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TO ON ca ra nots

OF THE

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

: INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXII

| NOS. 1 & 2

P2g ge TRS) i: wee «62-50

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1929

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page ee ae es

Contents of Nos. 1 and 20f Vol. XXXIII

List of Contributors oh --- | To follow the frontis-

List of Plates ... aes ce piece in this order.

Index to Illustrations eae

Errata oes ee ey

Index to species aor .- To goat the end of

two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SIR R. A. SPENCE, kt., S. H. PRATER, cC.M.zZ.S.

& SALIM A. ALI, M.B.0.U.

VOL, XXXII

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 56 Black and White Plates,

41 Text-figures, 30 Diagrams and 2 Maps

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages 1 to 221) |... 30th September, 1928.

» QI. ( ,, 222 to 471) ... 15th February, 1929.

LONDON AGENTS

DULAU & Co., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W. I.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS,

1929

CONLTLENES OF VOLOME XXXITI

No. 1

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. Part VII. (With

a coloured plate) of The Sarus Crane (Aniigone anti gone

ee y By E. C. Stuart Baker, ¥.z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U.,

H.F.A.O.U., Se ete Poh ens wit i

REVISION OF THE Beene OF THE isaraa eae OY,

PART) VIL; “By i: Blatter, S.3..°PH-D-, F:L.S;.

OxLp Deccan Days. By Brigadier- General R; G. marion.

THE Stupy oF PLANT Lirr. Part Il. (With three bites

and tour text-figures.) By Charles McCann.. :

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXXI. (With EES pla

Bye lee C Ol Pe. SN aSeCl al. MsGayt Reb eGoen.aontesncaat foto a:

A SHIELD-MAKING BEETLE. (Sindia clathrata, F.) (With a

plate.) By Major R. W. G. Hingston, I.M.s..

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE Memican

Hitt Provincsgs. Part VIII. (Witha pe) By Col.

A. E. Ward.. Nr APOE sfeaseivetiontets

NEw Ce FROM THE Wesueen: Gans “(With two

text-figures.) By E. Blatter, $.J., PH.D., F.L.S.. aaa

DoNGTSE, OR STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM sie (With tbo

plates.) By F. Ludlow.. odeeasacenges

THE DUGONG OR SEA-Cow. “(Halicore dugong). “(With four

pias.) By Si: Prater, €:M.Z:S..

FuRTHER NOTES AND DeeeereeioNct UF BoE coe

FisHes. (With two plates.) By Henry W. Fowlet.......

GAME PRESERVATION AND GAME EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA.

(With two Baron By Bernard C. Ellison, F.R.G.s.,

CiM.Z:S 55. FeL.S.: Moin eeaate

THE MIGRATION OF THE ea concias fenceoor RCC

jacobinus). (With a se) By Hugh Whistler, F.L.s.,

HiZ.S:, M.B-O.U.. Be

A Nore on Viverra Bin Bae. WW. ith ee plats.) ‘By

Helen M. Lindsay, M.A., B.Sc..

MopErN Muszum METHODS. Part Tit (With: seven plates.)

By_o- EH. Prater,: C.M.z.S..

A Note ON THE WORK OF NCO Saunt. tiene ee

AT THE PRINCE OF WALES’ MusEuM, BOMBAY, FROM

NOVEMBER 16, 1926 To FEBRUARY 10, 1928. (With a

EL DLGN a NES AIM AGA Mp Ms BLO. Use eee 6 cves ue. «tees «ev sceianess

PAGE

100

120

136

146

149

163

PAGE

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIII

THE Stupy oF INpIAN Birpvs. Part Il. (With two plates.)

By Hugh Whistler “MsB70°U.C5 7.22 oteeeen cease eee ee

REVIEWS :—

BiG GAME SHOOTING IN THE INDIAN EMPIRE. ..............

A CRITICAL REVISION OF THE GENUS A7istida.... cc cee ces eee

A GARDEN BOOK FORYMAEAYV AGE occ) oso eee eee

POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS)..5 5.) ete ee

BRAUTIFUL- EFEOWERS OF KASHMIR «22 vs .cshe ae ee

FUDITORIA Li be nia serene sade soatedie ste ienens see hcocea eee ee eee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

it.

XI:

XII.

XIII.

XV:

XV.

XVITIL.

Woodcock in Burma.

A Night on an Observation Machan in the

Billttgirirangans.syalk. © Morice see = ecene

Notes on the Common Indian Langur (P2thecus

entellus). (With a plate.) By C. McCann........

A: Careless Tiger: By Nok. Bor t.rs.....2

An Unusual Find in a Tiger’s Skull.

Van Ingen and Van Ingen........... Rae.

Tigers climbing Trees. By Sides ai Suan. eae Ses

Tiver Pooking % By kW Cy Moriss...3s.ee

Sambhar and Wild Dog. By R.C. Morris

Wild Dogs attacking Cattle.

Gregory Smith.. 23

A Note on the Malayan Wild pee iCuse rutile)

(With a plate.) By E. H. Peacock... “ hiadoms

Comments on the Aardwolf Gy cnueae

Sparrm.) mentioned in ‘A Sporting Trip to

Somaliland’, in this. Journal By (C- RS:

Pitman..

By Messts.

By Capt. H. G.

12 Aon Wiicual AlGrade Reco cn fle Banking Dest

(Muntiacus vaginalis.) By A. A. K. Sangster.

Aborted Tusks in Elephants. By R. C. Morris....

Birds eating Butterflies.

The Speed of the Indian Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle

vrudis leucomelanura.) By C. H. Donald...........

The Food of Hornbills. By C. R. S. Pitman.......

Pallas’ Fishing Eagle (Haliaétus oes

killing Crane. By F. A.C. Munns.. co

By Lieut. E. H. oes. ne

Notes on the Indian Python Oe He ie in

eaptivity. By C. Leigh, s.3..

By CoS a eitoran. 2.0

166

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIII

XIX: Comment on ‘The Record Cubbany Mahseer’.

By Curator, Mysore, Government Museum,

Bane alO need. ee ee aetcew os ioc cr acon hice sence debdan sucess

XX. Aphidide of Mysore.. By B. Krishnamurthy, B.sc.

XXI. Migration of Spiders. (W7th a-text-figure.) By

| Wee er a erSOMle: etn. untae oe toes suai ows ocee neue:

ESNSWERS- TO: © ORRESPONDENUDGHuisccsecn tars tesces ocecucinseteces

PINOCHE DENG Gis Mech ee loa cce aces vanewd

No. 2

Tur GAME BrirRpS OF THE INDIAN Empire. Part VIII.

(With a coloured plate) oF THE CRAB PLOVER (Dromas

ardeola). By E. C. Stuart Baker, J.P., F.Z.S., F.L.S.,

M.B.0.U., H.F.A.0.U.. *

REVISION OF THE none OF THE sere Pete EpRCe.

arte V rile “By EK. Blatter,-siJes: PH.D.) F.L:S.. a

SOME EXTRACTS FROM My SHIKAR Diary. By Lt. Col. R. W.

Burton..

ON THE neous OF = IS Neo Nionuec OF THE Fens

Dicrocelium WITH A KRY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS.

(With a plate.) By Dharam Narain, M.sc. and Ram

eeA IN OAS RIES fate il tat oc cies costco ted cial laowalk Sk chaste es oeeie oe a

THE STuDY OF PLANT Lire. Part HI. (With a plate, two

- blocks and twenty-six text-figures.) By Charles McCann.

Mossges COLLECTED IN WAZIRISTAN By Mr. J. FERNANDEZ

tN.192/;.- By -H; N- Dixon, McA, F:L.S. ies

TIGER TRACKS. (With four plates.) By F. W. Champion

19 SERS ee oa Pedi Ai cack nad onset ado teeta wel Sei ef

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXXII. (With four plates.)

By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.M.S., F.E.S. baie treaties

MAHSEER (Larbus tor) IN BURMA AND THEIR eye ‘(With

two plates and-a text-figure). By A. Macdonald.

A New Species OF Balanophora FROM MAHABLESHWAR,

~ - BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. wae a plate.) By E. Blatter, s.J.,

PH.D., F.L.S.. ae CNET ech Stee Ate Nts yet

THE STUDY OF iat Brees eae Il. (With two plates.)

yet oes StICh yt .Z.S. (NB Ossie ., ecndecdec sks 0 Sea cde sat

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS OF THE MAMMAL SuRVEY, No.

XLVIII. INDIAN SHREWS. By Mrs. Helen M. Lindsay,

M.A., B.SC.. ee Ga 8 te A ee

A Sion OF INSECT PROTECTION: ise ees phasiana,

FABR. ee two plates.) By ee R. W. G. Hingston,

PAGE

210

211

215

ZAG

220

223

229

326

34]

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIII

PAGE

- A List of FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE FROM 1901-1915.

By R. Shunker Narayan Pillay, C.M.z.s.. 347

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS. Part I. (With « a 1: photo.)

By’lda -Colthurst.z.2cececctstte. ones 380

REVISIONAL NOTES OF THE GENUS HELIOPHOR US

(Lycaenidae) WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW Forms. Wath

twenty-cight text-figures.) By No D. Riley =....0.....5. ) (384

REVIEWS :—

SOME FRESHWATER FISHING IN MAEAVAN.£ Jfiy.c.50-sesteseann es 409

SPORT “AND WILD Line IN THE SOR CCANM Coa ee oem e 403

SHIKAR. fice URE SS KE LE Gal vik By SOREN» cc c3ha RSS IO oe 405

BIRDS AT THE NEST.. ae REA Satan Aon 405

BIRDS AND BEASTS OF THE Romi Hees. ae Pasa Ree A OT,

GAME BIRDS.. aon 408

BULLETIN OF THE ae Museum, SS Nereus, Ne. 1,

SEPTEMBER 1928.. sak Acnte yaaa Te Meee kaa Bee 410

‘ WITH A CAMERA IN ieee LAND’ AN Te oroes owen vanheg healed

AN APPEAL FOR SCORPIONS :sosccsscces Me enesenes tes deca sateen 412

EPIPORTAL 5 cosck Cac seek ee ee ee eee 413

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :-—

I. After Bison and Buffalo in the High Sal Forests.

By: J, A. Dukes; 12.. 419

II. Monkeys and ee (fe F. W. ‘Ghanmicae I.F.S. 424

HT. “The Man-eaters of Tsavo;, oe a plate.) By

the Editors.. ike Ele WO (eh ek

IV. Wounded Moors arin 5 Kill. “iy Ralph C.

Morris.. ree 425

Ve Maasitements of ‘Panthers: By. 'R. creation Riopee:

Lieut.: Rio Ay ee aaa 426

VI. Breeding Hanite ae nie Coraiten Moneonees Ore

pestes edwardsi.) By Lt.-Col. A. G Frere, 1.a.,

FZ iSisne oan oo 02 soe 8 Veep eet ete cn ei ae ee 426 -

VIL. A Stalwart Pariah Dog. By J. A; Duke: rey...22 77-428

VIII. Some Observations on Wild Elephants in Orissa.

(With a map.) By H. I. Mooney, LEcSs. 430

IX. On‘ Natural Deaths’ in Wild Elephants. ae 1B Ww.

Champion): Hise... See Ck, CRE hee, 433

X. A Large Tusker oe Soon Tadian “(With a plate).

By D: R- DaWwadiae j Bea estan hoe

XI. Height in Elephants. Be David Bodies aettas 437

XII. Abnormal Antlers of a Kashmir Stag fens ae

(With a photo.) By GM. Gamble, Capt....,..,.,... 438

CONTENTS OF VQLUME XXXII

XIII. Clicking Noise made by Muntjac. By Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton..

XIV. Some Notes on aie aneolia (Wane nara in

Burma. (Witha plate.) By 5. F. Hopwood, 1.F.s.

XV. The Babbler as a Barometer. By C. H. Donald.....

XVI. The Nesting Habits of the Northern Grey Hornbill

(Lophoceros btrostiis.) By J.D. Finlay ..

XVII. Occurrence of the Xmas Island Frigate- Bird Upecata

andrewst) on the West Coast of India. By S.H.

ALC Ty CUNO sserei te ew ee re AC ae cinatae Vaind ences

XVIII. Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna)in the

United Provinces. By J.C. Faunthorpe, [email protected]:,

COB Hee MC Fy Nie rins Gncweticeies sce atteats onpas's eMicaee i:

XIX. Migration of Wildfowl. (With a map.) By the

Beit O1Ghie Seen bene i ta tence a tas Bin Hho we Lieto

XX. The Flight of Birds at High Altitudes. By R. W.G.

EATS SLOT, VU OL. WMG ce hes toe cients is bene sas

XXI,. The Occurrence of the Gharial (Gavzalis gangeticus)

ine bur ass WG. Bartomedss< oh eiio os pe eoaneens.

XXII. On Some Common Indian Lizards. By H. Jouguet.

XXIII. Some Notes on the Travancore Evening Brown

Butterfly yaad marshalit) in Coorg. By

J.A. Yates... Weed Gad ee De eR croceed cee cues aces

XXIV. A SHORT Nowe: on a Lymantrid Caterpillar

(Dasychira mendosa Hubn.) feeding on Mango

Leaves. (Witha block). By S. Mukerji, M.Sc.

XXV. A Preliminary Note on the Pollination of the Coral

Tree (Arythrina indica) Lamk. (With two plates.)

Pat © NOLO NG sock to nat as eaedl hae, coer sae e es.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTG............-+: J, EN, eee a

PROCBEDINGS <(W2// two: plates) ..;......s00.s-.2408

Vil

PAGE

439

442

444

445

446

449

450

452

455

458

460

463

468

Al PHABETICAL LIST OF COMPRILELORS

VOLUME XXXII

Nos. 1

PAGE

Ant. SALIM.Ag, M:iBeOLULge A

note on the wo:k of Nature

Study teaching at the Prince

of Wales’ Museum, Bombay,

from 16th November 1926 to

10th February 1928 (w7th a

plate) ‘

Answers to corecpondenias

BAKER,: #. C. ‘STUART,: J-7P.,

BAZ SS lor eS, eo ND BiOsUs,

eA Oe The Game

Birds of the Indian Empire.

Vol. V. shart Ville GW7th a

coloured plate) of Sarus Crane

Antigone antigone antigone...

ie — ; The Game

Birds of the Indian Empire,

Vol. V. The Waders and

other Semi-sporting Birds,

Part VII. (With a coloured

piate). The Crab Plover

Dromas ardeola... he

Barton, C.G.; The Occur

rence of the Gharial (Gavzalis

gangeticus) in Burma... te

BLATTER, E. and McCann, C. ;

Revision of the Flora of the

Blom biay. Preside miciy.

Part Vil.

—_—-— } Revtien of fic Hora

of the Bombay Presidency,

Part Vill. Graminee bn

BLATTER, Ee, “Say. -PheDs

F.L.S.; New Commelinacee

from the Western Ghats (wth

two text-figures)

163 |

463

223

229

and 2

z PAGE

BLATTER. tH Sale blo.

PES) 2) mew). species jot

Balanophora from Mahablesh-

war, Boinbay Presidency

| (with a plate) 309

| BORN SL.) an caneless heer 194

BOYLE, DAG D p Height in

Elephants eee

BURTON, BRIGADIER Cuvee!

RG. Old Deccan days .14 4226

Burton Ligur.-Cot. R. W.

(I.A, Retired). Some Extracts

from my Shikar Diary,

mainly for Novices 244

—_—_— ; Clicking noise

made by Muntjac 439

CANS) J. Ea An appeal ie

Scorpions att 412

CHAMPION, F. W., TEs.

Tiger Tracks (with four

plates) 284

With a Ghee in mies “Ean

An Apology ... “oo 411

Monkeys and Carnivora 424

— —. ; On, “Natural

Deaths’ in Wild Elephants ... 433

CoLTHURST, IDA; Shells of the

Tropical Seas, PartI. (With

a photo) Be a vee S80.

Cooks, E. H.; Woodcock in

Burma 207

CURATOR (auweores Covemaient

Museum) ; Comment on ‘ The

Record Cubbany Mahseer ’ 210

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

Das, RAMSARAN ; See Narain,

Dharam.

Dixon; iH. N., Mo AS, Fob. 5. ;

Mosses collected in Waziristan.

By Mr. J. Fernandez in 1927...

DonaLp, C. H. 32 Lhe speed’ of

the Indian Pied Kingfisher

(Ceryle rudis leucomelanura)..

- a ; The Babbler

as a Barometer ... hits ee

WweR Js ALY I. Po After

Bison and Buffalo inthe High

Sal Forests

; A Stalwart

Pariah Dog

EDITORIAL a :

Epvitors; ‘ The Man-eaters of

Tsavo.’ (With a plate)

; Migration of Wild-

fowl (with a map)

KE LLiLSoN, BERNARD C.,,

Heke Goomnc MiZicos, Bolus, 4

Game Preservation and Game

Experiments in India (with

three plates)

bs Ohm ge Oper

FAUNTHORPE,

Occurrence of: the Sheldrake

(Tadorna tadorna) in the

United Provinces : a

niniayv: J. D.; | The. Nesting

Habits of the Northern Grey

Hornbill (Lophoceros birostris)

FOWLER, HENRY W.; Further

notes and _ descriptions of

Bombay Shore-Fishes (wzth

two plates) 4 ae

Bae,

FRASER, r-Cor.

fei S es 7 hes See Indian

| Dragonflies, Part + XXX,

(With three plates) ai

———— —— ; Indian

mMOragsonflies.- Part XXXII,

(With four plates) Ae

HRERE,.. LT.-COL. A.\G.,. 1A,

F.Z.S.; Breeding Habits of

the Common Mongoose (Her-

pestes edwardst) Ss i

GAMBLE, Capt. G. M.; Abnor-

mal Antlers of a Kashmir Stag

(Cervus hanglu) with a photo

. 184,

279

428

413

424

446

120

446

444

100

288 |

426

438

PAGE

HINGSTON, Mayor R. W. Gry

eve Se ea aA Shield-making

Beetle (Sindia clathrata) (with

a plate) i gat Uey

;. A. study in Insect

Protection (Anoplocnemis pha-

stana. Fabr.) (with two plates)

; The Flight of Birds

at High Altitude . 5 ay

Hopwoop, S: F., le Sa

Some Notes on the Pangolin

(Manis pentadactyla) in Burma

(with a plate) ne

INGEN, VAN AND VAN INGEN ;

An unusua] find ina Tiger’s

Skull (with a woodcut)

JOUQUET, H.; On some Com-

inon Indian Lizards

KRISHNAMURTHY, B.,

Apidide of Mysore a3

LAPERSONNE, V. S.;‘ Migration

of Spiders’ (with a text-figure)

LEIGH, C.,S.J.; Notes on the

Indian Python (Python

molurus) in captivity .., Ae

LINDSAY, Mrs. HELEN M.,

MAS, Bi) Ser; i tA note ton

Viverra ctvettina, Blyth.

(With two plates) 33

; scientific Results of the

Mammal Survey No. XLVIII.

Indian Shrews. ... a Se

LupLow, F.; Dongtse or Stray

Bird Notes from Tibet (wth

two plates) oe oe

McCann, CHARLES ; The Study

of Plant Lite; Part: IL... (Wt;

three plates and four text-

figures) .. 1a. s

; The Study of Plant Life,

Part Ill. (W7th one plate, two

blocks, and twenty-six text-

TUSUTCS ae a Le; si

; Notes on the Coramon

Indian Langur (Pithecus

entellus) (witha plate)

McCann, C.; See BLatrer, E.

MACDONALD, A.; Mahseer

(Barbus tor). In Burma, and

their Habits (wzth two plates

and a text-figure)

B.Sc.

449

439

208

146

326

Le)

192

302

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

Mooney, H. F., I.F.S.; Some

Observations on Wild Ele-

phants in Orissa. (W1th

a map) 430

A night on an

the

Morris, R. C. ;

Observation Machan in

Billigirirangans...

—-.--—— Sambhar ana

Wild Dog

in Elephants

Aborted tusks

’

; Wounded Tiger

returning to kills ae

MUKERJI, S., M.Sc. ; A short

note on a Lymantrid Cater-

pillar Dasychira mendosa (?)

— --

Hubn. feeding on Mango

Leaves with a block... A

MUNNS, Bo ANGes Pallas’

Fishing Eagle (Haliaétus

leucoryphus) killing Crane

NARAIN, DHARAM. M.Sc. AND

Ram Saran Das, M.Sc.;

On the Anatomy of two New

Trematodes of the Genus

Dicrocelium with a key to the

species of the Genus (with a

plate) a cat ee

PRACOCK, E.H.;- A note’ on

the Malayan Wild Dog

(Cuon rutilans) (with a

plate) =

PIVLAY = OR. Sie. nee

VAN, GC, M-Z:S. 3A. List of

Fishes taken in Travancore

from_1901-1915 ... BAe

PitmMaAN, Capt. C. R. S.; Com-

ments on the Aardwolf (Pro-

teles cristatus) Sparrm.

mentioned in ‘ a Sporting trip

to Somaliland’, in this jour-

nal set Pe we ons

; Birds eating Butterflies

; The Food of MHorn-

Dillgy st.2 38 he as

PRATER, S. H., C. MLZ < ; The

Dugong or Sea-Cow (AFalz-

core dugong) (with four plates)

Museum Methods,

(With seven plates)...

Modern

Part III.

DASH

458

207

250

200

201

204

149

PAGE

PRATER}, Oa ae EL, CLM SZ ole

Occurrence of the Xmas

Island Frigate-Bird (Fregata

andrewst) on the West Coast

Orandiae...

Proceedings

plates)

REVIEWS :—

1. Big Game shooting in the

Indian Empire

2. A Critical Revision of tHe

Genus Aristida ...

3. A Garden Book

Malaya

A Popular Heneone of

Indian Birds oe

5. Beautiful Flowers of

(with two

£07

Kashmir

1. Some Freshwater ishing

in Malaya aH sic

2, Sport and Wild Life in

the Deccan

3. Shikar: being Tales fala

by a Sportsman in India.

4, Birds at the Nest ?

5. Birds and Beasts of the

Roman Zoo

6. Game Birds : see

7. Bulletin of the Raffles

Museum, _ Singapore

(Straits Settlements)

RILEY, N. D. ; Revisional Notes

on the Genus AHeliophorus

(Lycenide) with Descriptions

of New Forms (wth twenty-

eight text-figures )

ROPER: Lieut. Re,

LAY: Nene

Panthers.. ard Se

SANGSTER, A, JN K. An un-

usual altitude opel for the

Barking Deer (Muntiacus

vaginalts ) : fee ae

SHAH, SADEG Z.; Tigers climb-

ing Trees (with a plate)

SinGH,:T..C. N.; A Preliminary

Note on the-Pollination of the

Coral Tree (Hrythrina indica,

Lamk). (with'two plates) ...

SMITH, CAPT, H. G. GREGORY ;

Wild Dogs attacking cattle

STOcK-

Measurements of

445

468

410

384

426

201

196

460

199

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xi

PAGE PAGE

Wapta, D.R.D.: A _ Large Cuckoo (Clamutor jacobinus)

Tusker from South India (With amap) yes sit) 136

(with a plate) oa w. 434 | ——~— ; The study of Indian

WarD, Cou. A.' E.; The Mam- Birds, PartI. The Origin of

mals and Birds of Kashmir Birds (with two plates) 166

and the adjacent Hill Provin- ——_——— ; The study of Indian

ces, Part VIIl. (With a Birds, Part II.(Wzth two plates) 311

plate) ons By . 65 | YAtHs, J..‘A.; Some notes

WHISTLER, HuGH, F.L.S., | on the Travancore Evening

Bees. al. be Ow Us. *: “Rhe _ Brown Butterfly (Parantir-

Migration of the Pied Crested rhea marshallt, in Coorg) ... 455

TIS# OF PIA Bes

VOLUME XxXxXiil

No. 1

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate— The Sarus Crane (Axnitgone antigone antigone)

The Study of Plant Life—

Plate I. (A) Unbranched stems of Palms (Cauder) ...

(B) Stem of Baobab (Adansonia digitata) :

Plate Il. (A) Armed stem of Silk-cotton tree (Bomax wale

baricum) as

(B) Stem of forest Sambar or feta: entada Se pneA ae

Plate III. (A) A Corm (Amorphophallus campanulatus)

(B) A Rhizome (Canna) Dee

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate I. Dorsal View of :Anal Appendages of: Bayadera spp.,

Antsopleura spp. and Hpallage fatima

Plate Il. Larva of Anisoplenra subplatystyla

Plate III. Wings’ of Antsopleura lestoides, Dysphea Seale ana

FEpallage fatima

Sindia clathrata ; ee

The Mammals and Birds of. Rashi ial the deaeent Hill pees

Plate (A) Otter, approaching cautiously

(B) ,, suddenly disturbed

Dongtse, or Stray Bird Notes from Tibet— °

Plate I, (A) * A most grotesque. Lama dance or ‘‘ cham ’’’

(B) ‘ Four sage-green. brown-spotted eggs in a shale

depression amongst the shingle’

Plate II. (A) ‘ Commands a glorious panorama of_the None.

Chu Valley’

(B) ‘ The rivers still flow, albeit enee ced mien ice

The Dugong or Sea Cow (falicore dugong) —

Plate I. Dugongs Captured near Hamrham Island, Red Sea

Plate II. Skulls of Dugongs

Plate III. (Lettered iv) The Dugong (alice PRA) Photo-

graphed from a specimen in the Colombo Museum to

show the head and mouth parts

Plate IV. 1. Upper jaw of.an old female Dugong

2. Upper jaw of a Young Dugong

Further Notes and Descriptions of Bombay Shore Fishes—

Plate 1. Pseudochromis spencei, 1 sp.

Plate Il. Pomacenirus prateri, n.sp.

Game Preservation and Game Experiments in India—

Plate I. The Summer Palace of the Maharajah of Patiala at

Chail in the Himalayas

z ‘sinh

PAGE

122

LIST OF PLATES

Plate II. (A) Pinjour Gardens

(B) Two-months old young pHeadaNts in ‘the feeding

pen. Chail ve :

Plate III (A) Aridein the jungles, used teinborarily asa Peldas:

ing ground for pheasants .. ae

(B) Cut jungles ready for the reception of pHeeeHats a

The Migration of the Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) —

Map to illustrate the distribution in India of Clamator jacobinus

A Note on Viverra civettina, Blyth—

Plate I. Upper jaws of Viverra spp.

Plate II. Lower jaws of Viverra spp.

Modern Museum Methods—

Plate I. Shelfless method of exhibiting Birds as applied in the

Prince of Wales’ Museum é i

Plate II. Painting Backgrounds for Habitat Groups ..

Plate IfI. Sind Desert Group

Plate IV. Grey or Timber Wolf Group

Plate V. Brown Pelican Group

Plate VI. Background for Wild Turkey Group ee

Plate VIL. (A) Case illustrating how a snake poisons its prey

(B) Case to illustrate breeding habits of snakes

Plate. A Nature class for blind boys at the Prince of Wales’

Museum, Bombay wee oe es

The Study of Indian Birds—

Plate I. Legs of ape and a bird to show relationship of the

bones

Plate II. Hypothetical Restoration of pened pteryx hehoprepnice

Notes on the Common Indian Langur (Pithecus entellus)—

Plates I & II. Langurs at their Siesta

Tigers Climbing trees—

Plate. An arboreal Tigress, Mysore Zoo

Note on the Malayan Wild Dog (Cuon rutilams)—

Plate. A Study in relationship., A Malayan Wild Dog and Terrier.

No. 2

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

The Crab-Plover (Dromas ardeola) ait ee eae

Anatomy of two New Trematodes :—Dicrocelium orientalis—

D, indica

Study of Plant Life—

1. A Compound Leaf. Pinnate of Orvoxylum indica, vent

2. ASimple Leaf: much divided Sauromatum guttatum

Tiger Tracks—

1, A double track on either side, with the hind-foot leading

2. A-single track, that of the hind-foot on either side ais

3. Atypical Leopard track ee ae

4, A Tiger Picture in which the two legs on. the near hide will be

off the ground at the same time ae oe ove

xili

PaGE

128

129

145

146

150

154

155

160

161

164

168

172

192

196

200

220

252

268

284

285

286

287

xiv LIST. OF PLATES

Indian Dragonflies—

1. Philoganga montana and Indophea fraseri

2. Two view of Philoganga pool, Shillong

3. (A) A’small stream at east end of valley in Shillong

(B) View of the Hatti River, North Coorg

4. Pseudophea splendens and Indophea fraseri

Mahseer ( arbus tor) in Burma and their habits—

Plate I. (A) At the entrance of the N’Mai into the Confluence,

a mornineg’s catch in the foreground

(B) Our last morning’s catch on the Confluence

Plate II. (A) A 16 1b. Chocolate Fish and 23 lb. ordinary Manecen:

(B) A 44 1b. Thick-lip and 25 lb. ee Fish

Balanophora elkinsi, Blatter sp. nov. :

The Study of Tnaiat Bird—

Plate A. Heads of Drongos (Dicruride)

B. Tails of Drongos

A Study in Insect Protection— .

Plate I. Development of Anoplocnemis phasiana

Plate Il. <Anoplocnemis in gun-firing attitude

Miscellaneous Notes—

‘The Man-eaters of Tsavo’

Large Tusker from South India—

(A) A Good Tusker shot by Mr. D. R. D. Wadia in the Madura

District

(B) The same animal iterate eerien in eich mencerecent

were taken =

The Chinese Pangolin (Mantis Peniedacrvia)

Pollination of the Coral Tree (Erythrina indica) —

Plate I. (A) The Tailor Bird (Orthotomus sutorius)

(B) The Jungle Babbler (7urdoides terricolor)

Plate II. (A) The Black-Drongo'!(Dicrurus macrocercus )

(B) The Ashy Wren-Warbler (Prinia socialis)

New Groups in the Prince of Wales’ Museum

eoe

Proceedings—

1. Kashmir Stag (Cervus hanglu)

2. The Billigirirangan Hills, South India

PAGE

292

298

299

300

304

305

310

314

316

342

343

424

435

439

460

461

46]

469

470

i eee

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XXXlil

Nos, | and 2

PAGE PAGE

Adansonia digitata, Dorsal view | Bayadera indica, Dorsal view of

of Anal appendage, Pl. fig.2... 42 | anal appendage, Pl. fig. 3 50

Amorphophallus campanulatus, ——- —— longicauda, Dorsal view

Pl ehio 2a. ‘ as 230 of anal appendage, Pl. fig. 4... 50

Anas acuta, Chart A owing Pnionee —- melanopteryx, Dorsal

tory direction taken by marked | view of anal appendage, PI. fig.

Ducks ae ate AAG: ic ii ae ne of igs oU

——-~- penelope, Chart showing | Bulligirirangan Hills, South

migratory direction taken by _ India Group exhibited in the

marked Ducks 448 — Prince of Wales’ Museum,

Anetlema rigidum Stamen tov: Bombay en aaibee w+» 470

figs. 74. Bombax malabaricum, Dorsal

bes Aig Me Ce ae Beenie | view of anal appendage, PI. fig.

text-fig. 1 Peis er eh er Or ipeeel a goe at i fh aS

- siennea, Sterile anther _ Canna, sp. Pl. fig. B 36

text-fig. 2 76 | Caudex, sp. Pl. fig. 1 eee

Anitsopleura comes, Dorsal view of _ Cervus hanglu, Plate. Group

anal appendage, Pl. fig’. Wf 50 | exhibited in the Prince of

eae Jestoidés,’ Dorsal | Wales’ Museum, Bombay 469

view of anal appendage, PI. | —-————. Photo of head ... 438

fig. 6 ayes 550)" Clamator jacobinus, Map to illus-°

DEE EIS wings of | trate distribution in India 145

Pl, fig. 1 56. Crinium asiaticum, Pl. fig. C 36

hie ee Rb ALDI ETC, eral Cuon rutilans, Pl. . 200

view of anal appendage, PI. Cyanotis nae Menthe aid

fig. 8 o .. 50 seed of, text-figs. 3-7 76

——-—___.-____-—_. [jarva. 56:| Dasychira mendosa, Latva-Block. 459

Anoplocnemts, in gun-firing atti- Dicrocelium indica, Pl. fig. 3 Zo2

tude, Pl. Ae 1) 848 ortentalis, Pl. figs.

oe ees phasiana, develop- 1-24 sas ae eens

ment of, Pl. ... 342 | Dicrurus macrocercus, Plate

Antigone antigone Drone, ied earn | (A)-.-. ive ee we .. 461

_ Archeopteryx lithographica, Dongtse, Tibet—‘ A most grote-

Hypothetical restoration, Pl.... 172 sque Lama dance or ‘' cham le)

Balanophora, E\kinsi Plate 310 Pie fie As . 80

Bayadera brevicauda, Dorsal Nyang-Chu Valley, panorama

view of anal ae Wd Pl. view, Pl. fig. A 81

fig. 2 50 The rivers still flow, albeit

—-—_ hyalina, inh al view of choked with ice, Pl. fig.B. 81

anal appendage, PI. fig. 5 50 | Dromas ardeola ... ae 223

xvi

PAGE

Drongos (Dieruride), Tails of,

Plate a eee =.316

— —___ — --_—- Heads of,

Plate .. 314

Dyspheea walli, wings of Pl, Ge.

2 56

Elephant.— N Good ubasies anal

by Mr. D. R. D. Wadia in the

Madura District, South India,

P). oe ate he --. 435

2. The same animal showing

position in which measure-

ments were taken PI. a. 435

Entada scandens, Stem of forest

climber or liana ... 43

Epallage fatima, Dorsal view of

anal appendage, Pl. figs. 9,10. 50

—_————_—_—-——-_ wings of Pl. fig.

$) 56

ie ay Lene 39

Game Preservation and ane

experiments in India—

The summer palace of the

Maharajah of Patiala at Chail

in the Himalayas, Pl.i. ... 122

Pinjour Gardens, Pl. ii. A . 128

Two months old young Pheas-

ants in the feeding pen. Chail

Plea b < aa ae Leo

A ride in ‘the aatieles! used

temporarily as a releasing

ground for Pheasants, PI. iii,

A. ene daut eee Ceeelieg

Cut jungles ready for the recep-

tion of Pheasants, Pl. iii B... 129

Halicore dugong, P\. = 84

skulls, Pl. Roe

1-4 a ae 88

— head of Pl. 90

-_————_— upper jaws of

old and young, Pl. 91

Hatti River, North Coorg, view

of Plate de eee . 299

Heliophorus a. neta

Outline drawing of lateral

aspect of ¢ genitalia fig. 21... 398

—— —--——_ a. coruscans

Outline drawing of ¢ genitalia

fig, 17 -- 395

fig. 22 . 398

Lbidorhynchus struthersi, Pass, Pl,

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Heliophorus mooret

Outline eee of ¢ genitalia

figs. 18 and 19.. a4 Pe 2819

—_—_——_-— —— fig. 23 398

——_——_—_ a. rubida

Outline drawing of lateral aspect

of ¢% genitalia, fig. 20 . 396

——_——_—_ a. tytleri

Outline drawing of ventral

aspect of ¢ genitalia, fig. 24 ...

bakeri

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 9 and 10 . 391

bhrama

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia

see ee

398

figs. 13 and 14 . 394

— é. indicus

Outline drawings of ¢ geni-

talia, figs. 1 and 2 . 387

—_——_——_ hy brida

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 15 and 16 . 394

kiana

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 7 and 8 . 390

tla

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 5 and 6 . 390

-—-—— hohimensis

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 3 and 4 . 389

oda

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 11 and 12 Be Sie V4

—_————- saphir

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

figs. 27 and 28 . 400

tamu

Outline drawingsof ¢ genitalia,

figs. 25 and 26 .. 399

fig. B 80

Indophea fraseri, Dereal | view of

larva and mask, Pl. figs. B.b... 300

———_—_-—_—_-_——- Terminal abdo-

minal segments, Pl. figs. c. e.... 292

Lutra lutra nair, Pl. figs. 1-3 68

Mahseer, a morning catch of

Plate fig. A sod . 304

———— our last Sueraatteres s eaten

on the Confluence, Plate fig. B. 304

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Mahseer,Chocolate Fish and 23 lb.

Ordinary, Plate fig. A oe 309

—w—— Thicklip and 25 lb.

Copper Fish, Plate fig. B 2 30S

‘Man-eaters of Tsavo’ Plate . 424

Manis pentadactyla Plate . 439

Museum Methods, Modern—

Shelfless method of exhibiting

birds, Pl i cee lo0

Painting Backonstnds for

Habitat Groups, Pl. ii. . 154

Sind Desert Group, Pl. iii ... 155

Grey or Timber Group, Pl. iv... 160

Brown Pelican Group, Pl. v ... 161

Background for Wild Turkey

Group, Pl. vi oe . 161

Case illustrating how a ehare

poisons its prey, Pl. vii. A ... 161

Case to illustrate breeding-

habits of Snakes, Pl. vii.

Bears . 161

Nature Study at the Prince of

Wales’ Musuem, a Nature Class

for Blind Boys, PI.

Nautilus pompilius Photo

Nyroca ferina, ‘Chart showing

migratory direction taken by

marked Ducks 448

Orissa, Map of = 430

Orion indicum, Pl. Ge. 1 268

Orthotomus sutorius, Plate (A). 460

Philoganga montana Terminal

abdominal segments, PI. figs.

x15, ae Foes

xvii

PAGH

Pithecus entellus, Pl. sh 192

Philoganga Pool, Shillong Plate. 298

Plant Life, The Study of, Leaves

263-275

Pomacentrus pratert, Pl, ... palit

Printa socialts, Plate (B) . 461

Pseudochromtis spencet, P|. rele

Pseudophea splendens, Ventral

view of larva, Pl. fig. A . 300

Sauromatum guttatum, Pl. fig. 2. 268

Shillong, Assam, a small stream

at east end of valley, Plate ... 299

Sindia clathrata, Larva . 60

Spider and its Parachute, text- ape 215

Study, The of Indian Birds. Legs

of ape and of a Bird, Pl. . 168

Tiger Tracks 284-287

Tiger’s skull, an unusual find in,

a text-fig, eat eek)

Tigers, an arboreal, in Mysore

Zoo, Pl. : . 196

Turdotdes terricolor, Plate (B)... 460

Victoria regia, fig.... Tak

Viverra civettina,

upper jaw Pl.i, fig. 1, lower

jaw, Pl, ii, fig. 1... . 146

megaspila,

upper jaw, Pl. i, fig. 2 ... 146

——-—— langalunga,

upper jaw, Pl. i, fig. 3, lower

jaw, Pl. ii, fig. 2 . 146

————. z1betha,

upper jaw, Pl. i, fig. 4, lower

jaw, Pl. ii, fig. 3 . 146

ERRATA

Vol. XXXII, p. 694, Upper figure—Instead of Nilum read Ailum.

General Index of subjects-and authors—Vols. XX V-XXX inclusive,

p. 16: Burton, Col. R. W.—add at the end of the para.—A

few days after Urial in the Punjab, XXX 838.

Acacia heterophylla

Acanthis flavirostris Tatosthic ats

Acanthurus celebicus

——- gahm

—- triostegus |

Accipiter nisus

Acreea violz

Acratherium miliaceum

—_————— pumilum

Acridotheres tristis tristis

Acropoma japonicum

Adansonia digitata

AXginetia indica

Aegithaliscus concinnus

A&gle marmelos

Z@luropus melanoleucus

Aétobatis marinari

A&tomyleus milvus

72x galericulata

Agama dayana

- tuberculata

Agrion fatima

_ Agrostis latifolia

maxima

————- monostachys

———— procera

Alauda arvensis inopinata.

Albizzia odoratissima

Alcippe nepalensis

Allium cepa

Allophza brunnea

—-—-———- ochracea

Ambasis gymnocephalus

—— nalua

———— myops

——-——. thomasi

——_——- urotenia

Amblypharyngodon aelieities

~- microlepis

- mola

Amblyrhynchus cristatus

Amblystegium serpens:

Ammodytes callolepis

INDEX OF SPECIES

Amorphophallus campanulatus

Amorphorphallus titanum

Ampella mannaissa

Amphisile scutata

Anabas scandens

Anas acuta acuta

——- penelope

|/—- platyrhyncha

——- platyrhynchus

| Anax immaculifrons

| Andropogon capillaris

hispidus

——-+— -—--—- virens

Aneilema conspicuum

——--—- hallbergii sp. n.

————- ovalifolium

————-~ rigidum sp.n.

——————- siennea sp.n.

Anemagrostus tenella

Anguilla bicolor

| Anisoneura montana

| Anisopleura comes

furcata

—— -—_—- lestoides

subplatystyla

Anoplocnemis phasiana

Antennarius mummifer

| Anthia sp.

Antigone

—_-—— aReNOne antigens

sharp

Aphis gossypii

-—-—— maidis

malvas

medicaginis

neril ane

-pseudobrassica

rumicis

sacchari

———~-tavaresi

Apistus carinatus

Apocryptis bato

Apogon hyalosoma

Apolectus niger

Apopecurus indica

Aquila pennata

Arboricola sp.

————s

Archzornis siemensi

Ardea antigone

Argya caudata

—— caudata

malcolmi

Aristida... oe

—-—— equilong

—--—— articulata

—— —— cerulescens

—— —— chetophylla

——— ciliata

—_———. condensata

——- —— decorata

——_-—— depressa

—— —— elatior

= — fuiniculata

——_——- gigantea

_—_—— hirtigluma

__——_— hoggariensis

___— — hystricula

— hystrix ...

——— interrupta

_—_—-— jacquiniana

ae kunthiana

__—— — luzoniensis

——— macrathera

— macrochloa

—__——-——— mallica

_-———— maritima

—_———- meccana

——-——— mauritiana

——_——. mongholica

———— mutabilis

———— nana

—_—-——- nigrescens

——_——— paniculata

——-—— paradisea

———— paradoxa

————— pogonoptila

——-— raddiana

——-—— redacta

———— schimperi

—————- setacea

————. tangensis

torqucola millardi

Archzopteryx lithographica

= longeradiata: ...

PAGE

137;

241,

239,

111

254

122 |

131

172

140

442

140 |

179 |

239)

240

INDEX OF SPECIES

Arius coelatus

——- dussumieri

-——- falcarius

——- jatius

| -—— subrostratus

|; ——— thalassinus

_ Arthratherum ciliatum

— ———— pogonoptilum

_ Arundinella agrostoides

arenacea

avenacea

———+-——_——— brasiliensis

——~— —— capillaris

lease ciliata

gigantea ...

hirsuta ...

hispida

hookeri

lawii

———_——

|; ——__-——_--— malabarica

—- -———. metzii

—_———— mikani

mutica

——_——__-——- nepalensis

pallida

| ———— —— pumila

|—— _ -—_——_. pygmea ....

| ae CHE!

| —— ———— setosa

——————-_ spicata

—_———- stricta

tenella

—— —-— tuberculata

- villosa

| Arundo donax

Astrape dipterygia

Astrida abyssinica

—_——~—~- adscensionis

—-— - ethiopica

- angustifolia

-_———-— bromoides

— coarctata

- curvata

— debilis

— divaricata

- ehrenbergii

-_——— fasciculata

—_——- festucoides

——-— grisebachiana ..

- guineénsis

campbelliana _ ..

232, 233

Astrida hermanni

- heymanni

— humilis

= —— hystrix ...

——- modatica

typica

Astur badius

Atherina forskallii

——.—— valenciennesi ...

Aulis sp. ...

Avena sativa

Avia brasiliensis...

Babax waddelli ..

Bagarius yarrelli

Balanophora elkinsi

—__—__-——- indica

Balistes erythrodon

— mitis

- stellaris ...

- viredescens

Barbula ehrenbergii

——_——— indica

Barbus am phibius

- arulius

——-—- burmanicus

- conchonius

- curmuca

— —- denisonii...

. lithopedos

—_——- mahecola

- malabaricus

———- melanampyx

- melanostigma

———- parrah

———-- pinnauratus

—-——. - stigma

——- tor

-—--. vittatus

- wynaadensis

Barilius bola

Bathygobius fuscus

Batrachus grunniens

Bayadera brevicauda

——-—— hyalina

——-——- indica ...

———-—— longicatuda, sp. n. ...

MN elanopteryx

Belone cancila ...

—-— choram

See Hany ts)

melanostiyma ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

Sl OF

PAGE

239

239 |

239 Bombax malabaricuni...

239

BSS)

239

453

362

106

346

255

Belone strongylura

| Bhringa remifer...

_ Boselaphus Se aes

| Brachymenium acuminatunm ...,

Brachiaria

Brachythecium waziriense

Brandtia holcoides

_ Brassica nigra

| ————. oleracea

233) |

30€

309

377

Meal

Oil,

OAL

280

357

O07

357

Shy

sie

307

357

Shy

SIV)

Bryum amentirameum .,,.

- sp.

Bubo lacteus

Bucorvus ...

Burmagomphus Pyramidatis

Butea frondosa ...

Buthus australis

——-—- hendersoni

——_——- pachyurus

— --— phipsoni

- rugiscutis

——- tamulus...

Butis caperatus

Bycanistes ctbeviimdntes

| Caccabis chucar ... ea

| Callichrous bimaculatus

| —_ —-——- malabaricus

Callipterus trifolii

Callyodon dubius

Calophyllum inophyllum

Calotes versicolor

| Calotropis gigantea

307. |

go7

35/

O2snso7

357

306

118

376

361

Cantharis sp.

Capella solitaria...

Capnodium brasiliense

_ Capparis zeylanica

_ Capsicum fluoscence

_ Carangoides malabaricus

_ Caranx affinis

—-——- armatuts ...

a ee atropos ace

2A 5g)

51, 52

361

S61 ||

——-— carangus... ics

—--— ciliaris ... tks

——-— crumenopthalmus

——-— dejedaba

——-— gallus

ene Pe ncare foities

— hippos

———--- jarra fs

——- kalla

-___—~ malabaris

1227-2125)

250, 258,

xxi

PAGE

wo 2 36r

315, 316

43, 269, 46]

ron

212, 218, 269

414

413

412

118

206

126

358

214

118

270

453

265

346

214

453

212

110

371

S7t

370

371

370

371

Bal

“no, 370

370

214,

XXi1

Caranx nigripinnis

— rottleri

—sansun

— sexfasciatus

—_—— - speciosus

— trachurus

- xanthurus

Carcharias laticaudatus

melanopterus

—_-——_-——— walbeemi

Carissa carandas

———— *

PAGE

370

110

37]

o7u

371

350

309

INDEX OF SPECIES

Chorisia ventricosa

Chrysolophus pictus

Chrysophrys aries

datnia

Ciconia alba

Cinnyris asiatica

Citrus aurantium

Citula atropos

Civettictis civetta

Clamator jocobinus

—__-_———_————-——_ taprobanus

Clarias magur

Clematis tangutica

Clupanodon thrissa

Clupea atricauda

- fimbriata

———-~ kanagurta

- longiceps

- sindensis dee

- toli nals

Coelachne pulchella

Colius striatus. ugandensis

Collichthys brunneus

Coracias indica

Corvus corax’tibetanus

- cornix

———- coronoides

--.-—- splendens

Coryphoena hippurus

Cratoneuron decipiens...

fillicinum

Cremastogaster sp.

Crinium asiatieum

Crocidura

—_—- palieineea

|) =--__- (P.)blantordi

——- —- (P.) blythi

- (P.) fulvocinerea

-——- — (P.) sindensis

Crossidium griseum

—— squamigerum

Cryptoleptodon flexuosus

| Cuon rutilans

| Cuscuta reflexa

| Cyanops asiatica rapeseed:

Cyanotis epiphytica sp. n.

| ——— sahyadrica’sp. n.

| Cybium commersonii

guttatum

| Cymodacea australis

Carpodacus Sulenencmig. daviaianucl 79

—_____ ——- rubecilloides lapersonnei. 19

Cassia occidentalis 341

Casuarius : 176

Catopsilia crocale en 00

Catraeus wallichi... 125, 126

Caudex Ses 42.

Cenchrus biflorus 229

-——_—_—- catharticus 229

——-—— ciliaris 23

——-—— orientalis 23

———-——— ramosissimus 22

Cercopithecus pygerythrus 206

Cervus hanglu ‘ 438

schomburgki 418

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura 204

Cherops anchorago 370

Cheetaria czerulescens ... 239

+... canariensis 239

——---— depressa 239

—— ee ClAtiOr 239

——--—— gigantea 239

Cheetochloa ae 19

Cheetodon collaris was 368

——-- ——— yagabundus 368

Chanos salmoneus 356

Charadrius dominicus 205

Charasia dorsalis 452 |

Charronia flavigula 65

Chatoessus chacunda ... ee 355 |

—— nasus 355 |

Cheela boopis 357

Chibia hottentotta 315

Chela argentea Be 2 + 1306

Chiloscyllium griseum ... 100, 350 ©

Chirocentrus dorab 103, 355

Chorinemus sp. ... ees es Sarat VA

: ——— lysan 371

—_—_--——- moadetta 4 110

—- toloo 110, 371

Cynoglossus bengalensis

joe VEZ, ES

326, 327

eae

Cynoglossus brachyrhynchus

brevis

—— + —— dubius

macrolepidotus

——_—_—-———- sp.

Cypselus (Apus) apus

Cyrtococcum

-——___-—_—_-~—— patens

——__—__——- pilipes

--———— trigonum

Dactylopterus orientalis

Dalbergia sissu

— sp.

Danais chrysippus

Danio malabaricus

Danthonia gammiei

Dasyatis imbricatus

russelli

—-—— sephen

—_——- uaranak

zugei

Dasychira mendosa

Dentex japonicus

Derris elliptica 5

Diagramma crassispinu

griseum

pictum

———— --——— punctatum

Dicerobatis ereegoodoo

Dichanthium caricosum

Dichoceraos bicornis

Dicroccelium albicolle ...

———--——- attenuatum

——_——--—— clathratum

———_-——- conspicuum

———_-——_--——- deflectens

————--——— delectans

——_-——-——- dendriticum

——_——--—— illiciens

—_-———--——. indica

——_—_——-——_ infidum ...

a Lan CCAtIIN

————-——_ lobatum

——_———-——— ubens

eee ee

——---——_—— macrostomum ...

———— -—— olssoni

orientalis

———— -——_ panduriforme

———---——- petiolatum

—-——_-—— reticiens

————-——. voluptarium

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

258,

250,

373

118

373

256

376

213

268

453

307

236

102

101

102

458

114

403

367

354

206

254

256

261

254

256

258

261

256

254

256

258

256

254

Dicrurus leucophzus

———— macrocercus

Dictyospermum ovalifolium ...

Didymodon barbula

rufescens

——~——_—- tophaceus

Diodon hystrix

- maculatus

Dioscorea batatas

Discognatha jerdoni

————— lamta

Discophora lepida

Dissemuroides andamanensis

Dissemurulus lophorinus

Dissemurus paradiseus

Distomum refertum

Dolichos lablab

Drepane punctata

Drosera burmanni

—- indica

-— peltata

Dracontium gigas

Drepane punctata es

Dromas ardeola

Drummondia thomsoni

Dussumieria acuta

Dysphea dimidiata

——-—— ethela ©

—-—— walli

Echeneis naucrates

——--—— remora

Echinochloa —

Echinolena polystachya

trinu

Elacate nigra

Electris butis

Eleotris fusca

Eleusine corucana

Elops saurus es

Engraulis commersonianus

——-—— dussumieri

—_——-—— hamiltoni aes

-—--——— indicus

——--—— malabaricus

—-—— mystax

——-——. parava

Entada scandens...

Epallage alma

——-—— fatima ...

-—— indica ...

Ephippus orbis

— =

Xxiii

PAGR

315

S15

280

379

356

456

316

319; 316

256

214

368

466

276

116

226

281

356

104, 355

356

Xxiv

PAGE

Equula dussumieri 366 |

-edentula ... 366 |

———- fasciata 367 |

- insidiatrix 366 |

———- longimanus 367

————- splendens 366 |

Equus hemionus... 205

Erythrina crista-galli 460

ee herbacea 460

-——- indica... 460 ©

Etroplus maculatus 369

-——- suratensis 369

Eublepharis : 218

Eucladium vere natin 280

Eunectes murina 258 |

Eupheea brunnea 289 |

Euploea core 453

Euphea dispar 294 |

—fatime .. 49

———— indica ... byl

———— lestoides 34 |

——-——— masoni... 92

————. ochracea 288

a splendens 20 ka

Euphorbia 43, 266

Exococetus bahiensis 362 |

-~—— evolans 361 |

-——~- micropterus ... 361

Falco nitidus 254 |

Felis sp. 284-287

- pardus ste A22e Pek

Ficus bengalensis Zhe

- elastica BEL.

——- heterophylla 274

——- religiosa ie 272

Fissidens grandifrons ... Zag)

—— involutus 279

Fistularia serrata 360

Flacourtia 46

Fragaria ; a 39

Francolinus epuncotinue iaieesoutuce 131

-——- vulgaris 22

Fratercula arctica 170

Fregata andrewsi 445

Funaria hygrometrica ... 282

Galeocerdo rayneri M350

Gallus ferrugineus 126, 1331

—-— sonnerati.. 37,

Garnotia arborum 238

-—— stricta ... 238

Garrulus glandarius 254

INDEX OF SPECIES

(Gastroxides ater ...

Gavialis gangeticus

Gazza equuleformis

minuta

_ Gecko verticillatus

Genneus albicristatus ...

—— hamiltoni

Gerres filamentosus

limbatus .

-=——— lucidus

oyena

——— sp...

Gloriosa superba...

Glossogohius biocellatus

Glyphidodon bonang

coelestinus

= el COSaSter

——_———-——. sordidus ...

Gobius giurus

——— griseus

——_—— OGNaAcus

———— personata...

——— striatus

—— — tentacularis

venustulus

Goldbachia mikani

Gossypium herbaceum...

Grimmia orbicularis

——-—— pulvinata

Grimmia tergestina

—— trichophylla

Grus collaris

——- sharpii

Gynacantha millardi

Gymnopistus draena...

Gymnothrix alopecuros

—_—_ ——---—- cenchroides

——_ —__-—— longiglumis

Heematospiza sipahi

Haliaétus leucoryphus

Halicore dugong

Halophila ovalis

Haltica sp. ;

[{aplochilus lineatus

eee panchax

Harpodon nebereus

Heleochloa dura

—- schoenvides

—_—_—_———

Helianthus tuberosus

Helieutzea stellata -

— leucomelanus ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

Heliopais personata

Heliophorus androcles ... is ue

androcles

eee

ae moorel

ee I DIdA

a —— scintillans

—_—______ —_—__-—_ ty tleri

—_—_—- -———. bakeri |

brahma

epicles

——- -

chinensis...

epicles

hilima

indicus

matsumure

—- —__—__. — _—— nila vee

phoenicoparyphus.

——_ ——_ —_.—_-—_-- sumatrensis

——_——_-—— hybrida

——— —— ila...

ES ET

—__—__. ——- kiana

—— ——— kohimensis

_ +——_—— langii

—_——_——_--—-- latelimbata

——_—_-———- oda

ee hakeri

—_—_ —_—_ ——- rufonotata

ee saphir

birmana

sena

stotzneri ...

tamu

—-—— —_—-—--—-- eventa

—_—_-—~—_——.- - ——. rufa

--—— tamu

Hemidactylus flaviviridis

Hemirhamphus buffons

--—--— dispar

——-——_——__ far

—_——-—_—_ -——- un ifasciatus ...

-——_-——- xanthopterus ..

Hemitragus hylocrius ..,

javakeri

——-——— jemlaicus

Heniochus macrolepidotus

Herda cadma

Herpestes edwardsi

Hesperornis

Hibiscus rosasinensis

250,

PAGE

224

395

397

395

Riek)

396

397

391

g99

387

338

389

387

388

390

388

394

390

389

401

388

392

391

388

400

397

387

388

399

400

258

361

105

361

148

368

387

426

174

PAZ

Hierococcyx varius

Hippocampus guttulatus

_ Hippophe rhammoides

Hirundo smithi

| Histirophorus breviostris

—-—— gladius ...

Holacanthus annularis

————-——_ nicobariensis

xanthurus

Holocentrum rubrum

| Holcus nervosus

racemosus

- spicatus ...

| Homaloptera maculata

Homomallium simlaénse

Hydrilla sp.

| Hymenachne indica

‘interrupta

myuros ...

| Hymenostomum amblyphyllu

——--—— var. brevifolium

Hypselornis sivalensis ...

_ [bidorhynchus struthersi

Ichthyornis

Ichthyscopus inermis .

Ilerda eos ?

——-- hewitsoni... a0

—-- nila

-——-- viridipunctata

Ilisha elongata...

Indophea cardinalis

——--—— dispar

——-——-- fraseri

Isachne australis

-elegans ...

———- lisboz

-———--— miliacea...

— obscurans

Ischeemum hispidum

—---—-— pallidum

' Isometrus europzus

Johnius zeneus ...

-- diacanthus

—- sina

Labeo dussumieri

Lactarius delicatulus

—-—— lactarius

Lappago aliena...

Lates calcarifer ...

Laudetia. barbata

Leiognathus daura

XXV1

PAGE

Leiognathus fasciatus ... Bee Soda

Leptopcecile sophiz obscura ... a 79

Lethrinus karwa... — aes - 367

- -nebulosus ... Se. ea als.

Lindbergia duthiei ee 281, 283

Longiungis ae ne wae, 214

Lophoceros birostris ~... ae . «= 444

rer Ee Cuaie (toae geloen-

sis tes ree 0) 2206

Lophophorus impejanus ~ twee LAS

——_——. ——— refulgens ae Reet 74

Loranthus sp. ... be te TASS

Luscinia suecica... ne ae mo 205

Lutjanus annularis a aes het 5300

——-——- arjentimaculatus... mae tooe

——-—— fulviflamma ... ies BATE iat) 0's)

—- ——= johnii ... 1137365

365

——--—— marginatus ... re Pe oS)

——-——— quinquelinearis... ae S300

——-—— rivulatus .... se We ecs | 0°)

——--——. unimaculatus fs ieee SOO) |

Lutra lutra nair nae ae une 68 |

vulgaris... ave ae cist 68

Lycaon pictus... cris ae aries)

Macacus rhesus ... ae ae sen aed

Macrones chryseus oe ase ioe 2308

——-—— gulio ... obs sae rae OOS

—_— ——- malabaricus ... ite bas) 309

————-- montanus ... ee eat 398

————- oculatus vee ae to OS

—- vittatus wah ae ot 808

Maish parah én wee got séeo 3 AL

Manatus americanus ... oii an 86

———— inungis... ia os 368 86

————- senegalensis .. ee ae 86

Manis aurita ae sue ay .. 440

crassicaudata ... £35 .- 440

——— javanica ... at ae .- 440

———— pentadactyla ... walk ea GU)

Marmessus surindra... ie sci 1 239]

Marsilea quadrifolia_.... fe at: Ae

Martes foina vet SMPTE Bliss ses 66

-leucolachnza ... Ea cet 66

Mastacembelus armatus Ree ee 376

—— - guentheri i erie 75

Medicago sativa ... ee ay: cg ee 412)

Megalaspis cordyla a ae ee ELL O

Megalops cyprinoides ... be. ces 2 355

Megalornis cae ae nat ont 1

—- MISTICOMIS Wes: | ieee i tpaes 78

INDEX OF SPECIES

Melica latifolia...

Mene maculata ...

Merops orientalis

Mesophzea decorata

ornata

Milium capillare...

-- esculentum

——-- —- panicuia.

— tomontosum

Milvus migrans govinda

Mimus lividus

Minous monodactyla

Mniobryum carneum

Monacanthus scriptus ...

Montifringilla nivalis adamsi

Moringa pterygosperma

Motacilla aguimp

——-—— cinerea

-——-—— vidua...

Mugilamarulus ...

——-- borneensis

——-- cunnesius...

——--— dussumieri

—— -- ophuysenii

—-- peecilus

——-- troschellii...

——-- vaigiensis

Muntiacus vaginalis

Murzena nebulosa

-— pseudothyrsoidea

——-- punctata

—_—_—-- tessellata

———-- undulata

Murocenesox cinereus

Mureenichthys schultzei

Murraya exotica ..

Musa sapientum ...

Mustela alpinus ...

———- canigula...

——-—- flavigula...

——— - longstafii

—--— Sige IEG

wee LOI

——— -— whiteheadi

Myiothera ruficeps.

Myliobatis neiuhofi

| Myriacheeta arundinacea

-——-——-— glauca

Myripristis murdjan

Mystus vittatus ...

Myzus persice ...

PAGE

234

V1, 372

323

— 48

320

258, 261

375

282

Sam

269

204

362

108, 362

362

107

362

107

201

360

359

360

104, 359

359

453

213

254

353

234

364

105

“212, 214

— +

Naia anchietz

——- bungarus

—— flava...

—-- goldi

—- guntheri

——- haje é

—- melanoleuca

——- morgani

——- nigricollis ...

——- samarensis...

——- tripudians ...

Nandus marmoratus

Narcine timlei

Naseus unicornis

Nautilus pompilius

Nectarinia erythrocerca

Nellumbium sp.

Nemachilus botius

—— ——- triangularis

Netuma thalassius

Nias sp.

Nicotiana Fbacuit

Novacula sp. St

Numida ptilorhyncha ...

Nux vomica

Nymphea lotus ...

_ Nyroca ferina ferina

Ocimum sanctum

Oides sp.

Ophichthys Sirocephalus

-—— orientalis

Ophiocephalus gachua

—-—————— leucopunctatus

—_—_—-—_—_—— marulius

———_———— micropeltis

— striatus...

Opisthocomus cristatus

Opisthopterus tartoor ...

aos burmanni

compositus

Denis elator

Opuntias

Oroxylum wasn

Orthopogon agrostoides

Orthotomus sutorius

- Osteogeniosus militaris

Ostracion cornutus

—— cubicus

——-—— nasus ...

—_—— turritus

Otocorys alpestris elwesi 6s

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

464

463

464

463 |

364

353

369

381

206

275

356

104

274

215

370

256

192

275

447

212

346

359

309

363

Otolithes ruber

Otus sunia

Oxalis sp..

Gey uneuthys centaemart:

Pachyura: -..

Pagrus major ar

Palamnzeus swammerdami

Pampus cinereus

Panicum acariferum

———— accrescens

— ——— acutiglumum

———— adhaerens

——_——- aliquibus

—————- attissimum

————- americanum

— —— amplissimum ...

eet oa Chobe bisimplian

————- antidotale

—_——- arcuatum

eS Pe hauuie

———— asperrimum

———— auritum

———— barbatum

—— — brownianum ...

—— —— chamaeraphis

colonum

confine

———— courtallense

——-—- curvatum

——-—— decompositum var.

dosum

———— dichotomiflorum

— dichotomum ..

—_—— — difforme

——-— echinatum

-———— euchroum

———— — excurrens

— flavidum

ess -Anitans :.

— gibbum

— giganteum

~--_— -— glandulosum ...

— glaucum

——_—— hasskarlii

———— hermaphroditum

——-— heteranthum

— hippothrix

— hirsutissimum

— holcoides

———— homonymum...

—— — indicum

XXvil

PAGE

18 ts)

324

276

118

O20. O27,

114

109

234

palu-

INDEX OF SPECIES

Panicum serrulatum

—— —* seticerum

———_——- Splcatim

———— stagninum

——____— Subegiume

——-——. tenellum =

———— trichocondylum

——— torreyanum

— trigonum

i. aoe ee trypheroa

X¥xvili

PAGER

Panicum insulicola 14

— intermedium ... Bs 20

— interruptum 9, .5, 18

————. inundatum 18

— isachne 9

——— italicum 21

——— javanicum <2, 20s

———— jumentorun ... 10, 13

———_—— laeve bi 13

—_——-- longijubatum 14

-.——_— — lutescens 20.

—_——— mangaloricum 15 |

_————_-— maximum és oe 13

Sd ma ng ea var. hirsutissimum 13

a —-_ Op tuisissimum 13

—_——. miliaceum ae ee 1

————-— Mmiliare 10, 11, 12; 14

———— — montanum 14

——— | MUCrOnAalumM 10

—-=-— multinode 17

+ MuUutiCnm 9

———-— myosuroides .. OF-L8

myuros 75

__-——-— neesianum 10

_—_——-- nemorosum

——— ——- nepalense Bh,

______— nervosum 19

-—_____. neurodes 19 |

——-— nubicum 10

—_—-— obliquum ceanlli7-

———— obscurans 10

== orientale 23

——-— oxyphyllum 16

——— paludosum 13, 14

—_———— pamplemoussense 13

— patens .. 95 155 717

— pilipes .. 16

———— plicatum 19

—-——. polygamum 13

—— —— polystachyum... 8

———— porphyrrhizos ... : 10

———— proliferum are 13, 14

——.—__ —_- var.longijubatum 14

——— —~—--— paludosum... 19

— prostratum ee 2

— psilopodium ... 9, 10, 19

—— punctatum a h

—_——— radicans 16, 19

————-— ramosum 9

——-— rhachitrichum 10

—— roxburghii 1q

———— trypheron

turgidum

——— uliginosum

——— uncinatum

—-—— verticillatum ...

——--—— vulgare...

——— wallichianum

Pagrus spinifer ...

Papilio demoleus

- hector

—-— - polytes

Paradoxodon ae

Parantirhcea marshalli ...

Paraphza barbata

Paspalidium

Pastor roseus

Pavo cristatus

Pelecanus crispus

Pellona brachysoma

- elongata

Pempheris russellii

Penicillaria spicata

Pennisetum alopecuros

-————_—-——-americanum

—_———-——_arenosum

——_ -—__——-aureum

—- —— ---. barbatum

benthamii

---—--—__—_——-cenchroides

—_— ——_——-cillare

—_———_-——dichotomum

-_— -——- flexispica

nohenackeri

holcoides

—-——_——_lanuginosum

————_-——__ macrochaetum

—__-————-macrostachyuin ...

——__——_-——n tens

—____-_—_——_ orientale

—_—_—-—— pedicellatum

agamemnon ...

5 22

a1 20)

131, 317

Pennisetum persicum

-—- ———— phalaroides

——_——__——purpurascens

—_—_—_——_purpureum

—_-——__——-setosum

—_——- ——-sinaicum

———-——spicatum

———-—tiberiadis

typhoideum

Pentalonia nigrinervosa

Perilamphus laubuca

Perotis polystachya

Phalaris retacea

Phasianus pictus

—- —— torquatus

Philoganga loringe

aoa —- montana

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Eocene co

et oo, oe

2224

Phoenicurus erythrogaster Sranaie: 79,

Phragmites communis ...

- karka

Pica pica

_--_ poranensin

Pimelepterus cineraceus

——-—_—_-—— fuscus

——-——_-——- vagiensis

Pinguicula alpina

Pinus excelsa

longifolia

Pipra rupricola

Pithecus entellus

Plagusia marmorata

Platax teira 4

Platycephalus ereiaiator

——-————-- scaber

Platyglossus dussumieri

—-——_-—_- marginatus

Plotesus arab

—— canus

Podica personata

Poinciana regia

Polyacanthus capanus ...

Polyalthea longifolia

Polydactylus plebejus ...

—-——-—- sextarius ...

Polynemus indicus

plebius

sextarius

Polypogon monspeliensis

Pomacentrus prateri, sp. n.

—————. vioJescens

Pomadasis hasta

254,

218,

213

357

232

123

124

300

299

320

277

236

256

364

467

122

256

192

374

368

375

370

370 |

358

224

267

369

270

108 .

108

362

238

118

Priacanthus hamrur

holocentrum -

indicus

Prinia inornata

socialis

Pristipoma argenteum ...

dussumieri

furcatum

gouraca

maculatum

Pristis cuspidatus

perrottetti

Pristolepis fasciata

—— —— malabarica ...

Proteles cristatus

EEE

—_

—_—

Prunella fulvescens fulvescens

—— rubecilloides ae

Psenes indicus

Psettodes erumei

Pseudechinolena polystachye

Pseudeutropius garua

Pseudochromis spencei, sp. n.

—

xanthochir

Pseudophza bruntea ..

——_———--- cardinalis ...

—-- carissima...

—__——— — -- dispar

—— ~——-- fraseri

——--——-- masoni

- ochracea ...

-——.- splendens...

Pseudoscarus ghobban ...

- rivulatus ...

Pseudorhombus arsits...

— javanicus

—_—_—_——

a - triocellatign.

Pseudotropius sykesii ...

Psidium guyava...

Pterocles senegalensis ...

Pterodus F

Pterois antennata

—--—- miles

———- russellii ...

———- zebra

Pteroplatea micrura

——_———-- - peeciloura ...

Putorius larvatus

Pycnonotus tricolor minor

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

Python molurus

Quercus ilex

101,

118,

Rachycentron canadum

Raiia powellii

Rana tigrina

Rasbora daniconius

——— nilgiriensis

Rastrelliger brachysomus

Rhamphastus sp. ace

Rhivocypha bisignata ...

Rhinodon typicus

Rhinogobius griseus

Rhinoptera javanica

Rhopalosiphum eee BEL asia

Rhynchelytrum wightii

Rhynchobatus ancylostomus ...

—- —-—— ajeddensis

—-——--—-— granulatus

Rhynchobdella aculeata

Rhytina stelleri

Ricinus communis

R. delia mikani .

Rivea Ey ocret ritarme

Rohtee bakeri

Ruscus aculeatus

Saccharum teneriffee

Sacciolepis

-—— angusta

indica

interrupta ...

——-——. myosuroides

Saccobranchus fossilis ...

Salarius bilitonensis

——— kirki f

———— steindachneri ...

——_——. unicolor

Sapindus trifoliatus

Sarcidiornis melanotus...

Saurida tumbil 7

Sauromatum guttatum...

Saurus myops

Scatophagus argus

Scicena aneus

- albida

— argenteus

— diacanthus

- sina

— vogleri

Scolopax rusticola

Scolopsis vosmeri

Scomber macrolepidotus

Scomberoides toloo

—— viridipunctatus ...

PAGE

210

105,

111

352

453

357

108

256

351

118

354

214

352

376

273

233

INDEX OF SPECIES

Scomberoides toloo parah

Scomberomorus guttatus

Scorpocena armata

——.---—— bleekeri

——-——-- venosa

Selenarctos tibetanus ...

Seriolichthys bipinnulatus

Serranus areolatus

——--—— diacanthus

——-——_ gilberti

——-— hexagonatus...

—-—— lanceolatus

—-~-——. maculatus

——-—— sonnerati

——-—— undulosus

Setaria glauca

- intermedia

- italica

- lutescens...

—iplicata +s;

-- respiciens

- rhachitricha

—-——- verticillata

Shorea talura... wm

Siganus rivulatus

Sillago ihama ...

- sihama

Silundia gangetica

Sindia clathrata...

Sinthusa amata ..

—--—— skapani...

Siphocoryne indobrassica

Solanum melongenum ...

——: ——_ nigrum

——-—— tuberosum

Sorex coeruleus ...

——-- crassicaudatus

——-- fuliginosa...

——-- gigantus

——-- griffithi

—.-- hererodon...

—~-- hodgsoni ...

——-- kandianus...

——-- melanodon

——-- mutrinus

——-- myosurus ...

——-- pilorides

——-- pygmeus ...

——.-- tytleri

Sorghum barbatum

——--—— vulgare

PAGE

110

108

375

371

365

112, 365

365

.. 21, 24

120

212

116

366

306

391

212

329

. 326

335

329

333

332

338

Meni ROO

336

329

338

331

234

214

1 iE

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Spraus datnia see 114

Spheeroides oblongus ... 119

Sphyrcena acutipennis... 363

= —— commersonii e303

——— jello ... 105, 363

— obtusata 106, 363

Sphyrna blochii 101

Spinifex squarrosus bs 21

Splachnobryum procerrimum... 281

Spratelloides malabaricus so ehsh6)

Stegostoma tigrinum 100, 350

Stereodon cupressiformis eeecoo

——-——_——-——- var. vaucherianu 283

——-——-. vaucheri 283

Stipa aristoides 242

——- littorea 21

——- spinifex 21

Stromateus cinereus 363

—————-- niger 363

——- sinensis 363

Struthio asiaticus 176

———-- camelus 176

Suncus ceruleus blanfordi 331

a — ceruleus 329

——_—__—_- —— fulvocinereus 330

——-+-—__——_——- giganteus 329

———— kandianus 331

———_—-__- sindensis 330

——— — tytleri 331

————— dayi 339

———— fuliginosus 335

——-eriffithi 333

———leucogenys gag

————-micronyx 337

—--——-montanus 334

—_———-niger Ree 333

-—_— - malabaricus 334

————-nitido fulvus 336

————-nudipes 337

——_—— perrotteti 337

——_—— pygameceoides ... 338

————rubicundus 339

— sacer 326

————saturatior 333

——_—-soccatus 332

_—— stoliczkanus 336

——subfulvus 335

—-——-viridescens 334

Sus cristatus 131

Sylvia atricapilla 256

Synaptura commersonianus 373

Synaptura multifasciata

—— orientalis

Syngnathus sp.

Tachysurus venosus

Tadorna tadorna

Tectoria grandis

Tesseratoma javanica ...

Tetrodon fluviatilis

——_——-- inermis

————-- lunaris

OA EOCE

————-- stellaris

——-—— unimaculatus

Teuthis java

——_——- marmorata

—~———. nebulosa

————- oramin ... .

Thaumatoneura inopinata

Therapon jarbua

‘_—_—-—— puta

quadrilineatus

-—— theTaps

Therioaphis ononidis

Thryothorus hypoxanthus

Thrysanophrys crocodilus

- Macracanthus

——-—— scaber...

Thynuus pelamys

——-—— thunnina

Thysanolena acarifera...

—__——_-——. ag rostis

—_—_—-—— maxima

procera

Tichodroma muraria

Timmia bavarica

Timmiella subintegra ...

Torpedo sinus-persici .

Tortula atrovirens

-inermis ...

Toxoptera aurantiz

cyperi

— ———- graminum ...

— ——— punjabipyri

Trachynotus bailloni ...

—_——_——_ russellii

Tragopan melanocephalus

Trapa natoris _... 6

Triacanthus brevirostris

—_——_-—— indicus

strigilifer ...

Trichiurus haumela

————

es ee

Xxxi

PAGE

373

361

104

446

212

453

378

369

113

Vals:

366

p66

274,

214

254

116

117

372

371

234

318

282

280

101

281

213

Zi3

213

371

123

219

119

377

372

XxXXii

Trichiurus savala

Tricholeena teneriffee

-—— wightii

Triphasia trifoliata

Tristachya barbata

————— stocksii

Trygon pastinacea

———- sephen

——-~ walea

Turdus lugubris centralis

—-—- merula ...

—_—_——— -——_ nigropilacus ...

Typha augustifolia

Umbrina dussumieri

Upeneoides sulphureus...

——— -—— tragula

vittatus

Upeneus indicus ...

———— macronema

Uranoscopus guttatus ..

Urochloa ... Ob SS

Uromastix hardwickii ...

Ursus arctus

-——- isabellinus

pruinosus ...

—- torquatus ..

Utricularia sp.

Valiisneria sp. ... Bi

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

109, 372

sist 3 |

ZA:

453

234

353

206

256

. 462

AE |

25 OOO

115, 368

368

376

ae 9

250, 258

“70

71122; 198

274

Varanus mae

——_——. bengalensis

——-—— flavescens

——— nebulosus

——-——- salvator

Vestalis apicalis ... |

Victoria regia

Vigna catiang

Viola ses

Virgarinia scopula -

Viscum sp.

Viverra bakeri

civetta

- civettina

——- durandi...

- karnuliensis

———- megaspila

——- tangalunga

———--zibetha ...

Wallago attu

Zanclus cornutus

Zeltus etolus

Zipeetis saitis

Zostera capricornis

Zy gnoyx isis

Zygoena malleus...

Te tudes bee

2 ES

PAGE

217

~ 185

185

275

213

391

266

148

147

146

148

146

358

369

391

456

~ 58

351

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CONTENTS OF VOL, XXXII, No. 7

; PAGE

- THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (With a coloured plate.)

By 2 ee. Stuart baker, F.Z.S.,/H.LeS., M:iB:O.U., H-FYA.O.U: ...:c0.0. 1

~ REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY:PRESIDENCY. Part VII. By

BP SRRGtem Gre. PRM) en. Hale Sue Greece tase tus senses evens al vecite-oeasdsceedeecesse 7

PeOLD DECCAN DAvs. By Brigadier-General R. G. Burton ...........6..- 26

/ THE StTupy oF Prant LiFe. Part. Il (With three plates and four text- ,

nueuneseyeby Cliaries: MeCann © (5.3. scccessstd ss. ceeddeese Ra sasetie vstes see euieeivee 35

y INDIAN DRAGONFLIFS. Part XXXI. (With three aia ) By Lt.-Col.

ee CrerrnaSety ene Wis Sst Hy 1osGe- = dos eecceceesan Serea sod eeces os lia ceodescniseaceesed 47

/ A SHIELD-MaKING BEETLE (Sindia ae F.) (With a plate ) By

Vi OmN meee TIN OSEOM), “TMS... — ) chactogee tes va dente ccewerssadeancvnssens sh 60

‘THE MAMMATS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT HILL

PROVINCES. Part VIII. (With a plate.) By Col. A. E. Ward. ... 65

NEw Commelinaceeé FROM THE WESTERN GHATS. (With two text

UCU ES) eM yj ba Diatlena GS. Jigs PH Day t ans. Sat vodeedesactieve oteecesoscele 13

‘DONGTSE,’ OR STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM TIBET. (With two plates.)

Bys by Widlows since. ices ss <0 MER UHea sense ene aAcabus ndratta chs covameedet Waetcsoies 78

‘THE DUGONG OR SEA-Cow (ffalicore dugong) (With four plates.)

Ta CALI eM, LoS | | dee cecsiee.nseiem tevseod vue sdbes tee ge tse atsiapiaecus Geass 84

FURTHER NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF BOMBAY SHORE FISHES.

iar 17ow plates.) By Eenty, Wo. -HOWIET: © 4...2000 vaste sseecesscctnweoeteotes 100

‘GAME PRESERVATION AND GAME EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA. (With two

Diagtess\ By Bernard.C, Ellison, F-R-G.S.; C.M.Z:S,, F.LiS: 3 Si0.4e 120

/ “THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus)

(With a map.) By Hugh Whistler, F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. . .coceesee 136

A Note on Viverra civettina, BLYTH. (With two plaies.) By Helen

mene MT SAVRROU CARN BeGCr 2 arcoscnaccstigos censuses wasaiiiaceunsces setecitns Sui at sot ce saws 146

‘MopERN MusEuM MeEtuHops. Part II]. (With seven plates.) ByS. H.

Prater, ST AA © PEIN ie coe ea PE ae 149

A Note ON THE WorRK OF NATURE STUDY TEACHING AT THE PRINCE

OF WALES’ MuSEUM, BOMBAY, FROM 16TH NOVEMBER, 1926 TO

10TH FEBRUARY, 1928. (With a plate.) By Salim A. Ali, M.B.o.u. 163

‘THe StTuDY OF INDIAN Birps. Part I. (With two plates.) By Hugh

Whistler, M.B.O.U. Bec eseiteen a tent Sate deo vewewe cones eaeenbes ne: elegance eens 166

REVIEWS —

BiG GAME SHOOTING IN THE INDIAN EMPIRE _....s.ccececcessecceesoeees pe Lf?

A CRITICAL REVISION OF THE GENUS AY/2stidd .eececccccccccecceeesses i 179

A GARDEN BOOK FOR MALAYA oissce coccccscccesceoes Sree at cer ae 180

POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS ..... ROSCOE CoO One OCT ey ree 180

BEAUTIFUL FLOWERS OF KASHMIR occsscscccce esssscecces Mae akioe telcos ue 182

TIMOR WAI! 9 Sec ccccseceses SEAT DORSC BA AE CRA GO HORE DNC ore Tee Ne se Sa a ee se 184

CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXL Noe

PAGE.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—A Night on an Observation Machan in the Billigirirangans.

By tR. Cas Morris’ abc escci avec oe sacene ses te cet ce ane eeneiece eee memes 191

Ii.—Notes on the Common Indian Langur (P2thecus entellus).

(With a “plate) = By; GC. “Me Cann csc ce ese ee neeneeee 192°

Mf—A Careless ‘Tiger. “By” N. We. vBoOrei eres i sccee ces eee eee eae 194

IV.—An Unusual Find in a Tiger’s Skull. By Messrs. Van

Ingeni& Van: Ingen. |“ ...eadeasseceensemcteenee seeereen ecemeese sp LOS:

V-— ligersclimbine Trees. By Sadeo Z. Sialigany--tseseoeceee sees 196.

VI. Tiger Pooking’. “By R, C. Mortis ee eee 197

VIT-—sambhar.and Wild Dog. By *R.-C Morris; e...ce 198.

VIII.—Wild Dogs attacking Cattle. By Capt. H. G. Gregory

OIC Ser wcietavaces eee enc hos eae even Bee naeomeeeeccsteote Aten EON 199:

IX.—A Note on the Malayan Wild Dog (Cuon rutilans). (With

aplate:). By Siar geeacocki ye. .<..aecscees BSE ne HEeS SuICEOL 200:

X.—Comments on the Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus, Sparrm.)

mentioned in ‘A Sporting Trip to Somaliland’, in this

Journal, “By- CUR S--Pitmian “2. ce ascccac ces. ceceesmeeneeeste: 201.

XI.—An Unusual Altitude Record for the Barking Deer (J/untiacus

Vacinalas). “By Awa. Ko Sanastere....c-sssce sec oeecn seen eae 201

XI..—Aborted -Tusks in Mlephants.\ By (RicC.; Morris 22.202. 2. 202°

XIII.—Birds eating Butterflies. By C. R..S. Pitman ............... 204.

XIV.—The Speed of the Indian Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis

leucomelanura.) By C. H. Donald ...... Audits eceoeleme teen 204

XV.—The: Food: of- Hornbills. By C. R. S. Pitman’ .............. ~ - 206;

XVI.—Pallas’ Fishing Eagle (Haliaétus leucoryphus) killing Crane.

By. Ag ©. Munn) 405s ccecctiecshatess nec aseveesines dacwccuecce cua: 207

XVII.—Woodcock in Burma. By Lieut. E. H. Cooke .......... Sa AUT.

XVIII.—Notes on the Indian Python (Python molurus) in Captivity.

By CJ ele aS 23.2" ss... Sodeeedecdcaeiamencnmal «secamee esate meee 208:

XIX.—Comment on ‘ The Record Cubbany Mahseer’ By Curator,

Mysore Government Museum, Bangalore .......... nbdsndoodds 210:

XX.— Aphidide of Mysore. By B. Krishnamurthy, B.sc. _...... 2lae

XXI.—‘ Migration’ of Spiders. (With a lext-figure.) By V.S.

WaPersonme we wosscccsesseccecscdacsccsenaeastetessssieetsosdensesescmseeen 215:

ANSWERS 10 CORRESPONDENTS? 2 fiscsscesscesonnseecdesertcersasacs ores ncecceeseseeser 27,

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

}

THE SARUS CRANE

Antigone antigone antigone

Ay Nat. size.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

SEPTEMBER VoL. XXXIII No. 1

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

E. C. STUART BAKER, F.Z.S., F.L.S, M.B.OU., H.F.A.OU.

VOL. V

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

ParT VII

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued trom page 621 of Volume XXXT1T)

Genus—ANTIGONE

Antigone Reichenb. Handb. Sp. Orn., p. xxiii (1852).

Type.—Grus collaris Bodd.—Ardea antigone Linn.

The genus Antigone differs from Megalornis in having nearly the

whole head and neck bare, the hind neck, face and chin covered

with coarse granulations.

ANTIGONE ANTIGONE

Key to Sub-spectes

A. Paler, a ring round the neck and long inner

secondaries white aa Pe

B. Darker, no ring round the neck and long

inner secondaries grey bee Red CA SHATPLL, Di. o

A. a. antigone, p. 2

2 JOCORNAC, BOMBAY NATORAL TUST SOG a Cleo

ANTIGONE ANTIGONE ANTIGONE

* The Indian Sarus Crane

_ Ardea antigone Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p- 142 (1758) (India,

Hartert).

Grus antigone.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 188.

Vernacular names.—Saras, Sirhans (Hind.), Ahur-sang (Assam).

Description.—A patch of grey-white feathers on the oral region ;

a ring round the upper neck and a patch on the throat of black

bristly feathers; a few coarse bristles on the lores ; remainder of

head and neck bare, the crown smooth, the rest of the naked parts

covered with coarse granulations; a ring of white feathers next the

base of the bare neck; winglet, primary coverts and primaries

black ; remainder of the plumage pale grey becoming almost white

on the lengthened inner secondaries.

Colours of sott paris.—Iris orange; bill pale greenish-horny with

dark tip; legs fleshy red to livid red or red; bare skin of crown

and lores ashy-green or glaucous green; the papillose skin of head

and neck orange red becoming much deeper and brighter in the

breeding season.

Measurements.— ff wing 670 to 685 mm. ; tail 255 to 263 mm. ; tarsus

about 310 to 355. mm.; culmen 172 to 182 mm.; @ rather smaller, wing

625 to 645 mm.

Young birds have the whole head and neck covered with short

buff, or rusty-buff feathers. ,

Nestlings are covered withrich deep brown down above, more

rufous and lighter on sides and on the head, and paler below.

Pistribution.—Northern India from the Indus to Western Assam

(Gowhati); south to Bombay Presidency on the wesi as far as

Khandesh and to the Godavery River on the east.

Nidification.— The Sarus Crane breeds after the rains have well

set in, that is to say from July onwards. Most eggs are laid between

the middle of that month and the end of August but many are laid

in September. From then until the end of November casuai nests

and eggs may constantly be found whilst I have one clutch from the

Central Provinces taken in March, a most unusual time. Pershouse

took a nest with single egg in December and Captain E. O’Brien

found a newly hatched young one on February 12. The birds

generally select for their nesting site some piece of ground entirely

surrounded by water or by swampy marsh land, but occasionally

will lay in comparatively dry open plains. Concealment never seems

to be aimed at, rather they choose a place from which they can see

danger from afar off. Jackals and other vermin have no terrors for

these birds for they can protect eggs and young so long as they can

see their enemies coming and get back to their nests in time. Even

of man they have butlittle fear and stick to their nests until very

closely approached. Hume tells an amusing tale of a pair of birds

whom he sent his ‘syce’ to rob of their eggs. ‘‘ As he commenced

wading towards the nest the male began to dance about, flapping

his wings and trumpeting most bravely ; but when the man got

within a few yards and landed safely ona patch of dry ground on

which the nest rested, the male put his head dcwn and ran off very

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 3°

crestfallen to aridge in the water some fifty yards. distant, whence

he began with loud cries toencourage his lady not to allow ‘that

black rascal’ to take any liberties. She sat quite still neither moved

nor cried, only as the man came close to her made such vigorous

pokes and drives at him that he got frightened and was picking up

a great dry branch to strike her with, whenI called out to him to

flap her in the face with his waistcloth. Thishe did vigorously and

this being more than she could endure, she relunctantly crept off

the nest, now complaining loudly and joined the male.’ There was

only one egg; this the man brought, but before he could reach me

the female had regained the nest, and afterminutely examining it

and making certain the egg was gone, she stood on the top and with

bill, legs, and feet commenced throwing the straw about in the air

in the most furious manner as if beside herself with rage. Then

the male came up trumpeting, but directly he came near-she flew at

him, and he scrambled off, half running half flapping, through the

water, and making more noise than ever.”’ The egg, nearly hatching,

was restored to the nest and the female was down upon it before the

man had left the island.

In curious contrast to this account is one narrated by Captain

O’Brien who handled a young one whilst both parents remained

about 30 yards away, showing no signs of anxiety. Even when

Mrs. O’Brien joined him and inspected their baby the old birds did

not seem to object, though Jater when a kite came near the nest

they both attacked it. As Captain O’Brien remarks that evidently

the old birds knew their real enemy.

The nest varies considerably in size. It is made of straw, rushes,

grass and all sorts of rubbish and is often added to when floods

threaten it with swamping. Nests have been measured as much.

as nine feet across the bottom, three feet across the top and three

or four feet high. Other nests built on comparatively dry ground

may not be more than two-feet across and a few inches high. The

eggs laid are normally two, but one only is frequently incubated

and even when two young are hatched itis seldom that more than

one survives fot more thana few days. They are quite unlike the

eggs of the genus Megalornis. The ground colour is white, excep-

tionally tinted with reddish or sea green; some few eggs are quite

unspotted but most are sparsely biotched with light reddish, deep

reddish-brown or purpie-brown with others equally scanty, of pale

lavender or reddish-grey. In about one egg in every dozen or so

the blotches are bolder, more numerous and darker and consequently

the eggs are more handsome. In shape they are long pointed

ovals and in texture very strong and coarse but the surface is

smooth, often highly glossed, and is invariably covered with tiny

pits or pores which collect the dirt and give a speckled appearance

to the egg. One hundred eggs average 104°4 «x 64:3 mm.; maxima

113-2 x 698mm. ; minima 932 x 65-0 and 105°5 x 53°8 mm.

Habits.—Vhe Sarus Crane is resident wherever found and is

always to be seen in pairs, sometimes accompanied by one or two

young. Occasionally they may be seen in small flocks but even in

these instances the pairs keep together and flocks are but rarely seen

except in the driest seasons or in droughts when necessity drives

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

many pairs to places where there is still enough water left to satisfy

their wants. They are essentially birds of the well-watered plains

and keep away from hills and broken country or from widespread

dry and desert areas. On the other hand the swamps and lakes often

satisfy their needs altogether and they wade their existence away

without resort to dry land except for nesting purposes. They pair

for life and are very devoted mates so that if one is killed it is said

that the survivor often dies of grief. Hume comments on this and

points out that if specimens are required for skins or if food is needed

for servants, étc., it is better to kill both male and female than to let

one go. As game birds, however, no one can possibly wish to shoot

them. They are sotame that stalking them affords no difficulty

and therefore no pleasure, their flesh is not in any way desirable,

even if eatable, whilst the delight of watching the birds is more than

enough to compensate the greediest of slaughterers for the loss of

ashot. Their flight is powerful and by no means slow but they

rise off the ground with difficulty, generally running some yards

with flapping wings until they gain sufficient impetus ; once started,

however, they fly great distances with ease, though the flight is

noisy and generally close to the ground, seldom more than fifty feet

from it and often far less. They never soaras the Cranes of the

preceding genus do and their flight is inferior in every way to that

of these migrating birds. It should be noted that Osmaston twice

saw these cranes flying in flocks, once of 20 and once of 24 birds

and that in the former case they adopted the ‘ V’ shape flight and

in the second flew ina long line. On foot, they are even better

performers than other cranes and often walk considerable distances

over plains and shallow swamps to favourite feeding places, step-

ping along with care and no little grace of movement. Like all

cranes they indulge in all kinds of fantastic dances which are not

graceful or conducted in the deliberate, rather dignified. style of

their normal walk. These dances are indulged in by both sexes,

more often, but not only, in the breeding season. The cock bird

usually starts the performance by picking up a straw or branch in

his bill and then strutting with a dancing motion towards his lady

love. When within a few feet of her he bows, throws his head

back, trumpets and with wings outspread dances a das seule of half

a dozen steps, each leg lifted high and quickly into the air, accom-

panied by a hop off the ground; a few bowings and tossings of the

head follow and then once more some steps. This may go on fora

few minutes, the female joining in or not as the mood seizes her,

and then suddenly both recommence feeding. Their food consists

of all kinds of grain, shoots, aquatic plants, frogs, lizards, insects,

etc. and they feed alike in shallow water up to 18 inches deep and

in cultivated fields and open plains. Two or three pairs in a

field of young wheat or rice are said to be capable of doing

considerable damage, though this can never be compared with the

destruction of crops by a mighty flock of Common or Demoiselle

Cranes.

Their call is a loud sonorous trumpet uttered chiefly in the morn-

ings and evenings and through the night, when the birds of a pair,

separated in the darkness, call constantly to one another.

Chace

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE ss)

The young remain with their parents until they are nearly full

grown and the Jatter desire to think once more about their annual

domestic arrangements. They are affectionate, quiet and gentle

birds in a state of nature but make bad pets, domesticated birds

often being very savage and actually dangerous with children,

attacking them fiercely and endangering their eyes. .

ANTIGONE ANTIGONE SHARPII

The Burmese Sarus

Grus sharpiit Bianf., B.O.C., v, p. vit (1895) (Burma); Blanf. and

Oates: ive p: 169 ,part).

Vernacular names.—Gyo-gya(Burm.) ; Khior-sang. (Assam). Wdnu,

Wotnuren (Manipur). 7

Description.—The plumage generally rather darker than in the

preceding race. There is no white ring of feathers at the base of

the neck and the inner secondaries are practically the same colour as

the back.

Colours of sott parts as in the Indian Sarus.

Measurements. —Wing 600 to 675 mm.

Distribution.—Assam east of Kamrup, Burma, Siam and Cochin

China. Specimens from Penang may probably have not been wild

birds.

Niditication.—Nests and eggs of this Crane so exactly resemble

those of the preceding bird that no further description of them is

needed. The country in which they are found, however, sometimes

differs in being much more forested. In 1902-3 Coltart noticed a

pair of these birds constantly frequenting a wide open space in the

forest on the Dehing River. This place, perhaps half a mile across

or a little more, was entirely surrounded by virgin forest and in the

cold weather was dry and covered with short grass a foot or so high

with a deep swamp in the centre much frequented by Wood Duck.

In the rains practically the whole area was under water exept for

small islands of rather higher land. On one of these the Cranes

had constructed their cone-shaped nest and on June 19 when I went

to see if they had thoughts of nesting I found it completed and

containing two hard set eggs. Wardlaw Ramsay and Oates found

it breeding in Burma during August and September and its early

breeding in Assam may have been due to the early breaking of the

rains in that province and to the naturally wet and marshy nature of

the country. The eleven eggs I have seen average101:‘1 x 63-8mm.,

maxima 1068 x 63°8 and 103°6 x 680 mm.; minima 973 « 64:8 and

98°5 x 585mm. I have seen no pure white eggs of this race. The

birds from whom I took the eggs in Margherita made no defence of

the nest and no protest beyond trumpeting as they flew away.

Hlabtts. Quite similar in most respects to those of the preceding

race but it is often found in marshes and plains of no great extent

near forest and it seems to be a far more shy wild bird, very wary

and very hard to approach close enough fora shot. I have seen

them occasionally in Lakhimpur feeding in the rice fields in pairs but

always on the lookout and always rising long before I could possibly

§ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

shoot at them. They seem to rise more easily than their Indian

cousins, a few strides forward with spread wings and they were

away and soon mounted two or three hundred feet into the air.

Their high-flying propensities are no doubt due to their living in

better wooded, more forested countries than the Indian birds, this

teaching them to rise more quickly and to keep higher up than they

do. Their beauriful trumpet call is that of the genus and is a fine

sound when it rings out in the early dawn of aclear Indian Winter

morning. ‘The few I have seen were not noisy birds, but Oates

says of the Pegu birds that their fine trumpet calls may be heard at

all seasons.

(To be continued)

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

EE; BLATTER, S.J.; PH:D.,; F:E.S.

PART VII

GRAMINEZ

E. BLATTER and C. MCCANN

(Continued from p. 649 of Volume XXXI/)

50. PSKUDECHINOLANA, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 494.

Annual. Culms very slender with a prostrate rooting base. Leaf-blades

lanceolate, soft. Spikelets very irregularly armed or quite unarmed, obliquely

ovoid, laterally compressed and mostly conspicuously gaping, falling entire

from the pedicels, binate or more often subsolitary or solitary, secund on the

flat or subtriquetrous slender rhachis of spiciform racemosely arranged racemes.

Involucral glumes herbaceous, of about the same Jength and alinost as long as

the spikelet, or the lower distinctly shorter, heteromorphous. Lower more or

less flat, 3-nerved, smooth or almost so; uppe1 boat-shaped, gibbous down-

wards, 7-nerved, with longitudinal rows of more or less transparent spots

between the nerves and with or without shorter or longer, stout, hooked hairs or

bristles from the centre of the spots Lower floret male or barren, as long as

the spikelet ; glume oblong-lanceolate with a minutely truncate tip, laterally

compressed, but rounded on the back, chartacecus, with membranous margins

and a delicate hyaline area at the base, smooth, pale almost as long as the

glume, more or less convolute, faintly 2-nerved. Upper floret hermaphrodite,

shorter than the lower; glume broad-lanceolate to oblong, subacute, very

convex on the back, chartaceous, faintly 5-nerved pale similar to the valve in

texture, tightly clasped by it when mature. Lodicules 2, cuneate tamens 3.

Styles free at the base, capillary ; stigmas plumose, subterminally exserted.

Grain oblong in face-view, semi-obovate in profile, back very convex ; scutellum

elliptic, almost half the length of the grain ; hilum subbasal, punctiform.

Species 1.—Tropics of the whole world.

The only species of this genus was originally described under Achinolena.

This genus, however, is exclusively American which, according to Stapf,

differs from Pseudechinole@na in many ways, ‘as in its 'densely packed spikes,

the many-nerved lower glume, the ‘‘eglandular’’ always unarmed upper glume,

the uniformly papery 5-nerved lower valve [lower floral glume] which is accom-

panied by a sharply 2-keeled flat valvule [pale], the basally appendaged

fertile valve [upper floral glume] and the acutely auricled or toothed flaps of

its valvule [pale], and finally the flatter grain which is marked with a panduri-

form line on the face extending through its full length and possesses a slender

linear hilum.’

Pseudechinolena polystachya, Stapf in Prain F!. Trop. Afr. ix, 495 — Achi-

nolena polystachya, H. B.& K. Nov. Gen. ef Sp. i, 119, vii, t 679; Kunth

Enum. i, 172, Suppl. 127 ; Hitchcock Mex. Grass. in Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb.

xvii, 223; A. Chase in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. xxiv, 118.—4. 7riniz, Moritzi

Syst. Verz. Zoll 102 —Lappago aliena, Spreng. Neue Entdeck. iii, 15.—

Panicum uncinatum, Raddi Agiost. Bras. 41; Trin. Gram. Panic. 240, and

Sp. Gram. Ic.t. 216; Kunth Enum. i, 172; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 60; Hook.

f.in F.B.I. vii, 58; Trim. Handb. Fl. Ceyl v, 160.—P glandulosum, Nees ex

Trin. Gram. Pan. 174, and Agrost. Bras. 128.—P. xemorosum, 8 Trin. l.c.—F.

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volz XcegT/

heteranthum, Link Hort. Berol. i, 212, Kunth l.c. 92.—P. echinatum, Willd. ex

Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. II, ii, 193.--P. polystachyum, K. Schum. in Engl. Pfl.

Ost.--Afr. C. 103 (on aliorum).

Description: Perennial. Culm about 60cm long, of which about half is rising

above ground, and the other half prostrate, giving off numerous short or long

branches, growing into secondary culms, their bases often finely filiform, all

many-noded and rooting from the nodes near the ground ; erect or ascending

portion above the last branch 5-8-noded with as many perfect leaves; internodes

exserted, terete, glabrous. Leaf-blades lanceolate from a shortly contracted or

rounded and usually slightly oblique base, acutely acuminate, from less than

12 mm. (lowest) to up to over 6 cm. by 4-12 mm., dark green, glabrous, with

scattered or very fine stiff hairs above, finely and appressedly pubescent under-

neath, midrib very fine, whitish or straw-coloured, lateral nerves fine, numerous,

crowded. Sheaths tight, terete, strongly striate, more or less appressedly

hairy and ciliate along the margin or only ciliate. Ligules thin, membranous,

rounded or truncate, ciliolate, under 2mm. long. Inflorescence up to over 15

cm. long, with up to 6 or even 8 racemes, mostly much shorter and with fewer

racemes, occasionally reduced to a solitary raceme; common axis subterete,

almost smooth, glabrous, 0°5 mm. in diam.; racemes appressed to the common

axis or obliquely spreading, the lowest up to 35mm. long, sometimes quite

short ; rhachis filiform, triquetrous, minutely puberulous; pedicels filiform,

angular, pruinosely scaberulous, lateral up to 2mm. long, often much shorter.

Spikelets often unequally developed, the lower of each raceme or the lower

(secondary) of each pair often reduced in a varying degree, if perfect about

4 nm. long. Involucral glumes du!l or brownish green ; lower oblong- to ovate-

lanceolate, acuminate, as long as the spikelet or shorter, glabrous or sparingly

and minutely scaberulous, nerves stout ; upper semi ovate in profile, acute with

the tip laterally compressed, armature vary variable in the same raceme, from

short asperities to sharply pointed hairs bent at a right angle near the base, then

appressed and directed forwards, or short or long (to over 1 mm.), cylindric or

stoutly subulate protruberances bea-ing terminally at a right angle a fine very

sharp bristle pointing mostly forwards, outermost lateral nerves marginal.

Lower floral glume pale, greenish only at the tip, very delicately scaberulous,

hyalive basal area oblong, 1 mm. long ; upper slightly over 2 mm. long, straw-

coloured smooth, shining. Grain 1°6 by 0°6 mm., pale.

Locality: Kanara : Siddhapur, evergreen forest (Talbot 1081 !).

51. OPpLISMENUS, P. Beauv. Fl. Owar. ii, 14; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop.

Afr. ix, 630.

Species about fifteen, in the warmer parts of the world, but mostly tropical.

We retain tne two species mentioned by Cooke ii, 926, 927.

1. Oplismenus compositus, P. Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 54; Roem. & Schult.

Syst. ii, 484; Kunth Enum. i, 141; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 161; Duthie Grass.

N. W. Ind. 81; Hook. f. F.B.I., vii, 66; Cke. ii, 926 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa

999; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 634. For syn. see Hook. f. and Stapf

Tice:

Description : Cke. 1.c. A very variable plant.

Locality : Khandesh ; Toranma! (McCann 9593 !).-- Konkan: At the foot of the

Ghats under the shade of trees (Dalzell & Gibson) ; Bassein (Chibber 164 !) ;

Kenery Caves (McCann 9445!) ; Sion, woods (Blatter 9591!) ; Matheran, to

Louisa Point (D’Almeida A244!, Woodrow) ; Thana (Lisboa).—Deccan :

Igatpuri (McCann 4342 !) ; Khandala, common in forests (McCann 5335!) ;

Lonavla (Lisboa) ; Panchgani, Tiger path (Blatter « Hallberg B1253!).—

S. M. Country : Bidi, shade of trees (Sedgwick & Bell 2962!) ; forests W. of

Dharwar (Sedgwick & Bell 1853!) ; Castle Rock (Bhide!, McCann!) ; Londa

(Woodrow !).—-Kanara: Yellapore (Talbot 736!) ; Karwar (Talbot 1322!) ;

Goond (Talbot 2204!) ; Amshi Ghat (Talbot 2192 ;) ; Kadgal (Woodrow).

Distribution: Throughout India, Ceylon, tropical and subtropical Asia.

ustralia and Polynesia.

2 Oplismenus Burmanni, P. Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 54; Reem. & Schult.

Syst. Il, 482; Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 44, and Enum. i, 139; Duthie Grass.

N. W. Ind. 8., Ill. Indig. Fodd. Grass. t.47, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 13; Hook.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 9

fete be Le vil 68); Cker i1,/927;- Elaines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 999 ; Stapf in

Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 636.—For syn. see Hook. f. and Stapf 11. cc.

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat, shady places (Sedgwick 314 !).— Konkan : Versova

(McCann 4313!); Alibag, sandy shore, on the roots of coconut tree (Fzekiel !);

Bombay Isl. (McCann !); Parel (Herb. Dehra Dun!, Woodrow).—Deccan :

Chakan (Gammie !); Khandala, very common, forming carpets under trees

(McCann 9592!); Lonavla (McCann 3898 !); Igatpuri (McCann !); Panchgani

(Woodrow).—S.47. Country: S.W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick & Bell 4438!) ;

Dharwar, shade of trees (Sedgwick 1837 !); Londa (Gammie 15826 !); Castle

Rock (Gammie 15696 !).—Kanara : Halyal (Talbot 2085 !); Karwar (Talbot

1295 !).

Distribution ; Widely distributed throughout the tropics of both hemis-

pheres.

52. Panicum, Linn. Stapfin Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. IX, 638.

Annual or perennial grasses, rarely suffrutescent, of various habit and size.

Leaves mostly linear to linear-lanceolate, but also ovate or filiform to subulate.

Ligules usually reduced to aciliate rim or a fringe of hairs, rarely a distinct

membrane or 0. Panicles usually much divided and at least temporarily open.

Spikelets usually loosely scattered, glabrous or hairy, lanceolate to oblong,

elliptic or orbicular in outline, symmetrical in profile, rarely somewhat oblique,

falling entire or almost so from the often.elongated pedicels of a compound or

decompound panicle, without a definite orientation towards the axis. Involucral

glumes more or less herbaceous-membranous, lower usually shorter than the

upper, often very much so, rarely equalling it, usually with 1 or more nerves,

or if very small, nerveless ; upper as long as the spikelet, rounded on the back,

5-9-nerved Lower floral glume very similar to the upper involucral glume

and equally rounded and curved on the back, 5-9-, rarely 3- or 11-nerved,

male or neuter, pale thinly membranous to subhyaline, subequal to the lower

floral glume or more or less reduced, rarely suppressed. Upper floral

glume subcoriaceous to coriaceous with firm margins, obtuse to subacute,

emucronate, faintly nerved, hermaphrodite, pale subequal to the glume and of

similar substance, tightly embraced by the more or less involute margins of the

glume. Lodicules 2, broadly cuneate. Stamens 3. Styles distinct ; stigmas

laterally exserted near the tip of the floret. Grain tightly enclosed by the

hardened valve and valvule, dorsally compressed, biconvex to almost plano-

convex ; scutellum elliptic to ovate-elliptic, about half as long as the grain ;

hilum subbasal, punctiform

Species about 400. Inthe tropical and subtropical regions of both hemis-

pheres, few in the warm-temperate regions.

Cooke mentions 20 indigenous and 4 cultivated species.

Of the 24 species we have put Panicum flavidum, Retz., P. punctatum,

Burm., and P. fluttans under Paspalidium.

Panicum stagninum, Retz. and P. colonum, Linn. have been transferred to

Echinochloa.

Panicum Isachneé, Roth, P. ramosum, Linn. and P. muticum. Forsk. belong

to Brachiaria.

Panicum prostratum, Lamk , P. setigerum, Retz. and P. javanicum, Poir.

have been described under Urochloa.

Panicum interruptum, Willd. and P. myosuroides will be dealt with under

Sacciolepts.

Panicum patens, Linn. will be transferred to Cyrtococcum.

New to the Presidency are P pstlopodium, Trin, and P. auritum, Presl.

A. Lower involucral glume as Jong as the lower

floral glume or nearly so aoe (4. Ll. P.turgidum.

B. Lower involucral glume shorter than the

lower floral glume

I. Annuals

1. Leaves less than 12 mm. broad

@. Panicle about 35 em. lone ... fae Es OOSCUTONS.

6. Panicle not more than 25 cm. long

aa. Spikelets gaping mee sO LI DEVON.

66. Spikelets not gaping... .. 4, P. pstlopodium,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST. SCCLETY, Vol. XXXII

2, Leaves more than 12 mm. broad

a. Spikelets 4°5-5mm.long ... ae O WP, miltaceum.

6. Spikelets 2-3-2 mm. long ... ws OL 22. pnileare.

Il. Perennials

1. Lower involucral glumes very minute, one

or rarely both often obsolete : 7. P. subeglume.

2. Lower involucral glumes distinctly evi-

dent

a. Culms up to3 m. high As a. 8. PF. maximum:

6. Culms less than 1'7 m. high

aa. Culms not more than 90cm. high... 9. P. paludosum.

66. Culms more than 90 cm. high

+ Spikelets laxly clustered on the

branches.. sox .... 10. ° 2. aniidotale:

++ Spikelets solitary aes . Lll.- P. montaniumn.

+++ Spikelets fascicled,subsecund, ses-

sile or shortly pedicelled ws 12.) 2. auritam:

1. Panicum turgidum, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. (1775), 18; Del. Fl. Egypte

19, t.9, fig. 2; Trin. Diss. Gram. Pan. 189, Gram, Icon. & Descer. ii 227,

Pan. Gen. PHA ‘and in Mém. Acad. Pétersb. sér. vi, iii, 307 ; Kunth Enum. i, 97 ;

Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 88; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 441; Duthie ‘Fodd. Grass. N. ‘Ind.

13; Balf. f. Bot. Socotra 310 LOOK she Holack ev Als 44 ; Stapf in Kew Bull. (1907),

214: Muschler, Man. Fl. BHeypt i, 97; Cke. 11,1935; Stapf im Prain Fl. Lrop,

Afr. ix, 706.—P. nubicum, Vig. & De Not. in Mem. Ac. Torin. ser. 2, xiv, t.

TUES ieee

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: (Duthie feste Cooke); Sehwan, sand hills (Bhide!),—

Gujarat - Rajkot, Kathiawar (Woodrow feste Cooke).

Distribution : Tropical Africa, Egypt, Cyprus, S. Palestine, Arabia, Socotra,

S. Persia, Baluchistan, Sind, Gujarat.

Uses: An excellent fodder for camels.

2. Panicum obscurans, Woodr. in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii (1901), 434 ;

Cke. ii, 935.— /sachne obscurans, Woodr. in Gard Chron. 23, ser. 3 (1898), 161.

Description: Cke. l.c.

According to Woodrow the whole inflorescence breaks off and is driven about

by the wind.

Stapf says that the tropical African Panicum hippothrix, kK. Schum. is very

similar and perhaps identical with P. obscurans, but he adds that the blades of

the latter are much wider, measuring up to 14 mm. and that the panicle ‘ is

perhaps on the whole more open with slightly larger spikelets.’ (In Prain Fl.

Trop. Afr. ix, 699.) These are scarcely differences to justify specific distinction,

but as we have not seen the African plant, we do not venture to decide the

point. If the identity between the two species should be established, Woodrow’s

righ name, being of a later date by four years, will have to cede to

P. hippothrix.

“Locality : Deccan: Mangiri Farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Jeur near

Sholapur (Woodrow).

Distribution : Endemic.

3. Panicum trypheroa, Schult. Mantiss. ii (1824), 244 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 47 ;

Prain Beng. Pl. 1176; Cke. ii, 936; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 995.

P. miliare, Wall. Cat. No. 8712 (artim) E.—P. mucronatum, Heyne in Wall. Cat.

No. 8717 (partim).—P. Neestanum, Wight & Arn.ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 74,—

P. Roxburghii, Spreng. Syst. i, 320; Kunth Enum. Pl.i, 126; Steud. l.c. 98.—

P. tenellum, Roxb, Fl. Ind. i, 306 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 7.

Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 712 has separated P. porphyrrhizos, Steud.

from P. trypheron, Schult, as understood by Hook. f. in F.B.I. lc., and with it

all the material covered by the following synonyms: P. confine, Hochst. ex

Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 72.—P. jumentorum, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss.: ii, 373

(non Jacq.).—P. trypheron, therefore, does not occur in tropical Africa.

Description : Cke, l.c.

Locality : Gujarat: On the Idar Frontier, Prantij Taluka, sandy waste

(Sedgwick !).—Konkan : Malabar Hill (Lisboa feste Cooke).—Deccan - Poona

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY | 11

(Woodrow feste Cooke) ; Jeur (Woodrow Zeste Cooke) ; Malhargad (Woodrow

teste Cooke).—S. 17. Country: Dharwar (Garade!) ; Dharwar, on pastures and

dry hills (Sedgwick 6144 !).

Distribution ; Punjab, Bengal, W. Peninsula, Ceylon, China, Borneo.

4. Panicum psilopodium, Trin. Gram. Panic. 217; Kunth Enum. PI. i, 100;

Steud. Syn. Gram. 83; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 161; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind.

6, Field and Gard. Crops i, t. 23, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 10 (zz nota) ; Hook. f.

F.B.I. vii, 46; Saxton & Sedgwick, Plants of N. Gujarat in Rec. Bot. Surv.

Ind. vi (1918), 312 ; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 993.

Description: An annual, tufted grass. Culms erect or quickly ascending,

30-60 cm.high, ratherslender, simple or branched, usually leafy up tothe

panicle. Leaves rather broadly linear, acute or somewhat acuminate, 7-30 cm.

by 4-8 mm. glabrous or with few short spreading hairs towards the base, rarely

thinly hairy all over. Sheaths often with spreading hairs which leave minute rais-

ed dots after falling, more usually glabrous, loose, striate. Ligule a narrow row

of hairs. Panicle spreading, 5-20 cm. long, with very capillary branches and

slender pedicels which are often 10 mm. long. Spikelets 2-3 mm. long, gemi-

nate, narrowly elliptic, with abruptly acutetip. Lower involucral glume very

broadly ovate-acute, about 3 the spikelet, base amplexicaul but not overlapping

itself in front, 5-nerved. Upper involucral glume oblong-ovate, as long as

spikelet, minutely cuspidate, 9- (11-) nerved. Lower floral glume similar, with

delicate, oblong, margined pale. Upper narrow-ellipsoid, acute, very smooth

and polished as is its pale.

Locality ; Gujarat: Ahmedabad ard elsewhere in shady wet places in the

monsoon (Saxton & Sedgwick).

Distribution : India, Burma, Malacca, Ceylon.

*5. Panicum miliaceum, Lion. Sp. Pl. (1753), 58; Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab,

civ; Host. Gram. Austr.ii, 16, t.20; Kunth Enum.i, 104, Suppl. 81; Trin.

Pan. Gens 194, sp. Gram.ic.'t.i221; Reichb. Ic. Fl’ Germ. vil,t. 82; Steud.

Syn. Pl. Glum.i,:77; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. $, Field and Gard. Crops t. 23,

Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.9; Hook f. F.B.I. vii, 45; Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod. Ind.

vi, 12; Cke. ii, 939; Stapfin Prain Fl. Trop. Afr.ix, 696.—P. asperrimum,

Fisch. Cat. Hort. Govenk. ex Jacq. Eclog. Gram. 46, t. 31; Nees Agrost. Bras.

199.—P. Milium, Pers.Syn 1. 83.—MWtlium esculentum, Mcench Meth. 203.—

M. Panicum, Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. viii, no. 1.

Vern. Names: Common Millet; cheno (Guj.); vari (Decc.); gajro

(Panch Mahals); sava (Mar.); chinee (Sind).

Description : A tufted annual,0°6—1°2 m. high. Stems erect or geniculately

ascending, terete, stout or slender, 4-5-noded, simple or sparingly branched,

more or less softly hirsute below the nodes, the uppermost internode usually

quite glabrous. Leaf-blades linear from an equally wide or slightly contracted

and rounded base, long-tapering to a slender point, 15 to over 30 cm. by 6-20

mm., flat, flexuous, usually glabrous except for the often ciliate lower margins

and hispidulous dorsal midrib, rarely sparsely hairy all over, hairs long and

fine, midrib somewhat stout and prominent below in large leaves, primary

lateral nerves 3-6 on each side, very slender. Sheaths terete, somewhat loose

or the upper tight, closely striate, spreadingly hirsute with tubercle-based hairs,

pubescent or loosely bearded at the nodes, longer or slightly shorter than the

internodes. Ligule a narrow ciliate rim. Panicles contracted and rather dense

or open, narrowly oblong, nodding, often with their base permanently enclos-

ed inthe uppermost sheath or only shortly exserted, up to 30 cm. long in sub-

spontaneous specimens usually scantier, looser and at length mcre open,

divided up to the fourth or in cultivated specimens the fifth degree, all the

divisions filiform, angular and scabrid ; primary axis slender or somewhat

stout below, subterete, striate or grooved and smooth towards the base ; pri-

mary branches more or less approximate below, more distant upwards, often

much divided from low down; branchlets relatively long, the lower divided

again in the same manner or like the remainder from much higher up with

spikelets in small loose racemes of 2 (rarely 3) towards the summit; pedicels

hardly thickened upwards, with truncate tips, the lateral trom less than 2-6 mm.

long. Spikelets ovate-oblong to ovate-lanceolate, apiculate-acuminate, turgid,

4°5-5 mm. long, glabrous, green or brownish green. Involucral glumes per-

sistent, unequal, strongly and prominently nerved ; lower broad-ovate, acute,

12. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY, Vol. Xoo

from 3-3 the length of the lower floret, 5-nerved, upper corresponding in size

and outline to the spikelet, broadly rounded on the back, 1l-nerved, tip con-

tracted, apiculate to shortly rostrate. Lower floral glume barren, very like the

lower involucral glume, pale ovate to ovate-oblong, truncate or emarginate, up

to about 3 the length of the glume. Upper floret hermophrodite, elliptic-oblong

in outline, subacute, very convex on the back, up to over 3 by 2 mm., variously

coloured (white, yellow, red, brown or black), very smooth and polished,

‘glume and pale crustaceous. Grain white.

Locality : Cultivated in many parts of the Presidency, chiefly in Gujarat and

on the Ghats.

Distribution : Supposed to have originated in India. But see DeCandolle,

Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 376, London 1909.

Uses ; Cultivated for its grain and as a good fodder.

*6. Panicum miliare, Lamk. Ill. Gen. i (1791), 173; Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 309;

Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 104; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab. Pl. 159; Duthie Grass. N. W.

Ind. 5, Field and Gard. Crops 7, t. 26, Indig. Fodd. Grass. t. 46, Fodd. Grass.

N. Ind. 10 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 46 ; Cke. ii, 939 (fartim)'; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 993.

Description : An annual grass. Culms 30-90 cm. high, rather slender, erect

or base geniculate, simple or branched, usually leafy up to the panicle. Leaves

linear, 15-60 cm. by 12-25 mm., gradually tapering from a broad base, glabrous

or finely hairy, sheaths glabrous, rarely hirsute with tubercle-based hairs. Pani-

cles very compound, contracted or thyrsiform, and often nodding, 10-25 cm. long

(without the subsidiary axillary panicles which are often developed). Spikelets

glabrous, rather flattened, suddenly acute or slightly cuspidate, 2-3°2 mm.

long, mostly paired on unequal pedicels, but often solitary at the ends of the

branchlets, lanceolate in flower, elliptic or broadly elliptic in fruit. Lower

involucral glume very broadly ovate, subtruncate, then suddenly acute, or

scarcely acute, about 3 the spikelet, white, membranous, 3-5-nerved, nerves

arching and anastomosing. Upper involucral glume herbaceous, ovate-lanceo-

late, 11-13-nerved. Lower floral glume 9-nerved, neuter, pale as long asits

glume. Upper floral glume narrow-elliptic or elliptic-oblong to broadly ovate,

acute, shining, white or pale brown, or dark brown, often 3-5-streaked dorsally.

Locality : Cultivated occasionally in some parts of the Presidency.

Note.--P. miliare is in all probability a cultivated form of ?. psilopodium. It

is not always easy to distinguish between the two. Hooker already felt this

difficulty. ‘If I remember aright,’ he says, ‘ P. mzliare was conjectured by

Munro to bea cultivated form of P. pszlopodium ; and except in the greater size,

more contracted panicle, rather larger spikelets and usually shorter pedicels of

P. miliare \ failed to find characters whereby to separate them, and these are

not very reliable. In its common state the grain of mzliare is broader than in

any form of pszlopoditum and much darker coloured.’ (F.B.I. vii, 46). Duthie

was unable to distinguish P. mzliare from P. psilopodium (Fodd Grass, N.

Ind. 10). Stapf, however, is inclined to think that they are separable. In his

opinion the true P. pstlopodium has nearly always glabrous leaves, smaller

spikelets and a shorter lower involucral glume. Prain in his Bengal Plants

gives as the characters of P. miliare: ‘ Leaves hairy; cultivated’, and of P.

pstlopodium: ‘ Leaves glabrous ; wild.’ But he has nevertheless, as Haines

points out ‘named most of the glabrous-leaved forms in the Calcutta Herb, as

miliare, and I have myself noticed whole crops with glabrous leaves, whereas

I have collected pszlopodium with hairy leaves.’

The same author, after discussing the various statements, sums up his own

observations: ‘ Although absolutely the leaves of mzlzare are often broader

than in psilopodium, yet they are relatively narrower and much more alternate.

Moreover the cultivated sz2z/zare and its feralforms always appear to have more

or less contracted panicles in contrast to the shorter, always quickly effuse,

panicle of pstlopodium. The grain of mzliare is,as would be expected, rather

larger, being ‘08-"l'in. long as compared with °07 in. long in pszlopodium.’

7. Panicum subeglume, Trin. in Mém. Acad. Pétersb. sér. 6, ili, pt. 2 (1835),

292 > Stetid.. Syn. “Gram: 827; Hook, £..h7B Ipeyitegole Cre. it, 936272.

arcuatum, Br. ex Nees in Wight Cat. ne. 1639 (oz Br. Prodr.).—P. Brownta-

num, Wight & Arn. ex Steud. l.c. 98.—P. Zorreyanum, Wight & Arn. ex

Steud. Nom. ed. 2, ii, 264.—.Wzlium capillare, Roth. Nov. Sp. 39; Kunth

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY | 13

Enum. Pl.i, 67.—/. tomentosum, Koen. ex Rottl. in Ges. Naturf. Fr. Neue

sehr. iv, (1803); 220; Steud. Syu. Gram. 34; Kunth l-.c..66. ;

Description : Cke.1.c.

Locality : S. M. Country - Badami (Woodrow ¢este Cooke ; Bhide!).

Distribution: W. Peninsula.

*8, Panicum maximum, Jacq. Ic. i, 2, t. 13; Collect. i, 76; Trin. Pan. Gen.

180, and in Mém. Acad. Pétersb. 6 sér. iii, 268; Nees Fl. Afr. Austr 36;

Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.i, 72:; Griseb. Fl. Brit. West Ind. 549; Doell in Mart.

F|.. Bras. ii, ii,,202: Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 159; Baker Fl. Maurit. 436;

Bosse Hl Or. v,.439); Hook. f..F.B.Y. vil, 495 “Irim, Fl. Ceyl.v, 153; Stapf .in

Dyer beGaps vilj404 5: Cker 1; 939 Haines in: Bot. Bihar é¢ Orissa 995 ;

Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 655.—P. maximum var. hirsuttssimum, Oliv.

in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxix, Bot. 171.—P. maximum var. obtusissimum, Stapf in

Cheval. Sudania 161, 163.—FP. polygamum, Sw. Prodr. Ind. Occ, 24.—P. laeve,

Lar. Ill. i, 172.—P. jumentorum, Pers. Syn.i,*3; H.B. & K. Nov. Gen. &

Sp. i, 104; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 5, Fodd. Grass N.Ind.9.—FP. altissimum,

Brouss. Elench. Hort. Monsp. (1805), 42 (zou Meyer); Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb.

Fl. Suppl. 98.—P. trichocondylum, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 74.—P. pample-

moussense, Steud. l.c 71.—P. hirsutissimum, Steud. l.c. 72.—P. giganteunt,

Mez in Engl. Jahrb. xxiv, 143.

Vern, Name ; Guinea Grass.

Description : A perennial, densely tufted grass, up to 3 m. high. Culms

erect or geniculate-suberect, usually stout, 3-4 noded, simple or sparingly

branched with the branches erect, terete or compressed below, usually quite

glabrous and smooth, more rarely more or less hirsute and rough from the

tubercular hair-bases. Leaves glabrous or more or less soitiy hairy or coarsely

hirsute with tubercle-based hairs. Sheaths rather firm, the lower compressed,

the others terete and tight, often bearded at the mouth and usually so at the

nodes, rarely the nodes quite glabrous. Ligule membranous, very short, ciliolate

usually with dense hairs from behindit. Blades linear froni an equally wide or

very gradually narrowed and shortly contracted base, long-tapering to a fine

point, 10-60 cm. by 4-18 or even 25 mm., flat, margins scaberulous to spinu-

lously scabrid, midrib prominent below, whitish and shallowly channelled

above, primary nerves up to 9 on each side. Panicle erect or nodding,

contracted or open, from 10 to over 45 cm. long, glabrous or more often

villosulous at the lower nodes and motile branch bases, divided to the 4th or

Sth degree, all the divisions filiform to capillary, often more of less wavy,

angular and scabrid or the larger smooth downwards; primary axis compa-

ratively slender, smooth, terete and often fluted below, scaberulous upwards ;

lower primary branches whorled, suberect or spreading, up to 30 cm. long,

mostly remotely divided from 2°5-7'5 cm. above the base, their lower branch-

lets often up to 7°5 cm. long, flexuous and remotely divided or like the rest

rather short and contracted ; penultimate divisions usually closely 2-3-spiculate

with the lateral pedicels shorter than the clustered spikelets, more rarely loose

to very loose with the pedicels several times longer, all the pedicels very fine

with small subcupular tips. Spikelets oblong, subobtuse to acute, somewhat

turgid, broadly rounded on the back, 3-4°5 or sometimes 4 mm. long, light

green or tinged with purple, glabrous or rarely more or less densely pubescent.

Involucral glumes dissimilar, faintly nerved. Lower rounded orshortly acute

or minutely apiculate, about 3 to 4 the length of the spikelet, hyaline, 3-1-

nerved or almost nerveless. Upper corresponding in shape and size to the

spikelet, membranous, 5-nerved. Lower floral glume male, like the upper

involucral glume, 7-nerved, pale slightly shorter, oblong, obtuse. Upper floret

hermaphrodite, oblong, shortly acute up to almost 3 mm. long, whitish, glume

and pale thinly crustaceous, finely transversely rugose except on the flexures.

Anthers 1-15 mm. long. Grain over 1mm. long.

Locality ; Widely cultivated, chiefly in Gujarat and Sind.

Distribution. Indigenous in tropical and S. Africa, Madagascar, the

Mascarenes and in Yemem. Introduced into India and America.

Uses; An excellent fodder grass.

9. Panicum paludesum, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 307 (zon Nees) ; Wall. Cat.

noe o7 li Grift. Notul,:37, Ic.PlsAsiat. t. 139. £. 127° Duthte Fodd. Grass: N.

Ind. 11.—P. proliferum, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 50 (zon Lam.)—P. proliferum,

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

var. paludosum, Cooke in Fl. Bomb. ii, 937 (on Stapf).—P. proliferum

Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 995 (non Lam.)— FP. proliferum, Prain in

Beng. Plants 1176 (zon Lam.).—P. decompositum var. paludosum, '!rim. Cat.

Ceyl. Pl. 105.

The explanation for tiie above synonymy is contained in a note given by

Stapf (in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 719) to justify his new Species Panicum longt-

jubatum, Stapf of tropical Africa which, on a previous occasion, he had describ-

ed as var. longijubatum of P. proliferum (in Dyer FI. Cap. vii, 406).

‘The P. proliferum of authors covers a number of allied yet clearly distinct

species. The name is Lamarck’s, but since Hitchcock (in Contrib. U.S. Nat.

Herb. xii. 147) has shown that his plant so named is identical with P. miliare,

Lam., P. proliferum becomes a synonym unconnected with any of the forms

so far referred to it. Of these, one, namely Hooker’s P. proliferum (F1. Brit.

Ind. vii. 50), is identical with Roxburgh’s P. paludosum (Roxb. F1., Ind. ed.

Carey, i. 307), another, anative of America, is P. dichotomiflorum, Michx.

(Fl. Bor. Am. i. 48). Both appear to me sufficiently distinct from the African

plant described above ; P. paludosum mainly by its conspicuously larger and

more finely acuminate spikelets; P. dichotomiflorum by its pronounced

branching habit and the smaller number of nerves of the upper glume

(mostly 7) and lower valve (5-7, mostly 5).’ ;

Description: Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Konkan: Byculla (McCann A140!) ; Sewri (McCann 3641!) ;

Salsette (Lisboa teste Cooke).—Deccan: Khandala (McCann 5310!); Poona

(Lisboa este Cooke) ; Loaavla { Lisboa feste Cooke).—S. MW. Country : Devarayi

(Sedgwick 4118!).—Kanara - ‘Gersoppa Falls, on rocks ia river ped, common

(Hallberg & McCann A139!) ; Karwar (Hallberg & McCann A124 !).

Distribution - India, Ceylon. (It certainly does not occur in tropical and

S. Africa, but whether it extends eastwards beyond India we are not able to

say).

10. Panicum antidotale, Retz. Obs. fasc. 4 (1786), 17; Hook f. in F.B.I. vii,

52; Cke. ii, 937; Blatter Fl. Aden 372.—For other references and synonyms see

Hook. Nie lec.

Description « Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Sind « (Stocks 659 teste Cooke) ; Karachi to Landi (Burns!) ; Laki

(Bhide!) ; Sukkur (Woodrow ¢/este Cooke) ; Clifton, near Karachi (Sabnis

B797!); Umerkot, sand dunes (Sabnis B1080!); Mirpurkhas (Bhide)) ;

Mirpurkhas, in fallow fields (Sabnis B1208!) ; Jamesabad, in fields (Sabnis

B1154!); Sanghar (Sabnis B769!); Gharo (Blatter & McCann Ds06!, D€08!).

—Gujarat: Bhuj, Rhodi Maka, Cutch (Blatter 3751!); Sumrasar, Cutch

(Blatter 3760!) ; Kathiawar (Woodrow ¢feste Cooke).—S. MZ. Country: Dharwar

(Garade!).; Londa (Woodrow ¢este Cooke).

Distribution: Arabia, Afghanistan, Punjab, Upper Gangetic Plain, W. Pen-

insula, Ceylon, Australia.

11. Panicum montanum, Roxb. Fl. Ind.i (1832), 313 (excl. descr. gluma sup.

florali); Kunth Enum. Pl. 126; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 412; Hook.f. F. B. I. vii,

53; Cke. ti, 938; Haines Bots Bihar & Orissa, 996.—P. ‘courtallense, Nees &

Arn. ex Wight Cat. no. 23425, Leu. 2S. Gram, 83.—P euchroum, Steud.

1e..98;

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan ; Pen, hills (Bhide!) ; Kenery Caves (McCann A134 !,

A136 !).—Deccan : Lohagad, half way up (McCann A137!); Khandala

(McCann A136!) ; Lonavla (Garade !).—S. MW. Country ; Castie Rock, on hill

behind station (Bhide!).—Aanara : Dandeli (Talbot 2243!) ; Kala Nuddie

(Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!); Karwar, hillside in snade of trees (Hallberg &

McCann A135 !, Talbot !) ; Sumpkhund (Hallberg & McCann 9935 !).

Distribution : Hotter hilly parts of India, Ceylon, Penang, Malaya, China,

Philippines.

12. Panicum auritum, Presl ex Nees Agrost. Bras. 176; Rel. Haenk, i, 305 ;

Trin. Pan. Gen. 176.; Kunth Enum, Pl. 1, 113; Steud. Syn; Gram. 7 ; Baker

Fl. Maurit. 437; Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 456; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 40; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa. 996.—P. insulicola, Steud. 1. c. 78.—P. javanum, Nees

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 15

and Biihse in Miq. Pl. Jungh. 376 ; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. l.c. 453.--P. patens,

Bojer Hort. Maurit. ex Baker l.c.

Description : A perennial, tall, erect grass. Culm 0°9-1°6 m. high, soft.

Leaves linear-lanceolate, broadly cordate at base,20-35 cm. by 24-30 mm. glabr-

ous or sparsely hairy beneath. Sheath glabrous or sparsely hairy with villous

mouth. Ligule very short. Panicle long contracted or more or less effuse, 20-45

cm. long, fastigiately branched, branches erect, 5-12 cm. long, branchlets and

fascicles of spikelets subsecund. Spikelets green, glabrous, 1:7-2'°5 mm., sessile

or shortly pedicelled, strongly nerved, subacute. Lower involucral glume

broadly ovate, 3 —4 the length of the lower floral, obtuse or acute, nerves 3-5

arching, upper involucral and lower floral subequal, ovate-oblong, acute or

acuminate, 5-nerved, pale of lower floral glume small, neuter. Upper floral

glume as long as the lower, lanceolate-acuminate, smooth, white, thinly

coriaceous.

Locality : S. M. Country ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15717).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, Malaya, China.

53. HYyMENACHNE, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 48, t. 10, f. 8.

Rather stout grasses. Leaves broadly linear. Panicles thyrsoid, branches

erect, appressed with spiciform branchlets and very numerous crowded nar-

rowly lanceolate acuminate secund spikelets, articulate on their minute

pedicels. Lower involucral glume cuspidate, keeled, membranous, shortest,

upper with sheathing amplexicaul base on the long internode of the rhachilla

between it and the lower flora] glume, prominently 3-nerved, cuspidate or awned.

Lower floral glume longest, lanceolate-acuminate, passing gradually into the

awn, with three strong nerves meeting in the base of the awn aud two lateral

weaker ones empty; upper longer than upper involucral glume, oblong, mem-

branous in flower scarcely hardened in fruit,smooth, faintly 2-nerved, embracing

the pale except at the tip, pale similar and as long. Lodicules minute. Stamens

3. Stylesdree.

This genus is not represented in Cooke. The following species is described

in the F.B.I. ander Panicum myurus, H.B. & K.

1. Hymenachne myuros, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 49, t. 10, fig. S$ (excl. syn.

Lam.) , Nees Agrost. Bras. 275 ; Griseb. Fl. Brit. West Ind. 553 (excl. syn.) ;

Steud. Syn. Gram. 78 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 991.—FPanicum myurus,,

H.B. & K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i, 98 (excl. syn. Lam.) ; Kunth Rev. Gram. i.

33. Enum. Pl. i, 86, Suppl. 65; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 10 (excl syn.) ;

Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 480 (excl. syn. interruptum) (Lxcl. in omnibus syn.

Lam., Rudge, Richard, Trin.) ; Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 39.—P. acutiglumum,

Steud. Syn. Gram. 66.—P. auritum, Hassk. Pl. Rar. Jav. 22 (non Presl.)—

P. Hasskarlii, Steud. in Zoll. Syst. Verz. 54, Syn. Gram. 70; Mig. FI. Ind.

Bat. iii. 456.—P. myurum, Meyer FI. Esseg. 50 (excl. syn. Lam. & Rudge).

—P. mangaloricum, Steud. 1. c. 78.—P. serrulatum, Roxb. FI. Ind. i. 307 ;

Kunth. Enum. Pl.i, 126.—Agrostis monostachys, Poir. Encycl. Suppl. i, 256,

ex Kunth l.c.

Description ; Culm stout, tall, 0°6-1°8 m. high, spongy below, rooting at the

nodes of the prostrate base, erect, leafy. Leaves 20-50 cm. by 18-25 mm. flat,

tapering from a broad cordate base toa fine point, margin serrulate ; sheath

smooth, glabrous or ciliate ; ligule very short, rounded, hyaline. Panicle very

dense, narrow, very compound with closely appressed branches, 15-30 cm.

long, rarely 25mm. diam., often interrupted, sometimes quite cylindric. Spike-

lets variously grouped, shortly and unequally pedicelled, secund on the erect

branches of the panicle, 4-6 mm. long, narrowly lanceolate, pale green. Lower

involucral glume 3 of the lower floral glume, narrow from an amplexicaul base,

aristulate, hispidulous on keel and cusp; upper narrowly lanceolate, subaris-

tate, hispidulous, 3-nerved. Lower floral gluine much longer than upper

involucral glume, narrowly lanceolate, gradually tapering into the awn as long

as spikelet, strongly 3-nerved, hispiduious on nerves, pale imperfect or 0 ;

upper small, thin, narrow, finely acuminate, almost embraced by the lower,

shorter than the upper involucral glume, enclosing its pale on the edges.

Styles distinct.

Locality: S. M. Country: Tadas, tanks, elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 35

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4917!).

Distribution : Tropical Asia, Australia and America.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HZIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIH

54. Cyrtococcum, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 745.

Perennial. Culms weak, rising from a decumbent or creeping and rooting

base. Leaf-blades flat, linear-lanceolate or almost linear. Ligules membranous,

short. Spikelets on long to very long and capillary or short pedicels, widely

scattered or approximate, obliquely obovate to semi-cbovate, laterally much

compressed, falling entire from the pedicels of very loose and open or contract-

ed and dense panicles. Involucral glume thinly membranous, unequal to

subequal, 3-5-nerved. Lower floret barren with or without a pale, glume

similar to the upper involucral glume, pale, if present, narrow, 2-nerved.

Upper floret about as long asor almost as long as the lower, hermaphrodite,

glume narrowly boat-shaped, papery to subcrustaceous with firm very narrowly

involute margins, obsoletely 5-nerved ; pale subequal to the glume, witha

narrow convex back, of the same substance as the vaJve, with fine keels and

thin flaps. Lodicules two, minute, broadly cuneate. Stamens three. Styles

distinct ; stigmas sublaterally exserted high up. Grain not known.

Species 6 or 7. Tropical Africa, Indo-Malaya.

None of the species here described were mentioned by Cooke. Hook. f. in.

F.B 1. has them under Panicum, sect. Gibbose.

I. Spikelets shortly pedicelled

1. Leaves 2°5-5 cm. long ae . Ll. C. trigonum.

2. Leaves 5-15 cm. long oe ise ele uC DLLEPeSk

If. Spikelets on capillary pedicels which are much

longer than the spikelets Le sete G Datens.

1. Cyrtococcum trigonum, A. Camus in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. 27 (1921), 118.—

Panicum trigonum, Retz. Obs. iii, 9 (excl. syn. Burm.) ; Kunth Enum. Pl. i,

116°; Nees Agrost. Bras. 206°; Koxb. Fl,ind. 1, 3055 Hookst 3, aon =

P. difforme, Roth. Nov. Sp. 52.—P. radicans, Bthse in Miq. Pl. Jungh, 375;

Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. iii, 453 (zon Retz.).—P. gibbum, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 87.

Description: Perennial. Culms decumbent, branching, interlaced below ;

branches erect. Leaves 2°5-5 cm. long, linear-lanceolate, glabrous or laxly

hairy. Sheath glabrous or margin ciliate. Ligule rounded. Panicle 25-35 mm.

long, contracted, rhachis and short, suberect branches glabrous. Spikelets 1:5

mm. long, very shortly pedicelled, hispidulous. Lower involucral glume about

3 the length of the lower floral glume, obtuse or acute, 3-nerved, pale brown ;

upper pale brown. Lower floral glume 5-nerved, pale brown; upper naked or

bearded at the tip.

Locality : Konkan: Matheran, Harrison’s Springs and Monkey Point (D’

Almeida A251!, A252 !).

Distribution : Yudia, Ceylon, Java.

2. Cyrtococcum pilipes, A. Camus in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. 27 (1921), 118.—

Panicum pilipes, Nees & Arn. ex Btithse in Miq. Pl. Jungh. iii, 376; Mig. F.

Ind. Bat. iii, 453 ; Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 57.—P. hermaphroditum, Steud. Syn,

are 67; Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 485.—P. oxyphyllum, Hochst. ex Steud.

Ie 00;

Description - Perennial. Culms 30-60 cm. high, geniculately ascending from

a slender, creeping, branching base, lower nodes rooting, upper subpubescent.

Leaves 5-15 cm. long, 8-35 mm. broad, glabrous or sparsely hairy above,

puberulous beneath, finely acuminate, base narrow. Sheath glabrous or ciliate,

mouth hairy. Ligule rounded. Panicle 7-13 cm. long, contracted, branches

short, rather remote, erect or spreading with short fastigiate branchlets, often

slender hairs on the pedicels. Spikelets 1‘5 mm. long, brown, very shortly pedi-

celled, glabrous. Lower involucral glume about 4 the length of the lower

floral glume, obtuse, 3-nerved. Lower floral glume 5-nerved ; upper white, its

pale narrow, patent, hard.

Locality : Konkan: Above Kenery Caves (McCann A133!) ; Matheran

(D’Almeida A132!, Woodrow !).—Deccan : Mahableshwar, in forests, eleva-

tion 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches Sedgwick & Bell 4801!) ; Pratapgad Fort

(Bhide 1207 !).—S. M7. Country : Castle Rock, in shade of trees (McCann

A131!, Bhide!) ; Beigaum (Herb. Bot. Gard Cal. !).—Kanara : Coastal

forests, Karwar (Sedgwick & Bell 5113!) ; deciduous forests, Kirwatti (Sedg-

wick 3130!) ; Halyal (Talbot!) ; Supa, elevation 2,000 ft. (Talbot 2091 !) ;

Yellapore (Talbot 907!) ; Devimani Ghat (Hallberg & McCann A128!) ;

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 17

Gersoppa Falls (Hallberg & McCann A125!); Anmod, forests (Sedgwick

3252!) ; Kulgi, elevation 2,000 ft. (Talbot).

Distribution : Mascarene Islands, Madagascar, India, Malaya, Australia,

Pacific Islands.

3. Cyrtococcum patens, A. Camus in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. 27 (1921), 118.—

Panicum patens, Linn. Sp. Pl. 86; Burm, Fl. Ind. t. 10, £.2; Spreng. Syst. i,

322 (excl. syn. multinode) ; Kunth Enum. Pl. 1, 126 (excl. syn. Roxb.) ; Hook.

f. F. B. I. vii, 57.—P. accrescens, Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 88, e¢ corrig. vol. iii ;

Kunth l.c. 116.—P. obliquum, Roth. Nov. Sp. 51; Kunth l.c. 103; Miq. FI.

Ind. Bat. ili, 452.—P. vadicans, Retz. Obs. iv, 18; Nees Agrost. Bras. 206 ;

Kunth l.c. 216.

Description ; Culms 30-90 cm. high, creeping and rooting and branched

below, leafy, nodes glabrous. Leaves 5-15 cm. by 6-8 mm., ovate to linear-

lanceolate, finely acuminate, thin, glabrous or ciliate below with tubercle-based

hairs. Sheath with the margins and mouth ciliate. Ligule rounded. Panicle

5-13 cm. long, contracted or effuse, usually inclined with spreading glabrous or

puberulous branches naked below, and very long distant spreading branchlets,

rhachis, branches and pedicels capillary. Spikelets 1°5 mm. long. Lower invo-

lucral glume 3-3 the length of the lower floral glume, ovate, obtuse, 3-nerved.

Upper involucral and lower floral glume glabrous or with ciliate tips.—A very

variable plant.

Locality : Konkan ; Vasco da Gama (Bhide!) ; Vetora (Sabnis 33440 !).—

S. WM. Country: Tadas, in shade of trees, elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 in.

(Sedgwick 2102 !); Castle Rock (Gammie 15579!), very large specimen

(McCann Al44 !).—Kanara:; Nagargalli, forests, very abundant (Sedgwick

2892 !) ; Gersoppa Falls (Hallberg & McCann A126!, Chibber !) ; Malamani,

elevation 1,600 ft. (Talbot 2676!) ; Kulgi (Talbot 2280!) ; Guddhalli, Karwar

(Hallberg & McCann A127 !).

Distribution : Tropical Asia, Malaya, Pacific Islands.

55. SACCIOLEPIS, Nash in Britt. Man. Bot. 89 ; Stapf in

Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 747.

Annual or oftener perennial grasses. Leaf-blades linear and flat or filiform-

convolute, or filiform-subulate. False spikes often very dense, dark or varie-

gated. Spikelets mostly very small, oblong to ovate-oblong or elliptic or

lanceolate, subterete or laterally compressed, usually somewhat turgid, falling

entire from the short firely filiform pedicels of a spiciform, very rarely open

panicle. Involucral glumes similar in structure but unequal. Lower much

shorter, softly or rigidly membranous, with a narrow hyaline margin or hyaline

tip, stiffened by the hardening of the prominent and often rib-like nerves, or

more or less dissimilar owing to the reduction of the lower glume toa small

hyaline scale, or its differentiation into a narrow, hardened obscurely nerved

back and broad hyaline margins. Upper with a curved or basally gibbous or

saccate back, always much concave, mostly 7- or 9-, rarely 5- or up to 13-nerved.

Lower floral glume male or barren, very dissimilar to the upper involucral

glume and of the same or almost the same length, but with a straighter back ;

pale narrow, hyaline, finely 2-keeled, shorter than the glume, sometimes

reduced or quite rudimentary. Upper floral glume hermaphrodite, oblong in

outline seen from the back, very convex, chartaceous, ultimately subcrustace-

ous, with firm narrowly involute margins, obscurely 5-nerved ; pale almost the

length of the glume, tightly embraced by it all along and of the same texture,

2-nerved, hardly keeled. Lodicules two, small, broadly cuneate. Stamens

three. Styles distinct ; stigmas long, loosely plumose, exserted terminally or

subterminally. Grain tightly enclosed by the glume and pale, elliptic in outline,

dorsally compressed, with an almost flat back and convex face; hilum puncti-

form.

Species over 30.—Tropics of the whole world,

I. Lower involucral glume 3-nerved

1. Spikes 1-5 cm. long. Spikelets lan-

ceolate-ovoid, hispid, 2-2°5mm.... 1. S. zmudica.

2. Spikes 5-23 cm. long. Spikelets

ovoid, 1:3-2°1 mm. long «oe 2. SS. myosurotdes.

II. Lower involucral glume 5-nerved .. 3. S. tnterrupta,

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOCIETY, VorrxAeds?

1. Sacciolepis indica, Chase in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. xxi (1908), 8 ; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa 930.—FPanicum indicum, Lion. Mant. ii, 184 ; Retz. Obs.

iit, 9; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 133; Steud. Syn. Gram. 64; ‘Roxb. Ff lwindo wes:

Benth. -Fl.Hongek 413, Fl. Austral, vi, 480; Hook. £. Ff) sBelsivinyeat

(partim, excl. aliguibus syn.).—Hymenachne indica, Btihse ex Miq. Fl. Ind.

Bat. iii, 458.

Description : A slender grass, 15-60 cm. high. Leaves linear-acuminate,

5-13 cm. long, up to 4 mm. wide, glabrous or hirsute, base narrow ; sheath not

auricled. Panicle spiciform, oblong or cylindric, devse-flowered, green or

slightly purplish, 1-5 cm. long by about 4mm. diam., branches very short.

Spikelets longer than their pedicels, 2-2°5 mm. long, crowded, ovoid, acute or

acuminate, straight or curved, shortly or hispidly hairy, or glabrous. Lower

involucral glume ovate, 3-3 of the lower floral glume, lanceolate from a broad

base, acute, 3-nerved; upper usually subcymbiform, curved, obtuse, 7-11-

nerved, 2°5 mm. long. Lower floral glume as long as the upper involucral

glume, broadly ovate, obtuse, 9-nerved, pale minute ; upper narrowly ellipsoid,

very acute, white, smooth, polished, sides overlapping the margins of the

similar pale, base obtuse, mucronulate with remains of the rhachilla.

Note.—Stapf has separated Panicum angustum, Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 334

from Panicum indicum, \inn. as conceived by Hook. f., and named it Saccio-

lepis angusta. In his opinion the various varieties given in the F.B.1. are mostly

referable to S angusta, Stapf.

S. indica is not a well-defined species. It appears to pass insensibly into S.

myosurotdes and S. interrupta. According to Hook. f., the former differs in

its caudiform spike and more minute rounded spikelets, the latter in its stouter

habit.

Haines thinks it is better to confine S. zzdica to those specimens with hairy

spikelets. We have not followed him in this.

Locality : S. M. Country : Khanapur, elevation 2,500 ft., rainfall 70 inches

(Sedgwick 3080 !) ; Castle Rock (Bhide!).—Kanara: Tank near Yellapore

(Talbot!) ; Kulgi (Talbot 2291!) : Siddhapur to Sirsi (Hallberg & McCann

A118!) ; Karwar (Talbot 1297!, Hallberg & McCann A116!).

Distribution « Tropical Asia and Australia.

2. Sacciolepis myosuroides, Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 990.—Panicum

myosurotdes, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 189; Kunth Enum. PI. i, (i Steud) Syn

Gram. 56; Benth. Fl. Austr. vii, 480 (excl. syn. angustum); Duthie Fodd.

Grass. N. Ind. 11; Hook. f., F.B.J. vii., 42; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 148; Prain

Beng. Pl. 1175; Cke ii, 934.—P. curvatum, Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 286 (zon Linn.).

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan: Savantvadi (Woodrow) ; Alibag (Lisboa).—We have

not seen any specimen.

Distribution : India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, China, Australia.

3. Sacciolepis interrupta, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 757; Haines Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 991.—Panicum interruptum, Willd. Sp. Pl. i, 341; Kunth

Enum. i, 87; Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 51; Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 286; Griff. Notul.

iii, -26, and Ic. Pl. Asiat. t. 139, fig? 221,%t. 146, fics 2-2 DalzeneGibee

316 ; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 66; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 40; Stapf in Dyer Fl.

Cap. vii, 413.—P. uliginosum, Roth Nov. Pl. Sp. 50.—P. inundatum, Kunth

Rev. Gram. i, 34, and Enum. i, 88; Steud. l.c. 66.—Aymenachne interrupta,

Biihse in Miq. Pl. Jungh i, 377; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 458; Steud. l.c. 101.—

P. indicum, Hack. in Bolet. Soc. Brot. v, 210 (om Linn.}.

Description : Cke.1.c.

Very variable in size and shape, especially the panicle which varies a good

deal as to colour.

Locality : Sind : (Woodrow teste Cooke).—Konkan : Bassein, tank (Burns!);

Wada, tank (Ryan 453!); Nagotna (Gammie 16074!) ; Borivli-Kanary, in water

(McCann A120!) ; Bhivandi (Chibber!) ; Vihar (Sabnis'!) ; Gokura Creek,

Bassein (Garade 1708!) ; Virar, on bank of a tank (McCann 9583 !); Panvel

(Woodrow) ; Vengurla (Woodrow) ; margins of tanks throughout the Konkan

(Dalzell & Gibson).—Deccan : Tingerwadi, Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg

3825 !).—S. M. Country: Tadas, tanks (Sedgwick & Bell 4916 !); Londa, in

water (Gammie 15854!) ; Hulkop (Sedgwick & Bell3174!); Belgaum (Herb.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY _ 19

Econ. Bot. Poona !).-- Kanara : Sirsi-Siddhapur (Hallberg & McCann A117!) ;

Tinai Ghat (Gammie 15791 !)

Usually inhabiting marshy and swampy places such as rice fields and the

banks of tanks.

It is doubtful as to whether Woodrow’s plant from Sind was correctly named

as this grass is one of moist regions.

Distribution : Tropical and 8. Africa, India, Ceylon, Malaya.

56, VOREARIAS, bs bDeallvaACTOst. ol, t. xiii, fig. i; Ckes i, 918.

(In 1897 F Lamson Scribner (in U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Agrost. Bull. iv, 38)

proposed the name Chztochloa for the grasses generally known as Setaria.

Stapf has given convincing reasons why the old name should be retained. See

Kew Bull (1920), 124-127.

Species about 100.—Warm regions of the World, a few species common as

weeds in the more temperate parts. Cooke has 5 indigenous and 1 cultivated

species. We retain them all.

Key:

A. Leaves more of less plicate

I. Perennial. Culm reaching 2°4 m. aoe la Se DE 7Eara:.

II. Annual. Culmreaching 0°6m. ... we 2a. Oe VhaCHItYICha.

B. Leaves flat, not plicate

AA. Bristles not retrorsally barbellate

I. Upper floral glume smooth ... poe Ole 2LQL26.

II Upper floral glume rugose

1. Panicle spiciform, continuous ;

bristles 6 or more... oes ee

2. Panicle interrupted or subpyramidal ;

bristle 1 on pedicel and usually 3-4

below pedicel er e 5;

BB. Bristles retrorsally barbellate

oy Ss 2lauca,

4. S. intermedia,

5. S. verticillata.

1. Setaria plicata, T. Cooke in Fl. Bomb. ii, 919.—FPanicum plicatum, Lam.

Ill. 1 (1791), 171; Jacq. Eclog. Gram. i. t. 1; Trin. Gram. Panic. 183, Gen.

Pan. 151, 9p. Gram. tc. t. 223; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 94; Griff. Notul. iti, 24,

lic? PlsAsiat. t. 139,/fe.-229; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 6, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.

tieiBenth. Pl. Hongk. 411 5:Hook.{. F. B.1. vii, 55; Triny. Fl, Ceéyl. v, 157.

—P. amplissimum, Steud. Syn. Gram. 54.—P. asperatum, Kunth Rev. Gram.

i, 39, Enum. Pl. 1. c. 39; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 456.—P. excurrens, Trin. Pan.

Gen. 131, 249, Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 49; Benth Fl. Hongk. 412 (excl. syn.).—

P. nepalense, Spreng. Syst. 321; Dalz. & Gibs. 291; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab PI.

160.—P. nervosum, Roxb, Fl. Ind. 1, 311.—P. neurodes, Schult. Mant. II, 228 ;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 5.—P. Wallichianum, Nees FI]. Afr. Austr. 49.

Description : Cke. ii, 919.

Locality : Konkan: Victoria Gardens, Bombay (McCann 5376!); Parel

(Lisboa) ; western side of the Ghats (Dalzell & Gibson).—D-/ccan: Lingmala,

Mahableshwar, in forest (Sedgwick & Bell 4642!); Panchgani, (Blatter &

Hallberg B1234!, B1235! McCann!).—S. WZ. Country : Belgaum Fort, common

all over Belgaum in compounds (Sedgwick 3066!).—Kanara : Kulgi (Talbot

2278!) ; Halyal (Talbot 2408 !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula and Islands, China.

Uses : Sometimes cultivated as an ornamental grass.

2. Setaria rhachitricha, T. Cooke in Fl. Bomb. ii, 919.—Panicum rhachitri-

chum, Hochst. in Flora 27 (1844), 254; Parlat.in Hook. Niger Fl. 187; Steud.

Syn. Gram. 63; Hook.f. F.B.I. vii, 56; Prain Beng. Pl. 1176.—P. chamaerap-

his, Nees ex. A. Braun In. Sem. Hort. Berol. (1853) Append. 20.—(P. homony-

mum, Steud. l.c. 48 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 4 (homogynum).

Locality : S. M. Country ; Londa (Gammie ex Woodrow).

We doubt the occurrence of this species in the Presidency. Neither Cooke

nor we have seen any specimens. There are none in Herb. Kew, neither do the

herbaria of the Presidency contain any. Besides, the distribution of the species

is not in favour of its presence in Bombay.

Nistribution : India (subtropical Himalaya, Chota Nagpur, Calcutta), tropi-

cal Africa.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

3. Setaria glauca, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 51; Kunth. Enum. Pl.i, 149, Suppl.

106; Griff. Notul. 44, Pl. Asiat. t. 149. f. 1; Dalz.& Gibs, 293; Aitchis. Cat.

Punjab, Pl. 162 ; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 466 ; Duthie Grass.N. W. Ind. 8, Indig.

Fodd. Grass. t. x, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 14; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 442; Hook. f. F.

B. I. vii, 78; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 162 ; Prain Beng. Pl. 1170 ; Cke.ii, 920.—Panicum

glaucum, Linn. Sp. Pl. 76; Trin. Sp. Gram.ic: t.195; Roxb. Pio ind.1;) 235;;

Benth, Fl. Hongk. 411.—P. lutescens, Weig Obs. (1772), 20.—Setaria lutescens,

Hubbard in Rhodora xviii (1916), 232.—For other synonyms see Hook. f. 1. c.

Mr. C. E. Hubbard of the Kew Herbarium informs us that he changed Setarta

glauca, Auct. into S. lutescens on account of the synonym Panicum lutescens,

Weigel Obs. (1772), 20. Dr. Stapf thinks that this name change is unnecessary

and we quite agree with him after reading his MS. on this question which he

kindly allowed Mr. Hubbard to put at ourdisposal. As Dr. Stapf is now about

to publish his MS. we refrain from giving his arguments in this place.

Description : Cke. ii, 920.

Locality: Gujarat: Nadiad (Chibber!); Ahmedabad (Saxton 1063!) ;

Baroda (Cooke).—Khandesh : Toranmal (McCann Al149!, A150!); N. slope of

Chanseli (McCann A151!).—Konkan: Bhandup (McCann 3606!); Mulgaum

(McCann A147!); Bassein (McCann 9607!); Sion (McCann 3573!); Thana

(Lisboa) .— Deccan: Shivner Fort, Junnar (Paranjpe!); Mahableshwar, common

(Woodrow !, Dalzell & Gibson, Cooke); Panchgani, behind Maratha well

(Blatter 3824!); Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!); Shewapur, near Poona

(Bhide 981!); Khandala, very common (McCann 8406!); Purandhar, foot

(McCann 5603 !); Lohagad, top (McCann 9501 !); Nasik (Lisboa).—S. M/. Coun-

try : Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick 2173 !); Dumbai, under trees (Talbot 2300 !).—

Kanara : Dandeli (Bell 4224); Halyal (Talbot 2144 !); Onore (Talbot 1063 !).

Distribution : All warm, temperate and tropical regions.

4. Setaraia intermedia, Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii (1817), 489; Kunth Enum. Pl.

i, 150; Aitchis. Cat. Paniab. Pl. 162; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 9, Fodd. Grass.

N.wtnd. 143 Hook.f. F: B. 1 vii, 79>) Trim. FL. ‘Ceyl ovil639 = Che sitso705

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 989.—S. glauca, Hochst. Pl. Hohenack. no. 937.—

Panicum intermedium, Roth. Nov. Sp. 47.

Description: Cke. ii, 920.

Locality ; Gujarat: Doongri (Chibber!); Ahmedabad (Gammie 1635]) ;

Nadiad (Chibber !).—Khandesh ; Toranmal (McCann A152 !) ; Umalla village

(Blatter & Hallberg 5184!).—Konkan : Dadar, very common in Bombay Isl.

(McCann A153 !); common in Salsette (McCann !).—Deccan : Purandhar Fort

(Bhide !, McCann 5595 !, 5022 !); Chattarshinji, Poona (Bhide !) ; in cultivated

fields about Poona (Jacquemont 355); Igatpuri, common (McCann 4320 !);

Khandala, common (Blatter 4410!, McCann !); Lonavla (McCann 4466 !);

Panchgani (Blatter & Hailberg B1227!, B1272!).—S. M47. Country : Dharwar

(Sedgwick 1839 !); Belgaum (Ritchie 839).—Kanara : Yellapore (Talbot 1520!);

Halyal (Talbot 2296 !).

Distribution : Temperate and tropical regions.

5. Setaria verticillata, Beauv. Agrost. (1812),51; Kunth Enum. Pl. I, 152;

Dalz. & Gibs. 294 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 162; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 9,

Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 15; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. t. 47 ; Hook.f. F. B. I. vii,

80 ; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 163; Prain. Beng. Pl. 1170; Cke. ii, 921; Haines Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 989.—S. respiciens, Hochst. ex. Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii,

467.—Panicum adhaerens, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 20.—P. verticillatum,

Linn. Sp: Pled.41,:82°; Roxb: Fl. dud > 1; 30): ;) frin op. Gram. IC te,,.2020—

Pennisetum verticillatum, Br. Prodr. 195.—Other synonyms in Hook. f. 1. c¢.

Description: Cke. ii, 921.

Locality : Sind: Umerkot (Sabnis B748!) ; Sanghar (Sabnis B758!) ; Mir-

purkhas, cultivated fields (Sabnis B701!); Bughar, Indus River (Blatter &

McCann D640!) ; Ghulamalla, garden (Blatter & McCann D641!) ; Mirpur

Sakro (Blatter & McCann D642 !).—Gujarat : Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !) ;

Cutch (Blatter 3744 !); Baroda (Woodrow) ; Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow) .—

Konkan - Sion (Herb. S.X.C. 5236!) ; Juvem (Herb. S X.C. 4237!) ; Malabar

Hill (McCann 3626!) ; Byculla (McCann !).—S. M/. Country : In a village,

Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick 3109 !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, temperate and tropical regions.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 2)

*6. Setaria italica, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 51; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. t 47;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 162; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 8, Field and Gard.

Crops 5, t. 25, Fodd. Grass... N. Ind. 15; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. ili 467 ; Hook. f.

Bebelevil, 7/8: brain Beno. Pl. 1170; Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 988.—

Panicum ttalicum, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 56; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 302; Dalz. &

Gibs. Suppl. 98.—Pennisetum macrochaetum, Jacq. Eclog. Gram. iii, 36, t. 25.-

Rheede Hort. Malab. xii, t. 79— For other references see Hook. f. l.c.

Vern. Names : Italian millet, foxtail millet, rala.

Description : Annual. Culms erect, tufted, 0’}6—1'5 m. high Leaves linear

or lanceolate-linear, acuminate, 7-10 mm. broad or broader. Sheath densely

ciliate on margin and mouth. Panicle 7-13cm. long, 10mm. wide or more,

dense, inclined or nodding, simple, cylindric or lobed or compound ; rhachis

very hairy. Spikelets oval, 2-2°5 mm. long, in small clusters on the abbreviat-

ed branchlets of the panicle, with 2-3 bristles below each pedicel, bristles

nearly smooth or microscopically barbellate, 5-8 mm. long, barbs suberect or

spreading. Lower involucral glume oblong or subglobose, hyaline, smooth ;

upper ovate, obtuse or rounded, about 7 the length of the upper floral glume,

5-nerved. Lower floral glume hyaline, delicately 4-5-nerved, as long as and

same shape as the upper floral glume, but not concave. Upper floral glume

oval or elliptic or subglobose, concave, hardening, variable in length, not

rugose but smooth and microscopically cancellate.

Locality: Konkan: Bombay, cultivated in compound of the Training College

(McCann 4286!) ; Bassein, Botanic Garden (Joshi!) ; Chowpatti, Bombay

(Herb. S.X.C. 4299 !).—Deccan : Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens(Patwardhan !),

—S. M. Country: Dharwar, cultivated (Talbot 2014 !).

Extensively cultivated throughout as a food-grain.

Distribution: Most warm, temperate and tropical countries.

Origin: See DeCandolle, Origin of cultivated plants, p. 378.

57. SPINIFEX, Linn. Mant. ii, (1771), 163 ; Cke. ii, 913.

Species 4,—1 in India, 3 in Australia.

1. Spinifex squarrosus, Linn. Mant. (1771), 300; Lam. Ill. t. 840; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 11; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 415; Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 474 ;

Hook, ft: F.B.1, vil,63 ; Grab, Cat..240; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v.53; Prain Beng. Pl.

1168 ; Cke. ii, 913; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1010.—Stipa littorea, Burm.

f. Fl. Ind. 29.—Stipa spinifex, Linn. Mant. i, 84 ; Rheede Hort. Mal. xii, t. 75

Description: Cke. 1.c.

Locality: Gujarat: Near Domas (Cooke).—Konkan; Vengurla (Chibber !) ;

Juvem (McCann 4263!) ; Versova (McCann 9827!) ; Bandra (Blatter !) ; sandy

shores near Bandra (Graham) ; Shrivardhan (Woodrow) —Xaunara - Sandy sea

shore, Karwar (Sedgwick & Bell 5057!, 5056!) ; Kumpta (Chibber!,

Woodrow) ; Honavar, very common (McCann!, Chibber!); Onore (Talbot

1073; 1).

Distribution: India, Ceylon, Java, China.

Uses; A valuable sand-binding plant.

58. TRICHOLANA, Schrad. in Schult. Mant. ii (1824), 1€3 ; Cke. ii, 924.

Species 10-12.—Chiefly African. The following 2 in the Bombay Presidency.

1. Tricholena Teneriffe, Parlat.in Welb. & Berth. Phyt. Canar. iii, pt. 2

(1848), 425; Hook. f. F.B.l. vii, 65; Cke. ii, 924.--Saccharum Teneritte,

Linn. f. Supp!. 106.--For further synonyms see Hook. f. l.c.

Description: Cke. |.c.

Locality: Sind: Laki (Bhide!) ; Thano-Bullo-Khan (Woodrow).

Distribution: Punjab, W. Peninsula ; westward to Sicily and N. Africa.

2. Tricholena Wightii, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. (1855), 93 ; Lisboa in Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v, (1890), 347 ; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 65; Cke. ii, 925.—

Rhynchelytrum Wightit, Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 21.— For further synonyms

see Hook. f. l.c.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan : Commonly cultivated in gardens in Bombay (McCann !);

Sewri, probably an escape (Hallberg 3592!).—Deccan : Diva Ghat (McCann

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

5599!) ; Malhargad (Woodrow) ; Poona (Woodrow) ; Mahableshwar (Lisboa) ;

Panchgani (Lisboa).—S. W/. Country: Badami (Bhide!, Woodow 23).

Distribution: India (Rajputana, W. Peninsula), Arabia, CapeVerd Islands.

53. PENNISETUM, Pers. Syn. i, (1805), 72 ; Cke. ii, 914.

Species about 40.—In most warm countries.

Cooke has 6 indigenous and 1 cultivated species. Weadd another cultivated

species : P. purpureum, Schum. & Thoun. The name P. cenchroides, Rich. has

to cede to P. ciliare, Link., and P. typhoideum. Rich. to P. shicatum, Roem. &

Schult.

A. Anther-cells not bearded at the tips

I. Bristles of involucel free to the base

1. Inner bristles of involucel scaberulous,

not ciliate

(a) Leaves 30-45 cm. long om: P. Alopecuros.

(6) Leaves 7-15 cm. long .. 2. P. dichotomum.

2. Inner bristles of involucel ciliate below

the middle, but naked at the base.

Involucel stripitate 1d. We OFIENtAle.

3. Loner bristles) of involucel densely

villous or ciliate below the middle, not

naked at the base. Involucel sessile

(a) Inner bristles of involucel den-

sely villous Bp .. 4. P. pedicellatum.

(6) Inner bristles of involucel laxly

ciliate with long silky hairs,

not villous ioe el MEeSCLOSUIIE

II. Inner bristles of involucel dilated below,

their bases confluent in a coriaceous

disk : tee Oth CL Cane

B. Anther-cells more or less bearded at the tips

Styles connate

I. Culms less than 2 m. high. Pale of upper

—

floral glume truncate oot LAL eS PLCALUN ET:

II. Culms more than 2 in. high. Pale of upper

floral glume minutely 2-toothed ... 8: PP. purpureum.

1. Pennisetum Alopecuros, Nees ex Steud Syn. Gram. (1855) 102; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 10; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v. (1890), 338 ;

Hook. f. F.B.I vii, 84; Cke. ii, 914.—P. Hohenackeri, Hochst. ex Steud. lc.

103.—P. aureum, Dalz. & Gibs. 294. —Gymnothrix Alopecuros, Nees in Wight

Cat. no. 1663; Steud. 1.c.—G. cenchroides, Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii 499.

Description : Cke. le.

Locality: Sind: (Dalzell).—Gujarat. N. Sonasan, on dry sandy bank

(Sedgwick !).—Xhandesh: Toranmal, very common around lake (McCann

9862 !).—Deccan : Poona (Woodrow !, Lisboa, Jacquemont 407); near Poona

(Gammie 15314!); Nasik (Bourke!, Blatter & Hallberg 9863!, Lisboa) ;

Purandhar, N foot (McCann 5045!) ; Lohagad, plain (McCann 9502!) ;

Panchgani (Blatter 3802!, Blatrer & Hallberg 1292!, McCann!) ; Lonavla

<Lisboa).—S. M7. Country: Dharwar (Sedgwick 3718 !) ; Londa (Gammie

15827!) ; Belgaum (Woodrow).—Kanara :. Halyal (Talbot 2090 re

Commonly found in clumps on sandy soil near streams and lakes. It is

extremely tough and occupies sonietimes large patches of land excluding almost

everything else. Dichanthiwm Caricosuwm is commonly found growing together

with this grass.

Distribution : Rajputana, C. India, W. Peninsula.

Uses : ‘In Poona brooms are said to be made of it, and at Mt. Abu it is

employed in the manufacture of cordage.’ (Lisboa).

2. Pennisetum dichotomum, Del. Fl. d’Egypt. (1813), 159, t. viii, fig. 1., Trin.

Diss. ii, 66, Pan. Gen. 94; Kunth Enum. Pl.i, 161, Suppl. 110; Steud. Syn

Gram. 105; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 444; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 162 ; Duthie Grass.

N. W. Ind. 10 ; Hook.f, F.B.I. vii, 85; Aschers.--Schweinf. Ill. Fl. d’Eg. 161,

No. 1131; Cke. ii, 915.--P. phalaroides, Schult. Mant. ii, 147.—Gymnothrix

longiglumis, Munro in Cat. Griff. etc. Pl. 56 (xomen).—-Cenchrus ramostissimus ,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 23

Poir. Encycl. vi, 51; Dalz. & Gibs. 294.—Phalaris retacea, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.

—-Arab. 20.— Panicum dichotomum, Forsk. |.c.

Description : Cke. 1.e.

Locality: Sind: On sand hills (Stocks, Woodrow) ; Bholari (Bhide!) ;

Nasarpur, sandy plains (Sabnis B1050!) ; Sehwan, sand dunes (Sabnis B673 !),--

Gujarat ; In hedges (Dalzell & Gibson),

Distribution : Punjab, N. W. Provinces, W. Peninsula, Afghanistan, Persia,

Arabia, Syria, Sinai, Egypt.

Uses ; Collected for fodder, one of the most valuable of desert plants.

3. Pennisetum orientale, Rich. in Pers. Syn. i (1805), 72; Boiss. Fl. Or v, 445;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 10; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 86 ; Cke. ii, 915 ; Muschler

Fl. Egypt (1912), 66; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 986.—/P. arenosum, Edgew.

in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xxi (1852), 180 ; Aitchis Cat. Panjab Pl. 162 ; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 10.—P. persicum, Roiss. & Btthsein Nov. Mem. Soc. Nat.

Mosc. xii (1860), 232.-P. stnaicum. Decne. in Aun. Sc. Nat. ser. 2. ii (1834), 11;

Aitchis. l.c. ; Duthie l.c.—F. fiberiadis, Boiss. Diagn. ser. i, xiii. 43.—Cenchrus

orientalis, Willd. ex Trin. Diss, ii, 69.—Panicum orientale, Willd. Enum, Hort.

Berol. ii. 1031.

Description : Cke. ii, 915.

Locality; Sind: Hyderabad (Woodrew!); Mirpurkhas (Mankhad !).—

Konkan ; Victoria Gardens, Bombay (McCann 4385 !).

Distribution ; W. Himalaya, Punjab, W. Peninsula, Persia, Syria, Cilicia,

Sinai, Egypt, Algeria.

4. Pennisetum pedicellatum, T'rin. in Mém. Acad. Pétersb. sér. 6, iii, pt. 2 (1835),

184: Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 86; Cke. ii, 916; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 986.—

P. lanuginosum, Hochst. in Flora xxv (1842), Beibl. i, 133; A. Rich. Tent. Fl.

Abyss. ii, 385 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1890), 339.—For

further synonyms see Hook. f.

Description ; Cke. ii, 916.

Locality: Gujarat: (Lisboa) ; Rajkot (Woodrow).— Khandesh: Toranmal

in watercourse (McCann 9868 !).— Deccan - College Farm, Poona (Garade!).

Distribution : Bihar, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, tropical Africa.

5. Pennisetum setosum, Rich. in Pers. Syn. i (1305), 72; Hook. f F.B.I. vii, 87,

Cke. ii, 916; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 486.—P. barbatum, Schult. Mant

ii, 147.—P. holcoides, Schult 1.c. 148 ; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 10, Indig. Fodd.

Grass. t. 49, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 17.—P. purpurascens, H. B. & K. Nov.

Gen. & Sp. i, 113.—Fanicum barbatum, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 282.—Panicum

holcoides, Roxb. 1|.c. 285.

Description ; Cke. ii, 916.—Our specimens from Khandesh have the bristles

quite free from hairs.

Locality : Sind: WUyderabad (Woodrow).—Gujarat: Ahmedabad, No. 6

grass plot Bhadar (Sedgwick !).—Khandesh : To Toranmal (McCann 9869!) ;

Chanseli Hill, S. slope (McCann 9867 !).

Distribution : India (W. Bengal, Bihar, Upper Gangetic Plain, W. Peninsula),

tropical Africa and America.

6. Pennisetum ciliare, Link. Hort. Berol i (1827), 213; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 445;

Aschers.-Schweinf. Ill. Fl. d’Eg'161, no. 1132; Sickenberg Contrib. Fl. d’Eg:

301; Muschler Fl Ee. i, 65.-Cenchrus ciliaris, Linn Mantiss. ii, 302; Desf.

Fl. Atlant. ii, 387.—Penntsetum cenchroides, Rich in Pers. Syn.i (1805), 72;

Beauv. Agrost. 59, t 13, f.5; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 162; Lisboain Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1890), 338 ; Duthie Grass. N.W.Ind. 10, Indig. Fodd.

Grass. t. 12, 13, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 17.

Vern. Names: Jiral, Anjan, Dhaman (Sind), Vaghnoru (Gujarat).

Description : Cke. ii, 916.

Locality: Sind: (Burns!); Mirpurkhas (Mankad!, Sabnis B1043!); Jaco-

babad (Deputy Commissioner!,;; Sanghar (Sabnis B892!); Clifton near

Karachi (Sabnis B805!); Jamadar ka Landa, near Karachi (Stocks); Sehwan

to Laki (Sabnis B620!); Nasarpur (Sabnis B1056!); Umerkot, sand dunes

(Sabnis B1079!); Tatta, Kullan Kote Lake (Blatter & McCann D630!,

D631 !, D633!), Tatta (Platter & McCann D632!, D634!, D635!)!; Indus Delta

(Blatter & McCann D636!).—Gujarat: Nadiad (Chibber !); Dohad, (Chibber !);

Daman (Bhide !); Surat (Gammie !); Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !.); near Madalpur,

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITI

Ahmedabad (Saxton 1065.!); Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 3767!); Rajkot, Kathi-

awar (Woodrow).—Khandesh: Tapti bank, Muravad (Blatter & Hallberg

51651 !); Umalla, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5208 !).— Deccan : (Lisboa!).

—S.M. Country: Gokak (Shevade!).

Distribution: India (Kashmir, Upper Gangetic Plain, W. Peninsula,

Deccan), throughout Africa, Sicily, Canaries.

7. Pennisetum spicatum, Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. ii (1817), 499.—Panicum

spicatum. Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 283.—Penicillaria spicata, Willd. Enum. Hort.

Berol. 1037 ; Aitchis. Cat. Punjab Pl. 163.—Holcus spicatus, Linn. Syst. ed, x,

1305; Grah. Cat. Boinb. Pl. 238; Dalz. & Gibs. Suppl. 99.—Pennisetum

typhoideum, Rich. in Pers. Syn. i(1805), 72; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 447; Duthie

Grass. N.W. Ind. 11, Field and Gard. Crops 30, t. 71, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.

18; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat.’ Hist. Soc. v (1890), 339; Hook. f. F B.I.

vil, 82; Prain Beng. Pl. 1169; Cke, ii, 917; Haines Bot. Bihar (@ Onissa

985.—Panicum americanum, Linn. Sp. Pl. i, 56.—Pennisetum americanum,

K. Schum.in Engl. Pflanzenw. Ost.—Afr. B. (1895), 51; Hitche. in Bailey

Cyclop. Hottic. 2537.—Holcus racemosus, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. (1775),

175.— Alopecurus tndica, Burm, FI. Ind. 27.

In order to explain the above synonymy and the final adoption of the speci-

ficname P. spicatum we reproduce a MS. note kindly sent to us by

Mr. Hubbard : .

‘* Pennisetum typhoideum L. Rich. in Pers. Syn. i. 72 (1805) has been changed

to Pennisetum americanum by K. Schum. in Engl. Pflanzenw. Ost.-Afr. B. 51

(1895), based on Panicum americanum L.. Sp. Pl. ed. i. 56, (1753) Panicum

americanum L. in turn, is based on Panicum americanum Clusius Hist., ccexv

(1601). Hitchcock in Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. xxii. 218 (1921) suggests that the

figure (in Clusius) is that of the ‘common millet’ (Setfarza ztalica) and that the

description is based on more than one species. I do not think the figure is that

of the ‘ common millet’, it is however very similar to a form of ‘ pearl millet ’

cultivated in Spain; in addition Clusius says that his Panicum americanum

grows as tall as a man and has stouter, thicker stems than the common millet

which he calls Panicum vulgare ana figures on the sanie page. In the second

edition of the Species Plantarum, 1484 (1763), Linnzeus quotes Panicum ameri-

canum in synonomy under Holcus spicatus L. (first published in Syst. Nat. ed.

x. ii. 1305 (1759); this is the basis of Pennisetum spicatum Roem. et Schult.

Syst. Veg. ii. 499 (1817). 1t appears advisable to use this name in preference to

Pennisetum americanum K. Schum., owing to the uncertainty as to what

Panicum americanum Clusius really is and also the name ‘ americanum’ is

misleading.”’

Vern. Names: Bajri, bulrush millet, cat-tail millet, pearl millet.

Description : Annual. Culms tall, erect, stout, terete, 0°9—1°8 m. high, rooting

at the lower nodes, sometimes woolly, pubescent below the inflorescence.

Leaves 30-90 cm. by 6-50 mm., linear to linear-lanceolate from a rounded base,

acute, flat, more or less rough, glabrous, rarely hirsute; sheath terete, rather

inflated, glabrous except the bearded nodes and the often villous junction with

the blade, rarely hirsute, usually slightly rough, rather shorter than the inter-

nodes, ligule a narrow, long and densely ciliate rim. Panicle spike-like, cylin-

dric, very dense, 10-20 cm. long, often purplish; rhachis stout, villous ;

branchlets reduced to a peduncled involucrate cluster of 1-8 spikelets ; pedun-

cles villous, straight, 2°5—5 cm. long, often horizontally spreading or partly

deflexed ; involucre of very numerous ciliate often purplish bristles about as

long as the spikelets. Spikelets sessile or shortly pedicelled within the in-

volucre, readily deciduous when ripe, oblong, 5-6 mm. long, pale or purplish

upwards. Lower involucral gluree minute or 0, half-orbicular or subquadrate,

1-3-nerved ; upper variable in length, sometimes absent, usually ¢-4 the

length of the upper floral glume, subquadrate, truncate, obtuse or retuse,

3-nerved, very rarely as long as the upper floral glume and coriaceous. Lower

floral glume ovate-oblong, obtuse or truncate and apiculate, 5-nerved, epaleate

or paleate, male or neuter, rarely bisexual ; upper coriaceous or herbaceous,

ovate, acute, 5-7-nerved, pale very broad, truncate, ciliate at the tip and

dorsally, nerves 2, approximate, excurrent. Lodicules 0. Anthers linear, 2°5

-3 mm. long, tips bearded. Styles connate. Grain oblong, obovoid, or pyri-

form, smooth, free, top exposed.

Locality ; Cultivated througnout the Presidency.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY © 25

Origin: Unknown. See Leeke. Untersuchungen tiber Abstammung und

Heimat der Negerhirse.

8. Pennisetum purpureum, Schum. & Thonn. Beskr. Guin. PJ. 44; Stapf in

Kew Bull. (1912), 309.—P. macrostachywm, Hook. Niger Flora 563.—P.

Benthami, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 105.—P. nzfens, Hack. in Bol. Soc. Brot. vi

(1888), 142.—Gymnothrix nitens, Anderss. in Peters Reise nach Mossamb. vi

(1864), 552.—Pennisetum flexispica, K.Schum. in Engl. Pflanzenw, Ost.-Afr.

C (1895), 105.

Popular Name: Elephant Grass,

Description : Perennial. Rhizome creeping. Culms erect, in tufts of up to

20, 2-3 m. or occasionally up to 7 m. high by 1°2-2°5 cm. diam. at the base ;

branches obliquely erect, terete, glabrous, smooth, excepting the upper part of

the uppermost internode which is more or less hairy to tomentose, exserted

parts sometimes covered witha glaucous bloom ; nodes mostly exserted from

the sheaths, all glabrous or most of them or only the uppermost with a ring of

stiff, long, appressed hairs. Leaf-blade linear, inserted on the sheath with a

very marked hinge-fold, tapering upwards toa fine point, 30-60, rarely to 90

em. long by 2°5 cm. diam., with astrong midrib, rounded or the back with a

shallow channel above towards the base, and in the larger leaves with 6 or 7

slightly prominent primary nerves on each side, dull green, sometimes slightly

glaucous or tinged with purple, more or less rough on both sides, glaucous

beneath, usually more or less hairy above, especially towards the base which

sometimes becomes fringed, hairs fine, mostly rather stiff and long and often

springing frcm small tubercles ; margins spinulosely scabrid. Sheaths terete,

clasping the stem, striate, glabrous and smooth or pubescent to hirsute with

tubercle-based hairs near the top. Ligule a narrowrim bearing a dense fringe

of white hairs 2 or 3mm. long. Inflorescence a dense, cylindric, erect spike,

8-20 and even 30 cm. long and 1:5-3cm. diam., yellow or tinged with brown,

purple or quite blackish-pur ple, made up of deciduous spikelets or fascicles of

spikelets, each spikelet or fascicle surrounded by an involucre of numerous

bristles of unequal length, most of them 5-8 mm. long, one usually very much

longer (1°2-2 or exceptionally to4cm. long), scabrid, one or several of the

innermost and longest sparingly plumose towards the base, rarely all naked,

often dark yellow, brownish or purplish towards the tips or blackish-purple

from the base. Spikelets sessile or if in fascicles of 2-4, the lateral pedicelled,

all lanceolate, more or less acuminate, 5-7 mm. long, glabrous, straw: coloured

or tinged with brown or purple towards the tips of the florets, rarely blackish-

purple all over, hermaphrodite or, if fascicled, the lateral male, rarely neuter

or all hermaphrodite. Lower involucral glume suppressed or quite rudimen-

tary, upper ovate to ovate-lanceolate, acute, 0°5-1, rarely to 2 mm. long,

subhyaline, l-nerved or nerveless. Lower floral glume male or more often

barren, lanceolate, acute or acuminate, half as long to almost aslong as the

upper glume, 3-nerved, rarely 1- or 5-, or even 7-nerved, pale linear-

lanceolate, 2-nerved, shorter than the glume or in the barren florets reduced or

suppressed ; upper hermaphrodite or in the lateral spikelets male, lanceolate,

acuminate or rostrate-acuminate, scaberulous upwards, usually 5-nerved, pale

narrow, linear-lanceolate, slightly shorter than the glume, tips minutely

2-toothed. Lodicules 0. Anthers 2°5-3 mm. long, tips very minutely peni-

cillate. Styles united throughout ; stigmas very slender, up to 4 mm. long,

exserted from the top of the floret. Mature grain unknown.

A most variable plant as can be seen from Stapf’s description given above.

He refrains from Subdividing the species.

Popular Names: Elephant Grass, Napier’s Fodder.

Locality : Imported into Bombay in 1915. Has been grown at several centres

in W. India: Agricultural College Farm, Poona, the Governor’s Dairy Farm,

Ganeshkhind, the Sewage Effluent Farm at Hadapsar in the Deccan, the

Chharodi Cattle Farm in N. Gujarat, and the Willingdon Cattle Farm near

Karachi.

Distribution : Indigenous in tropical Africa between 10° N. Lat. and 20°

5S. Lat.

Uses : One of the best fodder-grasses. See Stapf Kew Bull. (1912), 313-316 ;

H. H. Mann in Bull. 100 and 127 of the Dept. Agriculture, Bombay ;

Rhodesian Agric. Journ. vii (1910), 1398.

(To be continued)

OLD DECCAN DAYS

BRIGADIER-GRFNERAL R. G. BURTON

There has been more change in life in India in the last thirty or

forty years than in the hundred years before. At any rate when I

joined my regiment at a remote station in the Deccan forty years

ago, the little cantonment was exactly as it had been since the

Force to which I belonged was first reorganized under British

officers in 1813. I say British officers, for such were the comman-

dants, but there were at first French, Spanish, and what are now

called Anglo-Indians as well, including many who held their com-

missions only from the Ruler of the State. But this had been

changed thirty years or so before I joined, and we all belonged to

the Indian Staff Corps. A battalion had only four or five British

officers, a system under which the efficiency of the native officers

was enhanced, for they had more independence and developed more

self-reliance than in later years when the British establishment was

more than doubled.

When I arrived in the early afternoon, a game of poker was being

played in the mess. There was no bridge in those days, and pro-

bably more money changed hands. One player had recently won

at a friend’s house not only all his available cash but iis moveable

property, and had driven away with it in the loser’s pony-trap,

which was also part of the spoils. ‘The mess was a long, low

thatched building, cooled by athermantidote and cus-cus tatties over

the doors. On the walls hung the heads of bison and many fine

sambar from the adjacent forests, and there was the mark of a bullet

which had killed an officer who had passed safely through all the

perils of the campaign in Central India in 1858, only to fall by the

hand of an assassin in the following year. There hung also the

skin of a fine tiger which had killed one of our officers a few years

before. He was a good sportsman, and had met his fate in the

usual manner in following a beast which he had wounded. The

beast charged and seized him, while his sepoy orderly pluckily

attacked and finished off the tiger with a spear, too late, however,

to save his officer, who was mortally wounded, but was able to

write a farewell letter before he died.

I occupied a small bungalow in which Meadows Taylor had

written his famous book, The Confessions of a Thug, now perhaps

forgotten, but which may be commended to the attention of those

who would understand at least one frightful evil from which British

rule has delivered the country. Even yet there were Thugs in con-

finement, and indeed some robbers of the kind at large. For one of

our native officers, proceeding across country to his home with the

savings of many years’ faithful service, was brutally murdered and

OLD DECCAN DAYS 27

robbed. ‘There was also a gang of dacoits under the famous Tantia

Bhil infesting the forests on the banks of the Tapti, in pursuit of

whom our police officer was constantly out with his men.

Coming from the arid deserts of the Punjab, I rejoiced in the

cool fresh breezes which blew from the hills and across the plains at

the end of July. The cantonment was more than thirty miles from

the railway, quite a short distance in those days, compared with

others at which I served later from eighty to a hundred miles from

the line of rail. I well remember my delight, when driving along the

road in a tonga drawn by apair of ponies, at seeing herds of antelope

in the wheat and jowari fields, and sometimes a few, led by a buck

with head thrown back and horns lying along his flanks, bounding

across the road in front of us.

At last I saw the India of my dreams, and in imagination I

peopled the distant forest-clad hills with tigers and other wild

beasts ; had I not said, from the time when I could first walk, that

I would go to India to shoot tigers? And now at last there was

some prospect of those early dreams being realized. For the

forests abounded with wild life.

Alas ! seen through the vista of forty long years, how far off and

yet how near those days seem now! ina corner of my library stands

the old rifle, and on the bookshelf lie the maps which were my

constant companions for so many years. I used to ride out sixteen

miles to the edge of the forest, where my men would meet me with

gun and rifle. Then we would traverse another sixteen miles, this

time of forest-road, and always find by the roadside a kakar, or

four-horned antelope, or peafowl and junglefowl whose sonorous

voices even now come ringing down the vale of years. Sometimes

I saw on this road the pugs of a fine tiger, which was said to lie in

wait and take bullocks out of passing carts. But I never saw him.

There were many tigers but they were not as numerous as I found

them a few years later in another part of the Deccan. Bears there

were in plenty, and I shot more than one on the breezy plateau

where there were scanty trees, long grass, and black boulders amid

which these animals were not as conspicuous as they are in some

surroundings. Here herds of bison or- solitary bulls wandered

almost unmolested, while the sambar bore the finest antlers to be

found anywhere.

In the course of several visits to this forest, where I used to roam

for a fortnight at a time. I saw only two tigers. One I failed to bag

more from bad management than bad luck. It killed one of my

buffaloes not far from my tent in broad daylight, and when it gave

me a chance of a chest shot, I waited a moment too long in hopes

of a shot at the flank, and so lost the opportunity for ever. The

other was a tigress wounded in the evening by the Forest Officer.

We took a pad-elephant and followed her up next morning. ‘There

were pientiful blood tracks, and under a tree a patch of blood and a

piece of bone which had worked out of her shoulder, showing where

she had lain down during the night. She had been hit on the point

of the shoulder by a °577 express bullet, which had not penetrated

as it should have done, and the wounded beast had gone on into

long grass and dense cover. The elephant was sent round with a

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

man and a supply of stones on her back, and when he had thrown a

few of these the tigress charged out with a succession of coughing

roars, sprang on to the elephant’s head, and, having a broken arm,

was shaken off, while the elephant, trumpeting loudly, crashed off

through the forest. But the gallant tigress pursued and sprang on

to the retreating elephant’s hindquarters, only to be kicked off,

when a shot in the flank sent her back to cover. Here we soon

found her in an exhausted condition, and she was easily finished off.

Bears were at times aggressive and dangerous. One charged out

at me at four o’clock one morning when I was riding along a forest

path through the shadows and the moonlight, but he was off again

with a gruff roar without charging home, and before I had time to

take a shot. Another with a cub charged and was killed at close

quarters ; and three more, a family party, also made an unprovoked

attack, the third making off when his companions were killed with

a right and left. Probably the dense cover caused these aggressive

acts, for the bears were surprised and alarmed suddenly at close

guarters. One bear was said to be especially fierce, and had killed

or wounded several harmless wood-cutters. I think this one was

killed after being mortally wounded in an encounter with a tiger,

for the villagers showed me the skin which bore many marks of

tooth and claw ; they had heard the. sounds of the battle, and had

finished off the bear by casting stones, just as biblical martyrs were

slain. Another bear met with a very ignominious end. An old

woman, looking over the steep side of a hill, perceived bruin sleep-

ing beneath. She rolled a large rock over the precipice with such

sure aim that life was crushed out of the unfortunate bear.

There have been several instances recorded of bears being kilied

by tigers, and ona hilltop I once found the remains of two which

had thus met their end. The tiger must have been hard up for food,

but he is not particular in his diet when put to it. Porcupine quills

are often found imbedded in their paws, and I once found a number

stuck in the back of atiger. But then, a porcupine is no doubt a

succulent morsel, fit even for human food. But how seldom seen

by daylight! I once saw one at the entrance to his den at early

dawn when I| was stalking bison, otherwise these nocturnals have

always evaded my notice. One killed a goat which I had tied up

for a panther. A quill had pierced the heart, and the porcupine

must have backed onto its victim, although my shikari said the fatal

dart had been fired like an arrow from a bow! Then tigers will eat

snakes, fish, and crabs when they can get nothing better.

Panthers were common in the forest. I shot one which sat up

unafraid by the roadside when I was marching with my baggage

carts just ahead of me, and quite a concourse of attendants were

talking. The panther sat on his haunches eighty yards off and was-

killed by alucky shot through the head. He was a poor starved look-

ing specimen, although he had lately devoured a lungoor whose

remains were in the stomach. His mate a few days later entered

my camp and drank at atrough not far from my bed, and the follow-

ing night fed sumptuously on a goat while I slept peacefully in a

tree above, too exhausted with the day’s exertions to keep a proper

vigil. A bear also entered this camp, and I ran after it bare-footed,

OLD DECCAN DAYS 29

but failed to get a shot, as the animal passed in an instant from

bright moonlight into blackest shadow.

There were some bison near this camp. I went along the forest

road before dawn one morning, and just as it was beginning to get

light, I saw what I took to be an immense solitary bull standing by

the roadside facing me. I walked up toit and fired into its chest,

dropping it with a second shot as it bolted. At the sound of the

shot a whole herd broke from the trees and thundered off, a young

bull falling to a shot which left no mark upon the skin. Next

morning I went to look at the carcases, and found a crowd of

vultures and two or three adjutant birds gathered to the feast.

Then a pack of lungoors gave tongue not far off, and on running to

the spot I met a large bear coming up the hill from a ravine, and

killed him with two or three shots.

I killed a wild dog near this same camp, and saw one day a pack

of twenty or more of these destructive animals. The one I shot

through the body with a rook rifle ran off as if unhurt, but I had

heard the thud of the bullet and knew he would not go far. A

hundred yards off I came up with him, and smelt him at some

distance. For he had shed onto his black tipped tail a strong

ammoniac secretion which betrayed his presence. This exudation

from a sub-caudal gland perhaps gave rise to the native story that

these animals blind their victims by flicking poison into their eyes

from their tails as they gallop alongside. I shot another of these

dogs when it came down in the nearly morning to drink at a pool

over which I had been watching all night for a panther. The same

night a ratel came and swam about in the water, plainly seen in the

bright moonlight. And in this jungle also I saw a lesser civet cat,

which I believe to be a rare animal; but perhaps, like many other

creatures, its apparent rarity is largely due to nocturnal habits.

Near here I met one day the Jate Mr. Fred Wright of the Police ;

he told me he had come upon a large pack of wild dogs which had

treed a couple of panthers, and were jumping up atthem. One of

the panthers was shot and stuck in the fork of the tree, whereupon

the dogs below licked up the blood that dripped from the dead

animal. The other leapt down and made off, followed oy the dogs.

In another jungle my shikaris saw a pack in full cry after a panther

which had killed one of my bufialoes, and which they had driven

from the kill. So it is quite likely that there may be truth in the

story of their attacking and even killing tigers. My bu] terrier

once pursued a tiger which fled in terror from the yapping dog !

I well recollect one hot weather encamping not far from a forest

pool which contained the only water in the neighbourhood. To

this all the wild animals of the surrounding jungle resorted, and

here I saw daily sambar, barking-deer and little four-horned

antelope come down to drink. Here to the nilgai gathered to-

wards midday, the time when most antelope appear to drink. They

came daily, and I also recognized the same sambar stags which

were hornless in this month of May. These things gave me the

impression that all animals drink daily when they can get water,

and not only every fourth day or so, as some naturalists have

averred of sambar and nilgai. Here too came monkeys which

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

approached the water sometimes with signs of fear and always of

timidity, perhaps because two leopards were wont to drink in the

evenings when the sun was low or had sunk behind the line of

trees in the west. And there were fine peacocks with burnished

tails leading their troops of hens, and jungle-fowl and little bright-

ly marked jungle bush-quail. Then there were green pigeons in

the great banyan tree overhead, where the little coppersmith

hammered out his monotonous ‘tonk’ and the brain-fever bird

shrieked with an ever-increasing crescendo of maddening notes. But

all sounds seemed to cease and a hush fall upon the face of nature

when the panther padded silently to the water’s edge. The peafowl]

and jungle fowl scuttled away, the small deer disappeared like

spectres in the shadows of the forest, and the monkeys alone, if they

had not gone, disturbed the scene with objurgations on their enemy.

Not far from this spot I shot the finest specimen of a 4-horned

antelope that I have seen, the frontal horns having a length of 24

inches, and I also killed a fine barking-deer with antlers 64 inches

long above the pedicle. The 4-horned antelope have a better

development of horn in this forest than elsewhere, and I shot

several with well-developed anterior horns. In the Western Ghauts

I think these are generally absent, or represented only by insignifi-

cant callosities. These animals are generally single or in pairs, but

I have seen as many as four together. I often found them feeding

on the fleshy blossoms of the mohwa tree, which are also freely

resorted to by bears and other animals, not excepting the aborigines

of the jungle. Near here, too, I shot a blue bull which had been

badly clawed by atiger. ‘Tigers will sometimes attack bison, and

at another camp the jungle men showed me the head of a fine bull

which, they said, had been killed by a tiger after a desperate

encounter. This was very probably true, for a friend of mine killed

a tiger not long afterwards in a neighbouring valley ; it had one eye

gouged out, and marks of other injuries. I found a few miles from

here the remains of a cow bison which had been killed by a tiger.

The tracks had been made when the ground was wet and marshy,

and the pugs of the tiger galloping in pursuit of the stampeding herd

could be plainly seen; the remains of a vulture which had paid for

its temerity and had been killed by a stroke of the migbty paw were

also there. In another jungle a Gond told me he had seen an old

solitary bull attacked by a tiger which got the bull by the throat,

but was flung off and put to flight.

The range of hills on which the forest was spread for many hundred

miles was crowned by several massive forts, now long abandoned,

but the scene of stirring events in days gone by. Through the

mountains were several passes, some guarded by forts, and one,

which I visited in search of a reputed man-eating tiger, dominated

by some ancient temples where, since the legendary days of the

Buddha, saffron-clad priests who occupied these solitudes had

offered up their orisons to the deities of jungle, stream, and rock-

hewn shrine.

One of these forts was stormed by the gallant troops of the

greatest of British soldiers, whc, ascending these mountains trom

the battles of the plains below, completed here the final discomfiture

OLD DECCAN DAYS 34

of a formidable enemy. It wassaid that the garrison, most of whom

were killed in a brave defence, had cast their treasure into the tanks

in the fort; but we found nothing when these were drained forty

years ago, which was eighty-five years after the event. Such stories

of buried treasure cling round many a mountain stronghold. Has the

treasure of Apa Sahib, the Raja of Nagpur, ever been discovered in

the Mahadeo Hills ?

Thirty years before I ranged these forests in pursuit of game, the

rebel Taniia Topi had attempted to break through with a portion of

his forces, intending to raise the standard of the Peshwa in the

Deccan and Southern Mahratta country. He was the ablest ac-

complice of the Nana of Cawnpore, the adopted son of the Peshwa

Baji Rao who had surrendered near the fort of Asirgarh in 1818.

But aforce of cavalry and infantry came up with these rebels in the

depths of the forest, and dispersed them with heavy loss of men

and baggage. Since then, except for the presence of such bandits

as Tantia Bhil, peace has’reigned in the land.

There was sport to be had in the piains also. Vast herds of

antelope, numbering some hundreds, roamed the fields in the fertile

Berar valley. One might bave shot hundreds, and the game-book

of a forest officer showed over a thousand killed in the space of

sixteen years. It was, however, poor sport to shoot these beautiful

creatures, and must be still less sport in these days of long-ranging

and accurate weapons. The little gazelle which inhabited the foot-

hills were better worth pursuing, for they were more wild and offered

a smaller mark. There, too, one had the chance of nobler game.

I shot several panthers in the lower hills, and one sportsman was so

fortunate as to kill a fine tiger which unexpectedly walked out in a

beat. Then there were wolves, bustard, hares, and many kinds of

feathered game, and even the rare hunting leopard might be met

with, for I saw the skins of three shot in the forest, and one in the

low hills.

In this part of the country man-eaters were rare, perhaps because

game was plentiful, and wild animals and numerous flocks of

domesticated cattle furnished an ample supply of food for predaceous

animals. I did once see a child brought into hospital with its throat

torn open by a wolf, but this was an uncommon occurrence, not as

frequent as in Oudh, where wolves were said not only to devour

children, but to bring them up with their cubs like Romulus and

Remus of old. I also killed an infamous man-eating panther far

down in the plains, where it found shelter in the rugged and jungly

banks of a stream, and at night wandered round the hamlets in

search of human prey. In the hot weather the family would be

asleep on the threshold of the hut, for the sake of the cool air in that

sultry clime.

Tired out with the day’s labours the husbandman and his wife and

little child are buried in deep sleep, lying side by side. It is dark;

there is no moon, or if it shines its effulgence is hidden by a fleeting

cloud. Night watches sphinx-like, starred with eyes, can other

eyes not see ? None save those burning orbs which gleam like glow-

worms in the gloom. Padding silently on velvet footfall, the’

monster approaches ; a rapid rush, agurgling cry ; themother awakes

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vel. XXXHI

and misses her child. The village is aroused, lamps flash and they

follow on the track but faintly seen. But the Watcher by the

Threshold crouches silent with its prey, and in the morning nothing

is found but a few blood-stained rags, and perhaps two little hands

with yellow palms upturned as if in mute appeal for vengeance.

Such are the details of many a village tragedy where the country is

haunted by one of these monsters. I waited for this panther one

night in the shadow of a hut in one of the villages which it was in

the habit of visiting, and wounded but failed to recover it. It was

finished off in the neighbourhood by the villagers a few days later.

In the Deccan, man-eating tigers are scarce. During many

months spent in jungles infested by tigers, and during several years,

I came across and killed only one man-eater; the incident had no

particularly interesting features. Tigers seldom attack human

beings unless molested, but it is probable that panthers are always

ready to take achild. ‘Tigers were numerous in the valleys of the

Pein Gunga and Wardha River. They preyed principally on cattle,

as game was comparatively scarce in country where native shikaris

in the hot weather constructed an ambush and lay in wait over every

water-hole. With their primitive weapons in those days they

hesitated to attack so formidable a beast as a tiger, or even a

panther. But in the reserved forests on the banks of the rivers

there was an abundance of spotted deer and other beasts on which

the tigers preyed. My best bag during a six weeks’ trip in those

jungles was fourteen tigers, besides some panthers, bears, and other

game ; another season I brought thirteen tigers to bag.

I have only once seen an unwounded tiger attack a man, but one

that I shot had killed a herdsman who attempted to drive it off his

flock ; the body was not eaten. I have seen wounded panthers on

several occasions attack with the utmost ferocity, and have myself

been seized and mauled in such an encounter. But I once almost

trod on a panther lying under a bush, where its presence was

betrayed by the smell of wild beast, and it slunk off with no aggres-

sive demonstration. I shot more than twenty of these animals in

that particular district, where they lived in scattered jungle on the

hill-sides and in the ravines, from which they were driven by

beaters without difficulty. They preyed largely on antelope, with

calves, goats and dogs for a change of diet.

Mention has been made of the historic interest not only of the

hills but of the plains. In 1803 General Wellesley at the head of a

small army, after a forced march with his cavalry to Poona, crossed

the Godavery at Toka, where he established a ferry of coracles

made of the willow-like sambalu and covered with skins, and entered

Aurangabad. From thence, after a series of manoeuvres and some

hard marching to protect the Southern Deccan from invading

Mahrattas, he at length encountered them on the field, 5,000 against

40,000 men or more, and defeated them after a bloody battle, in

which he lost some 25 per cent of his men. Later he came up with

them in December on the plain of Argaum, a little village pictures-

quely surrounded by betel gardens and shady groves of bananas,

oranges, and other trees, and finally defeated and drove them from

the field, an example of the superiority of discipline over numbers.

. ee

OLD DECCAN DAYS 33

It was around Argaum that I found eighty-five years afterwards

great herds of antelope, which ravaged the wheat and other cultiva-

tion in which they wandered at will. There might be five or six

hundred of these animals in sight at once, and it is to be hoped that

they have now been thinned down for the sake of the cultivator.

In another part of the country, not far distant from Assaye, I found

the antelope devastating the crops only sixteen years ago, and shot

more of them than that I cared to from a sporting point of view.

They generally had poor horns. Horns twenty inches long were

above the average in the Deccan, and the longest I have seen were

only twenty-four inches in length. These were carried by a brown

buck, which presumably would never have a black coat, for he was

an old animal. He had a leg broken by a shot, and was ridden

down and speared after a long run.

The Deccan was infested by Thugs before they were discovered

and extirpated mainly by the efforts of Sir William Sleeman.

Travelling must have been very unsafe in those days, when the

Thugs would waylay or accompany a whole party of travellers, who

would be strangled in a moment and rapidly buried in graves

already dug for them by a party sent on ahead for the purpose.

This organized murder had been practised for generations, probably

for the best part of a thousand years, and its suppression was alone

enough justification for the establishment of efficient English rule

throughout the country. Nor was this the sole evil of that nature

whose suppression was due to the same cause. Those who would

revert to the old order of things must be singularly ignorant of the

history of their country. In the Deccan evidence of the insecurity

of life and property in bygone times is everywhere to be seen.

Every village contains a fort, sometimes with a rusty gun resting

on the tottering battlements or lying in the rank herbage that

springs beneath. Little more than a hundred years ago the country

was ravaged by hordes of Pindaris who, issuing from their strong-

holds in the jungles and fastnesses of the Narbada, ravaged the

country far and wide, robbing, torturing, and slaughtering the

inhabitants, who found safety only behind the walls of the village

fort. But now the husbandman tills his fields in peace, and the

forts, no longer required under the establishment of a beneficent

rule, are crumbling into dust. After a campaign in which great

armies took part, the last of the Pindari chiefs, Chithu, wandering

a lonely fugitive on the banks of the Tapti near Asirgarh, was killed

and devoured by a man-eating tiger, his head alone remaining as

evidence of his fate.

There used to be plenty of feathered game inthe Deccan. In the

cold weather we had good duck and snipe shooting on the numerous

tanks, and the migratory quail assembled in the cotton and pulse

fields in their thousands. Sandgrouse gathered at about nine

o’clock in the morning at favoured drinking places, so punctually

that one might almost set one’s watch on the approach of the first

bird. Partridges, painted and grey, were often numerous, and there

were a few florican. These were said to have been at one time

numerous, but an ignorance of their habits and the absence of game-

laws had led to their destruction in the breeding-season, when the

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

‘ jumping ’ cocks betrayed the presence of the birds. Parties of

spottsmen used to drag the long grass in which the birds were

found with long ropes to which bells were attached, and so all the

birds were flushed and shot down out of season.

Then there were peafowl and junglefowl. The peafowl were not

half tame and sacred as in some parts of the country, but were

among the most wary of birds, difficult to approach and to be shot

only when driven out by beaters, or at long range with a rifle.

Perhaps there is now more game than ever in the jungles and plains

of the Deccan, but the old cantonments are forever silent where

they used to resound with the tramp of horse, foot, and artillery.

The Pax Britannica has enabled garrisons to be dispensed with.

Finally I would like to call to mind those who have otherwise

passed beyond recall—my skilful and wise Bhil shikari Bhima;

Kamaji, honest and keen, who lived on the bank of the Pein Gunga;

old Nathu, bravest and most faithful of followers, who served me as

shikari during many years; my good sepoys Shaikh Karim and

Rajaram ; and little Ram Chander, the police orderly, honest, trust-

worthy, truthful, and most devoted of attendants. One, indeed,

still lives, of whom I have news not infrequently, the gallant

Subadar Major who accompanied me on many an expedition. O,

brave and faithful followers, now gone to the Happy Hunting

Grounds! When the time comes for me to cross to the camp

pitched on the far bank of the dark river, may you be there with

news of the sport to be had in those Elysian fields !

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE

CHARLES McCann,

Ast. Curator, Bombay Natural History Socicty

PaRT Il

(With three plates and tour text tigures)

(Continued trom page 703 of Volume XXXII)

THE STEM

What is the stem? The popular term is restricted to those parts

of a plant which grow above the surface of the soil, but popular

terms are not always explicit nor correct. We have observed that

roots may also rise above the ground; and is not a tuber an exam-

ple of an underground stem? Botanically speaking, the stem is

that part of the plant which bears the branches, leaves, flowers and

fruit. This definition is, on the whole, satisfactory.

Stems display even a greater variety of shapes thanroots. Some

are much like roots not only in form, but also in their mode of

growth. Good instances of these are afforded us by the under-

ground stems known as Rhizomes, Tubers, Bulbs and Corms which

shall be described presently.

UNDERGROUND STEMS

Stems may be underground stems, surface stems or aérial

stems, but innumerable intermediate forms are to be met with, hence

it should be understood that classification on these lines cannot be

definite.

The Rhizome.—Rhizomes or Root-stocks are subterranean hori-

zontally growing stems which give off leaves and flowering shoots

on their upper surface and roots below. By means of such under-

ground stems perennial plants are enabled to persist through the

dry and winter season. The fern is a good example of a plant

which exhibits a rhizomatous stem; the root-stock or rhizome ofa

fern is usually scarred on its upper surface with depressions which

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL His... SOGKETY, Vol, Xx

are the marks left by the old leaves; on closer examination it will

be found that its surface is covered with small, sometimes scarcely

visible scales known as ‘scale-leaves ’—in certain species

these scales leaves may be quite large and_ readily

distinguishable ; their purpose is mainly protective. One end

of the rhizome is however bare and devoid of these leaf scales—

this is known as the ‘vegetative cone’ and is the growing end of

the rhizome from which new shoots are developed. These features

enable us to distinguish a rhizome from a true root. Most rhizomes

produce numerous roots, but when this is not the case, the rhizome

itself functions as such. The growth of a rhizome proceeds as

explained only from one end—the vegetative cone, and as the growth

proceeds the older portions usually shrivel and die away in course

of time. Growth proceeds by increase in length of the vegetative

cone or growing point, but occasionally the rhizome throws out

branches. The new leaves are always borne by the forward extre-

mity ; the older ones dying away leaving scars on the upper side.

It is often possible to tell the age of the plant by the old scars, in

the case of plants which send up new vegetative shoots each year.

In the struggle for existence which is eternally waged between

plants inhabiting the soil, the rhizome plays an important role as it

helps to establish the vigorous growth of a particular species con-

testing every inch of ground sometimes even to the exclusion of

other species. In ephiphytic ferns the rhizomes are clearly visible

wending their way up the stems of the trees and the rocks they

grow on.

It must be remembered that this type of stem is not restricted to

ferns alone but is also possessed by many other flowering plants,

such as, Cannas and other members of that family (Plate III). Itis by

this mode of growth that some of our sea-shore plants are able to

hold the sand together as the radiating extensions of the rhizome

helps to bind it. Rhizomes exhibit a great variation of form and

character but the general principles of growth remain the same.

Tubers.—Tubers are readily studied in the Potato-plant (Solanum

tuberosum). A potato is a true stem and the so called ‘ eyes’ are

individually capable of producing new plants. If any section of a

potato bearing an ‘eye’ were planted in the soil it would give rise

to anew plant capable of carrying on a separate existence. It is

by this method potatoes are planted and propagated. The Jeru-

salem Artichoke (Helzanthus tuberosus) and the Chinese Yam

(Dioscorea batatas) are other familiar examples of tubers.

Bulb.—A Bulb is a subterranean stem not unlike a bud, with thick

fleshy scales folded round a conical axis. It consists of a small

disc-iike stem at the base, bearing a more or less spherical mass of

leaves folded one over the other and charged with reserve food and

water. The onion serves an excellent illustration of a bulb. These

leaves in an onion completely enwrap the bulb, which is then des-

cribed as ¢unzcate, while in the lily (Plate III) they merely overlap one

another and the bulb is then said to be scaly. The outermost leaves

of a tunicate bulb, as may be seen in the onion, are usually

membranous and dry protecting the fleshy ones inside. In the

centre of the bulb the disc-like base is prolonged into the short

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LTHE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 37

inflorence—axis or the central axis from which the flowering shoot

is developed. Adventitious roots are developed from _ the

disc.

Corm.—A corm or ‘ solid bulb’ is not unlike a bulb but its scales

are much thinner, fewer and more membranous than those ofa

bulb (Plate III). Crocuses, Gloriosa superba the beautiful creeper with

spidery orange and scarlet flowers which flourishes during the mon-

soon, and those weird and sinister looking plants known popularly

as ‘Cobra Lilies’ are some common examples of plants which

afford illustrations for the study of this type of stem. The lower

part of acorm is swollen out, at or below the level of the soil into a

more or less spherical shape to contain reserve nutriment. At the

top of this swollen mass is the vegetative bud which in the rainy

season sends forth flowers and leaves. The period of activity of a

corm which gives rise to such annual plants as flourish for a brief

season is limited to a vear but provision is made for next year’s

growth by new corms which arise as branches from the top or the

side of the parent corm. ‘The corm may however be perennial in

which case a new leafy shoot arises each year from its upper

surface, usually in the axil of a leaf of the preceding year.

Like certain roots some underground stems become specially

modified to act as reservoirs and store-houses of reserve food mate-

rials and water and help the plant to tide over a season of drought

or supply it with nourishment during the resting period. This

explains how many plants in desert regions are able to maintain

life through extensive periods of extreme drought. During the vege-

tative or active period of growth large:supplies of reserve are laid by

for the next season when the reserve is largely drawn upon at the

time of flowering. Should flowering, however, be prevented, a very

considerable saving in food reserves is the result. Bulbs of plants

which are so treated gain considerably in size during the period of

vegetative activity while the reserve of food is continually added to

the corresponding drain on food stocks which would have been occa-

sioned normally in the production of flowers. Hence bulbous plants

which have their buds destroyed or cut out year after year

just before the flowering period, amass an abnormal quantity of

food material and when the plant is ultimately allowed to flower,

it does so with redoubled energy and produces an exceptionally

grand show of blooms. It is in most cases due to this fact that we

have the exceptional size and beauty of ‘ florists’ flowers.’

The conservation of food supply over long intervals explains

the intense activity of desert plants in the production of flowers and

fruit in a remarkably short interval of time. Numbers of bulbous

plants grow in the most arid regions where they are subjected to

protracted periods of drought. Buried deep within the soil, they

are protected from the scorching rays ot the sun until the

return of the rains when they spring into intense activity and

carpet the desert surface with a mantle of green verdure and bright

blooms. The period of respite when moisture is abundant gives

most desert plants the brief opportunity to flower and fruit and

provide the sources from which when times are again propitious a

new generation may spring. The flowering and fruiting period is

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

incredibly short and often a few weeks after where there was once

a profusion of leaf and flower there is not a biade to be seen.

The same phenomenon has been observed in the frigid regions

of the north where the brief springtide affords the occasion for the

intensely profuse and rapid flowering and fruiting of many plants

which for the rest of the year lie dormant beneath the snows.

To residents in India the change in the country wrought within a

few days of the burst of the monsoon is remarkable. The ground is

hard and bone dry. In areas covered by deciduous forest one

tramps through a crackling carpet of dead leaves. With the first

showers the whole aspect of the scene is changed; small flowers

spring up through the rain-soaked soil and dapple the ground in

clusters of white or various coloured blooms,—gradually the carpet

is spread—the grass begins to sprout, but before it has grown very

high these flowers have become fruit and the little plants that bore

them are in full leaf till finally they are submerged in the tangle of

grass and rank vegetation. Many types of bulbs, corms and

rhizomes have been described as wanderers inasmuch as they change

their original location. At one season a plant may appear in one

spot and at the next a little distance away from the spot it origin-

ally occupied and thus appear to travel. This change of locality is

brought about by subterranean stems sending out annually ‘ sucker-

like’ shoots for a certain distance which are fed by the parent.

The parent then very often dies, its nourishment having been

drawn out by the new shoots. These shoots then live separate

existences.

A second instanceis seen with gradualupward growth of a corm

which rises by successive stages from deep below the soil up to its

surface whence it may be transferred by extraneous causes to

a new location. The Cobra Lily may be cited as an example. The

corm of this lily (it must be remembered that the Cobra Lily is not

a true lily) produces a new corm each year—the new corm is develop-

ed from the upper surface of the old one, it is nourished by the

leaves and in addition draws the remaining nourishment from the

parent corm which shrivels up and dies. Thus year by year the

development of new corms bring each succeeding corm nearer the

surface of the soil, till at last ground level is reached. The exposed

position of the corm now renders it liable to be transferred from

its original location through the agency of any animal or bird.

When conditions are once more favourable for growth, the corm

from its new location sends out a root deep below the surface of the

soil. The food material within it is then transferred through the

root to feed a fresh corm which develops at its extremity. The

parent corm on the surface dies while from the new corm below the

soil fresh corms develop in successive stages till ground level is

once again reached and so the cycle is repeated. The exposure of

corms on the surface of the soil is also brought about by the rains

washing away the earth from beneath them and in this way the

water also transports corms and bulbs, from their original locality.

Some corms when they near the surface of the soil give rise to

numerous smaller ones which may be separated from the parent

corm and transferred to various localities by the same agents where

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 39

they will repeat the process already described and thus give rise to

many new individuals. Though new ccrms are formed yearly it

should be understood that they begin existence as distinct individuals

and derive their nourishment from their dead parents.

Yet even greater motion is exhibited by some of the plants

which produce runners or sfolons as they are technically known,

such as the Strawberry-plant (/7agaria) and the Violet (Vzola).

The strawberry sends out runners or stolons in lateral directions

under the surface of the soil from the fore ends of which new

as 5

BIG als

individuals arise (Fig.1). In thecase of climbing plants movement

may be indicated by a change in the direction of growth occasioned

by the necessity of finding a support. An urge of this nature will

compel a climbing plant to cover enormous distances along the

ground. This change in the direction of growth is known as

circumnutation.

Aérial Stems.—Stems which grow above the soil are known as

aérial stems; they display a much greater variety of form than

those which grow beneath the soil.

They may be errect, prostrate, climbing and so on. All the

palms, with the exception of a few species, have a simple, erect,

unbranched stem which is termed a caudex, (Plate I) while other woody

trees and shrubs have numerous branches. A stem that isnot woody

but weak, fleshy and often straggling and which dies down to the

root periodically is said to be herbaceous. Again we have root-like or

knotted stems, climbing stems and trailing stems. All these assume

a great diversity of form—cylindric, triangular, quadrangular,

ribbed, compressed, etc. For examples of the upright forms we

have not far to look, for the majority of trees and shrubs about us

afford instances of thistype. Even those with the various climbing

stems may be found within our gardens.

Plants with climbing stems may be divided into four different

groups, (1) Twining plants, (2) Climbers with sensitive organs,

(3) Hook-climbers, and lastly (4) Root-climbers.

Twining Plants —The stems of twining plants climb by winding

themselves round supports, which must not be too thick nor very

smooth and must stand more or less upright otherwise climbing

cannot be effected. Twining plants have long thin stems, the joints

or nodes from which the leaves originate are widely separated,

showing considerable areas of bare stem. ‘The growing end of the

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

climber swings about freely in the air till it fastens itself around its

support. A twining plant does not ascend directly but climbs ina

spiral. The direction of the spiral may be clock-wise, i.e., dextrorse,

namely in the direction of the hands of a clock, or may be counter-

clockwise or szzzstrorse that is to say from right to left. With a few

-exceptions plants of the same species will invariably follow the

same direction in climbing. ‘It is a matter of indifference to the

direction of these movements,’ says Kerner, ‘ whether we allow

light, warmth or humidity to operate on this side or that; the

particular species always twists in the same direction, the Hop

towards the right, the Convolvulus towards the left. More than

this, even if the twining portion is continuously bound in an opposite

direction, the result is all the same; the plant cannot be coerced

into any other path and will not depart from the direction peculiar

to it. It continues to twist and twine according to an innate

tendency inherited from generations of twisting to internal causes,

to the peculiar constitution of the living protoplasm in each

particular plant.’

A common example ofa sinistral twining plant is the Railway

Runner which is so commonly planted, and other members of the

Convolvulus type. Most of the annual climbers which appear

during the rains are also Twining climbers.

Climbers with sensitive organs.—A good example of this type is

the Grape-vine which possesses thin thread-like organs which

gradually respond to the touch of any object they come in contact

with in their search for a hold. These organs are known as Jendrils ;

they are sensitive throughout their length so that if a contact is

made at any given point of the tendril its free end will bend and

twine round its new support and commence to climb higher in a

continuous quest for a more abundant supply of light. Tendrils

are modifications of various parts of a plant. They may be formed

either from the leaf or parts of aleaf or by the modification of a

branch. Some tendrils have adhesive discs or suckers at their tips

by means of which they adhere to their supports.

Hook-climbers sprawl over other vegetation and have hooks, as

their name implies, usually recurved which aid in their support.

These hooks are not sensitive to contact like tendrils. An example

of a hook-climber is the Common Cane (Calamus) of which there are

many species to be met with in the dense evergreen jungles of India.

In this case the hooks are arranged along a special elongation of

the mid-rib of the leaf to form a whip or flagellum which either grows

over some other branch and fixes itself there by means of the

recurved hooks onits underside or hangs downward. Most people

who have tramped through forest tracts where the climbing cane is

abundant will have recollection of the too frequent and irritating

halts occasioned by the necessity of freeing their clothes or their

persons from the attachment of the all pervading cane which by its

nature forms a very effective bar to impetuous progress and fully

earns its popular name of ‘ Wait-a-bit’.

Root-climbers climb by the aid of special adventitious roots upon

their stems. The Ivy, Peppers and others afford examples of this

type of climber. These roots are not usually sensitive to gravity

THETSTPODY, OF PLANT LIFE 4]

that is they are not attracted earthward but follow all the crannies

and irregularities of the surface on which they grow and thus

firmly affix themselves to it.

The stems of climbing plants are very thin when compared with

the great iength they attain. Growth in girth is comparatively

siow and is sacrificed to the more urgent demands of supplying the

new leaves and the growing tips with the necessary water. ‘Tro-

pical climbers display remarkable and varied shapes in process of

growth—flat, twisted, corrugated and so on. Climbers which

attain a large size are known as Lzanas (Plate II). Lianas are very

common in. all tropical forests and their wonderful size and

growth have attracted the attention of all travellers from time

immemorial.

Many climbing plants attain a great length, for they ascend the

highest trees and sprawl over the tree tops in their efforts to get

the requisite amount of sunlight. This wandering over the tree tops

may however be checked by some great gap between trees which

forms a barrier to the extension ofthe climber. The impetuous, ever-

present urge of growth will then drive the creeper to descend

earthwards again and continue its progress over the ground till it

reaches the trunk of some other tree; which it ascends climbing

higher and still higher till it attains once again a region of more

abundant air and light. Inits upward ascent by the creeping and

pulling action of its growth such a creeper will sometimes draw the

trailing portion of its stem clear off the ground or, in its down-

ward descent, the free hanging end of the climber may be blown by

the wind across the intervening gap and thus obtain a purchase on

some fresh support. Thus are brought into being those festoons

and giant rope-like suspension bridges which form such a character-

istic feature and strike such a fantastic and primeval note in

tropical forests. In process of growth and in their constant quest

for light and for a place in the sun, many of these woody climbers

grow to enormous lengths, some of them attaining several

hundreds of feet or yards. Climbing plants in process of growth

may crush or even kill trees which their mighty stems have clasped

ina strangle hold, yet on the other hand many a forest giant

uprooted in the fury of a storm is arrested in its fall by the kindly

embrace of these amazing cables of nature—though uprooted,

with its great trunk leaning forward ready to crash, the tree is

saved from its fall by the climber’s network of ropes twined about

its branches. Before long many of the displaced roots refix

themselves firmly in the earth, and the disabled giant receives a

fresh lease of life or often a strong new shoot will sprout out

perpendicularly from near the roots of the reclining trunk and in

time become a stately tree.

Buttress stems.—Certain trees, many of them species which

attain a great height, throw out wall-like projections in the form of

buttresses from the lower portions of the trunk which serve the

purpose of additional support. These buttresses are often of

considerable height and may project for several feet so as to afford

ample space for a comfortable hut to be constructed in one of the

angles formed by them. In the tropical forests of Central America

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

buttress trees attain great size though not a few of our Indian trees

have equally large buttresses.

Apart from the buttresses we may have other modifications of the

the stem asin Pao-Barringudos (Chorista ventricosa) of Brazil whose

huge trunk bulges out in the centre Jike an enormous barrel.

The bottle-trees of tropical Australia have much the same weird

shape. In India we have the Baobab or Monkey-bread-fruit tree

(Adansonia digitata), (Plate I) a native of tropical Africa with its

enormous trunk. This plant was introduced into India and is now

frequently seen about villages and towns. The enormous bole

of the tree when hollowed out makes an excellent reservoir for the

temporary storage of water which is kept cool and sweet within

its depth. It is used as such by some of the tribes inhabiting the

arid regions of Northern Africa.

Plants are divided into three main groups, herbs, shrubs and trees

according to their type of stem—these definitions like most others

are very vague, for there are no hard-and-fast rules for determining

whether a plant is a herb or otherwise. In the majority of cases

the popular recognition of a shrub, tree orherb is more or less

correct. Plants of comparatively small size with soft, fleshy stems

are rightly called herbs and may be divided into perennial herbs,

annual herbs, etc., according to the length of their existence. Shrubs

and trees are all perennial and have woody stems and branches.

The term shrub is generally used to define a woody plant which

does not grow to a great height, some authors placing the maxi-

mum between twenty and thirty feet. Shrubs are much branched

often to the level of the ground. A tree on the other handrises clear

from the ground and does not commence to branch till the stem has

attained a certain height. But the line of distinction cannot be

drawn too finely as there are many plants which exhibit both

characteristics, much depending on soil characters and climatic con-

ditions. ‘The same may also be said in relation to the size which

distinguish shrubs from herbs.

Climate and soil conditions tend to modify or increase the size of

plants even of the same species. In most tropical climates trees

reach enormous proportions and gigantic heights, but as we

advance towards the temperate regions they become smaller, till

finally at the poles we have mere dwarfs. Altitude produces the

same conditions, an ascent from the lower to the higher levels of

a mountain range would display parallel changes in the character of

the plant life. Frequently trees of the same genus are giants in the

tropics when compared with their near relatives in colder climes

which may be but a few inches in height. The Willow family

supplies us with good examples.

The Culm presents another variation of the stem. The point at

which the leaves originate from the stem ofa plant is called the

node—the space between two nodes is described as the zndernode

(Fig 2). Now the stem of a plant whose nodes are separated by long

hollow internodes is spoken of asaculm. All grasses present this

type of stem and the bamboo which is itself an enormous grass offers

an exceilent example of it. Where the internodes are not quite

hollow but pithy as in the canes, the stem is described by the term

Journ. BomMmBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

tr. Unbranched stems of Palms (Caudex).

Sonate

2. Stem of Baobab (Adansonia digitata).

PLATE. 1

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Vitis

Il HLWId ‘OOS ‘LSIFT ‘IVN Avawog ‘Nuno[

TRAE SHODYIONSEE ANT LIFE 43

calamus. A further variation in type is seen in the stem of Cacti

(Opuntzas) and the Spurges (Euphorbia). The latter plant which is

acommon feature of the Indian countryside, is often erroneously

spoken of as the Cactus. The true Cactus is not indigenous to

India but is a native of America—though many species have been

introduced into the country, the commonest of which the Common

Cactus or Prickly Pear (Opuntia elator), has almost become a pest.

The flat pear-shaped and leafless stems of the Cactus covered with

fine needle like spines at once distinguishes it from the Spurge with

its round, angular and twisted stem covered with sturdy prickles.

The stems of both these plants act as water reservoirs in time of

drought fitting them for an existence in waterless tracts. Besides

being reservoirs, these stems perform for the plant those functions

necessary to its existence which under ordinary circumstances are

carried on by the leaves. We shall refer to them again when

dealing with the leaves. The stems of a Cactus or a Spurge are

called Cladodes or Phylloclades.

The stem of a plant is provided with an outer covering which is

designed to resist the inclemencies of the weather and the attacks of

animals. This protective Jayer may be smooth and of the finest

texture as in herbs, or it may be intensely hard and rough and reinfor-

ced with coatings of hair, spines or thorns (Plate II). In addition to

this external armature, the exudation of sap which flows from the

stem when its outer covering is pricked or damaged also serves

as a protective device inasmuch as it helps to. effectively

seal the injury or serves as a deterrent to animals that might

otherwise feed on the plant.

As with other parts of a plant provision must be made for the

stem to ‘breathe.’ In the case of the herb the outer covering of

the stem is provided with ‘ breathing’ pores similar to those we

shal! meet when we come to the study of the leaves, but in the case

of trees and shrubs which are prctected with a sturdy air-tight and

water-tight coating of a layer of bark, provision for ‘ breathing’ is

solved by a simple and beautiful device which performs its function

effectively. On the surface of the bark particularly along the

branches one may find tiny erruptive craters which are the stem’s

‘breathing pores’ known as Lenticels.

Branches.—The majority of plant stems are branched—the branches

arising from the stem to bear the flowers and leaves. Certain stems

such as the majority of the palms and other monocotyledons possess,

are unbranched.

Branches are outgrowths from the main stem, which is known as

the primary axis. These branches in turn give rise to other

branches from the axils of leaves; these again develop a third series,

to which will succeed a fourth, fifth and so on, thus forming the

complicated branching system of our large trees. The term branch

is commonly restricted to the large divisions, whereas the smaller

ones are referred to as twigs. The larger branches are frequently

called boughs.

Stems and Branches unlike roots produce dissimilar members

i.e. leaves, flowers, etc. while roots produce like members. One

feature is however common to both roots and branches in the course

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

of development. Branches in both cases arise in acropetal succes-

ston, that is to say, the new branches normally arise near the

growing apex so that the youngest are always nearest the tips.

Branches like roots may originate at any part of the stem in

which case they are known as adventitious branches. Asa generalrule,

nowever, the point of emergence of a branch is governed by the

position of theleaves. Where the stalk of a leaf joins the stem or, to

be more exact, in the angle made by the leaf-stalk with the stem, one

finds a tender protuberance or bud—this is known as the axzllary

bud while the angle between the leaf-stalk and the stem is called the

axil. (Fig. 3). These tiny protuberances are the budding branches ;

y ,AXILL ARY BuD

pr =

Ray

EA AXE ‘

HiGie 2. FrG.-*3:

they are the tiny shoots which will later develop into branches.

Should two or more branches arise in the same axil they are termed

accessory buds. ‘The manner of their origin is also indicated by

distinguishing terms. When accessory branches emerge side by

side they are said to be collateral, but if they originate one above

the other they are described as sevza/. Bearing in mind the separate

origin of a branch and a leaf we are able to decide the correct

nature of tendrils, spines and such organs of a plant as are structur-

al modifications of its leaves—a tendril growing from the axil of a

leaf would be a modified branch, but on the other hand, if its origin

is traceable to the leaf-stalk we know that it is a modification of the

leaf.

A plant may have branches of two kinds—long and short shoots

or shoots of unlimited and limited growth. The former grow

indefinitely whereas the latter remain short, often resembling tufts

of leaves. The Casuarina, a familiar tree along our coasts, is an

example of the short-shoot type.

THE STODY OF PLANT: LIFE 45

Buds (of branches) developed at the growing extremity of a stem

do not always sprout at once. Inthe case of most trees these buds

remain inactive until such time as they are excited to growth either

by the death or injury of one of the other buds. Such buds are said

to be dormant buds. Dormant buds are more frequently found

among plants inhabiting places that experience marked changes

in the seasons. Hence they are rarely in evidence in tropical plants.

Thus in places where the winter is severe and accompanied by snow

the majority of trees may be said to hibernate. They shed their

leaves in the autumn and the growing tips of their branches become

dormant. These growing tips are generally covered by a growth

of hairs, scales, etc., or by the secretion of resins which protect the

sensitive tips from the rigours of the winter season till the approach

of spring once more rouses the dormant buds to activity.

Branches that arise later in life upon the lower parts of the trunks

are occasionally formed from dormant buds but they are more often

adventitious, being developed from new buds formed without rela-

tion to the leaves.

As stated previously, the main stem of a tree is known as the

primary axis—its branches are lateral outgrowths from the main

stem. The development of branches in trees conforms to two dis-

tinct types. If we take a pine tree for example we note that the tree

increases in height by the direct and uninterrupted growth of the

main stem, so that the apex of the stem forms the highest point of

the tree. The branches are merely lateral and horizontal extensions

of the main stem and tend in no way to increase its height. This

type of branching is distinguished by the term monopodium.

The mango tree, to take a common example, illustrates the second

and totally distinct type of branching distinguished by the term

sympodium. The branches of the tree overtop or forma crown

above the axis or main stem of the tree. In process of growth the

mango sprouts from its seed as a tender shoot which increases in

height till it tends to branch. The main branches arise from buds

given off laterally at the apex of the stem. To explain the process in

more detail, two buds are generally given off on each side of the

growing apex. One of these buds in course of its development

grows upwards as acontinuation of the main stem or axis while the

other may be suppressed or pushed aside by the development of

the branch and tends to form alateral branch. The process is

repeated on alternate sides as the stem grows. By this process

of continuous branching it is therefore actually made up of portions

of branches which have originated from different growing points.

There are many variations of these two main types of branching to

be met with which cannot however be dealt with in the course of the

present article.

At times branches assume most remarkable and misleading

characters. The curious leaf-like expansions of the Butcher’s

Broom (uscus aculeatus) (Plate) frequently cultivated in gardens are in

reality the flattened branches or cladodes on the surface of which the

little greenish flower is borne. Another common plant is a species

of Phyllanthus also to be met with in gardens, which has flattened

leaf-like branches bearing the flowers.

46° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NARCRAL (AIS TV SOCTEIYV AAW Ole eX

Arrested branches frequently develop into hard points known as

Thorns. In some trees these thorns

are simple whereas in others they are

branched. The modified branches

occasionally bear leaves which is

surely a true indication of their

nature. Thorns of this nature are

commonly met with on the species

of Flacourtia found on the Ghats, the

vernacular names of which are Atak

and Afaram.

Thorns and spines often are an

effective armature in so much

as that they ward off would-be

enemies, such as browsing animals,

and thus protect the tree against

extermination. Though it is com-

monly believed that such devices are

developed to protect the species,

scientists have not arrived at any

satisfactory explanation for their

presence.

Plants in arid regions are stunted,

woody and frequently covered with

spines. These thorns and spinesare

said to be the result of scarcity of

moisture and scorching winds which

Fie. 4. tend to kill the branches before they

f — FLOWER, ¢ = cLapopr, have time to develop. Plants in

J = LEAF deserts often beceme one mass of

hard short branches arrested by the

above agents and by browsing animals, and are frequently

covered with thorns to be able to protect the few flowers and seeds

which develop under these circumstances very often on the inner-

most branches. Even the leaves of these plants areoften greatly

reduced in size.

In the next part of this article the leaves of plants will be dealt

with and more will be seen with regard to their nature—the various

shapes they assume together with their many and varied modifica-

tions.

(Zo be continued)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

F,C. FRASER, Lt.-Col., I.M.S., F.E.S.

Part XX XI

(With three plates)

(Continued from page 691 of Vol, XXXII)

Subfamily—EPALLAGIN2

Head robust, transversely elongate ; eyes globular, large, much more widely

separated than in the Lzdellaginae ; labium with mid-lobe cleft nearly to its

middle, apices of lobes subacute ; labrum oval, very broadly and very shallow-

ly notched ; occiput rounded at the middle, tumid behind eyes, broad ; frons

depressed ; epistome ridged, not projecting markedly.

Prothorax with a large rounded boss on each side the middle lobe, posterior

lobe moderately large, transversely elongate, simple, rounded.

Thorax robust, short, shoulders broadly rounded, nearly always bearing two

pairs of stripes (except in adult males where these are obscured by melanism),

one pair of stripes formed by confluence of antehumeral and humeral above and

below, the other by a similar confluence of a post-humeral and a lateral.

Legs comparatively short, hind femora extending to middle of 2nd abdominal

segment, furnished with very fine spines ; tibial spines slightly more robust ;

claw-hooks inconspicuous, situated near apex of claws.

Wings hyaline or enfumed in the female, hyaline or with one or both pairs

coloured in the male, the hind often bearing large metallic spots or areas ;

forewings long and narrow ; hindwings similar or more or less dilated in the

male, shorter than the abdomen in the male, as long as, or slightly longer than

the abdomen in the female, shortly or not at all petiolated ; reticulation very

close, cells mainly tetragonal; Azz at its origin not in contact with R + ™/;

node nearer base of wing than apex or situate at its centre; Azv + wv arising

from Azz at about the level of outer end of discoidal cell; /A7zz separating

from Riz at about halfway from arc to node ; basal space entire, about twice the

length of discoidal cell which is very short, straight narrow, squared at the

ends, with parallel sides, longer in the hindwing than in the fore, entire or

traversed by one or more nervures ; arc slightly angulated ; sectors of arc arising

from about middle of arc; 7A strongly curved especially at origin, several

rows of cells between it and hinder border of wing ; Czzz straight; many

supplementary nervures between all main sectors; antenodal and postnodal

nervures very numerous; primary antenodal nervures entirely absent ; no

incomplete basal antenodal nervures ; the first and second series of antenodal

nervures coinciding as in the Lz6ellulinae with occasional exceptions.

Pterostigma present in all wings of both sexes, very long and narrow, tapering

at both ends which are oblique.

Abdomen long narrow cylindrical, longer than the wings in the male, of the

same length or shorter in the female, the 10th seginent flat on dorsum or witha

robust carinal spine or two spines.

Anal appendages very similar, the superiors forcipate, spatulate, large, at

least as long as 10th abdominal segment ; inferiors very small and inconspicuous

or moderately large, always shorter than superiors.

Genitalia. See under genera.

Females remarkably homogeneous in size, colouring and yeneral facies, so

that where several genera or species exist together, it is difficult to determine

which are the respective pairs. Abdomen in all species marked laterally witha

yellow or pale blue stripe which broadens atthe base of each segment and

tapers apicad, becoming gradually lost as traced towards the anal end of

abdomen.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT7/

Anal appendages as long as segment 10, tapered, very acute.

Vulvar scale robust, made up of a laminated sheath with two small stilette-

like organs which act as tactile organs at end of ovipositor.

Distribution. Southern Asia from Western India and Ceylon to China and

the Philippines and southwards to Borneo, Java, etc. One genus has spread

westwards into Europe vza Kashmir and Persia.

The subfamily is represented by nine genera,—Afpallage, Antsopleura,

Bayadera, Dysphaea, Allophaea, Mesophaea, Indophaea, Pseudophaea, and

Paraphaea. ‘The whole of the genera save MWesophaea and Paraphaea have

representatives within Indian limits, the former including orm#ata and decorata

from Indo-China, both of which have the hindwing of the same peculiar shape

as seen in 7Thaumatoneura inopinata from South Ametica, whilst the latter has

but a single species,—éaréata from the Philippines.

From the similarity of the known females of these genera, it is obvious that

the primitive males must have resembled the females, and that specialization

has gone onin them only. It is for this reason that our genera are founded

solely on male characters, it would indeed be quite impossible to split up the

subfamily effectively otherwise. The old genus Pseudophaea is here split up

into four genera, as apart from similarity in basic venation, the differences in

colouring, petiolation and shape of wings are so broad as impossible to be

reconciled. Selys in his classification split up the genus into groups and

these again into subgroups ; it is to the original groups that generic rank has

been given, a procedure which I very much doubt any odontologist will

quarrel with.

In determining the precedence of these new as well as old genera, the

closeness of the similarity of the male to the female has been taken as the

measure of archaicisin, thus it is evident that a species like ochracea in which

the fore-and hind-wings are similarly shaped and of similar shape to those of

the female, is much nearer the root ancestry .of the subfamily than one like

variegata where specialization in the male, has led to such divergence from the

female, that an entomologist ignorant of the order, might well be excused in

determining them as different species.

Out of the 24 known speciesI have been able to study 16, viz.—disgar,

cardinalts, frasert, impar inequipar, tricolor, subnodalts, subcostalis, ornata,

decorata, ochracea, brunnea, splendens, refulgens, variegata and masont, which,

together with author’ Ss descriptions, have formed the basis of the following

key :—

KEY TO GENERA OF THE Fpallaginae males

1. Discoidal cell entire ane oe ee Z

Discoidal cell traversed ... ie cee 4

2. Costa of hindwing of male running susieu from

base to node 3

Costa of hindwing of male with an ‘obtuse pro-

jecting angle between base and node ... Anisopleura Selys.

3. Abdomen of male longer than wings; node

situated slightly proximad of centre of wing ;

wings petiolated to level of first antenodal

nervure res .. Bayadera Selys.

Abdomen of male shorter than wings ; node

situated at centre of wings ; petiolation ‘almost

absent, ending well proximad of first ante-

nodal nervure oat ess ... &pallage Charp.

4. Tenth abdominal segment without a carinal

spine Dysphaea Selys.

Tenth abdominal segment with two dorsal

spines Paraphaea Mart.

Tenth abdominal segment ‘with a dorsal spine.. 5

5. Fore- and hind-wings similarly shaped, saffro-

nated in part but without any opaque areas... Allophaea gen. nov.

Fore- and hind-wings differently shaped, the

hind at least with some opaque markings ... 6

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 49

6. Both fore- and hind-wings more or less opaque

black, the hind markedly broader than the

fore and usually bearing a large basal

metallic blue or green area .. Pseudophaea Kirby.

Only the hindwings partly opaque black 7

7. Hindwings with the middle part abruptly broad-

ened the apical portion thereafter narrowing

rapidly to a faleate apex; the broadened

portion bearing an opaque band . ... Mesophaea gen, nov.

Hindwings usually much shorter than the fore

and markedly rounded at apex, the apical

half or less opaque black and sometimes bear-

ing a brilliant metallic blue spot ; abdomen

in some species bright red, otherwise black... Judophaea gen, nov.

Genus—Epallage Charp. (1840)

Epallage Charp. Lib. Eur. p. 16 (1840) ; Selys, Rev. Odon. p. 143 (1850) ;

Id. Syn. Cal. p. 49 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 162 (1854) ; Walk. List. Neur.

Ins. B.M. iv. p. 636 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 108 (1890).

Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of both sexes hyaline or enfumed at

apices, narrow, petiolation almost absent, ceasing well proximad of the Ist

antenodal nervure ; hindwing not more broad than fore and of similar breadth

in the two sexes ; Azz not in contact with Rk + Jat its origin ; node situated at

centre of wing ; discoidal cell entire, short, less than half the length of median

space ; arc only slightly angulated ; only 1 cubital nervure in all wings (rarely

2) ; not more than 4 long intercalated nervures posterior to 7A in the hindwing,

and only 2 between Cuzz and /A ; A772 in continuation with the subnode or a

shade distad ; outermost antenodal nervure in all wings often incomplete; no

basal incomplete antenodal nervures in subcostal space ; pterostigma long and

narrow.

Thorax very robust ; abdomen not or only just extending beyond tips of

wings ; anal appendages longer than segment 10, the inferior only slightly

shorter than the superiors and minutely bifid. at apex, the superiors strongly

hooked or angulated downwards at apex.

Genotype—fatima Charp: |

Distribution—Greece, Turkey in Europe, Asia Minor. Persia, N.W. India

and Kashmir. The species a/ma Selys, from Persia is probably not more than

a local race or variety, so that the genus contains but asingle species. Unfor-

tunately nothing has been recorded about its habits, and noting how widely

those of the two allied genera, Bayadera and Antsopleura differ, it is idle to

speculate by comparisons. All we know is that it breeds in streams.

Epallage fatima, Charp. (Agrion fatima) Lib. Eur. p. 132, t. 45, fig. 2 (1840) ;

Selys (Huphaea fatime), Rev. Odon. p. 143 (1850) ; Walk. List. Neur.

Ins. B.M. iv. p. 637 (1853) ; Schneid (Huphaea fatime) Stett. Ent. Zeit.

vi. p, 115 (1845); Selys (Apallage fatime) Syn. Cal. p. 50 (1853) ; Id

Mon. Cal., p. 165 (1854) ; Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xxvii. p. 659

(1869) ; a ibid. (2) xlvii, p. 371 (1879) ; Id. (Apallage alma) ibid.

(2) ‘xlvii, ‘p: 372 (1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon, p- 108 (1890) ; Morton,

Trans, Bat. Soc. Lond., p. 305 (1907) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xii,

p. 40 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 28-32 mm. Hindwing 32 mm.

Head : labium yellow, base and apex black ; labrum olivaceous with a median

basal black impression ; cheeks, bases of mandibles, anteclypeus and sides and

foreborder of postclypeus pale olivaceous, rest of head black. Two rounded

bosses on the frons ; occiput coated with rather long coarse yellow hairs. Eyes

brown.

Prothorax black but a thin pulverulent covering making it to appear dark

violet, especially the small posterior lobe. Laterally and subdorsally coated

with long white hairs.

Thorax black, the sides and beneath markedly pulverulent, especially the

latter which may be chalky white from pruinescence.

Legs short, hind femora not reaching the middle of 2nd abdominal segment

when extended and the whole leg falling short‘of the distal end of 3rd segment ;

“50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

black, the femora pulverulent, the two hinder femora with a dorsal:and a lateral

yellow stripe throughout their length, from the latter of which spring a row of

short widely-spaced black spines ; anterior pair of femora with only the dorsal

stripe.

Wings hyaline, the apices narrowly bordered or tipped with dark brown ;

pterostigma black ; 12 to 14 antenodals, 15 to 16 postnodals.

Abdomen black, the basal segments often pulverulent white.

Anal appendages black ; superiors as long as one and a half times the length

of segment 10, seen from above widely separated at the bases and strongly

divaricate, thick, tumid, with subacute apices, Seen from the side very robust,

stout at base with the true apex turned strongly down and in, like the grappling

flukes of an anchor. On the outer side, at a point where the apex is bent on

body of appendage, a short stout hook directed down and outwards. Inferiors

about two-thirds the length of superiors, conical, broad at base, the apex black

and nipple-like, the »asal portion light brown. On the upper side and near

apex, a small spine giving the apex a bifid appearance.

Juvenile males closely resemble the colouring of the female. The frons

yellow, black at its middle, with a rounded yellow spot on each side ; a small

oval yellow spot on each side of the anterior ocellus, whilst the occiput has a

transverse yellow band. ‘Thorax with the middorsal crest, a curved humeral

stripe, four oblique stripes on the sides, the 3rd being the broadest and the 4th

the shortest, some spots at the roots of wings and two small spots on the ante-

alar sinus all yellow. Abdomen with a vestigial middorsal stripe and a similar

but better defined lateral, all tending to become obliterated towards the apical

segments.

Female. Abdomen 28-32 mm. Hindwing 28 to 32 mm.

Similar to the juvenile male but with rather more yellow markings. The

thoracic markings are especially clearly defined and bright yellow. The hind

pair of femora are dark reddish brown with the yellow stripe broadening proxi-

mai. The lateral abdominal stripe is very broad and almost confluent with a

narrow basal annule on each segment, whilst segment 1 is entirely yellow save

for asmall linear spot on each side running obliquely upwards and forwards.

Wiags with apices much more broadly tipped with brown, whilst the bases

are palely saffronated especially along the costal region as far as the node.

Nodal index slightly higher than in the male.

Distribution. As for genus. I possess a female frorn the Amanus Mts. in

Asia Minor and a couple of males from the Wadi Kelt, Palestine. Mr. Bain-

brigge Fletcher, after extensive collecting in Kashmir, never came across this

insect, although he took all other known Kashmir species.

There is a male in the Paris Museum from Baghdad, and 2 females from

Macedonia in the British Museum. Lastly the species was taken by Col. Nurse

at Quetia (2 males in June).

Genus—BAVYADERA Selys (1853)

Epallage group: bayadera Selys, Syn Cal. p. 49 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Calop., p.

162 (1854) ; Walk. List., Neur. Ins. B. M. iv. p. 636 (1853); Selys, Bull.

Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 373 (1879) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus , vol. xxviii,

p. 169 (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiti, p. 24 (1917) ; Ris, Suppl. Ent.

No. ], pp. 48, 49 (1912).

Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of both sexes hyaline, the apices (of

two species) tipped with black, narrow, the hind wing not more broad than the

fore and of similar breadth in both sexes ; petiolation extending from about

halfway from base to arc and to level of 1st antenodal nervure ; ‘zz in contact

with ~ J7/ at its origin and for some distance ; node situated at centre of wings ;

discoidal cell entire, short, less than half the length of median space; arc more

angulated than in Agallage ; only 1 cubital nervure in all wings (the nervure

AC) ; not more than 4 long intercalated nervures between /A4 and the posterior

border of wing and only 2 long ones between /4 and Cuzz; A217 not in line

with the subnode, either a little proximad to or widely distad of (in zywdica and

hyalina respectively) ; outermost nervure in all wings complete ; no basal in-

complete antenodal nervures in subcostal space; pterostigma long and narrow.

Thorax very robust ; abdomen longer, often much more so, than wings; anal

appendages considerably longer than segment 10, the superior forcipate, apices

‘Q[YOId-IGles Ul Uses OUIVS DUT, ‘OL “SATAS ‘vutzvAy vi s

‘davHy ‘vmivs asvjjv¢dq7 °6 “AON *dS ‘DpnvILGUOT ee ‘Tt

‘svug ‘v7dgsdavjg¢qus i °9 "SATUS ‘vI21put “ as

"SATHS ‘Sa2102 a vy, “SIX ‘VpnvI12949 a oa

“SATHS ‘Ssapiojsa] vAnazgosiupy *9 ‘SIy ‘vdsazgouvjaut vaaspving ‘T

HO SHOVGNHddVY IVNV HO MUHIA TVSUOG

L 9

LNDIAN DRAGONFLIES 51

curling in and converging on one another, subcylindrical, apices obtuse or

depressed, with or without a ventral basal spine ; inferiors conical, tapering toa

fine point, much less robust than superiors.

Genotype—iudica Selys.

Distribution. N.E. India, Upper Burma, S. China and Formosa. Only

five species of this genus are known at present, of which zudicu, hyalina and

longicauda are from within Indian limits and melanopteryx and brevicauda from

S. China and Formosa respectively.

The species described by Dr. Ris from Formosa as Ayalina is certainly not

that species of which I possess examples from the type locality. The figure of

the appendages given by Dr. Ris shows the superiors to be equal in length to

segment 10 and without any sign of a ventral spine. Intrue /yalina there is a

well marked spine and the appendages are much longer than seginent 10,

about twice the length in fact. I have therefore renamed the Formosan

species as brvevicauda. Below I describe another new species as /ongicauda in

which the superior anal appendages are also of great length but the ventral

spine vestigial, it also differs from hyalina by having the wings and abdomen

nearly of the same length, the abdomen being markedly the longer in /yalina.

But little is known of their habits and the larvais unknown. ‘The writer in

company with Mr. Shaw of Moungpoo, British Sikkim, took a number of both

sexes of zadicu in the bed of the Riyang River, from its source to near its entry

into the Teesta. Its habits were strikingly similar to those of Dysphaea for

which it was at first taken to be. The males perch on prominent rocks or

twigs projecting from the waterin mid-stream. Being very shy and wary,

they were not at all easy to capture or even approach in such spots. ‘This parti-

cular species looked remarkably like Vestalzs apicalts, which however is never

seen in such spots. Italso perched with its abdomen slanting up at a sharp

angle, as, does Dysphaea. When disturbed, it moved down stream with a

markedly flitting flight, soon coming to rest again. If repeatedly stalked, it

would do a wide circle round its pursuer and return upstream again, Many

pairs were seen in cop, avery unusual circumstance in the larger Zygopiera,

and these pairs took long flights down stream seemingly looking for a suitable

spot to deposit their eggs. None were actually seen in this process. The

Riyang has a wide expanse, with sandy bottom strewn with numerous rocky

boulders, so that one could walk down stream using the latter as stepping-stones

in the stalking of the elusive insects. ‘The larva is probably somewhat like

that of Antsopleura described below. Froma study of the habits, I ain inclin-

ed to think this genus is closely related to Dysphaea.

Bayadera indica Selys. (pallage indica) ll. cc. p. 49 (1853), p. 163 (1854) ;

Walk. (Zuphaea indica) |.c.p. 636 (1853) ; Ris, l.c. p. 49 (1912) ;

Laid. l.c. p. 31 (1917) ; Mart. Mission Pavie, 3, Neurop, p. 15 (sep.)

(1904).

Male. Abdomen 38 to 40 mm. Hindwing 34 mm.

Head: labium with middle lobe and base black, lateral! lobes greenish

yellow ; labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks as far up as beyond the

antennae turquoise blue, the edges of basesof mandibles and labrum finely

black, as also a small median basal virguie on labrum ; rest of head matt black :

eyes dark brown above, olivaceous below.

Prothorax black with a very large rounded spot on each side of midlobe and

a smaller spot low down on each side of posterior lobe greenish yellow ; poste-

rior lobe large, with rounded border, lappet-shaped.

‘Thorax black marked with bright greenish yellow as follows,—a fine ante-

humeral stripe curving out above and below, confluent below with a broad

humeral stripe which covers the suture and nearly confluent with it again above

so as to nearly shut in a broad oval black spot of the ground colour ; laterally

three broad irregular stripes, one on each of the sutures and the third covering

the greater part of metepimeron, all three broadly confluent above but the

first and second partially separated by a short tongue of black on upper part of

second lateral suture. Beneath prothorax and thorax pulverulent white, as also

the middle lobe of labrum and basal segments of abdomen beneath.

Wings hyaline, apices of all blackish brown to about the middle of pterostigma

which is black ; extreme base saffronated ; 23 to 24 antenodal nervures in fore-

wings, 21 to 22 postnodals ; 18 to 19 antenodal nervures in hindwings, 19 to 21

postnodals ; A7zzz arises slightly proximad of the subnode,

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Abdomen black with the middorsal carina finely yellow from segment 1 to 8

and with a narrow lateral stripe greenish yellow, broad on the sides of segmenst

1 and 2, narrow from 3 to 5, but broadening and confluent with an incomplete

basal annule at the base of each segment ; on segments 6 and 7 this line present

as a mere basal vestige; 8 to 10 unmarked.

Anal appendages black, superiors broad at base, narrowing slightly at the

middle, broadening and depressed at apices into a triangular plate which is

hollowed out below, a robust ventral spine near the base directed somewhat

inwards so as to be visible from above, whilst slightly basad of middle of

appendages and on the inner side, a small tubercle almost amounting toa spine

but blunt at apex. Inferior appendages slightly morethan half the length of

superiors, broad at base, tapering rapidly to a fine acute apex. Both pairs of

appendages separated at base, the inferiors divaricate, the superiors parallel but

the apices curling in and actually overlapping. Genitalia very similar to

fatima.

Female. Abdomen 36mm. Hindwing 37 mm.

The female does not appear to have been described nor do there appear to

be any specimens of this sex in collections other than those taken by Mr. Inglis

and myself.

It is a much more robust insect than the male, with shorter stouter abdomen

and relatively longer wings. The latter without black apices, but the bases

palely saffronated ; nodal index rather higher, 24 to 25 ante-and post-nodal

nervures to forewings, 22 of each to hind; pterostigma very long, black.

The body markings are exactly as in the male but the lateral stripe extends to

the apical end of segment 7 on the abdomen. Legs black, hind femora with

the proximal ends and a broad stripe on the sides greenish-yellow. Vulvar

scale robust, extending to end of abdomen. Anal appendages nearly twice the

length of segment 10, tapering to a very fine point.

Distribution. N.E. India, N. Bengal in the rivers about Darjeeling District.

Dr. Ris states that he hasa series from Shillong, Khasia Hills, Assam, but I can-

not help thinking that this is an error and that Ayalzna is meant. Mr. Bainbrigge

Fletcher who has collected almost exhaustively in this area has taken hyalina

but never zzdica, the type of Ayalina in the Selysian collection also comes from

Shillong, whereas zmdica comes from Bengal. Its habits have already been

commented on above. #&. indica-is distinguished from hyalina by its much

larger size and by the apices of all wing's in the male tipped with black. From

melanopteryx it is easily distinguished’ by the much less extent of black on the

wings, extending in the case of the latter, as far as 2 to3 cells distad of the

node, whilst from drevicauda and longicauda it is distinguished by the apices of

all wings black.

Bayadera hyalina Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 373 (1879) ; Ris, 1. c.

pp. 49-52 (1912) ; Laid. l.c. p. 31 (1917) ; Ris. Suppl. Ent. No. v, p.3 (1916).

Male. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 29 mm.

Head : labium black, the lateral lobes greenish yellow at their bases only ;

labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks turquoise blue, the former barely

margined with black and without the median virgule present in zxdica; rest

of head matt black.

Prothorax black with a very large greenish yellow spot on each side of the

midlobe and a tiny spot on outer ends of the posterior lobe, which is similarly

shaped to that of zmdica.

Thorax black marked with bright citron yellow as follows,—a fine ante-

humeral line not reaching upper end of dorsum and not confluent with the narrow

humeral stripe either above or below. The humeral! stripe much narrower than

in indica; three narrow stripes on the sides, of which the two latter only are

confluent above and that by a mere point. A broad bar of yellow beneath

thorax of which the hinder area is broadly black. Legs black, unmarked.

Wings entirely hyaline ; pterostigma dark brown, over 5 to7 cells ; 21 to 23

antenodal nervures to forewings, 20 to 21 postnodals; 17 antenodal nervures to

hindwings, 20 to 21 postnodals. zzz begins 1 to 2 cells distad of the subnode.

Abdomen glossy black with a triangular spot of citron-yellow on the sides

of segment 1, remaining segments unmarked.

Anal appendages black, superiors about twice the length of segment 10,

moderately broad at base, tapering slightly to beyond the middle and then

dilated slightly at apices but not nearly to the same extent asin indica. ‘The

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES oe)

apices twisted on their longitudinal axis and flattened, not hollowed out below ;

a robust subventral spine near the base, not quite as long as in zmdica ; no medial

tubercle on inner side of appendages. Apices curled in towards each other.

Inferior appendages broad at base, tapering rapidly to an acute point, not

quite half the length of superiors.

Femaie. Abdomen and hindwing 33 mm.

Differing very slightly from the male but more robust in build and the

abdomen of similar length to hindwings ; the antehumeral stripe well defined

and reaching upper end of dorsum but not confluent at either end with the

humeral stripe. The third stripe at extreme end of metepimeron is confluent at

a point with the second lateral stripe to form a hook-shaped marking. Beneath

black with a mere suggestion of yellow at the centre; this surface largely

pruinosed white. Abdomen with a lateral stripe on segments 1to 4, broad at

base of 3 and 4 and tapering to a fine point which falls slightly short of apical

ends of segments ; in addition a small round well-defined spot on each side of

segment 10. Anal appendages conical acutely pointed, slightly longer than

segment 10. Wings similar to male, nodal index similar.

Distribution. Assam. The type is from Shillong, Khasia Hills, Assam from

where I have seen severalexamples. The species differs from zudica and melano-

pleryx by the wings entirely hyaline, and from 6revicauda and longicauda

by having a well developed ventral spine to superior appendages, absent in the

former, vestigial in the latter.

Bayadera longicauda sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 38mm. Hindwing34mm. (Female unknown.)

This new species is very closely allied to Ayalina but differs in the following

important particulars,-labium entirely black ; labrum no‘ margined with black;

cheeks and labrum greenish-yellow this colour passing in above epistome to

form an incomplete band across front of frons.

Prothorax with the posterior lobe entirely yellow save for a small crenulate

black mark at base.

Thorax with the antehumeral stripes complete and curving out at upper ends,

the remaining stripes narrow but the two hinder lateral ones broadly confluent

at their upper ends ; antealar sinus with 2 large greeny yellow spots. Abdomen

almost unmarked, a smal! lateral spot on segment 1, a tiny vestige at the base

on sides of 2 and asmall triangular lateral basal spot on segments 3 to 5.

Wings with 19 to 21 antenodal nervures in forewings, and 24to 25 postnodals,

15 to 16 antenodals in hindwings, 20 to 25 postnodals. Pterostigma black, over

5to6cells; Azzz begins well distad of the subnode; all wings palely enfumed,

especially the apices of hind.

Anal appendages very similar to those of Ayalina in length and general shape

but the ventral spine of superiors vestigial, amounting to no more than a

pointed tubercle, and in addition a robust obtuse tubercle at the middle of upper

aod inner border. Inferior appendages very broad at base, shorter than in

hyalina.

Distribution. British Sikkim, Gangtok, 5,000 to 6,000 ft. alt. A few speci-

mens collected by Mr. Chas. Inglis, May 29, 1924. ‘The shape of the appendages

will readily distinguish this species from any others, as well as the relative

lengths of abdomen and wing. A further striking feature is the bright yellow

posterior lobe of prothorax which offers a very useful identification mark.

Genus.—ANISOPLEURA Selys (1853)

Anisopleura Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 48 (1853) ; Id. Mon, Cal. p. 158 (1854) ;

Walk. List. Neur. Ins B. M. iv, p. 635 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 108

(1890) ; Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus, vol. xxviii, p. 169 (1904) ; Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, pp. 24, 25,(1917).

Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of both sexes hyaline or, at the most,

with apices tipped with black in the male; petiolation asin Layadera or

extending a little distad of the basal antenodal nervure especially in the hind-

wing; all wings in both sexes narrow and of equal breadth ; costal border of

hindwing in male with an abrupt angulation outwards at a point about one-

third the distance from base to node. the resulting widening of the costal space

gradually decreasing from the angulation outwards ; Azz not in contact with

R+WM at its origin; node situated at about middle of wing; discoidal cell

entire, equal to about one-third ora little less than half the length of the median

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

space in forewing, a little more than half aslong in the hind; arc markedly

angulated; sectors of arc widely separated at origin, far more so than in

Bayadera or Epallage ; from 1 to 5 cubital nervures in all wings (usually only

lin lestoides, several in other species); /A distinctly forked, or if not, then

with 3 to 4 moderately long intercalated sectors between itself and hinder marg-

in of wing ; only 2long intercalated sectors between /A and Cutz; Aziz widely

distad of the subnode, about 1 cell more so than in Hayadera ; outermost ante-

nodal complete but normally not in alignment ; no basal incomplete antenodal

nervure in subcostal space; pterostigma long and narrow.

Thorax robust ; abdomen always longer than the wings, long and cylindri-

cal; anal appendages variable, the inferiors always more or less aborted,

superiors subcylindrical or markedly spatulate, with or without a robust

latero-ventral spine.

Genotype—/estozdes Selys.

Distribution. Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Upper Burma. The species of the

genus breed in montane and submontane streams and I| have found it breeding

in irrigation channels running through tea plantations in Bengal. Unlike

Bayadera it keeps to trees or bushes bordering the streams, the female retiring

further back in the jungle and only visiting the stream when ovipositing, at

which time it is always taken in cop with the male. Only occasionally does it

descend to the river bed, butimmediately retreats to vegetation on being dis-

turbed. Its flight is short and flitting.

Anisopleura lestoides Selys, ll. cc. p. 48 (1853), p. 159 (1854) ; Walk.

(Huphaea lestoides) 1. c. p. 635 (1853); Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 108

(1890) ; Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x (xxx) p. 489 (1891) ;

Iuaid. Rec. Ind: Mus, vol) xii,p. 31 (1917);

Male. Abdomen 36 to 38mm. Hindwing 28 to 30 mm.

Head: labium black, pulverulent white at base; labrum greenish-yellow

narrowly bordered with black ; bases of mandibles, the cheeks broadly up to

as far as level of lateral ocelli, and the postclypeus greenish-yellow ; anteclypeus

black ; vertex and occiput black with a large rounded spot of greenish-yellow

on the outer side of each lateral ocellus ; eyes blackish brown above, olivaceous

green below.

The dorsum of head sometimes pulverulent white.

Prothorax black with the outer ends of the posterior lobe anda very large

lateral spot on the middle lobe greenish-yellow.

Thorax black marked with an antehumeral stripe, broad below, tapering

above where it turns out as ashort point ; laterally the whole central part of

,» metepimeron and a broad irregular stripe centred over the first lateral suture

greenish-yellow, the dorsal black extending well beyond the humeral suture

and asmall tongue of black descending on the upper part of first lateral

suture. <

Legs short but robust, spines fine, black, a greenish stripe on the outer sides

of the two hinder pair of femora, tapering towards but not extending as far as

distal ends.

Wings hyaline, the forewings of male with the extreme apex dark brown, the

bases palely saffronated ; only one cubital nervure in all wings; 7A not clearly

forked ; 15 to 19 antenodal nervures in forewings, 13 to 16 in the hind ; 20 to 22

postnodal nervures in forewings, 17 to 18in the hind ; pterostigma black, over

33 to 43 cells ; petiolation shorter than in other species, often arrested short of

the first or basal antenodal nervure.

Abdomen black marked with greenish-yellow as follows,—the sides of seg-'

ment one broadly, a broad lateral stripe on segment 2, a basal ring broadly

interrupted on the middorsum and a narrow lateral stripe on segments 3 to 6,

the stripes becoming shorter and confined to middle portions of segments 5 and

6 ; lastly the middorsal carina finely yellow from segments 3 to 6.

Anal appendages black ; superiors subcylindrical at base, broadened and

depressed near apices which curve in towards each other and even overlap ;

seen from above the upper border distinctly sinuous and curving down slightly

at apex; at about the middle of each appendage and situated on its ventro-

lateral face, a robust spine visible both from above and from the side, especially

from the latter where the spine can be seen directed analwards ; inferior

appendages rudimentary, not visible in profile.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 55

Very adult specimens show a marked pruinescence, especially beneath thorax,

on the coloured part of prothorax and thorax, the temples and dorsum of last

two abdominal segments.

Female. Abdomen 30mm. Hindwing 29 mm.

Very similar to the niale in markings but these rather more extensive

especially on the abdomen which js short and very robust.

The lateral abdominal markings consist of a long stripe and basal spot nar-

rowly separated and extending the whole length of segments 2 to7, the spots

being confluent on 2 where the stripe is very broad ; segment 8 has asmall round

apico-lateral spot and 9 a very large irregular lateral spot extending over more

than half the segment ; segment 10 unmarked, very short, notched on dorsum.

Anal appendages half as long again as segment 10, tapering to an acute point.

Vulvar scale robust, not quite reaching end of abdomen.

Distribution.— Bengal, Assam and Sikkim at altitudes of about 3,000 to 5,000

ft. On the wing from May to September.

Anisopleura comes, Selys, C.R. Soc. Ent. Belg. xxiii, p. Ixiii (1880) ; Kirby.

Cat. Odon. p. 108 (1890) ; Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x (xxx),

p. 489 (1891) ; Laid. Rec. Ind, Mus. vol xiii, p. 31 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 36 to 40 mm. Hindwing 29 to 34mm.

Head : labium black, pruinosed at the base or whole of middle lobe ; labrum

citron yellow finely margined with black ; anteclypeus black ; positclypeus,

bases of mandibles, cheeks up as far as antennz and a broad band across frons

citron yellow ; rest of head matt black with a small oval spot of greenish-yellow

on outer side of each lateral ocellus ; eyes black above, dark olivaceous beneath.

Prothorax black, the outer ends of posterior lobe and a very large triangular

spot on each side of middle lobe citron yellow, these marks in adult specimens

pruinosed white.

Thorax black with a very fine, often interrupted antehumeral line more or

less confluent with a broad humeral fascia which extends up dorsum for about

the lower two-thirds and broadens out markedly below ; laterally the greater

part of sides, the postero-lateral suture marked out in black, and the metepi-

meron narrowly framed in same.

Legs black, the hind femora yellow on inner sides distally and often prui-

nosed white, as also the sides and beneath thorax.

Wings hyaline, the extreme apices of forewings of male dark brown ; ptero-

stigma black, over 33 to 4 cells ; 3 to 4 cubital nervures in forewings, 4 to 5 in

the hind ; 7A often forked ; petiolation begins at level of or distal to level of the

basal antenodal nervure.

Abdomen black marked similarly to lestotdes ; segment 7 usually with a

small latero-basal spot ; segments 9 and 10 chalky white with pruinescence.

Anal appendages black; superiors seen from above, narrow at base, very

broad and cupped above thereafter, usually overlapping so that the two appen-

dages viewed from above form a triangle with a small window at the base.

Seen from the side conical, tapering gradually to a subacute apex ; no latero-

ventral spine. Inferior appendages even more aborted than in Jestotdes.

Female. Abdomen 32 to 33mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

A stouter more robust insect than the male but marked very similarly ; the

base of labrum often narrowly black; the ends of posterior lobe of prothorax

more broadly yellow ; the antehumeral stripe rarely interrupted and usually

expanded in its upper portion ; the abdominal markings extending on to seg-

ment 8 and 9and exactly similar to Jesfotdes ; nodal index higher, 17 to 19

antenodal nervures in forewings, 20 to 23 postnodals ; 17 antenodals in the hind-

wings, 19 postnodals ; 3 to 6 cubital nervures in forewings, 3to 7 in the hind ;

pterostigma dark yellowish brown between black nervures.

Vulvar scale very robust, not extending quite to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and the Punjab Hills. It isa mode-

rately common insect around Darjeeling at the lower levels from about 3,000 to

4,000 ft. from April to June. This species is easily distinguished from the last

by the cubital nervures, the presence of a humeral stripe and the absence of a

spine to the superior appendages and'lastly by its much greater size. I found it

breeding in irrigation channels in cinchona plantations at Moungpoo, Darjeel-

ing District. The imago was quite numerous on herbage beside such courses

but rose high into trees unless stalked warily.

56. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole?

Anisopleura furcata, Selys. Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x. (xxx), pp. 488, 489

(1891): ; Will Proc..U.S. Nat. Mas. ‘vol. xxvili, p.clSlsfes 13) (1904).

Laid. lac, p:73 (1917):

Male. Abdomen 32mm. Hindwing 27mm.

Head: labium black ; labrum, postclypeus and corners of mandibles pale

blue or greenish-yellow ; rest of head black save for a small rounded greenish-

yellow spot on each side of ocellar space.

Prothorax black with a large rounded spot greenish-yellow occupying the

sides and subdorsum of middle lobe.

Thorax black marked with a greenish-yellow antehumeral stripe broad below,

tapering above; laterally greenish-yellow, the metepimeron finely framed in

black and the hinder lateral suture mapped out in black ; beneath black.

. Wings hyaline, extreme bases palely saffronated ; extreme apices of forewings

tipped with brownish black ; pterostigma brownisn black. over about 4 cells ;

15 to 17 antenodal nervures to forewings, 21 to 22 postnodals; 14 to 15 ante-

nedals to hindwings, 18 to 19 postnodals.

Legs black, inner sides of hind pair of femora distally yellowish.

Abdomen black marked with citron yellow exactly as in lestotdes, dorsum of

segments 9 and 10 pruinosed white.

Anal appendages black, slightly longer than segment 10, subcylindrical,

apices broadly obtuse and curving in slightly ; on the outer side a very robust

spine equal in size to the apex of appendage, so that the latter appears to be

forked from its middle, and seen in profile, resembles a crab’s claw. Inferior

appendages rudimentary.

Female. (Unknown).

Distribution,—Upper Burma. The type (as well as those of festozdes and

comes) in the Selysian collection, is from Puepoli, taken in June. This species

closely resembles lestozdes in many respects, by its lack of a humeral stripe, by

its venation, size, etc., but it may be distinguistied by the greater size of the spine

of superior appendages which gives a bifid or branched appearance to those

structures. In Jdestotdes the superior appendages broaden out markedly on

the inner side as seen from above, quite different to what is seen in the present

species.

Antsopleura subplatystyla, Fras, Rec. Ind, Mus. vol. xxix, p. 81 (1927).

Male. Abdomen 34 mm. Hindwing 28 mm.

Head : labium black, middle lobe pruinosed white ; labrum bright greenish-

yellow finely margined with black; cheeks, postclypeus, and a stripe across

lower part of frons and bases of mandibles greenish-yellow ; rest of head matt

black with a large reniform spot on the outer side of each lateral ocellus; eyes

dark brown.

Prothorax black with the outer ends of posterior lobe and a very large oval

spot on each side of middle lobe greenish-yellow.

Thorax black marked with citron yellow as follows,—narrow antehumeral

stripes running close to and parallel with the middorsal carina, the upper end

of the stripes curved outward ; a narrow humeral stripe running parallel to the

former and broadly confluent with it below but not above although the two

approximate ; a small upper spot lying close to the outer side of the humeral

stripe ; laterally broadly yellow, the metepimeron narrowly framed in black,

and the second lateral suture mapped out insame. Beneath and lower parts of

sides pruinosed white.

Legs black, outer and proximal portions of femora yellow, these parts

pruinosed.

Wings hyaline, apices of forewings tipped with dark brown as in other

species ; pterostigma dark blackish brown, over 4 cells ; 17 antenodal nervures

to forewings, 22 postnodals; 14 antenodals to hind, 20 postnodals; 3 to 4

cubital nervures to forewings, 4 to 5in the nind ; Azzz well distad of subnode ;

IA usually forked.

Abdomen black, segments 9 and 10 pruinosed white on dorsum, other seg-

ments marked as in Jestotdes as far as segment 6.

Anal appendages black, superiors very similar to those of lestozdes but the

spine replaced by a much smaller one not visible from above and situated nearer

base of appendage. Inferior appendages rudimentary.

Female. Abdomen and hindwing 30 mm.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats II,

(

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LARVA OF Anisopleura subplatystyla, FRAS.

(Note the sacculated caudal gills and total absence of ventral abdominal gills.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats III.

OS esa ae

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1. WINGS oF Axnisopleura lestoides, SELYS, MALE,

2. rs Dysphaea wali, FRAS., MALE,

3. as Epallage fatima, CHARP., MALE,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES | 87

Closely similar to the male but stocky and more heavily built, markings

very similar to the male, differs as follows,—the labrum with anterior border

more broadly black and withits base broadly black ; yellow band across frons

nearly cut into two at the middle; posterior lobe more broadly yellow and an

additional band of yellow forming a collar to the prothorax ; the antehumeral

and humeral bands confluent above as wellas below and the upper humeral

spot triangular instead of linear ; trefoil-like spots on coxz and six small spots on

under surface of thorax ; abdomen marked similarly to the female of lestozdes ;

wings saffronated at bases and in subjuvenile examples, brightly so as far as the

node in costal area, the subcosta and radius being also yellow for the same

distance and often the whole of the nervures at base of wing to outer end of

discoidal cell ; nodal index slightly higher ; cubital nervures 3 to 5 in all wings.

Vulvar scale as for /estozdes.

Distribution. Assam. Anuimber taken in Shillong by Mr. T. Bainbrigge

Fletcher who has kindly sent them to me for examination. Type at present

in the Pusa collection, paratypes in my own. ‘This species by its interesting

combination of comes and lestotdes characters, is easily distinguished fron: all

others, thus it has the combined ante-humeral and humeral stripes and numer-

ous cubital nervures seen in comes, whilstits appendages are more similar to

those of lestotdes.

Genus—DvSsPHAEA Selys (1853).

Dysphaea Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 53 (1853); Id. Mon. Cal. p. 185 (1854) ; Walk.

List. Neur Ins. B. M. iv, p. 641 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 110. (1890);

Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 169 (1904).

Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of male usually marked with opaque

black (except in efhela), hyaline in the female, apices rather pointed, narrow,

the hindwing not noticeably broader than the fore and of equal breadth in

the two sexes: petiolation entirely absent; Riz not in contact with R + M;

node situated at or slightly distad of middle of wing; dzscozdal cell traversed

at least once, short, about half or one-third as long again as the median space ;

are almost straight ; sectors of arc arising from middle of arc and well separat-

ed at origin; usually 3 cubital nervures to all wings, occasionally more

in thehind; 4 or more intercalated nervures between /A and the posterior

border of wing, /A very occasionally forked; only 2 intercalated sectors bet-

ween Cuzz and JA, rarely more ; origin of 772 variable even in the same species,

nearly always more distad im the hindwings, usually in continuation with or

proximal to the subnode in the forewing, and in continuation with or distad to

subnode in the hind; outermost antenodal nervure complete but often not

coinciding with the subcostal half; no basal incomplete antenodal nervure

in subcostal space; pterostigma present in all wings of both sexes, narrow

long.

Thorax robust ; Jegs as for subfamily ; abdomen always extending to beyond

tips of wings, often markedly so ; anal appendages very homogeneous, simple,

longer than segment 10, forcipate ; segment 10 notched at its apical border, z¢s

dorsum flat, not raised into a keel-like spine as in all the following genera ;

vulvar scale robust, short, not reaching end of abdomen.

Genotype—dimidiata Selys.

Distribution. From Western India and Upper Burma. to Matacea, Java,

Sumatra, Borneo and New Guinea.

Species of the genus breed in swift montane and submontane streams, from

1,000 to 4,000 ft. ; their habits, so far as known, are exactly similar to those of

Bayadera. Shy retiring insects, the females are rarely seen, spending their

time feeding up in the jungles not far from their parent streams, often perched

high up in trees. The males willalso take to such lofty roosting places during

dull weather and at night—I have seen them perched on twigs ata height of

forty feet from the ground, from which vantage point they would flit out and

back again preying on passing flies. More often the males are found in the

bed of the stream resting on rocks or twigs in the middle of the boiling waters

and taking short flights, flitting in nature, out and back to the same resting

place. Females have no generic characters separating them from those of the

‘rest of the group, Pseudophaea, Indophaea, etc:

Dysphaea ethela. Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol. xxvi, pp. 480- 482 apie

Male. Abdomen 38mm. Hindwing 33mm.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Head: velvety black, unmarked save for two triangular marks below and

hidden behind occiput yellow; eyes dark brown above, pearly grey

beneath. 2

Prothorax black with a dark ochreous rounded spot on each side of middle

lobe.

Thorax velvety black marked with greenish-yellow often rather obscured ,—

fine antehumeral and humeral stripes confluent above, separated below but

obscured or absent in fully adult specimens.

Laterally greenish-yellow shaded with olivaceous and clouded with brown, an

irregular posthumeral stripe, a broad stripe on upper part of mesepimeron and

the greater part of metepimeron.

Legs black, coxee with aspot, and femora, in subadult specimens, witha

proximal inner stripe of yellow. Armature as for subfamily.

Wings evenly enfumed with pale greenish brown or darker brown, this

varying widely according to age of specimen, whilst insome, the tint is arich

golden brown throughout whole breadth and length of wings; pterostigma

very long, over 7 to 8 cells, black.

Abdomen black marked with greenish-yellow as follows,—segment 1 with a

narrow apical annule and its ventral border; 2 with a broad lateral stripe

constricted at its middle and then dilated at apical border, and the ventral

border narrowly ; segments 3 to 6 with baso-lateral half-rings confluent with

a lateral stripe, which on 3 and 4 runs the whole length of segment, on 5 for

the basal half and on 6 forthe basal third only. On segments 7 and 8 only

the basal ring, and a ventral stripe on apical two-thirds of latter.

These markings may be largely obscured in fully adult specimens, especially

towards the hinder segments.

Anal appendages black ; superiors sub cylindrical, flattened and partially

dilated towards the apical end of middle third, widely separated at base,

apices curling gently in and meeting or overlapping one another, and hollowed

out on their outer side. Inferiors very short, thick, closely apposed, aborted

and not visible in profile.

Female. Abdomen 32mm. Hindwing 33mm.

Head : eyes dark olivaceous brown, bluish grey beneath ; rest of head black

with a vertical stripe on the cheeks bordering the eyes, a transverse stripe on

lower part of frons, slightly interrupted by a triangular wedge of black below,

the bases of inandibles and two long oblong spots on labrum creamy to citron-

yellow.

Protliorax black with a large oval spot on each side of middle lobe and a

sraall spot on outer side of posterior lobe citron-yellow.

Thorax black marked with bright citron-yellow as follows,—antehumeral and

humeral narrow stripes squarely confluent above and meeting at a point below,

the humeral often interrupted at its middle. Laterally three stripes, the hinder

very broad and covering the whole of metepimeron except for a small elongate

black area anteriorly and below; the two anterior stripes separated from each

other and from the hinder yellow by narrow black stripes which map out the

lateral sutures. A small spot of yellow beneath partially obscured by pruines-

cence. Legs as for male but more yellow within.

Wings hyaline more or less enfumed according to age; pterostigma 4°5 mm

in length, black, over7 to 8 cells; venational details as for male; 30

to 36 antenodal nervures in forewings, 19 to 20 postnodals; 25 to 26

antenodals in hindwing, 19 to 21 postnodals ; discoidal cell traversed once or

twice, usually twice in the female, once in the male; 3 cubital nervures in all

wings in both sexes ; JA not usually forked.

Abdomen black with markings similar to the male but very vividly defined

and the ventral stripes continued to the 7th segment. Segment 9 with a very

large triangular spot on each side covering its apical half. Anal appendages

slightly longer than segment 10, acutely pointed, black.

Distribution. Coorg, S. Kanara, Agency tracts, Jeypore. The exact

distribution of this insect has yet to be worked out. Its occurrence in the

Eastern Ghats came as a surprise and when coupled up with the occurrence of

such western species as Rhinocypha bisignata, Zygnoyx isis, Gynacantha

millavdi, Burmagomphus pyramidalis, Anax immaculifrons, etc., throws

a vivid light on the path along which distribution and spread of species has

taken in the past. The Gangetic plain lies however like an impassable sea

between these montane areas and the Himalayas to the north, and we have yet

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 59

to learn how the southern fauna originated. From its high specialization, we

can only judge that aeons of time have separated and isolated the southern

fauna from the northern.

This species was the first of its genus to be taken within Indian limits, and

from its appearance, would appear to be the most primitive.

In Coorg it is taken all along the course of the Cauvery and many of its

tributaries, being less common in the Hatti and Harrangay rivers. The type

female was taken a quarter of a mile from the river.

Mr. C. A. Souter has since discovered the species in the Agency tracts on the

eastern side of India but it is not known to occur in any other part of

the intervening area. Typein B. M.

Dysphaea walli Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxix, pp. 82-83 (1927).

Male. Abdomen 35inm. Hindwing 31 mm. =

Head glossy black with a small yellow spot on the upper part of each cheek

and the bases of mandibles obscurely ochreous ; rest of head unmarked ; eyes

black above, dove grey beneath.

Prothorax black with a large oval citron-yellow spot on each side of middle

lobe.

Thorax black marked with citron-yellow as follows,—narrow ante-humeral

and humeral stripes confluent above by a connecting bar which runs parallel

with the alar sinus, converging and confluent below ; four stripes on the

sides and an upper vestige of a posthumeral. Of the four stripes, the most

anterior lies on the first Jateral suture, the second covers the posterior half of

the mesepimeron, the third borders the metepimeror anteriorly and above,

whilst the fourth covers the posterior half of that structure. Beneath black.

Legs black, the hinder pair of femora broadly yellow or obscurely so on the

outer side.

Wings very palely and evenly enfumed, the bases of all four dark blackish

brown for nearly two-thirds the distance from base to node in forewings, and

fully three-fourths of that distance in the hind, the outer margin of the fascia

being slightly convex ; 27 to 26 ante-nodal nervures in forewings, about 20

postnodals ; 19 to 23 antenodals in hindwings, 18 to 21 postnodals; discoidal

cell traversed once or twice in all wings, more usually twice ; 3 cubital nervures

in all wings ; pterostigma black long narrow, over 6 to 8 cells.

Abdomen black marked with blue or citron-yellow as follows,—segment 1

with a large triangular yellow spot on each side ; segments 2 to 5 with a lateral

stripe azure blue, broad at base where it ascends somewhat on the basal mar-

gin of dorsum, tapering to a fine point at the end cf each segment. Remaining

segments unmarked. .

Anal appendages black, the inferiors closely apposed, vestigial and not

visible in profile ; superiors nearly twice the length of segment 10, seen laterally,

broad at base, tapering to a subacute apex which is bevelled downwards. Seen

from above, narrow at base, broadening apicad and then slightly narrowed

again, compressed markedly in their apical halves. Apices curling strongly in

to meet or actually overlap

Female. (Unknown.)

Distribution.—Maymyo, N. Shan States, Upper Burma. Four males

collected by Col. F. Wall, 1.m.s., May 30, 1924. Typein B. M.

( Zo be continued.)

A SHIELD-MAKING BEETLE

(SYVDIA CLATHRATA, F.)

Mayor R. W. G. HINGSTON, I.M.S.

(With a plate)

Here is astrange device. There seems to be no end to Nature’s

ingenuity when it comes to sheltering her creatures from attack.

This is a shield manufactured of excreta, a kind of plate under

which the insect hides. We find it on the larve ofthe tortoise beetles.

They are odd-shaped insects. As their name implies, they look like

miniature tortoises. Some of them are brilliant beyond description,

shining in a varied glow of colour that reminds us of precious

stones.

The one in question is Szuzdza clathvata. The rains is the time

to look for its larve. I found them at Jhansi towards the end

of July. The central plain of India was then green and fresh; the

dense thorny jungles dripped with moisture; all vegetation was

rich and copious from the refreshing influence of the monsoon.

What the larva liked was Rivea hypocrateritformis, a _ wild

creeper with heart-shaped leaves that roped itself around other

trees. One morning I found this creeper covered with black

blotches. At the first glance it looked like some fungus growth.

On closer inspection I sawthe fungus move. Then it was apparent

that these were larvee concealed in some extraordinary way.

The problem was clearly worth investigation. Each larva was all

but invisible ; what one saw was a flat triangular plate, black and

roughened, obviously composed of a multitude of particles moulded

into a kind of dorsal shield. With the tip of a straw I tilt up the

shield. It is freely moveable. Behind only is there a point of

attachment. The shield lifts up and turns backward like a lid fixed

on a posterior hinge. Underneath is the owner, the manufacturer

of the shelter, a delicate tortoise-beetle grub.

We first look to the larva. It is oval, distinctly flattened, the

head somewhat more rounded than the tail. When fully grown, its

length is about half an inch. Its colour is dark brown, almost to

black ; three pairs of legs support it underneath: its back is raised

into a longitudinal ridge suitable for bearing the saddle-like shield.

Particularly conspicuous isits sharp margin. This bristles all round

with spines, not just simple processes, but complicated daggers,

each consisting of a central spike ringed about with shorter points.

They jut out ina line along either flank, thus forming an arma-

mentarium all round the body that projects from beneath the edge

of the shield. The two at the head end are strongly bifurcated. All

are acutely sharp. Each spine looks as if fitted with a special

poisonous tip. Obviously they are of defensive value. The shield

protects the larva’s back: the spines guard its flanks.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc,

ADULT x 4.

A SHIELD-MAKING BEETLE (Siuzdia clathrata, F.) LARVA x 8.

r a

ey ‘

(Ca

A SHIELD-MAKING BEETLE 61

Now turn to the shield. It is a kind of adjustable backplate, a

hard flat lamina of fragmentary debris, slightly concave underneath

so as to fit over the body and almost flat above. Roughly triangular,

with the base behind, on either side it is prolonged a little outward

something like a pair of wings. Black in colour like its owner, it is

of a toughish consistency, but somewhat friable as one might-expect

from its source. As a shield it fulfils the function excellently. The

larva’s back is completely covered. Scarcely a chink is open to

invasion. Just the head peeps from under the front of the invest-

ment and some spines project from either side. As we have seen,

the shield possesses mobility, being attached to the larva at one

point only, the extreme tip of the tail. It can be raised and lowered

at will. Ordinarily the tail is bent over the back, and then the shield

isinits natural position. A straightening of the tail means an

elevation of the shield; a bending forward of the organ brings it

back into place again. What an excellent device, an adjustable

armour under voluntary control.

The purpose of this shield is scarcely open to question. It must

be a protective device. What are the enemies ? No doubt parasitic

diptera and hymenoptera, minute foes but none the less dangerous,

capable of perforating a delicate skin but unable to get through

the shield. Also the backplate must be a disguise, so altering the

shape and appearance of the insect that no one would imagine that

the roughened flakes concealed a living creature underneath.

Numbers of black ants haunt the creeper. I never see them molest

these larve. They run about in the vicinity but make no attempt to

capture them ; these dried up flakes with their hidden owners show

so little indication of being alive.

But the wonderful thing is the manufacture of the shield. It con-

sists of a mixture of skins and excrement, the outside and inside refuse

of the larva refuse cemented into a solid mass. Under the microscope

we see its constituents, pieces of dried skin, old coverings of spines,

fragmentary material which the larva has cast off. All are cemented

together with excrement ejected from the larva’s gut. What an

excellent use to make of exuvie ! Economy is a rigid principle in

Nature. Certain spiders eat their disintegrated webs : some newly-

born caterpillars devour their egg-shells ; grasshoppers gobble up

their moults. This is another good example. Rejected skins and

undigested food are welded into a protective plate.

The shield is sometimes a kind of garden. Springing from it is

a growth of-fungus. There are delicate stems and leaf-like pro-

cesses which often give it a woolly appearance making it still more

like a patch of mould. Of course it is minute, a microscopic vege-

tation. It grows thick*when the larva is imprisoned. A heap of

white wool springs up luxuriantly, favoured by the damp air and

fertilized by rich manure. What an odd protective combination, a

garden on a plate of excrement and skins !

A pair of spines holds the shield in position. They project from

the tail, are stiff and pointed, equalin length to the larva’s body.

and firmly embedded in the plate. The skins, on being shed, are

passed back to the tail, then out along these caudal spines. There

they accumulate, become spread out into the groundwork of the

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX2G7T7

shield. The sheddings fit the shape of the backplate. The earliest,

being small, make an apex to the structure; the others, being

successively larger, give it the triangular shape. Thus it grows by

repeated addition of exuviz, keeping pace with its owner’s deve-

lopment and protecting it from the very start.

The spines of course move with the tail. Hence the mobile plate.

I touch the larva beneath the edge of its shelter. Down comes the

shield tighter on its back. I find cne with the shield raised. A

gentle stroke on its exposed area brings the structure back into

place.

Now a word as to manufacture. How is the excrement applied

to the skins? This is best observed when the larva is quite young.

I collect a batch of eggs. They have been layed upon the food-

plant, minute ovals, somewhat flattened, one-sixteenth of an inch

long and one-thirtieth in width. The shellis smooth, pale yellow

in colour; its margin is fringed all round with spicules that

probably help to hold the egg in place. Over it lies a translucent

covering, a waterproof film like dried-up varnish, that protects it

from wet and binds it to the leaf.

The surface of the egg darkens with age. On the sixth day

hatching occurs. A larva slips out from the interior leaving the

shell to all appearances intact. I happen to catch it in the act of

emergence. The aperture of exit is at the pole of the egg.

Head first it pushes out of the prison. Ventral surface upward, back

against the leaf, it clutches the outside of the eggshell and pulls

itself into tne world. It is minute, exquisitely delicate, almost

transparent, faintly tinged with green, broad at the head, tapering

to the tail whichends ina pair of spines. Arounditis a fringe of

spicules. The tailis erect, bent over the back as when employed

in carrying the shield. Of course there is no trace of the

backplate ; the larva is quite naked on its entrance to the world.

Its length is scarcely one-sixteenth of an inch exclusive of the caudal

spines.

From the moment of birth it displays activity. What protection

does it need? Scarcely any at this stage. Itis so minute that no

enemy would notice it. Moreover, being faintly tinged with green,

it does not make even a spot upon the leaf. Life becomes now a

chewing at the foliage, for the first few days just a nibble at the

epidermis, later on borings through and through the leaf. Growth

is slow. By ten days its length is one-fifth of an inch: after

eighteen days it is the size of a pea.

Our best time to observe it is when quite young. We can

then discover its shield-making machinery, how the excreta is

applied to the plate. I place a young larva beneath the microscope.

It is feeding ona leaf, just moving quietly from side to side. Its

hind extremity is the point of interest. Therethe termination of

the gut is visible, not an orifice flush with the surface, but a cylindri-

cal projection looking like a tail, a tube with an upwardly directed

mouth. This protuberance sticks outward and upward. It is

mobile, under the control of the larva, can be held erect or bent

downward untilits tip touches the leaf. I focus the tip of this pro-

tuberance. Nothing happens for a time. Then I see a strange

A SHIELD-MAKING BEETLE 63

thing, an apparition, which immediately discloses how the backplate

is made. The rectal protuberance begins to lengthen. A finger-

like dilatation comes out from its interior. Slowly but quite per-

ceptibly, the elongation develops, the protuberance unrolling itself

something like a telescope until it is almost the larva’s length. This

is really a wonderful transformation, a huge voluntary prolapse of

the rectum; the gutis being turned inside out. The prolapsed

part is pale, almost transparent, just alittle tinged with green owing

to excrement showing through the wall.

Now observe the purpose of this extraordinary telescope. I see

it carried forward over the larva’s back. Its tipisthen applied to

the triangular shield and a drop of excrement squeezed out. What

a purpose! It is the organ for manufacturing the backplate. The

shield is made with a telescopic gut. I continue to watch. At

intervals of a few minutes, as fresh supplies of feecal matter accu-

mulate, this remarkable rectal protrusion takes place. Drop after

drop is added to the shield. The additions are fluid, soon they

harden, in fact the excrement is a mortar which binds the skins into

a solid plate. A few hours after birth the larva attaches its first

drop. The excrement is then a thin liquid: later it exudes in small

lumps which materially thicken and strengthen the shield. At all

times it is dense black. Can this colour be a special modification?

Insects and larve that eat green food asa rule excrete green waste.

Here is an unexpected change in pigment. What goes in bright

green comes out dense black. The machinery for protection is not

merely superficial. Changes take place in the larva’s interior ;

pigments are elaborated and mixed with the excreta in order that

the backplate may resemble mould.

Nature, indeed, produces wonderful contrivances. This is one of

the oddest and most elaborate: a framework of spines, a plate of

excrement and skins, a protrusive telescopic rectum to serve as a

manipulating hand. And all this for one purpose, to supply a

protective device.

Just afew words to complete the larva’s development. When

full grown it becomes a pupa, an odd-looking spiculated lump.

Flattened, raised dorsally into a hump, scales and thorns enclose it,

the larva’s shield is stil] fixed to its back. The pupa too has pro-

tective armour. In front is a barricade of spines, along the sides is

a line of scale-like protuberances, the hind extremity ends in a

telson something like a lobster’s tail. There is one weak point in

the middle of the back. There the integument is thin and vulner-

able. But over it is the old shield that protected the larva, now a

saddle across the pupa, hard and black and rigid as ever, still

serving as a plate of armour even in this quiescent stage.

From the pupa comes the beetle, the miniature tortoise. Weak

and soft onfirst emergence, it takes a day or two to stiffen its

integument, also to develop that pattern of spots which adds such

adornment to its glistening dress. Oval, half an inch in length,

bright yellow with a metallic sheen, its back is carved into pits and

ridges and decorated with an elegant pattern of spots. Its reptilian-

like investment covers it completely. Only the antennze and the

tips of the legs appear beneath the edge of the carapace. All in all

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

it is a curious insect, in itself almost as strangely fashioned as is the

larva in its mode of defence.

Conspicuous, undesirous of concealment, it keeps to the exposed

leaves. Patches of excrement tell us of its whereabouts. No

longer required for defensive architecture, the ejections now stain

the green vegetation with blotches of black tar. Very sensitive to

intrusion, the slightest touch disturbs it. Down it tumbles from its

seat on the creeper and is lost in the undergrowth beneath.

So much for Sizzdia. Like a snail it carries a roof on its

back. The construction of tenements is common amongst larve.

We meet with some remarkable instances. Psychid caterpillars cut

stems, bind them with silk, and shape the edifice into a cone.

Chrysopa larvee collect empty skins, usually aphids sucked dry of

juice, and pile this refuse on their backs. Caddis larve make

cylindrical cases from leaves or stones woven with silk. The

tortoise beetles equal any of these. They have not even to collect

materials; they just accumulate their skins and dung.

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE

ADJACENT-HILE. PROVINCES

BEING

NATURAL History NOTES

CoL. A. BE. WARD

Part VIII

(With a plate)

(Continued from page 716 of Vol. XXXII.)

ARCTOIDEA

Family—MVustelide. Martens, Weasels etc.

Genus—CHARRONIA

The Pine Marten—Charronia flavigula

A special genus was recently established for the Indian Martens

for which Gray’s name of Charronia was available. The genus

Charronia is represented in Kashmir and the adjacent provinces by

the typical race Charronia flavigula (Mustela flavigula of Blanford).

Charronta flavigula has various vernacular namese.g. TZutuvala,

Chitrdéla, but the commonest name is Gran.

Colour—Head, nape, hind neck and rump, tail and legs brown

or black; chin and upper throat are yellowish-white, stomach

yellowish; black specimens are rarely found.

Head and bcdy of avery large specimen 24”.

Weight of a specimen shot in the Liddar in Kashmir 9 Ibs. This

specimen I sent to the British Museum.

Distribution.—Throughout the Himalayan region from east to

west, also in the Burmese hill ranges.

Habits—-Hill forests are the chief abodes. They live in families

which hunt together ; whilst hunting, among brushwood if these

martens come on some object that disturbs them they will jump on

to a rock and peer around and then scuttle up into the trees.

The Pine Marten kills birds and any mammals it can overcome,

often catching musk deer. Monsieur Henri Dauvergne saw a

family of these martens kill ayoung markhor in the Kajnag Hills.

In Jousar J saw a family catch a musk deer. Very often cicadas

are eaten and so are berries. lJ once saw three or four Indian

Martens go for a young wild pig, but this was too much for mother

pig to put up with.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIITI

Genus—MARTES

The Beech Marten.—J/artes foina

Vernacular name.—M sr, etc.

The ‘ Misr’ or ‘ Misser’ is sold in Srinagar under the name of

Stone Marten, the pelt of which is valuable.

Colour—The colouring of J/artes foina after it has become adult does

not vary much except according to season. Generally it is reddish-

grey with a brown hue, or whitish-brown to almost greyish-white in

winter at high altitudes ; throat and breast pure white. The under

parts are nearly always white, thus the variations in colour are

seasonal. The Turkestan skins are very light in colouring and for

this variety Blanford suggests the name of 7. leucolachne@a. I do

not suppose this name will ever be used; a few of the pelts from

Baltistan are exactly like those from Afghanistan and Turkestan.

Dimensions. —Head and body 17” to about 19”. Tail with hair

about 12” ; the whole tail is covered with hairs.

Distribution.— Europe and Western Asia. Inthe Himalayan ranges,

from Kumaon to Afghanistan, it is found from about 6,000’ to about

13,000’. The Beech Marten is fond of living in stacks of fuel wood,

and frequents the vicinity of small villages. The young are born

in the early spring. Like all martens it is very blood-thirsty ; it

kills poultry in large quantities and is also almost omnivorous. In

the Society’s Journal (vol. xxi, p. 1320) Lt.-Coi. Magrath records

seeing a marten at 11,000’ while toiling up a moraine at Sonemurg

which was evidently prospecting the mouse-hare burrows under the

rocks from which he saw it emerge.

Genus—PUTORIUS

The Tibetan Pole-Cat.—Putorzus larvatus

This Pole-cat apparently is not found on the south of the main

passes leading from Kashmir, but has been obtained in Ladak

where it is rare.

Colour.—I1 have seen European Pole-cats almost exactly like

larvatus, except that the latter pelts are lighter in colour as a rule.

The general colouring is a yellowish-white, the tips of the hairs are

deep brown. ‘The face‘is deep brown ; chin whitish ; legs and tail

deep brown.

Dimensions. — Head and body about 14”; tail 6”.

Distribution.—Ladak and plains of Central Tibet.

As Blanford remarks, it has the habits of the European Pole-cat,

but P. larvatus lives amongst rocks and loose stones; it seems to be

confined to the northern parts of Ladak.

Hodgson was probably the first to obtain specimens of this Pole-

cat, but as far as I know he got them from Tibet.

Genus—MUSTELA

The Himalayan Weasel—Justela subhemachalanus

It has been definitely agreed to restrict the generic name Putorius

to the Polecats, using J/ustela for the Weasels.

Colour.—Chestnut red, the shade of red does not vary much. In

summer it is plain red, the end of the tail is dark rufous and so is

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 67

the nose. The chin is white and there area few isolated white

patches on the upper part of the breast.

W7ensions.—T1,. ®& Bb. 10807: Tail. 7:00”: HiF. 1-90°s Ear

0:90” ; Male, Liddar Valley, Kashmir.

Distrtbution.—Blanford limits the range of the weasel to the

Eastern Himalayas (Nepal and Sikkim) from which it appears to

extend to the hill ranges of U. Burma. ‘There isa skin in the

British Museum from Mogok (4, 400 ft). I have however seen

scores of this weasel in various parts of the province with which I

am now dealing. In fact a pair breed under the hut in which I pass

weeks every summer.

The White-nosed Weasel— Mustela canigula

Colour.—This weasel is said to differ from the preceding species

in having its tail uniformly coloured. Further, the white colouring,

which in the Himalayan Weaselis limited to the chin and to afew

patches on the breast, in the present species extends well round the

nose, legs, chin, throat and upper breast.

Dimensions.—The average of 4 specimens measured by me is as

rollows.—H. & B. 10°47: Pail6:37; H.F. 1:8” | Bar -97.

Ditibnidon.—Blaniord believes that the White-nosed Weasel is the

Western Himalayan species while subhemachalanus is the eastern

form. ‘ The former extending its range eastwards from Kashmir into

Tibet.’ Ifind it very difficult to separate the two species as the

extent of white colouration which is given asa distinctive feature

is variable.

‘Lhe Pale Weasel—Justela temon

Blanford in his Mammalia adopted the name a/fznus for the pale

form of weasel which occurs in Nepal, Sikkim and adjoining Tibet,

to which Hodgson’s name of ¢femon has now been ascribed. JAZustela

alpinus was originally described from the Altais and specimens from

that locality show that it isa distinctly larger and stouter animal

than femon.

Colour.—Above light brown with a tinge of reddish on back and

tail. Lower parts yellow or white.

Distribution.—The distribution is given as Nepal. Kumaon and

Sikkim. An example of this weasel was obtained by Miz. H. Wells in

the Mammal Survey in the Pattan Valley 10,000 feet and at Kyelang

(10,380) in Lahul, a subdivision of Kuiu.

Habits.—Commenting on the weasels obtained by him, Mr. Wells

writes, ‘ The pale weasel is by no means common, but when the snow

is deep in winter a few are generally killed, mostly near villages.

It lives amongst rocks and feeds on small animals and birds. ’

The Kashmir Weasel—JZustela longstafti

Mustela longstaffi is the trans-Himalayan Weasel, a species inter-

mediate between the Mongol-Siberian form alfznus and the

cis-Himalayan femon. The type described by Mr. Wroughton in the

Society’s Journal (vol. xx, p. 931) is from Teza in the upper Sutlej

Valley (14,000 feet.). In dongstaffi, the pale yellowish-white of the

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

belly is quite sharply demarcated from the back and flanks. In ¢emon

the line of demarcation is less well defined.

Colour.—The general colour above is described as a pale shade of

‘clay’ colour; below pale yellowish-white. Head slightly darker

than the tail, and same colour as the back ; hands and toes white.

Distribution.—In the Society’s collection there are specimens

from Gilgit, from Ladak and Tibet—all obtained at altitudes vary-

ing from 13-15,000 feet.

The Indian Ermine or Stoat.—Mustela whiteheadi

Examples of Stoat taken in Kashmir and the adjacent provinces

are presumably referable to the species which was described by

Mr. Wroughton under the above name from a specimen obtained

in the Kaghan Valley, Hazara District. The Indian Stoat is dis-

tinguished from the European by its much smaller size.

Colour.—The colouration of the Himalayan Stoat differs in no

way from the typical European species. The summer coat is

brownish with a red tinge, yellowish-white below. Tail tipped

with black—a specimen taken by Mr. C. H. Donald is described as

‘dull sepia brown on the body very slightly darker on the head

which also had the faintest tinge of reddish.

Distribution This Stoat is fairly common in Kashmir and

Baltistan at highaltitudes. Thetype specimen is fromthe Kaghan

Valley, Hazara District 14,000 feet. A specimen was obtained by

Mr. B. B. Osmaston in the Pir Pinjal Range (11,500); while an-

other was obtained at Gondla, Lahoul, 10,000 feet by Mr. H. G. Wells

(Mammal Survey Report, Journal B.N.H.S. vol. xxxi, p. 602).

There are specimens in the Society’s collection from Chitral, the

Kurran Valley and from Kashmir in addition to those from the

Kaghan Valley presented by Major Hannington.

In Volume XXI of the Society’s Journal Major H. A. Magrath

records having seen a Stoat near Palghar, Kashmir, when crossing a

snow patch at about 14,000 feet in surroundings which were noth-

ing but bare rocks and snow. A Stoat was captured by Mr. C. H.

Donald at an elevation of 13,000 feet on the Larka pass N. E. of

Dharmsala. (Jour. B.N.H.S., vol. xxvii, p. 624) which he took to be

a European Ermine, both these specimens are undoubtedly

referable to the present species.

Sub-Family—Lutrinae

Genus—LUTRA

The Common Otter—Lutva lutra nair, F. Cuv.

This is the Indian representative of the common otter of Europe

to which Blanford refers under the name vulgaris ; but as Wrough-

ton has pointed out, the specific name /utra, L. is older than vulgaris,

Erxl. and must be used for it.

Vernacular names—Ud-Udmilau (The Water Cat) Panz Kutta

(The Water Dog), Wadar.

Colour.—The colouring varies from brown to a reddish-brown,

some skins have long hairs with light brown tips, these are pulled

out by the furriers, until the remaining hairs are of a uniform length,

the better skins have close darkish brown covering, which is smooth

JOURN. BomBAy Nar. Hist. Soc.

Otter, approaching

ss ss

sh head

cautiously.

foremost.

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 69

and sometimes deep brown. The lower parts, breast, throat and

sides of the head are whitish—now and again a fine pelt can be got.

Lately otters have been a good deal killed off, but in some rivers

they are still to be found. It is sometime since I have seen a really

good skin fit for making up.

Dimenstons.—Head and body from about 24 to 30”; tail 15 inches.

A male otter from the Arrah river, Dachgam Game Reserve

weighed 16lbs., a second 17 lbs.

Distribution.—The Indian Otter is generally admitted to be indis-

tinguishable from the European Otter. It is common in the North-

West of India and ascends high up into the hills. I have seen them

in summer time playing in the snow by the Mar-sar at the head of

Dachgam at about 12,000 feet elevation. Wherever trout have

been put into the upland tarns the otters find them out. High up

amongstthe lakes at the head of Wangut ravine, otters are to be

found ; apparently they only go high up the streams in midsummer.

As arule the otters in Kashmir can find so much to eat in the well-

stocked streams that they become very dainty and fish can be found

on stones in the water with only a portion of the shoulder eaten out,

whereas in water where fish are scarce, the whole including the

head will be eaten. (See Plate, Fig. 1).

They journey a good deal by land, and their wet foot tracks can be

found along the edges of small streams, and across belts of sand ;

they will trek along the dry land when migrating to the higher

waters. Year by year they return to their favourite winter quarters,

where the ‘Holt’ or dwelling place is occupied; this is generally

where large numbers of fish congregate indeep pools. Sometimes

the approach to the ‘ Holt’ is under water, where it is not easy to

find. A family of otters took up their abode under a fallen tree

which lay across a small patch of marshy ground; by setting traps in

the approaches to this well-concealed dwelling place, three were cap.

tured then the others decamped, and took to living under a very

large projecting rock which had no approach except under water.

One was shot whilst swimming in the river close to the rock, but no

place to set a trap could be discovered.

On several occasions in the early spring just before duck

shooting ceases, I have seen otters in the deeper and larger jhils and

lakes.

The Jumna river in the Dehra Dun and so also the Tons

and Ganges contain many otters. I used to stand on a bridge and

shoot them as they swam upstream. I have seen as many as 8 or 9

moving about together and far greater numbers have been seen

collected on river banks. There is very little difficulty in taming an

otter, if caught young; they will get quite tame and follow likea dog,

but near a river there is danger of losing a pet otter. Fig. 3 in

the plate is that of an otter making a cautious approach when

fishing.

In the house they are very troublesome as they upset every water

jug, especially in a bath room where they like to dwell when the

weather is hot. Tame otters, will eat meat and frogs. They

evidently call to one another and the mother calls to the young when

she wants to collect and lead them elsewhere.

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

There is a smaller otter which is more reddish-brown in colour-

ing than L. vulgaris, it is perhaps not to be found in the hills in

the vicinity of Jumna and Kashmir, etc., but I have seen what I

think is this animal on the Ladak river and in Eastern Kumaon.

Anyone who sees it will be struck by its small size and if the otter

is dry, by the chestnut brown of the head and body. In weight it is

said to be 9 to 11 lbs. and I should imagine it is not much more than

half the weight of the Common Otter. It is one thing to see otters

swimming about in a river and another to secure one when shot,

especially in a deep current of water. Moreover when beating in line

with elephants, there are often restrictions which prevent general

shooting ; this was the case when I came on this otter. I failed to

find them when I went again to lookfor them. These otters would

not have been without the parent otter if they were L. vulgaris for

they were too small. It is to be hoped that efforts will be made to

get a good series of otters from Kashmir as in the absence of

modern material it is impossible to arrive at a sound judgment as

to the identity of the smaller species noted by me.

Family URS/DAA—Bears

Genus—URsuUSs

The bears with which we are concerned are the Brown Bear and

the Himalayan Black Bear.

The Brown Bear.—Ursus tsabellinus

The name arctus used by Blanford applies to the North European

Bear and zsabe/linus is used for its Indian representatives.

Vernacular names.—Lal Balu, Lal Haput, Barft-ka-rinch of Kash-

miris. Drin-mor in Baltistan and the borders of Ladak.

Colour.—Variable. Some are reddish-brown with the lower parts

of the fur yellowish. In the autumn the skins are offen very hand-

some being light in colouring. The handsome skins are those of

large bears which can occasionally be shot before they hibernate, the

tips of the hairs being yellowish white, but big bears are now very

scarce. There seems to be no general rule which governs the

colouring, sometime big male bears are very red.

Dimensions.—When writing regarding Big Game shooting I did

not dwell much on the size, but I mentioned I had measured one

7’ between pegs, that means from the nose to the root of the

tail. It was shot in the ‘Gurgai’ and gave ahuge pelt. I have

heard of larger Brown bears, but I think 7' 6” which is about the

limit given by Adams has probably not been exceeded if the

straight measurement between pegs has been adopted.

Distribution. 'There are a few brown bears in the Hirki Dun

above Kumaon, Kashmir, Chamba, Baltistan, the borders oft Ladak-

Suru and rarely in Zanskar and Gilgit.

The Tibetan Brown Bear is U. pruznosus (Blyth).

Habits.—All brown bears hibernate either in caves or under a mass

of fallen trees provided this makes a complete covering. They

come down from their haunts in the high ground about October visit-

ing the spots where sheep have been folded during the early

autumn, and wlere the grass, wild parsnips and other vegetation

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 71

grows. They dig up the ground and visit the same place late in the

autumn evenings. ‘Then they go still lower down and get to their

winter quarters. When spring approaches they emerge and fora

few days loiter about in the vicinity of their cold weather quarters.

If snow falls they temporarily go back undercover. After they have

fed on any herbage they gradually ascend, keeping below the level

of the heavy snow, but if disturbed they will trek for miles across

the hard snow. :

Ursus tsabellinus is generally a vegetarian, but will kill sheep and

ponies. That it does this frequently and eats them there is no doubt.

Once it has taken to this habit it becomesa pest. In Mir-mullik

and in the vicinity of Nanga Parbat I spent many days after a

couple of brown bears betore I could get oneof them. A Brown

Bear killed and devoured a large buffalo calf in the Liddar where

there was plenty of vegetation and insect life under the stones. It

is on the whole a fairly harmless animal but will fight when

wounded, sportsmen have been killed when following a wounded

Brown Bear, but I have not heard of one ever becoming a man-killer.

The sense of smell is keen, sight is poor, and hearing not at all

acute.

The pairing season is in the autumn. The young are born in the

spring and follow the mother into the snow clad country as soon as

they cantravei, which is not until several weeks after they are born,

for they are very helpless little creatures for some time.

There are a very few Brown Bears left, and it is a pity to shoot

them. Luckily they have long lives and if the shcoting is still more

restricted, there may be hopes for the future.

Genus—SELENARCTOS

The Himalayan Black Bear—Selenarctos tibetanus

Recent studies of the external characters of bears have necessitated

the separating of the Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus torquatus of Blan-

ford) as a distinct genus under the name Selenarctos. Blanford rejected

Cuvier’s name /zbefanus as this animal occurs on the southern slopes

of the Himalayas and not in Tibet but that, as has been pointed out,

is technically an inadmissible objection to the use of the latter

name.

Colour.—Black except for the white horse-shoe mark on the

chest.

Dimensions.—In my former writings I dwelt at considerable

length on the size of the black bear and need not enter this subject

again.

Distribution.—Generally in nearly all the forests of the

Himalayas.

I have shot them in the Terai in the cold weather and at the foot

of the Himalayas, in various places, for this bear does not will-

ingly hibernate, the tendency except for very old animals especially

big males is to journey down from the higher altitudes feeding and

taking a long time on the way. They visit the oak forests where

they greedily devour the acorns and where, as I have before written,

they are shot in considerable numbers. Close to oak forests they

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL‘ HIST. SOGIETYV Val. XO

will assemble and may be seen after the sun shows on an open hill-

side, but directly the heat of the day comes on they go back to the

forest.

And then comes the chance of destroying some of these pests.

When the black bear does hibernate, it takes to a cave ora hollow

tree and can be dislodged. On frozen snow it will not travel far.

It is hard work to piod through the bushes which are covered with

snow and it is not worth the trouble to follow them unless the object

is to destroy a bear which is known to be harmful. When dealing

with a bear which has been much bullied or previously wounded it

is necessary to be very careful.

Bears are still plentiful but are very wary. In some parts of the

Himalayas especially where they are preserved they do infinite

damage. They are very destructive to the young of deer; 1 have

shot several by watching an uneasy hind which has just given birth

to a fawn.

Black Bears peel the bark off young pine trees to get at the resin ;

they also break the boughs of young walnut trees and utterly

destroy them, and the damage done to the ripening maize is very

trying to the villagers.

(To be continued.)

NEW COMMELINACEAE FROM THE WESTERN GHATS

EH. BLATTER; S.J., PH.D., B.E-S.

(With two text figures)

Aneilema rigidum, Blatter, sp. mov. [Commelinacea sectionis Euaneilematis.

Accedit ad Aneilema nudiflorum, Br., sed differt foliis plicatis, vagina foliorum

gabra excepto ore ciliato, pedicellis et bracteolis duplo longioribus, petalis

magnis. |

Root of stout fleshy fibres. Stem branched from the base ; branches straight,

rigid, thin, ascending at an angle of about 40° or procumbent, leafy half-way

up, striate and with one deep groeve, the ridges with a row of very minute hairs

and a few long hairs in the groove. Leaves 3-7 cm. by 7-20 mm., lanceolate or

linear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, base narrowed into the sheath, coriace-

ous, hairy or glabrous on the upper side, glabrous below, sheath glabrous

except for the mouth which is strongly ciliate. Flowers in terminal panicles,

branches of panicle up to 3 cm. long, scarred where they branch, bract at base

of panicle broadly ovate-lanceolate, acuminate or broadly ovate, acute, shea-

thing, sheath ciliate. Cymes subcorymbose at the ends of the branches ;

pedicels up to 9 mm. long, rigid ; bracteoles broadly ovate, 8 mm. long and

almost as broad, cymbiform, scarious, greenish yellow, entire or bifid at apex,

caducous. Sepals three, two are ovate-oblong, obtuse, one oblong, obtuse, all

scarious, light green, many-nerved. Petals pale purple, broadly ovate or sub-

orbicular or obovate, with a very small claw, obtuse or subacute, 10 mm. long

and broad. Perfect stamens two; filament pale purple, up to 8 mm. long,

bearded in central third only, hairs very long, bearded, darker purple than

petals ; anthers 1; mm. long, versatile, deep blue-black, pollen white. Stami-

nodes four, vellow, dimorphous : three have the filaments not bearded, the sterile

pyriform anther-lobes are borne on spreading stalks over 1 mm. long, connec-

tive prolonged, beyond the stalks of the anther-lobes and forming a club-shaped

rounded body (Fig. 2); one staminode has always a shorter filament and

bearded like the perfect stamens, but immediately above the beard there is

either a small yellow knob or two short deflexed arms. Ovary narrowly obovoid,

3-celled, green-purple, cells 2-ovulate, ovules ovoid, irregular. Capsule not

seen.

Locality : Tableland of Panchgani in grassland, Bombay Presidency (Blatter,

eyo).

ieee 20th August, 1925.

Note : I have never found the base of the leaves cordate or rounded.

The bracteoles are described above as entire or bifid at the apex. It is not

impossible that the two lobes are the result of mechanical rupture.

The flowers open towards 4 p.m.

In the above description we have seen three distinct statesin the structure of

the stamens: two perfect stamens with ordinary fertile anthers and bearded

filaments, one staminode with a bearded filament and a knob or two arms above

the beard, and finally three staminodes with stalked barren anther-lobes and a

thickened prolongation of the connective, but without a beard. 1 think we are

not quite wrong if we consider these three states as three distinct stages in the

devolution of the stamens. It would sound paradoxical to call it evolution of

the staminodes, though we cannot deny a certain amount of structural evolution

in the production of the three staminodes. I give a diagram of how I understand

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

the devolution having taken place (Fig. 1). We have first the perfect stamen (a),

then the stamen minus the anther (6), then'the stamen minus the prolongation

of the filament beyond the beard (c), then the formation of a knob above the

beard, the initial stage of the barren anther (d@), then a further development of

the barren anther (e), and finally the separation of the anther-lobes and dis-

appearance of the beard. This beard has remained constant throughout and

has disappeared only in the final stage. As staminodes are a common occur-

rence in the Commelinaceze and as this family is well represented in India,

anybody who wishes to take up the question of evolution or devolution would

find plenty of interesting and puzzling material.

Diagram showing possible devolution of perfect stamen in Anetlema

rigidum, BLATT.

BiGs

Aneilema Hallbergii, Blatter, sf. mov. [Commelinacea sectionis Dictyospermi.

Accedit ad Aneilema ovalifolium, Hook. f., sed differt ab eo foliis glabris, pani-

cula non pyramidali, antheris tribus perfectis earumque forma. Similis est

quoque aliquoinodo Aneilemati conspicuo, Kunth, sed recedit ab eo foliis ovato-

lanceolatis, panicula minime pyramidali, paniculae ramis non-horizontalibus. |

Lower part of stem sometimes creeping and rooting at the nodes. Shoots

erect, arising from the nodes outside the leaf-sheaths, or terminal, reaching

about 50 cm. in height. Lower internodes longer, up to 10 cm. long, upper

sctprani aca castanst east teeii

NEW COMMELINACEA FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 75

shorter, all rather stout, glabrous, deeply furrowed in the dry state. Leaves

usually clustered towards the top of the erect shoots ; sheaths cyliadrical,

2-3 cm. long, oblique at the top, glabrous or nearly so. Blade sometimes

absent at the lower nodes, 15 by 4°5 cm., ovate-lanceolate, long-acuminate,

narrowed at both ends, glabrous. Panicles terminal among the cluster of

leaves, compact, many-flowered, branches angular, puberulous. Pedicels at

length reaching 5-6 mm., drooping. Flowers subregular. Corolla pale lilac

or whitish. Stamens 3, perfect: one with long stout purple filament and reni-

form hastate anther, one with shorter purple filament and oblong anther, and

the third with still shorter white filament and oblong anther. Staminodes

0, 1, or 2 with white subulate filaments. Pistil white. Capsule subglobose ;

valves broad, about equal, olive-coloured, glistening when dry. Seeds one in

each cell,4 x 2 mm., slightly curved, obtuse at both ends, greyish white, with

a narrow black or brown scar not reaching the ends and a deep circular pit

2 mm. diam. close to the scar, the rest of the surface being ornamented by

deep angular pits in four longitudinal rows, the pits being separated by promi-

nent zigzag ridges.

The habit of this species closely resembles that of Dictyospermum ovalifolium,

Wight, Ic. 2070, which, however, has ‘the filament of the petaline stamen

longer than the others, at length spirally convolute’, and all anthers similar,

which is certainly not the case in our species.

Anetlema ovalifolium, Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. India, vi, 382, has only two

perfect stamens and thus cannot be Wight’s plant.

The new species comes also close to Anetlemaconspicuum, Kunth, but the

panicle is by no ineans pyramidal, the leaves are ovate-lanceolate, and the

seeds can certainly not be adequately described as rugose.

One root was observed reaching nearly 1 m. in length, slender, brown and

piercing a leaf-sheath at the base.

Locality -: Found by F. Hallberg and C. McCann in the evergreen forests of

Northern Kanara, particularly on the Ghats: Devimane Ghat (Herb. St.

Xavier’s College, Bombay, No. 34571, type); Gersoppa Ghat (Herb. St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay, No. 34761, co-type); also near Gersoppa Falls on both sides

of the river. Not common.

Flowers and fruits in October, 1919.

Aneilema siennea, Blatter, sf. mov. [Commelinacea sectionis Dichaespermi.

Similis Aneilemati lanuginoso, Wall., sed recedit ab eo habitu procumbenti,

foliis ovato-larnceolatis basi cordatis, pedicellis bibracteolatis, sepalis viridibus,

petalis perfecte orbicularibus. |

A small plant, up to 20 cm. high, much-branched. Roots of many cylindrical

tubers up to 2°5 cm. long and many long fibres arising from above the tubers.

Stem procumbent in the lower half, often rooting at the nodes, then ascending,

leafy, branching, green, glabrous except for a line of bristles running down

from the lower end of the mouth of the sheath to the next node. Leaves sessile,

alternate, bifarious, flat or subplicate, oblong or ovate-lanceolate, acute or

subacuminate, cordate, long-amplexicaul for up to 5 mm., 15-18-nerved,

glabrous above and below and puberulous or slightly hairy on the margin, or

sometimes hairy above and slightly so beneath and ciliate on the margin

(both states being found on the same plant), 5 by 2cm.; sheath, mouth of

sheath and margin of sheathing base stiff-bristly. Flowers usually from the ?

' uppermost leaf-sheaths, 1-2 from each sheath, but often from the 4 or 5 top-

most leaf-sheaths. Pedicels up to 2 cm. long, very slender, erect, jointed about

the middle and there furnished with 2 minute, ovate-triangular, blunt, green

bracteoles. Sepals 3, elliptic, boat-shaped, subobtuse, scarious, bright green,

5 by 3 mm., apex turned inwards. Petals 6-7 mm. long and broad, perfectly

orbicular, light raw-sienna-coloured, blue when withering, purple in bud.

Stamens : 3 perfect and 3 sterile, filaments of perfect stamens twice the length

of the others, raw-sienna-coloured, densely bearded with long hairs of the same

colour in the lower half, upper half naked ; anthers versatile, horizontal, dark

violet, opening longitudinally on the lower surface; pollen yellow filaments

of staminodes also bearded in lower half; sterile anthers yellow, with a long

connective to which two inward-curved anther-lobes are attached (Fig. 2).

Style dark purple, narrowly conical, curved, as long as the stamens or slightly

longer ; stigma white, minute. Ovary cylindrical, sessile, 3-celled, with 3

higher and 3 lower longitudinal ridges, cells usually 5-6-seeded, ovules visible

through the walls of the ovary.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

_ Locality : Panchgani, Bombay Presidency, 4,400 ft., on Tableland in low grass

in places where there is plenty of water (Blatter, P74, type).

Flowered and fruited in Aug. 1925.

Staminode of Anetlema rigidum.

Sterile Anther of Aneilema siennea.

. Ventral Side of Anther of Cyanotis sahyadrica.

, 5, 6. Ovules (Side-view) of Cyanotis sahyadrica.

Seed of Cyanotis sahyadrica.

NIE ONE

(All magnified).

Cyanotis epiphytica, Blatter, sf. nov. [Commelinacea, sectionis Dalzellas,

siinillima C. viviparae, Da'z., sed differt petalis fere usque at basim liberie.

staminum filamentis barbatis, et pedunculis non axillaribus. ]

An epiphytic herb with hardly any stem, consistiny of a creping rootstock

bearing tufts of leaves which are linear, acute, narrowed at both ends, up to

10cm. by 8mm. when mature, the young ones much shorter and rather fleshy,

all leaves, particularly the young ones, clothed with rufous hairs appressed

above, spreading below. Scapes many from below the tufts of leaves, slender.

often more than 10 cm. long, hairy, creeping and rooting at the nodes, vivipar-

ous at the apex (from which a new plant develops), having up to 10 internodes

and bearing small, elliptic-oblong, acute leaves, one at each node, appressedly

hairy above, subglabrous below, with membranous, rufous-hairy sheaths about

2 mm.long. At some ofthe central nodes of the scape a suberect peduncle

arises, sometimes 2 or 3 from the same node, and always below the sheath, not

axillary. Peduncles, like the scapes, often with 2internodes reaching about ]

em. and bearing much shorter leaves than the scape, the uppermost gathering

into a false whorl due to the shortening of the remaining internodes and func-

tioning as bracts for the inflorescence which forms a kind of terminal umbel,

generally consisting of one or two flowers. Pedicels about 2 mm. long, clothed

by spreading rufous hairs. Sepals three, 3mm. long, linear-oblong, acute, villous

with rufous hairs. Petals three, white, about as long as the sepals, oblong, sub-

acute, free nearly to the base. Stamens 6, 3 longer than the rest , filaments

white, densely bearded with white moniliform hairs. Anthers yellow, those of

the longer stamens larger. Ovary 1:5 mm. long, ovoid, obtuse, subtrigonous,

hispid, especially near the apex. Style several times longer than the ovary, but

included and twisted. Stigma small, yellow, capsule 3°5 mm. long, cylindrical,

obtusely trigonous with rounded corners, 3-sulcate, slightly broader towards the

hispid apex. Seeds 2 in each cell, subcylindrical, slightly compressed, with a

translucent greenish outer layer when fresh through which the brown core may

be distinguished, pointed at one end, 3-4 times as long as broad.

Locality: N. Kanara, Bombay Presidency. Found covering the lower part

of a single large trunk of atree up to about 10 ft. from the ground in the ever-

green forest above Gersoppa Ghat, very rare (Hallbergin Herb. St. Xavier’s

College, Bombay, Nos. 35002, 35003 type, 35004, 35047 co-types ; No. 7193 in

Herb. Sedgwick & Bell).

NEW COMMELINACEAE FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 77

Cyanotis sahyadrica, Blatter, sf. mov. [Commelinacea sectionis Eucyanotidis.

Similis Cyanotidi tuberosze Schult., sed differt ab ea caule nullo modo basi

incrassato neque hirsuto, bracteis cymis aequilongis vel eis longioribus,

staminum filamentis apice non tumidis, stylo spirali, seniinibus apice fere planis

minime conicis. |

A stout, coarse, hairy plant, about 30 cm. high. Root of fusiform tubers,

producing two aerial structures side by side ; a true stem and a pseudo-stem.

True stem solitary, suberect, very thin at base, rooting, without radical leaves.

cauline leaves few (4 or 5), ensiform, acute, scarcely narrowed below, amplexi-

caul, 7 cm. by 16 mm., scantily long-hairy on upper side, densely covered with

shorter hairs, on margin and lower surface, grass-green above, paler below,

sheath 2 cm. long, very tight, densely pilose. Pseudo-stem formed by the

sheaths of about 4 radical leaves. Leaves up to 20 by 3cm., linear or lanceolate

or linear-lanceolate, acute at apex, sheathing, leathery, on upper side sparsely

long-hairy, margin and lower surface densely clothed with shorter hairs, grass-

green above, paler below, sheath half-amplexicaul, long—and dense-hairy.

Cymes axillary and terminal, scorpioid, compact, villous, producing about 14

flowers, 17 mm. along the long diam. Peduncles 1-23 cm. long, grooved,

velvety hairy, usually several (up to4) together from alarge, ovate-lanceolate,

acute, hairy, falcately deflexed leaf, 2-6 cm. long and 5-17 mm. broad. Bracts

ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, foliaceous, 2 cm. long, 5mm. broad, as long as

the cymes or more often longer, hairiness the same as in cauline leaves

Bracteoles falcately ovate or ovate, acute or subacuminate, imbricating in 2series,

ciliate on margin, villous on lower surface, subscarious, brown-purplish in the

upper part of convex margin. Sepals 3, united at base, villous outside, lanceo-

late or oblanceolate or linear-lanceolate in the same flower, very acute, shining

smooth on inner surface. Petals 3, united into atube, 4mm, long, whitish,

passing slowly into a pale blue and dark blue at the apex of the lobes, longest

lobe 4 min. long, just as long as the tube, another 4 of the tube, all obovate or

suborbicular, apiculate, apex reflexed. Stamens 6, hypogynous. Filaments

white, about lcin. long, spirally twisted near anther which part is bearded

with very long, dark blue bearded hairs, cells of hairs sometimes elongate or

rounded. Anthers orange-yellow, 2 mm. long, broader at tip than below,

shaped like a closed fan from which the lower half has been cut off (Fig. 2).

Pollen golden-yellow, bean-shaped. Ovary ellipsoid with a very thick coat of

stiff yellowish brown hairs. Style 2cm. long, twice as Jong asthe stamens,

spirally twisted, filamentous, white, spindle-shaped below stigma, with a tuft

of blue hairs below the thickening. Ovules 6, shortly subcylindrical, truncate

at base, umbonate at tip, with a constriction between the umbo and thecylin-

drical part (Fig. 2). Capsule 3-4 by 2-3 mm., ellipSoid-obovoid, upper half

hairy, lower glabrous, slightly trigonous. Seeds broadly ovoid, 1-2 mm. long,

Sligntly narrower, somewhat compressed, truncate at base, flattened on one

side, rounded at apex, rugose. (Fig. 2).

Only one flower of the cyme opens ata time : the stamens are exserted and

the corolla just reaches the level of the bracteoles.—The umbo of the ovule has

disappeared in the seed and only a plano-convex disk is left at the tip of the

seed. The seed after removal from the capsule is white, but turns brown after

a few minutes.

Locality ; Panchgani, Bombay Presidency, about 4,000 ft., in grassland, two

miles towards Wai (Frenchman P38).

Flowered and fruited 19th July 1925.

DONGTSE

STRAY BirRD NOTES FROM TIBET

F. LUDLOW

(With two plates.)

Tibet is a land of lakes. Open any good map of the country

and you will find them scattered throughout the length and breadth

of the plateau like so many creeping amcebze—lakes of all shapes

and dimensions, big, little; deep, shallow; fresh, salt. On these

lakes, amidst the vast solitudes of the great tableland, the Bar-

headed Goose breeds in myriads, undisturbed and unmolested,

save by its own feathered enemies, and the few Tibetans who take

its eggs. Then winter comes. The lakes freeze to a depth of

several feet. Food is unobtainable, so the geese must perforce

depart. Some turn south and descend to the fertile plains of India,

but many remain in the lower valleys drained by the great Tsangpo.

Here the rivers still ow albeit choked with ice, and the midday sun

has stiil sufficient power to thaw the frozen ground. It is in these

‘rongs’ or cultivated valleys of Southern Tibet that the Bar-head

will be found in winter, either in fields of barley stubble or sunning

themselves on shingly river banks. In similar situations there

will also be Brahminy Duck innumerabie, and here and there flocks

of Black-necked Crane (egalornts nigricollts).

As regards duck, Mallard and Common Teal alone remain

throughout the winter in small numbers. Gadwall, Wigeon,

Shoveler, Pintail and the various Pochards just pass through hur-

riedly on migration, to feed themselves fat on Indian jheels.

It was late in December 1924. The old year was almost dead,

and save for scraggy Tibetan mutton our larder wasempty. Some-

thing had to be done and that quickly, otherwise we should fare ill

during the New Year.- There was no game in the immediate

neighbour-hood of Gyantse. ‘H’andI had scoured the country for

miles around and had hardly seena feather. So we decided on a trip

to Dongtse, a day’s march distant. This, of course, meant sleeping

in a Tibetan house with a temperature down to zero, and no fire-

place to huddle over in the evening.

But this chilly prospect did not deter us and off we started at

sunrise on our sturdy Tibetan ponies ; our food and bedding and that

of our servants on, three mules inthe rear. It was piercingly cold,

but there was no wind. Whataterrible enemy the wind is in Tibet ;

without it the climate would be perfect, but when it rages as it too

often does in winter, the climate is execrable. ‘To be caught in a

Tibetan blizzard in mid-winter is an experience no one ever forgets.

DONGTSE OR STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM TIBET 79

You may wear all the woollen clothes in your wardrobe and you will

be chilled to the bone. You may swathe your face ina mask or

muffler, wear the most wonderful dust-proof glasses ever fashioned,

and it will be of noavail. Your eyes, mouth, nostrils will be choked

with sand, your breath will freeze, and the icy spicules on your mask

or muffler will sear your face like sandpaper. In Tibet, with all due

deference to Gilbert, there is no ‘ beauty in the bellow of the blast ’,

—at any rate, in winter. As we ambled along across the stubbly

barley fields to Tsechen we disturbed flocks of Horned Larks

(Otocorys alpestris elwest) and Mountain Finches (Montifringilla

nivalis adamsz) whilst every now and then the Tibetan Sky-Lark

(Alauda arvensis tnopinata) would rise almost beneath our ponies’

hoofs.

Of all the songsters in Tibet I think we exiles loved the sky-larks

most. As soon as the first green growth showed itself in spring

they would burst into praise, and then onwards right through the

summer the valleys simply rang with their song. Indeed, so full of

joyousness were they, that on clear bright moonlight nights one

would sometimes hear them singing two or three hours before dawn.

Crossing the Nyang-chu River by a typical Tibetan stone-pier bridge

we investigated the swamp at the foot of the village of Tsechen in

the hope of finding geese, but were disappointed. A few Brahminy

alone greeted us. These we left in peace for we seldom shot

Brahminy, partly because they are not very palatable, and partly

because they are venerated by Tibetans and are so absurdly tame.

I always felt more inclined to feed these birds rather than shoot them,

for they would generally allow one to approach within fifteen or

twenty yards, and would then show no more fear than the average

duck in a London park.

It is no uncommon sight to see these ducks waddling about on the

flat roofs of Tibetan houses, and in some places they will even nest

inside the houses in old lumber rooms. As everybody knows, the

Brahminy in India is one of the wariest of ducks and the fearlessness

it displays in Tibet is therefore all the more astonishing.

Leaving Tsechen we soon found ourselves in thick Buckthorn

jungle (Aizphophe rhamnoides), over which the Tibetan Clematis

(Clematis tangutica) climbed in dense and tangled masses.

Bird life here was particularly abundant, and none was more

conspicuous than Guldenstadt’s Afghan Redstart (Phenicurus

erythrogaster grandis); the male gorgeously attired in chestnut

and black with a snow-white wing-patch and crown, the female

more sombre looking like a big edition of the Indian Redstart.

Rose Finches (Carpodacus rulecilloides lapersonnet) and (Carpodacus

pulcherrimus davidianus) also abounded and flocks of Tibetan Twites

(Aeanthis flavirostris rufostrigata), most persistent of chatterers.

Here and there the Robin Accentor (Prunella rubeculoides) uttered

his sharp ‘7zk-tzk’ as he darted from bush to bush, whilst at

intervals we saw the Brown Accentor (Prunella tulvescens fulvescens),

easily identified by reason of his long white supercilium.

Once we caught a glimpse of a pair of little Tibetan Tit Warblers

(Leptopecile sophie obscura) resplendent in purple and lilac, restlessly

searching for food in the thick undergrowth.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Then, crossing a flowing stream fed from warm springs, we put

up a pair of Ibis-bills (/b¢dorhynchus stvutherst) which flapped lazily

away uttering their characteristic oft-repeated cries. This strange

bird has a remarkable altitudinal range in winter and may be seen

on the Teesta and its tributaries a few hundred feet above the

Indian plains, and at elevations of 13,000 feet and over on the

rivers of the plateau. The eggs of the Ibis-bill were unknown for

many a long year, and even now are rare in collections. Yet they

are not difficult to find once you know when and where to look for

eggs, and what sort of eggs to look for. Here is the recipe. Look

for eggs the last week in April or first week in May; search for

nests on high ground in stony river beds especially where the river

bifurcates to form an island; and keep your eyes open for four

sage-green, brown-spotted eggs in a shallow depression amongst

the shingle. If, by great good luck, you should stumble across a

month-celd chick, send it to South Kensington, and the Museum

authorities will offer you their best thanks.

Immediately after putting up the Ibis-bills we saw what appeared

to be the father of all snipe strutting about quite complacently on a

smali bare patch of swampy ground. It was so tame that it allowed

us to approach within ten yards before it rose. ‘H’ then crumpled

it up, and it turned out to be the Himalayan Solitary Snipe (Capella

solitaria).

Leaving the scrub jungle behind us we made for the river, and

after meandering along for three or four miles, we suddenly came on

a flock of ahundred or more geese, basking in the sun on the

opposite bank.

They allowed us to approach within range but the river was

unfordable and it was useless to shoot. So we threw stones at

them instead, and off they went down stream loudly protesting. On

and on they went until they had almost disappeared from sight.

Then they performed a most perfect ‘about wheel’ and came back

straight towards us. When they passed over us they were so high

that I thought them out of range and never even raised my gun.

‘H’ however, gave them his choke barrel and winged an old

gander which come hurtling through the air to fall with a tremend-

ous thud at our very feet. After this we made poste-haste for

Dongtse. Before leaving Gyantse we had armed ourselves with a

letter of introduction to the head steward of a large house belonging

to the Phala family, and this we presented. We were immediately

adinitted into a huge Tibetan building several storeys high, built in

the form of an open square,—the stereotyped design for a Tibetan

house. A large open courtyard occupied the centre. The ground

floor was devoted to stabling and godowns.

Ascending a series of steep wooden ladders which did duty as

stair-cases, and having passed through several perilously low door-

ways (built purposely to keep out evil spirits), we eventually reached

the guest chamber, a big room with a low ceiling supported by

wooden pillars, and a latticed paper-paned window overlooking the

courtyard. A hundred images peered down upon us from niches

in the wall. The customary scarf of greeting having been presented,

and a few cups of ‘chang’ (slightly alcoholic barley water), having

fouRN. BomBay NAT. HIST. «SOc.

oT _ an P ‘ : os

Four sage-green brown-spotted eggs in a shallow depression amongst the shingle.

Journ. BomBay Nat. HIstv. Soc.

“Commands a glorious panorama of the Nyang-Chu Valley.”’

PVE

‘The rivers still flow, albeit choked with ice.’’

DONGTSE OR SLRAY BIRD NOTES FROM TIBET 81

been quaffed, we thanked our host for his kind hospitality and

scampered off on our ponies to explore as much of the neighbour-

hood as possible before dusk.

_ We soon saw several flocks of Black-necked Crane. They are

normally very shy birds, and often the only possible way of getting

within gun shot is to circle round them on a pony gradually draw-

ing closer and closer, just as a Sindhi shikari stalks ‘ houbara’.

In this way we got within range of three birds, and then flung

ourselves from our ponies and did a little rapid fire. All went off

apparently uninjured, but one bird having gone half a mile suddenly

collapsed, and we retrieved it with great joy. Wethen discovered

a flock of twenty geese out of which we accounted for three. it was

now getting dusk, and a few flakes of snow began to fall, so we

mounted our ponies and cantered back to our quarters, where we

consumed much tea and toasted ourselves over a brazier fire which

our host had most thoughtfully provided.

Dongtse is an interesting place quite apart from its natural history.

It possesses a famous monastery, which is built on a rocky

mountain spur, and commands a glorious panorama of the Nyang-

Chu Valley stretching as far as Gyantse thirteen miles distant. Forty-

six years ago an erudite Bengali schoolmaster named Sarat Chandra

Das visited this monastery and stayed for some considerable time

with Lama Sengchen Dorjichen the abbot, who was a Tibetan

scholar of great repute and an incarnate Lama to boot. The Lama

helped Sarat Chandra Das to reach Lhasa, which in those days had

not previously been visited by any Britisher save by an eccentric

English gentleman called ‘Thomas Manning in 1811. In due course

the Tibetan Government learnt that Sengchen Dorjichen had

assisted Sarat Chandra Das in his enterprise, and became so

infuriated that they took the Lama prisoner and threw him into the

Tsangpo.

Accounts of the method by which he was drowned differ. One

version relates that he was sewn up in asack and cast into the

Kongbu Tsangpo; another, that a stone was tied round his waist

and that he was lowered into his watery grave at the end of a rope.

From Lama Sengchen’s private apartments (carefully preserved

and treated with the greatest respect to this day), one can see on

the opposite side of the Nyang-Chu Valley a few miles distant, the

hermitage of Nyang-T6-Kyipo. Here Tibetans undergo voluntary

immurement in dark cells for varying periods, sometimes for life.

I once paid a visit to this place, but the story of these hermits, like

the cells in which they live, is dark and depressing, so we will pass

it by. The curious reader of these notes if he so wishes, will find

a vivid description of this hermitage together with further details

of Sarat Chandra Das and his visit to Lhasa, in two books dealing

with the Tibet Mission of 1903-04, viz., Landon’s Lhasa, and

Waddell’s Lhasa and Its Mysteries. But what the reader will

not find in any book on Tibet that I know of is a reference to the

picturesque monastery of Tenchokling situated up a side nallah two

miles to the south of Dongtse. I once spent two glorious summer

days in this monastery and witnessed a most grotesque lama dance

or Cham. The numerous actors in this religious performance

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

wore costumes of priceless old Chinese brocade and the whole

drama was wonderfully staged. But what interested me more than

the fantastic dance, was the beauty of the surroundings and the

fauna and flora of the neighbourhood. The monastery had not been

erected on the bare and barren slopes of a mountain as monasteries

so often are in Tibet, but right down in the valley bed in the midst

of a veritable forest of poplars and willows. Peach trees were

everywhere, and wild rose, barberry and buckthorn bushes formed

a dense undergrowth, the whole of which was irrigated by the

waters of a rushing mountain stream. Buttercups, primulas,

delphiniums and a host of other familiar temperate flowers starred

the open glades. Burhel and gazelle betrayed no fear, and fed

unconcernedly in the adjoining barley fields. Black-rum ped

Magpies and Black-eared Kites nested in the poplars and willows,

and Rufous Turtle Doves, Grey-backed Shrikes and crowds of

smaller birds in the thick bushy undergrowth.

Even the Giant Babax (Gabax waddellz), generally the most con-

firmed of skulkers, seemed to have shaken off his shyness in this

peaceful sanctuary, and hopped about fearlessly in the open ata

considerable distance from his beloved buckthorn thickets.

But it is time we returned to Dongtse, for hermitages, monas-

teries, Bengalischoolmasters and incarnate lamas are subjects which

are not usually discussed in the pages of a natural history journal.

It was bitterly cold that night and though ‘H’ and I sleep in all

our clothes and pulled blankets and rugs over us, | am afraid neither

of us got much rest. We were up betimes in the morning to find

mountain and vale gleaming white under a thin covering of snow.

But the sun shone brilliantly and as we scrunched, scrunched over

nature’s frozen carpet, not a breath of wind stirred. Inwardly

praying that these conditions would continue, we made towards the

river thinking that if there were any geese in the vicinity they

would be there. Ravens (Corvus corax tibetanus) and Red-billed

Choughs (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax) were everywhere conspicuous in

their jet black plumage against nature’s snow-white back-ground.

The latter were present in great numbers, some on bare patches in

the fields, others circ ing and wheeling high overhead in the cold

thin Tibetan air. One wonders what these birds find to feed upon

in winter. Their diet must be almost entirely vegetarian for grub

and insect life must be hard to come by when winter lays its iron

grip on the land.

The Black-rumped Magpie (Prca pica bottanensts) was another very

conspicuous bird for poplars, willows and buckthorn trees are

plentiful around Dongtse. We had seen a flock of thirty or more of

these birds the previous evening winging their way with laboured

flight back from the fields to their roosting quarters near the village.

Their huge massive nests were to be seen everywhere in the bare

leafless trees.

They have the usually harsh corvine call of their tribe, but in

addition, a note so similar to the ‘scape’ of a rising snipe, that

I have been deceived time and again by its utterance.

We must have walked and ridden seven or eight miles that morning

without seeing a single goose. They al] seemed to have disappeared

DONGTSE OR STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM TIBET 83

and only a few Brahminy and Black-necked Crane were visible. We

did indeed add another crane to our bag, but it was not until we had

followed the Nyang-Chu river for three hours in the Shigatse direc-

tion that we encountered geese. Then we stumbled on a large flock

feeding in a barley field. We had but little difficulty in getting

within range and dropped no fewer than eight birds with four barrels.

This was shooting for the pot with a vengeance, but more slaughter

was to follow. After having misseda couple of teal and scared the

life out of a female goosander, we found another flock of geese

sunning themselves on the river bank, and four more birds added

to the bag.

It was now noon and we were twenty miles from Gyantse, so we

turned to the right about and made for Dongtse as quickly as possi-

ble.

Here we hired a muleto carry our bag which by this time weighed

well over a maund, and then set out for home following the river as

we went. Our luék was in. We had not gone far before a flock of

twenty geese came high over us and two were raked out of the sky

in great style. After this a flock of fifteen mallard were met with,

five being added to our already heavy bag. The remainder did not

go far and were marked down, and three more paid toll before the

rest wisely disappeared.

Towards sunset four more geese were discovered feeding in a barley

field, and these provided a very satisfactory ending to our shoot.

Two birds were accounted for as they rose, and then the remaining

two, missing their companious, circled round and paid the penalty

for their devotion.

This brought our shoot to a close, and in the dusk we made the

most rapid progress we could -towards Gyantse. The cold

became intense as darkness fell, and the temperature seemed to drop

a degree every minute.

Our hands and feet became so numbed as we joggedalong on our

tired ponies that we had frequently to dismount and walk in order

to rouse the circulation. We reached Gyantse at last in the dark,

cold and tired, but several hot cups of tea and a warm fire soon

revived us. Then we inspected the bag: twenty-two geese, eight

mallard, two crane and a solitary snipe—-a full mule load of shikar,

which would provide excellent fare in the cold-storage atmosphere

of Tibet for many a long day.

Sitting round the fire that night toasting absent friends, we saw

the Old Year out and the New Year in, vowing Tibet was the finest

country in the world, and that we on the ‘ world’s white roof-tree ’,

were the most fortunate of beings.

THE DUGONG OR SEA COW

(HALICORE DUGONG)

©. H, PRATER, (C.M:Z.S.,

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

(With tour plates)

The accompanying photograph illustrates a family of dugongs

captured near Haramil Island in the Red Sea in July, 1905 by

Captain John Kahu of the cargo steamer 8. S. Samshon.

Captain Kahu first saw, what he took to be three human beings

standing waist deep in the water. Mistaking them for the survivors

of some wreck, he signalled to them and steered his ship in their

direction ; to his surprise they appeared to elude his efforts at

rescue and presently diving under the surface of the water dis-

appeared from view. Fifteen minutes or so later they rose to the

surface again. The skipper, now convinced that he was dealing

with nothing human and something which he believed to be quite

unusual, fired at the largest of the three and succeeded in wounding

it in the neck. The wounded beast swam for a neighbouring island

closely followed by its two companions, all three eventually landing

and coming to rest on its rocky shore. ‘The wounded animal, a

bull dugong, was easily captured and offered little resistance when

being secured with ropes. Its mate, a cow dugong with her calf,

was as easily taken. The female dugong is said to be remarkable

for the tenacity she displays in remaining by her young even under

conditions of danger, so that when a young dugong is caught there

is little difficulty in capturing the mother. Steller, the German

naturalist, who discovered the now extinct giant Sea Cow or Rhytina

on Behring Island, notes the great attachment displayed by these

animals to each other so that when one was harpooned the others

made great attempts to rescue it. The cow dugong in the present

instance ‘ offered no resistance but clung desperately to her calf’.

The three captives were placed in a large tank on board and were

fed with fish! The baby was suckled by the mother during the

period of her captivity.

They lived within the narrow limits of the tank for two months, at

the end of which the buil dugong died, his wound, the unnatural

diet—dugongs are purely herbivorous and feed exclusively on sea

grasses and other marine plants—and the limited area of his confine-

ment were probably the contributory causes.

The cow dugong lived a week longer than her mate during which

period she was greatly distressed, seeking her absent partner

continuously within the narrow limits of her prison. She refused all

food and, what is more, deserted her baby whose death in conse-

quence brought the tragedy to its conclusion.

Soc,

BOMBAY NAT. HIST.

JOURN.

, Red Sea.

Dugongs captured near Hamrham Island

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 85

The following measurements supplied with the above note by

Capt. Kahu give some idea of the proportions of these animals.

The male taped 9 feet in total length; he had an extreme girth

(region behind the flippers) of 5 feet 6 inches and scaled 325 Ibs.

The female was 8 feet long, 4 feet 9 inches in extreme girth and

weighed 280 lbs.

. The length of a dugong, from Kilakaria on the Indian shore of

the Gulf of Manaar, measured by the late Dr. Annandale,! was

9 feet 6inches. A specimen in the Colombo museum from Jaffna,

Ceylon, measures 9 feet 4 inches in total length.

Dugongs and Manatees are representatives of a group or order of

herbivorous aquatic mammals known as the Sirenia, an indication

of their supposed mermaid-like appearance.

The Dugong (Halicore dugong), aterm derived from its Malayan

name Duyong, occurs among the islands and along the coasts of the

Red Sea and further south along the east coast of Africa, the

islands of Madagascar and of Mauritius, the Indian and Ceylonese

shores of the Gulf of Manaar, the Andaman Islands and the islands

of the Malayan region as far east as the northern shores of

Australia. In Indian waters, Jerdon notes the occurrence of the

dugong in the salt water inlets of south Malabar and the Konkan

coast. A dugong’s skull was presented to the Society’s Museum in

1893, the carcase having been washed ashore on the Mandvi coast

in Cutch. I have not been able to obtain any information regard-

ing the present occurrence of the dugong on the West Coast of

India. Mr. Shankar Narayan Piilai, late Superintendent of the

Trivandrum Museum, could obtain no information of their present

occurrence on the south Malabar coast. As regards the east coast

of India, dugongs still appear to be found in smal] numbers on the

Indian shore of the Gulf of Manaar and the neighbouring islands.

Mr. Pillai tells me that inquiries made by him elicited the informa-

tion that the AKadalpidra# or ‘sea-pig’, the Tamil name for the

dugong, is found occasionally round Daneshkodi and Rameswaram

Island, between November and January. Dr. Annandale was told

that at Kilakarai, a large port on the Indian shore of the Gulf, as.

many as 60 dugongs were caught ina year, but he thought the

number exaggerated. A female dugong from Tuticorin was pre-

sented to the Madras Museum by Mr. James Hornell in 1910 and

Dr. Sundra Raj, Director of Fisheries, Madras, records the capture

of a dugong between Krusadai? and Koipadu islands about ten

years ago. Mr. Edgar Thurston writes of carcases being thrown

ashore at Pamban? island and of a living specimen being caught in

the fishing nets off Pamban onthe day after his arrival there.

Writing of the distribution of the dugong on the coast of Ceylon,

Emerson Tennent? says that they were found in large numbers

from the Bay of Calpentyn on the west coast of Ceylon as far north

1 Journ. As. Soc., Beng., vol. i, 1905.

2 Littoral Fauna of Krusadai Island, 1927.

3 Madras Gov. Mus. Bulletin No, 3, 1894.

* Nat. Hist. of Ceylon.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

as Adam’s Bridge. At the present time Dr. Pearson tells me that

dugongs are only found along the north coast of Ceylon between

Manaar and Jaffna and on the stretch of coast in the vicinity of the

Pearl Banks. The evidence I have been able to collect appears to

indicate that the dugong is becoming increasingly rare in Indian

coastal waters, and in Ceylon recommendations are to be put for-

ward by Dr. Pearson, the Director of Fisheries, for its protection

during a part of the year. Petit! has shown that dugongs which

20 years ago were quite common on the Madagascar coast and in

the neighbouring islands, are now much more restricted in their

distribution and are now not found but in small groups of 4 or 5

individuals.

The nearest existing relatives of the dugong are the manatees

which inhabit the west coast and rivers of tropical Africa and the

Atlantic seaboard of tropical and sub-tropical America as far north

as the West Indies and Florida. Three species are recognized, the

African Manatee (Manatus senegalensis), the American Manatee

(M1. americanus) and the Nailless Manatee (7. zmungis).

While the dugongs are exclusively marine, the manatees ascend

the rivers. The African Manatee has been met with in the Kibali

River, more than 1,243 miles from the mouth of the Congo while

the Nailless Manatee is said to have almost completely withdrawn

to the upper reaches of the Amazon and the Orinoco.

A third genus, the Northern Sea-Cow (Ahytina stelleri) existed

up to the close of the eighteenth century among the islands of the

Behring Sea. It was on Behring Island that Steller, the

German naturalist who accompanied Vitus Behring on his fate-

ful voyage, discovered this monster sea-cow. Behring’s vessel

was wrecked on the island which bears his name, and during

his long and enforced confinement Steller had the opportunity of

discovering and observing the vast herds of sea-cows which

browsed on the rank weeds which covered the shallow coastal

waters of the island and the adjacent Cooper Island. Within a

period of forty years 1742-1782 after their discovery, the giant sea-

cow was totally exterminated through human agency, probably for

the sake of its flesh and hide. An idea of its enormous size when

compared with existing sea-cows can be gauged from the fact that

the northern sea-cow attained a length of 25 to 32 feet and a girth

of 19-20 feet and was estimated to weigh 8,000 lbs. According to

Steller it took forty men with ropes to drag the body of one to land.

Naturally these sluggish, and inoffensive Sirenians became an

easy prey. The dugong andthe manatee appear to be following in

the wake of their extinct relative as they are hunted down for the

flesh and hide and more especially for the blubber which lies

immediately below the skin. The blubber yields a clear limpid

oil of considerable value. That of a dugong weighing from 4-6

ewt. will on boiling down yield from 6-14 gallons of oil.2 The

oil has no unpleasant flavour, is odourless and is largely used as a

substitute for codliver oil. Beneath the blubber is a layer of white

fat very similar to pig’s fat in appearance.

1 Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, 1923.

2 Watts, Dictionary of Economic Products, 1890, vol. iii, p. 197.

eee

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 87

The fat of the dugong is believed by the fisherfolk of the Ceylon

coast to be efficacious in dysentry—-it is administered in the form of

a sweetmeat.’ It is also used instead of ghee for cooking

purposes. The same belief is held by the Bushmen oi the coastal

region of North-west Australia who consider the oil extracted from

the fat of the dugong to have great medicinal properties. The

Comorra islanders use powder made from the bones of a dugong,

from the skull in particular, for curing ulcers. With the Mahorrais

of Madagascar the powder is made from the last rib and is used in

lung complaints, while powder made by crushing the tusks is

administered to those who have transgressed the law by eating that

which is ‘tabou’. They use the fat from the head as a calmative

in head or ear aches; while the fat of the body, mixed with rice, is

taken as a laxative and is also prescribed for skin diseases and even

leprosy. (Petit, 1923.)

Dugong meat, when roasted, is said to be indistinguishable from

good but rather tough beef-steak. Like the flesh of the manatee, it

keeps good for a considerable time and even in our hot climate will

remain eatable for at least three days.* According to a recent

writer in the J/lustrated London News, in the sparsely inhabited

parts of North-west Australia, where conditions are still primitive,

salted dugong and turtles’ eggs take the place of bacon and eggs

on the domestic breakfast table. Dugong’s fleshis held in much

esteem by the Moslems in Ceylon and on the Indian coast, a

dugong sold piece-meal, fetches on an average between twenty

and thirty rupees. In the south-west of Madagascar the Vezos, an

indigenous tribe, observe certain rites in eating the flesh of the

dugong. The carcase is always cut upin secret. Strict silence is

observed during the operation nor must one look at the animal

which is disguised with cloths. It is ‘tabou’ to carry the meat into

the village precincts and it must not be eaten from a plate or put

into a vessel. These propitiatory rites are practised to ensure the

siecess of future hunts. (Petit, 1923.)

Dugongs are caught by the fishermen in the Gulf of Manaar in

wide-meshed nets and many of them are sent alive to Colombo

by train.

The Bushman’s method of capturing dugongs is by spearing.

As he possesses no ropes he retains hold of the spear after making

a thrust and plungés into the water after the animal. On the

Madagascar coast and inthe neighbouring islands, dugongs are

hunted both with nets and with harpoons. The nets are placed

vertically in the opening of a sand bank. One end of the net is

fixed, the other free. The dugong, whose muzzle or flippers are

enmeshed, soon becomes hopelessly entangled in his efforts to free

himself and dies either from drowning or is finished off with a har-

poon. When spearing dugong, there is always the possibility of

the creature upsetting the boat in its attempts to escape and the

Malagassy fishermen overcome the danger by roping several boats

together the moment the harpoon is driven home. Among the

* Watts, Dictionary of Economic Products, 1890, vol. iii, p. 197.

? Annandale, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. i, 1905.

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Vezos of Madagascar, the thrower of the harpoon must make quite

sure of his aim; to allow the coveted prize to escape would presage

dire misfortune and death to a member of his family. (Petit, 1923.)

The giant sea-cows of Behring Island offered the inducement

of an abundant supply of fresh food to the various fur-hunting

expeditions which wintered in those inhospitable regions, while

sailing ships in those parts took in regular supplies of salted cow

ineat. Dugong and manatee bones are used to alimited extent

while their hides areconverted into leather. Rtippell has endeavoured

to prove with much ingenuity that the Tabernacle built by the

Israelites on their eventful journey from the shores of the Red

Sea through the Desert of Sinai, was roofed with dugongs’ skins.

He was also of opinion that the sandals of the women to which

the Prophet Ezekiel refers (xiv. 10) were made of dugong skin.

Cigarette holders are made of dugong tusks as alsorosaries sold in

Egypt. The rosaries have the additional virtue of facilitating

child-birth and averting an evil fate!

Dugongs and manatees feed exclusively on aquatic plants and

weeds upon which they browse beneath the surface of the water,

exactly as herbivorous animal do on land.

In the Gulf of Manaar dugongs were said to feed exclusively on

the green sea-grasses (Phanerogams) which, almost to the exclusion

of sea-weeds, grow very abundantly in the shallows along the

coasts and round the islands in the gulf. However, the stomach

contents of a specimen examined by the iate Dr. Annandale! con-

tained large masses of marine alge. This change in diet may be

due to the reported change in the habits of the dugong in the Gulf

of Manaar where they no longer appear to frequent the shallows in

their accustomed herds. At the present time, according to the fisher-

men on the [ndian coast, the only specimens they see along the

shore are those which are sick or in some way disabled. ?

In other regions where they are found, the diet of the dugong

appears to consist mainly, if not exclusively, of Phanerogamous

marine plants. Petit? writing of the food of the dugong in

Madagascar says that they are very exclusive in their choice of food

plants and that they subsist on a Phanerogamous herb, Cymodacea

(Diplanthera) australis which the local people call ‘ Dugong grass’.

He says that the presence of the dugong in those waters is

absolutely bound up with the existence of this plant which is very

common inthe shallow coastal waters. He concludes that the

‘algze’ on which they browse in the Red Sea according to Rtippel

(1834) are probably the same species. In Australia the dugongs

feed on the marine grasses Halophila ovalis and Zostera capricornts

Asches, which like C. australis only grows on high banks in

shallow water (Dexler and Freund?*).

Edgar Thurston tells of a tradition among the fisherman of

Pamban that a box of money was once found in the stomach of

1 Annandale, Journ.As. Soc. Bengal, vol. i, 1905.

2000.

3 Bull. Mus Nat. Hist. Paris, 1924.

* Archiv. tiir Naturgsechite, Bd. 1, 1906.

Jourr., Bombay Nat. His. Soc. PLATE II

2. Front view of skull of a female Dugong

1, Side view of skull of ayoung Dugong showing showing abortive tusks buried in their

downward detlection of the jaws. sockets.

3. Lower jaw of a young Dugong showing 4. Ventral surface of upper jaw of a young

sockets of 8 rudimentary incisor teeth. Dugong. Details of its dentition are shown

in Fig. 2, Plate IV.

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 89

a dugong and, as a result, an official was always invited to be pre-

sent when a dugong was cut up tosee that the laws governing the

finding of treasure trove were in no way contravened! The

same belief persists on the coast of Western India and when whales

and other cetaceans are stranded they are usually opened up only

after a punch or the legal number of witnesses have been summoned

to attend the ceremony.

On the north-west coast of Australia, north of Broome, dugongs

still feed in herds, going slowly and leisurely from one feeding

ground to another. The coast here is the centre of the pearling

industry. It is very rugged and there are innumerable and frequent

reefs, where the tides rip and swirl in dangerous currents that pile

up the water and make great whirl-pools. Round these islands

and among these reefs there are big sea-meadows where the

dugongs feed.

Unlike the manatees the dugongs are essentially marine

animals or more correctly they form part of the coastal fauna.

They do not swim up the rivers but keep to the shallow bays,

inlets and estuaries along the coasts, visiting their marine

pastures at flood tide and going out with the ebb. While browsing

the dugong roots up its food with side-long twists of its head, coming

to the surface to breathe at short intervals. Observers are not in

agreement as to the length of time which elapses between respira-

tions. Dexler and Freund (1906) consider the maximum interval is

24 minutes. Rtppell (1834) puts it at aminute, Kiunziger (1870) at

10 minutes while Semon says that it was from 3to5 minutes ina

male observed by him. The sounds made by the dugong while.

breathing are audible at a considerable distance. Two distinct

sounds are recognized, one caused by the intake and the other by

the expulsion- of air. Beyond these sounds the dugong is believed

to have no particular cry. Petit comments on the curious tracks

left by dugongs when feeding. They are compared to the tracks

of awaggon-. The furrows are clean and distinct the grass being

up-rooted through their entire length.

The skeleton of the Sirenians is remarkable for the massiveness

and density of the bones, especially of the skull and the ribs, their.

great weight adding to the specific gravity of these cumbrous and

slow moving animals aids them in keeping to the bottom of the

shallows where they browse. Another adaptation in structure

designed to aid these sea-cows when feeding is the downward bend

and prolongation of the bones of the upper and lower jaws, a

character particularly noticeable in the skull of the dugong, which

brings the creature’s mouth in ready contact with its food as the

animal lies prone on the sea bottom. It has been pointed out

that peculiar character in the jaws of dugong is naturally advan-

tageous to a heavy and short-necked animal which browses in

shallow water. (Plate //. Fig. 1). It is interesting to note in this

connection that the downward deflection of the jaws is much more

pronounced in the skull of an immature dugong in our collection

than in that of an old female. The skull of the manatee displays the

same character to a limited extent. While grazing the manatee

gathers up its food mainly with its thick prehensile upper lip. The

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOGIEIN, Vol XC

upper lip is divided by a deep cleft which is narrowed and widened at

will. The twolobes of the lip forming the cleft, are covered with

stiff bristles whose points meet together like the opposing ends of a

pair of forceps and gather up the food into its mouth.

The peculiar cleft lips of the manatee are not developed to the

same extent in the dugong. On the underside of the flabby exten-

sion of the upper lip of this animal, there are two ridges, covered

with an armature of bristles, described as being similar to but blun-

ter than the quills of a porcupine (Plate [//). These two ridges

take the place of the heavy lobes with which the manatee crops his

food. In the dugong these two ridges are not capable of any great

degree of motion or separation and could not, it is believed, very

effectively serve the same purpose. When browsing, the dugong

probably grasps and up-roots weeds with the fleshy pad of his upper

lip used in conjunction with the lower lip. It is remarkable

however, that the dugong in the stage before birth shows much

less deviation from and a much closer resemblance to the manatee

in the structure of its upper lip. From this it is assumed, that the

extraordinary mechanism of the lip of the manatee was once

possessed but has since been lost by the dugong, and that the

dugong is a stage in advance of the manatee.

The teeth of both manatee and dugong present a remarkable

degree of specialization, or in other words aremarkabie deviation

from the normal type or standard of teeth obtaining in mammals.

The standard number of teeth in mammals is 44 as exemplified in

the pig or the wild boar to whose dentition the teeth of all other

mammals may be referredfor comparison. Eachhalf of thejaws ofa

wild boar carries 11 teeth:—3 incisor or cutting teeth in front,

succeeded by a great cannine (the tusk) which is followed by 7

molars or grinding teeth. In dugongs and manatees the canines

are wanting, the front teeth being separated from the molar teeth

by a wide gap, a character suggestive of the rodents. A

remarkable feature in the dentition of the manatee is the great

increase in the number of grinding-teeth developed by the

animal in the course of its existence... .It is said to have as

many as 44 molar teeth, i.e., eleven in each half of its jaw. All

these are not however present together ; there are rarely more than 5

or 6 in place at one time, as the anterior grinders are shed before the

posterior ones come into position. As these grinding teeth increase

in size in the order of their succession, by comparison of the jaws ©

of individuals of varying ages it has been possible to deduce

from the size and character ot a tooth, the number of teeth

that may have preceded it and thus to arrive at the total number

of molar teeth developed by the animal in the course of its life.

This replacement of teeth is a provision made for the maintenance

of the grinding machinery in good working order throughout the

animal’s extistence. There appears to be a continuous forward

motion of the whole row of molar teeth; increasingly large

posterior molars being developed and moving forward to take the

place of the older and consequently more worn ones in front.

As the partitions or septa between these teeth are very porus

it would seem that they are easily removed while the teeth move

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Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

All trace of the anterior molar

e been obliterated by the growth and advance of the

Upper jaw of an old female Du

gong.

teeth hav

ior molars.

2 large poster

dence of 5 molar teeth,

ing evl

Upper jaw of a young Dugong show

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 91

forward, guided by the dense bony walls of the jaw bone. As no

trace or suggestion of a continuous succession of teeth is seen in

the closely allied fossil Sirenians, regarded as the ancestors of

the manatee, it is presumed that the indefinite supply of molar

teeth in the manatee is a new development evolved to make up

for the rapid wear and tear of the grinding teeth in an animal

living on sea-weed and water-weeds, generally much intermixed

with sand.

The gradual displacement of the smaller teeth by the advance

of larger teeth is a peculiarity of dentition which has become esta-

blished and attains it maximum inthe elephant. But in the elephant

each new molar developed in the jaws is larger and more

complex in structure than the one which preceded it. The

molar tooth of an elephant is built up of a series of plates,

the upper edges of which form ridges, plainly visible across

the crown of the molar. The first molar shed by an elephant

shows only 4 of these ridges, succeeding ones show an increasingly

greater number, while the sixth and last one to be developed shows

as many as 27. ‘This not only indicates that these molars increase

in size and complexity of structure, but it renders it possible to tell

by the number of ridges exhibited by an elephant’s molar, the

position it held in the sequence of teeth and the number of molar

teeth developed by the animal during its life. The dugong has a

smaller series of molar teeth than the manatee and does not

develop more than 20 grinding teeth in the course of its life, viz., 5

in each side of each jaw. This is the condition of the teeth in the

skull of a young dugong in the Society’s collection. All 5 teeth are

not however present in the jaws at the same time, as the first or

foremost molar tooth in the jaws is shed before the fifth or hindmost

tooth cuts the gum. In the skull to which I refer the existence

of these anterior molar teeth is indicated by their sockets which are

still evident, though partly filled up by the growth of bony matter

from the jaws. (Plate /V’) the three anterior molars in each jaw are

shed early in life; and their place is taken by the advance from

behind of the two much larger posterior molars which are the

permanent teeth of the dugong. This is well illustrated in the skull

of an old female dugong which we have (Plate /V). In this skull there

are only two molar teeth on each side of the upper jaw, the largest

of these measures 1,3, of an inch along the long axis of its crown,

while the corresponding molar in a young animal is a little over

half aninch. These two molars now occupy the entire space in the

jaw bones. All trace of the first, second and third molars which

existed at an earlier stage have been obliterated. On the left side

of the lower jaw only one molar tooth remains; the first, second,

third, and even the fourth has been lost. The socket of the fourth

molar is however still evident though much reduced in size by the

erowth of bony matter. This indicates that the dugong starts life

with a complement of 20 molar teeth in its jaws, that 12 of these

i.e., the three anterior molars in each jaw, are shed to make room

for the advance and growth of the two posterior ones in each jaw so

that in the adult stage only 8 molar teeth remain and even some

of these, as seen in the skull before us, may be lost.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Thus the great number of grinding teeth possessed by the

manatee is reduced to a considerable extent in the dugong and this

degeneration of the dentition culminates in the Rhytina which

was quite toothless.

From the unbruised and perfect condition of the sea-weed found

in the stomach of a dugong, and from the fact that its jaws are

articulated in a manner which permits of little, if any lateral move-

ment and for other reasons connected with the structure of its

mouth parts, Dr. Annandale* concluded that the grinding teeth of the

dugong had little function beyond crushing the chalky and other

growths brushed off its food by the array of bristles growing on the

horny plates which cover the anterior portion of its palate and lower

jaw. The scratches made on the surface of the crowns of the

posterior molars in the skull of the young dugong in our collection,

obviously by the grinding of gritty matter, are, however, all lateral

that is, they run crosswise onthe surface of the crowns which

suggests that the jaws must have some lateral movement. Petit?

also records that the stomach contents of dugongs examined at

Madagascar showed that the plants eaten by them were swallowed

whole and intact. There was also no trace of sand or foreign

matter; another point already noted by Annandale. Like Annan-

dale, Dexler and Freund concluded that the dugong brushes or

washes the herbs which it plucks before swallowing them.

A striking feature in the anterior molar teeth of the same skull is

that they have retained, to a more or less perfect extent, the cusps

on their crowns, while in the posterior molars, which are deve-

loped subsequently the crowns are worn quite smooth. This seems

to suggest that the grinding of the waste matter is carried out

mainly by the posterior molars and that the temporary anterior ones

have little or no function.

The manatee has two upper and two lower incisor teeth but

these are rudimentary and are buried beneath the horny plates which

cover the front of its palate and lower jaw. In the dugong the

incisor teeth in the upper jaw are developed in the males to form

a pair of tusks. These tusks in the bulls project beyond the

mouth in a forward and downward direction. In their structure

they recall the incisor teeth of rodents. In all gnawing animals

the front, or cutting teeth, are formed of soft dentine or ivory, only

the front and side of the tooth being faced with an investment or

coating of intensely hard enamel; thus while gnawing the compara-

tively softer dentine is constantly being worn down while the hard

enamel front of the tooth persists and maintains the sharp chisel-

shaped edge. Exactly the same principle is followed in the making

of a chisel which is faced with tempered steel and is backed with

soft iron to preserve the sharp cutting edge by the persistence of

the harder and the wearing away of the softer material.

In the female dugong the growth of these tusks is arrested before

they cut the gum and they remain buried in their sockets throughout

life (Plate Lf, Fig. 2.) The same arrested growth and concealment

1 Annandale, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. i, 1905.

2 Bull. Mus, Nat. Hist. Paris, 1924

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 93

of the upper tusks in the female and their development and projec-

tion in the male is manifested on a much greater scale in the

Narwhal, the males of which carry a tusk which protrudes from the

upper jaw and continues to grow till it acquires a length of 9-10 feet,

forming the famous ‘horn’ which so long excited the wonder and

curiosity of the older naturalists. In the female Narwhal the incisor

teeth which give rise to the tusk of the male do not develop,

remaining concealed in the substance of the jaws.

In addition to its permanent tusks, the young dugong carries a

smaller pair of upper incisor teeth which are shed early in life. The

sockets of these tusks are plainly visible in the skull of the young

dugong to which I have referred. They are situated above those

of the permanent tusks, and their character suggests that both pairs

must at one time have been co-existent. In the skull of the old

dugong no trace of the sockets remains.

From the fact that the tusks are only manifested in the males, it

has been concluded that they could not play an important part in

securing the animal’s food. The scarred condition of a male

examined by Dr. Annandale led him to believe that the males fight

with their tusks at the breeding season. Mons. M. G. Petit! has

recently drawn attention to the scarred condition of a female dugong

examined by him at Madagascar. Her back, flanks and undersurface

showed a number of scars, some of them quite fresh, others healed.

The explanation offered by the local fishermen was that the dugongs

received these scars while turning about in the water from projecting

masses of coral, from oyster-covered rocks and from sharp-edged

pinna shells which lie half buried in the sand among the sea-grasses

on which they feed.

Incisor teeth are present in the lower jaw of the dugong. In the

photograph of the skull of ayoung dugong which is published the

sockets of these incisors are plainly visible in the deflected part of

the lower jaw (Plate //). ‘There are 8 of these sockets, 4 in each half

of the jaw. Distorted teeth may be found in these sockets in young

animals, but they are rapidly absorbed or lost. The same pheno-

menon is seen in the whale-bone whales; in the adult condition these

whales are toothless, but prior to birth the margins of both upper

and lower jaws are covered witha series of rudimentary teeth which

are speedily shed or absorbed. ‘The development of tusks in the

lower jaw of the dugong would have given its skull a marked

resemblance to the extinct Dinotherium or ‘ terrible animal’ which,

like the Sirenia, was probably aquatic and which carried a pair of

huge incisors projecting downward like great tusks from its lower

jaw. When the skull of this animal was first discovered, many

naturalists believed it to be some gigantic manatee or sea-cow and

concluded that its tusks were used for tearing food from the bottom

of the rivers and for anchoring itself on banks just as a walrus uses

its tusks for digging up clams and climbing out upon the ice.

Steller’s Sea-Cow was toothless but its palate and the front ot

its lower jaws were covered with dense strongly-ridged horny

plates beset with stiff bristles. These horny plates are possessed

1 Petit. Bull. de Mus. Nat. D’ Hist. Nat. Paris, No. 5, 1927.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITI

also by manatees and dugongs. While feeding, the sea-grasses and

marine plants cropped up between the dugong’s lips pass into its

mouth between these horny plates which are furnished with bundles

of stiff hairs, arranged like the bristles in a scrubbing brush. It is

believed that the function of these bristles! is to clean or scrub

away from the surface of the weeds any chalky or other growths

which invest it. The weed is thenapparently swallowed whole, and

it is assumed the foreign matter brushed from its surface is ground

down by the molar teeth of the animal.

Externally, the dugong and the manatee are heavy, clumsily

built animals with flattened bellies and rounded backs.

The colouring of the dugong is variable. An animal described

by Dr. Annandale was dull brownish-grey on the back, fading to

pure grey on the sides and to dirty flesh colour on the belly. Its

skin was not wrinkled like that of the manatee, but was

smooth, though itlacked the polished oily appearance of so many

of the whales and dolphins. The whole trunk, limbs and tail

showed a covering of fine hairs which gave the skin a prickly

appearance in certain lights. Ina specimen examined by him in

Madagascar, Petit states that its skin was furrowed with fine

wrinkles particularly visible on top of the head, between the eyes

and the nostrils.

The head of a dugong is remarkable. Its most conspicuous

feature is the enormous extension of the upper lip in the form of

a broad, flattened, horse-shoe-shaped disc which overlaps the sides of

its mouth. The underside of this disc is covered with fine sensory

hairs. At its base, separated by a cleft, are the two great ridges

armed with heavy bristles, which are comparable to the spine-

invested lobes with which the manatee crops its food. Beyond

these ridges is as smooth flabby tongue-shaped pad which conceals

the mouth and projects well over the lower jaw (Plate JV). Inthe

bull dugong the tusks protrude through the skin of this pad and not

through the mouth, as is generally believed. The nostrils—a pair of

crescent-shaped slits—are placed well over the pendulous muzzle.

On the upper surface of the head, two very minute openings serve

the purpose of ears. Contrary to the observations of Dexler and

Freund (1906) who consider the sight of the dugong to be feeble,

the Malagasy fisherman, declare that it has excellent powers of

sight both by day and by night. They believe however that its

sense of hearing is much more acute ; the clashing of an oar against

the side of a boat, even at a considerable distance, will put these sea-

cows to flight. (Petit, 1923). The beady black eyes of the dugong

are sunk well under its fleshy brows. The presence of glands in

connection with the eyes may, it is said, furnish some foundation for

the belief current among the Malays and Malagasy fishermen that

the dugong sheds tears when it is captured. Their belief is corrobo-

rated in some notes on a recently captured dugong made by

Mr. Deraniyagala of the Colombo Museum, forwarded to me by

Dr. Pearson. Tears were observed constantly flowing from the

+ Annandale, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, vol. i, 1905.

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW ' 95

creature’s eyes. The sclerotic or outer coating of the eye-ball

secretes an abundant mucous which is collected by Malay fishermen

as alove charm. Only the tears of young dugongs are collected,

as with age the charm is said to loose its potency (Raffles).

Neither the dugong nor the manatee possess hindlimbs. In the

manatee, the only indication of hindlimbs are two small splint

bones, embedded in the flesh at some distance from the vertebral

column. ‘These are believed to be the remains of the thigh bones.

In the dugong the vestiges of the degenerate pelvis appear to be

made up of three and not two bones as is generally supposed.

The fore limbs of tbe sea-cows bear a general resemblance to the

flippers of a whale but in the Sirenia the fingers, as in terrestial

animals, are generally composed of three well-jointed bones, though

in the dugong it has been found that not only does the flipper vary

greatly in size, even in fully adult animals, but the bones of the

hand! vary in number and in development. The first digit is

always less well developed than the others; in some individuais it

consists of a single bone, in others it may be made up of two bones.

Similar variations are seen in the bones of the paim and the

wrist. In the hand or flipper of a whale, the phalanges of

the fingers have been multiplied as a result of which the length of

the fin and its efficiency as a paddle is considerably increased.

Rudimentary nails have been discovered in the cetacean hand but

these are never functionally deveioped. In the hand of the dugong

the nails have disappeared ; in that of the manatee the disappearance

is incompiete. The small manatee of the Amazon has no nails

on its flippers, except for traces, which may possibly be seen with

the microscope. ‘The African Manatee and the American Manatee

have the flippers furnished with nails but not every finger is so

armed. When swimming, the flippers are used mainly as balancing

organs and in turning. Ina captive manatee it was observed that

the extreme margins of the flippers may be used for introducing

food into the mouth. The creature also used its fore limbs in

moving along the bottom of the pond when its tail could not be

brought into play to any extent. Neither the dugong nor the

manatee willingly quit the water; on land they are said to be

incapable of movement being unable to advance or recede.

In movement and mode of progression in the water these

Sirenians resemble the whales and the porpoises. The tail is the

principal organ of propulsion. The tail while swimming is not

moved from side to side—it has not the lateral movement of a fish

—but asin the dolphins and whales it acts from up downwards

with a vertical, at times with a glancing stroke dependant on the

position of the body. ‘The posterior portion of the body bends in

harmony with the movements of the tail. This flexibility is

explained by the fact that, as in the cetacea, none of the vertebrze

in the lower region of the spinal column unite to form a sacrum

or that part of the vertebral column which is distinctly connected

with the pelvis. A solid immovable structure in this part of the

backbone would be a serious disadvantage to a swimming animal.

1 Annandale, Rec. nd. Mus., vol. i, p. 79, 1907.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol; XTi

The absence of or the degeneracy of the pelvic bones gives the

hind region of the spinal column its resemblance to that of a fish

and accounts for its flexibility.

The Sirenia, it will be seen, both in their internal and external

structure present many affinities to the whales. It is believed that

these affinities are purely of a convergent nature. They have been

evolved as a result of an aquatic life in two otherwise distant groups

of animals.

Both the dugong and the manatee produce a single young at

birth which they tend with assiduous care. Tradition maintains

that the dugong holds her baby to her breast between her flippers

when suckling it or otherwise ; but it has been pointed out that even

if the baby dugong were able to take refuge under the breast of its

mother it is not apparent how it could possibly be embraced

by the comparatively short flippers of its parent.1 According to

Langkavel (1896) the baby dugong supports itself on the back of

its mother. This is also the opinion of the Malagasy fishermen.

The teats are placed almost under the flippers in the region which

would correspond to the armpit in a human body.

The habit of rising half out of the water combined with the rude

resemblance under these circumstances to a human being gave rise

among the earlier voyagers to India to the stories of legendary

beings, half human and half fish, in allusion to which the name

Sirenia was bestowed on these animals. Megasthenes records the

existence of a creature in the ocean near Ceylon (Taprobane) with

the aspect of a woman, while the Portuguese and Spaniards gave

the dugong a name signifying Woman-fish. Again the hairy lips

of the dugong, may, with a little imagination, have prompted

Aelian’s marvellous description of fishes with heads of lions,

panthers and rams inhabiting the seas of Ceylon, for it is significant

that the Dutch call the dugong the ‘ Little Bearded Man’. Petit

endeavours to show that the mermaid of the Maiagasy legend which

recounts the loves of a fisherman and a siren of the sea originated

in the dugong. Hetraces a connection between the name of the

legend, i.e., ‘Ampella Mannatssa’, meaning, ‘a woman who has gills’

and the belief commonly held by Madagascar fisher folk that the

dugong breathes through gills like a fish. The Comorra fishermen

further attribute a human origin to the dugong. Legendary belief

accounts for their origin as the result of the guilty love of a brother

for his sister. The couple were punished by being transformed

into fishes in human form. Finally M. Petit concludes from certain

beliefs held by the Malagasy fishermen to-day, from the rites per-

formed by them when dugongs are captured and from the oath that

the Mahorrai fisherman must take before he can sell the flesh of a

dugong in the local market, wherein he foreswears any unnatural

relationship between himself and his captive, that the fabled loves

of human beings for the sirens of the sea may not have had an

entirely legendary foundation. He points out that it is not only

primitive people who connect the dugong with the mermaid but

ome

1 Petit, Bull. de. Mus. Nat. D’ Hist. Nat. Paris, No.5, 1927.

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 97

that the belief is also current in civilized countries. It is possible

that the dugongs of the Madagascar seas have given rise to the

Malagasy myth and if so, has the human origin ascribed to them

had its parallel in the origin of the sirens of Greek Mythology ?

The dugong may have been the basis of some of the mermaid

stories, but fabled human beings half human half fish are as common

in temperate as in tropical seas. The fish tail which in popular

belief invariably forms an indispensable part of a mermaid is really

of no special importance, for your true Teutonic mermaid had no

fish tail ; while the symbolic appendage occurs in the mythologies of

sO many countries where these Sirenians do not exist that it is

impossible to discover a clue to the origin of the belief.

What is the origin of the Sirenia’? It 1s assumed that the sea-

cows, like other marine mammals, originated from land or terres-

trial mammals. An assumption of this nature is arrived at by three

methods or processes of investigation. The Doctrine of Descent,

now generally accepted by Biologists, looks upon an animal not asa

distinct creation but as being derived by a natural process of descent

from pre-existing species ; exactly as the various breeds of domes-

tic cattle of Asia are believed to be the descendants of the Tsaine—

the wild bull of the Burmese and Malayan forests. In the difficult

and almost hopeless task of tracing the descent of an animal and

fixing its true relationship, the zoologist is helped by the study of

the remains of extinct forms which have been preserved in the

strata of the earth, secondly by the generally accepted theory that

the changes undergone by an animal during its development in the

embryonic stages forms an epitome or condensation of the changes

by which in the course of long ages it has been evolved from ances-

tral types. We have seen how the dense coat of rudimentary hairs,

discovered in the foetus of a manatee, has led to the assumption

that the manatee is the descendant of an animal which was as furry

as a seal. Finally a comparative study of the organs of adult

animals helps to furnish evidence in establishing their relationship

and derivation.

The remains of extinct sea-cows offer us important and signi-

ficant clues in tracing the origin and descent of these marine mam-

mals. Unlike the whales, they were dwellers on the coasts and

their remains are found in abundance in the marine Tertiary deposits

of Europe. The profusion of the remains discovered in this area

has provided the assumption that the Mediterranean was the

original home of the Sirenia. They appear to have arisen in the middle

Eocene and until the Pliocene were abundant along the coasts of

Europe. From thence it is believed the ancestors of the dugongs

migrated eastward and those of the manatee westward! which

theory may explain why the manatees are now confined to the sea-

boards of the South Atlantic, while the dugongs are limited to the

coastal waters of the Indian Ocean. The past distribution of the

sea-cows and their present exclusive confinement to the tropical

regions of the earth adds one more proof to the now well-established

1 Abel, Ann. Rept. Smith. Inst., 1908.

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

fact that throughout most of the Tertiary era the climate of northern

latitudes was very much warmer than it is now; it must have been

almost tropical. The most primitive sea-cow known to us is the

Porastomus of the Eocene, with whom appeared a second genus

which received the poetic name of Eotherium or ‘ animal of the dawn.’

The salient character of these primitive sea-cows lies in their pos-

session of teeth which show little deviation from the standard type

‘of teeth in mammals. The Porastoma had a complete and fully

differentiated dentition of incisor, canine and molar teeth, while its

skull was characterized by the complete absence of the downard

deflection of the jaws which is so distinctive in all the sea-cows

which followed it. A second important fact brought to light by the

examination of the reinains of these primitive sea-cows is that they

possessed functional hind limbs. The complete pelvis of the

Eotherium with its well formed acetabulum or socket for the arti-

culation of the femur or thigh bone suggests that this ancient

sea-cow still retained a functional hind limb. In the sea-cows of

the upper middle Eocene, the hind limbs had already become func-

tionless. The pelvis had already degenerated and its component

bones, the ilium, the ischium and the pubis had more or less fused.

By a study of these later forms we can trace step by step the course

through which the degeneration of the pelvis and the femur has

passed. The pubis gradually becomes smaller and disappears

entirely in the Metaxytherium, a sea-cow from the Miocene of

Austria; while the acetabular cavity for the articulation of the thigh

bone already becomes smaller and rudimentary in the Halitherium of

the Oligocene. Finally only a long rod of bone remains, the upper

part of which consists of the ilium and the lower the ischium as in

the extinct sea-cow or Rhytina. The manatee still retains the

fragmentary rudiments of the pelvis while in the dugong the pelvic

girdle is represented by three small bones. Evidences of this

nature indicate the origin of the sea-cows from four-limbed mammals.

Finally a comparison of the structure of primitive sea-cows

with those of primitive proboscidians, a class of animals to

which the elephants belong, appears to indicate an affinity or

relationship between the ancestral stocks of these two apparently

distinct groups of animals. Similarities in the structure of the

brain, and to some extent of the pelvis, have been discovered in

the ancestral forms of Proboscidia and Sirenia. Resemblances

have also been traced in their living representatives. In both

groups there is a similarity in the position of the teats and in the

structure of the heart. Again, the molar teeth of the sea-cows

are essentially the same as those of the early proboscidians. The

mode of succession ofthese teeth also reveals a certain similarity.

Though specialization in the sea-cows has resulted mainly, as in

the manatee, ina great increase in the number of grinding teeth,

while in the elephant the increasing complexity of their structure is

more marked. :

Comparisons and deductions of this nature may toa certain

extent indicate the origin of dugongs and manatees from terres-

trial mammals but it cannot be said that they succeed in definitely

establishing such an origin.

THE DUGONG OR SEA-COW 99

LITERATURE CONSULTED AND QUOTED

Annandale, N. (1905)—Notes on the Species and External

Characters of the Dugong (Halzcore dugong). Journ. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal, vol. i.

Annandale, N. (1907)—The Appendicular Skeleton of the Dugong.

nce na. Mus., Calcutta, vol. 1, p. 79. F

Petit, M. G. (1927)—Contribution a1’ Etude de la Morphologie

des Sirénians. Sur un Dugong Femelle capture a Morombe

(Madagascar); Bull. Mus., Paris, No. 5.

Petit, M. G. (1923)—Sur le Dugong de Madagascar: Notes

Ethnographiques. Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthrop., Paris, t. 4, s. vii.

Thomas, O. and Lydekker, R. (1897)—On the Number of Grind-

ing Teeth possessed by the Manatee; Proc. Zool. Soc., London,

‘Oy Nee ;

Abel, O. (1908)—The Genealogical History of Marine Mammals.

Ann. Rep. Smithn. [nst., Washington.

Dexler, H. und Freund, L. (1906)—Zur Biologie und Morpologie

von FHalicore dugong. Archiv tur Naturgeschite, bd. 1.

Langkavel, E. (1896)—Der Dugong ; Der Zoologisthe Garten Ann.

Klunziger (1870)—Beitrage zur Osteologie von Halicore dugong.

Arch. f. Anat. Phys. Wissemchatt. Medicine, Leipzig.

Raffles, T. S. (1820)—Some Account of the Dugong. Phzl. Trans.

ot the Roy. Soc., London, part ii.

Rtippell (1834)—Beschreibung des im rothen Meere vorkommen-

den Dugong (Hadlicore dugong). Mus. Senckenbergianum, t. I.

Phillips, W. W. A. (1927)—Guide to the Mammals of Ceylon,

part vil. Szventa. Ceylon Journal of Sctence, vol. xiv, p. 51.

Troughton, E. Le G. (1928)—Sea-cow.—The Story of the

Dugong. Australian Mus. Magazine, vol. iii, p. 220.

FURTHER NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF BOMBAY SHORE

FISHES

HENRY W. FOWLER

Of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia

(With two plates)

The second instalment of Dr. F. Hallberg’s collection of Indian fishes con-

tains the material reported in the present paper. They are labelled as having

been obtained at Bombay and most also with the additional designation of Back

Bay. These specimens comprise 175 specimens, representing 89 species, of

which I describe as new:

Pseudochromis s pence.

Pomacentrus prateri.

ORECTOLOBIDZE

Stegostoma tigrinum (Forster).

Depth 43; head 32, width 1. Snout 1$ in head; eye 10, 7 in snout, 92 in

interorbital ; mouth width 32, with short labial folds at angles and with preoral

upper fold followed by hind narial flap ; teeth small, tricuspid, about 20 rows

in each jaw ; interorbital 15 in head, broadly convex. Spiracle short vertical

slit about half eye-diameter behind eye and length 13 in eye. Scales with

median keel and lor 2 laterals each side, all ending in short points. First

dorsal inserted little before ventral, length 14 in head ; second dorsal before

anal, length 13; anal 2;4,; ventral 1¢; pectoral 3g to caudal base ; caudal very

slightly less than rest of body.

Brown largely, under surface of head and abdomen uniform whitish. Over

back 12 cross bands of little deeper brown, each bordered broadly by blackish,

between end of snout and first dorsal with first 8 louped variably as pairs; on

rest of body and tail about 25 dark cross bands, of which half a dozen on tail

louped or paired. Whole lower side of body and tail, also anal and upper

surfaces of paired fins, with dark or blackish spots, largest but little larger than

eye.

One 788 mm. For comparison I have examined two from the Philippines, 325

to 356mm. The larger shows:

Snout 13 in head; eye 103, 7 in snout, 9 in interorbital ; mouth width 23 ;

teeth in 23 rows in each jaw; interorbital 1jin head, convexly elevated. First

dorsal length 14; second dorsal length 22; pectoral 13, width lj its length ;

ventral 2; caudal slightly greater than rest of body. Back and sides brown, 8

transverse buff bands on head and body and 13 on tail; first band across occiput

down on pectoral bases, likewise second band; on tail bands divide to form

lower series. Small pale spot in middle of interorbital. Belly and under

surface white.

Chiloscyllium griseum, Miller and Henle.

Depth 8} to 93, to origin of subcaudal lobe ; head 4% to 5, width 13. Snout 2

in head; eye23to5in snout, 2? to 3 in interorbital; mcuth width 23 to 22 in

head, with short, deep, labial folds at angles leaving broad, adnate, lower fold;

teeth in 26 to 30 rows in each jaw, each asstrong, triangular, median cusp ;

interorbital 23 to 3, broadly convex. Spiracle oblique, close behind and below

level of eye; slightly less than eye. Scales simple pointed denticles. Single

median predorsal keel. First dorsal inserted over posterior portion of ventral

base, length 14 in head ; second dorsal 13 to 13; anal 13 to 1%; least depth of

caudal peduncle 5 to 53 ; pectoral 13 ; ventral 1# ; caudal 33 to 43 in rest of body

from subcaudal origin.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 101

Back drab gray, below white. Iris dark gray. Fins all with more or less

deeper drab terminally.

Two 138 to 188 mm.

SPHVRNIDA

Sphyrna blochit (Cuvier).

Depth 52; head 34, length 2% in its width. Snout tip to mouth slightly less

than least width of oculonarial expansion and front edge or between nostrils

broadly rounded. Eye small, 6 times to nostril. Mouth length 3 its width,

which 12 in space between mouth and front snout edge. Teeth not developed.

Space between nostril and eye litile less than internasal space ; deep groove

from nostril to eye and forward nearly half way to front end of snout. First

dorsal inserted over pectoral base posteriorly, length little greater than head or

31 to caudal base ; second dorsal inserted little behind anal origin, length 2 in

head; anal 12; least depth of caudal peduncle 33; pectoral 13, width 1% its

length ; ventral length 24 in head; caudal 2 in rest of body, lower lobe 27 in

upper.

(Gray brown above, white below. Edges above of oculonarial expansion,

anal, caudal and paired fins all narrowly paler. Iris slate.

One 347 mm.

PRISTIDA

Pristis cuspidatus, Latham.

Depth 113 to subcaudal origin ; head 2%, width at front of spiracles 4},

Rostrum long, slender, tapers very gradually ; rostral teeth 23-24, narrowly

triangular, with inner subbasal barb, not extending on basal fourth of rostrum;

eye 24 in interorbital ; mouth width slightly greater than interorbital or 63 in

head ; teeth in about 62 rows; nostril oblique, larger than eye, 22 in inter-

orbital ; interorbital with superciliary regions little convex. higher than broad

median convexity, width 63 in head. Skin smooth. First dorsal inserted

behind ventral base, long as high or 4 in head ; second dorsal little higher than

long, 4,4 in head ; subcaudal 14 in caudal which 2 in head ; caudal peduncle

depth 3 its width which 2} in interorbital; pectoral long as wide, 32 ; ventral 3%.

Dark drab or neutral gray above, below whitish. Borders of fins and lateral

fold of tail whitish. Iris dark gray. Rostral teeth all pale.

One 615 mm.

TORPEDINIDZ

Torpedo sinus-persict (Olfers).

Two examples 176 to 190 mm. Inno way like the figure by Sauvage, as in

my larger example the body is marked by more or less vermiculated dark or

neutral brown, the lines variably as bars, spots, etc. Also very much more

numerous and smaller or crowded along the front border of disk. In the

smaller example the markings are more as large dark neutral dusky blotch or

spots.

DASVATIIDZ

Dasyatis uaranak (Forskél).

Two examples, disk length to hind ventral edge 240 to 243 min., disk width

- 225 to 263 mm., tail 724to 743 mm. longer. Smaller a male with small tuber-

cles of back continued forward to postocular and interorbital space. Also dark

and tail uniform brown, whereas in large example it is alternately banded dark

brown and white, latter color of much narrower width. In both examples body

uniform, though smaller soiled over entire lower surface.

Jaws of a large example, the dentary width 127 mm. These slightly undula-

ted and with 45 or 46 rows of transversely keeled teeth in each.

I have also compared two from the Philippines and two from Sumatra.

The former with the disk and tail above brown, with numerous, close set,

rounded, dark spots, but little smaller and more crowded about borders of disk.

On tail spots as single series all along upper surface. Entire under surface

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIIL

creamy white. The Sumatra specimens are from Padang, disk length 196 to

225 mm., tail 521 to 586 mm., width 215 to 243 mm. Brown above, darker in

disk center and on disk posteriorly number of round whitish spots with darker

brown borders than body color. ‘Tail basally with similar spots and mostly

entire length with many equal whitish rings. Below white, tinted pale brown

along edges. Listed by me as Dasyatis russelli in 1904.

Dasyatis tmbricatus (Schneider).

Disk nearly wide as long, little concave on front edges, broadly rounded at

angles and behind. Snout produced, sharp angular point, length to eye

slightly longer than length to mouth, or nearly double interorbital width ; eye

32 in interorbital ; mouth width 3 in space to snout tip, little undulate ; 2 lower

papille in mouth; teeth in 32 rows in each jaw; interorbital 1§ in snout,

slightly depressed medianly. Spiracles large as eye. Interorbital and short

space before eyes, cranium and middle of back broadly covered with minute

rough plates or tubercles ; at center of disk small spine and slightly enlarged

vertebral row to tail where about 9 down to caudal spines, posterior of which

largerand 27 in snout. Tail without membranes. Claspers moderate.

Uniform brown above, under surface whitish.

One example, disk length to hind ventral ends 238 mm., tail 285 mm.

longer, disk width 225 mm. ;

Dasyatis sephen (Forskal).

One example 175 mm. from snout tip to hind disk edge and tail 443 longer.

Greatly like Day’s figure except it has but one caudal spine. Two large bony

tubercles in middle of disk around which whole of middle of back, base of tail

and interorbital covered with armour or pavement of minute flattened tubercle

like scales. Lower fold of tail broad. Disk brown above, whitish below. Iris

and spiracles dark gray. Lower fold of tail neutral dusky. Under surface of

disk whitish, margins posteriorly and tail below dusky brown.

Another, length 250 mm. to vent and tail 528 mm. longer, from the Philip-

pines, shows the following :—

Disk partly quadrangular 1% its width ; head, measured to first gill-opening,

34 to vent; snout blut, to eye 1y in head; snout tip to mouth front 13; eye

elevated, 4 in snout, 4in interorbital; mouth small, well undulated, width 2

in snout ; interorbital about equals snout, depressed. Front nasal valves

united and with free edge behind isthmus before mouth. Spiracle large, deep,

larger than eye. Median portion of back and head with broad area of finely

rough shagreen denticles and in middle of disk several enlarged ; tail, outer

portions of disk and all lower surface smooth. ‘Tail with long broad fold

below, its depth equals spiracle length. Body uniform brown above, below

whitish and membrane below tail neutral black. Under surface of tail darker

neutral gray medially.

Dasyatis zuget (Mtller and Henle).

Disk subquadrangular, rounded on outer angles and posteriorly. Snout

produced in rather slender elongated point, nearly 3 times interorbital ; eye

31 to 3% in interorbital ; mouth width 3% to 3 in space to snout tip, but slightly

undulated ; no lower papille in mouth; teeth 30 to 34 rows in each jaw;

interorbital 23 to 28 in snout, depressed, with broad fontanel. Skin smooth.

Upper surface of tail with row of 5 median spine like tubercles and 2 caudal

spines, posterior of which 27, in snout. ‘Tail smooth, with slight membrane

above and below.

Brown above, more or less dusky brown medianly, below whitish largely

soiled with dusky or dirty brown. Membranes of tail neutral black.

Two 155 to 190 mm. in disk length, tail 150 to 293 mm. longer, disk width

155 to 190 mm. Readily known by its extended snout giving much the outline

of various species of Raja. :

Pteroplatea peciloura (Shaw).

Length of disk 1, its width. Head greatly depressed. Snout about 1¢ in

interorbital ; eye 5}; mouth width 14; teeth in about 40 rows in each jaw ;

internasal space 1jin width. Interorbital flat, with broad median depression,

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 103

greater than interspiracle width. Spiracle larger than eye, without tentacle.

Skin smooth. No dcrsal. No caudal spine. Tail without dorsal folds.

Brown above. Iris gray. Tail whitish, with 9 broad blackish bands, much

wider than pale interspaces. One 153 mm. in disk length, tail 90 mm.

longer, width 285 mm.

MVLIOBATIDZ

LE tomyléus milvus (Miller and Henle)

Disk length 1% its width, convex along front edges, concave along hind edges

and outer angles rather narrow. Skull wide, broadly convex in front. Snout

about twice long as nasal valves, rounded anteriorly. Eye rather small, 54 in

interorbital. Mouth width 23 in interorbital. Median teeth 7 or 8 times wide as

long and 3 series of small laterals each side. Nasal valves form broad free

flap, leaving wide space before teeth, hind edge shortly fringed and with

slightly median notch. Internasal space 1§ in space between snout tip to

mouth. Interorbital level, fontanel moderate. Spiracle little larger than eye.

Body entirely smooth. Dorsal origin above ends of ventral bases, hind

margio not free from tail, edge 12 in interorbital. Ventral little over

interorbital, width little less than half its length; claspers extend but little

beyond ventrals. No caudal spine.

Back dark uniform brown, without traces of spots. Below whitish, with

disk marginally more or less soiled with dirty brown. Iris dark gray. Tail

brown, paler below anteriorly.

One with disk length to clasper ends 280 mm., tail328 mm. longer, disk

width 438 mm.

CHIROCENTRIDZ

Chirocentrus dorab (ForskAl).

One example 500 mm,

CLUPEIDZ

Llisha elongata (Bennett).

Depth 3; head 3%, width 23. Snount 37 in head from snout tip; eye 3,greater

than snout, nearly three times interorbital, front adipose lid covering first

third of iris ; maxillary reaches 3 in eye, expansion 13 in eye, lenoth 14 in head ;

teeth villiform, in narrow bands in jaws and on each palatine, broad band on

tongue, none on vomer; mandible protrudes about 2 eye-diameter before

snout ; interorbital 6% in head, little convex. Gill-rakers 8+ 20, lanceolate,

little longer than gill-filaments or 2in eye.

Scales all fallen, 44 + 4 in median lateral series, about 17 transversely, 17

predorsal. Abdominal scutes 23-+ 11. Dorsal m1, 9,1(damaged), inserted

midway between snout tip and caudal base; anal im, 35 (damaged), begins

below last dorsal rays, length 3in combined head and body; caudal slightly

shorter than total head length, well forked ; least depth of caudal peduncle

34 in head.

Drab gray, evidently largely silvery white. Irisgrayish. Fins pale.

One example 305 mm.

DOROSOMID Az

Clupanodon thrissa (Linné).

Depth 23 to 23; head 3§$ to 33, width 2% to 23. Snout 4% to 43 in head ;

eye 32 to 34, greater than snout or interorbital; adipose lids broad, cover 3 of

iris anteriorly and posteriorly ; maxillary reaches little beyond front of eye,

length 34 to 44, convexly elevated. Gill-rakers 132 + 160? very fine, setiform,

slightly longer than gill-filaments or 2} in eye.

Scales 44 or 45-+3 or 4in median lateral series, 17 transversely, 16 pre-

dorsal; postocular, occipital and suprascapular regions, cheek and preopercle

venulose ; 2 or 3 pronounced vertical lines, sometimes complete and many finer

parallel vertical striz; broadly entire apically. Abdominal serre 17 to19-+

12) Dorsal ‘111, 12, 1 or 11, 13,1, last ray 1), to 13 in head ; anal 11, 19, 1,

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

first branched ray 32 to 33; least depth of caudal peduncle 2% to 2%; pectoral

14 to 14; ventral 2} to 22; caudal forked, 33 to 3; in combined head and body

to caudal base.

Back brown, each scale with slightly darker center, made up of dusky brown

spots or dots. Dusky black blotch about 3 or 4 scales behind suprascapula,

deep as vertical eye diameter though width less than eye width. From above

upper part of dark blotch obsolete dull brown band extends back towards

middle of caudal base. All below pale or whitish. Iris gray. Fins pale

brownish. Dorsal and caudal dusted with dusky, especially about margins.

Three examples 85 to 104 mm.

EH NGRAULIDID

Engraulis hamtiltonit, Gray.

Depth 33; head 4 to 44, width 2%. Suout 4§ toS in head; eye 33 to4

entirely covered by adipose eye-lids, greater than snout or 1g in interorbital ;

maxillary extends little beyond gill-opening or nearly to pectoral origin, expan-

sion 1 in eye; teeth small, uniserial in jaws, smallerand in narrow band on

each palatine, none on vomer; interorbital 33 to 34, convexly elevated with

slight median ridge. Gill-rakers 9 + 12, lanceolate, 13 in eye.

Scales 43 + 3 in median lateral series, 12 transversely, 22 predorsal ; opercles,

cheeks, occipital and scapulary regions venulose, area at suprascapula especi-

ally broad ; 5 or 6 transverse radiating striz and apical margin broadly reticu-

lated. Abdominal serre 16 or 17+ 10. Dorsal, 11, 1, third simple ray 1}

to 14 in head ; anal 111, 38,1, third simple ray 1} to1l#; least depth of caudal

peduncle 2} to 23; pectoral 1,4, to 1§ ; ventral 24 to 3.

Back brown, sides paler and below whitish. Iris slate. Dark brown on

suprascapula. Fins all pale, dorsal and caudal dark gray marginally.

Three 165 to 175 mm. 1 have also compared 2 larger examples 178 to

225mm. from the Philippines, wrongly listed by me in 1918 as Tzhrissocles

mystax. 'They show :—

Depth 33 to 32; head 43 to 43 ; width 23 to 24. Snout 4g to 54 in head ; eye

33 to 4%, 13 to 14 in interorbital ; maxillary expansion 2 to 3 in eye ; jaws even,

snout not projecting ; interorbital 3% to4in head. Gill-rakers 11+ 14, equal

eye.

Scales 44 or 45 + in median lateral series, deciduous, 12 or 13 transversely,

18 to 20 predorsal; 4 to6transverse parallel vertical striz, variously incom-

plete inedianly and with age 4 to6 parallel close vertical apical striez, circuii

minute and vertical. Abdominal serre 17 or 18 + 10. Dorsal m1, 11, third

simple ray 14 to 13 in head; anal, 35,1, first branched ray 14 tu 14; least

depth of caudal peduncle 24 to 23; pectoral 14 to 14; ventral 3 to 3}; caudal

3% to 4 in head and body to caudal base, well forked, lobes skarply pointed.

Pale brown, sides and below lighter. Iris gray. Fins all pale.

MURENESOCID 2

Murcenesox cinereus (Forskal).

One 618 mm.

TACHYVSURIDZ

Netuma thalassinus, Rtppell.

One 285 mm. I have 17 from the Phillipines and 1 from Padang, Sumatra, the

latter €16 min., for comparison.

Tachysurus venosus (Valenciennes).

Depth 3%; head 32, width 13. Snout 23 in head; eye 8, 33in snout, 42 in

interorbital; mouth width 23 in head, lower jaw inferior; maxillary barbel

reaches ¢ in depressed pectoral, outer mental reaches to pectoral! origin, inner

little shorter ; teeth in jaws villiform, in moderately wide bands and triangular

palatine area on each side much deeper than wide; interorbital 13 in head;

frontal fontanel rather narrow, with very narrow groove to predorsal plate.

Gill-rakers 5+ 9, lanceolate, 1} in yill-filaments, which slightly less than eye.

Parietal bones, predorsal and humeral plates rugosely striate or granular,

skin otherwise smooth.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 105

Dorsal I, 7, front edge of spine with row of low granular like serre and 14

very small antrorse ones along median hind edge, first ray 1g in head ; adipose

fin 22; anal vil, 14, I, first branched ray 22; caudal 13, well forked ; least

depth of caudal peduncle 3 % ; pectoral 12, spine with fine serre along front

edge and about 14 antrorse serrae along hind edge; ventral 1%.

Back and uppersurface drab brown, soiled whitish below. Iris grayish.

Barbels gray. Paired fins and anal whitish, terminally with grayish.

One 313 mm.

SILURIDZ

Mystus vittatus (Bloch).

Depth 42 to 43; head 32 to 32, width 12. Snout 3 to 3, in head; eye 5

to 53, 13to2in snout, 1$ to 2 ininterorbital ; mouth width 2%to 23 in head ;

nasal barbel reaches back little beyond eye or 23 in head; maxillary barbel

reaches ventral origin ; outer mental barbel reaches 2 in depressed pectoral

fin; inner mental barbel shorter or 12 in head; teeth villiform,~ in

bands in jaws and across vomer and palatines; interorbital 2% to3in

head, about level; opercle with fine radiating strie; frontal fontanel

broad, nearly reaches occipital plate; occipital process reaches as

short point 3 to dorsal plate. Gill-rakers 9 + 28, finely lanceolate, little larger

than gill-filaments or slightly less than eye.

Skin smooth. Cranium and humeral region rugose striate, latter less so.

Dorsal 1, 7, 1, ossified portion of spine 1¢ to lgin head, with7 or 8 antrorse

serree along hind edge ; adipose fin about { of anal ; Analiv, 9,1 or 1v, 10,1, first

branched ray 24 to 22; caudal about equals head, strongly forked, lower lobe

usually little shorter ; least depth of caudal peduncle 23 to 22; pectoral 14 to

12, with 8to 11 antrorse serre on inner edge of spine ; ventral 2 to 23.

Neutral olive above, becoming lived or drab gray to whitish below. Maxil-

lary and nasal barbels dark, others pale. Iris gray. Fins all gray brown.

Four examples 77 to 108mm. All showthe ventrals inserted distinctly or

entirely behind the first dorsal base. They all show only obsolete traces of

pale longitudinal bands, in fact greatly resembling Day’s figure 3 of his

plate 98.

Jordan has named Macrones (non Newman 1841) Dumeril 1856, orthotype

Bagrus lamarit Valenciennes, as Aoria (Genera of Fishes, pt. 2,1919, p. 269).

Aoria is hardly available as both the older names of Hemibagrus Bleeker and

Aspidobagrus Bleeker, also fall as synonyms. J/ystus Gronow is proposed in

the Zoophylaceum, 1763, p. 124, type Bagrus halepensis Valenciennes, and

later introduced by Scopoli, Introd. Hist. Nat., 1777, p. 451, type Bagrus

halepensis Valenciennes, virtually.

SVYNODONTIDZ

Saurida tumbtl (Bloch).

Four 140 to 325 mm. Brown above, each scale on back edged with darker.

Whitish below. Branchiostegals with grayish. Iris gray. Fins brown.

Dorsal, caudal and paired fins neutral gray terminally. Also compared with

two from Padang, Sumatra, 127 to 344 mm.

Harpodon nehereus (Buchanan-Hamilton),

Two 200 to 220 mm.

HEMIRAMPHIDA

Hemiramphus unifasciatus, Ranzani.

Two 137 to 143 mm. Compared with an example 133 mm. from Padang,

Sumatra, | listed as Hemiramphus neglectus.

SPHVRANID2

Sphyrena jello, Cuvier.

Depth 83 ; head 33, width 3%. Snout 23 in head from spout tip; eye 6,

2$ in snout, 13 in interorbital; maxillary not quite reaching opposite eye,

106° JOURNAL, BOMNBAY NATORAL FIST. SOCILZTY. Vol. 2acdi7

expansion 2, length 23 inhead; interorbital 53, level or with only slight median

depression ; preopercle rounded convexly. No gill-rakers.

Scales 125 + 8, 15 above, 13 below, 38 predorsal to occiput.

Dorsal V-I, 1, 8, 1, first spine 2{ in total head length, first branched ray 22 ;

analll, 1, 7, 1, first branched ray 24; caudal 13, forked ; least depth of caudal

peduncle 4% ; pectoral 22 ; ventral 33.

Back brown, below pale to whitish. Over back 12 dark transverse bands,

wider than interspaces and extend down to middle of sides. Iris gray.

Dorsals and caudal brownish, other fins paler.

One 258 mm. Also four from the Philippines for comparison, 106 to 257 mm.

They show :

Depth 7% to 74 ; head 3 to 3g, width 43 to 44. Snout 23 to 2} in head from

snout tip ; eye 5g to 67, 2 to 3 in snout, 1 to 14 in interorbital ; maxillary 24 to

2% in head, expansion 13 to 2 in eye; interorbital 6 to 61 in head, level;

preopercle edge convex.

Scales 110 to 120 + 10 to 12 in lateral line, 13 above, 13 below, 32 to 40

predorsal. Dorsal V-lI, 8, 1, first spine 2? to 33 in total head length, first ray 22

to 22; anal II, 1,°7,.2, second spine 5} to 65, first ray 22, to. 3," caudal lentoul

well forked , pectoral 23 to 2% ; ventral 33 to 33.

Neutral brown above, sides anc below pale to whitish. About 12 deep

neutral gray spots along side and not larger than eye, Dorsals and caudal

grayish other fins whitish.

Sphyrena obtusata, Cuvier.

Depth 53 ; head 23, width 23. Snout 23 in head from snout tip ; eye 42, 2 in

snout, subequal with interorbital ; maxillary not quite reaching to eye, ex-

pansion 14 in eye, length 23 in head; interorbital 5, level, eyes slightly

protrude above each side ; preopercle nearly forms right angle. Gill-rakers

O=- 2.

Scales 83 -+ 5, 9 above, 10 below, 18 predorsal to occiput. Dorsal V-I, 1, 8,

I, first spine 2g in total head length, first branched ray 3; analll,1, 8, 1, first

branched ray 3,4 ; caudal lg, deeply forked; least depth of caudal peduncle

4% ; pectoral 23, reaches beyond spinous dorsal origin ; ventral 23, inserted

before spinous dorsal origin.

Back brown, below whitish. Iris deep gray. Dorsals and caudal brownish,

other fins pale.

One 272 mm. Also 4from the Philippines, 162 tol185 mm. They show :—

Depth 53 to 73; head 2% to 2g, width 3, to 33. Snout 2§ to 2% in head

from snout tip ; eye 5 to 5}, 2} to 23 in snout, greater than interorbital ;

maxillary reaches # to $ to eye, expansion 23 to 2? in eye, length 22 to 232

in head ; teeth mostly vertically erect, 2 pairs of upper front canines, single

lower symphyseal canine and several smaller laterals which larger than

others in mandible ; each palatine with row of fine teeth preceded by a row

of 3 to 5 large canines ; interorbital 63 to 73, very slightly convex and large-

ly depressed medianly; preopercle edge rectangular, flap like. Gill-rakers

0 +- 2, half of gill-filaments or 4 in eye.

Scales 75 to 78 + 9 or 10, 8 above, 10 below, 27 predorsal to hind eye

edge ; 6 or 7 rows of cheek scales ; 32 to 36 basal radiating striz and com-

plete circuli with about 30 apical. Dorsal Y-I, 9, I, first spine 2% to 33 in

total head length, first ray 2¢ to 3g ; anal I or II, 8, 1 or 9, 1, last spine 53

to 7, first ray 3to 4; caudal 13 to 13, forked; pectoral 23 to 3%, reaches to

or little beyond spinous dorsal origin ; ventral 2$ to 34, inserted well before

spinous dorsal.

Back and above brown, below silvery white. Pale, diffuse longitudinal

gray streak along middle of side close below lateral line. Iris silvery white,

with grayish. Dorsals and caudal dusky, with pale yellowish tinge basally,

other fins pale yellowish white.

ATHERINIDZ

Atherina valenciennest, Bleeker.

Depth 4$ to 5; head 4 to 4%, width 13 to 1%. Snout 33 to 4 in head; eye

22 to 23, greater than snout or 1 to 1§ in interorbital; maxillary 22 to 24 in

head, reaches eye; teeth villiform, minute, in bands in jaws, on vomer and

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 107

palatines ; interorbital 22 to 23, level. Gill-rakers 6 + 19, lanceolate, little

longer than gill-filaments or 2} in eye.

Scales 39 or 40 -+ 4or 5, 8 transversely, 19 to 21 predorsal, single row on

cheek ; 2 or 3 close set median basal points, 25 to 35 parallel vertical stria.

Dorsal V-I, 9, I, first spine 23 to 23 in head, first branched ray 13 to1¢; anal

Ill, 1, 10, 1, first branched ray 1% to 12; caudal 1§ to 174, forked ; least

depth of caudal peduncle 3 to 3g; pectoral 1g to 14; ventral l#to1g. Vent

before first third in depressed ventral and 6 scales between it and vertical line

through body to first dorsal origin.

Light brown generally, paler below. Each scale on back above sprinkled

with dusky brown dots, though leaving broad uniform margin. Underlaid

gray band from pectoral axil to caudal base medianly, widest at latter and this

not quite equal to eye. Iris slaty, Row of dusky dots on lower surface of tail

close along anal base. Fins all pale, hind caudal edge dusky. Narrow dusky

line across pectoral base.

Three 70 to 76 mm.

MUGILIDZA

Mugil dussumtert, Valenciennes,

Depth 4; head 3; to 33, width 13 tolg. Snout 3% to 3; in head; eye

33 to 4, greater than snout, 1} to 1$in interorbital, broad adipose lids cover }

of iris in front and behind ; mouth width 37, to3}in head ; upper lip rather

broad, width 4 of eye; maxillary well exposed when mouth closes ; interorbital

2% to 24 in head, nearly level ; lower preorbital edge finely serrated. Gill-rakers

27 + 45, finely lanceolate, 14 in gill-filaments.

Scales 30 + , 11 transversely, 23 predorsal ; soft vertical fins finely scaled ;

no axillary pectoral scale ; scales with 6 to 9 basal radiating striz, 74 to 86 weak

apical denticles with 8 to 10 transverse series of basal elements and circuli fine.

Dorsal IV-I, 8, 1, first spine 1{ to1# in head, first branched ray 13 to 14, soft

dorsal origin over middle of anal base; anal Ill, 9,1, first branched ray 14;

caudal 1 to 1,5, deeply emarginate ; least depth of caudal peduncle 23 to 23;

pectoral 13 to 12; ventral 13.

Back olive brown, below whitish. Iris slate gray. Fins brownish, lower

whitish and no dark spot at pectoral origin.

Two 100 to 110 mm,

Mugil ophuyseni1, Bleeker.

Depth 3¢ to 4; head 3% to 4, width 1; to1%. Snout 3f to4in head; eye 34

to 4, equals snout, 1% to 2 in interorbital, broad adipose lids cover iris 4 in front

and behind; mouth width 3in head, as seen below would forn: an obtuse

angle ; upper lips rather broad, width 34 in eye; interorbital 2 to 2}, broadly

convex ; maxillary slightly visible when mouth closes; lower preorbital edge

minutely serrated. Gill-rakers 31 + 43, finely lanceolate, 12 in gill-filaments or

12 in eye.

Scales 32 to 34 + 3, 12 transversely, 17 or 18 predorsal; axillary pectoral

scale 2¢ in fin ; median ventral scaly flap § of fin; soft dorsal, caudal and anal

densely covered with fine scales ; scales with 6 basal radiating striae, apical

borders finely fringed and circuli minute. Dorsal IV-I, 1, 7,1, first spine 14 in

head, first branched ray 1%, origin of second dorsal over first third of anal base;

anal Ill, 1, 8, 1, first branched ray 13 to 13; caudal 33 to 33 to caudal base,

large, emarginate behind ; pectoral 3% to 4§, reaches slightly beyond first

dorsal origin ; ventral 13 to 13 in head ; least depth of caudal peduncle 2.

Back olive brown, sides and below whitish. Fins all pale brown, edges of

dorsal and caudal dusky, other fins paler. Pectoral with small neutral] dusky

spot at origin of fin. Iris gray.

Two 158 to 160 mm. I have not previously met with tiis East Indian species

and it does not appear to have been recorded from Bombay. My specimens

agree with Weber and Beaufort’s description. This species differ from Mugi/

séheli in the presence of the broad adipose eyelids and the origin of the first

dorsal nearer the snout tip than the caudal base.

Mugil vaigiensis, Quoy and Gaimard.

Three examples, 42 to45 mm. All show the dorsals and anal apically and

pectoral superiorly, neutral dusky to blackish.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Mugil borneensis, Bleeker.

Depth 33 to 32; head 34 to 34, width 1§ to 1%. Snout 323 to 33; eye 33 to

3g, much greater than snout, 1$to 14 in interorbital, adipose lid barely

covering 4 of iris; mouth width 3; to 3} in head ; upper lip moderately wide,

width.33 in eye ; maxillary well exposed when mouth closes ; lower preorbital

edge serrate ; interorbital 22 to 23, broadly convex. Gill-rakers 24 + 36, finely

lanceolate, 12 in gill-filaments which 1} in eye.

Scales 30 to 32 + in median lateral series, 11 or 12 transversely, 20 to 21

predorsal ; soft vertical fins with small scales basally ; scales with 5 or6 basal

radiating striz, 41 weak apical denticles, with 3 or 4 transverse series of basal

elements and circuli fine. Dorsal IV-l, 8,1, first spine 13 to 1fin head, first

branched ray 1# to 1g. soft dorsal origin opposite last fourth of anal base or

totally behind same; anallIfl, 9, 1, first branched ray 1#to2; caudal 1g to 14,

concave behind ; least depth of caudal peduncle 23 to 23 ; pectoral 14 to 12,

without axillary scale ; ventral 13 to 1#.

Back brown, side and below paler to whitish. Iris slate gray. Dorsal, caudal

and pectoral brownish, other fins whitish, without markings and no dark spot

at pectoral origin.

Three 58 to 67 mm.

POLYNEMIDZ

Polydactylus sextartus (Bloch).

One example, 206 inm. It has 7 pectoral filaments each side. Pectoral fin

pale and blackish blotch after third scale of lateral line extending over 4 scales.

Polydactylus plebejus (Broussont).

Two, 280 to 342 mm. Larger with each caudal lobe ending in filament. Also

it has dorsals, anal, pectoral and ventral blackish while in the smaller one the

ventrals and anal are only dark brown.

SCOMBRIDZ

Rastrelliger brachysomus (Bleeker).

Depth 32; head 34, width 23. Snout 33 in head from snout tip; eye §, 14 in

snout, 1} ininterorbital, less than medianthird freed by broad adipose

eyelids ; maxillary reaches opposite hind eye edge, expansion 23 in eye,

broadly sheathed by long preorbital, length 2 in head ; narrow band of minute

villiform teeth in each jaw, none on palate or tongue ; interorbital 33, but

little elevated and with snout above broadly flattened medially ; preopercle

with radiating venules, also each side of head above from behind eye and

others along each side of predorsal squamation to suprascapula region. Gill-

rakers 21-+- 43, compressed, inner edges fringed with fine short sete, longer

than gill-filaments or 2% in total head length.

Scales 123 + in lateral line, 12 above, 27 below, 25 predorsal, not forming

corselet, but little enlarged below pectoral base and on cheek ; soft dorsal and

anal densely covered with small scales. Large scales with marginal apical

fringe of 32 points; vertical parallel striz on scales13 to 25 andon large

scales about 35 on apical half. Dorsal X -I, 1, 10, 1 — 5, first spine 1{ in total

head length, first branched ray 3; anallI, 1,10,1— 5, first branched ray 3;

caudal 13, deeply forked; least depth of caudal peduncle 8; pectoral 2; ;

ventral. 23.

Back dull olive, sides and below whitish. Iris showing grayish with brassy

through adipose lids. Fins all dull brownish, spinous dorsal more grayish and

darker marginally, lobe of soft dorsal apically and hind caudal margin also

with dusky. Lower fins more whitish.

One, 220° mm. This species is well figured by Jordan and Dickerson?

from a specimen obtained at Fiji. Day knew it from the Andamans so that

my example now shows it ranges from Bombay to Polynesia. I have also

examined material from Melanesia.

Scomberomorus guttatus (Schneider).

Depth 43 head 43; width 2g. Snout 37, in head; eye 63, 24 in snout, 24

in interorbital; maxillary extends well beyond eye, expansion 13 in eye | ength

1 Proc. U.S Nat. Mus. 34, 1908, p. 609, fig. 3.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 109

1,2, in head; row of 36 compressed lanceolate teeth above, 26 below in jaws;

areas of villiform teeth on vomer, palatines and tongue ; interorbital 33 in

head, convexly elevated. Gill-rakers 3+ 7, lanceolate,4 of gill-filaments

which equal eye.

Scales minute, little evident; dorsal, anal and caudal lobes finely scaled ;

lateral line curves rather evenly along back, drops medianly to caudal peduncle.

Dorsal XViI—1v, 15 + 9, third spine 22 in head, first branched dorsal ray 14

in head; analiiz, 17+ 8, first branched ray 1§; caudal 1, deeply forked

lunately; least depth of caudal peduncle 43; pectoral 1; ventral 33.

Back neutral brown, shading more drab on sides and below whitish. On

back many obscure neutral dusky to blackish spots, in about 6 longitudinal

rows. Iris gray brown. Spinous dorsal neutral black, soft dorsal, pectoral

and caudal brownish, other fins whitish.

One 450 mm.

TRICHIURIDA

Trichiurus savala, Cuvier.

One 465 mm. Eye 3 snout.

STROMATEIDA

Pampus cinereus (Bloch).

Depth 13; head 3%, width 1%. Snout 34 in head; eye 33, equals snout, 12

in interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite eye center, expansion 2¢ in eye,

length from snout tip 2 in head ; interorbital 2, convexly elevated ; opercle with

radiating striz. Gill-rakers 2 + 8 short rudimentary points.

Dorsal IX, v1, 38, 1, lobe of soft fin 3in combined head and body; anal VI,

Iv, 35, I, lobe 23 ; lower caudal lobe 23, longer than upper ; pectoral 24.

Brown, paler to whitish below with silvery reflections. Head and fins all

more or less with dusky, except caudal which quite pale. Iris gray.

One 157 mm. The nominal Pampus lighti Evermann and Shaw? is likely a

variant only 77 mm. long. It simply shows a slight increase in fin formule, as

‘D. X, 48; A. Vil, 45.’ The aileged ‘longer pectoral, more deeply forked

caudal, whose lobes are unequal in length, shorter lower jaw, and the more

pointed anterior portions of dorsal and anal’ are surely valueless distinctions.

NOMEIDZ

Psenes indicus, Day.

Depth 2} to 23; head 3 to 33, width 2. Snout 3% to 3$ in head from snout

tip ; eye 37 to 3g, subequal with snout, 13 to 1% in interorbital; maxillary not

quite reaching eye, largely sheathed by rather narrow preorbital, expansion 3 to

32 in eye, length 32 to 33 in head; teeth minute, uniserial, even and firm in

jaws, noneon palate or tongue; interorbital 23 to3, greatly elevated convexly.

Gill-rakers 9 + 14, lanceolate, 23 in gill-filaments or 3 of eye.

Scales very deciduous, all fallen, about 42 (pockets) in lateral line ; narrowly

imbricated on sides of body. Dorsal XI, I, 15, 1, spines and rays very fragile,

first ray 22 to 24 in total head length; anal 111, 14, 1, first branched ray 22 to

2%; caudal 1 to 17,, deeply forked; least depth of caudal peduncle 43 to 44;

pectoral 1 ; ventral 2} to 23.

Largely deep drab gray, little paler below. Fins and head largely brownish.

Iris deep gray.

Three 160 to 182 mm.

CARANGIDA

Scomberoides toloo (Cuvier).

Two 130 to 140 mm. This species is known by the maxillary reaching to or

slightly beyond the hind edge of the eye, the rather large or broadly exposed

* Proc. California Acad. Sct., yo\. 16, no. 4, 4th series, January 31, 1927,

p. 114, Nanking.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

scales and the pale soft dorsal, anal and caudal lobes, these not black. My

examples show very faint traces of the 5 or 6 upper lateral neutral gray blotches

and they are more as shown in Day’s figure of Chorinemus toloo. he very

incomplete account of Chorinemus toloo Cuvier’ is based on an example 200 mm.

long obtained at Malabar in which the spots are described as obliterated. It is,

however, identified with the Zoloo-parah of Russell,? who says ‘ the dorsal,

anal and caudal fins are darkish’ and gives the length as 400 mm. His figure

shows the depth as 24, the maxillary reaching opposite hind eye edge and only

the edges of the dorsal and anal, and hind caudal edge slightly shaded. The

lateral line does not show the sharp angle below the front of the spinous dorsal

as in my specimens and the § dark upper lateral spots are shown all above it.

According to Klunzinger his Chorinemus moadetta = Scomberotides toloo-parah

(Rtippell), differs in a more slender body and the soft dorsal and anal lobes

blackish. This appears to be the species mostly met with in Oceania.

For comparison I have examined a series of 7 examples from the Philippines

and 3 from Padang, Sumatra, 117 to 331 mm. These show :—

Depth 3$ to 33; head 4 to 43, width 23 to 2%. Snout 3% to 4in head from

snout tip; eye 47, to 43, lto 1; in snout, 13 to 14 in interorbital; maxillary

reaches opposite hind eye edge, little beyond eye with age, expansion 2 to 3 in

eye, length 1$to 13 in head; outer row of lower teeth curved upward and

outward ; interorbital 33 to 33, convex, elevated. Gill-rakers 3+ 13 lanceolate.

Scales close set, broadly lanceolate. Lateral line forms obtuse angle opposite

front of spinous dorsal. Dorsal I, VII, 1, 20,1, spines flattened, overlap, fifth

34 in total head length, second branched ray 1% to 1g; aval II—1, 18, 1, first ray

12 to 2; least depth of caudal peduncle 4 to 44 ; pectoral 12 to 14 ; ventral 1% to

%; caudal 14, 44 in combined head and body to caudal base, forked. Uniform

brownish.

Megalaspis cordyla (Linné).

Two 228 to 230 mm.

Caranx sextfasciatus, Quoy and Gaimard.

Two 127 to 132 mm.

Caranx kalla, Valenciennes.

Two 140 to 160 mm.

Carangoides malabaricus (Schneider).

Three 117 to 198 mm. In my account of South African fishes 2 specimens

have the straight section of the lateral line 13 in the arch and not the reverse as

printed. The Bombay examples show the straight section of the lateral line

12 to 14in the arch.

Citula atropos (Schneider).

Depth 12; head 33, width 2. Snout 33 in head from snout tip ; eye 4, equals

snout or 14 in interorbital ; maxillary reaches first third in eye, expansion 2},

length 24 in head ; narrow band of short conic teeth in each jaw and small patch

of villiform teeth on vomer, none on palatines or tongue; interorbital 3% in

head, elevated convexly with strong median keel tospinous dorsal. Gill-rakers

12 + 20, lanceolate, 13 in gill-filaments or 1% in eye.

Scales 34 + 36 in lateral line, 18 above arch to base of spinous dorsal, 33

below ; predorsal with median naked strip its entire extent ; breast and chest

broadly naked to pectoral and ventral bases; scales with 45 to 48 + 50 to 63

vertical parallel strie ; arch of lateral line 13 in straight section. Dorsal I,

VilI—I, 1, 21, 1, third erect spine 2# in total head, first branched ray 1% ; anal II—

I, I, 19, 1, first branched ray 14; least depth of caudal peduncle 5; caudal 33 in

combined head and body to caudal base, forked ; pectoral 2%, falcate ; ventral

33; vent midway in median abdo ninal groove in length of depressed ventral.

A TIUSt AN Gt FOUSS 5, VOl So Looe cask

2 Fishes of Coromandel, vol. 2, 1803, p. 29 pl. 137, Vizagapatam.

® Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Philad., 1925, p..216.

FURTHER NOTES. ON BOMBAY FISHES tl

Back olivaceous brown, paler to whitish below. Iris gray. Dorsal and

caudal pale brown, with spinous fin, soft dorsal edge above and stripe along

each ray dotted with gray to dusky. Ventral neutral black. Analand pectoral

whitish.

One 217 mm. It agrees well with Russell’s figure of W/aish parah.’ There

are, however, no scales at the pectoral base in my example such as Russell

shows. Also he does not indicate the small basal scales on the dorsal and anal

or caudal, or on the lobes of these fins.

Apolectus niger (Bloch).

One 240 mm,

MENEID2

Mene maculata (Schneider).

One 228 mm. Back drab brown with blue to neutral dusky spots. Sides and

below silvery white.

RACHYCENTRIDA

Rachycentron canadum (Linné).

One 575 mm.

LACTARIIDZ

Lactarius lactarius (Schneider).

Four 140 to 146 mm.

LEIOGNATHID

Letognathus daura (Cuvier).

Depth 25; head 34, width 2. Snout 37, in head ; eye 334, subequal with

snout or interorbital; maxillary reaches opposite eye, expansion 33 in eye,

length 23 in head ; lower lip over twice width of upper ; interorbital 24 in head,

little elevated with depression medianly. Gill-rakers 6 + 14, lanceolate, 14 in

gill-filaments which ¢ of eye.

Tubular scales about 60-+ (pockets largely) in lateral line; scales very

deciduous, most having fallen. Dorsal VIII, 16,1, second spine 132 in head,

second ray 33; anal Ill, 14,1, second spine 1,%, second ray 4; caudal 1, well

forked, lobes equal; least depth of caudal peduncle 43 ; pectoral 14 ; ventral 2.

Back drab gray, below paler to whitish. Traces of 10 pairs of darker verti-

callines along edgeof back. Snout end dark. Iris gray. Fins all pale,

spinous dorsal terminally black. Pectoral base inside axil black.

One 94 mm. I also havea single example 80 mm. long from the Philippines

for comparison. It shows:

Depth 2; head 3, width 2. Snout 24 in head ; eye 32, 1g in snout, subequal

with interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite front pupil edge, expansion 3 in

eye, length 24 in head; teeth very minute, wniserial, obsolete in upper jaw ;

interorbital 33, convex, depressed medianly ; supraorbital edge entire ; lower

preopercle edge denticulate, hind edge entire. Gill-rakers 7 + 21, lanceolate.

Scales very small, deciduous, absent from entire breast to pectoral and

ventral bases. Lateral line little more arched than profile of back, extends

midway along caudal peduncle side. Dorsal VIII, 16,1, second spine 1? in

head ; anal Ill, 14, 1, second branched ray 1%; caudal 1,4, forked, slender lobes

pointed ; caudal peduncle depth 42 ; pectoral 1% ; ventral 23.

Back drab gray, sides and below silvery white. Iris white. Snout sprinkled

with dusky dots along front margin above lips. Fins pale brownish, spinous

dorsal dusky marginally. Neutral dusky line along edgeof back below

dorsal base. Diffuse neutral dusky blotch about sizeof pupil at end of

supraocular spine.

1 Fishes of Coromandel, vol. 2, 1803, p. 38, pl. 152, Vizagapatam,

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacépéde).

Depth 14; head 33, width 2, “Snout 24 in head ; eye 31,, lg in snout, 1g in

interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite eye, expansion 33 in eye, length 2] in

head ; lower lip scarcely wider than upper; interorbital 3, little elevated, with

broad median depression. Gill-rakers 7 + 14, lanceolate, 4 of gill-filaments

which 24 in eye.

Tubular scales 58 + (largely pockets) in lateral line ; very deciduous, nearly

all having fallen ; breast naked to pectoral and ventral bases. Dorsal VIII, 16,

I, second spine filamentous, 2; in combined head and body to caudal base,

first ray 44 in head; anal Ill, 14, 1, second spine 1, first ray 32; least depth of

caudal peduncle 4 ; pectoral 13 ; ventral 2.

Back drab gray, paler to whitish below. ‘Traces of a dozen or more obscure

dark gray vertical lines. Iris deep gray. End of snout brown. Lips pale or

whitish. Fins pale brown, inside pectoral axil blackish.

One 105 mm.

Gazza minuta (Bloch).

Five 64to 137 mm. Three are much smaller than the others and with

rather few obscure darker vermiculating lines.

ACROPOMATIDZ

Acropoma japonicum, Ginther

One 100 mm.

AMBASSIDZ

Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacépéde).

Nine from pools in Back Bay, 43 to 62 mm.

SERRANIDZ

Serranus lanceolatus (Bloch).

Three 51 to 150 mm. Larger two with mandibular teeth biserial or slightly

triserial anteriorly. Dorsal XI, 14,1, to XI, 16,1; anal lIl,8,1. Dark line in

maxillary groove.

PRIACANTHIDZ

Priacanthus hamrur (¥orskal).

One 208 mm. Gill-rakers6-+ 21. Scales 65-+ 4. Dorsal X, 13,1; anal Ill.

14,1; ventral 1g in head. Generally bright red. Lower anal edge dark gray,

Ventral neutral dusky.

PSEUDOCHROMIDZ

Pseudochromis spencei, new species

Plate I

Depth 34; head 33, width 24. Snout 43 in head, from snout tip, little broad-

er than long; eye 32 in head, greater than snout or interorbital ; maxillary

reaches slightly beyond front eye edge, expansion 23 in eye, length 3 in head ;

teeth conic, simple, uniserialin jaws, 4 canines in each anteriorly and small

medio-lateral mandibular; no teeth on palate or tongue, latter pointed and

free in front ; interorbital 6¢ in head, slightly convex ; preopercle edge entire ;

opercle ends in broad, short, freespine. Gill-rakers 5+ 10, lanceolate, 4 of

gill-filaments which 13 in eye.

Scales 36 -+ 8 + 2 in lateral line, 3 above, 14 below, 17 predorsal forward till

midway in interorbital ; 5 rows on cheek to preopercle ridge; muzzle naked ;

of fins only caudal scaled basally ; scales with 11 basal radiatlng striez, 57

apical denticles with 1 or 2 transverse series of basal elements, circuli fine.

Dorsal Ill, 29, third spine 3} in total head length, third ray 24; anal IH, 18,

PLATE |

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A S89 Wl)

Pseudochrumis spencet, NEW SPECIES.

Henry W. Fowler, Del.

PLATE II

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ie)

mm.

NEW SPECIES.

Pomacentrus pratert,

Henry W, Fowler, Del.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES lig

second spine 6, eighth ray 22; caudal 14, convexly rounded behind ; least

depth of caudal peduncle 24 ; pectoral 12; ventral 1%.

Back brownish, below paler. In postocular, at upper juncture of preopercle

short dusky bar sizeof pupil. Iris gray Under surface of head and body

pale to whitish. Dorsals, caudal and anal pale gray Dorsal and anal with

numerous, obscure, dark longitudinal lines.

Type, an example from pools in Back Bay, 53 mm. long. This species

differs from Pseudochromis xanthochir Bleeker, reported from the Andamans

by Day, in its slightly different fin formula, its uniform coloration and above

all in its dark postocular blotch.

Dedicated to Sir Reginald Spence, Honorary Secretary of the Bombay

Natural History Society.

LUTJANIDA

Lutjanus johnit (Bloch).

Three 134 to 158 mm., also 2 from Back Bay 73 to 74 mm. All with dorsal

rays 13, tor 14,1. None show the usual dark blotch on the lateral line below

the junction of the dorsal fins.

POMADASIDZA

Pomadasts hasta (Bloch).

ahree 125 to 310 mm.

THERAPONIDZ

Therapon puta (Cuvier).

Young one from Back Bay pools 62 mm.long. For comparison I have 20

Philippine examples 80 to 112mm. These show :—

Depth 3 to 3%; head 2% to 34, width 2 to 22. Snout 3; to 3% in head ; eye

33 to 33, 1 to 14, in snout, little greater than interorbital, more so in young ;

maxillary reaches opposite eye, length 3 to 3} in head; teeth simple, conic,

~villiform, in bands in jaws, outer row little enlarged, none on palate; interor-

bital 4 to 43, broadly convex ; preopercle with lower edge finely denticulate,

few denticles around angle at margin, of which at least 3 enlarged and median

4 of eye; lower preorbital edge rough ; opercular spine 3.of eye. Gill-rakers

9 + 20, lanceolate, subequal with gill-filaments or $ of eye.

Scales 80 + 8, 12 above, 24 below, 19 or 20 predorsal to occiput, 6 rows on

cheek to preopercle ridge ; 8 or 9 basal radiating striz, 10 to 12 apical denticles

with 2 or 3 series of transverse basal elements and circuli fine. Dorsal XII, 10,

I, fifth spine 13 to 13 in head, first ray 13 to 234, ; anal IM, 8, 1, third spine 21 to

21 first ray. 1$ to 19,; caudal 1} to 1%, emarginate ; least depth of caudal

peduncle 3 to 374 ; pectoral] 14 to 13; ventral 15 to 13.

Back pale brown, below whitish. Iris whitish. Dark brown band begins

over nostrils, runs over eye to bases of Jast dorsal rays; second band from

snout tip to eye and then along median body axis to caudal medianly to its

hind edge. Dark or blackish band horizontally across each caudal lobe

medianly. Spinous dorsal pale or whitish, with large black area over highest

portion. Soft dorsal pale, with dusky apical margin. Other fins pale, lower

whitish, anal sometimes with dusky median area.

Therapon jarbua (Forskal).

Three 128 to 245 mm.

LETHRINIDZ

Lethrinus nebulosus (ForskAl).

Depth 23; head 23, width 1g. Snout 27, in head , eye 4, 14% in snout, 13 in

interorbital ; maxillary exposed, reaches opposite front nostril, length 23 in

head ; teeth with outer enlarged row of which posterior 5 or 6 short, though

broadly conic; 2 front canines in each jaw : inner narrow band of villiform

teeth, at least anteriorly in jaws; interorbital 33, broadly convex. Gill-rakers

7 + 6, low broad tubercles, 24 in gill-filaments, which 1 in eye.

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Scales 46 + 5, 7 above, 17 below, 8 predorsal ; 17 to 19 basal radiating strie,

82 to 89 apical denticles with 12 to 13 transverse series of basal elements and

circuli fine. Dorsal X, 9, 1, fourth spine 22 in head, first ray 3; anal Ill, 8,1,

second spine 34, first ray 2§ ; caudal 1}, deeply forked: least depth of caudal

peduncle 3 ; pectoral 13; ventral 14.

Drab brown, little paler on under surface of head and belly. Cheek with

some small obscure dark spots. Traces of 3 or 4 nearly vertical dark bands

which inclined little backward and apparently some intervening parallel

narrower streaks. Irisslaty. Inside mouth orange red. Fins all dull brown,

dorsal and anal with several obscure rows of dark spots longitudinally. Caudal

also with traces of several dark cross bands. Pectoral paie brown. Ventral

largely neutral dusky terminally, at least on membranes.

One 175 mm.

SPARIDZ

Sparus datnia (Buchanan-Hamilton).

Depth 24; head 2%, width 2. Snout 2 in head ; eye 43, 13 in snout, 13 in

interorbital ; maxillary reaches 2 in eye, expansion 2, length 23 in head ,6

conic canines in front of each jaw ; 3 rows of molars each side below and 4 rows

each side above, next to innermost posteriorly with broadest or largest teeth ;

interorbital 3%, broadly convex ; infraorbital depth to maxillary end 14 in eye ;

preopercle edge entire. Gill-rakers 5 + 11, short compressed points, 33 in gill-

filaments which 1% in eye.

Scales 41 + 6, 6, above, 12 below, 18 predorsal to middle of interorbital; 6

rows on cheek ; suprascapula entire ; 11 basal radiating strize, about 90 weak

apical denticles with 6 distinct transverse series of basal elements and circuli

very fine. Dorsal XII, 10, 1, spines strong, third 2 in head, first ray 22 ; anal II,

8, I, second spine enlarged, 13, first ray 2p, caudal 15, deeply forked ; least

depth of caudal peduncle 23 ; ventral 1g; pectoral 25 in combined head and

body to caudal base. ; ON

Brown over back and above, head, belly and under surface of tail whitish.

Iris gray. Suprascapular region and upper hind part of opercle dusky brown.

Dorsals, caudal and pectorals brownish, membranes of fins terminally neutral

dusky, more broadly so on spinous dorsal. Anal and ventral whitish

One 237 mm. Distinguished chiefly by its enlarged second anal spine, which

long as combined eye’ and postocular part of head.

Pagrus major (Schlegel).

Depth 1%, ; head 2g, width 2, Snout 2in head ; eye 3g, 1g in snout, 1g in

interorbital ; maxillary reaches first fourth in eye, expansion 2x4, length 22 in

head ; 4 conic upper canines, 6 lower, anteriorly in Jaws ; 3 rows of molars

above and 2 below in each jaw each side ; interorbital 32 in head, convexly

elevated ; eye 14 in preorbital width, which 23 in head ; preopercle edge entire.

Gill-rakers 6 + 11, low points, which 7 of gill-filaments, last 14 in eye.

Tubular scales 53in lateral line to caudal base, 7 above, 16 below, 13 predorsal

to occiput though very small scales extend forward to front of interorbital ; 6

rows on cheek to preopercle ridge. Dorsal XI, 10,1, fourth spine 3 in head,

first ray 34; anal Ill, 8, 1, third spine 3s, first ray 35 ; caudal 15, deeply forked;

least depth of caudal peduncle 2 ; ventral 13; pectoral 22 in combined head

and body to caudal base.

Light brown generally, with mauve to gray tints on head and back. Some

very small pale grayish spots or dots obscurely on snout. Iris gray white.

Fins all pale brownish. :

One 328 1nm. I have followed Jordan and Thompson in accepting this as a

distinct species? from the closely related Pagrus auratus (Schneider). It has

apparently not been reported from India previously.

Dentex japonicus (Bloch).

Two 210 to 222 mm. to ends of caudal filaments.

1 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 47, 1912, p. 576.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES ETS

GERRIDZ

Gerres lucidus, Cuvier.

Four 83 to 88 mm.

Gerres filamentosus, Cuvier.

One 156 mm.

MULLIDA

Upeneotdes sulphureus (Cuvier).

Depth 3 to 33 ; head 3to 33, width 1§ to 2. Snout 2} to 24 in head ; eye 4% to 44,

12 to 2 in snout, 1g in interorbital ; teeth small, short, in narrow bands in jaws

in 4 or 5 irregular series, none on palate or tongue ; maxillary reaches opposite

eye, expansion 13 in eye, length 2% in head; interorbital 34 to 3%, scarcely

elevated, depressed medianly. Gili-rakers 10 + 20, lanceolate, 13 in gill

filaments which Ig in eye.

Scales 33 + 4 or 5, 3 above, 7 below, 14 or 15 predorsal, 3 rows on cheek to

preopercle ridge ; 5 basal radiating strize, 107 to 119 apical denticles with 9 to15

transverse series of basalelements and circuli minute. Dorsal VIHI-I, 8, 1, second

spine 1} to 12 in head, first branched ray 2 to 23 ; anal J, 6, 1, first ray 274, to 23 ;

caudal 1g to 13, well forked ; least depth of caudal peduncle 23 to 3; pectoral

1# to 1}; ventral 13 to 14.

Pale brown, little lighter below. Iris gray brown. Finsallpale. Spinous

dorsal with black apex and median horizontal dusky band. Soft dorsal with

dusky margin above and median longitudinal dark band.

Three 154 to 169 mm.

SCLZNIDZ

Otolithes ruber (Schneider).

Three 173to 195mm. All with maxillary reaching at least last fifth in eye.

‘ Collichthys brunneus (Day).

Depth 44 to 5}; head 33 to 33, width 2to2g. Snout 4 to43in head from

snout tip; eye 6% to 72, 1g to 2in snout, 1g to 2} in interorbital ; maxillary

reaches well beyond eye or lergth 2, to 2} in head ; teeth above in villiform

band with outer row of enlarged teeth, of which most anterior appear as pair of

slightly larger wide set canines; lower teeth as rowof small inconspicuous

outer row and an inner row of enlarged ones, with 2 anterior rather close set

and slightly more canine like, though 3 or 4 median lower laterals largest in

jaw ; interorbital 33 to 44, broadly convex ; preopercle edge membranous, with

serrated points. Gill-rakers 7-- 11, lanceolate, 13 in gill-filaments which 13

in eye.

eres 56 to 61 + 27, 14 above, 11 below, 50 predorsal; 11 on cheek to pre-

opercle ridge; scales rather larger on head, fine on predorsal to occiput and along

dorsal and ventral edges of body; 7 to 15. basal radiating striz, 7 to 10 very

small weak apical denticles in 3 to 5 transverse series and complete circuli fine.

Dorsal X, 28, I or 29, 1, fourth spine 2% to 33 in head, first ray 3 to 34; anal Ill, 6,

I, second spine 5% to 53, second ray 23 to 2?; caudall to 1g, ends in median

point behind ; least depth of caudal peduncle 4% to 5}; pectoral 13 to 13 ;

ventral 1,9, to 274.

Drab brown with dusky tint, but little paler below or on under surfaces, even

these smutty. Iris dark gray. Dorsals, caudal and anal largely dark gray,

neutral dusky or blackish terminally.

Two 175 to 275 mm.

Johnius diacanthus (Lacépéde).

One 308 mm. Five broad dark transverse bands on back and sides. Whole

body with more or less soiled or smutty shade. Soft dorsal and caudal spotted

with darker. Anal and paired fins dark gray.

Johnius sina (Cuvier).

Five 122 to 208 mm. Although Day gives 8 scales above the lateral line his

figure of Scie@na sina shows but four.

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

This species is noticed by me, but made to read wrongly under Johnius

diacanthus (Lacépéde).* The heading ‘ Johnius sina (Cuvier) ’ should have

been placed at line 48 as was indicated in the corrected proof. The earlier

Argyrosomus De la Pylaie will replace the subgeneric name Pseudosciena

Bleeker. Int he same paper at the beginning of line 10, under Johnius e@neus

Bloch, add ‘ eye 44 to 5, 14 to 1j in snout.’

SILLAGINID At

Sillago thama (Forskal).

Three 98 to 165 mm.

EPHIPPIDZ

Drepane punctata (Linné).

Two 148 to 177 mm.

SIGANIDA?

Siganus vivulatus (Forskal).

One 150 mm.

PLATYCEPHALIDA

Thysanophrys crocodilus (‘Tilesius).

Depth6; head 23, width 13. Snout 3} in head from snout tip ; eye 7}, 24 in

snout, little greater than bony interorbital ; maxillary reaches slightly beyond

front of eye, expansion 2 in eye, length 23 in head ; teeth villiform, in broad

bands in jaws, small patch each side of vomer and narrow band along each

palatine ; bony interorbital 14 in eye, flat, eyes protruding little above each

side; 2 preopercle spines, upper little larger or about half of eye. Gill-rakers

2 + 4, lanceolate, slightly less than gill-filaments or 1# in eye.

Scales 100 + 7 in lateral line, 8 above to spinous dorsal orgin, 18 below, 17

predorsal to occiput. Dorsall, VII-1, 10, 1, third spine 23 in total head length,

first branched ray 33; analt, 10, 1, first branched ray 42; caudal 1,%,, rounded

behind, though uppermost rays end in protruded point above; least depth of

caudal peduncle 74; pectoral 2g ; ventral 1}.

Brown above, lighter or soiled brown below and under surface of head

whitish. At last dorsal spines and front of soft dorsal large deeper brown

saddle like blotch and another below posterior dorsal rays. Back and upper

surface of head with small scattered dusky brown spots. Dark blotch below

eye. Iris slaty. Dorsal greenish olive basally, neutral dusky terminally.

Anal whitish. Caudal brown, clouded darker. Pectoral neutral dusky, with

small scattered obscure dark spots. Ventral dusky, olivaceous basally, spine

paler.

One 417 mm. Also one from the Philippines, 208 mm. It shows :—

Depth 83 ; head 2%, width 2. Snout 3} in head from snout tip; eye 53, 1g in

snout, over twice interorbital ; maxillary reaches front pupil edge, length 13 in

head ; broad bands of granular teeth in jaws and small narrow bands on vomer

and palatines , interorbital 11, deeply concave; antero-supraorbital spine, 4

above posterior half of eye with last longest ; single occipital spine each side ;

small postocular spine little elevated, followed by 3 above opercle and long

spine at suprascapula; 2 small infraorbitals on suborbital stay, also another

spine at angle which 3 of eye, besides much shorter one close below ; opercle

with 2 moderate spines. Gill-rakers 1 + 5, lanceolate.

Scales 110 + 8, tubes 56 + 3, 8 above to soft dorsal origin, 18 below and 14

predorsal ; 8 rows on cheek to preopercle ridge at angle ; 7 or 8 basil radiating

strize, 23 to 31 apical denticles with 5 to 7 transverse series of basal elements and

circuli fine. Dorsal I, VIII, 1, 10,1, third spine 23 in total head length, first

branched ray 23; anal1, 10,1, first ray 4% ;caudal 2, slightly convex behind ;

least depth of caudal peduncle 7 ; pectoral 24 ; ventral 1s.

1 Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., November 1926, p. 9.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 117

Brown above, whitish below. Iris gray. Spinousdorsal light brown, with

several dark brown spots on each ray. Caudal brown, with several of outer

membranes very dark brownish or blackish. Anal pale. Paired fins light

brown, darker terminally.

Thysanophrys scaber (Linné).

Depth 8 ; head 23%, width 2. Snout 33 in head from snout tip; eye 7, 2 in

snout, little greater than bony interorbital ; maxillary reaches slightly beyond

front of eye, expansion 23 in eye, length 23 in head ; teeth villiform, in broad

bands in jaws, smali patch each side of vomer and narrow bard along each

palatine ; bony interorbital 13 in eye, little concave; preopercile spine 4 in head,

very short one below. Gill-rakers 1 + 7, lanceolate, equal gill-filaments: or 14

in eye, also 4 rudimentary tubercles above and 9 below.

Spinous scales 53 in lateral line to caudal base, scales along lateral line 88

+ 6, 5 above to spinous dorsal origin, 16 below, 10 predorsal to occiput. Bones

on top of head more or less rugosely striate. Dorsal I, VIII, 1, J1, 1, third spine

3 in total head length, first branched ray 2% ; anal1, 12,1, first branched ray

43; caudal 1,%, forming median obtuse angle behind ; least depth of caudal

peduncle 7; pectoral 23; ventral 14.

Brown above, obscurely mottled darker. Under surface of body whitish.

Irish slaty. Spinous dorsal neutral dusky, large black blotch on last 2 memb-

ranes terminally. Soft dorsal dull gray with darker blotches or spots. Caudal

with upper and lower edges narrowly pale, fin otherwise dark gray, more or

less dusky terminally. Pectoral brownish, finely spotted with dusky gray.

Ventral neutral blackish, front and hind edge narrowly whitish.

One 217 mm.

Thysunophrys macracanthus (Bleeker).

Depth 73 ; head 23, width 23. Snout 33 in head from snout tip; eye 4, 14 in

snout, nearly 3 times interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite first third in eye,

expansion 23 in eye, length 27 in head ; teeth viliform, in bands in jaws, small

patch on vomer and narrow band on each palatine; interorbital 2% in eye,

concave ; preopercle spine 13 in eye, nearly long as its distance from eye.

Gill-rakers 2 + 5, lanceolate, upper inner edge spinescent, long as gill-filaments

which 2% in eye.

Tubular scales 44 +- 3 in lateral line, large, simple, though not armed with

scutes, likely acondition of youth ? Scales very fine, 10 above lateral line, 15

below, 16 ? predorsal to occiput ; cranium largely scaly, head otherwise naked.

Dorsal I, VIII, I, 10,1, fourth spine 3 in total head length, second branched

ray 23; anal 11, third ray 43; caudal 14%, obtuse or truncate; least depth of

caudal peduncle 8% ; pectoral 23 ; ventral 2¢.

Back brown, sides with gray and lower surface whitish. Obscure transverse

brownish band across middle of occiput. Dark brown transverse band or

saddle like blotch from last half of spinous dorsal. Another at last half of soft

dorsal. Iris slate gray. Spinous dorsal neutral blackish on each membrane

medially. Soft dorsal and caudal grayish, with terminal dusky band and

large transverse basal dusky blotch on caudal. Anal whitish. Paired fins

blackish.

One 40 mm.

Pomacentrus prateri, new species.

Plate II

Depth 23 ; head 3. width 14. Snout 33 in head from snout tip ; eye 33, sub-

equal with snout or interorbital ; maxillary extends but very slightly beyond

front of eye, expansion 24 in eye, length 37 in head ; teeth small, compressed,

anterior in each jaw at least uniserial incisors, laterals more pointed ; interor-

bital 33 in head, convex ; preopercle edge minutely serrated. Gill-rakers .7 +

13, lanceolate.

Tubes 16 in upper section of lateral line followed by 4 pores and 9 pores in

horizontal section to caudal base; 3 scales above lateral line, 9 below, 18

predorsal forward opposite nostril ; 4 rows on cheek, of which uppermost on

preorbitals and suborbitals, which without lower edges free, also lowest row on

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

preopercle flange; muzzle, including maxillary, naked. Scales with 6 to 8

basal radiating striz, 72 to 79 apical denticles and 4 to 6 transverse series of

basal elements, circuli fine. Dorsal XIN, 11,1, third spine 2in head, margin

of membranes of spines deeply incised, fifth ray 23 in combined head and body

to caudal base; anal Il, 10, 1, second spine 23 in head, fifth ray 2; last depth of

caudal peduncle 23 ; pectoral 14 ; ventral 1; caudal 23 in combined head and

body to caudal base, deeply lunate, each tip ending in filament.

Dusky brown, back quite dark. On trunk and tail many of scales each with

minute apical gray white dot. Iris gray. Dorsals neutral dusky to blackish,

posteriorly margined whitish. Anal similar. Caudal dusky black, broadly

to whitish margin behind. Pectoral gray, with blackish brown blotch nearly

size of pupil at base, also slightly smaller suprascapular dusky blotch. Ventral

blackish.

Type a single example from Back Bay, 52mm. long. It is suggestive of

Pomacentrus violescens (Bleeker) and largely agrees with Bleeker’s figure,

except the caudal peduncle and caudal fin not pale. :

Named after Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator of the Bombay Natural History

Society.

CALLYDONTIDA

Callyodon dubius (Bennett).

One 146 mm.

ELEOTRIDH

Butis caperatus (Cantor).

One 75 mm.

GOBIID

Glossogobtus btocellatus (Valenciennes).

Six 68 to 131 mm.

Rhinogobius griseus (Day).

Six 63:'10./3.4mim-

Rhinogobius viridipunctatus (Valenciennes).

One 89 mm.

Bathygobius fuscus (Rippel!).

Two 68 to 69 mm.

Gobius ornatus, Rippell

Five 58 to 94mm. The type of Godius venustulus, Fowler is synonymous as

I find on comparison.

Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes).

One 59 mm.

PSETTODIDZ

Psettodes erumez (Schneider).

One 365 mm.

BOTHIDZE

Pseudorhombus arsius (Buchanan-Hamilton).

One 280 mm.

SOLEIDZ

Cynoglossus macrolepidotus (Bleeker) .

Two 280 to 283 mm.

FURTHER NOTES ON BOMBAY FISHES 119

TRIACANTHIDZ

Triacanthus brevirostris, Schlegel.

Depth 22; head 33, width 2. Snout1jin head; eye4, 2$in snout, 12 in

interorbital ; mouth width 4 in head ; interorbital, 22 convexly elevated. Gill-

opening 22 in head.

Skin coriaceous, granules rather smooth. Dorsal IV—25, first spine 1% in

head, sixth ray 33; anal17, fourth ray 23, anteriorly forms moderate lobe ;

caudal 13, widely forked ; caudal peduncle depth 6 in its length or 73 in head ;

pectoral 2 #; ventral spine 1; .

Back brownish, whitish below. Large dull dusky blotch on side of snout,

also little dark above each eyeininterorbital. Dark blotch about base of

spinous dorsal and fin with basal % blackish. Body otherwise pale. Iris

gray. Lips pale.

One 280 mm.

TETRODONTIDZ

Spheroides oblongus (Bloch).

Depth (collapsed) 34; head 2g, width 13. Snout 24in head; eye 43, 2in

snout, 21 in interorbital; mouth width 4%; lips moderate, feebly papillose;

interorbital 23, but slightly elevated, broadly level medianly ; each nasal papilla

rather large, with 2 nostrils. Gill-opening 4% in head.

Predorsal spinescent area forward to nostrils and laterally not extending

below eye except on postocular. Abdomen entirely spinescent below, from

chin to vent. Dorsal 111, 10, first branched ray 2 in head; anal 111, 8, first

branched ray 14 ; caudal peduncle 33 ; pectoral 2,4.

Back and head with dusky brown reticulations forming rounded gray spots

and laterally on head and trunk as short dusky brown superior bars, on tail

superiorly as few rather large dark reticulations. Lower sides and under sur-

face of body whitish. Iris light gray, Fins whitish, caudal becoming dusky

terminally.

One 61 mm,

GAME PRESERVATION AND GAME EXPERIMENTS IN

sTNDEA*

BERNARD C. ELLISON, F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S., B.L.S.

(With three plates)

In British India the Game Preservation problem is coming to the

fore and seems likely to become increasingly important, as is shown

by a review which appeared this year in the 77zmes of India, and the

comprehensive article on the subject by the Editors of the Bombay

Natural History Society's Journal, (vol. xxxii, p. 359,) where it was

pointed out that, while on the whole the present condition of

game in India is good, there has been a serious disappearance in

some areas.

The authors maintained that, if game in the reserved forests and

sanctuaries is to be protected, more rigid application of the laws is

necessaty. The whole question of game protection and the tighten-

ing up of the laws affecting it, appears to be mainly a question of

money. Inregard to British territory the articles advocated the

formation of a special game protectionfund inthe various provinces

as being worth considering. Sportsmen should contribute towards

it and when one considers what must be paid for sport in other

countries, this suggestion is not likely to be opposed seriously in

India. A special charge might also be made for shooting the more

sought-after species of game.

The formation of the fund might be sanctioned by local Govern-

ments and be applied to purposes of supplementing the rewards of

forest guards, poisoning wild dogs and vermin and improving

scanty water supplies. Such measures might not maintain wild

life at its present level, but they might help to retard the process of

depletion now observed. ‘This is how the matter stands to-day in

British India.

EXPERIMENTS IN PATIALA

For many years I have followed with great interest the game

experiments of H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala and have twice been

His Highness’s guest at his State in the plains, and for several

years have had an invitation to stay and shoot at Chail. Up till lately

I have never had an opportunity of being able to avail myself of the

Maharaja’s hospitality in the hills.

1 Some notes compiied after a visit to the Reserves of H. H. the Maharaja of

Patiala on the conclusion of my term of office as Game Warden of the State of

Bhopal.

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA 12%

Being up in Simla in August 1927, I had my long-cherised wish

fulfilled of visiting the summer capital of the ruler of the premier

State in the Punjab.

It gave me all the more pleasure to go to Chail on account of my

own interest in game preservation and game experiments.

After this visit I must assert that His Highness of Patiala, more

than any other prince in India, has gone in for strict game preserv-

ation and is deeply interested in game experiments of ail kinds.

He is without doubt the keenest and most knowledgable sportsman

and naturalist to-day among all the rulers in Hindustan. He has

applied his knowledge, not only as regards the preservation of the

fauna of his vast territories, but has gone in for experiments as

regards introducing animals and birds not indigenous to his

State.

My visit was in the rainy season, when the mountain ranges

were covered for the most part with dense clouds and mist.

There were only occasional times when the weather was bright

and clear. It was the close season for shooting, nevertheless

my time spent was most pleasant and by no means devoid of

natural history incident.

What interested me in particular in coming up to Chail was to see

actually the result of the Maharaja’s experiment in introducing

English pheasants into his territory, as | had some views on the

subject myself. J] had very many talks to His Highness about

pheasants and other matters connected with zoology, game and

shikar and was astonished at his broad views, not only on the

pheasant question and game matters in general, but also on the

scientific aspects and the far-reaching results of such experiments.

About the question of introducing non-indigenous animals and

birds into India, we both held similar views. The successful experi-

ments which His Highness has undertaken, beginning always in a

small way, and which I am going to speak about, show the

boundless possibilities there are in a large state in India such as

Patiala.

His Highness evinces such keenness in the subject that it

was a great pleasure to talk to such an enthusiast. Together

we looked through the wonderful books on Pheasants of that

remarkable ornithologist William Beebe, who presents’ such

accurate information in such popular form. Would that there were

more books written on natural history subjects, so readable, so

instructive and withal accompanied by such beautiful illustrations

and photographs. His Highness possesses all Beebe’s books (edi-

tions de luxe), containing the accounts of the author’s experiences,

while tracking rare pheasants in Ceylon, Burma, the Western

Himalayas, the Malay Peninsula and Sarawak. All the volumes are

well used as testified by the book marks in them, and by the way

the Maharaja is able to find immediately whatever he wants when

referring to them.

In addition to these talks, I thoroughly examined the pheasantries

in company with his most efficient Superintendent of Shikar, Mr.

W.M. Hutton, whom I have known and been in coristant correspon-

dence with, ever since the Prince of Wales’s tour of India, when he

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIIT

(Mr. Hutton), so ably made all the shooting arrangements for the

royal visit to Patiala. Also I went round the forests with Mr. J. A.

Beaty, a retired police official, who has lately been appointed Game

Preservation Officer in Patiala State. I was most enthuiastic about

everything I saw, and am confident that this pheasant experiment

is the prelude to much success in the future.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CHAIL AND THE FORESTS

IN THE VICINITY.

A break in the rains on the morning of August 7 enabled

me to ride into the jungles in the neighbourhood of the pheasantry

which is ia process of being made. This latter place is situated on

the slopes of the mountains and is about two and a quarter miles

in extent. It faces the Maharaja’s palace, which lies two miles away

on the summit of one of the southern sides of a mountain directly

opposite Simla, and in front of the great snow barriers of the

Himalaya. Most of the mountains round about range from 6,000

feet to 9,000 feet in height. Kufri, which is quite near, and a

famous game reserve in use for entertaining Viceroys and

distinguished sportsmen, reaches the latter height. Near Chail

is Sidhbaba, the summit of the mountain: here is laid out the

highest cricket ground in the world.

The country round about is well-wooded and consists mostly of

magnificent conifers—/znus longifolia and Pinus excelsa being very

common. Oak, holly, rhododendrons and very many of the trees one

meets at home in England abound everywhere. The rhododendrons

must present a splendid sight when they are in bloom. In all the

district round about they generally have widespreading arms

and rugged branches and seldom exceed thirty or forty feet in

height.

lkiverywhere round Chail is a paradise for Himalayan game.

Black Bear(U. ¢orguatus), Musk Deer (47. moschiferus moschiterus),

Barking Deer (C. muntjac), Goral (C. goral), and Leopard (/. pardus),

are among some of the animals which are very common. In addition

to the ordinary birds, Cheer (C. wallichz), and Kalij Pheasants

(G. albicristaius), are tound ; occasionally Monal (L. refulgens) come

down from the higher altitudes during the heavy snow falls in

winter. Chukor (C. chucar) are very plentiful and have increased

tremendously since game preservation steps have been taken and of

late years have spread round Chail more than in any other state

adjoining Simla. Black Partridges (/. vulgaris) are very common

and Peura or Hill Partridges (Aréoricola sp.) have multiplied since

1918 so that these jungles everywhere are full of them.

I know myself how when going along the Kufri road with a dog

I put up half a dozen of these birds every twenty yards. In this

district of the Himalaya there are probably more Peura Partridges to

be found to-day than in the lower parts of the Terai and the United

Provinces. Years ago they were not at all common: their increase

ig entirely due to the Maharaja of Patiala introducing some years ago

4 hundred pairs of these birds from Nepal.

‘sqyueseoyd Yssuy jo sulpse1q pue

UOIZRUTPOOR ‘UOTJONPOAZUL YW SpIesel Sev JUOWTiodxea jNFssooons

‘SVAVIVWIH AHL NI TIVHO LV WIVILVd AO HVIVYVHVW AHL AO HOVIVd YAWNNS

ev pajyoNpUodD sey SSOUYStH SIF ‘AYIUTOLA 94} UTS

sunl oy} UT

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS LN [NDIA 123

History OF PHEASANT EXPERIMENTS IN THE SIMLA HILLS.

Before describing the actual pheasantry at Chail it might be of

interest to give some history of the events which led up to the

present experiment.

About thirty years ago the late Sir W. Buck got out fifty

pheasants from England and put them down in the vicinity of

Mashobra in the hills about seven miles from Simla. The birds

however disappeared ard people thought that the Indian pheasants

had driven them away. ‘The experiment therefore ended here.

In 1907 Lord Minto and Lord Kitchener decided to make an

attempt to rear Kalij Pheasants (Genn@us hamiltont) in the

catchment area which lies some five or six miles from Simla. The

author of Szwla Past and Present, Mr. Edward J. Buck, C.B.E., says:—

‘<The place was strictly preserved. The aid of forest officials was enlisted,

eggs were collected for the purpose from all the neighbouring states, hens

were brought to sit on the eggs and Gurkhas to guard the nests were

specially engaged. But alas many of the four or five hundred eggs which

arrived were ‘ addled’, and less than thirty young pheasants made their

appearance. Most of these on being eventually turned out became victims

to the foxes, jackals, pine martens and other enemies which apparently

appreciate unsophisticated youthful pheasants. So the result was that

when the Viceroy and Chief shot the valley in October with a party of

seven guns associated by numerous beaters and dogs, only fourteen

pheasants and a ‘ karkar’ were brought to bag. Ata moderate guess each

bird must have cost Rs. 100, and the attempt to raise more pheasants was

discontinued. ”’

Before any game experiment can be tried, arrangements must be

made for destroying vermin—the most necessary precaution of all.

This was a point J stressed very much in a Game Warden's Report

I wrote in Bhopal. The neglect of this precaution was the main

reason why the first Simla experiments in reference to pheasants

were a failure; the birds straying into adjoining territory, where

they were shot by poachers or killed by vermin. It is simply

courting trouble to let birds loose in the jungles, without having

made arrangements for preservation by destroying vermin.

Tue PATIAIA PHEASANT EXPERIMENT

In the years immediately preceding the Great War, the Maharaja

of Patiala first began to be interested, and to see the possibilties, in

reference to raising pheasants in his territories. He very wisely

did not at first attempt anything on a large scale in his jungles, but

merely contented himself with trying to find out if pheasants would

thrive in his forests. A start was made with Mongolian Ringed,

Crawford Silver, and Chinese Golden Pheasants (P. pictus) and

also Monal (L. zmpejanus) and Western Tragopan (7. melanocephalus).

From these it was found that the Monaldid the best. Chinese

Golden Pheasants which His Highness introduced in a limited

number also did well.

These were the birds which pleased Lord Reading very much as

they flew across the rides with their go!den tails stretched out, when,

as Viceroy, he was the guest of the Maharaja and shot the Karo}

jungles at Kandaghat, one autumn. The success of the Monals was

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

however only temporary as, after they got their plumage, they

completely disappeared, most probably to the highest hills at

Chandni in the hill state of Kahan near Simla. Stray Monals

however, as I have mentioned, do still come sometimes to Chail,

when there is a heavy fall of snow. Mr. Hutton pointed out to me

a place called Chur, only six miles away as the crow flies from the

cricket ground at Chail, whichis a favourite resort of these pheasants

during a heavy winter. The Maharaja once shot in a single day,

eighty-five Monal here, in addition to eleven bears.

It was in 1921, on his return from England, where he had done a

good deal of shooting with Lord Fisher, that His Highness of

Patiala first seriously started introducing English pheasants into

India on a large scale. After all his lengthy experiments he had

determined upon the Ring-necked Pheasant (P. forguatus) as the

bird which would survive best in India.

The first thing was to choose a place as a permanent phea-

santry, and Kurin, distant about a mile from Chaii Palace was

selected. A more beautiful and more suitable spot for the purpose,

in my opinion, could not possibly have been chosen. In the course

of the next five years a small experiment was made with

pheasant eggs procured direct from England: they were hatched in

incubators by Mr. Goldstein of Simla. Before this the jungles had

been prepared for the reception of the birds when they hatched

out. The result was that a thousand chicks successfully appeared

from these eggs. Unfortunately, only one hundred eventually

survived, as the heavy monsoon worked havoc with the young

birds. However, experience had been gained and on the whole the

experiment had proved successful and the way had been paved for

the large experiment to follow.

The Maharaja had been advised by Lord msn to engage in

England an expert on pheasant rearing and pheasant shooting.

A Mr. Max Baker was recommended who consequently arrived in

India in the spring of 1926 and immediately came up to Chail and

inspected the site chosen for the pheasant coverts. He expressed

himself quite satisfied with the jungles chosen, the releasing ground

and the rearing field. Everything had been done on English lines,

in the way observed by the Maharaja when he shot in England.

Things being in readiness, an order was given to a pheasant

Game Farm in Middlesex, who were asked to send out a game

keeper in charge of 400 pheasants—350 hens and 50 cock birds.

Under the charge of Cady, a game keeper, the birds were despatch-

ed, and from the day of their departure till their arrival in Pinjour—

His Highness’s game preserves at the foot of the Himalaya—in

April 1927, only seven, out of the total 400 died—one cock bird and

six hens. One died at sea, and the others found the heat too much

for them on the journey up to the north of India from Bombay.

On the arrival of the birds, they immediately began laying eggs—

nearly 6,000 all told. Most of these, however, proved unfertile, as

on account of the long journey, they had undergone, the hens had

become restless and had not mated with the cocks. The failure of

the latter to tread the hens was in no way due to bad arrangements

in their conveyance. This was all that could be desired. I myself

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA | 125

saw the baskets in which the birds reached India—usefu] hampers,

about 4 feet long by 24 feet in length, quite sanitary and with side

openings for feeding the pheasants.

Three incubators were made use of at Pinjour (Hearson’s Hot

Water Incubators), and about 200 broody hens. A certain number

of chicks were lost, through not being able to get sufficient country

fowl in time. The laying was very rapid and the average number

of eggs soon went up from 150 to 200a day. Between May and

July about 2,000 chicks, all told, were hatched, and the casualties

amounted to round about 200. On July 26 the first batch of

young pheasants was conveyed by motor lorries from Pinjour to

Chail, a distance of fifty-five miles, aad put into the releasing grounds

there. They travelled up in the same hampers that they arrived in

from England. It had been intended that they should have stayed

at the foot of the mountains for at least six weeks more, and it was

only the severe heat at the time, that made it imperative that they

should be moved to a cooler temperature. The second batch, which

I did not see, were due to arrive at Chail on August 10.

THE PHERASANTRY AT CHAIL

The actual Chail pheasantry lies on the mountain side facing tke

north, that is to say Simla, which is about six miles away as the crow

flies, or about thirty-five miles distant by bridle path. A motor road

is being prepared to go right up to the pheasantry, which is skirted -

on all sides by narrow paths to enable one to penetrate into the

forestry easily at different places. Rides have been cut from the

top of the mountain right down to the bottom of the valley. They

are the breadth of the forest and a mile and a half in length. Four

had already been completed when I was there. All these rides are

intercepted by two roads running parallel along the mountain side.

The mountain itself is thickly wooded with pine and oak, except on

the southern side which looks towards the lower Himalaya, and is

for the most part quite bare. The idea is that the pheasants will be

able to go out on this southern slope in the heat of the day and sun

themselves. On this side, in the evening, Chukor (C. chucar) and

Cheer Pheasant (C. wadlichiz) come out on the grass in coveys and

broods to feed. During the time I was at Chail, I saw very many

birds of both kinds and used nearly always to hear the Chukor and

other partridges calling to each other. The habits of the Chukor,

I noticed, are different to those of the pheasant, in that they come

up in the morning to the open places, and go down in the

evenings, close to the fields.

In the valley below, a stream called the Ashni, which joins

another river called the Giri, divides the bare mountains from the

thickly wooded jungle on the other side. The Giri is a very fine

Mahseer stream and in this place Lord Chelmsford, Lord Lytton,

and many another governor and friend of the Maharaja of Patiala,

have in times past, enjoyed good fishing.

The country facing the southern slope presents a magnificent

panorama, not unlike the peak district of Derbyshire on a huge

scale. Except for the villages of Solon and Slogria far away in the

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI/11

distance, it is a wild and wooded country, which is full of game of

all kinds. To anyone who has had the good fortune to have

shot in these jungles, reading these lines must revive poignant me-

mories too of happy sporting days gone forever. Red Jungle-fowl

(G. ferrugineus), Kalij Pheasant (G. hamiltoniz), Cheer Pheasant

(C. wallicht), Chukor or Greek Partridge (C. chucay), ~Goral

(C. goral), Karkar or Barking Deer (C. mumntjac), all abound here

and the valleys too are full of Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) in the

autumn.

As regards the system of Pheasant shooting to be adopted later

on, His Highness the Maharaja, who, as I have already mentioned,

has done much pheasant shooting himself in England, intends to

have no change, but simply to shoot in the ordinary way done

at home.

The whole of the jungles are going to be coppiced, as they are

rather thick at present. There being no local market for the

timber that is being cut, it is intended to run an aerial railway from

the Chail forest down to Kandaghat at the bottom of the valley,

where the nearest railway station is situated.

I saw, in the first feeding place, in all, about 270 young pheasants.

Though only two months old, they looked almost full grown and

extremely well and happy. JI noticed a couple of albinos among

them. In the second pen there were 200, and in the third another

200 birds. It was a pretty sight to see the way they responded to

the calls of their keeper at meal time and the manner in which, in

the second and third pens, they flew a few yards off the ground in

their efforts to reach him quickly.

There are four keepers who feed and look after the foster mothers:

the young pheasants will remain with the birds till such time as they

are big enough to start roosting on trees Then, in addition to the

guards being removed, the coops and broody hens, which are

installed there at present, will be taken away, and only the trappers

outside the fencing will remain. ‘The birds will then be absolutely

alone in the jungles, except when a man comes at certain times to

throw grain to them.

SOME OF THE MAHARAJA OF PaTIALA’S IDEAS ABUUT GAME

PRESERVATION AND His PROJECTED SYNDICATE

SCHEME TO PREVENT POACHING

When going round the pheasant rides, I noticed one fenced all

round, which was being used as a releasing ground, and which had

Gurkha guards on duty with shot guns to shoot vermin. These

men, Mr. Beaty informed me, come under the Game Preservation

Department of which he is in charge, and go to form one of its sub-

departments. About a hundred guards, or watchers have been

organized and it is their duty to prevent poaching and to destroy

all vermin by means of the traps and guns which have been given

to them.

In the pheasant covert there are always four men on the watch

day and night to look out for and kill foxes, and everywhere there

are traps laid out and men on the spot guarding the whole area. I

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA — 127

came across a porcupine pad in one of these traps—porcupine are

very prolific in these parts of the Himalayas, but of course do no

harm to the pheasants.

The Maharaja of Patiala himself takes the greatest possible

interest in all this and has personally fixed a reward for every single

head of vermin destroyed, whether feathered or ground vermin.

Thus for the destruction of a snake, Gohana (Monitor Lizard),

mongoose, hawk, (small variety), or a jackal, a reward of four annas

is paid: for a hawk, (medium size), pole, civet or wild cat and fox,

areward of eight annas: for a hawk, (large), eagle, pine marten,

one rupee is given, while for the destruction of a wolf three rupees,

and foran otter five rupees are bestowed.

With all this interest the Maharaja shows in the preservation of

yame, he has nevertheless much to contend with from poachers ; that

is why he has organized a special branch of his Game Department

solely to deal with them. It is rather sad to remark that offences

in this respect are not merely confined to the Indian vyot ; by far the

worst delinquents are Europeans who visit the different cantonments

in the hill tracts. It would be invidious to quote specific cases but

His Highness personally told me that the offenders are to be found

among people of all classes and among people in many cases who

ought to know better.

To counteract all this poaching the Maharaja has thought about

the possibility of starting a scheme which he has conceived, where-

by certain areas of his territory will be leased to a syndicate. Such

a mode of procedure, while most magnanimous, however, might, |

think, reduce the game in the surrounding area, because of excessive

permits being granted by the syndicate.

THE PHEASANTRY OF THE MAHARAJA OF PATIALA IN

THE PINJOUR MOGHUL GARDENS IN THE

FOOT-HILLS OF THE HIMALAYAS

I was immensely impressed by all I saw at Chail in connection

with the pheasants and by the condition of the young birds, and in

conversation told the Maharaja this, and expressed the opinion to

him that everything augured well for the successful realization of

his plans. He told me that, if all continued to prosper, he intended

to have a small trial shoot towards the end of the year. His

Highness then asked me if I would care to go to see the place

where he first had the pheasants put down when they arrived from

England. They were installed in the grounds of a beautiful old

Indian garden-palace built for the hot weather, situated far down in

the Himalayan foct-hills country. The place is called Pinjour and

in the vicinity of the Moghul gardens are very fine game reserves.

I very readily accepted the Maharaja’s kind invitation and on

August 10, in company with Sahibzada Abdul Munim Khan,

A. D.C. to His Highness and Mr. Hutton, we set out by motor for

Pinjour. Leaving Chail in the forenoon, we descended the narrow

road which winds round and round the mountains for eighteen miles

to Kandaghat. Only one car can descend at a time and the road is

kept clear by means of telephonic communication. On my way up

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL FIST. SOCIETY, Vol XAT?

some days before, upon turning round a corner rather suddenly,

I encountered some camels and very nearly collided with the

animals: they appeared very much alarmed. Little could be seen of

the magnificent scenery and the beautiful wooded country, as it was

raining hard and the valleys were wreathed in mists.

The rains made the roads very slippery and, as there was consi-

derable danger of going over the khud, we had to proceed very

slowly. Few accidents have occurred however: the last took place

a few years ago, when acar returning from Simla late in the even-

ing, bringing back a doctor, swerved and went over the precipice.

The doctor, who was seated on the opposite side to the driver,

managed to slip out, but the poor chauffeur met his end. I saw

the place where the accident happened: it is now marked by a

black cross on the edge of the ravine bearing on it the ominous

inscription ‘ REMEMBER SONA SINGH.’

At the time of the year—the monsoon,—when we traversed the

road, there is always danger from the frequent land-slides and falls

of huge bouiders. We encountered many on the way, but were not

stopped, and about nightfall reached Kalka, quite near to which is

Pinjour, the place chosen by His Highness of Patiala for resting

the first pheasants he had had brought over from England.

*k * * * *K

On the morning of August 11, I was awakened by the cries

of peafowl and: thé:“ Ha, Ha, Ha. ror re .’ of the keepers of

the young pheasants frightening away crows and hawks. From

the roof of my room I gota magnificent view—the Himalayas rising

sheer upwards to the east: to the west, a circle of low hills and

southward the plains. Down below were the entrancing wooded

gardens, whose vistas were no longer dim, as on the previous

night, but along whose shallow terraces fountains were playing and

water was falling in smooth sheets. Everywhere on the grass were

arranged in symmetrical lines the pheasant coops, and on their

account the garden presented a somewhat wild and neglected appear-

ance—an illustration of the lines written hundreds of years ago :—

‘Gardens of old, nor art nor rules obey’d,

But unadorn’d, a wild neglect betray’d.’

Later, I went round the Pinjour pheasantry with Cady the game-

keeper, who resided there. I thought the selection of the gardens,

as a place for the commencement of his pheasant experiment a very

happy thought on the part of the Maharaja of Patiala. One thing

that immediately struck me was the utility of the high wall sur-

rounded with battlements, which completely circumvented the whole

garden. It prevented all molestation of the pheasants by the larger

species of vermin.

Cady gave me the history of the young birds under his charge

since they left England early in the new year. It appears that he

had had no difficulty with them and they seemed to be standing the

journey very well until they reached the Red Sea. It was then

that he experienced some anxiety as the extreme heat began to

JOURN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

PINJOUR GARDENS.

Pheasant coops arranged in symmetrical lines in the glorious wooded bagh.

¢ eo o fo)

Two-months-old young pheasants in the feeding pen. Chail.

Journ. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Cut jungles ready for the reception of pheasants.

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN [NDIA _ 129

make the young pheasants gasp very much. Permission was there-

upon obtained from the Captain to put a tarpaulin and a cricket net

over the hatchway which, besides creating a shade, prevented the

pheasants from getting away and flying out to sea. Cady then of

course spoke about the loss of birds mentioned before. ‘This was

only to be expected, considering the heat of India and the long

journey up-country from Bombay. On March 5, the pheasants were

turned down in the pens at Pinjour. Each wire pen had in it about

120 hens and 20 cocks and they seemed to be very happy. Cady

told me that the first egg appeared on April 5. His diary showed

that on the 6th three were laid: on the 7th six, and they gradually

went up in increasing ratio till they reached the maximum of 209

a day.

In the middle of April myriads of locusts arrived and settled

down in the country close to Pinjour. They ravaged the district

and greedily devoured everything there was in the way of vegeta-

tion. I myself saw the effects of their devastations on the trees

round about, especially the palms. Many of these, even now, were

only just beginning to recover from the ravages of this terror.

Strange to say the locusts coming had a great effect for the better

on the young pheasants.

Towards the end of May the eggs of the locusts produced young

ones. These began to crawl about and ascend the mountains. An idea

of the vast numbers of these swarms can be gauged from the fact

that they became so thick on the lines of the Kalka-Simla Railway,

that a train was detained, and the driver and the guard had to send

for arailway gang to turn out and clear the insects off the lines

before they could move and continue their journey.

The young locusts continued their crawling right up to Pinjour

and upon their arrival there, Mr. Beaty turned out hundreds of men,

who were detailed off to try and prevent them from going into the

pheasant pens. Inspite of everything nothing could stop them on

their onward march. ‘The next thing that happened was most

remarkable. The young pheasants began to eagerly feed on the

locusts, and to stop eating their corn, and in fact during the rest of

the time Pinjour was visited by the plague of these insects, no more

grain was given to them—that is to say fora whole month. They

ate the locusts voraciously and in a correspondingly amazing way,

laid eggs. The only detrimental thing about it all was that the

broody hens were very much disturbed, as all the sitting boxes

were full of these insects. This caused many eggs to go bad.

The Maharaja of Patiala’s pheasant experiment, we may safely

assert, has established one interesting fact, namely that a locust

diet is to be recommended to make pheasants in India lay freely.

Out of the first batch of pheasant eggs put down under broody

hens at Pinjour, the net result was 270 birds hatched out. More

should have appeared : the reason they did not was, that the extreme

heat of the ground and the rays of the sun started incubation

immediately the eggs were laid. Inthe early hours of the morning,

the air and ground cooled and the life in the eggs became cold, to

the detriment of the potential chicks. It is only by experiment

that one really finds out things. Such a difficulty would never have

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

occurred in England in breeding pheasants, but in an experiment

in India, even with such a fine climate as in Chail in the Simla

Hills, unexpected difficulties and unthought of results may crop up

at any time. What has been said about the reasonfor more chicks

not being hatched out is not a theory. Cady gave me positive

proof for what has been asserted.

A fertilized egg, which was put in an incubator on May 18, hatch-

ed out on June 6,—that is to say it took nineteen days, instead of the

usual twenty-four. Two more eggs hatched on June 7 (i.e. twenty

days), and two more on June 9th (i.e. twenty-two days).

The remainder of the birds hatched out on the properdates. The

young pheasants grew excessively fast and after they were three

days old, ‘ could’ in Cady’s own words ‘ fly like quail’.

There were very few casualities from ordinary causes, such as

weakness, and being trodden on by other birds. Out of the first

270 only ten succumbed. ‘There was not a single case of cramp or

gapes, illnesses which at home are such common causes of disaster

to young growing pheasants. Nor was there any serious loss

through sickness.

Very few chicks were ever missed as a result cf being seized by

the numerous birds of prey in the vicinity. The pens had plenty of

men on the look out with guns, and these precautions invariably

met with success. Hazara Singh, the Assistant Game Preservation

Officer, on one morning alone, shot sixty hawks. He told me of a

curious thing that happened one day in this connection. A shikari

brought in a live hawk in his arms. The bird of prey had dug its

talons into the back of a young pheasant; it had then been unable

to disengage its claws and had thus been captured alive. The young

pheasant of course succumbed to its wounds.

No further hatching is to be done at Pinjour, as experience has

taught that the atmosphere there is too hot. It has therefore been

decided to have two hatcheries in the future, one at Kandaghat and

one at Chail, so that if anepidemic breaks out in one of these places,

the birds in the second place, will not be affected. I saw the pro-

posed site of the one at Kandaghat—a splendid place on the hillside

with the Ashni River bordered by stretches of grey-white sand,

winding along below. Here in this poultry farm all the birds used

will be English, so as to be able to have brood hens for the phea-

santry. There will always be 600 as stock birds which will be

changed every autumn. In order to prevent the stamina deteriora-

ting, alternately cock and hen birds are to be procured from

England.

PINJOUR JUNGLE GAME RESERVES

After breakfast on the morning of August 11, I rode out with

Mr. Hutton, Hazara Singh and a band of shikaris, to view the

Patiala game preserves, which lie about three miles from Pinjour

gardens. ‘The Siwalik Range, which is separate from the Himalaya,

and on which lies Dehra Dun, rises above them. These low hills

present rather a reddish appearance as looked at from a distance.

The rain was coming down very hard, but we managed to cross

the Kausalya River, which was very much swollen, and about a

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA ° 131

quarter of a mile broad. In parts we went up to our waists. In

ordinary circumstances, it would have been possible to have taken

a car with us and to have motored along the roads and magnificent

rides in the jungles. Other rulers have copied this excellent method

of cutting rides throughout the forests. His Highness of Patiala,

as in many of his plans, adopted this after shooting in England and

Scotland. I remember when I visited Patiala for the first time on

the occasion of the Prince of Wales’ visit there, remarking on the

fine rides in the jungles at Bunerhari, Sanaur and Bahadurgarh.

After crossing the river, Hazara Singh took me right into the

jungles and we galloped about on horseback most of the day in-

spite of the rain. We observed the movements of much game,

such as deer, soundets of pig, peafowl, partridge, pheasants, etc., but

would of course have seen more, and I would have been able to

take some excellent photographs, if it had been fine.

The forests hold Goral or Hill Goat (C. goral}, Barking Deer (C.

muntjac), the Indian Wild Pig (Sus cristatus), Bear (U. torguatus),

Panther (/. pardus), Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Chital (C.

axis) and Sambar (C. wzzcolor), Jungle Fowl (G. ferrugineus), Peafowl,

(P. cristatus), Partridges (A. torgueola millardi and F. trancolinus inter-

posttus), green pigeons, pheasants and quail. Sometimes Tigers

and Lynxes (/. /yzx) are met with. The Maharaja told me that in

1925, when Lord Winterton and a party shot these jungles, he saw

two of the latter animals in a beat, but they were not fired at as

they are getting very rare in those jungles.

In the evening I went up a fine stone machan, which commanded

a view of the two river beds full of silt, and also towered over no

less than five jungle rides. It was a striking sight to watch the

movements of game, especially the great herds of Chital feeding on

all sides, quite unconscious of our presence. They always, I noticed,

had sentinels on the outskirts of the rides, who were very much on

the guz vive.

A thing that impressed me very much about these jungles was

the excellence of the machans. They all had numbers and were

most massive and comfortable. Situated high up in the trees, they

commanded fine views, with plenty of space to swing round in every

direction in order to get a good shot. They were ail painted green

to correspond with the foliage of the trees.

Chital are the most numerous animals here. The Nawab Sahib,

His Highness’s A.D.C., told me that on one occasion, when he was

with the Maharaja and the jungles were being beaten—in these parts

they do it with a long sweep all round the rides—he counted over

300 Chital pass under the machan, a hundred of which were stags,

six having exceptional heads. ‘His Highness would not shoct any

of these pretty deer, as he did not consider it sport,’ said the Nawab.

When one sees these beautiful animals in the jungles and

their pretty ways, one has no desire to shoot. To watch them

with glasses, take notes, film them, yes. But why shoot animals,

which are not dangerous, when there is no necessity to do so,

and deprive them of the existence they are entitled to? The

Game Warden of Kenya, when he stayed with the Maharaja of

Patiala last year expressed the same views, and neither wished nor

132 -JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

attempted to shoot, but derived all his pleasure from just sitting and

watching the jungle animals and their interesting habits. He hada

true love of nature and wasno ruthless slaughterer.1 lt has been

rightly said that the real charm of natural history must be in the

mind of the person who seeks information at the hands of nature:

and no words can describe the never-ceasing, ever-varying delight

that such a mind is susceptible of, when able to appreciate the

wonderful works of the Creator as seen in his creatures and flowers

and trees.

This day in the jungles, we only visited the Chital block. It was

not possible to enter the Sambar blocks at this time of the year as

an intervening river dividing the forests was abnormally swollen

and impassable,

‘he return journey back to Pinjour gardens was fraught with a

certain amount of danger. A very bedraggled and wet-to-the-skin

party of horsemen, we must have appeared, as we reached the

Kausalya River about six o’clock in the evening,—the river we had

successfully forded in the early morning. We stood and gazed with

dismay written all over our faces at what lay before us— the heavy

and continuous rainfall had changed the morning’s rapid running

stream into a perfect raging torrent. It looked as though we were

in for a wet night in the jungles.

riowever His Highness’s head shikari, a very brave man, named

Gooria Singh, without hesitation, voluntered to take me across.

With a long stick, like an alpine stock, he went on ahead, and I

followed him slowly on horseback. It was a most exciting experi-

ence as often we were up to the horse’s head in water, and

repeatedly one felt oneself whirled round with the force of the current.

It took half an hour before we found ourselves safely on the far

bank of the river. The brave shikari then went back for the rest of

the party. An incident occurred in which one of the under-shikaris

was very nearly drowned. The horse which he was riding, was

caught by the stream, and from the distance I could see it gallantly

rising on its hind legs as it was borne down by the violent rushing

water. Then suddenly it went under the water and both horse and

rider disappeared. As the seconds went by and we saw nothing of

them, we feared the worst. The man could swim however, and

after about a minute had elapsed, he was seen scrambling up the

bank several hundred yards further downthe river. The horsetoo,

managed to rescue itself andthe only things which really suffered

were the saddle and my fofz, which the shikari happened to be

carrying at the time—a very wet sodden thing, and of no further

use whatever after the day’s rain. The man was much more

perturbed about the loss of the latter article, than by the extremely

alarming experience just enacted in which he had taken the chief

11 believe I am right in stating that during Mr. Dunbar Brander’s last years

in India, he never shot a single animal, not excepting Tiger, but was content to

observe and note their habits. Hence his wonderfui book Wild Animals in

Central India. Vide also Mr. F. W. Champion’s recent enthralling book Witha

Camera in Tiger-Land. True naturalists both of them.

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA _ 133

part. When I called him to me later on, he was very much frighte-

ned and completely astonished and non-plussed when I presented

him with a little largesse. He had expected a beating.

We slept a very sound sleep at Pinjour that night and early the

next morning started on our journey back to Chail.

Near Kaika, Mr. Hutton pointed out to me a spot, practically ina

village, where once, when he was motoring, he had seen a panther

seize a dog in broad day light. He happened to be motoring up

from Patiala at the time, but had not arifle handy. In connection

with panthers, the Maharaja of Patiaia told me, that once at night

time on the circular road which runs round Ckail, he saw a panther

sitting on a tree and promptly shot it. A pair were caught nearby

last year by tying goats in a cage. All about Chail panthers are

very numerous. I used to hear their loud sawing bark resounding

throughout the valleys every evening.

THE MAHARAJA OF PATIALA’S EXPERIMENTS IN INTRODUCING

Rep DEER, MERINO SHEEP AND AUSTRALIAN HARES INTO

INDIA

In addition to importing non-indigenous birds into his territories,

His Highness of Patiala has also turned his attention to mammals in

this direction. As the scene of these experiments was near

Kandaghat, which we were passing in the car, I stopped there, and

on horseback, accompanied by the forest rangers, ascended the moun-

tain by a very narrow and tortuous bridle path. It was very thickly

wooded in most parts, and the places which were barren, had an

extensive growth of grass. The whole mountain scenery was not

unlike the highlands of Scotland.

Half-way up the mountain-side were large wire fencements and

inside these the Merino sheep were herded. I saw about thirty—

mostly rams. ‘They have not been there very long and have not

become quite acclimatized, and seemed, I thought, to be feeling the

damp monsoon weather very much. Personally, I considered, it

would have been better,if they had been dispersed to different farmers

immediately, and not huddled together here, as they did not seem

very happy and some of them seemed to be rheumatically inclined.

His Highness’s idea in introducing these sheep from Australia, is to

present each village in his territories with a ram and thus improve

the stock of sheep in Patiaia. Later he intends to do exactly the

same with milch cattle.

At the top of the mountain, ata place called Karol, about 7,000

feet high, a big area had been fencedin and Red Deer put down.

It was a splendid place and commanded magnificent views of Solon,

Simla and Chail. The Maharaja has purchased from Scotland eighty

head of Red Deer all told—70 hinds.and ten stags. He started off

with thirty in 1926 and the rest were brought later. The first batch

when they arrived, were kept for some time in one of the parks near

the Palace in Patiala. They were then brought to Kandaghat and put

in the fenced enclosure and fed there till they had got used to the

jungles and completed their horns ; afterwards they were gradually

given their freedom. The second batch came direct from England

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCLETY, Vol. XXXTIT

to the mountains of Kandaghat, where the same method was

carried out with them.

Of the Red Deer I saw—they were driven towards mein a great

drive by the rangers and shikaris—does and fawns were the only

ones that came out. They all looked very well and quite tame and

allowed me to get within 20 yards of them. My not seeing any

stags was not at all unusual as, in accordance with their habits, they

are seldom seen at the time of the year when I was at Karol. The

fences, the gates of which were all open, were in process of being

removed, as they are not necessary, the deer having thriven so well.

In 1926 five calved, and nine fawns have been seen this year in the

jungles but it is believed that practically every hind has had young.

This preliminary deer experiment having beenso. successful, it is

intended to expand it throughout the Patiala jungles in the hill

tracts. The only casualties there have been are, two killed by

panthers and two killed by fighting among themselves. One stag

was shot by a poacher and His Highness told me that he is ‘ hot

on his track.

Four or five antlers of Red Deer have been picked up, but pro-

bably more have been shed and kept by villagers who use them for

medicine.

The introduction of Australian hares has also been effected in

Patiala territory. The reason why it was started was on account of

a great flood which took place in the State in 1924, when practically

every hare next to the reserve area was drowned. To try to replace

them, an attempt was made to get 100 out from Australia as an

experiment. Unfortunately this first experiment was not a success

and only ONE of these rodents reached England, out of the first

consignment and it died immediately on arrival at the port of

Bombay. However this disaster was only due to the fact that

the hares were despatched at the wrong time of the year and was

soon remedied, and now they are arriving in Patiala at the rate of

100 a fortnight.

It being such a fine afternoon, I preferred to ride the 18 miles

upto Chail on horseback, rather than go by car. In this way I

enjoyed to the full the exhilarating Alpine scenery and observed the

beautifully green valleys down below which are full of Chukor and

other game. As evening came on, as usual, I could hear both

these birds and also the black partridge calling. After keeping to

the road for ten miles, I branched off by a bridle path through the

forests and here disturbed many a pheasant looking about for its

evening meal. The Deputy Commissioner of Simla, Mr. Salisbury,

who walked up this path two days before, told me that he saw

several Pine Marten (1/7. abietum) on the way. They are very

common in Chail. The Maharaja said that on a shoot at Pinjour

with Lord Dudley, a year or two ago, he shot one which came out

in a beat.

Thus ended a very pleasant visit to Chail; the memories of which

and the true hospitality shown me by my princely host will always

remain with me.

In regard to His Highness’s game experiments, he has, in my

opinion, only touched the fringe of what he will accomplish in the

GAME PRESERVATION AND EXPERIMENTS IN INDIA | 135

future. Heis. most far-seeing in all these matters and possesses

all the true qualities of the naturalist. I trust and hope that he

may long be spared to carry on his great game schemes. I con-

sider that the auguries for the future of His Highness’s game

department are most auspicious.

In concluding this article, I would like to add that the Maha-

raja of Patiala told methat he would gladly welcome advice,

suggestions or help in connection with big and small game pre-

servation and experiments from any naturalists or sportsmen of

repute. Any correspondence on these matters should be sent,

in the first instance, to the Game Preservation Offcer, Patiala

State, Punjab.

THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

(CLAMATOR JACOBINUS)

HuGH WHISTLER, F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

(With a map)

It has long seemed to me discreditable to all of us who work at

Indian Ornithology that we have made no serious endeavour to

work out the migrations of so conspicuous and easily recognized

a bird as the Pied Crested Cuckoo. The words ‘a rains visitor ’

run like a refrain through all accounts of the species, but I have

never seen any attempt to show where it goes to or comes from at

other seasons of the year, and this is given as its status in so large

an area of India that one is tempted to wonder where it can possibly

live for the remainder of the year as it is not found to the east or

south of India save in a small area in Burma and in Ceylon. It is

however found in a considerable part of Africa, and I have often

wondered whether this Cuckoo can be amongst that small company

of species that winter in Africa after summering in India.

In hopes of throwing light on the question I have recently

devoted some time to collecting and collating records of the

occurrence of the Pied Crested Cuckoo The results of this collec-

tion have been disappointing but it is perhaps worth laying them in

front of the readers of our Journal in the hopes of persuading them

to assist in throwing light on the question.

I start with the north-west corner of India and proceed to relate

what I can find on the subject.

In the N. W. F. Province the bird is very scarce.

That careful observer Whitehead, in his survey of the Birds of

Kohat (lbis, 1909. 254) says that it occurs rarely during the autumn

migration and that he met with it on three occasions, in August

and September.

Briggs never met with it at Peshawar in the five years that he

was there.

In the Northern Punjab it is not uncommon, and gradually grows

more numerous as One approaches the east and south of the pro-

vince. Of this there is plenty of evidence and it is clear that in the

province it is a rains visitor arriving for the purpose of breeding.

To detail the evidence :—

At Rawalpindi I sawa pair in the Topi Rakh on July 9, 1911.

Mr. B. B. Osmaston obtained a specimen at Rawalpindi on Novem-

ber 3, 1924; this is a young male of the year and may be considered

as a lost straggler as there is no other winter record for the

province known to me.

Briggs saw a single bird on August 1, 1925 about ten miles out of

Rawalpindi on the Murree Road.

THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO 137

It is commoner in the Jhelum District both in the plains and

plateau and in the Salt Range. In1913 I met with about six indivi-

duals in the district between June 15 and September 4.

Theobald says (NW. and L#. 11. 388) that at Pind Dadan Khan and

Katas it lays in August. Mr. H. W. Waite reports that it turns up

pretty regularly in July and August in the Jhelum Salt Range and

that in 1926 he saw several of them at the end of June and took an

egg from anest of Avgya caudata on June 29 at Sethi 2,600 ft.

He also reports that it is fairly common at Sargodha in the

rains.

South of this area it is common in Jhang District, arriving at the

beginning of June and leaving by the middle of September ; during

its stay it breeds in the district (Ibis. 1922, 405). Somewhere below

Jhang there is possibly a gap in its distribution as indicated under

the head of Sind, but its apparent absence is probably due toa

dearth of observers.

In the Central Punjab the bird is very common. At Gujranwala

(Heb. NV. 7.\S., xxiv, 701) in. 1915 I found that they arrived: in

the first half of June and for the first week or two were very noisy

and conspicuous while courtship was in progress. After breeding

they started to leave again early in August and had practically all

gone by the end of the month.

Dewar implies (/. 2. NV. A. S., xviii) that at Lahore itis only a

passage migrant as he says that it appears ‘ for a few days in July

and August’, but Currie (/. B. WV. A.S:, xxiv,.5/0) states that it is

found there from June to September and makes it clear that it

breeds during that period. He sawa young bird still with its

foster-parents as late as October 16 (loc. cit. xxiv, 595). I have a

note from Mrs. Wathen of two young still with the foster-parents

on October 14 (1921) at Amritsar. At this station Meinertzhagen

found it throughout June.

At Ludhiana in 1917 I did not meet with the Pied Crested

Cuckoo in June but saw it first on July 1. It was very common

and noisy throughout July and August, and about the middle of

September it began to grow scarce, though a few stragglers were

moted until-October 3(/.-8. 4. A. S., xxvi, 592).

ia Ambala district Mr. A. E. Jones notes (/.B.N.4.S. xxxi,

1005) that it is widely and commonly distributed in July. Cordeaux

(/b7s, 1888, 224) also says that it is very common at Ambala in the

hot weather.

At Hissar it is very common in the rains. In 1914 I saw the

first on June 6, but it was not common till July ; from July to the

middle of the September it was plentiful and a few were noted until

October 1.

In Rohtak District Mr. A. H. Marshall tells me it occurs in the

rains though he did not find it common.

At Delhi I have heard it on July 1 and 2, when I was passing

through. A September specimen from Gurgaon near Delhi is in

the Hume collection.

So much for the Punjab proper ; its status in the Punjab Hima-

layas and contiguous areas remains to be recorded.

I find no record north-west of Gilgit where on June 15, Biddulph

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

procured a female, ‘apparently breeding’ which had been killed by

a native (S./. ix, 315). This is now in the British Museum.

In Kashmir it occurs regularly but sparingly as a summer visi-

tor. According. to BB. Osmaston (7.2. W..aS) xxi) aie

frequents the lower bush-covered slopes of the hills near Srinagar

between 5,000 ft. and 6,500 ft. Ward hada specimen dated May 29,

and had seen others in the valley as for instance at Martand

(J.B.N.H.S. xvii, 108). - Lawrence says the call is heard most com-

monly at the beginning of the rains in July (Valley of Kashmir, 1895).

Abbot obtained specimens both adult and immature in the vale of

Kashmir between August 12, and September 1, 1891 (Proc. U. S.

Nat. Mus., xviii, 451). Cordeaux obtained a specimen at Verenag

on June 15, 1887 (/ézs, 1888, 224).

Currie records that he once heard it at night at Murree in the hot

weather (/.B.N.H.S, xiv, 595), and I myself saw it at Kothi

(5,000 ft.) near Murree on May 27, 1931. Two wundated specimens

obtained at Murree by Biddulph and Col. Way are in the British

Museum.

Along the Kangra Valley and in the Mandi State up to about

5,000 ft., it is a fairly common rains visitor, arriving in June and

remaining until September. I saw a single bird at Chakki on

October 9, 1921 (/dzs, 1926, 750).

In Kulu the Pied Crested Cuckoo is not uncommon in June and

July in the Lower Beas valley round about Bajaura (/.B.N.4.S.

xxxi, 477) and | have heard it also at Banjar, 5,509 ft. in Saraj. On

June 28, M. Babault obtained a male with the organs in breeding

condition at the upper edge of the forests at 12,500 ft. at Rahla by

the Rhotang Bass (/.B.4/7.S. xxxi, 477.) Stoliczka | (202s, aalS6c;

320) met it at Serahan 9,000 ft.—10,000 ft. and Urni 6,C00 ft.

In the Simla Hills, Jones states (/.B.NV.A7..S. xxvi, 615) that it is

very common in the cultivated areas up to 5,500 ft. and occasionally

found up to 8,000 ft.

He gives no dates but Beavan obtained specimens at Simla in

July and September 1866 (/ézs, 1869) and there are three July

specimens from Simlainthe Hume collection as well as a pair from

Fagoo, dated July 29, 1868. On the Simla-Mussoorie Road in June

1867 Tytler saw several after leaving Thaena in the valley of the

Jumna (/ézs, 1868. 202). Meinertzhagen saw it at Chakrata on May

17 and June 11. At Dehra Dun according to Thompson (J. and £.

2nd ed., ii, 388) it is very common and lays in July and August and

he adds that he has seen it in Gurhwal during the breeding season

though it is not common there. Two adults from Naini Tal

(September) and one from Almora (August 13), are in the Hume

collection. Brooks saw ita few times at Almora (April to June

1868, /bzs 1869, 47).

In British Baluchistan the Pied Crested Cuckoo apparently does not

occur. In parts of Sind however it is common and here also as in

the Punjab as a rains visitor. Ticehurst’s account (/bzs, 1923. 39)

is explicit as follows, and it absolves me from recounting earlier

records in the province. ‘A visitor in the rainy season and not un-

common. It arrives at Karachi about the beginning of June (earliest

date May 29) and I think must leave again in September. I once

THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO 139

saw quite a number in some desert jungle near Karachi on Septem-

ber 16, where I know they did not breed, and these were evidently

working their way south . . . afew may still be met with in

October, the last was seen on October 30. Barnes found eggs at

Hyderabad on August 20, in nests of Arvgya caudata, and Doig

thought it bred in June and July inthe East Narra District where

itiscommon. From Upper Sind there are no records, nor does it

so far as I know occur west of Karachi.’

In Cutch, Kathiawar, Gujerat and Mt. Abu, Butler tells us that it

is a ‘seasonal visitant, only occurring in the rains, at which season

it is tolerably common’ (Bombay Gazetteer). Elsewhere (S. /, iii

461) he saysin more detail about Mt. Abu and Northern Gujarat

that it is ‘ very common both on the hills and in the plains, arriving

just before the monsoon. It lays freely in July during which

month in the neighbourhood of Deesa I have seen a great number

of the eggs.’ Later (S./., v. 227) he says again of Deesa that it

occurs only in the breeding season and he gives the dates of arrival

and departure as May 25, and October 20. There is an adult male in

the Hume collection from Anandra near Mt. Abu dated July 5. A

specimen from Kathiawar, evidently collected at Rajkote, cf. /dzs,

1873, 407, shot by Col. Hayes Lloyd on June 11, is also in the

British Museum.

In the desert region of Rajputana it appears to be rare or want-

ing or more dependent on the state of the rainfall, for I only find

that it was obtained by Adam at the Sambhur Lake. In Stray

Feathers, i, 372, he says of it ‘ very rare, obtained in July’ but there

are however two of his birds in the British Museum dated August

and September respectively.

I now pick up the thread where we eet it at the boundary of the

Punjab and the United Provinces, and pursue it southwards from

there returning afterwards to deal with Bihar and Bengal.

Of the United Provinces as a whole Gill says (J.B.N.4.S., xxx,

282) ‘makes its appearance with the advent of the monsoon; breeds

from about Julv to September.’ This is supported by several local

records.

There are three birds in the British Museum collected by

A. Anderson in Futehgarh District in July and August, as well asa

bird from Etawah.

At Agra Adam found newly-fledged young being fed by the Large

Grey Babbler on August 13, (WV. and E., ii., 388). At Lucknow, it is

true, Reid declared it to be ‘fairly abundant at all seasons’ (S./", x.,

27), but Jesse corrected this by the statement that it does not appear

till the beginning of June after the rains have commenced and that

he had never seen it after September, except for a single bird in

November 1901 (/bzs, 1897, 556 and 1903, 58). At Gonda, Field says

it is common in the rains (/.B.N.A.S., xxviii, 762). It is common

all over Gorakhpur District according to A. E. Osmaston (/.B.NV.47.

S., xxil, 541), but he says nothing of its status.

Major Hingston informs me that at Fyzabad it arrives at the

beginning of the rains, first noted in 1921 on June 14, and that it

was common until at least July 19. There is in the British

Museum a juvenile male obtained by A. Anderson at Goorsehingunge,

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

just below Fyzabad on August 11, 1876. Two birds, also in the

British Museum, collected by Brooks at Moghulserai are however

dated November and January. The Hume collection contains an

egg collected at Allahabad on July 28. In the British Museum

there is an adult bird killed at Jhansi in August and eggs taken

there on June 28, (Blewitt), July 18, and in August (Blewitt).

With reference to Central India, especially round Mhow and

Neemuch, Swinhoe and Barnes (/dzs, 1885, 63) say that the Pied

Crested Cuckoo is ‘ very common after and during the rains. It

breeds throughout the monsoon quite up to the end of October,

depositing its eggs in the nests of C. caudata.’ An adult male col-

lected by Col. Swinhoe at Mhow on Cctober 6, is in the British

Museum.

At Mhow in 1927 Rev. F. S. Briggs writes to me that he

observed it as follows: July 29, a single bird; September 21, a

pair at Jeshwantnagar twelve miles S.W. of Mhow; September 30,

a juvenile bird ; October 7, a single bird.

At Sehore, Whitehead (/.B.N.A.S. xxi. 162) says it is abundant

during the monsoon and he gives the dates of arrival and departure

as June 5, and October 13. For the Central Provinces I find the

following records. At Saugor and Damoh, Moss King (J.B.N.4.S.

xxi, 97) includes it in his account of the resident birds as common,

but [ do not think he is using the term resident in its technical

sense. The Hume collection at any rate contains an adult female

and a juvenile collected at Saugor in July. There is also in the

British Museum an egg taken by J. A. Kemp at Jubbulpore on

Inivac.

One was seen at Pachmarhi near Foxrock on July 14, by Capt.

R. 5S. P. Bates (J.B.2V).77.5 4 xxx, 913):

To continue down the western side of the Peninsula. Barnes

records that an egg was taken at Baroda by Capt. Sadler. Davidson

is very explicit about Western Khandesh: ‘arrives early in June, 4

he says, ‘is very common in all the scrub jungles round Dhulia,’

laying in the nests of A. malcolmi and C. caudata ... it leaves

about September ’ (S./., x, 299). Two of his specimens dated June

and July are in the British Museum.

At Bombay and in the surrounding district, says Kinnear (/.B.N.

A.S., xx, 537) there is every year a large influx about the first week

in June, while the birds depart after the rains. I personally saw one

in 1925 near Bombay on October, 5 and Swinhoe saw one there

between November 10-14, 1863 (/dzs, 1864, 416). Fairbank

records it without comment at Ahmednagar but two immature males

obtained by him there in October and November are in the Tweed-

dale collection in the British Museum. There is also a November

specimen from Matheran in the Hume collection.

Meinertzhagen saw it at Poona on September 2, anda specimen

collected there by Capt. P. H. G. Gosse, on Aucust 155° 19184165 in

the British Museum. Fairbank records it without comment from

Mahableshwar (S./., iv, zo) In his paper on the South Konkan

(S./., ix, 55) Vidal says, ‘ Devrukh, rare. Has been seen also at

Daputi and on the summit of the Amba ghat in the Kolapur District.’

Here we appear to reach the southern limit of the Pied Crested

THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO 141

Cuckoo as a common rains visitor. For while Davidson and

Wenden (S./., viii, 79) say it is common in the rains and believed to

breed in the Deccan, i.e. in the valley of the Bhima, Butler elaborates

the position as follows (S./., ix, 388) :—

Deccan and South Mahratta country. ‘Seasonal visitant. Occurs

I believe only in the rains. Generally distributed throughout the

region, but much more common in the north than in the south. In

fact in many of the southern districts, for instance Ratnagiri,

Belgaum, etc., it only occurs as a straggler.’ One of Butler’s birds

from Belgaum, dated August 25 is in the British Museum.

Yet Macgregor on the other hand says (S./., x, 437) that in

Belgaum District it is ‘very common at all times of the year, fre-

quenting low thick jungle whenever it occurs north of the Malprabha

River.’

I will now return to North-east India and trace the bird’s status

down the eastern side, before dealing with its apparently somewhat

different status in Southern India.

To deal with Bengal first. In that province Jerdon says it is

only at all common in the rains (&./., i, 340) and Hume says (WV. and

&., ii, 388) that its breeding season in Bengal is the same as in the

Punjab and United Provinces, i.e., latter half of June, July and

August. It breeds at Darbhanga in June (/.B.N.A S., xvii, 50 and

893). In Jalpaiguri District, Inglis says it is common in the plains

from April to November (/.B.NV.A.S., xxvi, 999). In Sikkim it does

not occur which makes all the more curious the capture of a single

Specimen (j') on June 20, 1921 at Tingri, 74,000 ft. by the first

Mount Everest Expedition (/dzs, 1922, 504). This skin is in the

British Museum but the label bears the date June 30.

At Fareedpore, Cripps says (S. 7. vii,265) itis very common during

the rains, at the close of which it leaves the district ; he saw the first

birdon May 15. At Dacca it is ‘very conspicuous at the end of

the rain’s (Simson, /dzs, 1882, 87), Inthe Calcutta District, with

special reference to Titaghur on the Hooghly twelve miles north of

Calcutta Munn says (/dzs, 1894, 55) thatit is ‘common and generally

distributed, but only during the rainy season—the earliest arrival I

have noted was on May 18, 1890—and leaving again after the rains,

at the end of September. They commonly deposit their eggs inthe

nests of C. canorus.’ Beavan procured a solitary specimen at

Barrackpore on September 28, 1864 (/dzs, i 1865, 413). A specimen

in the British Museum from Calcutta is however dated January.

Ball says it occurs in Chota Nagpur, but very rarely : he saw one

in the eastern part of Manbhum, and he also shot it at Birbhum.

Lohardugga he gives as another locality (S. F., ii, 394). A. McLevin

however seems to have found it more common in Palamow (S. F.,

iis 290).

In Assam it appears to be by nomeans general. Stevens only

observed it once in North Assam, an immature bird found in Dejoo,

North Lakhimpore on September 25, 1910 (/. B. WV. A. S., xxiii, 558).

Hume had no record of it from the Valley of Assam though he

received it from N. E. Cachar (where Inglis says he only met it

once, in May 1876, S. 7, v, 27) and from Shillong, where Godwin-

Austen says (J. 4..S. B., 1874, 155) it is common in June. In the

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Khasia Hills it is common according to Stuart Baker (/. B. NV. 4. S.,

xvii, 4) and the Tweeddale collection contains an adult male, dated

August from Siong in that area. Stuart Baker records that he shot

one of these cuckoos on May 15, 1892 at Gunjong, N. Cachar, from

the nest of Alcippe nepalensis in which it had laid an egg (/. B. XN.

TGS Gi Xvi, 50).

In Manipur, Hume considered it rare and adds, ‘1 saw it perhaps

five or six times in the basin and shot two, but I never observed it

in any part of the hills (S /., xi, 76). One of the specimens dated

May 23 is in the British Museum.

With Burma we meet the easternmost boundary of the Pied

Crested Cuckoo. In Upper Pegu it is common. Jerdon says (2. /.,

i, 349) that itis more abundant there than anywhere else he has

observed it. Oates says it is common inthe scrub-jungle round

Thayetmyo and as far south as Prome and Engmah, while he has

traced it to the foot jof the. Pegu. Hills on) the jeaste(o77dcaon

B. Bumah, ii, 118). Unfortunately neither of these authors hint at

the bird’s status in Burma, an unfortunate omission from the point

of view of my enquiry. The British Museum collection however

reveals that Wardlaw-Ramsay collected an adult male and two

females at Thayetmyo in September and that Oates obtained an

adult male and female at Palow and Boulay, Upper Pegu, in May

and August.

Down the eastern coast I can find no records until one comes to

Madras, whence the British Museum possesses an undated skin of

Jerdon’s and one of Davison's, dated April. Jerdon states in general

terms that it is common in the Carnatic.

It remains now to treat of Southern India where as I hinted

above there is apparently a change in the status of the Pied Crested

Cuckoo which we have seen hitherto mainly as a rains visitor.

Satisfactory details are however lacking.

According to Rhodes Morgan (/ézs, 1875, 315) it lays from March

to May in Southern India, and Hume says that in the Nilgiris it

appears to lay in January, February and March—the breeding

season of the various local Babblers (4. and_S., ii, 388). The Hume

collection contains an egg from the Nilgiris, dated February 22.

Davison (S. /. x, 360) says it isa common bird in the Nilgiris,

being most numerous perhaps about the cultivated land in the vici-

nity of Ootacamund, Coonoor, Kotagherry and similar places. He

also saw it occasionally in the Wynaad and not unfrequently in the

Mysore country. He says nothing of its status but specimens in

the British Museum furnish dates as follows :—Coonoor August 23 ;

Kolar, Mysore, April 13, 1868 ; Muddur, Mysore, May 22.

In the British Museum there is an egg taken at Aptoor, Salem Dis-

trict, on August 18, ty A.G. R. Theobald.

South of this I find no more records in India beyond Jerdon’s

statement that it breeds at Coimbatore, but Hume obtained a female

on March on Rameswaram Island (S. F., iv, 457).

Cinghalese birds are now accepted as forming a separate race

Clamator jacobinus taprobanus, but that of course would not neces-

sarily prevent Indian birds being found there also as winter visitors.

Legge’s account (Birds of Ceylon, 247) is as follows :—‘ Widely

THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO _ 143

distributed over the low country of Ceylon, but is subject to a

partial migration away from the wet regions on the western and

south-western seaboard, during the prevalence of the S. W. Mon-

soon; Colombo, November and December. Arrives in Galle

District at the same time. Inthe scrubby jungles of the Girawa

and Magam and Pattus and throughout the Eastern Province, in

the jungles between the Mahawelliganga and the coast, in the

maritime portions of the north and west, as far south as Chilaw, it

is a resident species, and is abundant in some districts. It is partial

to those dry districts which are covered with low scrub, such as the

neighbourhood of Hambantota, and many similar spots on the east

coast, the Jaffna Peninsula, the north-west coast, and the island of

Manaar, as also the Puttalam and Chilaw District. I have seen it

occasionally in the interior of the northern division of the island,

but it is scarcer there than in the maritime portion. It ranges into

the Central Province to a considerable elevation, occurring in Uva

upto 3,000 ft.; but in the western portion (to wit, the valley of

Dumbara and adjacent districts) it is not found at such an altitude.’

Wait’s account (Birds of Ceylon, p. 227) appears to be merely an

epitome of the above but he adds that he has taken eggs from

November to June and again in August. An oviduct egg was

obtained in November at Puttalam (Legge, S. F., iii, 366).

The Tweeddale collection contains seven specimens killed in

Ceylon in November and there are two other specimens in the

British Museum from Colombo, dated March 12 and December 28.

Lewis records that he obtained a specimen at 2,300 ft. in the

Balangoda District during the N. E. Monsoon (J/ézs, 1898, 349),

I have now enumerated such evidence as I can find on the subject

of the distribution and status in our area of the Pied Crested

Cuckoo. It remains to summarize the results and see what deduc-

tions can be made from them.

It is quite clear that the bird is an abundant rains visitor for

breeding purposes over a very large portion of India; that is in the

Punjab and United Provinces with their outer Himalayan slopes,

about the mouth of the Ganges, in Central Assam and perhaps in

Upper Pegu; and again in Lower Sind, Mt. Abu and Central

India and in the Bombay Deccan. Whether the extent of these

areas is conterminous remains to be verified. The dates of arrival

and departure are slightly variable but this is only to be expected

with a bird whose movements are clearly connected with the

rainfall.

It is also clear that the bird is very common in a patch of country

about Mysore and the Nilgiris but its status here is not clearly

recorded; and it is possible that this area is merely a northern

continuation of the range of the Ceylon race C. 7. taprobanus which

appears to be a resident form with slight local migrations.

There is a huge extent of country from Darjeeling straight down

the eastern side of the Peninsula to Bellary where I can find no

information about the bird.

It is obvious therefore that we need a great deal more information

about this bird in India, both as to its distribution and its status.

It is so common, so easily recognized by its handsome plumage and

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

SO conspicuous with its loud calls that much of the required inform-

ation must be already in the possession of the members of the

Society. May I ask our members to communicate either to me or

to the Journal the information that they already possess, and also

ask them to make notes onthe occurrence of the bird for the next

year or two in the neighbourhood of their stations. With more

data it should then be possible to clear up the situation about this

bird.

The point at issue is whether the Pied Crested Cuckoos which are

rains visitors to a huge area of India winter in India or in Africa. A

cuckoo absolutely indistinguishable from our bird is found in a

considerable part of Africa, as well as other closely allied forms.

It is possible therefore that our bird should be numbered in the

small series of species which summer in India and adjacent areas

and pass south by the Arabian route to winter in Africa. There

are difficulties in the way of this view amongst which the chief is

that the Pied Crested Cuckoo is believed to breed in parts of Africa

and there lay a whzte egg, whereas in Indiathe egg is now well known

to be always dlue. There is on the other hand the difficulty against

the view that the Pied Crested Cuckoo winters in India that we

cannot say at present where so great a mass of individuals can

winter unrecorded; it can only be in Southern or South-eastern

India or in Ceylon.

Legge’s evidence appears to have ruled out Ceylon. As to

Southern and South-eastern India we have no definite evidence

either for or against the supposition. Surely some of our members

can fill in the gap. Any information at all about any part of India

will be most welcome, especially as regards areas not marked in the

accompanying map.

BATTLE, SUSSEX,

January 10, 1928.

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THE MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

145

Key to the localities indicated in the Map by figures :—

. Gilgit.

. Kohat.

. Valley of

Kashmir.

. Rawalpindi.

. Murree.

. Jhelum.

. Sargodha.

. Jhang.

. Gujranwala.

. Lahore.

. Amritsar.

. Ludhiana.

. Ambala.

. Hissar.

. Dedhi.

. Rohtak.

. Gurgaon.

. Kangra. |

Kulu.

. oimla,

. Chakrata.

Dehra Dun.

. Garhwal.

«Naini Dal.

. Almora.

. Sambhur lake.

. Fatehgarh.

. Agra.

. Etawah.

Lucknow.

. Gonda.

. Gorakhpur.

. Fyzabad.

. Mogulserai.

. Allahabad.

. Darbhanga

~ Ling ti:

. Jalpaiguri.

. Shillong.

. Gunjong.

. N. Lakhimpur.

. Fureedpore.

. Dacca.

. Calcutta.

. Barrackpore.

45.

. Birbhum.

. Manipur.

. Thayetmyo.

Manbhum.

. Prome.

. Palamow.

. Karachi.

. Hyderabad.

. . Narra.

» Cuteh,

. Mt. Abu.

. Deesa.

. Rajkote.

. Baroda.

Lohardugga.

Neemuch.

61.

62.

63.

64.

D5.

66.

67.

68.

Go:

70:

fale

7la

TBs

(ey

74.

76.

77.

78.

jis)

80.

81.

SZ,

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

Jhansi.

Mhow

Sehore.

Saugor and Damoh. |

Jubbulpur.

Pachmarhi.

Dhulia.

Bombay.

Ahmadnagar.

Matheran.

Poona.

Valley of Bhima.

Mahableshwar.

Devrukh.

Dapuli.

Kolapur.

Ratnagiri.

Belgaum.

Madras.

Nilgiris.

Kolar.

Salem.

Coimbatore.

Rameswaram.

Colombo.

Galle.

Chilaw.

Jaffna.

Puttalam.

Mahawelliganga.

Mambantota.

A NOTE ON VIVERRA CIVETTINA, Biytu.

HELEN M. LINDSAY, M.A., B.SC.

(With two plates.)

All who have written about the genus Viverra have admitted there are three

well-marked species, viz. V. zibetha, V. megaspila, V. tangalunga, but some

have cast doubt upon the existence of a fourth species—V. civettina. The

latest paper on this group published by Robinson and Kloss in the Records of

the Indian Museum, vel. xix, part iv, p. 175 (1920), makes out that thereisa

subspecies of V. megaspila which they call V. megaspila civettina. As I have

had the privilege of examining the specimens of Viverra not only in the Cal-

cutta Museum, but also specimens froru the Bombay Natural History Society as

well as those in the South Kensington Museum, I have been able to find that

the species V. czvettina does exist and is marked off from the other species by

well defined characters.

The type specimen of V. civettina is in the Calcutta Museum, and is No. 6 of

Sclater’s catalogue. It was got in South India by Lord Arthur Hay and given

by him in 1845 to the Asiatic Society, Bengal. Itisa made up skinin very

poor condition, split down the back, but the flanks, the feet, neck and enough

of the tail to show the markings are quite intact. In 1863 Blyth in his Cata-

logue records this specimen ‘in bad order’. At present the skin has a ground

colour dull yellow and the markings are dark brown. The broken edges of

the back show that the leather is also dull yellow, so no doubt the curing has

affected the ground colouration and the spots. The upper jaw of the skull is

in good state but the lower jaw has been broken. Where Robinson and Kloss

made their error was in using the skull of the type but not its skin. In Calcutta

there are three flat skins without skulls, which Sclater has in his catalogue as

Nos. a,c, dof V. civettina, and one of these, probably No. a, must have

been matched against the type skull of T%verra civettina. They report that

two skins are true V. megaspila and these are two large ones marked ¢, d. in

Sclater’s catalogue. No. awas given to the Museum by Rutledge, who gave

so many of the specimens of mammals in the Calcutta collection, but as he was

a dealer in animals and kept asmall menagerie he seldom or never noted on

the label the locality whence the specimen came. This skin, No. a, is smaller

than Nos. candd but has the same markings andin absence of the skull

which has such distinctive characters, or of noted locality, it must be called

V. megaspila. Robinson and Kloss apparently used this skin, No. a, and either

missed or ignored the type skin altogether.

In the South Kensington collection there are two skins and skulls which are

undoubtedly V. civettina. Oneisamale adult, No. 20.1.173 from ‘Trivan-

drum Zoo, which is the companion one to that in the possession of the

BN.H.S. The other is a younger creature collected by Sir Stamford Raffles

and bought by the Museum atthe Crisp Sale. Its register No. is 84.6.3.11.

This skin tends to the dull yellow tint in the ground colour such as the type

specimen in Calcutta shows. Both of these in skin and skull are identical to

the type specimen.

The measurements of the male specimen from Trivandrum are :—Weight

14°5 lbs. ; length from tip of nose to base of tail 750 mm. ; root of tail to tip

330 mm.; height at shoulder 305 mm.; ear 51 mm.; girth at shoulder 405

mm.

Regarding the distribution of this species Jerdon says, ‘ The Malabar civet

‘ cat is found throughout the Malabar coast from the latitude of Honore to Cape

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

. Upper Jaw of V. civettina—the type skull in Calcutta Museum.

2. a . megaspila—a skull from Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.’s Collection.

.; 3 . tangalunga—in Calcutta Museum.

| Al 3 _, . stbetha—

bp) x)

4 natural size.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST, SOc. PLATE Il

1. Lower Jaw of V. civettina—the type skull

: ee bs V. tangalunga

a me eo V. zsibetha

natural size.

tole

(These photographs were prepared in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, through the

kindness of Dr. Baini Prashad).

A NOTE ON VIVERRA CIVETTINA 147

‘ Comorin, and very possibly it extends further north. It inhabits the forests

‘ and the elevated forest tracts of Wynaad, Coorg, etc. It is very abundant in

‘ Travancore whence I have had many specimens. I have procured it close to

‘ my own house at Tellicherry and seen specimens from the vicinity of Honore.

‘I never obtained it from the Eastern Ghauts nor in Central India.’

In 1923 Mr. A. P. Kinloch writing in the J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxix, p. 553, from the

Nelliampathy Hills says, ‘ There is another Civet up here, judging from its

‘ droppings considerably larger than the toddy-cat, but I have never seen it.’

‘The editor’s note on this, ‘It is possible that the large civet referred to by Mr.

‘ Kinloch is the Malabar Civet Cat (V. czvettina) ————. This animal mea-

‘sures about four feet from the tip of the nose tothe tip of the tail and its

‘colouration approximates to that of the V. zibetha of Bengal and Assam. It

‘isa dusky grey with large transverse dark marks on the back and sides, the

‘ throat is white and the tail ringed black and white alternately. The animal

‘appears to be a most elusive beast and at one time its existence was in doubt.

‘It is hardly represented in Museum collections. There was, and perhaps is

‘at present, a mounted specimen in the Madras Museum. A few years ago

‘the Society made an effort to obtain skins and skulls of this animal from

‘ members residing in South India. Eventually two specimens were obtained

‘from the Travancore Zoo. Any further information or evidence in regard to

' this civet would be of interest.’

The colour of the Trivandrum specimen is dusky grey with dark brown

spots which tend especially on the hind flanks, to coalesce into lines. Down

the back from just behind the ears to the tip of thetailis a distinct band of

almost black colour, which from between the shoulders forms the mane. There

are three obliquely transverse black lines on the throat, which is pale buff grey

like the area round the mouth, but underneath the chin isa patch of mummy

brown like the feet and legs. The legs show faint markings of slightly darker

tint. There isa brown patch on the ears close to the head. The tail is ringed

alternate bands of grey and black, the black bands gradually growing larger

as they near the tip of thetail, whichis black. The grey bands are not more

than 1/2 inch wide and are all broken on the dorsal surface by the band

continued from the back. In skin the distinction from the other two spotted

species is that the marks are not large, almost quadrate in form, and distinct

from each other all over as in V. megaspila: nor small and distinct from each

other as in V. fangalunga. Blyth notes in 1862 that in V. megaspila and

V. tangalunga the spots tend less to unite into vertical bands or stripes on the

side than in V. czvettina. Thus on pattern of skin, which is the same on all

the specim-ns examined, it must be put into a place oyitself. The texture of

the soft fur, together with the absence of the black patch under the eye and the

presence of distinct rings on the tail, all mark this species off from V. czvetta

(now Civettictis civettz).

But it is not only the skin pattern that is distinct. The skull of V. czvettina

has several well marked characters. All writers about the skull of this species

have noted that the first upper molar is more quadrangular than that in the

other species. Sclater notes that ‘its length has greater ratio to its breadth

than in V zzbetha where this tooth is almost triangular.’ Robinson and Kloss

say that the posterior upper premolar of V. civettina is larger than that of

V. zibetha or V. megaspila and that the bulle are more highly compressed. The

postorbital processes of the frontal bones are almost absent in V. civeftina

whereas they are quite absent in V. megaspila and well developed in both

V. zibetha aud V. tangalunga. Inthe lower jaws pm? is close to pm? in

V. civettina while in the other species there is a distinct space.

Another di-tinctive feature of the skull of V. civettina is the curve of the

coronoid process. All four skulls of this species that I have examined agree in

the pronounced backward curve of this part. Indeed on the variation of the

coronoid process alone the four species of the genus Viverra can be determined

for they form a complete series from the straight stocky shape, rising steeply

almost at right angles both to the alveclus and to the condyle and squarely

truncate above, of V. zibetha through V. tangalunga with a very slight back-

ward curve of the front edge but still a straight back edge, and V. megasfila

still more curved on the front edge but scmewhat straight on the back to

V. civettina with the long graceful backward curve from the alveolus and also

deep curve in from the condyle on the back edge. I have examined four skulls

of V.civettina, four of V. megaspila, twenty or more of V. tangalunga, and

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

quite forty of V. zibetha and have found these and the following features

which may thus be tabulated :—

SBao0g| gos | 3] Bs lxs[oeilaee) 3

Name of species ed Ses O28 °| goo | 2s a wes sos =e

messe| $¥a)/ 25 | He IS SSEISSE| 8

qaonag2| 0ga] BBV) Mo lgaiGaeioxa, oa

aoa dl GAA] aw nS rong) fa eae eos Q

V. zibetha 74° 142 131 |°°70 || 67°] 49 |\7 44. |G mime

V. tangalunga 68° 122 192. 759i 5 SOG a LOS eomees

V. megaspila 62° 152 138°) 370). 13789) C21 a2 eee

V. ctvettina ne 5a5 150 132 | 7/6 (| (4 | ASG AA Oe

Thus on characters of both skin and skull it will beseen that V. czvettina does

differ considerably from the other three species.

Blanford mentions in his account of the genus Viverra in his ‘Mammalia’

that ‘remains of two species of Viverra, V. bakert and V. durandi, the last

named larger than any existing civet cat have been found in the Pliocene beds

of the Siwalik hills.” I have examined specimens of both these fossils and

compared them with the corresponding parts of V. ctvettina and find that the

upper jaw of V. bakeri possesses the same peculiar m?* as is found in V. civettina,

but m? is larger than that of any in the modern specimens. The mesopterygoid

fossa with its sharp little tip is present in both V. dakeri and V. civettina but

not in the others.

Schwarz concludes his paper ‘ Die indischen Viverride’ in Archiv fiir

‘ Naturgeschichte’ of 1922 by stating that ‘ we must consider the modern forms

‘of Viverra as the descendants of the Pliocene or their nearest forms of which

‘ fossils were known to us, first in Greece from Pikermi, from the Siwaliks and

‘later in Southern France, in Sicily, Samos, in Maragha (Persia) and out of

‘Schensi in Middle China. To-dayinthis zone, extend:ng from 30°-45° N.

* there exists nothing of this fauna.’ Lydekker in his book on ‘ Cats’ p. 291

says that ‘in the Pleistocene cavern deposits of Madras this genus Viverra is

represented by V’. karnuliensis, a species about the size of the existing

V. zibetha, but distinguished by the more elongated from of the premolar

teeth in which respect it agrees with V. dakeri.’ As V. civettina is the only

species with elongated premolar teeth and since in two respects also it agrees

with the fossil specimen of V. baker I think it is safe to conclude that V.civettina

is the oldest representative of the genus and not V. zzbetha as Linnzeus con-

sidered.

Another proof of this can be found in Col. Meinertzhagen’s paper on Ladakh

in the Geographical Journal, vol. |\xx, No.2, p. 146. Hesays, ‘It is an axiom

‘ that a discontinuous distribution represents isolated colonies of a once con-

‘tinuous distribution, and that the genus or species whose distribution is

‘ discontinuous is usually more ancient than the allied genera or species whose

‘distribution is continuous.’ He instances the case of the Tahr (Hemitragus

jemlaicus) with forms known in S. India as H, hAylocrius and in Oman as H.

jayakert with fossil forms from the Siwaliks and Salsette Island. The distribu-

tion of the genus Viverra is similar. and the isolated colony of V. civettina in

oa survives as the representative of the old fossil form of the Siwaliks and

arnul,

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS

S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.,

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

Part III

(With seven plates)

(Continued trom page 772 of Vol. XXXII)

In the preceding article I have endeavoured to outline the

method adopted by Museums to provide for the interests of the

student class of visitors whose visit to the Museum is conceived

with a definite purpose.

The type collection for University students, by the special

character and arrangement of its exhibits, is designed to meet the

needs of such students as are entering upon an academic study of

Biology. It is also helpful to the lay visitor who may be desirous

of acquainting himself with the principles and facts upon which this

study is based.

The Children’s Museum, taken either as aseparate unit or a part

of amuseum, is a development intended expressly to meet the needs

of less advanced students. It is an attempt to create a real interest

in Natural History on the part of the young visitor by a definite

effort to meet his special needs. The specialized nature of the

exhibits arranged for his benefit, the manner of his reception in

the museum, the pains taken and the methods employed to develop

his interest and the encouragement he receives, indicate a further

development in the Museum ideal of service to its visitors. The

inclusion of both these features in a museum reveal a carefully

conceived effort to raise the influence and educational value of its

exhibits and to give them a greater significance and meaning to the

visitor. These ideals mark a clearer recognition of the obligation

the museum owes to the general public upon whom it is ultimately

dependent for its support. It has been truly said that the so called

public museum, which derives support from the people and recog-

nizes its duty of service to the people, is of the dominant and most

promising types at the present time.

Further developments on these lines are to be seen in the efforts

made by museums to capture the attention and interest and thus to

educate those of its visiting public who do not come to the Museum

with any set purpose beyond that of amusement or recreation;

people who constitute quite 90 per cent of the general body of

visitors.

In the arrangement of zoological collections for exhibition in

the galleries of a museum two distinct phases or interests in the

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOGIZTY,. Vole ee

study of Zoology may be served. The first concerns itself mainly

with the names and classification of species. This interest is

served in the exhibition: galleries of museums by what we calla

systematic collection in which specimens exhibited as individuals,

are named, arranged and classified in accordance with the families,

genera and species. Usually an attempt has been made to include

under this method of exhibition as many different species as were

available and could be exhibited.

The second phase of animal study concerns itself with the signi-

ficance of natural phenomena. It focuses attention on the life and

habits of animals—on the relations between an animal and its

animate and inanimate environment. It draws attention to such

aspects of animal study as the relationship between the sexes, phases

of social life, care of the offspring, the interrelation existing be-

tween structure and habits, etc.

An examination of the effect and the influence of these two

types of exhibition on the general body of visitors leads to the

tollowing conclusion.

An exhibited collection of named and classified species has a

definite purpose, a definite educational value. ‘The classification of

species is the basis of Biological Science. It is the foundation upon

which all other branches of the science are dependent. If we are to

study the natural mode of production or the development of a given

animal or its relationship to other animals and plants—to the outstde

world, it is essential that we should be able to specify exactly the

species of animal or animals with which we are concerned. Now

the major interests of the Science of Biology are and can be served

by what we term the reference collections of a museum—collections

from which the general public are excluded and which are reserved

for the use of specialists and advanced students. These collections

when authorittively identified, classified and labelled serve firstly to

preserve in a practical and economical manner, a safe and permanent

record of various forms of animal life, which exist or have existed ;

which after all is the first purpose of a museum. Secondly, by their

accessibility and by the manner of their arrangement, they are made

availabie for the use of people who have the training and the knowledge

to use them. So that information gained by their study may be used

and applied directly in the service of man or for the advarcement of

learning. But when one comes to deal with collections intended for

the general public, we aim at a totally distinct purpose which is the

diffusion of knowledge among the masses. The principles governing

the arrangement and exhibition of collections intended for the general

public have been hitherto mainly the same as those adopted for the

reference collection, except that cabinet specimens and flat skins are

substituted by mounted specimens, which endeavour more or less

successfully to portray the form and the character of the animals they

represent, our aim being usually to exhibit by this means as many

different species as conditions of space permitted.

What is the influence of this system on the main body of visitors

and how far does it fulfill its educative purpose ? Frankly we are

not out to make scientists out of our visitors; our aim is rather

education in its broadest sense. We endeavour to give them new

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

VRIES SPP HEL Gay, Li ih ae. See

Shelfless method of exhibiting Birds as applied in the Prince of Wales’ Museum.

The method of introducing habitat backgrounds for individual species is also

illustrated.

ae |

; Je

: x

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 151

interests, to illustrate truths which are unknown to them, to give

them a better understanding of life, its principles and relationships.

Do we succeed? Is the basis upon which we build correct, or is a

fresh orientation in our methods necessary for the effective fulfil-

ment of our purpose?

Experience has shown that the great majority of visitors wander

aimlessly through galleries containing this type of exhibits with un-

awakened interest and leave them in a while after a visit which has

profited them little or not at all. It is difficult to sustain interest or

create enthusiasm by a serried display of specimens, however inte-

resting they may be individually, which by their very number and

monotony of arrangement cannot but produce a sense of weariness

and fatigue that rapidly kills any interest they may have

originally created. To overwhelm the visitor with a mass of detail

is to confuse the issue. If it is our intention to show how animals

can be classified and how a given class ot animals may be

divided into more or less distinct orders, families, genera and

species, could not this lesson be brought home more clearly by

restricting the selection of the material to the more important types

which would suffice to show the relationship between various

classes of animals and define the limits of variation in a given class ?

This is where I believe the small museum as far as the general visitor

is concerned is more effective in its teaching than the great National

Institutions, as itis compelled to tell the same story in a fewer

words and to give the visitor a better grasp of the subject as a whole.

A systematic collection can be made interesting and attractive ;

everything depends on the manner of its installation and presentation.

The plea for more science in art museums and more art in science

museums has its application here. The selection of specimens to be

shown, their mounting and preparation for exhibition, the manner

of their arrangement in the show cases, colours of background and

labels—the show cases themselves require careful thought and study.

The use of shelves for exhibiting specimens is a disadvantage as it

tends to produce a monotonous lineal type of arrangement. The fitting

of specimens to the background of the show case, or to a screen

within the show case, by means of brackets and other devices which

are not perceptible appears to be more satisfactury in as much as the

system affords greater freedom of arrangement and Jends itself to

effective grouping and design. A photograph of a case of

birds in the Prince of Wales’ Museum illustrates this method

of exhibition (Plate I). The colour of the background should

be pleasing and yet not obtrusive. A matte black background,

while it is effective, has the great disadvantage of increasing reflec-

tion and moreover when used in the mass strikes a depressing and

sombre note ina gallery. Variation in the character of the mounts

on which the animals are displayed is an important point. The

limited use of paintings cr photographs as individual backgrounds to

selected species wil] add fresh interest and variety to the display.

In the whole arrangement the principles of design should be observ-

ed and an attempt made to please the eyeandto attract. A crude,

overcrowded and unconsidered display will repel. In short we

must, by practice and experiment, endeavour to arrive at a better

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

understanding of the full range of possibilities for the more attrac-

tive installation of science exhibits. In the selection and instailation

ofthese exhibits we must, I think, endeavour to distinguish between

what is and what is not of practical value, particularly when we

realize that we cannot expect people to take an interest in objects or

principles displayed before them when these objects and these

principles have no relation whatsoever to those to which they have

been accustomed to give their attention.

This is why the second phase of museum exhibition, to

which Ihave referred, makes a readier and stronger appeal to the

average visitor simply because it concerns itself with ‘ life’ and the

living animal, in short, with something that is less abstract—more

familiar and more tangible and therefore more likely to leave an

abiding impression. It holds interest because the subject is one

which has a definite relation to matters with which people are more

familiar.

Secondly, the interest of the visitor is sustained because there is

less danger of monotony in methods of presentation, as each indivi-

dual phase of animal life, which one attempts to illustrate, will

require individual treatment. Finally there are so many interesting

facts in connection with the lives of animals that may be adapted to

this method of exhibition and they are in themselves so varied and

full of interest that their proper presentation in a museum cannot

fail to rouse the attention of the least observant. They offer a

channel through which the most casual visitor can be led, unconsci-

ously perhaps, to a better understanding and appreciation of the

world of nature. The exhibits in a Natural History museum make

an appeal to the intellect, but the strength of this appeal on the

majority of visitors will be considerably lessened or rendered wholly

ineffective if they are to be made the victims of a tradition which

countenances inertia and boredom as an essential and important part

of any form of intellectual training.

Systematics is the basis of all Science and exhibits which

illustrate this important branch of Biology must find a place

in every museum of natural history. But it does not follow

that they should be given a preponderance which prevents

the inclusion of other features or limits them to an almost

negligible quantity. The modern museum group which is carefully

planned and has a definite story to tell and a definite fact to reveal,

contains all the essentials for arresting the attention of the visitor,

educating him and compelling him to take away at least something

of what he should from his visit to the museum. The factor on

which the modern museum group depends largely for its success

is one which makes a universal appeal—a love of beauty is common

to all and affords the simplest method of attracting attention which

is the preliminary to all successful instruction.

The museum group may be used to illustrate a variety of

facts and theories and principles bearing on the study of animal

life. It may illustrate the life history of an individual animal,

or give a vivid portrait of the animals characteristic of a particu-

lar region ; it may be used to show the relation between an animal’s

colour and its environment or indicate how it is adapted by its

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 153

structure to a particular mode of life. In fact the subjects, which

may be selected for ijlustration are so varied and so numerous that

their selection must be governed by conditions of space.

As the first purpose of a group is educative, it follows that it must

be truthful; it must be based on actual studies made in the field and

constructed with the help of field notes, paintings, sketches and

camera studies which will form a guide to the faithful recording of

the subject which the group is intended to portray.

The background of the Museum group is not imaginary but is

painted from nature to illustrate the actual character of the country

in which an animal is found. It must be quite ascorrect and as

typical of the country as are the animals which are to accompany it.

The foreground of a group which is made to join imperceptibly with

the background must carry forms of plant life and other accessories

which will faithfully portray an animal’s immediate environment.

It necessarily follows that a group designed on these principles,

in addition to illustrating various aspects of animal life, also pos-

sesses the value of giving the visitor an idea of the varied physical

characters of a particular country. In India for instance it would

be possible to secure the necessary material and accessories for

groups depicting a large range of Indian animals in the Nepal Terai

but such a course would fall short of giving the visitor an idea of the

widely diversified types of country to be seen in the Indian continent.

THE MAKING OF MUSEUM GROUPS

field Work - Painting the Background

A description of the methods in use for obtaining the material

for the construction of museum groups would be useful perhaps to

those who have not had previous experience in the work and would

also give the general reader an idea of the amount of care and

labour expended in the production of the modern museum group.

The writer recently had the opportunity of joining an expedition

organized by Mr. A. S. Vernay for the purpose of painting

backgrounds and obtaining the necessary material and acces-

sories for a series of groups illustrating the game animals of India,

which Mr. Vernay is presenting to the American Museum of

Natural History, New York and also for providing similar material

for the Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay.

A collecting expedition of this nature is generally headed by

some official of the Museum, under whose direction the groups are

to be constructed. He is the man who knows what is wanted and

will guide the selection of the backgrounds and other material. ‘he

experience he gains in the field will help him in supervising the sub-

sequent work in the museum galleries. If the animals are to be

collected it is important that the personnel of the expedition should

include the taxidermist to whom the work of setting up the animals

will be subsequently entrusted. The taxidermist will thus obtain

first hand knowledge of these animals and will be able to take his

notes and data in the field. For painting the backgrounds the

services of a competent artist are necessary ; preferably one who

has specialized in landscape work and, as artists are highly temper-

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

amental people, preferably one who is amenable to suggestion and

will submit questions of style and individual technique to the achie-

vement of the actual purpose for which the painting is required.

Finally a photographer is required who, in addition to his work with

the camera, should have knowledge of the handling and treatment of

accessories in the shape of plants and other objects which are to be

collected in the field. Inthe present instance the animals for the

groups had been collected on a previous expedition and a taxider-

mist was not included. A description of the work done in obtaining

material for a group of Brow-antlered Deer in Burma will indicate

the lines on which the work was conducted in the field. Our head-

quarters were at Taungdwingyi in the Magwe district and from

there we motored out about fifteen miles to collect material to paint

backgrounds for this group. The type of country inhabited by

Thamin in this part of Burma is low scrub jungle interspersed with

trees. Though the country immediately surrounding the town was

much of the same character, we motored outa bit so as to get

outside the human influence. Our guide in this instance was a

forest ranger who was well acquainted with the ways and habits of

Thamin and with the country in which they were found. On arrival

our first consideration was, as always, to select a suitable view for

a background. A great deal of time was always devoted to this pre-

liminary step upon which the ultimate success of the group mainly

depends. If there is sufficient time for the purpose it is advisable

to devote the first. day to a general reconnaissance of the country,

during which, various likely spots may be marked and the best and

most suitable one subsequently chosen. The object is to paint a

picture or pictures which record the character and colouring of the

country in which Thamin are found. This picture is to be used

subsequently as guide in the composition of the painted background

in the Museum. ‘The painting is supplemented by photographs

which will supply a more faithful record of the detail. Three

general rules govern the selection of a ‘view’. Firstly it must

contain the necessary elements, which make it typical of the country

one is attempting to portray, secondly it must be practicable for

the purposes of a group, lastly it must make a ‘picture’. No.1 is

essential in asmuch as it gives the natural habitat of the animal. No.

2 is equally necessary if we are to reproduce the habitat within the

limits of ashow case. No. 3 supplies that element of the pictures-

que and the beautiful which must go into the making of a success-

ful group. These three factors are interrelated ; a scene might be

characteristic and beautiful but it may not lend itself to group

construction. This factor always presents a good opportunity for

a clash between the artist and the practicai man. Inall groups

pertect continuity and connection must be maintained between the

built up foreground and the painted background; for this purpose

both harmony of construction and harmony of colour are required.

As the museum group generally implies the portrayal of a wide

area of country within the limits of a show case, the group construc-

tor has several difficulties to overcome before he can produce the

desired effect. The background selected must have ‘ distance’ if

the entire perspective is obscured by objects in the middle ground or

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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PAINTING BACKGROUNDS FOR HABITAT GROUPS.

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MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 155

foreground of the painting then the feeling of depth is lost. At

some point therefore the ‘ view ’, one selects to paint, must afford

a sense of perspective both in colour and form. When there are

mountains in the distance these can be effectively used to produce

the effect, but when these are absent a view of the distance must be

supplied through some opening or openings between the trees or

other objects nthe foreground. One of our difficulties in painting

the background to illustrate the habitat of the Small Two-horned

Rhinoceros was that the creatures elect to live in a jungle compos-

ed mainly of a dense and impenetrable mat of climbing bamboo

known locally as wa-tabut. It overwhelmed one on all sides and one

could never get sufficiently away from it to paint it or see more

than a few yards through it. Here the artist had to be content

mainly with taking colour notes and recording the general character

of the jungle as seen from an elevated point and to depend ultimate-

ly for detail and composition on the numerous photographs that

were taken. In painting the backgrounds for the Thamin our

chief problem was the monotonous and drab nature of the country

which afforded few salient features to help in composition and

to provide those ‘incidents’ which give a picture its interest and

attractiveness. Quite often it is not possible to find all the elements

for the painting of a background in a single spot. If one required

a picture of a river with sand bars, flanked by tall plume grass and

backed by heavy forest and low hills, as a setting for a group of

wild Buffalo, one may find it difficult to discover a spot which com-

bined all these features in a manner which would be adaptable to the

requirements of the group. The difficulty can be overcome by

making separate studies of these various features which could be

used by the artist in composing his final painting in the museum.

While in New York, I had the opportunity of studying several

sketches made for a background of a group illustrating life on a

coral reef in the Bahamas. The artist first made colour sketches

of the sea, recording the yellow green of the shallow water and the

gradual change of the colour tone till the deep blue of the sea on

the horizon was reached. Other studies recorded the form and

colouring of distant islands. In the middle of the foreground there

was to be acoral reef. Studies were made of this reef first in the

broad mass for colour tones and for the grouping of the trees and

rocks. ‘Then detailed colour studies were made of its various

features. Now these separate studies will form a guide to the

artist in composing his final painting in the Museum. The

accompanying photo graph illustrates the completed background

for a group of Wild Turkey atthe American Museum of Natural

History, New York, together with the field studies which were

used in its composition. I have also illustrated a group of

Brown Pelicans to show how the built-up foreground with its

mounted birds can be made to merge imperceptibly into the back-

ground and thus cleverly give a graphic picture of the vast colonies

in which these birds breed.

Painting backgrounds for groups implies the use of vigorous

detail in the foreground of the painting. ‘The trees and other

objects are made to stand out definitely so as to harmonize with the

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

real objects in the foreground of the group. Backgrounds should

be colourful and lively otherwise as a scenic representation they

appear dull and flat and do not produce the true note of light and

colour of an open air scene. is

Mr. R. W. Leigh who was one of the artists deputed by the

American Museum to paint a series of backgrounds for greups of the

African Hall in writing of the requirements, for the type of work

indicates that the background to a group of animals calls for the

utmost measure of truth in painting ‘ There is no room for indivi-

duality as expressed in treatment or in style, for it aims to suggest

paint as little as do the mounted animals. But in the suitability of

tone, colour, and line, in the massing of light and shade, the

catching of character and form, the rendering of texture, the

achievement of the illusion of realism and the forgetfulness of paint-

ing, there exists a challenge’ Mr. Leigh concludes ‘which would

test the skill of the finest artist’. The actual time for painting in

the field is necessarily limited by prevailing conditions of light

and the effect one desires to record. Painting time fer day for a

particular scene is usually limited to a few hours. In painting the

interior of a forest in Mysore, we found the most suitable time was

between 10-12 a.m., while a shola—covered hillside showed up best

between 4 and 6 in the afternoon. As the time at our disposai was_

limited we were not able to give more than two or three days to

obtaining material and paintings for a particular group and time was

saved by working at two separate groups in a day one inthe morn-

ing and another in the afternoon.

Photographic Work

Once the venue for the artist’s work has been decided on, the

photographer commences to make studies of the ‘‘ view’’ selected for

the painting, endeavouring to take pictures which will supply a record

of the complete panorama, as the artist’s picture painted in the

field will generally depict only a small portion of the scene. His

photos will also supply details of the landscape, of the various trees

and other objects it contains, which the artist will not be able to

supply in his painting. These camera studies are intended as a

guide to the construction of the group. They help in the final

composition of the picture and will supply a true record of the

formation and character of various objects to be reproduced both in

the foreground and background of the group and furnish important

details of light and shade. In addition to panoramic views record-

ing the general character of the country, separate photos are taken

of individual trees, shrubs and such details of the ground as will

help in reconstructing these ‘ incidents’ in a group.

Perhaps the best camera for field work of this description is a

quarter plate revolving-back Auto-Graflex fitted with a Zeiss-Protar

lens. This type provides a doubly convertible lens of either 8” or

14” focal length. With it one can enlarge a small object or re-

produce it the actual size by using the two components individually

or in combination. The covertibility will be found very useful in

photographing distant views such asa distant line of mountains.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 157

These would naturally appear very small, and devoid of detail with

the short-focus combination but could be considerably magnified

by using a single element. A strong wooden tripod which folds

compactly is an indispensable part of the equipment.

Collecting Plants and Accessories

The foreground of a group portrays the imniediate environment

of the animal or animals shown init. In trying to give the true

character to this setting one must select such material, in the shape

of plant forms and other accessories, as would suffice to give a

correct impression in the szmpiest way. Itis unnecessary to re-

produce everything one finds ina given spot. Select only those

particular features as give the requisite character to a given bit of

ground and suffice for the purpose.

As this material has to be moulded, cast and then reproduced in

wax it is wise to select such types as will readily lend themselves to

this method of reproduction. In selection therefore shape, colour

and reproducibility are taken into consideration. As regards shape

when there is a wealth of materialto choose from, beauty of form

might guide selection. As regards colour one should endeavour to

visualize the colour notes to be struck in the group: particularly in

relation to the animals which are to be exhibited init. The plants

selected for inclusion ina group should be brought into camp as

carefully as possible, care being takento prevent them from being

damaged on the way. On arrival they should be put into water to

prevent shrivelling or wilting. Some plants are so delicate that

they wither very soon; experience will soon show that these

should be collected last to reduce the time between collecting and

preservation.

The purpose of field collecting is to bring back to the museum,

such records of the form, shape and character of various plants,

trees and other accessories as will help in the building and

reproduction of the groups in the museum. For the above

purpose

(1) Specimens should be preserved in formalin.

(2) Notes recording their colour and form should be made.

(3) Plaster moulds recording their form should be taken.

For preservation and transport of plant specimens in formalin,

cylindrical zinc drums with close fitting lids will be found useful.

These drums are made so as to fit one into another for easier trans-

port when empty. When packed with plants ready for despatch the

greater portion of the formalin is drained out of them and they are

soldered and then crated. A convenient size of drum is one

measuring 2’ 6” x 15”. A 4-5 per cent solution of formalin will be

found useful for preservation of specimens in the field.

Smaller plants and bushes.—In collecting material for the repro-

duction of a given plant, it is necessary to preserve whole in

formalin small branches and twigs to show the character of the

growth. For purpose of preparing moulds of the leaves in the

museum a selection of various sized leaves should also be preserved

in this solution. Fruits and flowers, if available, are also taken.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST .. SOCIETY, Vol. X2xOgda

The specimens are carefully bound together in separate lots and

labelled with a numbered wooden label; they are wrapped in cheese

cloth to prevent damage before being placed in preservative.

Portions of plants such as the stem and branches if they will dry

well are cut into sections, numbered and packed separately. A

record of the material preserved in each tank is kept in a note

book.

Trees.—When a tree is to be reproduced, a section of the bark is

preserved to show the character. If some of the branches are

required, these are cut into sections and the sections numbered as a

guide to fixing together. Leaves, etc. are preserved in the same

way as with smaller plants.

Small vines are collected whole.

Large vines are cut into sections and preserved. Formalin

specimens are kept of the leaves, etc.

Rocks.—Samples are taken to show colours and forms.

It is important to have photographic records of the various

species collected as a guide to reconstruction.

In collecting material fora given plant, it is best to collect

several specimens, i.e., one lot for preservation immediately in

formalin, a second for colour notes and a third for casting.

The preservation of plants, etc., in formalin is perhaps the

most important part of field work, because from the material

so preserved, careful casts and reproductions can be made in the

museum. .

Colour Notes. —Colour notes of the leaves, flowers, fruits and

other accessories collected for a group are equally important as

they form the only record of the actual colouration of these speci-

mens. The colour notes consist of careful sketches made in water

colour of various parts of a plant ; various phases of the colouration

of the leaves, fruits, lowers are recorded. The sketches are supple-

mented with such written notes as might be helpful and form aguide

to the colouring of the plant models. We have found that careful

pencil sketches illustrating the precise formation of a tree trunk etc.

are an excellent guide in the subsequent building up of the trunk. A

photograph may not always afford sufficent detail for this purpose.

Flowers.—In addition to colour notes a record or pattern is made

of the shape and size of the various parts of any flowers that may

be collected. The flower is dissected and an exact pattern is taken of

the petals, and other patts etc. The patterns are invaluable in the

reconstruction of the flower in wax.

Moulds

Plaster moulds of leaves, etc. serve as records of the shape and

character of plant forms, etc. collected in the field which would

be useful if the material preserved in formalin was damaged or

destroyed before casts could be taken from it in the museum

laboratory. If one. could be certain that the formalin specimens

would arrive in a good state of preservation then the necessity for

taking moulds in the field would not be so urgent as the work could

naturally be done better in the museum.

In taking moulds of leaves one should select typical leaves of

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 159

varying sizes. The leaf is laid on a bed of plasticene with at least

an half inch margin allround. ‘Too large a margin implies wastage.

The leaf is not pressed flat but its natural contours are preserved by

building up plasticene underneath them. Air pockets between the

leaf and its bed must be avoided. The leaf must lie securely on its

bed so that no plaster flows under the leaf when casting. Keepthe

leaf dry and clean and avoid pressing upon it in any way. A dam

composed of a ribon of plasticene is put around the claybed. It

should be’sufficiently deep to keep the mould durable. The mould

should be at least 14” thick. Liquid plaster is poured along the

centre of the leaf which slowly spreads and covers it entirely, thereby

avoiding any air bubbles. Then more plaster is added ; when the

plaster has set the dam is removed.

This briefly covers the actual work done in the field, but it will be

seen that the varied character of the work and the varied character

of the material collected will offer individual problems. Though the

work may vary the principle remains the same. The purpose of this

field work is to bring back to the museum a true and faithful record

in the shape of paintings, photographs and actual specimens which

furnish the requisite material for building up a faithful and at the

same time beautiful presentation, illustrating of the manifold forms of

animal and plant life of a country. The man who goes out to build

groups must familiarize himself with the details of the group by actual

observation in the field; as an aid to his memory and to retain the

impressions he has gathered, he must collect the material which will

guide him, make sketches, take photographs, etc., but the essence of

the whole subject is that he must be able to visualize and carry with

him the essence and the spirit of what he sees so that a subsequent

work might bear the impress of beauty and truth.

Work tn the Museum

The building of the group in a museum should commence as soon

as possible after the return of an expedition, when impressions are

still fresh. The first step is to build a scale model of the group as

it will eventually appear. A scale of two inches to the foot will

generally suffice. The model itself is built as simply as possible.

The portion representing the front of the case is made of card board

with a window in it cut out to scale. The curved background may

be made of a sheet of tin or zinc. It is given a coat of white lead

to give a surface for painting on. The model forms a starting

point from which improvements may or may not be made when build-

ing the actual group, so a strict adherence to scale is essential as it

gives an idea of the space available, prevents subsequent overcrow-

ding and gives some idea of the effect which will be obtained. In

planning the setting of the group one must have an idea as to what

animals are to find a place in the group and the manner in which they

will be mounted and the purpose of the representation. The back-

ground should be painted in and the trees and foliage of the fore-

ground built in and composed to produce the desired effect. Scale

models of the animals are also introduced so that the whole effect

may be judged, corrected and altered till a pleasing and attractive

picture is obtained.

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITII

Trees and other accessories intended for the scale model may

be either built up or cut out of card board and coloured.

Animals seen in profile may also be treatedin this manner. It saves

time. i

Twelve examples of a given group may be made by twelve differ-

ent men yet one of them will stand out because of its sheer artistic

merit ; because the author will havecaught not only the subject but

also its true atmosphere, the spirit which gives it life. The keynote

of group work should be simplicity. The accessory work should be

kept down to the minimum possible for reproducing the correct

‘atmosphere’. The objective being to suggest with as little

material as possible the picture you wishto portray. Accessories

must always remain a subordinate feature ina group. They are

intended only as a setting to the animals and should never become

the main attraction. This is excellently illustrated in the group of

Timber Wolves (Plate) which is one of the most successful

groups in the American Museum at New York. Simplicity has

been the key note of the composition. accessories have been limited

and the principles of design and perspective have been attractively

maintained. Further, and this is an important point: the group

does not complete the story, it leaves the climax to the imagination

of the visitor ; the wolves are tracking their prey through the snow,

the success or failure of the hunt is still in suspense.

The foreground of a group is made ona separate base and is

made so as to rest on the floor or is held in place by supports fitted

to the side and back of acase. The foreground should preferably

be built with a gradual upward slope. This gives a better sense of

perspective. The angle at which the foreground should rise to

meet the background can only be determined by experiment—a

rise of one in ten will usually be found satistactory.

A depression in the foreground at the point where it joins the

background, so that the actual line of junction is hidden will be

effective in giving continuity to a season. A gap left between the

foreground and the background is effective in giving an illusion of

distance. The effect is astonishing even in a small group.

Ina previous article I discussed methods and means employed

for the construction of cases and backgrounds for groups and the

question of artificial illumination. When artificial illumination is

not used the lighting within a small group may be greatly improved

by placing the group against a window. If the case has a ground

glass roof a reflector should be placed above it at the required

angle. A good volume of light can be thus thrown into the case.

Artificial illumination adds very much to the effectiveness of a

group. By its use varied effects, such as sunset, dawn or moonlight

might be produced. By increasing the volume of light within a case

reflections on the giass front of the case are considerably reduced.

Shadows within the group are obviated by having the light directed

towards its ceiling and then deflected downwards. Cross lights from

the side of the case wil! also help to obviate shadows. Spot-lights

are effective in concentrating illumination on any desired part of the

group, such as lighting up part of a hillside or clouds, ete.

When artificial illumination is used it is essential that provision

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc,

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. N.Y.

By courtesy

GREY OR TIMBER WOLF GROUP.

American Museum of Natural History, New York.

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hesstittiidicciscs diets

Case illustrating how a snake poisons its prey. Shows how models, specimens, etc.,

can be used in combination with the subject matter of the group.

Case to illustrate breeding habits of Snakes. A Cobra with eggs in a deserted

Termite nest. (Photographs of exhibits in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay.)

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 161

should be made for the heated air within the case to escape. A

ventilating cylinder made of tin or some other suitable metal,

partially plugged with cotton placed at the top or side of the case,

where it is not seen can be used effectively as an outlet for air.

Small Groups

Though many of the groups exhibited in a museum are of a large

size and take up considerable space, a great deal can be achieved,

particularly in small museums, by the preparation of small grougs

‘which can as effectively teach their lesson. They are particularly

suitable for the exhibition of reptiles, insects and the smaller forms

of animal life. Miniature groups for illustrating even the larger

animals have been advocated. The specimen here being repre-

sented by miniature models. ‘There is no doubt that many facts in

animal life can be told by well-designed miniatures. The objection

to this method is that the visitor would not get a true idea of

the size of animals exhibited in which sense the group would be

misleading.

The principles of construction are the same as those followed in

the large groups. Small groups may be shown individually or

arranged in a series. The lesson a group is designed to teach or

the story it tells might be emphasized or enlarged upon by the use

of insets in the shape of specimens, diagrams or models. Two

groups recently prepared for our Museum to illustrate oviparous and

ovo-viviparous habits of snakes haveinsets showing the develop-

ment of the snake within its egg and adiagram illustrating the func-

tion and purposes of the egg tooth. Similarly models, specimens

and photographs to illustrate the dentition and poison apparatus of

snakes are used in combination with a group showing a saw-scaled

viper swallowing a rat. The title of the group is ‘How Snakes

Poison theit Prey—the visitor is attracted by the main subject of

the group, his curiosity and interest once roused he is led to examine

the specimens which are shown in combination with it and thereby

learns the whole story the group intends toteach. Inall probability if

these insets were shown by themselves they would have escaped his

attention ; or they would not have roused him sufficiently to induce

him to examine the specimens, read the labels or gain the know-

ledge it was intended that he should by their exhibition. One of

my most gratifying experiences in the museum was a crowd of

coolies collected round a snake group listening with great

interest to one of their number who read to them the contents of the

vernacular label which explained the purpose of the case. I have

not the slightest doubt that their interest was roused by the manner

in which the subject was presented. As I have endeavoured to

point out in the course of the article; if the visual instruction which

the exhibits in a museum are intended to convey is to be effective

on the mass of the visitors, if their significance or influence is not to

be lost on the majority of those wlio come to the museum,

then every attempt must be made and every channel explored

whereby their attractiveness might be increased and the appeal

strengthened.

The museum can be made gateway to various kinds of paradise,

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOGIZETY, Vol. XXXxGui

to a release from sordid thoughts, the ever present and too press-

ing cares of life. It should afford the coveted chance of seeing

interesting things beautitully told. The museum ideal is to create

a place of beauty where all forms of loveliness would be at home;

where the beauty of surroundings, of arrangement, would enhance

the charm of an individual object. This blending of objects and

surroundings with a warm-hearted intelligent desire to serve

would then develop a tangible spirit which speaking through the

sensibility would come to be recognized as the ‘Spirit of the

Museum’. |

(To be continued.)

A NOTE ON THE WORK OF NATURE STUDY TEACHING

AT THE PRINCE OF WALES’ MUSEUM, BOMBAY, FROM

16TH NOVEMBER 1926 TO 10TH FEBRUARY 1928.

Satim A. ALI, M.B.O.U.,

Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Soctety and

Guide Lecturer in Natural History, Prince of Wales’

Museum, Bombay.

(With a plate)

THE scheme for holding Nature Study classes at the Prince of

Wales’ Museum, Bombay, which has unfortunately come to an

untimely end due to the financial stringency with which the Govern-

ment of Bombay are faced, owed its inception to proposals put

forward by the Bombay Natural History Society in co-operation with

the Education Department and accepted by Government in their

Resolution No. 254, dated 8th December 1924.

Para.3 of this Resolution provides ‘that a Lecturer shall be

attached to the Museum who would instruct parties of School

Children.’

In consequence of the above Resolution there were several

discussions between the representatives of the Society and the

Educational Department, as the outcome of which it was agreed

that a competent man should be appointed by the Society (with the

approval of Government) who could lecture and demonstrate to

parties of children from the local scheols. The salary of the lecturer

would be provided by an annual grant of Rs. 5,000 from Govern-

ment, and it was hoped that in time the Municipality would also

contribute. The proposals agreed on were placed before the

Trustees of the Prince of Wales’ Museum at a meeting held on 22nd

December 1925. The Trustees were in full accord with the project

_ and provided a special room for the purpose of these lectures. It was

arranged that all the expenses of the scheme should be borne by the

Sub-Committee of the Natural History Section out of the special

grant to be made by Government for the purpose.

Unfortunately Government were at the time unable to make the

requisite financial provision, but the Society was fortunate

enough to obtain a special donation from the Sir Sassoon David

Trust Fund and also from the N. M. Wadia Charities, which donations

enabled them to take up this work with the schools. The work was

undertaken by the Society, however, on the definite understanding

that when the monies obtained from the above sources had been

expended, suitable provision would be made by Government for the

work to be carried on in the future.

As the result of a number of conferences between the representa-

tives of the Society and the Director of Public Instruction, the

Principal of the Secondary Training College sent out at the begin-

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII11

ning of October 1926 a circular letter to about 30 Ango-Vernacular

Secondary Schools in the City informing them that it was proposed

to hold a course of nature study demonstrations in the Natural

History Section of the Prince of Wales’ Museum, and asking them,

in case they desired to admit any of the classes from their

schools to these, to communicate for particulars and appointments

with the Guide Lecturer who had been specially appointed for the

purpose.

In response to this circular, applications were received at the time

and during the period the scheme was in operation, from 21 schools

for the admission of 44 classes in rotation to the Museum nature

lectures. Of these, three were girls’ schools, three mixed boys’

and girls’ and the rest boys’.

Two classes were held daily, barring days whenthe Museum was

closed to the public, holidays and school vacations, and during the

total period 195 lectures were delivered, attended aggregately by

6,200 children.

Many more schools and classes would, I am certain, have gladly

participated but for the difficulty of allotiing them dates. Asthings

stood it was not possible to arrange for more than two or three

lectures to each class during a school term; that is to say, each

class could not ordinarily be asked to visit the Museum more than

four or six times during the year. The intervals between these

visits were necessarily long-—as much as five or six weeks in some

instances. This, however, could not be helped, and the original idea

being that the Guide Lecturer was not required to feach natural

history as much as to supplement the school nature study curricu-

lum (it was proposed to introduce), so as to lighten the burden of the

school teacher and to rouse and maintain enthusiasm and interest

among his pupils, this arrangement, though leaving much to be

desired, was considered satisfactory as a beginning.

Before fixing and launching out on any definite programme of

lectures, it was considered desirable to acquaint the pupils with the

subject of animal life in general, giving a broad outline of its web of

inter-relationships and inter-dependences, and of the complex effects

of its diverse environments; to hint on the broadest possible lines

on the marvels to be seen in the animate world by those who care

to 100k for them so as to create in the pupils an interest and a thirst

for knowledge which would provoke further enquiry and independent

research on their part.

On these lines five lectures dealing with Vertebrate animal life, i.e.,

Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes, were prepared.

Museum specimens, models and specially prepared lantern slides

were used to illustrate these talks, each of which lasted forty-five

minutes. Every class had to go through all the five lectures in

rotation and the preparation of a similar series on Invertebrate life

was being contemplated when the scheme had to be abandoned.

Considerable interest and enthusiasm were displayed by most of

the classes, who asa rule showed great eagerness to attend the

demonstrations. The Head Mistress of an A.-V. Girls’ School at

Thana told me that her pupils were so keen on coming to the

Museum, inspite of the distance (an hour’s run by train), that she

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A NOTE ON THE WORK OF NATURE STUDY 165

found it difficult to leave some of her classes out of the scheme

owing to their being insufficiently grounded in English to follow

the lectures by themselves. These latter had heard about the

demonstrations from their friends in the higher classes and were

clamouring to be taken to the Museum likewise !

Besides the school programme, a number of lectures of a more

advanced nature were arranged for school teachers of the Bombay

Education Society, the Bombay Teachers’ Union and Girl Guide

organizations. In addition, a number of teachers were supplied

with information and assistance regarding the teaching of various

Nature subjects in their respective schools; copies of my notes of

the Museum lectures were also placed at their disposal and articles

dealing with Nature Study were contributed to various Scout

Magazines.

The most interesting phase of our activities, however, was in

connection with blind children. By previous appointments with the

Principal, 40 boys of the Victoria JubileeSchool for the Blind were on

two occasions brought to the Museum lecture room where simple

talks in Urdu were given to them concerning animal life in general.

A number of stuffed animals and other exhibits were given to the

boys which they could handle and feel. Among cther objects they

were given the skull of a tiger and one of a horse to illustrate

the difference in dentition, adapted to different modes of life and

representing the carnivorous and herbivorous type of mammals.

The boys passed their fingers over the skulls and teeth, examined

them thoroughly and seemed highly pleased and _ interested.

Some time after the tiger skull had been scrutinized and the

significance and utility of its special type of dentition explained, a

cat’s skull was handed round and one little mite immediately

announced that it belonged to some flesh-eating animal of the same

type, probably a cat!

Lectures to blind boys wasa phase of our activity which we

were anxious to develop as much as possible, and we were hoping

before long to be able to prepare a series of exhibits for the

special use of the blind in illustrating our nature talks to them.

Mr. F. V. Evans, a constant benefactor of the Society, kindly

sent in a donation of Rs. 100 to be devoted particularly to the

preparation of exhibits for blind children, but for the time being

our activities in regard to the teaching of nature study, which

were started with so much thought and deliberation have had

to be discontinued for want of the necessary means to carry on.

The Committee of the Society realizing the situation went so far

out of their way as to suggest to Government that they should pay

only half of the present Guide Lecturer’s salary and expenses while

the Society would defray the other half, utilizing half his time for

their own work in return. Government, however, could only

consent to pay a quarter provided the Bombay Municipality con-

tributed a like amount and shared in the benefits of the scheme.

For financial reasons the Municipal Schools Committee have

turned the proposal down, and for the present therefore the

Nature Study programme, much to our sorrow, has had to be

suspended.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS

HvuGuH WHISTLER, M.B.O.U.

Part I

THE ORIGIN OF BIRDS

(With two plates)

It is a wise biographer who prefaces his work with an introductory

chapter in which he traces the history of the family from which his

hero springs; the family in question may be obscure, of mean

origin, unknown, or of a fame which is best not dragged into the

light of print; or its history may be such as to confer splendour on

the country that gave it birth. Yet, good or bad the biographer

spares a little space to set it down for he knows that his readers are

sure to ask the origin of their hero. Sprung from the gutter they

acclaim him the greater marvel—the architect of his own fortunes ;

scion of a lordly line they see his prowess in his ancestry, his brain

a heritage of birth and breeding. Good or bad his origin must be

revealed or the biography is stigmatised as incomplete.

Thus it is that before we start toc examine the various general

aspects of bird life, we must spare a few pages to study the origin

and pedigree of the great class Aves. There must have been some

beginning to the order. Either it sprang at the moment of creation

ready made, complete in all its orders and families, its genera, its

species and subspecies; or it grew stage by stage evolving slowly

through the ages, acted on by the myriad influences of the world,

affected by the other items of the universe, affecting them in its

turn.

There are those who hold to the literal interpretation of the words

of the first chapter of Genesis. ‘ And God said, let the waters bring

forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl] that

may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. And

God created great whales, and every living thing that moveth, which

the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every

winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And

God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the

waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply on the earth.’ In this literal

belief there is no room for an account of the origin of bird-life as

we see it existing now; it sprang into being complete; it stands

to-day as it stood in the beginning of the world, differing oniy inthe

presence then of the forms which have since become extinct.

There are difficulties in the way of so literal a belief. They need

not be discussed, but I will assume that my readers will hold it no

impiety if I affirm my ability to reconcile a firm belief in the divine

origin of creation with all that modern science teaches of Evolution

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 167

and the history of the world. Trace back the pedigree of the

humming-bird to the protoplasm, and to bring the protoplasm into

being remains as wonderful an act of creation as to make the

humming-bird.

Science then teaches us that the class Aves did not start as we see

it now, outnumbering allthe other classes of vertebrates with a roll

call of about 19,000 species. But as a tree starts from a single seed,

grows a stem which puts forth boughs, which in their turn produce

branches and innumerable twigs and leaves, so these 19,000 species

are the leaves of a great tree which has sprung from a humble

origin—a tree whose boughs are the great vertebrate groups. The

illustration is not quite exact for the leaves of the different boughs

are not all of one pattern as in a tree ofthe forest, but the simile

expresses the idea intelligibly enough.

The animal kingdom is divided into two classes, vertebrates and

invertebrates, distinguished respectively by the possession or non-

possession of aninternal skeleton built up ona backbone and skull.

(Vertebra= one of the segmented portions of the spinal column or

backbone.)

The vertebrates fall naturally into five classes: mammals, birds,

reptiles, amphibia and fishes. The number of species in the

classes are usually given as follows, mammals between 7,000 and

8,000, birds about 19,000, reptiles between 3,000 and 4,000, amphibia

1,000, fishes between 8,000 and 9,000.

It will be noticed that the birds and the fishes are numerically the

strongest groups. This is probaly due to the fact that they are

capable of travelling in those media, the air and the water, that

offer the least barrier to their distribution—an explanation which is

in itself an important corroboration of the theory of evolution.

Descent and affinity are merely different aspects ofthe same fact ;

so in our search for the origin and descent of birds we are at once

advised to look for the affinities of birds. It will be a matter of

surprise to many to Jearn that among the five classes of vertebrates

the birds show the greatest affinity to the reptiles.

Such a statement needs substantiation. The cold-blooded ugiy

lizard half torpid amengst the rocks seems as far removed as

possible from the active beautiful bird singing on the boughs and

careering lightly through the skies. Bird and reptile seem at least

as far apart as bird and mammal, fish and amphibian.

There is abundant proof of the relationsip (in the widest of terms

be it remembered) between bird and reptile. The proof may be

found in the anatomical resemblances between the two classes and

again in the similarities of their early development. And confir-

mation is found when we turn to the pedigree of the birds and

study the earliest forms known to us only from the evidence of

fossils.

These three basis of proof need to be examined in some detail.

First to turn to the evidence of the anatomical resemblances.

Proof of the reptilian origin and character of birds—and I put it

in this phrase as the reptile is indubitably the older and parent form

from which the bird has evolved—may be found not only in the

skeleton but in the brain and the vascular and urogenital systems.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The evidence of the latter is too technical to be dealt with fully

here but most of us have a general acquaintance with the skeleton

ofa bird; so the main point of the skeletal resemblance between

bird and lizard may be briefly indicated.

One of the most important points is the method of articulating the

skull with the backbone. Inthe mammals the skull connects with the

first vertebra through two occipital condyles; in the reptiles

and birds the connection is by means of a single condyle, that

is, arounded boss of bone projecting from the floor of the

skull below the aperture through which the spinal cord joins the

brain.

Inthe mammal the lower jaw or mandible consists of a single

bone. Inthe bird it is as inthe reptile a complex structure made

up of four or six bones on each side.

In the bird and in the reptile the connection between the skull

and the lower jaw is by means of an anvil-shaped bone, the

quadrate which is not found amongst mammals. The quadrate

joins that bone of the cranium which is known as the squamosal ;

in the mammal the lower mandible articulates directly on the

squamosal without the intervention of a quadrate bone, a fact

explanatory of the separation of the lower jaw of a mammal from its

skull as soon as the flesh and muscles have decayed.

The columella, a delicate rod of bone passing from the drum of

the ear to the inner ear is a common character between birds and

reptiles and both the classes resemble each other in the general plan

of arrangement of the bones of the palate and cranium.

The neck vertebre of the bird resemble those of the reptile at least

in their immature stages, in the possession of free ribs and in the

absence of the Epiphyses found in mammals. The Epiphyses

are flat discs of bone which fit on to the ends of the vertebra and

enable new bone matter to be added in the enclosed space until with

the completion of growth the Ephiphysis fuses with the main body

of the vertebra.

The hip and shoulder girdles of birds are built on a reptilian

model, and this resemblance is again most clearly accentuated in

the structure of the hind limb. This is seen in two points, the

character of the ankle-joint and the nature of the tarso-metatarsal

segment.

Inthe mammal the ankle-joint works by a hinge between the

shank and the uppermost row of ankle-bones; in the bird and the

reptile the hinge works between the two rows of ankle-bones. This

distinction is very clear in the reptile where the ankle-bones have

kept their separate character. In the adult bird there are no separate

ankle-bones left and this evidence is only to be found in the embryo

and the nestling before the separate bones have fused into the coales-

ced whole which they become in the adult bird. In the embryonic bird

several ankie-bones (tarsals) can be distinguished; inthe nestling

these have already shrunk to two, one the mallet shaped bone known

as the astralagus and the other a flat disc.

The astralagus fits on tothe end of the shank supported by a

short spur up its front; it soon coalesces, a few weeks after hatching,

so completely with the shank that all trace of it is lost.

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THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 169

The second bone is applied to the surface of the three tarso-

metatarsal bones and coalescing withthem completely becomes the

top of the ‘cannon-bone’. This ‘ cannon-bone > known anatomically

as the tarso-metatarsus and known to us familiarly in the living

bird as the scale-covered tarsus consists in its origin of these

separate bones; in the nestling bird the division between the three

bones is still visible though it has disappeared by the time that the

bird is adult. Then the flat disc representing the lower tarsal bones

and the three tarso-metatarsals becomes the firm tarsus of the bird

with no trace of its composite origin. The hinge between the two

rows of the tarsal bones, still so clear in the less developed reptiles,

has become an apparent hinge between two long bones in the bird’s

leg.

é It must be clearly understoodthat the same bones go to the

making of the leg of the mammal, the bird and the reptile. The

differences merely consist in the different uses made of those bones

with corresponding developments and suppressions. Superficially

one is apt to consider the bird’s leg as differing in structure from the

human leg in the possession of an extra joint and the reversal of the

direction of the joints. This isnot so. All that has happened is

that certain bones have been elongated, the instep region has

assumed analmost vertical position and the number of bones has

been reduced by fusion. The knee joint is hidden amongst the

feathers ; the ankle-joint appears superficially as a reversed knee

since the instep has risen from the base of the toes and become the

scale-covered tarsus.

And the proof of all this lies in the immature bird, clear in the

embryo, fading slowly in the chick as it progresses to maturity ; and in

the proof of the changes lies part of the proof of the reptilian origin

of the bird—a striking example of that theory of Recapitulation, the

fundamental law of biogenesis formulated by Haeckel, which holds

that the embryo slowly develops to the adult along the line of the

changes that the species has experienced inits evolution; which

holds, in the striking popular phrase, that every living creature

climbs its own family tree. Some other features may be briefly indi-

cated in which the relationship between bird and mammal may be

traced.

To begin with, the blood of a bird is reptilian in character, that is

to say it retains the nucleus in the red corpuscle, which is shared by

all other lower vertebrates but is lost in the mammals. (How many

officials in India have had to forward bloodstains to the Chemical

Examiner and await his report as to their being mammalian or

otherwise in character.)

The bird’s brain is a reptilian brain raised to the highest power of

its special development, while the mammalian brain has developed

on special lines with new formations.

The eye and the ear of the bird are in their main features merely

a further evolution of the peculiar features found in the reptiles

and differing in essentials from the same organs in the mammals.

There is one important muscle peculiar to birds and reptiles and

found in neither mammals nor amphibians. This is the ambiens

muscle which originates on the pelvis and runs along the inner side

170. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol XX]

of the thigh to end in a long slender tendon which passes obliquely

across the knee joint.

The skin of reptiles and birds, as opposed to that of mammals

and amphibians, have few glands, with the result that they do not

sweat.

But most noticeable of all, the legacy of reptilian scales stili

persist in the bird. It is patent to all on the tarso-metatarsus of the

leg, while the horny covering of the beak is usually considered to

be of the same nature; in fact the compound nature of this horny

covering, divided clearly into various plates in certain species such

as the gannets, petrels and albatrosses, is believed by some investi-

gators to correspond with certain of the horny shields which cover the

forepart of the head in snakes and lizards. And this covering is

actually shed in the same manner as the ‘slough’ of reptiles ina

few birds such as the Puffin (/vatercula arctica)) which sheds the

epidermis of its beak after breeding.

But the scales persist in the formin which we least expect to find

them, in the very feathers which are usually cited as the chief glory

and the most marked characteristic of the class Aves. This is indi-

cated by a microscopical examination first of the development of

the scales of the reptile and on the foot of a bird, and of the deve-

lopment of a feather which is perhaps nothing more than a cylin-

drical fringed scale. They all start as a small protuberance

occasioned by an increased growth of the cells of connective tissue

in the cutis close to the epidermis ; this protuberance is transform-

ed into a cone, the apex of which is directed backwards and

gradually assumes a flattened shape. This in the reptile becomes

the scale; in the bird it lengthens into the feather-pulp from which

grows the down that precedes the permanent feathers. As corro-

borative evidence of that afforded by the microscope we may cite

the feet of such closely allied species as the Pheasant, Blackgrouse,

and Ptarmigan where we have a scaled foot and a feathered foot con-

nected by a partly scaled and partly feathered foot, clearly showing

how the same basic material can produce either feather or scale.

Finally we find great resemblances in reptiles and birds between

their methods of producing their young. In the egg cell of all

animals we find the simple.typical cell structure, but when mature

the egg varies according to its assimilation of reserve materials as

a store of nourishment for the embryo during its development. The

egg of the mammal however remains attached to its mother during

embryonic development and therefore does not require a large yolk,

that is, reserve food material.

The eggs of the reptile and of the bird are however separated from

the mother and therefore require abundant reserve food material ;

their mature size is often in consequence very large. Like the reptiles

birds are oviparous, but no birds are ovo-viviparous like some reptiles.

It must be remembered also that a few very primitive mammals

such as Ornithorhynchus, the Duck-billed Platypus, still ‘lay eggs’

in the popular sense.

The egg of the bird and the reptile are alike in their essentials.

In the egg of the goose and the crocodile for instance there is the

true ovum or egg cell, known variously as the germinal disc or

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 171

blastoderm, from which the formation of the embryo takes place

after germination. This is dilated with yolk and is generated in

the ovary. All other processes in the formation of the egg take

place in the oviduct. Inthe upper part of the oviduct it encounters

the spermatozoa of which one or moreenter it and fertilize it. Then

it is enclosed in albumen and further down it is covered with the

shell-membrane which in the final stage is itself enclosed with,

the shell. This outer shell is formed in all birds and many

reptiles.

In the egg of both classes the egg-cell after fertilization divides

into two daughter cells; these in turn further subdivide and the

process continues rapidly until a circular disc of cells is formed, then

an important change takes place with the differentiation between

groups of cells. The resulting growth need not be detailed here.

suffice it to say that the earlier embryonic stages in bird and reptile

run on parallel lines until about the sixth day when definitely avian

characters emerge in the embryo bird.

In both embryos the membranes known as the amnion and allan-

tois appear at any early stage. The function of the amnion is to

enclose the embryo with a fluid to protect it from pressure and

injury. The allantois serves as a receptacle for urine and asa

respiratory organ. It spreads under the shell of the egg and by

means of its blood-vessels absorbs oxygen through the porous shell.

When the lungs commence to function the allantois shrivels up and

is ultimately cast aside with the broken shell.

Finally both embryonic bird and reptile develop the so-called

egg-tooth; this is a small hard point loosely attached to the tip of

the upper jaw which drops off the young bird shortly after hatching.

It is usually considered as of use in breaking the shell before emer-

gence from the egg.

It remains to check our deductions by examining what relics

remain of the ancestry of our present day birds. For obviously if

there is any truth in the theory, suggested by the examination of

the anatomy and embryology of a bird, that its origin is reptilian

the further back we can examine its pedigree the more likely is that

to show its connection with the reptile. The evidence of Geology

has revealed striking evidence of the descent of other vertebrates ;

it should also afford evidence of the descent of the bird. And this

is exactly what happens.

The first remains of an undoubted fossil bird are referrable to the

Jurassic age. Itis true that in the Triassic sandstone footprints

and their casts have been found of colossal creatures, known col-

lectively as ornithichnites, which were at one time considered to be

birds, but the general idea is now that these creatures were Dino-

saurian reptiles.

The lithographic stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria belonging to the

Jurassic system has however produced two fossils which are birds

beyond all doubt. The first specimen was made known to science

in 1861 by Andreas Wagner and it may be seen in the South

Kensington Museum, It remained unique until 1877 when a

second specimen, now in the Berlin Museum, was discovered. It

is interesting to note that the discovery of these two specimens was

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

preceded by the finding in the same formation of a single fossil

feather.

The two specimens were for some time considered to belong to

one species named Archaeopteryx lithographica, but the second is

now generally distinguished as Archagornis siemenst. Be this as it

may, we are able to gain a very distinct impression of this early

Jurassic bird as the parts exposed in the two specimens are largely

supplementary. For convenience I will speak of both birds under

the heading Avcheopteryx, as the slight differences are unimpor-

tant from the view of my remarks.

All of us at one time or another have picked up a dead bird in the

earlier stages of decay. The attitude is contorted, the flesh has

gone, the dried ligaments hold the bones together, the wing and

tail feathers persist though most of the contour feathers have gone.

Imagine such a specimen pressed flat like a pressed flower and

fossilized. So appear the two examples of Archewopteryx which

perished in that remote Jurassic age, preserved for us and discovered

by the most fortunate of accidents.

Archaeopteryx was about the size of acrow. Its general appearance

was that of a modern bird, but two peculiar features at once catch

the eye. The short blunt bill is furnished with distinct teeth, not the

horny processes which we find in the beak of the Merganser and

Smew, but real teeth thirteen in the upper jaw and three

(and doubtless more) in the lower jaw planted in distinct

sockets and obviously reptilian in type. But more remarkable

than the beak is the tail. This is a long tapering oryan

of about twenty-one vertebre, and from each of the last

thirteen to sixteen vertebre springs a pair of well-developed

rectrices or feathers, one on each side of the bone. This tail at once

recalls the tail of a lizard or snake, as it were a lizard’s tail fringed

with feathers, yet is clearly the ancestor and explanation of the tail

of the bird. The tail of the living bird consists of five to eight free

vertebre followed by the fusion of others (varying from six to ten)

into a bony plate the Pygostyle which supports the fan of tail-

feathers. Telescope the long tail of Avchwopteryx with its fringe of

feathers and you have the fan-tail of the bird. This origin of the

tail in a number of vertebra each with its opposed pair of feathers

explains why all modern birds have a tail consisting of an even

number of feathers. No odd central feather is found in any tail.

There are other features in Archaeopteryx which indicate its

reptilian affinities, indeed so marked are these that some would

hold it more reptile than bird. Chief of these are the abdominal ribs—

subcutaneous ossifications unconnected with the true skeleton which

run across the lower surface of the abdomen. They are represented

in the crocodile and some other reptiles, but are not found in

mammals or modern birds which have the abdomen unprotected

below.

Then the wing is very suggestive. This shows two primitive

features; the first that the carpals or bones of the wrist and meta-

carpals or bones of the palm are still separate and have not fused to

make the stiff hand of the bird as we know it to-day. This

separation of the bones is still indicated in the embryonic and very

Hypothetical Restoration of Archaeopteryx lithographica

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 173

young bird but disappears when ossification is complete. The

second feature is the difference between the digits of Avchgopteryx

and the digits of the modern bird. ‘The three digits in the fossil,

which as indicated above were free and not fused into a solid

structure, bear each a claw and the third digit had as many as four

phalanges or separate segments. Inthe modern bird the third digit

has only one phalanx.

In the modern bird the claws are found only on the first and second

digits; their persistence varies ; insome species they are only found

in the embryo, in others one claw is found ; in the ducks and birds-

of-prey traces are found throughout life. Yet links are found

between the condition of the modern bird and the condition in

Archeopteryx in two directions. A vestigial claw has been found

on the third digit in the young Ostrich and in young Penguins while

in the young Hoatzin (Ofzsthocomus) the claws are of considerable

size and still function. A paragraph must here be devoted to that

strange bird the Hoatzin (Ofpzsthocomus cristatus) which is of such

importance in the phylogenetic study of birds. It is a native of

Tropical South Amevica and may be roughly described as about the

shape and size of aGrey Hornbill, with a strong somewhat pheasant-

like beak and a long pendant crest of loose feathers. It is considered

to be a very archaic form of bird with affinities to the galline birds

though much closer than them to the ancestral stock. It is entirely

arboreal living in bands in the tree growth over streams and lakes.

Interest centres on the chick.

The nest is arough structure of sticks built in the boughs of a tree

overhanging the water. Soon after hatching the young leave the

nest and spend their time climbing about the boughs of the tree,

using not only the beak and feet parrot-fashion but also using the

wings, which at this stage have the ‘hand’ relatively longer than in

the adult and bear large claws on the first and second digits. This

hand with its clawed fingers is still able to sustain a grip on the

boughs, and in the interests ofits free play the outermost quills and

their coverts are arrested in development until the inner primaries

have grown sufficiently long to enable the bird to recover itself in

falling. A further peculiarity of this precocious nestling is that if

it falls into the water beneath the tree it is perfectly at home

swimming to some drooping branch up which it climbs again. Be-

coming adult the Hoatzin loses the special characteristics of the wing

and their use.

That this free hand and clawed digits are a survival from the days

of Archeopteryx is very clear, and a vestige of it may be seen any

day in the fowl-yard. Ifa small chick afew days old is examined,

just as the wing quills are developing, one will find the first digit

bears a weak but plainly discernible claw and that the growth of the

outer quills is retarded as it was in the zaons ago when that finger

and claw could be used; while a similar retarding of the inner

secondaries is said to point to an ancestral patagium or parachute

fold between the elbow and the body still traceable in the embryo

Ostrich.

Having found Archeopteryx we naturally desire to bridge the

long ages and stages which separate it from the bird of to-day.

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Unfortunately the record is far from complete. It is not until the

Cretaceous period that we again meet with the fossilized remains of

birds.

Two forms stand out in this period conspicuous through the

importance of their preservation and remains. They are known as

Ichthyornis and Hesperornis and both are found in the upper Cretaceous

shales of Kansas. Both these birds very definitely belong to the

modern bird type except that the jaws still bear teeth. They are

regarded as representing an early specialized offshoot from

the common ancestral type of the two great surviving orders

the Ratite and Carinate,now perhaps more rightly designated

the Paleognathe and Neognathze. Between themselves they are

very distinct and this suggests that there was already a

very extensive bird-fauna in existence. Both forms may be

briefly described.

Hlesperornis was a flightless aquatic bird about six feet long from

the tip of the bill to the outstretched toes and it must have greatly

resembled a modern diver or grebe; it had rudimentary wings and

no keel to the breastbone. The teeth were planted in grooves in both

jaws. That it was specialized in the direction of swimming is

denoted by the pelvic girdle which resembles that of the divers,

while the knee joint resembles that of the grebes. Its chief feature

however is the patella or knee-cap of enormous size and curious

shape which rendered the bird incapable of straightening the leg

at the knee joint. The patella was a point of attachment for

the swimming muscles. The bird was a swimmer incapable of any-

thing else, and no more highly specialized form is known.

I[cthyornis was considerably smaller. It was delicately built with

well developed wings and a keel on the breast bone. The teeth are

in grooves and the vertebre are biconcave both reptilian characters.

With these exceptions it is a very modern looking bird and it is gener-

ally considered as the ancestral type of the Steganopodes, that is

the order containing the Gannets, Cormorants, Pelicans and

allied forms.

After Hesperornis and Ichthyornis the record becomes confused.

Fossil remains have been recovered and named in numbers, but

many thought to belong to birds have since been proved to belong

to reptilian forms ; others are certainly avian but they are too frag-

mentary to supply much information. Among the Tertiary birds

there are many different to those now living but they are associated

with nearly all the principal forms that still exist. There is a

gradual though confused record of progress.

To sum up, the avifauna of to-day is clearly descended from an

avifauna present in Cretaceous times; this differs chiefly in the

presence of teeth, a character clearly inherited from a previous

Jurassic fauna in which Archeopteryx aftords a complete blending

of bird and reptile.

Earlier than this the line is lost ; the remoter ancestor is merely

ground for speculation.

This remoter ancestor was not necessarily able to fly at all. It

was not amongst the Pterosaurs, the strange ‘ flying dragon’ which

immediately springs to the mind as a possible ancestor. The

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 175

Pterosaur stock has many points in common with the bird, long

hollow bones, a fusion of dorsal vertebrze to make the body rigid

for the wings to play upon, and traces of a keel on the breast bone

to support the wing muscles. But it is separated from it by

important differences in the hip girdle and the vertebral column,

and by the absence of a clavical in the shoulder-girdle while the

wing is so entirely different in structure as to indicate a separate

line of development and approach to their common purpose. The

Pterosaur’s wing is a Patagium-wing, that is to say composed of a

membrane similar to that of a bat, attached to an enormously

elongated ‘little finger’ and continued back to the hind legs and

tail. The wings of the Pterodactyl and the bird doubtless evolved

from a common habit of using a fold of skin on the forelimb as a

parachute ; buttheir development progressed in different directions

and neither evolved from the other.

There is more probability in the theory that the remote ancestor

of our quest was of Dinosaur stock, but there have been various

and conflicting theories as to the actual class from which it sprang.

The most recent view is that of Heilmann who examines the claims

of Pterosaurs, Predentates, Coelurosaurs, and Pseudosuchians at

careful length and finally decides that the Pseudosuchians alone-

fulfil all the requirements of the hypothetical ancestor’s anatomical

requirements, that is, to allow the Pseudosuchian stock to develop

into Archwopteryx and through it into the bird of to-day.

In the course of time he suggests that these reptiles raised the

forepart of their body from the ground with increased frequency

balancing with their tails to assume a bipedal gait, exactly as to-day

we may see Frilled Lizards run at great speed. ‘Their hind limbs

slowly were adapted to this manner of walking. The erect reptile

then adopted an arboreal life, climbing about the boughs of trees,

leaping from one to another. The first toe gradually changed into a

hind toe to grasp the branches, while the hind leg having left its

reptilian position for walking is held close to the body while leaping,

not spread in the manner of other creatures that have developed

flying. ‘The developing parachute then is confined to the forelimbs

and tail, while the forelimb is still used for climbing. The parachute

consists of scales, but these slowly develop into feathers, which

at length encroach over the whole surface of the head and body

encouraged and required by the increasing temperature of an

organism on which increasing activity makes greater and greater

demands.

The picture is no doubt a fanciful one , but so clear is it that the

_ bird of to-day is descended from reptilian stock that something of

the kind must have happened, and the road by which the bird has

grown and travelled is dimly indicated in the records of the past.

Future discoveries may make these records fuller—till then we must

content ourseves with hypotheses such as the above.

In discussing this question of the ancestry of modern birds I

should have liked to quote some evidence from Indian sources.

Unfortunately however but few remains of fossil-birds have been

discovered in India and of these so far as I am aware none are older

than the Pliocene.

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Apart from the Pleistocene cave deposits of Karnul which have

yielded a smail number of remains all referred to existing Indian

species, remains of birds have only been found in the Upper Sub-

Himalayan Siwaliks and their number is still very small. These are

all Pliocene and with two exceptions were identified by Lydekker.

as belonging to genera still found in India such as Pelican, Cormo-

rant and Adjutant. The two exceptions are interesting.

They belong according to Lydekker to the Ratitz. One of them

was a true Ostrich (Stvathio asiaticus) apparently closely allied to

the existing Ostrich (.S. camelus) of Africa and Arabia but with rela-

tively shorter and stouter cervical vertebra and somewhat thicker

metacarpals. The other was a three-toed form related to the Emeu

(Casuarius) and approximately of the same dimensions. For this

Lydekker proposed a new genus and named the bird Aydselornis

stvalensis.

Finally to those who desire to read more deeply the evidence

regarding the origin of birds, I can recommend the following books

to which I am deeply indebted in this and the following chapters.

A Dictionary of Birds, by Alfred Newton, London, 1893-1896

(Adam & Charles Black).

A History of Birds, by W.P. Pycraft, London, 1910 (Methuen &

Go;)

The Biology ot Lirds, by J. A. Thompson, London, 1923 (Sedgwick

and Jackson).

The Origin of Birds, by G. Heilmann, London, 1926 (H. F. and G.

Witherby).

(Zo be continued)

REVIEWS

1. BIG GAME SHOOTING IN THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

(By Lieutenant-Colonel C. H. Stockley, D.s.0., 0.8.E., M.C., F.R.G.S.,

F.z.S. The Oxford University Press, 1928, 200 pages, 63 illustra-

tions. Price 18s. net).

Quite a number of books on Indian Big Game shooting have been

published in the last few years, and now we have a book by Colonel

Stockley dealing with a wider range than any of these.

Some forty years ago General Kinloch wrote a book on Indian

Big Game Shooting. The book now before us has been written

with the object of fulfilling the want of a work on somewhat similar

lines but at a price within the reach of the ordinary soldier-sportsman

of India.

In the ‘General and Introductory ’ chapter the author writes much

that is sound as to Game Preservation, and we agree with him that

the crux of the whole matter is the elimination of profit by sale of

meat, hides, horns, and trophies generally. There is a trade in shed

horns which is legitimate but it should be feasible to legislate as to

the other items. ‘Stop the demand and the supply will cease,’ says

the author, and that indeed goes a very long way towards efficient

Game Preservation.

A well deserved tribute is paid to the Forest Officers, throughout

the country, to whose courtesy and assistance we sportsmen in India

owe so much. The closing paragraph contains advice which all

keen sportsmen in this country should endeavour to follow, and that

is to aspire to see and shoot (or photograph ?) as many species as

possible. The author has shot thirty-six species out of the fifty-six

he describes, but some of these are not usually classed as game

animals (the author himself remarks as to these) and we would, for

the information of those who wish to follow the advice we comment

upon, remark that the number of species to be obtained by a

sportsman during his time in India may be said to be thirty-nine.

In ‘ The Selection of a Shooting Ground’ condensed information

is given as to twenty-four provinces or districts. The cost ota

shooting trip of two or three months duration is correctly stated.

The chapter on Himalayan shooting contains much useful informa-

tion and advice. One feels there is more to be said, but the author

has had to condense, and to omit, in order to keep the price of the

volume within a desirable limit. The difficulty of saying enough

and not too muchis one which must have caused Colonel Stockley

much thought. The estimate of cost for Kashmir is in accordance

with our own experience in recent years.

The selection of a weapon is discussed at length, the choice

falling upon a °425 H. V. rifle and a ‘318, the -280 being classed

with it as equally efficient. The -400 double is the smallest bore we

can agree to for heavy and dangerous game (a ‘470, which need not

weigh over 104 lbs. is a preferable weapon). The ‘318 we agree to

“e)

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCEM Vol ea

but zof the °280, which we would personally avoid. The author

properly remarks ‘I do not recommend a novice to start shooting

in thick stuff with a :280 Ross.’ To that we would add that anyone

novice or expert, is bound to come to grief—and that pretty soon—

should he pursue dangerous game with such a weapon. We do not

agree that ‘ ball and shot’ guns are ideal weapons for tiger. These

weapons will not ordinarily stop a charging tiger. The summing up

‘of the author is right—omitting the 280. But make the -400 a -470

and—once more we Stress the point—it is not novice only who should

not go into heavy jungle after dangerous game with a light magazine

rifle. ‘For the hills a rifle should be fitted witha sling’, for the

plains also, we say.

The chapters on ‘ Outfit’, ‘ Marching and Camping’, ‘ Searching

for Game’,* ‘The Stalk’, ‘ Tracking’, ‘ Beating 2, = Sitting up 4

‘The Shot’, and ‘Skinning and Preserving Trophies’, all contain

much that is useful which, however, could with advantage have been

given in more detail in some respects. Fifteen lbs. of flour is a

very short allowance for two months but no doubt it is meant that

this is supplemented by ,atta in form of chupattis.

To the list of medicines: calomel, iodine tincture, oxide of zinc,

adhesive plaster (wide and narrow), eye-bath cup, zinc powder to

make lotion for sore eyes, safety pins, clinical thermometer, and a

copy of Moore’s Medicine for India might be added. In the plains

a °22 rifle certainly should be taken. The sun hat, of whatever

type it may he, is like no object to be seen in the jungle and should

be camouflaged when one is after game by leaves, etc. A whistle

is sufficiently powerful for purpose of halting a beat as a warning in

case of a wounded animal and red and white flags could only be

seen by afew. A signal horn which can be clearly heard at a long

distance, is essential.

Those who have done much sitting up will not agree with the

author that that there is little trial of the hunter’s skill or endurance.

There is much technique only to be learned by experience, and on

many occasions great endurance is called for. Sitting up is, of

course, only allowable for tiger and panther.

The advice of Colonel Stockley is that ‘sitting up’ on the ground

whenever possible is the best method for tiger and leopard. The

advice is quite right as to leopard but we do not advocate the same

thing for tiger. They have little if any more sense of smell than

panther—though we have both seen and heard them very obviously

using their noses when approaching a ‘kill’—but are different in

character, more intelligent. There are not many sportsmen who

are likely to agree with the authorin this matter. Given suitable

soil and surroundings the pit method is undoubtedly the best method

of concealment and more sure in results than any other.

The chapter on skinning and preserving is good. It might have

been stated that all blood and dirt stains should be washed off

before the animal is skinned.

The photographs in the book are mostly very good and—an

important point—it is evident that itis the habit of the author to

always take care to properly pose the body of the animal. ‘Too

often this is not done and the picture suffers in consequence.

REVIEWS id

A wordin favour of the panther! Several recent authors have

styled this sporting beast as vermin, to be killed by any method,

and our author follows suit. Would they advocate the use of

poison? Wethink the panther a very sporting animal. Fierce at

all times and indomitable when wounded, he will on very few

occasions omit to charge when followed up.

To revert to the chapter on beating. ‘ Astride a branch of atree’

is recommended as a post for a sportsman in a beat. ‘This is quite

right ina way, as choice of position is not dictated by consideration

of possibility of tying a machan. But it should be made clear that

the position should not be ‘astride’ a branch, but standing on a

branch with a rope round the waist and the tree trunk. In such a

position it is possible to cover a much wider circle and there is no

need to think of balance. A couple of gimlets should be carried to

form convenient pegs for water bottle, etc., and alength of cord for

pulling up and lowering the rifle. We mention all the above as an

instance to point the observation, already made, that throughout the

book more detail is required in some respects. Those with ex-

perience have learnt all these things; but the book is for sportsmen

beginning to take up shikar rather than for those with full

experience.

The volume is well designed and produced and the author is to

be congratulated on having published a work which will be a

sufficient guide to Big Game Shooting in the Indian Empire to those

who have not the means to purchase the various works dealing with

particular areas.

Re Be

2. ACRITICAL REVISION OF THE GENUS AR/S7/D4,

being a preliminary study and an introduction to the Monograph.

By J. Th. Henrard in Mededeelingen van s’Rijks Herbarium,

Leiden, No. 54 (1926), pp. 1-220, and No. 54 A (1927) pp. 221-464,

Leiden. Firma P.W.M. Trap.

The two volumes which have appeared so far are only a prelimi-

nary study to a complete monograph on the Genus Aristida. In

this study the author deals with the literature studied and the resuits

of the critical examination of the types. In addition, the new

species found in herbaria are being included. In every case of old

species the original description is reproduced word for word and in

that language in which it was published. This is a great advantage

to botanists in general but especiaily to those who cannot boast of a

large private library or have not even the ordinary facilities of

consulting public libraries. Every worker has thus the luxury of

forming his own independent opinion on many questions of

taxonomy. The study is based entirely on material preserved in

herbaria, as the author found it impossible to make observations on

material under cultivation. This is to be regretted as in all proba-

bility it would have thrown light on several critical grasses which,

in the author’s conviction are hybrids between different species of

Aristida which are not easy to recognize in dried species. We

quite agree with him when he says that field work alone is not

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

enough to clear up the different varieties of a species or the

differences between allied species. ‘So far as I have cultivated

different grasses,’ he says, ‘I have found that many characters used

by agrostologists are absolutely constant, but it is a fact that many

varieties described in our manuals are but products of local condi-

tions. Such plants were called by botanists ‘‘forma’’, but such a

delimitation is nonsense.’ It is always gratifying to hear an

authority expressing in unmistakable terms an opinion which all

along you had carried about but which you had not the courage to

mention in public.

E.B.

3. A GARDEN BOOK FOR MALAYA. By Kathleen Gough,

London. H. F. & G. Witherby, 1928, 422 pages, price, 16s. net.

The origin of this book can be traced to a series of gardening

articles forthe JZalay Mail under the nom-de-plume of ‘ Quisqualis ’.

The volume before us is not a mere compilation. The authoress

has tried to offer the results of her own experience of gardening in

Malaya over a number of years. Practically all her experience was

gained in her own garden at Kajang, Selangor. To this she has

added the knowledge gained by professional training and practical

garden work undertaken when away in England during the war.

Miss Gough first introduces the reader to the local conditions of

gardening in Malaya, dealing with the climate and soils. Though

describing distinctly local conditions this chapter contains many

practical hints for the gardener in India. The same applies to

several other chapters which treat of garden practice, just because

the authoress always enlivens her treatise with personat observa-

tions. A dozen chapters or so deal successfully with special groups

of plants, and it is just this part of the book that will be most

welcome to the Indian gardener. Some very practical chapters on

insect and animal pests, plant diseases and their remedies make the

book a very useful guide to gardening not only in Malaya but in the

tropics generally.

The last chapter on ‘ Wild Plants and their Introduction to our

Gardens’ should convince our gardeners, that there is no more

satisfactory or more interesting gardening operation than the

successiul introduction of an attractive wild plant, an operation

which is only too little known in this country.

E.B.

4. POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS. By Hugh

Whistler, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Illustrated. London: Gurney and

Jackson. Price 15s. net.

The attempt to write a book on the common birds of India is one

which had never been made until of very recent years. Long ago

‘EBha’ wrote most charming books on various aspects of Indian

life, ornithological amongst others, but he never dealt with any

particular class of animals as a whole. More recently Finn and

Dewar have also written many books, the former several most

REVIEWS 181

comprehensive works on birds, every volume teeming with in-

formation, the result of his keen powers of observation. Yet even

he was more or less daunted at the thought of tackling so compre-

hensive yet vague a subject as the Common Birds of India.

Fletcher and Inglis in 1924 published a volume entitled Birds of an

Indian Garden but this excellent book only deals with a very few

species of birds, although it deals with these very fully.

Mr. W. S. Millard has for many years been anxious to bring out

a book which shall really be worthy of the title above mentioned

and it is owing to his generosity and the help of Mr. F. Mitchell

and Sir George Lowndes that the present volume owes its birth at

a price quite incommensurate with the immense labour it has entailed

and its scientific and popular value.

The work has been entrusted to Mr. Hugh Whistler, a gentleman

already well known, not only to the members of the Bombay

Natural History Society, but to many ornithologists of many

countries. His articles in the Bombay Journal have proved him to

be a naturalist of no mean order, avery close observer and an

interesting recorder of what he sees. The present volume is, of

course, something much more ambitious than any of his previous

work but it is only fair to say that his reputation will certainly not

suffer in consequence of its publication. We can congratulate both

Mr. Millard and Mr. Whistler on having succeeded in bringing out

a book on the common birds of India far in advance of anything

previously attempted.

Scientific books containing acertain amount of information on the

biology of the bird are available to the scientific student but these

are of necessity bulky and contain much that is not required by the

field naturalist or by the mere bird-lover. Both of these classes of

readers will, we believe, find in Mr. Whistler’s volume all that they

require and we are sure that the visitor to India who desires to

know the names of the birds he sees, together with further informa-

tion about their habits, wil! find this book of the greatest help to

him in every way.

If there is one failing which we feel we cannot pass over without

comment, it is the fact that it deals so very largely, one might

almost say exclusively, with the birds of North-West and Western

India. It is perhaps excusable that an author whose knowledge of

bird life is confined to one portion of so vast an area as the Indian

Empire should be dominated by his knowledge of the birds of that

particular area. Mr. Whistler has not been altogether successful in

realizing that a bird may be one of the common birds of India

although it has not been common in those parts of India which have

come under his personal observation. We find that whatever order

or family he deals with, the great majority of the birds he gives as

examples of the common birds are those which are most often met

With either in the Punjab, North-West Frontier or Bombay

Presidency. The following are simple instances of this tendency.

When dealing with the Jungle-fowls, Mr. Whistler selects the Grey

Jungle-fowl and omits the Common Red Jungle-fowl. Immediately

after this he gives one of the Western Himalayan Kalij Pheasants

(Genneus leucomelanus) as a type of the genus instead of the eastern

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

bird, the Black Kalij Pheasant, with a far greater range of country.

Amongst the storks he omits altogether reference to the Adjutant,

so common a bird over practically the whole of Eastern India as far

south as Madras. These instances could be added to almost ad

infinitum and it really would appear almost impossible to obtain a

volume worthy of so widely embracing a title as that of the

‘Common Birds of India,’ untii we obtained a committee of local

authors to edit amongst themselves a work of this nature.

The format of the book is very satisfactory and under each bird

the reader will find it easy to obtain the details he requires. The

descriptions given of the birds are ample and, whiist not too lengthy,

should suffice for easy identification but the author’s field notes,

admirable in so far as his own observations go, are perhaps not

quite so happy when he treats of those outside his own especial

area. He must, however, have many times heard the four musical

notes of the Himalayan Cuckoo, the first soft and rather high up, the

three following much lower. | His description of the call ‘a dull

booming note’, would make a reader imagine that to the author

the Himalayan Cuckoo was an unknown bird.

Scientifically the work has been very well done though there are

certain points in nomenclature with which we do not agree and the

comments on classification given in the preface are perhaps un-

necessary ina book of this character. If necessary, they should

have been given more fully and on better recognized lines. On the

other hand, Mr. Whistler has wisely drawn attention to the points

on which further information is still required, as well as to the work

in Indian ornithology of which so much still remains to be done

amongst the Oriental Aves.

The plates, both the coloured and the black and white wood-

cuts, are by Mr. H. Gronvold and are worthy of that artist, higher

praise than which can hardly be given. The general get-up of the

book is all that can be desired and the only fault we can find is the

excessive weight of the paper used.

A Popular Handbook of Indian Birds is a very useful book, well

written, beautifully illustrated and one which we can recommend

very heartily to every bird lover and visitor to India.

Ceo:

5. BEAUTIFUL FLOWERS OF KASHMIR By Ethelbert

Blatter. s. J., Ph. D., F. L. S., [llustrated by Mrs. G. A. Wathen and

Halder Joo Walli. Vol. I. (Publishers: John Bale, Sons and

Danielsson, Ltd., 83-91, Great Titchfield Street, London, W. 1.

Price; Ns) 14)

‘Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir’ is an admirable volume, being

both scientific and popular. It will be a valuable companion to

visitors to Kashmir as well as an important piece of floristic litera-

ture to a botanist on Kashmir’s hidden floristic beauties. It is

written in a very easy style. Though written especially for the

layman, the volume should find a place in the library of every

REVIEWS 183

botanist. Itis hoped that the admirable attempt of the author willbe

followed by other scientists in popularizing other technical subjects.

The keys to species, always a matter of difficulty, are very

cleverly done. A glossary in a volume like thisis valuable. The

two indices should be equally useful both to the layman and to the

botanist. The illustrations are accurate and very attractive. The

type is clear and the fount used for generic and specific names is

suitable. The general get-up of the book is excellent.

We wish that the reference to illustrations had been noted at the

end of the names of species instead of at the beginning. The names

of the founders of the genera_and species should have been in

italics to give a contrast to the names of genera and species.

As another volume of the ‘ Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir’ is

soon to follow, we shallreserve further remarks for reviewers of that

volume. We should not be surprised if this volume ran into a second

edition before the last one is out.

Diss:

EDITORIAL

OURSELVES

An Indian illustrated weekly recently offered its readers a prize

for the best suggestions indicating how the paper could be generally

improved and made more interesting. The competition was a great

success. We cannot at the moment recall the number of entries,

but we are told that the editor’s post bag so overflowed with ‘ ideas’

that the selection of the prize-winner was a matter of dificulty. We

cannot follow the example of our enterprising contemporary, but,

with similar motives in view we would welcome the happy discovery

of a medium for arousing a similar response from the readers of this

publication. A member from Burma recently expressed his views

on our Journal from what he believed was the ordinary readers’

standpoint. His letter was welcome. It revealed an interest in our

work and a desire for helpful co-operation which, if more generally

followed, would, we believe, be mutually beneficial. It would help

us to produce a Journal more acceptable to the majority of its

readers and would free the Editors from the pitfalls of ‘many a

blunder and foolish notion’. ‘ For people living away from Bom-

bay,’ wrote our critic, ‘ the main benefit received from the Society is

the Journal; and I (and possibly other members) am so ignorant

that 50 per cent of the matter you publish conveys nothing to me.

No one would suggest that you should debase the standard of the

Journal ; the alternative is to educate members and Aotential members

up to it.’ This is an old and long-standing grievance which we

have honestly endeavoured in recent years to redress. Our present

issue contains five purely scientific papers against nine popular

articles, intended expressly for the general reader and this excludes

the Miscellaneous Notes which are usually found interesting and

attractive. Mr. Whistler’s article on ‘The Study of Indian Birds’

and Mr. McCann’s serial on the ‘ Study of Plant Life’ have been

written at the suggestion of the Editors for the purpose of assisting

readers who may be inclined to interest themselves in the study of

these subjects. We have in preparation a serial on Indian Flowering

Trees. This will be illustrated in colour and will, we hope, find

favour amongst our readers. Apart from this the large number of

illustrations and plates we are issuing at present with each number,

whose cost incidentally keeps us awake o’nights, will indicate our

desire to offer our readers an acceptable equivalent in return for the

support they give to the Society. The scientific standard of the

Journal must be however rigidly maintained. Our readers will

agree to this when they realize that it represents the more serious side

of the Society’s work-——one of the main objects of its existence.

How far this objective has been realized and how great a contribu-

tion the Society has made to the advancement of Biological research

in the Oriental Region, the thirty odd volumes of its Journal will

EDITORIAL 185

reveal. Without the support andthe assistance of members, who

though not expressly interested in the scientific side of this publica-

tion, have nevertheless contributed financially to its production, the

great work that the Society has done and is now doing could not

have been achieved.

In the present issue of the Journal we have introduced at the

suggestion of an old and valued friend of the Society a new

feature—a page or two of answers to questions, received during the

last few months—questions which are of general interest and which

may incidentally help to strengthen the contact between ourselves

and our readers. Our daily correspondence is not only large but

infinitely varied. The reading of it produces feelings as diverse

as the changing colours of our pet Chamzeleon who regards us with

a contemplative eye from his perch opposite our table. We register

joy, repentance, sorrow and occasionally a praiseworthy esteem for

ourselves. Among other matters of routine we are called upon to

settle bets, to clinch arguments and to assist cross-word enthusi-

asts in distress! Occasionally we are faced with problems of an

intriguing nature: ‘What is the name of a blue fish I saw in the

Red Sea?’ This is aclassic example. But very often we receive

questions of general interest. A selection of these we propose to

publish in our correspondence page, prefixed with the initials of the

sender. There are many questions which would elicit we believe

more compiete information by their ventilation in the pages of the

Journal. The problems connected with the introduction of legisla-

tion for the protection of Monitor Lizards in Bengal is an instance in

point. What is the normal food of the various species of Monitor

Lizards ? At what time of the year do they breed ? How large do

they grow before they attain maturity ?

PROTECTION OF MONITOR LIZARDS

The action of the Bengal Government in placing a ban on the

destruction of these lizards has been the subject of congratulation

and, on the other hand, of protest from those interested in the

trade in Lizard skins. Further information on the points we have

raised would be instrumental in the settlement of a question which

financially affects a not inconsiderable number of people in

Bengal.

The Government notification refers to these lizards as Iguanas

(vern. Go-shap). The answer to a question raised in our corres-

pondence page in the present number may be helpful in removing

the misconception that Iguanas are found in India. The vernacular

term Go-shap is again commonly used for a number of lizards not

intended to be protected under the terms of the notification. Four

species of Monitor Lizards occur in Bengal: —The Common Monitor

(Varanus bengalensis), generally distributed throughout India, the

Water Monitor (V. savatoy), mainly aquatic in habit, the Yellow

Monitor (V. flavescens) and the Clouded Monitor (V. xebulosus), an

uncommon species. The Yellow, the Common and the Water

Monitors mainly furnish the demands of the trade in lizard skins.

In view of the interests involved it is too much to hope that

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX/ITI

legislation for their protection could be introduced without protest

from the trade.

Asa plea for their protection, it has been advanced that these

lizards are largely instrumental in destroying snakes, rats and other

vermin. On the other hand it has been pointed out that Monitor

Lizards—-the Water Monitor for example—are destructive to poultry,

fishes and are in fact a positive nuisance to villagers in the Sunder-

bans, while their reputed effectiveness as an agent in the destruction

of snakes is largely hypothetical. In view of the fact that there is

very little known about the normal food of the Water Monitor, the

contention would be difficult to positively refute. Observation has

shown that the Water Monitor is very partial to birds’ eggs. A

Water Monitor kept in the New York Zoo would take eight to ten

hens’ eggs at a meal, swallowing them entire with astonishing

rapidity. It has been observed eating turtles’ eggs, and it may be

reasonably assumed that it would also eat the eggs of other

reptiles. Whether live snakes, harmless or otherwise, form a

considerable portion of its diet is largely a matter of conjecture.

Experiments have shown that the Common Monitor succumbs to

the venom ofa cobra. Two experiments recorded by Fayrer indicate

that Monitor Lizards die after being bitten by this snake, one

individual surviving for 28 hours and the other for a slightly shorter

time. A 14-foot king cobra was recently killed in Burma while

swallowing a 4’ 6” Water Monitor, and a note in our Journal

records one being taken trom the stomach of a Python. It is

apparent that these lizards occasionally form the prey of large

snakes and it is equally probabie, from the omnivorous nature of

their diet, that they would not be above attacking and devouring

any snakes which could be readily overcome. ‘The Common

Monitor feeds to a large extent on small mammals, young birds and

their eggs. We know from experience that they can be very

destructive in a poultry yard. It is onthe other hand an excellent

ratter destroying large numbers of field rats and must in conse-

quence have a distinct economic value in agricultural districts.

This alone would afford a plea for its protection.

The effective provision of a close season for particular periods of

the year would be a matter of difficulty, unless efficient means were

also introduced to prevent the possibility and the probability of the

reservation tor sale at a more convenient period of skins secured

during the ‘ close time’?

It has also been suggested that a size limit should be imposed

and that no lizards should be killed below a stated size. For the

Water Monitor and the Clouded Monitor the limit suggested is

4 and 3 feet respectively. For the Common Monitor and the

Yellow Monitor the limit proposed is 2 feet 6 inches.” Protection

in this instance to be really effective must cover the limits of size at

which these lizards actually breed, as this would enable a larger

pumber to attain maturity and to reproduce their young. In dis-

criminating between the various species and flxing the limits below

which they are to be protected, it would be pertinent to inquire

whether the size at which they attain maturity has been correctly

ascertained. Again where the habitats of the various. species

EDITORIAL 187

overlap, as they often do, there would arise the difficulty of the

villagers being able to distinguish between the different species,—

not a simple matter even in museum specimens.

It is possible that the action of the Government of Bengal in

placing a total ban on the kiliing of these lizards in the hight of our

present inadequate knowledge, has been to some extent premature

and the suggestions put forward by the trade for the modification of

Government’s ruling may be provisionally adopted pending an

enquiry into the facts. Such an enquiry under the guidance of a

competent zoologist would be able to determine whether the various

species of monitors have been appreciably reduced in numbers

during recent years and whether any of the species are now

threatened with extinction. A careful enquiry into the present

extent of the trade and a comparison of the average numbers of

skins of different species obtained from various provinces over a

number of years may throw light on these points. The normal

food of the various species, their breeding season and the size at

which they attain maturity, are also points for investigation.

Mysork’s New GAME LAWS

The question of protective legislation brings us to the recent

amendments to the Game Laws of the Mysore State. The report

of the Committee appointed to enquire into the existing conditions

of game in the country reveals that there has been an appreciable

depletion of game in the State in recent years, due toa natural

increase in the population and to other causes more preventible.

Poaching has been, as elsewhere in India, largely responsible for

the decimation of game in the State forests and the decision of the

Mysore Government to secure the co-operation of village shikaries

in putting down poaching might, with advantage, be more generally

adopted, provided the rewards are made substantial enough to

induce this fraternity of professional sportsmen to give information

on every occasion and, what is more important, to forego their own

assumed rights as privileged offenders. Good rewards to subordi-

nates of the Forest, Police and other departments will probably

provide a check in the latter instance. Facilities for the entry of a

greater number of sportsmen into the jungles of the State would be

one of the most effective means of checking poaching. This, as has

been pointed out to us, is provedto a remarkable degree in the

shooting blocks of the Coimbatore and Kollegai forest divisions.

The abolition of the system whereby blocks were taken by visitors

for a whole year and the introduction of a system whereby blocks

are rented for a period of one month only at a time, has resulted in

the forests being much more frequently visited. At the outset the

ruling met with a good deal of opposition on the grounds that the

frequent entry of sportsmen would reduce the game in the reserves.

The frequent visits of sportsmen to the shooting blocks and the

deterrent thereby provided against would-be poachers has resulted,

however, in a distinct increase in game in the forests of these

divisions. Invariably more game falls to the gun and traps of the

poacher than is accounted for by legitimate and regulated shooting.

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Under the older regulations the poacher knew from experience that

the license holder seldom revisited his block during the year after

one shoot and was able to carry on his trade without hindrance. In

increasing rewards for the destruction of wild dogs, the Mysore

Government have set an excellent example. Government now

offers a reward of Rs. 50 fora wild bitch and Rs. 30 for a dog.

Substantial rewards will naturally provide a greater inducement to

the villagers who, it must be understood, have reasons for regarding

the wild dog more in the nature of a friend than an enemy as it

provides them with meat on occasions when they are able to annex

its kills. |

Discrimination should be exercised however, in the payment of

these rewards as frauds are continuously being perpetrated by the

production of skins and skulls of defunct pie-dogs, and jackals. On

several occasions we have examined skins and skulls of reputed

wild dogs for which rewards had been paid and which proved to be

those of domestic dogs and jackals. Deception has been carried

out to the extent of dyeing the skins of village pies to give them

the colouration or a nearer resemblance to their feral relatives. A

chart issued by the Society and used by Forest Departments in

India and Burma will be found useful in assisting officials to

identify skins and skulls sent to them for comparison and in

detecting attempts at fraud. ‘The introduction of rules for prevent-

ing land owners from pursuing and killing game beyond the limits

of their occupied holdings will be effective in checking unnecessary

slaughter of game. The Committee have found that the privilege

conferred on land owners to kill and capture game with a view to

ensure protection of their crops is being abused. The same would

apply to territories outside the Mysore State. The clash between

human interests and the question of the protection of animal life

is a problem which will increasingly arise with the continued

usurpation by man of the domains of wild life. A solution of the

problem can only be arrived at by the combined efforts of

politicians, sportsmen and naturalists to discover a means for the

protection of animals which will be acceptable to people in each

country. The action of the Mysore Government in abolishing

rewards for the killing of tigers mighi be with advantage generally

adopted in India, except in districts where tigers are a distinct pest.

A stricter control over poaching would not affect the issue in the

case of such tigers as are confirmed cattle-lifters, but it would, by

providing tigers with their natural food, probably have a beneficial

effect on the protection of cattle from potential offenders.

BikD MIGRATION, ETC.

In May we had the pleasure of receiving Rear-Admiral Lynes with

his two companions, Messrs. Hugh Whistler and B. B. Osmaston,

who were proceeding onan ornithological expedition to Kashmir,

Baltistan and Ladak. We are glad to have been able to assist

them by loaning the services of our Assistant Curator, Mr.

V.S. LaPersonne, to collect birds in Gilgit, where but little work

has been done since the days of Col. Biddulph, and we look forward

EDITORIAL 189

to valuable results. We also hope that the material collected onthe

trip will enable Mr. Whistler to write the detailed avifauna of

Kashmir for which he has been gathering records and notes for

some years past. In addition to many useful ornithological

contributions to this and various other Journals from time to time,

his latest work A Popular Hand-book of Indian Birds reviewed on

page 180 of this number, is convincing proof of his competency to

undertake a work of the nature he contemplates, and we feel sure

the compilation will do justice to his reputation. As a popularly

written illustrated guide to the commoner birds of this country the

Hand-book fulfils its purpose admirably and we would recommend

it to every bird lover.

While on the subject of popular natural history books, we must

not omit to congratulate Mr. F. W. Champion on the necessity of

his having to bring out a second impression of his wonderful volume

With a Camera in Tigerland considering that it made its first

appearance only as recently as eight months ago. The reception

deservedly accorded to this work is an indication of how anxious

the public are to welcome well-illustrated popularly written books

on Indian Natural History, and we confidently hope that ere long

we shall have the pleasure of announcing yet a further edition.

Admiral Lynes’ party, as also Mr. F. Ludlow whose ardent

roving spirit has now carried him far into the confines of Tibet,

have been supplied with a series of aluminium bird-marking rings

bearing the inscription ‘INFORM NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY BOMBAY, No. (. . .)’, and from the keeness of these

ornithologists we have every hope that they will concentrate their

attention on ringing any nestling wildfowl they happen to come

across.

In connection with the subject of Bird Migration, readers are

referred to our remarks on page 577 of volume xxxii. By the time

this number is in their hands many of our winter immigrants will

already have arrived and streams of others will be pouring in apace

to sweil the incoming tide. Where exactly the birds come from of

course we do not know, neither can we tell the routes they take, nor

their precise destination, nor indeed the manner in which they travel.

Do the same individuals visit some favoured locality year after

year, or do they fortuitously ‘drop anchor’ just wherever favour-

able prospects of food tempt them? Do birds of a flock, after

breaking up for breeding purposes on return from this country,

again reunite when travelling to or sojourning in their winter

quarters? A host of other interesting questions confront us and

force upon us a realization of the full measure of our ignorance.

Yet there is no real reason why our ignorance should be so

profound; much knowledge can—and, in other countries, has been

—acquired by a careful and systematic co-ordination of results

obtainable by the simple and only effective method—that of

‘ringing ’ birds. Manifestly, however, the optimum results can be

attained only with the active co-operation of the countries beyond

our northern frontiers to which our migrants retire for breeding

purposes—i.e. their summer quarters. ‘To ensure this co-operation

the Society «wrote sometime back to Prof. B. Shitkov, the Director

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOGIETY, Voi. X2Cdim

of the Zoological Museum, Moscow University, asking if he would

co-operate inthe bird marking scheme which we were contemplating

by arranging to report recoveries of our ringed birds in Siberia, as

he was good enough to do in the case of the ducks ringed in Dhar

State. We have received an extremely gratifying communication

from him; he writes to say that he has had a translation made of

our letter and circulated it through the Biological Experimental

Station in his charge to various ornithological and sporting maga-

zines and organizations in European Russia and Siberia, so that the

Society's ringing scheme is assured a wide publicity in that country.

Prof. Shitkov informs us further that regular operations in the

marking of birds are at present being carried on over a considerable

portion of Asiatic Russia by the Biological Station of Young

Naturalists (Moscow) whose rings bear the following inscriptions :—

= MOSKWA

= No. () . . ) (Series)/A

Members therefore may look forward with greater hope than

drawing the winner in the Calcutta Derby Sweep to come upon

birds bearing these rings during the coming shooting season, and

should any have such luck, we shall be grateful if they will forward

the ring to us giving the species, sex, date, locality and other

particulars relating to the specimen.

For our scheme we now want a band of enthusiastic workers iho

will take up ringing work in earnest and help towards the elucidation

of some of the knotty problems of bird migration as it affects us in

this country. Residents in some of our duck-shooting provinces,

such as Sind and others in the north, have unparalleled facilities at

their disposal and can doa great deal. Wildfowl are netted in large

numbers everywhere in India during the cold weather, and no

elaborate or expensive apparatus for trapping birds is called for.

The fowlers could be induced to part with their captures for a

consideration which would be inconsiderable as compared with the

value of the birds after being transported to the market. It is quite

likely that many of the birds thus ringed would be recaptured, or if

spared continue to be recaptured in the neighbourhood until the

proper exodus commences in the hot weather. The fowlers could

be asked to record recoveries of such birds, and we have no doubt

that in many cases it would be possible to arrange with them to give

marked birds their liberty again.

We shall be glad to supply any further information members may

require, and to furnish full instructions as to how ringing may

be done.

We extend our sincere condolences to Col. R. Meinertzhagen.

The recent death of his wife under most tragic circumstances has

deprived him of a devoted heipmate and companion who shared

with distinction his important work in the field of Ornithology. On

behalf of the Committee and members of the Society we offer him

our deepest sympathy.

MISGBIEBANBOUS NOTES

I—A NIGHT ON AN OBSERVATION MACHAN IN THE

BILLIGIRIRANGANS

A party of us(Mrs. A. 8. Vernay, my wife, Mr. H. Sanderson of

New York and myself) recently spent a night on one of my two

observation machans in these jungles. The machan overlooked a

large water-hole. It was a wonderfully bright moon-light night.

The machan was large enough for the four of us lying at full length

and as we had our bedding we slept at intervals. At about 9 p.m.

a solitary tusker with a single tusk came out of the jungle and spent

a refreshing half hour drinking and deluging itself with muddy

water. It then approached our side of the clearing in which the

water-hole is situated and stood in perfect silence for some time as

though suspicious of its surroundings: and then stalked majestically

away. The tree on which the machan was built was well rubbed on

one side by an elephant on some previous date and we thought it

possible that this tusker might do the same! About an hour later

a stag sambhur with a splendid head walked out of the jungle and

across to the water-hole and, after having a drink, lay down and

waliowed for about a quarter of an hour before getting to its

feet and entering the jungle on the other side of the clearing. At

about midnight a herd of about twenty-three bison, including two

big bulls, came down and we spent a most enjoyable half hour or

more watching them drinking and walking inthe swamp. Itisa

curious fact that elephant, bison, and sambhur do not seem to be

worried, on moon-light nights, if a spotlight is thrown on them. I

shone my ‘ Lite-Site’ on the sambhur and bison and their eyes re-

flected the light back but apart from their looking up at what they

probably thought was an extraordinarily bright star the light did

not seem to trouble them a bit. I have done the same with ele-

phants. Before re-entering the jungle two young bulls or cows in

the herd had a playful set-to which was amusing to watch. Nothing

further was seen that night but what we had seen was quite suff-

cient reward for our walk of eight miles to the machan. I think

there is nothing more delightful than sitting up on a moon-light

night observing game, ina jungle thick with elephant, bison, and

sambhur, coming down to water. We had the choice of two

machans and would have seen about the same from each as it turned

out from an examination of the water-hole at the other machans, for

here also a herd of bison had been down to drink, and sambhur, and

a solitary elephant, which had removed the bamboo ladder. This

would have added to our excitement and interest had we been there!

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

Via MYSORE,

March 10, 1928.

[Mr. Morris’s experience indicates how much pleasure and oppor-

tunity for observation of animals in their natural state may be

secured when the killing of game is not the main purpose. ‘The

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELIY= Var, .Ooows

building of observation machans by those who have the opportunity

and the time is a feature which we would like to see more generally

adopted. EDs. |

IIL—NOTES ON THE COMMON INDIAN LANGUR

(PITHECUS ENFELELGS)

(With a plate)

A description of this familiar monkey is unnecessary. Mr. Pocock

in a recent paper in this journal has outlined the distinguishing

characters of its various races and their distribution. Looked upon

as sacred by many Hindus for the part he played in the rescue of

Sita from captivity at the hands of Ravana, the dread Rakshasa of

Lanka, the Hanuman monkey enjoys the benefits of a rigid

protection which has made him a positive nuisance in many parts

of the country. After one leaves Ahmedabad by the narrow gauge

line of the Rajputana Malwa Railway, these langurs are a familiar

sight on the railway stations. They even make bold to enter the

carriages to receive offerings of food and on one occasion I had two

great fellows seated on the window siils of my compartment com-

placently eating the fruit I gave them. They accepted all they got

as aright, but resented and were suspicious of any familiarity. A

waggon-load of these monkeys was once despatched on this railway

to a destination several stations beyond their home town. This was

the last desperate effort of its human inhabitants to rid themselves

of at least some of the members of a community who were

amenable to no laws, respected no property rights, and transgressed

every rule of good citizenship. Unfortunately the deportees were

detrained at a station which already had a surplus and thriving

monkey population. Active and hostile demonstrations against

this newly arrived band of reverznd signors with their dames and

children was out of the question. Besides the monkeys had already

scattered all over the town so the situation, intolerable as it was,

had to be accepted. But it has led to bad feeling amongst the

citizens of these otherwise quite friendly towns. The practice of

using monkeys as a medium for paying off old scores is not unknown.

A quantity of grain scattered on a neighbour’s roof as a lure to the

observant and willing iangurs will result in the turning over and the

destruction of a goodly portion of his tiles. Unfortunately there is

no effective method of preventing a return match on your own roof

as the langurs are willing to oblige all parties without prejudice.

A great part of the langur’s dietary consists of leaves and young

shoots of trees. Blanford points out that they appear to be immune

against certain vegetable poisons. Doses of 5 to 10 grains of

strychnine have been administered to a Common Langur without

effect, while the same dose kills a Rhesus monkey in a very short

time. In North Kanara, where the tree (ux vomica) grows from

which strychnine is obtained langurs eat quantities of its fruit which

they seem to relish. The langur is a sociable animal and lives in

larger or smaller communities, comprised of individuals of both

sexes and varying ages. The adults differ considerably in size and

weight and also to some extent in colouring. A male measuring

5’ 6” in extreme length, weighed by Shortridge scaled 35. Ibs.,

JouRN.F BoMBAY NAT, Fist. Soc:

LANGURS AT THEIR SIESTA.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193

while a full grown female was 27 lbs. The young ones cling to

their mothers and are carried about by them. Mr. Crump while

collecting on the Mammal Survey observed a female playing with

her baby. The mother grasped her little one with both hands and

tossed it into the air catching it again as it reached the ground.

The extreme agility of these monkeys and their astonishing aérial

gymnastics amid the tree tops have been the wonder of all who

have observed them. They can reach the ground from the tops of

the loftiest trees in about four leaps or more correctly drops. The

drops are made in quick succession in an upright position; not as

a rule among the heavier boughs but among the foliage and

lighter branches. When alarmed while running they frequently

raise themselves to their full height to look around and on the tree

tops will cleverly conceal themselves by grasping and drawing the

branches together, becoming completely hidden. During the hotter

parts of the day, the troop generally retires from the hillsides

to the watercourses where they rest in the cool shade of the

trees. When at rest they assume quite human attitudes. My

camera has caught a pair of them sitting back to back on a branch

for mutual support. The second picture shows two of them ina

recumbent attitude. When disturbed by clapping they almost

dropped off their perch in fright. Perhaps after all there is some

foundation for the belief that a panther is able thus to capture a

somnolent monkey which loses its perch when startled out of its

wits by the sudden coughing roar of the feline. A friend of mine

while collecting in Tennasserim fired at a flying lizard clinging on

the trunk of a lofty tree; the report to his surprise brought some

heavy object crashing down through the branches overhead. This

he discovered was a monkey which had presumably toppled off its

seat on hearing the sudden bang and which would have certainly come

to earth had he not managed to get a hold on one of the branches

en passant. In his recent interesting book Birds and Beasts of

the Roman Zoo Knottnerus Meyer records that at a sudden clap

of thunder, a macaque in his charge fell dead from its perch.

Many people will have noticed how some wild animals in India

and domesticated ones for that matter, immediately distinguish

between Indians and Europeans. Black buck will graze peacefully

in a field where cultivators are working ; to them the turban is an

emblem of mutual toleration while the hat means trouble and isa

thing to be avoided. Shortridge when collecting in Kanara notes

how the langurs looked on him with the deepest suspicion while

they paid little regard to the Indians in his camp. As a rule Langurs

which live in forest away from human folk are much shyer than

those found about towns and villages. In many parts of India

they are hunted and eaten by forest tribes. The Kathkaris of the

Konkan are exceedingly fond of langur meat and will lose no

opportunity of securing such a meal of which no part ever goes to

waste. In South India the Nilgiri langur is also eaten and different

parts of his anatomy are looked upon as a curative for different

diseases. The Kathkari’s method of hunting the langur is to isolate

aparty, the menthen surround the tree and set up a tremendous din

shouting ‘Ho-oo00, Ho-ooo00.’ The wretched monkeys bewildered

and terrified by the noise crouch motionless among the branches and

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11I1

are then picked out and shot down with arrows. The Kathkari has

a neat and effective way of carrying his victim after shooting it.

A slit is made in the tail of the langur and the end of the tail

is slipped through it to form a noose, the head and limbs are

passed through the noose which is then pulled tight. He thus has

a trim and compact parcel which he carries like a portmanteau !

At the end of the day the hunters gather round for the division

of the spoils. A fire is kindled and the monkeys are placed over

it. The hair is soon singed off andthe animais partially roasted.

This done, the meat is apportioned off, arrow heads or knives being

used for cutting it up. The entrails are also taken washed and

divided. After this, dinner commences immediately or each man

takes his portion home and cooks and eats it.

I once asked one of these simple people whether they ever ate

the macacque. His reply was not very complimentary: ‘ Never,’

said he, ‘ the red-faced monkey is a European ’.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY C. McCANN.

SOCIETY,

June 15, 1928.

Ill.—A CARELESS TIGER

To-day about 3.30 on my return from the forest I got ‘ khubbur ’

of a tiger kill. I sent off my men to build a machan and at about

4.30 took my seat in a bush about 4 feet off the ground. The kill

was lying in some dense cover near ariver. I sent my men away

talking and they had not gone fifty yards when the tiger appeared.

Just when excitement was at its height I heard somebody approaching

and one of my chaprasis appeared who wanted to know if I needed

an extra five rounds of ammunition. Some of your readers may

guess my answer! However he went off coughing and spitting, I

presume to get the nasty taste out of his mouth. Thetiger all this time

had taken cover behind a bush and was watching through the

branches 1 remember it struck me at the time how amazingly

inconspicuous he was. My chaprasi was not out of sight when he

came straight up to the kill. I was using a ‘375 Mannlicher

Schoénauer and my fist shot was a misfire. The noise of the bolt

sounded like a thunder-clap and the beast looked straight into the

machan. I reloaded quickly and shot him stone dead with a shot

between the eyes.

What struck me as extraordinary was the complete lack of caution

in approaching the kill, even then the noise of the bolt did not

scare the beast away. I was the more astounded when I found that

the animal had been very severely wounded some time before by

a gunshot apparently a handful of small round bullets. One eye

had been completely destroyed and I found no less than 7 bullets in

the skin and muscles surrounding the jaws; one upper canine was

broken and the nasal septum for about an inchand a half was severed.

At the time of his death this young male (9 feet between pegs)

was in fine condition and with all wounds completely healed.

He cannot have been in great hunger as he had eaten half the

bullock during the previous night.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 195

One would have thought that ‘ once bitten twice shy’ combined

with the native caution of the tiger would have made this beast

somewhat chary of approaching his kill without a proper exami-

nation of the ground.

Another point to note is the great recuperative power animals in

the wild state possess. This animal was little the worse, bar the

sight of an eye, for what must have been a ghastly wound.

I am informed that three years agoa Nepali when out poaching

in Reserved Forest meta tiger face to face. He chanced his aim

and took a shot which apparently laid the tiger out. On going up

to the fallen beast it sprang up, attacked and killed him and then

bolted. The incident happened about three miles from where I

shot my tiger.

These are very good grounds for believing that the same tiger is

the hero of both stories and in view of the above I much regret

having slain a beast which was such an efficient game keeper.

So perish all poachers !

KOCHUGAON P.O., N. L. BOR.

GOALPARA Dist., |

ASSAM,

June 8, 1928.

IV.—AN UNUSUAL FIND IN A TIGER’S SKULL

We enclose photograph of a tiger skull and in the fore-ground

(on the sheet of paper) a piece of sambur horn 2?” in length which

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vol; X27

was found embedded in the skull just below the eye. This may be

of interest and worth recording.

The tiger was shot by Captain D. B. Mackenzie, 5/13 F. F. Rifles

60 Cantonments, Belgaum, who writes us :—

‘The sambur tiné when the tigress was shot was under the

skin and not visible. There was a small hole in the skin which I

took to be the exit hole of the second bullet. It was in skinning

the head (which I did myself) that I came on the tine.’ |

VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN. |

Mysorg, 5S. L.,

April 19, 1928.

V.—TIGERS CLIMBING TREES

: (With a plate)

Believing that it might interest you, I am sending you a photo of

a tigress perching high up ina tree in the Mysore Zoo. She is

a full grown young animal, captured about eight months ago. Two

weeks after capture, when she was let out for the first time, she

took a jump up the tree about 20 feet in height and stretched

herself on a branch for three complete days and nights till starva-

tion compelled her to return to her cage. ‘Thereafter she would

repeat this performance every time she was let out into the open

enclosure. A platform has now been built on the tree where she

climbs up and lies every time she is let out, for over 24 hours

continuously. On Saturdays, she is given a goat to eat and very

often she is seen taking the kill up the tree and eating it on the

platform. We have got another platform about 6 feet high made

near another tree with a view to teach the other tigers to follow

suit, the idea being to raise this platform gradually till it reaches

the height of about 20 feet or so.

SADEG Z. SHAH,

A.D.C. to His Highness the Maharaja.

THE PALACE, MYSORE,

April 12, 1928.

[Those who have had the opportunity of seeing that marvellous

picturization of wild life in the jungles of Siam in the now famous

film ‘ Chang ’, will recall the incident in which a close-up view of a

tiger was obtained as it climbed 11 feet up the trunk of the tree

upon which the cameraman was placed. From an account of the

film published in the Sctentzfic American it appears that the

operator’s platform was 13 feet from the ground and that the last

exposure recording the climb was made when the tiger was 2 feet

‘(OOZ ANOSAW ‘SSHADIL IVHNYOUUV NV

DOS

“LSIH CL

= MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ; 197

from the lens. Comment on the extraordinary coolness and

intrepidity of the operator is unnecessary !

Several records of tigers climbing trees have appeared in the

Society’s Journal which would tend to show that a 20 ft. margin

between a machan and the ground is within the compass of an

agile tiger’s reach. Mr. G. Monteath writing in the Journal, vol.

xxvi, p. 837, records an incident in which a wounded tiger took a

boy out of a tree 20 feet from the ground. The lowest claw mark

on the tree was 3 feet from the ground and the highest 21 feet, which

indicates that the tiger not only leaped but also climbed, though the

climbing in this instance was only a couple of jerks—a few feet at

the most. Brig.-General R. G. Burton has provided the Journal

with several incidents relating to tigers in trees (vol. xvii, p. 385).

A record from the Bexgal Sporting Magazine 1834 tells of a tiger

which had been wounded the previous day, being found dead on the

branch of a Peepal tree 15 feet from the ground. Claw marks on

the trunk of the tree indicated that the tiger had scrambled up cat

fashion. Other instances include a record from the Sorting Review

(1856) of a tiger, treed by a party of villagers, climbing up to

a sturdy branch 25 ft. from the ground, and a second instance of a

similar nature in which the tiger ascended to a height estimated at

9 ft. The most remarkable incident of ali, however, was taken from

the South of India Observer. A tigress in the course of a hunt was

finally observed lying on a branch 30 ft. from the ground. On

being knocked off her perch apparently lifeless—she recovered

sufficient energy to scramble up the same tree and regained her

lofty perch, ‘ shinning up the trunk exactly as an ordinary house cat

would’. The tree in this instance was perpendicular, a foot in

diameter and with no branches for 25 ft. Champion in his With a

Camera in Tigerland speaks of a wounded tiger ascending a tree to

get at a party in a machan 16 ft. fromthe ground. It is interesting

to add that the tiger in the Mysore Zoo has a countryman in the

New York Zoo who on receiving his daily rations invariably leaps

with it on to a platform some 10 ft. above the fioor of his cage.

EDs. |

VI.—TIGER ‘ POOKING’

While sitting up over a tiger’s kill near my estate recently

I heard the tiger coming down the hillside nearby roaring at inter-

vals. On nearing the kill its suspicions were apparently aroused

and the tiger pooked with a suddenness that made me jump. The

sound resembled a sambhur’s bell in a remarkable degree but in a

key similar to the very distant bell of a sambhur. In this case

there was -no question of distance as the tiger was close to my

machan and there were no sambhur in the vicinity. The tiger

‘pooked’ only once and went off without another sound.

Two years ago my wife was sitting up overa tiger’s kill with

Major Brooke Purdon, r.A.M.c. The machan was badly built and

on an ill chosen tree. The tiger came at nightfall, scented danger,

and insteea of approaching the kill roamed the vicinity ‘ pooking ’,

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATOURAL JIIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

the sound being exactly as I have described above. It may be

better described as being similar to the querulous bell of a young

sambhur a long distance off. Here again there were no sambhur

about.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

Vta MyYSOoRE,

March 9, 1928.

[Many notes have from time to time appeared in the Journal

regarding the extraordinary sound produced by tiger, resembling

a sambhar’s bell and variously known as ‘ pooking’, ‘ titting’ (in

Burma) and such other names. Whereas the original suggestion

was that this call is a means by which the tiger locates the presence

and position of a sambhar by inducing him to bell in response, we

think sufficient evidence has now been adduced to justify the

conclusion that it is nothing more than a note of suspicion having

also at times some sexual significance by helping to keep a pair in

communication with each other.

It seems hardly likely that a sound which, with but casual

experience, a sportsman can almost invariably distinguish from

the bell of a sambhar, would delude so wily a creature as that

deer into the belief that it was a challenge from one of its own

species, and the decoy theory, however ingenious and plausible it

may at first sound, may in our opinion, now be safely set at rest.

Eps. |

VIL—SAMBHAR AND WILD DOG

While out after elephant I heard the screams of a sambhar and

knew at once that a sambhur or two were being attacked by wild

dogs. Ihad to go throughlong grass to reach the spot where the

screams came from and was seen by the dogs who scattered and

I missed with two snapshots.

From some distance I saw the sambhur hind pluckily trying to

defend her fawn from the attacks of seven or eight dogs. Every

time a dog approached her fawn she would rush forward striking at

the dog with her fore-feet ; the dog retreated, and this only gave the

dogs behind a chance to attack the hind in the rear and the fawn

from the other side. On coming up to the sambhur I found that

both were in a terrible condition, the fawn’s anus having been torn

out and its buttocks also bitten away. The hind was very severely

bitten in its hind quarters and udder, and as I considered that

neither of them would last for more than afew hours and would

anyhow be at the mercy of the dogs when they returned, I shot them

both and reported the matter to the District Forest Officer.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

Via MySoORE.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199

VUI.—WILD DOGS ATTACKING CATTLE

After reading Mr. Randolph Morris’ remarks on Wild Dogs

attacking cattle inthe Journal of August 1,1927, I wrote to Cap-

tain Peter Gilpin, the manager of one of the biggest ranches in

Southern Rhodesia, and received the following letter from him,

which may be of interest to some members of the Society.

‘For your information I enclose figures of cattle killed by

various wild animals. These figures only cover the last few

months. We keep very strict records of all deaths, and I can

guarantee the enclosed list to be correct. In my opinion wild dogs

are far worse than lions and far harder to kill. I have known

them pull down a full grown bull, kiilit and eat it in a very short

time. Any hunter will tell you they kill sable, koodoo, etc. I have

not heard of them killing buffalo, but I expect they could if they

wanted them. I have known packs go uptoa hundred strong; a

pack of this size will kill anything that they meet.

The following list represents number of cattle killed by the

different wild animals from January 1 to October 31, 1927.

Wild Dogs .. 504

Lions ca FOOL,

Leopards cae USAT

Crocodiles ee

Hyenas ... 92 (Hyenas only kill calves).

In the last 12 months we killed

Lions Bex 56

Leopards toe SUD

Wild dogs bee es

Cheetas 16

and a large number of crocodiles, hyenas, etc.’

GOVERNMENT HOUSE,

SALISBURY, H. G. GREGORY SMITH,

SOUTHERN RHODESIA. Captain.

November 20, 1927.

[The wild dog referred to in the note is obviously the animal

commonly known as the Cape Hunting Dog (Lycaon pictus), a crea-

ture of about the same size as our own Red Dog or ‘ Dhole’.

These creatures also work fearful havoc with game in Africa often

completely clearing out whole districts. Like their Indian proto-

type, they have a wonderfully developed power of scent combined

with remarkable endurance, pertinacity and speed, and two or three

dogs working in unison are sufficient to run down and kill such

large and powerful animals as the Koodoo and Sable Antelope.

At times they apparently hunt in much larger packs than is the case

with our Indian Cuon. Eps. ]

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

IX.-A NOTE ON THE MALAYAN WILD DOG

(CUON RUTILANS)

(With a plate)

That little hunter, Cuon rutilans, has been the subject recently of

more than one article in the Society’s magazine. I enclose a photo-

graph of him taken near a bull terrier of average size.

On December 8, I saw this specimen, a solitary male, run a young

sambhar stag into a poolin the Wesalun stream. Favoured by

good cover I approached within 10 yards and obtained a good view

of Cuon at work. The sambhar, very exhausted, struggled in water

upto his withers with the dog fastened to his head. During the

short time prior to my interference the sambhar had been twice

pulled off his feet and submerged. Later examination of the body

revealed a number of wounds about the head and neck and a few on

the flanks. No single wound was really serious and I have little

doubt that death in this instance would have resulted from drown-

ing. There were no signs to show if attempts had been made to

emasculate the sambhar.

I shot the dog. The sambhar’s face and particularly the eyes had

been badly torn. This fact with his evident extreme exhaustion

led me, too hastily I am afraid, to shoot him also.

The sambhar bleated piteously during the struggle with the dog.

The sound resembled the usual ‘ Tit’ note prolonged into a bleat.

This is the third instance I have known of solitary wild dogs run-

ning deer in the Upper Chindwin District. The.two previous occasions

concerned barking deer, the remains of which I found with unmistak-

able signs that they had been killed by solitary dogs and not by packs.

I have often speculated onthe reasons why wild dog ‘kills’

should invariably be found in the beds of streams. The sambhar

in the instance described appeared so helpless in comparatively

deep water, that Iam inclined to credit Cuon witha deliberate

intention to shepherd deer to water, or perhaps more truly with

allowing deer to take to water before closing with them. I remem-

ber two instances of deer being pulled down by pariah dogs, and in

neither case was the kill made near water although streams were

handy. <A few weeks ago I followed a slightly wounded barking

deer stag with the bull terrier in the photograph. The deer did not

attempt to make for water and was run into and held some distance

from the nearest stream. Of some dozens of wild dog kills I have

seen in Burma I do not remember to have seen one that had not

been made in the bed of a stream.

One frequently speculates on the probable results of a fight

between a wild dog and a domesticated one. I may remark that

Cuon in this case showed no greater tenacity or strength of jaw than

a bull terrier, and I think if this one had clashed teeth with the dog

in the photograph he would have had a very thin time. But perhaps

some reader could adduce evidence to the contrary.

MAWLAIK,

UprpkR CHINDWIN E. H. PEACOCK.

DISTRICT,

March 31, 1928.

‘IoLllay, pue

‘d]IH

(supz1jn

NOILV Joa

4 uUony)

Od PI

‘“ uede[e

Ni NCES Pv

‘DOC STE GWNE Ava

“Nuno f[

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 201

X.—COMMENTS ON THE AARDWOLF (PROTELES

CRISTATUS, SPARRM. MENTIONED IN ‘A SPORTING

TRIP TO SOMALILAND’, IN THIS JOURNAL

lemotice in vol.-xxxi, No. 2, p. 303, the following ‘our only

experience of Aardwolf (Proteles cristatus, Sparrm). The name

‘¢ Barth wolf’’ is deceptive as this animal is no wolf at all. He lives

underground, is of a reddish-brown colour and stands about 18”

from the ground.’

From the above it is difficult to believe that the animal encount-

ered was an Aardwolf, a creature which can be compared to a small

and rather thin striped hyena, with proportionately long ears, a

more pointed muzzle and remarkably weak teeth. Possibly it

should be regarded as an abnormal member of the civet family

(Viverride), which, perhaps for the purpose of escaping attack, has

‘mimicked’ the striped hyena.

Standing from 18” to 20” at the shoulder, the Aardwolf (or

burrowing wolf) has along handsomely coloured coat, striped with

dark transverse bands on a light ground and an upright mane: the

legs being similarly but more scantily barred, and the tail thick and

bushy. It feeds to a great extent on white ants (termites).

In the Somali race the ground-colour of the coat is creamy white,

with a slight wash of buff on the neck and sides of the rump, but

with no trace of grey; while the stripes are less defined and on

the neck broken up into spots, and the mane is black, somewhat

variegated with creamy white.

From this description of Lydekker’s and from specimens I have

handled it is hard to believe that the animal seen was an Aardwolf.

If an ant-bear (or aard-vark) had been encountered there couid

have been no mistake in identity. Perhaps the sportsman who

made the trip to Somaliland can throw further light on the matter.

C. R. S. PITMAN,

Game Warden, Uganda Protectorate.

ENTEBBE, UGANDA,

January 12, 1928.

XI.—AN UNUSUAL ALTITUDE RECORD FOR THE

BARKING DEER. (VUNTIACUS VAGINALIS.)

I send herewith the particulars of a barking deer shot at Yatung,

in the Chumbi Valley of Tibet.

Length 54 inches.

Tip to tip 52 inches.

I have not heard of barking deer being shot at this height (10,000

ft.) before, and thought that it might be of interest to the Society.

C/o THE RESIDENCY,

GANGTOK, SIKKIM.

April 14, 1928. A. A. K. SANGSTER.

[The Barking Deer or Muntjac is not usually found above altitudes

of five or six thousand feet. In the Himalayan jungles and hill

26 ;

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

forests of Kashmir however it ranges up to about 7,000 feet while

in Nepal it has been known to ascend to 8,000 feet or even higher,

but has apparently never been obtained as high as 10,000 feet and

Mr. Sangster’s note forms an interesting addition to our knowledge

of the altitude to which this little deer ascends. Eps. ]

XII.--ABORTED TUSKS IN ELEPHANTS

I was recently out after a proscribed rogue elephant and, having

had him marked down one morning, I came up to him after a fair

tramp and found him browsing on a steep hillside on the edge of a

shola, and as I worked round for a good position he entered the

shola. The sun was well up and I feared that I would not see him

out again till late in the afternoon and decided to take the best shot

I could from the edge of the shola. I took the ear shot but unfortu-

nately must have just missed the brain as, though the shot brought -

him down (I was using a ‘450 H.V.), he recovered before I could

get in my second barrel and went off with a shrill trumpet. I

realized that it was possible that he would take a short cut across a

steep open hillside in order to reach a large patch of evergreen

jungle down below, and this proved correct. As he came out into

the open below me I fired again but the elephant travelling at agood

pace the bullet again missed the brain but knocked him clean off his

feet and he then did the most amazing roll that could be imagined.

He rolled over and over for about 50 yards down the hillside, crash-

ing into the shola down below and would have rolled still further

had he not been stopped by a big tree which was nearly uprooted.

From the hillside, above I could not see whether the eiephant was

dead or alive. I had to scramble down to the edge of the shola and

found the elephant had regained its feet and was slowly breathing

heavily, walking along an elephant path. For a moment [ was

absolutely astounded as I imagined that the fall would have at least

disabled the brute even if my bullet had not done its work. I did

not lose much time, after my momentary pause from sheer astonish-

ment in following up the animal, and after some trouble in carefully

tracking him through high grass came up to him again, seemingly

none the worse for his roll], and finished him off with a shot behind

the ear.

This elephant was a single tusker, that is to say it had only one

tusk showing. It was an enormous brute measuring 10 ft. at the

shoulder, and had been severely bruised and cut by his roll, his

knees and the top of his head suffering the most. This is the

second elephant I know of measuring 10 ft. or more, another single

tusker shot by Major Brook Purdon three years ago measured just

over 10 ft. This is interesting in view of Sanderson’s dictum that

a 10 ft. elephant did not exist. On cutting out the tusk of Major

Brook Purdon’s elephant we decided to see whether there was any

growth of ivory on the other side where a tusk should have been.

The head was therefore cut in half and we discovered, completely

encased in a thin layer of bone, a solid conical block of ivory about

9 inches long with a girth of about 11. inches at its base, the base

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 203

being rounded. There was no sign of any disease having set in or

any damage having occupied. ‘This encased block of ivory was not

pointing in the right directing but considerably inwards. I decided

therefore to find out whether my rogue held any ivory in its head

on its tuskless side. Sure enough by cutting his head open I

found a similar block of ivory measuring 9 inches in length with a

girth of nearly 14 inches round the centre of it. The base is also .

rounded, but with an extraordinary lump of ivory growing out of it.

It is most curious, being irregular in shape with a thin ragged wall

of ivory sticking out. The block of ivory was encased in this

instance also in a thin covering of bone up to where the curious

wall of ivory jutted out, and this was embedded in gristle which

contained 6 little balls of ivory, two about the size of marbles, two

a little smaller, and two about the size of peas. It seems possible

therefore that single tuskers, except those that have had the tusk

broken off at or just inside the jaw in a fight or by accident,

possesses this curious block of ivory on their tuskless side, and I

should be very interested to hear an explanation of this.

The question arises, do mucknas (i.e. tuskless males) have similar

growths of ivory ?

HoNNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O. R. C. MORRIS.

SoutH INDIA.

April 5, 1928.

[Elephant tusks are the upper incisor teeth of these animals.

Bach tusk, for a goodly length at its base is embedded in a bony

socket. The tusk is hollow for some distance from its base upwards.

In young animals this conical cavity extends into the tusk for a con-

siderable distance but in aged animals the cavity is diminished in

size. The cavity contains the tooth pulp from which the tusk is

originally developed. On removing the tusk the pulp, which resem-

bles a large conical shaped sausage, may be taken from the cavity

without trouble. This pulp is a highly vascular and nervous mass

of branched tissues with an outer surface or layer of celJs ‘ the

odontoblasts ’ from which, the dentine or ivory of which the tusk is

composed is developed. ‘The tusk is built up in layers around the

pulp, the inside layers being the last produced. The pulp may how-

ever undergo a change in the manner of its calcification; that is to

say after having gone on with surface calcification for a certain length

of time, this may give place to a more irregular internal calcification

tending to the formation of solid masses of osteo-dentine, an imper-

fect bone-like ivory, which may project inwards into the pulp cavity.

This is especially prone to happen after injury and as is oftenexem-

plified upon a large scale in elephant tusks; the pulp normally

engaged in calcifying odontoblast layers into ivory may, after injury

caleify irregularly and solidify into coarse osteo-dentine. The

pulp of a Sperm Whale’s tooth becomes obliterated by a deve-

lopment of coarse dentine which occasionally forms irregular

masses in the pulp chamber and a similar explanation would account

200SOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST."SOCIEDRY, Vol. eg

for the masses of ivory discovered in the tooth socket of the

elephants.

A few male Indian elephants have a single tusk only. This may

be the result of injury received after the development of the tusk or

may be a character developed from birth. Selous remarks that

single-tusked females are not uncommon in Africa but males in this

condition are rare. Again the growth of both tusks may be arrest-

ed completely in the male of the Indian elephant or they may be

poorly developed differing slightly in size from the female. Mr.

Morris’s discovery appears to indicate that the suppression of one

of the tusks in single-tusked elephants may be due to irregularities

in the development of the tooth pulp from injury or other causes,

Investigation would prove whether the same characters are to be

found in tuskless male elephants. Enps.]

XIT.—BIRDS EATING BUTTERFLIES.

I note in vol. xxxii, No. 2, Miscellaneous Note XIV, some

correspondence in regard to ‘ Birds eating Butterflies’.

This is a most interesting subject and unfortunately I was not

collecting data at the time when daily I watched a pair of MWotacilla

aguimp (replaces M. vidwa)—the African Pied Wagtail—consuming

dozens of butterflies. What I do remember is the fact that

members of the Pzerzwes were unmolested. I also noted a pair of

Motacilla cinerea catching and eating butterflies in the same locality,

ina damp place near a small stream, where the insects came to

obtain moisture.

I have also seen certain flycatchers and other species chasing

butterflies occasionally but have no detailed records.

These observations were made in the Trans-Nzoia district of

Kenya Colony, about 40 miles east of Mt. Elgon, and altitude

6,300.

C.R. S. PITMAN,

ENTEBBE, UGANDA, Game Warden,

January 12, 1928: Uganda Protectorate.

XIV.—THE SPEED OF THE INDIAN PIED KINGFISHER.

(CHERYLE RUDIS LEUCOMELANCGRA)

While motoring down the Sirhind Canal yesterday I had a very

good opportunity of testing the speed of an Indian Pied

King fisher.

One frequently comes across these birds flying down or up a

canal, but the distance of their flight is usually short and seldom

exceeds half a mile or so, but on this occasion I was able to time

one for just over 3 miles. The bird passed us while we were

doing about 25 miles per hour and I accelerated and caught it up.

I found that with my speedometer at 30 m.p.h. it gained on me,

whereas I began to gain on it at 32. Wecrossed two bridges on

the way, the bird going under them and I having to slow up

on account of people and animals coming across, and here the bird

got aconsiderable start but I soon caught it up and kept it on my

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205

left front, so that I could gauge exactly when I gained or lost. It

kept a steady course right over the centre of the canal and never

changed to right or left, until it suddenly swerved, just after we had

completed three miles and sat down on the far bank, near some

holes in one of which it probably intends to build when the time

comes. It appeard to be moving at just about its normal speed,

and if this is so, the normal speed of the species is 31 miles

per hour.

DHARMSALA CANTT, C. H. DONALD.

March 4, 1928.

[Modern devices such as the motor car and the aeroplane are

helping us increasingly to dispel the very hazy and fallacious

notions that have long been entertained in regard to the velocity

at which birds and ground animals travel, and much interesting

information has already accumulated through their agency.

During the war, pilots of the Royal Air Force were enabled to

make a great many observations by means of the speed indicators

of their machines while keeping level with flying birds. Among

a host of interesting facts collected are two in relation to White

Storks (Czconia alba) and Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha) encountered

migrating, the former flying at 48 m.p.h. and the latter at 50.

A comparison of the actual figures in these and other cases

readily shows how erroneous were our former notions (chiefly based

on extremely insecure premises) as regards the velocity attained by

flying birds, especially when migrating. For example, the tiny

Bluethroat (Luscinta suecica) was credited with a sustained speed of

over 200 m.p.h. and the American Golden Plover (Charadrius

dominicus) with nearly 250 !

Apart from the actual speed recorded for the kingfisher by Mr. |

Donald, his note i: extremely interesting in the fact that the velocity

of a flying bird in this case was ascertained by means ofa car.

The circumstances which enabled this were certainly exceptional

and not such as are likely to be often repeated.

For ground animals, however, in suitable country the car and its

speedometer have supplied valuable information and among other

recent interesting records obtained in this way, is that of the

Giraffe which, according to Marius Maxwell (Stalking Big Game

with a Camera in Equatorial Africa) when hard pressed will keep

up a speed of 28-30 m. p. h. for a considerable time.

Major F.H. Mosse (/.2.N.4.S., xxix, p. 274) found that for a

short time at any rate a Black-buck could without difficulty maintain

a speed equal to the best his Ford Car could achieve, i.e., 35 to 36

m.p.h. In one case a young buck fairly ran away from his car

travelling at this pace, and he estimates that even at the end ofa

hot chase lasting 8 minutes, the animal must have been doing not

less than 38 m. p.h. He mentions an instance of a buck being shot

running broadside on and as fast as acar with the speedometer

showing 42 m.p.h. Major Mosse was further able to ascertain by

the same means that the Wild Ass (Aguas hemtonus) of Cutch could

attain and keep up without difficulty a speed of 26 m. p. h. Eps.]

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

XV.—THE FOOD OF HORNBILLS

A most interesting question is raised in vol. xxxii, No. 2,

Miscellaneous Note No. VIII ‘Is the Large Hornbill (Déchoceros

bicornis) Carnivorous ?’

The reply I should imagine is most decidedly and emphatically.

in the affirmative and I would point out that one genus of the

family Bucerotide in Africa, i.e., Bucorvus, is entirely carnivorous.

The representatives of the genus 4ucorvus (or Ground Hornbills)

live on rats, snakes, lizards and other small animals. If caught

young they make delightful and useful pets as they keep one’s

stores, out-houses and grain-cribs free of rats, mice and snakes.

Owing to their habits and appearance they are usually known as

‘turkey-buzzards’ amongst the settlers.

It is a beneficial species and is protected in Kenya and Uganda.

Further, during a residence of nearly three years in Entebbe I

have been at a loss to account for a steady diminution in the smaller

bird life in the station. Entebbe is peculiarly situated in that it is

on the site of what was once primeval forest, and as the forest dis-

appeared its rare, skulking, feathered inhabitants remained behind

and became impudently fearless and a joy to all.

To account for the decrease I have severaily blamed (a) a pair of

Eagle Owls (Sudo lacteus), (6) a small troop of Syke’s Monkeys

(Cercopithecus pygerythrus) and (c) native nest-robbers ; but it is only

lately I have discovered the real culprits—our noisy, Black and White

Casqued Hornbills (Bycanistes subcylindricus). These marauders,

though apparently subsisting principally on fruits and berries, from

time to time make organized forays through the gardens and com-

pounds, ruthlessly despoiling all birds’ nests they find containing

youngsters, and eating their victims.

Species that have been seen to suffer from their depredations are

the bulbul (Pycnonotus tricolor minor), the Coly or Mouse-bird (Coluzs

striatus ugandensts) and the thrush (Zurdus lugubris centralts). These

unpleasant habits have resulted in a demand for the extermination

of these Hornbills within station limits, action with which I am in

agreement. The forests in the neighbourhood are well-stocked

with this species, and the few which are devastating the smail and

interesting bird life of the station can well be spared.

The other, smaller Hornbill of the station—-the Central African

Crowned Hornbill (Lophoceros melanoleucos gelensis) is not exactly

blameless as I saw one of them swoop on to a nest of the Wedge-

tailed Sunbird (Vectarinia erythrocerca) rip it up and extract a young

bird nearly a week old.

C. R. S. PITMAN,

Game Warden,

Uganda Protectorate,

ENTEBBE, UGANDA,

January 12, 1928.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 207

XVI.—PALLAS’ FISHING EAGLE (HALIAETUS

LEUCORYPHUS) KILLING CRANE

I was very pleased to see your picture of this vol. (xxxii, No. 3)

showing such an excellent likeness of the two Cranes as we have

had quite alot of argument up here about them—as to which is

called the ‘ Kulang’.

We get millions of the Demoiselle Crane (Karako or Ghato) but

very few of the ‘ Kulang ’—Common Crane.

It may interest some of your readers to hear the following

story: While I was picnicking on the Gundull River near Husainee

where hundreds of thousands of Demoiselle Cranes rest during the

heat of the day on the sand islands in the middle of the river, Isaw a

Ring-tailed Fish Eagle (now known as Pallas’ Fishing Eagle, ds.)

swoop down on a flock of cranes single one out, chase it, knock it

down on to the ground, kill and start to eatit. I sent my shikari for

it and he brought it back half eaten. Rather a large bird to tackle !

Wasn't it? But what amazed me was that none of the remaining

hundreds of thousands even attempted to help or rescue it although

when shot and wounded they will go for one like a fencer using their

beaks as a sword as I have often experienced.

F. A. C. MUNNS.

TURKAULIA P.O.,

CHAMPARAN,

March, 7, 1928.

XVII.—WOODCOCK IN BURMA

I send you the following account of the killing of a Woodcock

inside the walls of Fort Dufferin, Mandalay, as 1 think it may be of

interest. I note that Mr. Stuart Baker in the Game Birds records a

Woodcock being shot there in 1911.

I arrived in Mandalay from Maymyo on December 26, 1927

and put up in Lieut. A. Smith’s bungalow inside the Fort walls.

During tea my Chin servant reported to me that he had just seen a

woodcock moving along in very low grass about twenty yards from

the servants’ quarters. I went out in company with Lieut. Smith (20th

Burma Rifles) and flushed and shot the bird from under a small

bush with a small pool of water near it. It was a well grown cock

of the small dark variety and flew strongly. An examination of

the ground around the pool showed that the bird must have been

feeding there for some days as the ground was littered in ‘ borings’.

The altitude of Mandalay is 200 feet above sea and the latter 10 days

of December were extremely cold and foggy. Capt. Blaber (20th

Burma Rifles) killed a woodcock whilst out snipe shooting at

Mandalay during January. Inthe Maymyo District (alt. 3,4001’).

I killed 43 Woodcock during November, December and January,

this season being exceptionally good for them. The previous

season (1926-27) I only killed ten and I shot on approximately an

equal number of days. It is however unlikely that a hard working

guninthe Maymyo District of Upper Burma could kill more than

50 birds in a season. The record in this District, I think belongs

to Major S. Perry, R.A., who killed over 50 in 1924.

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The best district in Upper Burma for Woodcock, which I know

of is Haka, in the Chin Hills. In February 1927, in company with

Capt. R. Cook (B.M.P.) we killed eleven birds shooting during three

days, and Major Kenny of the Burma Commission killed nineteen

cock around Haka in a few days during the same month.

E. H. COOKE,

c/o Mgssrs. GRINDLAY & Co., LTD., Lieutenant.

LONDON. 20th Burma Ritles.

March, 20, 1928.

XVIII.—NOTES ON THE INDIAN PYTHON

(PYTHON, MOLOR GS) IN-CAR Tye

On the 22nd November 1926 a specimen was received, about

8ft. long, emaciated and hardly more than skin and bone. It was

put in an ordinary dealwood case. This case—my serpentarium—

is 37 in. long, 20 in. wide, 18 in. deep. Half of the lid lengthwise —

is a plank, and half is wire netting of 4 in. mesh. The bottom of the

box is covered with a layer of clean sand, which is changed from

time to time, and there is a vessel of drinking water in a corner of

the box.

The foliowing observations have been made :—

A. Frequency of Sloughing.

The Python sloughed on: the December 7, 1926.

March 2, 1927.

April 16, 1927.

May 24, 1927.

August 10, 1927.

September 22, 1927.

November 19, 1927.

January 25, 1928:

March 26, 1928.

B. Diet

1926

Six white rats.

November,,, « One palm rat. December... ‘Ten white rats.

One guinea pig.

1927

Three white rats.

One guinea pig.

Bebra One guinea pig.

Onedead sparrow-

hawk.

Two crows.

January... f

September... {

One sparrow. | One guinea pig.

( One guinea pig. ( Three crows.

Three screech One dead crow.

owls almost fully Four dead rats.

March .% fledged: =. (Sixzx Ontones ' Four dead palm

flammea). ee rats.

Two crows. Two palm rats.

| One sparrow. One guinea pig.

April ... Two guinea pigs. | One dead sparrow

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

May ... Two guinea pigs. ( One koel,

June ... Three guinea pigs | Five dead rats in

Two guinea pigs. November...{ one meal.

ely pe One crow. | One rat.

( Two guinea pigs. | Three guinea pigs

| Three dead parrots ( One palm rat.

August ..,{ One 7-foot rat | One parrot.

| snake; disgor- December... { One wagtail.

| ged later. | One rat.

| One guinea pig.

1928

( One rat

| One enormous dead bandicoot.

January ..4 One dead roller.

| One guinea pig.

| One crow.

February 8 One guinea pig.

F 15 .. One dead crow.

One dead crow

wv 24 One dead guinea pig.

One big rabbit.

n rag) One dead rat.

28 ( One live rat.

e ** | Two dead rats.

99 One dead rat.

2 ** | One pariah kite (AWtlvus govinda).

March 15, One Brahminy kite.

3 18 ... Two crows.

REMARKS ON DIRT

For the benefit of readers who have not observed the ways of

pythons, a few remarks may be made.

Pythons, unlike working men, do not require two good meals a

day to keep them fit; they can do without food for long periods

extending over many months, and are none the worse for a

prolonged hunger strike. They live on their reserves of fat.

Pythons always kill their prey before eating it. They eat it dead.

Under the heading Diet, where the word dead occurs, understand

that the prey was already dead before it was thrown to the python.

The birds had been shot for museum purposes, but were damaged

and useless. The rats and palm rats had been killed in traps. One

sparrow was actually stinking.

The five rats mentioned as forming one meal in November were

members of a party of nine which the cooks discovered in a cupboard

and slew. I picked out the five big ones and dropped them, ina

speculative mood, into the box at 8 p.m. The python began to

feed at once. By morning all the five had disappeared.

In August 1927 a full grown palm civet was thrown into the box.

The python killed it but did not eat it.

_ In December 1927 the python seemed to have become fastidious

in its tastes; or perhaps its appetite for dead rats was satiated by

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Cedi

the November orgy. It refused two dead rats, a dead bandicoot,

and a dead crow. In January 1928 the appetite was normal again.

The rat snake mentioned in August 1927 was not eaten, as some-

times happens, by a miscalculation. The python was the original

sole occupant of the box. The rat snake, a gorgeous yellow black-

barred specimen which I had destined for the Museum collection, was

put into the same box to await execution. I knew by then that the

python was a good feeder, but it never dawned on me that it might

be cannibalistically inclined. There was no prey of any kind in the

box, so the meal was not an accident such asis known to happen

when two snakes seize a prey by opposite ends and neither lets go

in time. The rat snake was put into the box at 11 a.m. The

meal was about over at 1.30 p.m. when my taxidermist came to

call me. A few inches of the rat snake’s tail projecting from the

python’s mouth and still wriggling feebly was all that was still

visible. At 6p.m. the rat snake was still inside the python when

the Museum workshop was closed. At 6a.m. the following morning

the rat snake was back in the box, discoloured ; and the python was

coiled up in a corner—as you were.

In September 1927 I tempted the python with another rat snake.

Nothing happened, the two lived on the best of terms till I removed

the rat snake a week later.

In January 1928 I put another rat snake with the python; (the rat

snake laid twelve eggs). The two snakes seemed to get on well

together. A week later, January 25, the python sloughed. The

next day I put a guinea pig into the box; then a strange thing

happened. ‘The python coiled its tail round the guinea pig and held

it; then it fastened its teeth in the rat snake, gotit within its folds

and killed it like any other prey. It then killed and devoured the

guinea pig. I content myself with thus indicating the fact; I leave

it to the animal psychologist, if any such exist, to explain what

passed through the python’s brain when it saw the guinea pig ; and

when it had killed the rat snake. It did not eat the rat snake.

It will be seen that this python is an unusually good feeder.

It takes the prey, if alive, the instant it is thrown into the box, and

it does not mind a noisy crowd standing round and watching the

performance.

The mixed diet has evidently agreed with it. It is as fine a

specimen of its size as I have ever seen. It spends the days coiled

up in a corner, but at dark begins to wander about the box feeling

the wire netting with its tongue.

St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE, C-LEIGH sa.

TRICHINOPLY, Curator of the Museum.

March 31, 1928.

XIX.—COMMENT ON ‘THE RECORD CUBBANY

MAHSEER’

With reference to the Record Cubbany Mahaseer, published on

page 613 of the Bombay Natural History Soctety’s Journal, volume

xxxii, No. 3. I write to inform you that there is a head and skin of

a Mahaseer caught by Mr. Saunderson, the particulars of which

noted in the label are as follows :—

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Awl

‘Caught in the Cubbany river some 30 miles above Nanjangud

on a hand line 400 yards in length. Its dimensions as soon as

landed were as follows :—

Length including tail from nose to the end of tail 60 inches

Greatest girth se ae oe ae 38 do.

Circumference inside lips aA re is 24 do.

Weight «- A: iy = es i, S30) Ibs.

1870.’

MysorE GOVERNMENT MUSEUM, CURATOR.

Bangalore,

March 13, 1928.

XX.—APHIDIDA! OF MYSORE

In the following note on the Aphididz of Mysore, afew of the

common forms have been recorded and features of special interest

described. A number of other Aphids, some of them rare and pro-

bably belonging to new species remain to berecorded. An account

of them will be published on a future occasion.

It will be noticed that out of the four forms usually met with in

Aphids, only two, the winged and unwinged viviparous, partheno-

genetic forms have been touched upon in this note. As is usually

the case in tropical countries, the true sexual, oviparous forms

appear to be absent in Mysore, although, these forms have been

observed in parts of India, which enjoy a temperate climate and

where snowy winters occur.

Confirmation of my identifications and a few other determinations

have been obtained from Mr. F. V. Theobald, Agricultural College,

Wye, Kent, and Mr. P. M. Mason, of the United States Bureau of

Entomology, to whom I tender my acknowledgments. Finally I

desire to acknowledge the encouragement and help given to me by

Dr. Coleman, the Director of Agriculture in Mysore, and by Dr.

Kunnhi Kannan, Entomologist.

1. Aphis gossypiz, Glover

Theobald (African Aphidide, Bull Ent. Research, vol. iv, 1913-14,

p. 322) states that this species is subject to great variation in colour

ranging from pale greenish-yellow to almost black. ‘lhe prevailing

colours in Mysore are as follows :—

Young ... Yellowish

Pupa .... Brownish.

Apterous female ... Green or pale green.

Alate female .... Thorax, black; abdomen, pale yellow

or greenish-yellow.

Das (The Aphididee of Lahore: 1918) has stated that this species

shows more distinct mottling than others. This is so in Mysore.

The pattern on the abdomen of the alate female, however, differs

from that he has noted. There are present black streaks in the

middle of lst io 4th, abdominal segments; a central large black

patch on the 6th, 7th and 8th segments and arectangular patch above

the anal plate on the ventral surface. Das also mentions that the

sensoria on the III antennal article number from 6-8 but usually

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT//

there are 7; here a few varieties, e.g., on Guyava, show only 5-6.

Some apterous females of this species in Mysore, e.g.,those on Shorea

talura, have longer, and those on Solanum nigrum, have shorter

antenne than the antenne of corresponding alate females. Usually,

also, the alate females are smaller in size and more delicate, whereas

the apterous females are big and stout.

Some individuals of this species, occurring on Solanum nigrum in

Mysore, show the presence of lateral tubercles not only on the pro-

thorax and Ist and 7th abdominal segments, but also on 2nd, 3rd

and 4th abdominal segments.

Fost plants.—A. gossypii in Mysore has been found to occur on

the following plants, almost all the year round :—

Shorea talura (Jalari), Psidium guyava (Seebe), Hibiscus rosa-

stnensts (Dasala), Octmum sanctum (Tulsi), Butea frondosa (Muttuga),

Solanum nigrum (Kari-Kachi), Solanum melongenum (Brinjal),

Tectona grandis (Teak) Capsicum ftluoscence (Chillies), Gossypium

herbaceum (Cotton). Only occasionally this insect assumes the

status of a minor pest on cotton and brinjal.

ee Rhopulosiphum pseudobrassica, Davis

This insect has been found in Mysore, in conjunction with

another, viz. A/yzus persice, Sulz., which is the common species

present on tobacco and cabbage.

Das (Aphidide of Lahore: 1918) has named anew the Aphis

collected on mustard and called it Szphocoryne indobrassica. The

mustard aphis in Mysore differs from Das’s new species only very

slightly and also nearly coincides with Aphis pseudobrassica of Davis.

It is probable that the mustard aphis of Mysore is identical with

Siphocoryne indobrassica, Das, of which, possibly, Mason was not

aware.

Host plant.— Brassica nigra (Mustard). The flower stalks, tender

twigs and leaves are usually heavily infested. In cases of severe

attack, curling and discolouration of leaves and a decidedly un-

healthy look of the plant as a whole have been noticed. AR. pseudo-

brassica is found mostly during the monsoon months.

3. Aphis maidis, Fitch

The general body colour of this insect-green, and the elongated

narrow body, specially that of the apterous female and small iong

brownish cornicles (Longer in apterous than in alate females) are

especially characteristic in Mysore. This same insect has been

found by Das on wheat, maize, oats and others.

The two branches of the cubitus of the fore wings are very short.

The III antennal article bears usuaily 14-15 and the IV article 4-5

secondary sensoria. This seems to be arare feature among the

more commonly occurring species of Aphis here.

Host plant.—Eleusine corucana (Ragi). ‘The crop in the field has —

not so far been noticed to be seriously affected ; but ragi grown in

the pot culture house in the laboratory has more than once been

observed to be badly infested and the plants had to be sprayed in

time to prevent serious damage.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

pee

4. Pentalonia nigrinervosa, Ckll.

Only apterous insects, and not alate ones, have yet been noticed

in Mysore. Colonies occur inside the rolled-up tender leaves of

Musa, specially during the monsoon months. A tew differences

from Baker’s description of the genus /Pentalonza have been noted.

The cornicles show little constriction in the middle but the distal

extremity is swollen. The frontal tubercles do not seem to be

Myzus-like and they do not converge so much as in /yzus and the

hairs present on the tubercles of J/yzus are absent here.

The abnormal wing venation which is said to be peculiar to this

insect could not be observed here, as winged individuals were not

found.

Das has not mentioned this insect.

Fost plant.—Musa sapientum (plantain).

5. Aphis rumicts, Linn.

Both the alate and apterous individuals, along with the young

ones of different stages, are covered in varying degrees, with a

whitish meal in such a way as to present distinct patterns on the

surface, this being especially so in the adults, A few young ones

of 2nd or 3rd moults did not show the presence of the meal, but

looked ferruginous brown. Unlike Aphis medicaginis, Koch, found

on other leguminous plants, this insect has a more pronounced,

greenish tinge on the abdomen. The alate female is also brownish

atthe sides. The apterous females have a shining appearance.

This insect occurs very commonly in Mysore, densely covering

leaf and fruit stalks and also the fruits, of the plants attacked.

FHlost plant.— Vigna catiang (cow-pea) ; almost all the year round.

6. Toxoptera aurantia@, Boyer

This insect seems to occur only rarely in Mysore, having so far

been noticed only once, in 1921 during the monsoon season.

In Great Britain, Europe and America, this has very generally

been found on orange but so far in Mysore it has not been found

on orange or any other Citrus variety. Neither has Das collected

this on orange in Lahore.

The only other Toxopteran species found here till now is on

Dalbergia sissu and that is different from 7. aurantie.

Altogether, the genus Zoxoptera is represented in Mysore very

poorly and probably by very few species in the whole of India.

Das has noted only 3 species, namely 7. gvaminum, Rond,

T. cypert, V. D. Goot, and 7. punjabipyri, Das.

Host plant.— Albizzia odoratissima (Bilvaradamara).

7. Aphis medicaginis, Koch.

This insect, described by Das as occurring mostly on leguminous

plants, has been said to be warm reddish-brown in colour (specially

apterous females). But here the apterous female of the same

species is deep bluish-black or green, the alate female having a

greenish abdomen, brown thorax and head with antenne, tibia,

cornicles and cauda, pale green, and coxa of legs brownish. There

are 6-7 sensoria on the III antennal article of alate female, whereas

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITII

Das mentions only 5-6. There is much shining of the body in sun-

light in apterous females. The latter are also very stout.

Flost plant :—Dolichos lablab (Avare), Crotalaria.

On lablab, the insect is found almost all the year round, more

so on the climber variety, where it occurs in dense colonies doing

serious damage.

8. Aphis tavarest, Del Guercio.

This species has not been recorded by Das in Lahore. He

mentions A. malvas as occurring on the same food plant (C7zérws).

The chief varieties of Cztvws on which this insect is found in

Mysore are :—

Citrus aurantium, (limes and oranges).

Heavy infestation is occasionally noticed after the rains and

after new shoots are put forth. The honey-dew of the vast number

of the individuals covers the leaves, facilitating the growth of the

black fungus (Capnodium brasiliense). Usually the more tender parts

of the plants are most subject to infestation.

9. Aphis neriz, Fonsc.

This yellow Aphid, with dark cornicles and cauda and red com-

pound eyes, is common in Mysore. Das has found it in Lahore on

many host plants, but here it has been observed till now only on

Calotropis gigantea (Yukka).

10. Aphis sacchari, Zehnt.

This insect has been listed by Das in his ‘ Aphididze of Lahore.’

In the foot-note in connection with A. sacchari, Van der Goot says

that he has placed A. sacchari in a newgenus called Longtungts.

Baker, in his Bulletin, has put down Lougiungis as only a synonym

of Aphis.

Host plant :—A. sacchari has been found in Mysore only sparingly

on Sorghum vulgare (Joia); only apterous forms have so far been

found.

ll. TZherioaphis ononitdis, Kalt.

The Aphid occurring on the same host plant as the one named

below has been described by Das in his volume under Callzpterus

trifolii, Monell.

A few differences in structural characters have been observed in

T. ononidts occurring in Mysore. There are only seven oval (not

sub-circular) double-ringed sensoria on the III antennal articles of

botha late and apterous females. The cauda is knobbed and pro-

jects beyond the anal lobes which are not entirely divided but only

bilobed ; the anal lobes are not long and narrow but short.

Host plant :—Medicago sativa (Lucerne). Lucerne is the sole

foodplant on which this insect has been collected both in Mysore

and in other parts of India. This must, no doubt, be the same as

the well-known clover-aphis of the Western countries.

12. Myzus persicae, Sulz.

This insect has sometimes been found in combination with

Rhopalosiphum pseudobrassica on mustard.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 215

Host plants:—Nicotiana tabacum (Tobacco), Brassica oleracea

(cabbage).

Whenever these are grown in Mysore, thecolonies of W/. persice

are found on both surfaces and in and around tender curled-up

leaves. On tobacco, specially, it has very often become a serious

pest with the result thata number of cultivators in Mysore have

regularly requested spraying with fish-oil-resin soap or tobacco

decoction.

B. KRISHNAMURTHY, B.sc.

BANGALORE. Assistant Entomelogist, Department of

Agriculture, Mysore.

XXI—‘ MIGRATION’ OF SPIDERS

(With a text-figure)

It was a hot day towards the end of summer in Mesopotamia as I

lay under a date-palm just outside the precints of a desert town,

THE SPIDER AND ITS PARACHUTE.

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

some twenty miles from Basra, and idly watched a spider near at

hand. He seemed to spin out a web which clustered together in the

form of a cluster of balloons, tilting his abdomen well over in so

doing. Then he spun outa single thread ana witha distinct wink

at me, took off into the air!

It was only on looking up that I discovered several other

‘aviators’ with their parachutes rapidly diminishing from sight

but all drifting southward. Were they migrating to warmer lands

with the advent of winter ? How would they adjust their parachutes

if they wished to descend? Perhaps some of our readers ose ive

us a few interesting pointers on this subject.

V. S. LAPERSONNE.

BomBAy NATURAL HISsroRy SOCIETY,

6, APOLLO STREET.

February 20, 1928.

[We are indebted to Major R. W. G. Hingston for the following

note concerning the spider and also for the excellent sketch

here reproduced. He writes: ‘Your request for comments on

Mr. LaPersonne’s observation reminds me that I noticed the same

phenomenon in Mesopotamia during the war. I can therefore

supply you with the following information taken from my notes

made at that time.

The dispersal of spiders through the agency of wind takes place

in Mesopotamia on a profuse scale. When the wind blows from the

north the air is sometimes full of spider’s silk. It is not just small

fragments, but often large matted flakes or layers that seem to

descend from higher strata, and, as it were, rain on to the earth.

At times the dispersal is so profuse that we may regard it as a dense

migration of spiders. The gossamer swept by this northerly wind

gets entangled in everything it touches. Often it streams from

plam trees and telegraph wires in waving flags of silk.

The young of many kinds of spiders have the habit of shooting

out a filament of silk and drifting on it for long distances through

the air. ‘The act serves to disperse the species. Mr. LaPersonne

inquires as to the mechanism of this parachute. Ihave not been

able to solve it with certainty, for I have not yet seen the extreme

tip of the first thread given out by the young spider. But I have

the strongest reason for thinking that the mechanism is the same

as with the first thread that a spider employs in making its snare.

Now, this is not a simple thread, but one which ends in a kind of

brush or rather pencil of most delicate fibrils. The breeze catches

in this tuft and pulls the line from the spider’s spinnerets. I suspect

the same mechanism in the gossamer spider. The breeze sweeps

the tuft through the air, while the spider hangs suspended from it,

as it were froma balloon. These tufts are what Mr. LaPersonne

calls parachutes. How does the young spider manage to descend ?

I imagine by hauling the line in with its legs, an act spiders are well

able to perform.’ Eps. ]

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS

Questions from readers of the Journal will be answered on this page.

It ts hoped that the introduction of this feature will establish a more

direct connection between the Soctety and tts members.

Venom of Snakes

A. T.—The primary function of snake venom is to overcome the

prey. Secondarily the venom acts as a digestive fluid and confers on

the snake immunity against its own poison and the poison of other

venomous snakes.

It should be understood, however, that immunity is not an absolute

property but is conditioned by the amount of poison innoculated

and the mode of injection. In this sense a Cobra is immune from

the venom of the Russell’s Viper because no viper can at a bite inject

enough venom to kill a Cobra.

Snake-venoms are very complex liquids which we cannot differen-

tiate chemically. We distinguish various types of snake poison by

their effects on animals especially selected for the purpose. Now,

as different animals respond differently to the same venom, our

classification has no other value than that of convenience.

Immunity depends upon a number of different factors: presence

of antitoxins in the serum of the victim, special resistance of tissues,

protective layers (slightly vascular fat), physiological antagonism,

and the absence of actuators or of receptors.

iguanas

A. P. M.—No Iguanas occur within the Indian region. The family

(Lguanide) is chiefly American with representatives in Madagascar

and Fiji. The largest and best known of these are found in the forest

regions of Tropical America. Some are aboreal, others terrestrial

or burrowing, and one, the Marine Iguana (Amblyrhynchus cristatus)

of the Galapgos Islands lives on the rocks of the shore and feeds on

sea-weed. In India the term Iguana is usually applied to the

Monitor Lizards of the genus Varanus, of which four species occur

within our limits. Monitor Lizards are the largest of all lizards

some exceeding a length of six feet. The Dragon Lizard cf Komodo

which has received so much attention recently, belongs to this

genus. Monitors differ markedly from the typical aboreal Iguanas

both in shape and colouring. The bcdy of the Monitor, like most

terrestrial lizards, is flat and depressed, while that of the Iguana

like other aboreal lizards is narrow and compressed. The name

Monitor or Warning Lizard is said to be derived from a confusion

between Ouaran the Arabic term for Lizard and the English word

‘warning ’.

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.“SOCIETY, Vol" Cem

Poisonous Lizards

F. H.—This is a question which crops up repeatedly. As far as

hitherto ascertained no Indian lizard is poisonous. A belief in the

venomous nature of many common species of lizards persists and is

prevalent throughout the country. In addition to the common and

harmless House Geckos or ‘Fly Catchers’, which are found in

almost every house in India, the skinks, particularly the Common

Skink (7. carinata), which one sees scuttling over the ground with

a sinuous snake-like movement, the Fat-tailed Lizards (Audlepharis),

which occur in the drier portions of Western and North-Western

India and last but not least the young of various species of

Monitors (Varanus), one of the many harmless lizards which have

been branded as the genuine ‘ bis cobra ’,—all these are vested with

highly poisonous properties. The belief in poisonous lizards is by

no means confined to India. It may be safely said that there is no

known species of lizard in India which is provided with glands for

secreting venom or fangs through which to eject it, nor are there

any lizards in India whose dentition is in any way suspicious.

The Brain-Fever Bird

H. M. Mc. G.—There are various aspirants to the title. Among

other cuckoos we have heard the term applied to the Common Koel

whose persistent and irritating vocal efforts have been translated to

express in a crescendo of emotion his conviction ‘ you’re ill, you’re

ill.’ But it is commonly agreed that the unpleasant title should go

to the Common Hawk Cuckoo (AHvzerococcyx varius) a bird with grey

upper plumage, a rufous breast and a barred tail and underparts.

Its rapid loud and piercing call ‘ pi-fee-ah’ with a decided accent on

the second syllable may be heard by day or by nightin any part of

India during the hot weather particularly during May and June

when these birds are busy cuckolding various Babblers and

Thrushes on whom they conter the unsolicited privilege of caring

for their eggs and upbringing their offspring.

‘ Flame of the Forest’

G. R. E.—Some take it to be the well-known Roya! Gul-Mohur

(Potnciana regia, Boj.), others Butea frondosa, Konig.

The Gul-Mohur is a native of Madagascar and has been in-

troduced into India about 100 years ago. Mr. W. S. Millard

remembered Birdwood maintaining that the Flame of the Forest was

the name for Poznciana regia in the Madagascar forests. But in his

Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran and Mahableshwar (1887, p. 11)

Birdwood calls Butea trondosa ‘Flame of the Forest’. The fact

alone that Poinciana regia is not a forest-tree in India makes it very

unlikely that anybody should have thought of calling it Flame of

the Forest. But anybody who has seen Butea frondosa cannot help

being struck by the resemblance of its flowers to flames, whilst

the Gul-Mohur can scarcely produce that impression.

If we are not mistaken J.D. Hooker was the first to mention that

resemblance. Lindley and Moore (T7yveasury of Botany, part I, ed.

1899, p. 183) refer to him when they say: ‘ Dr. Hooker states that

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS 219

when in full flower the Dhak tree (Sutea frondosa) is a gorgeous

sight, the masses of flowers resembling sheets of flame, their

bright orange-red petals contrasting brilliantly against the jet-black

velvety calyx.’

Nairne was similarly impressed when he wrote about Autea

trondosa (flowering Plants of Western India, 1894, p. 88) :* In the

Panch Mahals, where it is common and attains a better size than in

any other district I know, it very frequently grows out of the hollow

trunk of a wad tree, and gives a character to the whole landscape in

the cold weather having

‘Flowers that with a scarlet gleam

Cover a hundred leagues, and seem

To set the hills on fire.’

(Wordsworth).

Nairne does not seem to have known the name of‘ Flame of the

Forest,’ but we come across it in Troup (Szlvzculture of Indian Trees

1921, vol. i, p. 258): ‘ The blackish flower-buds appear on the bare

branches in January and from the end of that month and through

February and March the trees herald the hot weather by bursting

forth in ablaze of scarlet blossoms, presenting a gorgeous sight

which if once seen can never be forgotten: the tree is on this account

appropriately termed the “ flame of the forest”’. ’

PROCEEDINGS

Of the Meeting held on July 18, 1928

A meeting of the members of the Bombay Natural History Society and their

friends took place on Wednesday the 18th instant at the Prince ot Wales’

Museum at 6.30 p m., Mr: R.-D. Bell, ¢.1.5:, 1-C.S., presidin=.

Mr. P M. D. Sanderson announced the election of the following fifty-two

-new members since the last meeting: Mr. Alexander Henderson, Bombay ;

Mr. Andrew B. Porteous, Nagvas, B. B. & C. Ry.; Mr. H. M. McGusty,

Bombay ; The Honorary Secretary, Anamallai Game and Fishing Association,

Valparai P.O., S.I., Mrs. D.J. Greaves, Bombay ; Mr. F. Clifton, Bournemouth,

England; Mr. C. E. M. Judge, Delhi; Mr. Ali Mahomed Mecklai, Bombay ;

Mr. Amir Shaikh Mohamad, Junagadh ; Mrs. Leona Starr, F.R.G.S., Colombo ;

Lieut. A. E. Brocklehurst, R.A., Bangalore ; Raja Gajendra Shah of Khutar,

U.P. ; Mr. W.S. Cassels, 1.C.S., Lucknow ; Mr. B.A. Parr, Bombay : Mr: Re

L. Scott, Renfrewshire, England; Mr. H.G. Dalton, Perak, F.M.S.; Mr. G;

St. John Cowper, Bombay; Mr. A. D. Shanks, Bombay; Mr. Kaikobad

B. Marzban, J.p., Bombay; Mr. DeWet Van Ingen, Mysore, S.I.; Mr. E.R.

Davidson, R.A.S C., Baghdad ; Mr. W. F. Grahame, I.C.S., Meiktila; Mr. C. D.

Claudius, Insein; Mr. E. Walsh, Bombay; Mr. James L. Smyth, N. Coorg ;

Major S. S. Sokhey, I.M.S., Bombay ; Mrs. H. G. Cocke, Bandra, Bombay ;

Mr. H.S. George, 1.F.S., Chikalda, Berars; Mr. A.C. Harman, Champaran ;

Mr. R. L. Piggott, Kadur; The Director, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A.; Mr. J. H. Methold, Calcutta; Mr. R. Pattison, Bombay ;

Mr. Wilfred Laws, Assam; Mr. W. J. Moloney, Bombay; The Director of

Museums, Straits Settlements and F. M. States Museum, Kuala Lumpur ;

Mr. M. T. Graham, Bareilly, U.P. ; Mr. David Boyle, Travellers’ Club, London,

England; Mr. C. E. Allan, Abu Road; ‘The Principal, Assumption College,

Bangkok ; Mr. J. A. Yates, Bangalore, Mr. J. H. Dauglish, Coimbatore, S.I. ;

Mr. C. E. C. Cox, 1.7.S., Amraoti; Capt. ©. W. Us Harvey, m.c., Mt. Abu

Lieut. R. K. M. Battye, R.A., Mhow; The Zoologisches Museum der Uni-

versitat, Berlin, N. 4.; J. M. Caldwell, Tung; Mr. E. W. Maude, Lebong,

Darjeeling; Mr. T. H. Newman, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., Wembley Park, England ;

Sir Fairless Barber, Calicut ; and Mr. A. U. Pullan, Kurseong.

He outlined the progress made by the Society and spoke of the efforts that

were being made to make the Society’s Journal more attractive to its readers.

In addition to the serial on Indian Game Birds by Stuart Baker, the Society

hoped shortly to bring out a series of articles on the commoner Flowering Trees

of India, illustrated in colour and this serial would, he was sure, make a wide

appeal, particularly in view of the absolute dearth of readable books on a

subject which interested a great number of people in India.

EXHIBITION OF PAINTINGS

Members were given an opportunity of inspecting a beautiful series of

paintings of Indian forest scenes, made during the Vernay-Faunthorpe Expedi-

tion. ‘Theartists, Mr. C. C. Rosenkranz of the American Museum, New York,

and Mr. K. B. Savardekar of the Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay, have

produced excellent work which will be used in the Museums in New York and

Bombay, in the construction of large habitat groups illustrating the animal life

of this country. One of these groups is now being built in the Prince of Wales’

Museum and will be opened to public exhibition before the end of this year.

Our INSECT ORCHESTRA

Mr. S. H. Prater, the Society’s Curator, delivered an interesting lecture on

Our Insect Musicians and their Instruments. The Monsoon is the season when

our insect orchestra is heard at its best. The whole air at dusk seeins to tinkle

and murmur with a medley of sound produced by its musicians. They are all

PROCEEDINGS 221

raembers of four insect families :—The Short-horned Grasshoppers, the Long-

horned Grasshoppers or Katydids, the Crickets and the Cicadas. The Short-

horned Grasshopper is a fiddler. His fiddles are his front wings and his bows

are his hind legs. On the inner side of each hind thigh certain grasshoppers

carry a ridge armed with fine teeth which is scraped against a sharp-edged

vein on the forewings. This produces his chirping note. The finest insect

musicians are to be found ainongst the Long-horned Grasshoppers or Katydids.

Katydids are the vzrtuosos of the insect orchestra. Their musical instruments

are carried on the bases of their front wings. The right wing carries a drum

and a sharp ridge; the left wing bears a file, which is used as a bow to play on

the ridge on the right wing, the bow scrapes on the ridge and the tone and

volume of the sound is controJled by vibrations set up in the drum. The

instruments of the crickets are much the same. The details of construction and

the methods of sound production differ. The loud notes of the cricket are

produced by the rapid vibration of the uplifted wings. The right wing usually

working over the left, the edge of one acting on the file of the other to give outa

shrill long-sustained note. The musical instruments of the cicadas are the most

marvellous sound producing organs in the animal kingdom. On the underside

of his body the cicada carries a pair of drum heads generally protected by flaps,

set in solid rims of the body wall. The cicada does not beat his drums. They

are set into intense vibration by a pair of great muscles attached to them from

within the body. Air cavities and accessory vibrators beneath these drums

help to increase or diminish the sound which is also influenced by the hollow

abdomen and the position of the covering flaps. Why do insects sing ? in some

cases it is to attract or advertise their presence to the female of the species. In

the majority of insect performers the females are dumb. They are relegated to

the role of appreciative listeners. This discovery caused Xenarchos, a Greek

poet to exclaim ‘ Happy the cicadas’ lives for they have voiceless wives.’

Again it would seem that in many cases the voice of the insect is the voice of

Mirth--an expression of his feelings, an outlet for pent-1p emotion ; like unto

the voice of a man singing in his bath, and it is certain that no sane man hopes

to impress his wife by the performance! The lecture was illustrated with a

helpful series of lantern slides.

EDITED BY fon | ae

SS vee o

. SPENCE, Kr., F.Z.S., SH. ‘PRATER, C. MI. z. S., ie aie

de SALIM, Be NEN, MB. 2s ihe! eS i: ee,

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CONTENTS. OF VOL AX XITI, Nooe2

Ture Game Birps or THE INDIAN Empire. Part VIII. (With a

coloured plate.) By E. C. Stuart Baker, F.z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U.,

PE MeeN tte Oe Wiet saan Sen ehag tutte), aunts claw aire Cock pooh ee eM how cdc sb eae (ev ce seues cbcawcceslingtedee’s

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Part VIII. By

mE AtLeIySed 4 PER Ds vB T. Seihisned codes to ocusbceis taacddousecwssceleroesewss neue

SOME EXTRACTS FROM MY SHIKAR Drary. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton.

ON THE ANATOMY OF Two ,NEW TREMATODES OF THE GENUS

Dicrocelium with A KkEy TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS.

(With a plate.) By Dharam Narain, M.Sc. and Ram Saran Das,

Tes OOM ead ccna cout eetadne Cah Te nee eecse esa ccsaaicesade ce nsagsacte ncudees

THE StupDy oF PrLant Lire. Part III. (With a plate, two blocks, and

twenty-Stx text-figures.) By Charles McCann .........-.0ccccsesenvecees

MOossEs COLLECTED IN WAZIRISTAN by Mr. J. FERNANDEZ IN 1927. By

ileeeiNee DIX OU eM eA CAE Tey Soo Hse oe seman es astatcneet na Mee ealeah loots Soeeseuese rath

TIGER TRACKS. (With four plates.) By F. W. Chae L.FeSeu) ioe

INDIAN DRAGONFLIKS, Part XXXII. (With four plates.) By Lt. -Col.

Peete IRASET A: 1: MiG as ORE, Ge «+t 1e-/sicc ojo vaevevsleede'roeccuavecee sodepiiacdeeusseeveses

MAHSEER (Barbus tor) IN BURMA AND THEIR Haslits. (With two pine

and a text-figure.) By A. Macdonald......... ME ii eaa tices heel ts PM an aes See eo

A New Species oF Balanophora FROM MAHABLESHWAR, BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY. (With a plate.) By E. Blatter, $.J., PH.D., F.L.S.

Tue STUDY or INDIAN Birps. Part Il. (With two plates.) By Hugh

AIRY NTDIST ETERS TEI ASSIS i) Cea 81k © LC aes ne ene ee Pe RP PI

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SuRVEY, No. XLVIII. INDIAN

SHREWS. “By Mrs. Helen M. Lindsay, M.A., B.SC. ....cccc-cssccasscessece

A Stupy in INSEcT PROTECTION: <Axnoplocnemis phasiana, FABR.

(Withiwo plates.) By Major R. W. G. Hingston, 1.M.S. ....cceeeeee

A List oF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE FROM 1901-1915. By R.

PIaMetp NALA Amel MAW. CsNbiZ Se. Cs itesacsssnser aceaecectsisoncustas odes sees

SHELLS OF THE’TROPICAL SEAS. PartI. (Witha photo.) By Ida Col-

I:EVUNGSIE » BS SAS concep: oP € aris Si SR Sry APRs ore eae Bo ceeae's

REVISIONAL NOTES ON THE GENUS HETDIOPHORUS (Lyc@nid@e) WITH

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEw Forms. ( With twenty-eighi text-figures.) By

IMD ELC DL Vee oe ee ha tecagh ccc scicdaesasacs ceeeh ors seeders suclos elie delt obcleead vav'ed es enewese ees

REVIEWS—

SOME FRESHWATER FISHING IN MALAVA woeccserscserereneceereeceseeeeeeese

DEORECAND: VWEEDOLIBE, IN TH B DECCAN. « ...cevscssesccscoscecceccceccsececsesss

EES RMN ta sce sae a isish cc cheneeccsbcecdacceshsecieveeeveces secs Gatecdasten cache ia este

BIRDS AT THE NEST _....... ‘vaeks BBade a ahcaciaavioses dete tiiuceasewe aeclesteyeeinee ae

EES AND: BEASTS OF THE ROMAN < ZOO .......2.sccccecddsr~secvessecscocestes

(GANER BERDS ~sseccscove iseic oescces fae EM icace os een vesaieseceeuseenee Seiwa cote

af OF THE RAFFLES MUSEUM, SINGAFORE, No. 1, SEPTEMBER

PeVVELE A. CAMERA, .IN., LIGERLAND,’.: AN APOLOGY. . ...s0sccccccsceccesevcocss

AN APPEAL FOR SCORPIONS mae ae ASE. Brae tase ds bec cauieauectrcws

FDIDGRIAL is. cecseece Re Pee oa Foca, Noe aoe ucts oui saidaeaes Q MB See ree

384

403

405

407

408

410

411

412

413

CONTENTS OF Wolo Seog, No 2.

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1.—After Bison and Buffalo in the High Sal Forests. By J. A.

Duke er eb oc he vidal hace eee ance ee ee 419

II.--Monkeys and Carnivora. By F. W. Champion, 1.F.S. ......0. 424

IlIl.—' The Man-eaters of Tsavo’. (Witha plaie.) By the

WOLLOTS . oie acegecesee pbc sd ide eocto cp acorns unaenacearEbacoaccacaanérdensts 424

IV.—Wounded Tiger returning to Kills. By Ralph C. Morris ...... 425

V.—Measurements of Panthers. By J. R. Stockley Roper, Lieut. 7

BAS Ta decuelnied habsnettc ve sees ae Seoe Nt cae tS ask oa oa nT EE oe See me 426:

VI.—Breeding Habits of the Common Mongoose (Herpestes

edwardst). By Wt.-Col. Av Gekrere, 1A. Z.s0 eee 426

VIL.—A Stalwart-Pariah Dog. By JA. Duke i.P? oe eee 428.

VIII.—Some Observations on Wild Elephants in Orissa (Witha

map.) (BY c- Bes Mooney, sIakiSe = Bitatnarasace sonenneeren eee 430

IX.—On ,‘ Natural Deaths’in Wild Elephants. By F. W.

Cham pion WiFi So Sees -ceetue weaenaete ose nesesan eet cane acemen see Co aa

X.—A Large Tusker from South India. (With a plate.) By D.R.

DE Wadia! ficccraesocires stack ae suey cust ereee chee eae iee tae eee 424

XIs— Height in Hlephants.. By: David’ Boyle: sy2cacc.ccssessceecness soe 437

XII.—Abnormal Antlers of a Kashmir Stag (Cervus hanglu) (With a

photo.) 7-By:- GM. "Gamble, Capt. tas. sac. cececcacance rhea 438

XIII.—Clicking Noise made by Muntjac. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton 439

XIV.—Some Notes on the Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) in Burma.

With aplate:) By S. Hopwood. tsk:S-. sui. a. sees eee 439

XV.—The Babbler as a Barometer. By C. H. Donald .............. 442

XVI.—The Nesting Habits of the Northern Grey Hornbill (Lopho-

CEOS OLVOSLVIS.) BYi 22D HI nay ee ect e tee eee 444

XVII—Occurrence of the Xmas Island Frigate-Bird (Fregata

andrewst) on the West Coast of India. By S. H. Prater,

OMT Ss ik dee ee noone cedngs neh cuigset teste settee ue decane mae ene ee enee

XVIII.—Occurrence of the Sheldrake Yadorna tadorna in the United

Provinces. By J. C. Faunthorpe, I.c.S., C.B.E., M.C.,v.D. 446

XIX.—Migration of Wildfowl. (Witha map.) By the Editors ......... 446

XX.—The Flight of Birds at High Altitudes. By R. W.G _ Hingston,

IMB VOT. “TINE S205 | ikacicces Sieene Jousiele cntslocleclelei doe sesledeecroaeeceteeadeet ape aeins 449

XXI.—The Occurrence of the Gharial (Gavzalis gangeticus) in Burma.

Ge Ge BAntOn oe ioesccinsecse, outs ivececsceecoessccsenasdeceseesetnemse a esnte: 450

XXII.—On Some Common Indian Lizards. By H. Jouguet ............... 452

XXIII.—Some Notes on the Travancore Evening Brown Butterfly

(Parantirrhea marshalli) in Coorg. By J. A. Yates ...... 455.

XXIV.—A SHORT NOTE on a Lymantrid Caterpillar (Dasychira

mendosa) Hubn. feeding on Mango Leaves. (With a

block). Wy Sc MEK eril, MSC os cnc vcdseccceca-cot uctesases ace anaes 458.

XXV.—A Preliminary Note on the Pollination of the Coral Tree (Fryth-

yina indica) Lamk. (Withtwo plates). By T. C. N.

Sine: 2 22232 000e at ceca cee eenucesecane cs caWiemicioselncesekinat Cor eetine eee ener 460

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS (iicseocne cccbsccseocccesececcecocscses eslecesonanvans 463

468

PROCEEDINGS ” ('\W/2i7 2200 DLALES) Portas wcintescewisieostecsedadeone: Saemanns ss siconeeeene

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

JANUARY, 1929 VoL. XXXITI NO

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

| BY

B.C. STUART BAKER, F.Z.S., F.L.S.,.M.B.O.U., H.F.A.0.U.

VOLE. V

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

ParT VIII

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued from page 6 of this Volume)

FAMILY.—HELIORNITHIDA

This small but remarkable family is undoubtedly very closely

related to the ARallide from which, however, it differs in many

important respects.

In the Fin-foot the toes are furnished with a lobed fringe very

similar to that of the Coots ; the sternum is more massive, broader

posteriorly with a shallow notch on each side ; there is no aftershaft;

the wing is quincubital in our Indian species ; there are no bare tracts

on the neck; rectrices eighteen.

The flexor tendons are peculiar and appear to be a modification

of the Galline arrangement. The flexor longus halucts gives off a

slip to supply the hallux and is then divided into three, each branch

uniting with a similar branch from the flexor perforans digitorum to

supply one of the other three toes.

The family contains three genera of which one only is found in

India.

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII]

Genus: HELIOPAIS

Heliopais Sharpe, Bull. B.O.C., vii, p. xxxvii, 1893.

Type by mon. Heliopats ersonate Gray.

Bill from gape longer than tarsus and rather stout ; culmen con-

siderably curved ; no frontal shield but in the breeding season there

is a small fleshy horn from the base of the culmen; nostril long and

narrow, pervious and placed nearly in the centre of the upper

mandible ; tarsus shorter than middle toe without claw but very

strong ; toes fringed with a lobed web; wing rounded, the second,

or second and third longest, the first equal to fifth or sixth;

rectrices, eighteen in number, broad and stiff, slightly graduated and

equal in length to about half the wing.

Sexes slightly differing.

HELIOPAIS PERSONATA

The Masked Fin-Foot

Podica personata Gray, P.Z.S., 1848, p. 90, Malacca.

Fleliopats personata. Blanf. and Oates. iv, p. 182.

Vernacular Names.—Ye Balon (Burma).

Description :—Male. Forecrown running back in a line over the

earcoverts, face, chin, throat and foreneck velvety black, the fore-

head and the rest of the black, except on the crown, surrounded by

a narrow line of white; posterior crown and hind neck steel grey,

the crown with metallic reflections ; sides of the neck, interscapulars

and upper back light olive-brown, each feather with a metallic

green edge; lower back, wings and tail light brown grading from

the olive brown; the upper tail coverts rather paler brown; tail

narrowly tipped with whitish; breast and abdomen white ; flanks

brown, barred with white next the abdomen; under tail-coverts

barred brown and white.

Colours of sott parts.—Iris dark brown; eyelids pea-green ; bill

bright chrome yellow shaded with brown in the centre; legs and

feet pea-green, the edges of the web yellow; in Summer the horn

is highly developed, erectile and bright yellow in colour; in Winter

it shrivels up and disappears.

Female.—The white line on the forehead broader; chin, throat

and foreneck white, surrounded by black which is edged with white

as in the male; the black frontal band is less broad.

Colours of sott parts as in the male but much duller whilst the

iris is yellow; there is no horn.

Measurements.—Wing, % 248 to 183 mm.; 9 232 to 241 mm. tail 98

to 124 mm. ; tarsus 36 to 51 mm. ; culmen, 3’, o2 to 56 mm; Q 41 to

50 mm.

Young birds are like the female but have no black on the crown,

whilst that surrounding the throat is mottled with white.

Distribution.—Eastern Assam, Bengal, North and East of the Bay

of Bengal, Burma and Malay States to Sumatra.

Nidification.—Dr. Gregerson took the first authentic nest of this

bird in Assam on the 24th July but the young had hatched with

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 225

the exception of one infertile pigmy egg. In 1920 and subsequent

years Messrs. Smith and Marlow obtained numerous nests in the

flooded country of the Tharrawaddy District of Burma during the

months of July and August. These latter nests were made of sticks

and twigs lined with leaves and were rather massive structures of

about 15” in diameter by 6” to a foot in depth, the egg cavity being

about 8” across and 2” deep. They were all placed on tangled

branches of trees or shrubs, in one case only a few inches above

the water, in other cases as much as nine feet, whilst, in every case,

the sites selected were in flooded forest. The country where they

nest is of the wildest character but the birds, which are very numer-

ous, seem often to breed in the vicinity of the few villages which

are dotted about in the jungles on the higher ground. They sat

vety close and would allow Mr. Marlow to get within a few inches

before leaving the nest. The eggs number five to seven and are

sut generis though distinctly Ralline in character. In shape they

are very spherical, though more oval specimens may be seen

occasionally. The ground colour is a very pale cream, in one or

two clutches faintly tinged with pink. The primary markings

consist of fairly larger reddish-brown blotches very _ sparsely

scattered over the whole surface, sometimes rather more numerous

at the larger end. Under these are secondary markings of lavender

grey, distributed like the others, sometimes more numerous, some-

times less.

Habits.—The Masked Fin-Foot isa bird about which remarkably

little was known and practically nothing recorded until Hopwood sent

to this journal an account of the results of Messrs. Marlow’s and

Smith’s discoveries in Lower Burma. In some parts of Assam it

was by no means uncommon and was known amongst thetea planters

as ‘The Running Duck’. During the Winter as well as during the

breeding season, however, it kept entirely to the most impenetrable

swamps between the foot-hills of the Himalayas and the Brahma-

pootra River. In this land of desolation where nobody ever entered

except a few elephant-catchers or an odd company or two of rubber

collectors, the bird passed its life in infinite peace. For many weary

miles in every direction there was nothing but the densest of forest

interspersed with endless shallow swamps. In some places muddy

slow-trickling waterways would run for some miles to be once more

lost in the swamp, forming practicaily the only means of moving

about in such country. Here the Fin-Foot was comparatively

common and safe from molestation, but in the early Spring and late

Autumn they were in the habit of following the courses of the

various streams out into the open and were then occasionally seen

and shot.

In Lower Burma, Messrs. Smith and Marlow found them very

common on the upper reaches of the Rangoon River and Mr. Hop-

wood estimates that there were at least 500 pairs breeding during

the rains in this country, which seems to be very similar to that

already described above. In this part of Burma the bird is known

as the Water Bubbler, Ye Balon, this name being given to it on

account of the bird’s call which is said to be similar to the sound of

air being blown through a tube into water. When undisturbed, the

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Fin-Foot is very tame and confiding and in these circumstances its

normal position when swimming is very highin the water, but when

frightened it submerges all but the head and neck. In both

swimming and diving it excels the Coot whilst on land it runs at an

extraordinary pace and frequently to escape danger it retreats on

foot into the nearest jungle rather than escape by swimming and

diving. Its flight is essentially Coot-like in that it rises very slowly,

whether from land or water and for some time carries its legs

hanging low behind it. When once well away, however, its flight is

more like that of the Duck than the Coot. Their diet appears to be

partly vegetarian, insectivorous and fish. I have never heard it

utter any sound other thanthe bubbling call referred to by Mr. Hop-

wood. They are highly esteemed by the natives as an article of

food and their eggs also are regularly hunted for by the Burmese

people living where they breed.

FAMILY.—DRkOMADIDAE

Genus: DrRomas

Dyromas Paykull, Svensk K. Vet.—Ak. Nya Handl., xxvi, pt. 3,

p. 182 (2805):

Type by mon., Dromas ardeola Paykull.

Bill longer than the head, strong, smooth and compressed ;

‘ culmen regularly curved; no groove, the nostril being placed in a

small depression near the base of the bill; the angle of the lower

mandible prominent and close to the base; wing long and pointed,

the first primary longest; tail very slightly graduated ; tarsi long,

shielded in front and behind; half the tibia bare; toes long, the

third and fourth joined by a broad web, the second and third by a

small one ; middle claw broadened and pectinated or notched on

the inner dilation ; feathers of interscapulary region lengthened and

covering the back.

DROMAS ARDEOLA

The Crab-Plover

Dyromas ardeola Paykull, Svensk, K. Vet.—Ak. Nya Handl. xxvi,

pt. 3, p. 182, pl. 8 (1805) (India); Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 209.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Descriptton.—Back, long scapulars and greater coverts black ;

primaries black on the outer webs, pale brownish on the inner and

with white shafts; outer secondaries brown on the outer webs,

white on the inner; angle of eye behind and before black ;

remainder of plumage pure white, the tail often remaining pale

grey for some time after the rest of the adult plumage is attained.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown ; bill black ; legs and feet grey-

white to pale glaucous-blue.

Measurements. —Wing of 209 to 225 mm., 201 to 210 mm. ; tail

65 to 75 mm. tarsus 89 to 100 mm.; culmen, (55 to (61> mmr

54 ‘o 56 mm.

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 227

Young birds have the crown and neck pale grey, the former with

black shaft-streaks ; back, scapulars, and wing-coverts darker grey

tinged with brown, the feathers of the back and scapulars edged

blackish; tail grey-brown, whiter on the inner webs of the lateral

feathers.

Distribution.— From the shores of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf,

all round—but locally distributed—the coast of India, Ceylon and

the Laccadives.

Nidttication.—The Crab-Plover commences to breed about the

middle of May and odd eggs may be found in early June on the

islands in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, but in Ceylon it does

not appear to lay until late June, at which season it was found

breeding on the Island of Adam’s Bridge. Sir Percy Cox and

Major Cheesman found immense colonies of these curious birds

breeding on some of the islands in the north of the Persian Gulf,

that on Buna Island consisting of several hundreds of birds. The

eggs are either laid at the bottom of burrows in the sandy soil—in

some cases apparently dug out by the birds themselves—or they

are laid in hollows amongst the loose boulders and rocks. It

undoubtedly, however, prefers burrows wherever the soil is sandy

and loose enough for these to be made. They are of no great

depth, being anything between a foot and four feet, the extremity

where the nest is being rather larger than the entrance. Only one

egg is laid but that one is enormous in size compared to the bird.

In colour it is a pure white, with a very smooth close texture, but

not particularly hard or glossy, whilst in shape it is a long oval,

slightly pointed at the smaller end. In general appearance these

eggs are hardly distinguishable from the eggs of some of the

Shearwaiters. Thirty average 65°4 to 45°9 mm., maxima 67°3 by

47°5 mm., minima 61-0 by 46°2 and 63°5 by 44:2 mm.

The birds are said to sit very close and have in some cases to be

pulled out of the hollows which they refuse to quit. Cumming,

who took many nests on islands near Fao, says that the birds

pecked at the hands of natives and attempted to resist being

dragged off their eggs.

Habits. —The Crab-Plover is one of the birds which prove a great

stumbling-block to systematists, for it is extremely hard to say

where it should be placed. It has a curious head, large eyes, and

stout bill, making it look as if it ought to be somewhere near the

Thick-kneed Plovers, whilst it has long legs and neck and certain

other characteristics which link it with the Storks, and finally its

nidification is suz genevis. It is an extremely sociable bird and

always consorts in flocks of considerable size, not only in the

breeding season, but also at other times and it is only when the

extreme limits of its distribution are reached that it occurs in small

numbers, but even in these places, such as Oyster Island off the

coast of North Burma, it is always in flocks of some size and never

single or in pairs. It is very crepuscular in its habits and seems

to feed only in the early mornings and late evenings and, if there

is a moon, all through the night. It is, of course, confined entirely

to the sea coast and is never found inland, even on the brackish

tidal rivers. Its food consists principally of small crabs, but it

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

devours aljl kinds of small living things, such as crustacea of all

kinds, small mollusca, sea worms, etc. Whilst hunting for its food,

its actions are very plover-like, consisting of constant little short

jerky runs, made at great speed from one point to another, finishing

up with a little jerk and a bob such as the Ring-Plovers indulge in.

It flies well and fast, although it presents a very curious appearance,

with its long legs stretching right behind, whilst the head is tucked

in close to the shoulder. It is said to have a low, rather musical

call and when disturbed on its nest the birds, both young and old,

hiss at the intruder.

(To be continued)

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

Ee BLATTIER>, S.J25 PH.D.,. H.1.9;

PART VIII

GRAMINE®

EK. BLATTER and C. McCann

(Continued from page 25 of this Volume.)

60. CHKNCHRUS, Linn. ; Hitchcock and Chase in

Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. xx (1920), 50.

Annual or perennial herbs. The inflorescences are spike-like racemes, con-

sisting of involucellate clusters of shortly pedicellate spikelets jointed on a

simple rhachis. Inavolucel consisting of hardened spike-like bristles, connate at

the base intoa short, coriaceous cup, which is surrounded by erect or squarrose

bristles. Spikelets 1-3 in each involucel, mostly glabrous or nearly so, persist-

ent, 1-2-flowered, with 3-4 glumes Lower involucral glume I-nerved, usually

narrow, sometimes wanting; upper involucral glume and lower floral glume

subequal, 5-7-nerved. Lower floral glume longer than the upper involucral,

with or without male flower, paleate Upper floral glume coriaceous, with a

hermaphrodite or female flower. Lodicules 2. Stamens3. Styles 2, stigmas

plumose. Grain broad, oblong, dorsally compressed, with a punctiform hilum,

free within the glume and pale.

Species about 25.—Tropical and subtropical.

1. Base of involucel rounded ai noel, C. Octlorus:

2. Base of involucel turbinate is ww. 2: C. catharticus.

1. Cenchrus biflorus, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 233; Cke. ii, 917; Achariyar

S. Ind. Grass. (1921), 121—For synonymy see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 89.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Sind: Karachi (Woodrow); Jamadarka Landa, near Karachi

(Stocks) ; Jamesabad, in fields (Sabnis B1110!); Umerkot, sandy plains

(Sabnis B1081!); Nasarpur, clayey soil (Sabnis B1051!) ; Mirpur Sakro

(Blatter and McCann D627!) ; Tatta (Blatter and McCann D628 !).—Gujarat :

Kharaghoda, under trees (Saxton 1064!); Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !, Cooke) ;

Morvi (Woodrow).—Khandesh : Bhusawal, Tapti (McCann 5154!) ; Umalla,

Tapti Bank (Blatter and Hallberg 5158!) ; Kaperkhedo, Bori River (Blatter and

Hallberg 433 !).

Distribution: Punjab, Rajputana, Gangetic Plain, W. Peninsula, Balu-

chistan, Arabia, Africa.

2. Cenchrus catharticus, Del. Cat. Hort. Monsp. (1838); Schlecht. Linnea

xiii (1839) Litt. p. 103; Cke. ii, 918; Hitchcock and Chase in Contrib. U.S.

Nat. Herb. xx (1920), 53, fig.8; Achariyar S. Ind. Grass. (1921), 122.--For

synonyms see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 90.

Description: Cke. ii, 918.

Locality : Sind ; Karachi (Burns !) ; Gharo (Blatter and McCann D629 ).—

Gujarat : Ahmedabad, sandy ground (Sedgwick !) ; Sumrasar, Cutch (Blatter

3762!) ; Perim Island, at the mouth of the Narbada River (Raoji).—K/handesh -

Bor, Bori River (Blatter and Hallberg 5115 !).

Distribution: Punjab, Gangetic Plain, W. Peninsula, Bellary, Nellore,

Arabia, tropical Africa,

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

61. ISACHNE, R. Br. Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl. (1810), 196 ;

Cke. ii, 922.

For discussion of the genus see: Chase Genera Panicez. iv. Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington 24 (1911), 149 and Hitchcock North Americ. Species of Isachne in

Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 22 (1920), 115.

Key in Cke. ii, 922.

1. Isachne Lisboae, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii (1896), 22 ; Cke. ii, 922.

Description : Cke. 1. c.

Locality : Deccan : Mahableshwar, elevation 4,000 ft., rainfall 270 inches

(Sedgwick and Bell 4581!), Fitzgerald Ghat, Mahableshwar (Woodrow !),

common near the lake (McCann!); Panchgani, First Tableland (Blatter and

Hallberg!), very common on Tableland (McCann !).

Distribution : This species is very local, inhabiting apparently only the

Panchgani and Mahableshwar plateaux.

2. Isachne elegans Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. (1861), 291 ; Hook. f.

in FBI. vii, 23 = Cke ai, "923:

Description : Cke. 1.c.—We have found specimens reaching the following

dimensions : Stem 90 cm. ; leaves 25 by 1 cm., or broader, sparingly hairy or

almost villous ; panicle 25 by 15 or more cm.

Locality : Konkan: Pen, in inundated land (Dalzell).—Deccan : Margins of

rivulets in the Deccan (Dalzelland Gibson) ; Mahableshwar, elevation 4,000

ft., rainfall 270 inches (Sedgwick and Bell 4583!) ; Panchgani, Tableland,

forming, large patches (Blatter 5080!) ; Sinhagad forest (Bhide!) ; Nasrapur

to Purandhar (Bhide 1001!) ; Purandhar, N. foot (McCann 5048!) ; Lohagad

Fort, top (McCann 9560!) ; Khandala, behind hotel (McCann 9555 !); Lonavla

(Woodrow 175) ; Ganeshkhind Gardens (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; between

Poona and Karli (Jacquemont 556).—S.47. Country : Dharwar, rice fields,

elevation 2,500 ft. (Sedgwick 1829!).—Kanara: Halyal, rice fields (Talbot

2305 !).—Usually forming large mats in damp soft soil, and then not growing

very tall.

Distribution : So far endemic.

3. Isachne australis, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 196; Cke. ii, 923.—For synonyms

see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 923.

Description ; Cke.l.c.

Locality : Gujarat : (Lisboa).—Konkan : Nagotna, in dry plains (Gammie

16064!); Kharda (Ryan 565!) ; Bhandup (McCann 9841!); Matunga to

Mahim (McCann 9842!) ; Andheri (McCann 5129!) ; Sion (McCann 5244 !) ;

Pen (McCann 5390 !) ; Alibag, rice fields (Ezekiel !); Mulgaum, tank (McCann

5103!) ; Matheran, Charlotte Lake (D’Almeida A247 !).—Deccan: Khandala,

common (McCann 9840 !) ; Sakarpathar, Lonavla (Gammie 15961 !) ; Igatpuri

(Blatter and Hallberg 4308!) ; Poona (Lisboa) ; Mahableshwar (Woodrow) ;

Nasik (lisboa).—S.47. Country : Dharwar District, rice fields, elevation 1,800

ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgewick 3737!) ; Kunnur, marshes, elevation 2,000 ft.,

rainfall 25 inches (Sedgwick and Bell 4936!) ; Londa (Bhide!).—Kazara :

Karwar (Bell !) ; Gohann (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona !) ; Halyal (Talbot 2160 !);

Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg and McCann A119!) ; Yellapore (Talbot 1521 !) ;

Kadgal (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona !).

Distribution « All over India, Australia, New Zealand.

4. Isachne miliacea, Roth. Nov. Pl. Sp. (1821), 58; Cke. ii, 923.-—For syno-

nyms see Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 25.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan : (Woodrow).—Deccan : Lonavla (Woodrow) ; Maha-

bleshwar, in forests, fairly common in one spot (McCann !).— Kanara : Sulgeri,

500 ft., rainfall 200 inches (Sedgwick and Bell 4248 !) ; Yellapore (Talbot 1522!);

Gersoppa Falls, Mysore side (McCann & Hallberg A23!).

Distribution : More or less throughout India, Ceylon, China, Malay and

Pacific Islands, S. America.

62. ARUNDINELLA, Raddi Agrost. Brasil. (1823), 37 ; Cke. ii, 999.

Species about 55.—In the tropics.

Cooke describe: 12 species from the Bombay Presidency. We retain them

all except that we change A. agrostuvides, Trin. into A. ciliata, Nees, and A.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 231

brasiliensis into A. hispida, O. Ktze. To the 12 species we add another: 4.

villosa, Wight & Arn.

Key atter Che. 12, 999.

A. Upper floral glume with 3 awns.

I. Leaves less than 10cm. long Annuals

1. A straggling grass. Leaves glabrous

or sparsely hairy... 1, A, avenacea.

2. An erect grass. Leaves hispid with bul-

bous-based hairs . 2. A. tuberculata.

II. Leaves 15-30 cm. long. Perennials 3. Al. setosa,

B. Upper floral glume with 1 awn

I. Spikelets 15-2 mm. long 4. A. tenella.

II. Spikelets 2°5-3mm.

1. Stem scarcely 15cm. high. Leaves 2°5-

4 cm. long we . . A, pygmed,

2. Stem exceeding 15 cm.

a, Stem reaching 45 cm. Leaves 2°5-10

cm. long; they and the sheaths

clothed with long soft hairs 6. A. ciliata.

6. Stem reaching 90 cm. Leaves 10- 15

cm. long ; they and the sheaths gla-

brous or nearly SO a ee a te eLZie.

¢. Stem reaching 4 ft. Leaves 20-30 cm.

long, sparsely hairy; sheaths gla-

brous or nearly so er tout Ob vd’ LL Ow2t.,

III. Spikelets 4-6 mm. long

1. Panicle branched

a. Rootstock hard, creeping, not tuber-

ous. Rhachis of panicle angular, gla-

brous 9. A. hispida.

6. Rootstock tuberous. Rhachis of panicle

filiform, scabertilous a . 10. A. capillaris.

2. Panicle spicate

a. Leaves 2°5-4 cm, long ve .. ll. A. spicata.

6. Leaves 10-20-30 cm. long ... oo 120° A. vellosa.

C. Upper floral glume without awn ... .. 13. A. gigantea.

1. Arundinella avenacea, Munro ex Thw. Enum, Pl. Ceyl. (1864), 362; Hook.

f. in F. B. I. vii, 69 ; Cke. ii, 1000 (avenacea per err.).—A. Campbelliana, Lisb.

in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1891), 346.—4. malabarica, Heyne ex Hook.

t. a. B. I. vii (1897), 69.— Azra, no. 3, Griff. Notul. iii, 55, Ic. Pl. Asiat. t.

146. f. iii.

Description: Cke. ii, 1000.—This grass in its young state resembles A.

spicata so much, that it can easily be mistaken for that species.

Locality ; Konkan ; Ratnagiri (Woodrow).—Deccan : Mahableshwar, very

common, 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4510!, Lisboa); Panch-

gani (Blatter 5383!), Tiger’s Path (Blatter & Hallberg Bi255!) ; Khandala,

very common ets 9604!) ; Tiger Leap near Lonavala (Woodrow).—

S. M. Country ; Ram Ghat (Ritchie 890).—Kanara : Castle Rock (McCann

9854 !, Woodrow, Bhide!) ; Anmod, 1,800 ft., rainfall 200 inches (Sedgwick

3253 1): Tinai Ghat, 1,869 ft, rainfall 250 inches (Sedgwick 3269!) ; Yellapore

(Talbot 1035 !) ; Supa (Talbot 2487 !) ; Kumberwada (Talbot 2255 !) ; Karwar

Polo 1302 !) ; Katgal (Hallberg & McCann A165!) ; Devimane (McCann

36 !),

Distribution : Khasia, Burma, W Peninsula, Ceylon.

2. Arundinella tuberculata, Munro ex Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

v (1891), 344 ; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 69 ; Cke. ii, 1000 : Janowski in Bot.

Archiv i (1922), 24.

Description ; Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan : Vasco da Gama (Bhide !).--Deccan : Panchgani, slopes

below Third Tableland (Blatter & Hallberg 1232!) ; Pasarni Ghat (Blatter &

Hallberg 1306!) ; Poona (Woodrow).—S. MM. Country : Dry hills between

Yelvigi and Savanur, 1,900 ft., rainfall 25-30 inches (Sedgwick 1959 !),—

932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Kanara : Manoli (Talbot 3979!) ; Jog to Siddhapur, open grass land, rocky

soil (McCann 9856 !) ; Katgal, open grass land (Hallberg & McCann A164 }) ;

Karwar, open grass land (Hallberg & McCann A163 !). .

Distribution : Central India.

3. Arundinella setosa, Trin. Gram. Panic. (1826), 63; Hook. f. in F. B. I.

vii, 70; Cke. ii, 1001; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 13 ; Janowski in Bot. Archiv

i (1922), 24.—A. hirsuta, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram.115 ; Hohen. Pl. Ind. Or.

no. 920.—A. stricta, Nees in Hook. Kew Journ. ii (1850), 102 ; Dalz. & Gibs.

292,

Description « Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan: Near Bombay (Ritchie).—Kanara : Dandeli (Talbot

2266!) ; Gersoppa Falls, on rocks in river bed (McCann A166 !, A162!),

Distribution : W. Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Bihar, Central India, Nilgiris,

Ceylon, Tonkin, China, Philippines. ‘

4. Arundinella tenella, Nees & Wight ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, pt. 1 (1840). 143 ;

Dalz. & Gibs. 292 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 13; Lisb. in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. v (1891), 345; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 71 ; Cke. ii, 1001.—Amema.

grostis tenella, Wight ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i (1854), 115.—Arundinella

pumila, Steud, l.c.—Acratherum pumilum, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. FI.

Abyss. ii (1851), 414, t. 100.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1001.

Locality : Khandesh ; Toranmal (McCann 9594!).—Konkan ; Pen (McCann

5502!) ; Bombay (Lambert).—Deccan - Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., rainfall 200

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4522!) ; common under the shade of trees (Dalzell,

Cooke, Woodrow, Lisboa) ; Panchgani (Blatter 3798!), Maratha Well (Blatter

& Hallberg B1222!) ; Karli and Khandala (Jacquemont 631) ; Khandala, very

common (McCann 5354!) ; Lonavla (Gammie!, Woodrow); Purandhar

(McCann 5013!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 5354).—Kanara ;- Yellapore, 2,000 ft.,

rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick 3125 !) ; Haiyal (Talbot 2553!) ; Dandeli (Talbot

2268!) ; Tinai (Talbot 2576 !).--A very ornamental grass, found commonly

throughout the hilly parts of the Presidency.

Distribution : W. Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Bihar, Central India, W. Penin-

sula, Abyssinia.

5. Arundinella pygmaea, Hook. f. in F.B.I.’ vii; (1896), 72 ; “Cke. ii, 1002;

Janowski in Bot. Archiv i (1922), 25. :

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality ; Konkan : Crest of W. Ghats (Woodrow).—Deccan : In public

garden, Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., rainfall270 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4619!) ;

Khandala (McCann 5318 !) ; Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5143 !).—Kanara :

N. Kanara (Lisboa).

Distribution : Endemic.

6. Arundinella ciliata, Nees ex Miq. in Verh. Nederl. Ind. iii, iv (1851), 30; -

Janowski in Bot. Archiv i (1922), 25.—Afolcus cilzatus, Roxb. FI. Ind. i (1820),

318.—Arundinella agrostoides, Trin. Ic. xxiii (1828-36) t 265; Cke. ii, 1002.—

A. agrostoides var. ciliata, Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 71.—Byrandtia holcotdes

ae ee Gram, ii (1835), 127, t. 170.—FPerotis polystachya Heyne ex Hook.

fo Wess,

Description : Cke. ii, 1002.

Locality : Konkan : (Wight).— We have not seen any specimens.

Distribution : India, Philippines.

7. Arundinella Metzii, Hochst. in Miq. Anal. Bot. Ind. pt. 2 (1851), 19;

Steud. Syn. Gram. 116, excl. syn. Roxb. ; Cke. ii, 1003.—Agvrostis fusca,

Heyne ex Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 72.—Arundinella agrostoides, Trin. var.

tenella, Herb. Ind. Or. Hook. f. & Th. ex Hook. f. l.c.

Description : Cke. ii, 1003.

Locality : Deccan: Lonavla (Woodrow).—S. MW. Country : Devarayi, 1,800

ft., rainfall 90 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4474!).—Kanara : Yellapore, 2,000 ft.

rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick 3469!) ; Sunksal, rocky bank of a stream in

evergreen forest 500 ft., rainfall 150 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 5040!) ; Birchy

(Talbot 2105 !, 2116!, 2488!) ; Dandeli (Talbot 2268 !).

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 233

Distribution : W. Peninsula.

8. Arundinella Lawii, Hook.f. in Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v (1900), 180; Cke. ii,

1003.— A. agrostoides, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii (1896), 71, partim.

Description : Cke.l.c.

Locality: Konkan: (Woodrow 35!) ; N. & S. Konkan (Law).

Distribution : W, Peninsula, Ceylon.

9, Arundinella hispida, O. Ktze Rev. Gen. (1891), 761; Janowski in Bot.

Archiv i (1922), 26.—<Andropogon hispidus, Willd. Sp. Pl. iv (1805), 908.—

Ischemum hispidum, H.B.K. Nov. Gen. et Sp. i (1815), 194.—<Arundinella

brasiliensis, Raddi Agrost. Brasil. (1823), 37, t. 1, fig. 3; Trin. Diss. ii, 62, Sp.

Gram. Ic. t. 266 ; Hook. f.in F.B.1. vii, 73 ; Cke. ii, 1003.—A. pallida, Nees

Agrost. Brasil. (1829), 465.—Acratherium miliaceum, Link Hort. Berol. ii

(1841), 234.—Orthopogon agrostoides, ‘Trev. ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, ii (1841),

234.—Andropogon virens, Spreng. Syst. i (1825), 287.—Arundinella Mtkani,

Nees l.c. 465.—Goldbachia Mikani, ‘Trin. in Spreng. Neue Entdeck. ii (1821),

81.—Riedelia Mikani, ‘Trin. ex Kunth Enum, Pl. i (1833), 515,— Aira

brasiliensis, Spreng. Syst. i (1825), 278,—lschemum pallidum, Kunth. Enum.

Pl. i (1833), 515.—Arundinella Ritchiet, Munro ex Lisboain Journ. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1891), 343.—Afolcus nervosus, Roxb. F1. Ind. i (1820), 318.—

Arundinella nepalensis, Trin. Sp. Gram. (1828), t. 268 ; Duthie Grass. N. W.

Ind. 13 ; Lisboa l.c. 343.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1003.—A most variable plant. See Hook, f. in F.B.I.

vii, 74.

Locality - Deccan : Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches (Dalzell &

Gibson, Lisboa), in astream (Sedgwick & Bell 4543!) ; Panchgani (Wood-

row) ; Khandala (Saxton 1205!, Lisboa) ; Lonavla (Hallberg 9660 !, Garade!,

Lisboa).—-Kanara ; Castle Rock, on banks of Duoki River, 1,900 ft. (McCann

4855!) ; Kalanudi to Supa, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick & Bell

4872!) ; Yellapore, ina gravelly stream bed, 2,000 ft., rainfall 100 inches

(Sedgwick 3126!) ; Sumpkhund, in river bed (Hallberg & McCann A159!) ;

Dandeli (Talbot 2241 !).

Distribution : ‘Throughout the hilly parts of India, China, Malaya,

Australia, tropical America.

10. Arundinella capillaris, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii (1896), 74; Cke. ii, 1004.—

A. mutica, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. (1855), 116.—<Andropogon capillaris,

Herb. Heyne ex Hook, f.in F.B.I. 1.c. 75.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan; Parel, Bombay. Island (Woodrow).—N. Kanara: Kala-

nudi (Woodrow).

We doubt the occurrence of this species in the Bombay Presidency.

Woocrow gives two localities, but neither Cooke nor we have seen his speci-

mens. Lisboa (Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1891), 8) calls this plant

common all over Bombay. If it is really common it is strange that we should

never have metit.

Distribution ;: W. Peninsula.

11. Arundinella spicata, Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. (1861), 293; Hook.

f, in F.B.I. vii (1896), 77, sub speciebus indeterminadb, ; Cke. ii, 1004.

Description ; Cke. 1.c.

Locality ; Deccan: Mahableshwar, common in open localities, 4,500 ft.,

rainfall 270 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4508 !), common on the Mahableshwar

Hills (Dalzell & Gibson, Woodrow, Cooke) ; Panchgani, very common on the

Tablelands (Blatter 3797 !, McCann !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula ; so far endemic.

12. Arundinella villosa, Wight & Arn, ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.i (1854),

115; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 72 cum omnibus varietatibus.—.A. Hookeri, Munro

ex Look; f. 1.c..73.

Description : Stem 30-40 cm. high, tufted, slender, stiff, leafy at the villous

base, villous below the panicles. Leaves 10-20 cm. by 2-2°5 mm., strict, rather

rigid, glabrous, tomentose or villous. Ligules of long hairs. Panicle very

narrow, 5-10 cm. long, spiciform, rhachis villous; branches 12-18 mm. long,

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1/

brown. Spikelets subdistichously crowded, spreading or erect, 5-6 mm. long,

setosely hirsute. Lower involucral glume $ of upper, long-pointed, 3-5-nerved,

upper involucral glume subaristately long-pointed, 5-nerved. Lower floral

glume sharp-pointed, 5-nerved, neuter or male ; upper oblong-lanceolate, very

minutely scaberulous, rounded at the tip, sometimes 2-dentate, awn not twice

as long as the spikelet, column of awn included, twisted.

The leaves vary a good deal as to their size. In addition to the measure-

ments given above, the following have been observed : 30cm. by 8 min. and

5-15 cm. by 6-8 mm.

Locality ;: Deccan > Khandala (McCann 9602A !, 9002B !).

Distribution : E. Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Central India, Deccan Peninsula,

Ceylon.

13, Arundinella gigantea, Dalz. in Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. (1861), 293 ;

Hook. f. in F,B.1. vii (1896), 76 ; Cke. ii, 1005.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan; (Stocks); Kineshvar below the Ghats (Dalzell and

Gibson).—S. 47. Country: Londa (Bhide!) ; Devarayi (Sedgwick 4474 !).—

Kanara: Castle Rock, in shade (McCann 9853!, Gammie 15668!); Dudsagar

Falls (McCann A174!) ; Nagergali, forests, 1,800 ft., rainfall 80 inches (Sedg-

wick 2921!); Birchy (Talbot 2250!) ; Dandeli (Talbot 2593!) ; ‘Tinai Ghat

(Talbot 2626!) ; Jugglepet (Talbot 1387!) ; Supa (Talbot 2493!) ; Karwar

(Hallberg and McCann Al61!) ; Gersoppa Falls, on rocks in river bed (Hall-

berg and McCann A160!) ; Yellapore (Sedgwick 3469 !, Talbot !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula; so far endemic.

63. TRISTACHVA, Nees.

1. Tristachya barbata, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Gram. (1856), 238; Boiss. FI.

Or. v (1881), 552; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 32; Hoox.f. in F.B.I. vii, 272 ;

Cke. ii, 1005. — 7. Stockszi, Boiss. 1.c.; Munro in Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 168 ;

Duthie Fodd. Grass. N.Ind. 51.—JLaudetia barbata, A. Braun in Flora xxiv

(1841) ii, 714.—Sorghum barbatum, Hochst. & Steud. Pl. Arab. Exsic.

No. 788 ex Hook. f. l.c.

Description : Cke.1.c.

Locality : Sind: (Stocks 1217, 648 ex Cooke).

Distribution : Arabia, Nubia.

64. ‘THYSANOLAENA, Neesin Edinb. N. Philos. Journ. xviii (1835), 180.

Cooke has one species: Thysanol@na Agrostis, Nees. We changeit into

7. procera, Mez.

1. Thysanoleéna procera, Mez. in Janowski. Bot. Archiv i (1922), 27.—

Agrostis procera. Retz. Obs. iv (1779), 19.—A7elica latifolza, Roxb. Hort. Beng.

(1814), 8.—Agrostis latifolia, Heyne ex Hook. f.in F.B I. vii, 61.—Agrostis

maxima, Roxb, Fl. Ind. i (1820), 319.—Z7hysanolena maxima, O Ktze. Rev.

Gen. ii (1891), 794.—Panicum acariferum, Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic.i (1828), 87.—

Thysanolena acarifera, Nees and Arn. in Nov. Act. Leopold. xix, Suppl. i

(1843), 181 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. v (1890), 347; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 13, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 21.—7. Agrostis, Nees in Edinb.

N. Phil. Journ. xviii (1835), 180; Hook.f. in F.B.I. vii, 61; Cke. ii, 1006.—

Myriachaeta arundinacea, Zoll. & Mor. Syst. Verz. Zoll. (1845-46). 101.—

M. glauca, Mor. ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i (1854), 404.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1006. :

Locality: Gujarat: In bed of nalla (Sedgwick and Bell 5393!) ; Bansda,

Surat District (Woodrow).—handesh - (Lisboa) ; Chanseli to Dadgaum, in a

dry nalla (McCann 9589!) ; Dangs (Woodrow).— Konkan . Victoria Gardens,

Bombay (McCann 9846!); Thana (Lisboa).— Deccan: Ganeshkhind Botanic

Gardens (McCann 9847 !) ; Nasik (Lisboa).

Distribution : Throughout India, Penang, eastwards to New Guinea.

65. *Avena, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 79; Gen. Pl. Ed. 5 (1754), 34.

Annual or perennial herbs, low or moderately tall. Panicles narrow or open,

usually rather few-flowered of usually large spikelets. Spikelets 2-several-

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 235

flowered ; rhachiila bearded, disarticulating above the involucral glumes and

between the flowering glumes. Involucral glumes about equal, membranous

or papery, several-nerved, longer than the lower floret, usually exceeding the

upper floret. Floral glumes indurate, except toward the summit, 5-9-nerved,

bidentate at the apex, bearing a dorsal bent and twisted awn, which is straight

and reduced in Avena sativa.

The genus as just described does not include 7rvzsetum, Pers. as is the case

in Hook. f.’s Avena in F.B.I. vii, 274.

Species about 55. Chiefly temperate regions. One species cultivated in the

Presidency.

*1, Avena sativa, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 79.— The Common Oat,

An annual grass. Stems erect, tufted, smooth, 1°2 m. high. Blades flat, up

to 30 cm. high and 12 mm, wide, scabrous, especially on the margins ; ligule

membranaceous, truncate, 1-3 mm. long, toothed or serrate, decurrent along

the margin of the sheath ; sheaths smooth, striate, the lower rather papery.

Panicle open or more or less contracted, erect or nodding, sometimes 1-sided,

the pedicels thickened atthe apex. Spikelets large, drooping, variable in

size, but usually about 20-25 mm. long ; involucral glumes strongly several-

nerved, membranaceous, acuminate, scabrous, containing usually 2 florets;

floral glumes smooth or slightly hairy at the base, teeth acute but not awned,

the dorsal awn absent or, if present, usually straight and not much longer than

the involucral glumes, often present only onthe lower floret, pale enclosed by

the inrolled margin of the glume, densely short-ciliate on the 2 keels.— The

florets do not easily disarticulate, which condition is probably due to cultivation.

Locality : Very little cultivated in the Presidency. Has been grown at

Hyderabad (Sind), also at military grass farms for military horses at Ahmed-

nagar and elsewhere.

Grows best in the cold weather and always under irrigation.

For a useful introduction to the study of oats see: Herbert Hunter. Oats,

their varieties and characteristics. London, 1924.

66. COEBLACHNE, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 187.

A small, leafy, variable marsh grass. Leaves short, flat or convolute. Spike-

lets 2-flowered (both flowers perfect or upper imperfect) in open or contracted

or spiciform panicles, not articulate on the pedicels, not awned. Rhachilla

jointed at the base, produced between the lower and upper floral glume but not

beyond the upper. Lower involucral glume suborbicular, concave, obtuse and

delicately nerved ; upper smaller, more oblong, both persistent. Lower floral

glume much longer, subsessile, coriaceous, glabrous, except the shortly bearded

callus, pale as long, coriaceous; upper much smaller and pale more or less

hairy. Stamens 3; anthers long, narrow. Ovary ovoid ; stigmas free. Grain

free within the glume and pale.

Tropical Asia, Australia, Madagascar

1. Ccelachne pulchella, R. Br. Prodr. (18]0), 187 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 270.

Description : Stems 15-45 cm. high, flaccid, decumbent or ascending, slender

or rather stout, leafy up tothe panicle. Leaves uniform throughout the stem,

1-2°5 cm. long, lanceolate, subulate, acuminate, distant or subequitantiy

sheathing, ecostate, minutely scaberulous above, nerves striate; ligule a few

hairs. Panicle very various. Spikelets 1-2°5 mm. long, sessile or pedicelled,

globose or ovoid. Lower involucral glumes suborbicular or hemispheric,

many-nerved, membranous or herbaceous. Lower floral glume hermaphro-

dite, coriaceous, dorsally rounded, nerves 0 or very obscure, pale, coriaceous ;

margins incurved ; upper much the smallest, often imperfect, neuter or female.

Locality : Deccan: Mahableshwar, by the lake, 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 4851 !).--S. 47. Country : Roadside near Khanapur, 2,500 ft.,

rainfall 60 inches (Sedgwick 2960 !).—Aanara : Kumbmoada (Talbot 2273!) ;

Karwar, in wet fields (McCann !) ; Sirsi to Siddhapur, in fields (Hallberg &

McCann A47 !) ; Castle Rock, in a marsh (Bhide!, McCann !).

Distribution : Of the genus.

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

67. DantHonia, Lam. & DC. FI. Franc. 3 (1805), 32 ; Hitchcock Genera

of Grass. of Unit. St. in Bull. 772 Unit. St. Dept. Agric. (1920), 118.

Annual or perennial grasses, tufted, low or moderately tall. Panicle few-

flowered, open or spike: like of rather large spikelets. Spikelets 3-many-flowered,

with the uppermost florets reduced, erect, not jointed on their pedicels. Rha-

chilla hairy, readily disarticulating above the involucral glumes and between

the flowering glumes, produced beyond the uppermost glume. Lower involu-

cral glumes empty, subequal, as long as the whole spikelet, persistent, keeled,

acute or acuminate, 3-9-(rarely 1-) nerved. Flowering glumes dorsally rounded.

ciliate, 7-9-nerved, 2-fid, lobes acute, usually extending into slender awns, a

stout awn arising in che sinus; awn flat, tightly twisted below, geniculate,

exserted, including 3 nerves of the glume; pale broad. Lodicules 2, fleshy.

Stamens 3. Styles free. Grain free within the membranous or hardened glume

and pale.

Species about 100.—In the temperate regions of both hemispheres, especially

abundant in S. Africa.

1. Danthonia Gammiei, Bhide in Journ. & Proc. As. Soc. Beng. new series, vii

(1911) 253.

Description : Stem 10-60 cm. high, nodes glabrous. Leaves linear, glabrous

below, sparsely long-ciliate above, 2°5-7°5 cm. by 2°5-3 mm., base rounded ;

ligule a very narrow, truncate, fimbriate membrane ; sheaths glabrous; upper

leaves very much reduced in size. Peduncle and rhachis hairy; panicle lax,

racemose, 2°5-5 cm. by 12-16 mm. Spikelets few, short-pedicelled, about

18 mm. long excluding the awns. Involucral glumes empty, lanceolate,

acuminate, lower one strongly 5-nerved, dorsally rounded, glabrous, subscoria-

ceous, margins membranous ; upper one by 3 shorter than the lower, membran-

ous, 3-nerved. Lower floral glume without the awns much smaller than the

involucral glumes, terete, convolute, 7-9-nerved, dorsally villous all over,

2-dentate with a stout broad median awn ; column of awn golden yellow, twisted

and shining, tail minutely scabrid, dorsally narrowly 2-channelled ; teeth

produced into small slender awns reaching as far as the column of the median

awn, with a fringe of long white hairs at the junction of the lateral awns with

the glume; rhachilla produced and terminating in a minute, ciliate, awned or

awnless barren glume (upper floral glume); lodicules membranous, half as

long as the anthers, oblong, emarginate. Stamens 3. Styles 2, distinct.

Anthers and plumose stigmas protruding from the top of flowering glume.

Locality : Kanara : Castle Rock (Gammie!) ; Jog to Siddhapur, open grass

land on rocky soil (McCann A50!, A51!); Mirjan, laterite flats (Hallberg

A49 !).

Distribution - So far endemic.

68. PHRAGMITES, Adans. Fam. Pl. ii (1763), 34, 559; Cke. ii, 1006

(Phragmites, Trin.).

Some European authors have taken up 7zrichoon, Roth. Archiv. Bot. Roemer

i, pt. 3 (1798), 37 as antedating Phragmites, Trin. Fund. Agrost. (1820), 134.

The latter name, however, dates from Adanson (1763) and should be retained.

Cf. M. L. Fernald. The Generic name Phragmites in Rhodora 24 (1922), 55-56.

Also: Hitchcock. Genera of Grass. Unit. St. in Bull. 772 Unit. St. Dept. Agric.

1920), 64.

: Spaniee 3. One in tropical Asia, one in S. America and one cosmopolitan.

1. Phragmites Karka, Trin. ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, pt. ii (1841), 324; Cke. ii,

1007.— For synonyms see Hook. f. vii, 304.

Description : Cke. lic.

Locality: Sind: Keti (Blatter & McCann D652!, D653!); Tatta, Kullan

Kote Lake (Blatter & McCann D654!).. Gujarat: Mahals-Dangs, by a stream,

800 ft., rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 5390 !) ; Anjar, Cutch (Blatter

3740 !).—Khandesh: Bhusawal, N. E. Tapti River (Blatter & Hallberg 4436 !) ;

Chanseli Hill, N. slope, watercourse (McCann A44 !, A45 !) —Deccan - Dhond

(Woodrow).—S. W. Country : Banks of Warda River, Bangalore Road, 1,800

ft., rainfall 33 inches (Sedgwick 2092 !); Haveri (Talbot 2178 !, 2198 !).— Kanara:

Supa, 2,100 ft. (Talbot 2195 !).

mee VISLON OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 237

Distribution : More or less throughout India, tropical Asia, Afghanistan,

Japan, Australia, Africa.

200 Se ARUN DO, int. opr bl. (755), ol, Gen. Pl; ed.:5 (1754), 35.

Tall, stout, perennial grasses with broad linear blades and large plume-like

terminal panicles. Spikelets 2—7-flowered, laterally compressed, in large decom-

pound. panicles ; flowers mostly bisexual; rhachilla disarticulating above the

involucral glumes and between the flowering glumes, joints short, glabrous.

Involucral glumes equal, broadiy lanceolate, shortly acuminate, keeled,

membranous, 3-5-nerved. Floral glumes more or less equalling the involucral

glumes, ovate to lanceolate-ovate, acuminate, finely bifid or entire, long-hairy

below, 5-9-nerved, 3 nerves more or less percurrent or excurrent, the rest short,

the middle nerve often produced into a short, fine bristle ; callus short, shortly

bearded. Pales slightly exceeding 3 the length of the floral glume, 2-keeled.

Lodicules 2, obovate, nerved, glabrous. Stamens 3. Ovary glabrous; styles

distinct, almost as long as the laterally exserted plumose stigmas. Grain

obovoid-oblong, broad, loosely enclosed in the floral glume and pale; hilum

basal, punctiform ; embryo occupying almost wholly one side of the grain.

*1. Arundo Donax, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 81.—For synonyms see Hook. f. in

iB, 1. vii, 303:

Description : Stem creeping below, erect, 1-3 m. high, smooth, hollow, very

many-noded, simple or scantily branched, internodes slightly exceeded by the

sheaths, these very tight, firm, smooth. Blades linear-lanceolate from a broad

base, long-tapering to a very fine point, more or less drooping, 30-60 cm. long,

2-5cm. broad, smooth. Panicles erect, 30-60 cm. long ; branches scaberulous,

erect or drooping ; spikelets 8-10 mm. long, light brown. Involucral glumes

glabrous ; floral ones 6-10 mm. long; hairs 5-6 mm. long. Anthers 3 mm.

long. Grain 2°5 mm. by almost 1 mm.

Locality: Often grown in gardens.

Distribution : Lower Himalaya, Punjab, Naga, Nilgiri and Coorg Hills, N.

Asia, N. Africa, Europe.

70. PotvpoGon, Desf. Fl. Atlant. i (1798), 66 ; Hook. f.

in F.B.I. vii, 245

Annual or perennial, usually decumbent grasses, with flat blades. Spikelets

1-flowered, minute, jointed (but persistent) on the pedicels, laterally compress-

ed, keeled, densely crowded on the short branches of a spiciform or lobed

panicle ; rhachilla not produced beyond the lower floral glume. Glumes 3.

Involucral glumes equal, concave, keeled, bifid, notched or entire, with a

slender awn below the tip or in the sinus. Lower floral glume much smaller,

hyaline, sessile, truncate, toothed, awned or not; pale small, 2-nerved.

Lodicules 2, falcate. Stamens 1-3; anthers small. Ovary glabrous ; styles

free. Grain obovoid, free within the glume and pale.

Species about 10.—Temperate regions of the world, chiefly in the Eastern

Hemisphere.

1. Polypogoa Monspeliensis, Desf. Fl. Atlant. i (1798), 66.—For synonyms see

Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 245.

Description: Stems tufted, 10-69 cm. high, stout or slender, leafy, base

geniculate. Leaves 7-15 by 3-6 mm., green, ligule oblong. Panicle J-15 cm.

by 6-10 mm. broad, pale yellowish green, silky, sometimes lobulate from the

projecting branches. Spikelets 1-2 mm. long, minutely pubescent, very shortly

pedicelled. Involucral glumes very variable in breadth, obovate-oblong, sides

scaberulous, keels scabrid, margins ciliate, tip entire, notched or very shortly

2-fid ; awns from the length of the glume to 8 mm. long, excessively delicate.

Lower floral glume very small, oblong, glabrous, 2-fid, awned or not; pale

oblong, tip notched. Anthers very minute, short. Ovary ovoid. .

Locality : Sind : Sukkur (Bhide !). Shikarpur (Bhide !)

Distribution : Tropical and temperate regions.

71, HELEocHLOA, Host. Gram. Austr. i (1801), 23 ;

Cke. ii, 1011.

Species about 7.—Mediterranean-oriental.

1. Panicles less than 2°5 em. long Sid oe Le &. schaenoides.

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIM

2. Panicles reaching 8 cm. as of .. 2 , dura.

1. Heleochloa schoenoides, Host. Gram. Austr. i (1801), 23, t. 30; Cke. ii,

1011.—For synonyms see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 235.

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Sind: Bhubak (Cooke !).

Distribution : Punjab, W. Himalaya, Kashmir, Bundelkhand, westwards to

the Atlantic.

2. Heleochloa dura, Boiss. Fl. Or. v (1881), 477 ; Cke. ii, 1011.—For synonyms

see Hook. f. in F B.I. vii, 236.

Description : Cke. l.c,

Locality » Sind: Salt-water creeks (Stocks 455) ; Gholam in Indus Delta

(Blatter and McCann D688 !).

Distribution : Arabia.

72. GaRNOTIA, Brogn. ; Cke. ii, 1012.

1. 5-20 cm. high, growing on trees. Leaves 2°5-5

cm. long l. G. arborum

2. 30-60 cm. high. "Leaves 7-20 cm. long ps adit Gre SEPLCIG:

Garnotia arborum, Stapf ex Woodrow in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii

901), 439 ; Cke. ii, 1013.

Description : Cke. Le.

Locality : Igatpuri (McCann 4598 !) ; Lonavla (Gammie 15501!) ; on trees

at Nandgaon on the crest of the Ghats 10 miles S. of Lonavla (Woodrow 30) ;

Kalsubai Hill, under a steep rock (Patwardhan 1189 !).

Distribution : Apparently endemic.

2. Garnotia stricta, Brogn. in Duperr. Voy. Bot. (1829), 133, t. 21; Cke. ii,

1013;

Description ; Cke.l.c.

Locality : Konkan ; Pen (McCann 5501!) ; Kalyan (Talbot !) ; between

Neral and Karjat (Woodrow).—Deccan : Khandala, St. Mary’s Villa, on root

(McCann A299!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 4589!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hall-

berg B1283 ! ; B1305!).—Kanara : Top of Guddhelli (Hallberg & McCann

A303 !) ; Gersoppa Falls (Hallberg & McCann A300 !).

Distribution : Himalayas, Khasia Hills, Bighar, W. Peninsula, Sandwich

Islands.

73." ARISTIDA, Linn, Sp. Pl..(1753) ,.82*5 Ckes 1007.

Species about 150. In the warmer regions of the world.

We shall have to refer repeatedly to the splendid monograph by J. Th.

Henrard : A Critical Revision of the Genus Aristida in Mededeelingen van s’

Rijks Herbarium, Leiden, No. 54 (1926) and No. 54A (1927). So far 2 vols.

have appeared.

Cooke describes 7 species. We retain them and add Avzstida mutabilis,

Trin. & Rupr., and A. pogonoptila, Boiss.

A. Awns without column

I. Involucral glumes not awned ... we Ll. A. Adscénsionts.

II. Involucral glumes awned

1. Spikelets 17 mm. long 2. A. setacea.

2. Spikelets 10 mm. long 3... A, Fiysixrix:

3. Spikelets 6 mm. long 4. A. mutabilis.

B. Awns with a column

- 1, Column of awn articulate on the floral glume

1. Awn plumose

a. Glumes glabrous. Central awn without

anakedtip ... re . 5. A. pogonoptila.

6. Glumes not glabrous. Central awn

with a naked tip a .. 6. A. hirtigluma.

2. Awn not plumose

a. Stems less than 15 cm. high. Lower

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 239

involucral glume 5 mm. long wontds| Ae RYSUVICHLA.

6. Stems reaching 2 ft. high. Lower invo-

lucral glume 22 mm. long 8. A. funiculata.

II. Column of awn not truly articulate on the

floral glume, though readily separating 9. A. redacia.

1. Aristida Adscensionis, Linn. Sp, Pl. (1753), 82; Kunth Enum. PI. i, 190 ;

Steud. Syn. Gram. 139 ; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 294, excl. synonymis aliqui-

bus ; Cke. ii, 1008.—A. abyssinica, Trin. & Rupr. Sp. Gram. Stip. in Act.

Acad. Petrop. ser. vi, v (1842), 134.—A. canariensis, Willd. Enum. (1809),

99.—A. modatica, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. 1855), 139.—A. curvata, Nees var.

abyssinica, Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii (1851), 392.—A. divaricata, Jacq. Eclog.

Gram. (1813), 7, t. 6 (zon Humboldt et Bonpl. zec Lagarca).—A. Heymannt,

Regel in Act. Hort. Petrop. vii, 2 (1881), 649.— A. hystrix, Duthie Fodd. Grass.

N. Ind, 47, t. 31 (wow Linn. f.).—A. aethiopica, Trin. et Rupr. l.c. (1842), 134,

non 167 sicut habet Hook. f.—A. Adscensionis, Linn. var. aethiopica, Hook. f.

in F. B. I. vii, 225.—A. Hhrenbergit, Trin. et Rupr. }.c. (1842), 136.—A. Adscen-

stonts, Linn. var. Ehrenbergit, Henrard l.c. i (1926), 158.—A. festucoides, Poir.

Encyclop. i (1810), 453.—A. Adscenstonis, Linn. var. festucoitdes, Henrard l.c.

i (1926), 177.—A. Adscenstonis, Linn. var. angustifolia, Pilger in Henrard l.c.

i (1926), 9.—A. Adscenstonts, Linn. var. typica, Stapf in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

vii, 224.—A. Adscenstonts, Linn. var. dbvomoides, Henrard l.c. i (1926), 62.—A.

coarctata, H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i (1815), 122.—A. debilis. Mez. in Fedde

Rep. sp. nov. xvii (1921), 151.—A. fasciculata, Torrey in Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist.

New York i, pt. 1 (1824), 154.—A. Grisebachiana, Fournier Mex. PI. pt. ii,

Gram. (1881), 78.—A. Adscensionis, Linn. subsp. guineénsis, Henrard l.c. i

(1926), 216.—A. Hermannt, Mez in Fedde Rep. sp. nov. xvii (1921), 153.—A.

Adscenstonis, Linn. var. humilis, Henrard l.c. (1927), 247.—A. interrupta,

Cav. Ic. v. (1799), 45, t. 471, fig. 2.—A_ luzontensis, Cav. Ic. v (1799), 45, t.

470, fig. 2.—A. Adscensionis, Linn. var. condensata, Henrard }.c. ii (1927),

318.—A. macrochioa, Hochst. in Flora xxxviii (1855), 200.—A. maritima,

Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. (1855), 137.—A. mauritiana, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent.

Fl. Abyss. ii (1851), 392.—A4. mongholica, Trin. & Rupr. lc. (1842), 133.—A.

nana, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. (1855), 137.—A. nigrescens, Presl. Reliq. Haenk.

i (1830), 223.—Chetaria canariensts, P. Beauv. Agrost. 30.

The above is a list of synonyms which have been included by Henrard under

A. Adscensionis, Linn. either as representing the typical plant or as subspecies

and varieties.

The following is a list of synonyms which Hook. f.in the F.B.I. (vii, 224, 225)

had cited under A, Adscensionis, but which have to be excluded according

to Henrard’s recent investigations.

Aristida cerulescens, Desf. Fl. Atl. i (1798), 109, t. 21, f. 2, treated asa

distinct species by Henrard i, 99.—A. chetophylla, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.

(1855), 420, no. 1086.—A. depressa, Retz. Obs. iv (1786), 22 (ex Henrard i, 136).

—A. elatior, Cav. Ic. vi (1799), 65, t. 581, fig. 1 (wom Doell), put by Henrard (p.

161) under A. cerulescens, Desf.—A. gigantea, Linn. f. Suppl. (1781), 113.

Henrard (i, 199) is doubtful about the identity of this species, as he has not seen

the type.—A. Jacguiniana, Tausch in Flora ii (1836), 508, considered by

Henrard (ii, 268) as a distinct species.—A. paniculata, Forskal in Fl. Aegypt.

—Arab. (1775), 25. Hook. f. considers it to be identical with A. Adscensionts

‘ex descript.’ Trinius, however, observes that Forskal’s diagnosis agrees with

nearly all the Aristidas with naked awns. Before we can find Forskal’s type it

will be impossible to place his plant with anything like certainty. (See Henrard

ii, 418).—A. mutabilis var. equilonga, Trin. & Rupr. l.c. (1842), 150. Henrard

l.c. ii (1827), 366 retains A. mutubilis as a distinct species and considers the

specimen mentioned under the variety @guilonga as the type-specimen of 4.

mutabilis.—Chetaria cerulescens, P. Beauv. Roem & Schult. Syst. ii, 294,

identical with A. cerulescens, Desf.—C. depessa, P. Beauv. Agrost. 30.—C.

elatior, P. Beauv. Agrost. 30.—C. gigantea, P. Beauv. Agrost., doubtful.

Description - Cke. ii, 1008.

Note ; Cooke includes under A. Adscensionts the plant called A. depressa,

Retz. Obs. iv (1789), 22 by Dalz. & Gibs. in their Flora of Bombay, and stated

by them to occur ‘on dry hills’. Neither Cooke nor we have seen the speci-

men and so we cannot know whether it is the real Aristida depressa of Retz. or

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

whether it belongs to A. Adscensionis. If itis Retz.’s species we would have

to add A. depressa, Retz. tothe Bombay Flora, as it is considered to bea

species distinct from A. Adscensionis.

For the benefit of botanists who wish to clear up this point we quote

from Henrard, p. 137, where he points out the difference between the two

species. ‘ Well-developed plants (of A. depressa) have sterile innovation-

shoots but the root-system is rather faint and much resembles that of annual

grasses. The blades are thin and setaceously convolute and the panicles are

very loose and open. The spikelets differ from those of 4A. Adscensionis in the

very unequal Jength of the glumes, the lower glumeis about §as long as the

upper and both are moreover very acute, the lower distinctly awned,the upper

without a bifid apex and slightly pointed.’

Locality : Sind; Laki (Bhide!); Schwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis

B612!) ; Umerkot, sand dunes (Sabnis B1075!); Tatta (Blatter & McCann

D626 !), Kullan Kote Lake (Blatter & McCann D625 !).— Gujarat : Ahmedabad

(Saxton 1066!) ; Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 3769!) ; road to Lasandra

(Chibber !) ; Sevalia (Chibber!) ; road to Gogka (Chibber!) ; Jetalsar,

Kathiawar (Woodrow 43).—Khandesh : Bor, Tapti River (Blatter & Hallberg

5412!) ; Toranmal (McCann A230 !).—Deccan : Pashan (Gammie!) ; Manmad

(Blatter 9973 !) ; Happy Valley, Ahmednagar District (Chibber !) ; Panchgani

(Blatter & Hallberg B1315 !) ; Poona (Cooke, Woodrow) ; Bowdhan Hill near

Poona (Woodrow 38).—S. M7. Country ; Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 4346 !) ; Haveri (Talbot 2181!) ; Ranibennur (Jouvhkat !) ;

Gokak Hills (Bhide !).

Distribution : Most warm countries.

2. “Aristida setacea. Retz. Obs. iv (1786), 22; Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 225;

Cke. ii, 1008 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 977.

We are not in a position to say how far Hook. f.’s synonymy is correct.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Gujarat : Rajkot, Kathiawar (Woodrow).—Khandesh - Dadgauni

(McCann 9764 !).—Konkan ; Vetora (Sabnis 33677!) ; Vengurla, sea coast

(Chibber !) ; Salsette (Graham).—Deccan : Manmad (Blatter 229!) ; Khandala

(Graham) ; Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens (Patwardhan !).—S. 7. Country :

Kappatgudd Hills, 2,600 ft., rainfall 30 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 5217!) ;

Dharwar, 2,500 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 1822!) ; dry hills and fields

N. of Dharwar (Sedgwick 3778 !) ; Byadgi (Talbot 1759 !) ; Badami (Bhide !).—.

Kanara : Karwar, common (Sedgwick & Bell 5065 !) ; Halyal (Talbot 2161 !).

Distribution : Bihar, W. Peninsula, Mascarene Islands.

3. Aristida Hystrix, Linn. f. Suppl. (1781), 113 (xom Thunbg.) ; Roxb. FI.

Ind. i, 350 ; Graham 335 ; Dalz. & Gibs/295 ; Hook.f.1n' PF Bal evi, 225 @ker

ii, 1009.

Description : Cke. 1.c.—Hooker f.’s statement (l.c.) that the callus is

naked is not correct. Cke. (l.c.), however, is right when saying that it is shortly

villous,

Locality : Gujarat : Daman, on sand hills (Bhide!).—S. /. Country :

Tadas, dry hillsides, 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick 3823!) ; Dharwar

(McCann !, Sedgwick !) ; Haveri (Talbot 2182!) ; Badami (Bhide!, Cooke,

Woodrow).

Distribution ; Central Provinces, W. Peninsula.

4, Aristida mutabilis, Trin. & Rupr. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi (1842),

150 ; Hook. f. in. F.B.I. vii, 226, excl. aliguib. syn.— A. articulata, Edgew. in

Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. vi (1862), 209; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 164 ; Duthie

Grass. N, W. Ind. 26, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 47.- A. mutabilis, Trin. & Rupr.

var. tangensis, Henrard ].c. ii (1927), 368.—A. longeradiata, Steud. Syn. Pl

Glum. (1855), 140.—A. hoggariensis, Batt & Trib. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. Tome

liii, série iv, Tome vi (1906), Sess. extraor. avril 1906, p. xxxii.—A. mutabilis,

Trin. & Rupr. var. hoggariensis, Henrard l.c. ii (1927), 239

The following synonyms given by Hook. f.1.c. must be excluded : Aristida

Kunthiana, Trin. & Rupr. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi (1842), 151, a dist-

inct species.—Avrtstida meccana, Hochst. ad. Trin. & Rupr. l.c. 152, a distinct

species.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 241

Description: An annual grass. Stems 15-30 cm. high, many ascending from

the root, simple or proliferously branched, slender. Leaves 2°5-7'5 cm. long,

very slender, curved, convolute, rigid, smooth. Panicle 7-l5cm. long, very

narrow, subcylindric ; branches very short, crowded or sometimes with a few

remote lower down on the stem, ascending from a naked base and bearing a

dense oblong fascicle of spikelets; rhachis smooth, branches scaberulous.

Spikelets (excl. awns) 6 mm. long, very short-pedicelled, pale green or straw-

coloured. Lower involucral glume5 mm. long, shortly awned, keel scaberu-

lous: upper 6 mm. long, tip 2-toothed below the awn. Floral glume scaberu-

lous, callus shortly bearded, awn obscurely articulate with the glume, column

nearly as long asthe glume, slender, smooth, branches capillary, rather short,

central one about 12 mm. long.

Locality : Sind: Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B235!).—Khandesh :

W. Khandesh (Blatter !).

Distribution: Punjab, Sind, Rajputana, Khandesh, S. India, Arabia, tro-

pical Africa.

5. Aristida pogonoptila, Boiss. Fl. Or. v (1884), 496; Henrard l.c. ii (1927),

456.—Arthratherum bogonoptilum, Jaub. and Spach Ill. Pl. Or. iv (1850-53),

56, t. 337.

Description : A perennial grass. Rhizome short, oblique, branching. Stems

15-45 cm. high, strict or geniculate, erect, simple or sparsely branching,

slender, terete, glabrous, smooth, obsoletely and finely striate, few-noded, leafy

at the base and covered with imbricate sheaths. Uppermost internode at

flowering time scarcely longer than the sheath ; lower internodes longer than

the sheaths. Nodes quite glabrous, mostly rufescent. Leaves glaucescent,

thin, more or less flexuose or rarely rigid, keelless. on the back finely papillose,

articulate on the sheath. Lower leaves 7-25cm. long, the uppermost very

often short (2°5-5 cm.). Lowest sheaths aphyllous, chartaceous, straw-colour-

ed, persistent, subcomplicate, striate, ovate or oblong-lanceolate, mostly

acuminate. Proliferous sheaths rotund-truncate, keelless, nerved, densely

ciliate with long, white hairs at the apex, densely bearded at the mouth witha

ring of short bristles, otherwise glabrous, the upper ones herbaceous, tubular-

involute. No ligule. Panicle 7°5-15 cm. long, oblong, somewhat lax, simple

and made upof many spikelets. Rhachis filiform, continuous, semiterete,

scabrous, strict. Branchlets capillary, flexuose, scabrous, alternate, disti-

chous ; the spikelets arranged in racemes, pedicelled, mostly 3-5, unequal,

getting shorter upwards; pedicels capillary, scabrous, thickened at the

apex, most of them longer than the glume. Glumes 3. Involucral glumes

awnless, of wnequal length, subnavicular, 3-nerved, glabrous or with

scattered hairs on the back and the margins. Lower one _ shorter,

usually fimbriolate at the apex; upper oneinserted slightly higher up,

narrower than the lower one and about 2 mm. longer, slightly narrowed at the

base, emarginate atthe apex. Floral glume (including the stalk and awn)

about 5cm. long. Stalk stout, turbinate, densely setulose, bearded-hirsute at

theapex. Inner pale tubular-involute, thinly 3-nerved, chartaceous, keelless,

oblong, glabrous, cinereous or black-violet, long awned, on the back papillose-

scabrous, especially from the middle to the apex, obtusely emarginate after the

awn has fallen. Awn deciduous, setaceous-subulate, far below the middle

geniculate and trifurcate; the undivided part almost as long asthe glume,

contorted, erect, canaliculate, filiform, papillose-scabrous, near the apex cons-

picuously bearded-hirsute, otherwise naked, or laxly hairy; lateral awns

capillary, naked, scabrous, more or less diverging, strict, about 3 the length of

the central one and much thinner; central awn strict, long-plumose, at the

base setaceous-filiform, upwards capillary. Inner pale minute, membranous,

hyaline, nerveless, involute, keelless, glabrous, cuneate-obovate, truncate or

rotundate at the apex, obsoletely crenulate. J[.odicules 2, submembranous,

glabrous, finely striate, obliquely ovate, obtuse. Stamens 3. Filaments capil-

lary. Anthers yellowish, glabrous, linear, elongate, emarginate at apex and

base. Ovary obovate ; quite glabrous. Styles 2; terminal, elongate, filiform,

densely plumose, laterally exserted.

Hook, f. in F.B.I. vii, 228 included this species under A. hirtigluma, Steud.

but, according to Henrard, it ‘differs in the glabrous glumes, in the shorter

column, more hairy and barbulate at the point of insertion of the 3 awns and

in the more loosely and longer piumose central awn, without a naked tip,’

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Locality : Sind (ex Boiss.).

Distribution : Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan,

6. Aristida hirtigluma, Steud. Nom. ed. 2, pt. 1 (1840), 131, e¢ Syn. Gram.

(1855), 144; Trin. & Rupr. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. (1842), 171; Aitchis. Cat.

Panjab. Pl. 164; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 26; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 47 ;

Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 496 ; Hook. f. in F. B. 1. vii, 227, excl. aliguibus syn. ; Cke:

ii, 1009.—A. ciliata, Steud. Hochst, herb. arab. un. it. no. 165 (zon Desf.) ex

Henrard.—A. ciliata, Steud. & Hochst. ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, pt. 1 (1840),

131 (won Desf.).—A. Schimperi, Hochst. & Steud. ex Steud. l.c. 143.—Arthra-

therum ciliatum, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. i, Gramineae (1841), 182, excl. syn.

The following synonyms cited by Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 228 have to be

excluded :

Aristida decorata, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. (1855), 421, which is 4. Raddiana,

Savi.—Aristida paradisea, Edgew. in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xvi, ii (1847),

1219, which is a distinct species. See Blatter Fl. Adenin Rec. Bot. Survey

Ind. vii, 3 (1916), 380.—Avistida pogonopitila, Boiss. F]. Or. v. (1884), 496, a

distinct species.

Destription: Cke. l.c.

Locality : Sind: Bholari (Bhide!) ; Sehwan, sand hills (Bhide !) ; Laki

(Bhide!) ; hills near Bullo Khan (Woodrow!) ; Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills

(Sabnis B614 !).

Distribution: Tunis, Upper Egypt, Sinai, Syria, Nubia, Abyssinia, Eritrea,

Highlands of Somaliland, Arabia, Sind, Punjab.

7. Aristida nystricula, Edgew. in Journ. Linn. Soc. vi (1862), 208; Aitchis. Cat.

Punjab Pl. 164; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 26; Fodder Grass. N. Ind. 47 ;

Hooks f..F. Bit, vit; 227 ; Ckeiii;. 1009:

Description: Cke. l.c.—Henrard l.c. ii (1927), 251, points out that ‘the most

striking character, a character neglected by all the authors who studied the

species, is the densely hairy bifid callus.” Hooker l.c., therefore, when saying

that the callus is ‘minute, glabrous’ is not correct. Cooke does not describe

the callus.—Apparently no Indian species has a naked callus.

Locality: Sind: Laki (Bhide!); Bholari (Bhide!) ; Hyderabad (Bhide!) ;

Jamadar ka Landa near Karachi (Stocks 1187).

8. Aristida funiculata, Trin. & Rupr. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. 6, vii (1849),

159 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 164 ; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 492 (partim) ; Duthie Fodd.

Grass. N. Ind. 47; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 226; Cke. ii, 1010 —A. macrathera,

Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii (1851), 393; Boiss, 1.c. 493 (Wacranthera).—A.Mallica,

Edgew. in Journ. Proc. Linn. Soc. vi (1862), 206.—A. funiculata, Trin.&Rupr.

var. mallica, Henrardl.c. ii (1927), 328.—A. paradoxa, Steud. ap. Schmidt

Fl. Cap. Verd. (1852), 140.—A. funzeulata, Trin. & Rupr. var. paradoxa, Hen:

rard l.c. ii (1927), 425.

Description: Cke. ii, 1010.

Locality: Sind: Mirpurkhas (Sabnis B1038!); Gharo (Blatter & McCann

D622!) ; Tatta, tombs (Blatter & McCann D623!) ; Ghulamalla (Blatter &

McCann D624!) ; Jam village (Woodrow 19).—Gujarat: Red earth upland N.

of Taloda (Sedgwick!) ; dry waste land, Ahmedabad (Sedgwick!) ; Bhuj,

Bhodir Maka, Cutch (Blatter 3728 !).—Khandesh: Bor, Tapti River (Blatter &

Hallberg 4416!) ; Amalner, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5108 !).—Deccan :

Poona (Lisboa) ; Dapuri near Poona (Jacquemont 489) ; Pashan near Poona

(Gammie!) ; Kirkee to Poona, railway line (Garade 816!) ; Katraj Ghat (Bhide

1041!) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1310!) ; Satara (Lisboa) ; Sholapur

(Lisboa); Wai (Talbot 4483!) ; Nasik (Bourke!) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar

(McCann 5062!) ; Rahuri (Nana A227!).—S. M/. Country: Dry fields Yelvigi

1,800 ft., rainfall 28 inches, (Sedgwick & Bell 4898 !) ; Belyeaum (Woodrow) ;

near Belgaum (Woodrow !) ; Badami (Bhide !).

Distribution: Punjab, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, Baluchistan, Arabia, tropical

Africa.

9. Aristida redacta, Stapf in Kew Buli. (1802), 85; Hook. f.in F. B. I. vii,

227; Cke. ii, 1010.~Stipa aristoides, Stapf ex Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat:

Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 358 ; Prain Beng. Pl. 1211.

Destription: Cke. 1.e.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 243

Locality: Konkan: Trombay, common on the hillside (McCann A212},

A213!) ; Kankeshwar hill, Alibag (Bhide !).—Deccan ; Lonavla (Woodrow) ;

Junnar, Poona District (Woodrow) ; Wai (Talbot 4484 ) ; Lohagad, plain

(McCann 9503!) ; Bairawadi below Purandhar (McCann 5063!) ; Pashan

(Gammie !); Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1275!)—S./. Country: Hubli,

barren hillside, 2,200 ft., rainfall 28 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4929 !) ; Yelvigi,

dry fields, 2,000 ft., rainfall 28 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4897!) ; Dharwar,

2,400 ft., rainfail 34 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4891! Talbot 2910) ; Haveri

(Talbot 2216 !).—Kanara: (Law).— This species commonly grows.on open hill

sides among other plants by which it is supported as it is very weak and bends

over.

Distribution: Central India, Nagpur, W. Bengal, W. Peninsula, S. Persia.

(Zo be continued)

SOME EXTRACTS FROM MY SHIKAR DIARY

MAINLY FOR NOVICES

Lizut.-CoL. R. W. Burton

Indian Army (Retired).

It is in response to the recent appeal of the Editors, that I venture

with some diffidence, to put together a few extracts from my shoot-

ing diary in the hope that these will be of interest to readers of the

Journal, and useful to young sportsmen.

Bullets:

Two valuable lessons were learnt from the following early

experience. ‘... . He fell to a shot in the shoulder from A, got

up again and was twice hit in the head and neck. He then went off,

very sick, followed up as soon as the beaters were assembled ’, this

was in our early days, ‘ plenty of blood; jungle thick and many

evergreen bushes. We had tracked for nearly a mile, every moment

one of tense expectation, when, dropping into anullah and peering

over the opposite bank, I spotted the tiger lying on his side with his

back towards us. He was fifty yards distant. He raised his head,

listening no doubt, but must have been far gone. I plugged him in

the back, at junction of neck and shoulders, with a conical bullet

from my 12-bore Paradox gun followed up by two others in almost

the same place. A and C had not seen him, I suppose the slight

movement of the tiger’s head had caught my eye and not theirs.

... A fine heavy tiger 9 ft. lin. ashe lay. The two head shots

from A’s rifle had not penetrated the skull.’

The 340 grain copper tube bullet of the:500 black powder express rifle

has insufficient base. The useot tt has occasioned many accidents

and tataltties.

‘When A climbed into his tree, all but three of his cartridges -

fell out of his pocket. He did not know this until firing his third

shot.’

Cartridges should never be carried loose in a pocket :

They should be in a cloth pouch, each cartridge separate, the

pouch being sewn on inside the coat pocket, or carried on a belt if

no coat is worn.

All sportsmen who pursue dangerous game have, sooner or

later to follow up a wounded animal. The proper precautions to

take have been enumerated by various writers, and by none more

SOME EXTRACTS FROM MY SHIKAR DIARY 245

fully and clearly than Dunbar Brander in W7ld Animals in Central

India.

On an occasion subsequent to that described above, the

neglect of a very obvious precaution, not, I think, mentioned by

any writer on the subject, had a tragic result to which the use of the

-340 bullet mainly contributed.

When starting to follow up a wounded animal make very sure that

your weapon ts loaded.

‘ Surely,’ the reader will say, ‘no one would forget to reload !’

Let ussee. ‘ ... The whole business was the result of using the

-340 bullet. Having insufficient base, the bullet, which struck the

tigress on the point of the shoulder—a facing shot at 70 yards—had

split up and merely made a flesh wound about three inches deep, as

I found by probing with my finger and afterwards when skinning.

When the tigress charged, A pulled at the trigger of his rifle

without result. It was found that the rifle had not been reloaded.

Only the right barrel had been fired in the first instance, and the deep

indentation on the cap of the empty case indicated that it had been

twice hit by the striker. A died from blood poisoning on the

fourth day.

Here is another instance. ‘.... X had fired at the tiger

through some undergrowth but the bullet had probably been

deflected as we found no blood on the tracks. We followed up,

however, to some distance, and came toavery thick ravine. Stones

were thrown. There was a false alarm by a beat which came out

about 60 yards below us. X took careful aim. There was no

report. Our eyes met. He was not loaded, and we were following

up a possibly wounded tiger!’ So such things do occur, and it is

as well to bear the possibility in mind.

Exhlosive bullets.

A Meade’s shell in a 12-bore gun is a most deadly missile but

is now seldom used, having been superseded by the several types

of bullet specially made for use inshotguns. It has the defect of

leading the user of it to coarse and careless shooting ; for an animal

hit in the stomach is as completely knocked out as when hit in the

chest.

*, ... [sat on a rock about 60 yards away and in a few

minutes the panther emerged to stalk the bleating goat. It fell

dead to the shot. The Meade’s shell, intended for its heart caught

it in theear! The skull felt like a bag of nuts. Both eyeballs

were blown out of the sockets and hanging on its cheeks.’ And

again; ‘. ... The tigress fell to the shot, her pace turning her

over to face the way she had come.’

The bullet had got her in the side of the head and her eyes

were blown out and hanging by threads. This was a Calvert’s coni-

cal sheJl from a 12 bore rifle, now an obsolete weapon. A blue bull

killed by the same rifle fell over to the shot in the stomach and ‘a

thin spiral column of smoke could be seen rising out of the wound.’

A miss was often registered by the answering report when the

shell struck a tree or rock beyond the animal. ,

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST..SOCIETY.. Val. XXXTH

When the shot zs a close one tt ts necessary to be very careful to hold low

and not shoot over the mark :

‘I was seated in a small depression in the ground. The

panther could be seen a long way off on the hillside: then again at

100 yards: the next sight of her would be as she topped the slope

just infront of me. I was ready; the top of her head crept into

view and then her eyes and nose, not more than five yards away.

I got up expecting to see her carcase. It was aclean miss. I had

aimed between her eyes and must have gone just over the skull. I

should have sighted below, to cut the ground line as it were.’ I

made the same mistake on one other occasion.

Panthers have but little sense of smell :

. The calf, killed some hundreds of yards from the

mae had been dragged into some thin jungle. There was no

tree large enough to support a machan. A ‘hide’ was made ina

thick bush. At 6.30 p.m. it was quite light, and I was lying on my

back. Heard the panther moving around my shelter which was

rather conspicuous owing to the want of cover. Suddenly the loop-

hoie was darkened by the panther putting her head into it, her chin

over the muzzle of the gun. An involuntary movement of the hand

to take hold of the gun-stock caught her eye and she bounded away.

In less than five minutes she was back again. ...’ This panther

was so close to me that I could have put my hand through the

leaves and caught hold of her leg; yet she did not detect the pre-

sence of a human being. I could cite many similar instances. ...

At last at8 p.m. (it was June in Central India) he gave up all caution

and allowed himself to breathe naturally, which was with the most

distressing panting owing to the heat. Making towards the kill,

which had been dragged from under the rock where he had placed

it, he passed the loophole of the ‘ hide’, constructed of boulders and

thorns, at a distance of ten feet and I shot him through the heart

with the ‘500. Here again the panther failed to detect my

presence.

On one occasion, seated in a machan at dusk, I saw a panther

pass along a path, within six feet of a tethered village pig without

knowing it was there! The pig was not inodorous ; the evening air

was very still; and the previous evening the panther had refused to

kill a buffalo tethered at the same spot. So he should have expected

something might be at the place, or, at such a short distance his nose

should have informed him. The pig was the colour of a rock and

lay like a stone. This fairly recent incident has confirmed my

previously formed opinion that panthers at any rate have a very poor

sense of smell.

Having mentioned the pig I must add that only on that one

occasion have [tied upa village pig. Never again will I do it.

His intelligence is great, and his squeals on being taken to the

place are heartrending.

The domestic cat has a very good sense of smell. That can

be easily tested by putting food of any kind on a mantlepiece where

cats are about—this Hotel for instance; it will surely be scented

SOME EXTRACTS FROM MY SHIKAR DIARY 247

out. And I have watched a domestic cat quite obviously use its

nose to find where a mouse had gone.

I am inclined to think that tigers have slightly better noses

than panthers; not enough to hunt by of course, but sufficient

perhaps to enable them to detect meif I sit over a kill in the shelter

of a bush. So I will try and get further evidence on the point

before putting their noses to the ‘acid test’ as the Indian politi-

cian would express it. I have had, in common with most sports-

men, several instances of tiger passing tethered buffaloes without

seeing them.

I have been induced to make these remarks in view of the

correspondence on the subject in the 77mes of June 12 and 22.

Of the African Felide it has been stated on high authority that

‘Nothing is more certain than that all carnivorous animals hunt

almost entirely by scent.’ Most sportsmen in India will hold a dia-

metrically opposite view, in respect to tiger and panther at any rate.

‘ All cats are grey in the dark,’ but their senses are not wholly

similar. The iris of the tiger’s eyes contracts in a circular manner

and owing to this he is at a disadvantage, in daylight, as compared

with the domestic cat whose iris contracts both vertically and hori-

zontally and so enables it to shut out all light except that admitted

by two pin-holes at each end of the slit.

‘Ts the panther insensitive to a white light?’

That seems to be the case and it is an interesting question.

Perhaps members of the Society with the necessary experience will

state their views in the matter. No panther on to which I have put

an electric light has ever shown any sign of having noticed it, not,

even when full in his face at a distance of thirty feet. Itis otherwise

with tiger. Foxes notice the light, also jackals and hyznas, but they

are soon ‘tamed’. I must try some experiments on the Hotel cat.

To learn to shoot with a rifle from the lett shoulder ts not dztficult

and ts a very useful accomplishment.

: . Soine monkeys began to swear and scold away to my

left front, sO a1 thought the tiger might be coming through the long

grass and made ready to shoot in that direction. I was sitting

astride a thick bough and cculd only shoot from the right shoulder

to the front and ieft. Suddenly a movement to the right caught my

eye. It wasthe tiger springing out of the nullah up to the level

bank 25 yards io my right. He was making off through the bamboo

jungle at a quick walk. I had only just time to throw the rifle over

to the left shoulder and take quick aim half right back. The tiger

broke into a gallop and fell dead forty yards further on. The ‘577

bullet of solid soft lead had gone through his heart and passed out

on the other side. ’

The angle at whitch the animal ts standing ts tmportant.

‘, . . .The panther came to the kill from up hill and appeared

about 8 yards from my bush shelter. To the shot from the °375 rifle

he tumbled about, and then made off down hill. There was much

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

blood, but it was late, and the trail could not be followed for more

than a hundred yards. Next morning the panther was seen by men

sent to keep an eye onthe place. A few men were collected. A

man was escorted to a tree up which he climbed to act as a watcher

of the hill-side. The cover was bombarded with stones and the

panther soon appeared in a smali open space before me. I killed him

with a bullet from my shot gun....’ The panther had been

bled white. There was but a little blood left in him, and all the

‘fight’ was certainly out of him. ‘The bullet had entered his chest

at the point intended but, owing to the line of his body being up

hill, had emerged between his forelegs and injured no vital part.

Wild Dogs. Do they hunt by night ?

This seems to be still an unsettled question. Many sports-

men say that they do not hunt after dark and I am inclined to that

opinion, but have insufficient personal observations on which to

base an assertion. Colonel Ward has over and over again listened

to them while lying awake at night in the jungles. I have had

very many all night vigils in machans, in jungles where there were

wild dogs, but have not heard them, and natives of all the plains

jungles with which I am acquainted have told me they do not hunt

by night. Possibly itis on moonlight nights that they hunt and

I have not been fortunate enough to hear them.

On two occasions I have seen wild dogs in pursuit of game;

once the quarry wasanilgai and the other time a sambur hind.

The dogs were running mute. A wild dog busy at a kill over

which I was sitting chased off a jackal which came to the feast but

he did this without any growls or other sounds.

Wild dog puppies (on another occasion) whimpered with

eagerness, when wanting to ‘ fall-to’ on a kill, but were restrained

by the warning growl of their mother. That is the only occasion

when I have heard the voice of a wild dog, but it is not more than

seven or eight times that I have seen them at close quarters.

Do not part with your rifle when out shooting. Carry tt yourselt :

This occurs to me asa final ‘ instruction’, seemingly as un-

necessary as that to ‘make sure you are loaded’. But it is often

neglected to the undoing of the careless sportsman. When the

tigress referred to at the commencement of these notes was to be

walked up the heavy 12-bore rifle owned by C was not forthcoming.

The coolie carrying it could not be found. Neither in that case

nor in the following did the absence of the weapon cause anv

material difference, but in the latter instance, the consequences

might have been disastrous.

A friend was going on a tiger shoot for a few days and I

lent him my ball-and-shot gun. He wounded a tiger—two bullets

in the stomach—and it was located in a small patch of cover. My

friend had a companion with him who, despite the fact of atiger . |

having been wounded, entrusted the carrying of his rifle to a cooly.

When the tiger was located the cooly made himself scarce. There

was a shouting and a calling for the absent weapon—the two

SOME EXTRACTS FROM SHIKAR DIARY 249

sportsmen standing some thirty yards from the cover—when the

tiger charged. The first bullet grazed his cheek ; the second, at

but a few paces, got him in the base of the throat. It was his

presence of mind alone that saved my friend. ‘The tiger was

almost on him when he threw himself to one side and thrust the

barrels of the gun into the tiger’s open jaws. On picking himself

up he found the tiger gasping out his life five yards away and his

unarmed companion agape behind him.

Suppose the tiger had not been killed ?!!!

The left barrel of the gun—an exceptionally heavy weapon

with steel barrels—was deeply indented by the canine teeth, which

had scored a groove allround it. The sportsman was badly bruised

on chest and thigh by the impact of the tiger’s body, having

probably been struck by the right forearm and stifle of the

charging animal.

Apart from the more serious occasions such as the above

there can be but few sportsmen who have not missed many

opportunities both with gun and rifle for want of the weapon itself

being in the hand, or of it being not ready for instant use. ‘ Lost

opportunities seldom recur’, or, as Bacon quaintly expresses it,

‘Occasion turneth a bald noddle after she hath presented her locks

in front and no hold taken.’

These few notes are closed in the hope that some others of

our members will venture into the open and add to the general

interest of the Journal by relating some of their experiences,

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES OF THE GENUS

DICROCGELIUM WITH A KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS

DHARAM NARAIN, M.Sc. AND RAM SARAN DAS, M.Sc.

Zoology Department, University of Allahabad:

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

‘he commonly available lizards in the United Provinces, India, are Calotes

versicolor Daud., Hemidactylus tlavivirzdis Ruppel and Uvomastix hardiwickit

Gray. All these are found to harbour in their gall-bladder trematodes of the

genus Dicrocelium. It is strange that the existence of these parasites has

hitherto remained unnoticed though these lizards are generally used for

dissection in all laboratories in Northern India. The specimens obtained from

Hemidactylus and Calotes apparently belong to the same species showing only

minor differences of size, form, etc.,; but those from Uvomastix are quite

different and have therefore been assigned to a separate species.

The percentage of infection may be gathered from the following table :—

No. of lizards No. of Lizards Percentage

Host examined infected of

infection

Hemidactylus flaviviridis. 32 i 3°1%

Uromastix hardwickii ... 40 1 2°5%

Calotes versicolor a 64 10 15%

It has not been possible to examine Uromastix from time to time throughout

the year, as has been donein the case of the other two lizards, because the

former is not easily available. The infection in Calotes seems to be the heaviest

in the rainy season—one lizard yielding as many as 18 parasites, which is the

largest number recorded, and several giving as many as8to 10. They were

smallin size and more orless immature. ‘The number obtained in other seasons

is only 2-3 from asingle host ; but these specimens are larger and fully mature.

This lizard is very vigorous and feeds actively in the rainy season ; it is there-

fore probable that the infection takes place about this time of the year.

We wish to offer our thanks to Dr. H.R. Mehra and Mr. S.C. Verma of the

University Department of Zoology, for their valuable help in connection with

this work. Wearealso very thankful to Mr. S.N. Deb of the Kayasth Pathshala

who very kindly translated a few German and French papers for us.

The prepared slides have been deposited in the reserve collection of the

Department of Zoology, University of Allahabad.

Dicrocelium orientalis n. sp.*

External Characters. The body is flattened more or less leaf shaped. It

measures 5--5°5 ¢ in length and 2°5-3 in maximum breadth in the region of the

ventral sucker. It is greyish with two longitudinal greenish-yellow streaks,

one on each side, the colour of the streaks being due to the intestinal czca

* This account is based mainly on the specimens obtained from Cadlotes.

ft All measurements are in mms.

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES 251

which are fullof bile. It is capable of expansion and contraction and changes

its shape accordingly. During extension the movements become very clear

and the anterior end assumes a pointed appearance.

The oral sucker is situated at the anterior extremity and has a diameter of

0°3864. The ventral sucker lies at about a quarter-length of the body from the

anterior end at the level of the intestinal bifurcation. It is a little larger than

the oral sucker measuring 0°'442 in diameter. ‘I'he cuticle is thick and devoid

of spines. The genital opening contained in a common genital atrium, is

situated near the posterior end of the cesophagus, slightly in front of the

intestinal bifurcation. The excretory aperture lies at the posterior end.

Digestive System. 'The mouth is situated ventrally at the anterior end and is

surrounded by the prominent oral sucker. It leads into a thick muscular

pharynx of 0°10 diameter. The cesophagus is short and bifurcates into the

intestinal ceeca which terminate in front of the posterior end. Their wall is

smooth formed of tall columnar ¢pithelium and surrounded by a layer of circular

and longitudinal muscle-fibres. The food consists mainly of bile contained in

the ceeca, which appear in living specimens as two streaks of greenish-yellow

colour.

Nervous System. As usual the nervous system is in a very degenerate condi-

tion. The nerve collar lies a little behind the pharynx ; frem this minute nerves

are given off anteriorly, two on each side. Posteriorly it gives off two main

nerves—one running on each side of the body. ‘They give out smaller nerves

travelling irregularly to different parts of the body.

Male Genital Organs. There are two prominent, rounded testes 0°365 in

diameter. They lie symmetrically one on each side at a distance of one-third

body-length from the anterior end in the postero-lateral angle of the ventral

sucker, from which they are separated by a distance of about two-thirds of its

diameter. In some specimens they extend a short distance in front of the

posterior margin of the ventral sucker. From the inner margin of each testis

there arises a thin tube, the vas-efferens, which runs obliquely towards the

anterior end. Thetwo vasa-efferentia meet each other in the middle line,

between the ventral sucker and the intestinal fork, to form a very short vas-

deferens. The cirrus-sac is a long cylindrical tube with muscular walls

surrounding the cirrus and lying ventrally to the intestine. Within it near its

posterior end the vas-deferens becomes dilated into a slightly convoluted vesi-

cula-seminalis which is filled with sperms and occupies nearly one-third length

of the cirrus-sac. The cirrus is a thick-walled tube surrounded by the prostate

cells situated in the anterior two-thirds of the cirrus-sac. It leads as usual into

the genital atrium.

Female Genital Organs. The ovary is rounded and feebly lobed measuring 0°20

in diameter. It is situated in the median line close behind the testes nearer

ventral than the dorsal surface. The oviduct arises from it dorsally near

the iniddle and passes towards the right side to join the duct of the receptaculum

seminis. It then turns backwards and inwards and after receiving the Laurer’s

canal on one side and the short duct from the vitelline reservoir on the other

opens into the ootype, which is surrounded by the shell-gland of the usual

form. The relations of these ducts are shown in Fig. 4. The Laurer’s canal

is a narrow slightly convoluted tube which has been traced in sections right up

to the cuticle of the dorsal body wall. Its external opening being small could

not be detected. Close to the ovary on the right side and sometimes overlapping

it lies the receptaculum-seminis, which is asomewhat curved elongated sac

with thin walls and as usual filled with sperms. The shell gland lies a little

behind the receptaculum-seminis close tothe postero-lateral angle of the ovary.

The vitellaria lie in the middle-third of the body close to the outer margin, one

on each side partly overlapping the intestinal caca. Each gland consists of a

large number of close-set follicles lying along a longitudinal axis from which

two oblique vitelline-ducts arise on each side. The latter after a short course

inwards join together to form small transverse ducts which unite at the

prominent vitelline reservoir, situated close to the shell-gland. A short duct

from the reservoir connects it with the oviduct as it enters the ootype.

The uterus is a very conspicuous large and coiled tube occupying about three-

fourths of the body. Itextends anteriorly as far as theintestinal bifurcation

and posteriorly to the hindermost extremity and remains confined in the region

within the vitellaria. The exact course is difficult to make out because of the

overlapping of the various loops. It can be seen however that starting from the

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

ootype it runs backwards almost to the posterior tip and then curving forwards

ascends upwards. It again bends downwards and reaching the posterior

end goes upwards. In this way as seenin several preparations, four longi-

tudinal trunks can be marked out to some extent which give out small trans-

versely coiled loops. Ultimately it appears to emerge forwards in front of the

ventral sucker, running alongside the cirrus sac to open into the genital atrium.

The eggs are at first of a light yellow colour, but soon assume a brownish tinge.

They measure 0°03290 x 0°03295.

Excretory System. The excretory bladder is more or less a spherical vesicle

of small size measuring 0°4 in diameter. The excretory pore, guarded by

sphincter muscles, is terminal and situated at the posterior end. The wall of

the bladder consists of a thin layer of muscle-fibres. During life it is filled

with the colourless excretory fluid. Into itopen the two main excretory ducts

each of which is formed by the union of several very minute capillaries ending

in flame cells. As the latter are colourless and very minute in size it is difficult

to study them except in the living condition. It was, however, easier to observe

them in specimens soon after they had died a natural death.

Diagnostic characters of Dicrocelium ortentalis. Body leaf-like. Length

5'0-5°5 ; breadth 2°5-3°0; oral sucker, terminal, 0°3864 wide. Pharynx

immediately behind oral sucker 0°10 in diameter. Cisophagus short bifurcat-

ing into prominent simple intestinal czeca which extend almost to the posterior

end of body. Veutralsucker circular, diameter 0:442 at one-fourth body length

from anteriorend. Testes rounded, 0°365 in diameter situated symmetrically

along the postero-lateral angle of the ventral sucker. Cirrus-pouch long

cylindrical containing a slightly convoluted vesicula seminis behind anda

prostate in front. Genital orifice slightly in front of intestinal bifurcation.

Ovary rounded, feebly lobed, 0°2 in diameter, median, close behind the testes.

Receptaculum seminis located obliquely close behind ovary, Laurer’s Canal

present. Vitellaria made up of a large number of compact follicles, close to

lateral margin in middle third of body. Uterus conspicuous filling up the body

between the ventral sucker and posterior end. Eggs small, oval, of light yellow

to brownish colour 0'03295 long and 0°03290 wide.

Host. Calotes versicolor and Hemidactylus flaviviridts.

Location. Gall bladder.

Locality. Allahabad.

Dicrocelium indica n. sp,

External Characters. Dicrocelium indica is a distinctly bigger form than

D., orientalis. It is comparatively thin, transparent and yellowish in colour

with black spots due to the coils of the uterus. It measures 6°0-6°5 in length

and 2:0 in greatest breadth i.e. inthe region in front of thetestes. The body

of an elongated-ovoid shape has considerable powers of expansion and contrac-

tion. The cuticle is thin and devoid of spines. The oral sucker is 0°4583 in

diameter. The ventral sucker, situated about one-third the length from the

anterior extremity, measures 0°3055. It is noteworthy that the ventral sucker

is smaller than the oral, the reverse of what is usually the case in other species

of the genus. The genital opening is near the bifurcation of the cesophagus

slightly to one side of the median line. The excretory aperture is situated at

the posterior end.

Digestive System. It begins with a mouth surrounded by a fairly large oral

sucker situated at the anterior end of the animal. The mouth leads into a

globular muscular pharynx of 0°1363 diameter, the prepharynx being totally

absent. The cesophagus is short and thin walled; it forks into limb-like

intestinal ceeca lying laterally and extending backwards almost to the posterior

end. Outside the intestinal epithelium there lies a clear layer of circular muscle

fibres which in its turn is enveloped by a layer of longitudinal muscle fibres.

The food of the worm according to its habitat naturally consists of bile which

gives the intestinal czeca a greenish-yellow colour.

Male Genital Organs. The testes are symmetrical, lying immediately behind

the ventral sucker at the level of its posterolateral angle and are separated from

it by a distance of three-fourths of its diameter. They are generally rounded in

appearance but the shape varies in different preparations owing to their having

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fie, 2 Fic, 4

Fig. 1. Dicrocelium orientalis n. sp. (from Calotes versicolor), ventral view.

» 2% Dicrocelium ortentalis n. sp (from Hemidactylus tlaviviridis) ventral view.

» 3. Dicrocelium indica n. sp. (from Uromastix hardwickit) dorsal view.

» 4 A diagrammatic sketch showing the relations of female genital organs

in Dicrocelium orientalis n. sp.

EXPLANATION OF LETTERING

C. = cirrus. oes. = oesophagus. Gets = right testis.

c.s, = cirrus sac. OFS: = oral sucker. S. 2 = Shell gland.

ex. bl. = excretory bladder. oot. = ootype. Ss. Vv. = seminal vesicle.

€X.p. = excretory pore. ov. = Ovary. u. = uterus.

ga. = genital atrium. ov.d. = oviduct. Vv. S. = ventral sucker.

1. C. = intestinal cecum. ph. = pharynx. vit. = vitellarium.

Ic. = Laurer’s canal. p.2. = prostate gland v.d. = vas defrens.

ye 1. = lateral nerve. cells. v.€. = vase erens.

Is te = left testis. es: = receptaculum vit.d = vitelline duct.

He C. = nerve collar. seminis. vit. res. = vitelline reservoir.

oO. = ova.

° “

: ty ra

e ’

tae

Sea

a r 7 ‘

~ - .

‘

4 . :

’

“ ta = -

. ee ‘ :

WV sew - * % ~ - ~ - a, ede owe -

‘ : “ & !

whe “as a? a - i. ate -

5 2

- Beye HY og 2 2 E $ * wo

oe . % : + ‘ .

ah =

i err

i - 7 fs 3 a 3 .

e- Se fot. 7 " i 2 * .

a Wie Poe * z =

‘ 2 i te. 7 q Pe ae

* - . :

Brien ele in tee™ re ame 2 3 aa aa ty tet se

‘ a ¢

2F re - Ps piteteey

= oa fe i, Sip cy 8 + Ass > " tb el GF

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES 253

been pressed. The left testis is always somewhat bigger than the right one.

The dimensions of the two testes of the same specimen are as follows :—

Right testis Boe pee 0°70) Dy: 0FZ82.

Left testis ae .» 094653 by 0°282. i.

The vasa-efferentia arise from the anterior side of the testes and run obliquely

forwards to form a very short vas-deferens at the hinder extremity of the cirrus

sac. It continuesinto a wider thin-walled convoluted vesicula-seminalis occupy-

ing nearly two third length of the cirrus sac. As seen in entire mounts through

the walls of the cirrus-sac it is densely packed with sperms of the usual type.

The cirrus, a highly convoluted tube, lies in direct continuation of the vesicula

seminalis in the anterior third of the cirrus sac, and is surrounded by some

feebly developed prostatic cells. Itis much elongated, has thin transparent

walls and measures 0°3055 in length and 0°282 in breadth.

Female Genital Organs. The ovary is median lying just behind the line join-

ing the posterior margins of the testes. It is rounded and has an irregular

outline measuring 0°2256 by 0°1645. It is closely followed by the receptaculum

seminis which it somewhat overlaps. The latter is thin-walled and about two-

third the size of the ovary. The shell gland composed of the usual type of

granular cells abuts on the posterior margin of the receptaculum seminis. It

has nearly the same dimensions as the ovary. On account of the close proxi-

mity of these organs and the paucity of material the exact relations of the

oviduct, the duct of the receptaculum seminis and the Laurer’s Canal could not

be seen.

The vitellaria are more feebly developed than in Ducrocelium orientalis and

approximately fill the middle third of the body. ‘They lie laterally as thin bands

one on each side of the body and are composed of widely separated follicles

which are connected by a narrow central branching strand. A transverse

vitelline duct is given off from about the middle of each vitellarium; and passes

inwards as a more or less straight tube, to meet its fellow of the opposite side

in the region of the shell gland, forming a very small inconspicuous vitelline

reservoir.

The uterus is very much convoluted and occupies the same relative position

in the body as in the previous species-filling up the entire space between the

ventral sucker and the posterior extremity of the body. Its loops are more

transversely elongated than those of the uterus of D. orientalis. -It emerges in

the vicinity of the ventral sucker asa narrow slightly convoluted tube with

egos of 0°044 by 0°024 size arranged in a single row and then nasses to the outer

side of the body crossing the vasa-efferentia a little behind the cirrus sac.

' Finally it curves and running alongside the cirrus sac opens into the genital

atrium.

Excretory System. Theexcretory bladder is fairly large situated at the post-

erior end of the animal. In pressed specimens it appears of an irregular

triangular shape. It opens outside by a minute aperture situated at the hinder

extremity, Anteriorly it receives two main excretory tubes one on each side.

The rest of the excretory system is of the usual type.

Diagnostic Characters of D. indica. Body thin, leaflike length 6:°0-6'5;

breadth 2°0. Oral sucker terminal, large 0°4583 wide. Pharynx thick, mus-

cular 0°1363 in diameter. C#sophagus short; intestinal forks simple, extend

posteriorly to nearly the hindermost end. Ventral sucker smaller than oral,

0°3055 in diameter at one-third body length from anterior end. Testes symmetri-

cal along postero-lateral margin of ventral sucker; generally rounded but

of variable shape, size unequal left one 0°4653 in diameter right one 0°376 in

diameter. Cirrus sac elongated; vesicula seminalis convoluted occupying

two-third of the sac: the anterior one-third containing the highly convoluted

cirrus surrounded by a few faint prostatic cells. Genital opening just in

front of intestinal bifurcation, slightly to one side of median line. Ovary

irregularly rounded, behind testes of 0°2256 x 0°1645 size. Receptaculum

seminis smaller than ovary partly overlapped by it. Shell gland abutting

on posterior margin of receptaculum semiuis. Vitellaria feebly developed

with widely separated follicles not quite filling the middle third of body.

Uterus highly convoluted between ventral sucker and posterior extremity.

Eggs small oval of dark brown colour 0°044 long 0°024 wide.

Host. Uvomastix hardwickit.

Location Gall bladder.

Locality. Allahabad.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII |

Size and shape of

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

Size and ratio of

Intestinal

Species Host suckers oral to Pharynx Testes

the body anal czeca

1. D. petiola- Liver and Fusiform elon- O.S. 0°30 V.S. 0°145 End 1°6 be Rounded, /

tum gall bladder | gated L.—6-7°5. 0°60X0° 8 elipical: lone. fore the taper | Somewhat i

(Railliet | of Garrulus B —0°7-0°84 in OFS.2aVEse, 3 ing hindend. | larger than the

1900). glandartus. front of testis near | 3: 8. ovary situated |

V.S. neck about 1'5 one behind the |

long. other posterior |

to the V.S. |

2. D. albtcolie (A) Corvus (A) body fusi- (A) O.S. 0°4-0°45 (B) (B) reach (B) oblique |

(Rudolphi | corn7x, Pica\|form very long V.S. — 0°85-0°95 | globular upto the | one behind the

1819). pica, posterior extre- | O.S.: V.S,::1:2.] close be-| posterior end| other posterior

mity obtuse. hind the | of the body. to the V.S. |

L.—11-12 O.S.0°092 x i

B.—0°9-1'16 0°083. |

(B) Aquila (B) L—6':0. B— (B)e 2078S] 103312

pennata, 1°0 V.S. 0°312—0°390

OPS VeN ele |

3. D. detlec- Thrvyothorus Oblate, broad O.S.—L-0°240 Globular Short, reach- Rounded, lle |

tens hypoxanthus, lancet shaped an- B-0°281 0°104. ing only upto| symmetrically |

(Rudolphi terior end rounded V.S.—L-0°364 the middle of| beside one |

1819), and posterior end B-0°333 the body. another 0°208)

conical. the V.S. is at a just behind the)

distance of 1/3 V.S. |

body length from

the anterior end.

4, D. delectams| Intestine of} It has a small O.S.—L.—0°198 Overlap the] Globular or!)

(Braun Mytothera conical neck at B.—0°240 vitellaria a| longitudinally |

1901). ruriceps tached to the broad V.S.0°350 in little and doj| oval symmetri-)

(Brazil). body which tapers diameter not reach the|cal beside or;

posteriorly. OES Va Siete Cats hind end. behind the V.S. |

L—2°8;B 1°0. somewhat

smaller than)

it. |

5. D. volup- Intestine of O.S. subterminal L.—0°07 End behind} Oval or more)

tarium Falco sp. circular 0°229 in B.—0°09 the middle be- | or less circular

Braun diameter V.S. with tween the hind | symmetrical

1901). thrice or more dia- edge of the|beside or be-

meter of O.S. O.S. body and the] hind the V.S.

Visa tals 3 suckers vitellaria. |

very much near

each other.

6. D. refictens Intestine of It has a_ short OFS 0°344 ~=not .—0°114 Wide towards Rounded

(Braun Falco ntt7dus. | neck, the hind| perfectly circular B.—0°156 | the head part,/ Smaller than_

1901). body is long. Wes. 60240 - in do not wholly|the V.S. lying |

L.—4°00 diameter reach upto the | symmetrically |

B.—0°75 CORSE SR WASH Ree hind end. behind it. }

7. D. lubens Pibra rupri- Anterior end O.S. 0°364. Globu- Could not be rounded lying |

(Braun cola. pointed. Posterior V.S. 0°470. lar 0°104 in| traced. symmetrically

1901) end more or less O.S.: V.S.: :3:4. | diameter. behind the |

rounded, Thetwo V.S. smaller

suckers are very than V.S.

pemnecnmsti iht TS S UEP LR SS I A ARSE STEER EE ESET ELIDA,

much near each

other.

O. S,—Oral..Sucker.

V. S.—Ventral Sucker.

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES

HE SPECIES OF THE GENUS DICROCGLIUM

Cirrus

Pas

coo

mod

Short and

mpact.

Cirrus

2 can lie

der the

S. :

~L.—0°200

bB.—0°125

Ovary

Smaller than

the testes, a

little behind

them.

Smaller than

the testis be-

hind one of

them,

Oval with its

longitudinal

axis transver-

sely placed.

Oval or qua-

drilobed with

its longitudi-

nal axis trans-

versely placed

close behind

one of the

testes,

Rounded as

big as the testis

but smaller

than V.S. lying

behind one of

-| the testes.

Much smaller

than the testes.

Vitellaria

Consist of large

rounded or pear-

shaped follicles

which lie thick

beside and behind

one another, They

begin directly be-

hind the testes and

reach upto the

second-third of the

body length

2°0-2°5.

(B) Lateral not

equally well deve-

loped on both the

sides begin behind

the V.S. and reach

scarcely behind

the middle of the

body.

Lateral and

slender beginning

in a line with the

testes and extend-

ing to about two-

thirds of the body

length.

Reaching upto

the testes anteri-

orly and extending

back-wards post-

eriorly upto 1.4.

Begin before near

the anterior end of

the testes and finish

in the middle of

the body.

Begin before the

testes in the level

of the middle of the

V.S. extend only a

little over the

middle of the

body.

Begin at the level

of the V. S. and

extend posteriorly

beyond the middle

of the body.

L,—Length, :

259

a a EE TTS RS SD, ESTEE IS SE I EO EN, IR SS TS I I I EE OR ES

Uterus Genital pore Eges Remarks

Spreads out Posterior to Brownish not

behind the testes} pharynx, very thin shelled

in transverse loops L.—0°045-0°050

in the entire B.—0°027-0°029,

middle field reach-

ing outwards upto

the vitellaria and

posteriorly upto

the intestinal

ceca, The folds

do not reach the

hindermost end of

the body.

(B) In _ trans- (B) in the Dark brown] (A) Accord-

verse loops very | Neighbourhood | thick shelled and] ing to Rail-

thickly packed.

In transverse

loops in the back

half of the body.

Well-developed

reaching upto the

posterior tip of the

body,

Occupies the

entire body behind

the testes reaching

the pvsterior tip

of the body.

A little inflated

its coils fill up the

entire space behind

the testes upto the

end of the intesti-

nal ceeca,

Very strongly

developed trans-

verse loops almost

reach the body

wall.

Anteriorly it ex-

tends upto the

ovary and posteri-

orly to the hinder-

most region of the

body,

of the pharynx,

In front of

the pharynx

in the middle

line.

Lies at hind

end of the

pharynx,

Lies at the

hind end of the

pharynx.

inflated 0°0246

diameter,

Dark

L.—0°0228-0°0273

B.—0°014-0°0160

Brown modera-

tely thick

shelled

L.—0°0228-0°0273

B.—0°014-0°0182,

Young eges

clear old dark

brown not very

thick shelled

0°0320°0228,

Brown thick

shelled

L.—0°032-0°0364

B.—0°182.

Young eggs

yellow older

ones black brown

thick shelled.

L.—0°0320.

B.—0°0228.

B.—Breadath.

liet,

CB) Accord-

ing to Braun.

ese

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII]

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS o5

SS SEE ee |

Size and ratio of

Species Host Size/and shape of suckers oral to s Intestinal

the body ee cat Pharynx ceca Testes

1. D, petiola- Liver and] Fusiform elon-| O.S. 0°30 V.S. 0°145 E ‘i

tum gall bladder | gated L.—6-7'5. __| 0°605<0'8 elliptical. | long. foree fate sounded,

(Railliet lof Garrulus| B—0'7-0'84 in| O.S.: V.S.. 2: ing hind end. | larger tr

1900). glandarius. front of testis near | 3: 8. 7 areonmaalte

V.S, neck about 1°5 ovate tiated

nae ne behind the

ee ra oRtetia

2. D, albicolle (A) Corvus} (A) body fusi-| (A) O.S. 0°4-0'45 B r

(Rudolphi|cornix, Pica|form very long V.S. _ 0°85-0°95 oes ay roaches PaCS abt ae

1819), pica. posterior extre-|O.S.: V.S,::1:2.] close be-| posterior end | other moaterloe

malty obese? ninawee of the body. to the V.S,

B.—0'9-1'16 ons,

(B) Aquila} (B) L—60, B—

bennata, 10,

3. D. detlec- Thryothorus Oblate, broad Gl 5 -

tens hypoxanthus, lancet shaped an- Olen poner react eee

(Rudolphi terior end rounded the middle of| beside one

1819). and posterior end 3 the body. another 0208

conical. the V.S. is at a just behind the

distance of 1/3 VS,

body length from

the anterior end.

4, D, delectans| Intestine of} It has a small] O.S.—L.—0°198 lobular or

(Braun Myiothera conical neck at —0°240 AEST oe longitudinally

1901). ruficeps tached to the broad| V.S.0°350 in little and do| oval symmetri-

(Brazil). pounce tapers as diameter not reach the|cal beeeer

tiorly. 29.:V.S122223 hind end. behind the V.5.

L—2°8;B 1-0. s somewhat

smaller than

it,

5. D. volup- Intestine of O.S. subtermi

v S.s nal End behind| Oval or more

Horziim Falco sp. circular 0°229 in the middle be- | or less circular

Praia diameter V.S. with tween the hind | symmetrical

: thrice or more dia- edge of the beside or be

meter of O.S. 0.S. : body and the | hind the VS.

V.S.::1:3suckers vitellaria.

very much near

each other,

6. D.reficiens| Intestine of} It has a short} O.S 0°34 er

in H 4 not L.—0°11 WwW. ards| Rounde

Precio alco aio | neck ey eemening perkecey citcalen Boas | tne head part, |/smaller than

). body is long. S., 0°40 in do not wholly |the V.S: ouy

L.—4°00 diameter reach upto the symmetrical!)

B.—0°75 O.S.: V.S. 2:33:34, hind end. behind jt.

7. D. tubens | Pipra rupri-| Anterior end O.S. 0°364 ; ded yy

\ Ss. 65 % be} roun! 4

jae cola. painted: posterlon V.S. 0°470, lap O04 in one not symmetries

end more or less} O.S.; V.S.::3: behin'

rounded, The two SRSA Siem Yi Seipenalle®

suckers are very than V-S:

much near each

other.

ae ae Pears rete

O, S,—Oral Sucker,

V. S.—Ventral Sucker.

THE SPECIES O

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES

FF THE GENUS DICROCELIUM

255

Oval with its

longitudinal

transver-

y placed,

Oval or qua-

drilobed with

its longitudi-

nal axis trans-

versely placed

close behind

one of the

testes,

Rounded as

big as the testis

but smaller

than V.S, lying

behind one of

the testes,

Much smaller

than the testes.

ing to about two-

thirds of the body

length.

Reaching upto

the testes anteri-

orly and extending

back-wards _ post-

eriorly upto 1.4.

Begin before near

the anterior end of

the testes and finish

in the middle of

the body.

Begin before the

testes in the level

of the middle of the

V.S. extend only a

little over the

middle of the

body.

Begin at the level

of the V. S. and

extend posteriorly

beyond the middle

of the body.

Well-developed

reaching upto the

posterior tip of the

body,

Oceupies the

entire body behind

the testes reaching

the posterior tip

of the body.

A little inflated

its coils fill up the

entire space behind

the testes upto the

end of the intesti-

nal ceca,

Very strongly

developed tran:-

verse loops almost

reach the body

wall.

Anteriorly it ex-

tends upto the

ovary and posteri-

orly to the hinder-

most region of the

body.

Lies at hind| Brown modera-

end of the| tely thick

pharynx. shelled

L,—0"0228-0°0273

B.—0°014-0°0182,

Lies at the Young eggs

hind end of the | clear old dark

pharynx. brown not very

thick shelled

0'0320"0228,

Brown ~ thick

shelled

L.—0°032-0°0364

B.—0°182.

Young eggs

yellow older

thick shelled.

L.—0°0320.

B.—0 "0228.

L.—Length, -

B,—Breadth.

ones black brown

cirrus | Ovary Vitellaria Uterus Genital pore Eggs Remarks

L0H Smaller than| Consist of large Spreads out Posterior to| Brownish not

ron the testes, a]rounded or pear- behind the testes | pharynx. very thin shelled

¥ little behind | shaped follicles | in transverse loops 045-0°050

them. which lie thick] in the entire ‘()27-0'029,

beside and behind | middle field reach-

one another. They | ing outwards upto

| begin directly be-|the vitellaria and

hind the testes and | posteriorly upto

| reach upto the| the intestinal

second-third of the | ceca. The folds

body length | do not reach the

2°0-2°5. hindermost end of

the body.

(B) Lateral not (B) In trans- (B) in the Dark brown] (A) Accord-

equally well deve- | verse loops very neighbourhood | thick shelledand | ing to Rail-

loped on both the | thickly packed. of the pharynx, | inflated 0°0246 in | liet.

sides begin behind diameter,

the V.S. and reach

scarcely behind

| the middle of the (B) Accord-

| body. ing to Braun.

Shortand} Smaller than| Lateral and In transverse In front of Dark

|hind one of| ina line with the] half of the body. in the middle | B.—0°014-0°0160

them, testes and extend- line.

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII |

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF.

Species Host

&. D. gllictens | Rhampbhastus

(Braun sp. Pipra rup-

1901) vicola,

9. D. macro- Bile duct of

stomum Numida ptilor-

(Ohdner hyncha.

1911).

10. D. clathra- Cypbselus

tum (Des- | (Agus) apus

long- Sylvia atri-

champs, | capz/la.

non

Olsson)

( Disio-

mum

vefertum

Muhling)

ll. D. olssonz Gall bladder

(Disto- | of Cypselus

mum | (Apus) abus.

Clathra-

tum |

Olsson et

Muhling)

12. D. pan- Pica pica.

durttorne

(Railliet

1900). |

13. D. attenu Turdus me-

atum rula,

(Durjar-

din 1845).

14. D. loba- Acciprter

tum | mzSUS.

(Railliet

1900).

15. DD. dendri-| Bile duct of

ticum herbivorous

(Rudolphi | and omnivo-

1819), | rous mammals

(sheep ,ox,goat,

ass,horse, deer,

hare, rabbit,

and pig.)

Size and shape of

the body

Body oblate with

a short conical

neck. hind end

broad gradually

SOE neon se

B.—2°0 just in

front of the testes.

L.—3°65—4°75

B.-l -—(°5

The greatest

breadth as with D.

lanceolatum in the

| posterior part of

| the body thickness

0°4,

Elongated cylind-

rical broadest in

the middle, narrow

towards the ends,

L. 2°64-3, 4-4°5,

B. 0°6 -0°66.

Elongated ,cylind-

rical Broadest in

the region of the

V.S. rounded pos-

teriorly.

L. 2°0—2°25,

B. 0°5—0°2-0°525

L.—3°6,

B.—1 0.

Posterior end

obtuse

Body Sublinear

L.—3'50.

B.—0°22.

Body very elon-

gated posterior

extremity obtuse

L.—7°5-9'5

B.—0°38-0°4.

Lancet-shaped

L.—e8-10

B.—1'5-2°5

greatest breadth

usually behind the

middle of the

body.

O. S.—Oral Sucker,

Size and ratio of

suckers oral to

ventral.

Pharynx

O.S. subterminal

circular 0°5]0 in

diameter V. S. cir-

cular 0°700 in dia-

meter.

OSs 2 WESe a e7

O.8. 0°28—0°35.

V.S. 0°19—0°23°

ORS aes ee ess

O.S. 0°2—0°255,

V.S. 0°4-—0°435.

ON IV She ale

OS: —0'09—0°105

-0°135.

V. S.—0°28—0°315

foo

O.8.: V.S. 2 21:3.

O.S.—0°5

V.S.—0°6

Suckers separated

from one another

by a distance of

about 1/5. the

length of the body

O:Se2 WEST oe

Globu-

lar 0°162 in

diameter.

0°07-0°09

in dia-

meter,

0°078 in

diameter,

Small

0°075 in dia-

meter.

Globular

adjoining

the O.S.

body.

Intestinal

ceca

Do not reach

the hind end.

Reach upto 2/3

the length of

the body,

Reach near the

posterior end.

Reach the

middle of the

Reach 4/5 of

the body

length.

V. S.—Ventral Sucker,

| dorsal to V.S. |

Testes |

———EE

Large longi-.

tudinally

stretched,

lobed lying

symmetrically

ina line with ©

V.S. but ext-.

ending slightly

behind it.

More or less)

lobed, oblique-

ly arranged

behind V.S.

bigger than |

AS |

Small rounded |

symmetrically |

placed behind

the V. S. 0°1044 |

in diameter.

Rounded or |

‘elliptical dia-

meter 0°255-

0°245 partly

over-lapping |

one another, |

the anterior |

one often

Testes one,

behind the |

other posterior |

to the V.S.

The large |

slightly lobed |

testes lie obli- |

quely one be- |

hind the other)

posterior to the |

V.S

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS DICROCG:LIUM— (continued)

250

Cirrus Ovary Vitellaria Uterus Genital pore Eggs Remarks

— L.—0°470. Bean-shaped Small in pro- Completely fiJls Close behind| Very numerous

B.—0°260. | behind one of | portion to the size | the posterior half | the pharynx. fairly thick

the testes, of the creature, of the body. shelled dark

length about 1°0 brown.

only alittle longer L.—0°0364.

than the testes. B.—0°0228.

Of changing Short 0°5—0°65 Ventral to L.—0°04-0°043

form globular |in the middle of pharynx. B.—0°026. |

| or lobed. the body built up |

of a few relatively

large follicles.

| Ovalsmall (| Longin the | Coiled between L..—0°0395-0° 0468 Laurer’s

situated behind | middle third of the| the V S. and the B.--0°025-0°0312. | canal present

/one_ of the | body. posterior end. with median

| testes. | | | external

| L.--0°1600. | opening.

— B.—0°0864.

| Ellipsoidal Short between As usual coiled L.—0'034-0°036. | Laurer’s

| clese behind ovary and the ifrom in front of B.—0°0170-0'0198 | canal pre-

the testes dia- | middle of the iV. S. to the post- | sent. opening

meter 0°145, | body. | erior-most end. to the out-

| | side.

L.- 0°14 As big as the Continuous band Behind the L.—0°42-0°45

B.—0°07 testes, a little | 1°25-J'55. pharynx, B.—0°02-0°025.

\behind _ the |

_ second testis.

Ovary small., Commence | See L.—0°036-0° 039

| behind the ovary | B.—0°020-0°022.

| L,—0°5 |

L.—0°16 | Globular | Formed of a L.—0°047-0°50

B.—0°06 notably very|small number of B.—0°028-0° 030.

| small, situated | large follicles |

| a Short distance | occupying alength |

| behind the | of l—1°4 behind the |

LVS: | ovary. |

| |

Small Rounded Commence at Extends through- At the level Thick shelled

der, the testes | posterior testisand|end. Itisnotcon-|tion of the| X 0022-0°03.

| placed behind | extend to near the | fined to the central | intestine.

' the

_ testis,

posterior | posterior third of

| the body,

field but overlaps

the lateral fields

with its transverse

coils,

EE ee eee ee a

1845

—Breadth,

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX xij] ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES 257

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTcs g

PECIES OF THE GENUS DICROC@?LIUM— (continued)

HES

Size and ratio of

species 3 Size and shape of re inv Intestinal ia J ; 3 ges Remarks

Species Host the body suckers oral to Pharynx cieca Testes = Ovary Vitellaria Uterus Genital pore Eggs Remarks

& D. illictens| Rhampbhastus| Body oblate with| O.S. subterminal| Globu- Do not reach | i - an-shaped Small in pro-| Completely fills} Close behind| Very numerous

1901) | ricola. neck. hind end diamcter V. S. cir- | diameter. stretched pa. pee estes of the creature, of the body. shelled dark

| broad gradually | cular 0°700 in dia- | lobed lying ee length about 1°0 Brow. cn

getting narrower. | meter. symmetric. only a little longer .— 0°03,

L.—6'0 ~ : 0.S.: V. 5:7 ina Hae than the testes. | B,—0°0228.

B.—2'0 just in | V.S. but ext-

front of the testes. | ending slightly

i | g Slightly

| behind it,

| | |

stonum | Numida plilor-| Bl —''5 V.S, 0°19—0'23' | in dia- the length of lobed, obliges 2 fee eae in the middle of pharynx, B.—0°026.

(Ohdner | hyncha. The greatest Su: :3, | meter, the body. | ly arranged or lobed, the body built up |

1911), breadth as with D. behind V.s, of a few relatively |

lanceolatum in the bigger than large follicles. |

posterior part of VS, |

the body thickness

| 0-4, |

| |

10. D. clathra- Cypselus | Elongated cylind- 0°078 in | Reach near the} Small rounded val s' 1 Long in the Coiled between = L,—0°0396-0'0468 | _Laurer’s

tum (Des- (Abus) apus | rical broadest in diameter, posterior end, | symmetrically - Sanna middie third of the| the VS. and the B.—0'025-0°0312. | canal present

long- Sylvia atri-| the middle, narrow S22 V.8 yy, | placed behind one of the! body. | posterior end. with median

champs, | capilla. towards the ends, the V.S, 0104 testes. | external

Olsson) Me ct | in diameter. L.-.0° 1600. | opening.

(Disto- | - 0°6 -0°66. B.—0°0854,

mum |

refertum |

Muhling) | | |

ll. D.olssoni | Gall bladder| El y. ks 3.—0°09—0° ; | Rounded or 5 ae i L.—0'034-0'036, Laurer’s

ts | t| Elongated.cylind: O.S.—0'09—0'105 Small Reach the Sot : ‘llipsoidal hort between As usual coiled =m, . U

eee | (Abus) apus, sHelree ion} oF the . S.—0°28—0°315 | meter. body. ra Os the testes dia- | middle of the V. S. to the post- gent fouene

2 | . S. rounded pos- i ' -m0s id. | x

bum | teriorly, y over-lapping meter 0°145, body. erior-most en conte

Olsson et L, 2°0—2'25, one another,

Muhling) B. 0°5—0:2-0'525 the anterior

| | one often

| dorsal to V.s. |

12. D. pan- Pica pica. | L.—3'6, O.S.—0°32 Testes of€ LO Sere L.—0"42-0°45

p 5 6 jy Se ‘ os rp 5 Ast ; s band rs Behind the . P

duriforme | Bio. Deity: | testes aie neon se ea RHace Ks B.—0°02-0°025.

(Railliet Posterior end i other pos behind the | i

obtuse (OOo second testis,

13. D. attenu Turdus me- Body Sublinear Situated ii “ Ovary L.—0°036-0' 039

atum la, —3 | behind ary small.) Commence . sen = 0020-0022. |

(puciarta anes ere | other. behind the ovary B01: |

din 1845). bebe

ical |

14, D. loba- | Accipiter Body very elon- Elliptice Lm 1L.—0°047-0"50

5 ce an am ind the 6 Globul: ae o o ts

tum nisus. gated __ posterior one be elo B~006 notably % very | eee ee of B.—0'028-0°030. |

Meee extremity obtuse o the VS. small, situated | large follicles

900). L.=7'5-9'5 a short distance | occupying a length |

B,—0°38-0'4 beh

. ehind the | of l—1"4 behind the

H V.S, ovary,

| large |

15. D, dendri-| Bile duct of] Lancet-shapea | 0.S,—0'5 Globular | Reach 4/5 of) _Uiyy jobed Wi Stall 5 Thick shelled |

) 1B t S. htly lr F Round 4 Extends through-| At the level es

L (ous mammals] greatest breadth | from one another ind the on Placed behind extend to near the| fined to the central | intestine.

ie eenioxigpaty usually behindthe| by a distance of posterior (0" the posterior | posterior third of | field but overlaps

aesib ore ndeety palddle of the Rbaues as parte VS: testis, the body the lateral fields

, . (3 ength of the body ‘

and pig.) os SWEAR BSS | wins reese

O. S,—Oral Sucker, V. S.—Ventral Sucker, L.—Length, B,—Breadth,

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

Species

162 Ds a7

ceatum

var. sym-

metricum

(Baylis

1918).

17. D. infidum

(De Faria).

Ike} VBE

CuuUm

Faria)

conspt-

(De

19. D. orten-

talisn. Sp.

20. D. tndica

n. Sp.

Host

Cat.

Gall bladder

of Brazilian

Snake (Eunec-

tes murtna),

Gall bladder

of Mimus livi-

dus.

Calotes verst-

color and

Hemtidactylus

flavivirtdts.

Uromasttx

hardwickit.

Size and shape of

the body

L.—5-7 |

B.—1°62-2°0 |

posterior

pointed.

L.—3-3°5

B.—2°0-2°2

caudal extremity

covered with small

slender spines

upto the acetabu-

lum.

L.—/7/-8.

B.—3°0-3°5

Ij, 5-00:

B. 2°5-3'0

i. 6-6°5,

Bae 0:

Elongated ovoid

shape,

Size and ratio of

suckers oral to

ventral

O.S.— 0°37

V.S.—0° 40

O88. WAS. ene

O.S.—0°422 «0°548

V.S. round 0°580

in diameter

ORS VESn lacs

0°55--0° 62.

0°85.

Pharynx

0°2-0°22

Diameter

103

L..—0°1363

B.—0°1692

Intestinal

ceeca

Do not reach

the posterior

end.

Reach almost

to the posterior

end.

Testes

Lie symmetri-

cally behid the |

V bigger —

than Ves

L.—0°8 B.—0°6, |

L.—0°528

B.—0° 294

lobed lying

symmetrically |

in a line with |

the V.S. but

extending be-

hind it to some

extent smaller

than V.S.

‘Lobed sym-

metrically

arranged be-

hind the V.S, .

L.—0°76-0°86,

B.—0 60-0°73.

Symmetrical-

ly arranged

behind the V.S,

diameter

0°4596.

Symmetrical-

ly arranged be-

hind or at the

level of the

posterior half

of the V. S.

transversely

elongated.

0°376 X 0°282.

SP RR SE I A ELIA

O, 8.—Oral Sucker.

V.S.—Ventral Sucker.

egy ee ee —

;

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES

THE SPECIES OF THE GENUS DiCROCCELIUM — (concluded)

ZASh8

aaa aaa

L.—Length,.

B.—Breadth,

Cirrus Ovary Vitellaria Uterus Sie Eges Remarks

0'4x0°15 Shape varia- Uterine coils Blackish or

ble usually | show complete brownish slight-

| lobate position agreement with ly larger than

also. variable those of the fore- the average size

more common- going species. of the eve

ly on the right roundish oval

than on the 0° 0425-0°0500°03.

left.

Diameter Uterus very

.260. coiled.

0°36-0° 48, 0°04 X 0 022,

Cirrus ' Rounded and In the middle) Very coiled, ex- Near the Brown 0°0329 X | Excretory

sac. lone feebly lobed third of the body , tends forwards in| posterior end_ | 03295, | bladder

and cylind- | diameter, tollicles close set. | front of V. S, and | of the cesopha- spherical

tical, vesi- | 0°2688, backwards to gus. 0'4in diame-

cula semi- nearly the post- ter Laurer’s

nalis eriormost tip. canal pre-

slightly sent.

convoluted

Cirrus sac. Small round- From V.S. to| Highly convolut- Behind the Brown 0°044 x Excretory

)°3055 X ed behind the | near the end of the | ed between the ‘| oesophagus 0 024, bladder long

0'2820 pro-| testes in the middle third of the | ovary and the just in front or and more or

minent median line. body. posterior extre- the intestinal less lobed.

vesicula 0°2256 & 0°1645. mity. bifurcation,

seminalis.

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX///

TABLE SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREMATODES

HE spECIES OF THE GENUS DICROCGLIUM— (concluded)

259

24 Size and ratio of aes | ‘ Genital

Species Host Size padishane of euckers(oral to Pharynx unestinal Testes cirrus Ovary Vitellaria Uterus pore Eggs Remarks

16. D. lan- Cat. L.—5-7 iesv 7 wins Shape varia- Uterine coils Blackish or

ceatum B.—1'62-2°0 cal yunmetti rani ble ; usually show complete brownish slight-

var, sym- posterior end 7:8. Vv. id the lobate position | agreement with ly larger than

metricum pointed, tha ee also variable | those of the fore-| the average size

(Baylis L.—0°8 B.-0'6, more common- going species, of the egg

1918), = ly on the right roundish oval

than on the 0° 0425-0°0500"03,

left.

17, D. infidum| Gall_bladder L,—3-3'5 O.S,—0°422 X0°548 L.—0'528 |

(De Faria), | of Brazilian B.—2°0-2'2 V.S. round 0°58 B.—0'294 |

Snake (£umec-| caudal extremity in diameter | lying |

tes murina), covered with small | O.S,: V.S.::1: symmetrically

slender spines in a line with Diameter Uterus very

upto the acetabu- the V.S. but 0,260. coiled. |

lum. extending be-

hind it to some

extent smaller |

than V.S,

18. D. conspi- Gall bladder L.—7-8, | 0'2-0°22 Lobed sym- 0°36-0'°48, 0°04 X 0 022,

cuum (De| of Mimus livi- | B.—3'0-3'S, metrically

Faria) dus, arranged _ be-

hind the V.S, |

L,—0°76-0'86, |

B.—0 60-0'73, |

19S Vorten: Calotes versi-| L. 5-5'5. O.S. 0°3864, Diameter! Do not reach | Symmetrical- Cimus Rounded and In the middle} Very coiled, ex-| Near the Brown 0'0329 x | _Excretory

Hemidactylus O.S.: end. behind the V.S. liameter, tollicles close set. front of Aes and | of the cesopha- eunerical

tlaviviridis. diameter ackwards to gus, O'4in diame-

0°4596, nearly the post- ter Laurer’s

eriormost tip. canal pre-

Sent.

20. D. indica Uromastix L. 6-65, L.—0°1363| Reach almost Symmetrical- | Small round- From V.S. to Highly convolut- Behind the Brown 0°044 & Excretory

Elongated ovoid 2s end. hind or at the 5 Sin the middle third of the | ovary and the just in front or and more or

shape, level of the ian line. body. posterior extre- the intestinal less lobed.

posterior _balf ‘0 x 0°1645. mity. bifurcation,

of the V. 5.

transversely

elongated.

0376 X 0°22.

EEE

V.S.—Ventral Sucker.

O, S,—Oral Sucker.

L.—Length,

8.—Breadth,

Genus Decrocelium,.

‘Testes

_symme-

trically

arranged.

‘Testes

one

~~ behind

che other.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OR THE GENUS DICROCGLIUM.

Oral

__ Sucker

larger

than

ventral

= Testes: |

{ rounded

Oral

sucker

than

ventral

Cuticle

—smaller—

D. deflectans,

D, delactans.

Ovary

_ in the

median

line.

Ovary

— lobed.

Ovary j—-Ovary_ z .

behind oval. oe

‘one of —

the Vitel-

testes. —laria—

Vitel- | short

laria not

—Ovary reaching

nO === ventral

lobed sucker.| Vitel-

—laria

long.

_ Ovary

rounded. | Uterus

| Vitel- __not very-

| laria compact.

| reach-

\—ing upto-—— ——

ventral Uterus

sucker. _very

compact-

s-OCV O10 Ol a ee

spines,

_ Testes

rounded.

Oral

sucker

—smaller

than

ventral.

_ Testes _

lobed.

ventral.

testes.

Ves ca ee SSO eh of er

Ovary

_ smaller _

than the

testes.

Vitellaria

very short

1/7 the body

length.

Vittelleria

—notvery —~—

short.

—big.—

small mea-

nearly 1/7 the

body length.

Vitellaria

Intestinal ——

ceeca reach-

.—ing upto the

posterior-

most end.

Intestinal

ceeca reach-

—ing upto 4/5

the body

length.

Intestinal ceca

reach upto 3/4 the

|—body length, uterus

does not reach up to

posteriormost end.

Intestinal ceca

reach upto 3 of the

—body length, uterus

reaches upto the post-

eriormost end

<surine ——$ ee eee oe ee

a ef),

D, tngica, n. ol

D. voluptartum.

D, clathratum,

D. reticiens,

D. lubens.

D, tntidum.

D, tllictens.

D. conspicuum.

D, banduriforme.

. attenuatum,

. petwlatum.

. olssont.

. lobatum,

D. orientaits, n.8f,

albicolle.

dendréiticumt.

. macrostomum.|

ON THE ANATOMY OF TWO NEW TREM ATODES 261

REFERENCES

Raviis, H. A. : (1918) Is Dicrocelium lanceatum a parasite of the cat? A note

on a new variety. dun. Mag. Nat. Hist., London, Ser. 9, vol. 2, pp. 111-

114.

Braun, M. : (1902) Fascioliden der. vogel. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xvi, pp. 97-105.

DUJARDIN, F.: (1845) Afistoive naturelle des Helminthes, Paris.

DE FartIA, G. : (1910) Contribucao para a sistematica helmintolojica brazileira.

Il. Dicrocoelium infidum n.sp. parazito da. vezicula bilear da. Eunectes

murina Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 2, pp. 22-28.

DE Faria, G : (1912) Beitrage zur systematik der. brazilianischen Helminthen

V. Dicrocelium conspicuum n. sp. ein. Parasit der Gallenblase Von

Mimus lividus Licht. Rio de Janeiro Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 4, p.

62.

LuHE, M.: (1909) Die susswasserfauna Deutschlands—Heft 17: Parasitische

Plattwiirmer Trematodes, pp. 133.

MUHLING, P. : (1898). Beitrage Zur Kenntnis der Trematoden. Arch.

F. Naturg., \xii, pp. 243-79.

MUHLING, P.: (1898) Die Helminthfauna der Wirbelthiere Ostpreussens. /6zd.,

Ixiv, pp. 1-118.

ODHNER, T.: (1910@) Nordostafrinkanische Trematoden, grosstenteils vom

Wessen Nil. I Fascioliden.

Results of Swedish Zool. Exped Egypt and the White Nile (1907),

pp. 86-89.

PocHE. F: (1926) DasSystem der Platodaria. Arch F. Naturg. Abt. A Jahre.

91, pp. 140-142.

RAILLiget, M, A.: (1900) Trematodes hepatiques des oiseaux C. R. Soc. Bio.

lii, pp. 239-42.

STEPHENS, J. W. W., FANTHOM, H.B. AND THEOBALD, F. V.: (1916). The

Animal Parasites of Man, pp. 265-66.

THE, STUDYVOB SPEANTA Tre

CHARLES MCCANN

Asst. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

Part III

(With 1 plate, 2 blocks and 26 Text-tigures)

(Continued trom page 46 of this Volume)

THE LEAVES

The popular conception of the term leaf might be taken as a

word descriptive of the foliage of a plant. A more precise, a more

scientific definition of the term includes yet other portions of the

plant not usually included in this category. The Botanist associates

with leaves all the organs of a plant which appear as lateral

out-growths from the stem. The term leaf then includes the

cotyledons which protect the seed, the scales, bracts, spines,

tendrils and even the flowers. In this view every part of the plant

except the roots or the stem is either a leaf, or is composed of

leaves more or less modified and transformed. For the purpose of

our study we will divide leaves under four main headings, Scales,

Foliage, Bracts and lastly Flowers.

Scales

In a former part when discussing the roots of plants, reference

was made to the scales which cover a rhizome. Their purpose, as we

have seen, is mainly protective—a device which enables the grow-

ing plant to withstand the inclemencies of the weather during the

early stages of its development. Ata later stage we find a similar

defence provided for the leaves ; we discover the same formation

of scales designed to guard them during the critical period of their

development.

These scales are known as scale-leaves. The tender fronds of

many:ferns afford striking examples of scale-covered leaves. The

unfurling leaf is covered with a brown, dry, chaff-like substance

which protects the tender green tissue. Under the lens this

investment is seen as a coating of scales—the scale-leaves. In soine

species such as the great tree fern of our evergreen forests the

individual scales canbe seen with the naked eye. Occasionally

they persist throughout the life of the plant.

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 263

Scale-leaves are developed particularly by plants which are

exposed to the rigours of winter or to the scorching heat and winds

of the desert. When conditions are favourable for growth the

leaves burst through and the scales fall away.

Stipules

In tropical countries where plants are not exposed to marked

vicissitudes of season and climate, there is less urgent need for

protection and scales are rarely developed. Their place is taken by

appendages of the leaves known as s?¢zpules.

Normally the stipules are two in number. They grow on each

side of the leaf-stalk. In the Rose they form appendages to the

enlarged base of the leaf-stalk. Occasionally two stipules may

unite or they may completely enclose the stem and then forma

sheath (ochrea) around the young undeveloped leaves, ‘This sheath-

like fusion of the stipules is commonly seen in various species of

figs. It is instanced in our common fig, the Banyan (Ficus

bengalensis). The pinky sheath-like caps which form the apex of

the sprouting shoots of a Banyan are the stipules. They enclose

and protect the immature leaves. Many such stipules may be found

LARGE STIPULE OF BREAD-FRUIT TREE

one enclosed within the other. Each guards its nursling leaf. As

soon as the leaf is strong enough to stand exposure to the sun it

commences to unfold. The pressure forces the stipule upward.

The leaf has no further need for protection. The stipule is shed.

Stipules thus shed are spoken of as deciduous. When they remain

attached to the plant for a protracted period they are termed

persistent,

‘\

2644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Stipules as I have indicated vary in form and structure. In

the Cassias, a genus which provides so many beautiful road-side

trees, they are very leaf-like. They might readily be mistaken

for leaflets. In some plants stipules are so small and insignificant

that they are easily overlooked. Inothers, as in the Banyan, they

are large and conspicuous. The position of the stipules some-

times provides an important means of distinguishing between

various orders of plants. Exact terms descriptive of the position

of the stipules are therefore brought into use. A stipule emerging

from the base of the leaf in the region of the axil is termed

axillary. When it originates between the stalks of two opposite

leaves itis called zzterpettolar. When stipules are absent, as in

the majority of Monocotyledons, the leaves are described as

exstipulate.

Stipules may perform for the plant other functions than those of

a purely protective nature. Inthe Cassias they perform the func-

tion of leaves. They are modified in other species to form spines,

while in some climbing plants they appear as tendrils on either side

of the leaf stalk and assist the plant in obtaining a hold.

Foliage Leaves

Our study of foliage leaves must begin with the manner of

their origin and development. The leaf commences as a tender,

delicately folded bud. Its development as such reveals one of the

marvels of Nature’s handicraft. Wecan understand a loom weav-

ing a material and folding it up atter completion. But to produce

and complete the intricately folded material as such would be

a much more difficult achievement. ‘This is nevertheless what

happens in the case of leaves. They complete their development

while folded and open out when the process is complete! The

manner and pattern of folding assumed by the developing leaf is

called Vernation. There are different types of vernation, more or

less intricate. Each species follows a particular pattern. The

various forms of vernation can therefore be described by particular

terms. The tender fronds of a tern are rolled in a coil from tip to

base. This type of folding is called circinate. Leaves rolled up

from one side to the other into a simple tube are convolute. Again

the outer margins of the leaf may be rolled inwards towards the

midrib. This is zzvolute folding. Reverse the process and roll the

margins outwards (i.e. on the undersurface) and we have revolute

vernation. The leaves of palms are folded lengthwise like a fan.

This is plzcate folding. The simplest type of vernation is seen in the

Bauhinias. The wings of the leaf are folded flat against each other,

like the pages of a book; this form of vernation is called

conduplicate.

Leaves do not grow at random onaplant. There is order in

Nature !. Her laws are ordained for the preservation of the species.

Leaves have a definite function to perform. ‘They are the ‘lungs’

of the plant, its organs of respiration and transpiration. They

absorb the life-giving light. If the leaves are to do their work

efficiently, their surfaces must be so placed as to take the fullest

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 265

advantage of light. The existence of the plant depends on it.

Their manner of growth on a plant must therefore follow a set

arrangement, though the unpractised eye is unable to discern it.

The arrangement of leaves on the stem and branches of a plant

is technically known as Phyllotaxy. Let me illustrate a few examples.

Take the stem of a Sunflower with leaves zz sztu. Ifa thread be

tied to one of its leaf-stalks and trained to follow the leaves in the

order of growth, it will be seen that the leaves are arranged in a

spiral round the stem. If looked at above or compressed they

would form a rossette. By this arrangement no leaf entirely

covers the one growing below it. Each gets its fullest share

of sunlight. The leaves are thus disposed in cycles.

If the leaves are numbered in order of growth as 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.

it will be found that leaf No. 1 is directly

below No. 6. Thus two cycles or spirals

were completed before No. 6 was reach-

ed. This arrangement in cycles enables

us to describe the manner of leaf growth

in mathematical terms. ‘The example |

have just given in which two cycles are

formed between the first and the sixth

leaves is described as a2 spiral. The

numerator 2 denotes the number of

spirals described. The denominator 5

indicates the number of leaves passed

before anew series is commenced. If Diagram : Fre. 1.

the spirals are continued it will be found

that the 11th leaf is exactly over the sixth, the seventh over the

second, the eighth over the third and so on (see diagram, Fig. 1).

The point of emergence of a leaf is called its point of insertion.

Leaves are inserted at various parts of the stem and branches—we

define their placement by exact terms. Leaves are called radical

(L. radix=root),when they arise at or below the ground. Such leaves

appear to spring directly from the root, in reality they originate from

a much compressed and shortened stem which forms the root base.

Leaves which spring from anormal stem are termed cauline (LL.

caulis=stem). Stemless plants, the Dandelion and Primrose for

examples are called acaulescent (G. a=without, kaulos=stalk).

Leaves which grow on the branches are called vamal (L. ramus=a

branch).

The ‘ Ak’ (Calotropis gigantea), a common species remarkable for

the profusion of milk sap which it exudes on injury, provides an

example of leaf arrangement that is very frequent. It is known as

decussate (L. decussatum=divided crosswise in the form of an x).

The leaves grow in pairs, each pair crossing the other at right

angles.

In grasses we have a different system of leaf arrangement. The

leaves are disposed in two rows on the opposite sides of the stem,

the disposal of grains on a ear of barley illustrates this arrangement

—it is called distichous (G. dis=twice, stichos=a row). A three

ranked arrangement is ¢v7stzchous. )

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

When more than two leaves are produced on each node and are

arranged radially, they are described as whorled. These are a few

examples of leaf arrangement—many others could becited. There

is much variation. But however dissimilar the order of leaf growth

may appear in different plants, the varying systems are conceived

with one purpose in view—the advantageous exposure of the leaf

surface to light.

The great majority of plants bear leaves, a few are able to exist

entirely without them. The Cacti are examples. Our prickly

Spurge (Auphorbia) though not a cactus might be included in this

category. It is leafless for the greater part of the year. The

fierce heat and scorching winds of the deserts where Cacti flourish

would soon wither and destroy leaf growth and would put these

delicate organs out of action. The important functions normally

carried out by the Jeaves are in this instance performed by the

stems which are provided with the necessary green matter—the

chlorophyll.

Parasitic plants—root parasites in particular—afford better

examples of leafless growths. These parasites derive their

subsistence from their hosts upon whom devolves the labour of

providing and nourishing their uninvited guests. The parasites are

thus able to dispense with leaves. The all-pervading Dodder

(Cuscuta reflexa), a knotted mass of stringy yellow stems, which

invests and destroys shrubs in our gardens is an example.

The Purple Pipe (4 ginetia indica), which resembles a tobacco pipe

in shape is yet another illustration. These parasites are devoid of

Jeaves and atthe same time of green colouring matter. Hence

they are entirely dependent on their hosts. The Loranthus, so

common on Mango and other trees, and the various Mistletoes

(Viscum) are not wholly parasitic; they possess chlorophyll and are

able to provide part of their own nourishment.

EPIPODIUM

Baia et ee oy

———s

PETIOLE APEX

BASE MIARGIN

VEIN

BLADE

MID-RIB

Fic. 2.

Diagramatic figure of a leaf showing the different parts.

Let us now consider a leaf in its simplest form. A leafis a fat

usually green expansion growing from a stem or root-stock and

collectively constituting a plant’s foliage. The leaf of a Banyan

provides an example for study. It is attached to the branch by

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 267

a narrow stalk—the petiole or Mesopodium (G. mesos=middle,

pous=foot). The petiole supports the expanded leaf-blade, in

technical parlance the Apzpodium (G. epft=upon, pous=the |foot)

or Lamina. The base of the petiole thickens at its point of union

withthe branch. There is a distinct swelling of the leaf-stalk to

form a sort of cushion, the pulvznus. This is not developed to a

very marked extent in the Banyan leaf. When the base of the

leaf stalk is broad the pulvinus may occupy a considerable portion

of the stem. The detachment of such a leaf leaves a distinct

scar on the stem. With some leaves the cushion is

developed to form a sheath which almost encircles

the stem or completely encloses it. Definite terms

are used to describe these characters.

The accompanying diagram (Fig. 2) illustrates the

terms used in describing the various parts of a typical

leaf. All these parts are subject to considerable

variation and modification in different species of

plants. The petiole may be absent, Sessz/e in stalkless

leaves, or it may vary in formand length. In some

instances, as in the Orange-leaf, the petiole is broadly

winged—almost leaf-like (Fig. 3.) In a few of the

Australian Acacias the leaf-blades are short-lived

and are not developed at all in the mature tree. The

functions of the leaf are then performed by the leai-

Stalk and these leaf-like petioles Fic. 3.

are called Phyllodes (Gr. phullon=a Wing of petiole

leaf, e¢<dos=resemblance). When, of Orange.

as inthe Cacti, the function of the

leaf is carried out by the stem the term Phylloclade

is used. Care should be taken not to confuse the

two words, phyllode and phylloclade. The leaf

stalk is not always attached to the basal end

of the leaf. Inthe Caladium or in the leaves

of the water-lilies the attachment is towards the

middle. The term feltate (L. pelta=shield)

Fic. 4. describes this form of attachment (Fig. 4.)

Simple and Compound Leaves

The Banyan leaf, which we have taken as our model, presents

itself as a simple flat expansion-—it is not divided into a number of

smaller parts or segments. It is a szmple leaf. Take another

common leaf—that of the Gold Mohur tree (Pozuczana regia). Here

we have amore complicated type of structure. There is a main

axis or vachis which supports a large number of small blades

or leaflets. It provides us with an example of a compound leat.

How are we to distinguish between a simple and a compound

leaf ?

When discussing the development of branches it was shown

that every branch originates from a bud situated in the axil of a

leaf. The axillary bud indicates the point of union of the leaf-stalk

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

with the stem. The lateral outgrowth from this point constitutes

the leaf. If this outgrowth takes the form of a single expansion it

forms a simple leaf, if composed of a number of small blades or

leaflets, it is a compound leaf.

Compound leaves exhibit infinite variation. We describe them

by precise terms, a knowledge of which is indispensabie to the

study of plant life. ‘These terms form the basis of any written

description of a particular species, genus, family or order of plants.

I illustrate some of the more important examples.

Take an Acacia leaf—it is comparable in its composition toa

feather. We have the central stem, the vachis, representing the

FIG? <5:

quill, to which are attached the leaflets arranged in pairs. This

type of leaf is described as pinnate (L. pinna=feather). Pinnate

leaves present themselves in different forms. When the leaflets are

arranged in pairs without a terminal leaflet at the extremity of the

rachis the leaf is described as abruptly pinnate or parvzpinnate

(Fig. 5). The leaves of the Blackwood tree or Sisso (Dalbergia)

exhibit another variation of the pinnate leaf. The leaflets are not

paired, they are alternate and the apex of the rachis is crowned

Gao,

with a terminal leaflet. This exemplifies what is known as an odd-

pinnate or zmpari-pinnate (Fig. 6) leaf.

A third variation of the pinnate leaf is illustrated by the Gold

Mohur. The leaf is composed of a main stalk from which arise a

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PO: A

LE SLODYSAOR PLANT LIFE 269

series of smaller stalks which bear the leaflets. This form of leaf

is bipinnate (Fig. 7) and the series of leaflets which constitute or

form sub-divisions of the leaf are known as pzvnae. Further divisions

BiG

on these lines provide us with f¢vzfzunate variations and so on.

These multipinnate variations are alsoknownas decompound leaves.

The leaves of the Drumstick (Moringa plerygosperma) tree afford

an example.

The Flame of the Forest (Butea frondosa), whose beautiful orange

blooms provide a gorgeous display of colour between the months of

January and March,'exhibits a different type of compound leaf.

Here the pinnate or feather-like structure is absent. The leaf is

composed of three large leaflets arranged at the end of the

leaf-stalk. Itis frzfolzolate (Fig. 8). The number of leaflets which

BiG. o.

compose this type of compound leaf may. vary. There may be 5, 6

and so on—when the leaflets are numerous—these leaves are called

multifoltolate. ‘The Silk-Cotton tree (Bombax malabaricum) is an

example of a multifoliolate leaf.

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Shapes of Leaves

Leaves present the same infinite variation of form as they do in

their arrangement. These delicate organs are perhaps the most

susceptible to the varying conditions of the plant’s life. Their

response to these conditions, to their varying requirements and

purposes results in a diversity of form which is evident even in

species of the same genus. These varying forms of leaves are

designated by precise terms. As I have said before a knowledge

of these terms is indispensible to the study of Botany. I illustrate

some of the more common examples.

Fic. 9. Fic. 10. Fie. 1l.

Linear: A grass blade illustrates this type (Fig. 9)—the leaf is

several times longer than broad.

Oblong - The length is not more than twice or three times in

excess of the breadth (Fig. 10).

Eliptic: Tapering at each end and broadest in the middle.

The Alexandrian Laurel (Calophyllum inophyllum) is a good

example (Fig. 11).

Fic. 12. Fie. 13. Fic. 14.

Lanceolate: Resembling the head of the lance. The leaves of

the Asok (Polyalthea longifolia) can be taken as a type. (Fig. 12).

Oblanceolate: The reverse of lanceolate—the leaf is narrowest

at its base (Fig. 13).

Ovate: Egg-shaped—the leaf of the Banyan illustrates this

form (Fig. 14).

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 271

VY Y

HIG: 15; Bie. 16.

Obovate: The reverse of ovate—the broadest part is at the

apex and not at the base (Fig. 15).

Rotund: Describes a nearly circular leaf (Fig. 16). The Water

Lily (Nelumbium) is a type.

Cuneate: Wedge-shaped (Fig. 17).

BiG. 1c.

Fic. 19.

Deltoid: Similar to cuneate but the broad end of the wedge is at

the base (Fig. 18).

Falcate «

These leaves are not symmetrical but curved sideways.

The Eucalyptus is a type (Fig. 19).

Hic. 20.

Fic. 21.

Oblique: A leat not equally divided on either side of the

midrib—one half being larger than the other. Example: many of

the Begonias (Fig. 20).

The various parts of the leaf are again subject to considerable

variation. The bases take various shapes, rounded or cordate as

in the Banyan or amplexicaul when the base of the leaf surrounds

the;stem (Pig. 21).

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The tip. or apex of «the leaf (may abe: biunt (ebise) more it

may be tapering asin the Peepal (/zcus religiosa). In the latter

instance it is described as accuminate. The

mango leaf ends abruptly in a point—there

we is no prolongation of the apex as in the

| Peepal. It is described as acute. A leaf

terminating in a depression is termed

notched, one ending in a small spine-like

4 ; ; es

point is called mucronate (L. mucro=

point) (Pig: 22),

The margins of the leaves are also

subject to great variation. ‘The Banyan

Bre; 22. leaf exhibits an entire margin. In the

ONotehed ae en anter Asok, the leaf margins are wavy or uzdu-

3. Mucronate ; late. In the Rose, the leaf edges are

4, Acuminate ; serrate or toothed like a saw. The blades

5. Obtuse. of many grasses furnish us with examples.

The minute serrations (in this case called sérrulate) on the margins

of the blade are scarcely apparent till brought in contact with the

bare skin when they readily make their presence felt. Large-

toothed serrations are described as dentate, crescent-shaped ones |

are termed crenate, while those with small depressions as seen in

the Lotus leaf are s¢xuate.

I have confined myself to the more distinctive types. A detailed

account of the terminology descriptive of the various forms of

leaves would fill many pages. The importance of these terms and

their meanings becomes apparent in the interpretation of a scientific

description of the leaves and other parts of the plant. The Banyan

provides an example. The tree hasa simple leaf with a short

stout petiole—the form of the leaf is usually egg- -shaped or ovate—

its apex is blunt—i.e., Od/use. The margin of the leaf is entire, i.e.

it exhibits no irregularities or dentition such as seen in a Rose-leaf.

The texture of the leaf is leathery or coriaceous. A technical des-

cription of the Banyan leaf would read as follows :—Fiacus bengalen-

sts: leaves coriaceous, ovate, margin entire, base rounded or cordate,

apex obtuse, petiole short and stout.

The veins of a leaf are made up of vessels and fibres.

Their function is to form arigid frame-

work for the leaf and to conduct liquids.

The arrangement of veins is termed

yvenatton. Two distinct types of vena-

tion may be recognized—Reticulate or

netted veins (Fig. 23) and jaralle veins

(Fig. 24). In the former the veins

proceed from the midrib in the direction

of the margins of the leaf and are

connected by a network of fine veins or

veinlets. The Banyan leaf is an illustra-

tion. Inthe latter type the veins run

Fic. 23. parallel to the midrib from the base to Fic. 24.

the apex of the leaf as inthe Lilies and grasses, or they diverge

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 273

fan-wise from the base to the leaf margins as in some Palms, or

they may be arranged in parallels across the leaf trom the midrib

to the margin as in the leaves of the

Plantain. Parallel veins may or may

not be visibly interconnected by

smaller veins but these when visible

do not forma network.

Reticulate venation, like parallel

venation, presents considerable varia-

tion. The commonest type of reti-

culate venation is expressed by what

is known as pinnate or feather-veined

leaves. Herve the lateral veins given

off by the midrib extend directly to-

wards the margin and are connected

HIG, 26, by a network of veinlets (Fig. 25); Fic. 25.

The leaf of the Castor Oil (Ricinus communts) illustrates a different

form of reticulate venation. Instead of having a single midrib

there are several veins or ribs which diverge from the point where

the leaf-stalk joins the blade. ‘This is known as palmate venation.

The leaf of the Cinnamon tree presents another variety of 77zbded

venation. The main veins or ribs do not diverge. They extend in

almost parallel courses from the base to the apex of the leaf but,

unlike parallel veined leaves, the veins are connected by a network

of veinlets (Fig. 26). .

The surfaces of leaves also call for attention. ‘They vary con-

siderably. Some are quite smooth, others are covered with hairs.

The covering of hairs may be restricted to one surface or be present

on both sides of the leaf or in particular parts. Smooth leaves

devoid of hairs are called glabrous (L. glaber=smooth). Mango

leaves provide an example. In the Banyan leaf the under-surtace is

covered with a mat of fine downy hairs—such leaves are described as

tomentose. WLeaves which are very hairy are termed v7z/lous (L. villus-

wool). These hairs may be simple, short or long, sometimes witha

bulbous base, or they may be branched in various ways. In some

species they are star-shaped and receive the name s/e/late. Leaves

whose margins are fringed with fine long hairs are called cz/tate.

Hairs serve a particular purpose. ‘They protect the leaf against

excessive heat or cold which might cause the death of the plant.

Hence we find them in evidence to a greater extent in plants which

grow in countries where marked contrasts of climate prevail.

Other leaves are covered with waxy coatings. ‘This is observed

in particular amongst aquatic plants like the lotus. The waxy

coating keeps the stomata or ‘breathing pores’ of the leaf from

being choked. The ieafis thus able to transpire and give off the

surplus water which it has absorbed.

Leaves, like other organs of the plant, exhibit as we have seen a

great diversity of form. In many instances they are modified

beyond recognition. Leaves may become spines, tendrils or pit-

chers. Inthe Holly and many of the Thistles the spiny projections

from the leaf are formed by the prolongation and hardening of the

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX111

veins. In other species the whole leaf blade may become spiny:

Spines must not be confounded with thorns. A thorn is a modified

branch and like the branch it rises from the axil of the leaf not from

the leaf itself.

Various parts of a leaf may be transformed to form atendfil, those

organs, sensitive to contact, which I have already described. Their

purpose is to enable the weak-stemmed plant to obtain a hold on any

Support with which it secures contact, and round which it twines.

Such tendrils may be a prolongation of the leaf blade beyond the apex

as in the leaves of the beautiful Monsoon Climber (Gloriosa superba.)

At other times the entire leaf may serve the purpose of a

tendril.

In the Carrion Pitcher Plant, specimens of which are often culti-

vated in gardens, the leaves are converted into a pitcher-like

receptacle, while the leaf stalk or petiole frequently serves as ten-

dril. Insome Bladder Worts(U¢tricularia), the leaves take the form

of small bladders. Each of these bladders is furnished with a valve

which permits the ingress but not the egress of small water animals.

Several species of these plants are found in tanks in India. Insome.

aquatic plants, the petiole of the leaves are so modified as to form

floats. ‘The Hyacinth and the ‘Singara’ or Water-Chestnut

(Tvrapa natorus) present examples. The petiole is dilated towards

the centre where it encloses large air spaces. The whole leaf stalk

is also spongy and filled with air cavities.

Although the foregoing paragraphs were mainly devoted to the

description of the various forms of leaves, we must now resume

the subject in order to refer to a few forms hitherto not noticed—

curious and exceptional forms. The question before us is the

adaptation of foliage leaves to their environment. While in the

plant itself resides the principle of life, in the environment are

found the conditions of life. Without the fulfilment of those

conditions-—i.e. without the regular supply of heat, air, water, in-

organic substances and so on, to the living tissues—the plant would

languish and die.

Let us consider a few of the modifications in structure which are

the direct result of environment.

There are some plants which are hetevophyllous, i.e. possess leaves

of different shapes, as Fzcus heterophylla and Acacia heterophylla. We

are not in a position to offer or suggest any probable explanation for

this phenomenon, but when we turn to water plants we can see the

special usefulness of heterophyllous leaves. Inthe Bladder Wort,

already mentioned, the leaves may take the form of filaments or be

converted into bladders. Many other submerged aquatic plants

found in tanks and streams have filamentous leaves, such as

Nias and Hydrilla. In Vallisneria, another submerged plant, the leaves

are flexible and ribbon-shaped. Such leaves are specially suited for

an under-water life. If they were broad, they would offer too much

resistance in flowing water and would therefore suffer. How well

suited to their environment !—yielding readily to the current, and

participating in its movements without injury. Plants that develop

these filamentous leaves are usually found in flowing water. Some

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 275

aquatic plants develop fz/zform—thread-like leaves under the surface

while those on the surface are entire.

The buoyancy of floating leaves is, in many instances, secured by

special air-channels, which may be situated either in the blade or the

leaf-stalk—more oftenin the latter as in the 7vapa already referred

to. This plant does not root itself to the mud but is carried hither

and thither by wind and current like a rudderless ship.

In consequence of their aquatic life, water plants imbibe much

more water than land plants and the transpiration (i.e. giving off of

water) is proportionately greater. One sees in this fact the advant-

age of their broad, flat, floating leaves, which lying side by side on

the surface of the water present so large a field for the sun’s

operations. Transpiration takes place through-the stomata or pores

which are situated on the upper surface of the leaves; in land

plants they are generally restricted to the underside. When it is

stated that a single leaf of a water-lily, of very ordinary size, may

contain as many as eleven and a half million stomata, one

realizes what liberal provision is made for the removal of superfluous

moisture.

Still further to assist this end, the undersides of many floating

leaves are coloured violet or crimson by a pigment called anthocyanin

or cyanophyll. The pigment has the property of transtorming the

light of the sun into heat and thus increasing the warmth to the

parts where transpiration is most active. This foliage painting is

seen to perfection in our Lotus ( Vymphea lotus) and in the 7rapa.

Courtesy Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture

FLoaTING LEAVES oF Victoria regia Lotus AND Nellumbium.

The enormous leaves of the Victoria regia, the largest water-lily in

the world, is another striking example (photo). This plant is famous

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII11

and familiar if not by sight at least by name. It was first discovered

by Sir Robert Schomburgk during his explorations in South America

on behalf of the Royal Geographical Society, in the year Queen

Victoria ascended the throne (1837) and was named in her honour.

This famous traveller records the event thus :—‘ It was on January

1, 1837, while contending with the difficulties which nature inter-

posed in different forms to stem our progress up the River Berbice

(lat. 4°30’ N., long. 52°W.), that we arrived at a part where the river

expanded and formed a currentless basin. Some object on the

southern extremity of this basin attracted my attention, and I was

unable to form an idea what it could be; but animating the crew to

increase the rate of their paddling, we soon came opposite the

object which had raised my curiosity and behold, a vegetable

wonder! All calamities were forgotten; I was a botanist, and

felt myself rewarded! There were gigantic leaves, five to six feet

across, flat, with a broad rim, light green above and vivid crimson

below, floating upon the water; while in character withthe wonder-

ful foliage I saw luxuriant flowers, each consisting of numerous

petals, passing in alternate tints from pure white to rose and pink.

The smooth water was covered with blossoms, and as I rowed from

one to the other I always found something new to admire. ....

Ascending the river, we found this plant frequently, and the higher

we advanced the more gigantic did the specimens become. One

leaf we measured was 6 it. 5 in. in diameter, the rim five anda half

inches high, and the flowers a foot and a quarter across’.

The undersurface of such floating leaves afford resting-places

for numerous aquatic insects and snaiis. The eggs of the latter are

frequently attached to such leaves. The upper surfaces furnish

splendid rafts for many acquatic birds such as the Jacana and

others.

Large as are the leaves of the Victoria Lily, they are by no

means the largest known. Dyracontium gigas, a species of the Arum

family discovered in Central America by Dr. Seeman in 1869,

produces a leaf no less than 14 feet long. The stalk is beautifully

mottled with purple and yellow and appears like a huge snake

standing on its tail! Tocomenearer home, another species of the

same family, Amorphorphallus titanum, an inhabitant of Sumatra

has also zigantic leaves which measure 18 ft. in circumference.

The flower is proportionally large but this I shall describe when

dealing with flowers. But there are greater leaves even than this.

One of the Sago Palms bears fronds (leaves) which are upwards of

forty feet in length and we believe that even larger ones have been

met with. The Victoria Lily is however thelargest known floating

leaf and amply deserves the eulogies that have been lavished

upon it.

Some fifty years ago an eminent German botanist named Hilde-

brandt gave an account of some interesting observations on the

physiology of the floating leaves of Marsitlea guadrifolia, a common

flowerless plant found in our tanks. It has four leaflets arranged

like the leaves of the Wood Sorrel (Oxalis). He discovered that

when a plant of this species was submerged more or less deeply

THE STODYOFFPLANT: LIFE 277

under the surface, those leaves which were fully developed at the

time of immersion remained unchanged, while those which were not

so far advanced underwent a remarkable change. The petioles

gradualiy lengthened in succession according to their position on the

stem and, soon over-topping those which were already formed,

reached the surface of the water. At first the four leaflets did not

increase, but soon they began to enlarge and by the time the surface

was reached they exceeded in size the ordinary leaves, The petioles

of the ordinary leaves are rigid so that they stand erect out of the

water. Those of the floating leaves are weak and flexible, as in

water-lilies. This enables the leaf to maintain its position on the

surface with the rise and fall of the water. The upper surface of

the floating leaf is shiny and coated with wax, so that it retains no

water on the surface. If submerged in deeper water, the petiole

wil! elongate still further even to the extent of three feet—adapta-

tion to environment.

Some aquatic leaves are beautifully perforated so as to avoid the

danger of damage by currents.

We have seen how the leaves of aquatic plants obtain protection

against the currents of water by special formation of the jeaf-blade.

Land plants require protection against strong currents of air and

storms. It is very probable that the much divided leaves, both

simple and compound, are divided and so shaped to offer as little

resistance to the varying currents of air as possible. They thus

escape rupture during heavy storms. In many cases tearing is pre-

vented by a thickening of the upper layer of cells particularly on the

leaf margins, where, of course, the strain is greatest. This is well

illustrated in the leathery leaves of the India-rubber plant (/7cus

elastica). i

Leaves which assume a vertical position are specially exposed

‘to the fury of the wind. The air currents usually travel parallel to

the earth and in consequence strike against such leaves at right

angles. Special adaptations are necessary to enable them to retain

their upright position. In many of the grasses—-the Common Rud

(Phragmites communis) frequently cultivated in gardens, the leaf

blades turn on the culms or haulms as they are sometimes called,

like weather-cocks. The Reedmace (7ypha angustifolia) and other

allied species, a common reed in the beds and on the banks of

rivers, has leaves that are spirally twisted, the whole leaf surface is

thus never presented to the wind—-an arrangement the advantage of

which is sufficiently obvious. In other plants the protection from

the wind is secured by the leaf being hollow. It is well known

that a tube resists flexion more effectually than a solid body; such

tubular or fistular leaves will maintain an erect position in the

roughest weather. The leaves of the Common Onion (Allium cepa)

is a familar example of this type of leaf.

Leaves have been described as the ‘lungs’ of a plani. There

are minute pores in the epidermis of a leaf which are exposed to

the air. They are the minute ‘breathing pores’ or stomata. Under

the microscope each stoma or mouth appears as an intercellular

passage perforating the epidermis, bounded by two cells—the

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Guard-cells. These guard-cells, as the name implies, protect the

passage. They may contract and thus open the cell mouth wider

or expand and close it to reduce evaporation. Generally, stomata are

developed on the green parts of plants, but occasionally they are met

with even on the coloured floral leaves. Hence they are naturally

found in greater number on the leaves, as it is there that they are

most required to facilitate the interchange of gases in the process

of assimilation. In dorsiventral leaves the stomata generaily, if not

entirely, occur on the under-surface and average about 100 to the

square millimetre, although in some plants their number may reach

700! Leaves like those of the Eucalyptus have stomata on both

sides. Floating aquatic leaves have stomata only on the side

exposed to the air. In the tissue directly under the stomata there

are always small spaces termed Respiratory cavities which are in

direct communication with the other air cavities extending through-

out the leaf tissue. In plants which grow in an abundance of

moisture, the air cavities are generally iarger than in the case of

plants growing in drier localities.

In contrast to the stomata, which as air-pores serve for the

interchange of gases, a few plants have water-stomata or water-

pores situated at the ends of the veins of the leaves. The pores

discharge water or watery solutions. Calcium carbonate in solution

is frequently excreted in this way sometimes forming scaly deposits

on the margins of the leaves. Water-pores are more frequent in

young leaves than in old ones. The guard-cells of water-pores

usually lose their living contents early and thus leave the

passage continually open. ‘These stomata are always larger than

air-stomata.

Submerged leaves of aquatic plants are devoid of air-stomata but

water-stomata often occur.

Stomata regulate the evaporation. The guard-cells accomplish °

the opening and closing of the mouth through the changes in the

turgidity of these cells or by the adjoining epidermal cells.

(To be continued )

MOSSES COLLECTED IN WAZIRISTAN BY

MR. J. FERNANDEZ IN 1927

H. N. DIXON; M.A., F.L.S.

The mosses collected by Mr. J. Fernandez were the first, so far as I am

aware, collected in Waziristan. They comprised 66 numbers, many of the

gvatherings consisting of more than one species, so that there may be considered

to have been about 100 different specimens. The total number of species was

between 35 and 40.

The general character of the moss flora indicated is about what would be

expected from the geographical position and conditions ; the bulk of the

species being those of moderate altitudes in the Western Himalayas, with a

sprinkling of European and Western Asiatic types. There are 3 or 4 undescrib-

ed species ; unfortunately the condition of the fruit when gathered leavesa

certain degree of uncertainty as to the value of one or two of these. The new

species of Splachnobryum, however, is a very marked and striking one, much

the largest of the genus hitherto described ; and the new species of Bryum is

quite distinct, though its position in the genus is not altogether defined.

I give a list of localities mentioned in the paper with their respective

altitudes.

Boys... ... 3,440 ft. Razani... soa 0,000 -£E,

Jandola SAEZ GUO! 45, Sararogha ie A0000- 5,

Miran Shah ... 3,100 ,, Sarwekai set (Oo DUU eas

Razmak e300) 44, Wana eo ae wl O00 2

In the following list I have followed for the most part the arrangement and

nomenclature of Brotherus, in Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfamilien, Musci,

Ed. I.

Mr. Fernandez remarks that the general vernacular name for moss, as at

_ Boya, is Kabom.

FISSIDENTACEZ

Fissidens involutus Wils.—On soil, Miranshah ; April 13, 1927 (4240b),

Fissidens grandifrons Brid.—On rocks, N. of fort, Razmak; May 10, 1927,

(4213a; 4275a). On mud, N. of camp, Razmak ; May 7, 1927 (4316).

POTTIACEH

Hymenostomum amblyphyllum Dixon sp. nov.—Autoicum. Ab A. fortile

(Schweer.) differt foliis Zatizoribus, inferioribus precipue e basi dilatata ad

(5 mm) lata, late lanceolato-lingulata, omnibus apice rotundato, nullo modo

acuminata, nunc omnino obtuso, nunc costa egrediente brevissime obtuse

apiculato, Cellule superiores peropace, basilares perpellucid&, unde pars

basilaris a parte superiore valde demarcata. Margines folii late involuti.

Costa haud valida, apud basin plerumque 40-50 ‘lata, raro 604, rufo-fusca.

Fructus immaturus tantum visus ; setz pulchre flavide.

Hab. On soil, Miranshah ; April 13, 1927, (4277).

A species admittedly very near to H. fortile, but the leaves constantly obtuse

or subobtuse at apex and with at the most an extremely inconspicuous, blunt

apiculus, together with the comparatively narrow nerve, and the abrupt tran-

sition from the opaque upper cells to the hyaline basal ones, seem to warrant

its being given specific rank ; the wide leaves with very widely enrolled

margins are also characters. The var. dvevifolium Amann is described as

having the leaves obtusely acuminate and the nerve not excurrent, and may

come near the present plant; the nerve however is not described as being

narrower than in the type form.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Eucladium verticillatum (L.) Bry. eur.—Razani: April 19, 1927 (3393).

Timmiella subintegra Dixon sp. nov.

AT. Barbula (Schweegr.) Limpr. differt tota planta mdnore, graciliore,

foliis minoribus, nune integerrimis, nunc apice leniter indistincte denticulato ;

seta fenuiore, breviore, vix (1 cm.) superante, theca minore, 2°5-3 nim. longa,

microstoma.

A 7.Giraldi Broth. proxima differt foliis sat czto madefactis, theca ut videtur

angustiore, paullo longiore.

Hab. Near top of conglomerate range, E. of fort, Jandola; May 27, 1927

(4202 4229, 4231, 4257). On mud, Miranshah; April 14, 1927, (4221, Lozdem,

April 13, 1927 (4240, 4265).

Although the characters distinguishing this species are slight, they appear to

be constant, as they are maintained through all the different gatherings. The

capsule agrees with 7. Barbula in the persistent rudimentary annulus ; unfortu-

nately in all the gatherings the fruit is very old, and I have been unable to ascer-

tain the peristome characters, and also the inflorescence ; dissection of several

fruiting plants has failed to show any antheridia or ¢ flowers. The constantly

slender habit, the short, delicate, often flexuose seta, the small capsule, and

especially the almost or quite entire leaves are quite marked distinctions. It is

much more nearly allied to the Chinese 7. Giraldii Broth., and J have been

much tempted to refer it to that. Vegetativelyit agrees almost exactly (the

leaves in Giraldi’s plant are not, as C. Mueller describes them, ‘ integerrima’,

but are often indistinctly denticulate exactly as here), with the one rather

important difference that the leaves here moisten out rather rapidly, for the

genus, while in Giraldi’s plant they are remarkably refractory. Moreover

the capsule in 7. Giraldi7 is constantly wider, narrowly elliptic rather than

cylindric, and very regularly 2 mm. long; while here they are frequently up to

3mm., and are constantly narrowly cylindric and slightly curved. The fruit

in Giraldi’s plant, however, are in better condition as to maturity, and one or

two over-ripe ones are cylindric as here, so that it is just possible that the dis-

tinction of form might disappear if the fruit were compared at exactly the same

stage of maturity. The fragments of peristome in the Waziristan plant are

markedly papillose, while C. Mueller describes those of his plant as ‘ glabrius-

culi’, a character which I have not verified.

On the whole I feel very little doubt that this is a quite distinct species from

both 7. Barbula and 7. Giraldit.

Didymodon rufescens (Hook.) Broth.—On rocks, Razmak ; May 5, 1927 (4314)

The most westerly record for this, distinctively Himalayan species.

Didymodon tophaceus (Brid.) Jur.—On wet crumbling limestone rocks, Razani ;

April 19, 1927 (3033).

Didymodon sp. or Barbula. A sterile plant belonging to one or other of these

genera. Miranshah ; April 14, 1927 (4223).

Barbula indica Brid.—On rocks, Sararogha ; May 18, 1927 (4252). Probably

its most westerly record in Asia.

Barbula Ehrenbergii (Lor.) Fleisch.—On moist crumbling rocks of soft limestone

Razani ; April 19, 1927 (3528). On rocks, Wanna plain, Wanna; June 16, 1927

(4364). On rock by Tank river, Sararogha ; May 18, 1927 (4374).

No. 3528, is of the highest interest, as it bears two capsules ; the fruit has not

hitherto been found. The sete are 1°5 cm. in length, dark purple, rather

solid in texture and only slightly twisted when dry. The capsules are narrowly

elliptic, 2mm. long without peristome, erect and symmetric, rather solid in tex-

ture ; the peristome is 8mm. long, dark red, strongly twisted (forming at least

one full turn of a spiral) ; basal membrane none or very short; teeth 32,

approximating closely in pairs, the crura densely papillose, here and there

united, or occasionally again divided, sometimes anastomosing ; teeth in the

upper half anastomosing into a loosely coherent tube, from which the columella

protrudes.

The peristome therefore is rather distinct, the teeth not being free and equi-

distant, as in Barbula, buat distinctly paired, the halves sometimes conjoined,

sometimes again subdivided, while sometimes the two crura, or again two

MOSSES COLLECTED IN WAZIRISTAN 281

adjacent teeth may coalesce ; while in the upper half the teeth are in a great

measure anastomosing and coalesced, so that they form a loose tube. The lids

had naturally fallen, and there is every reason to suppose the peristomes

normal. ‘This clearly removes the plant from Hyophila, from Didymodon, and

from Trichostomum, under which genera it has been variously placed, and

associates it closely with Barbula, under which Fleischer placed it, a position

moreover which its near relation to Garbula intlexa (Dub.) seems to indicate.

It is quite possible, however, that the 'peristome character may justify a

separate generic position, in which case the natural thing would be to raise the

subgenus Hydrogonium C.M. to generic rank. Unfortunately however

C. Mueller distinctly makes Did. tophaceus the type of this subgenus, whereas

that species is clearly not congeneric with our plant. It seems best, anyhow, at

piesent, to leave it in Barbula.

Crossidium sp.—On mud on hills, S. of Boya; April 8, 1927 (4216b). On rocks,

S. of fort, Sarwekai ; June 8, 1927 (4361).

This is either C. sguamigerum or C. griseum ; unfortunately the condition of

the fruit—in the one case immature, in the other over-ripe—-does not permit of

the examination of the peristome.

Tortula atrovirens (Sm.) Lindb.—On soil in rock crevices, Boya ; April 2, 1927

(4214b). On mud, conglomerate range E. of fort, Jandola ; May 27, 1927 (4230,

4232). Mostlyin poor fruit. Only recorded in Asia, apparently, from Caucasus

and Syria.

Tortula inermis (Brid.) Mont. On mud on hills, S. of Boya; April 8, 1927

(4216a) ; On rocks, zdtdem (4228, 4250a). On rocks in torrent bed, S.W. of

fort, Sararogha ; May 16, 1927 (4260). Allin old fruit.

GRIMMIACEZ

Grimmia tergestina Tomm.—On soil in rock crevices, Boya; April 2, 1927

(4214a). Sarwekai; June 8, 1927 (4237). On rocks, Boya; March 27, 1927

(4254). In rock crevices, Miranshah ; April 14, 1927 (4369).

Grimmia pulvinata Sm.—On soil, Sararogha ; May 21, 1927 (4210).

Grimmia orbicularis Bruch.—On mud, on high hills E. of fort, Miranshah ;

April 14, 1927 (4206, 4207). On rocks, S.E. of fort, Wanna; June 15, 1927

(4344). Mostly in poor fruit.

Grimmia trichophylla Grev.—E. of fort on high hill, Miranshah ; April 14, 1927

(4208). .

ORTHOTRICHACEZ,

Deummondia Thomsoni Mitt.—On Tcherai trees (Quercus ilex, Linn.), Razmak ;

May 5, 1927 (3032b, 4309) ; Razani; April 20 & 21, 1927 (4243, 4263, 4266,

4320).

ee considerably in length of leaf and degree of acumination of the point.

Mostly in very old and very young fruit.

This and Lindbergia Duthiet were the only truly corticolous mosses collected,

and were generally growing together,

SPLACHNACEZ.

Splachnobryum procerrimum Dixon sp. nov.

Omnium specierum generis maxima; caules ad 6 cm. alti; parce divisi

olivaceo-virides, molles. Folia adimnodum dimorpha, nunc late lingulato-

spathulata, apice latissime rotundata ; nunc omnino orbicularia, ad 1°5 mm.

longa, concava, longe decurrentia, marginibus evectzs, apud apicem leniter

obtuse crenulatis; costa plerumque ad dimidiam partem folit attingens, tenuis,

latiuscula, male delimitata, saepe furcata.

Cellulae laxe, teneree, supreme, ovato-rhomboidez, inde rhomboideo-

hexagone, inferne pedetentim elongate, basilares perlaxe,

Cetera ignota.

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Hab. Encrusted with calcareous matter, on decomposing rocks on bank of

stream, S.W. of camp, Sarwekai; June 7, 1927 (4163, type; 3984). Banks of

the Watrah River, Ahmedabad District, Gujarat, India; December 1915:

L.J. Sedgwick (1291).

A very fine and distinct new species. The Ahmedabad plant agrees exactly

with the Waziristan one.

S. elatum Broth. from Martinique has stems to 3 cm. high; the leaves are

elongate-oblong, shortly and obtusely acuminate, with nerve reaching to near

apex.

FUNARIACEZ

Funaria hygrometrica (L.) Sibth.—On rocks, Miranshah ; April 13, 1927 (4429).

BRYACEZ

Mniobryum carneum (L.) Limpr.—On rocks, Razmak ; May 5, 1927 (4324).

Brachymenium acuminatum Harv.—¢. Onrocks, Boya; April 8, 1927 (4250b).

Leaves rather unusually comose, but probably from the fact that most of the

stems bear terminal rosulate male flowers. Structurally the leaf agrees with

that species.

Bryum. Several sterile and indeterminate species occurred; e.g. Nos. 4357

4372.

Bryum amentirameum Dixon sp. nov.

§ Doliolidium. Laxe cespitosum ; color propter vetustatem incertus; caules

haud radiculosi, faciliter segregati, circa lcm. alti, innovationibus mumerosis

microphyllis, amentaceis, subfiliformibus, ad 1 cm. longis, prasditi. Folia

caulina valde parva, comalia majora, dense comata, concava, haud decurrentia,

late orbiculari-ovata, breviter acute acuminata, marginibus erectis vel angustis-

sime reflexis, integerrimis; costa rubra, angustiuscula, in apice desinens.

Cellule: minuscule, anguste rhomboidez, apud marginem seriebus 1-2 angus-

tatee, limbum angustissimum indistinctum instruentes.

Dioicum. Plante ¢ inter femineas intertexte, filiformes, flores terminales

magnos, spheericos ipsee atque innovationes iter iterumque repetite, gerentes

lem. vel ultra alte.

Flos femineus parvus, foliis dense congestis concavibus imbricatis. Seta 1:25-

15cm. altasuperne arcuata. Thecahorizontalis vel nutans, haud pendula,

atro-fusca; e collo brevi defluente breviter oblonga, ad orificium paullo

angustata, zfra orem @que ac operculo atro-purpureo, nitida; operculum

conicum, acutum, sepe acute apiculatum. Annulus_ latus, persistens.

Exothecii cellule parve, irregulares, parietibus incrassatis. Peristomium infra

orem longe insertum, sat humile; dentes externi intense purpurei, dense

lamellati, lamellis extus paullo prominentibus, superne pallidi, arcte papillosi ;

endostomium inferne pallide aurantiacum, membrana circa dimidiam altitudi-

nem dentis zequans ; processus pallidi, papillosi, late hiantes, ciliis bene evolu-

tis, breviter appendiculatis. Spori minimi, 8-12 / lati.

Hab. On rocks (probably), N. of fort, Razmak ; May 10, 1927 (4275).

The plants being rather dried up it isa little difficult to decide on its true

position; the dark, blackish capsules and the vegetation indicate either

Doliolidium or Erythrocarpa, and the capsule form is somewhat indeterminate

(it must be admitted that the difference between these two groups—based

entirely on the form of the capsule—is extremely elusive !). On the whole it

seems best to place it in Doliolidium, near to &. pangerangense Fleisch., and

others. The very marked, catkin-like, filiform innovations, with closely imbri-

cate, almost julaceous, concave leaves, distinguish the present plant from all

its near allies.

The male plants are rather distinct; the ¢ flower is terminal on a filiform

stem ; a single innovation arises below this, and itself produces a terminal ¢

flower—the following year, and this may be repeated ; the flowers being rather

large, globular and very dense, and the stem leaves very small, give a neat and

rather striking appearance to the plant.

TIMMIACEZ

Timmia bavarica Hessl.—Razmak ; May 8, 1927 (1575). With young fruit.

MOSSES COLLECTED IN WAZIRISTAN 283

NECKERACEZ

Cryptoleptodon flexuosus (Harv.) Ren. & Card.—On rocks, N. of fort,

Razmak ; May 7, 1927 (4330).

A very slender form, If the habitat is correctly given it is unusual, as the

plant is nearly always found hanging from branches of trees.

LESKEACEZ

Lindbergia Duth ei Broth.—On Tcherai trees, Razmak ; May 5, 1927 (3032a,

4294, 4296, 4302, 4305).

Mostly rather starved, but in fruit.

AMBLYSTEGIACEZ

Amblystegium serpens (L,) Bry. eur.—On soil, Razmak ; May 7, 1927 (1739).

Sterile.

Homomallium simlaense (Mitt.) Broth.—On trees N. of fort, Razmak; May 7,

1927 (1709, 1716). With a few capsules.

Cratoneuron filicinum (L.) Loeske.—Razmak ; May 5, 1927 (3131).

Cratoneuron decipiens (De Not.) Loeske.—In stream from the Spring, N. of

Razmak camp ; May 10, 1927 (4213b). Hitherto not found east of Pérsia.

HYPNACEZ

Stereodon cupressiformis (L.) Brid.—On rocks N. of fort, Razmak ; May 7, 1927

(4330b).

nov. var. vaucherianus Dixon.—Inter S. cupressiformem et S. Vaucheri

ludens. Folii acumen longius tenuiusque quam in hoc, sed brevius quam in

illo ; cellule superiores paullo longiores quam in S. Vaucheri; alares minus

numerosi quam in hac specie, atque paullo melius definite, cetero similes.

Paraphyllia, ut videtur, desunt.

Hab. On rocks, Razmak ; May 7, 1927 (1734). On tree, Razmak; May 5,

1927 (3166).

A curious plant, which seems almost mid-way between these two species.

It has often the orange red colouring which is rather characteristic of S. Vau-

cheri, but unusual in S. cupressiformis.

Stereodon Vaucheri (Lesq.) Lindb.—On slope at base of trees and bushes,

Razani; April 25, 1927 (3016, 4246).

BRACHYTHECIACEZ

Brachythecium waziriense Dixon sp. nov.

§ Salebrosia. Gvracilis; caules laxe repentes, parce pinnatim vamosi,

olivaceo-virides, haud nitidi. Folia stcca erecto-adpressa, substricta, caulina

usque ad 3 mm. longa, haud decurrentia, lanceolata, plicata, sensim e loco

paullo supra basin angustata, stricte tenuissime acuminata, marginibus plerum-

gue angustissime recurvts, hic illic planis, seepius integris. Costa apud basin

validiuscula, superne angusta, dimidiam partem folii vix superans. Cellula

superiores angustissime rhomboideo-lineares, juxta basin laxiores, basilares

omnes late, mediane breviler hexagono-vectangulares, alares quadrat@, majus-

cule, numerose, subobscure. Folia ramea simillima sed breviora, apice

fragil1, sepe abrupto.

Cetera ignota.

628) On tree, Razmak; April 7, 1927 (1716, type.) Ibidem, ; May 8, 1927

1625).

Although sterile this is a rather marked little plant, withthe habit and

foliage of an extremely slender Homalothecium, but without the basal areola-

tion of that genus. The lax basal cells are numerous, reaching to the nerve,

quadrate at the angles, but irregular near the nerve; all rather obscure with

chlorophyll. The leaves are widest just above the base, and taper very gradu-

ally from there to the apex.

A few stems only were gathered; so that it is not possible to tell the habit of

growth satisfactorily, but it appears to be in any case not densely cespitose.

TIGER TRACKS

F. W. CHAMPION

Indian Forest Service

(With tour plates)

I quote below a statement made in an old and at one time popular

book on tiger-shooting :—

‘When moving at either a slow crouch or a walk the hind-feet of

a tiger usually exactly cover the spot vacated by the fore-feet, but

erosswise—crosswise, because it stands to reason that an animal

must have atleast one leg on the ground simultaneously on ezther

side to preserve its balance ; thus the right hind-foot takes the place

vacated by the left fore-foot and then the same with the other two

feet. Ina feline, of course, this is a provision of nature to aid the

animal in performing a sz/ent stalk; the eyes being over the fore-

feet, the animal is able to pick the spots on which to place its fore-

feet where they will make the least noise, that is to say, to avoid

placing its fore-feet on a dry stick or leaf that might crack and so

betray it; there being no eyes in the rear portion of the animal to

guide its hind-feet in a similar manner, it instinctively conveys the

hind-foot to cover the exact spot that has been chosen for, occupied,

and then vacated, by the fore-foot, thus avoiding the risk of acci-

dently putting its hind-foot on arolling stone or a dry stick which

would make anoise. Thus a tiger usually leaves only a double

trail as if it had only two feet instead of four, after the style of the

trail left by a man walking, though the prints of the hind-feet will

usually be found overlapping sightly to the rear of the prints of the

fore-feet, perhaps half an inch or more. It is only when the tiger

is standing or moving fast that the prints of all four feet of the

animal will be seen on the ground. ‘These facts serve to show the

manner and pace at which the animal was travelling, and also the

temper or state of mind of the animal at that time.’

The above-quoted paragraph—if one can master the involved

English—gives the opinion of a man who had vast experience of the

Indian jungles at a time when tigers were commoner than they are

now and I hesitate to criticize statements made by a man who was

obviously more qualified to speak than Iam. Yet I have been giving

the matter my careful attention for some years and I find that I

eannot agree with either of the main points advanced, which, put

brietly,; avec=a:

(1) That a walking tiger usually puts his hind-feet exactly over

the spots vacated by his fore-feet.

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Bo pyright

A double track on either side, with the hind-foot leading.

eg Lye Eta

hampton.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A single track, that of the hind-foot, on

either side.

PEATE ot

W. ‘Champion.

TIGER TRACKS 285

(2) That he brings his feet forward crosswise.

As is well known, there is usually a considerable difference

between the shape of the fore-feet and that of the hind-feet ofa

tiger, the fore-feet being larger, rounder, and more splayed out.

The difference is much less marked in the case of a tigress and the

fore-feet of a tigress often bear a great resemblance to the hind-feet

of atiger. These differences, although usually quite clear, are not

by any means without their exceptions and I have known cases

where, from the tracks, I should have been quite convinced that a

tigress had passed, yet a flashlight photograph taken of the animal

in question has proved what I thought was a tigress to have been,

in reality, a tiger. I mention this point because, the more one

studies natural history, the more one realizes how dangerous it is to

make a definite and positive statement about any animal. After all

animals vary among themselves, both in shape and habits, just as

much as human beings, the variations among whom are infinite.

For practical purposes, however, we can take it for granted that,

in the vast majority of cases, it is quite easy to pick out the fore-

feet and the hind-feet among the tracks left by tigers and tigresses.

On this assumption, I have found that, in the vast number of cases,

the marks of all four feet are generally quite distinct—i.e., that a

tiger usually leaves a double track on either side and that the

tracks of the hind-feet generally lead. Plate / shows this type of

track and it will be noticed that the track of the hind-foot is in

front of that of the fore-foot in each case, the distance between

the edge of the back pad of the hind-foot (leading) and the tip of

the toes of the fore-foot (fullowing) being some two or three

inches.

At one time I used to think that almost all tigers walking ata

normal pace on level ground left a track of thistype, but I have

since found that there are a number of exceptions. Indeed, I

know one tiger—still alive I am glad to say—who habitually puts

the hind-foot almost exactly on the spot vacated by the fore-foot

and Plate JJ shows his track, which is a single one, where in almost

every case—I have followed his tracks for miles—the hind foot has

been placed more or less over the spot vacated by the fore-foot.

Yet I have known some shikaris to state positively that a tiger

never leaves a single track, and others, such as the author of the

above-quoted paragraph, who are quite positive that he nearly

always does so!

I do not claim to be an authority on the subject, and I would

ask others to ventilate their opinions in the Journal; but my

experience has been that the ordinary tiger or tigress usually

leaves a track showing an average of about two inches clear space

between the tracks of the two feet, on either side, with the hind-foot

leading in each case. I think-the hind-foot track leads because the

hind-leg of the tiger is longer than his fore-leg and thus has to be

brought further forward to ease the action of his walk. The cases

I have known where the tracks more or less coincided have usually

been of big old tigers and it may possibly be that they have become

stiff in the joints and thus bring the hind- ee less far Hote than

in the case of younger tigers,

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII]

Undoubtedly a lot depends upon what the tiger is doing at the

particular moment he makes the track, and the same tiger seems to

show most extraordinary variations, which would tend to suggest

that his motion at night when on the prowl must be somewhat

jerky. Yet when seen by moonlight this does not appear to be the

case. I append herewith a series of observations, made in Lans-

downe Forest Division on May 27, 1928, of a fairly large tiger

which had passed during the night along a sandy path in a very open

dry vaubed. ‘T’ represents touching (of which about 25 per cent were

completely overlapping and thus showing only one track on each

side—that of the hind foot) and the figures represent inches of clear

space between the edges of the tracks of the two feet on either side,

i.e., the distance between the back edge of the track of the (leading)

hind-foot and the tip of the toes of the fore-foot :—

Pie eieaes ical Gangs eet AO IE ee

peta Te Ds Bd fat al Dec Prev 22 2.5 ieee

Sha; De Te Bee ee sDatgdeiaaes

BA 2329 7D sD eee Dia eco eae alee een ee T:T:T:T:1:

Leb era cs TT: 1:33: 1S Ps running) ere

2: 2h: 2:3 24233 321 2 nO Paes 2 ee le are

3:14: 1:18: Wir dg 20 lb: 2s ied Bea ee aie

23923 2292: 2 2D 2 § eG 1s 12 ee ee el ale ee

3222-25 2222 49.342 Sb Bs Sa 3 oe ee eee

iP sPe Ps Te 222 Ss 2S Se See ee ona

6: 6+ 63 62 52626216 26 5 5 Oa G = Sone eee

§24:3: 1:2 :(65 T's running) 3 ee ae ee

T:T: T: 14:16:4714 21: 2: 40 Ws running) eo eee

Tes TT 1 240 T's'running):

(Note:—tracks which were not clear were not included in the

above table).

A study of the above table shows that a very large number of the

tracks touched. The actual figures are approximately 400 tracks, of

which 234, or nearly 60 per cent touched. I did not record the

number of tracks which were completely overlapping, but I would

estimate it at 25 per cent of all the touching cases—that is 20 per

cent of all the observations made. In cases where the tracks were

separate the average distance of separation was 24 inches. I would

emphasise, however, that the tracks of this tiger touched more often ©

than is usually the case.

I have records of other cases in which nearly all the tracks were

separate, the average distance of separation being about 44 inches,

and of yet others where the vast majority touched. It will thus be

seen that the variation is very great and that the statement quoted

at the beginning of this article will not hold as a general rule.

I have not studied the question to any great extent with regard

to the tracks left by leopards, but my general observations tend to

show that the leopard, like the tiger, usually leaves a double track

on each side with the hind-foot leading. Plate 3 represents a

typical leopard-track,

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IIT.

PULL} JULES DY} FE PULLLLO IY} HU YY [[IM gpIs 469u 94} UU SHV] VAX} VYUF YIIYAY UL GALLZIIG Addl} V7

‘90S ‘LSIJT ‘IVN AvaWwog ‘Nano{

TIGER TRACKS 287

Now as regards the second statement—that a tiger usually brings

his feet forward crosswise, as it stands to reason that an animal

must have at least one leg on the ground simultaneously on either

side in order to preserve its balance.

I would say at once that I believe this statement to be quite

wrong. Why, birds can stand and even go to sleep on one leg, and

there is no reason whatever why an animal in motion should not be

able to keep his balance with only one leg on the ground at a time,

a study of the photographs of galloping giraffes in Mr. Maxwell’s fine

book (Stalking Big Game with a Camera in Equatorial Africa) will

clearly show that it is not necessary to have even one foot on the

ground when moving rapidly. Also, for an animal to cross his

legs in the way suggested seems to me to be an extraordinarily

unnatural and uncomfortabie method of progress, which is in no

way compatible with the graceful movements of all the cat tribe.

Plate 4 represents a tiger going on his ordinary nocturnal rounds.

In this photograph the near hind-foot is right in the air and the near

fore is just about to be lifted. It will certainly be off the ground

before the hind-foot has reached its new spot in front of the mark

left by the fore-foot, so that the two near-side legs will certainly be

off the ground at the same time. There is also no suggestion

whatever of any crossing of the legs. If anyone interested in this

matter will examine some of the other photographs of tigers in

motion, which have been included in my recent book Wzth a

Camera in Tiger-land, they will find no sign of crossing whatever

and I cannot understand what led Mr. Hicks to make this (to me)

astounding statement.

As I have already said, however, I do not claimto any great

knowledge on the subject, and the United Provinces possess prac-

tically no expert Indian trackers—except the aborigines of Mirza-

pur, of whom I have no experience. I would therefore inviie others

whose experience of tracking may be greater than mine to put their

views On paper and send them in to the Journal for publication.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

Lt.-Cor. F. C. FRASER, I.M.S., F.E.S:

Part XXXII |

(With four plates)

(Continued from page 59 of Vol. XXXIII)

Subfamily--EPALLAGINAE— (continued)

Genus—ALLOPHAEA gen. nov.

Euphaea Ramp. (pars), Ins. Nevrop. p. 228 (1842) ; Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 50

(1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 167 (1854) ; Walk. List Neur. Ins. BM. iv,

p. 637 (1853) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, p. 169 (1904).

Pseudophaea Kirby (pars), Cat. Odon. p. 109 (1890).

Characters as for the subfamily ; wings of male hyaline, saffronated broadly,

hyaline and colourless in the female; apices rather pointed ; hindwings not

markedly broader than the fore and not broader than the same wing in the

female ; petiolation very short, almost absent ; Azz not in contact with R+/7/ ;

node situated nearer base of wing than apex, about midway between base and

pterostigma ; discoidal cell traversed once or twice, short, about one-third the

eneth of median space; arc slightly bent ; sectors of arc arising from middle

of arc and slightly separated at origin; usually 3 cubital nervures to all

wings ; about 4 intercalated sectors between /A4 and hinder border of wing,

JA never forked; 4 or more sectors between JA and Cuiz; origin of Azz

usually very slightly distad of subnode or in continuation with it; no basal

incompleteantenodal nervure in subcostal space; pterostigma present in all

wings of both sexes, long, narrow.

Thorax robust but short ; legs as for subfamily ; abdomen extending beyond

tips of wings in the male, sometimes markedly so, but of the same length in

the female; superior anal appendages homogeneous, simple, forcipate, longer

than segment 10; the latter rounded or arched apicad and with a prominent

keel or carinal spine on its middorsum ; vulvar scale robust, short, not extend-

ing to end of abdomen.

Genotype—ochracea Selys.

Distribution. Indo-malay and Indo-china, Assam and Burma.

Allophaea ochracea (Selys.) (1859).

Euphaea ochracea Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), vii, p. 443 (1859) ; Id. Ann.

Mus. Civ. Genov. (2), x, pp. 56-57 (1891) ; Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.

(i), p. 87 (1902) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, pp. 181-82 (1904) ;

Mart. Mission Pavie, Nevrop. (sep), p. 15 (1904).

Pseudophaea ochracea Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 109 (1890) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus.

vol, xiii, pp. 32-33 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 33-35 mm. Forewing 33-35 mm. Hindwing 30-33 mm.

Head black unmarked, gene, bases of mandibles and labrum glossy dlack, the

rest matt black.

Prothorax matt black with the hinder border of posterior lobe narrowly, a

small spot below it on each side, and a large semilunar lateral spot bright

ochreous.

Thorax matt black marked with a series of 4 pairs of stripes on each side

bright ochreous, the first pair antehumeral, confluent above and nearly so

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 289

below ; the second lying between the humeral and first lateral sutures, confluent

above, and the posterior of the pair with the anterior of the third pair; the

third and fourth pairs lying between the lateral sutures and on metepimeron

respectively, much broader and more diffuse than the two anterior pairs and,

in fact, covering the greater part of the mesepimeron and metepimeron ; the

trochanters and a small spot on each side in the antealar sinus ochreous.

Legs black unmarked.

Wings hyaline, both fore and hind broadly saffronated or amber-tinted, the

fore for rather more than their basal halves, the hind as far as the pterostigma,

which is black, a little oblique at its proximal end and covers about 6 cells ;

discoidal ceil of forewing traversed once, that of hindwing once or twice;

3 cubital nervures in all wings; nodal index,—about 30 antenodal nervures

and 35 postnodals in forewings, and about 26 antenodal nervures and 35 post-

nodals in the hind. The hindwing slightly broader and shorter than the fore ;

reticulation at apices very fine.

Abdomen black marked with ochreous as follows,—a diffuse lateral stripe

extending from segment 1, where it is very broad, to segment 5 or 6, brighter

basal rings on segments 3 to 5 or 6, and an apical ring on segment 1; the

dorsal carina finely ochreous from segment 2 to 4 or6. In subadults the

general colouring of abdomen dark ochreous clouded with black ; in adults,

segments 6 or 7 to the end black, unmarked.

Anal appendages black ; superiors slightly longer than segment 10, sepa-

rated at base, parallel, compressed laterally and with blunt apices, which, as

seen from above, curl slightly in towards one another; inferiors very short,

conical] pointed.

Genitalia ; hamules projecting as two robust conical sharp teeth ; lobe black,

large, scrotal-shaped.

Female. Abdomen 29-30 mm. Hindwing 28+29 mm.

Differs from the male by the much broader and more extensive yellow

markings, by its more robust and stockier build, by its shorter abdomen and

by its wiags being only palely and diffusely saffronated in basal portions, the

colouring being finally lost near the node in both fore- and hind-wings.

Head black marked with yellow as follows,—the whole of labium except

extreme tips of lobes, the whole of labrum except the anterior border finely

and a smail median virgule springing from base, the mandibles, the cheeks

broadly, a broad stripe across frons and a small oblique oval spot on each

side of vertex with inner ends resting on the posterior ocelli.

Prothorax and thorax as for male but the markings more extensive and the

whole of mesepimeron and metepimeron except their centres, which are

clouded with black.

Legs brown, femora obscurely yellow on outer side and thialy pulver ulent,

as is also the underside of thorax and first two segments of abdomen.

Wings hyaline, coloured as detailed above; pterostigma bright ochreous

between black nervures, pointed inwardly, covering 7 to 8 nervures ; nodal

index lower than in the male,—only about 20 antenodal nervures and 28 post-

nodals in forewings, about 20 antenodals and 25 postnodals in the hind ; dis-

coidal cell as in male; 3 or 4 cubital nervures in hindwings; £722 arising a

little distad of subnode in all wings.

Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows,—a broad lateral stripe ex-

tending from segment 1 to 7, constricted subapically and finely divided by the

jugal suture near base of segments ; the middorsal carina finely from segment

1 to 5, obscurely so on 6 and 7, and often on 8, conspicuously so on segment 9

and less so on 10; a small rounded lateral spot on segment 8, a subquadrate

one on each side of the apical two-thirds of 9, and the apical border of 10

narrowly. Anal appendages black, small, conical, pointed acutely.

Vulvar scale extending to end of segment 9, spotted with yellow.

Distribution. Assam, Burma, Malacca, Siam and Annam. The type in

the Selysian collection comes from Mt. Ophir, Malacca. Khow Sai Dow Mt.,

1,000 ft., Trong, Siam, Jan.-Feb. ( Williamson) ; Gokteik, Upper Burma, June,

coll. Col. F. Wall, I.M.s.; Shillong, Assam, June, coll. T Bainbrigge

Fletcher, and Cachar. August, coll. Mr. Antrim.

There is no difficulty in distinguishing this species, except from brunnea, by

its hyaline wings, saffronated but without opaque areas. It has a wide distri-

bution extending from Assam to furthest French Indo-china, and taken at

altitudes from 1,000 to 5,000 ft. Larva unknown,

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Allophaea brunnea (Selys) (1879).

Euphaea brunnea Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 374 (1879) ; Id. Ann.

Mus. Civ. Genov. (2), x (xxx), p. 37 (1879)3

Pseudophaea brunnea Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 109 (1890) ; Mart. Mission Pavie,

Nevrop. (sep.), p. 15 (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, p. 33 (1917)

Male. Abdomen 32-38 mm. Forewing 30-32 mm. Huindwing 28-31 mm.

It is extremely doubtful whether this insect is distinct from the former; Selys

himself expresses such a doubt. In the 4th Additions to the Synopsis des

Calopterygines he states that it is probably related to ochracea but is much

larger. At the same time the measurements actually given by him are similar

to those he gives for ochracea! Again in his Odonates des Birmanie he states,

apropos of the latcer, that,—‘ It is possible that &. drunnea Selys (4th Add. au

Syn. 64th) from Khasia Hills, which I described from asingle male, may not be

distinct from ochracea.’

I have not seen the type of ochracea but | have specimens of what probably is

that insect from Siam, Burma and Assam and apart from size which varies

considerably, even in the same locality, I can find no differences to separate

them into two distinct species.

In addition to size, Selys gives another character, that of the colour of the

wings which are said to be of a darker brown. Here again we find variability.

In a single specimen which | have from Shillong, Assam, collected by Mr.

Bainbrigge Fletcher, the size is greater than in other specimens that | have

seen from the same and other localities,—abdomen 38 mm. and hindwing

30 mm. and the saffronated parts of the wings are clouded with dark brown

along the costa in the forewing and in the outer and posterior part in the hind.

Another specimen from Kalaw, Burma, has the same dark colouring but its size

is remarkably smail. For the present and until more material is available, this

question must remain open.

Distribution. Khasia Hills, Assam. Femaleunknown. Markings identical

to those of ochracea which is also taken inthe same hills. it must be noted

that, at the time the two species were described, they had been reported from

Malacca and Assam only, two widely separated areas, since which, ochracea has

been found linking up the two in Burma.

Genus—PsEvDOPHAEA Kirby (i890) -

Euphiea Ramb., Ins. Nevrop. p. 228 (1842),—Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 50 (1853) ,—

Id. Mon. Cal. p. 167 (1854),—Walk. List. Neur. Ins. B. M. iv. p. 637

(1853) ,—Will. Proc U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 169 (1904).

Pseudophaea Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 109 (1890) ,—Laid. Rec Ind. Mus. vol. xiii,

‘9..32 (1917). aot

eraece as for subfamily ; wings of male marked with opaque black, often

metallic blue, green or purple; hyaline in the female; apices pointed in the

forewing, inclining to be rounded in the hind, the hind markecly broader than

the fore in the male and considerably broader than in the female; petiolation

absent or nearly so; Azz not in contact with R-+ M; node situated nearer

base of wing than apex and slightly nearer base than pterostigma ; discoidal

cell traversed once only, short, about one third as long as median space; arc

nearly straignt ; sectors of arc separated at origin and arising from centre of

arc; usually only 2 cubital nervures in all wings; 4 long and numerous short

intercalated sectors between /A and hinder border of wing ; 2 long and 2 short

intercalated sectors between /A and Cuzz; origin of Azzz proximal of the

subnode in all wings; no basal incomplete antenodal nervures in subcostal

space; pterostigma present in all wings of both sexes, long and narrow.

Thorax robust, rather short; legs as for subfamily ; abdomen extending well

beyond apices of hindwings in the male, of the same length as abdomen in the

female; anal appendages very homogeneous, simple, forcipate, longer than

segment 10, the 1atter with a marked middorsa! keel or spine, its hinder border

arched or ending in the dorsal spine; vulvar scale robust, short, not extending

beyond end of abdomen.

- Genotype,—varzegata Ramb.

- Distribution. Ceylon, Western Ghats of India, Burmah, Indo-malay,

Indo-china, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Amboina and Philippines. (I have cited

Western India, as sh/endens has been doubtfully reported from there.)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES - 291

Pseudophaea splendens (Selys) (1853)

Euphaea splendens Setys, Syn. Cal. p. 52 (1853),—Id. Mon. Cal. p. 178

(1854) ,—td. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xxxv, p. 485 (1873),—Walk. List. Neur.

Ins. B. M. p. 638 (1853).

Pseudophaea splendens Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 110 (1890),—Id. Journ. Linn.

Soc. Lond. Zool. xxiv, p. 559 (1893) sarc Rec. Ind. Mus.‘vol. xiii. p. 32

(1917),—I\d. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xli, pp. 356-57 (1924).

Pseudophaea carissima Kirby, 1.c. pl. xlii, fig. 4 (1893).

Male. Abdomen 35 to 41 mm. Forewing 31-36 mm. Hindwing 28-33 mm.

Head : labium blackish brown; labrum, cheeks and clypeus glossy black ;

rest of head deep velvety matt black.

Prothorax and thorax matt black, the latter with the first lateral suture and

anterior border of metepimeron obscurely ochreous. In tenerals, the thoracic

markings similar to those of the female.

Legs biack, femora dark reddish-brown internally.

Wings opaque black, forewings with the base as far as midway to node

hyaline but tinted with brown and with the nervures in the outer part of this

area, bordered and clouded with opaque brownish black ; apices of same wings

paler from the level of proximal end of pterostigma; hindwings, except for a

small basal area auterior tolA, opaque,:to extreme apices, and darker than

forewings on the upper surface, an area from base as far distad as halfway

between node and apex of wings, brilliant metallic green or peaceck blue

according from which angle viewed, the outer border of this area running

Straight from costal to hinder border of wing but the basal limit not including

that hyaline area already mentioned above; pterostigma black, very long,

acutely pointed at its proximal end, a little broadened at its centre, covering

about 12-14 cells ; beneath hindwing, the metallic area has a deep glossy steely

blue reflex. The membrane of wings markedly pleated ; about 30 antenodal

nervures in forewings and about 40 postnodals, about 22 antenodals and 30

postnodals in the hindwings ; only 2 cubital nervures in all wings ; discoidal

cell traversed but once in‘all wings.

Abdomen black with an obscure lateral stripe of ochreous on segments

1 and 2,

Anal appendages black, spatulate, blunt at apex, hollowed out within,

parallel, but the apices curled very slightly in, Seen from above triangular in

outline; with broad base and pointed apex. Inferior appendages very short,

conical, pointed.

Genitalia very similar to ochracea but the hamules a little less prominent and

the lobe smaller and flatter.

~- HKemale. Abdomen 31-38 mm. Hindwing 29-37 mm.

Head : labium yellow with the tips and central portion of middle lobe black,

the latter area pulverulent white ; rest of head black as for male but with the

bases of mandibles, cheeks, a small subrotundate spot just in front of each

lateral ocellus, and the labrum citron yellow, the latter with its anterior border,

base and a median basal triangular tongue black.

Prothorax with a large lateral boss on each side of middle lobe citron yellow.

Thorax with an antehumeral stripe not quite extending up to antealar sinus

citron yellow, a small spot of the same colour on each half of the alar sinus.

Laterally a thick stripe of yellow on the first lateral suture and the upper and

anterior half of the metepimeron. In old specimens these lateral yellow

markings and the underside of thorax pulverulent white.

Legs black, flexor surface of femora yellow aad often pulverulent.

Wings hyaline, palely and evenly enfumed, -trownish with a greenish tint, or

in old specimens, the forewings clear and the hind only enfumed brown, with

the apices for a little proximad of inner end of pterostigma dark brown. The

extreme apices of forewings occasionally also enfumed. Neuration similar

to that of male but occasionally only a single cubital nervure present ; nodal

index,—about 26-30 antenodal nervures and about 30, postnodals, 20-25 anteno-

dals and 25 to 30 postnodals to hindwings ; pterostigma dark brown between

black nervures, covering about 10 cells.

Abdomen black marked with citron yellow as follows,—segment 1 broadly on

the sides, segment 2 with a broadish lateral stripe sinuous in its apical

half and dilated abruptly at its apical end, segments 2 to 4 with a narrow

lateral stripe which is broken at the basal end so as to leave’an isolated spot,

segment 5 with only the basal spot.

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Anal appendages half as long again as segment 10, conical and very acutely

pointed at apex; vulvar scale robust, extending nearly to end of abdomen.

(The male witha peculiar tuft of black stiff hairs springing from a small

tubercle on each side of the ventral basal end of segment 9, the nature of

which is unknown.)

Distribution : Confined to Ceylon, although Selys gives ‘ India’ as one of

its localities. If this is correct, it must be from the High Range Travancore,

south of the Palghat Gap, where the Odonate fauna begins to take on a

distinct Ceylon facies so far as at present known. I have specimens from

Dyatalawa, 5,000 feet, August ; Hatton, 4,000-5000 feet, May; Nalande, Sep-

tember and Dyraaba, September.

It is not uncommon on most of the montane streams of Ceylon and is to be

found flitting slowly up and down stream or perching upon overhanging ferns

above the water. When in flight, the male keeps the hindwings fully out-

spread, using them as planes and the forewings as propellers, so that the

full beauty of the hind is displayed. It must be reckoned as one of the most

beautiful insects found in Asia. ‘The females are to be found in the neighbour-

ing jungle, perched on prominent twigs from which they launch themselves

on passing prey; rarely are they seen over their parent streams and 1 have

never seen them in-cop or ovipositing.

Type in the Selysian collection, paratypes in most European collections and

also in the Pusa, Calcutta and Bombay Museums.

Pseudophaea masoni (Selys) (1890).

Euphaea masoni Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 377 (1879),—Laid

Fascic. Malayenses (Zool), Part I, p. 194 (1903),—Mart. Mission Pavie,

Nevrop. (Sep.), p. 15 (1904),—Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. xxviii, p. 182.

(1904).

Pseudophaea masoni Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 110, (1890),—Id. Ann. Mag. Nat.

Hist. (6) xiv, p. 113 (1894).

Male. Abdomen 28-35 mm. Hindwing 24-30 mm. Forewing 26-31 mm.

Head: labium dark brown; labrum, cheeks, bases of mandibles and

anteclypeus glossy black ; rest of head matt velvety black and, in most speci-

mens, an obscure reniform yellowish spot running obliquely out from each

posterior ocellus.

Prothorax and thorax Pilate black, the former unmarked, the latter, except

in adult specimens (from Upper Burma), with the following yellowish brown

markings all more or less obscure, especially in adults,—a narrow antehumeral

line, a small spot on each half of alar sinus, a narrow humeral stripe, an

equally narrow posthumeral complete in its upper half only; four parallel

stripes on the sides, in two pairs, one on the mesépimeron and the other on the

metepimeron.

-. Légs black.

Wings opaque blackish brown, the hind with the extreme apex hyaline or

occasionally hyaline as far as distal end of pterostigma and with the median

space and base of subcostal space paler ; forewings with the apex hyaline for a

variable distance, as far as inner end of pterostigma or for 5 or more cells

proximad of proximal end of pterostigma, the base of wing also hyaline but

enfumed for rather more than halfway from base to node, rarely nearly as far as

node, and in all cases, the subcostal space opaque as far as base, so that the

hyaline area is traversed by a prominent black streak; pterostigma long,

narrow, black, covers 8 to 11 cells ; discoidal cells traversed once (entire in one

wing of a Burmese specimen) ; normally 2 cubital nervures but occasionally 3 ;

25 to 30 antenodal nervures and 30 to 35 postnodals in forewings, 20 to 23

antenodals and 24 to 32 postnodals in the hind; the opaque areas of wings

beneath steely metallic blue or bronzed.

Abdomen black, unmarked. Segment 10 with a very prominent carinal

spine. Anal appendages black, superiors very similar to those of splendens,

but more constricted at base and more expanded thereafter and with some

minute spines at apex, which is curved in slightly. Inferiors very small,

conical, ending in a fine point.

Genitalia very similar to splendens.

Female. Abdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 31 mm.

(This sex has not hitherto been described, I am indebted tothe Paris

Museum for the specimen from which the following description has been made.)

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate I.

(a) Terminal abdominal segments of Phzloganga montana Selys, showing saw-

like ovipositor

(6) Terminal abdominal segments and anal appendages of Philoganga montana

Selys, male, dorsal view.

(¢) Terminal abdominal segments and anal appendages of /udophea fraseri

(Laid.), left latero-dorsal view showing spine on dorsum of 10th segment

and left inferior appendage.

(dq) Philoganga montana Selys, female.

(e) Indophea traseri (Laid.), male.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 293

Differing entirely as usual from the male and very similar to the female of

splendens.

Head: labium dirty brown tipped with black ; labrum citron yellow narrow-

ly encircled with black and with a prominent median basal tongue of black,

which nearly meets the anterior black border; ante-and pcst-clypeus black ;

cheeks, bases of mandibles, a very broad band traversing the frons and an

elongate spot running obliquely outward from between the ocelli, all citron-

yellow.

Prothorax black marked with yellow as follows,—a small subdorsal spot on

each side of anterior lobe, a large lateral yellow boss on each slde of middle

lobe, the posterior margin of the posterior lobe narrowly and a small longitudi-

nal medial spot above this lobe, and finally a large yellow boss on each side

of the posterior lobe.

Thorax black marked with moderately narrow anthehumeral and humeral

stripes, afine posthumeral stripe broadly broken at its middle and lastly the

whole of the sides and beneath, except for narrow black stripes outlining the

lateral sutures.

Legs black, the proximal two thirds of hinder femora and the inner sides of

middle femora yellow.

Wings long and narrow, uniformly enfumed greenish brown; pterostigma

brown or dark ochreous finely framed in black, long and narrow; “722 arising

slightly proximad of the subnode, other details of venation as given for the

male.

Abdomen black marked with greenish yellow as follows,—segment 1 largely

yellow but with a basal dorsal patch of black anda _ lateral spot of the same

colour, segment 2 with its middorsal carina narrowly yellow and with a broad

longitudinal lateral stripe expanded apicad; segment 3 similar but with the

dorsal stripe tailing off and finally disappearing before the apical end, and with

the lateral stripes expanded at both ends, segments 4 to 7 similar but without

the dorsal marking and with the lateral gradually narrowing, segment 8 with a

round spot on each side, 9 with a large subquadrate spot on each side, whilst

10 has a vestigial rounded spot only.

Anal appendages small, pointed, conical black. Vulvar scale yellow, not

quite extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Naga Hills, Assam, in April; Gok Teik, Upper Burma, in

May and Tavoy District in April; also below Maymyo, 2,500 ft, in June;

Daban in Anna, 600 ft, May; Hoa Minh, Tonkin, and near Bangkok, Siam.

The typein the Selysian collection comes from Tenasserim, Lower Burma.

This species therefore has a very wide distribution extending from Assam to

French Indo-China. Col. F. Wall, I.M.s., found it not uncommon near

Maymyo, Upper Burma, and Mr. Elton Bott in Tavoy. It is subject to great

variation in size like most other Pseudophaeas, but to a less extent, in its

markings. It is one of the blackest dragonflies known and must be very

conspicuous on the wing. The wing markings serve to distinguish it from others.

Pseudophaea bockt has been mentioned as from Burma by the late Rene

Martin, but this is most certainly an error.

Genus INDOPHAEA gen, nov.

Characters of the subfamily; hindwings of male with apices more or less

broadly opaque black, nearly up to the node in one species ; forewings hyaline

as also all wings of the female; forewings with apices pointed, hindwings

rounded, markedly so in some species and considerably shorter than the fore ;

fore-and hind-wings of equal breadth, and wings of equal breadth in the sexes;

petiolation distinct especially in the hindwings; Azz not in contact with

R-+ A; node situated much nearer base of wing than apex especially in

forewings ; discoidal cell traversed, usually once, but occasionally entire and

occasionally 3 times; 2 to 5 cubital nervures, usually 3; A722 arising at, or

slightly, or very widely distad of the subnode ; discoidal cell of forewing much

shorter than that of hind and less than half the length of median space; arc

almost straight ; sectors of are arising from middle of arc and widely separated

at origin ; 3 or 4 intercalated sectors between /A and hinder margin of wing:

IA never forked ; several short intercalated sectors between /A and Cuzz; no

basal incomplete antenodal nervures in subcostal Spates pterostigma present

in all wings, very long and very narrow.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIU1

_ Thorax robust ; legs as for subfamily ; abdomen cylindrical,. very long and

attenuated, usually much longer than hindwings (Markedly soin fraseri but

of nearly the same length in cardinalis) but of the same length or ‘shorter in

the female ; anal appendages very homogeneous, simple, forcipate; segment

10 pointed apicad and with a very robust dorsal keel; vulvar scale robust, not

extending to end of abdomen.

Genotype,—dispar Ramb.

Distribution. Western Ghats of India, Indo-malay and Borneo.

Indophaea dispar (Rambur) (1842).

Euphaea dispar Ramb. Ins. Névrop. p. 230 (1842),—Selys, Syn. Cal. p.

51 (1853),—Id. Mon. Cal.,; p 169 (1854).—Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2)

xxxvi, p. 614 (1873),—Walk. List. Neur. Ins. B. M_ iv, p. 640 (1853).

Pseudophaea dispar Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 109 (1890),—Laid. Rec. Ind.

Mus. vol. xiii, p. 32 (1917),—Id. ibid. vol. xix, pp. 25-27 (1920),—

Fras. ibid, vol. xxiv, p. 9 (1922).—Id. ibid. vol. xxvi, pp. 479-480

(1924).

Male: Abdomen 39-47 nm. Hindwing 32-40 mm. Forewing 35-42 mm.

Head: labium dark reddish brown, paler at the borders of lateral lobes;

labrum turquoise blue finely bordered with black and with a medio-basal

tongue of black; bases of mandibles with a spot of turquoise blue; cheeks and

epistome glossy black, rest of head matt black, unmarked.

Prothorax black with a large reddish ochreous boss on each side of middle

lobe, a smaller reniform spot below it and the hinder border of posterior lobé

the same coiour.

Thorax black marked with bright reddish ochreous as follows,—ante-

humeral and humeral stripes confluent as a broad loop above and narrowly

separated below so as to nearly enclose along ovalspot of the ground colour,

the rest, posterior to the humeral suture, which is finely black, bright reddish

ochreous except for an oval spot of black between the humeral] and first lateral

sutures, and a small spot or beginnings ofa stripe on the upper parts of the

two lateral sutures. An elongate spot on each half of antealar sinus and the

whole of underside of thorax bright ochreous.

Legs bright yellow except the extensor surface of femora and tibize which are

dark reddish.

Wings hyaline palely enfumed with greenish brown; apices of forewings

merely tipped with blackish brown ; apices of hindwings broadly black to as far

proximad of pterostigma as nearly halfway from apex to node; apex of this

wing rounded and only about 3mm. shorter than forewing but about 7 mm.

shorter than abdomen ; pterostigma black, covering about 12 cells; 3 cubital

nervures to all wings; discoidal cell traversed once; A7zzz arising 1 to 2 cells

distad of the subnode; about 24 antenodal nervures and about 40 postnodals

to forewings, about 20 antenodals and about 38 postnodals to hindwings

(Number differs widely according to size of insect). (Discoidal ceil may also be

freakishly traversed or entire, thus in one specimen the cells of the hindwings

are traversed twice, whilst that of the right forewing is entire and that of the

left traversed once}. (Occasionally a specimen will be taken with the black

apex of hindwing marked by a large hyaline window.)

Abdomen bright vermilion red, the segmental joints and the entire abdomen

_from the apical third of sezgment 6 tothe end black. The apical end of segment

8 with a tuft of short black hairs on its ventral surface and about 8 long stiff

black hairs beneath the basal end of segment9; segment 10 with a very

prominent dorsal keel.

Anal appendages very similar to those of sasonz, black, ungulate, laterally

compressed and hollowed out within, apices blunt and furnished with a few

inconspicuous spines above. Inferior appendages very small conical, pointed.

Genitalia very similar to masonit, bright ochreous, the hamules finely

bordered with black, lobe large, scrotal shaped, black.

Female. Abdomen 35-38 mm. Hindwing 34-39 mm.

Bearing a remarkable likeness to those of splendens, musoni, etc.

Head : labium dirty yellow ; labrum and bases of mandibles turquoise blue,

_ the former finely bordered with black and with a medio-basal tongue of black

as in the male; anteclypeus black ; postclypeus and a broad transverse band

across the frons, as well as cheeks broadly bright ochre. A rounded spot of the

same colour on thé outer side of each hinder ocellus,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 295

Prothorax and thorax marked similarly to the male, but yellow instead of

bright reddish ochreous. The dorsal stripes are narrower, the black post-

humeral spot is confluent with the black below, not entirely surrounded by

brighter colour, the lateral vestigial black sutural lines are complete, although

that on the first lateral suture is rather diffuse and often incomplete below.

Legs as for male but more black.

Wings hyaline uniformly enfumed with greenish brown and the hind, in old

specimens, with a moderately well-marked brownish black apex extending

proximad slightly beyond inner end of pterostigma; venational details and

pterostigma similar to male; A772 not quite one cell distad of the subnode ;

cubital nervures sometimes irregular, 2to 4in number and the discoidal cells

sometimes traversed twice; pterostigma black, over about 12 cells; nodal

32 -18|17-34

30-18|19-31°

Abdomen black marked with bright yellow or ochreous as follows,—lIst

segment almost entirely greenish yellow, segments 2 to 7 with a longitudinal

stripe on either side, broad on 2, narrower on the rest and becoming

interrupted on segments 6 and 7, the basal end expanded and cut off from the

rest by the jugal suture ; segment 8 with a small quadrate apical lateral spot,

segment 9 with a larger similar spot, 10 unmarked.

(Markings subject to great variation,—in a specimen from South Kanara the

markings are largely obsolete, especially on the abdomen, whilst those on the

thorax are cut up into parallel lines of yellow by the black, even on the sides.

In other specimens there is an additional small round spot on the inner side of

each posterior ocellus and the hinder border of the posterior lobe of prothorax

is bright yellow asin the male. Unlike sasoni and slendens, there is no dorsal

yellow marking on any of the abdominal segments.)

Anal appendages small conical pointed, black. Vulvar scale robust, marked

with yellowish, not extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Confined to the Western Ghats of India from South Kanara

and Coorg to the Nilgiris,—Malabar Wynaad. Easily distinguished from other

species by the extent of black on apices of hindwings—and by its turquoise

blue labrum and mandibles. The black area of wings has a steely blue reflex,

as seen in some lights or dull coppery bronze in others. The female is distin-

guished from other species by its turquoise blue labrum. Like all Pseudophaeas

there is a.great disparity in size of specimens from various localities,

those from lower altitudes usually being of smaller size than those from higher.

It occurs from 3,500 ft. to 6,000 ft. breeding in streams. Usually the males,

will be found perched on twigs some feet above the water, often at a great

height, especially towards nightfall when they rise to the tops of neighbouring

trees.

Females are not uncommun but must be sought forin the neighbouring

jungle or ridings some short distance from the streams. They are very

pugnacious and I have found them devouring tenerals of their own species!

Rarely are they found in cop but I have a pair, which not even death, in the

cyanide bottle, was able to part, an unique exhibit showing the double act of

copulation.

Type in the Rambur collection, now I believe in the Selysian collection.

Paratype in the British Museum, Pusa and Indian Museums, and in most private

collections, to which I have been able to present specimens. It is on the wing

from the end of May to September,

Indophaea cardinalis (Fras.) (1924).

Pseudophaea cardinalis Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, pp. 512-13 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 41-45 mm. Forewing 39-42 mm. Hindwing 36-40 mm.

Flead: Labium dirty yellow, brown at its middle; labrum bright ochreous

narrowly bordered with reddish brown and an obscure mediobasal tongue of

dark brown ; anteclypeus dark blackish brown ; postclypeus, bases of mandi-

bles and cheeks bright ochreous ; frons broadly reddish ochreous clouded with

reddish brown at its middle and with a crenulate black basal line from which

spring medial and lateral short black points ; four small black points also pro-

jecting into base of posfclypeus; rest of head black save for basal joints of

antenne and asma!l round point lying slightly to the outer and fore side of

posterior ocellus on each side bright ochreous. Eyes dark reddish brown ; frons

coated with long black hairs.

index —

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Prothorax black with a large boss on each side of the middle lobe, the hinder

border of the posterior lobe save at its middle, and the sides broadly bright

ochreous.

Thorax bright reddish ochreous and black, markings very similar to those of

dispar, thus,—antehumeral and humeral narrow ochreous stripes confluent as a

loop above and nearly confluent below ; the humeral suture narrowly outlined

in black ; laterally entirely ochreous save for a long oval spot of black between

the humeral and first lateral sutures and the beginnings of narrow black lines

on the upper parts of the lateral sutures ; beneath ochreous.

Legs entirely reddish, the tarsi dark reddish brown, spines black.

Wings relatively broader than in dispar and marked very similarly. Fore-

wings hyaline, faintly enfumed and with a greenish tinge, tinted with yellow at

extreme base ; hindwings with apical ends black as far proximad as 4 to8 mm.

from the node, and in some, quite the outer half of wing opaque black, this

part dull coppery above, dull or steely bluish-black below ; pterostigma long,

covers 10-12 cells, black ; Aziz arising from half to one and a half cells distad

of subnode or even in continuation of the subnode; discoidal cell entire in all

wings of some specimens, or traversed once in the forewings, or twice or thrice

in the hind, very variable ; 2 cubital nervures in forewings, 2 to 4 in the hind ;

20 to 24 antenodal nervures and 38 to 47 postnodals in forewing, about 18 to 20

antenodals and 38 to 40 postnodals in the hind.

Hindwing 2 to 3 mm. shorter than forewing and markedly rounded.

Abdomen bright vermilion red as far asthe basaltwo-thirds of segment 6

from which point it is black. Segment 10 with a very pronounced carinal

spine; segments 8 and 9 with tufts of long hairs ventrad.

Anal appendages similar to those of dzspar, as also genitalia.

Female. Abdomen 36mm. Hindwing 37 mm.

Head: labium black; labrum coloured similarly to the male; cheeks,

bases of mandibles, a broad fascia traversing the frons but slightly interrupted

at its middle, and a small oval spot on the outer foreside of the posterior ocellus

bright ochreous ; rest of head black.

Prothorax and thorax bright yellow marked with black as in the male but the

lateral stripes on the sutures complete.

Legs blackish brown, the flexor surfaces of femora obscurely yellow.

Wings hyaline, uniformly enfumed with pale greenish brown, the hind more

deeply than the fore and the apices slightly clouded witha darker brown;

pterostigma black, narrow ; 21 to 24 antenodal nervures and 31 to 33 postnodals

to forewings, 18 antenodals and about 26 postnodals to the kind ; discoidal cell

traversed once in all wings; other venational points as for male.

Abdomen black marked with yellow, the sides of segments 1 to 3 broadly

yellow ; segments 4 to 7 with a longitudinal lateral stripe expanding basad and

extending up towards dorsum so as to form incomplete basal rings ; segments

8 and 9 with subquadrate apico-lateral spots, 10 unmarked.

Anal appendages short, conical, black. Vulvar scale very robust, yellowish,

not extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution : Confined, so far as known, to the Palnai plateau, South India.

Very few specimens have been collected of this very beautiful, and very local

insect. To Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher belongs the credit of first recognizing this

species which, although it had long been in, at least, three collections, had been

confused with dispar, even by such collectors as Dr. Ris and myself. This on

account of its close resemblance to dispar, from which however it is easily

distinguished when placed side by side. The much greater extent of the

opaque area of the hindwing, the ochreous labrum and cheeks (turquoise blue

and glossy black respectively in dispar), the close approximation of the length

of wings to abdomen and the all-red legs are some of the differentiating

characters. In addition to these, cardinalis has a large triangular tonguelike

process springing from the apico-ventral border of the second abdominal

segment, which is quite absent in dzspar.

The female is easily distinguished by its ochreous labrum.

Type in the British Museum, paratypes in the Pusa, Ris, Morton and Fraser

collections. The single female known is in the Fraser collection.

Found in numerous sholas, frequenting montane streams of the Palnai Hills

from June to October.

Indophae fraseri (Laid.) (1920).

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 297

Pseudophaea trasert Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxi, pp. 23-27 (1920),—Fras.

ibid., vol. xxiv, pp. 8 and 9 (1922),—Id. ibid., vol. xxvi, p. 480 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 3641 mm. Forewing 34-38 mm. Hindwing 29-35 mm.

Head: labium pale yellow; labrum pale azure blue with its anterior border

broadly black, no medio-basal tongue of black ; bases of mandibles azure blue,

cheeks yellowish white; epistome glossy black ; rest of head matt black with

occasionally an obscure oval yellow spot on the outer side of each posterior

ocellus ; eyes dark brown.

Prothorax black with a large pale blue spot on each side of the middle lobe.

Thorax black with antehumeral and humeral stripes on dorsum, the former

pale sky-blue in fine contrast tothe black ground colour, narrow in its upper

half, broadening rapidly in its lower; humeral stripe yellow turning to reddish

ochre below, very fine throughout and occasionally broken into several sections.

Laterally bright ochreous with reddish tinge posteriorly and marked witha

- large oval black spot between the humeral] and first lateral suture and with the

beginning of fine lateral stripes on the upper parts of the two lateral sutures ;

beneath bright reddish ochreous.

Legs as for cardinalis but a brighter red and the anterior pair dark reddish

brown, almost black in some.

Wings very similar to dispar but the hind very markedly shorter than the fore

and evenly rounded at the apices ; forewings hyaline with the extreme apex

tipped with brown ; hindwing with the outer part opaque black with a coppery

reflex above and a bluish violet below, this area slightly variable, usually

extending from apex to about halfway to the node, less extensive in specimens

taken at a low altitude, more extensive in those from a higher ; discoidal cell

traversed once in the forewings, twice or thrice in the hind; 3 cubital nervures

in all wings ; A222 arising 4 to 5 cells distad of the subnode; pterostigma black,

long and narrow covers 8-12 cells; 18-20 antenodal nervures in forewing, and

32-36 postnodals, 15-18 antenodals and 27-30 postnodals in the hind.

Abdomen bright vermilion red to apical end of segment 6, which is clouded

with black ; segment 7 dark reddish brown to black at apical end: rest of

abdomen black. Segment 10 with a prominent carinal spine.

Anal appendages black, very similar to those of dispar but with a distinct

bend at about their middle ; inferiors as for dispar.

Genitalia similar to dispar but the lobe smaller and bright red instead of

matt black.

Female.—Abdomen 33-34 mm. Hindwing 31-33 mm.

Head: labium, labrum, mandibles and cheeks as for male; ante- and

post-clypeus glossy black, the latter with a transversely oval blue spot at its

centre ; frons black, the creamy white of cheeks extending onto it on either side ;

rest of head black with a small oval greenish yellow spot on the outer side of

each posterior ocellus.

Prothorax black with a large oval spot on each side of the middle lobe and

the hinder border of the posterior lobe finely greenish yellow.

Thorax black on dorsum, bright yellow on the sides, marked asin the male

but the line on the posterior suture rather better defined. In some specimens

the antehumeral and humeral stripes are confluent above as a broad loop as in

other species of the genus.

Legs yellow, femora blackish on extensor surface, tibiz reddish.

Wings hyaline, palely enfumed, and in many specimens, with the apices a

hindwings broadly dark brown to slightly proximal of the outer end of ptero-

stigma in forewings and for a short distance proximal of the inner end in the

hind ; venational details as for male ; discoidal cell traversed once in forewings,

twice in the hind or less commonly once ; 3 cubital nervures in all wings ;

pterostigma black, long and narrow, covering 9 to 12 cells ; 17 to 18 antenodal

nervures and 29-33 postnodals in forewings, 15 to 16 antenodals and 25 to 27

postnodals in the hind.

Abdomen black marked with bright greenish-yellow as follows,—segment 1

broadly so on the sides, the dorsal carina throughout except on segment 1 nar-

rowly, but broadening out on segments 8 to 10, on the latter of which it forms a

well-defined spot, the sides of segment 2 broadly, a longitudinal stripe on the

sides of segments 3 to 6, broad on 3, becoming progressively finer on the suc-

ceeding segments until nearly lost or interrupted on segment 6, apical and basal

spots on the sides of 7, a small apical lateral spot on 8 and a very large lateral

spot on 9, whilst the sides of 10 are entirely greenish-yellow,

998 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII -

Anal appendages rather longer than segment 10, black, fine, tapering toa

fine point. Vulvar scale robust, yellow, not extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. North and South Kanara, Malabar, Coorg and the Nilgiri

Wynaad. Found on the same rivers as dispar but at a lower elevation, thus in

Malabar it occurs sparingly near sea-level. In Coorg and the Nilgiri and

Malabar-Wynad it occurs up to 3,500 ft. from May to August.

Type in the Indian Museum, paratypes in Pusa and British Museums and in

several private collections, Morton, Williamson, Laidlaw, Inglis and the

authors. The males are not uncommonly seen resting with their wings well

open as in genus Lestes and are usually found on low herbage along the banks

of their parent streams. Females are not uncommon in the neighbouring

jungle, settled on twigs at about 8 to 12 feet from the ground.

Subfamily PHILOGANGINAE Kennedy (1920).

Philoganginae Kennedy, Ohio Journ. Sci. vol. xxi, No. 1. p. 23. figs. 38-39

(1920).

Robust insects with general facies of both sexes resembling somewhat that of

Epallagine females,' but details of venation, etc., differing rather widely from

that subfamily.

Fore-and hind-wings of similar shape and similar in both sexes, very long

and very narrow, petiolated to nearly as far as level of are ; node at about two-

fifths of the wing length from base ; discoidal cell entire, short, about one-fifth

to one-sixth the length of median space, its costal side slightly shorter than

posterior, its distal end oblique ; Az not in contact with Azz; Réiiz arising

at, or 1 to 2 cells distad of subnode ; arc slightly bent, situated at and in

line with the distal primary antenodal nervure ; antenodal nervures moderately

numerous, those in subcostal space more numerous than those in the costal and,

except for the two primary antenodals, not coinciding with them ; 1 to 4 basal

incomplete or subcostal antenodals, usually 2 or 3; and always a single sub-

costal antenodal between the two primaries ; no cubital nervures beyond the

nervure ac in all wings, ac lying much nearer the distal primary antenodal or

midway between the primaries ; petiolation marked, ending at a point opposite

to or slightly proximad of ac ; JA straight, slightly concave or markedly convex,

1 to 2 rows of cells between it and posterior margin of wing, ending on wing

margin opposite to or widely distad of node ; 1 to 2 well defined oblique nervures

between Azz and /Azz ; intercalated nervures between Azz + v andl Riti, /

Riit and Riii, Riiz and Riz; pterostigma present in all wings of both sexes,

long and narrow.

Head robust, Gomphine-shaped ; eyes rounded, tumid behind, rather widely

separated from one another ; labium with middle lobe deeply cleft, ends of

lobes acute ; labrum arched at free border.

Thorax very robust, short; legs long and slim ; femora with 2 rows of very

short, very closely-set, evenly-sized spines with more robust ones set at longer

but even intervals ; tibial spines moderately numerous but rather short ; claw-

hooks situated near ends of claws. (Tibize in one species with a fringe of hairs

in addition to the spines.)

Abdomen robust, cylindrical, slightly dilated at anal end especially in the

female, shorter than wings ; 10th segment flat on dorsum.

Superior anal appendages of male considerably longer than segment 10, sub-

‘cylindrical, widely separated at base, apices curving in toward one another,

blunt, minutely spined at outer border; inferior appendages rudimentary.

Superior anal appendages of female long and fine.

Genitalia bearing a close resemblance to that of the /pallaginae, especially -

the anterior hamules and lobe of penis, the former being foliate flattened quad-

rate processes inclined toward one another, the latter scrotal shaped and rather

longer than in the Epallagines ; penis closely resembling that of Amphipleryx,

its tentacles furnished with a fringe of spines at their apex, which is blunt.

Vulvar scales very robust, extending well beyond end of abdomen and with the

under border of scales coarsely serrate and evidently functionating as a saw for

the insertion of ova into plant stems.

Distribution. Assam, Bengal, Burma, Indo-China and South China.

I have included the three known species of Philoganga under a separate

monogeneric subfamily, as their true position is still doubtful, and must remain

so until the larva is discovered. From the venation, the extremely long

———S== =

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEATE II.

ee : ae x Hh

Photographs by ie Bainbrigge Fletcher.

Two views of Philoganga pool, Shillong. Lower photograph a close-up

view of upper. Specimens of Philoganga montana were taken resting,

with wings outspread, on the bushes overhanging the pool, where the

larve obviously breed.

Journ. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

A small stream at east end of valley in Shillong, Assam, where 4 /lophaea

ochvacea (Selys) 1s found. Disparoneura atkinsoni Selys also frequents

this stream.

Photographs by I. Bainbrigge Fletcher.

View of the Hatti River, North Coorg. Indophaea fraseri (Laid), is not

uncommon along the banks of this river, whilst Dysphaea ethela Fras.,

frequents the rocks in midstream. Other species of dragon-fly found here

are Macvromia indica, bellicosa, ida and atrata, and several Gomphines.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 299

petiolation and the fact that they rest with the wings extended flat as in the Anz-

soptera, it is clear that they are archaic insects, probably even more so than

Epiophlebia. 1 place them for convenience after the EApallaginae because

there is a strong resemblance in the genitalia, and the abdominal markings are

typical of that subfamily. There however the resemblance ends, as the thoracic

pattern, so characteristic of the Afallaginae, is quite different to that of

Philoganga whilst the coinciding costal and subcostal antenodals and the short

petiolation of the wings of the Afallaginae is quite different to what is found in

Philoganga. The long petiolation of the wings, the long legs and the shape of

the penis seems to show a relationship to Amphipteryx, an American genus.

Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher has taken a number of P. montana along the banks

of a montane stream in the Khasia Hills, so that it is evident that they breed in

such spots. He has taken at least one teneral specimen here, but unfortunately

failed to find its exuvia.

Genus Philoganga Kirby (1890).

Anisoneura Selys. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), vii, p. 444 (1859) and Add. Syn.

Cal. p. 10 (1859),—Id. 4th Add. Syn. Cal. p. 33 (1877).

Philoganga Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 111 (1890);—Needham, Proc. U.S. Nat.

Mus. vol. 26, p. 755, fig. 44 (1903),—Ris Suppl. Ent. No. 1, pp. 44-47

(1912) ,—Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, p. 33 (1917).

Characters and distribution as for the subfamily Phz/oganginae.

Three species only, montana, vetusta and loringe of which the former is the

geno-type. Only two species taken within Indian limits.

Philoganga montana (Selys) (1859).

Anisoneura montana Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), vii. p. 445 (1859),—Id.

ibid, (2). xlvii, p. 379 (1879).—Kirby. Cat. Odon. p. 111. (1890).

Philoganga montana Kirby, l|.c. (1890),—Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii,

p. 33 (1917),—Fras. Mem. Pusa, Ent. Ser.. vol. viii, No. 8, p..87, pl. ix,

figs. 2-4 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 48mm. MHindwing 45mm.

Head : labium yellow, lobes tipped with black, bases of mandibles citron-

yellow ; labrum glossy black; rest of head matt black with two transverse

narrow citron-yellow stripes, one traversing the cheeks and frons, the other

running from eye to eye across occiput ; behind eyes yellow ; eyes brown.

Prothorax black with a longitudinal middorsal stripe bisected narrowly in

the middle line of middle lobe and finely interrupted between the middle and

posterior lobes.

Thorax black with some pruinescence beneath in adults, marked with green-

ish and citron-yellow as follows,—a narrow middorsal carinal stripe finely

bisected by the middorsal black carina, a small spot on each half of the

antealar sinus, a narrow complete humeral stripe, and laterally, two broad

oblique stripes, the anterior borders of which are greenish, the first stripe on

the mesepimeron, the second covering the entire metepimeron,

Legs black, femora broadly yellow on outer aspect, trochanters each with a

large yellow spot ; tibiz of male with a fringe of fine short hairs in addition to

the spines. .

Wings hyaline ; pterostigma blackish brown or paler brown, surmounts 23 to

4} cells; 2 rows of cells posterior to /A this nervure being flat or slightly

convex ; petiolation ends at ac ora little proximal to it in forewings ; 2-4 incom-

plete basal antenodals in forewings, usually 2, 2-3 in the hindwing ; nodal

26-12/18|14/17-26 = 21-10/15/10/17-19

24-11/17)14/17-24’ 17-10/17|10/16-17°

Abdomen black marked with greenish yellow as follows,—segment | broadly

yellow on the sides and with an apical annule broadly interrupted on the

dorsum ; segment 2 with a lateral and ventral longitudinal stripe ; segments 3

to 7 with a latero-basal transverse spot and a lateral stripe, which on segments

3 and 4 has the apical end expanded, but on 5 to 7 tapers gradually away until

much shortened on segment 7; segment 8 with a large triangular latero-apical

spot, 9 with a similar but rounded spot, whilst 10 has the apical half yellow.

Anal appendages black ; superiors nearly twice as long as segment 10, sub-

cylindrical, slender, curving gradually and evenly towards one another, apex

index variable ,—

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1i

obtuse, the outer border near apex coarsely spined. Inferiors rudimentary,

scarcely visible.

Genitalia as for subfamily,

Female. Abdomen 47mm. Hindwing 52 mm.

Differs only from male in point of size and robust build. Wings occasionally

palely yellow towards base ; nodal index similar but very variable; only 1 or 2

incomplete basal antenodal nervures to all wings ; pterostigma as in male.

Anal appendages long tapering toa fine point, black. Segments 8 and9

distinctly broadened, almost foliate laterally, segment 9 rather depressed.

Vulvar scale very robust, prolonged well beyond end of abdomen, coarsely

serrate beneath.

Distribution. Assam and Bengal. Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher has taken

this species in moderate numbers during May and June, in two restricted

localities bordering montane streams in Shillong. These were resting on bushes

with their wings spread horizontally, in which position, from their shape and

colouring, they looked very likeGomphines. Mr. Chas. Inglis has taken a >

male on the banks of a stream below Darjeeling. The type in the MacLachlan

collection comes from Assam, and was probably collected by Mr. Atkinson in

the same localities in Shillong.

Philoganga loringae Fras. (1927).

Philoganga loringae Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus, vol. xxix, pp. 79-81 (1927).

Male. Abdomen 41 mm. Hindwing 39 mm.

Head : labium dirty yellow; labrum greenish yellow with asmall medio-

basal tongue of black ; bases of mandibles and cheeks citron yellow for as far

up as level of antenne ; rest of head matt black, pruinescent in parts; eyes

dark brown.

Prothorax black with a middorsal citron-yellow stripe broadening anteriorly

and on posterior lobe.

Thorax black marked with citron-yellow as follows,—a moderately broad

middorsal stripe finely bisected by the black middorsal carina, a narrow slightly

sinuous antehumeral stripe; laterally entirely yellow save for the second

lateral suture which is broadly mapped out in black.

Legs long and slim, hind femora extending to middle of segment 2 ; anterior

pair of femora black, the other two pairs dark ochreous ; tibiz and tarsi black ;

tibize not fringed with fine hairs asin montana.

Wings hyaline, petiolated to level ofac or slightly proximal in forewing ;

palely and evenly enfumed ; pterostigma blackish brown covering 3} cells ;

only a single row of cells posterior to JA; only 1 cubital nervure to all wings ;

Cuit slightly convex; 7A a little concave; other details of venation as in

montana except that the primary antenodals are not as distinct from the others

and Riti is more distad in its origin, arising from 1to 23 cells distad of the

22-13/17 | 13/19-21

* 20- 013/17 ° 11/18-19°

Abdomen dark reddish brown; segment 1 greenish yellow, segment 2

with a broad lateral bright yellow stripe narrowly bordered above with black,

segment 3 with the black stripe continued but more diffuse and blotting out

the ground colour on dorsum of segment, the ventral border dark ochreous,

segments 4 to 10 similar but the dorsum entirely black, whilst segment

9 has a duplicate middorsal .bright ochreous spot, and 10 two similar, but

rounded spots on the dorsum.

Anal appendages black, the superiors nearly twice the length of segment 10

curling gradually in to almost meet at tips, which are slightly dilated and end

in obtuse points. On the outer side a few fine spines, much smaller than

those seen in montana. In profile these appendages are seen to project straight

back but the apices slightly upturned. Inferior appendages rudimentary as

in montana.

Genitalia: Very similar to that of montana. Lobe depressed, moderately

long, glossy black, resembling the flattened tuinid body of a tick.

Female. Abdomen 42 mm. Hindwing 37 mm.

Very similar in markings to the male but a much larger and more robust

insect.

Wings petiolated distinctly proximal toac; 2 basal incomplete antenodals

in all. wings, occasionally only 1 (2 to3in the male) ; a well defined oblique

nervure between Azz and /A7z, sometimes two of such (Usually not very

subnode : ; nodal index

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV.

A. Ventral view of larva of Pseudophea splendens (Selys) female. Note the seven

pairs of abdominal gills which are really grappling-irons to anchor the insect

to rocks in torrential streams.

&. Dorsal view of larva of Znudophea frasert (Laid). Distinguished from the

former by total absence of head spines.

6. Mask of larva of Ladophea fraseri (Laid).

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 301

evident in the male); pterostigma rather longer, covering 4} cells; nodal

22-13/17 | 13/19-20

19-12/16’ 11/15-18°

Abdomen similar to male but sides of segments 9and 10 broadly ochreous

and the dorsal spots replaced by diffuse dark ochreous.

Anal appendages black at tips, brownish yellow from base, short, tapering to

a point. Vulvar scale exactly similar to montana.

Distribution : Maymyo, Upper Burma, Four specimens, 3 males and a

single female, the latter in cop. July 1925, collected by Col. F. Wall, 1.M.s.

This very rare insect differs from montana by its much smaller size, by the

labrum yellow instead of glossy black, by the markings of abdomen different

and by the point of origin of Azzz. It and montana are at once distinguished

from vetusta Ris by having only a single row of cells posterior to /4. The

female has the abdomen rather longer than the wings, the opposite condition

being found in montana.

index,

EPALLAGINE LARVZ

With the exception of Anisopleura and the Pseudophaea group we know little

about the aquatic life histories of the Hp~allagine.

Antsopleura has already been described and figured in Part XXXI of this

monograph ; of the Pseudophaea group we know only the larve of Pseudophaea

splendens Selys (Plate IV, fig. A), Pseudophaea variegata (Ramb.), /ndophaea

dispar (Ramb.), and /udophaea fraseri (Laid) (Plate IV, figs. B and 6.)

The striking difference between these two group, viz., the total absence of

abdominal gills in Anzsopleura (and probably also in Bayadera and Epallage),

and the presence of seven pairs of these organs in Pseudophaea and /ndophaea

tempts one to place these latter genera in a separate subfamily, the Pseudo-

phiine. Possibly undue importance has been placed on these structures,

which have been called, and said tofunction as, true respiratory organs. My

own observations have led me to the conclusion that their real function is that

of anchoring organs, for the larve are invariably found clinging to the flat sur-

faces of stones in the swiftest parts of streams, seemingly by the aid of these

seven pairs of grappling hooks, the so-called abdominal gills. Were it not for

these organs, they would be instantly swept down stream by the rush of waters

as may easily be demonstrated by removing the gills and replacing the dis-

membered insect on astone in aswift part of the current. The true legs of

course are used for ordinary locomotive purposes, the pseudo-legs or gills,

having no powers in this respect.

The larve of Pseudophaea splendens, Indophaea dispar and Indophaea frasert

are all very similar, the two latter being indistinguishable, except by the locality

which they inhabit ; the former possessing a lateral beard-like group of robust

spines external to and beneath the eyes. The gills are found on the first seven

segments and are allS-shaped except the distal pair which are more or less

weakly developed.

The caudal gills, as in Anisopleura, are triplicate, bladder-like structures,

thickly coated with coarse hairs, one situated medially and dorsally, the others

lying on each side of it, the apposed surfaces being flattened, the under-surfaces

also flattened so as to lie flush with the surface on which the larva is resting.

The mask is as shown, simple and without sete.

( Zo be continued. )

MAHSEER (BARBUS TOR)

IN BURMA AND THEIR HABITS

A. MACDONALD

(With two plates and a text-figure)

Myitkyina, which is about 700 miles from Rangoon, is the rail-

head of the Burma Railway and the head quarters of the most

Northern Frontier District of Burma.

It is, besides, the headquarters of two Military Police Battalions.

It has a very nice club, in which there isa fishing book kept, but

unfortunately it only gives notes on the fishing in the higher reaches

near Putao (Fort Hertz). Mine is the first note on the actual con-

fluence and the water near Myitkyina.

These two great rivers, the Mali and the N’Mai Kha, come into

confluence forming the Irrawadi, 29 miles north of Myitkyina. It

can be reached by motor car, or at least to within a mile of the

actual confluence, at a place called Thangpae, a Kachin village,

from where a good path leads off. This is on the main road to

Putao. The road is at present being rebridged in order that motor

transport will be able to run up to Sumprabum, a Military post and

sub-division about half-way to Putao, 90 miles from Myitkyina.

When this road is completed, the Mali Kha will be much easier to

fish up to a point (Tiang Kha) 58 miles from Myitkyina. The river

is alongside the road most of the way, and about 200 feet below.

The river up to this point (Tiang Kha) has some excellent rapids

and will stand any quantity of fishing.

During the three years I was resident in this district, I know of no

one giving this water a trial. Col. Summerville went up to the

higher reaches in 1924, a distance of 220 miles, leaving this wonder-

ful water. His best fish was 52 pounds; the best that season was 633

pounds also caught in the higher reaches. In 1925 and 1926 there

was no fishing done by the residents of Myitkyina, to my knowledge,

though the river here is all good. Five miles below Myitkyina is

where the record fish for Burma was caught, 92 pounds.

I was myself never able to get up to Myitkyina except fora

week in May 1926, when the river was discoloured and the snow

water down; I did nogood. This season and 1927, there have been

several keen fishermen on the water, in fact the whole station was

keen, even the ladies! The confluence received attention on week-

ends, being now conveniently reached by car. Nothing larger than

40 pounds was taken.

This season, these waters also had visitors. ‘Two rods went to

Seniku for a week, another celebrated spot in this district, where a

MAHSEER IN BURMA 303

fishing log book is kept, and large fish have been taken, 29 miles

from Myitkyina up the N’Mai Kha, where two rivers come into con-

fluence, then run a couple of miles and join the N’Mai Kha.

It is at the confluence, of the Mali, and N’Mai I think, that Rivett

Carnac’s fine fish of 119 pounds will be beaten. I have seen fish

rising here that were 18 inches across the back if an inch, so judge

for yourself what their weight might be ?

The local people, Kachins, are of no value to you as they are a

lazy crowd, so all arrangements should be made at Myitkyina.

The Sub-Divisional Officer, who is generally a sportsman and

very obliging, will do all to assist you in obtaining a boat; which is

necessary, and mule or cart transport for your kit. Mule transport

is most satisfactory, and enables one, if necessary, to leave the road,

and camp alongside the river. Cars are not available on hire but

there are a number of merchants (Chinamen and Indians), who own

cars and generally lend them if approached nicely.

Supplies should all be taken up with you as the Kachin is reluct-

ant to sell his fowls, keeping them for Vad (Spirit) offerings. A shot

gun and rifle should also be part of one’s kit as there is a quantity

of small game, and an occasional tiger which might be shot. I shot

snipe both Fantail and Pintailin May. R. T. also gota woodcock.

There is a nasty little fly which bites and settles on you in swarms

here. There are in fact, hundreds of different varieties of biting

bugs from the large green-eyed horse fly t> the little fellow, besides

the blood blister fly, and then of course you get the mosquito and

sand fly at night. It would be as well to take up Citronella in large

quantities for both yourself and your following. Illness in any

quantity, up here, would completely ruin your trip. The usual

medicine chest should also accompany one, as the local people

frequently come round asking for treatment. A gramophone

also is much appreciated at night, and the village turn out en masse

from the old grey-haired ladies to the youngest babes. Jack

Smith is much appreciated.

Boatmen are obtainable with boats at Myitkyina and take two

days to get up to Thangpae, but I would suggest that the boat be

joined at Chingkran Zup, a bungalow at the twenty-second mile.

From here up all the water is good, and two miles above you

come to the ‘Rocks’ which must hold enormous fish. I did not

work this water thoroughly as I intended doing it on my return;

but had to cut my fishing trip short. It is a barrier of rock across

the river, breaking the water up into five channels at the tail of a

fast rapid. Most of this water can be got at by boat.

The fishing from Ching Kran Zup, 22 miles from Myitkyina

to Tiang Kha, a distance of 37 miles is all good, though some of

the best looking water proved most disappointing.

The actual confluence is unparalleled from the results we had. I

got on to this water on April 12th and joined R.T. who had been up

about a fortnight before I arrived. Wetook, between us, up to May

8th, 66 Mahseer weighing 11874 pounds, an average of 18 pounds.

Of these fish all but 180 pounds were caught at the confluence.

The higher reaches of the Mali Kha were not thoroughly tried

out, as we had no boats, causing many of the best places to be left,

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The five largest fish we took were 75, 55, 50, 45, and 44 pounds,

losing many others. One fish I had on for just under two hours.

Hooked at the favourite spot of the monsters, he took me down

stream in short determined rushes, about six hundred yards. I fol-

lowed in a boat, when the spring of my Silex reel broke causing

me to hold on to the drum to prevent an over-run. I fought him

like this for an hour, till R.T. joined me. We then managed to

effect a change of the spring from his reel to mine during a spell

of sulking.

He worked us down to the head of the main Zup (confluence) into

the ‘V’ where it was impossible to follow in a boat; the reel again

gave trouble, the drum jammed as he made off, causing the trace to

give.

What this fish weighed is left to the imagination. At the end of

nearly two hours fighting anda heavy strain the whole time, he

was complete master of the situation; I could do nothing with him.

The 75 pounder, though game and going strong the whole time,

I killed in forty minutes, hooked lightly through the eye.

R.T. lost a fish in exactly the same place. He got into his fish

nearly a mile above the actual Zup and was brought down after

crossing the river seven times with only short spells of sulking.

He lost his fish after a two hour’s fight.

A description of the confluence may here be of interest. These

two rivers run in as Rapids forming a large deep pool which is the

home of the grandmothers; it is over a hundred feet deep in places,

with outcrops of rock dotted about. The Mali Kha is a hundred

yards wide andthe tailof the rapid where it enters the pool has a

number of large ‘ Rock Islands’ breaking up the water into a

number of narrow channels. The water of this river is not as clear

but warmer than that of the N’Mai. The N'Mai Kha is much the

faster and larger of the two, but its crystal clear waters, which are

always very cold, proved most disappointing, though otherwise the

better-looking water of the two.

What has been most interesting to me, and I hope will be to

readers also, is that there are at least six distinct varieties of

mahseer to be taken in these waters.

I have endeavoured to describe their colourings and general

differences which though humble, will serve the purpose of identifi-

cation by fishermen.

I kept the fish alive in the water beside me while I undertook this

difficult task. They all fit the description of Dr. Day’s Barbus tor

in the main points i.e. Barbels, ‘ Fin’ rays, and lateral line, etc. (see

photographs).

Firstly there is the common Himalayan Mahseer with a decided

black line down the side. The second is the Thick-lip which is also

well known. Then comes the Black Mahseer which is common

both in India and Burma, where the banks of streams are overgrown

with thick forest. The other three as will be seen from the

photographs, are quite different in shape having a small head and

thick stocky tail like a salmon.

I have called these fish the Copper Mahseer (which Thomas

mentions as occurring in Assam, only the fins mentioned are

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. SOC, PLATE £.

At the entrance of the N’Mai into the Confluence. (A morning’s catch

in the foreground.)

ee ist

a ie Sess

Our last morning’s catch on the Confluence. Four ordinary Mahseer (38,

21, 9 and 6 lbs. respectively), with a 15-lb. Black Mahseer in the centre.

(Note its dark colour. The black line down the side is clearly noticeable in

the ordinary variety.)

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MAHSEER IN BURMA 305

vermillion in colour, whereas this fish’s fins are sky blue), the

Chocolate and the Red Mahseer. I give the descriptions for what

they are worth.

1. Zhe Golden or Himalayan Mahseer.—This is the commonest

and the same as the Indian Fish.

He is long and narrow as a rule with a distinct black line

down his entire length, two half scales in width above the lateral

line.

Head large and long, top half green, lower half pale green running

into silver.

Above lateral line colour from golden with a mauve tinge on

silver-grey background to a deep golden tinge running into dark

green on the back. Below lateral line, a beautiful olive-gold with

a dull silver background. Fins blend with colouring ; dorsal, green

and dirty pink, ventral and pectoral pale green to olive with red

fringe. Eye: Iris golden, pupil black. Belly white.

2. The Thick-lipped Mahseer.—Same colouring as Himalayan

Mahseer differing only in the head. Chief features are the thick

lips with the adipose extension which is well illustrated in Thomas’

‘Rod in India’.

These are also common, best taken 44lbs.

3. The Black Mahseer.—He is quite a different fish and of a

stocky build. Head small and black, mouth small. Barbels and

eyes black.

This fish is marked by a jet black line two half scales above the

lateral line, scales above having a tinge of gold on the scale tips

running to jet black on the back. Below lateral line scales are

lighter but dirty white, almost shot black to the scales on belly,

which are drity white with a black fringe. Fins black with grey

at base. Best fish taken 19 pounds.

4. The Copper Mahseer.—This is quite the most beautiful of all;

he is bright copper all over with a sheen running into all the colours

of the rainbow. He runs from the deepest shades of copper with a

delicate mauve sheen throughout to the more delicate shades of

copper with shell pink, on a background of shot silver and gold.

The head is small, the nose slightly concave, the lips are a modifica-

tion of the thick-lip variety, the adipose continuation of the lower

jaw is clearly defined but very much modified and not as much

pronounced as in the thick-lipped variety. Fins deep blue, except

tail fin which has a red fringe. Belly delicate shade of yellow;

eyes bright copper; pupil deep indigo blue.

Three of this variety were caught; best fish 25 pounds.

5. The Chocolate Makseer.—Head round and square, like a Labeo.

Colour, bronze running through delicate shades into purple. No

black line above lateral line. Above lateral line chocolate running

into blue to dark chocolate on back, with polished bronze tinge to

scale tips. Below lateral line, running from faint silvery blue to

white on belly to the extent of three complete rows of scales, with

half row on either side, clearly defined making four.

Bright orange spots under lower jaw on chin ; lips thin.

Fins sky blue; iris chocolate; pupil black. Two fish of this

kind taken; best 28 pounds.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol Ooi

6. The Red Mashcer.—Head small and round, top of which is shot

gold and purple, also gill plates; mouth small. Above lateral line,

beautiful sea-green, shot with silver, tips of scales salmon pink.

Below lateral line, mauve with silver, vermillion tips to scales ;

belly pink; fins all bright red.

Eye golden; pupil indigo blue. Took five of these fish ; best 18

pounds.

We took besides, two distinct varieties of goonch (Bagarius

yarrelit). One has the green backing instead of the yellow, as in

the Ganges fish, with the black. The green is dark and could be

described as dirty with small black spots. The other colour is

black. The feelers are green, with black spots, also the fins. My

first introduction to these brutes was on April 28th. The second type

has no black but is dirty green all over, but has otherwise the same

marking as his cousin. ‘The largest taken was 48 pounds.

Butchwa (fPseudeutropius garua) run large, best taken, 54

pounds. The average weight of a dozen fish worked out at three

pounds.

Stlund (Silundia gangetica). Only one caught here, of 3 pounds,

but have had 22 and 15 pounds fish at Namti, in a tributary of the

Irrawadi.

Barilius bola. ‘These sporting fish are found in large quantities

in all the rivers in this district. I have caught them over 2 pounds,

though Thomas puts this as their maximum weight.

There is no Chilwa (Chela argentea) in this river, but this is

replaced by a small fish about two inches long, with a black stripe

down the side; I don’t know it, it is seen going up in swarms along

the sides, on occasions.

_ The extraordinary thing was that in only one fish of all we caught,

did we find a small fish in its stomach. There was nothing but

slime, grit, and leaves found. They certainly do feed on rank

vegetation, as one can sometimes see them cruising about and

looking for the favoured titbit, among the many kinds collected in

still backwaters. I hada demonstration by a Burman, of their

leaf-eating habits at Namti (another good fishing spot in this

district) on pumpkin leaf. The current was slow, running into a

deep pool, he broke up this leaf, and threw in pieces. After it had

drifted a little way down, the water was alive with fish clambering

over one another to get it. (A useful tip for your note book).

_ For two days (April 26th and 27th), the Butchwa were feeding

by the hundred on shoals of small fish, which resembled Ladeo

about 9 or ten inches long, but I never once saw a Mahseer

join them.

Whether the Mahseer here feed on small fish or not remains a

problem to be solved. Dead bait spinning never did any good, the

fish that were taken (all on spoon), were feeding very deep.

They may prefer the Stone Loach, and find him in sufficient

numbers not to worry about the migratory fish, though this can

hardly be so. }

Most of the fish (of all the species) we took were full of spawn.

It was a pity to be removing somany thousands of eggs from the

river, but the method of killing our fish prevented our putting them

MAHSEER IN BURMA 307

back, as the boat-man with his dah (knife) hits the fish over the

head, before lifting it out.

There was never any likelihood of waste, however, as the staff

of muleteers and the local people were always glad to have them.

My best day was five fish, 50,42,34 184, andal pound Butchwa, a

total of 1425 pounds, but there was nothing wasted.

Tackle.-—YVhe heaviest of tackle is necessary to do any good, as

one may get into any sized fish, and unless one can force matters

from the beginning, a fish is apt to get to snags, of which there

are many.

I used a 14’ Green-heart rod of Manton’s which cannot be beaten

for this work. The water is so big and deep, that to get down to

the fish in the rapids, one has to use a four or five ounce weight,

this with a four-inch spoon makes it heavy work for any rod. Split

cane rods are very much in disfavour up here, my trout rod (Hardy’s

Perfection, split cane and steel centre), opened up from the butt to

the first ring, while playing a 35 pound Butchwa, the steel core

falling out like match sticks. ‘The heavier rods also have given the

same trouble, [ had a ‘ Hz Rigan’ and a ‘ Murdoch’, but did not

have occasion to use them. A spare rod and a couple of spare lines

are necessary.

Reels.—The extra wide ‘Silex’ (44 inch) was what I used but I

would prefer a ‘Sea Silex’ for this water with 300 yards of stout

line. With the heavy weight necessary to fish in

these waters, the constant over-running which

is inevitable, however expert one might be with

the ordinary Silex, can be far better controlled on

the Sea Silex. An over-run besides being a nuis-

ance invariably fouls and cuts the line on the drum.-

Bait.—Large spoons of any variety are the

best. A black and sliver spoon is favoured by

‘a section of fishermen here, known as the ‘ Putao’

spoon. R.T. did little good with this before I

arrived. It takes well, up above I understand.

Personally I found a Brass and Silver (E and

D) pattern with scale effect on the outside the

most killing, as indeed between us we twice

finished my supply of spoons (4 dozen odd). I am

certain that the scale effect on the spoon in this

water is most effective. I know I am going

against the great authority Thomas in this, but in

this clear water the scaly effect is clearly notice-

able when the spoon is spinning. The fish

certainly took on this spoon when we failed to

do any good with others; and we had a fine

selection in shapes, colours and sizes.

Messrs. Manton & Co., Calcutta have made up

from a sample of mine these spoons and are

calling them the ‘ MviTKYINA’ spoon I believe.

Mounts.—These are of course one’s fancy. Personally, I found

that a simple flying mount made up from soft galvanized steel wire

the best. A thickness of a stout spinning line, making two loops

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

with a single treble mounted in each, a No. 4 or No. 6in the top

loop and a large treble as a tail hook in the lower loop (see

diagram).

The top loop of the mount and spoon mounted direct on to the

spring swivel of the trace. Provided the eye of the spoon is large,

mounts and spoons can be changed in afew seconds. I never once

lost a fish by the swivel drawing.

This method of mount does away with the chain of swivels leading

a spoon, which is the case when the usual mounted type of spoon

and trace, as sold by tackle makers is used.

Manton’s have improved on this idea and made a special attach-

ment with a sliding collar. This does away with any possibility of

the mount drawing, though rather more visible than a link swivel.

Let me here offer some advice, to anyone intending to make a

trip here. It is to take at least eight dozen large spoons with you

and more if you wish to be comfortable. It is most essential to fish

deep and just feel the bottom if you want to do any good and catch

the big fellows. This causes one to be continually hung up and

though the boatmen are expert at releasing the hookhold, in many

of the best places the water is too treacherous and strong to allow

this.

Tvaces.—Medium and stout Kiln wire traces made up on the spot

about 30 inches long with two swivels, I found the best.

Fly.—This lure would be quite worth a trial. I saw on several

occasions Mahseer (the Red and Chocolate) jump clean out of the

water at dragonfly. Iam not experienced in this line of angling

so can only offer this as a tip. I saw fish over 40 pounds rising in

this way.

A NEW SPECIES OF BALANOPHORA FROM MAHABLESHWAR,

BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

E, BLATTER, S.J., PH. D., F.L.S.

(With a plate)

Balanophora Elkinsi Blatter sp. mov. [Similis Balanophore indice Wall.,

sed differt pedunculis multo brevioribus, floribus masculis epedicellatis,

perianthio masculo flavo Jobis oblanceclatis apice obtusis necnon incrassatis,

capitulis femineis multo largioribus. |

Perennial. Rhizome a large irregular tuber consisting of many rounded lobes

or balls, light brown, finely warted all over with whitish star-shaped groups of

pustules (perhaps lenticels) ; colour of juice when fresh pale yellow, turning

orange on exposure. Peduncles (flowering stems) numerous, breaking through

the rhizome, some bearing a male head, others a female one, greenish yellow,

male peduncle up to 5°5 cm. long and 3 cm. diam., female one up to 4 cm. long

and 3'5 cm. diam., both covered by densely imbricating scales which are dirty

yellow or greenish yellow, ovate-oblong or strap-shaped, or oblong- obovate,

usually rounded or blunt at tip, sometimes acute, up to 33 by 2cm., distinctly

paraliel-veined, -glabrous, shining. Male flowers crowded, sessile, sunk in

oblong terminal heads sometimes reaching 7 by 6 cm.,in other cases not

thicker than the peduncle, viz., 2 by 2°5 cm. (including the open flowers), flat on

top as long as only the lower flowers are open, yellow, hexagonally and penta-

gonally honey-combed inside. Bud yellow with dark brown tip. Bracts fleshy,

yellow with purple tip, broadly strap-shaped, about 2 the length of the tube.

boat-shaped, truncate, more or less incised in the middle, tip much thickened.

Perianth-tube up to 1-2 cm. long; lobes 4 or 5, 4the length of the tube,

reflexed, dirty yellow, turning dark brown on drying, oblanceolate, tips blunt,

thickened and purplish. Stamens white, forming a column, attached to the

perianth-tube a little below the throat ; anthers connate with white sinuately

arranged fringes. Female flowers densely packed in nearly globose dark

brown heads of various size, up to 5 cm. diam., sometimes depressed or flattened

on top. Ovary ovoid or obovoid or variously compressed by the small clavate

brown bodies which reach the surface of the head, white, stalked, stalk about

as long as the ovary, white; style slender, brown, 3-4 times as long as the

ovary. Perianth absent,

Locality ;: Found by Dr. F. C. Elkins at Lingmala near Mahableshwar in

the shade of a dense thicket, parasitic on Hugenta Jambolana Lam., on January

23, 1928. (Herb. Blatter No. 788, type).

In connection with this species the question arises as to the identity of three

specimens mentioned by Cooke in his Fl. Bombay Presy., vol. ii, p. 557 which

he mentions under Aalanophora indica, Wall. One is: ‘ Mahableshwar,

Mrs. W. E. Heart, fairly plentiful in the wood above the Dhobi’s waterfall in

November, H. M. Birdwood; Khandalla, on roots of Carissa Carandas,

Woodrow.’

Cooke has not seen Birdwood’s and Woodrow’s specimens and he must have

included them on the authority of the two botanists. As to Mrs. Heart’s

specimen we have at least some account of over 40 years ago published in this

Journal, vol. i (1886), 75 under the name of Mrs. W. E. Heart, and another on

p. 78 by Dr. Macdonald. Mrs. Heart has, in addition, given a drawing of her

plant. The general habit is well represented, but no details are given which

might help in specific distinction. The scales on the peduncle do not quite

agree with those of the newspecies. Her description, as far as it goes, certainly

matches with our plant. She says. ‘In October a tuberous-rooted plant of

curious structure, which I have endeavoured tosketch below, was brought to

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

me at Mahableshwar, from one of the valley jungles below the hill. The rains

had continued more than usually late, which may account for there being then

still visible a plant which neither I nor any one to whom I showed it had ever

seen before. It grew in clusters in moist red laterite clay, through which

occurred the numerous root fibres (lately severed) of some large dicotyledonous

tree. The man who brought me the plant declared that he very rarely met with

it, never except during the rains, and then only in the thickest jungle, and

always at the foot of some large tree. But he was unable to state whether the

large tree was always of the same species. The first thing to appear above the

soil was a yellow spathaceous stalk, bearing on its summit a ball, about the

size of a marble, almost concealed among the spathes. Most of these balls

were of a velvety texture and a rich brown colour. Two were rough, not unlike

fir-cones. The balls continued to grow in circumference as the stalks grew in

height, till the latter were about 3 inches long and the balls about the size of

bagatelle balls. A number of minute white flowers then opened over the whole

surface of the rough ball. Having no microscope or magnifying glass with me,

I was unable to identify the plant from the examination of its extremely minute

structural parts. Dr. Macdonald determined the open flowers on the rough

heads to be staminal only, and conjectured the velvety balls to be composed of

pistillate flowers only, and from the stamens being sinuous and united into a

central column, he was inclined to think the plant might possibly belong to the

Natural order Cucurbitaceze. But as he also had no magnifier, he was unable

to speak with certainty, and failed to identify the plant I much doubt if there

is any Cucurbitaceous plant without the climbling habit so characteristic of that

order. On the other hand, the smal] Natural orders Cytinacez and Balanop-

horacees, especially the latter present some features similar to those noticed

in my Mahableshwar plant.’

Though all the details mentioned apply to the new species and though Mrs.

Heart’s drawing could (with the exception of the scales) be taken as a picture

of our plant, I do not feel sufficiently confident to say, on the data at our

disposal, that her plant is identical with ours; neither are we allowed to

follow Cooke in identifying it with Balanophora indica, Wall. It remains,

therefore, doubtful whether there grow two or one species of Balanophora at

Mahableshwar.

The biological side of the Balanophoracee is little known. Pollination,

somatic apogamy, and seed dispersal require further investigation and the

physiological relations between host and parasite have still to be cleared up.

Even the merely morphological and taxonomic facts of many species are not at

all clearly defined. There is ample scope for Indian botanists to throw more

light on this interesting group of plants. I may be allowed to refer to some

literature on the subject :

Ernst, A. Embryobildung bei Balanophora. Flora vol. cvi, 1913.

Heinricher, E. Van Tieghems Anschaung tiber den Bau der Balanophora-

Knolle. Sitzungsber. d. Wiener Akad. vol. cxvii (1908).

Heinricher, E. Beitr. zur Kenntnisd. Gattung Balanaphora. Sitzungsber,

d. Wiener Akad. vol. cxvi, (1907).

Lotsy, J. P. Balanophora globosa, eine wenigstens ortlich verwitw. Pflanze,

Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. vol. xvi (1899).

Lotsy, J. P. Rhopalocnemis phalloides. A morphologico-systematic study.

Ann. Jard. Bot, Buitenz. vol. xvii, (1901).

Schlechter, R. Eine neue Balanophora, Bot. Jahrb, vol. i (1913).

Strigel, M. Der anatomische Bau der Knollenrinde von Balanophora.

Sitzungsb. d. Wiener Akad. vol. cxvi, (1907).

Strigel, M. Der Thallus von Balanophora. Sitzungsb. d. Wiener Akad.

vol. exvii (1908).

Tieghem Ph. v. Sur l’organisation florale des Balanophorées et sur la place

de cette famille. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. vol. xliii, p. 205.

Treub, M. L’organe fém. et l’apogamie de Balanophora elongata. Ann. Jard.

Bot, Buitenz. vol, xv (1898).

‘Q[RULdF Spey Ioy}O OY} [Te ‘auOS o[eU & FFOT 9YZ OF “AOU ‘ds 19}}L[q ‘isurysy Vszoydouvjyg

‘90S ‘ISIF[ ‘IVN AvVaWog ‘Nunof[

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS

HucGH WH8HISTLER, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

Part I]

(With two plates)

(Continued trom page 176 of this Volume)

SOME EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS

I. The Feathers

One of the most obvious and striking of the characteristics of a

bird is its covering of feathers, and these are peculiar to the class.

Feathers have undoubtedly been developed in birds in definite

relation to their powers of flight, developing withit both as a cause

and as aneffect. Now the primary attribute of a clothing of feathers

is that it is the means of enclosing a curtain of air to be used as a

non-conductor of heat; it is therefore regarded as one of the means

whereby the birds attained their relatively greater warm-blooded-

ness than the reptiles and therefore the more active intensive life

which led to the generaldevelopment of powers of flight. Whileon

the other hand it is obvious that the possession of powers of flight

made it in turn more necessary that a bird should be clothed ina

manner sufficient to protect it from the extremes of temperature to

which it would as a result be exposed.

Now a word of explanation is required as to what is meant by that

quality of ‘ warm-bloodedness’ which birds and mammals share as

opposed to reptiles, amphibians and fish which are ‘cold-blocded ’.

It has no reference to the actual temperature of the blood, but it

refers to the ability to maintain the temperature of the body at a

constant level irrespective of external changes ; in other words it

means that there are arrangements for keeping a balance between

the loss of heat and production of heat. The actual mechanism for

regulating this balance lies in the connection between nerves. blood

and muscles, but it is obviously helped by the insulation, as we may

call it, of birds and mammals by their non-conducting envelope

of feathers and fur. The regulating machinery works as far as

possible protected from external influences. In day and night, in

heat and cold the body heat must remain a constant factor. If it is

varied the bird or mammal is ill, and illness soon means death outside

the paths of civilization.

Flight implies exposure to intense cold during its progress and

also to sudden extremes and changes of temperature in its cessation.

Hence the need of special clothing for the bird as much as for the

312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX111

aviator, and nothing more admirable for warmth and lightness can

be imagined than a garment of feathers. The downand the downy

base of the contour feathers give warmth, the contour feather

provides a firm envelope,—the stream-line which minimizes the

resistance to the air. At the same time feathers have made possible

the flight of a bird as that perfect flight which no imitation of man’s

devising will ever equal, ability to start and stop in any position,

under any circumstances.

That feathers are not absolutely essential to the perfection of

flight is obvious to any one who has watched some of the smaller

bats feeding with their absolute mastery of quick change of direc-

tion; they perhaps surpass the birds in their conquest of the air,

with a development of the clumsy parachute of the Flying Squirrel,

—a line of development perfected, with differences, by the Ptero-

dactyl, while the bird was still in reptilian guise. