Meghamalai Hills to Periyar

lake. These tracts of dense jungle were still extant in 1993.

However, this species has never been seen again.

Visits to the area made by the first author between 1949

and 1993

In addition to visits made in 1949. 1950. 1951 and 1952,

Angus Hutton revisited the High Wavy Mts. in 1972 when

on holiday with his wife and again in 1986 during the course

of a UN/FAO Consultancy, and most recently in 1993. On

each and every occasion he searched a wide area surrounding

the, still standing. Bamboo clump where the initial capture

was made in 1946. He also thoroughly questioned the

plantation labourers (many of whom remembered him), and

showed them pictures and offered a reward and also made

arrangements with the management should a specimen turn

up. However, though one labourer claimed to have killed a

similarly coloured pitviper in the nearby Tea some years

before, nothing has eventuated. Sadly, several collecting trips

made by Rom Whitaker to the precise area by Hutton indicated

have also proved fruitless.

Comparison with Tropidolaemus wagleri (Boie, 1827)

A comparison between Trimeresurus huttoni and

Tropidolaemus wagleri was provided in David and Vogel

(1998). These species sharing important characters, such as

( 1 ) absence of a nasal pore, (2) second supralabial not bordering

the loreal pit, (3) strongly keeled upper snout and cephalic

scales, (4) strongly keeled gular scales, (5) strongly keeled

temporal scales, (6) white or red and white dorsal spots, and

(7) bicolour pre- and postocular streaks. On this basis,

Trimeresurus huttoni was referred to the genus Tropidolaemus.

Vogel et al. (2007) provided an extensive discussion

on variation of Tropidolaemus wagleri based on more

specimens than those available to David and Vogel (1998).

On this basis, T. wagleri and T. huttoni differ by (1) an

upturned snout in T. huttoni , (2) a longer tail in males of

similar size ( 1 50-250 mm), with a ratio TaL/TL of 0.279 for

the male of T. huttoni vs. 0. 179-0. 196 in 5 juvenile males of

T. wagleri , (3) a shorter tail in female of T. huttoni , with a

ratio of 0.160 vs. 0.176-0.178 in 2 juvenile females of

T. wagleri , (4) internasals separated in T. huttoni , always in

contact in T. wagleri , (5) a deep red snout in T. huttoni ,

whereas the red hue is present only on the lower edge of the

preocular streak in T. wagleri, and (6) a mental scale bright

golden yellow in T. huttoni, whereas it is pale green in

T. wagleri. As pointed out in David and Vogel (1998), main

scalation characters of these two species are identical.

The differences between Tropidolaemus huttoni and

Tropidolaemus subannulatus (Gray, 1 842), as defined in Vogel

et al. (2007), are similar in points ( 1 ), (2), with a ratio TaL/TL

in males T. subannulatus of 0.157-0.173, (5) and (6)

Intemasals are separated by 1-2 scales in both species.

According to these data, there is no doubt about both

the generic belonging and distinct specific status of

Tropidolaemus huttoni. The occurrence of Tropidolaemus

huttoni in southern India therefore extends considerably

westwards the range of the genus Tropidolaemus, previously

regarded as typically Indo-Malayan and limited northwards

(and westwards) to the Phang-Nga Province of Thailand

(Pauwels etal. 2000), namely 2,400 airline kilometres across

the Bay of Bengal and many more following the mainland.

Biogeographical implications

There is really no possibility for an erroneous type

locality of Tropidolaemus huttoni. The puzzling occurrence

of this Indo-Malayan genus in South India was discussed by

David and Vogel (1998). However, there are other reptile

genera that show similar distributional pattern, occurring both

in Southeast Asia (Indo-China, West Malaysia and the Indo-

Malayan Archipelago), and southern India and Sri Lanka,

with an apparent distributional gap in Myanmar and most of

Peninsular India. According to Das (1996), there are 42 genera

of Indo-Malayan reptiles represented in the Indian region.

Some snake genera of southern India with Indo-Malayan

affinities have been discussed by Hora and Jayaram (1949),

312

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

the most striking examples being the genera Cylindrophis

and Chtysopelea. The latter genus has three Indo-Malayan

species and one Sri Lankan endemic, in addition to a

widespread species (Chrysopelea ornata) with a

discontinuous range, being found in eastern India to southern

China, southwards to Malaya, with populations in south-

western India and Sri Lanka (Welch 1988).

These and other snake genera discussed by Hora and

Jayaram ( 1949) share a common characteristic in being absent

from the area between the Indo-Chinese region and southern

Peninsular India. Das ( 1996) showed that the reptile faunas

of the Western Ghats and of north-east India were not similar.

He concluded that the occurrence of Indo-Malayan elements

in the fauna of southern India and Sri Lanka is the remnants

of an ancient, much wider distribution of plants and animal

groups. The wet mountains of southern India provided then

the sole refuge to many Indo-Malayan forest-dweller

elements, now absent from the dry adjacent lowlands, when

the Indian climate and flora dramatically changed following

the Eocene with a recession of tropical evergreen forests and

their replacement by dry savannas. Indian populations would

be relictual, being ecologically trapped, and would have

evolved independently from original Indo-Malayan taxa. The

presence suggested by Das (1996) of a more widespread

distribution of species than now fits well with the presence

of Tropidolaemus in India.

Interestingly, Blatter (1929) recorded 26 species of

mosses, of which one was previously only found in Ceylon

(now Sri Lanka), and two previously known from Ceylon

and West Malaysia.

Abetter knowledge of the distribution of Tropidolaemus

huttoni through further collections would throw light on the

zoogeography of the genus. Unfortunately, one has to wait

for additional, adult specimens of this species, which still

remain unknown.

A BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF THE SNAKE FAUNA OF THE

Meghamalai Hills

We compare in Table 9 the known snake fauna of the

Meghamalai Hills with the faunas of three other mountain ranges

of South India. Two are located farther north, the Anaimalai

Hills, which belong to the same system of mountain ranges,

and the Nilgiri Hills in the Western Ghats. The third range, the

Cardamom Hills, is located south of the Meghamalai Hills.

References are given in Table 9. It should however be understood

that the faunas of these two latter ranges are much better known

than the fauna of the High Wavy Mountains. So this comparison

should be considered to be preliminary at best.

It might be surprising to have a higher percentage of

species inhabiting the Meghamalai Hills shared with the Nilgiri

Hills, a distant range separated from the southern system of

hills and plateau by the Palghat gap. In contrast, the nearby

Anaimalai Hills have the lowest number of shared species.

These figures seem especially to suggest a lack of systematic

collecting in the Anaimalai and the Cardamom Hills.

The Meghamalai Hills constitute a rather isolated spur

of highlands along the south-eastern edge of the Kamban

Valley figures, but do not seem to host a peculiar reptilian

fauna with the exception of Tropidolaemus huttoni and the

second known specimen of the Skink Dasia subcaerulea.

CONCLUSION

As explained above, this survey is highly preliminary.

The strictly restricted access of the Tea estates covering much

Table 9: Comparison between the snake fauna of three South Indian ranges

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

313

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

Table 9: Comparison between the snake fauna of three South Indian ranges (contd.)

314

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

SNAKES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, SOUTH INDIA

of the Meghamalai Hills does not make it easy for

any herpetological investigations in this area. Yet this

isolated system of high hills seems to host remnants of

undisturbed forests, thanks to the principle of conserving tracts

of undisturbed forests for the largest mammals as surveyed

by the first author when the Tea estates were being planned.

The survey of these tracts in the protected areas included

in restricted tea estates might bring to light new data on the

relationships of the herpetological faunas inhabiting the hilly

systems of southern India.

Numerous questions have yet to be resolved, the most

puzzling of it being the presence in this area of members of the

Indo-Malayan fauna (David and Vogel 1998), especially of a

pitviper of which nearly nothing is known exactly 60 years

after its discovery by the first author. Although covered with

tea plantations, this area is still very rich in flora and fauna.

Elephants, Sambar, Barking Deer, Nilgiri Thar, and

Gaur are numerous. Recently, the very rare Fmit Bat Latidens

Blatter, E. (1929): Mosses of the Bombay Presidency, the High Wavy

Mountain and Mount Abu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 33(4):

876-877.

Blatter, E. & F. Hallberg (1917): Preliminary notes on a recent

botanical tour to the High Wavy Mountain (S. India). J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 25(2): 290-292.

Boulenger, GA. (1891): On new or little known Indian and Malayan

reptiles and batrachians. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6)8: 288-292.

Das, I. (1996): Biogeography of the Reptiles of South Asia. Krieger

Publishing Co., Malabar (Florida), vii + 87 pp.. Pis. 1-36.

David, P. M. Pettu. G Vogel & G Doria (2009): Anew species of Pitviper

of the genus Trimeresurus (Popeia) from northern Sumatra (Squamata:

Viperidae). Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. G. Doria 100: 323-346

David, P. & G Vogel (1998): Redescription of Trimeresurus huttoni

Smith, 1949 (Serpentes, Crotalinae), with a discussion of its

relationships. Hamadryad 22(2): 73-87.

Dowling, H.G. ( 195 1 ): A proposed standard system of counting ventrals

in snakes. Brit. J. Herpet. 1: 97-99.

Helfenberger, N. (2001): Phylogeneric relationships of Old World

ratsnakes based on visceral organ topography, osteology, and

allozyme variation. Russian J. Herpet. 7, Supplement: 1-62.

Hora, S.L. & K.C. Jayaram (1949): Remarks on the distribution of

snakes of Peninsular India with Malayan affinities. Proc. Natn. Inst.

Sci. India 15: 399-403.

Hutton, A.F. ( 1949a): Notes on the snakes and mammals of the High

Wavy Mountains, Madura district, S. India. Part I - Snakes.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 48(3): 454-460.

Hutton, A.F. (1949b): Notes on the snakes and mammals of the High

Wavy Mountains, Madura district. South India. Part II - Mammals.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 48(4): 681-694.

Malhotra, A. & R.S. T horpe (2004): A phylogeny of four mitochondrial

gene regions suggests a revised taxonomy for Asian pitvipers

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Mukherjee, D. & S. Bhupathy (2007): A new species of Wolf Snake

(Serpentes: Colubridae: Lvcodon) from Anaikatti Hills, Western

Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India. Russian./. Herpet. 14(1): 21-26.

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28-32.

salimalii Thonglongya, 1972, discovered in 1947 by the first

author of this paper, and listed in the 1995 Guinness Book of

Records as the world’s rarest bat, has been rediscovered (Muni

1994) in this area.

It should be a matter of time, opportunity and chance

to rediscover Tropidolaemus huttoni.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are indebted to Gemot Vogel (Heidelberg, Germany)

for his critical reading which improved the draft of the

present paper. We thank J.C. Daniel (Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai, India) who kindly loaned

PD specimens of his collections, Colin J. McCarthy (Natural

History Museum, London, UK), who was instrumental in

allowing the junior author to examine the collection described

here, and Gernot Vogel (Heidelberg) for having drawn the

map.

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Ghats, India. Occ. Pap. Zool. Survey India 114: 1-76. Pis. 1-57.

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596-597.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

317-322

THE ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL

IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS WITHIN BHADRA TIGER RESERVE, INDIA

Karthik Teegalapalli1, Ankila J. Hiremath2 and Devcharan Jathanna3

'Wildlife Conservation Society-India Program, Post-graduate Program in Wildlife Biology and Conservation,

National Centre for Biological Sciences, PO Box: 6501, Hebbal, Bengaluru 560 065, Karnataka, India,

Emai 1 : karth i k . teegalapall i @ gmail .com

2Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment, K-l Commercial Complex, Birbal Road, Jangpura Extension,

New Delhi 110 014, India. Email: [email protected]

3Wildlife Conservation Society-India Program, Centre for Wildlife Studies 26-2, Aga Abbas Ali Road (Apt: 403), Bengaluru 560 042,

Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

Seed arrival is often the primary limitation to forest regeneration in denuded landscapes, with the number of seeds

arriving diminishing rapidly with increase in distance from remnant seed sources. We compared seed rain collected at

different distances from the forest edge in seed rain traps with and without introduced bamboo perches in human-

abandoned agricultural clearings in Bhadra Tiger Reserve. The number of seeds collected per trap below perches was

38 times greater than the number of seeds collected in traps without perches. The species richness of seeds collected

per trap below perches was ten-fold greater than in traps without perches. Our study showed that introducing artificial

perches is an effective method to improve seed arrival into tree-less habitats, as has been found in studies elsewhere.

Keywords: Agricultural clearings, bird-perches, regeneration, seed rain

INTRODUCTION

Vegetation recovery in human-abandoned agricultural

fields and pastures, especially in the initial stages, has been

shown to be severely impeded by factors such as the

unavailability of seeds, harsh micro-climatic conditions,

degraded soil, competition with existing vegetation, and high

rates of seed and seedling predation. Primary amongst these

factors is the lack of seed arrival from adjoining forests (Aide

and Cavelier 1994; Duncan and Chapman 1999; Holl 1999;

Cubina and Aide 2001). In tropical forests, more than

70-80% tree species are animal-dispersed and their dispersal

is likely to be adversely affected by habitat modification as

animals are less likely to traverse open habitats (Howe and

Smallwood 1982).

Remnant trees in clearings foster regeneration by aiding

arrival of bat- and bird-dispersed seeds by providing perch-

sites as well as micro-habitats for regeneration of shade-loving

species (Willson and Crome 1989; Duncan and Chapman

1999; Toh etal. 1999; Galindo-Gonzalez etal. 2000; Guevara

etal. 2004). Restoring disturbed habitats by planting seedlings

may often be expensive in terms of money and labour

(McClanahan and Wolfe 1993). Alternate measures such as

introducing artificial perches to simulate remnant trees in

clearings have resulted in an increase in seed arrival and in

some cases, a slight increase in seedling densities as well

(McClanahan and Wolfe 1993; Aide and Cavelier 1994; Holl

1998; Shiels and Walker 2003).

We investigated whether introducing bamboo-perches

improves arrival of bird-dispersed seeds in agricultural

clearings within Bhadra Tiger Reserve (Bhadra TR). These

clearings were abandoned following a voluntary relocation

programme in 2002. We investigated patterns in arrival of

wind- and bird-dispersed seeds in seed traps below bamboo

perches, and in control traps, at different distances from the

forest edge, in 5 out of the 13 abandoned clearings in

Bhadra TR.

METHODS

Study area

Bhadra TR (13° 22'- 13° 47' N; 75° 29’-75° 47' S, area:

492 sq. km) is located within the Western Ghats biodiversity

hotspot in India (Conservation International 2005, Fig. 1 ).

Bhadra was notified as a Tiger Reserve in 1998, and the reserve

is rich in faunal and floral diversity (Karanth 1982; Jathanna

2001 ). The Reserve is composed of moist deciduous forests in

the southern portion, with dry deciduous forests towards the

north (Meher-Homji 1990). The present study was carried out

in the abandoned village sites of Madia, Vadihaddi, Hipla,

Kesave and Karvani. The clearings in the five abandoned

villages aggregate to about 130 ha of riparian habitat.

Field methods

A 350 m long forest-field edge was selected in each of

the five clearings. Along this edge, five points were marked

at random and transects radiating into the clearing were

established at each of these points for recording arrival of

wind-dispersed seeds. Each transect consisted of seven traps

radiating into the clearings at distances of 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32

ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS IN BHADRA TR

Fig. 1 : On left: Map of Bhadra showing the Bhadra reservoir to the north-west, and the location of abandoned settlements (Inset map

shows location of Bhadra within peninsular India). On right: (enlarged view of the area demarcated in the figure on left): Five of the

13 abandoned settlements in Bhadra that were chosen as replicate sites for this study

and 64 m from the forest edge. Seed traps consisted of pits,

0.1 m deep and 1 x 1 m wide, lined with cloth to enable

detection of small seeds. Seed traps were visited fortnightly

(five visits) between March 15 and May 31, 2006. During

each visit, the pits were emptied and seeds of tree species

counted and collected in numbered bags. Since most trees in

Bhadra flower and fruit during the February-May dry season,

the sampling period coincided with the main window of seed

dispersal in this forest.

Bird perches were erected along one of the five

transects established in each clearing, chosen at random

(Fig. 2). Perches were bamboo poles (Bambusa arundinacea )

about 7 m tall, and had at least ten lateral branches. Seed

traps below the perches trapped both wind- and bird-

dispersed seeds. Seed rain below the bird-perches was

also collected fortnightly, with five collections between

March 15 and May 31, 2006.

Analytical methods

Sites (i.e. village clearings) were considered as

replicates and seed rain data from transects within each site

were pooled for analysis, after compositing by distance. Seed

rain density was log-transformed to achieve normal

distribution of errors, and to remove heteroscedasticity in the

data. Few bird-dispersed seeds (about 0. 1 seed / 5 fortnights/

sq. m) were collected beneath perches in Hipla (a clearing

with many remnant trees - more than 50 in the c. 1.6 ha

sampled for seeds) and data from this clearing were not

included in the analysis. The effects of perches and distance

from edge on seed arrival were investigated using generalised

linear models (GLMs [McCullagh and Nelder 1989]).

Log-transformed seed rain was used as the response variable.

The presence of perches (i.e., ‘perch / no perch,’ a categorical

variable) and distance from the forest-field edge (a continuous

variable) were used as the predictor variables. Intercept and

slope parameters were estimated for the following models:

(a) seed rain as a function of perches, (b) seed rain as a function

of distance from the edge, (c) seed rain as a function of perches

+ distance from the edge, and (d) seed rain as a function of

perches + distance from the edge + an interaction between

perches and distance from the edge. These models were

compared using AICc (Akaike’s Information Corrected

Criterion), and the relative importance of the different models

was assessed based on AICc weights (Burnham and Anderson

1998; Johnson and Omland 2004). Statistical analysis was

carried out using software R, version 2.5.0.

318

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS IN BHADRA TR

,

Pais;?

Fig. 2: Bamboo bird-perches (height: 7 m) erected at 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 m from the forest edge in Karvani,

one of the abandoned clearings within Bhadra

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Effect of perches on seed arrival into clearings

Frugivorous birds observed frequenting the perches

included Jungle Myna (Acridotheres juscus). Common Myna

(A. tristis ), Grey-headed Starling (Sturnia molabarica) and

Red-whiskered Bulbul ( Pycnonotus jocosus). A total of 4,051

wind-dispersed seeds of 19 tree species were collected from

175 seed rain traps over five fortnightly collections. A total

of 3,715 bird-dispersed seeds of 10 tree species were collected

from 35 traps below perches in comparison with 390 bird-

dispersed seeds of 7 tree species collected from 140 traps

without perches over the same sampling period (refer

Appendix).

The results of GLMs suggested that the perches had

strongest effect on seed arrival (Table 1 , Fig. 3). Distance

from the forest-field edge had little-to-no effect on numbers

of bird-dispersed seeds that arrived below perches. At any

given distance from the forest-field edge, the mean density

of bird-dispersed seeds collected under perches (seeds /

5 fortnights / sq. m) was about 38 times that of seeds collected

from traps without perches ( 106.2 ±95.0 cf. 2.8 ± 3.8), whereas

the mean density of wind- and bird-dispersed seeds that

arrived below perches were about 25 times that of seeds

collected from traps without perches ( 128.86 ±155.85 cf. 5.09

± 3.95). Perches not only enhanced the numbers of seeds

arriving, but also augmented the mean number of species

arriving into plots in clearings by a factor of 10.

The genus Ficus accounted for three of the ten species

(and 95% of all seeds) collected below perches. Ficus species

are of considerable value to forests in Asia as keystone resources

due to their large crop size and asynchronous phenology

(Borges 1993; Shanahan etal. 2001 ). About 40% of the Ficus

seeds were from species such as F. religiosa and F. mysorensis,

which are often cultivated in villages in India. Seed arrival

was as low as 0. 1 seed / sq. m during the study period in Hipla,

a clearing with many remnant trees, indicating that perches are

likely to be effective only in tree-less sites where birds are

perch-limited, and not in sites with remnant trees.

Artificial perches have been introduced in other

clearings adjoining forests (McClanahan and Wolfe 1993)

with varying disturbance histories, such as grazing (Aide and

Cavelier 1994; Holl 1998), and landslides (Shiels and Walker

2003). These studies have shown that seed arrival below

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

319

ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS IN BHADRA TR

lack of improved seedling establishment in these studies was

attributed to factors such as harsh micro-climatic conditions,

seed predation, lack of nutrients in the soil and competition

from existing vegetation in the clearings.

Factors such as perch height and design may also affect

the number of bird visits: seed arrival has been reported to be

higher below relatively taller trees, because they tend to attract

more species of birds; taller perches, similarly, are likely to

attract a greater number of bird species (Duncan and Chapman

1999; Toh et al. 1999). Holl (1998) found higher bird visit

rates to, and seed dispersal below, branch perches compared

with crossbar perches. The height of perches used in this study

(about 7 m compared with average canopy height of 25-30 m

in Bhadra) and the relatively thin lateral branches of bamboo

perches may have deterred larger-bodied frugivores, such as

barbets (Megalciima spp.) and green pigeons ( Treron spp.)

from visiting the perches.

Implications for restoration

Clearings within forests help maintain high densities

of herbivores (and consequently, large carnivores), and thus

management interventions frequently focus on maintaining

such clearings (Schaller 1967; Karanth and Sunquist 1992).

In the case of Bhadra, the abandoned agricultural fields may

be maintained as clearings, akin to management practiced in

other protected areas in India (e.g., Kanha and Nagarahole

National Parks). However, findings from our study provide

insights for restoration of slash-and-bum fallows, abandoned

tea and coffee plantations, and other degraded lands where

Table 1: Effect of perches compared with that of distance from the forest edge, the combined effect of both, and interaction

between the two, on number of bird-dispersed seeds that arrived below perches in five abandoned clearings within Bhadra TR

Perch * Distance denotes interaction between the two predictor variables

Perches

| | Absent

I I Present

Fig. 3: Number of seeds collected in seed traps with and

without bird-perches in five abandoned clearings within Bhadra

at different distances from the forest edge. Data are number of

seeds (bird- and wind-dispersed) collected between March 15

and May 31, 2006

perches is higher by a factor of 20 (Holl 1998; Shiels and

Walker 2003) to 150 (McClanahan and Wolfe 1993) than in

sites without perches. However, the effectiveness of perches

in increasing seed rain was not reflected in seedling

establishment; only one of these studies reported an increase

in seedling establishment (McClanahan and Wolfe 1993). The

320

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS IN BHADRA TR

the management objective is clearly to restore the original

vegetation.

