S 16C1 b

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

APRIL 2009

VOL. 106 (1)

CONSERVING

NATURE SINCE 1883

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 001 .

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc.

Editorial Board

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D

National Centre for Biological Sciences,

GKVK Campus, Hebbal, Bengaluru

C.R. Babu, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Environmental Management

of Degraded Ecosystems, University of Delhi, New Delhi

M.K. Chandrashekaran. Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research, Bengaluru

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D., D. Sc.

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Y.V. Jhala, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bengaluru, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

K. Rema Devi, Ph. D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University

Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D.

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bengaluru

R. Sukumar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

S. R. Yadav, Ph. D.

Shivaji University, Kolhapur

Senior Consultant Editor

J.C. Daniel, M. Sc.

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bengaluru

Nigel Collar, Ph. D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun

T.J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Rachel Reuben, Ph. D.

Mumbai

Editorial Assistant: Sonali V. Vadhavkar, M. Sc.

Layout and Typesetting: V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 106(1): APRIL 2009

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

ASPECTS OF THE ECOLOGY OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER LUTROGALE PERSPICILLATA GEOFFROY

ST.-HILAIRE, 1826: A REVEW

Asghar Nawab

A SURVEY OF FRESHWATER FISHES OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS

Vijay Palavai and Priya Davidar

THE LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Ranjit Manakadan, Prakash Rao, K.K. Mohapatra, S. Sivakumar, J. Patrick David, B. Senthil Murugan and

V. Santharam

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY, EAST COAST OF INDIA

M. Srinivasa Rao, Ch. Vijaya Bhanu, C. Annapurna, D.R.K. Sastry and D. Srinivasa Rao

GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ARGALI SHEEP OVISAMMON\N MONGOLIA REVEALED BY MITOCHONDRIAL

CONTROL REGION AND NUCLEAR MICROSATELLITES ANALYSES

Jiu Feng, Michael R. Frisina, Michael S. Webster and Gombosuren Ulzimaa

ROTIFER COMMUNITIES OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR (NORTH-EAST INDIA): BIODIVERSITY,

DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY

B.K. Sharma

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY PTEROPLATYTRYGON VIOLACEA

(BONAPARTE, 1832) (MYLIOBATIFORMES, DASYATIDAE) IN THE INDIAN EEZ

V.S. Somvanshi, Sijo P. Varghese and S. Varghese

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL CERVUS ELAPHUS HANGLU WAGNER IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Qamar Qureshi, Nita Shah, A.R. Wadoo, R.Y. Naqqash, M.S. Bacha, N.A. Kitchloo, J.N. Shah, I. Suhail,

S. Iqbal, K. Ahmad, I.A. Lone, M Mansoor, R.A. Zargar, S. Hussain, M.M. Baba, M.A. Parsa, A.R. Latoo and

I. Dewan

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE TETRACERUS OUADRICORNIS

Koustubh Sharma, Asad R. Rahmani and Raghunandan Singh Chundawat

1

5

11

15

30

38

45

57

63

72

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF ANEW SPECIES OF TYDEUS KOCH (PROSTIGMATA: TYDEIDAE) INFESTING THE MEDICINAL

PLANT JUSTICIA ADHATODA L. NEES WITH A NOTE ON ITS BIOLOGY

Indranil Roy, Salil Kumar Gupta and Goutam Kumar Saha 83

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS TETRALEURODES COCKERELL (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) OF INDIA,

WITH A KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES

R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa 86

REVIEW

MULTIPURPOSE PLANTS - Reviewed by Swapna Prabhu 89

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Abnormal mating behaviour of Tufted Gray Langur,

Semnopithecus priam at Kalakad-Mundanthurai

Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu, India

S. Babu and E.A. Jayson

2. Further changes in the eastern limit of distribution of

the Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus entellus Dufresne

Anwaruddin Choudhury

3. The Common Indian Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii

as seed disperser in Sriharikota Island, India

J. Patrick David, B. Senthil Murugan and

Ranjit Manakadan

4. Highest elevations reached by Asian Elephants

Elephas maximus Linn. - a review

Anwaruddin Choudhury

5. First sight record of Asiatic Ibex Capra ibex sibrica from

Kugti Wildlife Sanctuary, Chamba, Himachal Pradesh, India

Aishwarya Maheshwari, D. Sharma and

S. Banerjee 94

90 6. Recent stranding incidences of marine mammals

in West Bengal, India

Prasanna L. Yennawar 95

90

BIRDS

7. Sighting of Leucism in Spot-billed Duck Anas

poecilorhyncha J.R. Forester, 1781 and Little Grebe

91 Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas, 1754) in district

Dungarpur, Rajasthan, India

Kamlesh Sharma, Virendra Singh Bedsa,

92 O.C. Chandel and Satya Prakash Mehra 97

8. Status of White-headed or Australian Stilt Himantopus

teucocephatus in Sri Lanka

Sarath W. Kotagama and Rex I. De Silva 98

FISH

9. Redescription of Japanese Catalufa Pristigenys niphonia

(Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829): a new distributional

record from waters of southern India

S. Ramachandran and K.R Philip 99

10. Fish diversity in Achenkovil river, Kerala, India

S. Swapna 104

PROCHORDATA

1 1 . New records of five species of colonial ascidians of the

genus Ecteinascidia Herdman, 1 880, from the Gulf of

Mannar, India

V.K. Meenakshi 107

INSECTS

12. Biodiversity of wild silk moths in Nagaland

B.C. Chutia, L.N. Kakati and K. Chaoba Singh 112

13. First record of the Colour Sergeant Athyma nefte in

Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary in Raigad district,

Maharashtra, India

Nikhil Bhopale and Sudeep Athavale 117

14. Biology of the Palm King Amathusia phidippus , an

extremely rare and endangered butterfly of Peninsular

India

George Mathew and Unni Krishnan Pulikkal 118

BOTANY

1 5. On the collection of three interesting species of Lejeunea

Lib. from Abbott Mount, Western Himalaya, India

Surendra N. Srivastava and Prateek Srivastava 120

1 6. Calathodes polycarpa Ohwi (Ranunculaceae) - a new

record for India

Debabrata Maity and GG. Maiti 124

17. Trichosanthes lobata Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae) — a new

record for Garhwal Himalaya, India

J.K. Tiwari and P. Tiwari 125

18. Rediscovery of Hugonia mystax Linn. (Linaceae) from

Maharashtra, India

B.G. Gavade 126

19. A new record of Monotropa hypopitys L., a myco-

heterotrophic plant from India

S.K. Barik, N.J. Lakadong, R. Baishya, A. Chettri,

P. Das, H. Kayang and D. Marbaniang 127

20. Does Achyranthes bidendata Blume (Amaranthaceae)

occur in Andaman & Nicobar Islands?

L. Rasingam, P.G. Diwakar and Shubhangi Ingole 129

21. Pandanus unipapillatus Dennst.: a new record for

Maharashtra and Goa, India

Rahul L. Zanan, Kantilal V. Wakte and

Altafhusain B. Nadaf 130

Cover Photograph: Common Otter

Lutra lutra

By Vikas Choudhari

li

Editorial

Threatened Birds of India: Need for immediate

conservation action

In 1963, Sir Peter Scott, one of the founder-members of World Wildlife Fund (now World Wide Fund for

Nature) suggested to the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) to bring

out a document on “threatened wildlife that includes definitions of degree of threats”. Thus, the idea of Red Data

books was conceived. The first loose-leafed spiral bound edition appeared in 1964, which was regularly updated

as more species joined the list or more information was made available (Vincent 1966-1971). The second edition

of this series was published in the late 1970s (King 1978-79). This book was reprinted in 1981 as endangered

birds of the world: the icbp bird red data book, by Smithsonian Institution, Washington, USA. This book described

437 threatened subspecies and species of birds.

BirdLife (earlier International Council for Bird Preservation) is the official Listing Authority for Birds for

the IUCN Red List and works closely with the IUCN Species Specialist Groups (SSGs). In 1985, the first regional

bird Red Data Book of Africa and related islands was published (Collar and Stuart 1985); followed by the highly

acclaimed birds to watch in 1988 (Collar and Andrew 1988). It was the first global list of 1,029 birds threatened

with extinction. An updated version of this book was published in 1994 as birds to watch-2 (Collar et al. 1994)

listing 1,111 species, including 171 species of India. Prior to this book, another regional Bird Red Data Book was

brought out by BirdLife titled threatened birds of the Americas (Collar et al. 1 992). In 2000, another landmark

publication threatened birds of the world, which had a list of 1 , 1 86 species worldwide, and 1 23 species in India,

was published (BirdLife International 2000). For the first time, Near Threatened species were also documented.

The following year saw the publication of two volumes of threatened birds of asia (BirdLife International 2001 )

that document 323 globally threatened species found in Asia. Most worrying was that 41 species were Critical

and 65 were Endangered, meaning that if nothing was done, these species would disappear in the next 5-10 years.

This book also documents 317 Near Threatened species which are close to qualifying as globally threatened.

Since 2000, the BirdLife is maintaining a dynamic World Bird Database, which makes information on

globally threatened birds available on the website (www.birdlife.org/datazone/species.index.html). This database

is updated on an annual basis. In the latest version (uploaded on January 2009), 149 Indian bird species are

threatened. This includes 14 Critical, 12 Endangered, 58 Vulnerable, 63 Near Threatened and two Data Deficient

species. The Critical list also includes two supposedly extinct species: Himalayan or Mountain Quail Ophiysia

superciliaris and Pink-headed Duck Rhodonessa caryophyllacea.

In 2005, Rasmussen and Anderton brought out two volumes of birds of south asia: the ripley guide in

which many subspecies were upgraded to species. In BirdLife there is a debate as to what level of a taxon:

subspecies or species should the degree of threat be applied. At present, it is done chiefly at the species level. If

Rasmussen and Anderton’s (2005) classification is accepted, the list of threatened bird species in India increases,

particularly those from Andaman and Nicobar; many of which would qualify for the Red Data List criteria as

they have small insular populations facing numerous threats. For example, Rasmussen and Anderton (2005)

suggest species status for the Andaman Teal Anas albugularis, considered until now as a subspecies of the

widely distributed Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons. It is endemic to a few islands in Andaman, and the total population

may not be more than 1,000 individuals (Vijayan et al. 2006), making it a high priority species for conservation

in India. Similarly, the Andaman Barn Owl Tyto deroepstorffi was earlier considered as a subspecies of the

globally distributed Common Bam Owl Tyto alba (Ali and Ripley 1983), but is now considered a species

(Konig et al. 1999; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). It is a resident on some islands in Andaman, with only five

known specimens. An endemic species with a very small population makes the Andaman Barn Owl a high

priority species for conservation in India.

In India, about 1,220 species of birds have been recorded (number depends on the classification we use)

out of which 149 or c. 10% are threatened, which is not a very comfortable situation. Besides including most ot

the species in the Wildlife Protection Act (including 1 00 species in Schedule I: highest protection on paper), and

banning bird trade since 1991, not much is being done to reverse the decline. There is no long-term bird species

recovery programme, and the sanctuaries established, especially for threatened species (e.g., Sailana Lesser

Florican Sanctuary, Karera Bustard Sanctuary, Rollapadu Bustard Sanctuary, Desert National Park and many

more), suffer from administrative and financial neglect. Even the pitiable condition of the world-famous Keoladeo

National Park has not stirred the attention of the Government. Its natural water supply has been cut off due to

wrong administrative decisions, depriving the famous jheels of Keoladeo of water. Work to supply water by

pipes to the Park has yet to start although the decision was taken five years ago after court order.

Although more than 600 protected areas of India provide habitat and some security to the threatened and

non-threatened species, there are many species whose habitat is either not represented or under-represented in the

PA network. For example. Yellow-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus is endemic to southern India. It is

known from 80 localities, with all recent records from hills south of 16° N and east of 76° E. It is still locally

common, but appears to be declining overall. Recent surveys of 75 localities found that it had totally disappeared

from six historical sites, and at most occupied sites it is considered scarce (Thejaswi 2004). It lives in dry thorny

jungles interspersed with large trees among broken stony hillocks, and deciduous forests. It is largely a sedentary

resident; isolated populations are sometimes found in boulder-strewn hillsides or rocky outcrops with dense

undergrowth in seemingly unfavourable landscape. As these boulder-strewn hillsides do not have charismatic

mega- vertebrates (except for an occasional Leopard Panthera pardus), not many people are interested in protecting

them.

Similarly, the Yellow Weaver or Finn’s Baya Ploceus megarhynchus is endemic to northern India, where it

is known from disjunct populations in the terai and from eastern Nepal to Assam. It has always been very locally

distributed, and the disappearance of several colonies in recent decades indicates that it is declining. The recently

discovered population in Nepal is estimated at <50 birds (BirdLife International 2008). It is reported from Haldwani

and Pilibhet regions of northern India, and Manas in Assam, but everywhere in small numbers. It is still traded

and smuggled for foreign market. It prefers marshes and wet areas with extensive stands of Imperata , Narenga ,

and Saccharum grasses, particularly those that are seasonally inundated, with well-scattered trees, and occasionally

interspersed with patchy rice and sugarcane cultivation. Presently, BirdLife International (2008) has kept it in the

Vulnerable category, but looking at its rapidly declining numbers, and scarcity of habitat, it has to be upgraded to

the Endangered category.

Another example of conservation neglect is the Indian Skimmer Rynchops albicollis. It is found on larger

rivers from Pakistan, through Nepal and India to Bangladesh and Myanmar. It was common in the 19th century

in Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, but there are very few recent records from Myanmar and none from

Laos, Cambodia or Vietnam (BirdLife International 2008). It is uncommon in Pakistan ( Roberts 1991) and Nepal

(Inskipp and Inskipp 1991). In India also, it is becoming uncommon although still seen on larger north Indian

rivers. Its major population could be in the Padma-Meghna delta in Bangladesh. Its total global population is

estimated at 6,000-10,000 individuals (BirdLife International 2001, 2008).

In India, it is mainly found in north India, from Punjab (rare) through Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and

Bihar to West Bengal, extending up to Orissa (Chilika) and the Brahmaputra. Possibly a separate population is in

Narmada, Mahanadi, Tapti, Godavari, and Krishna rivers in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa. As a winter migrant, it is

reported from Saurashtra and the western coast of Gujarat and Maharashtra. It is not recorded south of about

16° N (Ali and Ripley 1983). It occurs primarily on larger, sandy, lowland rivers, around lakes and adjacent

marshes, and in the non-breeding season, estuaries and coasts. It breeds colonially on large, exposed sand-bars

and islands. Here the problem comes. Most of the river islands, even temporary sandbanks, are now occupied by

man and his animals (dogs, cats, cattle) and House Crows Conms splendens, which are seen around any human

settlement. Sudden release of water from dams inundates the islands or more often, withdrawal of excessive

water expose the river islands to ground predators as a result of which the Indian Skimmer faces nesting failure

year after year. Even its main nesting river, the Chambal, is now under increasing threats of withdrawal of water

despite being a Sanctuary!

2

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Among the threatened Indian birds, some have not been seen for many decades. For example, the Manipur

Bush-quail Perdicula manipurensis was last seen in 1932, and now in 2006 in Manas Tiger Reserve, Assam

(Anwaruddin Choudhury pers. comm., 2006). It is endemic to north-east India and probably Bangladesh (extinct?).

Not much is known about this diminutive and shy bird of tall damp grasslands. No attempt is being made to even

know its current distribution. Another example is Masked Finfoot Heliopais personata , a bird of mangrove and

wetlands in dense forests. This bird has not been seen for many years in India, except for a stray record from

Coringa Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh. During the Annual Waterfowl Count from 1997 to 2007 in Asia (Li et al.

2009), it was recorded only from 14 sites, none in India. It was reported from Sundarbans of Bangladesh, twice

in 1990 (one bird) and 2002 (two birds), so it is likely to be present on the Indian side also.

In 2004, the Indian Bird Conservation Network, BNHS, BirdLife International, and Royal Society for the

Protection of Birds released a list of 446 sites that qualify the global criteria as Important Bird Areas (Islam and

Rahmani 2004). Nearly 200 of these IB As do not have any legal support in the form of Protected Areas established

under the Indian Wildlife Protection Act. Many of these IB As qualify for a Park or Sanctuary status, and the rest

can be declared as Community or Conservation Reserves. Although more than 600 Indian PAs provide protection

to threatened bird species, if we add the 200 non-protected IB As in this category, all the species which need site-

based approach of protection will be in saved. For species such as the Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps ,

Sarus Crane Grus antigone. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga, which live in a larger landscape, general

environmental protection will be required.

The Government of India has to look beyond Project Tiger and the existing protected area network if it is

sincere in protecting all biodiversity, including many threatened bird species which find no 'god father’ or do not

provide commercial incentive to some as the tiger conservation business does.

Asad R. Rahmani

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

BirdLife International (2000): Threatened Birds of the World. BirdLife International, Cambridge, and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

BirdLife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. 2 Parts. BirdLife International,

Cambridge, UK.

BirdLife International (2008): http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html.

Collar, N.J. & S.N. Stuart (1985): Threatened Birds of Africa and Related Islands: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. Part 1.

ICBP-IUCN, Cambridge, UK and Gland, Switzerland.

Collar, N.J. & P. Andrew (1988): Birds of Watch: the ICBP world checklist of threatened birds. ICBP, Cambridge, UK.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994): Birds to watch 2: the world list of threatened birds. BirdLife Conservation

Series 4. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

Collar, N.J., L.P. Gonzaga, N. Krabbe, Nicto A. Madrono, L.G. Narango, T.A. Parker & D.C. Wege (1992): Threatened Birds

of the America: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Book. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp ( 1991 ): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. 2nd Edition. Christopher Helm, London, UK.

Islam, Z.A. & A.R. Rahmani (2004): Important Bird Areas in India: Priority Sites for Conservation. Indian Bird Conservation

Network, Bombay Natural History Society and BirdLife International (UK).

King, W.B. (1978-1979): Red Data Book, 2: Aves. 2"d edition. RJCN, Morges, Switzerland.

Konig, C., F. Weick & J.H Becking. (1999): Owls: A Guide to the Owls of the World. Yale University Press, New Heaven, USA.

Li, Z.W.D., A. Bloem, S. Delany, G. Martakis & J.O. Quintero (2009): Status of Waterbirds in Asia- Results of the Asian Waterbird

Census-1987-2007. Wetlands International, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Rasmussen, PC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia: the Ripley Guide. 2 Vol. Smithsonian Museum, Washington, USA,

and Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

Roberts, T.J. (1991): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. I. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Thejaswi, S. (2004): New sites for the globally threatened Yellow-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) in Karnataka,

Kerala and Tamil Nadu, southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(3): 458-461.

Vijayan, L., V. Murugan & M.A. Raja (2006): Conservation of Andaman Teal. TWSG News 15: 55-59.

Vincent, J. (1966-1971): Red Data Book, 2: Aves. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

4

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

5-10

ASPECTS OF THE ECOLOGY OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER

LUTROGALE PERSPICILLATA GEOFFROY ST.-HILAIRE, 1826: A REVIEW

Asghar Nawab1

‘Freshwater & Wetlands Programme, World Wide Fund for Nature - India, 172 B Lodi Estate, New Delhi 1 10 003, India.

Email: [email protected]

Of the thirteen species of Otters reported worldwide four are found in Asia, and India is home to three species. The

Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata is the most common of Asian Otters, being distributed throughout India

from the Himalayas southward. It prefers habitats such as large rivers, lakes and swamps and tends to compete for

resources with the Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cinereus and Eurasian Otter Lutra Ultra when all the three species occur

sympatrically. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN and is on Appendix II of the CITES and Schedule II

(Part II) of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. While some measure of research has been established, Otter

conservation efforts in India are lagging far behind those in Europe and the rest of the world. This review summarizes

the current conservation status and aspects of ecology of the Smooth-coated Otter, suggesting areas/aspects of future

research particularly with respect to India. The need for such a review arises from a necessity to direct further research

efforts towards wetlands and freshwater biomes in general, and those of Otters in particular, and also to meet demands

for conservation management.

Key words: Smooth-coated Otter, Lutrogale perspicillata , ecology, review, conservation management, India

INTRODUCTION

Otters are semi-aquatic members of the Mustelidae

family, and as high-order carnivores at the top of their small

niche eco-systems their presence serves as an important

biological indicator of wetland quality (Sivasothi and

Burhanuddin 1994). Phylogenetically, the Otter family tree

dates to the Miocene era, with Otter-like forms represented

by genus Mionictis , inhabiting the Earth 20 million years ago

(Hwang and Larivie’re 2005). Of the 13 species of Otters

worldwide. Sea Otter Enhydra lutris and Marine Otter Lutra

felina are restricted to marine environments and the rest eleven

inhabit mostly freshwater habitats (Estes et al. 1982). Four

species of Otters are reported from Asia ( Kruuk 2006): Hairy-

nosed Otter Lutra sumatrana , Eurasian Otter L. lutra, Smooth-

coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata , and Small-clawed Otter

Aonyx cinereus: of these the last three are found in India

(Pocock 1941; Mason and Macdonald 1986; Kruuk 2006).

The Smooth-coated Otter is distributed throughout the country

from the Himalayas southward, but the Eurasian Otter and

the Small-clawed Otter are restricted to the Himalayas, to the

north of the Ganges and to southern India. Occurrence of all

three species has been reported from north-east India and the

Western Ghats (Hussain 1999).

Otters in general are becoming increasingly rare outside

of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, being threatened

in many areas and that habitat destruction and poaching pose

as a major threat as compared to other disturbances (Nawab

2007). The status of Otters in India is feebly documented and

most of the distributional records are largely subjective or

are based on chance observations, the results remaining

inconclusive and consequently no concrete database exists

for monitoring Otter population trends. This review

summarizes the current conservation status and aspects of

ecology of the Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata

suggesting areas/aspects of future research on the species

particularly with respect to India.

Species profile

Lutrogale is from the Latin lutr meaning Otter, and gale

meaning weasel or cat. The specific name perspicillata is Latin

for conspicuous (Borror 1960). Lutrogale is known from the

early Pleistocene of Java (McKenna and Bell 1997). The genetic

structure of Lutrogale perspicillata is 2n=38, with a

fundamental number of 62 (van Zyll de Jong 1987 ). The Otter

may weigh up to 11.4 kg, the total length ranging between

1,067-1,300 mm (Harrison and Bates 1991; Foster-Turley

1992). In its external characters the Smooth-coated Otter is

characterized by a very smooth, sleek pelage (Francis 2001).

Upper lip to the edge of the rhinarium, cheeks, sides of the

neck and throat are whitish or grey (Pocock 1941 ; Tate 1947).

The underfur and guard hairs are 8 mm and 12 mm in length

respectively. Muzzle is not spotted and the rhinarium is bare,

dusky with peaked upper margin (inverted V-shaped). Vibrissae

are white, <90 mm in length and well-developed. Eyes and

ears are small. Tail is flattened, limbs are short, strong, and the

fore and hind paws are large and well- webbed (Harrison 1 968).

Distribution and Conservation Status

The distribution of Smooth-coated Otter is disjunct

(Fig. 1 ) being distributed throughout southern Asia (Hwang

and Larivie’re 2005). Of the three subspecies, Lutrogale

ECOLOGY OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER: A REVIEW

Fig. 1 : Distribution of Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata in Asia

1 . L.p. maxwell /, 2. L.p. perspicillata and 3. L.p. sindica.

Source'. Flwang & Larivie’re (2005)

perspicillata perspicillata has a wider distribution and occurs

in most of India, Nepal, east to south-western Yunnan, Indo-

China, and south to Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java. L.p. sindica

occurs in Pakistan (Hwang and Lari vie ‘re 2005) and is also

reported from India (Pocock 1941). L.p. maxwelli, whose

current status is uncertain, is reported from the marshes of

southern Iraq (Mason and Macdonald 1986). In India, the

Smooth-coated Otter in most of its range is sympatric with the

Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cine reus, and sometimes also with

the Common Otter Lutra lutra (Foster-Turley 1992). The

Smooth-coated Otter is under Schedule II (Part II) of the Indian

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, and is listed as Vulnerable ( VU)

by the IUCN and is on Appendix II of the CITES.

Habitat use

Otter habitat appears to be extremely variable, however,

more accurately it can be characterised as a narrow strip on

either side of the interface between water and land by being

to some extent one-dimensional, i.e., linear (Kruuk 2006).

Stumpf and Mohr (1962) asserted that the expression of home

range in terms of linear units is justifiable for a number of

species, including Otters, and home ranges of Otters living

in riverine habitat are estimated in linear units (Erlinge 1967;

Melquist and Homocker 1979). Similarly, the length of coastal

shoreline has often been used to quantify the home range of

Otters living in marine (Kruuk and Hewson 1978; Arden-

Clarke 1986) and Lacustrine habitats (Erlinge 1967). The

linearity of the habitat makes confrontation inevitable,

affecting competition for resources. In such case, Kruuk

(2006) has suggested random dispersion, with tolerance

between individuals by some kind of group territorial

system among Otters. Moreover, there appeal' to be differences

in the spatial organisation in different areas, and there is

variation in group size and range size, which can be

6

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ECOLOGY OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER: A REVIEW

explained in terms of adaptation to environmental

characteristics in which resource dispersion hypothesis plays

an important role (Macdonald 1983; Carr and Macdonald

1986).

Lutrogale perspicillata is essentially a plains’ Otter

preferring low elevations. In the Indian subcontinent they

are adapted to live in north-western desert, dry zone of central

India and the Deccan plateau (Prater 1998). In general, they

occur along the large rivers and lakes. Peat swamp forests,

mangrove forests along the coast and estuaries, and even

use rice fields for foraging (Shariff 1984; Foster-Turley 1992;

Melisch etal. 1994; Sivasothi and Burhanuddin 1994). When

occupying saltwater areas, they require freshwater nearby

(Wayre 1978; Kruuk et al. 1994). When it occurs

sympatrically with other Otter species it tends to use larger

water bodies, and does not occur on small streams and

irrigation canals (Wayre 1 978). As reported for Eurasian Otter

Lutra lutra, reservoirs are used; they form artificial habitats

(Ruiz-Olmo et al. 2005) and usually serve as travel lanes

(Sheldon and Toll 1964). In India, Anoop and Hussain (2004)

recorded presence of Lutrogale perspicillata along the

shallower and narrower regions of the lake in Periyar Tiger

Reserve, while conversely, Nawab (2007) recorded that the

Ramganga reservoir in Corbett Tiger Reserve; with steep

shore lines, deep water, absence of escape cover and presence

of mugger (major predator of Otters) was found unsuitable

for Smooth-coated Otters. Along the larger perennial water

bodies in India, Smooth-coated Otter show preference for

rocky and sandy stretches in all the seasons, since these

stretches provide sites for denning and grooming. River

stretches with bank side vegetation are favoured as they

provide escape cover while travelling or foraging (Nawab

2007). Hussain and Choudhury (1995) recorded in Chambai

river that an adult female with cubs defended a home range

of 5.5 km while for an adult male it was estimated as

approximately 17 km. Also, the home range of the adult male

overlapped extensively with that of several female home

ranges. Studies in northern India recorded smaller home

ranges of Smooth-coated Otters. This suggests that

Otters tend to adapt to their available environment in

patchy and disturbed sites, restricting their movement

(Nawab 2007).

Food and feeding habits

Diet and feeding habits of Otters is one aspect of their

ecology that has been studied widely in different parts of the

world (summaries in Mason and Macdonald 1986). Tooth

morphology of the fossils suggests that older forms of

Lutrogale fed mainly on shellfish (Willemsen 1986). Smooth-

coated Otters have generally been described as fish specialist

(Haque andVijayan 1995; Anoop and Hussain 2005; Nawab

2007). During a study on the feeding ecology of this species

in Corbett Tiger Reserve, northern India, four prey categories

were identified from 499 spraints analysed; fish (84%) was

the most frequently occurring item and also formed the bulk

(97.27%) of the diet (Nawab 2007). Prater (1998), Foster-

Turly (1992) and Hussain (1993) have established that the

exploitation of secondary prey, especially in winter, such as

shrimp/crayfish, crab and insects, and other vertebrates such

as frog, mudskippers, birds and rats may be a strategy for

meeting additional energy requirements for thermoregulation

and for rearing pups. Smooth-coated Otter are strong

swimmers and hunt in groups ( Kruuk et al. 1 994), preferring

shallow and placid waters (Nawab 2007 ). When fishing they

travel in a V-formation going upstream (Helvoort etal. 1996).

Most foraging activity occurs in water and small fish are

swallowed whole (Helvoort et al. 1996), but large fish are

taken to shore (Ansell 1947). Spraint sites of Smooth-coated

Otter occur on small rocks, sand banks and large boulders

1-3 m above water level and these sites often smell of rotten

fish (Kruuk et al. 1993; Nawab 2007). Shariff (1984)

recorded these animals to roll and rub on grassy areas,

especially after defecation and to sometimes rest on bare

sand. When groups of Smooth-coated Otter forage, the

commotion may attract birds which benefit from the smaller

fish that flee into shallow water (Kruuk et al. 1993; Helvoort

et al. 1996). However, these interactions may be detrimental

to Otters because birds attempt to steal fish (Helvoort et al.

1996). Studies on the dietary habits of mugger in Andhra

Pradesh have revealed the presence of Otter furs in the scats

of Indian marsh crocodile ( Kumar etal. 1995); and alternately

crocodile hatchlings can also be potential prey for Otters

(Kumar 1993).

Reproduction

In captivity. Smooth-coated Otters are known to attain

sexual maturity at twenty-two months and mate during

August to November. Males are polygamous mating with

up to four females (Desai 1974); copulation occurs in water

lasting <1 min (Yadav 1967; Badham 1973) followed by

prolonged playful bouts between partners. The gestation

period varies from 60 to 62 days (Yadav 1967; Desai 1974;

Naidu and Malhotra 1989) and a litter of 2-5 pups is born.

Smooth-coated Otters often dig their own breeding dens

(Badham 1973; Wayre 1978; Nawab 2007) and maintain

small family groups of a mated pair with up to four offsprings

from previous seasons (Wayre 1978). Captive studies

suggest that the longest lifespan of Smooth-coated Otters is

around 20 years and 5 months (Medway 1969; Acharjyo

and Mishra 1983; Chakrabarti 1993).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

7

ECOLOGY OF SMOOTH-COATED OTTER: A REVIEW

Threats

Developmental activities such as construction of dams

adversely affect Otter populations due to the reduction of

water flow downstream denying access to prey and den sites

(Ruiz-Olmo et al. 1991). Randell and Leatherwood (1994)

have commented on the changes in prey dynamics, which

are the consequences of waterway obstruction, such as less

diversity and small biomass of prey in impoundment upstream

of dams due to lowered nutrient availability and reduction in

prey due to blocked migratory routes. In Europe, studies on

Otters (Jimenez and Lacomba 1991) have revealed that

infrastructural activities can cause extinction of Otter

populations from the lower and upper reaches of a river system

and that the species gets confined to the less productive

stretches. Otters also require undisturbed bank side cover for

their survival. The depletion of sand from banks decreases

the number of sites where Otters can groom and bask ( Anoop

and Hussain 2004; Nawab 2007).

Otters are often in direct conflict with fishermen who

view them as vermin or competitors for fish and kill them

(Foster-Turley 1992). Unimpeded fishing practices using

destructive methods, such as dynamiting, ghan or hammering

and use of Ichthyotoxic plants to poison fish forms a major

form of disturbance to Otters. This leads to indiscriminate

killing of large number of fish (juvenile as well as brood fish)

that adversely affects the population of fish as well as the

water quality (Nawab 2007).

Wildlife conservation efforts in India and concern about

illegal wildlife trade has largely been concentrated on large

fauna such as tigers, leopards, elephants and rhino amidst

much public outcry to protect these species. In spite of the

general awareness of the trade in wildlife and its derivatives

in India, there is little information on the extent and prevalence

of illegal trade in Otter skins, and consequently the threats to

the species (Nawab and Gautam 2008). Otters are hunted for

their pelts, meat, fat and other body parts (Meena 2002).

Seizure figures of wildlife offences in the country reveal that

20-30% of the fur trade is in Otter skins. The main markets

are Kanpur, Lucknow, Kota, Kolkata, Bengaluru and Delhi.

The Otter fur trade, which is practiced in many parts of the

world, routes out via Nepal and Bangladesh to importing

countries (Hanfee and Ahmad 1999). Nomadic hunting tribes

in India, such as Gilliam, Badiya and Jogis are known to

regularly kill Otters for their skin and flesh (Walia 2001;

REFE

Acharjyo, L.N. & G. Mishra (1983): A note on the longevity of two

species of Indian Otters in captivity. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

80(3): 636.

Anoop, K.R. (2001): Factors affecting habitat selection and feeding

habits of Smooth-coated Otter Lutra perspicillata in Periyar Tiger

Nawab 2008 ). Tribals and traditional practitioners of Ayurveda

in Andhra Pradesh are known to use Otter blood as a cure for

epilepsy (Nagulu et al. 1999).

Research and Conservation Advocacy

In Asia, research on Otters dqite backs to 1988 when

the first International Symposium on Asian Otters was held

in India (Foster-Turley etal. 1990; Hussain 1999). Since then

major doctoral works carried out on Smooth-coated Otter

include: northern India (Nawab 2007), central India (Hussain

1993) and southern India (Satyanarayana 1997). A few short-

term studies have also been conducted (Nagulu et al. 1997;

Anoop 2001; Shenoy 2003; Perinchery 2008). Surveys to

determine where Otter populations still exist and where greater

habitat protection measures are necessary are the first step.

Parallel efforts involve research into such areas as the

ecological requirements of Otters, their reproductive biology,

and the effects of deleterious pollutants in the food chain.

Practical habitat management activities ranging from basic

field research programmes, to planning and advising

Government in undertaking large-scale development projects

on species specific habitat management (Hussain 1999). Even

more perplexing than the lack of ecological information about

Otters is an apparent lack of interest in Otters in India (Nawab

2006); hence awareness generation towards the plight faced

by Otters and their ecological and aesthetic importance to

aquatic environments should form an integral part of such

studies to reinforce sympathetic attitude from the general

public.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my gratitude to Dr. Asad R. Rahmani

(Director, BNHS) for his constant encouragement and

providing the opportunity to publish this manuscript. I thank

Mr. Ravi Singh (Secretary General & CEO, WWF-India) and

Dr. Parikshit Gautam (Director, Freshwater & Wetlands

Programme, WWF-India) for providing infrastructural

support and encouragements for this review study. Mr. Anoop

K.R., IFS, is thanked for his contribution of the ‘Otter’

photographs for this study. The help rendered by my

colleagues and the staff at the Freshwater & Wetlands

Programme is highly appreciated. I thank the anonymous

referee(s) for reviewing the manuscript.

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10

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

11-14

A SURVEY OF FRESHWATER FISHES OF ANDAMAN ISLANDS

Vijay Palavai1-2 and Priya Davidar13

'Department of Ecology and Environmental Science, Pondicherry University, Pondicherry 605 014, India.

"Email: [email protected]

A survey of the freshwater fish community was conducted in five large islands of the Andaman archipelago. The

objective of the study was to make a complete inventory of freshwater fishes and ascertain the status of fish species

reported by Herre (1939). We have collected with cast nets and other fishing traps 2,403 fishes belonging to 33 species

in 77 perennial streams and 1 perennial river. 17 species (11 native) were freshwater fishes. Acentrogobius caninus is

reported here for the first time from the Andaman Islands and it is also a first reporting from Indian inland waters. Five

species of freshwater fish have been introduced from mainland India deliberately or accidentally since Herre ’s survey.

The new findings have indicated that more new species can be found in undisturbed regions particularly, the tribal

reserves and areas that are inaccessible. However, many of the native species are threatened due to habitat loss and

invasive species.

Key words: Andamans, freshwater fish, native species, new species, introductions, habitat loss, Jarawa Reserve

INTRODUCTION

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are regions of high

biological diversity and endemism of many faunal groups. The

region should be included with Western Ghats and Sri Lanka

as one of the major biodiversity ‘hot spots’ of the globe (Myers

1990). However, due to lack of accurate inventories,

information on many of the taxa found in these islands is

inadequate (Pande et al. 1991), in particular, the freshwater

fishes.

Nevertheless, there were some early contributions on

freshwater fish fauna; most of these were fragmentary or

restricted to a particular group. These were on diversity (Day

1870, 1875-1878; Hora 1925; Mukerji 1935; Sen 1975),

diversity and distribution (Herre 1939, 1941 ), and a study on

Gobiidae (Koumans 1940). Herre (1939) had recorded

112 species of freshwater and littoral fish, which is the most

comprehensive work, so far. The present status of these fishes

is not clear. Later studies on freshwater fishes of Andamans

were compilations of previous surveys (Talwar 1990).

Therefore, considering the importance of this study, the

major objectives were: (1) to make a complete inventory of

the freshwater fishes in large islands of Andaman group, and

(2) to assess the status of the freshwater fishes in comparison

with Herre’s study (1939).

STUDY AREA

The study was conducted in North Andaman, Middle

Andaman, South Andaman, Rutland and Little Andaman. The

Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie between 6° 45'- 13° 30' N

and 90° 20' - 93° 56' E, off the east coast of India in the southern

part of Bay of Bengal (Srinivasan 1986). The Archipelago

comprises of several hundred islands extending over 800 km.

Total geographic area of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

is 8,249 sq. km of which Andaman group of islands covers

6,408 sq. km.

These islands have a tropical climate with temperatures

ranging from 18 °C to 34 °C. The average annual rainfall

from the South-West and North-East monsoons ranges from

2,300 mm in the Little Andamans in the South to 3,000 mm

in Mayabundar near the North Andamans. The dry season

ranges from January to April.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fish Sampling

We conducted a survey over a 3-year period from 2005

to 2008 in the Andaman Islands. A systematic sampling of

the streams has been carried out for freshwater fish species.

Streams were walked from downstream to upstream and fish

were collected with cast nets of various sizes (2,540 mm x

7 mm and 2,032 mm x 10 mm) at regular interval. For very

small fishes, we modified existing methods for collection,

such as cloths and bottles. Cloth of sizes 1 m x 0.6 m and 1 m

x 0.45 m were used as traps and placed in water near the

periphery of the stream mimicking natural substratum. After

a preset time the cloth was gently lifted up above water surface

by holding it at four corners and fishes were collected.

Similarly, plastic bottles were used to catch small fish species.

The collected fishes were measured to standard length,

weighed and species recorded. A total of 2,403 samples from

77 perennial hill streams and one perennial river have been

collected.

SURVEY OF FRESHWATER FISHES OF ANDAMANS

Fish identification was carried out using keys

developed by Koumans (1953), Masuda etal. (1984),Talwar

and Jhingran (1991), Pethiyagoda (1991), Kottelat et al.

(1993) and Jayaram (1999), and with help of taxonomy

experts from the Zoological Survey of India at Chennai.

RESULTS

Fish Diversity

A total of 2,403 individuals of 33 species belonging to

20 families and 29 genera (Table 1) were collected from the

streams of North Andaman, Middle Andaman. South

Andaman, Rutland and Little Andaman (Fig. 1 ).

Table 1: List of species grouped into families compared

with Herre's list

Family

Species

Herre’s

List

Gobiidae

Aplocheilidae

Channidae

Cyprinidae

Heteropneustidae

Clariidae

Anabantidae

Cichiidae

Syngnathidae

Eleotrididae

Megalopidae

Kuhliidae

Mugilidae

Ambassidae

Apogonidae

Scatophagidae

Leiognathidae

Gerreidae

Toxotidae

Carangidae

Glossogobius giuris

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

Sicyopterus microcephalus

(Bleeker)

Sicyopterus sp. (Gill)

Awaous grammepomus (Bleeker)

Stenogobius gymnopomus (Bleeker)

Redigobius tambujon (Mukerji)

Acentorgobius caninus (Valenciennes)

Schismatogobius sp. (de Beaufort)

Aplocheilus panchax

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

Channa orientalis

(Bloch & Schneider)

Channa striatus (Bloch)

Parluciosoma daniconius

(Hamilton-Buchanan)

Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch)

Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus)

Anabas testudineus (Bloch)

Oreochromis mossambica (Peters)

Microphis insularis (Hora)

Ophioeleotris aporos (Bleeker)

Butis gymnopomus (Bleeker)

Eleotris fusca (Schneider)

Ophiocara porocephaia (Valenciennes)

Butis butis (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Megalops cyprionoides (Broussonet)

Kuhlia marginata (Bleeker)

Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepede)

Liza parsia (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Ambassis urotaenia (Bleeker)

Apogon hylasoma (Bleeker)

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus)

Leiognathus equulus (Forsskal)

Gerres fiiamentosus (Cuvier)

Toxutes jaculator (Pallas)

Caranx sexfasciatus (Quoy & Gaim)

y

x

y

X

y

X

y

X

y

X

y

X

y

y : recorded x: not recorded

Fig. 1 : Andaman and Nicobar Islands and its location in relation

to India

Of the 33 species collected, 17 species ( 1 1 native) were

freshwater fishes (Table 2) and 16 species were secondary

freshwater or diadromous species. Some of the specimens

that were collected during the survey were later identified as

new species belonging to the genus Sicyopterus and

Schismatogobius ; genus Schismatogobius is the first report

from this region. A Gobiid fish Acentrogobius caninus

hitherto unknown to Andamans and is the first reporting from

Indian inland waters.

DISCUSSION

Biotas on islands have high levels of endemism and

lower levels of diversity than those on mainland ecosystems

(Osborne 2000). This is true in the case of freshwater fishes

of Andaman Islands. Of the 33 species recorded by us, only

1 1 were native freshwater fishes including two new

undescribed species. However, the endemism among

12

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

SURVEY OF FRESHWATER FISHES OF ANDAMANS

Table 2: Native, Exotic and Endemic Freshwater species

and their Status

Species

Glossogobius giuris

Sicyopterus

microcephalus

Sicyopterus sp.

Awaous

grammepomus

Redigobius tambujon

Schismatogobius sp.

Aplocheilus panchax

Channa orientalis

Microphis insularis

Stenogobius

gymnopomus

Acentorgobius canmus

Parluciosoma

daniconius

Heteropneustes fossilis

Clarias batrachus

Oreochromis

mossambica

Anabas testudineus

Channa striatus

s

Common

✓

s

Common

Very Rare

^ : recorded not recorded

freshwater fishes was moderately high with 27%. Three

species M. instil oris, Schismatogobius sp., and Sicyopterus

sp. were endemic to the Andamans. About 21 species were

reported by Herre (Herre 1939), including 7 freshwater and

14 estuarine species (Table 1). Five species of freshwater fish

have been introduced deliberately or accidentally since the

Herre’s survey (Flerre 1939).

The freshwater fish fauna of this region is somewhat

impoverished due to low habitat diversity and its long isolation

from continental Asia. There are possibilities that several

undiscovered species living in the streams of these islands,

particularly in tribal reserves and areas, are inaccessible.

However, many of the native species of Andamans are

threatened due to habitat loss (Petts 1984; Machado 1994;

Glenn et al. 1996; Richter etal. 1997) and non-native species

(Moyle and Leidy 1992; Ward et al. 2001). Therefore, it is

important to protect freshwater streams in the Andaman

Islands as they harbour a unique biodiversity and are the only

sources of drinking water for human populations. The tribal

reserves such as the Jarawa Reserve are now the only pocket

of undisturbed forests and freshwater streams in the Andaman

Islands should be kept free from external impact. It is

imperative to formulate conservation strategies in order to

protect the native fish species and their habitat of Andamans.

Otherwise it is likely that several species may go extinct before

they are ever discovered by science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Ministry of Environment and Forests,

Government of India, for funding this research. We are grateful

to Dr. Rema Devi, Zoological Survey of India. Chennai, for

her help in fish identification. We would also like to thank

Dr. John G. Lundberg, Department of Ichthyology, Academy

of Natural Sciences, USA and Dr. Helen K. Larson, Curator of

Fishes, Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory,

Australia for their help in fish identification.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1870): On the fishes of the Andaman Islands. Pmc. Zoo. Soc.

London. Pp. 677-705.

Day, F. (1875-78): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of the

fishes known to inhabit the seas and freshwaters of India, Burma,

and Ceylon. Text and atlas in 4 parts, xx + 778. 195 pis. London.

Glenn, E.P., C. Lee, R. Felger & S. Zengel (1996): Effects of water

management on the wetlands of the Colorado River Delta, Mexico.

Conservation Biology 10: 1175-1186.

Hora, S.L. ( 1925): Doryichthys insularis In: Annandale. N. & S.L. Hora

(Eds): The freshwater fish from the Andaman Islands. Rec. Indian

Mus. 27(2): 33-41.

Herre, A.W.C.T. (1939): On a collection of Littoral and freshwater

fishes from Andaman Islands. Rec. Indian Mus. 41: 327-372.

Herre, A.W.C.T. (1941): A list of the fishes known from the Andaman

Islands. Mem. Indian Mus. 13(3): 331-403.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, Delhi. 551 pp., xviii pi.

Kottelat, M., A.J. Whitten, S.N. Kartikasari & W. Soetikno (1993):

Freshwater Fishes of Western Indonesia and Sulawesi. Periplus

Editions (HK) Ltd, Indonesia. 221 pp., 84 pi.

Koumans, F.P. (1940): On the collection of gobioid fishes from

Andamans. Rec. Indian Mus. 42: 15-18.

Koumans, F.P. (1953): The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago.

Vol. X. E.J. Brill Ltd.. Leiden. 423 pp.

Machado Allison, A. ( 1994): Factors affecting fish communities in the

flooded plains of Venezuela. Acta Biologica Venezuelica 15: 59-75.

Masuda, H., K. Amaoka, C. Araga, T. Uyeno & T. Yoshino (1984):

The Fishes of the Japanese Archipelago. Tokai University Press,

Tokyo, xxii + 437 pp., 370 pi.

Moyle, P.B. & R.A. Leidy (1992): Loss of biodiversity in aquatic

ecosystems: Evidence from fish faunas. Pp. 128-169. In: Fiedler, PL.

& S.A. Jain (Eds): Conservation Biology: The Theory and Practice

of Nature Conservation, Preservation, and Management. Chapman

& Hall, New York.

Mukerji, D.D. (1935): Notes on some rare and interesting fishes from

the Andaman Islands, with description of two new freshwater

gobies. Rec. Indian Mus. 37(3): 250-279.

Myers, N. (1990): The biodiversity challenge: expanded hotspots

analysis. Environmentalist 10: 243-256.

Osborne, PL. (2000): Tropical Ecosystems and Ecological Concepts.

Cambridge Uni. Press, UK, 319 pp.

Pande, P, A. Kotharj & S. Singh (1991): Directory of National Parks

and Sanctuaries in Andaman and Nicobar islands. New Delhi : IIPA.

1 13 pp.

Pethiyagoda, R. (1991): Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife

Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 362 pp.

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13

SURVEY OF FRESHWATER FISHES OF ANDAMANS

Petts, G.C. (1984): Impounded Rivers. John Willey and Sons, UK.

326 pp.

Richter, B.D., D.P. Braun, M.A. Mendelson & L.L. Master (1997):

Threats to imperiled freshwater fauna. Conservation Biology 11 :

1081-1093.

Sen, T.K. (1975): Further light on freshwater fish fauna of Andaman

Islands. Sea Food Export Journal 7(2): 31-33.

Srinivasan, M.S. (1986): Geology of Andaman and Nicobar

Administration. J. Andam. Sci. Assn. 2: 1-12.

Talwar, P.K. (1990): Fishes of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands: a

synoptic analysis. J. Andam. Sci. Assn. 6(2): 71-102.

Talwar, P.K. & A. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and adjacent

countries. Oxford & IBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,

2 Vol., 1158 pp.

Ward, J.V., K. Tockner, U. Uehlinger & F. Malard (2001):

Understanding natural patterns and processes in river corridors

and the basis for effective river restoration. Regul. Rivers. Res.

Mgmt. 17: 311-323.

14

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

15-2®

THE LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, SOUTHERN INDIA

AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Ranjit Manakadan1'5, Prakash Rao2, K.K. Mohapatra3, S. Sivakumar1-6, J. Patrick David1-7,

B. Senthil Murugan1-8 and V. Santharam4

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

2WWF - India, 172-B, Lodhi Estate, New Delhi 110 003, India. Email: [email protected]

•JPS Associates Private Limited, R-16 Hauz Khas Enclave, New Delhi 110 016, India. Email: [email protected]

“•Institute of Bird Studies & Natural History, Rishi Valley Education Centre, Rishi Valley 517 352, Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

6Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

8Email: [email protected]

Surveys, censuses and mist-netting were carried out during 1976-1977, 1990-1994 and 2001-2008 to enumerate the

land birds of Sriharikota Island, southern India. A total of 125 species of land birds were recorded comprising of

70 residents, 33 winter migrants and 12 seasonal migrants; the status of another 10 species is uncertain. An annotated

checklist of these species is provided with special reference to their distribution in different habitat types. The White-

rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis has become locally extinct in the area. The conservation issues facing the Island,

and especially the impact of plantations on the avifauna, are discussed and recommendations to mitigate these addressed.

Key words: Sriharikota, land birds, conservation issues, plantations, invasives

INTRODUCTION

Sriharikota Island in the south-eastern coast of India is

important from the biodiversity point of view as it has the

last remaining, largest and best-preserved tracts of coastal

Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest in India (Meher Homji 1974;

Suryanarayana et al. 1989, 1998). The Island serves as the

spaceport of India and has been under the administration of

the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) since 1969.

The faunal and floral diversity of the Island is fairly well-

documented through a number of research projects over the

years. The first investigation of the avifauna of Sriharikota

Island were surveys of 10 and 15 days undertaken by the

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) during 1976 and

1977 respectively (BNHS 1977). This was followed by an

in-depth study by the BNHS from 1990 to 1994 (Samant and

Rao 1996; Rao 1998). Subsequent to this, data was collected

on the birds (and other wildlife) of the Island through two

other projects (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a; Manakadan

et al. 2008). A paper on the waterbirds of the wetlands of the

region was published from the investigations in Sriharikota

island and from studies carried out in the adjoining Pulicat

lake, besides other wetlands and heronries in the mainland

(Kannan et al. 2008). In this paper, we provide an annotated

checklist of the land birds of Sriharikota Island and also

discuss the conservation issues facing land birds.

STUDY AREA

Sriharikota is a spindle-shaped island (181 sq. km)

situated in Nellore and Tiruvallur districts of Andhra Pradesh

and Tamil Nadu respectively. It is bounded on the east by the

Bay of Bengal and on the north, south and west by the waters

of Pulicat lake (Fig. 1). The Island comprises of low ridges

of sand, marine and aeolian in origin, rising 4. 5-6.0 m above

msl and sloping from west to east. The water table is c. 2 to

5 m. Sriharikota has been connected by road to Sullurpet

( 1 8 km) on the mainland since 1970.

The rainfall is largely from the North-East Monsoon

(October-December). Some rainfall is also received from the

South-West Monsoon (June-September). The area is prone

to cyclones, usually in the early part of May and October,

during the onset of the two monsoons. The annual rainfall is

c. 1,200 mm. December to February is the winter season,

with temperatures being as low as 10 °C. March to September

is the summer season with temperatures soaring over 40 °C.

Relative humidity is lowest during May (18%), while the

maximum (99%) is recorded during October.

Prior to the takeover of the Island by the Indian Space

Research Organization (ISRO) between 1969 and 1972, there

were around 20 villages on the Island with a total population

of around 10,000 individuals. At present, besides the

establishments of the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR

(SDSC-SHAR), there are colonies established by ISRO for

the former settlers and tribals of the Island, many of who work

as labourers for ISRO. Access and movement on the Island is

restricted. The SDSC-SHAR has a Conservation and Landscape

Division for the conservation and management of the forests.

Sriharikota Island is important from the biodiversity

point of view as it has the last remaining, largest and best-

preserved tracts of coastal Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

(TDEF) left in India. The forests had a long history of

systematic clear-felling for fuel wood and timber starting with

the British Era. Plantations of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.),

Casuarina ( Casuarina equisetifolia) and Cashew (Anacardium

occidentale) had been raised over the years by the Forest

Department and settlers, now covering approximately more

than 20% of the landmass. After the establishment of the

SDSC-SHAR in 1969, it’s Conservation and Landscape

Division (C & LD) continued raising these plantations for

quick afforestation of bare or degraded areas, creation of

shelter belts, and revenue and work generation for the tribals.