We found that introducing perches is a simple and practical

method to overcome the primary limitation of seed arrival into

clearings and deforested land adjacent to forests, especially in

relatively open sites where birds are perch-limited. Improved

seed arrival does not necessarily translate into an increase in

regeneration, however. In order to foster regeneration,

augmenting seed arrival may need to go hand-in-hand with

interventions to overcome other barriers to regeneration such as

harsh micro-climatic conditions, competition with existing shrubs

and grasses, and seed and seedling predation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Rhino and Tiger Conservation Fund

(US Fish and Wildlife Service), the Wildlife Conservation

Society-India Programme, and the Centre for Wildlife

Studies, Bengaluru, for funding and supporting this

study, and Shankaranna, Prasad, Pradeep, and Subhash

for assistance with data collection. The Karnataka Forest

Department granted permission to work at Bhadra

and provided logistical support. We also thank Drs. Ajith

Kumar and Jagdish Krishnaswamy for their valuable

comments.

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Appendix

List of tree species, seeds of which were collected from seeds traps in this study in Bhadra. Also given are the location where each

species was encountered (i.e., whether in clearings, C, or in the adjoining forests, F), and the species' dispersal mode

(A = animal-, B = bird- & W = wind-dispersed)

Bird-dispersed seeds were collected below bamboo perches erected in the clearings

322

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

323-326

NEW DESCRIPTION

A NEW TRIBE AND A NEW GENUS OF OSCINELLINAE (DIPTERA: CHLOROPIDAE) FROM INDIA

P.T. Cherian' and A.K. Shinimol2

'Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Trivandrum 695 581, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

2St. Thomas College, Kozhencherry 689 641, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

A new tribe, Indonellini with type genus Indonella Cherian gen. nov. of Subfamily Oscinellinae (Chloropidae) is

described. Salient features and affinities of Indonella are given and the type species I. intermedia sp. nov. from Kerala

is also described.

Key words: Diptera, Chloropidae, Oscinellinae, new tribe, genus and species, India

INTRODUCTION

Chloropidae is a medium-sized family of Diptera

comprising of small flies represented in all the faunal regions

of the world. Nartshuk (1983, 1987) gave Family Chloropidae

the status of a superfamily, Chloropoidea and divided it into

families Siphonellopsidae and Chloropidae, the former

comprising genera dealt with earlier under the Subfamily

Siphonellopsinae of the undivided Family Chloropidae, and

the latter the rest of Chloropid genera. However, Cherian

(2002) based on his studies on the close affinities shown by

many species and genera belonging to the two families

relegated Siphonellopsidae to the rank of a subfamily of

Chloropidae as traditionally followed.

During the course of revision of Chloropidae of India

and adjacent countries, the authors came across a new species,

belonging to Subfamily Oscinellinae, which shows close

affinities to some genera of Siphonellopsinae. Because of

some intermediate and also combination of characters the

species possesses, it does not fit elsewhere in any of the genera

of 22 recognized tribes of Chloropidae. Hence, this new

species, Indonella intermedia from Kerala, is placed in a new

tribe, Indonellini with type genus Indonella gen. nov. under

Subfamily Oscinellinae. The new tribe, genus and species

are described here.

Type specimens are retained in the collections of the

University of Kerala and shall later be deposited in the

National Collections of Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

Abbreviations used:

ant3 - third antennal segment; as - apical scutellar

bristle; 1 dc - first dorsocentral bristle; 2 dc - second

dorsocentral bristle; fr - frontal hair; h - humeral bristle;

if - interfrontal bristle; ivt - inner vertical bristle;

kepst - katepisternum; m-m - medical cross-vein;

npl - notopleural bristle; oc - ocellar bristle; orb - fronto-

orbital bristle; ovt - outer vertical bristle; pa - postalar bristle;

prs - prescutellar bristle; pvt - postvertical bristle; r - radial

vein; r-m - radio-medial vein; sa - supraalar bristle; ss -

subapical scutellar bristle.

Indonellini Cherian, tribe, nov.

Type genus: Indonella Cherian gen. nov.

A small tribe having long and reclinate orb and oc, long

ivt , broad gena, 2 h, and 2 dc bristles, subsquarish scutellum

with as widely separated at base, long r 2+3 and vestigial but

somewhat distinct anal vein.

Head higher than long; frons greatly widened at vertex,

projecting beyond the anterior margin of eye; frontal triangle

large and tomentose, with depressions; face deeply concave

with low facial carina; arista long and finely pubescent; gena

wider than ant3 with lower shiny part bearing many punctate

hairs and long oral setae; eyes pubescent with horizontal long

axis; cephalic bristles very well-developed; ivt longer than

ovt and subequal to pvt, oc reclinate; orb and if 4 each, the

former reclinate; scutum finely tomentose with evenly

distributed dense hairs; pleura with kepst hairy; scutellum

subsquarish, much wider than long; as arising from

posterolateral comers of scutellum and borne on warts; base

of 55 1 nearer to base of scutellum than to as; h 2, inner shorter

and slightly turned mesad; npl 1 + 1, equal to outer h,pa 1 and

1 dc; dc 2 short, slender and presutural wing broad with well-

developed anal area, oblique m-m , and vestigial, but slightly

distinct anal vein; legs without tibial and femoral organs.

Distribution: Oriental Region

Remarks: Indonellini shows affinities to both the

subfamilies Siphonellopsinae and Oscinellinae and is

intermediate between the two. In the general development of

frons, gena and antennae, appearance of head and in having

ivt longer than ovt, 2 h and 2 dc bristles and such other

characters, Indonellini superficially resembles some of the

genera of Siphonellopsinae like Apotropina Hendel,

Protohippalates Andersson and others. However, in

NEW DESCRIPTION

possessing reclinate oc and orb , in the absence of additional

bristles like sa.prs and a bristle on kepst and in the nature of

general chaetotaxy, thoracic pubescence and build of wing

and wing venation, this tribe differs from Siphonellopsinae

and exhibits close affinities to other tribes and genera of

Oscinellinae. But a combination of characters like anteriorly

projecting frons, long cephalic bristles with ivt longer than

ovt, presence of 2 h and 2 dc bristles, nearly subtruncate

scutellum with widely separated as borne on warts and a

vestigial anal vein are not found together in any other

Chloropid tribe or genus so far known, though a few of these

characters are very rarely found in different combinations in

some of the other tribes and genera of Oscinellinae. Hence, a

new tribe Indonellini with type genus Indonella gen. nov. is

proposed under which the new species is placed.

Genus Indonella Cherian gen. nov.

Type species: Indonella intermedia sp. nov.

Medium sized black flies with anteriorly projecting

frons, large, subshiny and dark tomentose frontal triangle,

broad gena, long ivt, flattened scutum, nearly subsquarish

scutellum with as borne on short warts, 1 + 1 npl and 2 h and

2 dc bristles.

Head: Higher than long. Frons projecting beyond

anterior margin of eye, widened at vertex and gradually

narrowing anteriorly as in most genera of Siphonellopsinae,

with well-developed black fr, frontal triangle large, with

convex side margins, subshiny, finely dark tomentose, partly

with complex depressions as in some species of Euthyridium

Frey; if long, reclinate, in a row along margin of frontal

triangle. Face much narrower than frons, deeply concave;

facial carina triangular between antennae and running as a

low, narrow ridge to depressed epistomal margin. Basal

antennal segments partly covered by projecting frons;

a/7/3 wider than long; arista slender with fine pubescence.

Gena narrowing anteriorly, wider than a/?/3, divided into

narrow upper tomentose part and much broad glabrous lower

pail, the latter with punctate hairs and a row of well-developed

oral setae; vibrissal comer blunt, not reaching anterior margin

of eye; postgena wide. Eye of medium size, oval with nearly

horizontal long axis. Parafacialia not developed. Palpi

cylindrical and proboscis of medium size, both with well-

developed black hairs. Head bristles long, stout, black; ovt a

trifle shorter than ivt , the latter subequal to pvt which are

parallel and turned caudad; oc very well-developed, erect,

subparallel, reclinate; orb 4, reclinate.

Thorax: Scutum wider than long with almost flattened,

very finely dark tomentose, nearly shiny disc-bearing

uniformly distributed punctate hairs. Scutellum much broader

than long, nearly subsquarish, pubescent like but more

coarsely punctate than scutum. Pleura glabrous with short

hairs on kepst. Thoracic bristles very well-developed; h 2, of

which outer is long and subequal to npl and inner nearly half

as long as outer; npl 1 + 1, subequal; pa 1 and 1 dc equal to

npl and pa 2 shorter than pa 1 ; apart from normally developed

1 dc there is a short and slender presutural 2 dc which is only

a little longer than scutal hairs; as widely separated at base,

longer than scutellum, borne on short wart; vs 1 located nearer

to the base of scutellum than to base of as.

Wing: Hyaline with deeply brown veins; costal break

developed; second sector of costa more than 2x as long as

third sector; terminal sector of m 1+2 joining costa very

slightly beyond apex of wing; m-m cross-vein oblique;

terminal sector of m 3+4 distinctly convex below in basal

half. Anal area very well-developed. Haltere yellow.

Legs: Partly yellow and partly dark brown with well-

developed black hairs; midtibia with 2-3 short, black

subterminal spines apart from normally developed spine; tibial

and femoral organs not developed.

Abdomen: Suboval, finely dark tomentose with

numerous well-developed hairs, especially at sides, and

longer, bristly hairs on distal segments. Female ovipositor

slender, of medium size.

Distribution: Oriental Region.

Etymology: The genus has been named after India, the

country of its distribution with the suffix nella.

Remarks: Because of the combination of characters

discussed earlier which Indonella possesses it is considered

a distinct genus intermediate between Siphonellopsinae and

Oscinellinae. Though it shows closer affinities to Oscinellinae

yet it cannot be placed under any other tribe or genus of the

subfamily so far known. Hence, it is placed under the new

tribe Indonellini of which it is the type genus.

Indonella intermedia Cherian sp. nov. (Figs 1-3)

Male and Female: Head (Fig. 1): Higher than long,

length, height and width ratio 16:19:24 (eyes are collapsed

in both the types, and hence width of head cannot be measured

with exactitude). Frons greatly widened at vertex as in most

species of Siphonellopsinae, width at vertex margin more than

twice that behind apex, projecting distinctly beyond anterior

margin of eye, subshiny black along three-fourths its length,

yellowish-brown in rugulose anterior part, longitudinally

depressed at sides of frontal triangle and with well-developed

black fr, frontal triangle large, subshiny black except for

brownish area around apex, finely dark tomentose, reaching

anterior margin of frons, ending with slightly obtuse apex

and with a large, oblong, median shallow depression in

324

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

NEW DESCRIPTION

Figs 1-3: Indonella intermedia Cherian sp. nov.

1. Head; 2. Scutellum; 3. Wing

anterior part and with more depressions, which are

discernable only in certain angles of illumination, and appear

somewhat like suborbicular to rectangular pits on either side

of ocellar triangle, recalling partly the condition in some

species of Euthyridium Frey. Face deeply concave, much

narrower than frons; facial carina triangular between

antennae and running as low ridge to epistomal margin which

is depressed, deeply concave in middle and silvery white

tomentose. Basal antennal segments deeply infuscated, partly

hidden by projecting frons; ant3, 1.4x as wide as long,

yellowish brown with dark tinge along dorso-distal margin;

arista long, located sub-basally, slender, dark brown

with fine, but distinct, fairly dense pubescence. Gena

well-developed, narrowing anteriorly, width in the middle

1 ,25x that of ant3, divided into upper narrow grey tomentose

part and lower much broader, shiny, brownish black part

bearing fairly dense, well-developed, punctate black hairs;

oral margin with a row of 8-10 black, prominent and erect

setae; vibrissal corner blunt, not reaching anterior margin of

eye, with one vibrissal bristle; postgena well-developed,

brownish-black with well-developed hairs; parafacialia not

developed. Eye suboval, appearing to be densely short

pubescent (but not very distinct because of collapsed eyes

in both the types), with horizontal long axis. Palpi cylindrical

and proboscis of medium size, both with well-developed

black hairs. Head bristles very well-developed, black; ivt a

little longer than ovV, pvt subequal to ivt , parallel, turned

caudad; oc long, erect, subparallel, reclinate; orb 4, anterior

3 reclinate, posteriormost reclinate and slightly lateroclinate;

if 4, reclinate, in a row along margin of frontal triangle.

Thorax: Wholly black. Scutum l.lx as wide as long,

with nearly flattened, finely dark tomentose shiny disc

bearing fairly dense, finely punctate evenly distributed black

hairs; humeral callus moderately developed. Scutellum

(Fig. 2) subsquarish, 1.7x as wide as long with almost

flattened disc which is pubescent like but more coarsely

punctate than scutum. Pleura glabrous with slender fairly

dense black hairs on kepst. Thoracic bristles very well-

developed; h 2, outer long and equal to npl, inner slender,

nearly half as long as outer, slightly turned mesad; npl 1 + 1,

long, subequal and equal to pa 1 and 1 dc\ dc 2 presutural,

short and slender, only 2x as long as scutal hairs; pa 2 about

three-fifths as long as pa 1 ; as widely separated at base, 1 ,2x

as long as scutellum, arising from posterolateral corner of

scutellum, borne on short wart; ss 1 , 0.7x as long as as, arising

laterally from nearer to base of scutellum than to base of as.

Wing: (Fig. 3 ): 2.43x as long as wide, hyaline with

yellowish brown veins and brown hairs; proportions of costal

sectors 2 to 4 in the ratio 19:9:6; terminal sectors of r 4+5

and m 1+2 parallel; r-m cross vein distad of middle of discal

cell, opposite 0.52 of its length; m-m cross vein oblique;

terminal sector of m 3+4 convex below in basal half; a

vestigial anal vein is present; anal area well-developed.

Haltere oval, yellow, pointed at apex.

Legs: Medium size, with well-developed dark hairs;

coxae yellow; fore femur along more than three-fourths its

length basally, and mid and hind femora along nearly one

third their lengths, basally yellow and remaining areas

gradually becoming infuscated and blackish especially on

mid and hind femora; fore tibia and all tarsi almost wholly

yellow; mid and hind tibiae brownish-black except for their

yellow bases and apices; mid-tibia with two to three short,

additional subterminal spines apart from the normal spine;

tibial and femoral organs absent.

Abdomen: Suboval, subshiny, finely dark tomentose,

brownish black except for a large yellowish-brown rugulose,

subsquarish area covering median part of dorsum of two basal

segments and with numerous well-developed dark hairs

especially along sides, and longer bristly hairs on distal

segments. Female ovipositor slender of medium size with

dark hairs. Male genitalia could not be studied because of

partly damaged terminal part of abdomen in the male

specimen.

Length: Male: 1.77 mm; wing 1.88 mm. Female:

1.81 mm; wing 1.85 mm.

Holotype: Male, India: Kerala: Trivandrum dt.,

Sreekaryam, 25 m, 2.viii.2006, collected from tuber of

Amorphophallus, Coll. P. Rajamma.

Paratype: 1 female (some body parts including wings

partly crumbled), collection data same as of holotype.

Etymology: The species links the two subfamilies

Siphonellopsinae and Oscinellinae, and hence the name

intermedia.

Remarks: The flies were found resting on freshly dug

out tuber of Amorphophallus and were collected along with

those of Apotropina Hendel.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

325

NEW DESCRIPTION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Government of India for financial support under

its AICOPTAX project and to Prof. Oommen V. Oommen,

Head of the Department of Zoology, University of Kerala for

facilities for work and encouragement. We are also thankful

to Dr. P. Rajamma, Senior Scientist, Central Tuber Crops

Research Institute, Trivandrum for collecting and providing

the specimens for study.

REFERENCES

Cherian, P.T. (2002): The Fauna of India and the adjacent countries -

Diptera Vol. IX. Chloropidae (Part I). Pp. 1-368. (Published-

Director, ZSI, Kolkata).

Nartshuk, E.P (1983): A system of the Superfamily Chloropoidea

(Diptera: Cyclorrhapha). Ent. Oboz . 62(3): 638-648. Moscow.

Nartshuk, E.P. (1987): Zlakovie Mukhi (Diptera: Chloropidae) IK

Systema, Evolusia i Suvazi s rastennymi, Trud. Zool. Inst. Acad.

Nauk 136: 1-280. USSR.

326

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

327-328

REVIEWS

1. SPECIATION IN BIRDS by Trevor Price. Published by Roberts and Company Publishers,

USA. 2008. Pp. 470. Size: 25.5 cm x 17.5 cm. Paperback. Price: US $59.95/-.

This is a very specialized book written by a professional

ornithologist who has extensively worked in the USA and

Asia on sympatric warblers.

He starts the book with the question, 'What is a bird

species?’. As without knowing the concept of species, it

would be difficult to understand (and appreciate) this

book. The concept of species itself has undergone changes

in recent years, thanks to DNA sequencing. From earlier

classification, based mainly on morphological differences,

birds are now classified based on DNA sequence, and some

times even on song characteristics, particularly in sympatric

species (Isler et al. 1998). In the Indian subcontinent,

Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) in their famous book birds

of south asia, the ripley guide have classified 83 pairs of

subspecies as full species based on their geographical

separation.

Based on vocalization, structure and plumage, mtDNA

sequences, Chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita is now

distinguished into four species: Common Chiffchaff

P collybita, Iberian Chiffchaff P brehmii, Canary Island

Chiffchaff P canariensis (polytypic) and Mountain Chiffchaff

P sindianus (polytypic).

There are five species concepts: Evolutionary Species

Concept, General Lineage Concept, Biological Species

Concept, Recognition Species Concept, and Phylogenetic

Species Concept. A detailed description of these classifications

is beyond the scope of this review. As we explore the finer

details of into the concept of a species, it becomes more

complicated as can be understood from this book. Trevor Price

has followed the bird species classification of Sibley and

Monroe (1990), mainly on plumage, shape and size differences

or the biological species concept for sympatric taxa.

The book is divided into 16 main chapters, excluding

the Conclusion which summarizes the concept of this book.

As it is a technical book, it is not for an amateur birdwatcher

because it needs a sound biological background. Many terms

are used presuming that the readers would know them.

However, a Glossary of seven pages is given in the end. This

authoritative book is mostly for post-graduate and research

students who are interested in the concepts of evolution of

birds. I highly recommend this book to all students of

ornithology.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

REFERENCES

Isler, M.L., P.R. Isler & B.M. Whitney (1998): Use of vocalization

to establish species limits in antbirds (Passeriformes:

Thamnophilidae). Auk 115: 577-590.

Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia:

The Ripley Guide. 2 Vol. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx

Edicions, Washington, D.C. and Barcelona.

Sibley, C.G & B.L. Monroe (1990): Distribution and Taxonomy of

Birds of the World. Yale University Press, New Haven, USA.

2. A FIELD GUIDE TO THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT by Krys

Kazmierczak, illustrations by Ber van Perlo. 2008 (Reprint). Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 352.

Size: 21 cm x 14.5 cm. Paperback. Price not stated.

For almost 20 years, the pictorial guide by Salim Ah

and S.D. Ripley was the standard field guide for birdwatchers

in the Indian subcontinent, despite its awkward size and

‘lifeless’ illustrations. In 1999 and 2000, two books brought

Indian bird guides to the international standard. First came the

monumental birds of the Indian subcontinent by Richard

Grimmett, Carol Inskipp and Tim Inskipp (1998), quickly

followed by the more field-friendly pocket guide to the birds

of the Indian subcontinent ( 1 999) by the same authors. As we

were still savouring these two books, in 2000 Krys Kazmierczak

brought out a field guide to the birds of the Indian

subcontinent. Many of us who were not happy with the

classification of Grimmett etal. were relieved to see that Krys

had used the old classification in Ali and Ripley’s book. I will

leave the comparison here as it is not fair for me to compare

these books as all of them have their merits and demerits. It is

also a personal choice of liking or not liking a book.

Krys and Christopher Helm should be congratulated

for bringing out a reprint of this popular book. Illustrations

by Ber van Perlo are mostly good, but sometimes they appear

too gaudy (Plate 70, Babblers) or pale (Plate 78, Reed and

‘Tree’ warblers). While there are differences among

ornithologists about distribution of different species, I find

the maps in this book to be quite accurate and updated. The

distribution maps again prove that we still have to collect

and collate bird data from various parts of India, particularly

REVIEWS

central India where we do not have many birdwatchers. With

the threats of climate change, habitat destruction and habitat

modification, distribution of birds will change. Unless we have

good site-specific data from all over the country, we may not

be able to take corrective measures to save many bird species.

It is extremely important to collect and share bird data through

a system such as World BirdWatch. Books like this will

certainly help in popularizing bird watching and data collection.

I recommend this book to birdwatchers in India. If you had

missed buying this book in the early 2000s, here is another

chance to enjoy bird watching by accurately identifying your

feathered friends.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

3. A CELEBRATION OF INDIAN TREES by Dr. Ashok Kothari. Published by National

Society of the Friends of the Trees, India, in association with Marg Publications, India. 2007.

196 pp. Size: 34 cm x 25 cm. Hardback. Price: 2,500/- (INR).

Since ancient times, the rich tree diversity in India and

their enchanting beauty, have invoked a vast number of

authors to make their contributions in the immense task of its

documentation. Hundreds of books covering one or more

aspects of the theme “Trees of India” are available today.

What makes each of these special and unique is the diversity

in presentation of information of the book. This presentation

is not only scientific in nature as a pictorial field guide, but

can also act as a spectacular coffee table book that interests

an amateur.

a celebration of Indian trees, a book by Dr. Ashok

Kothari showcasing more than 140 tree species of India has

been published by the National Society of the Friends of the

Trees as a souvenir to commemorate its Golden Jubilee Year

2007. This 196-page book contains vivid descriptions and

spectacular pictures of trees. The book features indigenous

as well as introduced trees species that have become an

integral part of the Indian landscape, deliberately keeping the

notorious exotics outside the scope of the book. Each tree

profile starts with the English common name and scientific

name of the tree followed by its names in various Indian

languages and dialects. It covers interesting facts and Indian

traditional beliefs about the tree wherever relevant, and also

the geographic distribution. Morphological details and key

characters of each of the trees featured in this book such as

growth form, bark, leaves, flowers, fruits and phenology along

with selective photographs complimenting these descriptions,

make the publication a very handy identification guide. The

author also comments on the medicinal and other commercial

use values of each tree species.

Detailed glossary and separarte indices of common

names and scientific names at the end the book make it more

user friendly. End papers with a double spread collage of

paintings reproduced from some beautiful Indian trees

by E. Blatter and W.S. Millard look splendid. A few relevant

verse lines collected through the sources all over the world,

appear on some of the pages and make the entire reading

experience very poetic and mythical.

The attractive publications depicting natural wealth of

the country are the need of time, which can reach a wider

range of target group and help spreading a message of

protecting it. The book will certainly be the one to inspire the

readers to appreciate the living tree specimens around and

experience the richness of their beauty.

■ SWAPNA PRABHU

328

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

329-363

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I . A NOTE ON THE OBSERVATION OF A PALM SQUIRREL IN THEKKADY,

PERIYAR TIGER RESERVE, SOUTHERN INDIA

Kumaran Sathasivam1

'29 Jadamuni Koil Street, Madurai 625 001, Tamil Nadu. India. Email: [email protected]

I have regularly seen Jungle Striped Squirrels

Funambulus tristriatus in semi-evergreen/moist deciduous

habitat at Thekkady in the Tourist Zone of the Periyar Tiger

Reserve, southern India.

On June 02, 2008, when I was watching a pair of Jungle

Striped Squirrels that had descended to the ground in search

of food scraps left by tourists, a Palm Squirrel appeared

suddenly. It chased off one of the Jungle Striped Squirrels

and disappeared as quickly as it had appeared. The Palm

Squirrel I saw was probably of the three-striped species,

Funambulus palmarum , which is found in Tamil Nadu to the

east of Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Seeing the two species close together provided an

opportunity to appreciate how distinct they are. The Palm

Squirrel was much brighter in appearance than the Jungle

Striped Squirrel. About the difference between the two squirrels,

Wroughton (1905) observed, “F. tristriatus is much the darker

of the two, the palest specimen I have seen being darker than

the darkest palmarum., the rufous vertex of the head which is

without exception in tristriatus is often absent in palmarum...”

I have not seen palm squirrels at Thekkady previously.

Dr. P.O. Nameer (pers. comm.) writes that my recent

observation is interesting and that he has not seen the two

squirrels co-existing.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. Nameer for his comments on this note.

REFERENCE

Wroughton, R.C. ( 1905): "The” common striped palm squirrel. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 16(3): 406-413.

2. BURROW STRUCTURE OF INDIAN BUSH RAT GOLUNDA ELLIOTI AND

BROWN SPINY MOUSE MUS PLATYTHR1X IN TIRUCHIRAPPALLI DISTRICT,

TAMIL NADU

P. Sakthivel1-2 and P. Neelanarayanan1-3

'P.G. and Research Department of Zoology, Nehru Memorial College (Autonomous), Puthanampatti 621 007, Tiruchirappalli Dt.,

Tamil Nadu, India.

2Email: [email protected], [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]. [email protected]

Rodents occur in virtually every terrestrial environment

that supports life (wild, agricultural or urban). Most rodents

are inhabitants of burrows. The subterranean mode of living

provides the rodents home, protection from predators and

also helps in thermoregulation (Prakash etal. 1965). Studies

on the burrowing habit of rodent pests are required to

understand their social organization and behaviour of

dominance (Barnett and Prakash 1975; Prakash and Mathur

1987). Further, they also help to distinguish rodents from

other burrowing animals, for population estimation, placing

poison baits and physical control (Neelanarayanan et al.

1996). The nature and internal structure of burrows of field

rodents have been reported for Bandicota bengalensis

(Barnett and Prakash 1975; Sivaprakasam and Durairaj 1995;

Neelanarayanan et al. 1996), Mus booduga (Sivaprakasam

and Durairaj 1995; Neelanarayanan et at. 1996), Millardia

meltada (Urs 1968; Sivaprakasam and Durairaj 1995;

Neelanarayanan etal. 1996), and Tatera indica (Chandrahas

and Krishnaswamy 1974; Barnett and Prakash 1975; Goyal

and Ghosh 1993; Sivaprakasam and Durairaj 1995;

Neelanarayanan etal. 1996).

There is not much published information available on

the nature of burrow patterns of the Indian Bush Rat

Golunda ellioti and Brown Spiny Mouse Mus platythrix.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Therefore, the present study was undertaken to examine the

burrow structure with reference to the morphology and

anatomy along with its dimensions, of these two species in

Tamil Nadu.

Study area

The present study was earned out in Puthanampatti,

Vellakkalpatti, Thirupattur and Siruganur villages of

Tiruchirappalli district ( 1 0° 00'- 1 1 ° 30' N; 77° 45’-78° 50' E).

Most areas where we studied the burrow patterns of G. ellioti

and M. platythrix were dry interspersed with forest and

cultivated lands. The Tiruchirappalli district has both fertile

and comparatively dry tracts for crop cultivation. The present

study was carried out in the dry tracts of Tiruchirappalli

district. The terrain of the study area is slightly undulating.

The ground water is utilized for irrigating the cultivated crops.

Material and methods

The burrows of G. ellioti and M. platythrix were

searched with the help of local and experienced rodent

trappers. The identified burrows were studied visually for

their structure and nature of burrow entrance, and noted as

suggested by Neelanarayanan etal. (1996). The crops nearest

Table 1: Morphometric measurements (cm) and other

characteristics of burrows of Golunda ellioti (n = 40)

1 cm = 18 cm

■> Brood chamber

Fig. 1 : Burrow structure of Golunda ellioti

to the burrows, diameter of the entrance, horizontal length

of the burrow (whether the main and emergency entrances

are clearly seen or not), number of main and emergency exits

were recorded. Thereafter, the burrows were dug out and

their routes, number of blind alleys, number of internal and

external soil plugging, number of brood and food chambers

and the type of nesting materials were recorded as suggested

by Sivaprakasam and Durairaj (1995). The diameter of the

brood chamber was also measured and recorded. All

measurements were taken using a thread and later calibrated

with a measuring tape. Data are given as mean with standard

deviation (SD).

Results and discussion

The burrows of rodents provide a relatively stable

microclimate, suitable breeding site and protection from

weather extremes and predators. Burrows and their structure

(length, depth and diameter) depend upon the species’

biological requirements and soil properties like texture,

moisture, aeration and chemical composition (Parshad and

Tripathi 2004). According to Parshad and Tripathi (2004),

rodents dig elongated, deep, and complex burrows in clay

and loamy soils, which persist for longer periods whereas,

burrows in sandy soils are less deep and complex because of

the limited stability and integrity of their tunnels and

chambers.

Burrows of G. ellioti were observed in the barren lands

to agricultural fields with crops of groundnut ( Arachis

hypogea) and red gram (Cajanus cajan). The burrow system

of G. ellioti was simple and characterized by the absence of

heap of soil and its entrance always remained open (Fig. 1).

The number of burrow openings per burrow system was two.

Similar descriptions have been made for G ellioti by Prater

(1971). The main burrow entrance diameter of G. ellioti ranged

from 4.5 to 13.0 cm with a mean (± S.D) of 8.3 ±2.4 cm. The

mean emergency burrow entrance diameter of G. ellioti was

found to be 5.8 ±1.3 cm (Table 1).

G. ellioti digs its burrow at the ground level. The

mean (± SD) vertical depth of burrows of G. ellioti was

330

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Burrow structure of Mus platythrix

46.8 ±25.3 cm. The mean horizontal length of burrow system

was 56.4 ±37.1 cm. There was no external and internal soil

plugging in the burrow system of G. ellioti. It is generally

observed that the mean number of blind alleys in a burrow of

G. ellioti was 1.2 ±0.4 (Table 1). Food chambers and food

hoarding behaviour were not observed in the burrows of

G ellioti. Earlier, Barnett and Prakash ( 1975), and Prakash and

Mathur (1987) described the burrows of this species as simple.

Invariably all the burrows (n = 40) excavated had two

brood chambers. The mean diameter of the brood chambers

was found to be 13.2 ±3.4 cm. The mean number of

individuals in a burrow was one male, one female and 3.6

±1.9 litters for G. ellioti. Further, a study on the diet of

G. ellioti is required to conclude whether this species is a pest

of agricultural crops or not.

The Brown Spiny Mouse Mus platythrix had a unique

pattern of burrow entrance. The burrow entrance of

M. platythrix had a small to medium quantity of heap of more

or less uniform sized pebbles (Fig. 2). Prater (1971), and Soni

and Idris (2005) also describe the presence of the heap of

pebbles at the burrow entrances of M. platythrix. Besides,

the burrows of this species were located in the barren lands

near to agricultural lands. Parshad and Tripathi (2004)

reported the occurrence of M. platythrix burrows in

sandy and gravel plains. This rodent species closes its burrow

entrance after entering. This is in confirmation of earlier

descriptions of Prater (1971). The observed behaviour

of this rodent pest might be to prevent the entry of predators.

M. platythrix burrows had two openings. To confirm

the presence of animals in burrows with closed entrances,

the burrow entrances were excavated (/?= 18) and an occupant

(M. platythrix , n= 18) was present in all of them. Thus, it is

inferred that the burrow entrances of the M. platythrix are

highly species-specific. Further, with the help of this key one

can identify the occupant M. platythrix under field conditions.

The burrow system of M. platythrix was simple. In

general, the burrow system of M. platythrix had an entrance

hole and an emergency opening. The mean (± SD) diameter

of main and emergency burrow entrance of M. platythrix was

6.9 ±1.4 cm and 5.6 ±0.9 cm, respectively. Mean vertical

depth of burrows of M. platythrix was 36.9 ±24.1 cm. The

mean horizontal length of burrow systems was 76 ±43 cm.

The number of external and internal soil pluggings in the

burrow system of M. platythrix was 1 (/i=15) and 2 (n= 3)

respectively. We observed mean number of blind alleys in a

burrow of M. platythrix was 1.4 ±0.06. Food chambers and

Table 2: Morphometric measurements (cm) and other

characteristics of burrows of Mus platythrix (n= 1 8)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

331

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

food hoarding behaviour was not observed in the burrows of

M. plcitythrix (Table 2).

Burrows of M. plcitythrix had one to two brood

chambers (1.3 ±0.5). The mean diameter of the brood

chambers was 12.1 ±2.2 cm. The brood chambers were

furnished with a bed of pebbles. The present observation is

in accordance with the report of Prater (1971). The mean

number of individuals in a burrow was 1.1 ±0.3 (male),

1 ±0 (Female), and 3 ±2. 1 (litter).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our sincere thanks are due to UGC, Hyderabad (Link

no. 804/05-UGC-SERO-1804 dated February 2005) for

extending financial support. We are thankful to the Principal

and Head of the Department of Zoology, Nehru Memorial

College (Autonomous), for encouragement and support. We

are grateful to the burrow diggers and rodent trappers for

their help during our field work.

REFERENCES

Barnett, S.A. & I. Prakash (1975): Rodents of Economic Importance

in India. Arnold Heinemann, New Delhi and London. 175 pp.

Chandrahas, R.K. & A.K. Krishnaswami (1974): Studies on the

ecology of the Indian gerbil, Tatera indica Hardwicke in Kolar

(Mysore). Indian J. Med. Res. 62: 971-978.

Goyal, S.P. & PK. Ghosh (1993): Burrow structure of two gerbil

species of Thar desert, India. Acta Theriologica 38(4):

453-456.

Neelanarayanan, R, R. Nagarajan & R. Kanakasabai( 1996): Burrow

morphology of field rodents in cauvery delta. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 93: 238-241.

Prakash, I. & R.P. Mathur (1987): Management of Rodent Pests.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. 133 pp.

Prakash, I., C.G Kumbakarani & A. Krishnan (1965): Eco-toxicology

and Control of Indian desert gerbil, Meriones hurrianae

(Jerdon)T. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 237-244.

Prater, S.H. (1971 ): The Book of Indian Animals (Eleventh impression).

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 324 pp.

Parshad, V.R. & R.S. Tripathi (2004): Soil ecology and rodents. Rodent

Newsletter 28(1-2): 2-3.

Sivaprakasam, C. & G. Durairaj (1995): Burrow ecology of four rice

field Rodents of Tamil Nadu, India. International Journal of

Ecology and Environment Sciences 21: 231-239.

Soni, B.K. & M. Idris (2005): Burrowing behaviour of rodents in rocky

habitats in arid zone. Rodent Newsletter 29( 1-4): 7-8.

Urs, Y.L. (1968): Habits and Habitats of rodents. Pp. 25-35.

In: Majumdar, S.K. (Ed.): Manual of Rodent Control. Central

Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore.

3. DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF THE WILD WATER BUFFALO

BUBALUS ARNEE IN BHUTAN

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India, c/o Assam Co. ltd., Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: badrul @sanchamet.in, [email protected]

The Asiatic Wild Water Buffalo Bitbahts amee Kerr

(bubalis Linn.), henceforth Wild Water Buffalo, is a globally

threatened species and has been listed as ‘Endangered’ (IUCN

2007). Once widespread over large parts of South and South-

east Asia, this rare bovine is now mainly confined to north-

eastern India with small numbers in Nepal and Indo-China

(Corbet and Hill 1992; Choudhury 1994). The occurrence in

southern Bhutan has been mentioned by Blower (1986),

Choudhury (1994) and Wangchuk et al. (2004).

I had visited parts of southern Bhutan since October

1985 (not frequently); from September 2004 to June 2007, 1

made frequent visits as part of my official work as Deputy

Commissioner of Baksa district in Assam (having common

border with Bhutan). During these visits, I had the opportunity

to observe wild buffaloes. In this note, the distribution, habitat

and status of the wild water buffalo in Bhutan have been

discussed.

Bhutan being mountainous does not have much habitat

for the Wild Water Buffalo, which requires grassland with

water bodies, preferably on flat terrain. Owing to its

occurrence in the Manas National Park in Assam, India

(Gee 1964; Choudhury 1994), which is located on the

international boundary, there was always chance of animals’

crossing over. The observations made so far indicates

that there are nine areas in Bhutan where the Wild Water

Buffalo is still seen or seen till the recent past. These are:

(1) Gabhorukunda (Gobarkanda) (26° 46'-48' N; 90°49-

53' E), (it is not a point location but a stretch of grassy area)

(2) Mathanguri (Matharguri) (26° 47' N; 90° 58' E),

(3) Nunmati (26° 47' N; 90° 59'E), (4) Rabang nullah (26°

49' N; 91° 04’ E), (5) East of Doimari (26° 49’ N; 91° 06’ E),

(6) Kukulong (26° 47’ N; 90° 45’ E), (7) Kalamati (26° 47' N;

90° 40' E), (8) Saralbhanga (26° 52’ N; 90° 15’ E) and

(9) Jamduar (26° 44' N; 89° 52' E).

332

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Map of Bhutan showing the main features and the places mentioned in the text

Blower ( 1986) saw a small herd in Gabhorukunda area

in September 1985. During my several visits to Gabhorukunda

in 2006 and 2007, I saw footprints of lone bulls as well as

small herds. The Forest Department staff and conservation

volunteers of Assam's Manas National Park had reportedly

observed several lone bulls and 2-3 herds totalling

20-30 animals during the same period. A census operation

carried out jointly by the Project Tiger authorities and Rhino

Foundation for Nature in NE India (NGO) on April 16-17,

2008, had counted 32 animals in three herds in Gabhorukunda

area on the Indian side (Choudhury et al. 2008). Although

the Bhutan side of Gabhorukunda was outside the purview

of census operation, bulk of the area was visible and no buffalo

could be seen. On the Bhutan side of Gabhorukunda, the

animals mostly go for water as water bodies are limited in

this Bhabar tract. There is water in the river only at the spot

where it debouched onto the flat ground and the buffaloes

visit the site normally after sunset. Daytime sightings are rare.

The local reports by Forest staff and old hunters indicated

that during the disturbed period in Manas for a decade from

1989 onwards (Choudhury 1989, 2006), many buffaloes were

killed by poachers in Gabhorukunda area; the animals still

avoid the wide open area with no cover during daytime. The

animals also graze along the left bank of the River

Gabhorukunda up to River Suidener, and also early in the

morning or after dusk in some areas of the bed where there is

grass. This is by far the only habitat of the Wild Buffalo in

Bhutan.

At Mathanguri, I had observed a bull on the banks of

River Manas in October 1985. Subsequently, one small

herd (up to 14 animals) was also sighted on several occasions,

besides lone bulls (up to two), in the same area crossing

the border to Bhutan only to come back. I observed a

small herd of seven animals’ at the border on March 09, 2007.

Since early 1990s, a buffalo khuti (khuti=ca.mp) came

to the Bhutan side of Mathanguri with several domestic

female buffaloes. This prompted a large lone bull to

regularly visit the camp everyday. Occasionally one more

bull would come nearby, but only one remained with the

cows in the khuti. This bull is perhaps the only wild

buffalo that actually spends bulk of its time inside Bhutan

territory.

‘Nunmati’ is a salt lick towards east of Mathanguri just

north of the India-Bhutan international boundary. This was a

favourite spot for the Indian One-horned Rhinoceros

Rhinoceros unicornis till early 1990s when bulk of these

pachyderms were eliminated by the poachers from Manas.

Lone bulls as well as small herds of wild buffaloes regularly

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

333

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

visit the site. In fact, they just cross over to Bhutan to the lick

and come back.

At Rabang nullah, there is grass on the bed of the river

where an occasional animal is seen. Footprints of lone animals

were seen in 2006-07 within a kilometre inside Bhutan.

Similarly, towards east of Doimari, the animals are occasional

visitors although here a patch of grassland is found where till

early 1990s, even small herds used to visit.

Towards west of Gabhorukunda there are small tracts

of grassland interspersed with trees up to Kukulong river.

There is a linear patch along the left bank of Kukolong river,

which is occasionally visited by buffaloes. Farther west is

another site of salty earth called ‘Kalamati’ on the Kanamakra

river. The buffalo is an occasional visitor to the area, which

is on the border.

Farther west, there was no significant grassland till the

Saralbhanga and Sankosh rivers. The site where the

Saralbhanga river debouches into the plains had some

grassland, which, however, is now under human occupation

and a township in the form of Sarpang - a district headquarter,

has come up in the area. Just south is the border with India

where also a large human settlement (Saralpara Forest Village)

came up. It was here, i.e, at the international boundary, that

three Wild Water Buffaloes out of a herd of six were hunted

down by a shikar party of the then ruler of Cooch Behar on

March 07, 1900 (The Maharajah of Cooch Behar 1908). On

the Bhutan side near Jamduar in Assam, the wild buffalo is

no longer found (also in Assam area). The last animals were

recorded in 1970s. The animals used to cross over for short

distance inside Bhutan, just north and north-east of Jamduar

and occasionally crossing the river towards Kalikhola.

From the above it is clear that Bhutan does not have a

resident population of Wild Water Buffaloes, mainly because

of its limited habitat. However, more than 30 animals could

be inside Bhutan at any time (e.g., Gabhorukunda). Till 1989,

the local staff and old hunters reported that the number often

exceeded 50 when several herds used to loosely congregate

for water and grazing. The daily range of the herds and lone

bulls that occur in Bhutan spreads over both sides of the

border.

The total grassland habitat available for the animal

inside Bhutan is little over 10 sq. km (Fig. 1). Bulk of the

grassland is located around Gabhorukunda area (Fig. 2).

All but two locations are inside Royal Manas National Park

while the area near Jamduar is a part of Phipsoo Wildlife

Sanctuary.

Poaching for meat was the main reason for killing

of Wild Water Buffalo since 1989 (Choudhury 1989, 2006)

and the situation worsened when the anti-poaching camp

at Gabhorukunda on Assam side was abandoned by staff

due to attack by underground extremists. An unspecified

number of buffaloes were killed in Gabhorukunda area

(both sides of the border) and meat was sold in the

markets often mixed up with deer meat (as latter fetches more

money).

Situation has improved a lot in Assam’s Manas

334

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

National Park and there was no significant poaching

of buffalo since 2004. On Bhutan side, patrolling has started

in recent years thus providing some security. A well-equipped

and active anti-poaching camp at Gabhorukunda on

the Bhutan side is strongly recommended, which should

not be near the water spot (to avoid disturbance to the animals)

so that in future the wild buffaloes can be seen

again in large herds during daytime coming to the waterbody.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 thank the following for their help during my visits:

Sudhir Vyas (India’s Ambassador to Bhutan), Dasho Tshering

Blower, J.H. (1986): Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings

and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome, Italy.

55 pp.

Choudhury, A.U. (1989): S.O.S. Manas! The Sentinel , 7 May.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994): The decline of the wild water buffalo in north-

east India. Oryx 28(1): 70-73.

Choudhury, A.U. (2006): Manas - looking back, looking forward.

Sanctuary Asia 26(1): 22-29.

Choudhury, A.U., A. Swargiary, C.R. Bhobora & B. Saikia (2008):

Census of Wild Water Buffalo in Manas National Park. Final

Report. Barpeta Road, India: The Field Directorate, Manas

National Park, and Guwahati, India: The Rhino Foundation for

Nature in NE India. 14 pp.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

Wangda (Joint Secretary, Royal Government of Bhutan),

Karma Drukpa (Sub-divisional Officer, Panbang), Pema

Rinchen (Park Ranger, Royal Manas) and their party,

A. Rabha and A. Swargiary (Field Directors, Indian Manas),

R. Bhattacharjee and C.R. Bhobora (Deputy Field Directors),

late Alauddin Choudhury (father), Dr. Anil Goswami, Range

Officers (P. Brahma of Panbari and M. Brahma of Bansbari)

and their staff, Mohabbat Shah Ali, Romu Mazumdar,

Sajjad Choudhury, Imran Mazumdar (Babu), the volunteers

of Manas Panbari Eco-tourism Society, S. Sharma (Assistant

Executive Engineer, E & D Department), Hakim (driver),

M. Saikia, G. Medhi, Das, Talukdar, Baishya (all of

Assam police), Satya Moosahary and his boatmen colleagues.

UK. 488 pp.

Gee, E.P. (1964): The Wild Life of India. Collins, London. 192 pp.

Green, M.J.B. (compiled) (1993): Nature Reserves of the Himalaya

and the Mountains of Central Asia. IUCN and Oxford University

Press, Oxford, UK. 47 1 pp.

IUCN (2007): IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. Gland,

Switzerland: IUCN.

The Maharajah OfCooch Behar (1908): Big game shooting in eastern

and north eastern India (originally published as “Thirty-seven

years of big game shooting in Cooch Behar, The Duars &

Assam”). Reprint 1985. Delhi: Mittal Publications.

Wangchuk, T., P. Thinley, K. Tshering, C. Thsering & D. Yonten

(2004): A Field Guide to the Mammals of Bhutan. Thimphu:

Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal

Government of Bhutan. 1 79 pp.

4. TWO NEW RECORDS OF DISTRIBUTION OF FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

TETRACERUS QUADRICORNIS

Sanjay Gubbi1, Ravi Kumar2 and B.M. Akarsha3

'Wildlife Conservation Society-India Program, Centre for Wildlife Studies, 1669, 1 6th Main, 31st Cross, Banashankari

2nd Stage, Bengaluru 560 070, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

2No. 22F, J.D. Layout, Jagalur 577 528, Karnataka, India. Email: [email protected]

’Department of Agricultural Economics and Social Sciences, Humboldt University of Berlin, Philipp str 13, 10115 Berlin,

Germany. Email: [email protected]

The Four-homed Antelope or Chowsingha Tetracerus

quadricomis is a lesser known antelope endemic to the Indian

subcontinent (Krishna et al. 2008), and is one of the six

antelope species found in India (Rahmani 2001). It is listed

under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and

also declared as Vulnerable under the IUCN Red list (IUCN

2008). Rice ( 1991 ) carried out a questionnaire survey to assess

its range and distribution, and reported the species from

83 sites in India. Further, in a literature review Krishna et al.

(2009) report it from 104 sites from India. Another study by

Sharma (2006) reports the distribution of Four-horned

Antelope from 122 sites. Within Karnataka, it was already

confirmed to be found in Nagarahole, Bandipur, Biligiri

Rangaswamy Temple sanctuaries and other areas (Karanth

1986; Karanth and Nichols 2000; Sharma 2006; Krishna

et al. 2008). Here we present two observations of the

Four-homed Antelope from areas where it is not reported in

previous literature (Karanth 1986; Rice 1991; Karanth and

Nichols 2000; Sharma 2006; Krishna et al. 2009) in the state

of Karnataka.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

335

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The first observation is from Jogimatti Reserve Forest

(JRF) (14° 9’ 53" N; 76° 24' 54" E, 107.18 sq. km) in

Chitradurga district and the second report is from

Rangayyanadurga State Forest (RSF) (14° 39' 30" N; 76°

10' 10" E, 77.23 sq. km) in Davanagere district. Both the

locations fall in southern Karnataka and are dominated by

tropical dry deciduous and thorny open scrub forests.

At JRF an individual was seen and was clearly

identified by us by its body colour, size and behaviour. The

animal had a dull reddish-brown colour above and was white

below. The white rings above hooves were distinct. We

observed the animal for about thirty minutes from an adjacent

small hillock. The animal initially in an open patch moved

into thickets browsing on leaves of short shrubs. The animal

would move continuously and not be stationary. Our previous

field knowledge and observations of Four-homed Antelope

helped in identifying the animal and distinguish it from the

Barking deer Muntiacus muntjak with which it is generally

mistaken. The animal was later confirmed by referring to

Prater (1998).

At RSF, droppings of Four-homed Antelope were seen

and distinguished by its oblong shape and heaped middens.

The locals identified the droppings as belonging to 'Kondit

kuri' , Kannada name for Four-horned Antelope. The

droppings were small and elongated, and were likely of the

Four-homed Antelope. Extensive interactions with locals and

forest department staff confirmed the absence of Chinkara

(Gazella gazella ) and Barking deer in the area. The middens

were found in scantily forested habitat. During another visit,

a midden with droppings of two distinct sizes, possibly

belonging to an adult and a juvenile Four-horned Antelope,

was observed at RSF. Due to its undulating terrain, the area

is unlikely to support Blackbuck that need open grasslands

and avoid thick cover (Jhala 1993, 1997). A few days later

the second author, along with another wildlife enthusiast

witnessed an individual Four-homed Antelope that had strayed

into a village, confirming the presence of Four-horned

Antelope at RSF. These sightings contribute towards the

distribution knowledge of this species.

Changes in habitat and invasive plant species, especially

Fantana Lantana camara can affect the presence of

Four-horned Antelope (Krishna et al. 2008). Four-horned

Antelope is also reported to be hunted at other sites and in

RSF. Protection from anthropogenic pressures, appropriate

management of human-induced fire and forest-extraction

activities could all be critical for conservation of this species

(Sharma 2006; Krishna et al. 2008).

The isolated reserved forests of Karnataka are fast being

degraded by developmental activities, especially wind farms.

Hence, these areas need to be conserved if species such as

Four-horned Antelope are to be protected on long-term basis,

and both these locations have potential for sustaining small

populations. However, JRF is already fragmented due to

installation of 1 18 wind turbines. Wind farms alter wildlife

habitats through linear fragmentation, such as roads, electric

lines, increased human movement and noise pollution (Abbasi

and Abbasi 2000). Foss and fragmentation of habitats are

known to be serious threats to Four-horned Antelope (Sharma

2006; Krishna et al. 2008). Though there is no documented

evidence of direct impacts of wind turbines on Four-horned

Antelope, the species being cryptic and shy (Sharma 2006)

can be affected by noise of wind turbines and increased human

activity.

In this background, it is more relevant that RSF is given

the status of a wildlife sanctuary, as Protected Areas have

greater prospect to protect threatened species (van Schaik

et al. 2002; Hilborn et al. 2006). There are a few protected

areas dedicated for the purpose of saving species of the drier

plains, and this move could be a unique initiative in

Karnataka.

REFERENCES

Abbasi, S.A. & N. Abbasi (2000): The likely adverse environmental

impacts of renewable energy sources. Applied Energy 65(1-4):

121-144.

Hilborn, R„ P. Arcese, M. Borner, J. Hando, G Hopcraft, M. Loibooki,

S. Mduma & A.R.E. Sinclair (2006): Effective enforcement in a

conservation area. Science 314(5803): 1266.

IUCN (2008): 2008 IUCN Red list of threatened species.

<www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on September 1, 2008.

Jhala, Y.V. (1993): Predation on blackbucks by wolves in Velavadar

National Park, Gujarat, India. Conservation Biology 7(4):

874-881.

Jhala, Y.V. (1997): Seasonal effects on the nutritional ecology of

blackbuck Antelope cen’icapra. Journal of Applied Ecology 34(6):

1348-1358.

Karanth, K.U. (1986): Status of wildlife and habitat conservation

in Karnataka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 83(supplement):

166-179.

Karanth, K.U. & J.D. Nichols (2000): Ecological Status and

Conservation of Tigers in India. Final technical report to the

Division of International Conservation, US Fish and Wildlife

Services: Wildlife Conservation Society, New York, USA and

Centre for Wildlife Studies, Bangalore, India.

Krishna, Y.C., J. Krishnaswamy & N.S. Kumar (2008): Habitat factors

affecting site occupancy and relative abundance of four-horned

antelope. Journal of Zoology 276(1): 63-70.

Krishna, Y.C., P. Clyne, J. Krishnaswamy & N.S. Kumar (2009):

Distributional and ecological review of the four horned antelope,

Tetracerus quadricornis. Mammalia 73(1): 1-6.

Prater, S.H. (1998): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society and Oxford University Press, India. Pp. 271.

Rahmani, A.R. (2001): Country reports, India In: Mallon, D.P. &

S.C. Kingswood (Eds): Antelopes: Global Survey and Regional

336

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Action Plans. IUCN Species survival commission. Gland,

Switzerland.

Rice, C.G. (1991): The status of four-horned antelope Tetracerus

quadricornis. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 63-66.

van Schaik, C., J. Terborgh, L. Davenport & M. Rao (2002): Making

parks work: Past, present and future. Pp. 468-481. In:

Terborgh, J., C. van Schaik, L. Davenport & M. Rao (Eds): Making

parks work: Strategies for preserving tropical nature. Island Press,

Washington, DC, USA.

Sharma, K. (2006): Distribution, status, ecology and behaviour of the

four-horned antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis). University of

Mumbai, India.

Terborgh, J. & C. van Schaik (2002): Why the world needs parks.

Pp. 3-14. In: Terborgh, J., C. van Schaik, L. Davenport & M. Rao

(Eds): Making Parks Work: Strategies for Preserving Tropical

Nature. Island Press, Washington, DC, USA.

5. FIRST RECORD OF MERLIN FALCO COLUMBARIUS PALLIDUS

FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

TRISHANT SlMLAI 1 AND GlRISH PUNJABI2

'B- 1 , Phase 2, Tushar Gardens, Aundh Camp, Pune 41 1 027, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

2A2/2 Ravi Park, Jagtap Square, Wanowrie. Pune 41 1 014, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

The Merlin Falco columbarius was first described by

Linnaeus in 1 758. The Merlin is a rare bird in India (Grimmett

et al. 1998) and a rare winter migrant to north India (Naoroji

2006), but is classed globally as Least Concern (BirdLife

International 2001 ).

There are two races of this species occurring in India:

insignis and pallidus (Naoroji 2006). Both the races are rare

winter visitors to northern India, specifically Jammu and

Kashmir, Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana, Gujarat, and Arunachal

Pradesh (Naoroji 2006). Race pallidus is rarer than insignis

(Naoroji 2006), reported as winter visitor to Jammu and

Kashmir, passage migrant and scarce winter visitor to western

and central Ladakh (Meinertzhagen 1927; Williams and

Delany 1986; Mallon, 1987). It was observed in late August

2000 in the Nubra valley near Diskit on Hunda road and in

Changthang between Demchok and Fukche in mid- August

2002 (Naoroji and Sangha 2004).

Little is known about the Merlin in the Subcontinent,

except its famous hunting methods (Naoroji 2006). It has been

described as a bold and dashing falcon inhabiting open country

habitats (Grimmett et al. 1998).

We report here sighting of the Merlin, race pallidus

(immature female), in an uninhabited open country just

outside Bhimashankar Wildlife Sanctuary in Maharashtra.

We were birding around that area on February 16, 2007,

at 0930 hrs, and came across a small raptor perched on an

electric pole, overlooking open scrub vegetation and a

rocky terrain. We mistook the bird for a Common Kestrel,

till we noticed a pale collar on the hind neck and buff

bars on the uppertail. We noticed it scanning the area,

sometimes bobbing the head up and down, disturbed by our

presence it shifted its perch and flew to another electric

pole.

The habitat here was mostly scrub vegetation, there

were many rocks and a few clumps of grass. There were

electric wires over this patch of open land, which served as a

perch for many birds of prey.

This is the first record of the Merlin from Maharashtra.

We can only speculate whether it was a vagrant, a passage

migrant or a resident. But it is sure that some sincere work

needs to be done on the raptors of Bhimashankar to ensure

their long term survival.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani and Anirudh Chaoji to

encourage us to write this note. We also thank Rishad Naoroji

for helping with the identification.

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: The Birdlife

International Red Data Book. Cambridge, UK: Birdlife

International.

Grimmett, R.. T. Inskipp & C. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press. Pp. 548-549.

Mallon, D.P. ( 1987): The Winter Birds of Ladakh. Forktail 3: 27-41.

Meinertzhagen, R. (1927): Systematic results of birds collected at high

altitudes in Ladakh and Sikkim, Part II. Ibis 3(4): 571-633.

Naoroji, Rishad (2006): Birds of Prey of the Indian Subcontinent.

Om Books International. _Merlm, Falconidae, Pp. 583-587.

Naoroji, R.K. & H. Sangha (2004): Project Golden Eagle. Raptor

Surveys in Ladakh 1997-2003. (In Collaboration with the Indian

Army).

Williams, C. & S. Delany (1986): Migration through the north west

Elimalaya- some results of the Southampton University. Ladakh

Expedition Part 2. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 3: II-I6.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

337

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER LIMICOLA FALCINELLUS : AN ADDITION TO THE

AVIFAUNA OF INDIA’S WESTERN SEABOARD, SOUTH OF JAMNAGAR AREA

Samir Mehta1

'# 6, 3rd Floor, ‘Punil’, 9, Ashok Nagar Society, Mumbai 400 049, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

The tide was coming in at 1000 hrs on November 29,

2008, at the Sewri waterfront leaving only a football sized area

in front of the Colgate factory above water. The muddy area

was packed with small waders of all types, i.e., stints, plovers,

sandpipers. As I scanned the area with my spotting scope

(85 mm objective and 40x eyepiece) I noticed two birds, one

of which I identified positively as a Curlew Sandpiper Calidris

ferruginea and another which looked like a smaller version of

the Curlew Sandpiper. Both the birds were feeding actively

and with almost identical pecking action. On continued

observation it was evident that the smaller bird was a different

species, probably a Dunlin Calidris alpina or a Broad-billed

Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus , the latter having never been

identified positively by me before. I saw numerous such pairs

cross my field of view through the spotting scope. Viewed with

binoculars (8 x 40) I could see the smaller version of the Curlew

Sandpiper spread over a large area, numbering several dozens,

but impossible to judge accurately, given the high density of

small waders moving and feeding actively before the tide

submerged the remaining visible ground.

The terminal kink in the bill was well-appreciated in

profile, as also it’s prominent white supercilium; the split

supercilium could not be appreciated in the field as it was

camouflaged by the apparent striped pattern of the crown.

The split supercilium was clearly evident in the images

captured, when viewed magnified. A streaked breast band

was present. The belly and flanks were white.

The Broad-billed Sandpiper has not been reported in

literature or documented from Mumbai (Varma et al. 2004)

or Maharashtra in the recent past. Some authors consider

Balachandran, S. & V. Natarajan (1997): Biometrics, moult, age

structure and subspecies of Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola

falcinellus wintering at Great Vedaranyam Swamp, in south-east

India. Stilt 31: 23-25.

Gavrilov, E.I., A.E. Gavrilov & S.N. Erokhov (1995): Autumn

migration of Broad-billed Sandpiper ( Limicola falcinellus

Pontopp.) in Kazakhstan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2):

205-211.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Pp. 118.

Hayman, P., J. Marchant & T. Prater (1986): Shorebirds: An

Identification Guide to the Waders of the World. Croom Helm,

it as an occasional winter passage migrant (Grimmett et al.

1999; Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2006) while others list it

as a winter visitor (Hayman et al. 1986; Rasmussen

and Anderton 2005) along the entire western seaboard.

Search of the ENVIS database showed two reports of

sightings from different parts of India (Balachandran and

Natarajan 1997; Sangha and Kulshretha 2004). The OBI

(orientalbirdimages.org) database had images of the bird from

Jamnagar. The migratory pattern of this bird is also not well

understood (Gavrilov et al. 1995).

An interesting finding of site fidelity (Balachandran and

Natarajan 1997) among this species mandates a more

thorough search for this bird in Sewri and other suitable

nearby sites in late November and early December. This will

also help settle the question whether this species is a passage

migrant or a winter visitor to Mumbai and India’s western

seaboard or a combination thereof.

Possible reasons for the scarcity of reports of its

sighting are: 1) low degree of awareness / suspicion

2) difficulty in field identification 3) low number of birds

4) visits of a nature of passage migrants rather than winter

residents 5) confusion with other species of small waders

6) Paucity of observers and suitable photo documentation

equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Asad R. Rahmani,

Mr. J.C. Daniel, Ms. Nirmala Reddy, Sujit Nalawde and Divya

Varier of the BNHS for their co-operation and assistance.

London, pp. 191.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2006): A Field Guide to the Birds of

India. OM Book Service, New Delhi, pp. 124.

Rasmussen, P. & J. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia: The Ripley

Guide. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington

D.C. and Barcelona, pp. 122.

Sangha, H.S. & M. Kulshretha (2004): Broad-billed Sandpiper

Limicola falcinellus: An addition to the Avifauna of Rajasthan.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(2): 318

Varma, A., S. Balachandran, N. Chaturvedi & V. Patil (2004): A

Preliminary Report on the biodiversity of Mahul Creek, Mumbai,

India with special reference to Avifauna. Zoo’s Print Journal

19(9): 1599-1605.

338

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. HIGH-ALTITUDE RECORDS OF THE HOUSE CROW CORVUS SPLENDENS

IN WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH. INDIA

Lohit Gogoi13, Pema Wange1, P.K. Dutta1-4 and Rakesh Soud2

‘Western Arunachal Landscape Programme. Arunachal Pradesh Field Office, World Wide Fund for Nature-India. Dirang, West Kameng

Distt 790 101, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

2Qtt.No. 750 (D), BRPL Township, Dhaligaon. Chirang district 783 385, BTAD, Assam, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]. in

4Email: [email protected]

In October and November 2008, we observed House

Crows Corvus splendens at high altitudes on several

occasions in different sites of western Arunachal Pradesh,

India. The species was recorded in the Lumpo village

(27° 43' 07.2" N; 91° 42' 57.7" E) at 2,544 m in a pair, then

a single individual near Geypo-Namse lake of Bangajang

wetland complex (27° 30' 02.8" N; 92° OP 45.9" E) at 4,230 m

of Tawang district and other single sightings were recorded

from Thungri area (27° 26’ 50.3" N; 92° 22' 44.6" E) at 3, 190 m,

Potak area near Chomu lake (27° 37' 19.4" N; 92° 22' 07.7" E)

at 4,374 m of West Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh,

India, which are probably among the highest altitude record

for this species.

According to Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) the

species is chiefly found below 1,600 m but sometimes up to

2,400 m. Grimmett et al. ( 1998) noted it occurs up to 2, 1 00 m

in India and up to 2,500 m in summer in Bhutan. In Nepal, it

is found below 1,525 m, with only one report from a higher

altitude: 2,100 m at Nagarkot on February 09, 1993 (Inskipp

and Inskipp 1991). In Sikkim, an individual was recorded

by F.N. Betts at 2,600 m in May 1943 (Ali 1962). Sangha

and Naoroji (2003) recorded the species from human

settlements of Koksar at 3,200 m and Dracha at 3,370 m

of Himachal Pradesh and from Karu and Hanle of Ladakh

at c. 3,500 m and 4,240 m respectively, which was previously

reported to be the highest altitude record of House

Crows.

Like the House Sparrow Passer dome sticus, the House

Crow is a commensal species. Increased tourism, development

of permanent army camps and exploration of new grazing

sites in different high altitude areas of Arunachal Pradesh

seems to have facilitated its spread to higher areas recently.

Additional observations on the sighting of the species in such

altitudes would be useful to understand: i) whether it is a

more common distributional pattern than has been previously

observed and ii) the contribution of the species in high altitude

ecosystems.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to the office staff of Arunachal Pradesh

Field Office, WWF-India, Dirang for their encouragements.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1962): The Birds of Sikkim. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

414 pp.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm. London. 384 pp.

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1991): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. Second

edition. Christopher Helm, London. 400 pp.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Mountfield, Sussex.

352 pp.

Sangha, H.S. & R. Naoroji (2003): High-altitude records of the House

Crow Corvus splendens in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and

Kashmir, India. Forktail 19: 141-142.

8. STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF BRISTLED GRASSBIRD

CHAETORNIS STRIATA IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK

Manoj Sharma1

‘Village Shankarpur, Ramnagar 244 715, District Nainital, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis striata is one of the

largest warblers of the world and a globally-threatened species

with IUCN status Vulnerable. It occurs rather erratically

throughout a range that encompasses lowland Pakistan, much

of India, the Nepal terai and historically Bangladesh (BirdLife

International 2001). It is a resident species and distributed

over most of the Indian subcontinent, but is very local in its

occurrence (Ali and Ripley 1997). The rare endemic appears

to be closely tied to swampy areas (Roberts 1992). Historical

records indicate that the species was fairly common, but it

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

339

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

seems to have declined drastically in recent years (Inskipp

1996). There is very little information available about its

status, ecology and behaviour (Baral 1997). The species has

recent records from India and Nepal only (Grimmett et al.

1998). This grassland specialist has a small, rapidly declining

population owing to loss and degradation of its habitat,

primarily drainage and conversion to agriculture (BirdLife

International 2001). The bird is very secretive in its habits

and difficult to both see and identify, outside the breeding

season. During its breeding season, heat, non-accessibility

and monsoon flooding in some sites has resulted in very few

recent records (Baral 1997).

Status in Corbett National Park

I noticed the presence of this species for the first time

in Corbett National Park on June 16, 2004, when four singing

males were seen in the grassland close to Leed Khalia area

near Dhikala. The males were singing from exposed perches

and during flight display. There is, however, an earlier undated

and anonymous record indicated in the comprehensive review

in BirdLife International (2001) for the reserve.

During a survey conducted on June 14 and 15, 2006, at

least 1 1 birds with a minimum of 6 singing males were seen,

and another 5-6 birds were heard near the jeep track in a

roughly 2 sq. km area; but from the calls and display it is

estimated that probably 30-40 breeding pairs were present in

8-10 sq. km of grassland (Sharma 2007). During the same

period Nayan Khanolkar collected a photographic record of

the species for the first time from Corbett National Park.

On June 15 and 16, 2007, another survey was conducted

at Dhikala grassland and at least 40 birds with a minimum of

27 singing males were counted. All the activity was found in

the grassland patches along Sher Bhuji road, and along the

lower half of the Car road (towards Leed Khalia). On a

subsequent survey, conducted on July 29 and 30, 2007, this

population was found to be augmented by the presence of

many juvenile birds. On May 22, 2008, a male was seen on

the Car road close to Leed Khalia, and on June 15 and 16,

2008, in the same area, at least 8- 1 0 birds with a minimum of

6 displaying males were observed.

Conservation

As a part of the grassland management policy, the Park

authorities’ burn or cut patches of grassland in January and

February. There is no set pattern and in certain years the

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1997): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Vol. 8, Second edition Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 93.

Baral, H.S. (1997): Bristled Grassbird Chaetomis striatus in Nepal.

complete grassland is burnt, leaving no suitable habitat for

grassland species. During 2000 and 2001, instead of burning

or cutting, the Dhikala grassland was harrowed using tractors.

This resulted in the degradation of grassland, loss of top soil

and invasion of exotic species. For the last few years, large

patches of grassland are being left uncut or unbumt for the

benefit of various grassland-dependent species. The whole area

is divided in various patches and these are alternatively cut,

burnt and left alone over a three-year cycle. Chaetomis striata

is an important indicator of grassland habitat. Any sudden

change in the grassland management policy can alter the habitat,

rendering it unsuitable for the breeding or occurrence of this

grassland specialist. The numbers observed at Dhikala grassland

indicate that the breeding population of Corbett National Park

is the largest known population, recorded in recent times, of

this globally-threatened species. The grassland management

policy for Dhikala grassland should always be formulated by

keeping in mind the habitat preferences of this species. For

some unknown reason, in Dhikala grassland, the Bristled

Grassbird prefers to breed in the grassland patches along Sher

Bhuji road and along the lower half of Car road (towards Leed

Khalia). The areas preferred for breeding by the species should

not be cut or burnt during the same year. It is suggested to

divide these areas into patches and bum these in a pattern that

every patch is left unbumt for a period of at least three years.

This will ensure sufficient habitat for the species during each

successive breeding cycle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The study would not have been possible without the

guidance of Rajiv Bhartari, Field Director, Corbett Tiger

Reserve. The assistance provided in the field by Harkesh

Singh, Scientific Assistant, Centre for Environmental

Management of Degraded Ecosystems, Delhi University was

invaluable. Hospitality shown by Suresh Chandra Pant, Range

Officer, Dhikala and staff of Dhikala during various visits

deserves a special mention. Gopal Singh Bisht, Nandan Singh

Bisht and Yakub Mahawat, staff of Corbett Tiger Reserve,

helped during the field visits. I want to thank Chandan Singh

Bisht, driver, Corbett Tiger Reserve and Anil Pandey for some

very careful driving in difficult conditions. I also want to

thank Harkirat Sangha for all his help and guidance. Dr. Hem

Sagar Baral for sharing his observations and Nayan Khanolkar

for sharing his photographs.

Danphe 6(2): 5-6.

BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge

340

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

UK. Pp. 2187-2194.

Grimmett R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 739.

Inskipp, T. (1996): Little known Oriental bird: Bristled Grassbird

Chaetornis striatus. OBC Bull. 23: 46-47.

Roberts, T.J. ( 1992): The Buds of Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University

Press, Oxford. Pp. 221.

Sharma, M. (2007): Bristled Grassbird Chaetornis striatus in Corbett

National Park, India. Birding Asia - Bulletin of Oriental Bird

Club 7: 90-91.

9. OCCURRENCE OF SALEA ANAMALLAYANA BEDDOME, 1878

IN HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS, WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

G. Srinivas1-3. S. Bhupathy1-4 and A. Madhivanan2

'Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Anaikatti (PO), Coimbatore 641 108, Tamil Nadu, India.

:Present Address: Wildlife Crime Control Bureau, 1 1, Air Cargo Complex, Sahar, Mumbai 400 099, Maharashtra, India.

3EmaiI: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Two species of spiny lizards. Sale a horsfieldii and Sale a

anamallayana, have been reported from the Western Ghats

of south-western India. Unequal and strongly imbricate dorsal

scales and compressed body distinguish these lizards from

other agamids of the Western Ghats. The Anamalai Spiny

Lizard, S. anamallayana could be distinguished from Nilgiri

Spiny Lizard, S. horsfieldii based on the presence of a fold

on the shoulder, and continuous nuchal and dorsal crest in

Fig. 1: Map of Southern Western Ghats, south-western India

showing the locality records of Salea anamallayana

males (Smith 1 935). While S. horsfieldii is reported both from

north and south of the Palghat gap, S. anamallayana is

restricted to south of Palghat (Smith 1935). However,

Bhupathy and Kannan ( 1997) suggested the need for further

investigations to confirm the occurrence of S. horsfieldiisouth

of Palghat.

The Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History (SACON), Coimbatore is conducting ecological

investigations on the herpetofauna of High Wavy Mountains,

Theni Forest Division, Western Ghats since April 2006,

and the following agamid lizards have been recorded;

Sitana ponticeriana, Calotes versicolor, C. calotes,

C. grandisquamis, C. rouxii , C. elliotti and Psammophilus

sp. till December 2007. On April 20, 2007, while sampling

in the Plateau of High Wavy Mountains, we came across an

agamid lizard and it has been identified as a male

Salea anamallayana based on the presence of unequal dorsal

scales, fold on shoulder and continuous nuchal and dorsal

crests. Snout-vent length and tail length of the lizard

measured 40.2 mm and 60.3 mm respectively. Precise locality

of this record is upper Manalar (9° 36' N; 77° 21' E), High

Wavy Mountains, Western Ghats in Theni Forest Division,

Tamil Nadu. This area (1,700 m above mean sea level)

has remnants of evergreen forests, and is located on the

border of Tamil Nadu and Kerala states. The boundary of

Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala was in close vicinity

(about 500 m) from the observation site of this agamid

lizard.

It reported that S. anamallayana is restricted to the

higher altitudes of the southern Western Ghats, especially in

Anamalai, Palni ( Palani ) and Travancore Hills (Smith 1935).

However, precise locality records for this species are scanty,

which include Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary, Eravikulam

National Park (Anamalai Hills), Mathikettan Shola and

Mariyanshola in Palm Hills (Smith 1935; Bhupathy and

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

341

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Kannan 1997; Bhupathy and Nixon 2004, Fig. 1). Even

though, the present locality lies within the general Travancore

Hills, it is perhaps, the only precise locality record available

for this species south of Anamalai and Palni Hills, and is

about 50 km (in straight line) from the nearest known site

(i.e. Mathikettan shola). This record also indicates the

possibility of the occurrence of S. anamallayana in Periyar

Tiger Reserve, Kerala and on other hill tops such as

Agasthiayamalai located further south. Further intensive

surveys may yield new locality records and insights on

the distribution pattern of this rare and endemic agamid

species.

REFE1

Bhupathy, S. & P. Kannan (1997): Status of agamid lizards in the Western

Ghats of Tamil Nadu. SACON Technical Report 5. Salim Ali

Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore. 28 pp.

Bhupathy, S. & A.M.A. Nixon (2004): Status of reptiles in Eravikulam

National Park, Kerala, India. Final Report submitted to the Kerala

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This paper is an offshoot of the research project (F. No.

23/5/2004-RE) sponsored by the Eastern and Western Ghats

programme of the Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India. We are grateful to the Chief Wildlife

Warden, Tamil Nadu and Mr. Srinivas Reddy, District Forest

Officer, Theni Forest Division, for permission to undertake

this study. Help rendered by R. Suganthan Sakthivel of Kerala

Forest Research Institute, Peechi, in preparing the map is

highly appreciated. We thank the Director, SACON, for

facilities provided and encouragement.

4CES

Forest Department. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural

History, Coimbatore. 15 pp.

Smith. M.A. (1935): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma: Reptilia and Amphibia. Volume II. Taylor and Francis,

London, United Kingdom. 440 pp.

10. RECORDS OF ERYX JOHN II (RUSSELL, 1801) (OPHIDIA: BOIDAE) AND ECHIS CARINATUS

(SCHNEIDER, 1801) (OPHIDIA: VIPERIDAE) FROM THE THAR DESERT, RAJASTHAN, INDIA,

WITH DISTRIBUTIONAL NOTES ON OTHER SNAKES

Bikramjit Sinha1 and R.C. Sharma2

'G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development, North East Unit, Itanagar 791 113, Arunachal Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

-Desert Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Pali Road, Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.

During the course of a routine survey of the Thar Desert

of Rajasthan, as a part of the assessment of impacts of the

Indira Gandhi Nahar Project on biodiversity, two snakes, Eryx

jolmii and Ecliis carinatus, were encountered. Indian Sand

Boa Eryx jolmii was observed at 2245 hrs on August 15, 2000,

in an agricultural field near the Desert National Park (DNP)

guest house at Sudansari, Jaisalmer. The venomous Saw-

scaled Viper Echis carinatus was observed at 2150 hrs on

August 17, 2000, in a hard rocky area with sparse vegetation,

c. 8 km towards Barmer on the road from Jaisalmer.

The subspecies status of this reptile was not determined,

i.e., whether the snake was Echis carinatus carinatus or Echis

carinatus sochureki (some taxonomists consider the two to

be distinct species - Echis carinatus and Echis sochureki).

A marked difference in behaviour was observed between

the two species. The Indian Sand Boa on being disturbed was

not aggressive, instead it tried to escape. The Saw-scaled Viper

on the other hand, adopted a defensive posture.

Both the snake species have been reported to occur

throughout the dry arid regions of India. The Thar Desert

covers 13 districts of western Rajasthan. So far, a total of

20 snake species have been reported from the Thar Desert

(Sharma 1996; Bhide et al. 2004). However, a look at their

district-wise distribution reveals that they are not uniformly

distributed. Maximum concentration occurs in Jodhpur district

(15 species), while not a single species has been reported from

Barmer, Churu, Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, Jalore and

Jhunjhunu districts. In our opinion, as all the 13 districts of

western Rajasthan lie within the Thar Desert and have similar

environmental conditions, 60-70% of the snake species recorded

in the Thar Desert may be present in all the districts. The present

status of report may be due to the biased nature of earlier surveys.

Thus, there exists plenty of scope in the distributional study of

snakes within all 13 districts of the Thar Desert.

Previously, the Indian Sand Boa has been reported from

two districts and the Saw-scaled Viper from five districts of

western Rajasthan (Table 1). The present report adds to the

existing knowledge of distribution of snake fauna in Jaisalmer

district of the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the anonymous referees for their critical

comments on the earlier version of the manuscript.

342

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Status of Snake fauna in the Thar Desert of Rajasthan

REFERENCES

Bhide, K., A. Captain & D. Khandal (2004): First record of

Lytorhynchus paradoxus (Gunther, 1 875 ) (Serpentes: Colubridae)

from the Republic of India with notes on its distribution (with two

text-figures). Hamadryad 28 ( 1&2 ): 123-127.

Sharma, R.C. (1996): Herpetology of the Thar Desert. Pp. 297-306.

In. Ghosh, A.K., Q.H. Baqri & I. Prakash (Eds): Faunal Diversity

in the Thar Desert: Gaps In research. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur,

India.

11. HARDWICK’S SPINY-TAILED LIZARD (UROMASTYX HARDWICKII, GRAY 1827) PREYED ON

BY INDIAN SAND BOA (ERYX JOHNII, RUSSELL 1801)

Manojkumar Pardeshi1'2, V. Vijay Kumar13, Nikunj Gajera'’4and Ashish Kumar1-5

'Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology, Mundra Road, P.O. Box 83, Bhuj (Kachchh) 370 001, Gujarat, India.

"Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email : [email protected]

The Narayan Sarowar Sanctuary (NSS) is located (23°

27'-23° 42’ N; 68° 30’-68° 57’ E) in the westernmost part of

the Kachchh district of the Gujarat State, India. NSS is a

unique arid thorn forest ecosystem of the country which

supports 15 threatened species of wildlife belonging to

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (Singh

2001). In which, a lizard Uromastyx hardwickii is found

locally common (Vyas 2002) and is also categorized as

Vulnerable (Molur and Walker 1998).

A recent observation of Eryx johnii predating on

U. hardwickii was observed at NSS on September 10, 2008,

at 0940 hrs in the reserve forest (Grassland) of Bhojpur village

Fig. 1: Eryx johnii holding Uromastyx hardwickii in its mouth

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

343

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(Abdasa taluka). We sighted Eryx johnii with a U. hardwickii

in its mouth (Fig. 1 ). In the beginning, I was unable to identify

the lizard as only the head of the lizard was caught by

the snake, and the rest of the body was inside the burrow.

However, it was easily identified when the Sand Boa

(E. johnii) threw out the entire body of the lizard. This act

tired the E. johnii and it rested for 40-55 seconds. It then

threw out the entire body, and ate the lizard in 12 minutes

and moved off slowly under the bushes of Prosopis juliflora.

Since E. johnii and U. hardwickii are common species

in the sanctuary, both species (prey and predator) were easily

identified by sight.

REFERENCES

Molur, S. & S. Walker (Eds) (1998): Report of the Workshop

‘Conservation assessment and Management Plan for Reptiles of

India’ (BCPP-Endangered Species Project). Zoo Outreach

Organisation, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, India,

Coimbatore, 1 79 pp.

Singh. H.S. (2001): Natural heritage of Gujarat (forests and wildlife),

Published by Gujarat Ecological Education & Research (GEER)

foundation, Gandhinagar. 162 pp.

Vyas, R. (2002): Preliminary survey of Herpetofauna of Narayan

Sarovar Sanctuary, Gujarat. Zoos ' Print. 17(6): 812-814.

12. DISCUSSION ON THE SNAKE FAUNA OF GUJARAT STATE,

WITH SOME NOTABLE RECORDS

Raju Vyas1

‘505, Krishnadeep Tower, Mission Road, Fatehgunj, Vadodara 2, Gujarat, India. Email: [email protected]

A literature survey indicates that the snake fauna of

Gujarat State consists of 63 species and subspecies belonging

to 41 genera and 8 families (Appendix 1 ) (Vyas 2000, 2006),

indicating a diversified fauna. This richness and diversity of

the snake fauna of the state is due to the diversity of habitat

types in the state, from desert to moist deciduous forests,

mudflats to mangrove forests and natural fresh water wetlands

to saline gulfs. Gujarat is the place where all major hill

complexes (from north to south: Aravali, Vindhya, Satpuda

and Sahyadri) meet within relatively short distances. Such hill

complexes and various types of habitat and microhabitats offer

suitable habitat conditions for many living organisms, including

snake species.

snakes of India - the field guide by Whitaker and

Captain (2004) covers a large number of species inhabiting

India, and provides high quality illustrations, descriptions,

and natural history with updated information of distribution

of 157 snake species. In the book, the authors have not

incorporated information on distribution of a few species of

snakes, which have been recorded from Gujarat State, or have

questioned the records of others.

In this paper, I enumerate records that are not

incorporated in that publication or are incorporated as of

doubtful occurrence in inhabiting the state.

1. Grypotyphlops acntus (Dumeril & Bibron, 1844)

The published records of the species indicate that it is

widely distributed in the state from Dangs (Daniel and Shull

1963), Navsari district (Navtad, Vansda National Park; Vyas

2004) in south Gujarat; Surendranagar district ( Dhangadhra;

Sharma 1982); Bhavnagar district (Bhavnagar) and Porbander

district (Barda Wildlife Sanctuary) of Saurashtra (Vyas et al.

2000): Anand ( Vallabh Vidhyanagar) and Ahmedabad (Gayen

1999: ZSI Reg. no 16.6.1920) of central Gujarat.

However, Whitaker and Captain (2004) show the

distribution of the species as “south of the Ganges Basin and

south of Rajasthan. Range extends west to Baroda and east

to Calcutta”. Emendation required in noting its distribution

in entire Gujarat (except Kachchh).

2. Uropeltis ellioti (Gray, 1858)

The distribution of this species is restricted to the high

hills of southern Dangs, south Gujarat. During the monsoons

of 1987, 1 collected a number of specimens of the species at

Sunset point of Saputara (20° 33' 58" N; 73° 44' 39" E) and

Piplai Devi (Dangs) (Vyas 1988).

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), this species

is distributed in the Western Ghats, mostly to the south of

Goa Gap, to Tirunelveli, with scattered records from

Bengaluru, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and recently, from Madhya

Pradesh (Panchmarhi), and also the Eastern Ghats up to

Ganjam on the Andhra Pradesh-Orissa border. Here, an

addition of Dangs, Gujarat State, is needed.

3. Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters, 1862)

I have been able to collect a 26.6 cm specimen of

U. macrolepis along with U. ellioti from Sunset point of

Saputara (20° 33' 58" N; 73° 44' 39" E). Dangs (Vyas and Jala

1988). This species was mentioned by Whitaker and Captain

(2004), with the comment that ‘the Dangs, Gujarat is probably

the northern-most limit of its distribution’.

4. Coelognathus helena monticollaris (Schulz, 1992)

This subspecies is commonly found in the districts

(Dangs, Surat, Nasari and Valsad) of south Gujarat (extreme

344

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

northern end of Western Ghats). Whitaker and Captain (2004)

mentioned that it is distributed in Western Ghats (from Kerala,

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) only.

5. Platyceps ventromaculatus (Gray, 1834)

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), this species

is distributed in the Indian states of Jammu & Kashmir,

Rajasthan and Gujarat, where the accompanying map shows

its distribution in the entire Gujarat state. I have found it only

at Banaskanth (Jassor Wildlife Sanctuary) and Kachchh

(Kachchh Desert Sanctuary) districts.

6. Argyrogena fasciolcita (Shaw, 1802)

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), this species

is distributed throughout most of the peninsular plains (from

Baroda to Gwalior) to the Himalayas. Unfortunately, the

accompanying map does not show the distribution in Gujarat,

where the species is abundant, and large size and numbers of

specimens have been recorded from Bhavnagar (Vyas 1987)

and Rajkot (Buch 1989) districts.

7. Chrysopeleo ornata (Shaw, 1802)

This species has been recorded from three different

locations of the State - Satpura (Dangs; Vyas 1990), Puma

Wildlife Sanctuary (Dangs; Vyas 2000), and Rajkot (Buch

1999). However, Whitaker and Captain (2004) mentioned

the distribution of the species from forested hills of the

South-west, Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, forest of north-east

India with the possibility from Maharashtra and Gujarat.

8. Ly codon flavomaculatus (Wall, 1907)

Whitaker and Captain (2004) stated that the species

record from Gujarat needs confirmation. Earlier, the species

is recorded from Bhavnagar district (Bhavnagar City and

Velavader National Park) (Vyas 1987; Vyas and Gadhvi

2003) . Recently, a specimen was collected from Padra,

Vadodara district and voucher specimen is available at the

Museum of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

(3434 BNHS).

9. Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor, 1839)

The species distributional map indicates the species is

distributed only in southern Gujarat (Whitaker and Captain

2004) . The species is found in the state from Banaskantha

(Jassore Wildlife Sanctuary - adjoining border of Rajasthan)

to Valsad districts of south Gujarat. Also, Gayen (1999)

reported the species from Ahmedabad on the basis of ZSI

Reg. No. 19203.

10. Boiga forsteni (Dumeril, Bibron & Dumeril, 1854)

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), the species

is distributed in the Western Ghats from Gujarat to Kerala;

Peninsular India - Ganges valley, Orissa, West Bengal and

Uttarakhand. Unfortunately, the accompanying map does not

show its occurrence in the State. In Gujarat, this species has

been recorded from Dangs (Saputara), Panchmahal (Pavagadh),

Junagadh (Girnar hills) and Banaskantha (Jassore hills). Also,

recorded from Abu hills of Rajasthan (Daniel 1962, 2002).

11. Calliophis melanurus (Shaw, 1802)

The distribution is scattered throughout the State, being

reported from the Dangs and Valsad districts of south Gujarat

(Daniel and Shull 1963); Bhavnagar (Victoria Park and

Hathab), Junagadh (Junagadh and Sasan) and Rajkot

(Hingolgadh) districts in Saurashtra region. Whitaker and

Captain (2004) mentioned its distribution in peninsular India

with the comment 'not clearly known'. However, the

accompanying map shows its distribution up to eastern

Gujarat. I have never found the species from eastern Gujarat,

and no records from the area are available till date.

12. Naja oxiana (Eichwakl, 1831)

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), the

authentic records are from India: Jammu & Kashmir,

Himachal Pradesh, and probably Punjab. Though reported

from Rajasthan and Gujarat, these records need confirmation,

as they were possibly black, pattern less forms of Naja naja.

Records from Kachchh (Chhari Dhandh; Akhtar and Tiwari

1991) and Banaskantha districts (Dhanera: Vyas 1998),

Gujarat. These require authentication.

13. Trimeresuriis gramineus (Shaw, 1802)

According to Whitaker and Captain (2004), this species

is distributed in the Western Ghats and its northernmost limit

probably being the Dangs in Gujarat. However, I have been

able to collect the species from Ratanmahal Wildlife

Sanctuary, Dahod district further north from the known

northern limits of the species. Also, the species occurs in dry

deciduous forest areas of Chota Udaipur (Vadodara district)

and Devgadh Bariya (Dahod district).

Whitaker (1978) supported the above distribution range

and mentioned the species is distributed in the ‘Hills of

India below a line drawn from Calcutta (now Kolkata) (in

West Bengal) to Baroda (- Vadodara) (in Gujarat)'.

I believe, providing a voucher specimen or photograph

of specimen is essential for establishing an authentic record

else the record is deemed and is not considered as valid.

Without any concrete evidence the particular record is

considered as “suspicious”.

The above mentioned species are not incorporated

unambiguously and some of the records are incorporated with

a question of probability. This might be due to the lacuna of

establishing authenticity of record by recorders in the form

of deposition of voucher specimen. But, the record of species

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

345

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

(from particular areas) cannot always be rejected on the

ground of missing voucher specimen. Because obtaining a

voucher specimen (for museum) is not possible if the species

is recorded from Protected Areas or is under legal protection.

Most of the Indian herpetologists (especially taxonomists)

acknowledge that obtaining permission for such a collection

is not so easy, especially when work in the above situation is

along typical Indian bureaucratic scenarios.

However, here I have tried to establish that the above

discussed species are recorded from the state, and vouchers

of some of the species (Appendix 2) are available at museum

of the Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai and

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank C.N. Pandey, Director, Gujarat Ecological

Education (GEER) Foundation and Pradeep Khanna, Chief

Conservator of Forest (Wildlife), Gujarat Forests Department,

Gandhinagar, Gujarat State, India, for logistic support and

permission for the study. Late Naresh Chaturvedi, BNHS,

helped with voucher registration, and Varad Giri, Curator,

BNHS, provided valuable comments on an earlier draft.

REFERENCES

Akhtar, A.S. & J.K. Tiwari (1991): Extension of range of the Black

Cobra Naja naja oxicina. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 123.

Buch, S.M. (1989): A record Banded Racer (Argyrogena fasciata).

Hamadryad 14(2): 29.

Buch, S.M. (1999): A flying snake ( Chrysopelea ornata) in a rural area

near Rajkot city (Gujarat). Cobra (35 & 36): 33.

Daniel, J.C. ( 1962): Extension of the known range of the Cat Snake,

Boiga forsteni (Duin & Bir.). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 59(3):

966-967.

Daniel, J.C. (2002): The Book of Indian Reptiles and Amphibians.

Bombay Natural History Society, Oxford University Press,

Bombay. 238 pp.

Daniel, J.C. & E.M. Shull (1963): A list of the reptiles and amphibians of

Surat, Dangs, south Gujarat. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 737-743.

Gayen, N.C. ( 1999): A synopsis of the reptiles of Gujarat, western India.

Hamadryad 24: 1-22.

Sharma. R.C. (1982): Taxonomic and ecological studies on the reptiles

of Gujarat. Record of Zoological Survey India 80: 85-108.

Vyas, R. (1987): A list of the snakes of Bhavnagar district, Gujarat

state. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 227-230.

Vyas, R. (1988): Notes on snakes from district Dang, Gujarat state.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 85(1): 200.

Vyas, R. ( 1990): Golden tree snake. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 309.

Vyas, R. (1998): The reptiles of Gujarat state: Updated distribution.

Tigerpaper 25(1): 8-14.

Vyas, R. (2000): Comments on ‘A synopsis of the reptiles of Gujarat,

India’. Hamadryad 25(2): 203-207.

Vyas, R. (2004): Herpetofauna of Vansda National Park, Gujarat. Zoos’

Print J. 19(6): 1512- 1514.

Vyas, R. (2006): Story of a snake’s photograph from Gujarat and notes

on further distribution of the Indian egg-eater snake. Herpinstance

3(2): 1-4.

Vyas, R. & I.R. Gadhvi (2003): Preliminary Survey on herpetofauna of

Blackbuck National Park, Gujarat, India. Tigerpaper 30(2): 11-14.

Vyas, R. & C. Jala (1988): The Bombay Shield Tail Snake (Uropeltis

macrolepis: Peters) collected from the Saputara, Dang. Herpeton

1(1): 16.

Vyas, R., K. Bhatt & I. Gadhvi (2001): Length record of the beaked

worm snake (Rhinotyphlops acutus) and its distribution in Gujarat.

Zoos' Print J. 16(7): 549-550.

Whitaker. R. (1978): Common Indian Snakes. The Macmillan Co. of

India, New Delhi. 154 pp.

Whitaker, R. & A. Captain (2004): Snakes of India - The Field Guide.

Draco Books, Chennai, India. xiv+ 481 pp.

Appendix 1

List of snake species recorded from Gujarat State, India

Family: Typhlopidae

1 . Ftamphotyphlops braminus

2. Grypotyphlops acutus

3. Typhlops porrectus

Family: Uropeltidae

4. Uropeltis ellioti

5. Uropeltis macrolepis macrolepis

6. Uropeltis ocellatus *

Family: Boidae

7. Gongylophis conicus

8. Eryx johnii johrtii

Family: Pythonidae

9. Python molurus molurus

Family: Acrochordiae

10. Acrochordus granulatus

Family: Colubridae

1 1 . Ahaetulla nasuta

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31. Macropisthodon plumbicolor

32. Oligodon arnensis

33. Oligodon taeniolatus

34. Oligodon venustus *

35. Psammophis condanarus*

36. Psammophis leithii

37. Psammophis longifrons

38. Psammophis schokari*

39. Ptyas mucosa

40. Sibynophis subpunctatus

41 . Spalerosophis diadema

42. Xenochrophis piscator

Ahaetulla pulverulenta*

Amphiesma stolatum

Argyrogena fasciolata

Atretium schistosum *

Boiga forsteni

Boiga trigonata

Cerberus rynchops

Chrysopelea ornata

Platyceps ventromaculatus

Coronella brachyura

Dendrelaphis pictus*

Dendrelaphis tristis

Elachistodon westermanni

Coelognathus helena helena

Coelognathus helena monticollaris

Gerarda prevostiana

Lycodon aulicus

Lycodon flavomaculatus

Lycodon striatus

Family: Elapidae

43. Bungarus caeruleus

44. Bungarus sindanus

45. Calliophis melanurus

46. Calliophis nigrescens

47. Naja naja

48. Najaoxiana *

49 . Ophiophagus hannah *

Family: Hydrophidae

50. Enhydrina schistosa

51. Hydrophis caerulescens

52. Hydrophis cantoris

53. Hydrophis cyanocinctus

54. Hydrophis gracilis

55. Hydrophis lapemoides

56. Hydrophis mam il laris

57. Hydrophis spiralis

58. Lapemis curtus

59. Pelamis platura

Family: Viperidae

60. Daboia russelii

61. Echis carinatus

62. Echis carinatus sochurki

63. Trimeresurus gramineus

‘Species need confirmation

346

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

P. ventromaculatus A. fasciolata C. ornata L. flavomaculatus M. plumbicolor C. melanurus

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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347

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13. OCCURRENCE OF WHITE SUCKERFISH REMORINA ALBESCENS

ON THE SOUTH-EAST COAST OF INDIA

C. Venkatraman', J.T. Jothinayagam1, C. Raghunathan1, P. Krishnamoorthy1,

G. Sivaleela1 and A. Manimekalan2

'Marine Biological Station. Zoological Survey of India. 130, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

-Biodiversity & Aquatic Ecology Division, Department of Environmental Sciences, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046,

Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

Zoological Survey of India, Marine Biological Station,

Chennai is maintaining a marine aquarium which is stocked

with ornamental fishes brought by local fishermen from

the Chennai Coast. During the first week of March 2006, a

live White Sucker fish was brought which had not been

collected earlier. It was alive for 25 days in the aquarium.

After close observation, it was identified as Remorina

albescens. This species was collected 15 km off the village

Nochikuppam, Chennai (13° 06' N; 80° 18' E). Remorina

albescens is generally called White Suckerfish because of

its white colour. Perusal of literature shows that this species

has not been reported from the East Coast of Peninsular India.

Previously this species was caught at Thalayi, 50 miles north

of Calicut (now Kozhikode) in the west coast of India by the

Madras Fisheries Department. This is the first report of the

species from the East Coast of India. The specimen has been

included in the registered collections of the Marine Biological

Station.

Material examined: 1 ex., 214 mm, SL F. 5226 ZSE

MBS, Nochikuppam, Chennai, 06.iii.06.

[Class: Actinopterygii; Order: Perciformes; Suborder:

Percoidei; Family: Echeneidae; Species: Remorina albescens

(Temminck & Schlegel 1 850); (Fig. 1 )]

Echeneis albescens Temminck & Schlegel, Fauna

Japonica Pisces, Part 6, 1850, p. 272.

Fig. 1 : Remorina albescens (Temminck & Schlegel 1850)

a. Ventral view; b. Dorsal view; c. Lateral view

Echeneis albescens Day, Fishes of India, Part II, 1876,

p. 258.

Remorina albescens Maul, Bol. Mus. Municipal.

Funchal. IX, Art 23, 1956, p.66.

Description: Dl. 3; D2. 21; A. 20; P. 19; V. 1/.5;C. 15

Head: Head is rather long and flattened, its length 3.57,

width 4.12, depth 8.23 in standard length (SF); head width

1.10, Head depth 2.19, Snout length 2.28, inter orbital width

1.16, width of sucker 1.16, length of sucker 0.79, sucker laminae

4.38 times in head length (HE).

Body: It is wide anteriorly with depth 9.30, width 4.76

in SF, pre-dorsal distance 1.38, pre pelvic distance 2.93, pre

anal distance 1 .34, caudal peduncle length 23.78 times in SF.

Colour: Body is white and pectoral fin pale grey to white.

Remora has no swim bladder and uses the sucking disc on the

top of its head to obtain rides from other animals such as large

sharks, and sea turtles. The sucking disk, developed from a

transformed spinous dorsal fin, contains 16-20 transverse

movable lamina which create a partial vaccuum permitting the

Remora to obtain rides on the larger animals (Nelson 1984).

The lower jaw projects past the upper jaw and the teeth, located

in jaws and vomer are in a villiform patch, are pointed and

recurved slightly inward. The morphological characters of

Remorina albescens are given in Table 1 .

The Remorina is a pelagic marine fish that is usually

found in the warmer parts of most oceans clinging on to large

sharks, sea turtles, bony fishes and marine mammals (Marshall

1965). Based on observations of the species in captivity

(Bohlke and Chaplin 1993), Remora remora requires a swift

passage of water over the gills and cannot survive in stagnant

waters. The Remorina is not considered to be a parasite,

despite it being attached to the host. Instead they are

considered to have a commensal relationship with their host,

since they do not hurt the host and just cling for the ride

(McClane 1998). It has also been suggested (McClane 1998)

that the relationship is symbiotic since the Remorina can

obtain its food acting as a cleaner fish and removing parasites

from the host, thus benefitting both. It is not known whether

the Sharks tolerate the Remorina 's presence or are just unable

to catch them, but no Remorina has ever been found in a

348

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Morphological characters of Remorina albescens

Shark’s stomach (McClane 1998). Instead, some small

specimens have been found in the inside of sharks mouth,

clinging to the roof (McClane 1998).

Bohlke, J & C. Chaplin ( 1993): Fishes of the Bahamas and adjacent

tropical waters. Wynewood, PA: First University of Texas Press.

771 pp.

Day, F. (1889): Fishes. The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Fishes 2: Today & Tomorrow Printers and Publishers.

New Delhi. 509 pp.

Kapoor, D„ R. Dayal & A.G Ponniah (2002): Fish biodiversity of India.

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources Lucknow, India. 775 pp.

Marshall, T. ( 1965): Fishes of the Great Barrier Reef and Coastal waters

of Queensland. Sydney, Australia: Livingston publishing Co. 566 pp.

Discussion: Day (1889) reported its occurrence in

the seas of India, but no specimen has so far been reported

from the East Coast. Kapoor etal. (2002) listed this species

in fish biodiversity of India but he did not mention the exact

location. Munro (2000) also reported this species in the

coastal waters of Sri Lanka. Rajan (2003) studied the marine

food fishes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, but he did

not record this species. Based on the study of the various

morphometric and meristic characters this species was

confirmed as Remorina albescens and based on the

available literature it is observed that this species has not

been reported from the East coast of India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, former

Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata for his

encouragement and facilities provided for this work. We thank

to Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, SRS/ZSI for critically going

through the manuscript.

NCES

McClane, J. (1998): McClanes New Standard Fishing Encyclopedia

and International Fishing Guide. New York, NY: Gramercy Books.

1156 pp.

Monro, I.S.R. (2000): The marine and fresh water fishes of Ceylon,

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 349 pp.

Nelson, J.S. (1984): Fishes of the World. A wiley-interscience

publication. New York. 523 pp

Rajan, P.T. (2003): A field guide to marine food fishes of Andaman

and Nicobar Islands, 1-260. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

260 pp.

14. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN ‘SPOTTED SCAT’ - SCATOPHAGUS ARGUS (LINNAEUS)

Jency Paul13, Honey Sebastian2, N.D. Inasu1 and C.O.Joshi1

'Fisheries Research Laboratory, Post Graduate and Research Department of Zoology, Christ College, Innjalakuda 680 1 25, Kerala, India.

2Vimala college, Thrissur 680 009, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

4Email : inasund 1 45 1 [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Sexual dimorphism is widespread in nature and can be

influenced by sex-specific natural selection resulting from

ecological differences between sexes (Reimchen and Nosil

2004) and it is an important component of the morphological

variations in biological populations. Differences in the

selective pressures experienced by the sexes can ultimately

result in the evolution of sexual dimorphism of morphological

traits (Andersson 1994).

Such studies are of great significance in taxonomy.

bionomics, reproductive biology, unisex culture of fishes,

hybridization -experiments, hormonal sex control,

identification of maturity stage, identification of hybrids,

breeding season, induced breeding, seedling production

technology and also in the observation of courtship and

mating, mate selection and preference.

The study on sexual dimorphism has been carried out

only in a very few species of fishes like Puntius filamentosus

(Thobias 1 974), Tetraodon travancoricus Hora & Nair (Inasu

1993), Ompok bimaculatus and Horabagrus brachysoma

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

349

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Average morphometric details of S. argus

(Molly and Inasu 1997), Priacanthus hamrur(Tessy and Inasu

1998) and Leiognathus bevirostris (Honey et al. 2005).

The present work deals with the sexual dimorphism

of Scatophagus argus belonging to the Order Perciformes

and Family Scatophagidae. It is commonly called ‘argus fish',

‘spotted scat’, or ‘butterfish'. This peaceful shoaling fish is

distributed in the Indo-Pacific ocean and also inhabits natural

embayment, salt and brackish estuaries, lower reaches of

freshwater streams, frequently occurring among mangroves.

They spawn in the neighbourhood of coral reefs but the young

ones reach the river mouths and go back to the sea when

they grow large. While young it makes a handsome aquarium

fish (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Even though brackish in

nature, it easily acclimatizes in fresh water. On account of

its food and ornamental value, Scatophagus argus is a

potential fish for induced maturation and breeding

technologies. So the study on sexual dimorphism is of great

significance as it is a preliminary step to distinguish the

gender.

Material and Methods

Two hundred and eighty-five adult specimens (males

163 and females 122) were collected in fresh condition

during February to July 2005 from the estuarine region of

Ernakulum in Kerala. They were sorted into various length

groups. The colour pattern in sexes was noted in fresh

condition itself before preserving them in 7% formalin for

morphometry. Various measurements in mm namely, total

length, head length, maximum width, caudal peduncle

length, inter-orbital space and eye diameter were taken for

each fish using a vernier caliper. The total weight (gm) for

each fish also was recorded.

Result and Discussion

Even though the males and females S. argus look alike,

a close observation and the morphometry showed the

existence of sexual dimorphism (Tables 1 and 2). Females

are larger and heavier than the males of the same length

group. No female fish 110-119 mm long with a developing

ovary was observed. At the same time 12 males with

developing gonad were observed in this length group.

Similarly no males were recorded in the highest size group

1 80- 1 89 mm, as against 8 females. Most of the females were

in ripe condition and a few, spent. Maximum number of males

belonged to 120-129 mm size group.

S. argus males are more ornamental than females.

Mature males acquire a pinkish hue on the body especially

on the basal portion of second dorsal fin, anal fin and

caudal fin whereas in females the base of above mentioned

fins are tinched with a pale greenish blue colour. In

females the tip of the ventral fin is black while in male

such coloration is not noticed (photographic evidence

provided).

In the bulls eye, Priacanthus hamrur (Tessy and Inasu

1998), and in a silver belly Leiognathus brevirostris (Honey

et al. 2005) and in an inland catfish Ompok bimaculatus

(Molly and Inasu 1997) the females have been found to

dominate males in morphometric measurements. The large

body size of female fish can be explained by the fecundity of

the fish. Andersson (1994) reported that females tend to have

Table 2: Average length (mm) and weight (gm) of S. argus

350

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

larger gonads than males with large energy rich eggs, whereas

males have much smaller gonads that produce numerous

relatively inexpensive sperm.

This study has focused on the ultimate explanations of

the observed sexual dimorphism in S. argus , yet it would be

interesting to further examine the proximate causes of these

differences.

Andersson, M. (1994): Sexual selection. Princeton, NJ: Pub. by

Princeton University Press^New Jersey. 447 pp.

Honey Sebastian, N.D. Inasu & C.O. Joshi (2005): Sexual dimorphism

in the Silver Belly Leiognathus brevirostris (Valenciennes).

J. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 47(2): 213-214.

Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of a fresh water puffer fish

Tetraodon iravancoricus Hora and Nair, collected from Trichur

district, central Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90: 523-524.

Kurian Molly & N.D. Inasu (1997): Sexual dimorphism of two inland

edible cat fishes Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) and Horabagrus

brachysoma (Gunther). J. Inland fish. Soc. India 29(2): 34-39.

Mandy Tessy J. & N.D. Inasu (1998): Sexual dimorphism of marine

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Rev. Fr. Jose Chunkan (CMI), Principal,

Christ College, Irinjalakuda, for providing all facilities for the

study. The second author is also grateful to University Grants

Commission for providing Research Fellowship during the tenure

of which the present work was carried out.

perch, Priacanthus hamrur (Cuv. & Val. ). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 95(1): 132-134.

Rf.imchen, T.E. & P. Nosil (2004): Variable predation regimes predict

the evolution of sexual dimorphism in a population of three spine

stickleback. Evolution 58 (<5):1274-1281.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

Adjacent countries, Oxford & IBH publishing company.

New Delhi. 878 pp.

Thobias, M.P (1974): Observations on the morphological variations in

Puntius filamentosus (Val.) Family Cyprinidae: with a

redescription of the species. J. Inland fish. Soc. India

6: 45-50.

15. MOTION CAMOUFLAGE AND SPINNING WHEELS

Peter Smetacek1

'Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital 263 136, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Acharya (1961) and Worth (1962) noted the strange

behaviour of dragonflies in relation to spinning bicycle

wheels. Acharya (1961) noted that near a particular lake in

Gujarat, up to 50 dragonflies of an undetermined species

belonging to Anisoptera would fly parallel with the rear wheel

of his bicycle, moving when he moved and stopping when he

stopped. They would maintain their fixed position even in

response to a burst of speed or sudden slowing.

Worth (1962) noted that South African dragonflies of

the same suborder also maintained a constant position with

respect to the spinning front wheel of his bicycle. He also

mentioned that the dragonflies would keep pace with his feet

when he walked along sunny trails.

I have on a few occasions had the same thing happen

with the large dragonfly Anax guttatus (Burmeister) and the

front wheel of my motorcycle, moving at 30 kmph in the

Bhimtal valley in Uttarakhand. Once, one of these dragonflies

accompanied me for about 200 m on a winding hill road. On

another occasion I noticed the dragonfly by the flashing

reflections of the evening sun off its wings, which looked

very much like the light reflected from the spokes of spinning

motorcycle or, indeed, bicycle wheels.

Both of the previous authors could not offer a

satisfactory explanation. Acharya (1961) suggested that

dragonflies are fun loving and constantly sport with each other.

“Perhaps the habit of continuous movement may be

responsible for the peculiar behaviour referred to above, being

attracted by the moving wheels.”

Worth (1962) suggested that dragonflies use hunting

tactics similar to those used by Cattle Egrets, who attend large

mammals in order to catch the insects disturbed and put to

flight by these mammals.

Mizutani et al. (2003) throw more light on this matter.

They suggest that dragonflies utilize motion camouflage as

a means of catching highly manoeuvrable prey. In this, the

dragonfly moves in such a way that it imitates the trajectory

of a distant stationary object on the retina of its potential

prey by maintaining a certain position in relation to the retina

of the potential prey. This is achieved by precise flight

control and positional sensing. That is if Acharya’s and

Worth’s rear and front wheels respectively or my

motorcycle’s front wheel had retinas, they would have

observed a stationary dragonfly while we, the riders, with a

different trajectory, noticed and wondered about the moving

dragonflies practising their inborn, so far unexplained,

ability to appear motionless and, therefore, harmless, to the

spinning wheels.

This, then, is a rather clever way of stalking prey. This

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

351

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

implies that the dragonflies considered the spinning wheels

as something worth stalking or, at least, pursuing. In one of

my experiences, the reflections from the transparent wings

of the accompanying Anax dragonfly reminded me very

much of a spinning wheel. Perhaps1 the flashes of light

reflected from the spinning spokes resemble a dragonfly’s

wings’ flashes on the retina of the stalking dragonfly.

In the case of the large, solitary Anax species, which

REFE

Acharya. H.G. (1961): Strange behaviour of some dragonflies.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 819-820.

Mizutani, A., J.S. Chahl & M. V. Srintvasan (2003): Motion camouflage

are active even at dusk, this could be a preliminary means of

mate recognition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. Arun Kumar of the Zoological

Survey of India, Dehradun, for kindly supplying the name of

the author of Anax guttatus.

in dragonflies. Nature 423: 604.

Worth, C.B. (1962): Dragonflies and bicycles. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 59: 676-677.

16. ABUNDANCE AND DIVERSITY OF ODONATA (INSECTA)

IN SOME HILLY REGIONS OF TAMIL NADU

R. Arulprakash1-2 and K. Gunathilagaraj1

'Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore 641 003, Tamil Nadu, India.

’Email : avrarulprakash @ gmail.com

Introduction

Fraser (1933, 1934, 1936) recorded 116 species of

Odonata (Insecta) from the hilly regions of India. A perusal

of literature (Miller 1992; Gunathilagaraj et al. 1999; Palot

and Soniya 2000a, b; Asaithambi and Manickavasagam 2002;

Emiliyamma and Radhakrishnan 2003; Kandibane etal. 2005;

Sharma et al. 2007) showed that there has been no

comprehensive study on the abundance and diversity of this

group from the hilly regions of Tamil Nadu. Hence, the present

study was conducted to assess the diversity and abundance

of Odonata in five hilly regions of Salem district in Tamil

Nadu.

Methodology

Five hilly regions, namely Yercaud, Karunkaradu,

Pallikaradu, Periakaradu and Poonaikundru were surveyed

to assess the Odonata diversity and abundance. The place of

sampling and coordinates of the hilly regions are given in

Table 1. Collections were made once after the North-east

monsoon (January to April, 2006), and only adults were

collected with the aid of sweep net (35 cm dia. and 70 cm

ht.). In Yercaud, collections were made from small streams,

tributaries of Kiliyanur River and from boat house lake.

Karunkaradu, Pallikaradu, Periakaradu and Poonaikundru

were devoid of water bodies and collections were made

with a sweep net by slowly walking around the hills.

The identity of collected Odonata was fixed using the keys

developed by Fraser (1933, 1934, 1936), Kumar and Prasad

(1981), Ram et al. (1982), Barrion and Litsinger (1994),

and Emiliyamma and Radhakrishnan (2000). Odonata

diversity was computed using the Simpson’s index

(Simpson 1949).

s

Simpson’s index (Z) = X ni (ni-1) / N (N-l)

i = 1

Where, ni is the number of individuals of the i,h species, and

N is the total number of individuals in the sample

Simpson’s index ( X ) varies from 0 to 1 . Increase in the

value of the index indicates decrease in the diversity of species

and vice-versa.

Abbreviations used: dia. - diameter; ht. - height

Table 1: Coordinates of the hilly regions sampled in the present study

352

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Distribution of Odonata in hill regions of Tamil Nadu

A : Yercaud C : Poonaikundru E : Periakaradu

B : Karunkaradu D : Pallikaradu

Results

Odonata collected from 5 hilly regions comprised

23 species of Odonata ( 1 4 species of Anisoptera and 9 species

of Zygoptera) belonging to 18 genera under 4 families

(Table 2). Among the 23 species. Diplacodes trivialis

(Rambur) (Libellulidae) and Copera vittata Selys

(Platycnemididae) were the most abundant Anisoptera and

Zygoptera respectively. Except Yercaud, all other hilly regions

sampled were dominated by Anisoptera (dragonflies); Yercaud

had both Anisoptera and Zygoptera in nearly equal

proportions. No Zygoptera was recorded in Pallikaradu,

Periakaradu and Poonaikundru. Libellulidae (Anisoptera) was

the only family present in all hilly regions, whereas Zygoptera

Table 3: Diversity of Odonata (Simpson’s index) in hilly regions

of Tamil Nadu

was represented by three families, namely Coenagrionidae,

Lestidae and Platycnemididae. Libellulidae had maximum

number of individuals (180) and species (14), followed

by Coenagrionidae (39 individuals and 7 species),

Platycnemididae and Lestidae (1 species each; 17 and

15 individuals respectively). Of the five hilly regions sampled,

Odonata abundance was maximum in Yercaud followed by

Karunkaradu, Poonaikundru, Periakaradu and Pallikaradu.

Copera vittata Selys (Platycnemididae) and Lestes elatus

Hagen in Selys (Lestidae) were dominant in Yercaud and

Karunkaradu hills respectively, and Diplacodes trivialis

(Rambur) (Libellulidae) was dominant in the rest.

Brachythemis contaminata (Labricius), Crocothemis

servilia ( Drury), Diplacodes nebulosa (Labricius), Tholymis

tillarga (Labricius), Trithemis aurora (Burmeister),

Rhodothemis rufa (Rambur) (Libellulidae), Agriocnemis

pygmaea (Rambur), Ischnura senegalensis (Rambur),

Pseudagrion decorum (Rambur), Pseudagrion

microcephalum (Rambur), Pseudagrion rubriceps Selys

(Coenagrionidae) and Copera vittata (Platycnemididae) were

unique to Yercaud, whereas Potamarcha congener (Rambur)

(Libellulidae) and Lestes elatus (Lestidae) were confined to

Karunkaradu hill. Diplacodes trivialis (Rambur), Orthetrum

sabina (Drury), Pantala flavescens (Labricius), Tramea

basilaris (Palisot de Beauvois) and Tramea limbata

(Desjardins) (Libellulidae) were found in all hilly regions

sampled. Odonata diversity was higher in Yercaud and lower

in Pallikaradu according to Simpson’s index (Table 3).

Discussion

Odonata in hill ecosystem is restricted when compared

to those in plains, because only those species that can tolerate

erratic environment would colonise hilly regions (Samways

1989; Carchini et al. 2005). Oppel (2005a,b) reported that

Zygoptera was abundant in hilly regions than Anisoptera,

which is in contrast with the present study which shows

dominance of Anisoptera in the hilly regions, except Yercaud.

High shade cover and presence of water bodies favour

the zygopteran population than Anisoptera (Schindler et al.

2003; Oppel 2005a). This might be the possible reason for

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

353

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the abundance of Zygoptera in Yercaud and the reverse may

be true for the abundance of Anisoptera in other hilly regions.

Odonata of Family Libellulidae (Anisoptera) are common in

plains and their diversity decreases with increase in altitude

because fast flowing streams and rivers are not suitable for

Libellulidae naiads, which require sluggish and weedy ponds

(Samways, 1989). But Libellulidae was dominant at higher

altitudes in the present study. Eurytopic (wide habitat

tolerance) nature of Libellulidae (Stewart and Samways 1998;

Clausnitzer 2003; Oppel 2005a,b) might be responsible for

their abundance when compared to other families, namely

Coenagrionidae, Lestidae and Platycnemididae recorded in

the present study.

Higher species richness and diversity of Odonata in

Yercaud could be attributed to the vast area, variety of biotopes

(temporary water bodies, river, stream, cascade) and high shade

cover. This is in agreement with the findings of Samways ( 1 989)

in South Africa and Oppel (2005a) in Papua New Guinea.

REFERENCES

Asaithambi, M. & S. Manickavasagam (2002): Odonata of Annamalai

University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu. Zoos' Print J. 17:

704-706.

Barrion, A.T. & J.A. Litsinger (1994): Taxonomy of rice insect pests

and their arthropod parasites and predators. Pp. 13-362.

In: Heinrichs, E.A. (Ed.): Biology and Management of Rice Insects.

New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.

Carchint, G, A.G Solimni & A. Ruggiero (2005): Habitat characteristics

and odonate diversity in mountain ponds of central Italy. Aquatic

Conserv: Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 15: 573-581.

Clausnitzer, V. (2003): Dragonfly communities in coastal habitats of

Kenya: indication of biotope quality and the need of conservation

measures. Biodives. Conserv. 12: 333-356.

Emiliyamma, K.G. & C. Radhakrishnan (2000): Odonata (Insecta) of

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala, India. Rec. Zool. Surv.

India 98: 157-167.

Emiliyamma, K.G. & C. Radhakrishnan (2003): Odonata (Insecta) of

Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park, Tamil Nadu.

Zoos' Print J. 18: 1264-1266.

Fraser, F.C. (1933): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Odonata Vol. I. London: Taylor and Francis Ltd. 426 pp.

Fraser, F.C. (1934): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Odonata. Vol. II. London: Taylor and Francis Ltd. 398 pp.

Fraser, F.C. (1936): The Fauna of British India, Including Ceylon and

Burma. Odonata. Vol. III. London: Taylor and Francis Ltd.,

461 pp.

Gunathilagaraj, K., R.P. Soundarajan, N. Chitra & M. Swamiappan

(1999): Odonata of rice fields of Coimbatore. Zoos' Print J.

14 : 43-44.

Kandibane, M., S. Raguraman & N. Ganapathy (2005): Relative

abundance and diversity of Odonata in an irrigated rice field of

Madurai, Tamil Nadu. Zoos’ Print J. 20: 2051-2052.

Kumar, A. & M. Prasad (1981): Field ecology, zoogeography and

taxonomy of the Odonata of Western Himalaya, India. Rec. Zool.

Surv. India, Occ. Pap. 20: 1-118.

Miller, P.L. (1992): Dragonflies of the campus at Madurai Kamaraj

University, Tamil Nadu, India. Notul. Odonatol. 3: 160-165.

Oppel, S. (2005a): Habitat associations of an Odonata community in a

lower montane rain forest in Papua New Guinea. Int. J. Odonatol

8: 243-257.

Oppel, S. (2005b): Comparison of two Odonata communities from a

natural and a modified rainforest in Pupua New Guinea. Int. J.

Odonatol. 9: 89-102.

Palot, M.J. & V.P. Soniya (2000a): Odonata from Courtallam,

Tamil Nadu, Southern India. Zoos' Print J. 15: 301-303.

Palot, M.J. & V.P. Soniya (2000b): A small collection of odonates from

Tuticorin. Insect Environment 6: 122-123.

Ram, R„ V.D. Srivastava & M. Prasad (1982): Odonata (Insecta) fauna

of Calcutta and surroundings. Rec. Zool. Surv. India 80: 169-196.

Samways, M.J. (1989): Taxon turnover in Odonata across a 3000 m

altitudinal gradient in Southern Africa. Odonatologica 18:

263-274.

Schindler, M., C. Fesl & A. Chovanec (2003): Dragonfly associations

(Insecta: Odonata) in relation to habitat variables: a multivariate

approach. Hydrobiologia 497: 169-180.

Sharma, G., R. Sundararaj & L.R. Karibasvaraja (2007): Species

diversity of Odonata in the selected provenances of sandal in

Southern India. Zoos' Print J. 22: 2165-2161.

Simpson, E.H. (1949): Measurement of diversity. Nature 163: 688.

Stewart, D.A.B. & M.J. Samways (1998): Conserving dragonfly

(Odonata) assemblages relative to river dynamics in an African

Savanna game reserve. Cons. Biol. 12: 683-692.

17. STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF APPIAS LALAGE BUTTERFLY (LEPIDOPTERA: PIERIDAE)

IN THE WESTERN GHATS, SOUTH-WESTERN INDIA

Krushnamegh Kunte1, E. Kunhikrishnan2-4, M. Balakrishnan2 and C. Susanth3

'FAS Center for Systems Biology, Harvard University, 52 Oxford St., Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. Email: [email protected]

"Deparment of Zoology, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India.

’Prakriti, Indira Nagar, Peroorkada P.O. 695 005, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

4Email: kunhikrish@ yahoo. co. in

Much confusion surrounds the occurrence of Appias

lalage Doubleday, 1842 (Lepidoptera: Pieridae: Pierinae), also

known as the Spot Puffin butterfly, in the Western Ghats.

The Western Ghats is a mountain chain that runs along the

western coast of southern India, and it is one of the globally

recognized biodiversity hotspots. Its evergreen forest flora

and fauna are isolated from the nearest Himalayan and north-

east Indian forests by over 1 ,500 km of dry, mixed deciduous

forests on the Deccan Plateau. Hence, the Western Ghats is a

key feature of peninsular India from biogeographic,

354

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

biodiversity and conservation perspectives (Gadgil 1996). In

this note we present our observations on A. lalage to clarify

its status and distribution within this mountain range.

The type specimen of A. lalage was taken from Khasi

Hills in north-eastern India, which were previously included in

Assam, but now belong to the state of Meghalaya, bordering

Bangladesh. The currently well-known distribution of the

nominate subspecies is throughout the Himalayas (Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand to Nepal, Sikkim, northern West

Bengal, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh), the Khasi, Garo, Jaintia,

Cachar and Lushai Hills of the Patkai Range (covering the entire

north-eastern India) and the mountainous region of Myanmar

(Evans 1932; Talbot 1939; Wynter-Blyth 1957; Smith 1989;

Haribal 1992; Larsen 2004). Throughout its range it occurs

between 550 nr and 2,500 m above msl, but is partial to higher

elevations; inhabits evergreen forests, and it may be seasonally

common (Evans 1932; Parsons and Cantlie 1948; Wynter-Blyth

1957; Smith 1989; Haribal 1992; Larsen 2004). Two other

subspecies have been listed under A. lalage-. (a) A. lalage

lageloides Crowley, 1900 occurs in Hainan, China (lo 2000),

and (b) A. lalage lagela Moore, 1878 occurs in southern

Myanmar, Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia (Evans 1 932; Talbot

1939; Pinratana 1983; Corbet et al. 1992); although lagela is

now widely recognized as a subspecies of A. pandione Geyer,

1832 rather than of A. lalage (Pinratana 1 983; Corbet <?/ al. 1992).

The occurrence of A. lalage in the Western Ghats,

however, has been confirmed only recently. Early references

on Indian butterflies do not mention the southern Indian range

of the species, probably because the British collectors

apparently did not collect it from the Western Ghats (Evans

1910;Antram 1924; Evans 1932; Talbot 1939; Wynter-Blyth

1957). Some of the specimens collected by these collectors

were initially identified as A. lalage , but they turned out to be

misidentified Appias indra shiva Swinhoe, 1885, the Sahyadri

Plain Puffin (Harish Gaonkar, pers. comm.). Perhaps due to

this, claims of occurrence of this species in the Western Ghats

were largely discredited, and there was no explanation for a

single specimen deposited in the collection of the Madras

Government Museum, Chennai. This male specimen, collected

from Kalakad Forest (now Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve and neighbouring forest tracts in south-western Tamil

Nadu; henceforth KMTR), was a wet season form (Satyamurti

1966). Although Satyamurti recognized that this was the first

record of the species from southern India, he did not report

any other details of this specimen or of the species in this area.

In 1990s there were three important reports of the

species from the Western Ghats. First, in 1995 a single male

of a wet season form was reported mud-puddling at the

Gudampara Estate, Idukki district, Kerala, at 1,200 m above

msl (Nalini and Lomov 1 996). Shortly afterwards, two entire

Gujarat Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Bengalui

Chennai

23°N

22°N - .

21°N

20” N

19°N

18°N -

17°N ■

16°N -

1 5°N -

14°N

13°N

12”N -

11°N

1 0°N -

9°N -

8°N -

Id ■ * .

Hyderabad

* llilf- - *

a Pradesh

72°E 73°E 74°E 75”E 76°E 77”E 78°E 79”E 80°E 81°E

Fig. 1 : Distribution of Appias lalage lalage, A. indra shiva and

A. wardii in the Western Ghats

Each circle represents a spot record for the species, which are

colour-coded as shown in the map. Half-split white-grey circles

represent localities where A. indra shiva and A. wardii have

been recorded together. Three-way split white-grey-black

circles indicate that all three species co-occur at the localities

surveyed. Data from Kunte (unpublished manuscript).

populations of the species were simultaneously reported from

southern Western Ghats, one from KMTR, and the other from

Eravikulam National Park, Kerala (Devy 1998;

Kunhikrishnan 1998). These confirmed for the first time that

the A. lalage specimens reported by Satyamurti, Nalini and

Lomov were not stray and of unknown origin, but part of

thriving populations within the southern Western Ghats. In

his paper Kunhikrishnan attempted to describe in detail the

status of this species in the Western Ghats. We extend that

effort here with much more extensive observations that we

have accumulated over the past 10 years.

In subsequent years since Soubadra Devy and

Kunhikrishnan ’s reports, we have seen A. lalage in almost all

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

355

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the major mountains in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in

the Western Ghats south of the Palghat Gap (Fig. 1).

Particularly, we have seen large numbers at higher elevations

in Eravikulam National Park, Grass Hills (the Anamalais),

Periyar Tiger Reserve, Chemmunji Hills and Athirumala Hills

in the Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary ( WLS) in the Kerala part of

the Ashambu Hills, KMTR, Schendumey WLS, Ponmudi Hills,

Venkulamedu Hills and Agasthya Koodam Peak (border

between Neyyar WLS and KMTR). All our sightings are from

600 m to 2,600 m above msl. We have, however, failed to

locate A. lalage north of the Palghat Gap in spite of years of

observations in these parts. This is interesting since the Palghat

Gap is a biogeographic barrier that isolates many endemic

butterflies on its northern and southern sides (Gaonkar 1996;

Kunte 2008). It is up to a 40 km wide low-lying area that forms

a major break among the tall mountains of the southern Western

Ghats. The Nilgiri Mountains just north of the Palghat Gap

have historically been extensively studied for their butterfly

fauna and earlier workers in that region had never sighted

A. lalage (see Larsen 1987-1988 and references therein).

Mathew and Rahmathulla, however, reported A.p. lagela from

Silent Valley National Park in Kerala, which is north of the

Palghat Gap (Mathew and Rahamathulla 1993). This record is

doubtful because A.p. lagela occurs in southern Myanmar,

Thailand and Malaysia (see above), and is unlikely to occur in

southern India. Dr. George Mathew of Kerala Lorest Research

Institute at Peechi, first author of the 1994 report, informed us

that the record was probably based on just one or two specimens

collected, which could not be located when we contacted him,

and felt that more material was needed to verify the previous

record. Our suspicion is that this would turn out to be A. indra

shiva , although we do not rule out the possibility that it was a

stray A. lalage that might have been blown across the Palghat

Gap by strong winds. At present, from our failure to find the

species north of the Palghat Gap and in absence of any other

proof, we conclude that in the Western Ghats A. lalage is

confined to the hills south of the Palghat Gap. We have observed

it on both eastern and western slopes of the Western Ghats.

Our observations indicate that even in the Western

Ghats A. lalage is partial to evergreen forests at higher

elevations. At lower elevations (c. 600 m- 1,000 m) in the

Western Ghats, where it is very rare and co-occurs with

A. indra shiva and A. wardii Moore, 1884 (the Lesser

Albatross), the latter two usually far outnumber it. At higher

REFE

Antram, C.B. (1924): Butterflies of India. Thacker, Spink & Co.,

Calcutta (Kolkata). Pp. 226.

Corbet, A. S., H.M. Pendlebury & J.N. Eliot (1992): The Butterflies of

the Malay Peninsula. 4th Revised Ed. Malayan Nature Society,

Kaula Lumpur. Pp. 595 + 63 colour plates and 6 B&W plates.

elevations (c. 1,200 m-2,200 m), however, A. lalage becomes

much more numerous than other Appias. Especially above

c. 1,500 m, A. wardii becomes scarce and A. indra and

A. lalage are the only species of Appias that are common,

where A. lalage outnumbers A. indra. It is common along

evergreen forest paths and edges, on plateaus and steep slopes.

Males mud-puddle frequently and several dozen may

congregate on a good patch, either forming their own species

group or joining congregations of other Appias.

There seem to be two flight periods: pre-monsoon and

post-monsoon. At c. 700-900 m in KMTR we have observed

very fresh specimens in fair numbers (up to a dozen individuals

every day ) in May and early June. However, the post-monsoon

(October-November) seems to be the better season, during

which dozens of individuals may be seen in a single day. At

Eravikulam-Grass Hills it is plentiful in October, flying even

along the main tourist road that passes through shola forests

and tea plantations around Rajamalai. We have also

occasionally observed individuals flying at an altitude of

e. 2,600 m along the slopes of Anaimudi Peak (the Anaimudi

Peak, at an elevation of 2,695 m, is the highest point in southern

India and included in the Eravikulam National Park). Prom

December the populations decline gradually, the species

becoming a rare sight in summer (March-April).

We hope that this note clarifies the status of A. lalage

in southern India. We tentatively assign the Western Ghats

populations to the nominate subspecies, A. /. lalage. Although

we have reported seasonal occurrence and some habits of the

species and delineated its distribution within the Western

Ghats, we do not know its early stages and other natural

history. This is particularly important because host plants and

early stages of A. lalage are unknown even from the northern

populations (Robinson et al. 2001). We hope that this

information becomes available soon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Krushnamegh Kunte is grateful to James Zakarias

(Wildlife Warden, Eravikulam National Park) and

R. Annamalai (IFS, Field Director, KMTR) for permission

to survey butterflies at Rajamalai and Sengeltheri,

respectively. Kunhikrishnan and Balakrishnan thank the

Wildlife Wing of the Kerala Forest Department for financing

field work in Eravikulam National Park.

Devy, M.S. (1998): Occurrence of Spot Puffin (Appias lalage) in

Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve of south Western Ghats.

./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 95: 522.

Evans, W.H. (1910): A list of the butterflies of the Palni Hills. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 20: 380-392.

356

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian butterflies. 2nd ed.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 454.

Gadgil, M. (1996): Western Ghats: A lifescape. J. hid. Inst. Sci.

76: 495-504.

Gaonkar, H. (1996): Butterflies of the Western Ghats with notes on

those of Sri Lanka. Report to Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian

Institute of Sciences, Bangalore, pp. 89.

Haribal, M. ( 1 992): The Butterflies of Sikkim Himalaya and their Natural

History. Sikkim Nature Conservation Foundation, Gangtok. Pp. 2 1 7.

Io, C. (ed.) (2000): Monograph of Chinese Butterflies (Revised ed.).

Henan Scientific and Technological Publishing House. Pp. 845.

Kunhikrishnan, E. (1998): The butterfly missed in the High Ranges.

Biodiversity India (Indian Society for Conservation Biology - News

Letter ) 3-7.

Kunte, K. (2008): The Wildlife (Protection) Act and conservation

prioritization of butterflies of the Western Ghats, southwestern

India. Curr. Sci. 94: 729-735.

Larsen, T.B. (1987-1988): The butterflies of the Nilgiri Mountains

of southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84: 26-54, 219-316,

560-584; 85:26-43.

Larsen, T.B. (2004): Butterflies of Bangladesh - An Annotated

Checklist. IUCN Bangladesh Country Office, Dhaka. Pp. 147 +

8 colour plates.

Mathew, G. & V.K. Rahamathulla (1993): Studies on the butterflies

of Silent Valley National Park. Entomon 18: 185-192.

Nalini, S. & B. Lomov (1996): The spot puffin butterfly Appias lalage

lalage Doubleday (Pieridae) - a rare record for south India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 596-597.

Parsons, R.E. & K. Cantlie ( 1948): The butterflies of the Khasia and

Jaintia hills, Assam. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 47: 499-522.

Pinratana, A. (1983): Butterflies in Thailand. Vol. 2: Pieridae and

Amathusiidae. Brothers of St. Gabriel in Thailand, Bangkok.

Pp. 71 + 48 colour plates.

Robinson, G.S., P.R. Ackery, I.J. Kitching, G.W. Beccaloni &

L.M. Hernandez (2001): Hostplants of the Moth and Butterfly

Caterpillars of the Orientall Region. Natural History Museum,

London. Pp. 744.

Satyamurti, S.T. (1966): Descriptive Catalog of the Butterflies in the

Collection of the Madras Government Museum. The

Commissioner of Museum, Chennai. Pp. 272.

Smith, C. (1989): Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalaya). Tecpress

Service L.P., Bangkok. Pp. 352.

Talbot, G. (1939): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma: Butterflies, Vol. I . Taylor and Francis, London. Pp. 600.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society. Mumbai. Pp. 523.

18. A NEW RECORD OF HOST PLANT EMBELIA ACUTIPETALUM OF ATLAS MOTH ATTACUS ATLAS

LINNAEUS FROM KONKAN

Sachin Balkrishna Palkar1

'Near D.B.. [.College, Sathyabhama Sadan, House no. 100. Mumbai-Goa Highway, A/p-Chiplun 415 605, Ratnagiri district,

Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

Atlas moth Attacus atlas Linnaeus of Family

Satumiidae is commonly seen in monsoon in Konkan region.

On July 25, 2008, 1 found five final instar caterpillars of Atlas

moth Attacus atlas Linnaeus near a small village Kasba,

Taluka Sangameshwar, District Ratnagiri. Caterpillars were

110 mm long. All caterpillars were feeding on leaves of

Embelia acutipetalum (Family Myrsinaceae), a common plant

in Konkan (Fig. 1). Local Marathi name of this plant is

‘ Vavding ’. Many food plants of Atlas moth Attacus atlas

Linnaeus are known, but there is no reference of this plant

and is being reported here as the first record.

Fig. 1 : Final instar caterpillar of Attacus atlas feeding on the

leaves of Embelia acutipetalum

19. ABUNDANCE OF THREE SPECIES OF THE HORSESHOE CRAB

ALONG THE COAST OF MALAYSIA

Anil Chatterji1-2, Zaleha Kassim1-3, Hasnorhiyam Shahuddin' 4 and Faizah Shaharom1 5

'Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia Terengganu 21030, Malaysia.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]. my

4Email: [email protected]. my

"Email: [email protected]. my

Horseshoe crabs, popularly known as a ‘living fossil',

are one of the best-known living animals on Earth. They are

important for the pharmaceutical, clinical and food industries,

besides being good indicator organisms for monitoring the

health of coastal zones. The blue blood of the horseshoe crab

has been proved to be of great value medically for the

production of lectin (Saito et al. 1997) and tachyplesin I

(Morvan et al. 1997).

In some Asian countries like Singapore, Malaysia,

Borneo, the eggs of horseshoe crab are considered as a

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

357

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

100 105 110 115

Fig. 1: Location of the collection of Horseshoe Crab specimens

delicacy (Chatterji 1994). The Malaysian Horseshoe Crab,

popularly known as 'belangkas'. does not represent a multiple

use resource like Limulus polyphemus (L) of Delaware, USA.

However, they have potential to become important at least for

biomedical compounds and eco-tourism industry. In the past,

the Malaysian Horseshoe Crab was a neglected animal but due

to the committed efforts of the scientists associated with the

Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, University Malaysia

Terengganu, the scientific value of the horseshoe crab has gone

up far more than before. The distribution pattern of the four

species of horseshoe crab in the world is discussed in detail by

Sekiguchi el al. (1976), Botton and Haskin (1984), Chatterji

et al. (1992) and Chatterji (1994). However, except for one

record on co-existence of two species of horseshoe crab along

the Indian coast (Chatterji 1999), no report has so far been

available that showed the occurrence of three species of

horseshoe crab together along the coast of any country. The

present communication deals on a report of occurrence of three

extant species of the horseshoe crab along the coast of Malaysia.

Live specimens of Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda

(Latreille) and Tacliypleus gigas (Muller) were collected from

Setiu (5° 42' 60" N; 102° 42' 0" E); Balok(3°57’ 0" N; 100° 48'

0" E) andTok Bali (5° 53' 11" N; 102° 29' 28" E) respectively

(Fig. 1 ). Live specimens of Tacliypleus trident atus (Leach) were

collected from Paper Sabah (5° 43' 48" N; 15° 55' 48" E). The

specimens were brought to the laboratory and their carapace

length (CL), carapace width (CW ) and telson length (TL) were

recorded up to the nearest mm for both the sexes separately.

The average body weights in gram for both males and females

of all the three species were also recorded.

Most of the body parts of T. tridentatus were

approximately 2 times greater than the carapace length, carapace

width and telson length of C. rotundicauda and

T. gigas respectively (Table 1 ). However, body weight of females

of T. tridentatus was 48.81 and 39.87 times more as compared

to C. rotundicauda and T. gigas respectively (Table 1).

Horseshoe crabs have been reported to follow a

uni-species distribution pattern (Botton and Haskin 1984),

which may be due to habitat preference. Chatterji (1999)

reported for the first time a sympatric distribution of

C. rotundicauda and T. gigas along the north-east coast of

Orissa in India. Mikkelsen (1988) reported the sympatric

358

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : A comparison of different average body parts and

body weight of T. tridentatus with C. rotundicauda and T. gigas

distribution of T. tridentatus and T. gigas in Hong Kong,

whereas Chiu and Morton (1999) observed the occurrence of

T. tridentatus and C. rotundicauda along these coasts. The

mature pairs of all the extant species of the horseshoe crab

come to the shore for breeding purpose ( Sekiguchi et al. 1 977 ).

C. rotundicauda was found along all the three sampling

sites, with maximum population along the coast of Tok Bali.

The maximum congregation of T. gigas was reported along

the coast of Balok (Dr. Annie Christianus pers. comm.). It is

surprising to note that though the density of T. tridentatus was

reported to deplete considerably in Japan (Dr. Glenn Gauvry

pers. comm.), a high density of this species was found along

the coast of Sabah in eastern Malaysia. The depletion of

T. tridentatus population along the coast of Japan might be

due to destruction and reclamation of breeding beaches causing

significant migration of this species towards other undisturbed

suitable beaches. Our suggestion is also supported by Shuster

etal. (2003). This could be one of the reasons for T. tridentatus

for changing their breeding grounds and migrating towards

undisturbed beaches of Malaysia for their active spawning.

The present information will help environmentalists to

implement suitable policies to protect the important breeding

beaches for the survival of these three species of horseshoe

crab along the Malaysian coast.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to Dato’ Prof. Sulaiman Yassin,

Vice Chancellor, University Malaysia Terengganu for the

facilities and encouragements. One of the authors (AC) is

also grateful to the Institute of Tropical Aquaculture, UMT

for providing Research Fellowship.

REFERENCES

Botton, M.L. & H.H. Haskin (1984): Distribution and feeding of the

horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus on the continental shelf.

New Jersey. Fish. Bull. 82: 383-389.

Chatterji, A. (1994): The Indian Horseshoe Crab - A Living Fossil.

A Project Swarajya Publication, Pp. 157.

Chatterji, A. (1999): New record of the sympatric distribution of the

two Asian species of the Horseshoe Crab. Curr. Sci. 77(6):

746-747.

Chatterji, A., R. Vijayakumar & A.H. Parulekar (1992): Spawning

migration of the Horseshoe Crab, Tachypleus gigas ( Muller), in

relation to lunar cycle. Asian Fish. Sci. 5: 123-128.

Chiu, H.M.C. & B. Morton (1999): The distribution of horseshoe crab

( Tachypleus tridentatus and Carcinoscorpius rotundiacauda) in

Hong Kong. Asian Mari. Biol. 16: 185-196.

Mikkelsen, T. (1988): The Secret in the Blue Blood. Science Press

Beijing, China, 124 pp.

Morvan, A., S. Iwanaga, M. Camps & E. Bacher (1997 ): In vitro activity

of Limulus antimicrobial peptide, tachyplesin I on marine bivalve

pathogens. J. Invert. Pathol. 69: 177-182.

Saito, T., M. Hitada, S. Iwanga & S.S. Kawabata (1997): A newly

identified horseshoe crab lectin and binding specificity of

O-antigen of bacterial Limulus polyphemus Lipopolysaccharids.

J. Biol. Chem. 272: 703-708.

Sekiguchi, K., K. Nakamura, T.K. Sen & K. Sugita (1976):

Morphological variation and distribution of a Horseshoe Crab,

Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda from the Bay of Bengal and Gulf

of Siam. Pro. Jap. Soc. Svst. Zool. 15: 24-30.

Sekiguchi, K., S. Nishiwaki, T. Makioka, S. Srithunya, S. Madjajib,

K. Nakamura & T. Yamasaki ( 1977): A study on the egg laying

habits of horseshoe crab Tachypleus gigas and Carcinoscorpius

rotundicauda in Chonburi area of Thailand. Pro. Jap. Soc. Syst.

Zool. 39: 39-45.

Shuster Carl N. Jr., B. Barlow Robert & H.J. Brockmann (2003): The

American Horseshoe Crab. Harvard Llniversity Press, USA. 377 pp.

20. FIRST RECORD OF THE MANGROVE ASSOCIATE

DERRIS TRIFOLIATA LOUR. FROM GUJARAT

Dharmendra G. Shah1-2 and Sweta Bhatt1-3

'Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, The M.S. University of Baroda, Vadodara 390 002, Gujarat, India.

•Email: [email protected]

Email: [email protected]

During recent investigations on the mangrove diversity

in southern Gujarat, a climber was found growing within the

mangrove vegetation of Puma and Varoli estuaries (Fig. 1)-

Specimens collected from the locations were identified as

Derris trifoliata Lour. It was sent to experts who confirmed

its identity and is thus being reported as the first record of its

distribution from the mangrove forests of Gujarat.

Derris trifoliata Lour, is an erect shrub or a rambling

climber growing to a length of up to 15 m. The leaves are

compound with mostly 3 leaflets with a rounded base and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dee 2008

359

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

shortly acuminate apex. Flowers are pink, 1 .0- 1 .2 cm and are

borne on axillary racemes which are up to 15 cm long. The

pods which are an important identification character, are single

seeded, glabrous, reticulately veined and distinctly winged.

It usually requires sufficient amount of freshwater to survive

and has its coastal distribution from East Africa, Madagascar,

and throughout tropical and subtropical Asia to tropical

Australia. It is recorded in several coastal communities and

is a frequent constituent of the back mangrove community

(Tomlinson 1986). In India, it is reported to occur in the inter-

tidal forests of all the coastal states except Gujarat (Thothathiri

1982; Banerjee et al. 1989; Rajendran and Sanjeevi 2004).

The mangrove forests in Gujarat have generally been

described as being shrubby in nature and having low diversity

compared to the other states of India (Anon 1987; Singh 2006).

The mangrove forests of Kachchh and Jamnagar have received

much attention of researchers, whereas mangrove forests in

southern Gujarat have received comparatively little attention and

hence the diversity of these mangroves remain uninvestigated.

A recent report (February 2007) of several individuals of

Excoecana agallocha from the Varoli estuary (Dr. Sachin Chavan

pers. comm.) is also an addition to the mangrove flora of Gujarat.

A thorough investigation into the mangrove diversity of southern

Gujarat could lead to further additions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank Dr. L.K. Banerjee,

Ex-Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India for confirming

the identity of the plant.

Fig. 1. Location of Puma and Varoli Estuaries

REFERENCES

Anon (1987): Mangroves in India: Status report. Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, New Delhi; 150 pp.

Banerjee, L.K., A.R.K. Sastry & M.P. Nayar (1989): Mangroves in

India; Identification Manual, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah.

Pp. 53.

Rajendran, N. & S. Baskara Sanjeevi (2004): Flowering plants and

Fern. In: Balasubramanian, T. & A. Ajmal Khan (Eds): Mangrove

Ecosystems of India. ENVIS Centre, Parangipettai, ENVIS

Publication Series, 1: 59 pp.

Singh, H.S. (2006): Mangroves and their Environment, with emphasis

on mangroves in Gujarat, Forest Department, Gujarat State,

Gandhinagar. 283 pp.

Thothathiri, K. (1982): Fascicles of Flora of India 8 - Leguminosae:

Genus-Derris. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. 30 pp.

Tomlinson, P.B. (1986): The Botany of mangroves. Cambridge

Lhiiversity Press, Cambridge, USA. Pp. 291-292.

21. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS ON YELLOW MORNING GLORY

IPOMOEA HEDERIFOLIA LINN. (CONVOLVULACEAE)

Vinay M. Raole1-2, Kjshore S. Rajput1-3 and Rinku J. Desai1'4

'Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara 390 002, Gujarat, India.

■Email : vmraole @ rediffmail.com

Email: ks.rajput 1 5 @yahoo.com

Email: [email protected]

Occurrence of yellow coloured flowers is recorded for

the first time in Indian species of Ipomoea hederifolia Linn.

of Family Convolvulaceae. Plants were growing naturally

as a part of natural vegetation in Sinhachalum hillocks of

360

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Visakhapatnam district of Andhra Pradesh. On critical

identification and detailed study, the specimen turned out to be

Ipomoea hederifolia Linn. When compared with red/orange

coloured flowers, there were slight variations in the specimens

in most of the characters except the inflorescence type, colour

of the flower and size of the fruit. The details of the

morphological feature are as follows: an annual twiner, 3-6 m

in height; stems glabrous or sparsely pubescent;

leaves ovate to suborbicular, 2.5-8. 0 x 1.5-8. 5 cm, acute to

acuminate apex, cordate at base, entire or 3-lobed, glabrous;

flowered cymes; pedicles 10-12 mm long; sepals oblong to

elliptic, 3-6 mm long, obtuse to truncate; outer sepals with

1. 5-2.0 mm long, subterminal, fleshy arista, glabrous; corolla

yellow, hypocrateriform, 3. 4-5.0 cm long; capsules subglobose,

7-9 mm long; seeds pyriform, dark brown, glabrous.

On consultation to Dr. M.J. Parmar, Dy. Director of

BSI, Arid zone Circle Jodhpur, it has been noted that

no yellow flowered Morning Glory from the Indian

subcontinent is available. For further clarification, we also

consulted Dr. Steven Jensen, Jordell Laboratory, Royal

Botanical Garden Kew; he communicated that there

was only one specimen of I. hederifolia , which had

been collected from Asia (i.e. in Jiangsu-China). Perusal

of literature (Cooke 1901-1909, Bentham and Hooker

1 862-83; Shah 1978) has revealed that there is no record of

yellow flowered specimens in Ipomoea hederifolia. This is

therefore, the first record from India. Acc. No. VMR/

523, 547.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. M.J. Parmar, Dy. Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Jodhpur and Dr. Steven Jensen, Jordell

Laboratory, Kew, for the valuable information.

REFERENCES

Bentham, G. & J.D. Hooker (1862-1883): Genera Plantarum. London.

Cooke, T. ( 1 90 1 - 1 908 ) : The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Volume

I, II & III, London. (Rep. Edn. 1958, Botanical Survey of India

Calcutta).

Shah, G.L. (1978): Flora of Gujarat State. Part I & II. Sardar Patel

University, Vallabh Vidyanagar.

22. ORNITHOGALUM ERYTHRAEUM (WEBB & BERTHEL.) MANNING AND GOLDBLATT

(HYACINTHACEAE) - A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA

K.V.C. Gosavi13, U.S. Yadav2 and S.R. Yadav14

'Department of Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004. Maharashtra. India.

"Department of Botany, Willingdon College, Sangli 416 415, Maharashtra. India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Introduction

Morphological, phytochemical, microstructural and

molecular data on members of Hyacinthaceae has resulted in

the recognition of four subfamilies, the new world

Oziroeoideae and the old world Hyacinthoideae,

Ornithogaloidae and Urginoideae (Speta 1998a,b; Pfosser

and Septa 1999; Manning et al. 2004). Subfamily

Ornithogaloideae, characterized by flattened or angular seeds

with tightly adhering testa, is considered to include the single

genus Ornithogalum L., [Sp. pi.: 306 (1753). Type:

Ornithogalum arabicum L.], which is expanded to include

the genera Albuca L., Dipcadi Medik., Galtonia Decne.,

Neopater sonia Schonland, and Pseudogaltonia (Kuntze)

Engl. According to Manning et al. (2004), the generic

segregates of distinctive floral forms are morphological

syndromes developed in association with diverse pollination

strategies. It opens the way to accept that they reflect adaptive

modes that were exploited by groups of related species rather

than representing generic boundaries. Thus, the species

previously placed in Dipcadi are now treated under

Ornithogalum L. Manning et al. (2004).

All the 9 species and two varieties of Dipcadi in

India are now treated under the genus Ornithogalum by

Manning et al. (2004). The Indian species include

Ornithogalum concanense (Dalzell) J.C. Manning and

Goldblatt, O. erythraeum (Webb & Berthel.) Manning and

Goldblatt, O. maharashtrense (Deb. & S. Dasgupta)

J.C. Manning and Goldblatt, O. minor (Hook.f.) J.C. Manning

and Goldblatt, O. reidii (Deb. & S. Dasgupta) J.C. Manning

and Goldblatt, O. saxorum (Blatt.) J.C. Manning and

Goldblatt, O. serotinum (L.) J.C. Manning and Goldblatt,

O. turbinatum J.C. Manning and Goldblatt, O. turbinatum var.

madrasicum (E. Barnes & C.E.C. Fisch) J.C. Manning and

Goldblatt, O. ursulae (Blatt.) J.C. Manning and Goldblatt

and O. ursulae var. longiracemosum (Deb. & S. Dasgupta)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

361

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Ornithogalum erythraeum

a. flower from Jodhpur; b. flower from Dhulia; c. fruits; d. somatic

chromosomes (2n=22)

J.C. Manning and Goldblatt. Ornithogalum maharashtrense

and O. ursulae var. longiracemosum are variants of O. ursulae

do not deserve any taxonomic status and have been reduced

to synonyms of O. ursulae.

Of the remaining eight species, six are recorded for the

state of Maharashtra. Ornithogalum erythraeum is known to

occur in Egypt, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Pakistan and India.

In India, it is so far reported from Bhairaswara, Jaisalmer

and Jodhpur region of Rajasthan.

During August 2006, some specimens of Ornithogalum

were collected from Laling ghat in Dhulia district of

Maharashtra. On detailed analysis, the specimens turned out

to be of Ornithogalum erythraeum. Somatic chromosome

number 2n=22 was observed in the specimen, which has also

been reported for the species by earlier workers (Jakhi et al.

1994). An occurrence of O. erythraeum in Dhulia district

forms a new record for the state of Maharashtra. The present

paper reports on morphology, somatic chromosome number

and an extended distribution of O. erythraeum.

Ornithogalum erythraeum (Webb & Berthel.) J.C.

Manning and Goldblatt. [Edinb. Jour. Bot. 60(3): 533-568

(2004)]. Dipcadi erythraeum Webb & Berthel., Hist. nat. Illes

Canaries 2 (3): 341. 1848; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb. 2:770.

1907 (Repr. ed 3: 278.1958); Bhandari, FI. Indian desert

352.1978; Shetty and Singh in FI. Raj. 2. 843.1991.

Hyacinthus serotinus Forsskal, FI. Aegyptiaco - Arabica

209.1775. Uropetalum unicolor Stocks in Joum. Bot. 4: 180.

1852. Dipcadi unicolor (Stocks) Baker in Joum. Linn. Soc.

11: 397. 1871; Hook. FI. Brit. India 6: 346. 1892. Fig. 1.

Bulbous perennial herb; bulbs globose, 1. 5-2.0 x 1.5-

2.0 cm, tunicated; roots fibrous from basal disc. Leaves 2-3

per bulb, 25-35 x 0.5- 1 .5 cm, linear, flat, 6-7 nerved, acute at

apex, margin curved upwards. Scapes short, 15-25 x 0.2-

0.3 cm, erect, stout, glabrous; racemes 1-3 flowered, 4-5 cm

long. Flowers 15-18 mm in length, greenish-white, drooping

while blooming, bracteate; bracts 5-8 x 2 mm, deltoid,

membranous to scarious, acuminate; pedicels 10-15 x 1 mm,

slender, green. Perianth 15-18 mm in length, greenish-white,

united to 1/3 of the length; outer perianth lobes 9-11x3 mm,

6-7 nerved, broadly lanceolate, recurved while blooming of

flower; inner perianth lobes 10-11 x 2.5 mm, 5-nerved,

recurved from the tips. Stamens 6, 6.5-7 mm long; filaments

5.5 x 0.7 mm; anthers 2.5 x 0.6 mm. Gynoecium 1 1-12 x 2.5 mm;

ovary 6-6.5 x 2.5 mm; style 5x1 mm, stipe short, uptol mm

long, Capsule 12-15 x 10-12 mm, Seeds 6-7 mm in dia.,

rotund, black.

Flowering & Fruiting: August-September.

Distribution: india: Rajasthan (North-West Rajasthan),

Maharashtra (Dhulia); Egypt; Afghanistan; Baluchistan;

Pakistan

Chromosome number (2n): 22

Plants collected from Dhulia are under cultivation in

Botanical Garden, Shivaji University Kolhapur.

Note: It grows on the hills of the arid region in

Rajasthan after rains. In Maharashtra, it grows in terrain

with rocky substratum around Dhulia region (Laling ghat).

The population found at Dhulia region differs from the

population growing at Jodhpur only in its greenish-white

flowers (Fig. lb) and just 2-3 flowers per scape. The somatic

chromosome number observed was 2n=22 (Fig. Id). This

diploid number 2n=22 of the species in population from

Rajasthan region has also been reported by Jakhi et al.

(1994).

Uses: Bulbs are eaten in Sind and Baluchistan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Senior author would like to thank Department of

Biotechnology (DBT) New Delhi, for financial assistance and

to the Head, Department of Botany, Shivaji University for

providing facilities. Second author is thankful to authorities of

Shivaji University for providing financial assistance and to

Principal, Willingdon College, Sangli for providing facilities.

362

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 105 (3), Sep-Dec 2008

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Jakhi, P.S., N.S. Desai & G.B. Dixit (1994): Karyological studies in

Dipcadi erythraeum. J. Cytol. Genet. 29(1): 89-93.

Manning J.C., P. Goldblatt & M.F. Fay (2004): A revised generic

synopsis of Flyacinthaceae in Sub-Saharan Africa, based on

molecular evidence, including new combinations and the new

tribe Pseudoprospereae. Edinb. Journ. Bot. 60 (3): 533-568.

Pfosser, M. & F. Speta (1999): Phylogenetics of Hyacinthaceae based

on plastid DNA sequences. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 86:

852-875.

Shetty, B.V. & V. Singh (1991): Flora of Rajasthan, Vol. 2: 843.

Speta, F. (1998a): Systematische analyse der gattung Scilla L.s.l.

• (Hyacinthaceae). Phyton 38: 1-224.

Speta, F. (1998b): Hyacinthaceae. In: Kubitzki, K. (Ed.) The families

and Genera of Vascular plants. Berlin: Springer.

23. HABENARIA COMMELINIFOLIA WALL. (ORCHID ACEAE) - A NEW ADDITION TO THE FLORA

OF ANDHRA PRADESH

S. Karuppusamy1, S. Sandhya Rani2 and T. Pull ai ah2,3

'Department of Botany, The Madura College, Madurai 625 Oil, Tamil Nadu, India. Email: [email protected]

department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapur 515 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

-’Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Habenaria is one of the largest genera in the Family

Orchidaceae, which comprises of about 750 species world-

wide. Usually this genus are tuberous rooted, terrestrial, a

few of them epiphytic and lithophytic, herbaceous annual in

nature. In India, about 59 species of Habenaria have been

reported mainly from the foothills of Himalayas, Western

Ghats and Eastern Ghats (Bose etal. 1999). H. commelinifolia

Wall, has been reported from central India northwards up to

Western Himalayas. The report of this species is an addition

to the flora of Andhra Pradesh. The previous floristic accounts

of Andhra Pradesh have reported 1 1 species of Habenaria

(Pullaiah 1999).

Habenaria commelinifolia Wall, ex Lindl. Gen. Sp.

Orch. 325. 1835; Hook.f. FI. Brit. India 6: 143. 1890; Haines,

Bot Bihar & Orissa 3: 1 157. 1924; Fischer in Gamble, FI.

Madras Pres. 3: 1470. 1928; Sant. & Kapadia, Orch. Bombay

25.t.4.f.l 1-12. 1966.

Robust tuberous herb. Stem up to 90 cm tall, sheathed

below, leafy above; tubers one or two, ellipsoid. Leaves

oblong-lanceolate, finely acuminate up to 10 cm long and

2.5 cm broad. Inflorescence 20 cm long, many flowered

spikes. Flowers white, 2 cm across; bracts linear-lanceolate

1 .6 cm long; lateral sepals gibbous, hatchet-shaped, dorsal

orbicular, hooded; petals oblong, lip linear at base, trilobed,

side lobes filiform, mid lobe shorter; spur ca. 6 cm long,

slender, incurved.

Flowering & Fruiting: October-December.

Distribution: India: Western Himalaya, Garhwal,

Kumaon, central India, West Bengal, Chota Nagpur,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh; Nepal; Myanmar; Vietnam;

Thailand.

Specimen examined: Andhra Pradesh, Chittoor

district, Mudendlakorava in Tirumala hills, S. Karuppusamy,

31663 (SKU).

Ecology: Plants of this taxon appear only in monsoon

among the Cymbopogon dominated grassland at above

1000 m altitude. The population of this taxon is very scarce

in Andhra Pradesh, due to over grazing and seasonal forest

fire.

Conservation status: Rare in Andhra Pradesh. It needs

further ecological assessments to conserve this taxon.

REFERENCES

Bose, T.K., S.K. Bhattacharjee, P. Das & U.C. Basak ( 1999): Orchids

of India. Naya Prokash, India.

Pullaiah, T. ( 1999): Flora of Andhra Pradesh (India). Vol. 3. Scientific

Publishers, Jodhpur, India.

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 0685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

editorial ;i ,u. ■ ,i, . iMmm. . 245

PREY SELECTION BY TIGERS ( PANTHERA TIGRIS TIGRIS) IN SARISKATIGER RESERVE, RAJASTHAN,

INDIA

D. Avinandan, K. Sankarand Qamar Qureshi 247

PFtEY SELECTION BY TIGERS PANTHERA TIGRIS (LINNAEUS 1758) IN THE SUNDARBANS EAST

WILDLIFE SANCTUARY OF BANGLADESH

M. Monirul H. Khan , 255

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE DIVERSITY OF SPIDER FAUNA (ARANEAE: ARACHNIDA)

IN PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IN WESTERN GHATS, KERALA, INDIA

Sunil Jose K., A.V. Sudhikumar, Samson Davis and P.A. Sebastian 264

CETACEAN SPECIES RICHNESS AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE AROUND THE BAR REEF MARINE

SANCTUARY, SRI LANKA

A.D, llangakoon 274

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE PIG-TAILED MACACUE MACACA NEMESTRINA LEONINA

IN SOME FORESTS OF ASSAM IN NORTH-EAST INDIA

Anwaruddin Choudhury 279

THE ICHTHYOFAUNAL DIVERSITY IN THE FRESHWATER RIVERS OF SOUTH DINAJPUR DISTRICT

OF WEST BENGAL, INDIA

Tathagata Chakraborty and Soumen Bhattacharjee 292

NOTE ON A COLLECTION OF SNAKES FROM SOUTH INDIA, WITH EMPHASIS ON THE SNAKE FAUNA

OF THE MEGHAMALAI HILLS (HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS)

Angus F. Hutton and Patrick David 299

THE ROLE OF PERCHES IN ACCELERATING SEED ARRIVAL IN HUMAN-ABANDONED CLEARINGS

WITHIN BHADRA TIGER RESERVE, INDIA

Karthik Teegalapalli, Ankila J. Hiremath and Devcharan Jathanna 317

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW TRIBE AND A NEW GENUS OF OSCINELLINAE (DIPTERA: CHLOROPIDAE) FROM INDIA

P.T. Cherian and A.K. Shinimol 323

REVIEWS 327

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 329

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by J.C. Daniel

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001 .

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]