Acacia auriculiformis was also introduced on a small scale

in the 1970s by the C & LD. The invasive Chilean Mesquite

Prosopis chilensis has proliferated in some areas, especially

along the western edge of the Island that borders Pulicat lake,

and towards the extreme southern parts of the Island. Another

invasive species. Cane Calamus rotang , introduced during

the late 1 9th century by the British, has colonised the edges of

freshwater bodies and courses. Patches of abandoned coconut,

tamarind, mango and palmyra (overgrown with native

vegetation) planted by the former settlers are seen, especially

in the southern tracts of the Island. Besides these, there are

extensive grasslands with scattered shrubs or trees in the

southern part of the island, and remnants of mangrove and

salt marsh vegetation along the western edge of the Island.

The recorded fauna of this Island, other than birds, is

represented by 27 mammal species, 1 2 species of amphibians,

34 species of reptiles, 44 species of fish and 51 species of

butterflies. The mammals include the endangered Slender

Loris Loris lydekkerianus , Jungle Cat Felis chans. Rusty

Spotted Cat Prionailurus rubiginosus. Bonnet Macaque

Macaco radiata , Golden Jackal Can is aureus , Small Indian

Civet Viverricula indica and the Indian Flying Fox Pteropus

giganteus. The southern part of the Island has feral cattle (both

buffaloes and cows) and a small population of feral horses

(Anon 1908; Champion and Seth 1968; Meher Homji 1974;

Reddy 1981, 1983; Agrawal et at. 1985; Suryanarayana et

al. 1989, 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a, b,c;

Sivakumar and Manakadan 2004; Sivakumar et al. 2004;

Manakadan et al. 2004).

METHODS

This paper is based on findings of different workers

who carried out field investigations on the land birds of

Sriharikota from data obtained through surveys, systematic

censuses, bird banding and specific studies (BNHS 1977;

Samant and Rao 1 996; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a; Manakadan etal. 2008). The species account is largely

based on . the findings of two major projects: i) Samant and

Rao (1996), Rao (1998) and ii) Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) as more intensive studies were carried out under these

projects. Between these two studies, the first project was

totally focused on birds with systematic census, bird banding

and habitat studies undertaken. The second project was a part

of an overall faunal inventory project of the Island and without

bird banding, and thus was less intensive in data collection.

The study by David et al. (2008) was also long-term and

intensive, but was confined to frugivores. Thus, records of

the other surveys/studies (BNHS 1977; David et al. 2008)

and unpublished records (V. Santharam, Patrick David and

B. Senthil Murugan) are discussed only if significant.

RESULTS

The status, distribution and abundance of 125 species

of land bird species of Sriharikota, with the English and

scientific names following Rasmussen and Anderton (2005)

are discussed below:

16

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Status: R = Resident, with or without breeding records.

WM = Winter Migrant: A species that breeds in the Palaearctic

region/Himalayas during spring and ‘winters' in the Indian

subcontinent. SM = Seasonal Migrant: An ‘Indian species'

that occurs seasonally in the area. ? = Status Uncertain

Abundance: VC - Very Common: Sightings possible

on almost all days in a year/season in suitable habitats.

C = Common: Sightings of about once a week in a year/season

in suitable habitats. O = Occasional: About one sighting

fortnight/month in a year/season in suitable habitats.

Ra = Rare: Less than 5 sightings per year or 3 sightings

a season. VRa = Very Rare: Record based on only 1 or

2 sighting. VRa/O = Species recorded to be very rare during

the earlier studies but was occasionally recorded during the

later studies; and corresponding inferences for variations of

these (e.g., O/VRa, C/VRa).

1 . Black Baza Aviceda leuphotes ( WM VRa)

The only records of the Black Baza were by Patrick

David (unpublished data), who sighted two birds on

November 12 and 14, 2007, and on February 06, 2008. The

birds were sighted in the stretch between ‘STEX’ and ‘PSLV’,

near the culvert over the Pedda Vagu. The second sighting

was close to the first site and the third sighting was about

200 m from the first two sighting areas, all indicating that the

sightings were of the same pair.

2. Oriental Honey-Buzzard Pernis ptilorhyncus (R C)

Rao (1998) found the Oriental Honey-Buzzard to be

fairly common on the Island in well-wooded areas and

particularly near eucalyptus plantations at Keepakam.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the species only

in TDEF and eucalyptus plantations.

3. Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus (R O)

Rao (1998) obtained only one sighting of the Black-

winged Kite in an open grassy patch near Beripeta on

August 20, 1990, but found it to be fairly common in

agricultural fields on the mainland near Sullurpet. Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the species on a few

occasions only in open scrub during summer. The species

would probably be more common in the grassland areas in

the southern part of the Island, which was rarely surveyed

due to difficult logistics.

4 Black Kite Milvus utigrans (R VRa)

The only record of the Black Kite in Sriharikota

is of a bird in August 1990 near Kothachenu close to Pulicat

lake (Rao 1998). This species, which inhabits towns

and cities (Ali and Ripley 1987; Rasmussen and Anderton

2005), is also not common in the small towns on the

mainland.

5. White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis (R O/Extinct)

The first survey (BNHS 1977) discussed the White-

rumped Vulture as ‘soaring over many parts of the Island’.

Rao (1998) recorded around 75-100 birds nesting on tall

Tamarindus indica trees between November and March near

Kodaledu. The largest flock size sighted by Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) consisted of 13 birds; all the other

sightings consisted of 1-3 birds. Only one (unsuccessful) case

of nesting was recorded during 2001 . The birds disappeared

towards the end of 2003 and have probably become locally

extinct (see Discussion)

6. Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus (R VRa)

The only record of the Short-toed Eagle was by

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a), who sighted a pair in the

western stretch of Fireline-12 in August 2003. Along with the

characteristic ‘ piuuu-piiuu calls (Ali and Ripley 1987), the

birds soared overhead for sufficient time to confirm

identification. The status of the species is uncertain and the

birds could be more common in the southern grassland areas

of the Island (which was rarely visited) as it is partial to open

habitats (Ali and Ripley 1987; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

7. Crested Serpent-Eagle Spilornis cheela (R Ra)

Rao (1998) recorded the Crested Serpent-Eagle only

twice from eucalyptus plantations near Keepakam. Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the species during their

study, nor was the species recorded during the first BNHS

survey (BNHS 1977). However, Senthil Murugan (unpublished

data) recorded it occasionally from 2004 to 2008.

8. Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus (WM Ra)

Rao (1998) obtained only two sightings of the Pallid

Harrier: one bird on February 01, 1990, from Ravanappa

Chatram and another on March 05, 1992, soaring over

Keepakam. Santharam (unpublished data) saw a male on the

Island in February 1990. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

obtained only one sighting of a bird flying over Pulicat lake

and heading towards Sriharikota in February 2003, and Patrick

David (unpublished data) recorded the species once on the

Island. The species could probably be more common in the

grassland areas in the southern part of the Island, which was

rarely surveyed due to difficult logistics.

9. Shikra Accipiter badius (R O)

The Shikra was occasionally sighted in TDEF forest

and plantations by all the workers.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

17

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

10. Besra S p a r r o w h a vv k Acc ip iter virgatus (WM VRa)

The only record of the Besra Sparrowhawk in

Sriharikota is through a solitary individual ringed on

February 27, 1991, from Keepakam. The species is known to

winter in the Eastern Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1987; Rasmussen

and Anderton 2005).

11. White-eyed Buzzard Butastur teesa (R O)

The White-eyed Buzzard was occasionally seen

throughout the Island mostly in an open scrub habitat and at

the edges of the forests and plantations.

12. Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus (WM O)

The Common Kestrel was occasionally recorded in

coastal sand dune areas, open scrub and the southern grassland

areas during winter. The species would probably be more

common in the open grassland areas in the southern part of

the Island, which was rarely surveyed due to difficult logistics.

13. Amur Falcon Falco amurensis (WM VRa)

The Amur Falcon was recorded only on two occasions:

a male in open scrub in November 2002 and a flock of five

birds actively hunting dragonflies along casuarina plantations

adjoining the seashore in May 2003 (Sivakumar and

Manakadan 2006). Records of the Amur Falcon in Andhra

Pradesh are rare, being known from only two old records, one

from Nellore and another from Rajamundry (Ali and Ripley

1987).

14. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus (WM VRa)

The Peregrine Falcon (race: calidus) was recorded only

once flying low near coastal sand dunes in the

Chandrasikuppam area on November 02, 1990.

15. Grey Francolin Francolinus pondicerianus (R C)

The Grey Francolin is a common species in Sriharikota,

but restricted to open scrub habitat. The species is likely to

be more common in the southern grassland-open scrub areas.

16. Blue-breasted Quail Coturnix cltinensis (BJSM? VRa?)

The only record of the Blue-breasted Quail is by

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) who sighted a party of

three birds near the STEX Gate in June 2003. Being secretive

and small ground dwelling species, quails easily escape notice

and may be more common than recorded. Rasmussen and

Anderton (2005 ) describe the species status in the Indian region

as ‘largely resident, but movements require further study'.

17. Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (R VRa)

Rao (1998) obtained only one sighting of a pair of Red

Spurfowl in scrub vegetation in the Ravanappa Chatram area.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded it only once (two

birds) in TDEF forest.

18. Grey Junglefowl Gallus sonneralii (R VC)

The Grey Junglefowl is the commonest galliform

species on the Island, occurring in almost all the forested

areas of the Island. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

located two nests in casuarina plantation, and Patrick David

and Senthil Murugan (unpublished data) recorded a nest in

TDEF forest.

19. Yellow-legged Buttonquail Turnix tanki (R VRa)

The only record of the Yellow-legged Buttonquail is a

female ringed on March 27, 1990, from scrub forest in the

north-east part of the Island. Buttonquails due to their small

size and secretive nature easily escape notice and may be more

common than recorded.

20. Barred Buttonquail Turnix suscitator ( R VRa)

Rao (1998) recorded the Barred Buttonquail

occasionally in open scrub forest having short grass patches.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the species.

2 1 . Lesser Florican Sypheotides indicus (SM? VRa)

The Lesser Florican was not recorded by BNHS

workers, but Rao (1998) mentions of a possible sight record

in 1988 by K.R. Seetharaman (former Head, Photography

Division) from a grassy patch at Beripeta. There is a very old

record of the existence of the threatened Lesser Florican from

the Chennai area (Ali and Ripley 1987), c. 80 km south. The

nearest known recent wintering site (with breeding recorded

for one year) for the species is Rollapadu Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kumool district, Andhra Pradesh (Sankaran and Manakadan

1990; Manakadan and Rahmani 1999), c. 300 km north of

Sriharikota. Suitable habitat for the Lesser Florican is available

in the grassland areas to the south of the Island, which was

rarely visited due to difficult logistics.

22. Yellow-wattled Lapwing Vanellus malabaricus (R Ra)

Rao (1998) recorded three Yellow-wattled Lapwings

on August 21,1 990, at a grassy patch near Beripeta. The earlier

BNHS survey (BNHS 1977) had recorded the species once

and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the species

on two occasions. The species could probably be breeding in

the undisturbed southern grassland areas.

23. Indian Stone-Curlew Biirhinus indicus (R O)

The Indian Stone-Curlew was occasionally recorded

in open scrub and grassy patches near Beripeta, and often

18

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LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

flushed under cashew bushes. Calls were also heard in the

late evenings from Kothachenu and the surrounding scrub.

24. Rock Pigeon Columbia livia (R C)

The Rock Pigeon is a common species occurring mostly

around buildings in the Island and near housing colonies,

avoiding forested areas.

25. Oriental Turtle-Dove Streptopelia orientalis (R/SM O)

Rao (1998) occasionally recorded the Oriental Turtle-

Dove from scrub areas in the Island during different times of

the year, and more frequently near open scrub patches in

Beripeta. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) had a sighting

of five birds around a waterhole in June 2002 and also

recorded the species once each during census in TDEF and

casuarina plantation. Patrick David and Senthil Murugan

(unpublished data) obtained several sightings during 2007.

26. Laughing Dove Streptopelia senegalensis (R Ra)

Rao (1998) obtained a few sightings of the Laughing

Dove mostly in scrub forest near Kodaledu and once near

Beripeta in short grass. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

recorded the species only once along the road adjoining the

Buckingham Canal during March 2003. Patrick David and

Senthil Murugan recorded the species regularly during their

visits for study to the same area. The species is probably

disappearing from areas inside the Island with the

abandonment of villages and afforestation as it is partial to

open scrub, village border environs and cultivation (Ali and

Ripley 1987; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

27. Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis (R VC)

The Spotted Dove is the commonest dove on the Island,

occurring in all localities including dense forest, open scrub

and even plantations.

28. Red Collared-Dove Streptopelia tranquebarica (R/SM VRa)

Rao (1998) obtained a few sight records of the Red

Collared-Dove during 1 99 1 , all from the Kodaledu scrub area.

There are no other reports of the species on the Island.

29. Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon Treron bicinctus (SM/R?)

The Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon was not recorded

during the first survey (BNHS 1977) and Rao (1998) obtained

only two sightings from dense forest and scrub near

Chandrasikuppam in November 1990. Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) recorded a small flock in January 2002

near Urugayya lake and again in March in the same area.

David et al. (2008 ) recorded the species on a dozen occasions

feeding in flocks on Ficus spp. fruits.

30. Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri (R VC)

The Rose-ringed Parakeet is widely distributed over

most areas of the Island, but is more common in the abandoned

village forest areas, nesting in dead palm trunks.

3 1 . Plum-headed Parakeet Psittacula cyanoeepltala ( SM VRa)

Rao (1998) recorded the Plum-headed Parakeet in

overhead flight and only from calls on a few occasions. It

was recorded only once in overhead flight over casuarina

plantation by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a). The only

sight record was of a flock by Santharam (unpublished data)

in April 1990. Judging from the few records, the species is

probably a visitor from the Eastern Ghats.

32. Greater Coucal Centropus sinensis (R C)

The Greater Coucal is fairly common, occurring almost

throughout the island, often seen foraging on ground near

roads in a grassy patch. A nest was recorded on Syzvgium

cumini tree at a height of 7 m near Kodaledu.

33. Blue-faced Malkoha Phaenicophaeus viridirostris (R C)

The Blue-faced Malkoha is fairly common in all areas

of the Island and is partial to thorny scrub habitat and bushes

up to 3-4 m.

34. Chestnut-winged Cuckoo Clamator corontandus { WM Ra)

Rao (1998) obtained only two sight records of the

Chesntnut-winged Cuckoo in winter from dense thorny scrub

near Kodaledu (December 1990) and Pedda Vagu (November

1991). Santharam (unpublished data) obtained a sighting

during March 1990. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

obtained only two sightings of single birds in January 2002

and February 2004 in TDEF forest.

35. Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus (R/SM O/Ra)

Rao (1998) recorded the Jacobin Cuckoo occasionally

in many areas, but especially in dense scrub patches. An albino

was recorded in June 1991. However, Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) rarely recorded the species. Patrick David

and Senthil Murugan (unpublished data) recorded the species

only once during their study.

36. Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopaceus (R C)

The Asian Koel occurs in dense forests and particularly

around large fruiting trees like Ficus, abundant in abandoned

village forest.

37. Grey-bellied Cuckoo Cacomantis passerinus (SM Ra)

Rao (1998) described the status of the Grey-bellied

Cuckoo as ‘hardly seen but presence mainly noted through

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

19

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

ringed individuals in winter’, most caught from dense scrub

patches at Kodaledu and Ravanappa chatram. Santharam

(unpublished data) recorded the species thrice between

February and April 1990. A bird (dark phase) was recorded

by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) in shrub vegetation in

January 2002 in the central part of the Island. Patrick David

(unpublished data) recorded a solitary bird in the Mavalam

Wagu area in May 2007. The species is ‘resident’ in the Eastern

Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1987; Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

38. Fork-tailed Drongo-Cuckoo Surniculus ( lugubris )

dicruroides (SM VRa)

The only record of the Fork-tailed Drongo-Cuckoo is

by Senthil Murugan (unpublished data), who recorded a

solitary bird on November 22, 2006, in open tall forest in the

abandoned village forest south of Jonagipallam. The species

is ‘a resident’ in the Eastern Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1987;

Rasmussen and Anderton 2005).

39. Common Hawk-Cuckoo Hierococcyx varius (R O)

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo presence was mainly

recorded through its calls, mostly in forest habitats, except

casuarina plantations.

40. Small Cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus (WM VRa)

Rao (1998) recorded the Small Cuckoo only once on

May 10, 1990, from cashew plantations near sand dunes in

the northern part of the Island presumably on return migration.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded a bird (in hepatic

phase) in open scrub between PSLV I and II in April 2003.

41. Common Barn-Owl Tyto alba (R Ra)

Rao (1998) obtained only a few sightings of the

Common Barn-Owl, mostly from abandoned village forest

areas. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded it only

once (in casuarina plantation).

42. Indian Scops-Owl Otus bakkamoena (R VRa)

The occurrence of the Indian Scops-Owl in Sriharikota

is not fully established with two brief sightings in abandoned

village forest areas (Rao 1998).

43. Indian Eagle-Owl Bubo bengalettsis (R VRa)

The record of the Indian Eagle-Owl is based only on a

call heard by Rao (1998) once from a palmyra grove near

swampy fields at Peddarettamala in March 1990.

44. Mottled Wood-Ow l Strix ocellata (R VRa)

The presence of the Mottled Wood-Owl is known only

from a juvenile ringed from Peddarettamala in March 1990

(Rao 1998). Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) sighted a

pair in the Kothachenu area, where the pair was resident.

45. Spotted Owlet Athene brama (R O)

The Spotted Owlet was occasionally recorded in open

scrub forest and around human habitation.

46. Indian Jungle Nightjar Caprimulgus indie us (R C)

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the calls

of the Indian Jungle Nightjar frequently in TDEF and

eucalyptus plantations during night surveys. The calls heard

were chuck chuck chuck , sometimes ending with wo wo, wowo,

wowo , the call reported from Sri Lanka (All and Ripley 1987).

47. Indian Little Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus (R O)

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the calls

of the Indian Little Nightjar occasionally during visits to open

scrub areas during night surveys.

48. Savanna Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis (WM VRa)

The record of the Savanna Nightjar is based only from

a road kill in December 1990 near Kothachenu (Rao 1998).

49. Little Swift Apus affinis (R O)

The Little Swift was only recorded around residential

colonies, but not in the forest areas.

50. Asian Palm-Swift Cypsiurus balasiensis (R VC)

The Asian Palm-Swift occurs throughout the island,

and is more abundant in areas that have palmyra Borassus

flabellifer palms.

51. Little Green Bee-eater Merops orientalis (R C)

The Little Green Bee-eater was mainly recorded in open

scrub habitat throughout the Island, and is probably more

common in the southern grassland areas.

52. Blue-tailed Bee-eater Merops philippinus (WM O)

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater, which arrives by October

each year and departs by March, is more common in open

areas at the edge of forests and plantations.

53. Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis (R C)

The Indian Roller frequents open scrub areas,

particularly in the western side of the Island. It could also be

more common in the southern grassland-open scrub areas.

54. Common Hoopoe Upupa epops (R O)

The Common Hoopoe was mostly recorded in open

scrub areas and abandoned village forest.

20

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

55. Coppersmith Barbet Megalaima haemacephala (R O)

The Coppersmith Barbet is largely confined to the

abandoned village forest, which has an abundance of Ficus

trees. In the rest of the Island, it is found mainly where Ficus

trees occur, and sometimes on fruiting trees of Syzygium cumini.

56. Black-rumped Flameback Dinopium benghaleuse ( R O )

The Black-rumped Flameback was recorded mostly in

well-wooded areas of the Island, including plantations.

57. Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura (SM C/Ra)

Rao ( 1 998) found the Indian Pitta to be a fairly common

winter visitor. He saw and heard its calls from many areas in

the northern and central parts of the Island in dense scrub

forest. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) obtained only one

record from the edge of a casuarina plantation bordering scrub.

58. Jerdon’s Bushlark Mirafra affinis (R O)

Rao (1998) obtained only a few records of the Jerdon’s

Bushlark in open grass patches near Beripeta and

Chengalapalem, with one ringed around Chengalapalem.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded it occasionally

in open scrub and young cashew plantations with low ground

cover.

59. Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark Eremopterix griseus (R O/C)

The Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark was only occasionally

recorded in the central and northern open sandy areas of the

Island, but was a common species in the southern grassland

areas.

60. Oriental Skylark Alauda gulgula (R C/O?)

Rao (1998) found the Oriental Skylark to be common

in open grass patches as well as around dried waterbodies of

Chengalapalem, Pedda Vagu and some other areas.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded the species only

once in the dried-up backwaters of Pulicat lake near Beripeta.

The species could probably be more common in the southern

grassland areas of the Island, which was rarely visited due to

difficult logistics.

61. Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica (WM O)

The Bam Swallow arrives by mid-August and departs

by March. Large numbers were seen on the Sriharikota-

Sullurpet road in November by Rao (1998) and by Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) along with the Red-rumped Swallow

Hirundo daurica.

62. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica (WM VRa)

The only records of the Red-rumped Swallow in the

Island are by Santharam (unpublished data), who sighted a

few birds in flight during February and April 1 990. However,

huge flocks were seen perching on wires along the Sriharikota-

Sullurpet road during winter as discussed under Barn

Swallow.

63. Wire-tailed Swallow Hirundo smithii (R/SM VRa)

The Wire-tailed Swallow was only recorded by Rao

(1998), who obtained a few sightings from Kothachenu of

small flocks of up to eight birds perched on telegraph

wires.

64. Forest Wagtail Motacilla indie us (WM O)

The Forest Wagtail was regularly sighted from TDEF

forest and Prosopis chilensis forest and also ringed from

Keepakam during winter. Some sightings were in late April

and the first week of May.

65. Paddyfiekl Pipit Anthus rufulus (R C)

The Paddyfield Pipit occurs mainly on the western side

of the island near open scrub and grassy patches at

Chengalapalem and it is common in the southern grassland

areas.

66. Large Cuckooshrike Coracina macei (SM VRa)

Rao (1998) obtained a few sightings of the Large

Cuckooshrike from tall mixed forest dominated by palms near

Peddarettamala in November 1990. Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) sighted only one bird in eucalyptus

plantation in February 2003 during their study. Patrick David

and Senthil Murugan did not record the species.

67. Black-headed Cuckooshrike Coracina melanoptera

(WM O)

The Black-headed Cuckooshrike was occasionally

recorded from the central forest areas of the Island along the

Pedda and Chinna vagus, Palliveedhi and Sabari colony (Rao

1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

68. Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus (WM VRa)

Rao (1998) recorded two birds once from tall mixed

forest at Peddarettamala on February 27, 1991. Santharam

(unpublished data) obtained call and sight (a pair) records on

three occasions during February 1990. Manakadan and

Sivakumar (2004a) obtained only one record of six birds along

the Pedda Vagu area on the Zero Point - PSLV road during

February 2003. The species has been reported from Chennai

(Santharam 1990), c. 80 km south of Srihaikota. The Ashy

Minivet which breeds in NE Asia and winters in SE Asia is a

‘winter straggler’ to the Indian region (Ali and Ripley 1987;

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

21

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Rasmussen and Anderton 2005). The occurrence of the Ashy

Mmivet in Sriharikota and Chennai (=Madras) repeatedly

(Santharam 1990) suggests that it is perhaps a regular but

scarce winter visitor to the east coast of India.

69. Small Minivet Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (V VRa)

The only record of the Small Minivet in Sriharikota is

by Patrick David (unpublished data) who recorded a solitary

bird hunting for insects in dense forest at Keepakam on

June 06, 2006.

70. Common Woodshrike Tephrodornis pondicerianus (RC)

The Common Woodshrike is a fairly widespread

species, but rather rare in TDEF forest. It prefers thorny scrub

patches and eucalyptus plantations, and in TDEF where

eucalyptus trees were present.

7 1 . Asian Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone paradisi (SM O)

The Asian Paradise Flycatcher is occasionally seen in

Sriharikota in a variety of habitats, including dense forest

groves. It occurs throughout winter and occasionally in

summer.

72. Black-naped Blue Monarch Hypothymis azurea (SM Ra)

There are only a few records of the Black-naped Blue

Monarch in Sriharikota with a bird ringed on March 20, 1990,

at Beripeta. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) and Patrick

David (unpublished data) recorded the species only once

during their studies.

73. Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus (R VC)

The Red-whiskered Bulbul is very common throughout

the Island. In winter, large flocks congregate around

eucalyptus blooms for nectar.

74. Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (R C)

The Red-vented Bulbul is less common than the

other two bulbul species and is more partial to open scrub

habitat.

75. White-browed Bulbul Pycnonotus luteolus (R VC)

The White-browed Bulbul is a very common species,

more frequently heard than seen in dense scrub patches.

76. Common lora Aegithina tiphia (R VC)

The Common lora is a very common species occurring

all over the Island, but was more frequently recorded in

dense scrub and TDEF forest. It breeds from March till

August, during which males were seen in full breeding

plumage.

77. Brown Shrike Lanius cristatus (WM C)

The Brown Shrike is a common winter visitor and was

recorded throughout the Island with the races cristatus and

lucionensis recorded; the latter less common. Tire race lucionensis

was first ringed in April 1990 (Mohapatra and Santharam 1992)

near the SDSC-SFLAR temple area and subsequently three more

were ringed from the Kodaledu area (Rao 1998). The race

cristatus arrives by mid-September and departs by mid-May.

The race lucionensis is known to winter mainly in the Andaman

Islands, but in recent years, they have been sighted increasingly

in peninsular India (Mohapatra and Santharam 1992).

78. Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus (WM Ra)

The Bay-backed Shrike was mostly recorded in the

southern part of the Island having open scrub and sandy

areas.

79. Long-tailed Shrike Lanius schach (WM Ra)

Rao (1998) recorded the Long-tailed Shrike

infrequently with a few sightings from scrub habitat near the

hospital and Mavalam Vagu areas. Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) did not record the species during their study.

80. Orange-headed Thrush Zoothera citrina (WM Ra)

The Orange-headed Thrush is an uncommon winter

visitor, with both the races recorded. It prefers heavy

undergrowth in TDEF forest.

8 1 . Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica ( WM O)

The Asian Brown Flycatcher is a widespread winter

visitor though not common . Rao (1998) recorded individuals

occasionally in the Kodaledu, Peddarettamala, Kothachenu

areas and in the TDEF forest patches and ringed five birds

between 1990-1992. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

recorded the species in March 2003 in eucalyptus plantations

and Patrick David and Senthil ( unpublished data) recorded it

during winter in many areas.

82. Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui (WM VRa)

The presence of the Brown-breasted Flycatcher is

known only from two individuals ringed in March 1 99 1 from

the Kothachenu area, possibly on return migration.

83. Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva (WM VRa)

The presence of the Red-breasted Flycatcher (race:

albicilla) are known from a solitary female ringed on

March 12, 1991, in dense Prosopis chilensis scrub at

Keepakam and sightings of solitary birds by Santharam

(unpublished data) and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

during January 1990 and March 2003 respectively.

22

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

84. Blue-throated Flycatcher Cyornis rubeculoides (WM C)

The Blue-throated Flycatcher winters throughout the

Island from mid-October to early April. The species was seen

often in TDEF forest undergrowth, as well as in scrub habitat.

85. Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros (WM VRa)

Rao (1998) sighted the Black Redstart on a few

occasions in scrub areas near Kodaledu and Kothachenu

during winter. A female ringed was on February 10, 1992.

The species was not recorded during the subsequent studies.

86. Indian Blue Robin Luscinia brunnea (WM VRa)

The Indian Blue Robin is known only through two birds

ringed from dense scrub at Keepakam (April 03, 1990) and

Beripeta (December 30, 1991), and is possibly a passage

migrant.

87. Oriental Magpie-Robin Copsycbus saularis (R C)

The Oriental Magpie-Robin is a common species in

Sriharikota, occurring in scrub as well as TDEF forest.

88. White-rumped Shama Copsycbus malabaricus (R C)

The White-rumped Shama occurs throughout the Island,

but only where there is dense forest cover or dense patches.

89. Indian Black Robin Saxicoloides fulicatus (R Ra)

The Indian Black Robin is not a common species in

Sriharikota, recorded only occasionally in scrub areas at

Kodaledu, Kothachenu, Peddarettamala and Mavalam Vagu,

all of which were former village areas.

90. Yellow-billed Babbler Turdoides affinis (R C)

The Yellow-billed Babbler is common in the Island and

recorded occasionally in gardens in residential areas. The

species is brood parasitized by the Jacobin Cuckoo.

91. Yellow-eyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense (SM? VRa)

The only record of the Yellow-eyed Babbler in

Sriharikota is by Santharam (unpublished data), who heard

its call during February 1990 and sighted a bird in March

1990 near the STEX area.

92. Zitting Cisticola Cisticola juncidis (R O)

The Zitting Cisticola is mostly seen in the north-east

areas in open scrub and grass patches. It could probably be

more common in the southern grassland areas.

93. Grey-breasted Prinia Prinia hodgsonii (R Ra)

Rao ( 1 998) recorded the Grey-breasted Prinia on a few

occasions from short grass and scrub near Kodaledu and

towards the coast and did not see it elsewhere in the Island.

The species could probably be more common in the southern

grassland areas.

94. Plain Prinia Prinia inornata (R Ra)

The Plain Prinia was recorded in areas of dense grass

near Kodaledu and in open scrub patches near Ravanappa

Chatram by Rao (1998). The species could probably be more

common in the southern grassland areas.

95. Common Tailorbird Orthotomus sutorius (R VC)

The Common Tailorbird is a very common species,

occurring in most areas of the Island.

96. Thick-billed Warbler Acrocephalus aedon ( WM VRa)

Rao (1998) records two Thick-billed Warblers from

Kodaledu in December 1989 and January 1992. Santharam

(unpublished data) and Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

recorded solitary birds during March 1 990 and February 2002

respectively.

97. Blyth’s Reed- Warbler Acrocephalus dwnetorum ( WM C)

The Blyth’s Reed- Warbler was frequently recorded

during winter over a variety of habitat types and particularly

in TDEF. It arrives soon after the onset of the North-east

monsoon and departs by the end of April. The site fidelity

was recorded in the species with banded birds returning to

the same site during subsequent winters.

98. Indian Reed-Warbler Acrocephalus ( stentoreus )

bnmnescens (WM VRa)

The record of the Indian Reed- Warbler is known from

two birds ringed in Chengalapalem during January 1990. The

species could be more common in the reed beds around

Katangayya Lake and the upper reaches of the Mavalam or

Malliplate Vagu.

99. Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides (WM C/

VRa)

Rao (1998) found the Greenish Warbler to be a

widespread winter visitor in areas with good tree cover with

records from late September to April. Birds were recorded to

occupy the canopy of Syzvgium cumin i throughout winter

and were also recorded in casuarina plantations. Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the species, but Senthil

Murugan obtained frequent sightings during winter.

100. Large-billed Leaf- Warbler Phylloscopus magnirostris

(WM Ra)

The Large-billed Leaf- Warbler was rarely recorded.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

23

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Two individuals ringed at Kodaledu (April 07, 1990) and

Beripeta (April 30, 1991). Two birds were recorded on

May 15, 1991, in Albizzia amara forest near Beripeta.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded two birds in

the PHC-II residential areas in January 2002.

101 . Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca ( WM Ra/C)

Rao (1998) found the Lesser Whitethroat to be

relatively uncommon in Sriharikota with a very few sight

records and only ten individuals were ringed in three years

mostly from dense scrub patches in Keepakam, Kodaledu,

and Chengalapalem. However, Manakadan and Sivakumar

(2004a) recorded the species frequently during census in

winter, and the species was also recorded by Patrick David

and Senthil Murugan

102. Pale-billed Flowerpecker Dicaeum erythrorhynchos

(R VC)

The Pale-billed Flowerpecker has a widespread

distribution in the Island. It is especially abundant in old

plantations of casuarina due to the abundance of its food plant

Dendrophthoe falcata ( =Lorcmthus longiflonts ) growing as

a stem parasite on casuarina.

103. Purple-rumped Sunbird Leptocoma zeylonica (R VC)

The Purple-rumped Sunbird is the most common species

of sunbird on the Island, occurring over a variety of habitats.

104. Purple Sunbird Cinnyris asiaticus (R C)

The Purple Sunbird was recorded in most parts of the

Island, occurring in a variety of habitats. Patrick David

(unpublished data) found it to be the least common among

the three sunbirds species of the Island.

105. Loten's Sunbird Cinnyris lotenius (R O)

The Loten’s Sunbird is widespread but is not as common

as the other two sunbirds with a restricted presence on the

Island (Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

106. Indian Silverbill Enodice malabarica (R VRa)

The Indian Silverbill was recorded during the first

survey (BNHS 1977) at Beripeta near Buckingham canal, but

not by Rao ( 1 998). Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) obtained

only one sighting of two birds on a casuarina tree in scrub forest

near Urugayya lake in April 2004. Munias could possibly be

more common in the southern grassland areas of the Island.

107. White-rumped IVIunia Lonchura striata (R VRa)

The White-rumped Munia was recorded only during

the first survey (BNHS 1 977). Munias could possibly be more

common in the southern grassland areas of the Island.

108. Tricoloured IVIunia Lonchura malacca (R VRa)

The only record of the Tricoloured Munia was by Rao

(1998), sighting of a flock of six birds from the

Chandrasikuppam near the coast in November 1990. Munias

could possibly be more common in the southern grassland

areas of the Island.

109. House Sparrow Passer domesticus (R VC/VRa)

The House Sparrow was recorded throughout the year

near human habitation, but was rarely seen in the forest.

110. Yellow-throated Sparrow Petronia xanthocollis { R O)

The Yellow-throated Sparrow was occasionally recorded

in scrub habitat at Beripeta and Kodaledu by Rao (1998) and in

the Penubakkam area (Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a).

Besides occasional sightings, Patrick David and Senthil

Murugan recorded a nest near the old launch pad.

111. Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus (R Ra)

Rao (1998) recorded nests (with a male and three

females) of the Baya Weaver hanging from a casuarina tree

in dense evergreen scrub near Urugayya in September 1990.

The species was also recorded by the first BNHS (1977)

survey team in the Chinna Vagu, Beripeta and Mavalam Vagu

areas. Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the

species in the northern forested areas, but a few nests were

once recorded during a survey of the southern grassland areas.

Patrick David and Senthil Murugan (unpublished data)

recorded them nesting in the Penubakkam area.

1 12. Brahminy Starling Temenuchus pagodarum (SM Ra)

Rao (1998) found the Brahminy Starling to be

uncommon with 2-3 individuals noted occasionally from

Mavalam Vagu, Beripeta and Kodaledu areas. A few sightings

were also obtained in the Beripeta near cashew plantations.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) sighted 10 birds in

February 2002 near the PHC-I residential area and Patrick

David and Senthil Murugan (unpublished data) recorded the

species twice (Penubakkam and Urugayya areas).

113. Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus (WM VRa/O)

The Rosy Starling was not recorded during the first

(BNHS 1977) and second surveys (Rao 1998). Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) first recorded it as large flocks feedmg

on the fruits of Phoenix farinifera in the southern grassland

areas in March 2002. A few small flocks were occasionally

sighted subsequently, including in residential areas. Large

flocks roosting in mango trees in the residential areas during

24

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

December 2004. Patrick David and Senthil Murugan

(unpublished data) obtained only one sighting: a flock in the

southern area close to Karimanal.

1 14. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris ( WM VRa)

Rao (1998) obtained two possible sightings of the

Common Starling in overhead flight near Peddarettamala and

Kodaledu areas in flocks of 50 and 14 birds on February 17,

1 992, and February 26, 1 992, respectively. The record of the

Common Starling in Sriharikota is one of the southernmost

records for the distribution of species in India.

115. Common Myna Acridotheres tristis (R VC)

The Common Myna is one of the commonest land birds

in Sriharikota, and was recorded in all the habitat types except

casuarina and eucalyptus plantations.

1 16. Indian Golden Oriole Oriolus kundoo (SM O)

The Indian Golden Oriole is a winter visitor to the Island

and occasionally seen from areas with good tree cover, and

especially in abandoned village forest and residential areas.

Note : We did not make attempts to confirm if the birds sighted

were actually the Indian Golden Oriole or the very similar

European Golden Oriole O. oriolus , as the two species were

treated as conspecific till recently.

117. Black Dromgo Dicrurus macrocercus (R C)

The Black Drongo is a common species in Sriharikota,

occurring mostly in the TDEF forest as well as open scrub

areas. The species breeds in Sriharikota.

118. Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus (SM Ra)

Rao (1998) obtained a few sight records of the Ashy

Drongo from the Beripeta area in winter with banding records

of one bird each in Keepakam ( March 12, 1991) and Beripeta

(January 07, 1992). Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a)

recorded the species once at Kothachenu in January 2002.

119. White-bellied Drongo Dicrurus caerulescens (SM

VRa/O)

Rao (1998) recorded the White-bellied Drongo only

on a few rare occasions in dense thorny scrub and areas with

tree cover at Kodaledu during December 1990. Manakadan

and Sivakumar (2004a) did not record the species, but Patrick

David and Senthil Murugan (unpublished data) recorded it

on a number of occasions during winter, mainly feeding on

nectar in eucalyptus plantations.

120. Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus (SM VRa)

The only record of the Bronzed Drongo in Sriharikota

is by Patrick David (unpublished data), who recorded a

bird in open tall forest south of Jonagipallem on May 11,

2007.

121. Hair-crested Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus ( SM VRa)

The first record of the Hair-crested Drongo in

Sriharikota was by Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) and

Sivakumar and Manakadan (2003) who sighted two birds at

the edge of an eucalyptus plantation bordering the Pedda Vagu

stream near Picheruvu Gunta during June 2002. Patrick David

(unpublished data) recorded two birds in the same area during

his study. The distribution of the Hair-crested Drongo is the

Himalayan foothills, NE India and downwards to the Eastern

and Western Ghats (Ali and Ripley 1987) However, there

have been stray records outside these areas, i.e., Kutch

(Himmatsinhji 1997), Hyderabad (Pittie 1997) and Point

Calimere (Natarajan and Balasubramaniam 1990).

1 22. Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus (R C/O)

Rao (1998) found the Ashy Woodswallow to be fairly

common occurring in tall mixed forest dominated by palms.

Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) recorded them

occasionally around Urugayya lake, Malliplate Vagu and the

Beripeta area.

123. Rufous Treepie Dendrocitta vagabunda (R VRa/O)

The Rufous Treepie species has not been recorded in

the central and northern areas of the Island.

Its first record was of a pair near Karimanal in the

southern part of the Island in March 2002 (Manakadan and

Sivakumar 2004a). After that, the species was occasionally

recorded during visits to the southern part of the Island

(south of Tettipeta), where it probably breeds. Senthil

Murugan heard its call in the southern part of the Island

after Jonagipallem.

124. House Crow Corvus splendens (R VC)

The House Crow was recorded mostly frequenting

housing and office areas, avoiding dense forest.

125. Eastern Jungle Crow Corvus ( macrorhynchos )

levaillantii ( R C )

The Eastern Jungle Crow is a common species in all

areas including human habitation, but also inhabits forests

and scrub areas of the Island unlike the House Crow.

(Other than those listed above, the other bird species

that are not typical waterbirds but are wetland dependent,

namely fish-eagles, marsh-harrier, fish-owls, pratincoles,

kingfishers and wagtails) also occur on the Island. For

accounts on the species, see Kannan et ai (2008).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

25

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

DISCUSSION

Profile of the land birds

The land birds recorded in Sriharikota Island comprise

of (i) 70 resident species with or without breeding records

(ii) 33 species of winter migrants from the Palaearctic region/

Himalayas, (iii) 12 species of seasonal migrants coming

either from the Eastern Ghats or other regions of India,

and (iv) 10 species are of uncertain status due to paucity of

records.

Even for some of the species classed as residents (e.g..

Black-winged Kite, Short-toed Snake-Eagle, Oriental Turtle-

Dove, Asian Koel, Wire-tailed Swallow), their status is

uncertain due to few records or as these species were absent/

scarce during certain periods/seasons in the Island, indicating

that they are either visitors from surrounding areas or are

species that periodically move out of the Island unlike the

‘true residents’, such as the three species of bulbuls and

sunbirds among others, which are seen throughout the year.

Similarly, the paucity of records for some of the winter

migrants (e.g., Black Baza, Besra Sparrowhawk, Amur

Falcon, Common Starling) and seasonal migrants (e.g., Blue-

breasted Quail, Yellow-eyed Babbler, Fork-tailed Drongo-

Cuckoo, Bronzed Drongo and Hair-crested Drongo) raises

the question whether these species visit the Island only during

certain years due to adverse habitat conditions in their usual

wintering range (for migrants) and distributional range (in

case of seasonal migrants) or these are cases of ‘vagrants’.

The occurrence of Eastern Ghats hill birds (e.g., Fork-tailed

Drongo-Cuckoo, Bronzed Drongo, Hair-crested Drongo) or

those that winter in the Ghats (e.g., Besra Sparrowhawk) in

this coastal strip is not surprising as the hill ranges run parallel

to the Island with some of the hills being only 50 km from

Sriharikota. The Eastern Ghats and the forest of Sriharikota

share a good number of plant species with Sriharikota except

endemic species of tropical dry evergreen forest (Meher Homji

1974). The relatively undisturbed (no woodcutting and

movement of people) forest in Sriharikota probably, attract

these bird species to the Island.

As for the abundance of bird species, underestimates

can be expected for small, secretive birds and especially

ground birds, such as quails and buttonquails, and also

nocturnal species such as owls and nightjars. Another bias is

that the southern part of the Island was much less surveyed

due to the distance and difficult logistics. This area is a mixture

of grasslands, open scrub and sand dune vegetation, ideal

habitats for birds that inhabit or prefer grasslands and open

habitats, such as harriers, larks and pipits. Hence, such species

could be more abundant in these areas, and thus in Sriharikota,

than recorded.

Changes in the avifauna

Some changes in the avifauna are apparent while

comparing the observations of different workers, though these

are not strictly comparable as the sampling effort and time

varied considerably due to the nature of the studies. One of

the most dramatic changes is the decline of the White-rumped

Vulture with the birds now probably extinct in Sriharikota

and the surrounding areas (see species account). In India, the

Gyps vultures, have been facing a severe population decline

in the past decade with more than 95% decline in some areas

due to drug diclofenac given to cattle, on whose carcasses

the vultures feed (Prakash el al. 2003).

Granivorous species such as munias and bayas also

are likely to have undergone decline. Nests of the Baya

Weaver were recorded in the Chinna Vagu, Beripeta and

Malliplate Vagu by the first survey team (BNHS 1977) and

on casuarina trees near Urugayya during the second study

(Rao 1998). Manakadan and Sivakumar (2004a) did not

record the species in the northern forested areas, but a few

nests were once recorded during a survey in the southern

grassland areas. The Baya, besides munias, have probably

disappeared from the northern parts of the Island after

cultivation stopped with the removal of the villages, as these

species are primarily seedeaters and thrive around grassland

and agricultural areas (Ali and Ripley 1987). It also appears

that there has been a decline in species that are partial to

open habitat (open scrub, grassy patches and around human

habitation) in the central areas of Sriharikota due to the

increase in forest cover, either naturally or aided by

afforestation schemes. These species include the Red-vented

Bulbul, Laughing Dove, munias and Baya Weaver. In the

central densely forested area, these species were recorded

largely in open scrub patches.

Impact of plantations

Two studies carried out in Sriharikota (Rao 1998;

Manakadan and Sivakumar 2004a) revealed that overall

plantations result in pauperisation of bird fauna, which was

further confirmed in a study on frugivorous birds (David

et al. 1998). Among the plantations, species richness and

abundance of birds was found to be higher in eucalyptus

compared to casuarinas and cashew plantations. This was

because eucalyptus plantations in Sriharikota have a good

mix of the native vegetation, especially as an under-storey.

In casuarina, the spacing between trees is narrow and the

dense litter formation permits only sparse undergrowth. The

most destructive plantation species to the native vegetation

(and birdlife) is cashew with almost no other plant species

surviving under mature cashew plantations due to its

spreading nature.

26

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Eucalyptus is attractive to nectar feeding birds like

bulbuls, flowerpecker and sunbirds only during the flowering

season. Even though nectar feeding bird densities (especially

Pale-billed Flowerpecker) were also high in casuarina, this

was due to the abundance of the parasitic plant Dendrophthoe

falcata ( =Loranthus longiflorus) on casuarina. D. falcata is

a major food plant of the Pale-billed Flowerpecker, which

also acts as a seed disperser for this parasite (Ali and Ripley

1987). D. falcata was also present in the other vegetation

types, but was not as common as in casuarina plantations.

Besides D. falcata , the presence of a fleshy-fruiting species

of climbers on the canopies of casuarina such as Olax

scandens also attracted bird species. Besides the Pale-billed

Flowerpecker, the only other species recorded in good

numbers in plantations was the Common Woodshrike, almost

restricted to eucalyptus. Even the records obtained of the

species in natural forest were in areas that had an isolated

patch of eucalyptus trees. The Common Woodshrike is partial

to secondary forest (Ali and Ripley 1 987), which may explain

its relative abundance in eucalyptus plantations. A number of

other studies have also shown that plantations, especially

single-species ones, are detrimental to bird species (Gandhi

1986; Evans 1992; Fogarty and Vilella 2003).

A positive factor of the plantations in Sriharikota is

that silvicultural practices as undertaken in commercial

plantations such as high density planting, dead tree and weed

removal, and short-rotation harvesting (8-10 years) are not

practiced, as the plantations are raised primarily for

afforestation and shelter-belts. Hence, most of the existing

plantations are more than 20 years old and with a good mix

of native vegetation. This has resulted in less severity of

environmental conditions that occur in commercial plantations

due to single species domination.

CONSERVATION ISSUES

Though relatively well protected, the forests of

Sriharikota also face threats, some of which have impacts on

land birds.

Plantations

The trend in India is that formations lacking in timber

species are as a rule considered useless and felled or replaced

by plantations, little realising that these have rich diversity

and are repositories of economic-medicinal plants and natural

habitat for wildlife (Meher Homji 1997). As discussed earlier,

Sriharikota too has a history of clearing of native vegetation

to raise fast growing or commercially important species for

afforestation, shelter-belts, stabilising sand dunes, and revenue

and employment generation. Studies in Sriharikota have

confirmed the deleterious impact of plantations on birds

(David et al. 1998; Rao 1998; Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a), besides mammals (Manakadan and Sivakumar

2004a), herpetofauna (Sivakumar and Manakadan 2004) and

butterflies (Sivakumar et al. 2004). Fortunately, the earlier

practice of clearing the native vegetation to raise plantations

has stopped after BNHS representations to SDSC-SHAR and

plantations are now raised in open scrub or sandy area.

Another positive outcome has been the ban on raising new

eucalyptus plantations.

Invasives

Chilean Mesquite Prosopis chilensis and Cane Calamus

rotang are major invasive plant species in Sriharikota. The

Chilean Mesquite, an exotic from South America, has

proliferated on its own in areas that faced clearing in the past

and where the soils are saline (mostly in areas bordering

Pulicat lake). Forestry experts need to be consulted on ways

to eradicate this species as it has come up again in the same

areas where they were eradicated earlier through uprooting

and burning on a number of occasions. From our observations,

species that can probably be planted after removal of Mesquite

appear to be Latmea coromandelica and Salvadora per sic a,

as both these species occur in saline soil areas. Another

strategy could be to target Prosopis dominated areas for

expansion of the spaceport. Cane, introduced during the

British Era, has now spread and engulfed most of the

freshwater streams and ponds, and their margins eliminating

native vegetation. SDSC-SHAR has started large-scale

commercial exploitation of cane in recent years and this may

help check its spread. However, there is a need to directly

deal with the problem in areas that have been totally engulfed

with cane. Another invasive that is now seen in the residential

and office compounds of Sriharikota is Lantana camara,

which is a major problem in many forests tracts of India.

Once established, it forms a dense shrub layer preventing

other plants from surviving. Steps must be taken to weed out

the species from the Island and not introduce it into residential

areas, gardens and parks.

Expansion of the spaceport

The developmental activities and expansion plans of

the SDSC-SHAR have been making demands on the land.

Large tracts of land were taken over by the spaceport for

construction of a number of new buildings, facilities and for

a new launch pad in recent years. Though acquisition of land

for such purposes is unavoidable, measures could be taken

up to lessen the impacts on the wildlife and their habitats

such as (i) Acquiring land dominated by mesquite, eucalyptus

and areas largely devoid of vegetation, (ii) Optimal use of

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

27

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

land for expansion plans and adopting landscape designing

to retain as much of the native vegetation as possible around

new facilities, and (iii) Demarcation of exclusive biodiversity

conservation zones.

CONCLUSION

With India’s alarming biodiversity loss, especially in

recent times, places like Sriharikota, with limited human

intrusion, become significant for biodiversity conservation

and could become more so in the future. It would not be wrong

to assume that very little of the forest or wildlife of Sriharikota

would have remained if 1SRO had not taken over the Island.

Sriharikota is very important from the biodiversity point of

view as it has one of the last remaining, largest and best-

preserved tract of the coastal Tropical Dry Evergreen Forest

in India. Hence, we have recommended that the ISRO

authorities at Sriharikota define the forest conservation and

management policy in Sriharikota as: “All future efforts

Agrawal, B.C.,N. Sudhakar Rao& P.C. Guruvi Reddy (1985): Yanadi

Response to Change. Concept Publishing Co., New Delhi.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. 2nd Edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Anon. (1908): The Imperial Gazetteer of India Vols. IX., XX, XXIII.

Clarendon Press, Oxford.

BNHS (1977): Birds of Sriharikota Island. A preliminary survey by the

BNHS submitted to ISRO. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of Forest Types

of India. Government of India Press, New Delhi. Pp. 246-250.

David, P., B. Senthil Murugan & R. Manakadan (2008): Plant-animal

interrelationships with special reference to food plants of birds

and mammals. Pp. 6-52. In: Investigations into some ecological

aspects of Sriharikota Island. Final Report (2004-2007). Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai.

Evans, J. (1992): Plantation Forestry in the Tropics. Second Edition.

Clarendon Press, Oxford University Press, United Kingdom.

Fogarty, J.H. & F.J. Vilella (2003): Use of native and eucalyptus

plantations by Eleutherodactylus frogs. J. Wildl. Manage. 67(1):

186-195.

Gandhi, T. (1986): A comparative study of birds in monoculture

plantations and natural scrub near Madras. M.Sc. Thesis.

University of Bombay, Bombay.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1997): Notes - Haircrested Drongo. Newsletter

for Birdwatchers 37(6): 97-98.

Kannan, V., R. Manakadan, S. Sivakumar, Prakash Rao,

K.K. Mohapatra & V. Santharam (2008): The waterbirds of

Pulicat Lake, southern India, including those in the adjoining

wetlands and heronries. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 105(2):

162-180.

Manakadan, R. & A.R. Rahmani (1999): More on the Lesser Florican

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district, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96(2):

314-316.

Manakadan, R. & S. Sivakumar (2004a): An ecological account of

towards the conservation of the wilderness areas of Sriharikota

should aim at maintaining the natural biodiversity and helping

it revert back to its pristine nature.”

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Indian Space Research Organisation for

funding the projects undertaken in Sriharikota under the

RESPOND scheme, and especially the late Prof. Satish Dhawan,

former Chariman, ISRO, whose love for the wilderness was

instrumental in the projects being conceptualized and getting

sanctioned. We also thank ISRO authorities at the SDSC-SHAR

Centre, Sriharikota for providing us the necessary permission

and other facilities for stay and to carry out field surveys. Besides

ISRO, we are also grateful to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

for funding the project carried out in Sriharikota and Pulicat

lake from 1990 to 1992 under the Bird Migration Project. And,

last but not least, we thank M. Parandamaiah for assistance

during fieldwork.

faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its environs. Final

Report: Part I - Birds and Mammals. Bombay Natural History

Society, Mumbai. 46 pp.

Manakadan, R. & S. Sivakumar (2004b): An ecological account of the

faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its environs. Final Report:

Part III - Fish. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. 48 pp.

Manakadan, R. & S. Sivakumar (2004c): Sighting of the Water Rail

Ralhts aquations in Sriharikota Island, Nellore district, Andhra

Pradesh. Newsletter for Ornithologists 1(1&2): 15-16.

Manakadan, R., S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2004): An ecological

account of faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its environs.

Final Report: Part V - Conservation Issues. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai.

Manakadan, R., S. Sivakumar, J.P. David & B. Senthil Murugan

(2008): Investigations into some ecological aspects of Sriharikota

Island. Final Report: Nov. 2004 to Oct. 2007. Bombay Natural

History Society, Mumbai. 63 pp

Meher Homji, V.M. (1974): On the origin of the tropical dry evergreen

forest of South India. Int. J. Ecol. Environ Sci. 1: 19-39.

Meher Homji, V.M. ( 1997): Biodiversity conservation priorities. Indian

Journal of Forestry 20(1): 1-7.

Mohapatra, K.K. & V. Santharam (1992): Occurrence of Philippine

Shrike Lanius cristatus lucionensis in coastal Andhra Pradesh.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89: 255.

Natarajan, V. & P. Balasubramaniam (1990): Occurrence of the Hair-

crested Drongo Dicrurus hottentottus in Point Calimere.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 147.

Pittie, A. (1997): Project Hair-crested Drongo. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 37(3): 48.

Prakash, V., D.J. Pain, A. A. Cunningham, P.F. Donald, N. Prakash,

A. Verma, R. Gargi, S. Sivakumar & A.R. Rahmani (2003):

Catastrophic collapse of Indian White-backed Gyps bengalensis

and Long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biological

Conservation 109: 381-390.

Rao, P. (1998): The bird communities of the Tropical Dry Evergreen

Forests of Sriharikota. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Bombay,

Bombay. 1 76 pp.

28

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

LAND BIRDS OF SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND AND CONSERVATION ISSUES

Rasmussen, RC. & J.C. Anderton (2005): Birds of South Asia. The

Ripley Guide. Vols. 1 and 2. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx

Edicions, Washington. D.C. /Barcelona. 378+165 pp.

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florican from Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87:

294-296.

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in Thekkady. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 30(7&8): 9-10.

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faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island and its environs. Final

Report: Part II - Herpetofauna. Bombay Natural History Society,

Mumbai. 44 pp.

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Falco amurensis in Sriharikota Island, Nellore district, Andhra

Pradesh,./. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 103(1): 133.

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ecological account of the faunal diversity of Sriharikota Island

and its environs. Final Report: Part IV: Butterflies. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. 27 pp.

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on the flora of Sriharikota Island. Visvodaya Government

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

29

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

30-37

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY, EAST COAST OF INDIA

M. Srinivasa Rao13, Ch. Vijaya Bhanu1, C. Annapurna14, D.R.K. Sastry1 and D. Srinivasa Rao2

'Marine Biological Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

-Noble College, Machilipatnam 521 002, Andhra Pradesh, India.

'Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

The present study provides information about systematics and distribution of echinoderms for the first time along the

Nizampatnam Bay, east coast of India. The study carried out over two consequent Post-monsoon seasons (October-

November 2006, 2007) and two Pre-monsoon seasons (March- April 2007, 2008) spanning an area of 20 GPS fixed

stations (15° 30' 000"-15° 47' 500" N; 80° 17' 000"-80° 45' 000" E) along the Nizampatnam Bay, east coast of India.

Altogether 1 8 species were identified represented by 17 genera, 13 families, 8 orders and 3 classes. During the present

study, the asteroid Astropecten velitaris has been added to the fauna of India, the asteroids - Luidia hardwicki , and

Echinaster purpureus , Goniodiscaster sp., the ophiuroids - Ophiocnemis marmorata, and Ophiothrix sp. and the

echinoids - Salmaciella dussumieri, Salmacis virgidata and Clypeaster humilis have been added as new species to

Andhra Pradesh.

Key words: Echinoderms, Nizampatnam Bay, east coast of India

INTRODUCTION

Echinoderms are exclusively marine organisms and are

widely distributed in benthic habitats from the intertidal zone

to the deep sea. Apart from the mention in the comprehensive

accounts of R.I.M.S Investigator collections, there have been

a- few accounts, particularly of the echinoderms of Andhra

Pradesh. Notable among these are of Ganapati and Rao (1962a,

b), Radhakrishna and Ganapati (1968) and Vijayakumar etal.

(1991). However, these are mainly directed towards ecological

aspects with only cursory accounts or lists of fauna. Sastry

(2007) prepared an annotated list of echinoderm species

reported from the Indian coast with state-wise distribution.

Based on the literature, it could be stated that there is no

information on echinoderms from the Nizampatnam Bay, east

coast of India. This is the first available data set on echinoderms

from the Nizampatnam Bay, east coast of India. A detailed

description and distribution are presented here.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was carried out over two consequent post-

monsoon seasons (October-November 2006, 2007) and pre-

monsoon seasons (March-April 2007, 2008) spanning an area

of 20 GPS fixed stations (15° 30' 000"-15° 47’ 500" N; 80°

17' 000"-80° 45' 000" E) along the Nizampatnam Bay, east

coast of India (Table 1 ; Fig. 1 ). A naturalist’s dredge made of

a metal frame (30 cm x 45 cm), fitted with a nylon mesh

( 1 sq. cm) net and appropriately weighed, proved useful and

worked quite satisfactorily up to 50 m while collecting

benthos. Altogether, 100 dredge hauls were made. At each

location, the dredge was operated for 10-15 minutes at

1.5 knots. Only live specimens were picked and the fauna

narcotized and preserved in 5% formalin, later transferred to

70% alcohol and labelled for further work. Simultaneously,

observations on environmental variables (sea temperature,

dissolved oxygen, salinity, sediment texture-sand, silt, clay

or organic matter) were made according to standard protocols

(Holme and McIntyre 1984). Biological examination included

taxonomic identification based on standard literature (Clark

Table 1: Station Locations

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

Fig. 1: Study Area

and Rowe 1971; Sastry 2007) and estimations of numerical

abundance and biomass.

RESULTS

Altogether 18 species belonging to 17 genera,

13 families, 8 orders and 3 classes have been identified and

reported for the first time from the Nizampatnam Bay.

Information on the environmental conditions and organic

matter content is presented in Table 2.

In the Bay, the hydrographical conditions are

characterised by salinity that varied between 24.8 PSU

(st.6, November 07) and 36.81 PSU (st.3, March 07; st. 1 8,

March 08), the temperature ranged between 25.0 °C

Table 2: Environmental variables of Nizampatnam Bay

Note: Values presented range, mean ± S.D.

(st.9, March 07) and 34.1 °C (st. 13, October 06) and the

dissolved oxygen in the bottom waters ranged from 1.344 ml/1

(st.9, October 06) to 5.824 ml/1 (st.6, November 07). Sediment

organic matter ranged between 0.09% (sts.9,12, October 06)

and 2.54% (st.l, March 07). Table 3 contains a classified list

of the echinoderm taxa and its distribution in the

Nizampatnam Bay.

Abbreviations:

R - the major radius, from centre to arm tip; r - the

minor radius, from centre to interradial edge; br - across the

base of the arm; d.d - disc diameter; D - diameter; H - height

Phylum: Echinodermata

Class: Asteroidea

Order: Paxillosida

Family: Luidiidae

I . Luidia hardwicki (Gray, 1840)

1971. Luidia hardwicki: Clark, A.M. and F.W.E. Rowe:

Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific echinoderms,

44 (key), 30-31 (distribution).

2007. Luidia hardwicki : Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool. Surv.

India, Occ. Paper No. 271: 24.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

31

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

Nizampatnam Bay. During October 2006, single specimen

was collected from st.9; two specimens from st. 15, of which

one specimen has the longest arm (R/r = 45/8 mm) and the

second has regenerating arms of 20-22 mm size; two

specimens from st. 1 7, larger specimen with complete arm

(R = 75 mm), other arms are broken; five specimens from

st. 1 8 (four specimens R = 11-65 mm); five specimens from

st. 19 (two specimens R/r = 37/7 and 32/7mm). In March 2007,

two specimens were collected from st. 1 , single specimen from

st. 1 8. In November 2007, twelve specimens were collected

from st. 17, two from st. 1 8, eight from st. 19.

Remarks: The specimens measure 12-75 mm in R and

r = about 5 mm; some of the specimens have only one complete

arm and the others are broken or regenerating small arms.

Distribution: India: Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and West

Bengal. The specimens are newly recorded from Andhra

Pradesh, elsewhere: SE Arabia, Persian Gulf, Islands of

Western Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, East Indies, South

China Sea and North Australia.

Family: Astropectinidae

2. Astropecten velitaris von Martens, 1 865

1865. Astropecten velitaris : von Marten

1971. Astropecten velitaris: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 46 (key), 30-31 (distribution).

1989. Astropecten velitaris: Clark, A.M. In: Jangoux,

M. & J.M. Lawrence (eds): Echinoderm Studies 3: 47

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, two specimens: R = 9 and 10 mm (st. 1 8);

two specimens R = 18 mm (st. 19); one specimen (st. 17), eight

specimens (st.9) were collected in October 2006; single

specimen (sts.1,9,18), two specimens (st. 17) collected in

March 2007; three specimens (st.9), single (st. 13), four

specimens (st. 1 7 ) in November 2007, and single specimen

(st. 1 3, March 2008).

Remarks: The specimens measure 7-62 mm in R and

R = 4. 0-4. 5 r.

Distribution: The species is new to India, elsewhere:

Sri Lanka, East Indies, South China Sea and North Australia.

Order: Valvatida

Family: Oreasteridae

3. Anthenea pentagonula Lamarck

1816. Anthenea pentagonula Lamarck, J.B.P.A. de:

Hist. not. anim. s. vert. 2: 554.

1997. Anthenea pentagonula: James, D.B.: J. mar. biol.

Aw. India, 38: 134.

2007 . Anthenea pentagonula: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Sur\>. India, Occ. Paper No. 277: 58.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, five specimens, R/r = 19/8, 20/8, 25/12,

28/13,30/13 (st. 18, October 2006), colour after preservation,

pinkish on abactinal, and some actinal plates, others

colourless; one specimen R/r = 65/30, colour reddish when

live, turned light brown on preservation (st. 17, March 2007);

one specimen, R/r = 13/6. Nine specimens (st. 17) and single

specimen (st. 1 8 ) in November 2007, two specimens (st.18,

March 2008).

Description: Abactinal side slightly convex, abactinal

plates irregularly polygonal, closely packed, covered with

uniform granulations, a single enlarged tubercle on some of

the abactinal plates only in the largest specimen.

Superomarginal plates large, vertically aligned but extending

to abactinal side forming a side wall, covered with uniform

granulation. Inferomarginal plates with a prominent flat spine

on the outer lower margin. Actinal plates parallel to the

adambulacrals, covered with uniform granulation and with

1 -3 large bivalved pedicellariae conspicuous, particularly on

the plates adjacent to the adambulacrals. Adambulacral plates

with 6-8 furrow spines, 2-3 subambulacral spines and fine

granulation outer to these.

Remarks: The smallest specimen from st. 1 7 with

poorly developed granulation only on the abactinal side,

pedicellariae not yet developed, and very small subactinal

spines, appeared to be a juvenile. James (1997) revised the

specimens of the genus and gave full synonymy.

Distribution: India: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

The species is newly recorded from Andhra Pradesh.

elsewhere: Bay of Bengal and South China Sea.

4. Goniodiscaster sp.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay (st.18, October 2006); one disc.

Remarks: Because of the availability of a single

specimen, the specimen could not be identified up to species

level.

Distribution: india: Orissa (Barwa and Pundi), Gulf of

Mannar, Mandapam, Tamil Nadu. Goniodiscaster sp. was reported

for the first time from Andhra Pradesh coast, elsewhere: Philippine

islands. East Indies, Bay of Bengal. Goniodiscater sp. was

reported for the first time from Andhra Pradesh coast.

Order: Spinulosida

Family: Echinasteridae

5. Echinaster purpureus (Gray)

1971. Echinaster purpureus: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 73 (key), 40-41 (distribution).

2007. Echinaster purpureus: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

33

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

Sun>. India, Occ. Papers , No. 277: 82.

Materia!: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay (st. 1 7, October 2006), one specimen,

R/r = 28/6 mm, br = 6 mm, single specimen (st. 1 8,

March 2007), three specimens (st.17, November 2007).

Remarks: Cylindrical arms with bluntly rounded tips,

space between the furrow spines and subambulacral spines,

and a single madreporite characterise the specimens.

Distribution: india: Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and

Nicobar Islands. The species is new to Andhra Pradesh.

elsewhere: Red Sea, East Africa, Islands of Western Indian

Ocean, Mascareen Islands, Maldives and Bay of Bengal.

Class: Ophiuroidea

Order: Ophiurida

Family: Amphiuridae

6. Amphioplus (Lymanella) depressus (Ljungman, 1867)

1971. Amphioplus ( Lymanella ) depressus : Clark, A.M.

and F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west

Pacific echinoderms, 102 (key), 80-81 (distribution).

2007. Amphioplus ( Lymanella ) depressus : Sastry,

D.R.K.: Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 271 : 135.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, 4 specimens (st. 1 ), eight specimens (st.2),

seven specimens, d.d. = 5-6 mm, largest arm bit about

20 mm long. Two specimens (sts.3.5.6,7, 13,14), seventeen

specimens (st.9), three specimens (st.ll), single specimen

(sts.12,15,18) in October 2006. Four specimens (st.3), three

specimens (st.9) in March 2007; single (sts. 16,17, 19) and two

specimens (st.20) in November 2007; four specimens (st. 14)

in March 2008.

Remarks: Radial shields twice as long as broad; oral

shield pointed orally, distally elongated and narrow, adoral

shields meeting in front of the oral shield, four oral papillae,

third larger than fourth, three lateral spines, pointed,

smooth, dorsal arm plates broader than long, distal margin

convex; ventral arm plates broader than long, two tentacle

scales.

Distribution: India, elsewhere: Bay of Bengal, East

Indies, Philippine Islands, North Australia and South Pacific

Islands.

Family: Ophiotrichidae

7. Ophiocnemis marmorata (Lamarck, 1816)

1971. Ophiocnemis marmorata : Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 106 (key), 84-85 (distribution).

2007. Ophiocnemis marmorata: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 145.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, three specimens (st. 1), six specimens

(st.2), nine specimens (st.3), one specimen (sts. 5, 7, 12), one

specimen (st.17), d.d. =14 mm. Two specimens (sts. 6, 18),

twenty (st.9), five (st. 1 1 ), four (st. 1 3 ) in October 2006. Seven

(st.9) in March 2007, single (sts. 12,20) two (sts. 16,17,19)

in November 2007, two (st. 18) in March 2008.

Remarks: The specimens show extremely large radial

shields, and naked ventral interradial_regions devoid of scales

typical of the specimens with disc granulation. The species is

a new record from the coast of Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution: East Africa and Madagascar; Ceylon, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippine Islands, China and South

Japan.

8. Ophiothrix sp.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, nine specimens (st.9), two (sts. 13, 17) in

October 2006; single specimen (st.17) in March 2007; single

(st. 16) in March 2008.

Remarks: Because of the bad condition of the arm,

the specimens could not be identified with any specimens.

However, no specimens of the genus was reported so far, from

the coast of Andhra Pradesh

Class: Echinoidea

Order: Diadematoida

Family: Diadematidae

9. Chaetodiadema granulatum Mortensen, 1903

1971. Chaetodiadema granulatum: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 152 (key), 140-141 (distribution).

2007. Chaetodiadema granulatum: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec.

zool. Sur\>. India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 164.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district, off

Nizampatnam Bay, 30 m, seven specimens (st. 1 9, November

2007).

Remarks: The specimens measure 100-130 mm in

diameter and 30-40 mm in height with D = 3.0-3.5H. The

test is somewhat flexible. From Andhra Pradesh, the species

was earlier known from Srikakulam and Vizianagaram

districts.

Distribution: India, elsewhere: Red Sea, Maldives, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippine Islands, China, South Japan.

Order: Temnopleuroida

Family: Temnopleuridae

10. Salmaciella dussumieri (L. Agassiz, 1846)

1971. Salmaciella dussumieri: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 155 (key), 140-141 (distribution).

34

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

2007. Salmaciella dussumieri : Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 277: 172.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, seven specimens (st. 1 8) in October 2006,

of which three specimens D/H = 20/7, 20/7 and 23/8 mm

respectively. Five specimens (st.9), single (st. 1 4) in October

2006; single (st.9) in March 2007, two (st. 17), eight (st. 19)

in November 2007.

Remarks: The specimens show angular pits, primary

tubercles one each on every ambulacral plate and primary spines

banded green. The species is new record for Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution: Islands of the West Indian Ocean, East

Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea, South-east Arabia, Ceylon,

East Indies, North Australia, Philippine Islands, China and

South Japan.

11. Salmacis virgulata (L. Agsassiz, 1846)

1846. Salmacis virgulata Agassiz, L. In: Agassiz, L. &

E. Desor: Ann. Sci. nat. (3)6: 359.

1971. Salmacis virgulata: Clark, A.M. and

F. W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 156 (key), 140-141 (distribution).

2007. Salmacis virgulata: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Sun>. India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 174.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, eight specimens (st.9), single ( st. 18) in

October 2006; single (st.9) in March 2007; single (st. 17),

four (st. 19) in 2007.

Remarks: The specimens measure D/H = 50/25 mm.

The spines are characteristically violet tipped.

Distribution: India: Lakshadweep and Tamil Nadu. The

species is newly recorded from Andhra Pradesh, elsewhere: Bay

of Bengal, East Indies, Philippine Islands and South China Sea.

12. Temnopleurus toreumaticus (Leske, 1778)

1971. Temnopleurus toreumaticus: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow- water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 154 (key), 142-143 (distribution).

2007. Temnopleurus toreumaticus: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 176.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, thirty-two (st.l), two (st. 19), fourteen

(st.3), single (sts.4,5, 1 9), two (sts.8,9, 12) in October 2006;

single (sts. 1,18) in March 2007; ten (st. 15), single (st. 19) in

November 2007; single (st.3) in March 2008.

Remarks: The specimens show large angular pits and

crenulated tubercles on the test and pore pairs in arcs

of three. The young ones occur in large aggregations in the

subtidal depths, particularly around the river mouths.

Distribution: East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea,

South-east Arabia, Persian Gulf, West India, Pakistan,

Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia, Philippine

Islands, China and South Japan, South Pacific Islands.

Order: Clypeasteroida

Family: Clypeasteridae

13. Clypeaster humilis (Leske, 1778)

1894. Clypeaster humilis: Anderson, A. R.S.: Jour.Asiat.

Soc. Beng , 62 (part II, No. 3): Andhra Pradesh: Numerous

specimens from Off Coromandel; Kerala (Malabar Coast) and

Sri Lankan coasts, 18-73 m (10-40 fms. (fms depth in

fathoms)). The material probably belongs to Clypeaster

reticulatus or Clypeaster rarispinus , there being no material

of C. humilis available to Koehler (vide infra).

1922. Clypeaster humilis: Koehler, R.: Echinoderma

of the Indian Museum, part IX: 51. No specimen of

Investigator collection from Indian coast was available to

Koehler; hence a specimen from Red Sea was described. This

makes one doubt the identity of specimens reported by

Anderson, 1894 (vide supra).

1971. Clypeaster humilis: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 161 (key), 144-145 (distribution).

2007. Clypeaster humilis: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Surv. India , Occ. Papers No. 277: 186.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, one specimen (st. 18, October 2006), single

specimen (st.l 7, November 2007), anterior radius = 40 mm.

breadth = 70 mm, posterior region broken.

Remarks: In view of the non-availability of specimens

to Koehler and consequent doubtful identity of specimens

from Andhra Pradesh reported by Anderson as noted by

Sastry (2007), this is the first report of the specimens from

Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution: East Africa and Madagascar, Red

Sea, South-east Arabia, Persian Gulf, Ceylon, East

Indies, North Australia, Philippine Islands, South Pacific

Islands.

14. Clypeaster rarispinus de Meijere, 1903

1971. Clypeaster rarispinus: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 160 (key), 144-145 (distribution).

2007. Clypeaster rarispinus: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 277: 187.

Material: Andhra Pradesh, one specimen; Guntur

district, Nizampatnam Bay. Three (st.2), single (sts.8,9, 11),

four (st. 1 4), thirteen ( st . 1 5 ) , twenty-nine ( st . 19) in

October 2006; five (sts. 1,18), single (st. 14), three (st. 17) in

March 2007. Single (st. 15), forty-six (st. 17), four (st. 18), two

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

35

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

(st. 19) in November 2007. Single (st.9), three (st. 17) in

March 2008. Two specimens (st. 19, October 2006), 1 x b =

18 x 22 mm, longer than wide; one specimen (st. 17) in

March 2007, 35 x 32 mm; and four specimens (st. 1 7 ) in

November 2007, 45 x 40 mm.

Remarks: The species was earlier known from Andhra

Pradesh and Orissa coasts.

Distribution: East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea,

South-east Arabia, Persian Gulf, west India, Pakistan,

Maldives, Ceylon and East Indies.

Family: Astriclypeidae

15. Echinodiscus auritus Leske, 1778

1971. Echinodiscus auritus: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 162 (key), 144-145 (distribution).

2007. Echinodiscus auritus: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Surv. India , Occ. Papers No. 271: 198.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, five specimens (st. 17 = 95-120 mm),

lunules about 35 mm long, single specimen (sts.9,18) in

October 2006; two specimens (st.9) in March 2008.

Remarks: The species was earlier known from

Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coasts.

Distribution: Mascarene Islands, East Africa and

Madagascar, Red Sea, South-east Arabia, Persian Gulf,

West India and Pakistan, Ceylon, East Indies, North Australia,

Philippine Islands, China and South Japan.

Order: Spatangoida

Family: Brissidae

16. Brissopsis luzonica (Gray, 1851 )

1971. Brissopsis luzonica: Clark. A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow- water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 165 (key), 146-147 (distribution).

2007. Brissopsis luzonica: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool.

Surv. India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 205.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, single (st 1 1 ), six (st. 1 5 ) in October

2006; single (st. 12), six (st. 17), ten (st. 1 8) in November

2007; three (st. 14), four (st. 18), single (st. 19) in March 2008

(single specimen from st. 19 measured 1 x b x h = 26 x 20 x

10 mm).

Remarks: Along the coast of Andhra Pradesh, the

specimens were earlier reported from R.I.M.S. Investigator

St. 98. Off Santapalli of Vizianagaram district.

Distribution: East Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea,

West India, Pakistan, Maldives, East Indies, North Australia,

Philippine Islands, China and South Japan, South Pacific

Islands, Hawaiian Islands.

Family: Spatangidae

17. Nacospatangus (Pseudomaretia) alta (A. Agassiz, 1863)

1971. Pseudomaretia alta: Clark, A.M. and

F.W.E. Rowe: Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific

echinoderms, 165 (key), 146-147 (distribution).

2007. Nacospatangus ( Pseudomaretia ) alta:

Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Papers No.

271: 210.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, three specimens (sts.9,13,14), two

specimens (st. 17), five specimens (st. 18) in October 2006;

two specimens (sts. 17,19) in November 2007; single specimen

(st. 17) in March 2008. One specimen, primary spines only

two in a single row in lower area of postero lateral interambs;

two specimen (st. 1 8) in October 2006, Ixbxh = 30x22x9

and 33 x 24 x 12 mm respectively.

Remarks: The species was earlier known from

Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coasts.

Distribution: Islands of West Indian Ocean, Mascarene

Islands, Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies, Philippine Islands,

China and South Japan.

Family: Loveniidae

18. Lovenia elongata (Gray, 1845)

1971. Lovenia elongata: Clark, A.M. and F.W.E. Rowe:

Monograph of shallow-water Indo-west Pacific echinoderms,

164 (key), 146-147 (distribution).

2007. Lovenia elongata: Sastry, D.R.K.: Rec. zool. Surv.

India, Occ. Papers No. 271: 211.

Material: Andhra Pradesh: Guntur district,

Nizampatnam Bay, seven specimens (st. 14), four (st. 17)

in October 2006; single (sts. 14, 18,20), one specimen, 1 x b x

h = 38 x 30 x 14 mm, highest at posterior inter-ambulacrum,

flat and low anterior to apical system.

Remarks: The earlier reports of the specimens from

India were from Tamil Nadu coast and the locality reported

as Coromandel coast which falls within Andhra Pradesh coast

is not known. As such, this is the first report of the specimens

from Andhra Pradesh.

Distribution: East Africa and Madagascar, Red Sea,

South-east Arabia, Persian Gulf, Maldives, Ceylon, East Indies,

North Australia, Philippine Islands, China and South Japan.

SUMMARY

During the present study, the asteroid Astropecten

velitaris is added new to the fauna of India, the asteroids -

Luidia hardwicki , Echinaster purpureus and

Goniodiscaster sp., the ophiuroids - Ophiocnemis marmorata,

and Ophiothrix sp. and the echinoids - Salmaciella dussumieri ,

36

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ECHINODERMS OF NIZAMPATNAM BAY

Salmacis virgulata , Clypeaster humilis and Lovenia elongata

are new records for Andhra Pradesh.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Ministry of Earth Sciences

(formerly Department of Ocean Development), Government

of India, New Delhi, for funding the project (F.No. DOD/

MOES / I l-MRDF/1/3 l/P/05). The present work was carried

out at the Marine Biology Laboratory, Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam. MS and CHV are thankful to the MoES for

financial support.

REFERENCES

Clark, A.M. (1989): An index of names of recent Asteroidea - Part 1:

Paxillosida and Notomyotida. Pp. 225-347. In: Jangoux, M. &

J.M. Lawrence (Eds): Echinoderm Studies, Vol. 3.

A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

Clark, A.M. & F.W.E. Rowe (1971): Monograph of shallow water Indo-

west Pacific echinoderms. Trustees of the British Museum

(Natural History), London. 238 pp.

Ganapati, P.N. & M.V. Lakshmana Rao (1962a): Preliminary

observations on the bottom fauna of the continental shelf of the

North-East coast of India. Proc. first All India Congress of

Zoology (1959), Jabalpur, 1(3): 8-13.

Ganapati, P.N. & M.V. Lakshmana Rao (1962b): Studies on the

ecology of intertidal sands of the Visakhapatnam coast. Proc.

first All India Congress of Zoology (1959), Jabalpur,

1(3): 14-25.

Holme, N.A. & A.D. McIntyre (eds) (1984): Methods for the study of

marine benthos. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.

Pp. 334.

James, D.B. (1997): Notes on the Family Goniasteridae (Echinodermata:

Asteroidea) from the Indian Seas. J. mar. Biol. Ass. India 38:

133-138.

Radhakrishna, Y. & P.N. Ganapati (1968): Fauna of Kakinada Bay.

Bull. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 38: 689-699.

Sastry, D.R.K. (2007): Echinodermata of India: An annotated list. Rec.

zool. Sur\\ India., Occ. Paper No. 271: 1-387.

Vijayakumar, R., Z. A. Ansari & A.H. Parulekar (1991): Benthic fauna

of Kakinada Bay and backwaters east coast of India. Indian

J. mar. Sci. 20: 195-199.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

37

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

38-44

GENETIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ARGALI SHEEP OVIS AMMON IN MONGOLIA

REVEALED BY MITOCHONDRIAL CONTROL REGION

AND NUCLEAR MICROSATELLITES ANALYSES

Jiu Feng1, Michael R. Frisina2, Michael S. Webster3 and Gombosuren Ulziimaa4

‘Department of Biological Sciences, 109 Cooke Hall, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA.

“Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks, 1330 West Gold Street, Butte, MT 59701-2112, USA.

Email: [email protected]

“Department of Biological Sciences, 109 Cooke Hall, State University of New York at Buffalo, NY 14260,

Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA.

•■Mongolian National Agriculture University, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

The genetic distinctiveness and possible gene flow among the Argali Sheep ( Ovis amnion ) populations in Mongolia have

been controversial, due to a high degree of morphological variation among populations and an apparent lack of physical

barriers to dispersal. We studied the population genetic structure of Argali sheep in Mongolia using both mitochondrial

control region sequences (613 bp) and 14 nuclear microsatellite markers. Mitochondrial results suggest two evolutionarily

distinct lineages, one in the Altay Mortmains and the other in the Hangay Mountains and eastern Gobi Desert.

Microsatellite analysis indicated genetic differentiation among these three regions, and also indicated similar levels of

genetic differentiation and gene flow among all pair-wise comparisons. These results suggest genetic differentiation

among the Mongolian populations of this endangered mammal.

Keywords: Argali sheep, mitochondrial DNA, microsatellites, Ovis ammon, population genetic structure

INTRODUCTION

The Argali Sheep (Ovis ammon), which is the largest

species of wild sheep in the world, has become endangered

due to poaching and habitat destruction (Valdez 1982; U.S.

Fish and Wildlife Service 1996). Currently in Mongolia, Argali

Sheep are patchily distributed in the Altay Mountains, Hangay

Mountains, and Gobi Desert (Mallon 1985). Following a

country-wide survey in 2002, Frisina et al. (2007) estimated a

Mongolian Argali population of about 20,000. Across this

range, both elevation and habitat productivity decrease

gradually without obvious physical barriers to dispersal

(Frisina 1998). Morphologically, Mongolian Argali Sheep is

highly variable, and there is a general trend for average body

size to decrease as elevation decreases from west to east,

with Altay Argali being the largest in body size of all O. ammon

(Geist 1991).

The variable morphology and the lack of obvious

geographic barriers to gene flow have led to a long-debated

controversy regarding the taxonomic status of Mongolian

Argali and the delineation of genetically distinct populations.

Allen (1940) considered all Mongolian Argali to be one

subspecies O.a. darwini, but currently two subspecies are

commonly recognized: O.a. ammon (Altay Argali) are large

argalis from the Altay mountain region, and O.a. darwini (Gobi

Argali) are smaller argalis from Gobi desert region (Sopin 1982;

Valdez 1982; Geist 1991; Mitchell and Frisina 2007). Detailed

analysis of cranial morphology show that O.a. ammon and

O.a. darwini are morphologically distinct from other argalis

and from each other, thus supporting subspecific recognition

of these taxa (Kapitanova et al. 2004). The taxonomic position

of argali from the Hangay region of Mongolia is unclear: Sopin

(1982) and Geist (1991) considered these argalis to be similar

to those from Altay (O.a. ammon), but genetic analyses by

Tserenbataa etal. (2004) suggest that they may be more closely

allied to Gobi argalis (see below).

Although a species of conservation concern, at present

little is known about population structure and gene flow

among argali populations in Mongolia. Tserenbataa et al.

(2004) examined genetic variation at the mitochondrial ND5

locus, and found little genetic differentiation among

populations in Mongolia and nearby regions of Kazakhstan

and Kyrgyzstan. What little genetic differentiation they did

find appeared to separate Gobi/Hangay from Altay/

Kazakhstan/Kyrgyszstan. Tserenbataa etal. (2004) attributed

the lack of genetic differentiation to high levels of female-

mediated gene flow among populations, and concluded that

argali populations from all of Mongolia and nearby regions

of China and Russia should be considered a single

“evolutionary significant unit” (or subspecies) with two

management units.

The conclusions of Tserenbataa et al. (2004) contrasts

with those from morphometric analyses, which suggest two

argali subspecies in Mongolia (Kapitanova et al. 2004).

Moreover, the shallow ND5 phylogenetic tree presented by

Tserenbataa et al. (2004) suggests that the lack of genetic

differentiation among populations may be due to incomplete

lineage sorting rather than to the movement of individuals

GENETICS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI SHEEP

(Avise 2000). To help resolve this taxonomic controversy and

aid in conservation efforts, we studied two molecular genetic

markers that show relatively high evolutionary rates - the

mitochondrial control region and nuclear microsatellites -

for argali samples collected in Mongolia.

Abbreviations: mtDNA = mitochondrial DNA,

MP = maximum parsimony, ML - maximum likelihood,

ME = minimum evolution

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We collected a total of 58 argali samples from Altay

Mountains, Hangay Mountains and eastern Gobi Desert in

Mongolia (Fig. 1), including tissue samples (skin and liver)

collected from legally hunted individuals and bone samples

(horn fragments and teeth) collected from carcasses found in

the field. Skin samples of Snow Sheep (Ovis nivicola ) from

Russia were collected to serve as an outgroup for phylogenetic

comparisons. Despite considerable and repeated efforts to

extract and amplify DNA from all sources, some sources

(e.g., some bone samples from carcasses) proved difficult

and did not yield usable DNA. Consequently, the sample

sizes for mtDNA and microsatellite analyses (see below) differ

from each other and from the total number of samples collected.

We used a standard proteinase K digestion and phenol/

chloroform methods to extract genomic DNA (Sambrook et

al. 1989). The mtDNA control region was amplified via

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers modified for

ungulates (Murray et al. 1995), and sequenced the portion

proximal to tRNAPR0 via cycle sequencing (Feng et al. 2001 ).

Replicate amplifications were sequenced for most samples,

and replicates always yielded identical results. Moreover, all

sequences were clean and easily scored, suggesting that we

did not co-amplify nuclear paralogs or encounter

heteroplasmy. All haplotype sequences have been deposited

in Genbank (accession numbers AY3 15886- AY215899). We

used maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and

minimum evolution approaches for phylogenetic analyses of

the control region haplotypes (details given below). These

analyses were conducted using PAUP*4.0b2 (Swofford

1998).

We screened 37 pairs of primers of dinucleotide-repeat

microsatellites developed from domestic sheep (Crawford et

al. 1995) in 10 argali individuals, and found 14 loci to be

polymorphic: ILS5, ILS56, MAF33, MAF36, MAF48,

MAF64, MAF209, FCB128, FCB226, FCB304, OHH35,

OHH56, OVH72, and OVH116. Published primers and

annealing temperatures (Crawford et al. 1995) to amplify

alleles under the following conditions: 10 pi total reaction

volume containing 20-50 jig genomic DNA, lx PCR buffer

(Roche), 0.05 mM dNTPs, 0.05 mM of each primer, 3.0 mM

MgCl,, 0.5U Taq polymerase, and 15 pCi 33P-dATP(to label

alleles). The PCR program was 94 °C for 3 min, followed by

35 cycles of 94 °C for 1 min, annealing temperature for 1 min,

and 72 °C for 45 sec. The last cycle was followed by a 5 min

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

39

GENETICS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI SHEEP

extension at 72 °C. We separated PCR products by

electrophoresis through a 6% polyacrylamide gel and ran a

M13 sequence standard along with our PCR products for

sizing the alleles. As with sequence analyses, replicates were

amplified and electrophoresed for most samples to ensure

accuracy of results.

For each population, the program GENEPOP web

version 3.1c (Raymond and Rousset 1995a) was used to

calculate genetic diversity for each locus, as well as the mean

observed heterozygosity across all loci. Global tests of both

allelic and genotypic distributions were performed to detect

population differentiation. F (calculated using FSTAT 1 .2,

Goudet 1995) rather than R ( was used to measure population

differentiation because the former performs better when

sample size is small (Gaggiotti et al. 1999). The genetic

distance calculator at http://www.biology.ualberta.ca was also

used to calculate pair-wise Nei’s genetic distances between

populations. At the individual level, we conducted assignment

tests (Paetkau et al. 1995; Waser and Strobeck 1998) using

the calculator available at http://www.biology.ualberta.ca. We

also calculated the pair-wise allele-sharing genetic distance

(Bowcock et al. 1994) matrix, which was then subjected to

PAUP*4.0b2 (Swofford 1998) and multidimensional scaling

analysis in two dimensions (Manly 1997) with SPSS to test

whether genetic similarity reflects geographic groupings.

RESULTS

Mitochondrial Control Region Phylogeny: We

obtained 14 argali control region haplotypes from

1 7 sequences. We aligned 6 1 3 bp ( including indels), of which

92 ( 1 5.0% ) were variable (Fig. 2 ), and 32 of these were parsimony

informative. The maximum likelihood estimate of transition/

transversion ratio was 3.4:1. Base frequencies did not differ

significantly across taxa (%2 = 23.07, df = 45, p = 0.997), with

A = 38.9%, C = 21.8%, G = 1 1 .3%, and T = 28.0%. The sequence

data contained significant phylogenetic signal as indicated

by both a permutation test (PTP test, 1000 replicates,

p < 0.001), and a tree length skewness test ( gl test,

10,000 random trees, p < 0.01 ). Hierarchical likelihood ratio

tests indicated that the optimal sequence evolution model for

our observed data was the HKY+G model, which incorporates

unequal base frequencies, unequal transition vs. transversion

rates, and among site rate heterogeneity. The rate

heterogeneity distribution parameter was a - 0.56 (S.E. = 0. 10),

and the total heterogeneity (Gu et al. 1995) was 0.64.

Four maximum parsimony (MP) trees were found through

a branch and bound search. Maximum likelihood (ML) and

minimum evolution (ME) analyses yielded tree topologies

that were concordant with the strict consensus MP tree (Fig.

3). The tree topology indicated that haplotypes from Hangay

and east Gobi are more closely related to each other than they

are to those from Altay. Seven out of eight haplotypes from

Altay formed a single well-supported clade (“Altay group”).

Haplotypes from Hangay and Gobi, plus a single haplotype

from southern Altay, formed another well-supported clade

(“Hangay/Gobi group”). Pair-wise ML genetic distance

between the Altay group and Hangay/Gobi group (5.32%

±0.08%) was greater than that within the Altay (1.1 9% ±0. 1 3%)

and Hangay/Gobi groups (0.67% ±0.07%). Factoring out intra-

group variation, the average ML genetic distance between

the two groups was 4.39%.

Microsatellite Diversity and Differentiation: We

obtained microsatellite genotype data at 14 loci for a total of

7M (A)

00000011111111111111111111111122222222222222222222233334444444444445555555555555555555556666

01779912777777777788889999999900000000001133467778823560122333568890012266677788899999990011

83250815012345678901232345678901234567893904311456788313389017524522370501825858912345794601

ATTTCGCTGCTCACATAACAACCCATACAGAAAAGCACAATCACTTAGGATGTCAATCGTTAC-TAACCCAGTAAAGTATAG-CATTTACCC

letters in parentheses refer to sampling location (A = Altay, H = Hangay, and G = Gobi); the top row gives the sequence for a reference

sample (7M); dots indicate nucleotides that are identical to the reference; and dashes indicate deletions

40

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

GENETICS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI SHEEP

79

78

Altay

100

63

92

74

97

87

97

Hangay

East Gobi

F values were similar across population pairs (range: 0.051

to 0.056), as were Nei’s pair-wise genetic distances

(range: 0.213 to 0.272). Likelihood assignment tests yielded a

high percentage of correct assignments (26 of 30, 87%).

For Gobi, all of 7 individuals were assigned to Gobi. For Altay,

1 0 of 1 2 individuals were assigned to Altay, 1 was assigned to

Hangay, and 1 was assigned to Gobi. For Hangay, 9 of

1 1 individuals were assigned to Hangay, 1 was assigned to

Altay, and 1 was assigned to Gobi. The percentage of correct

assignment was significantly higher than expected by chance

(%2 = 25.6, df = 1 , p < 0.005 ), suggesting significant differences

in genotype frequencies among examined populations.

However, the allele-sharing genetic distance matrix failed to

generate geographic clustering of individuals, and multi-

dimensional scaling showed a poor fit of data into two

dimensions (Stress = 0.30, R2 = 0.53).

DISCUSSION

Altay

Ovis nivicola

Fig. 3: Strict consensus tree of four most parsimony trees (tree

length 343, Cl = 0.904, Rl = 0.907, RC = 0.820) rooted with snow

sheep (Ovis nivicola). Transversion: transition ratio was 3:1,

gaps were treated as a fifth state, and the branch and bound

search algorithm was used. Numbers above the branches indicate

the bootstrap values obtained through 1000 replications (only

values above 50% are shown). The maximum likelihood tree had an

identical topology, and numbers below branches indicate quartet

puzzling support values (only values above 50% are shown)

30 individuals (12 from Altay, 11 from Hangay, and 7 from

Gobi). There were no significant deviations from Hardy-

Weinberg equilibrium (U tests, Raymond and Rousset 1995b),

and no significant linkage disequilibrium (Fisher exact tests).

The total number of alleles for a locus across

populations ranged from 4 to 13 (mean = 7.5, S.E. = 0.79),

and observed heterozygosity ranged from 0.30 to

0.77 (mean = 0.61, S.E. = 0.04). For Altay, Hangay, and Gobi

populations, the average number of alleles per locus (± S.E. )

was 5.9 (±0.47), 5.0 (±0.47), and 3.6 (±0.36) respectively,

and the mean observed heterozygosity was 0.61 (± 0.04),

0.65 (±0.06), and 0.53 (± 0.07) respectively.

Fisher’s exact test conducted on microsatellite allele

and genotype frequencies showed significant population

differentiation (P<0.001). The mean F for all loci was

0.056 (S.D. = 0.017), which was significantly greater than zero

(permutation test with 1000 replications, P < 0.001). Pair-wise

Genetic Differentiation of Argalis in Mongolia: Due

to a lack of apparent topographic boundaries and yet highly

variable morphology across populations, controversy

surrounds the level of genetic differentiation among

Mongolian argali populations (Allen 1940; Sopin 1982; Valdez

1982; Geist 1991). This controversy has continued in large

part due to the difficulties of obtaining genetic samples from

the remote range of this species, and these difficulties also

limited the sample size of our own analyses. Nevertheless,

despite the limited sample size, our analyses of both mtDNA

control region and nuclear microsatellites revealed significant

genetic differentiation among sampled argali populations in

Mongolia.

The mtDNA control region phylogeny revealed two

major groups - one composed of individuals from Altay and

the other comprised primarily of individuals from Hangay/

Gobi - with an average sequence divergence (4.39%) similar

to that observed between subspecies in other large mammals

(Douzery and Randi 1997; Wooding and Ward 1997; Arctander

et al. 1999; Matsuhashi et al. 1999), and greater than that

typically seen among populations of Bighorn Sheep ( Ovis

canadensis ; Ramey 1995; Luikart and Allendorf 1996; Boyce

et al. 1999). This is also consistent with the speculation that

habitat differences and a subtle geographic barrier (the

Alakhnur Depression) have led to a reproductive isolation

between Argali Sheep living in the Altay Mountains and those

living in the Gobi desert (Sopin 1982). Interestingly, one Altay

haplotype grouped with, but was basal to, the Gobi/Hangay

group. Though this might be due to a low level of gene flow

between the regions, incomplete lineage sorting seems a more

plausible explanation.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

41

GENETICS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI SHEEP

Within the Hangay/Gobi group, all Hangay haplotypes

formed one monophyletic subgroup and the single Gobi

haplotype was positioned outside this Hangay group. Although

this suggests some differentiation between Hangay and Gobi,

additional samples from Gobi are required to further address

the phylogenetic relationship between these populations.

Our nuclear microsatellite results also indicated

significant genetic differentiation among the sampled

populations. Although our sample sizes were small, the

observed Fsi value of 0.056 is similar to that found among

natural populations of other large mammals (Roy et al. 1994;

Forbes and Hogg 1999; Paetkau etal. 1999; Gutierrez-Espeleta

et al. 2000). Moreover, although the individual allele-sharing

genetic distance matrix did not generate meaningful geographic

groupings (probably due to small sample size) the high

percentages of “correct” assignments yielded in the likelihood

assignment test suggest that allele frequency distributions

differ among the three populations. Furthermore, the similar

pair-wise F and genetic distances and the even distribution of

unassigned individuals suggest that these three populations

are approximately equally differentiated from each other.

Implications for Argali Taxonomy: Currently, two

subspecies of argali are commonly recognized in Mongolia

(Sopin 1982; Valdez 1982; Geist 1991): O.a. ammon (Altay

mountain region) and O.a. darwini (Gobi desert region).

These subspecific designations are supported by

morphometric analyses (Kapitanova et al. 2004), and our

mitochondrial control region phylogeny supports the

distinction between argali from these regions. In contrast,

although Hangay argalis are currently classified as

O.a. ammon based on morphological similarities (Sopin 1982;

Geist 1991), our mitochondrial analyses instead suggests that

Hangay argalis are more closely related to O.a. darwini than

to O.a. ammon (Tserenbataa et al. 2004).

There are two possible explanations for this

discrepancy. First, the more ammon-like morphology of

Hangay argali may be due to the higher habitat productivity

of the Hangay region relative to the arid Gobi desert. Second,

because the mtDNA phylogeny only represents maternal

descent, Hangay argali may be a hybrid form resulting from

matings between large-bodied ammon males and small-bodied

darwini females. This ‘hybrid origin' hypothesis also can

explain the approximately equal genetic distances that we

obtained from nuclear microsatellite data. One way to test

this hypothesis is to use a Y-linked marker to reconstruct the

paternal lineage of Mongolian argalis. Moreover, since we

were able to obtain only one sequence from Gobi argali, it is

possible that the Hangay and Gobi populations represent two

distinct subspecies of argali; this possibility requires further

testing with additional haplotypes.

Implications for Conservation Management: Our

mtDNA results showed that Mongolian argali haplotypes can

be divided into two reciprocally monophyletic groups - one

consisting of haplotypes found only in the Altay Mountains, and

the other consisting almost exclusively of haplotypes from the

Hangay Mountains and eastern Gobi desert. Due to the presence

of one Altay haplotype in the Hangay/Gobi clade, argali in these

two regions are not strictly reciprocally monophyletic, and

therefore do not fit the definition of Evolutionary Significant

Units (ESU’s) suggested by Moritz (1994). Nevertheless, our

mtDNA results suggest two distinct, independent lineages, and

the ESU criterion suggested by Moritz (1994) has been criticized

for being overly stringent (Crandall et al. 2000; Fraser and

Bematchez 2001). Therefore, we tentatively recommend that

argali in Altay and Hangay/Gobi be treated as two separate ESU’s

for conservation purposes.

Our microsatellite analyses indicated significant nuclear

genetic differentiation among all three regions of Mongolia.

Our mitochondrial control region analyses also showed

differentiation between our single Gobi haplotype and all

Hangay haplotypes, with the latter forming a single

monophyletic clade. These results suggest that each area

should be treated as a separate management unit (Moritz 1994)

for conservation purposes. However, this recommendation

should be considered tentative because sample sizes and areas

surveyed were limited in this study (particularly for

mitochondrial analyses), and because microsatellites can

sometimes show significant differentiation across populations

that may not be biologically meaningful (Hedrick 1999).

Our results are mostly consistent with the mitochondrial

ND5 analyses of Tserenbataa et al. (2004), who found

significant genetic differentiation between the Altay and

Hangay/Gobi regions. However, Tserenbataa et al. (2004)

found that the differentiation between these two groups was

relatively weak, that there was no significant differentiation

between Hangay and Gobi populations, and that haplotypes

from any region did not form a monophyletic group.

Tserenbataa et al. (2004) concluded that there has been

significant historical gene flow among the three regions of

Mongolia and nearby areas of China and Russia, and that the

entire region should be treated as a single ESU/subsp,ecies.

Our results indicate that the lack of resolution in the ND5 data

of Tserenbataa et al. (2004) likely is due to the slow

evolutionary rate of ND5 (compared to the control region and

nuclear microsatellites) and incomplete lineage sorting rather

than to the movement of individuals between regions.

Nevertheless, studies that combine large sample sizes (as in

Tserenbataa et al. 2004) with more sensitive genetic markers

(as in this study) are needed before making firm conclusions

about conservation units for Mongolian and other argali.

42

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

GENETICS OF MONGOLIAN ARGALI SHEEP

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank D. Taylor, M.A. Coffroth, and C. Larsen for

their insightful comments. We also gratefully acknowledge

Grand Slam Club/Ovis, Ministry for Nature and the

Environment of Mongolia, Juulchin Corporation, Mongol

Tours, and the State University of New York for supporting

the project. All samples used for this study were collected

and imported under proper permits from Mongolia and the

United States.

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44

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

45-56

ROTIFER COMMUNITIES OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

(NORTH-EAST INDIA): BIODIVERSITY, DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY

B.K. Sharma1

'Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill University, Permanent Campus, Umshing, Shillong 793 022, Meghalaya, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

The rotifer communities of fifteen slightly acidic-circumneutral, soft water floodplain lakes (pats) of Manipur, with

low ionic concentrations; revealed 151 species of Rotifera belonging to 42 genera and 22 families. Biogeographically

interesting elements include two Australasian, four Oriental, eight Palaeotropical, one Holarctic and one Arctic-temperate

species. Cosmopolitan species form a notable component (67.5%) while Cosmotropical > Pantropical species are

well-represented. Lecanidae (40 species) > Lepadellidae (25 species) > Trichocercidae (15 species) > Brachionidae

(14 species) comprise an important fraction (62.25%) of the documented species The rotifer fauna is characterised by

dominance of Lecane spp., occurrence of several acidophilus species, paucity of Brachionus spp. and general tropical

character. Richness ranges between 62 and 120 (73 ±14) species in individual pats, registers 53.0-87.9% community

similarities (vide Sorensen index) and shows wider seasonal variations (29-79 species) in different pats. The rotifers

form an important quantitative component (mean: 45.9-58.8%) of zooplankton in all lakes. ANOVA indicates a

significant temporal variation of richness and density between lakes and seasons. Richness is inversely correlated

with water temperature. The density is inversely correlated with specific conductivity and alkalinity, and positively

correlated with hardness. Canonical analysis registers moderate and relatively higher cumulative impact of six abiotic

factors on richness and density respectively. The rotifer communities of the sampled pats are characterised by relatively

high species diversity, lower dominance and higher evenness.

Key words: Floodplain lakes, Manipur. Rotifera, biodiversity, distribution, ecology

INTRODUCTION

The floodplain lakes, an integral part of various riverine

systems of the world, harbour the richest aquatic biodiversity

and are considered to be the most productive freshwater

biotopes (Odum 1978; Mitsch and Gosselink 1986). They

form an important inland aquatic resource of India in general,

and that of N.E. India in particular. The floodplain lakes,

commonly called ‘pats' in Manipur, are located in the Iral,

Imphal and Thoubal river basins. They cover an area of

16,500 ha and play a vital role in the socio-economic

development of the state because of their significant biogenic

production potential. These interesting ecotones are facing

severe environmental stress due to general habitat

degradation, influx of waste water and encroachment of land

for expanding human settlements, and increasing pressures

for converting them into agricultural lands. Hence,

conservation of these valuable wetlands and of their biological

diversity deserves priority attention.

The investigations on aquatic biodiversity in India

began nearly a century ago. The published literature indicates

limited information on composition and ecology of

invertebrate, and zooplankton communities in the floodplain

lakes of this country (Sharma and Sharma 2008). The studies

on zooplankton diversity of the floodplain lakes of N.E. region

in particular, are mainly initiated in beels of the Brahmaputra

basin (Sharma and Sharma 2001, 2008; Sharma 2005). On

the other hand, the contributions in the floodplain lakes of

Manipur are so far restricted to a preliminary unpublished

list of Shyamananda Singh (1991) and new records of Rotifera

(Sharma 2007).

The present study on Rotifera, the most diverse group

of zooplankton, of the floodplain lakes or 'pats' of Manipur,

therefore, assumes special biodiversity and ecological interest.

The rotifer communities of fifteen lakes of this state are

analyzed with reference to species richness, community

similarities, and general nature and composition of their

taxocoenosis. Remarks are made on biogeographically

interesting elements and on distribution of various species.

In addition, variations in richness and abundance are recorded

and comments are made on species diversity, dominance,

evenness and ecology of Rotifera.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The observations were undertaken in fifteen floodplain

lakes (pats) of the Iral, Imphal and Thoubal river basins (24°

25'-24°45'N; 93o45'-94°00' E), located in Bishnupur, Imphal

and Thoubal districts of Manipur respectively (Table 1 ).

Water samples collected seasonally from different pats ,

during the study period November 2002-October 2003, were

analyzed for water temperature, specific conductivity, pH,

dissolved oxygen, alkalinity and hardness. Plankton samples

were collected seasonally for qualitative (by towing) and

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Table 1: Districts of Manipur representing floodplain lakes

(pats) selected for the study area

quantitative (by filtering 25 litre water) analysis from various

lakes with a nylobolt plankton net (mesh size: 50 pm), during

the study period, and were preserved in 5% formalin. The

Rotifera species were identified following Koste (1978),

Segers (1995), Sharma (1998a), and Sharma and Sharma

(1999, 2000, 2008). Remarks on the distribution were made

vide Segers (2007). Quantitative plankton samples were

analyzed for enumeration of the rotifer densities (n/1).

Community similarities (Sorensen index), species

diversity (Shannon index), dominance (Berger-Parker index)

and evenness (Pileou index) were calculated following

Ludwig and Reynolds (1988) and Magurran (1988).

The significance of temporal variations of richness and

densities were ascertained by ANOVA. Canonical analysis

(STATISTICA version 5.0) was undertaken for simple and

multivariate correlations.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Water temperature (13.1-30 °C) affirms the subtropical

nature of different pats. Specific conductivity (36.0-

200 pS/cm) shows low ionic concentrations (Table 2) and

warrants their inclusion under ‘Class I’ category of ‘trophic

classification' of Tailing and Tailing (1965). All the sampled

pats are characterised by slightly acidic-circumneutral waters

(pH: 5.70-6.92) with mean pH values ranging between 6.02-

6.44. Dissolved oxygen ranges between 2.4-12.0 mg/1.

Rotifers form the most diverse qualitative group of

zooplankton in all the lakes in the study area and include a

total of 151 species, which comprise 39.7% of the Indian

Rotifera and 70% of the species known from N.E. India.

Further, this study exhibits higher diversity, i.e., 42 genera

and 22 families of this Phylum known till date from floodplain

lakes or other aquatic ecosystems of India. This salient feature

deserves special mention in view of 46 and 67 genera, as

well as 24 and 25 families, of Eurotatoria respectively so far

reported from N.E. India (Sharma, unpublished). The present

results reflect rich, speciose and diverse nature of Rotifera

and, hence, reflect greater environmental heterogeneity of

the sampled pats. These features concur with the composition

of the rotifer communities of the floodplains of Argentina

(Jose de Paggi 1993), South America (Bonecker et at. 1998)

and Australia (Shiel et al. 1998). This study affirms the

hypothesis of Segers et al. (1993) indicating (sub) tropical

floodplains to be the world’s richest habitats for rotifers, and

also endorses earlier studies (Sharma 2005; Sharma and

Sharma 2008) in the floodplain lakes of the Brahmaputra river

basin.

The Rotifera biodiversity of the sampled lakes is lower

than the reports of 207, 218 and 252 species from the

floodplain lakes of Africa (Segers etal. 1993), South America

(Bonecker et al. 1998) and Australia (Shiel et al. 1998)

respectively. The richness however, is marginally lower than

the 164 species examined from fifteen floodplain lakes from

the Brahmaputra river basin of Assam (Sharma 2005) while

it is higher than 127 species listed from other fifteen beels of

Assam (Sharma and Sharma 2008). The present report of the

rotifer richness in the floodplain lakes of Manipur, however,

is distinctly higher to the records of 64 species (Sharma 2000),

29 species (Goswami 1997) and 48 species (Sarma 2000)

from the beels of Assam and 43 species (Khan 2003) from

the floodplains of south-east West Bengal.

Interestingly, Loktak lake - a Ramsar site and one of

the largest freshwater wetlands of India, exhibits the highest

Rotifera richness (120 species) known till date from any

individual aquatic ecosystem of the Indian subcontinent in

general and floodplain lake, in particular. The numbers also

exceed the recent highest record of 1 10 species (Sharma and

Sharma 2005b) from Deepor beel, a Ramsar site and another

important wetland of N.E. India. Rotifera richness of Loktak

compares well with the report of 124 species from Oguta

lake of Niger delta (Segers etal. 1993); 11 1 species (Jose de

Paggi 1993) and 114 species (Jose de Paggi 2001) examined

from floodplain lakes of Argentina; 136 species from Iyi-Efi

lake of the Niger delta (Segers et al. 1998); and 130 species

from Lake Guarana, Brazil (Bonecker et al. 1994).

The present study reveals sixteen biogeographically

interesting species (10.6%) belonging to the following

categories:

1. Australasian species: Macrochaetus danneeli and

Notommata spinata

2. Oriental species: Filinia camasecla, Lecane

acanthinula , L. blachei and L. solfatara

46

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

3. Palaeotropical species: Euchlanis semicarinata , Lecane

lateralis, L. simonneae, L. unguitata, Lepadella bicornis,

L. discoidea, Testudinella brevicaudata and Trichocerca abilioi

4. Arctic-Temperate: Lecane scutata

5. Holarctic: Lecane elongata

The report of two Australasian species, a notable feature

of this study, depicts an interesting affinity between the rotifer

faunas of the N.E. India with that of South-east Asia and

Australia. Of these, Macrochaetus danneeli is reported from

Australia and Thailand. Segers and Sarma (1993) mentioned

its occurrence in southern India based on an unpublished

report, but the record from Assam (Sharma 2004) indicates

its only confirmed report from India and second report from

Asia. Notommata spinata , resurrected as a distinct species

by Koste and Shiel (1991), occurs in Australia and is now

known from India only from Assam (Sharma 2005).

The occurrence of four Oriental species is another

salient feature of the rotifer fauna of the sampled pats. Among

these, Filinia camasecla and Lecane solfatara are so far

known only from N.E. India (Sharma and Sharma 2008),

L. blachei is reported from Eastern and North-east India and

L. acanthinula exhibits disjunct distribution in this country

with reports from Southern and North-Eastern India (Sharma

and Sharma 2005a).

Amongst the Palaeotropical species, the erstwhile Afro-

tropical Euchlanis semicarinata examined from Loktak lake,

Manipur (Sharma 2007) is an interesting recent addition to

the Indian Rotifera. Lecane simonneae is reported from India

only from Tripura (Sharma and Sharma 1997) while Lepadella

discoidea, Testudinella brevicaudata and Trichocerca abilioi

are known from Assam in N.E. India. Lecane lateralis,

described originally from West Bengal (Sharma 1978), is a

widely known palaeotropical element. Lepadella bicornis,

described by Vasisht and Battish (1971) from Chandigarh,

north India is known only from Brazil; its recent record from

Assam (Sharma and Sharma in press ) represents the second

Indian report of this lecanid since its description. Lecane

unguitata is widely distributed in India.

Table 2: Abiotic factors of pats of Manipur

Note: Mean values given in parentheses

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

47

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Table 3: Rotifera of floodplain lakes (Pats) of Manipur

48

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Table 3: Rotifera of floodplain lakes (Pats) of Manipur ( contd .)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

49

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Table 3: Rotifera of floodplain lakes (Pats) of Manipur (contd.)

50

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Table 3: Rotifera of floodplain lakes (Pats) of Manipur (contd.)

1-Loktak Pat, 2-Waithou Pat, 3-Utra Pat, 4-Sana Pat, 5-Lakoi Pat, 6-Takmu Pat, 7-lkop Pat, 8-Kharung Pat, 9-Khoidum Pat,

10-Lousi Pat, 11-Karam Pat, 12-Ngagua Pat, 13-Tankha Pat, 14-Lamphel Pat, 15-Pumlen Pat.

V Present, ‘-’Absent, C-Common, R-Rare, A-Acidophilus

Of the two other biogeographically interesting species,

Lecane scutata is distributed in India in the states of Assam,

Meghalaya, Tripura and West Bengal (Sharma and Sharma

2008) while the Holarctic L. elongata is recorded recently

(Sharma and Sharma in press ) from Assam.

Lecanidae (40 species) > Lepadellidae (25 species) >

Trichocercidae (15 species) > Brachionidae (14 species), in

the stated order, comprise an important fraction (62.25%) of

the rotifer diversity. The qualitative significance of these

eurotatorian families broadly concurs with the results from

the floodplains of South America (Jose de Paggi 1993, 2001;

Bonecker et al. 1994, 1998;Segers etal. 1998), Africa (Segers

et al. 1993) and Thailand (Sanoamuang 1998). This

generalization, however, differs from the floodplains of Assam

(Sharma 2005; Sharma and Sharma 2008) in occurrence of a

fewer species of the Brachionidae. Besides, six other

monogonont families namely Notommatidae > Euchlanidae

> Trochosphaeridae > Philodinidae = Testudinellidae,

together, form a valuable component (21 .2%) of Rotifera of

the pats of Manipur.

Cosmopolitan species form an important component

(65.6%) of the rotifer diversity while Cosmotropical >

Pantropical species together comprise 23.6%. The members

of the last two categories as well as qualitative dominance of

‘tropic-centered’ genus Lecane impart a ‘tropical character’

to the rotifer fauna of the floodplain lakes of Manipur. This

feature concurs with the composition of the tropical faunas

from different parts of the globe (Green 1972; Pejler 1977;

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

51

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Fernando 1980; Dussart et al. 1984; Segers 1996; Sharma

1998b). In general, the lecanid dominance compares well with

the floodplain rotifer communities studied by Segers et al.

(1993, 1998), Sanoamuang (1998) and Jose de Paggi (2001 ).

The present results are, however, characterised by distinct

paucity of an important tropic-centered’ genus Brachionus

which, in turn, includes only eight species and a number of

them even exhibit rare or restricted occurrence; these features

are attributed to slightly acidic-circumneutral character of the

sampled pats. In addition, the rotifer communities show

importance of Lepadella (20 species) > Trichocerca

(15 species). Thus, the four mentioned monogonont genera

comprise the bulk of species reported from the floodplain

lakes of Manipur (83 species, 53%). On the other hand, the

occurrence of fewer species of ‘temperate-centered’ Keratella

(3 species) and cold-water Synchaeta (2 species) and, the lack

of any member of Notholca are noteworthy.

This study indicates occurrence of fifteen (9.9%)

acidophilus elements, namely Plationus patulus

macracanthus , Dipleuclilanis propatula , Euchlanis triquetra,

Mytilina bisulcata , Colurella sulcata , Lepadella acuminata,

L. cristata, L. triptera, Lecane doryssa , L. pertica, L. scutata,

Monommata longiseta , M. maculate , Testudinella emarginula,

T. parva and T. tridentata. Fifty-one species (23.8%) exhibit

common occurrence with 21 species (13.9%) occurring in all

the pats (Table 3). On the other hand, 101 species (66.0%)

show restricted occurrence while 24 (15.9%) of them are rare

elements. The rotifer communities of the pats of Manipur

register 74.5% similarity (vide Sorensen’s index) with the

species known from the beels of Assam. The differences are

Fig. 1 : Species richness of Rotifera and dominant families

apparently due to distinct paucity of the Brachionidae in

general, and Brachionus spp. in particular. Strikingly, lack of

species of Hexarthra, Pompholyx and Horaella, and rare

nature species of Conochilus, Trochosphaera and Filinia are

noteworthy features of the present observations.

The rotifer communities are characterised by the

occurrence of a high number of small taxa although species

of the higher size classes are also noticed. The former

interesting feature may be assigned to conditions of low

concentrations of food, and predation by fish and invertebrates

as suggested by Papinski ( 1990) and Baumgartner etal. ( 1 997)

respectively, but specific investigations are desired to confirm

these remarks. The predominance of the littoral periphytic

Table 4: Percentage similarities between Rotifer communities (Sorensen’s index)

Pumlen

1-Loktak Pat, 2-Waithou Pat, 3-Utra Pat, 4-Sana Pat, 5-Lakoi Pat, 6-Takmu Pat, 7-lkop Pat, 8-Kharung Pat, 9-Khoidum Pat,

10-Lousi Pat, 11-Karam Pat, 12-Ngagua Pat, 13-Tankha Pat, 14-Lamphel Pat, 15-Pumlen Pat

52

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

species and presence of fewer planktonic elements in the

examined collections may be attributed to the lack of definite

pelagic habitats (De Manuel 1994) in the floodplain lakes.

Besides, the occurrence of both planktonic and non-planktonic

taxa in the pats with marginal vegetation suggests the

occupation of different niches (Bonecker et al. 1998).

Total Rotifera richness (Fig. 1) in different Manipur

lakes varies between 62 and 120, (73 ±14 species); it shows

relatively broad range while mean value corresponds with

the earlier reports of 67-103 (79 ±11 species) and 69-92

(75 ±6 species) from the beels of the Brahmaputra river basin

(Sharma 2005; Sharma and Sharma 2008). The present results

are, however, significantly higher than the reports of

24-35 (30 ±4) species and 54-65 (56 ±3) species recorded

from five (Sharma 2000) and seven beels (Sharma and Sharma

2001) of Assam respectively. Lecanidae (21+4 species) >

Lepadellidae (13 ±2 species) > Brachionidae (8 ±1 species)

together contribute notably (Fig. 1 ) to the faunal diversity in

individual pats. The rotifer communities of the different lakes

indicate 53.0-87.9% similarity ( vide Sorensen index). The

peak similarity is noticed between Waithou and Utra pats

while lowest value is observed between Utra and Sana pats.

Further, Sana pat records the lowest similarity range (53.0-

64.7%). Only 5.7% and 6.7% of instances in the matrix

(Table 4) indicate similarity values < 60% and > 80%

respectively, while in majority of instances (87.6%) the

similarity varies between 60-80%. The cluster analysis

(Fig. 2) reflects higher similarities in the Rotifera of Waithou

and Utra pats, Ngagua and Lamphel pats and, Tankha and

Pumlen pats, while Karam, Loktak, Lakoi and Sana pats are

categorized by differences in their species composition.

Richness depicts significant temporal variations in

different seasons (FJ59 = 12.603, P < 0.005) and in different

pats (F[459 = 5.585, P < 0.005). Further, it shows notable

variations (29-79 species) in individual lakes in different

seasons with maximum richness during winter ( 10 pats) and

autumn (5 pats) (Table 5). The last aspect is affirmed by

significant inverse correlation between richness and water

temperature (r = -0.441). Canonical analysis registers'

moderate cumulative influence of six abiotic factors

(R = 0.529) on richness. Peak mean richness is noticed during

winter (52 ±9 species), followed by 49 ±6 species during

autumn while summer and monsoon communities record

(34 ±4 species) lowest mean richness. The stated features are

in contrast to higher richness reported during summer in the

beels of the Brahmaputra basin (Sharma 2005).

Rotifer abundance is apparently low (58-188, 68 ±18 -

125 ±25 n/1) and it registers significant temporal variations

between the pats (F]459 = 15.601, P < 0.005), as well as

between seasons (F. 59 = 4.345, P < 0.005 ). Relatively higher

densities noticed in Loktak pat (84- 1 88 n/1 ) and Waithou pat

(87-198 n/1) are yet notably lower than their counterparts from

Assam state (Sharma 2005). The rotifers comprise an

important quantitative component (mean: 45.9-58.8%) of

zooplankton in all lakes and, hence, correspond with the

results of Sharma (2005) and Sharma and Sharma (2008),

but differ from sub-dominant quantitative role reported by

Sharma (2000). Rotifera abundance is inversely correlated

with conductivity (r = -0.410) and alkalinity (r = -0.657) and

is positively correlated with hardness (r = 0.614). Canonical

analysis registers higher cumulative influence of six abiotic

factors (R = 0.855) on abundance.

The rotifer communities of Manipur lakes indicate

relatively higher species diversity (2.768 ±0.092 - 3.760

±0.232) than their counterparts of Assam (Sharma 2005).

Interestingly, Loktak lake (a Ramsar site) exhibits highest

Table 5: Seasonal variations in Rotifera richness

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

53

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

Rescaled Distance Cluster Combine

CASE 0 5 10 15 20 25

Label Number + + + + + +

WAITHOU

UTRA

KHARUNG

NGAGUA

LAMPHEL

IKOP

TANKHA

PUMLEN

KHOIDUM

TAKMU

LOU SI

KARAM

LOKTAK

LAKOI

SENA

9

6

10

11

1

5

4

Fig. 2: Dendrogram showing hierarchial cluster analysis

of Rotifer communities of different lakes of Manipur

species diversity (Table 6). The notable feature of higher

species diversity with relatively lower densities of a large

number of species observed in the present study may be

ascribed to fine niche portioning amongst rotifer species in

combination with high micro- and macro-scale habitat

heterogeneity, especially in littoral environments as

hypothesized by Segers (2008). Further, the present

observations exhibit lower Rotifera dominance (mean:

0.069-0.114) signifying quantitative influence of fewer

species (Table 6). The stated feature is re-affirmed by their

higher evenness in various pats (mean 0.879-0.953) indicating

an equitable abundance of different species (Table 6).

Dominance is inversely correlated with density (r = -0.709).

Evenness is inversely correlated with dominance (r = -0.926)

while it is positively correlated with density (r = 0.575).'The

salient features of lower dominance and higher evenness

concur with earlier remarks of Sharma (2000, 2005) and

Sharma and Sharma 2008).

CONCLUSION

To sum up, Rotifera exhibit rich and diverse

taxocoenosis with typical tropical character, show occurrence

of several biogeographically interesting and acidophilus

species and, form main qualitative and quantitative component

of zooplankton in all the sampled pats.. Richness and

abundance register significant temporal variations between

pats and seasons, record limited influence of individual abiotic

factors while multivariate analysis indicates moderate and

relatively higher cumulative impact of six abiotic factors on

richness and density respectively. The rotifer communities

of the different pats are characterized by relatively higher

species diversity, lower dominance and higher evenness.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is undertaken under the “Potential for

Excellence Program (Focused Area: Biosciences) of North-

Eastern Hill University, Shillong. The author is thankful to

the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environmental

Development, Almora, for a research grant during which this

study was initiated. The author is grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) Sumita

Sharma, Eastern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India,

Shillong, for useful comments and suggestions. Thanks are

due to the Head, Department of Zoology, North-Eastern Hill

University, Shillong, for laboratory facilities.

Table 6: Rotifera Density, Species diversity, Dominance and Evenness

54

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

ROTIFERA OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF MANIPUR

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56

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

57-62

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY

PTEROPLATYTRYGON VIOLACEA (BONAPARTE, 1832)

(MYLIOBATIFORMES, DASYATIDAE) IN THE INDIAN EEZ

V.S. SOMVANSHI1'2, SlJO P. VARGHESE1 3 AND S. VaRGHESE14

‘Fishery Survey of India, Botawala Chambers. Sir P M. Road. Mumbai 400 001 . Maharashtra, India.

-Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

■•Email: santha. varghese502 @ gmail.com

Data on the bycatch species of the Tuna longline survey voyages undertaken by the four survey vessels of Fishery

Survey of India (FSI) from January 2005 to December 2007 was analysed to study the distribution, abundance and

biology of the Pelagic stingray, Pteroplatytrygon violacea (Bonaparte 1832) in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone

(EEZ). A total of 378 specimens of the species were caught from Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Andaman and

Nicobar waters during the study period. From the Arabian Sea, this species was caught at a hooking rate (HR) of

0.42 individuals/ 1000 hooks while a HR of 0.51 and 0.96 were registered for this species from the Bay of Bengal and

Andaman and Nicobar waters respectively. The abundance was maximum in the southern latitudes (6-9° N) of Andaman

and Nicobar waters. The disc width of the specimens caught was in the range of 40-62 cm, weighing 2. 0-5. 6 kg. The

individuals belonging to the species were found to feed upon jellyfish, oceanic squids, argonauts, swarming crabs,

pelagic shrimps, euphausiids and finfish. Egg bearing females were observed in the catch during December-March of

every year of the study period and a single mother carrying three embryos were caught during May 2006. The present

study forms the first report of this species from the Indian waters.

Key words: pelagic stingray, bycatch, tuna longline, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal. Andaman and Nicobar waters,

Indian EEZ

Abbreviations used: GAL - Overall length, GRT - Gross Registered Tonnage, HR - Hooking Rate, TL - Total

Length, DW - Disc Width, CPUE - Catch Per Unit Effort, SST- Sea Surface Temperature

INTRODUCTION

Longline fishery targeting tunas and swordfish catches

a number of other species as bycatch. The bycatch in marine

fisheries is an increasingly prominent international,

ecological, social and economic issue (Alverson et al. 1994;

FAO 1999; Cook 2001; Gilman 2001; Dobrzynski etal. 2002;

Gilman et al. 2005), which necessitates the importance of

documentation and quantification of bycatch in different

fishing methods. Species composition of the bycatch in the

tuna longline fishery in the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone

(EEZ) show many interesting species hitherto not reported

or poorly documented in Indian EEZ. Since India is

establishing itself as a major tuna fishing nation in this part

of the globe by converting the loss making shrimp trawlers

to tuna longliners (Somvanshi et al. 2008), it is the need of

the hour to study more about the bycatch in the tuna fishery

for effective management of these resources. In the spirit of

the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, an attempt

was made by the Fishery Survey of India (FSI) to explore the

abundance and distribution pattern of major bycatch species

of longline fishery in the Indian EEZ. Distribution and

abundance of one such bycatch species, the Pelagic Stingray

Pteroplatytrygon violacea (Bonaparte 1832) as revealed

during the tuna longline survey conducted by the FSI vessels

in the Indian EEZ is presented in this paper. Results of

preliminary studies on the biology of this species caught from

the Arabian Sea are also presented here.

The Pelagic Stingray P. violacea is the only currently

known pelagic species of the Family Dasyatidae. Until

recently, the pelagic stingray was classified under the genus

Dasyatis , and later moved to Pteroplatytrygon by McEachran

and Fechhelm (1998). Synonyms of this species appearing in

the literature include Trygon violacea Bonaparte, 1832,

T. purpurea Smith, in Muller and Henle 1841, Dasyatis

purpurea Banard 1934, D. atratus Ishiyama and Okada 1955,

D. guileri Last 1979 and D. violacea Bonaparte 1832. Pelagic

Stingray is distributed in the tropical to temperate waters of

all the major oceans (Wilson and Beckett 1970; Hart 1973;

Nakaya 1982; Branstetter and McEachran 1983; Compagno

1987; Lamilla and Melendez 1989; Nishida and Nakaya 1990;

Menny et al. 1995; Menny and Stechmann 2000; Banon 2000;

Mollet 2002; Letourneur et al. 2004; Domingo et al. 2005).

In the Indian Ocean, the species has been reported from

Australia (Last and Stevens 1994), Reunion Island

(Letourneur et al. 2004) and Indonesia (White et al. 2006).

A review of the literature shows that the occurrence of

Pteroplatytrygon violacea is not reported so far from the

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY IN THE INDIAN EEZ

Indian EEZ. The longline survey vessels of FSI are regularly

hooking this species all along the Indian EEZ. Since humans

do not consume this fish, when caught onboard commercial

longliners it is killed, as the fishermen fear possible stinging

while removing the hook, and thrown out at the sea. Therefore,

the catch is not usually reflected in the logbooks of the

industrial longline operators.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Data gathered by the scientists participating onboard

four tuna longline survey vessels of FSI during January 2005

to December 2007 are analyzed for studying the distribution,

abundance and biology of pelagic stingray. The vessels,

MFV Matsya Vrushti (OAL 37.5m, GRT 465t), and MFV

Yellow Fin (OAL 36.0m, GRT 290t) operating from Mumbai

surveyed the West coast (Arabian Sea), while the other two

vessels, MFV Matsya Drushti (OAL 37.5m, GRT 465t) and

MFV Blue Marlin (OAL 36.0m, GRT 290t), belonging to

Chennai and Port Blair Base, surveyed the Bay of Bengal,

and Andaman and Nicobar waters of the Indian EEZ,

respectively. While conventional Japanese multifilament

longline with five hooks per basket was operated from the

vessels MFV Yellow Fin and MFV Blue Marlin, the other two

vessels operated monofilament longline gear with seven hooks

per basket. The longline gear consists of a series of baited hooks

attached to a main line, which is suspended from buoys floating

at the sea surface. Every month, these vessels are deployed for

voyages of 20 days duration, and about 1 5 longline operations

are conducted in each voyage, operating an average of

9,000 hooks. The general method of operation is: shooting

of the line begins before sunrise and is completed in about 2-

2.5 hours. On an average 600 hooks are operated per set.

Immersion time of 5-6 hours is allowed and hauling is done in

the afternoon starting from the initially shot end.

Onboard, the Pelagic Stingray Pteroplatytrygon

violacea (Bonaparte 1 832) was identified following characters

described by Smith and Heemstra (1986). After the

identification, all the specimens caught during the survey

voyages were subjected to morphometric measurements using

fish measuring board to the nearest millimetre and weighed

using a digital balance with a precision of 0.01 gm. The fishes

were dissected to study their sex, maturity stages, and stomach

condition. The gonads and guts were preserved in well-

labelled polythene bags and kept in frozen condition until

they were shifted to the shore laboratory for further

investigations. After the conclusion of the voyage, samples

were brought ashore for attending the detailed biological

studies. Standard protocols were followed for studying the

reproduction and food and feeding habits, in the shore

Latitude (°N)

Arabian Sea ■ Bay of Bengal A A&N waters

Fig. 1: Latitude-wise number of hooks operated in different

regions of the Indian EEZ during the 2006-2007

laboratory (Stillwell and Kohler 1982; Peres and Vooren

1991).

For data analysis, Indian EEZ was divided into three

regions, namely Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and Andaman

and Nicobar waters. The data gathered from January 2005 to

December 2007 were treated separately for the three regions

and analyzed for studying the spatial distribution, abundance

and percentage contribution of Pelagic Stingray to the total

catch. Abundance index is expressed in terms of Hooking

rate (HR), the number of fish caught per 1,000 hooks.

RESULTS

During the study period, the four longliners together

operated 6,16,314 hooks in the Indian EEZ. Of this, 2,61,002

hooks were operated in the Arabian Sea (6°-22° N), 1,58,492

in the Bay of Bengal (10-19° N) and 1,96,820 in the Andaman

and Nicobar waters (5°-14° N). Latitude-wise number of hooks

operated in the three regions (Fig. 1) show that the hooks

operated at each latitude ranged between 625 and 38,720.

Morphological characters

The specimens of P. violacea hooked during the study

were observed to have the following morphological

characters. Body diamond-shaped with a broadly rounded

snout and angular pectoral disc. Wedge-shaped disc slightly

wider than long, convex at the front, with broadly rounded

comers, and straight on the sides. Eyes small and do not

protrude. Tail about twice body length with a long lower

caudal finfold ending far in front of tail tip, but with no upper

Unfold. Tail with a thick base, tapering to the origin of the

single extremely long (13.0-13.5 cm TL) and highly

venomous serrated spine. Front margin of the pelvic fin

straight, outer corner broadly rounded. No prominent

markings on the body. Colour uniformly violet, purple, or

dark blue-green dorsally, underside white.

58

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY IN THE INDIAN EEZ

Longitude °E

Fig. 2: Map showing the locations of hooking of P. violacea during the present study

Distribution and abundance

Total of 378 individuals of P. violacea were hooked

during the survey period, registering a Hooking Rate (HR)

of 0.613 individuals per 1,000 hooks. The Pelagic Stingray

was caught from almost all the areas surveyed during the

period. Sampling stations from where the species was hooked

(Fig. 2) indicate wide distribution of the species. HR recorded

from different latitudes and their percentage contribution to

the total catch registered from these areas (Figs 3, 4, 5) did

not show any remarkable trend in their abundance indices.

Hooking Rate (by number) % of total catch

Fig. 3: Hooking rate of P. violacea and its percentage

contribution to the total catch recorded from the Arabian Sea

Fig. 4: Hooking rate of P. violacea and its percentage

contribution to the total catch recorded from the Bay of Bengal

In the Arabian Sea, a total of 109 individuals of this

species were hooked registering a hooking rate of

0.42 individual/ 1000 hooks. The percentage contribution of

the species to the total catch from this area was 5.32%.

Latitude-wise data shows maximum abundance in the 6° N

with a HR of 1.88 followed by and 8° N (1.00) and 7° N

(0.95). At 6° N, this species alone constituted 27.78% of the

total catch while its contribution to the total catch from 7° N

was 16.13% (Fig. 3). In northern Arabian Sea, maximum catch

rate was recorded from the 22° N with a HR of 0.94. From

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

59

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY IN THE INDIAN EEZ

Fig. 5: Hooking rate of P. violacea and its percentage

contribution to the total catch recorded from the

Andaman & Nicobar waters

the Bay of Bengal, 80 specimens of this species were hooked

during the study period, registering a HR of 0.5 1 . Hooking

rate was maximum in the 16° N (1 .05), followed by 12° N

(0.73) and 1 1 ° N (0.68). In the 1 1 ° N. this species constituted

1 8.03% of the total catch (Fig. 4). In the Andaman and Nicobar

waters, P. violacea was more abundant in the southern

latitudes, 6°-9° N. Maximum HR was recorded from the 6° N

(2.21) followed by 8° N (1.99). The species contributed

3 1 .65% to the total catch recorded from the 6° N of Andaman

and Nicobar waters. Contribution of this species to the total

catch from the 8° N (22.99%), 9° N (20.36%) and 7° N

(16.40%) of Andaman and Nicobar waters also were

significant (Fig. 5). Although limited survey was conducted

in the 5° and 14° N, pelagic stingray were not hooked from

these two latitudes.

Biological observations

The disc-width, weight and biological aspects analysed

in the present study revealed that disc-width of the specimens

caught ranged from 40-62 cm. while weight of the specimens

ranged from 2.0 to 5.6 kg. Food and feeding studies conducted

showed that this species feeds on Jellyfish, oceanic squids,

Argonauta spp., crabs, pelagic shrimps, euphausiids and

finfish. About 22% of the stomachs examined during the

present study were found to be empty. Swarming crab,

Charybdis smithii was the single dominant prey item observed

in the stomach. Oceanic squid species, including Sthenoteuthis

oualaniensis , Onychoteuthis banksii and Histeoteuthis sp. also

were found to be contributing significantly to the food of

Pelagic Stingray of the Indian EEZ. A variety of small pelagic

fishes belonging to the families Nomidae, Myctophidae,

Gempylidae, Sternoptychidae, and Carangidae were also

found among the gut contents.

Reproduction

The sexual development in Pelagic Stingray is

ovoviviparous (aplacental viviparity), i.e., producing living

young from eggs that hatch within the female’s body. While

inside the uterus, the embryos are nourished by yolk, later they

receive additional nourishment from the mother by indirect

absorption of uterine fluid, which is enriched with mucous, fat

or protein through specialized structure (Dulvy and Reynolds

1997). In the present study, the sex ratio of the specimens

collected was 3:1 (M:F). Egg-bearing females were observed

during December-March, while a single mother carrying three

embryos was reported during May 2006 from the Arabian Sea.

The specimen carrying the embryo had a disc-width of 58 cm

weighing 4.3 kg. The colourless embryos extruded out of the

mother’s body had a disc-width 7.5 to 8.2 cm and the weight

of embryos ranged from 16.9 to 18.3 gm. Since the gestation

period of this fish is usually four months (Hemida etal. 2003),

it is inferred that parturition will be during June-September in

the Arabian Sea.

DISCUSSION

A review of available literature showed that the Pelagic

Stingray P. violacea is not reported and investigated, so far,

from the Indian EEZ, the present study forms the first report

of this species in the Indian EEZ. This fish constitutes a

considerable part of the bycatch in the industrial tuna longline

fishery, playing a role in the pelagic ecosystem of the world

oceans. Although most of the Pelagic Stingrays hooked on

longline are taken onboard in live condition, the fishermen,

fearing possible stinging, usually kill the ray by banging it

on the sides of the vessel before removing the hook and

throwing the carcass into the sea. Ward and Myers (2005)

reported that industrial fishing had resulted in shifts in open

ocean fish communities reducing the abundance (by 21%)

and biomass (by a factor of 10) of tunas and sharks in the

tropical Pacific Ocean. However, the population of several

small and formerly rare species, like Pelagic Stingray had

increased. Environmental parameter like Sea Surface

Temperature (SST) is reported to have some influence on the

distribution of P. violacea. Domingo et al. (2005) reported

increase in the CPUE of P. violacea with Sea Surface

Temperature in Uruguayan waters. Higher catch rate was

registered when SST recorded >20°C. During the present

study, no attempts were made to correlate the abundance with

SST. Low fecundity ( 1 to 9 per litter) of this fish makes the

species more vulnerable to over exploitation. Based on the

mathematical models suggested by Musick (1999), Froese

and Pauly (2005) had categorized this fish as having “very

low resilience” (minimum population doubling time more

than 14 years (K=0.18 (captivity); Fec=l-9), while the species

is categorised as with “High to very high vulnerability"

60

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

DISTRIBUTION, ABUNDANCE AND BIOLOGY OF PELAGIC STINGRAY IN THE INDIAN EEZ

(66 of 100) based on the model suggested by Cheung et al.

(2007). These peculiar life history traits of the species warrant

a cautious approach for the management of this species in

the pelagic ecosystem. Mitigation devices for reducing the

number of Pelagic Stingray hooked in the longline also need

to be developed for avoiding possible stock depletion due to

longline fishing. Mitigation devices will help the fishermen,

who consider the Pelagic Stingray as a pest consuming the

bait aimed for highly valued tunas and swordfish. More

studies on bycatch are needed to account the impact of

longline fisheries on species associated with or dependent

upon harvested species with a view to maintaining or restoring

populations of such associated or dependent species above

the levels at which their reproduction and recruitment may

become seriously threatened.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We sincerely thank the scientist participants, skippers

and crew of the longline survey vessels of the FSI

for collecting the fishery and biological data onboard

the vessels. Guidance by Dr. M.E. John, Zonal Director,

FSI, in manuscript preparation and assistance rendered by

Shri Vishal Bhanji, Kiran S. Mali and Murari Bhalekar,

Research Fellows, in biological studies is also gratefully

acknowledged.

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62

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

63-71

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL CERVUS ELAPHUS HANGLU WAGNER

IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Qamar Qureshi1, Nita Shah2, A.R. Wadoo3, R.Y. Naqqash3, M.S. Bacha3, N.A. Kitchloo3, J.N. Shah3,

I. Suhail3, S. Iqbal3, K. Ahmad3, I. A. Lone3,M. Mansoor3, R.A. Zargar3, S. Hussain3, M.M. Baba3,

M.A. Parsa3, A.R. Latoo3 and I. Dewan3

'Wildlife Institute of India, Chandrabani, Dehradun, 248 001, Uttarakhand, India. Email: [email protected]

:Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Salim Ali Chowk, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001. Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Wildlife Protection Department, Srinagar, Silk Factory, Rajbaghe Tourist Reception Centre (TRC),

Srinagar 190 001, Jammu and Kashmir, India.

Hangul (Cennis elaphus hanglu) is an endangered cervid restricted to the Kashmir valley. At present, a demographically

viable population of Hangul occurs only in Dachigam National Park. Between March 04 and 06,2004, the Hangul

population estimation exercise was carried out at a landscape level in central and southern divisions of Kashmir

valley. Two hundred and ninety-six observers were trained in February 2004 for this exercise; in the Central division

175 observers walked 964 km, and in the South division 121 observers walked 2,014 km for data collection. In the

Central division, Hangul population was estimated to be 214 (SE = 29). Density was estimated to be 3.09 hangul/sq.

km (SE = 0.66). In the South division, the minimum Hangul population estimate was 30. The fawn ratio was observed

to be 21 fawns/100 hinds, and sex ratio was 20 stags/100 hinds. The decline in hangul population can be reversed by

controlling factors responsible for fawn mortality, grazing pressure/disturbance in the habitat, control of pariah/domestic

dog population and discontinuing the release of problem leopards in the area. There is an urgent requirement to initiate

a conservation breeding programme to augment Hangul population in the wild.

Key words: Hangul population. Line Transect, Lincoln-Peterson, Bounded-Count, sex ratio. Fawn Ratio, monitoring

INTRODUCTION

India has witnessed unprecedented loss of species due

to human action in recent times. Conservation efforts in India

intensified in the 1970s to safeguard species and habitats.

The lack in implementation of scientific monitoring

programme to track the population response under rapidly

changing scenarios has left no information to take corrective

measures in time. Hangul ( Cennis elaphus hanglu ) amongst

many other endangered species like Barasingha ( Rucenms

duvauceli). Tiger ( Panthera tigris ), Gharial ( Gavialis

gangeticus), Vulture (Gyps sp.), and Great Indian Bustard

( Ardeotis nigriceps ) are facing problem due to lack of response

to detrimental factors in appropriate time.

The endangered Hangul’s range in Kashmir lies

between Zanskar and Pir-Panjal mountain ranges. The other

subspecies of Red Deer Cervus elaphus wallichi (Shou),

which used to occur in the mountains of East Sikkim, is now

extinct. Hangul assumes great significance as the only

survivor of Red Deer in the Indian subcontinent. Historically,

Hangul range was restricted to an arc of 65 km in width;

north and east of Jhelum, and lower Chenab river, from

Shalurah in the north to Ramnagar in the south (Lydekker

1924; Holloway 1970). A small population existed outside

Jammu and Kashmir in the Chamba district of Himachal

Pradesh (Lydekker 1924), which is now extinct. In the recent

past, Hangul population has declined considerably in their

existing distribution range. The present situation can be

attributed to a large scale biotic interference, habitat

fragmentation and degradation. In its present range, a

demographically viable population of Hangul occurs only in

Dachigam National Park.

There is a need to adopt robust sampling methods to

establish the trends in the Hangul population. The total count

of Hangul had been attempted by the Wildlife Protection

Department (Jammu & Kashmir) with the right intention, but

it failed to provide meaningful trends. Monitoring programme

for species should be based on appropriate scientific design,

inclusive of detection probabilities for individuals (Pollock

et al. 2002). Usually data is gathered with a vague hope that

somehow it will prove useful for conservation; instead it

should be focused on precise information needed (Nichols

and Williams 2006). We initiated a population estimation

programme at landscape level to evaluate current status, and

thereby design an effective monitoring protocol.

STUDY AREA

The Hangul population estimation was mainly done in

the landscape of central and southern divisions of Kashmir

valley, encompassing an area of approximately 808 sq. km.

These divisions include ten conservation reserves, three

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

N

Fig. 1 : Hangul distribution and area surveyed (2004) in Central and South divisons of Jammu and Kashmir

wildlife sanctuaries (Daksum, Overa-Aru and Thajwas), and

Dachigam (lower) National Park (Table 1, Fig. 1).

Hangul is distributed between an elevation of 1 ,700 m

to 3,500 m. This area harbours broad leaf mesophyll forest of

Maple ( Acer sp.). Mulberry (Monts alba), Ulmus spp., Rhus

spp.. Walnut ( Juglans regia), Hatab ( Parrotiopsis

jacquemontiana), a variety of conifers such as Deodar ( Cedrus

deodara). Blue pine (Pinus wallichiana). Spruce (Picea

smithiana), and Fir (Abies pendrow) (Singh and Kachroo

1987; Bano et al. 1995; Ahmad et al. 2002). The riverine

vegetation below 2,300 m elevation is dominated by broad-

leaved forest. The major shrub comprise of Viburnum

cotinifolium, Berberis lycium and Parrotiopsis

jacquemontiana (Singh and Kachroo 1987; Bano etal. 1995).

64

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

The higher reaches (above 3,300 m) comprise of scrub

vegetation of Birch ( Betula utilis) and Rhododendron spp.

interspersed with meadows (Bano etal. 1 995 ), followed by a

permanent snow line, which is above 3,500 m (Rodgers and

Panwar 1988).

METHOD

The population estimation exercise was systematically

carried out in 1960s. Gee (1965) had guestimated the

population size in 1957 and 1965. Schaller (1969) estimated

Hangul population during the rut and concluded that rutting

period is not good for population estimation. Holloway (1971)

conducted a count in November 1969 and February 1970.

He divided the area into six blocks; each block was scanned

by a group of individuals so as to maximize the detection.

The Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Department followed

Holloway’s method for Hangul counts. The census method

of Wildlife Protection Department was more or less consistent

and enumeration was done largely in mornings except in a

few cases when it was conducted both in the morning and

evening (Department of Wildlife Protection 1996, 1997, 2000,

2001,2002, 2003).

The present hangul population estimation exercise was

earned out in the Central and South division of Kashmir

valley. February 2004 was the training period and actual count

exercise was conducted between March 04 to 06, 2004

(Table 1, Fig. 1). On March 13, Hangul sex ratio exercise

was conducted. This exercise for population estimation has

been modified by adapting the transect method. In all,

296 forest staff and volunteers were trained for a period of

Table 1: Landscape covered for population estimation exercise

two weeks during February 2004 in transect marking and data

collection. The data collected includes ocular sighting

distance, hangul group sizes, age and sex, habitat type and

other animal species of interest.

In Central Division, a total of 49 transects were marked

and data was collected by 175 forest staff/volunteers walking

964 km and investing 864 hours in search effort (Fig. 1).

In South Division, a total of 40 transects were identified and

marked where 121 staff members walked 2,014 km and invested

890 hours to collect data (Fig. 1 ).

Analysis

Hangul abundance was estimated by four analytical

methods, (a) density estimate based on Hayne’s estimator,

(b) encounter rates based on length walked and time spent in

search (c) Bounded count and (d) Lincoln-Peterson estimate.

a) Hayne’s Estimator: The transect data was analyzed

for estimating abundance, based on angular distance (Hayne

1949; Eberhardt 1978; Gates 1979; Laake et al. 1993). The

angular distance gives an idea about the visibility of animal

in a given habitat (Hayne 1949; Gates 1979; Burnham et al.

1980; Lancia et al. 1994). The estimator for group density is

Dgrp = ( ( i ) * (if) * 1 (it) }

where Dgrp = Group density, n = number of groups,

L = Total Transect Length and ri = Angular distance of each

sighting.

The variance was estimated using Delta Method (Seber

1982) as

VarDgrp = (Dgrp)2 * (cv (y)) * (cv(y))

where CV = coefficient of variation, n/1 = encounter rate per

transect and 1/ri = harmonic mean of angular distances.

The density of individuals (Dind) was estimated by,

Dind = (Dgrp * Xgrp),

where Xgrp = Mean Group Size and

variance of individual density is estimated as

VarDind = (Dind)2 * (cv (y)) * (cv (y)) * (CV grp)2

where CVgrp = CV of Group Size

The Hayne's estimator based density should be treated

as an index of abundance and will be an useful estimate

particularly in absence of equipment like compass and range

finder.

b) Encounter Rate was estimated by transect length

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

65

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

(number of hangul on each transect / transect length) and

search time (number of hangul oh each transect / search time

on each transect).

c) Bounded-count Method: Here it is assumed that

all animals could be counted without duplication during a

survey of the population and that the process can be

independently repeated. Regier and Robson ( 1967 ) proposed

a Bounded-count Method which is based on the Jackknife

Method of Quenouille (1956). The abundance estimator is

based on the theory of estimating a truncation point by Robson

and Whitlock (1964). Letting N denote the true abundance

and m the number of times the population is assessed, the

bounded-count estimator is

N = 2 x -x ,

m m-1

where,

N = Population Estimate

x = largest of the m counts obtained;

x ,= second largest count obtained.

An approximate confidence interval for population

estimate N with lower limit being xm (the largest count) and

upper limit by:

= 1/a (x - (1- a) - x ), where a (significance level)

we used was 0.1 (90%).

The assumptions of the Bounded-count Method include,

probability of detection should be sufficiently high. The

m counts are independent, probability of detection is constant

across all replicate, animals are not counted more than once

and population is closed during the course of the surveys

(Overton 1969).

d) Lincoln-Peterson Estimate: The problem of

estimating the size of a population from “total counts” known

to be inaccurate has been approached from several directions.

The binomial count disparate or multiple are applicable when

the entities being counted cannot be distinguished

individually, but each of these methods suffer from the

requirement that the population is counted, albeit

incompletely, on numerous occasions (Caughley 1974;

Magnusson et al. 1978; Young and Peace 1999; Williams et

al. 2001 ; MacKenzie et al. 2002; Royle and Dorazio 2008).

Chapman’s (1951) modified Lincoln-Peterson Estimator was

used to calculate the abundance of groups;

Ngrp = (Sl + 1) * (S2+1) - 1

(B+l)

and its Variance is estimated by

Var Ngrp = (S+Q* ( S2+1) * (Sl-B) * (S2-B)

(B+1)A2 * (B+2)

where, S 1 and S2 are number of group types ( 1 ,4,8, 1 2, 1 6 and

>22) seen on each transect in 1st and 2nd survey, and

B group types common to both survey (Pollock et al. 1990;

Young and Peace 1999; Chao et al. 2001).

The number of individuals (Nind) was estimated by,

Nind = Ngrp * Xgrp,

where, Xgrp is Mean Group Size

Population variance was estimated by Delta Method

(Seber 1982) using variance of group estimate and group size,

VarNind = (Nind)' * (CV Ngrp)' * (CVgrp)'

where VarNind= Variance of population estimate,

CV Ngrp = CV of Number of Groups in Population, and

CVgrp = CV of Group sizes Observed.

The population was closed in terms of death, predation,

birth, emigration and immigration, and individuals are equally

likely to be sighted in different surveys.

The use of Lincoln-Peterson and Bounded-count

Method assumes that the two counts are independent and that

there is constant probability of seeing each group by a given

method of survey. Clearly, such a sampling frame exists only

conceptually for wildlife populations (Bowden et al. 1984).

Alternatively, cluster sampling uses groups as the sampling

unit (Bowden et al. 1984), because many species, especially

ungulates, are typically observed in social groups. The

assumption that groups are selected with equal probability

(Bowden et al. 1984) is unreasonable in many cases because

of visibility bias. More appropriately, we can estimate the

probability of observing groups of animals by developing

models of visibility bias.

The reliability of sight-resight estimate in this condition

needs to address two crucial aspects, i.e., (i) the detection of

group sizes are proportional in all surveys to evaluate

aggregation or splitting of groups, thus group size categories

used for estimation were compared across three counts using

Fishers Exact Test and (ii) the average detection distance,

i.e., visibility and effort is similar in surveys, detection

distances were compared using Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. This

method is used in this case considering the area sampled

remains same and group sizes used as an identity do not

differ significantly across surveys, if groups are very fluid

this method cannot be applied.

Statistical analysis was done using R 2.5.

(R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2007), S plus 4.5

(Lucent Technology Inc.), Excel (Microsoft Inc.) and Care 1

(Chao et al. 2001).

Hangul Distribution

All transects were mapped with the help of a Global

66

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

Positioning System (Garmin©).

Minimum Convex Polygon and Kernel methods were

used for Hangul distribution (Animal Movement extension

in ARC GIS9.1, ESRI INC). The area from Kernel Method

was used as effective area occupied by Hangul.

RESULTS

Hangul Population Estimate:

A three-day population estimate and transect-based

density estimate was only possible for the Central division as

the South division had very few Hangul sightings (Tables

2 and 4). The group sizes were proportionally similar (P=0.95)

across three surveys and there was no difference in detection

distance of groups (P=0.24) among these surveys, thus

satisfying our assumptions for use of Bounded-count and

Lincoln-Peterson analysis, i.e., group sizes do not change and

there is no detection bias.

Central Division

The mean count for three days was 213 (+25)

(Table 2). The Bounded-count based estimate was 247

(Table 3). Three Lincoln-Peterson estimates for hangul group

abundance ranged from 25 to 33 (Table 3). The mean population

estimate was 214 (Table 3). The best hangul sighting in

Dachigam National Park was in Reshwadri followed by

Draphama, Drog, Manyu, Kaunar and Badin nalla.

Hangul Density and Encounter Rate: Hangul group

density was 0.43 hangul group/sq. km (SE=0.07) and density

Table 2: Hangul population based on three-day sample counts

(March 2004) in Central Division (Dachigam and its surrounds)

of individuals was 3.09 hangul / sq. km (SE=0.66, CV=22%).

Transects in Mulnar, Drog, Reshwadri, Oak patch

to Draphama area had the highest encounter rate of

1.79 hangul/km. The hangul encounter rates in areas

surrounding Dachigam were 0.23/km in Nishat, 0.1 1/km in

Khrew and 0.08/km in Dara. Hangul was not sighted in the

Khonmoh sector, though indirect evidences were observed.

The other species seen on transects in Central Division

were Musk Deer ( Moschus chrysogaster), Langur

(Semnopithecus entellus ), Rhesus Macaque (Macaca

mulatto). Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Leopard ( Panthera

pardus). Jackal (Canis aureus), Fox ( Vulpes bengalensis),

Yellow-throated Martin ( Martes flavigula). Porcupine

( Hystrix indica), Chakor ( Alectoris chukar ), Koklas ( Pucrasia

macrolopha) and Monal ( Lophophorus impejanus).

South Division

In South Division, analysis of population estimation

was not possible as data set was too small. The maximum

count of 30 was taken as minimum population of Hangul in

this division (Table 4).

Encounter rate of Hangul in this Division was very

poor as compared to the Central Division. In South Division,

Shikargah had the highest mean encounter rate 0. 14 hangul/km

followed by Khangund 0.04 hangul/km and Overa

0.02 hangul/km. Indirect signs of Hangul presence were

observed in Pannyer Conservation Reserve. The areas that

need validation for Hangul occurrence are Khiram

Conservation Reserve and Daksum Wildlife Sanctuary.

The intensive surveys indicated presence of Musk

Deer, Langur, Rhesus Macaque, Black Bear, Leopard, Jackal,

Jungle Cat (Felis chaus). Fox, Koklas, Monal and Chakur.

Four Wolves ( Canis lupus) were sighted in Nanphran nalla

Table 3: Population estimate of Hangul based on Bounded-

count and sight-resight estimator (Chapman modified) in

Central Division ( March 4-6)

Abbreviations: 90% Cl-L - Confidence Interval Lower,

Cl-U - Confidence Interval Upper and CV - Coefficient of Variation

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

67

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

Fig. 2: The decline in Hangul young: hind ratio

between 1996 to 2004

(Lidder-Aru) and a Snow Leopard ( Uncia uncia) track was

recorded in Sattragi (Lidder-Overa) on March 05, 2004.

The Hangul population estimate based on extrapolation

of density on an area occupied in the Central and South

divisions was 260 individuals.

Hangul sex ratio and young: hind ratio

Hangul sex ratio was estimated to be 1 8 stags/ 1 00 hinds

(SE= 1.73) (Table 5). On March 13, observers equipped with

binoculars estimated sex ratio as 20 stags/100 hinds. The four

days mean was 19 stags/100 hinds (SE=1.33, Table 5). The

fawn ratio was 21 fawns/100 hinds. Declining trends have

been observed in the Hangul fawmhind ratio since 1996

(b=-0. 12, P=0.001, Fig. 2).

GROUP COMPOSITION

In this exercise a total of 88 Hangul groups were sighted

ranging from 1 to 25. The solitary hangul sightings were 4.5%

and maximum sightings (28.4%) were in groups of

Table 4: Hangul sighted in South Division from

March, 4-6, 2004

Hangul Group size

Fig. 3: Hangul Group size distribution in Dachigam

(Central Division) present study

3-5 individuals (Fig. 3). Mean hangul group size was

7 (SE=0.58) and the median was 5.

Present Hangul Distribution

At present, Hangul is largely restricted to approximately

504 sq. km of Kashmir valley in South and Central divisions;

there is no report of its existence outside Jammu & Kashmir

(Fig. 1). The effective area occupied by hangul in winter was

148 sq. km (Fig. 1), of which 84 sq. km was in Dachigam,

52 sq. km in areas surrounding Dachigam in Central Division

and remaining 13 sq. km in South Division. The survey and

interviews suggest that a few hanguls do continue to remain

outside Dachigam all year round in areas of Gurez, Ajas,

Bunakot, Bandipora, Kangan, Surpharo Baltal, Harmukh and

Wangath. Reconnaissance surveys and interviews conducted

in Upper Dachigam (Leech top to Gunus nar) and Sindh

Forests suggest the presence of Hangul (Mr. Gh. Mohidin

pers. comm.). In the North Division, Changdaji has a good

habitat with reports of Hangul presence. These reports need

to be further confirmed through systematic intensive surveys.

DISCUSSION

Hangul was once distributed widely in the mountains

and valleys of Kashmir (Schaller 1969). The only Hangul

report outside Jammu & Kashmir was from Gamagul Siya-

Behi Sanctuary in Himachal Pradesh (Kurt 1978). Holloway

(1970) mentions its distribution to be confined to an area of

c. 65 km in width to the North and East of Jhelum and lower

Chenab rivers, from Shalurah in North to Ramnagar in South.

Unconfirmed reports of isolated small populations do

occur within the aforesaid range, particularly in the North

(Kurt 1978). They were also known to be present in the upper

Bringi valley (Holloway 1971) in Bandipora, Gurez, Sindh

valley, Drass valley, Lidder valley and Desu (South-east of

Srinagar) (Kurt 1978). At present, Hangul is largely restricted

to c. 504 sq. km of Kashmir valley in South and Central

68

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

Year

Fig. 4: Population trend in Dachigam and adjoining areas

from 1 954 to 2004

divisions; there is no report of its existence outside Jammu &

Kashmir (Fig. 1). The range size has been reduced in

comparison to Kurt’s (1978) distribution map.

Hangul adult sex ratio was reported to be 15 1 stags/ 100

hinds during rut (Schaller 1969) and in non-rutting period it

ranged from 15 to 25 stags/ 100 hinds (Holloway 1970,1971;

Department of Wildlife Protection 1996, 1997, 2000, 2001,

2002, 2003) (Table 6). The Hangul sex ratio differs in different

seasons due to differential habitat use by both sexes. Clutton-

Brock et al. (1982) reported sexual segregation in Red Deer

during winter. The adult sex ratio in Red Deer reportedly

ranges from 50 to 70 stags per 100 hinds (Whitehead 1972;

Clutton-Brock et al. 1982; Bonenfant et al. 2004). The sex

ratio estimates of February-March 2004, which include all

age classes, are low, but seem to be stable over the years

(Table 5). The sex ratio data may be biased, but is consistent

and thus difficult to provide the reasons of low ratio in

comparison to Red Deer elsewhere in the world.

The young to hind ratio were estimated considering all

hind age classes due to difficulty in identifying reproductive

age class of hind. The young:hind ratio in Hangul was reported

to range between 21 to 51 young/ 100 hinds during February

and March (Department of Wildlife Protection 1996, 1997,

2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and this study (2004). Schaller (1969)

reported 45 juveniles/100 hinds. The counts from 2000 to

Table 5: Hangul Sex Ratio & Hind Young Ratio (March 4-6,

March 13, 2004) in Dachigam and adjoining areas

2004 indicate a decreasing trend (Department of Wildlife

Protection 1996, 1997, 2000, 2001 , 2002 and 2003) (Table 6,

Fig. 4). The studies on Red Deer indicate fawmhind ratio to

range from 16 to 54 per 100 adult hinds, more than 30 is

considered to be a good ratio (Clutton-Brock et al. 1982;

Houston 1982; Boyce 1989). The observed trends

(21 Juveniles/100 hinds) in fawmhind ratio in Dachigam are

alarming, and need careful monitoring and management.

Establishing reasons for declining fawmhind ratio is crucial.

Gee (1965) guestimated the population to be 400 in

1954, which raised alarm for the plight of Hangul. Holloway

(1971) conducted a systematic count in 1969 and 1970. The

population estimate of Hangul had shown an increasing

trend since the 1970s and by 1987 there were 700 Hangul.

After a gap of six years (1994), the population estimate was

120 (Fig. 4), the reason of this decline is not well understood,

may be earlier estimates were wrong, or poaching and

anthropogenic disturbances may have taken the toll. The

population steadily grew to 375 individuals by 2002, which

again declined to 212 in 2003 (Department of Wildlife

Protection records). The total estimate in 2004 was

244 Hangul, 214 in Central and 30 individuals in South

division. The extrapolation of density estimate on area

occupied in South and Central divisions gave an estimate of

260 Hangul (Fig. 1). The population trend indicate decline of

5 percent /annum. There is an urgent need to establish captive

breeding facility for long term conservation similar to the

process done in Kanha for the Barasingha (Panwar 1978).

Table 6: Sex Ratio and Young ; Hind ratio of Hangul

in Dachigam and adjoining areas

*1 : Mean based on estimates done on 4th, 5th and 6th March 2004

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

69

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL IN KASHMIR

Hangul population had been affected by diseases like

Johne’s disease (Kurt 1978), Foot and Mouth (Stockley 1936),

Rinderpest, Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Malignant Catarhal fever

and Brucellosis in Dachigam (Mir Mansoor pers. comm.).

Foot and Mouth disease had taken toll of livestock and Hangul

in the past (Stockley 1936).

Iqbal et al. (2005) reported 25 per cent Hangul

occurrence in Leopard scats, which has contributed 61 per

cent of prey biomass consumed by Leopard. This indicates

substantial Leopard dependence on Hangul. There is a

possibility of predation by other carnivores too, like pariah

dogs, shepherd’s dogs, jackals, black bear and other

carnivores. Ward ( 1921 ) and Stockley (1936) have reported

leopards taking significant number of Hangul stag and hinds.

Stockley (1936) has described black bears ‘as destroyer of

new bom calves/fawns’ though Kurt (1978) has not seen

predation of Hangul fawns by black bear. There are many

missing ecological linkages in the understanding of the

Hangul population, which need to be addressed.

Dachigam and other parts of Hangul distribution range

were historically exposed to heavy anthropogenic pressure.

Ward (1925), Stockley (1936), Gee (1965), Schaller (1969),

Holloway (1971), Kurt (1978) and Inayat Ullah (1985)

described in detail, the detrimental effects of grazing in upper

Dachigam, poaching, affect of sheep breeding farm, disease,

dogs of shepherds, excessive traffic in the Park and natural

resource extraction by locals. After almost 88 years since these

detrimental factors were first documented, most of them

continue even today to affect Hangul survival and there is an

urgent need to address these problems.

The population and distribution range of Hangul is

getting impacted by change in habitat quality, low

recruitment, predation pressure and anthropogenic pressure.

It’s important to monitor and evaluate factors responsible

for decline in Hangul population. The adjoining areas of

Dachigam National Park, Dara Conservation Reserve, Nishat

Brain Conservation Reserve, Khrew and Khonmoh are facing

heavy biotic interference due to developmental activities.

It is recommended to have operational chowkis during

summer, particularly in areas where Hangul and livestock

overlap in habitat use. Protection, landscape level population

management, and conservation breeding programme

is imperative for long term hangul conservation in

Kashmir.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Range Officers: Mr. G. Nabi Lone,

Dachigam, Mr. G.M. Sofi, Khrew, Mr. Mukhtar Ahmad,

Control Room, Mr. Jarnail Singh, Tral, Mr. Manzoor Ahmad,

Overa-Aru, Mr. G.M. Dar, Sindh; Research Scholars: Riyaz

Ahmad, Wildlife Trust of India, Mr. Bilal Ahmad and

Mr. Muzaffar Ahmad Shah, University of Kashmir,

Mr. Mansoor-u-Nabi, and Mr. Amit Sharma from Wildlife

SOS. We are thankful to guards of Central and Southern

divisions who contributed in data collection. We thank

H.A. Shah for data entry, A. A. Shah, V.P. Ola and Neelanjana

Roy for cartography and digitization of maps. We thank

Jammu & Kashmir Government and Department for Wildlife

Protection for having provided the opportunity for

conducting the Hangul population exercise, and Director and

Dean Wildlife Institute of India for support.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

72-82

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

TETRACERUS QUADRICORNIS

Koustubh Sharma1, Asad R. Rahmani2 and Raghunandan Singh Chundawat3

'Snow Leopard Trust, 4649 Sunnyside Avenue, #325 North Suite, Seattle, USA. Email: [email protected]

^Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]. in

’BAAVAN (Baagh Aap Aur Van), S-17 Panchsheel Apartments, Panchsheel Enclave, New Delhi 110 016, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Four-homed Antelope is endemic to the Indian subcontinent and is defined as data deficient by IUCN. It is found

mainly in forest habitats and is usually solitary. A four-year long study was conducted on the species in Panna National

Park, Madhya Pradesh, during which behavioural observations were made using opportunistic focal sampling, mapping

and monitoring middens, and cafeteria experiments. A total of 2,902 minutes of cumulative observations of the Four-

homed Antelope were made in the field, including 352 events when anti-predatory behaviour was recorded. It was

found that the species had a preference for browsing over grazing. It was found using closed canopy thickets, with

dense undergrowth or grass cover, for resting unlike Chinkara, which is a sympatric antelope of the same size. The

behavioural observations were restricted to the more obvious behaviours, but provided us with a good opportunity to

document these for the first time. These include mating, inter and intra-specific interactions, and anti-predatory behaviour.

Data on midden locations and their usage over time were also collected to understand the stimulus behind defecation

by adults and young ones on middens. It was found that while the Four-horned antelope has a peculiar anti-predatory

behaviour where it prefers to hide than run. making it conspicuous and this possibly affected its choice of habitat. The

middens were found to be randomly placed in space and their usage pattern indicated that they were used as points of

communication between conspecifics of different age and sex groups.

Key words: Four-horned antelope, behaviour, Panna National Park, tropical dry deciduous forest, middens,

anti-predatory behaviour

INTRODUCTION

Studying the behaviour of animals in the wild provides

useful inputs for their management (Leuthold 1977; Kilgo et

al. 1998). The pattern of usage of habitats by animals differs

greatly with activity. For many species of animals, the

behaviour changes to a great extent with different levels of

anthropogenic pressure (Kilgo et al. 1998; Bolhuis and

Giraldeau 2005; Rabin 2003). While almost all census

methodologies rely on some basic understanding of animal

behaviour, the reaction of animals to environmental conditions,

degree of adaptability to different circumstances, and conflict

with humans can be best understood by gaining an in-depth

knowledge of their behaviour. Behavioural traits of living

species provide useful information about their evolution (Janis

1981, 1990), and about other closely related or sympatric

species that have gone extinct. Behavioural ecology also

provides an insight into a species’ relationship with other

ecological and evolutionary features, such as morphology,

grouping tendencies and niche occupancy.

The Four-horned Antelope Tetracerus quadricomis is

endemic to the Indian subcontinent, being found only in India

and a few pockets of Nepal. Due to its preference for forested

and undulating terrain (Prater 1980) and solitary living, it is

considered one of the most elusive antelopes in India. It was

considered data deficient by IUCN (Rahmani 2001 ) as there

was little information available about its behaviour and

ecology other than some observations made by Berwick

(1974) in Gir, and by Bhaskaran (1999) and Kannan (1999)

in Mudumalai. Apart from these studies, there were only a

few historic records that discuss the distribution and behaviour

of the Four-horned Antelope in greater detail (Jerdon 1867;

Blanford 1888-1891; Brander 1923; Prater 1980).

The Four-homed Antelope differs in behaviour and

habitat preference from the other five antelope species found

in India. It is found predominantly in forest habitats, whereas

the Nilgai Boselaphus tragocalemus uses forested and open

habitats alike. The Chinkara Gazella bennettii and Blackbuck

Antilope cervicapra are restricted to open habitats (Schaller

1967; Ranjitsinh 1982; Rahmani 1990a,b; Rahmani and

Sankaran 1991; Isvaran 2005; Alfred et al. 2001), while the

Chiru Pantholops hodgsonii and Tibetan Gazelle Procapra

picticaudata dwell in the Himalayan mountain ranges that

are scantily vegetated (Prater 1980; Menon 2003). The Four-

horned Antelope is usually solitary but can be seen

occasionally in loosely associated groups of three to five

animals. The other antelopes usually have larger mean group

sizes, with the exception of the Chinkara, which is found in

smaller groups. However, even the Chinkara can be seen in

groups as large as 17 in summer (Rahmani 1990b).

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

Different species have developed different morphological

traits to serve as secondary sexual characters. The Four-homed

Antelope is unique in having two distinct pairs of horns. The

other known living species to have four horns is the

domesticated Four-homed Sheep found in Britain and a Four-

horned Chamois described once (Beddard 1902). Some

Pronghorn Antelopes ( Antilocapra americana ) develop a split

in their horns near the root, giving it the appearance of having

four distinct horns, but since its family is now segregated from

the antelopes as the Family Antilocapridae, there is no other

known species of antelope that regularly grows four distinct

horns. It is important to study the behaviour of animals to

understand the evolutionary stimuli behind the development

of such unique characters. Morphological features help animals

in attracting mating partners, but then' development into those

of super-prominence is often checked by the costs they have to

pay for it. An insight into the mating and anti-predatory

behaviour of the Four-homed Antelope is expected to provide

clues about the factors behind the development of two sets of

horns in this small antelope.

We classified behavioural observations into three major

classes, namely foraging, reproducing and predation

avoidance. These three broad behavioural classes covered

most of the activities recorded in the field. The three

aforementioned categories were studied with an objective of

understanding the ecology of the Four-horned Antelope. Its

foraging and anti-predatory behaviour provide an

understanding about the pattern of habitat use. Using these

observations, an attempt was made to explain the possible

relationships between the various behavioural traits observed

in the field and to link them to the ecological and evolutionary

biology of the Four-homed Antelope. An attempt was also

made to relate its behavioural ecology with the niche that it

occupies in the forest ungulate community.

STUDY AREA

The Panna National Park is situated between the

coordinates 24° 15’-24° 20' N and 80° 00'-80° 15' E towards

the northern boundary of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is

543 sq. km of Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest with an altitude

ranging between 200 m and 550 m. Situated in the Vindhyan

Hill Ranges, the terrain of Panna National Park is typified by

extensive plateaux and gorges. It has a unique bench

topography that discriminates the area into Hinauta (middle)

and Talgaon (upper) plateaux respectively. The meandering

Ken river splits the Park into valleys, steep slopes, cliffs, deep

gorges and mud banks along the 54 km of its course through

the Park. Along its course, the river goes beyond the Park

boundaries for about 13 km from near Gangau village and

re-enters near Kaneri village. The entire National Park acts

as catchment to the Ken river and the area’s major surface

water flow is towards north and north-east. The Vindhyan

sandstone provides a good medium to recharge aquifiers and

at some places the water keeps trickling throughout the year

from perennial springs.

METHODOLOGY

Opportunistic Focal Animal Sampling

Focal animal sampling (Altmann 1974) was used to

study the behaviour of Four-horned Antelopes. However,

systematic behavioural study using this method mandates

prolonged observations of identified individuals. Four-horned

Antelopes do not have any distinct morphological patterns

(e.g. stripes, spots, unique hom/antler shapes) that may help

identify individuals. Since no animals were radio-tagged

during the study period, identification of individuals was

difficult. All opportunistic sightings were considered as

independent observations. The Four-homed Antelope lives

solitarily or in very small groups. Random encounters of Four-

homed Antelopes were sought, followed by specific efforts

to get the animal accustomed to the observer’s presence. Once

located, individuals were observed as long as the observer

was tolerated by the animal.

Between December 2002 and June 2005, Four-horned

Antelopes were observed on 705 occasions (978 animals).

Notes on their activities and behaviour were taken from 500

independent sightings in the field. Those animals that fled

immediately after being detected were excluded from the

analysis as it was difficult to judge their activity in the

moments before they fled.

Between November 2002 and January 2003, a thorough

survey of the study area was done, and areas with a high

probability of sighting the Four-horned Antelope were

identified. These sites were intensively surveyed thereon for

locating and observing individuals. The Event Instances

(frequency) and Event States (duration) of animals were

recorded along with an additional variable denoting whether

the animal was in a visibly disturbed or undisturbed state due

to the presence of the observer. The Four-homed Antelope is

shy and quite elusive in its escape tactics, and therefore an

individual could be observed continuously for long durations

(> 1 0 minutes) on only a few occasions. The maximum

duration for which an individual was observed was about

2.5 hours.

One of the constraints in this method of observing

behaviour was in locating an individual, almost invariably

the animal had to be in an active state when first seen. This

bias was inevitable as the Four-homed Antelope prefers thick

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

73

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

undergrowth and grass with very low visibility for resting.

The greatest number of behavioural observations could be

obtained during 0600-1000 hrs and 1600-1900 hrs,

presumably because it mostly rests during the hotter part

of the day. However, occasional sightings were obtained

at odd hours, for example at 1200 hrs, 1500 hrs and

2200 hrs.

Preliminary analysis suggested that the data obtained

from the second and third years of study were different from

those of the first year. Too many bouts of behaviour forced

by the observer’s presence (e.g. alert and alarmed positions)

were obtained during the second year. This was possibly

because the study team used a jeep during the first year and a

motorcycle in the second. Covering the human figure in its

silhouette, a jeep that does not make too much noise allowed

a closer approach and longer observations of the animals. In

contrast, motorcycles usually scared away the Four-homed

Antelope inadvertently as these animals were usually shy and

wary of conspicuous human figures.

Midden Mapping and Monitoring

The Four-horned Antelope, like many other ungulates

(Leuthold 1977; Ranjitsinh 1982; Acharjyo et al. 1990;

Biswas and Sankar 2002), has a tendency to defecate on

middens. It was seen that many middens were shared not only

by more than one individual, but also by different species.

Nilgai, Chinkara and Four-homed Antelopes were often seen

defecating on certain middens at different times of the day. A

systematic approach was followed to understand the purpose

of making and maintaining middens (Leuthold 1977; Black-

Decima 2000). Middens were mapped and monitored over a

period of 7 to 15 days. Faecal pellets can be used to provide

evidence of the presence as well as abundance of an animal

in an area (Neff 1968; Marques etal. 2001). Seven areas with

a high encounter rate of Four-horned Antelopes were

randomly chosen and demarcated. Thorough searches were

done to locate and identify middens in these areas. A team of

two to three observers walked along fixed paths, traversing a

strip of width 5-10 m. On reaching the edge of the demarcated

area, the adjacent strip was traversed when searching for

middens. This exercise was repeated till the whole plot was

searched. Physical banners (cliffs, steep slopes, roads, etc.)

Table 1: Midden classes (based on midden diameter)

were considered as boundaries for these demarcated plots

when mapping them. The coordinates of each midden were

noted with the help of a Global Positioning System (GPS),

and it was classified on the basis of its size (Table 1 ). The

status of the midden was estimated visually on the basis of

pellet groups seen on it, and the species that seemed to have

been defecating on it were identified. Once mapped, middens

from a selected area were visited daily for five to seven days.

The time of visit was chosen close to noon, on the assumption

that most animals would be resting during the hotter periods

of the day. Fresh defecations were identified and classified

into the two categories of ‘morning’ and ‘previous evening’.

In addition, the species was identified and the number of

pellets in a single defecation group counted. After noting

information and collecting some fresh pellets, the fresh

defecation was patted and pressed gently to flatten the heap.

This was done to identify fresh defecations with certainty on

the next day’s visit. Since the stimulus for the antelope

revisiting the midden was unknown, precautions were taken

not to disturb the fresh pellet group’s density and its position

on the midden as this could have affected the next visit of the

antelope. It was possible to distinguish pellets defecated by

different individuals on a midden within a day’s span as in

most instances there were some diagnostic differences in

shape, size, colour and placement of the defecation on the

midden.

Cafeteria Experiment

To investigate food preferences, cafeteria experiments

were conducted on a captive Four-horned Antelope in Van

Vihar National Park cum Zoo in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh.

The enclosure was about 275 sq. m in area, with Common

Grass Cynodon dactylon and a Babool Acacia nilotica tree

within it being the source of food. A single male Four-homed

Antelope, about 18 months old, had been held captive for

about 7 months. Five sessions of the cafeteria experiment

were conducted in the enclosure in the last week of October

2002. These sessions were of 2 hours duration and would

start early in the morning at about 0730 hrs and last till

about 0930 hrs and start again at 1330 and continue till

1530 hrs.

Ten species of vegetation were provided to the animal,

spread out in front of it in a semi-circular fashion so that it

had equal access to all species. The species provided to the

Four-homed Antelope were Ber Ziziphus mauritiana , Khair

Acacia catechu, Aonla Emblica officinalis, Renjha Acacia

leucophloea, Babool Acacia nilotica, Amaltas Cassia fistula

and the following grasses: Bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus,

Lampa Heteropogon contortus, Themeda triandra and

Cynodon dactylon.

74

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

RESULTS

A total of 2,902 minutes (approximately 48 hours) of

cumulative observation of the Four-horned Antelopes in the

field was performed. Data were broadly classified into two

categories, namely forced and natural behaviour. Forced

behavioural bouts were those that were influenced by the

presence of the observer. These were generally discarded for

most analyses but were used for describing the threat response

of the animal.

The natural behaviour observations were classified into

Event States and Event Instances. This was done on the basis

of the length of the bout of each of the different activities.

Any behavioural bout occurring for less than a minute was

considered as an Event Instance, whereas an Event State lasted

a minute or longer.

This was done within the constraints of spotting an

animal mostly when in an active state. Observations from

waterholes were also made in different seasons. Three

waterholes were identified, out of which one was a perennial

spring, another was an artificial saucer and the third a check

dam with water available till mid-summer. These waterholes

were monitored three to five times every season, and

observations of Four-horned Antelopes visiting them were

recorded along with their detailed behaviour.

The main activity patterns that were not of the

‘undisturbed’ category were further classified into active

and passive states. An active state was one in which the

animal was on its feet, whereas a passive state was one in

which an animal was either resting or ruminating. Active

states were further classified into the following four major

subclasses.

Foraging: When an individual was observed ingesting

food, whether it was picking forage from the forest floor,

browsing a shrub or nibbling herbs.

Walking: An activity where the animal was seen

moving in a random or specific direction for over 10 m.

Threat response: Whenever the animal was in an alert

position, sprinting or taking evasive action on seeing human

or predators as a threat.

Other activities: All other activities were put together

in this category as there were only a few recorded instances

of some behaviour during our study period. While these could

not be analysed statistically, they provided an insight into the

natural history of a species whose behaviour was more or

less unknown to science.

Any observation in which the animal was resting or

ruminating was assigned to the passive mode. Activities were

represented as the frequency of occurrence within an

observation period. To avoid autocorrelation and to obtain

independent behavioural bouts, animals were continuously

observed within a timeframe, and only a change in an Event

State or Event Instance was timed and recorded. Fig. 1 shows

the percentage of time spent in the major classifications of

behaviour in different time-slots.

Threat Response

For each sighting in the field, notes were taken about

the escape mechanism employed by the Four-horned

Antelope. It was observed that on different occasions, different

strategies were employed to evade potential threats. Whenever

the animal did not take any evasive action, quietly moved,

trotted, walked with stiff legs or just quickly vanished into

thick vegetation, the behaviour was classified as ‘minimum

distress’ or ‘Quiet’. Situations in which the animal took

clumsy leaps with or without curiosity or resorted to short

sprints were ranked as ‘short evasive manoeuvres’ or ‘Clumsy

& Short’. Whenever the animal reacted nervously to threats

and took to sprinting, the behaviour was termed as ‘hyper-

evasion’ or ‘Hyper’.

Midden Mapping and Monitoring

Overall, 145 middens were identified and marked on

the map after sampling six different areas. The spatial

distribution of these middens in space was subjected to

Poisson’s test to investigate the level of clustering in the

placement of these middens. Clustering would mean that the

middens have an inductive effect and were possibly

maintained by individuals, in order to demarcate home ranges

or lure the other sex. It would also mean that their distribution

across a habitat indicates visibility, accessibility and display

rather than use of the respective habitat by the animal. The

G-test for Poisson’s (random) distribution was used to check

clustering in space. We found that clustering was significant

only in one area, namely Badi-saaj (chi square = 7.18;

p = 0.00), which also had the highest number of direct

sightings of the Four-homed Antelope (Table 3).

Fig. 1 : Activity budgeting in terms of frequency of occurrence

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

75

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

DISCUSSION

Behavioural Classifications

(I ) Foraging

The Four-homed Antelope is known to consume some

grass in the early monsoon period and has specialised foraging

preferences in other seasons (Rodgers and Panwar 1988).

Preliminary data on foraging preferences of the Four-horned

Antelope were obtained using the cafeteria experiment. As

only one individual was available in captivity, the data do

not have statistical robustness. Nevertheless, out of the

10 species of vegetation provided with equal access, 6 were

consumed by the Four-homed Antelope in varying proportions

(Table 2). None of the grasses were consumed, whereas

Zizyphus mauritiana , Acacia nilotica , Acacia leucophloea and

Acacia catechu were foraged in decreasing order of

preference. Aonla and bamboo were consumed in small and

insignificant proportions. Despite a lower preference in terms

of the time spent in consumption, Babool was consumed

before Ber, and in larger quantities. It was only after the stock

of Babool was reduced that the animal moved towards Ber.

The captive Four-horned Antelope was alert and

cautious when foraging. It would frequently raise its head

and stop all other activities for a while before getting back to

foraging. The level of alertness when foraging was much more

than when it was ruminating or resting. The majority of the

time between noon and evening was spent resting and sleeping

in the shade. Occasional human disturbances also forced the

animal to wake up and start ruminating after a certain period

of caution had lapsed. Since a Babool tree inside the enclosure

was in bloom, the Four-horned Antelope picked Babool

flowers from the ground avidly. Interestingly, the animal

preferred leaves to flowers when both were provided

artificially, but consumed flowers whenever it found them

on the ground. During the cafeteria experiment, the Four-

Table 2: Food taken by the Four-horned Antelope

during cafeteria experiment

homed Antelope showed no interest in ingesting any of the

grass species other than nibbling some soft bamboo leaves

on a couple of occasions.

Foraging preferences of Four-horned Antelope are

understood from limited direct observations (this study) and

research with tamed animals under conditions that may or

may not have reflected their native habitat preferences

(Berwick 1974; Solanki and Naik 1998). The results of the

other studies were similar to this one where the species showed

a preference for nutritious plant parts, such as fruits, flowers,

leaves over grass.

In the wild, the Four-horned Antelopes spent a

significant amount of the observed time in foraging (Fig. 2).

Jarman's ( 1974) hypothesis, re-established later statistically

by Brashares et al. (2000), suggests that feeding selectivity

is negatively correlated with body size and group size. Due

to the volume: area ratio, smaller species require more energy

per unit weight than do larger ones. Smaller antelopes have

high metabolic requirements, but smaller stomachs in

comparison to larger ruminants. This prevents them from

taking large quantities of coarse forage that is high in fibre

content and low in protein. As a result, smaller antelopes are

more selective regarding their food. As with other antelopes

of the same size (Jarman 1974), it is likely that since food

that is high in protein content is scarce, the Four-horned

Antelopes do not attain high abundances. The Four-horned

Antelope seems to fit Jarman’s hypothesis and tends to feed

selectively. On almost all occasions when it was seen foraging,

we examined the site after the animal had gone. The forage

comprised mainly fruits, flowers, pods, or fresh leaves and

petals, all high in nutritive quality. The animal was never

seen grazing during the study period as was suggested by

Rodgers and Panwar’s (1988).

(ii) Resting

In a span of three years, we could observe Four-homed

Antelopes resting only on 28 occasions. The difficulty in

detecting animals resting in thick grass or undergrowth and

their tendency to flush only as a last resort possibly resulted

in such few observations.

Table 3: Patterns of middens within mapped areas

76

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

Fig. 2: Time spent in various activities as observed

Next to foraging and anti-predatory behaviour, the

Four-horned Antelope displayed resting behaviour most

frequently. The Four-homed Antelope prefers closed canopy

thickets with dense undergrowth or grass cover for resting.

Unlike the Chinkara, which invariably uses open terrain, forest

clearings and forest roads for resting, the Four-horned

Antelope was never found resting in the open. This

observation is in contradiction with the conclusions arrived

at by Bhaskaran (1999) who studied Four-horned Antelopes

in Mudumalai and observed that they use forest roads for

resting. We found that Four-homed Antelopes resting in the

shade or in a thicket would usually flush only when the

observer was less than 15 m away.

The Four-homed Antelope rests in the usual fashion of

most ungulates. They fold their front legs, followed by hind

legs, and bundle down, occupying the minimum possible

space. Since the Four-homed Antelope usually rests in thickets

with very low visibility, it is probably more dependent on its

sense of hearing than its sight, when resting, to detect any

disturbance.

Ruminating being an important aspect of the ecology

of ungulates, they spend a significant amount of time

performing this activity. The Four-horned Antelope usually

mminates while resting, but there were instances when an

animal was seen chewing the cud even when standing. Out

of the nine occasions when the Four-horned Antelope was

observed ruminating, it was standing four times, whereas on

the remaining occasions it was resting. Before ruminating,

the Four-homed Antelopes spent a few minutes observing

and assessing their ambience. Once the ambience was

assessed, they twitched their stomachs with a slight jerk,

which was followed by an apparent movement of the bolus

through the oesophagus to the mouth.

(iii) Interaction

The Four-homed Antelope is a solitary animal. Since

it is not usually seen in groups (69% solitary sightings,

n = 824), there were few opportunities to directly observe

interactions between individuals. Detailed behavioural notes

could be taken on 41 individuals when they were in a group

of two or more. Rapid scanning of the two or more individuals

with a scan interval shorter than 1 minute was done, and

overall, 341 behavioural bouts could be recorded. Sniffing,

submission, trailing, mating and agonistic behaviour were

the various events of interaction that could be observed on

40 occasions. On a few occasions, the Four-horned Antelope

was seen interacting with other species as well, allowing inter-

specific behaviour to be recorded.

a. Intra-specific interactions

a.l. Mating: A male and a female Four-homed Antelope

were sighted at 0916 hrs on February 7, 2003. There had

been brief showers during the previous few days. The pair

moved briskly and briefly around a cluster of trees and bushes

in the lower plateau of the Park, not more than 100 m from a

steep cliff, in an open miscellaneous forest with medium

undergrowth. On being observed, the Four-horned Antelope

pair moved slightly away from the observers, and then the

female started eating leaves of a low shmb. While the female

was busy eating, the male approached her from behind and

mounted her for about 2 seconds, to which female did not

react at all and continued foraging. After dismounting, the

male moved again and mounted her again, this time for a

shorter duration, 1 second. Then the animals moved ahead

and became attentive to passing villagers on a forest road, a

few metres away. At 0919 hrs, the female ran away and was

followed by the male till they both disappeared in the tall

grass. The animals were rediscovered approximately 120 m

from the first sighting spot, resting under a Tendu Diospyros

melanoxylon tree at 1030 hrs. This time the animals did not

react until the observers inadvertently flushed them out when

they were just about 10 m away. The female and male ran

swiftly in different directions instantaneously, but the male

reunited with the female and joined her direction of movement

after proceeding about 70 m. Later, attempts were made to

relocate the pair in the area, but due to tall grass and bushy

terrain, they could not be located.

a.2 Submission: A submissive posture can be defined

as one where an individual shrinks its body, lowers the head

and pulls the ears back. On April 16, 2003, two individuals

were observed in a closed canopy area within a dense

miscellaneous forest. The female started foraging after a short

period of alertness, while the male remained alert and frozen.

Circling around a cluster of bushes, the female approached

the male and took a submissive posture, and the male sniffed

her rear and started foraging. After a while, both the male

and the female moved slowly while foraging selectively. After

foraging for about half an hour, the male sat down in the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

77

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

middle of medium height grass under an open-moderate

canopy. The female sat down to rest after some time. It was

evident that the pair was moving cohesively as we had a couple

of relocations a few hundred meters away from the spot of

the first sighting.

a.3 Kneeling submission: This is one of the most

obvious and distinct interactions between two individuals,

wherein an individual would approach another in a specific

manner. Following a certain mode of communication, the

other individual, not necessarily belonging to a particular sex

or age group, would kneel down on its front legs with the

rear of its body still up. The approaching individual would

then come close and rub its neck with the kneeling antelope

or examine it closely by sniffing it. This ritual usually lasted

only a few seconds, after which both individuals would

assume their normal postures. This behaviour was observed

involving individuals of different sexes and age groups, once

two fawns behaved in this fashion on being approached by

an adult female. It seems that Four-homed Antelopes either

communicate dominance and submission or use it to develop

a bond with conspecifics with the help of such behaviour.

This distinct behaviour was observed both in captive and wild

Four-horned Antelopes. Shull (1958) also reported a kneeling

‘courtship’ between a male and a female Four-horned

Antelope, which later mated.

a.4 Trailing: Following of an individual by another

individual was categorized as ‘trailing’. It was one of the

most observed behavioural bouts involving any two

individuals when seen together. Trailing was recorded on

46 occasions. It was mostly seen in fawns or juveniles

following their mother, but occasionally it was observed

in other age classes also, especially during the rutting season.

a.5 Female-fawn/juvenile interaction: The fawns

seem to follow their mothers for almost a year or so. This

was established on the basis of 41 direct sightings of fawns

with females spread throughout the year. As determining the

age was difficult in fawns, all individuals substantially smaller

than adults (less than two thirds the size) were considered to

be juveniles.

On five occasions a female was seen with a fawn and a

juvenile. This proves that sometimes the juvenile moves with

the mother even after she has given birth to another fawn.

Whenever we saw a mother with a fawn or a juvenile, the

latter followed the line of movement of the mother.

a.6 Nursing: On February 10, 2003, we saw a female

suckling young ones. The two fawns were initially spotted

by us. On the approach of their mother, they ran hastily

towards her and started suckling, with one on either side

of the mother and pushing persistently like the kids of a

goat.

b. Inter-specific interactions

b.l Four-horned Antelope and Langur: The

Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus entellus, being mostly

arboreal frugivores, usually forages on fruits and other

vegetable matter in the trees. They are known to drop a mean

of 4 kg of fresh vegetation per day (Newton 1989). It is also

reported that for some species, such as the Aonla Emblica

officinalis , fruit fall rates without Langur are as low as 1% of

the fruit crop per day compared to when these trees are perched

upon by Langurs. The relationship between the Chital and

Langur is well-known and often referred to as a classical

example of a commensal relationship. While some species

like the Chital and Muntjac usually visit some fruiting tree

species in small groups or pairs for short durations, with the

presence of Langurs on the trees their group sizes increase

and they spend longer durations foraging under these trees.

This association is also known to have a key role in dispersal

of plant species (Prasad et al. 2004). The Four-horned

Antelope was seen associating with troops of Langurs for

foraging on 20 occasions. It was seen foraging in association

with Langurs under trees of Aonla, Bel Aegle marmalos,

Bahera Terminalia belarica , Ghont Ziziphus xylopara, Kaitha

Feronia limonia and Semal Bombax ceiba.

b.2 Four-horned Antelope and Chital: The Four-

horned Antelope and Chital have an overlapping niche in dry

deciduous forests (Berwick 1974, this study), where the

former has a more widespread distribution than does the latter.

The Chital, despite being a hardier and more generalist species

than the Four-horned Antelope in terms of its foraging

preferences, requires a greater extent of suitable habitat and

larger amounts of food for its usually larger populations. Since

the Chital lives in herds and the Four-homed Antelope is

mostly solitary, the anti-predatory strategies of the two

animals are different. Associations between two species with

distinct anti-predatory behaviour and foraging preferences is

rare but was recorded occasionally by us in Panna National

Park. It was found that mostly at sites where Langurs were

foraging on the top canopy, Chitals and Four-horned

Antelopes were both seen benefiting from the items that were

being dropped by the Langurs. Other than this, at some sites

where closed forest stands were recently converted into open

forests by uprooting of some trees, Four-horned Antelopes

were occasionally seen foraging along with herds of Chital.

b.3 Four-horned Antelope, parasites and Treepie:

Wild ungulates are hosts to ectoparasites and other insects

(Krasnov etal. 2003; Miller etal. 2003; Wesonga etal. 2006 ).

Some parasites play a major role in shaping the ecology and

behaviour of the host species (Jog and Watve 2005). The

seasonal distribution of some ungulates, including Four-

horned Antelopes, changes in the monsoon, possibly due to

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1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

an explosion in the population of some parasites. It was

observed that during the first two weeks of the monsoon,

most ungulates possibly moved to the rockier areas of the

study area. This was evident from the reduced encounter rate

of Four-horned Antelopes in areas with a high incidence of

parasites (Koustubh Sharma, unpubl. data).

The Treepie was the only bird which could be observed

cleaning the ears of Four-homed Antelopes. It would perch

on the root of the ear of a Four-homed Antelope, and the

antelope would gently raise its head as if in acceptance of the

act of cleaning. Treepies hang upside down when perching

on the top of the ears of Four-horned Antelopes and pick

ticks avidly while the animals stand almost still for getting

the job done.

(iv) Threat response (anti-predatory behaviour)

An adult Four-homed Antelope weighs about 17-20 kg

(Berwick 1974; Aniruddha Belsare pers. comm. 2007). Based

on the relationship between body size, group size, feeding

style and anti-predatory strategies of different antelopes of

Africa, Jarman ( 1 974) has proposed five social classes. Based

on its size, weight and group size, the Four-homed Antelope

seems to fit the description of Class A. According to Jarman’s

classification, antelopes from this category feed selectively

on a wide range of plant species, use some plant parts only,

remain in a restricted vegetation type and have a small home

range. The feeding style of this class is further described as

exclusive, as it feeds usually on single plant parts. These plant

parts are removed wholly from the site. If animals classified

as Class A feeders come to an area already fed upon by

forerunners, they will have little to nibble upon as their

forerunners would have either taken all of the acceptable items

or would have at least consumed the more obvious or

accessible ones. This is possibly one of the reasons why

antelopes belonging to this class are solitary. As far as their

anti-predatory behaviour is concerned, they depend largely

on making themselves inconspicuous. In the presence of

predators they freeze, lie down and freeze, or run to cover

and freeze. Animals belonging to Class B also resort to similar

tactics when it comes to dealing with a predator. They remain

frozen until a predator is almost upon them and then take a

short sprint to take themselves clear of the predator. Once at

a safe distance, they hide again.

The Four-homed Antelope evades detection, and prefers

hiding and freezing rather than fleeing instantaneously when

it encounters a threat. It has a short flight distance, and only

the crossing of this distance causes it to burst into a sprint.

a. Freezing (no movement and mock feeding): When

threatened, the Four-horned Antelope usually resorts to the

tactic of standing still without any movements. We classified

this behavioural bout as ‘freezing’ or ‘alert’. A record was

also maintained of the duration of all particular freezing bouts

(with resolution in minutes). The duration of frozen alert was

observed to last from a few seconds to 1 7 minutes. The success

of this freezing technique is evident from an observation in

the field on December 12. 2003, when a Four-homed Antelope

standing still in grass of medium height evaded detection by

a Leopard walking just 6 m away.

b. Evasive action: Those actions where the animal

moved significantly in response to threats were called evasive

actions. As the bout interval for these events was generally

short, all these events have been termed as Event Instances,

and instead of duration, frequencies are used to analyse their

occurrence. These patterns were further classified as various

behavioural displays were observed when the animal took

evasive action (Fig. 3).

c. Alarm calls (barking): The Four-horned Antelope

sometimes make a shrieking alarm call. Its alarm calls are

recurring, husky pronk calls repeated at regular intervals. It

is rare to hear its alarm calls as its main anti-predatory strategy

is to hide. These alarm calls are made only when the animal

is faced with some special situations. Since the Four-homed

Antelope is predominantly a solitary species, it is more likely

that the alarm calls are used to warn the predator (Zahavi

andZahavi 1997; Reby etal. 1 999; Bergstrom and Lachmann

2001) that it has been identified, rather than to warn

conspecifics about the presence of a predator (Hauser 1996;

Blumstein 2001).

The alami calls are made at intervals of 5 to 10 seconds

when the animal is standing, and at a much greater frequency

of 0.5 seconds, when sprinting. These calls are diagnostically

different from those of Chital and Nilgai as they are shriller

than those of a Nilgai and huskier than those of the Chital

Fig. 4 shows the spectrogram of the alarm calls made by a

male which had sensed the presence of some predator and

made alarm calls continuously for over 5 minutes.

(v) Communication

Olfaction plays a prominent role in the interactions of

many ungulates with their environment. It is widely accepted

that most forest-dwelling antelopes (e.g.. Duikers and Kirk's

Dikdik) and deer (e.g., Chevrotains and Muntjacs) rely

primarily on their sense of smell for orientation and

communication, as well as in the social context (Leuthold

1977; Geist 1987).

The modes of communication between Four-horned

Antelopes are largely unknown apart from the alarm calls

that are made in response to threats. The following modes of

intra-specific communication were considered, based on our

field observations.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

79

Frequency

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

Fig. 3: Frequency of occurrence of events of anti-predatory

behaviour (natural stimuli, n = 133; forced stimuli, n = 219)

a. Preorbital gland marking: A captive adult male

was first observed in Van Vihar National Park of Bhopal

marking the sharp tips of thorns and the fence wire with its

preorbital glands. Only the adult male displayed this

behaviour, whereas the younger male displayed no such

activity. On many occasions in the wild, the Four-horned

Antelope was seen marking with its preorbitals. Marking

consisted of sniffing the twig or thorn and piercing it

in its head sideways through the preorbital glands. This

marking leaves a colourless liquid on the substrate. This liquid

crystallises into a white solid film on the substrate within a

few seconds of deposition. In the field, adult individuals, both

male and female, were observed marking on twigs, thorns

and grass tips with their preorbital glands. This method is

widely used by many other territorial antelopes and deer

(Brashares and Arcese 1999; Burger 2005). The habit of

marking with preorbitals was displayed by both males and

females, but was never observed in fawns.

b. Urination and defecation: Urination and defecation

are perhaps the most generalised forms of scent marking.

Biological waste also plays an important part in establishing

the role of ungulates in stimulation of nitrogen cycling and

retention, and modification of ecosystems (Hobbs 1996;

Frank et al. 2000). It was observed that Four-horned

Antelopes defecated regularly on middens. A couple of direct

observations of defecation on such middens by males.

females and even fawns prove that middens are also used as

communication points. Mapping of middens and their

periodical regular monitoring was done in order to understand

the parameters influencing site selection and frequency of

defecation on middens (Sharma 2006).

c. Calling: On two occasions, a Four-homed Antelope

was heard making calls which were not very different from

its diagnostic alarm calls, but with a lower amplitude. On

February 6, 2004, a pair was seen courting. The male walked

towards and away from the female while making distinct

cough calls that were milder and more persistent than the

alarm calls, and in a less strained posture (ears and feet

movement relatively relaxed compared with the typical alert

posture). On another occasion, where tiny fawns were

observed hidden amidst thick undergrowth, the female made

soft calls. After this call, the fawns proceeded in the

direction from where she had called and vanished into thick

vegetation.

It was also observed that adult female Four-homed

antelope uses shrill calls that sound more like alarm calls to

warn or communicate with its young ones. On one occasion

a female approached a waterhole with her juvenile fawn.

When the juvenile and the female were separated by about

30 m, the female got disturbed about some potential threat

and burst into a long sprint, continuously making alarm calls

at short intervals. The fawn, which was about a year old,

followed her immediately after hearing the calls, without

waiting to look around for the threat.

Midden Mapping and Monitoring

The way faeces are distributed in space is often

indicative of an animal’s social status. Voidance in one animal

often induces the same in others (allelomimetic behaviour),

particularly between mother and young, and even different

species. To investigate midden maintenance behaviour, each

of the identified middens was given a unique midden code

for further reference.

Regular monitoring and a few direct observations

revealed that the middens were used by both sexes and that

Fig. 4: Spectrogram of alarm calls made by the Four-horned Antelope

80

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE

even the fawns accompanying their mother defecated on them.

No determined and directional movement was observed

specifically towards the middens, but apart from a few

exceptional instances, faecal pellets were essentially released

whenever a Four-homed Antelope came across a midden.

Identification of pellets was difficult at times when a

Nilgai calf defecated on a midden as its pellets look similar

to those of a Four-homed Antelope. Likewise, pellets of the

young ones of Chinkara and Four-homed Antelope were also

confusingly similar. To resolve this problem, based on direct

observations of the three species defecating at middens on

different occasions, we assume that a fawn will defecate on a

midden only when accompanying its mother. This would

mean that two fresh defecation heaps (one with small pellets

and the other with bigger pellets) would be found on a midden

whenever a young one had defecated on it. While there could

surely be some deviations from this assumed behaviour, we

never came across any direct observation contradicting this

assumption.

The only area where clusters were observed was Badi

Saaj. However, the reasons for such a clustering in this area

are unknown, but could be probably credited to the high

density of the population in this region (Sharma 2006).

CONCLUSION

The Four-horned Antelope is elusive and difficult to

be observed in most areas of its distribution. Other than a

few observations, there are few studies on its behaviour.

Although the data presented in this paper lacks statistical

robustness due to inadequate data, it provides useful

information about two critical aspects of an ungulate’s natural

history — its antipredatory strategies and its foraging

preferences. Study of the phenology of the flora of Panna

National Park, which is a dry deciduous forest, reveals that

there is a continuous availability of palatable fruits, flowers

or pods throughout the year in areas with high density of

Four-horned Antelope (Sharma et al. 2007). This is an

important factor for a species which needs to forage on high

protein diet. Being a cryptic animal preferring to hide and

freeze rather than sprint. Four-homed Antelope needs good

undergrowth cover which is just right to hide, and at the same

time helps it keep an eye on the predator. Areas that have

extremely thick understories are usually avoided, and so are

areas with no or minimal undergrowth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work presented in this paper was supported by the

Department of Science and Technology (DST) to the Bombay

Natural History Society for its project on the ecology and

distribution of Four-homed Antelope, and we are grateful to

both the organisations. We would like to also thank the

State Forest Department of Madhya Pradesh for providing

necessary permits to conduct this study in Panna

National Park. We are grateful to Dr. George Schaller,

Dr. Y. Jhala, Mr. Qamar Qureshi, Mr. Faiyaz Khudsar and

Mr. B.M.S. Rathore for their useful comments and support at

different occasions during the study. We are deeply grateful

to the field assistants for their dedicated assistance through

the study. We are highly thankful to Mr. Kumaran for his

useful editorial assistance.

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82

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF TYDEUS KOCH (PROSTIGMATA: TYDEIDAE)

INFESTING THE MEDICINAL PLANT JUSTICIA ADHATODA L. NEES

WITH A NOTE ON ITS BIOLOGY

Indranil Roy1’2, Salil Kumar Gupta13 and Goutam Kumar Saha14

'Entomology & Wildlife Biology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35 Ballygunge Circular

Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India.

2Email: [email protected]

’Email : salil_zsidumdum @yahoo.com

4Email: [email protected]; [email protected]

One new species of Tydeus Koch (Family: Tydeidae) collected on the medicinal plant Justicia adhatoda L. Nees in

West Bengal, India, is described here along with its life cycle.

Key words: Tydeus, new species, medicinal plant, Justicia adhatoda, life cycle

INTRODUCTION

The members of the Family Tydeidae are small, soft

bodied and active. These mites occur in a range of habitats

including mosses, plants, lichens, soils and stored products.

Some are plant feeders, some are predators, and food habits of

many are related to honey dew and fungi (Mendel and Gerson

1982). Unfortunately, not much work has been done from the

Indian subregion on the taxonomy and biology of Tydeid mites.

The present paper deals with the description and

illustrates, along with the biology, of a new species of Tydeid

mite of the genus Tydeus which is recorded for the first time

from the common medicinal plant Justicia adhatoda L. Nees

(Family: Acanthaceae) from West Bengal, India. Type

specimens are deposited in the Entomology and Wildlife

Biology Research Laboratory, University of Calcutta, which

in due course will be deposited in Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Collection and preservation of these mites were done

following Gupta (1985). All the measurements given here

are in microns.

Tydeus justicia sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Female: Propodosoma with four pairs of setae

including a pair of sensory setae and hysterosoma with seven

pairs of setae. Most of the setae on dorsal surface are thick,

slightly curved and appear to be serrate. Striation in the

propodosomal region longitudinal. Striation in the region

between dj and d, transverse anteriorly, and slightly

‘V’ -shaped posteriorly; striation in the posterior-most region

roundish; striation in the lateral region longitudinal. Chaetotaxy

of palp and leg chaetotaxy as in Fig. 1 . Measurements of body

length, width, setae and legs are given in Table 1 .

Male: Unknown.

b

Fig. 1: Tydeus justicia sp. nov.:

a. Dorsal view; b. Palp; c. Leg I; d. Leg II; e. Leg III; f. Leg IV

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Material Examined: Holotype: Female, Experimental

Garden, Ballygunge Science College Campus, Kolkata, West

Bengal, India, ex. Justicia adhatoda, dated: 2.x. 2005, coll:

Indranil Roy. Paratypes: 3 females, data same as for holotype.

Etymology: Named after the host genus Justicia

Remarks: This specimen resembles Tydeus wallachi

Gupta and Chatterjee (Gupta 2002). The major differences

being hysterosoma with 7 pairs of setae instead of 9 pairs in

T. wallachi. Striation pattern on both the species differ, setae

on legs are relatively shorter and palp chaetotaxy differ. This

species also resembles T. munsteri Meyer and Ryke 1959,

being differences exist in number and relative length of

hysterosomal setae, as well as in striation pattern.

Adult individuals of Tydeus justicia sp. nov. were

collected on Justicia adhatoda L. Nees leaf , and were reared

in the laboratory for observing the life cycle. To study different

developmental stages, the following method was followed. The

leaves were cut into bits of 4 cm diameter and kept on a wet

cotton pad in a Petri dish (10 cm diameter and 1 .5 cm in height).

Precautions were taken to remove all the unwanted organisms

on the leaves by brushing; the excised leaves were examined

under stereo binocular microscope. Then the adult females of

Tydeus justicia sp. nov. were released (one on each Petri dish)

on the leaf bits allowing them to lay eggs. On the next day, the

adults were removed from the leaf leaving only the eggs in the

petridish. The life cycle study of the mite was observed with

the 12 freshly laid eggs of same age. Observations were

recorded after every 12 hours to determine the duration of

Table 1 : Measurements of body length, width, setae and legs

of female Tydeus justicia sp. nov. (in microns)

H: holotype, PA 1 : paratype 1 , PA 2: paratype 2, PA 3: paratype 3

different developmental stages. After hatching, the larvae were

lifted carefully with a ‘zero’ number hair brush and transferred

to a previously prepared leaf-disc (at the rate of one larva/ leaf-

disc/ Petri dish). The collected data on different developmental

stages were subjected to statistical analysis. The study was

conducted during September-October 2005 at mean room

temperature and relative humidity of 28.03 °C and 83.05%,

respectively.

The different developmental stages of Tydeus justicia

sp. nov. included: egg, one larval stage, two nymphal stages

and adult. The fecundity and the duration of individual stages

are presented in Table 2.

Life cycle of Tydeus justicia sp. nov.

Eggs

The eggs were elliptical, about 8 1 pi in length and

creamish white. They were laid singly on the under surface

of leaves, adjacent to veins. The mean incubation period was

1.33 ±0.14 days.

Larva

The larva was white, with three pairs of legs. The mean

larval period was 2.33 ±0.28 days. The larvae were sluggish

and non-feeding type.

Protonymph

The protonymph was yellow, had four pairs of legs and

was more active than the larvae; this period was 1.83 ±0.17

days.

Deutonymph

The deutonymph was bigger than the protonymph and

orange in colour. The mean deutonymphal period was

2.17 ±0.17 days.

Adult

Adults were slightly bigger than deutonymphs and were

red in colour. The adult longevity was 16.5 ±0.95 days.

Table 2: Fecundity and duration of different developmental

stages of Tydeus justicia sp. nov. under-laboratory condition

84

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Egg to Adult

The mean duration of egg to adult period was 7.67 ±0.47

days.

Fecundity

The average total fecundity was 7.75 ±0.69 eggs in the

species studied.

DISCUSSION

The life cycle of Tydeus justicia sp. nov. reached

adulthood in about 8 days on the host plant Justicia cidhatoda,

whereas in the related species Tydeus californicus it took

about 12 days on two host plants Weigela sp. and Vitis vinifera

L. Sangiovese (Liguori etal. 2002). In the present experiment,

the average fecundity appeared to be very poor as evident

from the fact that it was only 7.75 ±0.69 eggs per female. As

per Liguori et al. (2002), Tydeus californicus viviparously

generates 26 larvae in her life span of about 44 days on grape

and 32 larvae in about 48 days on Weigela sp., respectively.

On the other hand, it is apparent that the life cycle of Tydeus

species takes almost similar time as that of Tetranychid mite

(Gupta 1985) and Phytoseiid mite (Gupta 2003), but in case

of Tenuipalpid mite, the life cycle takes much longer time

than these mites, where the mean time taken from egg to adult

period was 11-26 days (Jeppson et al. 1975) in case of

Brevipalpus obovatus.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, Govt, of India for their financial assistance and to

the Head, Department of Zoology, and the Head, Department

of Botany, University of Calcutta, for the facilities provided.

REFERENCES

Gupta, S.K. (1985): Handbook. Plants Mites of India. Zoological Survey

of India. Calcutta, 520 pp.

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India. Part I: Orders. Prostigmata, Astigmata and Cryptostigmata.

Mem. Zool. Surv. India. 79(2): 1-183.

Gupta, S.K. (2003): A monograph of plant inhabiting predatory mite of

India. Part II: Order Mesostigmata. Mem. Zool. Surv. India.

20(1): 1-185.

Jeppson, L.R., H.H. Keiffer & E.W. Baker (1975): Mites injurious to

economic plants. Univ. Calif. Press. 614 pp.

Liguori, M., S. Simoni & M. Castagnoli (2002): Aspects of life history

of Tydeus californicus (Banks) (Acari Tydeidae). Redia. 85:

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

85

Journal of the Bombay SSSatural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

86-88

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS TETRALEURODES COCKERELL

(HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) OF INDIA, WITH A KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES

R. SUNDARARAJ12 AND R. PUSHPA1'3

'Institute of Wood Science & Technology, Malleshwaram, Bengaluru 560 003, Karnataka, India.

2Email: [email protected]

"Email: [email protected]

The whitefly genus Tetraleurodes Cockerell from India is reviewed. A new species Tetraleurodes thassammaiae breeding

on Actinodaphne sp. in Singampara (Palakkad), Kerala, India, is described and illustrated. A key to the Indian species

of the genus is given.

Key words: Whiteflies, Hemiptera, Tetraleurodes

INTRODUCTION

The whitefly genus Tetraleurodes Cockerell is

represented by 69 described species almost worldwide (Martin

and Mound 2007). In India, this genus is so far represented

by seven species. A new species of this genus from southern

India breeding on Actinodaphne sp. in Singampara

(Palakkad), Kerala, India, is described with a key to the Indian

species in this paper.

1. Tetraleurodes bambusae Jesudasan & David

Tetraleurodes bambusae Jesudasan and David 1991.

Oriental Ins. 25: 332.

Material Examined: india: Goa (Qupem): 5 puparia

on Oxytenanthera stocksii, 21.ix.2008, R. Sundararaj.

Host: Bambusa sp. (Jesudasan and David 1991);

Oxytenanthera stocksii (new host record).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (Jesudasan and David

1991); Goa (new distribution record).

Discussion: This species is rather distinct from the other

species of Tetraleurodes in possessing sculptures on the

dorsum.

2. Tetraleurodes burliarensis Jesudasan & David

Tetraleurodes burliarensis Jesudasan and David 1991 .

Oriental Ins. 25: 332-333.

Material Examined: india: Tamil Nadu (Burliar):

holotype puparium, on unidentified tree, 20. vi. 1985,

R.W.A. Jesudasan.

Host: Unidentified tree (Jesudasan and David 1991).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (Jesudasan and David

1991).

Discussion: The puparium of this species can be easily

recognized by the absence of dorsal, mesothoracic and

metathoracic setae.

3. Tetraleurodes dendrocalamae Dubey & Sundararaj

Tetraleurodes dendrocalamae Dubey and Sundararaj

2005. Zoos ’ Print Journal 20(7): 1924-1926.

Material Examined: india: Karnataka (Kudremukh

National Park): holotype puparium, on Dendrocalamus

strictus, 10.viii.2001, A.K. Dubey.

Host: Dendrocalamus strictus (Dubey and Sundararaj

2005).

Distribution: india: Karnataka (Dubey and Sundararaj

2005).

Discussion: This species can be easily separated from

the other known Indian species by the presence of submedian

setae on meso- and metathorax and submargin with a row of

microtubercles.

4. Tetraleurodes kunnathoorensis Regu & David

Tetraleurodes kunnathoorensis Regu and David, 1993.

Hexapoda 5(1): 53-56.

Material Examined: india: Tamil Nadu (Kunnathoor):

holotype puparium, on Streblus asper, 21. i. 1991,

K. Regu.

Host: Streblus asper (Regu and David 1993).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu: Kunnathoor (Regu

and David 1993).

Discussion: The puparium of this species is readily

recognizable by the presence of submarginal setae in 5 pairs

and subdorsal setae in 10 pairs.

5. Tetraleurodes pusana Takahashi

Tetraleurodes pusana Takahashi 1950. Annot. Zool.

Japan 23: 86.

Tetraleurodes pusana Jesudasan and David, 1991.

Oriental Ins. 25: 333.

Material Examined: india: Tamil Nadu (Madras):

1 puparium on grass, 5.xii. 1971, B.V. David.

Host: Unidentified Grass (Takahashi 1950).

Distribution: india: Bihar (Pusa) (Takahashi 1950);

Tamil Nadu (Jesudasan and David 1991).

Discussion: Yellowish-brown puparium with no wax

and presence of long cephalic and metathoracic setae and

dorsum without granules and sculptures serve to distinguish

this species from other Indian species of Tetraleurodes.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1 -3: Tetraleurodes thassammaiae sp. nov.

1. Puparium, 2. Margin, 3. Vasiform orifice

6. Tetraleurodes rubiphagus David & David

Tetraleurodes rubiphagus David and David 2007.

Oriental Ins. 41: 406.

Material Examined: india: Tamil Nadu (Kalakkad):

holotype puparium on unidentified plant, l.v.1993,

P.M.M. David.

Host: Unidentified Plant (David and David 2007).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (David and David

2007).

Discussion: This species can be distinguished from

other known Indian species by the presence of fine wax

filaments on the dorsal disc of the puparium and by the

presence of at least 3 pairs of submarginal setae and by the

absence of dorsal setae.

7. Tetraleurodes thenmozhiae Jesudasan & David

Tetraleurodes thenmozhiae Jesudasan and David 1991.

Oriental Ins. 25: 333-334.

Material Examined: india: Tamil Nadu (Burliar):

holotype puparium on Cinnamomum sp., 20.vi.1985,

R.W. Alexander Jesudasan.

Host: Cinnamomum sp. (Jesudasan and David 1991).

Distribution: india: Tamil Nadu (Jesudasan and David

1991).

Discussion: This species is distinguished from other

Indian species of Tetraleurodes by its white puparium with a

distinct suture-like line running from the cephalothoracic

region to eighth abdominal segment on subdorsum.

8. Tetraleurodes thassammaiae sp. nov.

Sundararaj & Pushpa (Figs 1-3)

Description

Puparium: White, without secretion of wax; elliptical,

broadest at first abdominal segment region; 0.84-0.86 mm

long, 0.52-0.58 mm wide; found in groups on the lower

surface ofleaves. Margin toothed, teeth rugose and arranged

in two rows, 16-18 teeth in 0.1 mm. Thoracic and caudal

tracheal pores not differentiated from margin. Anterior and

posterior marginal setae each 6 pm long.

Dorsum: Dorsum with rows of pores and porettes,

subdorsum with faint wavy markings, submedian area smooth,

segment sutures distinct, each abdominal segment suture with

a ridged rim and a pair of microtubercle on submedian area,

submedian pockets present in all abdominal segment sutures.

Submargin separated from dorsal disc by a prominent

complete submarginal furrow; submargin irregularly and

faintly striated. A median longitudinal ridge extending from

7th abdominal segment towards cephalad parallel to the

longitudinal moulting suture connecting abdominal segment

sutures 1-6 and all thoracic segment sutures. A prominent

median tubercle on Is1 abdominal segment, microtubercles

along the metathoracic and transverse moulting suture in the

median area distinct. Longitudinal moulting suture reaching

margin and transverse moulting suture reaching near

submarginal furrow. Base of cephalic setae granulated.

Chaetotaxy: 6 pairs of setae - cephalic setae 80 pm

long, mesothoracic setae 10 pm long, metathoracic setae

20 pm long, first abdominal pseudosetae set close to the

median line 2 pm long, eighth abdominal setae cephalolaterad

of vasiform orifice 40 pm long and caudal setae arising from

submarginal microtubercle 75 pm long. Vasiform orifice

elevated, open, subrectangular, 54-56 pm long, 40-50 pm

wide; operculum subrectangular, 28-38 pm long, 20-24 pm

wide, lingula concealed. Thoracic and caudal tracheal furrows

absent.

Venter: Paired ventral abdominal setae 14-18 pm long,

50-54 pm apart. Antennae reaching the base of prothoracic

legs. Spiracles visible.

Host: Actinodaphne sp.

Distribution: india: Kerala.

Material Examined: Holotype: One puparium, on

Actinodaphne sp., mounted on slide. Coll. R. Sundararaj,

22.x. 2006, deposited in the collection of Forest Research

Institute, Dehradun (NFIC # 21888).

Type Locality: india: Kerala: Singampara (Palakkad).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

87

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Paratypes: Eight mounted puparia, data same as

holotype, deposited one each in the collections of Division

of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi; Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata (2447/H15) and

the remaining in the collection of Institute of Wood Science

& Technology, Bengaluru.

Discussion: This species can be readily recognised from

other known species of Tetraleurodes in the presence of

mesothoracic and metathoracic setae, first abdominal

pseudosetae and subrectangular vasiform orifice, but differs

in shape and by the absence of microtubercles on dorsum.

Etymology: Named after Smt. Thassammai, mother of

the senior author.

Key to the Indian species of Tetraleurodes

1 . Puparium black or bluish black 2

— Puparium pale yellow or yellowish brown or white 5

2. Dorsal setae/meso-, metathoracic setae/submarginal/

subdorsal setae present 3

— Dorsal setae/nreso-, metathoracic setae/submarginal/

subdorsal setae absent barliarensis Jesudasan & David

3 . Submedian setae on meso- and metathorax absent; submargin

without a row of microtubercles; vasiform orifice cordate or

subcordate; 8-10 teeth in 0.1 mm 4

— Submedian setae on meso- and metathorax present;

submargin with a row of microtubercles; vasiform orifice

subrectangular; 16-18 teeth in 0.1 mm

dendrocalamae Dubey & Sundararaj

4. Puparium with fine wax filaments present only on dorsal

disc in nearly 3 circles, but absent from margin; minute

submarginal setae at least 3 pairs; subdorsal setae absent;

submargin devoid of polygonal to rounded markings

rubiphagus David & David

David, P.M.M. & B.V. David (2007): Descriptions of new species of

whiteflies (Hemiptara: Aleyrodidae) from south India. Oriental

Ins. 41: 391-426.

Dubey, A.K. & R. Sundararaj (2005): Description of a new species of

the genus Tetraleurodes Cockerell (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) with

a key to Indian species. Zoos’ Print Journal 20(7): 1924-1926.

Jesudasan, R.W.A. & B.V. David (1991 ): Taxonomic studies on Indian

Aleyrodidae (Insecta: Honroptera). Oriental Ins. 25: 231-434.

— Puparium with very little wax around margin and on dorsum;

submarginal setae in 5 pairs; subdorsal setae in 10 pairs;

subdorsum with dense polygonal to rounded markings

kunnathoorensis Regu & David

5 . Puparium pale yellow or yellowish brown; only metathoracic

setae present; submarginal furrow incomplete; first

abdominal segment without a median tubercle 6

— Puparium white; meso and metathoracic setae present;

submarginal furrow complete; first abdominal segment with

a median tubercle thassammaiae sp. nov.

6. Puparium pale yellow with wax around margin; cephalic and

metathoracic setae short; dorsum with granules and sculptures

7

— Puparium yellowish brown with no wax; cephalic and

metathoracic setae very long; dorsum without granules and

sculptures pusana Takahashi

7. Dark brown patch on dorsum absent; marginal setae wanting;

cephalic setae 17.5 pm long, metathoracic setae 12.5-

15.0 pm long and eighth abdominal setae 17.5 pm long;

vasiform orifice wider than long thenmozhiae Jesudasan &

David

— A distinct dark brown patch on dorsum present; marginal

setae present; cephalic setae 38 pm long, metathoracic setae

43.7 pm long and eighth abdominal setae 27.5-40.0 pm long;

vasiform orifice as long as wide

bambusae Jesudasan & David

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director and Group Coordinator

(Research), IWST, Bengaluru, for the facilities provided. Thanks

are due to Prof. B.V. David, President, Sun Agro Biotech

Research Centre, Porur, Chennai, for loaning the types and for

going through the manuscripts and his valuable comments.

Martin, J.H. & L.A. Mound (2007): An annotated checklist of the

world’s whiteflies (Insecta: Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae). Zootaxa

1492: 1-84.

Regu, K. & B.V. David (1993): Two new species of whiteflies

(Aleyrodidae: Homoptera) from India. Hexapoda 5: 53-56.

Takahashi, R. (1950): Four new species of Aleyrodidae (Homoptera)

from Australia, India and Borneo. Annotnes. zool. Japan 23:

85-88.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

REVIEW

MULTIPURPOSE PLANTS by P.K. Srivastav, Published by Scientific Publishers (India), Jodhpur,

Rajasthan, India. 2008. 354 pp. Size: 24.5 cm x 19 cm. Hardback. Price: Rs. 1,650/- (INR).

The literature on plant wealth of India dates back to

the vedas. It is well-known that Ayurveda has dealt in detail

with the medicinal properties of around 700 plants. During

the British regime numerous explorations undertaken to study

the natural resources of India expedited the documentation

of this wealth. There are umpteen books published since then

that deal with various plant resources of the country. For

instance, the useful plants of india: with notices of

THEIR CHIEF VALUE IN COMMERCE, MEDICINE AND THE ARTS by

C.H. Drury was published in 1873, which compiles extensive

information on 600 herbs and tree species of India, the wealth

of india series is an almost complete account of commercially

exploited plants in the Indian subcontinent. With this

background, the book multipurpose plants by

P.K. Srivastav generates curiosity about the novelty of its

content.

The tome is an account of 159 indigenous, as well as

exotic, plant species brought under cultivation since long.

The species included in the work are non-agricultural shrubs

or trees. Each of these are described with a detailed account

of their botanical and popular names (in foreign, as well as

Indian languages), systematic position, geographical

distribution (global and within India), habitat, habit,

morphological characteristics, floral formula, flowering and/

or fruiting periods, varieties, uses, and different ways of

propagation. This information, as the author states in the

‘Introduction’, is largely a compilation of information from

several secondary resource materials. In addition, first hand

information on the status of sericulturally important food

plants has been incorporated on the basis of his vast

experience, expanding over 31 years.

A note on the methods of cultivation of each species is

a special feature, which is rarely found in previous accounts

on this topic. The author has provided the systematic position

of each species in three systems of classification, namely

Bentham and Hooker, Engler and Prantle, and Hutchinson;

and for some species even Benson. The morphological

information also includes floral formula. These two features

make superfluous stuff irrelevant to the subject. The easily

readable print of the book and the minimal use of technical

words in descriptions may support the claim by the author

that the book will create interest among common people.

However, the unnecessary information, even for individuals

with scientific background, would definitely repel common

people.

Photographs depicting 64 plant species are of poor

quality. For example, photographs of Heteropanax fragrans,

Aegle marmalos , Cedrela toona , Hardwickia binata , Modulus

bombycina , Syzigium cumini , Tamarindus indicus are

‘zoomed out’ images and one can hardly see any key

characters to identify the species. Similarly, the photographs

of Datura metel, Dalbergia sissoo, Litsea salicifolia, Ridnus

communis , Zizyphus mauritiana are of poor print quality. The

picture of Litsea zeylanica is wrongly identified/labelled. The

genus of Acacia auriculiformis and A. arabica on the first

illustration page is wrongly spelt as kAccacia' .

The species are arranged alphabetically as per their

scientific names, though the title of the species profile is its

most popular common name. A strong drawback is the absence

of an index both, scientific as well as common names. If one

has to look for a particular species, using the common name,

one has no option but to flip through pages.

Also, the book fails to mention the current conservation

status of these species. Though most of these species are

cultivated, and do not fall in threatened categories. However,

in case of species with narrow geographical distribution, a

comment on their rarity or commonness would have been

relevant.

The book certainly brings a lot of information in a

nutshell, and will be useful for beginners and students.

■ SWAPNA PRABHU

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 106(1), Jan-Apr 2009

90-131

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . ABNORMAL MATING BEHAVIOUR OF TUFTED GRAY LANGUR, SEMNOPITHECUS PRIAM

AT KALAKAD-MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, INDIA

S. Babu12 and E.A. Jayson13

'Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India.

2Email: [email protected]

3Email: [email protected]

The Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve is one

of the few protected areas in southern India where five primate

species, including Lion-tailed Macaque Macaca silenus,

Nilgiri Langur Trachypithecus johni , Tufted Gray Langur

Semnopithecus priam , Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata and

Slender Loris Loris tardigradus , occur (Johnsingh 2001).

Except the Lion-tailed Macaque, others are found in the

Mundanthurai plateau extending to an area of 50 sq. km with

an altitude of 180 m (above msl) and surrounded by two

major rivers, the Karaiyar and Servalar. Primate studies

in the plateau include research on Nilgiri Langur

(Sunderraj and Johnsingh 2001 ) and on Slender Loris (Gupta

2003).

The Tufted Gray Langur has a discontinuous

distribution in the plateau. The present observations were

made in the last week of December 2006 at the Mundanthurai

plateau. Three Tufted Gray Langurs were observed by the

first author near the Mundanthurai Guest House. Tufted Gray

Langur was known to occur in the lower Pappanasam dam

and Pothigaiadi, which are five and eight km, respectively,

away from the Mundanthurai Guest House. The first author

followed and observed the behaviour of three male langurs

in the office complex at Mundanthurai. They primarily

depended on the kitchen wastes discarded from the Guest

House rather than forage in the forest interiors. A troop of

Bonnet Macaques also depended on the discarded materials

from the guest house.

The first author recorded one Tufted Gray Langur going

behind a female Bonnet Macaque, when she was in heat. The

focal female Bonnet Macaque had a broken tail and the vagina

was visible to the Langur. Later, many interactions were

recorded and the number of approaches made by the Tufted

Gray Langur was recorded. Initially, the Langur maintained

considerable distance (4-10 m) from the focal female Bonnet

Macaque. Later, as a response to the vaginal discharge that

increased on the next day, the Langur frequently approached

the female Bonnet Macaque for copulation. Frequent agonistic

interactions were observed between the Tufted GrayLangur

and alpha male of the Bonnet Macaque troop. A total of

32 such interactions were noticed in a day at different timings

and the Langur always remained and foraged with the Bonnet

Macaque troop on the first day. On the morning of the third

day, the Tufted Gray Langur was observed pseudo mounting

the female Bonnet Macaque. While doing so, the dominant

male Bonnet Macaque interrupted; the same behaviour

continued on the next day. However, on the next day the

female Bonnet Macaque did not give any chance for making

pseudo mounts. This mode of interaction between the Tufted

Gray Langur and Bonnet Macaque has never been reported

earlier; however, an interaction between a male Nilgiri Langur

and a female Tufted Gray Langur (Johnsingh et al. 1986)

was reported earlier from the plateau. A probable reason for

such inter-species mating behaviour may be the absence of

female langurs in their troop.

REFERENCES

Gupta, K.K. (2003): Are they polygamous? Proceedings of the Ethological Society of India 28th Conference, (Abstract), Kalakkad-Mundanthurai

Tiger Reserve, Tamil Nadu.

Johnsingh, A.J.T., R. Chellam & S.F.W. Sundarraj (1986): Langurs of Mundanthurai Plateau. Hornbill 2: 27-32.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (2001 ): The Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve: A global heritage of biological diversity. Current Science 80(3): 378-388.

Sunderraj, S.F.W. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (2001): Impact of biotic disturbances on Nilgiri langur habitat, demography and group dynamics.

Current Science 80(3): 428-436.

2. FURTHER CHANGES IN THE EASTERN LIMIT OF DISTRIBUTION

OF THE HANUMAN LANGUR SEMNOPITHECUS ENTELLUS DUFRESNE

Anwar uddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India. Email: [email protected]

The general distribution of Hanuman or Gray or almost the entire India, excluding the deserts and the

Common Langur Semnopithecus entellus Dufrense, covers snow-capped higher Himalaya. Groves (2001 ) proposed a full

90

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Eastern-most range of Hanuman or Common Langur

specific treatment for different extant subspecies

of the Hanuman Langur. Although it is a very well-

documented species, the eastern limit of its distribution

was imperfectly known with different authors suggesting

erroneous eastern ranges (Roonwal and Mohnot 1977;

Tikader 1983; Corbet and Hill 1992; Das et al. 1995;

Qiu and Bleisch 1996). Choudhury (2007) tried to fix it as

the Rydak river in northern West Bengal, India, and

Sankosh river or Puna Tsang Chit in Bhutan, and Padma

and Meghna rivers in Bangladesh (historically Jamuna

also).

As indicated in other reports (Wangchuk et al. 2004)

and as found during recent visits to Bhutan (Choudhury 2008),

the Hanuman Langur also occurs east of the Sankosh river or

Puna Tsang Chit up to Pele-la (Fig. 1) in Wangdue Phodrang

dzongkhag (= district). Hence, in India and Bangladesh, the

eastern limit is marked by large rivers, while in Bhutan a

large river in the southern part and a high mountain ridge in

the north, act as the zoogeographic barriers.

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A.U. (2007): The eastern limit of distribution of the

Hanuman Langur Semnopithecus entellus Dufresne. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 104(2): 199-200.

Choudhury, A.U. (2008): Primates of Bhutan and Observations of

Hybrid Langurs. Primate Conservation 23: 65-73.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

488 pp.

Das, P„ R. Ghose, T. Chakraborty, T. Bhattacharya & M. Ghosh (1995):

Mammalia. In: Fauna of Meghalaya. State Fauna Series 4 (Part 1 :

vertebrates; Mammalia, pp. 23-128). Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

Groves, C.P. (2001): Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institute Press.

Washington DC. 350 pp.

Qiu, M.J. & W.V. Bleisch (1996): Preliminary assessment of large

mammals in the Namcha Barwa region of SE Tibet. Oryx 30:

31-36.

Roonwal, M.L. & S.M. Mohnot (1977): Primates of South Asia:

Ecology. Sociobiology & Behaviour. Harvard University Press,

Cambridge (Mass.). 421 pp.

Tikader, B.K. (1983): Threatened Animals of India. Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta. 307 pp.

Wangchuk, T., P. Thinley, K. Tshering, C. Thsering & D. Yonten

(2004): AField Guide to the Mammals of Bhutan. Department

of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of

Bhutan. Thimphu. 179 pp.

3. THE COMMON INDIAN MONGOOSE HERPESTES EDWARDSII AS SEED DISPERSER

IN SRIHARIKOTA ISLAND, INDIA

J. Patrick David1-2, B. Senthil Murugan1-3 and Raniit Manakadan1-4

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

The Common Indian Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii

is a carnivore, but fruits and roots have also been recorded in

its diet (Prater 1971; Menon 2003). In this short

communication, we provide further evidence of the Common

Indian Mongoose as a fruit eater, and more importantly as a

seed disperser from a study on frugivory in Sriharikota Island,

Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh. On April 16, 2007, we

observed small droppings scattered on the roadside and some

more deposited underneath parapets of a cable network. All

scats were clumped within a 5 sq. m area and were

approximately 8 m away from the nearest fruiting tree. The

droppings were small ( c . 2 cm in length), and our tribal

(Yanadi) field assistant told us that the scats were those of

the mongoose, which was confirmed on finding the footprints

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

91

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of the species close to the droppings. The droppings of

Mongoose were hard to find and we came across it only on

three occasions during the study period.

On examination of 28 of the droppings collected we

counted 362 seeds of Phoenix farinifera, a small (3 m tall)

date palm species common in Sriharikota. Later, we also

recorded seeds of Grewia rhamnifolia and Syzigium cumini.

In Sriharikota, the Golden Jackal Canis aureus and Small

Indian Civet Viverricula indica are the major dispersers of

these three plant species (David et al. 2008).

According to Balasubramanian and Bole (1993), the

Common Indian Mongoose does not play a significant role

in seed dispersal as it eats the pulp and drops the seeds under

the parent plant. However, our observations in Sriharikota

suggest that the Common Indian Mongoose is a probable

legitimate seed disperser as seeds were recorded in its faeces.

Other than the mongoose, small carnivores like Badgers,

Martens and Civets are known to play a role in seed dispersal

and facilitate germination (Herrera 1989; Rabinowitz 1991;

Zhou et al. 2008). Hence, small mammals like the mongoose

must be intensively evaluated for their role in seed

dispersal.

REFERENCES

Balasubramanian, P. & P.V. Bole (1993): Seed dispersal by mammals

at Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

90(1): 33-44.

David, R, B. SenthilMurugan & R. Manakadan (2008): Plant-animal

interrelationships with special reference to food plants of birds and

mammals. Pp. 6-52. In: Investigations into some ecological aspects

of Sriharikota Island. Final Report (2004-2007). Bombay Natural

History Society. Mumbai.

Herrera, C.M. (1989): Frugivory and seed dispersal by carnivorous

mammals and associated fruit characteristics in undisturbed

Mediterranean habitats. Oikos 55: 250-262.

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Dorling

Kindersley (India) Pvt. Limited, pp. 200.

Prater, S.H. (1971): The Book of Indian Animals. 12lh Reprint. Bombay

Natural History Society, pp. 316.

Rabinowitz, A. R. (1991): Behaviour and movements of sympatric civet

species in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, Thailand.

J. Zoology 223: 281-298.

Zhou, Y.B., L. Zhang, Y. Kaneko, C. Newman & X. Ming Wang (2008):

Frugivory and seed dispersal by a small carnivore, the Chinese Ferret

Badger, Melogale moschata in a fragmented subtropical forest of

central China. Forest Ecology and Management 255(5-6): 1595-1603.

4. HIGHEST ELEVATIONS REACHED BY ASIAN ELEPHANTS

ELEPHAS MAXIMUS LINN. - A REVIEW

Anwaruddin Choudhury1

'The Rhino Foundation, Bamunimaidam, Guwahati 781 021, India. Email: [email protected]

The Asian Elephant Elephas maximus Linn, occurs

across south and south-east Asia, from peninsular India and

Sri Lanka to Sumatra and Borneo (Corbet and Hill 1992;

Choudhury 1999). It occurs in the plains as well as hills,

occasionally moving to higher areas. The highest mountain

range within and near its distribution range is the Himalaya.

How far up the species has ascended has been a matter of

great interest and curiosity.

The first published attempt to find out the highest

occurrence of Asian elephants was by Capt. Molesworth

(1914). He mentioned of 3,109 m at Bhutan-Tibet boundary,

which he recorded during the Aka expeditions. He mentioned

that the elephants move up during hot weather. This area is

apparently somewhere in the present West Kameng district

of Arunachal Pradesh because the Aka tribes inhabit there.

Although, the boundary of both Bhutan and Tibet is nowhere

nearby, it is understandable that about a century back clear

demarcation on the inaccessible mountains was difficult.

Shebbeare (1915) while quoting Mr. Tinne of the

Forest Department stated that elephants ascend at all seasons

92

at Rechila and Sathila in British Bhutan, at 3,066 m to

feed on bamboos. Even tracks were seen in 0.6 m snow in

April 1907. Elwes (1916) while supplementing Shebbeare

(1915) said that “in August 1886 I made a trip with Mr.

Prestage from Darjeeling up the Rishila or Rechila with the

object of finding a shorter and better route into the Chumbi

Valley. For some miles the only path that then existed was

made by wild elephants, and our camp below the summit at

about 2,743 m was disturbed in the night by a herd. But I

was assured by my friend, the late Mr. C.B. Clarke, FRS,

that on one of his botanical expeditions into eastern

Sikkim, he had seen elephants' tracks in the snow at about

3,657 in”.

Betts (1947) mentioned that “While crossing the

Bompu La (2,926 m) in early September I was surprised to

find fresh traces of a large number of elephants. . .” He further

stated that the ringal bamboos growing there attracted the

elephants during the summer months. He, however, did not

pin point the location and no subsequent writer except

Choudhury (1999) highlighted the site.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Map of Eagle’s Nest Sanctuary and Piri-La ridge

showing high elevation summer range of elephants in western

Arunachal Pradesh

The sites mentioned by Molesworth (1914) and Betts

(1947) appeared to be the same and will be discussed later in

detail. Those of Shebbeare (1915) and Elwes (1916) are

located in the present day Neora Valley National Park of

Darjeeling district. West Bengal, and adjacent areas of Sikkim

(Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, East Sikkim district) and

Bhutan (Samtse or Samchi district). However, there is no

recent report of occurrence in this part of Sikkim or Bhutan

although the pachyderms move considerably high up in the

Neora Valley, but all such movements are in summer and not

in all seasons as mentioned by Shebbeare (1915).

The sites of Molesworth (1914) and Betts (1947) are

somewhat difficult to locate for people unfamiliar with eastern

Himalaya as Molesworth (1914) mentioned of a general area

and latter just Bompu La. Presently, there is no place called

Bompu La but there is a station having camps of road

construction labourers known as Bompu (27° 04' N; 92° 24'

E) in West Kameng district, Arunachal Pradesh. It is through

this place that the old Foothills - Bomdila road passes. The

highest point on road is north-east of Bompu, known as

Eagle’s Nest Pass at 2,850 m elevation (27° 07' N; 92° 28' E).

Eagle’s Nest appears to be the new name for Betts’ (1947)

Bompu La? The mountain ridge above Eagle’s Nest Pass is

known as Piri-La, whose highest point is 3,200 m high. Piri-

La apparently refers to a pass on an old foot track, but is now

also the name of the ridge as well as the peak. Many of these

locations are now inside Eagle’s Nest Wildlife Sanctuary and

Sessa Orchid Sanctuary (Fig. 1).

I had the opportunity to work in the area in the 1990s

(Choudhury 1999, 2003). I observed dung, footprints as well as

live animals in the area including Piri-La (27°07' N; 92°25' E),

which has a nice topography and enroute there were several

smaller flat areas with pools and abundant ringal bamboos.

The elephants start ascending in late March or early April

and remain there till end-October. They move from south-

west of Piri-La towards north and north-east up to Tamam

Top (27° 10' N; 92° 27' E; south of Tenga and south-east of

Rupa) for about 5-6 months before starting to descend at the

onset of winter when the area experiences snowfall.

While ascending they follow the main road (gravel

road) from Bompu to Chaku; some directly ascend Piri-La

while others continue through the road via Eagle’s Nest Pass

to Lamacamp. Interestingly, the villagers and visitor’s follow

the trail made by elephants while ascending Piri-La (including

me). The animals which directly ascend Piri-La follow the

crest line of the mountains, which is not rugged but rolling

for their subsequent movement and foraging. The elephants

which travel through the road to Lamacamp mainly affect

the roadside areas at Eagle’s Nest Pass, where some flat and

rolling areas are present with abundant bamboos, and near a

large pond with salt lick and ringal bamboos near Lamacamp.

The elephants cannot descend from the ridge to the road at

most stretches of the road owing to steep slopes and cliffs.

Most of the animals (except for some lone bulls) mingle again

above Lamacamp at Tamam Top.

While descending, the elephants take both the routes

till Chaku, but it is not known (unless some animals are

radio-collared) whether the same animals are passing

through. So far as the number of elephants is concerned,

they were found to be in family groups or small herds of

7-10 animals. Although congregations have not been

encountered, on Piri-La and Tamam Top, where the flat or

rolling ground is relatively large with abundant ringal

bamboos and grass, herds of 20+ were reported by locals

who occasionally pass through on foot. The total number of

elephants spending their summers at such height is estimated

to be between 50 and 80.

The road in question (Foothills-Bompu-Chaku-Eagle’s

Nest Pass-Lamacamp-Tenga) is largely a disused one with

only a few vehicles of Border Roads Organisations (BRO,

GREF, BRTF, etc.) and hunter’s plying on it. but it was under

widening and improvement for all-weather traffic between

Tezpur and Bomdila till such steps were shelved a few years

back owing to possible damage to the sanctuaries. This

remains the major threat for future also, which might stop

such interesting migration of the elephants to such a height

every year.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

93

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Betts, F.N. (1947): Altitudinal limit of the Indian elephant. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 47(3): 546-547.

Choudhury, A.U. ( 1999): Status and conservation of the Asian elephant

Elephas maximus in north-eastern India. Mammal Review 29(3):

141-173.

Choudhury, A.U. (2003): Birds of Eaglenest Wildlife Sanctuary and Sessa

Orchid Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Forktail 19: 1-13.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill ( 1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region: A Systematic Review. Oxford University Press, Oxford,

UK.

Elwes, H.J. (1916): Altitude to which elephants ascend. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 24(2): 355.

Molesworth, A.L.M. (1914): Altitude to which elephants ascend.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 23(2): 350-351.

Shebbeare, E.O. (1915): Altitude to which elephants ascend. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 23(4): 770.

5. FIRST SIGHT RECORD OF ASIATIC IBEX CAPRA IBEX SIBRICA

FROM KUGTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, CHAMBA, HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

Aishwarya Maheshwari1'2, D. Sharma1,3 and S. Banerjee1,4

'WWF-India, 172-B, Lodi Estate, New Delhi, 110 003, India.

Email: [email protected]

Snow Leopard survey was conducted in Uttarakhand

and Himachal Pradesh by WWF-India in 2008. Kugti

Wildlife Sanctuary (KWLS) was one of the study areas for

collecting the information on direct and indirect evidences

of Snow Leopard, co-predators and their prey. KWLS is

situated in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh, India.

It represents the Biogeographic zone-2A of North-West

Himalayas (Rodgers and Panwar 1988). On November 14,

2008, while surveying from Duggi to Relang and scanning

surrounding mountains for evidence of wildlife, an Asiatic Ibex

Capra ibex sibrica was sighted at location 32° 39' 55.1" N and

76° 46' 39.5" E. It was a group of five individuals, of which

two males could be identified. The animals’ identity was

ascertained from the pointed beard, and shape of horns that

were thick scimitar-shaped (Prater 1998; Menon 2003). The

sex of the remaining animals could not be determined due to

long distance (about 100 m) and low visibility.

They appeared for about three to four minutes and went

to the other side of the hill. The group of Ibex was sighted at

an elevation of 3,700 m at the southern aspect. These were

at 50° slope and in a shrubland. The vegetation consisted of

grass (40%) and shrub (60%). This was the first sighting of

Asiatic Ibex in the KWLS. Only indirect evidences were

recorded so far (G.S. Rawat and S. Sathyakumar pers.

Menon, V. (2003): A Field Guide to Indian Mammals. Published by

Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Limited in association with

Penguin Book India (P) Limited.

Prater, S.H. (1998): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

comm.). Apart from Asiatic Ibex Capra ibex , Brown Bear

Ursits arctos , Goral Nemorhaedus goral and Monal Pheasant

Lophophorus impejanus were also sighted during the

survey.

The Asiatic Ibex is a wild goat, and male can easily be

identified by the thick scimitar-shaped horns and pointed

beard. Female can be identified by the smaller size and thin

parallel horns. The coat is dark brown with dull white saddle

patches. It is distributed in the mountain ranges (3,650 m to

6,700 m) of western Himalayas, i.e., west of Sutlej in

Himachal Pradesh and western Ladakh (Menon 2003). It

prefers steep slopes and in the spring they are found low

below the snow-line, attracted by the new sprouting grass

where they usually graze early in the morning and evening.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Mr. Vinay Tandon, Principal Chief Wildlife

Warden, Himachal Pradesh, Mrs. Sunita, DFO, Wildlife,

Chamba, for guidance and support in the entire survey in

Himachal Pradesh. We wish to extend our sincere thanks to

Mr. Ravi Singh, Secretary General, WWF-India, for

facilitating the entire survey on Snow Leopard in Uttarakhand

and Himachal Pradesh.

History Society and Oxford University Press.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a Wildlife Area

Network in India. Vol. 1 and II. WII Field Document No. 7.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.

94

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. RECENT STRANDING INCIDENCES OF MARINE MAMMALS IN WEST BENGAL, INDIA

Prasanna L. Yennawar1

'Marine Aquarium and Research Center, Zoological Survey of India, Digha 721 428, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected]

One of the most fascinating features of Indian

biodiversity is its marine mammals, which include members

of seven different families under two Orders. The families

Delphinidae, Phocoenidae, Physeteridae, Ziphiidae,

Balaenopteridae and Balaenidae belong to Order Cetacea, and

Dugongidae belongs to Order Sirenia. Records of marine

mammals in India, along with its location status, are well-

documented by Sathasivam (2000). There is some literature

which gives taxonomic features, species abundance and status

of conservation of the marine mammals in India (Corbet and

Hill 1992; Molur et al. 1998; Agrawal and Alfred 1999; Lai

Mohan 1999;Kumaran 2002; Alfreds al. 2005; Alfred etal.

2006). Literature review shows that there are a total of

408 mammal species recorded so far in India; this includes

29 species of marine mammals out of 120 recorded in world

(Jefferson et al. 1993). According to the IUCN (2003) and

Alfred et al. (2006), the status of marine mammals in Indian

waters was; 3 endangered, 3 vulnerable, 8 insufficiently

known and 6 under lower risk. However, the Indian Wildlife

Act (1972, amended in 1991) (as mentioned in Alfred et al.

2005) lists only 4 species of cetaceans, i.e., Irrawaddy

Dolphin, Ganges River Dolphin, Sperm Whale, and Dugong

in Schedule I, and 15 species are included in Schedule II.

Lack of adequate scientific information could not provide

any status on the remaining species. The present paper covers

recent stranding evidences of marine mammals, especially

whales and dolphins, along West Bengal coast. This stranding

record will help in fulfilling the information gap on this group

by providing first hand baseline information of their

abundance. The finding will also help the various ongoing

and future research studies on this topic, as well as managers

for successfully implementing conservation laws in the area.

Comparison of earlier records of stranding on Indian coasts

till 2000 shows that most of the incidences were recorded on

the east than west coast. However, West Bengal had meagre

incidences of occurrences of marine mammals. The state-wise

sighting records of stranding of marine mammals in Indian

coasts till 2000 is shown in Fig. 1 .

During the present study, the first incidence occurred

in the first week of May 2006 at Jhelampur beach near

Mandarmoni in East Midnapore district, West Bengal. The

stranding site was immediately visited to record observations

on overall morphology, dimensions, flipper size, part of

skeleton, and skull of whale. Some observations were also

made from indirect evidences like interviewing locals and

fishermen. In addition to this incidence, another dead whale

was recorded at the same place about a kilometre away on

May 16, 2006. All the diagnostic features recorded were used

to draw conclusion on species identification by using keys

given in Prater (1980), Jefferson et al. (1993), and Agrawal

and Alfred (1999). The following observations could be made

from the available specimen in these two stranding incidences:

1 . The overall morphology of the specimen was largely

damaged, but some patches of intact skin appeared

black dorsally and grayish ventrally.

2. The body length of the first whale was about 17 m and

that of the second was 15 m of which the head was

around 35%.

3. The jaw bones could be observed clearly with damaged

baleen plates and bristles. The baleen plates were dark

with horizontal grey bands. Head was V-shaped with a

prominent central ridge over it.

4. There were around 65-75 ventral furrows.

5. Dorsal fin was distinct, but small and sharply angled

and placed at the posterior l/3rd of the back. It measures

around 0.4-0. 5 m, which was approximately 2.5% of

body length. Pectoral flippers were sickle-shaped and

curved towards the end. Tail fluke horizontally flattened

and blade-shaped, which was not supported by bone.

(21 ) Natknown

Fig. 1: State-wise sighting records of

marine mammals in India

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

95

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. Dorsal fin, flippers and fluke black. Flippers and fluke

white below.

7. Body colour was dark grey above and white underneath.

Colour of head was not uniform dorso-ventrally. Upper

jaw was grey with white fringes, however, lower lip

and palate white in colour.

8. The undigested intestine or stomach mass largely

contained crustaceans. As the whale died in open water

before stranding, most of the gut content was

decomposed and beyond identification up to species

level.

9. Blow hole could not be noticed as a part of the head

portion was detached.

From the recorded diagnostic features, it appears that

these two species belong to Genus Bcilaenopteni under Family

Balaenopteridae. Close observations of the distinguishing

features suggests that it was a Fin Whale Balaenoptera

physalus (Linnaeus). The prominent distinguishing features

of Fin whales observed in the present case were asymmetrical

coloration pattern, moderate sized dorsal fin, V-shaped head

with pointed tip, gray baleen plates with white streaks and

black back. Fin whales are distributed worldwide. In the

Indian Ocean, there is a continuous presence of these whales.

As far as the north-east coast is concerned, this is the first

incidence of Baleen whale occurrence. In 1967, one dead

whale species was recorded near Junput coastal area

(Fisheries Dept. West Bengal pers. comm.); this species was,

however, not identified. Sightings of Baleen whales were

earlier reported off Kolkata and Mumbai coasts by de Silva

(1987) (as reported in Agrawal and Alfred 1999). Sathasivam

(2000) and Kumaran (2002) recorded 12 specimens of Fin

Whale from Indian waters, which were mainly stranding and

landings. Five vertebrae of one Baleen whale were also

reported by de Silva (1987), which was displayed in Medical

College, Kolkata, but the stranding site was not reported.

Along with these two whale stranging records, one

small-sized dead sea mammal was also recorded at the same

location about 100 m away on the morning of May 16, 2006.

The overall morphology was not much damaged like in earlier

incidences, except neck and abdomen portion. The diagnostic

features of this mammal are as follows:

1. Colour of body was blackish dorsally and greyish

ventrally.

2. Body length was about 2 m.

3. Mouth was located ventrally with powerful jaws and

pointed snout. The teeth were flattened and around

16 in the upper jaw, the lower jaw was damaged.

4. Eyes were small and bulging.

5. Head was blunt without beak as in other dolphins and

with a bulbous forehead and distinct neck.

6. Blow hole was damaged.

7. The pectoral fin was like flippers, which had curved edges

and rounded tips.

8. Tail was narrow and compressed horizontally.

9. Dorsal fin was very small and the tip portion was damaged.

From the available evidences it appears that the species

was of Order Cetacea, Family Delphinidae. It is commonly

known as Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaella brevirostris Gray.

There are a few reports on sighting and stranding of Irrawaddy

dolphins from Indian waters (Sathasivam 2000; Kumaran

2002). Along the east coast of India, the sightings were also

reported by James et al. (1989) in Bhitarkanika Sanctuary,

Dandapani (1992) in Chilka lake, and Miller (1997) in

Chennai Coast.

The fourth incidence of a stranded dead marine mammal

was recorded at Digha-Mohana on May 1 8, 2006. At first it

appeared like some fish, but careful observation revealed that

the animal was a mammal. The local fishermen informed that

this mammal was stranded for 3-4 days. The diagnostic

features recorded from this specimen are as follows:

1. Colour of the body was greyish-black with spots.

2. Body length was 2.3 m.

3. Mouth and teeth were damaged, but a beak-like

structure could be seen from the skull.

4. The pectoral fin was flipper-shaped and falcate.

5. Tail was compressed and fluke notched in the middle.

6. Dorsal fin was black, backwardly pointed and located

in the middle of the body.

From the available evidence, it appeared to be a

Pantropical Spotted Dolphin Stenella attenuata Gray 1846.

Sathasivam (2000) and Kumaran (2002) reported

13 specimens from Indian waters, de Silva (1987) reported

4 specimens.

It is noteworthy to mention that all these four cases

occurred in the duration of one month and within a few metres.

These incidences draw attention to the need for collective

long-term monitoring studies in this area to determine the

reasons and patterns of stranding. Movement of large vessels

in the nearby port Haldia, one of the busiest ports in India,

offshore and land-based pollution, and high sediment load

through nearby estuaries are some of the existing threats in

this area and should be considered when formulating further

studies. The movement of large animals in such areas often

cause accidents, which may prove fatal to the animals.

Awareness among locals, fishermen and managers also need

to be addressed for effective implementation of environmental

and conservation laws. The present observation within a

month indicates presence of these previously unreported

mammals in the area. The area can be converted into an

important eco-tourism site. This will be an added attraction

96

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

for the tourists in Digha, Shankarpur and Mandarmoni beaches

already famous tourist destination for North-eastern states.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank to Dr. Ramakrishna, Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata, for his encouragement throughout

the study and Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, former Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for his guidance. Thanks are due to

Dr. T.K. Chatterjee, former Joint-Director, for his help during

the study. I am also thankful to various fishermen for assisting

me during the field visit. I sincerely thank the anonymous

reviewer for critically reviewing the manuscript for its

improvement.

REFERENCES

Agrawal, V.C. & J.R.B. Alfred ( 1999): Handbook of Whales, Dolphins

and Dugongs. Published by the Director, ZSI, Kolkata 150 pp.

Alfred, J.R.B., A.K. Das & A.K. Sanyal (2006): Animals of India:

Mammals. ENVIS-ZSI, Published by the Director, ZSI, Kolkata.

236 pp.

Alfred, J.R.B., Ramkrishna & M.S. Pradhan (2005): Validation of

threatened mammals of India. Published by the Director, ZSI,

Kolkata.

Corbet, G.B. & J.E. Hill (1992): The Mammals of the Indo-Malayan

Region. Oxford University Press, London. 488 pp.

De Silva, P.H.D.H. (1987): Cetaceans (whales, dolphins & porpoises)

recorded off Sri Lanka, India, from the Arabian Sea and Gulf,

Gulf of Aden and from the Red Sea. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

84(3): 505-525.

Dandapani, P. (1992): Status of Irrawaddy River Dolphin Orcaella

brevirostris in Chilka Lake. J . Mar . Biol . Ass . India 34: 90-93.

IUCN (2003): IUCN Red list of Threatened Species. Available on http:/

/www. iucnredlist.org.

James, P.S.B.R., M. Rajagopalan, S.S. Dan, A. Bastian Fernando &

V. Selvaraj (1989): On the mortality and stranding of marine

mammals and turtles at Gahirmata, Orissa from 1983 to 1987.

7. Mar. Biol. Ass. India 31(1 &2): 28-35.

Jefferson, T. A., S. Leatherwood & M.A. Webber ( 1993): FAO Species

Identification Guide, Marine Mammals of the World. Published

by FAO. 320 pp.

Kumaran, P.L. (2002): Marine mammals research in India. A review

and critiques of the methods. Current Science 83( 10): 1210-1219.

Lal Mohan, R.S. (1999): Whales and Dolphins of India. Published by

Conservation of Nature Trust, Nagarcoil, India. 91 pp.

Miller, H. (1997): Of Dolphins and Deluges. Madras Musings,

November 16-30, 1997: 5 pp.

Molur, S., P.O. Nameer & S. Walker ( 1998): Report of the workshop

‘Conservation assessment & management plan for mammals of

India’ (BCPP-Endangered Species Project): Published by Zoo

Outreach Organisation, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group

India, Coimbatore, India: pp. 176.

Prater, S.H. (1980): The Book of Indian Mammals. Bombay Natural

History Society, and Oxford University Press, Mumbai. 324 pp.

Sathasivam, K. (2000): Acatalogue of Indian Marine Mammals Records.

Blackbuck 169(2&3 ): 23-74.

7. SIGHTING OF LEUCISM IN SPOT-BILLED DUCK ANAS POECILORHYNCHA

J.R. FORESTER, 1781 AND LITTLE GREBE TACHYBAPTUS RUFICOLLIS

(PALLAS, 1754) IN DISTRICT DUNGARPUR, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Kamlesh Sharma', Virendra Singh Bedsa2, O.C. Chandel3 and Satya Prakash Mehra4

'151, PWD Quarters, New Colony, Dungarpur 314 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

23/l 56, Shivaji Nagar, Housing Board, Dungarpur 314 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

3DFO, Dept of Forests, Udaipur Road, Dungarpur 314 001, Rajasthan. India. Email: [email protected]

4WWF-India Bharatpur Field Office, Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India. Email: [email protected]

Leucism is an abnormal plumage; though uncommon

it occurs occasionally in many species. While albinism

is a genetic mutation that prevents the formation of the

pigment melanin, leucism occurs when this pigment is

diluted causing paler plumage that is often cream or sometimes

white.

On February 04, 2009, a single individual of Spot-billed

Duck with white plumage was sighted in the Gamela pond of

Chhota Bodigama village, Dungaipur, Rajasthan. The entire

body was white, except for the head (Fig. 1).

Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha J.R. Forester,

1 78 1 , is a large-sized widespread resident duck found all over

the Indian subcontinent (Ali and Ripley 2001, handbook of

THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN TOGETHER WITH THOSE OF

Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and sri lanka. Oxford University

Press, Bombay). Normal individual of Spotbilled Duck has

scaly-patterned buffy grey and dark brown plumage.

Fig. 1: Spot-billed Duck Anas poecilorhyncha with leucism

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

97

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Likewise, on August 09, 2008, we sighted a single

individual of Little Grebe with white upper parts and crown

in the Gamela pond of Bankoda village in district Dungarpur,

Rajasthan. The bird was prominent among the other grebes

in the area.

Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas, 1764) is a

small, tailless, aquatic resident bird found all over the Indian

subcontinent Ali and Ripley (2001). In normal individuals,

the upper parts are dark brown with darker crown and sides

of head, neck, and throat chestnut.

8. STATUS OF WHITE-HEADED OR AUSTRALIAN STILT

HIMANTOPUS LEUCOCEPHALUS IN SRI LANKA

Sarath W. Kotagama1’2 and Rex I. De Silva1

‘Field Ornithology Group of Sri Lanka, Department of Zoology, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka.

2Email: [email protected]

Fig. 2: Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis with leucism

The White-headed Stilt (= Australian Stilt) Himantopus

leucocephalus was first recorded from Sri Lanka by the second

author on November 18, 1995 (De Silva 1996, 2000a). Since

then there have been more records of the species from

Sri Lanka (Table 1). All sightings are from the south-eastern

quarter of Sri Lanka during the winter migratory season

(i.e., approximately between mid-November and mid- April).

In general, the birds are solitary while in Sri Lanka,

but there are a few reports of the White-headed Stilt being

seen in the company of its congeners the nominate Black-

winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus - a common species in

many Sri Lankan wetlands. On December 07, 2003, some

Black-winged Stilts were observed attacking and chasing a

pair of White-headed Stilts (W. Kulasuriya pers. comm.).

White-headed Stilts can easily be differentiated in the field

from the Black-winged Stilts by their white heads and

elongated black hindneck feathers, which form a sharply

defined raised hindneck patch or ridge (De Silva 2002).

A few Black-winged Stilts may occasionally have a dark

hindneck but, even so, they can easily be separated from the

White-headed Stilts, as their hindneck feathers are not

elongated (i.e., they are of the same length as the other neck

feathers), the dark hindneck patch is not sharply defined and

the head is often suffused with grey (De Silva 2000b, 2002).

Table 1: Sightings of White-headed Stilt Himantopus leucocephalus from Sri Lanka

98

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

This raises an interesting question: Do White-headed

Stilts breed with the Black-winged Stilts, and if so, does

cross-breeding occur in Sri Lanka? While positive evidence

for this is lacking, some tantalizing clues suggest that they

could do so. In 2001, a national newspaper published the

photograph of a stilt in Ruhuna National Park (south-east

Sri Lanka) with features of both the White-headed and

Black-winged Stilt (photographic evidence provided).

Authorities, who examined the photograph, suggest that the

bird is probably a hybrid of the White-headed and Black-

winged Stilt (De Silva 2003). There are a few other sightings

of similar birds from the south-eastern quarter during the

winter migratory season. While the possibility of

interbreeding between the two species is suggested by these

observations, the question is where such possible

hybridization could occur. As White-headed Stilts and the

(putative) hybrids are recorded in Sri Lanka mainly during

the winter migratory season, it is unlikely that interbreeding

would occur in the Island. Any possible hybridization would

therefore conceivably take place where the home-ranges of

the two species overlap during the breeding season. This

suggests the Indonesian region, where the White-headed and

Black-winged stilts occur together for much of the year.

It is significant to note that (as in Sri Lanka) White-headed

Stilts visit India during the winter migratory season (Lopez and

Mundkur 1997; Kotagama 2005). Since the majority of records

of White-headed Stilts are from the eastern regions of India and

the south-eastern quarter of Sri Lanka, it suggests strongly that

the birds probably arrive in both countries from home-ranges

which are farther East; once again suggesting the Indonesian

region. White-headed Stilts appear to be expanding their range

in the Oriental region. As indicated above, the first author (SWK)

has photographed White-headed Stilts in Sri Lanka and has

shown that the species was known from India for many years

(Kotagama 2005). (The Natural History Museum in Tring, has

a specimen labelled "from British India” dating back to the 1 9th

century). In addition to Sri Lanka, the species has been recorded

from India (Lopez and Mundkur 1997; Kotagama 2005), South-

east Asia (Nial Moores pers. comm.), Indonesia (Hayman

et al. 1987) and Japan (Akira Hibi pers. comm.). Some

authorities (Tony Prater, C.S. Roselaar, and Ray Pierce pers.

comm.; De Silva 2000b) suggest that the White-headed Stilts

visiting Sri Lanka could come from Sumatra or Java.

It is now clear that the White-headed Stilt is an irregular

winter visitor to Sri Lanka in small numbers (Kotagama et

al. 2006). We further suspect that the birds visiting India and

Sri Lanka may be a part of a post-breeding dispersal.

The occurrence of White-headed Stilts in Sri Lanka and

the possibility of hybridization with the nominate are interesting

phenomena which merit further observation and study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Rex De Silva is grateful to Drs. Ray Pierce, Tony Prater

and C.S. Roselaar for their comments on photographs of Stilts

from Sri Lanka. He also thanks Drs. Akira Hibi, Nial Moores

and Frank Steinheimer for information provided. We thank

Rahula Perera for his excellent photographs of a White-headed

Stilt in Bundala National Park, Sri Lanka. Also, we thank

Chintaka Kaluthota for assisting in numerous ways.

REFERENCES

De Silva, R.I. (1996): The Australian Stilt in Sri Lanka. Malkoha 3(1): 4.

De Silva, R.I. (2000a): An Australian Wader Himantopus himantopus

leucocephalus, in Sri Lanka. Loris 22(3): 15-17.

De Silva, R.I. (2000b): A further note on the Australian Stilt Himantopus

leucocephalus in Sri Lanka. Loris 22(4): 27.

De Silva, R.I. (2002): A note on neck feathering in Stilts. Loris 23(1 &2):

27-28.

De Silva, R.I. (2003): An Unusual Stilt from Sri Lanka. Loris 23(3&4): 50.

Hayman, P., J. Marchant & T. Prater (1987): Shorebirds: an

identification guide to the waders of the world. London.

Christopher Helm.

Kotagama, S.W. (2005): A Tilt to the Stilt story. Loris 24(1 &2): 28.

Kotagama, S.W., R.I. De Silva, A.S. Wijeyasinghe &

V. Abeygunawardane (2006): Avifauna! list of Sri Lanka.

Pp. 164-203. In: Bambaradeniya, C.N.B. (Ed.): Fauna of Sri

Lanka - Status of Taxonomy, Research and Conservation. The

World Conservation Union (IUCN) Colombo. Sri Lanka and

Government of Sri Lanka.

Lopez, A. & T. Mundkur (Eds) (1997): The Asian Waterfowl Census

1994-1996: Results of the Coordinated Waterbird Census and

Overview of the Status of Wetlands in Asia. Wetlands International.

Kuala Lampur.

9. REDESCRIPTION OF JAPANESE CATALUFA PRISTIGENYS N1PHONIA (CUVIER &

VALENCIENNES, 1829): A NEW DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORD FROM SOUTH INDIAN WATERS

S. Ramachandran1 and K.P. Philip2

'Fishery Survey of India, PO Box No. 853, Kochangadi, Kochi 682 005, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

2Illickal, 2/341 8-A Sadanam Road. Civil Station PO. Civil Station, Kozhikode 673 020. Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

Pristigenys niphonia (C & V 1829) - Smith 1966 Poiss 16: 129, PI 5, fig 5 (E. coast Madagascar)

Myriptistis refulgens Val. 1862 : 1169 (Seychelles) Pristigenys macropthalmus (Agassiz, 1835)

Priacanthus refulgens Sauvage, 1 891 Hist. Nat. Madag. Pricanthus niphonia Cuv. & Val., 1 829 Hist. Nat. Poiss.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

99

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3: 107 (Japon). Schlegel, 1843, Fauna Jap.: 21, PI. 7a(Japon)

P seudopricanthus niphonia Bleeker, 1869 and 1876 -

Atl. Ich. PI 352, fig 3 (Celebes). Smith 1963, Fishes

Seychelles: 13, PI 9, B.

Agassiz (1835) first listed Pristigenys substriatus

(without description) as a new combination for Chaetodon

substriatus (Blainville, 1818), a fossil species of Eocene

Monte Bolca Formation in Italy, which was earlier erroneously

reported by Volta (1796) as the present day species Chaetodon

striatus. Agassiz (1839) gave a short description of this species

and considered it to be a genus near Beryx. As a consequence,

it was listed in theFamily Berycidae in the classification of

fossils by Woodward (1901) and Eastman (1905). However,

after Agassiz 1839, Bleeker (1869) described the genus

Pseudopriacanthus to include Pricanthus niphonius Cuvier,

1829. Morrison (1889) formally named this species as the

type of the genus and also allocated Priacanthus altus Gill

and Priacanthus meyeri Gunther (as a synonym of niphonius)

to the group as did Boulenger (1895). However, the genus

Pristigenys was not included until a century after its

description. White (1936) had first noted the similarity

between the genus Pristigenys and Pseudopriacanthus in

question, synonymized them, and transferred Pristigenys from

Family Berycidae to Priacanthidae, hence the name

Pristigenys and Pseudopriacanthus are used interchangeably.

Since there is no contrary evidence, Fritzsche (1981)

recommended that all recent species of P seudopricanthus be

referred as Pristigenys based on the suggestions of White

(1936) and Myers (1958).

Simultaneously, numerous brief descriptions in various

classifications and regional faunal works, literature dealing

exclusively with Priacanthidae as a group started with that of

Bleeker (1873) who had given description on the species of

Indonesian region; Morrison (1889) reviewed the American

species; Boulenger (1895) and Fowler (1931) described the

species Pristigenys niphonia of Japanese waters. Caldwell

(1962) and Randall (1978) reviewed the western Atlantic

species; and Eggleston (1974) the western Pacific and eastern

Indian Ocean. Myers (1958) and Smith (1966) gave

comparative descriptions for the species under the genus

Pristigenys. Starnes (1988) gave a review on the genus

Pristigenys and its phylogenic relation with other species of

the Family Priacanthidae of Indo-Pacific region.

Though several species of Family Priacanthidae have

been reported from the Indian waters, none of the species of

the genus Pristigenys were reported so far, except by Philip

(1994) who recorded P. niphonia based on a single specimen

collected from Wadge bank (7° N; 77° E). Recently, nine

specimens of P. niphonia were collected from the demersal

trawl catches of the vessel Matsya Varshini (36.5m OAL;

GRT-268.8 tonnes) of Fishery Survey of India, during the

period 1999-2002, during an intensive survey earned out in

the Wadge bank and Gulf of Mannar for the perch resources

of this region. Description of the species with the salient

features of the skeletal structure are also given in this paper.

A redescription for this species was given based on the nine

specimens collected from the same area. Meristic counts and

measurements were taken following Starnes (1988).

Potassium hydroxide solution (5%) was used for cleaning

the bones for osteological studies. In naming the various bones

the works of Berg (1940), Starnes (1988) and Cannon ( 1987)

were followed.

Abbreviations for anatomical terms used in the text

figures are as follows:

AR = articular; B = basipterygium; BH = basihyal;

BrR = branchiostegal ray; C = cleithrum; CC = Coracoid;

CH = ceratohyal; D = dentary; DHH = dorsal hypohyal;

ECT = ectopterygoid; EH = epihyal; Ep = Epural;

H = hyomandibula; HH = hypohyal; HP = hypural;

IH = interhyal; IO = interopercle; M = maxilla;

MES = mesopterygoid; MET = metapterygoid; O = opercle;

PA = parietal; PC = postcleithrum; PG = pectoral girdle;

PH = Parahypural; PL = palatine; PM = premaxilla;

PO = preopercle; PS = pectoral spine; PTT = post-temporal;

Q = quadrate; S = scapula; SC = supracleithrum;

SOP = subopercle; SY = symplectic; UH = urohyal;

VHH = ventral hypohyal.

Description

D. X+ 11 P.17-18 V. 1+5 A III +10 LI. 36-37; LS. 40;

VRS. 33-35; Gr. 5-7 +17-19 (22-26); scales of midlateral area

with 22-24 (smaller specimens) and 27-33 (in larger

specimens) spinules and 23 vertebra.

Diagnosis

Body ovate, highest overall width found immediately

behind the operculum. Fourth and fifth dorsal spines are

longer than the rest. Soft part of the dorsal and anal fin broadly

pointed. The pelvic fin soft rays of younger specimens

(58.5 mm) reaching beyond the anal fin origin and falling

short in larger size group (> 210 mm). Teeth (canines)

differentiated into large and small; the outer series of upper

jaw is wider and larger than the lower jaw.

Colour: Body reddish orange, head, fins and operculum

red to silvery. Five silvery white bars on head and body, where

the first bar at first dorsal fin origin, pass through posterior

end of the operculum and extending to the base of the pectoral

fin. Second beneath the fourth and fifth dorsal spine extending

to belly and third bar originated just beneath the ninth dorsal

fin and extending to first anal spine, fourth and fifth bars at

100

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Pristigenys niphonia

(Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) 250 mm

anterior and posterior of the caudal peduncle (Fig. 1 ). Origin

of the membranous part of the dorsal, ventral and anal fins

pinkish and dusky at posterior. Soft portion of dorsal, ventral

and anal fins with black margin and white submarginal

band.

Osteology: Bones are thick, hard and oily; the cranium

is depressed, broad in the posterior part and narrow anteriorly.

Neurocranium robust and convex in profile around the

extremely large orbital region. A large myodome opening to

brain cavity behind orbit, supraoccipital, parietal and epiotic

crests prominent. Parietal small and paired articulating

anteriorly with occipital. Supraoccipital broad, crest-bearing

portion projecting well forward between posterior extensions

of frontal and posteriorly to very near foramen magnum.

Neural process of the first vertebra fused dorsomedially to

form spine-like structure unlike the Priacanthus spp. Vertebra

23 ( 10 trunk + 13 caudal), first one fused to exoccipitals and

basioccipital; neural process of the first vertebra fused to

foramen magnum in larger specimens. Predorsal bone 1 .

Parasphenoid thick laterally flattened with ventral groove with

centro-lateral ridge, a thick sheet of bone extends dorsally

throughout its length, articulates anteriorly with ventral

surface of the flattened posterior end of the vomer and ventral

surface of the ethmoid cartilage.

Branchiostegal rays six with well-developed scales over

most of the length, the first one is rudimentary in the smaller

specimen (58 mm TL), four rays associated with anterior

ceratohyal remaining two with epihyal. Interhyal of the hyoid

arch small, narrow providing hind end attachment to the

opercular complex at the inner side of the preopercular angle

and lies right angle to the hind end of the epihyal. Epihyal

broad anteriorly and narrow posteriorly attached to ceratohyal.

Fig. 2: Lateral view of jaws and parts of opercular series

of P. niphonia

Ceratohyal narrow anteriorly and broad posteriorly. Urohyal

triangular unpaired and broad posteriorly, embedded free in

the muscular mass of the throat and connected posteriorly to

the rear end of the cleithrum by ligaments (Fig. 3). Preopercle

large, crescent-shaped with prominent tripointed spines at

postventral angle (Fig. 2).

Palatine with a tooth-bearing shelf ventrolaterally

articulating posterioventrally with ectopterygoid; prepalatine

with elongate process articulating with maxilla (Fig. 2).

Ethmoidal pointed anteriorly and relatively narrow, its lateral

flanges folded ventrally, lateral ethmoid with a large foramen.

Anterior and posterior lamella of the lateral ethmoid divergent

ventrally, straddling on palatine, articulating with frontal,

parasphenoid and vomer. Vomerine articulation with lateral

ethmoid narrow bearing a foramen medially. Premaxilla with

well-developed ascending process and an expansive and

complex process articulating with maxilla alveolar ramus with

large dorsal flange centrally. Dentary large; paired posteriorly

forked bearing_small conical teeth, not in rows on dorsal arm

(Fig. 2). Articular more or less spear-shaped with thick basal

part, a sail-like broad anterior part which fits into the socket

of the dentary. Broad metapterigoid articulating anteriorly

with quadrate, anterodorsally with ectopterygoid ventrally

with rod-like symplectic (Fig. 2).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

101

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 3: Lateral view of pectoral girdle, hyoid series, pelvic girdle,

urohyal and caudal skeletal of P. niphonia (250 mm TL)

Sphenoticum angulate, deflected ventrally behind orbit

and moderately produced posteriorly. Epiotic more or less

circular in shape, paired and being roof of the auditory capsule

articulating with parietals pterotic and occipitals. The middle

region of the bony ridge of the epiotic crest drawn into

posteriorly directed spine. Pectoral girdle with cleithrum

elongate and little curved (Fig. 3).

Pectoral girdle consists of cleithrum, scapula and

coracoid. Cleithrum paired and bent, and this is the largest

bone of pectoral girdle (Fig. 3). Scapula paired quadrangular

bone and it is pierced by a foramen. Coracoid paired, dorsal

portion is broad and ventral portion is rod-like. The pelvic

girdle includes Basipterygium, which is embedded freely in

the flesh of the abdominal wall (Fig. 3). Anal spine 3;

Pterigophore 2; first two spines articulated with a single

pterigophore. Caudal fin 16, caudal with three epurals, five

hypurals and a single parahypural with a large hypurapophysis

(Fig. 3).

Discussion

Pristigenys niphonia occurred rarely in our trawl

samplings because of the inaccessibility to the gear, as this

species lived near or beneath ledges and crevices of rocky

grounds (Starnes 1988), which are untrawlable. This may be

the reason for the absence of this species in earlier records.

However, the species was recorded in four hauls during the

past three years from the same or nearby area (8° 37' N; 76°

14' E).

Boulenger (1895) and Fowler (1931) described

Pristigenys niphonia with 11-12 dorsal fin rays, while Smith

(1966) observed only 11 which agree with the present

findings. Based on the reports of Caldwell (1962) and Yoshino

and Iwai ( 1973), it is expected that P. niphonia with 12 dorsal

fin and 1 1 anal soft rays is very rare. The LI. varied between

34- 40 (Boulenger 1895; Fowler 1931), 37-43 (Starnes 1988),

35- 38 (Smith 1966) which overlap 36-37 recorded in the

present study. A significant variation observed in gill rakers

count of the specimen collected from Japan waters as

17 (Boulenger 1895) to 30 (Fowler 1931); it varied between

Table 1: Proportions of morphometric data

of Pristigenys niphonia (N=9)

102

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Comparison of descriptions from different areas

24 and 26 (Smith 1966, western Indian Ocean) and 22-24

(present record). Three light bars observed on the body of

the specimens collected from South Africa (Smith 1966),

4-5 bars from Indo-Pacific region (Starnes 1988) and five

bars in the present observation. Starnes (1988) recorded

specimens of 270 mm with 40-50 spinules of mid-lateral

scales and also suggested that this may be fewer in

smaller specimens, the present specimen has 27-

37 spinules.

The pertinent records on the occurrence of this species

are along coast of East Africa and along the extensive mid Indian

Ocean ridge that includes Socotra, Chagos, Rodrigues and

St. Paul, possible north to Maldives, Sri Lanka, however,

according to FAO records it is questionable in India.

Computation of some body parts (Body depth, head length,

height of dorsal fin, pectoral fin, ventral fin) in standard length

and others (Eye diameter, upper jaw length, dorsal spine length,

pectoral fin length, ventral fin length) in head length (Table

1) of the present specimens .are very close to P. niphonia

collected by Smith ( 1966) from south Africa (Table 2), which

supports the theory of common geographical distribution of

marine ichthyofauna of India and Africa, perhaps the

distribution of this species has extended to the northern

latitudes in the Indian Ocean.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We gratefully acknowledge Dr. V.S. Somavanshi,

Director General, Fishery Survey of India, Mumbai, for his

encouragement. We thank ICAR for the financial support

provided during the tenure of the project. We also owe sincere

thanks to Prof. Dr. B. Madhusoodana Kurup, Director, Cochin

University of Science and Technology, for his critical

comments and suggestions on the manuscript.

REFERENCES

Agassiz, L. (1835): Revue critique des poissons fossils figures dans I’

Itiolitolgia Veronese, Neues Jahbuch. Mineral. Neues Jahbuch.

Mineral. 1835: 290-316.

Agassiz, L. (1839): Chapter 18. Des genres Acrogaster , Podocys et

Pristigenys. Pp. 18-144. In: Agassiz, L.: Researches sur les

Poissons Fossiles. Vol. 4. Petit Pierre ed., Neuchatel. 314 pp.

Berg, L.S. (1940): Classification of Fishes both Recent and Fossils.

Travaux De /' Institute Zoologique De I’ Academic Des Sciences

Del' URSS. 500 pp.

Bleeker, P. (1869): Neuvieme notice sur la faune ichthyologique du

Japan. Verst. Akad. Amsterdam, 2 ser. 3: 237-352.

Bleeker, P. (1873): Revision des especes Indo-Archipelagique du groupe

des Prianthini. Ned. Tijidschr. Dierk. 4: 170-177.

Boulenger, GA. (1895): Catalogue of the Perciform fishes in the British

Museum. 2nd ed. British Museum, London. 394 pp.

Cannon, D.L. (1987): Marine Fish Osteology: A manual for

archaeologists. Department of Anthropology Publication No. 18.

Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia. 133 pp.

Caldwell, D.K. (1962): Western Atlantic fishes of the family

Priacanthidae Copeia 2: 417-424.

Eastman, C.R. (1905): Les types des poissons fossils du Monte Bolca

au Museum d’ Histoire Naturelle de Paris. Mem. Soc. Geol.,

Paris 13(34): 1-33.

Eggleston, D. (1974): Pricanthidae. Pp. 1-6. In: Fischer, W. &

P.J.P. Whitehead (Eds): FAO species identification sheets for

fishery purpose .Eastern Indian Ocean (fishing area 57) and

western Pacific (fishing area 71), Vol. 3, FAO Rome,

Unpaginated.

Fowler, H.W. (1931): Contributions to the biology of the Philippine

Archipelago and adjacent regions. The fishes of the families

Pseudochromidae, Lobotidae, Pempheridae, Priacanthidae,

Lutjanidae, Pomadasyidae and Terapomdae collected by the

United States Bureau of Fisheries Steamer “Albatross” chiefly

in the Philippine seas and adjacent waters. Bull. U.S. Natl. Mus.

100(11): 1-388.

Fritzsche, R.A. ( 1981 ): Pseudopriacantbus Bleeker, a synonym of the

priacanthid genus Pristigenys Agassiz. Copeia 2: 490-492.

Morrison W.L. (1889): A review of the American species of

Priacanthidae Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 41: 159-163.

Myers, G.S. (1958): The priacanthid fish genus Pristigenys, Stanford.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

103

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ichrhy. Bull. 7: 40-42.

Philip, K.P. (1994): Studies on the biology and fishery of the fishes of

the Family Priacanthidae (Pisces:Perciformes) of Indian waters.

Ph.D. thesis, Cochin University of Science and Technology.

169 pp.

Randall, J.E. (1978): Pricanthidae. Pp. 1-7. In: Fischer, W. (Ed.):

Species identification sheets for fishery purpose western Central

Atlantic (fishing area 31), Vol. 4, FAQ Rome , Unpaginated.

Smith, J.L.B. (1966): The rare big-eye, Pristigenys niphonia

(C&V 1839), in south Africa. Rhodes Univ. Dept. Ich., Occ. Pap.

9: 97-102.

Starnes, W.C. (1988): Revision phylogeny and biogeographic comments

on the circumtropical marine percoid fish Family Pricanthidae.

Bull. Mar. Sci. 43(2): 117-203.

Volta, G.S. (1796): Ittiolitologia verones del museo Bozziano ora

annesso a quello del Conte Giovambattista Gazola e di altri

gabinetti di fossili Veronesi con la versione Latina. 2 vols. Verona

(orignal not seen).

White, E.I. (1936): On certain Eocene Percoid fishes. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist., ser .10. 18: 48-54.

Woodward, A.S. (1901): Catalogue of fossil fishes in the British

Museum Natural History. Part IV. British Museum, London.

636 pp.

Yoshino, T. & Tamotsu Iwai (1973): Pristigenys multifaciata, a

priacanthid fish from the Ryukyu Islands. Japan. J. Ichthyol.

20(2): 61-66.

10. FISH DIVERSITY IN ACHENKOVIL RIVER, KERALA, INDIA

S. SWAPNA1

‘51-Kalpaka Nagar, Pettah post, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 024, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Western Ghats, located along the south-west coastline

of the Indian subcontinent is extremely rich in its fish diversity

and endemicity (Gopalakrishnan and Ponniah 2000). The

perennial river, Achenkovil flows through the central

Travancore region in Kerala state and rises south of

Devarmalai in the Western Ghats at an elevation of about

700 m. The river in its course is joined by a number of

tributaries such as Kanai Ar, Kail Ar, Chittar, Kakkad Ar.

The river has an average flow of about 2,287 Mm3 and

ultimately drains into the Vembanadu lake system.

Despite the occurrence of a large number of studies on

the riverine fish fauna in Kerala (Biju et al. 1998, 1999a, b;

Johnson and Soranam 2001; Kumar and Sushama 2001;

Sushama 2003), there was paucity on the documentation of fish

species and their distribution in Achenkovil river. Hence, the

present study was undertaken to collect data on species richness

and distribution of ichthyofauna in Achenkovil river basin.

Fig. 1 : Map showing the sampling stations in Achenkovil River Basin, Kerala

104

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

+: presence; absence Functional group assignation according to Talwar and Jhingran (1991)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

105

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Material and Methods

Fish were collected from four different stations, namely

Thura, Konni, Pandalam and Payipad along the course of

Achenkovil river from February 2004 to January 2005

(Fig. 1). The gears used were cast net and gill net. Catches

from two types of gear were combined and fixed in 5%

formaldehyde solution. All fish were identified using standard

keys (Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Jayaram 1999).

Results and Discussion

In the present study, among the 52 species of fishes

recorded and identified (Table 1), 39 species were typically

freshwater fauna and 3 were typically marine fauna. Fish

species those are able to inhabit both in estuarine and riverine

habitat were also observed. Species such as Barilius bcikeri,

Osteobrama bakeri , Horabagrus brachysoma , Glyptothorax

housei , Pristolepis marginata and Dayella malabarica were

endemic to Kerala. While assessing the status of fish species

as per IUCN, under the threatened category, Dayella

malabarica and Ompok malabarius were critically

endangered while Gonoproktopterus dubius, Labeo

dussumieri , Puntius denisonii, Horabagrus brachysoma,

Mystus malabaricus, Mystus oculatus and Glyptothorax

housei were endangered, Catla catla, Puntius jerdoni,

P. chola, Puntius sarana subnasutus, Nemacheilus guentheri,

Ompok bimaculatus , Nandus nandus and Pristolepis

marginata were vulnerable. The composition and abundance

of fish species varied between the sampling sites. Smaller

cyprinids such as Puntius fasciatus, Nemacheilus triangularis

and Puntius denisonii were common in the upstream sampling

stations like Station 1 and 2. While larger species like Labeo

sp., Cyprinus carpio and Catla catla were common in the

downstream stations like Stations 3 and 4. When the water

Biju, C.R., R.K. Thomas & A.C.R. Kumar (1998): Glyptothorax lonah

(Sykes) - an addition to the ichthyofauna of Kerala. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 95: 519.

Biju, C.R., T.K. Raju & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999a): Distribution of fish

in the Manjeswaram river, Kasargod (Kerala). J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 96: 159-160.

Biju, C.R..T.K. Raju & C.R. Ajith Kumar (1999b): Distribution of fish

in the Uppala river, Kasargod District, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 96: 334-335.

Gopalakiushnan, A. & A.G. Ponniah (2000): Cultivable. Ornamental,

Sport and Food Fishes endemic to Peninsular India with special

reference to Western Ghats. Pp. 13-32. In: Ponniah, A.G &

level recedes, brackish-water dwelling species like

Xenentodon cancila, Etroplus sp., Mastacembelus armatus

and Awaous gutum also frequently occurred in the downstream

stations. Species like Salmostoma boopis, Puntius

filamentosus , Garra mullya, Danio malabaricus were found

to be distributed all along the river system.

Total species richness and abundance was lowest for

Station 1 . Only twenty-two species from a total of fifty-two

were listed. Dominant species observed at this station included

Puntius fasciatus and Garra mullya. Thirty species were

recorded from Station 2. Maximum abundance was shown by

Salmostoma boopis. Maximum species occurrence (thirty-

eight) was seen at Station 3. Species such as Puntius amphibius

and P. filamentosus occurred in higher density. The availability

of different habitat types might attribute to an increase in species

composition at this station. Thirty-seven species were recorded

from Station 4. Maximum abundance was recorded for Puntius

amphibius and P. filamentosus. Similarly, marine species like

Parambassis thomasii were also found to be high. Habitat

preference and adequate environmental conditions made this

station a fish abundant area.

From the studies, it is clear that River Achenkovil is

rich in terms of diversity and abundance of fish fauna.

However, in the light of arising habitat destruction process

such as sand mining day by day, proper management

measures must be adopted to protect the existing faunal

wealth.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. P.K. Abdul Azis, Professor (Retd.),

Department of Aquatic Biology and Fisheries, University of

Kerala for encouragement.

G. Gopalakrishnan (Eds): Endemic Fish Diversity of Western

Ghats. NBFGR, Lucknow.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The Freshwater Fishes of the Indian Region.

Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi, 509 pp., 13 pis.

Johnson, J.A. & R. Soranam (2001): A new species of Horalabiosa

silas from a Kerala stream of Western Ghats. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 98: 392-395.

Kumar, B.A. & S. Sushama (2001): The fish fauna of Bharathapuzha

river, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98: 464-467.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent countries. Vols. 1&2. Oxford and IBH Publishing

Company, New Delhi, ix-xix + 1097 pp.

106

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

11. NEW RECORDS OF FIVE SPECIES OF COLONIAL ASCIDIANS

OF THE GENUS ECTEINASCIDIA HERDMAN, 1880, FROM THE GULF OF MANNAR, INDIA

V.K. Meenakshi1

'Department of Zoology, A. PC. Mahalaxmi College for Women, Tuticorin 628 002, Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

So far, only six species of colonial ascidians of the genus

Ecteinascidia - E. bombayensis Das, 1938; E. garstangi

Sluiter, 1898; E. imperfecta Tokioka, 1950; E. krishnani

Renganathan & Krishnaswamy, 1985; E. venui Meenakshi,

2000; E. sluiteri Herdman, 1906, have been reported from

India by earlier workers (Das 1938; Renganathan 1984, 1986;

Renganathan and Krishnaswamy 1985; Meenakshi 2000;

Meenakshi and Venugopal 2000). The present paper reports

five more species, E. diaphanis Sluiter, 1885; E. diligens

Sluiter, 1900; E. koumaci Monniot, 1987; E. nexa Sluiter,

1904 and E. styeloids Traustedt, 1 882, for the first time from

the Gulf of Mannar.

Ecteinascidia diaphanis Sluiter, 1885

Occurrence and distribution; The colony was

collected from the intertidal rocky shore of Ervadi, (9° 1 1' N;

78° 43' E) Tamil Nadu, south-east coast of India, seen attached

to the undersurface of rocks. Only a few zooids were intact.

This species has been previously reported from Australia,

Palau Islands and Indonesia.

Synonymy: Ecteinascidia diaphanis Sluiter, 1885,

p. 168. Beneden, 1887, p. 28. Sluiter, 1904, p. 10. Tokioka,

1950, p. 127. Kott, 1964, p. 145. Kott, 1966, p. 292. Kott,

1985, p. 90.

External appearance; Individuals are small - 0.75- 1 cm,

upright, cylindrical tapering to a stalk posteriorly. There is a

common basal stolon mass attached to the substratum to which

the short posterior stalk is connected. The test is thin and

transparent. The apertures are on short conical projections

on opposite sides of the upper surface. Both the apertures

have six lobes. The main test vessel leaves the body from the

posterior end of the endostyle. Vascularisation of the test

inconspicuous. Living specimens are light pinkish orange with

a reddish orange band around the rim of apertures and base

of siphons; the colour fades on preservation.

Internal appearance: Body wall thin and transparent

with a fine network of muscles in the anterior half. Circular

and longitudinal muscles are present in the siphons.

Transverse muscles are not present between siphons, but

posterior to the atrial siphon, a wide band of 35-40 fine parallel

Fig. 1 : Ecteinascidia diaphanis : Zooid from left side showing

gut loop, ovary and muscles

muscles are present, which extends only three-fourths of the

body on the right and half of the body on the left. Transverse

muscles absent from the ventral half of the body (Fig. 1 ). The

dorsal tubercle has a two-lipped opening. The dorsal lamina

has long pointed transversely flattened languets without an

upright membrane between them. The branchial sac has 16

rows, each row with about 45-50 stigmata. About 15 internal

longitudinal vessels are present on each side with small

rounded papillae at their junction with the transverse vessels.

There are 3-4 stigmata per mesh. Oesophageal opening at the

posterior end of the branchial sac. Oesophagus short, stomach

large, rectangular with 5 spiral ridges. The mid-intestine

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

107

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

curves anteriorly and the intestine forms a wide curve towards

the mid-dorsal border. Rectum extends anteriorly. There is a

gastro-intestinal connective from the distal end of the stomach,

which breaks up into many branches along the inner curve of

the intestine. Gonads situated in the gut loop. Only ovary

was found in the zooids examined. Larvae were not observed.

Remarks: This species is being reported for the first

time in Indian waters. The present species can be identified

by their transparent test, posterior position of stalk, wide band

of transverse muscles behind the atrial siphon, absence of

transverse muscles from the ventral half of the body, apertures

on the upper surface on short conical projections, and

transversely flattened languets. The present specimens have

16 rows of stigmata resembling Tokioka’s specimens from

Palau Islands, but differ from Kott’s specimen from New

South Wales which has 18-19 rows.

Ecteinascidia diligens Sluiter, 1900

Fig. 2 (a-b): Ecteinascidia diligens:

a. Zooid from left side showing musculature;

b: branchial papillae

Occurrence and distribution: Many colonies were

collected from the littoral zone of Mandapam (9° 16' N; 79°

8' E), attached to the undersurface of calcrete rocks. This

species has been previously reported from Philippines.

Synonymy: Ecteinascidia diligens Sluiter, 1900, p. 1 10.

External appearance: The colony consists of a

crowded mass of zooids, a few of them fused along their sides

to the adjacent zooid. A short stalk from the posterior ventral

end of the body connects the zooids to a basal mass of stolon

network. Largest zooid 9 mm high and 6 mm broad and the

smallest one 6 mm x 4 mm. Posterior end of the body rounded.

The test is thin, glassy and vascularised. Mud, sand, shell

pieces and other epibionts were attached to it. In life, the

zooids are reddish brown, but the colour was lost on

preservation. The apertures are sessile in individuals with test,

but when the test is removed siphons are visible as short

cylindrical structures. Branchial aperture terminal with

7-9 small broad lobes, atrial aperture one-third of the distance

along the dorsal surface with 6-9 small lobes.

Internal structure: Body wall thin, transparent with

conspicuous network of blood vessels and yellowish brown

pigments in life. Circular and longitudinal muscles are present

in the siphons. Transverse muscles are present between the

siphons and below the atrial aperture as parallel bands

extending only three-fourths on the right side and halfway

on the left side (Fig. 2a). About 40 branchial tentacles of two

orders - long and medium - alternate with each other.

Prebranchial area wide. Dorsal tubercle an oval cushion with

a narrow inconspicuous slit. The dorsal lamina is

inconspicuous and languets were not observed. The branchial

sac has 11 rows, each with 35-40 stigmata. 8-12 internal

longitudinal vessels are present on each side which are

interrupted in many regions where the papillae are bifid

(Fig. 2b). At other regions, the papillae are large and rounded.

There are 3-4 stigmata between two papillae. Oesophagus at

the posterior end of the branchial sac. The stomach is slightly

elongate, smooth. Posterior stomach, mid-intestine not distinct

(Fig. 2c). The anterior margin of the primary gut loop is in

level with the anus present at the level of the 7th transverse

vessel. The primary gut loop is deep with an open pole. The

secondary gut loop is also deep and the axis passes through

the oesophagus. Rectum fairly long on the mid-dorsal line.

Fig. 2c: Ecteinascidia diligens : Zooid from left side showing gut

loop, gonads and embryos packed in the peribranchial cavity

108

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2d: Ecteinascidia diligens: Larva

Anus with smooth border. Gastro-intestinal duct was not

observed. The gonads consist of the testis follicles in the form

of a bunch, occupying a major portion of the primary gut

loop with a distinct vas deferens. 3-10 large ova situated in

front of the testis follicles. About 54 embryos in various stages

of development were present in the right peribranchial cavity.

The larval trunk measures 0.5 to 0.6 mm with an otolith and

ocellus. The adhesive organs are unstalked, present in the

median vertical line. The tail extends more than halfway

(Fig. 2d).

Remarks: The characters distinguishing the species are

their colour (reddish brown in living colonies), parallel

transverse muscles, between the siphons and posterior to the

atrial siphon, primitive nature of the dorsal lamina, interrupted

internal longitudinal vessels with bifid papilla, smooth

stomach, anus, testis follicles behind the ovary, right

peribranchial cavity packed with developing embryos and

the larval trunk measuring only 0.5 to 0.6 mm.

The specimen studied has been deposited in the

National Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai (Reg. No. AS. 18).

Ecteinascidia koumaci Monniot, 1 987

Occurrence and distribution: Many colonies were

seen attached to the undersurface of rocks in the littoral zone

of Mandapam. This species has been previously reported from

New Caledonia.

Synonymy: Ecteinascidia koumaci Monniot, 1987, p. 28.

External appearance: The colonies consist of large

individuals, upright and cylindrical, 1 cm x 0.5 cm and smaller

ones measuring 6 mm x 3 mm, attached to a basal mat of

stolon by a short stalk from the postero-ventral corner of the

zooid. The basal stolon has many small buds. The test is

transparent, glassy and the mustard coloured gut and gonads

can be clearly seen through the test in live specimens.

Epibionts, sand and algal filaments were found attached to

the test in a few zooids. The apertures are on conspicuous

cylindrical siphons, the branchial aperture terminal with

6 lobes and the atrial aperture antero-dorsal with 6 lobes.

The posterior end of the zooid may be rounded or tapering to

Fig. 3: Ecteinascidia koumaci: Zooid from left side showing gut

loop, gonads and muscles

a stalk in a few zooids. The test is vascularised.

Internal structure: The body wall is thin and

transparent. Circular muscles and short longitudinal muscles

are present only in the siphons (Fig. 3). There are around

40-45 transverse muscles running parallel to each other

extending only three-fourth of the sides of the body. There

are 3-4 transverse muscles between the siphons. These

muscles proceed towards the transverse muscles situated

posterior to the atrial siphon and usually merge with them.

More than 40 tentacles of two different sizes - medium and

long. The dorsal tubercle is an elongated cushion with a simple

opening. The dorsal lamina has large triangular languets

laterally flattened, situated at places where the transverse

vessel crosses the branchial sac with a membrane connecting

them. The free ends of the languets are curved to the right.

The pre-pharyngeal groove has no outgrowth. Branchial sac

has 15 rows with 30 elongate stigmata in each half.

2-3 stigmata in a mesh. 13 internal longitudinal vessels, not

interrupted. On either sides of the dorsal lamina internal

longitudinal vessels are absent but are represented by small

papillae. Branchial papillae inconspicuous. Primary gut loop

wide. The axis of the secondary loop passes in front of the

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

109

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 4a: Ecteinascidia nexa: Accessory connectives

from the posterior end of zooid

oesophagus, which is at the posterior end of the branchial

sac. Stomach more or less rectangular and ridged.

A constriction is present between the mid-gut and intestine.

No intestinal pouches. Rectum is short. Anterior pole of the

gut loop at the level of the 11th transverse vessel. A gastro-

intestinal duct is present. Gonads consist of a central ovary

with 10-12 ova and numerous elongate testis follicles arranged

in a semicircle around the ovary. No larva was observed.

A brood pouch with eggs observed on the posterior right side

of the body.

Remarks: The characters used to distinguish the species

are the open gut loop, the presence of 3-5 transverse muscles

in the inter-siphonal area, membrane between the languets

and ridges on the stomach. Most of the characters observed

in the present species agree with the description of

Ecteinascidia koumaci Monniot, 1987. But a few differences,

such as size of the zooid, less number of rows of stigmata,

less number of internal longitudinal vessels, were observed

in the present specimen.

The specimen studied has been deposited in the

National Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai (Reg. No. AS. 15).

Ecteinascidia nexa Sluiter, 1904

Occurrence and distribution: Many colonies were

seen attached to the undersurface of calcrete stones in the

littoral zone of Ervadi. This species has been previously

reported from Australia, Indonesia, Fiji, Sri Lanka and Japan.

Synonymy: Ecteinascidia nexa Sluiter, 1904, p. 11.

Herdman, 1906, p. 298. Tokioka, 1954, p. 255. Kott, 1966,

p. 292. Kott, 1981, p. 196. Kott, 1985, p. 94.

External appearance: Colonies consist of crowded

zooids forming extensive mats on the undersurface of stones,

rocks, etc. The zooids are transparent or with a light greenish

yellow colour. The alimentary canal and gonads are mustard

yellow. Zooids are prostrate or upright, 4-5 mm long and

2-3 mm wide, attached by a short horny stalk from the

posterior end of the ventral surface to a basal mass of stolons.

In a few zooids, the stalk was found to arise from about the

middle of the ventral surface. Accessory test connectives were

observed only in a few zooids (Fig. 4a). The test is

vascularised, thin, transparent, delicate and naked. The

apertures are on short conical siphons, branchial aperture

terminal with 8 lobes and atrial aperture 6-lobed halfway along

the dorsal surface. The posterior end of the zooid is rounded

and the zooid as a whole is egg-shaped.

Internal structure: Body wall is thin, delicate,

vascularised and reddish brown after preservation. Circular

muscles are present around the siphons, longitudinal muscles

do not extend beyond the siphons, transverse muscles about

12-15 present between siphons and 16-20 posterior to the

atrial siphon (Fig. 4b). These muscles extend almost the whole

of the right side of the body, but only three-fourths on the left

side. The dorsal tubercle is an oval cushion with a simple

opening. The dorsal lamina has transversely flattened languets

with a low basal membrane between them. The main test

vessel originates from the body wall one-third to one-half

the distance from the posterior end of the body. There are

12-15 rows of stigmata with 40-45 stigmata on each side.

About 1 3 internal longitudinal vessels are present with 2-3

stigmata in each mesh. A few internal longitudinal vessels

near the dorsal lamina are interrupted. Short rounded branchial

papillae are present. There are about 30-45 branchial tentacles

of two sizes - medium and long. The gut loop occupies the

posterior half of the body. The primary gut loop is deep,

E

BRANCHIAL APERTURE

INTER SIPHONAL MUSCLES

ATRIAL APERTURE

GONADS

ANUS

RECTUM

OESOPHAGUS

STOMACH

Fig. 4b: Ecteinascidia nexa: Zooid from left side

110

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

slightly open at the pole. The rectum forms a deep secondary

loop with the descending limb of the intestine. The axis of

the secondary gut loop passes through the middle of the

stomach. Oesophagus is curved, situated at the posterior end

of the branchial sac. The stomach is slightly elongate,

horizontal without any ridges. A small posterior stomach is

present. The mid-intestine is wide and there is a constriction

between the mid-intestine and the narrow duodenal area. The

rectum is short. The anterior pole of the gut loop is at the

level of the 5th transverse vessel and the anus is smooth and

situated at the level of the 8th transverse vessel. A gastro-

intestinal duct is present. Gonads enclosed in the gut loop.

The ovary is very small, situated in the centre of a circle of

male follicles. Larvae were not observed.

Remarks: The characters mentioned by earlier workers

were also observable in this Indian specimen. The important

characters are the large carpet-like colonies, small prostrate

zooids, position of atrial aperture, cloudy body wall, deep

secondary gut loop and large smooth stomach.

The specimen studied has been deposited in the

National Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai (Reg. No. AS. 14).

Ecteinascidia styeloids Traustedt, 1 882

Occurrence and distribution: A few zooids were

collected in June, 1993 from the intertidal rocky shores of

Ervadi. This species has been previously reported from France.

Synonymy: Ecteinascidia styeloids Traustedt, 1882,

p. 277. Van Name, 1921, p. 391. Van Name, 1930, p. 470.

Monniot, 1983, p. 59.

External appearance: Zooids upright and sub-

cylindrical, measuring 5-7 mm high. The test is delicate and

transparent, with a network of blood vessels. The apertures

are on long cylindrical siphons. The branchial aperture is

terminal with 6 small inconspicuous lobes. Atrial aperture at

the level of 4-5th row of gill slit and with 6 broad lobes. Body

is rounded posteriorly and a stalk is present at the postero-

ventral side attached to a sponge. The test is naked and the

living colony has a slight red colour. The main test vessel

arises from the posterior ventral end of endostyle.

Internal structure: Body wall is thin, transparent,

circular and longitudinal muscles are present in the siphons.

The transverse muscles include 25 intersiphonal muscles and

40-45 transverse muscles below the atrial siphon, which

extend to about three-fourths of the body on both sides

(Fig. 5). The dorsal tubercle is small, oval with a slit-like

opening. The dorsal lamina has tongue-shaped transversely

flattened languets. The branchial tentacles are of two sizes,

very long and medium, about 50-60. The branchial sac has

Fig. 5: Ecteinascidia styeloids: Zooid from left side showing gut

loop and musculature

1 3 rows of about 20 stigmata in each row. There are 14 internal

longitudinal vessels and 1 - 1 Vi stigmata per mesh. Branchial

papillae are present at the junction of the internal longitudinal

vessels. Transverse vessels are small and rounded. The gut

forms a deep primary and secondary loop. Oesophagus is at

the posterior end of the branchial sac. Stomach is smooth,

rounded, lying horizontally. There is a constriction between

the posterior stomach, mid-intestine and intestine. The axis

of the primary gut loop is at the level of the 5th transverse

vessel. The axis of the secondary gut loop passes through the

posterior end of the stomach. The rectum is long and the

smooth anus lies very near to the 4th transverse vessel. Gastro-

intestinal duct not observed. Gonads were not present in the

few zooids studied.

Remarks: This species is being reported for the first

time from Indian waters. The characters by which this species

can be identified are the long cylindrical siphons, inter

siphonal muscles, deep primary and secondary gut loop and

rounded smooth stomach.

The specimen studie'd has been deposited in the

National Collections of the Zoological Survey of India,

Chennai (Reg. No. AS. 17).

Key to the species of Ecteinascidia recorded from India

1. Both apertures on or near the anterior end of the body, no

transverse muscles between apertures 2

— Atrial aperture dorsal, branchial aperture terminal, transverse

muscles between atrial and branchial apertures 4

2. Transverse muscles in 3 longitudinal bands E. sluiteri

— - Transverse muscles not in 3 longitudinal bands 3

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

111

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. Almost sessile apertures, transversely flattened languets

E. diaphanis

— Short cylindrical siphons, laterally flattened languets with a

membrane between them E. venui

4. Only 3-5 transverse muscles between siphons .. E. koumaci

More than 3-5 transverse muscles between siphons 5

5 Meshwork of muscles on the right side of the body

E. imperfecta

No meshwork of muscles on the right side of the body .... 6

6. 1 1 rows of stigmata E. diligens

— More than 1 1 rows of stigmata 7

7. Anterior border of gut loop level with the anus

E. krishnani

— Anterior border of gut loop not level with the anus 8

8. Stomach with longitudinal folds E. bombayensis

Beneden, E.V. (1887): Les genres Ecteinascidia Herd ., Rhopalaea Phil,

et Sluiteria n.g. Note pour servir a la classification des Tuniciers.

Bull. Acad Belg. 14(7): 19-44.

Das, S.M. (1938): On Ecteinascidia bombayensis n. sp. (A new ascidian

from Bombay). Proc. Ind. Acad Sci. 8: 295-300.

Herdman, W.A. (1880): Preliminary report of the Tunicata of the

Challenger expedition. Ascidiidae. Proc. R. Soc. Edinb. 10(1):

458-472.

Herdman, W.A. (1906): Report on the Tunicata. Ceylon Pearl Oyster

Fisheries suppl. rept. 39: 295-300.

Kott, P. (1964): Stolidobranch and Phlebobranch ascidians of the

Queensland coast. Pap. Dep. Zool. Univ. Qd 2(7): 127-152.

Kott, P. ( 1966): Ascidians of northern Australia. Pap. Dep. Zool. Univ.

Qd 2(15): 279-304.

Kott, P. (1981): The ascidians of the reef flats of Fi ji. Proc. Linn. Soc.

N.S.W. 105(3): 147-212.

Kott, P. ( 1985): The Australian Ascidiacea. Part 1, Phlebobranchia and

Stolidobranchia. Mem. Qd. Mas. 23: 1-440.

Meenakshi, V.K. (2000): Ecteinascidia venui sp. no v., a colonial ascidian

(Perophoridae) from Tuticorin, southeast coast of India. Indian

J. Mar. Sci. 29: 83-85.

Meenakshi, V.K. & S. Venugopal (2000): Ecteinascidia sluiteri Herdman

(Perophoridae), a new record of a colonial ascidian (Prochordata)

to Indian waters. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3): 446-448.

Monniot, C. ( 1983): Ascidies littorals de Guadeloupe II. Phlebobranches.

Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. 5(1): 51-71.

Monniot, C. (1987): Ascidies de Nouvelle-Caledonie I Phlebobranches

du lagon. Bull. Mus. natn. Hist. nat. 9(1): 3-43.

— Stomach without longitudinal folds 9

9. With conspicuous siphons E. styeloids

— Without conspicuous siphons 10

1 0. Large carpet-like colonies with prostrate zooids, cloudy body

wall, large spherical smooth stomach E. nexa

Colonies not crowded, erect zooids, body wall not cloudy,

small oval smooth stomach E. garstangi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses her deep sense of gratitude to

Dr. T.K. Renganathan, former Professor, Department of

Zoology, V.O. Chidambaram College, Tuticorin, for his kind

help in the identification of specimens and to the U.G.C.,

New Delhi, for financial assistance.

Renganathan, T.K. (1984): Ecteinascidia garstangi Sluiter, 1898 - a

colonial ascidian not hitherto been recorded from India. Geobios

new Reports 3: 54-55.

Renganathan, T.K. (1986): Studies on the ascidians of South India.

Ph.D. thesis. Madurai Kamaraj University. Madurai.

Renganathan, T.K. & S. Krishnaswamy (1985): Some ascidians from

Indian waters. Indian J. Mar. Sci. 14: 38-41 .

Sluiter, C.P. (1885): Uber einige einfachen Ascidien von der Insel

Billiton. Nat. Tijdschr. Neder. Ind. 45: 160-232.

Sluiter, C.P. (1898): Beitrage zur Kenntnis dei Fauna von Sudafrica

11. Tunicaten. Zool. Jb. Systematik 11: 1-64.

Sluiter, C.P. (1900): Berichtigung uber eine. Synstyela -Art. Zool.

Anz. 23: 110.

Sluiter, C.P. (1904): Die Tunicaten der Siboga - Expedition. Pt. I.

Die socialen und holosomen Ascidien. Siboga Exped. 56:

1-126.

Tokioka, T. (1950): Ascidians from the Palao Is. I Pubis Seto mar. biol.

Lab. 1(3): 115-150.

Tokioka, T. (1954): Contributions to Japanese ascidian fauna VII.

Invertebrate fauna of the intertidal zone of the Tokara Islands

VII Ascidians. Pubis. Seto. mar. biol. Lab. 3(3): 239-264.

Traustedt, M.P. (1882): Vestindiske Ascidiae Simplices, Forste

Afseling. Phallusidae. Vidensk. meddr dansk naturh . Foren. 1881:

257-288.

Van Name, W.G ( 1921): Ascidians of the West Indian region and south

eastern United States. Bull. Am. Mus. nat. Hist. 44: 283-494.

Van Name, W.G. (1930): The ascidians of Porto Rico and the Virgin

Islands. Scient. Sun. P. Rico. 10(4): 403-512.

12. BIODIVERSITY OF WILD SILK MOTHS IN NAGALAND

B.C. Chutia1-3, L.N. Kakati1-4 and K. Chaoba Singh2

'Department of Zoology, Nagaland University, Hqs. Lumami, Mokokchung 798 601, Nagaland, India.

’Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Lahdoigarh 785 700, Jorhat, Assam, India. Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

Introduction

Wild silk moths are a relatively well-known group of

insect fauna of Family Saturniidae. They are admired by

people throughout the world (Peigler 1996). Agood number

of references are available on seribiodiversity and its potential

as the source of natural silk in the Indian subcontinent.

112

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

extending from the sub Himalayan to Sri Lankan region

(Arora and Gupta 1979; Thangavelu 1991; NassigWu/. 1996;

Chinnaswamy 2001; Thangavelu etal. 2002; Srivastava and

Thangavelu 2005). North-eastern India is the centre of wild

silk culture and several kinds, including muga, eri, tropical

tasar, temperate tasar and fagara silks are produced here

(Peigler and Naumann 2003). However, biodiversity of silk

moths in the wild of North-eastern India is not yet fully

understood as their distribution is restricted to highly

inaccessible areas. While some stray reports on the

exploration of wild sericigenous or silk producing insects

from north-eastern region are available (Thangavelu and

Borah 1986; Thangavelu et al. 1987; Bhattacharya et al.

2004), information on the biodiversity and distribution of

wild silk moths in Nagaland is not available.

Nagaland, one of the north-eastern states of India, is

situated in the trans-Himalayan region between 25° 26'-27°

40' N and 93° 20'-95° 15' E. The topography of Nagaland is

characterised by hills and mountains, and deep gorges and

steep slopes. The altitude of the area varies from 1 99 m to

3,841 m. Nagaland state, like Manipur, is the meeting place

of the Siberian and Manchuria sub-regions of the Palaearctic

Region, and the Indo-Chinese and Indian sub-regions

of the Oriental Region. Nagaland has rich forest resources

with forests covering over 85.43% of the total land surface.

Humid mesothermal warm temperate with dry winter

Gangetic type climate prevails in the state. The average

annual rainfall is 2,584.5 mm having wet season from

May to October. The temperature ranges from 12 °C to

32 °C in summer and 5 °C to 20 °C in winter, and the

average relative humidity varies from 67% (March) to 88%

(October).

Table 1: Wild silk moths of Family Saturniidae in Nagaland

A recent review of the species composition of

India listed 47 species of wild silk moths (Singh and

Suryanarayana 2005) of which 24 species (Singh and

Chakravorty 2006) of Family Saturniidae are found in north-

east India. Of these only three species, namely Antheraea

assamensis, Antheraea roylei and Attacus atlas have been

reported from Nagaland. Hence, an attempt has been made

to study wild silk moths, highlighting their bio-ecological

characteristics, ecological traits and host plants distribution,

in Nagaland.

Material and Methods

An extensive survey was carried out in Nagaland

during 2004-2005 to collect wild silk moths and record their

host plants. Identification of the collected material was made

using literature. All the material reported here is in the

collection of the Ecology Laboratory, Department of

Zoology, Nagaland University, Mokokchung. Description of

adult morphological characteristics was limited to those silk

moth species for which host plants were not ascertained.

However, other species, i.e., Antheraea assamensis

(commercially reared and wild variety), A. roylei, A. proylei ,

Actias selene , C. trifene strata, Samia canningi and S. ricini ,

were reared on their most suitable host plants at the Ungma

sericulture farm. Govt, of Nagaland, to study various

parameters like colour, size and weight of different life stages

and economic traits.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 presents a list of 14 species belonging to

8 genera collected during the survey. Among these only

adults of Antheraea frithi , Attacus atlas , Archaeoattacus

edwardsii , Sonthonnaxia maenas , Loepa sikkima and

L. kitinka were collected without confirmation of their host

plants. Both the adult as well as larval stages of the rest of

the species, i.e., Antheraea assamensis , A. roylei, A. proylei,

Actias selene, C. trifene strata, Samia canningi and S. ricini,

with their primary and secondary host plants distributed in

different parts of Nagaland, were recorded. The wild variety

of A. assamensis which is large in size and deeper in colour

was also recorded from same areas of Nagaland. It is

trivoltine undergoing partial diapause in the pupal stage

during winter. Further, worms of wild variety are very much

active and strong, and cocoon characters such as colour,

weight and size are different from the cultivated population.

The tubercles are brick red. Lower lateral tubercles are

prominent and green. The lateral line is very prominent and

yellowish with a green shade. The white shining spots extend

around the base of dorsal tubercles from second thoracic to

eight abdominal segments. All the species are polyphagous.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

113

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: List of host plants of wild silk moths in Nagaland

feeding on more than one plant. Except for a few host plants,

which are site specific, others are found throughout Nagaland

(Table 2).

The eight wild silk moth species were reared on their

most suitable host plants to analyse the morphological

characteristics. They exhibit biodiversity in all aspects of their

lives from egg to adult stages and in their food habits,

consumption and morphological traits among themselves

(Table 3 a,b). The species were seen distributed in different

parts of the state. Except for Antheraea roylei, which produce

double layered cocoon, all other silkworms produce cocoons

with a single layer. Cricula trifenestrata is conspicuous in

114

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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115

W: wild variety; C: commercially reared

Table 3b: Morphological characteristics of certain wild silk moths in Nagaland

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

Colour

Male Brown and black with pink border Greenish-grey Greyish brown Orange brown

Female Brown and black with pink border Yellowish brown to dull brown Greenish brown Orange brown

Voltinism Multivoltine Bivoltine Bivoltine Bivoltine

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

having perforated a cocoon. Shell ratio is minimum in Actias

selene and maximum in Sarnia ricini, the domesticated eri

silk cocoon. The length of a single cocoon filament was

maximum in the cultivated Antheraea assamensis and

minimum in Actias selene ; however, denier is minimum in

Antheraea assamensis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Financial assistance by the G.B. Pant Institute of

Himalayan Environment & Development, Almora, under the

research project Biodiversity, Ecology and Conservation of

wild silk moths in Nagaland is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Arora, G.S. & I.J. Gupta (1979): Taxonomic studies of some of the

Indian non-mulberry silkmoths (Lepidoptera: Satumiidae). Memoirs

Zool. Sur\’. India 16: 1-163.

Bhattacharya, A., B.K. Singh & P.K. Das (2004): Biodiversity of wild silk

moths in Assam (North East India). Ann. For. 12 (2):

208-216.

Chinnaswamy, K.P. (2001): Sericulture biodiversity in India. Pp. 54-61.

In: Balia, M.K., S. Rayamajhi & N.M.B. Pradhan (Eds): Participatory

Biodiversity conservation in South Asia Region FONAREM,

Kathmandu, Nepal.

Nassig, W.A., R.E.J. Lampe & S. Kager (1996): The Satumiidae of

Sumatra (Lepidoptera). Heterocera Sumatrana 10: 3-110.

Peigler, R.S. (1996): Catalog of parasitoids of Satumiidae of the world.

The Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 33 : 1-21 .

Peigler, R.S. & S. Naumann (2003): A revision of the Silkmoth Genus

Samia. University of Incarnate Word, San Antonio, Texas.

Pp. 1-230.

Singh, K.C. & N. Suryanarayana (2005): Wild silk moth wealth of

India. Pp. 419-421. In: Dandin, S.B., V.P. Mishra Gupta &

Y.S. Reddy (Eds): Advances in Tropical Sericulture. Central

Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Mysore.

Singh, K.C. & R. Chakravorty (2006): Seri-biodiversity of North-

Eastern India - an update. Pp. 8-19. In: Handique, J.P. &

M.C. Kalita (Eds): Biodiversity Conservation and Future Concern.

Gauhati University, Guwahati.

Srtvastava, P.K. & K. Thangavelu (2005): Sericulture and Seri Biodiversity.

Associated Publishing Company, New Delhi. Pp. 1-254.

Thangavelu, K. ( 1991): Wild sericigenous insects of India: A need for

conservation. Wild silkmoths. pp. 71-77.

Thangavelu, K., A.K. Bhagowati & A.K. Chakraborty ( 1987): Studies

on some wild sericigenous insects of North Eastern India. Sericologia

27(1): 91-98.

Thangavelu, K. & A. Borah (1986): Occurrence of Antheraea mylitta

Drury (Lepidoptera: Satumiidae) in North-eastern India:

distributional significance. Curr. Sci. 55(18): 940.

Thangavelu, K., K.V.S. Rao & V.K. Pandey (2002): Wild silk moths

biodiversity and conservation. International Journal of Wild silk

moths and silk 7: 89-93.

13. FIRST RECORD OF THE COLOUR SERGEANT ATHYMA NEFTE

IN PHANSAD WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IN RAIGAD DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

Nikhil Bhopale1 and Sudeep Athavale2

'Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

2Shreyash, Jaybharat Naka, Panvel 410 206, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

The Colour Sergeant Athyma nefte (Cramer) is

distributed in North-east Himalayas from Sikkim to

Arunachal Pradesh, from Nepal and Bhutan; and from

Bangladesh and Myanmar to Orissa and Andaman Islands

(Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957; Kehimkar 2008).

In southern India, Mr. Rhodes-Morgan collected a

single male specimen from the Wynaad district of Kerala

(de Niceville 1886). The Colour Sergeant (Athyma nefte )

belongs to the Family Nymphalidae and is classified as rare

to southern India by de Niceville (1886).

We saw a Colour Sergeant on November 09, 2007, in

Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary, which is about 45 km west to

the Western Ghats Crestline. It was basking on a small shrub

in bright sunlight at around 0900 hours in “Chikhalgaan”

area. Evans (1932), Wynter Blyth (1957) and Kehimkar

(2008) stated that this butterfly prefers wet and hilly regions

of evergreen forests of the Western Ghats. The occurrence

of this butterfly in Phansad, the first record of this butterfly

from Maharashtra, indicates that this could be the

northernmost extension of c. 340 km from the known record

- a male Colour Sergeant in Goa, in August 2008 (D. Raju,

pers. comm.).

The information on the distribution of this butterfly is

anecdotal, especially from southern India. Intensive field

survey all over the northern Western Ghats is essential to

evaluate the distributional range and present status.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Mr. Isaac Kehimkar, BNHS, for confirming the

identification of the butterfly. I thank Dr. Girish Jathar, BNHS,

for his comments on the manuscript.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

117

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

DE Niceville, L. (1886): The Butterflies of India, Burmah and Ceylon. Kehimkar, I. (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies. Pp. 372. Bombay

Vol. 11. Pp. 179. Calcutta Centre Press. Natural History Society, Oxford University Press, Mumbai.

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. Pp. 161. Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of Indian Region. Pp. 161.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai.

14. BIOLOGY OF THE PALM KING AMATHUSIA PH1D1PPUS , AN EXTREMELY RARE AND

ENDANGERED BUTTERFLY OF PENINSULAR INDIA

George Mathew1 and Unni Krishnan Pulikkal2

'Division of Forest Protection, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, Thrissur district, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

:The Butterfly Art Foundation, Pady P.O., Codali, Thrissur district, Kerala, India. Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The Palm King Amathusia phidippus Linnaeus is an

extremely rare and endangered species of butterfly that is

strictly restricted to the southernmost tip of peninsular India,

widely known as the Travancore in the State of Kerala

(Wynter-Blyth 1957). Occurrence of several races of this

species has been reported from Myanmar, Andamans, Java,

Bali, Philippine Islands and Borneo (Abrera 1985). In India,

Palm King has only been recorded from Travancore, near

coconut groves. The species is reported to be locally common

in areas where coconut groves are widespread and there

appears to be no reason why they are rare at other areas of

Kerala where there is substantially good availability of host

plants along with comparable levels of temperature and

humidity at similar altitudes (Wynter-Blyth 1957). Its rarity,

patchy distribution and restricted habitat preferences makes

it one of the few Oriental butterflies having a high

conservation value (Conservation Value 33 out of 40; Kunte

2008). Recently, a small population of this butterfly was

observed on ornamental palms in the Thenmala Ecotourism

area in Kollam district, Kerala. The collected eggs in the

field were reared on ornamental palms to study their biology.

The information generated in this study is presented in this

paper.

The collected eggs were reared on a potted ornamental

palm Dypsis lutescens with sufficient foliage. The plant with

the caterpillars was kept in a protected room with adequate

aeration, sunlight and humidity to save them from predators

and environmental hazards. The various stages were

observed, photographed and length of different stages

recorded.

Of the seven caterpillars that hatched out, two larvae

were found to be dead and one was found missing. The

remaining four caterpillars successfully matured, pupated and

hatched to healthy adults which were later released in a garden

containing several host plants, including the ornamental palm

Dypsis lutescens.

Life cycle of Palm King

Eggs; The freshly laid eggs are creamy white with a

small black spot in the centre and a black circular ring. The

eggs are laid in a row. At Thenmala, we observed two rows,

the first having 15 eggs and the second 3 eggs (Fig. la). Prior

to hatching, the colour of the egg changes to black. Eggs

hatch in 6 to 7 days.

Larvae: The first instar larvae are cylindrical,

measuring 0.6 to 0.8 mm in length. The head is

disproportionately large, round, black and shiny. The thoracic

and abdominal segments are pale yellowish bearing slender,

white hairs (Fig. lb). The last segment has two black spines

that look like tails with no additional hairs on them. The first

moulting takes place on the fourth day.

The second instar larvae are pale greenish yellow

measuring 0.8 to 1.2 mm in length. The head is black and

globular with tiny slender white hairs. The hairs on the upper

side of the thoracic segments are stouter than the rest of the

body hairs, and are directed towards the head. There are two

pairs of diffused whitish lines that run from the dorsum of the

first thoracic segment to the last abdominal segment. Three

black spots are present on the upper side of the third and fourth

abdominal segments; the fifth, sixth and seventh segments have

two black spots each. The eighth abdominal segment has a

characteristic wide-belly bottle shaped black mark with its neck

directed towards the ninth segment, which has an additional

black spot (Fig. lc). The last abdominal segment bears two

black spines, which have many small hairs on them. As the

larvae mature, the third thoracic segment develops a bright

orange fold of skin which gives the caterpillar a peculiar striped

appearance. After about five days of heavy eating and growth

they undergo the second moulting.

The third instar larvae are morphologically very similar

to the previous instar, but are longer (3 to 4 cm) and stouter.

They are darker and more greenish than yellowish and had a

striped appearance due to the wider body lines (Fig. Id). The

black spots increase in number and size giving a mottled

118

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Amathusia phidippus: a. Egg, b. First Instar, c. Second Instar, d. Third Instar, e. Fifth Instar, f. Pupa, g. Adult female

appearance. The hairs of the thoracic segments, which are

pointed at the tip, grow stouter and longer almost hiding the

greyish black head. The orange fold of skin over the third

thoracic segment is also more prominent. The wide-belly

bottle shaped black mark is more diffused and less prominent.

The spines of the last segment grow paler. The larvae rested

for moulting on the fifth day.

The fourth instar larvae are stouter and longer

measuring 4.5 to 5.0 cm. They almost lose their colours and

become nearly black and white. The stripes become greyish

white or white. The orange strap on the third thoracic segment

almost disappear with only the skin fold left with longer

bright white hairs. The body appears more mottled with black.

The bottle-shaped mark becomes nearly indistinct and diffuse

with the background. The spines on the last segment are greyish

white. The fourth moulting occurs on the sixth day.

During the fifth instar, the larvae become more

brownish and measure 7.0 to 7.5 cm in length. They appear

very stout and strong. The hair is white with a few scattered

brown ones. The head has a new hand-like appendage with

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

119

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

four finger-like pointed branches (Fig. le). The thoracic hairs

which project to the front nearly hide the head and

appendages. The spines of the last segment are now of the

same colour as the body. On the 12th and 13th day of the last

instar, the larvae start to pupate.

Larvae of the Palm King are voracious feeders. Most

of the time, they remain on the underside of the leaf, eating

from the tip of the leaf working towards the base. The early

instars prefer to remain in group and never stray away. But,

as they mature, some moved away from the group, the

behaviour being most marked in the last instar and peaked

towards the days of pupation. The later instars prefer to

remain on the upper side of the leaf as well.

With regard to coloration, the fifth instars show marked

difference in their ground colour, some being more brownish

and some more greyish. A link between the body colour and

the future sex of the adult has to be established with more

studies. A larger number of the caterpillars have to be

observed to establish this link.

Pupa: The process of pupation takes about half a day.

The greenish spindle-shaped pupa is well-camouflaged among

the pointed leaves of the host plant (Fig. If). Initially, it is

semi-transparent but later it becomes more opaque. The pupa

has veins and lines similar to that of the leaves of the host

plant, all veins ending at the pointed lower end of the pupa.

The pupa becomes transparent on the eve of hatching, with

the wings and head clearly visible. The hatching takes place

on the 1 2th and 1 3th day of pupation.

Eclosion: All of the pupae hatched on two consecutive

days between 0800 and 0900 hrs. The imago rested for about

an hour and went on wings to rest in the shady bushes nearby.

REFE

Abrera, Bernard D’ (1985): Butterflies of the Oriental Region. Hill

House, Melbourne. Pp. 500.

Evans, Brigadier W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian

Butterflies. Bombay Natural History Society. Mumbai.

Pp. 134 (E7).

Kehimkar, I. (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies. Bombay Natural

Imago: d 9 : Chocolate brown in colour having a wing

span of 80-90 mm in specimens bred at Thenmala (Fig. lg),

although Wynter-Blyth (1957) states the wing span as 100-

125 mm. Apex of forewing slightly conical; termen more or

less straight; dorsum straight. Hind wing is with the dorsum

expanded and flap-like, bare and pale brownish. Tornus

produced into a slight conical lobe bearing two round black

spots surrounded by a white ring dorsally and ventrally. Under

side of both wings with a narrow marginal white band and a

series of brown and white straight bands across. Two large eye

spots at the apical and discal areas of the hind wing. Hind wing

lobed at tornus. Velvety brown above. Upper forewing with

diffuse yellowish band (which is prominent in female) just

below apex and a narrow terminal yellowish band. Upper side

of hindwing border-pale brown, bearing a dark marginal line.

Female: Abdomen with tufts on either side. Upperside

of hind wing with fold and tuft and long erect hairs along base.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to specially thank Mr. Sandex, a young

naturalist, who spotted the eggs of the Palm King at Thenmala,

Kollam district of Kerala. Without his help, we could not have

done this study at this time. We thank Ms. Sandhya Krishnan

who patiently and painstakingly observed and took all care to

avoid predation of the caterpillars during the study. We thank

Dr. Biju C.R., Mr. Sasi Menon and other members of The

Butterfly Art Foundation, India, for their assistance at various

stages of the study. We also thank Mr. Isaac Kehimkar,

Krushnamegh Kunte, C. Susanth and other members of the

Butterfly India Group for their encouragement.

History Society, Oxford University Press, Mumbai. Pp. 319, 419.

Kunte, K. (2008): The Wildlife (Protection) Act and the conservation

Prioritization of Butterflies of Western Ghats, South-western

India. Current Science 94(6): 25.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay

Natural History Society, Mumbai. Pp. 134.

15. ON THE COLLECTION OL THREE INTERESTING SPECIES OF LEJEUNEA LIB.

FROM ABBOTT MOUNT, WESTERN HIMALAYA , INDIA

SURENDRA N. SRIVASTAVA1 AND PRATEEK SrIVASTAVA2

'Department of Botany, C.M.P. College, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 211 002, Uttar Pradesh, India. Email: [email protected]

department of Botany, I.S.D. College, University of Allahabad, Allahabad 211 004, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

Introduction

The genus Lejeunea Lib. (Hepaticae; Division

Bryophyta) is represented by 21 species in India, of which,

till recently, only seven species were known from the Western

Himalaya, namely L. bidentula Herz., L. cocoes Mitt.,

L. cavifolia (Ehrn.) Lindenb., L. nepalensis Steph.,

L. tuberculosa Steph., L. flava (Swartz.) Nees and L. wightii

Lindenb. (Mizutani 1964, 1971; Srivastava and Parihar 1986;

120

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Bapna and Kachroo 2000; Singh 2001; Singh and Singh

2004). Among these, Lj flava, L. nepalensis and L. cocoes

are little known and needed further verification based on fresh

collection from the region.

During the process of taxonomic revision of the genus,

the authors critically examined specimens of Lejeunea

collected from Abbott Mount, near Lohaghat in Champawat

district, Uttarakhand (28° 22' N; 80° 06' E; altitudes 1 ,950 to

2,010 m). Based on this study a key for the identification of

the above mentioned taxa is being given in this

communication along with their salient morphological

features, specimens examined and the present distribution.

1 Lower leaves distant, never two times wider than stem width

2

— Lower leaves imbricate, nearly four times wider than stem

width L. flava

2 Lower leaves obliquely spreading never lunate; stem flexuose

(zig-zag), sparsely branched L. nepalensis

— Lower leaves ovate-lunate; stem straight, frequently branched

L. cocoes

1. Lejeunea flava (Swartz.) Nees (Fig. 1: A-I)

Lejeunea flava (Swartz.) Nees Naturg. Europ. Leberum.

3: 277 (1838); Mizutani, Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 24: 207

(1961).

The species can be identified on the basis of (i) imbricate

leaves with slightly convex and oblong ovate leaf-lobes,

(ii) closely imbricate lower leaves, nearly four times broader

than the stem, bilobed for 1/3 the length, and (iii) pyriform

sporangial leaves, which is slightly and obtusely 5-angled

above. There is a slight variation in the degree of overlap in

lower leaves among the plants collected from Himachal

Pradesh and Uttarakhand, and interestingly the descriptions

based on specimens collected from Nilgiris (Srivastava and

Verma 2004) resemble closely with that of Uttarakhand.

The species prefers smooth bark of the trees of Pieris

ovalifolia and is found in association with the mosses, such

as Brothera himalayana Broth, and Dicranum sp.

Type locality: Jamaica

Distribution: West Indies, Bermuda, Mexico,

Guatemala, Honduras, Panama, Nepal, Japan, Formosa,

Sumatra, Europe, Madeira, Tenerifa, Australia, Africa, New

Zealand N. America and S. America, india: North-eastern Hill

States (Manipur, Meghalaya), West Bengal, southern India

(Dodabetta, Nilghiri Hills, Ootacamund, Palni Hills, Kerala),

and Western Himalaya (Himachal Pradesh). This is the first

report of this species from the state of Uttarakhand.

Specimen Examined: Abbott Mount in Champawat

district in Uttarakhand: H-79/10, 2,010 m above msl, January

1979, Herbarium, Allahabad University.

2. Lejeunea nepalensis Steph. (Fig. 1: J-Q)

Lejeunea nepalensis Steph. Sp. Hepat. 5: 780 (1915);

Mizutani, Journ. Hattori Botanical Lab. 34: 455 (1971).

The species can be identified by its (i) flexuose stem,

(ii) seven rows of cortical cells, which are much larger than

the medullary cells, (iii) strongly arched base of the dorsal

margin of the leaf-lobe, (iv) small leaf-lobule, about 1/4 the

length of the leaf-lobe, (v) obliquely spreading leaves, and

(vi) it being dioecious.

The plants of the present population from Kumaun are

sturdier and have greater number of microsporangia per

plant.

The species is endemic to the Indian subcontinent. It

grows on the trunks of the oak tree, Quercus leucotrichophora

along with some pleurocarpous mosses.

Type locality: Nepal.

Distribution: india; Eastern Himalaya (Darjeeling,

Assam, Sikkim); Western Himalaya (Mussoorie). This is the

first report of this species from Kumaon region.

Specimen Examined: Abbott Mount in Champawat

district, Uttarakhand: H-79/56, 2,000 m above msl, June 1979,

Herbarium, Allahabad University

3. Lejeunea cocoes Mitt. (Fig. 2: A-N)

Lejeunea cocoes Mitt. Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. , London,

5: 114 (1861); Mizutani, Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 26: 176

(1963)

The diagnostic characters of the present species

include (i) whitish green, irregularly pinnately branched

plants, (ii) distant, sub-erect spreading leaves, (iii) distantly.,

placed lunate lower leaves, (iv) dioecious sexuality, (v) female

bracteole being connate with bracts at both sides,

and (vi) obovate, inflated sporangial leaves, weakly

5-keeled.

This species grows on the trunk of the oak tree, Quercus

leucotrichophora , under very shady and humid conditions.

The species was recorded from the bark of the coconut tree,

Cocos nucifera, in the 'type' locality.

T\pe locality: Balagom, Ceylon

Distribution: Sarawak, Java and China. This is the first

authentic report of the species from India.

Specimen Examined: Abbott Mount in Champawat

district, Uttarakhand: 301/78, 2,010 m above msl, January

1978, Herbarium, Allahabad University.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to Dr. Virendra Nath, National

Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow, for providing relevant

literature.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

121

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Lejeunea flava (Swartz.) Nees (A-l): A. Part of a plant, ventral view; B. Part of the plant with perianth, ventral view; C. Stem,

t.s.; D. Perianth, magnified; E. Underleaf; F. Leaf; G. Marginal cells of the leaf-lobe; H. Median cells of the leaf-lobe;

I. Basal cells of the leaf-lobe

Lejeunea nepalensis Steph. (J-Q): J. Part of a plant, ventral view; K. Part of the plant with male inflorescence, ventral view; L. Stem,

t.s: M. Leaf; N. Underleaf; O. Marginal cells of the leaf-lobe; P. Basal cells of the leaf-lobe; Q. Median cells of the leaf-lobe

122

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 2: Lejeunea cocoes Mitt. (A-N):

A. Part of a plant, ventral view; B. Part of the plant, dorsal view; C.Part of a plant, ventral view;

D. Stem, t.s.; E. Part of the plant with a sub floral innovation (though perianth is absent, bracts and bracteoles are present);

F. Leaf; G, H, I. & J. Underleaves; K. Leaf-lobule magnified; L. Perianth; M. Marginal cells of the leaf-lobe;

N. Median cells of the leaf-lobe

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

123

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Bapna, K.R. & P. Kachroo (2000): Hepaticology in India -II. Himanshu

Publication, Delhi.

Mizutani, M. (1961): A revision of Japanese Lejeuneaceae. Journ.

Hattori Bot. Lab.24: 115-302.

Mizutani, M. (1963): On some Indian species of the family Lejeuneaceae

described by W. Mitten. Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 26: 171-184.

Mizutani, M. ( 1964): Studies on little known Asiatic species of Hepaticae

in Stephani Herbarium I. Journ. Hattori Bot. Lab. 27: 139-148.

Mizutani, M. (1971): Lejeunea from Himalayan region. Journ. Hattori

Bot. Lab. 34: 445-457.

Singh, D.K. (2001): Diversity in Indian liverworts: their status,

vulnerability and conservation. Pp. 325-354. In: Nath, V. &

A.K. Asthana (Eds): Perspectives in Indian Bryology. Dehradun.

Singh, S.K. & D.K. Singh (2004): Lejeunea flava (Swartz.) Nees, An

addition to the bryoflora of western Himalaya. Geophytology

32(1&2): 115-117.

Srivastava, S.C. & P.K. Verma (2004): Exploration of liverwort diversity

on Cinchona plantation in Dodabetta, Nilgiri Hills, India.

Geophytology 32(1 &2): 1-18.

Srivastava, S.N. & N.S. Parihar (1986): Some noteworthy species of

the family Lejeuneaceae from Western Himalayas. All India

Conference on Bryology, Chandigarh, Abstract: 33.

16. CALATHODES POLYCARPA OHWI (RANUNCULACEAE) — A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Debabrata Maity1 and G.G. Maiti2

'Department of Botany, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected]

^Department of Botany, University of Kalyani. Kalyani 741 235, Nadia, West Bengal, India. Email: [email protected]. in

The genus Calathodes Hook./ & Thomson (Family:

Ranunculaceae) was established by Hook. / & Thomson

(1855) with the description of only one species Calathodes

palmata Hook. / & Thomson based on the collection from

Sikkim, 3,000 m above msl, J.D. Hooker, s.n.

Later, three more species were added, namely

C. oxycarpa Sprague (in Bull. Misc. Inform. Kew 1919:

403.1919): C. polycarpa Ohwi (in Acta Phytotax. Geobot.

2: 153.1933) and C. unciformis Wang (in Bull. Bot. Res.,

Harbin 16: 165. 1996), all considered to be endemic to China

(Liangqian andTamura 2001). However, later C. polycarpa

Ohwi was recorded from Formosa, Japan, by Ohwi ( l.c .)

based on the specimen Ohwi 4211 and also noted to be

present in Taiwan.

During the floristic study of Kanchenjunga Biosphere

Reserve, Sikkim, as well as Sikkim Himalaya, we collected

one specimen from Zemu valley, between Log Bridge and

Jakthang (Maity and Maiti 21373) with the following

distinguishing features: greenish-white flowers, numerous

(c. 30) carpels with gibbous-deltoid base and shorter styles,

different from that of the commonly known Sikkimese species

C. palmata Hook./ & Thomson.

A critical study revealed its identity as Calathodes

polycarpa Ohwi, which is a new record to India. Moreover,

its disjunct distribution is now known in Sikkim (India),

Formosa, China, Japan and Taiwan.

The collected specimen of Calathodes was identified

as C. polycarpa Ohwi by matching with the protologue and

Liangqian and Tamura (2001 ), and solely based on the field

observation and examination of the collected plants.

Detailed description along with illustration is provided

here. It is also compared with Calathodes palmata (Table 1)

and a key of known four species of Calathodes is given to

facilitate its identity.

Key to the species of Calathodes

1 . Flowers white or greenish white 2

— Flowers yellow 3

2. Lamina 2-3 x 3.2-5 cm; carpels 7-15 C. oxycarpa

— Lamina 4-6 x 6-9 cm; carpels 30-60 C. polycarpa

3. Carpels less than 20, without projection C. palmata

— Carpels more then 30, with projection C. unciformis

Calathodes polycarpa Ohwi in Acta Phytotax. Geobot.

2: 153. 1933; Liangqian & Tamura, FI. China 6: 137. 2001

(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Calathodes polycarpa: A. Habit; B. Etario of follicles

(immature); C. Stamen; D1. Carpel; D2. Carpel splitted in the

lower part showing ovules (from Maity & Maiti 21373)

124

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Comparison of C. palmata and C. polycarpa

Terrestrial, erect herb, up to 55 cm tall; stems with few

branches or simple, glabrous. Leaves 5-7, both rosette and

cauline, palmately tripartite; lamina 4-6 x 6-9 cm, mid-lobe

rhombic, 3-fid; laterals obliquely flabellate, unequally

2-parted; apex acute, margin incised-serrate, glabrous on both

the surfaces; petioles 7-14 cm long, auriculate at base; auricles

c. 1.5 cm long. Flower solitary, terminal, 1. 8-3.0 cm diam.,

borne on c. 1.5 cm long pedicel; sepals petaloid, obovate-

elliptic, 0.9- 1 .6 x 0.5-0.9 cm, white to greenish-white, glabrous;

petals absent; stamens 15-20; filaments filiform, 3-7 mm long;

anthers linear-oblongoid, 2.0-2. 5 mm long, latrorse; carpels

30-60, falcate-oblong, 4-5 x 1 mm, laterally compressed; base

deltoid-gibbous, sparsely papilose; style short, c. 1 mm long,

recurved. Follicles 30-60, each 7-10 mm long with 1. 5-2.0 mm

long persistent style; projection distinct on dorsal surface.

Specimen Examined: North Sikkim, Zemu Valley,

between Log Bridge and Jakthang, 3,000 m, 1 3.vi. 1999, Maity

& Maiti 21373-BSHC.

Flowering & Fruiting: June-August.

Distribution: india: Sikkim; China, Taiwan, Japan,

Formosa.

Grows on the forest floor, open grassy slopes in

temperate forest between 1,800-3,000 m.

Note: In our specimen the number of carpels is about

30 and the deltoid-gobbous base is sparsely papilose.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are thankful to the Additional Director, Central

National Herbarium (CAL), Howrah, for giving permission

to consult the herbarium and library.

REFERENCES

Hooker, J.D. & T. Thomson (1855); Flora Indica. London, pp. 40.

Liangqian, L. & M. Tamura (2001): Calathodes. hr. Zheng-yi, W. & P.H. Raven (Eds): Flora of China, Vol. 6. Beijing Science Press, pp. 137.

17. TRICHOSANTHES LOBATA ROXB. (CUCURBITACEAE) —

A NEW RECORD FOR GARHWAL HIMALAYA, INDIA

J.K. Tiwari1'2 and P. Tiwari1'3

'Herbarium and Plant Systematic Laboratory, H.N.B. Garhwal University Campus, Chauras, Tehri Garhwal, Uttarakhand 246 191, India.

2Email: jktiwari31 @rediffmail.com

Email: [email protected]

The genus Trichosanthes (Cucurbitaceae) is represented

by 22 species in India, and is distributed mainly in the tropics

and sub-tropics (Chakravorty 1982). Trichosanthes lobata

Roxb., closely allied to T. cucwnerina L., is reported from

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.

However, so far, there is no record of its occurrence from

Uttarakhand (Uniyal et al. 2007 ). Floristic records from north-

west Himalaya (Hooker 1872-1897; Duthie 1903-1929, 1906;

Babu 1977; Raizada and Saxena 1978; Naithani 1984-1985;

Gaur 1999) have no mention of this species from this part of

the country.

During plant collections in the Alaknanda valley, the

authors collected the species from open sloppy fields near the

road side in the third week of August, 2008. The voucher

specimen is deposited in the Herbarium, Department of Botany,

H.N.B. Garhwal University, Srinagar, Garhwal (GUH).

The diagnostic characters, locality, field number and

notes are given below:

Trichosanthes lobata Roxb. FI. bid. 3: 703. 1 832: Kurz

in J. As. Soc. Beng. 46(2): 98. 1877; Clarke in Hook. f.

FI. Brit. Ind. 2: 610. 1879; Kundu in J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 43: 373. 1943.

Diagnostic Characters: Extensive climber, stems

slender, sulcate. Leaves entire, 5- lobed, denticulate; petioles

up to 8-10 cm long, puberulous; lamina 16-18 x 14-16 cm,

membranous, suborbicular, base deeply cordate, slightly

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

125

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

puberulous on both surfaces. Tendrils trifid, divided about

the middle.

Male flowers: In racemes, minutely bracteate,

peduncles 1 8 to 20 cm long, slender, puberulous, 6- 1 0 flowered;

lower flowers arranged distantly, upper condensed. Pedicel

2.0 2.5 cm long, slender, calyx-tube 2.0-2. 5 cm long, corolla

fimbriate, without projections 1 .0 x 0.3 cm. Stamens 3, inserted

in the calyx tube, adnate, synandrous; anther lobes 0.3 cm x

0.1cm; filaments free, 0.1 cm in length. Pollen grains

3-zonicolpate (pollen grains with compound apperture,

3 porate colpi), sub-prolate (58.6 x 68.0 p ); exine 3.5 p thick,

reticulate.

Female flowers: Solitary, axillary, minutely bracteate;

pedicel 1 cm in length; flower length 4. 0-4. 5 cm; calyx-tube

3. 0-3. 5 cm, corolla tube 1.4 cm; ovary 1.5- 1.8 cm in length,

covered with minute hairs; style long 1.5 cm; stigma trifid,

0.3 cm long. Fruits 18-22 x 12.0-14.5 cm; pedicel 1 cm; fruit

surface glabrous; linear-oblong, streaked with white-green

colours; green streaks 1.5 cm broad, white streaks 0.5 cm at

Babu C.R. (1977): Herbaceous Flora of Dehradun. CSIR, New Delhi.

Pp. 204-205.

Chakravorty, H.L. (1982): Fascicles of Flora of India. Fascicle II -

Cucurbitaceae. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. Pp. 117-118.

Duthie, J.F. (1903-1929): Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain and of the

Adjacent Shivalik and Sub-Himalayan Tracts. 3 Vols. Calcutta.

Reprint 1974. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Pp. 362-365.

Duthie, J.F. (1906): Catalogue of Plants of Kumaon and of the Adjacent

Parts of Garhwal and Tibet. Based on the Collections Made by

Strachey and Winterbottom During the years 1 846- 1 849. London.

Rep. (1974), Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

Pp. 70.

base towards stalk. Seeds packed in bright red orange pulp,

ellipsoid, 12-15 x 6-8 mm and 2.0-2. 5 mm thick, flat, surface

rugulose, margin denticulate, tubercled, truncate at the apex,

much compressed at base.

Flowering and Fruiting: July-September.

Ecology: Occasional, along the wet edges of sloppy

fields. Frequently associated with Trichosanthes cucumerina,

Coccinia grandis , Ampelocissus latifolia-, Cassia tora, Murrya

koenigii , Zizyphus mauritiana , Lantana camara , Euphorbia

hirta and Physalis divaricata.

Specimen Examined: Srinagar, GUH 2910

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Professor R.D. Gaur, Professor Emeritus,

Department of Botany, H.N.B. Garhwal University for

encouragement and herbarium facilities and Dr. Harish Singh,

Scientist, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah, for providing

literature.

Gaur, R.D. (1999): Flora of the District Garhwal North West Himalaya

(With Ethnobotanical Notes). Transmedia, Srinagar Garhwal,

U.P Pp. 181-183.

Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India. 1-7 Vols. L. Reeve

& Co., London. Reprint 1982. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh,

Dehradun. Pp. 610.

Naithani, B .D. (1984-1985): Flora of Chamoli, 2 Vols. Botanical Survey

of India, Howarh. Pp. 246.

Raizada, M.B. & H.O. Saxena (1978): Flora of Mussoorie. Vol. I. Bishen

Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 257-260.

Uniyal, B.P., J.R. Sharma, U. Choudhery & D.K. Singh (2007):

Flowering plants of Uttarakhand (A checklist). Bishen Singh,

Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun. Pp. 135-136.

18. REDISCOVERY OF HUGONIA MYSTAX LINN. (LINACEAE) FROM MAHARASHTRA, INDIA

B.G. Gavade1

‘AT & P.O. Chakul, Taluka Sawantwadi. District Sindhudurg 416 510, Maharashtra, India. Email: [email protected]

Hugonia myst Linn. Sp. PI. 675 1753; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bombay FI. 17, 1861; Masters in Hook.f. FI. Brit. Ind. 7:413,

1875; Cook, FI. Pres. Born. 7:156, 1901; Talbot, Trees

Bombay 28, 1902; Wight., 111. 02, 1840.

“Modira-Canni” Rheede, Hort. Mai. 2: 29-30, t. 19,

1679.

A rambling scandent shrub; branches yellow-tomentose,

with short horizontal branchlets, leafless below and provided

near the ends with a pair of circinate hooks. Leaves 4-6 by

2.5-4 cm, elliptic-obovate, obtuse or subacute, entire,

.reticiilately veined, the veins conspicuous on both the

surfaces, glabrous, base tapering; petioles 2 mm long, hairy;

stipules lanceolate-subulate. Flowers at the extremities of the

short branchlets 2.5-3 cm across, terminal and in the upper

axile; pedicels short 1 -flowered, clothed with soft yellow

hairs. Sepals 7 mm long, ovate-lanceolate, acute,

fulvous-pubescent. Petals many times longer than the sepals,

thin, ovate-oblong, acute or truncate. Styles longer than the

stamens; stigmas capitate. Drupes about 9 mm in diameter,

globose, surrounded by the persistent sepals; bright red after

maturity; pulp scanty; stone bony, grooved, 10-celled, with

usually 2 or 3 seeds.

126

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

A rare plant found near the junction of river goes to sea

on sandy areas among the other bushes. Few plants were seen

at single spot.

FI. & Fr.: August (Seen the plant in flowering and

fruiting in December)

Distribution: Mochemad-Vengurla.

Specimen Examined: BGG - 2974 (BLAT)

This is the first report of this species after a gap of

145 years. It was reported by Dalzell & Gibson in Bombay

Flora in 1861 based on collection of the species between

Vengurla and Malvan. However, no specific locality has been

given by Dalzell. Dalzell reported the flowering period of

the plant as August, in rainy season, but I have seen the plant

flowering and fruiting during December, in winter season. I

have collected the specimens and taken the photographs of

the same (Eds: photographic evidence provided).

In the flora of sindhudurg district (55,1988),

Mr. B.G. Kulkarni reported this species, on authority

of Dalzell. In flora of Maharashtra Vol. I: 175, 1996),

M.R. Almeida has reported this plant on the authority of Dalzell,

as well as in the flora of Maharashtra (Vol.l: 411, 2000)

published by BSI. No other collector has been able to locate

this species in Konkan. I have located this species while doing

the plant survey of Vengurla taluka for my Ph.D. Degree.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely thank my guide Dr. S.M. Almeida for help

in determination of the species. Dr. M.R. Almeida for the

assistance provided in the confirmation of the species and

Dr. U.C. Bapat, the Director, Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s

College, Mumbai for facilities rendered during my work.

19. A NEW RECORD OF MONOTROPA HYPOPITYS L„

A MYCO-HETEROTROPHIC PLANT FROM INDIA

S.K. Barik13, N.J. Lakadong1-4, R. Baishya1-5, A. Chettri1-6, P. Das1-7, H. Kayang'-8and D. Marbaniang2

'Department of Botany, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793 022, India.

2Centre for Environmental Studies, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong 793 022, India.

■’Email: [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

5Email: [email protected]

'’Email: [email protected]

7Email: [email protected]

8Email: [email protected]

A myco-heterotrophic plant Monotropa hypopitys L.

is reported for the first time from India. The illustration,

phenology, range of occurrence and conservation threat of

the species have been presented in this paper.

About 400 species of vascular plants under 87 genera

are achlorophyllous and heterotrophic, but not directly

parasitic. These plants are unable to assimilate carbon by

themselves and are mostly dependent on fungal association

for nourishment. Hence, these saprophytic plants are called

as myco-heterotrophic plants. Most myco-heterotrophic plants

are restricted to the tropics and the diversity in terms of

number of species and families is maximum in the

Palaeotropical region (Leake 1994). The members belonging

to the genus Monotropa are achlorophyllous, myco-

heterotrophic plants. The subfamily Monotropoideae of

Ericaceae consists of 10 genera and 12 species (Wallace 1975).

Monotropa has a wide distribution throughout Europe, North

America and Asia, with a circumboreal distribution extending

northward almost up to the Arctic Circle (Wallace 1975). It

is also found in far south, such as Mexico, Panama and

Colombia (Maas 1986). However, in India, Monotropa is

restricted to temperate Himalayas in Garhwal and Kumaon

(Strachey 1974) and Khasi Hills (Hooker 1882; Haridasan

and Rao 1985). Of the two species of Monotropa. namely

M. hypopitys and M. uniflora , only M. uniflora has so far

been recorded from these areas. While reporting M. hypopitys

from China, Wallace (1975) included India as one of the

countries where the species can be found. However, there

was no mention of specific locality. Other than this, there is

no published report on occurrence of M. hypopitys in India

till date.

While establishing the identity of the species, the

authors came across two specimens of the same species, one

from Naga hills with collection No. 17636 (ASSAM)

deposited by N.L. Bor in September, 1 936, and another from

Salari forest in East Kameng district of Arunachal Pradesh

with collection No. 39961 (ASSAM) deposited by J. Joseph

in September, 1964. However, the species was never collected

from Meghalaya and was never published describing its

occurrence in India.

Monotropa hypopitys was discovered during the

floristic exploration in two sacred forests of Meghalaya.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

127

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Monotropa hypopitys-. a. habit; b. bract; c. mature ovary

and d. T.S. of ovary (Scale bar: a = 240 mm & b-d = 10 mm)

The identity of the species was established after comparing it

with the two herbarium sheets deposited by Bor (1936) and

Joseph (1964) mentioned above and consulting the flora of

china (Zhengyi et al. 2005). The voucher specimen was

deposited in Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle

Herbarium (Assam), Shillong. The species is confined to two

sacred forests, namely Mawphlang (25° 36. 810' N; 91°

54.113' E; 1,427 m above msl), and Upper Shillong

(25° 32.223' N; 91°51.231' E; 1,899 m above msl).

Monotropa hypopitys L„ Sp. PI. 1 : 387. 1753.

Plant annual, pale yellow-brown, fleshy, brown-black

when dry. Inflorescence racemose, rarely reduced to a solitary

flower, 5-35 cm long from root connection, 1-10 mm diameter,

below the lowermost flower glabrous, emerging from soil in

nodding position; bracts on axis below soil level, shorter and

thicker and more densely crowded than upper bracts, elliptic

to ovate, 8-15x3-15 mm, margins erose, irregularly toothed;

pedicels slender, 2.5-15 mm long, up to 36 mm in fruit,

1-2 mm in diam., finely pubescent to nearly glabrous,

glandular; bracteoles sometimes present, 9-14 x

4- 10 mm. Flowers cylindric, often constricted distally; calyx

distinct from corolla, sepals 4-5 or occassionally, 7-12 x

1-5 mm, usually pubescent within; corolla of 4-5 petals

divergent at apices, 8-17 x 4-8 mm, oblong to oblanceolate,

narrowly saccate at constricted base, rounded to acute at

apices, usually reflexed at tip; stamens 8-10 in two series of

alternating lengths, 5-14 mm long; anthers hippocrepiform,

0.8- 1.5 mm long, dehiscing by a single terminal slit over the

connate sacs; ovary 6- 1 2 x 5-9 mm, usually pubescent, locules

4-5, stigma umbilicate, funnel form, 1. 5-3.0 mm in diam.,

often subtended by a ring of stiff hairs; style uniformly slender,

joining abruptly with ovary, 2-10 x 1-2 mm. Capsule erect,

broadly ellipsoid, 5-10 x 5-9 mm (Fig. 1 and Table 1).

Specimen Examined: Naga hills, Nagaland, Bor 17636

(Acc. No. 6405-Assam), Salari, West Kameng district,

Arunachal Pradesh, Joseph 39961 (Acc. No. 39797

Assam).

FI. & Fr.: FI. July-September and Fr. September-

October.

Table 1: Distinguishing features of M. hypopitys L. and

M. uniflora L .

128

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Ecology: The species grows on leaf litter as well as on

the roots of Quercus spp. and the members of Family

Lauraceae such as Cinnamomun glanduliferum (Wall) Meissn

and Persea odoratissima (Nees) Kosterm. The fungal species

that had mycorrhizal association with M. hypopitys were

Russula lepida Fr., Boletus luteus L., B. edulis Bull, and

Tricholoma saponaceum (Fr.) P. Kumm. The other fungal

species present in the litter were Scleroderma aurantium (L.)

Pers, Amanita phalloides ( Vaill ex. Fr.) Link and Hygrophorus

limacinus Kalchbr.

Distribution: China, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand,

Russia, Pakistan, Europe, North America, Mexico and

India.

Threat status: Following IUCN classification scheme

Version 3.1 (2001), the species is assigned to the category

‘Critically endangered’.

Being an achlorophyllous plant, Monotropa hypopitys

depends on its association with mycorrhizal fungi for

nutrition, which in turn are usually associated with the roots

of selected tree species. The survival and reproduction of

M. hypopitys seems to be extremely sensitive to forest

microenvironment that encourages the mycorrhizal

association between the angiosperm tree roots and fungi.

Thus, the protection of the habitat holds key to the species

conservation.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director of the Botanical Survey of India,

Eastern Circle, Shillong, for allowing us to consult the

herbaria and identify the species. The second, third, fourth,

fifth and seventh author gratefully acknowledge the University

Grants Commission, New Delhi, for financial assistance in

the form of fellowship.

REFERENCES

Haridasan, K. & R.R. Rao (1985): Forest Flora of Meghalaya. Vol. 1.

Bishen Singh and Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. 451

pp.

FIooker, J.D. (1882): Flora of British India: Monotropea. Reeve & Co.,

London, vol. 3. 476 pp.

Leake, J.R. (1994): The biology of myco-heterotrophic (‘Saprophytic’)

plants. New Phytol. 127(1): 171-216.

Maas, P.J.M. (1986): Flora Neotropica: Saprophytes pro-parte, the

New York Botanical Gardens, New York. 189 pp.

Strachey, R. (1974): Catalogue of the plants of Kumaon and of the

adjacent portions of Garhwal and Tibet 1: 104.

Wallace, G.D. (1975): Studies on the monotropoideae (Ericaceae):

taxonomy and distribution. Wasmann J. of Biol. 33 : 1-88.

Zhengyi, W., P.FL Raven & H. Deyuan (eds) (2005): Flora of China.

Vol. 14. Missouri Botanical Garden Press. St. Louis, Missouri,

USA. 592 pp.

20. DOES ACHYRANTHES B1DENDATA BLUME (AMARANTHACEAE)

OCCUR IN ANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS?

L. Rasingam14, P.G. Diwakar2,5 and Shubhangi Ingole3

‘Botanical Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Circle, Port Blair 744 102, India.

“Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune 411 001, Maharashtra. India.

’Bar. R.D.I.K. and N.K.D. College. Badnera-Amravati, Maharashtra, India.

4Email: [email protected]

’Email: [email protected]

The species Achyranthes bidendata Blume is widely

distributed in the tropical countries mainly in Africa and

Asia. In India, the species has been reported throughout

the country from sea level to 1,000 m altitude. Vasudeva

Rao (1986) reported this species from Nicobar Islands

based on the earlier collections deposited in the Botanical

Survey of India regional herbarium. Port Blair (PBL).

Later, Sinha (1999) included it in his work based on the above

report and collections. A critical examination of earlier

collections with relevant literature reveals that all the

specimens hitherto identified as Achyranthes bidendata

Blume in PBL belong to Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume. The

genus Cyathula is closely allied to the genus Achyranthes

L., but differs from it by having rhombate leaves and fascicled

hooks around the glomerules of flowers. Thus, Achyranthes

bidendata Blume may not occur on Andaman &

Nicobar Islands. The present paper gives nomenclature

and concise description of Cyathula prostrata together

along with its distribution in the world and habitat.

Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume, Bijdr. 549. 1825;

Hook, f., FI. Brit. India 4: 723. 1885; Ridl., FI. Malay Penins.

3: 7. 1924; Backer in Steenis, FI. Males. Set : 7, Spermat. 4:

82, t. 4. 1949; Larsen in FI. Thailand 5(4): 393, t. 86 (7-13).

1992. Achyranthes prostrata L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 296. 1762.

A. bidendata sensu Vasudeva Rao in J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 8:

140. 1986; Sinha, FI. Great Nicobar Isl. 351. 1999. (non.

Blume, 1826).

Erect or prostrate herb, up to 80 cm high; stem reddish-

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

129

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

brown, obtusely quadrangular, densely white hairy. Leaves

simple, opposite, membranous, rhombate, 2-7 x 1-3 cm, acute

at apex and base, margin entire, ciliate, patently hairy on both

surfaces, reddish-brown above, greenish-brown beneath;

petioles 5-7 mm long, channeled above, hairy. Inflorescence

terminal, racemose, up to 26 cm long, densely pubescent;

peduncles up to 8.5 cm long. Flowers in glomerules, sterile

flowers often found in the lower parts and modified into

hooked fascicles. Tepals lanceolate, c. 3 mm long, densely

villous and pubescent within. Stamens 5, filaments at the base

with a short connate cup; free parts alternating with dentate,

pseudo-staminodes; anthers 2-celled. Ovary obovoid, c. 1 mm

long; style very short. Seeds up to 1 .2 mm long, shining brown.

FI. & Fr.: March- August.

Distribution: india: Throughout; Africa to China,

throughout south-east Asia and Australia.

Habitat: Not common along the edges of evergreen

and semi-evergreen forests.

Specimens Examined: Little Andaman Island: Way

towards Unnis nallah dam, 27.iv.2006, L. Rasingam 20984;

North Nicobars: Katchal Island, West bay, l.v. 1977,

R Chakraborty 5578; South Nicobars: Great Nicobar Islands,

35 km on east- west road, 20.vii.1976, N.P. Balakrishnan 3898;

36.8 km on east-west road, 17. vi. 1977, N.P. Balakrishnan

5824.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. M. Sanjappa, Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Kolkata, for facilities. We are also thankful

to Dr. D. Kannan, Thiyagaraja College, Madurai, for

encouragement, and officials of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Forest Plantation and Development Corporation Limited

(ANIFPDCL) for field support.

REFERENCES

Sinha, B.K. (1999): Flora of Great Nicobar Island. Botanical Survey of India, Kolkata, 525 pp.

Vasudeva Rao. M.K. (1986): Apreliminary report on the Angiosperms of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J. Econ. Taxon. Bot. 8(1): 107-184.

21 . PANDANUS UNIPAPILLATUS DENNST.: A NEW RECORD FOR MAHARASHTRA AND GOA, INDIA

Rahul L. Zanan1-2, Kantilal V. Wakte1-3 and Altafhusain B. Nadaf1-4

‘Department of Botany, University of Pune, Pune 411 007, Maharashtra. India.

Email: [email protected]. in

’Email: [email protected]. in

Email: [email protected]. in

In November 2007, we collected a species from

Maharashtra at Sawantwadi (15° 51’ 33 N; 73° 50' 38 E) of

Sindhudurg district and in December 2007 from Goa at

Paingen (14° 58' 03 N; 74° 05' 19 E) of Canacona district.

The collected specimen when compared with the

authentically identified specimens deposited at the Botanical

Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune, was identified as

P. unipapillatus.

Pandanus unipapillatus Dennst. (Pandanaceae)

has been reported for the first time for the states of

Maharashtra and Goa (Sharma et al. 1996; Rao 1986;

Kulkami 1988). In this report, a detailed description of the

species is given.

P. unipapillatus Dennst. Schlussel Hortus Malab. 27.

(1818).

Material Examined: india: Maharashtra (Sindhudurg

district, Sawantwadi, 7 km from Sawantwadi towards

Londha) female plant, Rahul Zanan 7; Goa Canacona district,

Paingen, male plant, Rahul Zanan 5, female, Rahul

Zanan 6.

A large shrub or small tree up to 8 m height; more or

less erect stem, branching near top with a few prop roots at

base. Leaves up to 1.5-2 m x 3-5 cm, margin with sharp

curved prickles and midrib prickly along its whole length.

7-8 spines on midrib (per 10 cm), spines 3 mm long,

15-16 on margin (per 10 cm) in three rows, leaf colour deep

to light green.

Male inflorescence ephemeral, fragrant, terminal with

yellowish 10-12 bracts; spikes up to 1 2-20 cm long and dense,

stemonophore 3-6 mm long; stamen 5-8 mm long with free

up to 1 mm long filament; anther 3-5 mm long. Female

inflorescence terminal, bracteate, 6-8 bracts of variable length;

solitary, oblong-rounded 25-30 cm x 18-20 cm, carpel simple,

hexagonal, 4.5 cm long, 1 cm in diameter, single forked, style

1 cm long. Grows at the border of paddy fields and along the

bank of streams.

Flowering & Fruiting: FI.: August to October,

Fr.: September to December.

Distribution: india: Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,

Maharashtra and Goa.

130

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 106 (1), Jan-Apr 2009

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 (a-e): Pandanus unipapillatus Dennst.

a. Leaf; b. Androphore; c. Fruit; d. Carpel; e. Bilobed style

Fig. 2 (a-c): Pandanus unipapillatus Dennst.

a. Habit; b. Male inflorescence; c. Androphore

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are thankful to Prof. S.R. Yadav, Department of

Botany, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for his valuable

suggestions, encouragements and to Dr. K.G. Bhat, Poomprajna

College, Udupi, Karnataka, for his help in identifying the

specimens. Authentication of the collected specimens was done

at the Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune.

REFERENCES

Kulkarni, B.G. (1988): Flora of Sindhudurg, Flora of India, Series 3. Botanical Survey of India, pp. 465.

Rao, R.S. (1986): Flora of Goa, Diu Daman and Nagarhaveli, Flora of India, Series 2. Botanical Survey of India, pp. 451-452.

Sharma, B.D., S. Karthikeyan & N.P. Singh ( 1996): Flora of Maharashtra State, Monocotyledons. Botanical Survey of India, pp. 206.

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EDITORIAL

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Asghar Nawab

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M. Srinivasa Rao, Ch. Vijaya Bhanu, C. Annapurna, D.R.K. Sastry and D. Srinivasa Rao

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(BONAPARTE, 1832) (MYLIOBATIFORMES, DASYATIDAE) IN THE INDIAN EEZ

V.S. Somvanshi, Sijo P. Varghese and S. Varghese

STATUS AND DISTRIBUTION OF HANGUL CERVUS ELAPHUS HANGLU WAGNER IN KASHMIR, INDIA

Qamar Qureshi, Nita Shah, A.R. Wadoo, R.Y. Naqqash, M.S. Bacha, N.A. Kitchloo, J.N. Shah,

I. Suhail, S. Iqbal, K. Ahmad, I.A. Lone, M. Mansoor, R.A. Zargar, S. Hussain, M.M. Baba, M.A. Parsa,

A.R. Latoo and I. Dewan

NATURAL HISTORY OBSERVATIONS OF THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE TETRACERUS QUADRICORNIS

Koustubh Sharma, Asad R. Rahmani and Raghunandan Singh Chundawat

1

5

11

15

30

38

45

57

63

72

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF TYDEUS KOCH (PROSTIGMATA: TYDEIDAE) INFESTING THE

MEDICINAL PLANT JUSTICIA ADHATODA L. NEES WITH A NOTE ON ITS BIOLOGY

Indranil Roy, Salil Kumar Gupta and Goutam Kumar Saha 83

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS TETRALEURODES COCKERELL (HEMIPTERA: ALEYRODIDAE) OF

INDIA, WITH A KEY TO THE INDIAN SPECIES

R. Sundararaj and R. Pushpa 86

REVIEW 89

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 90

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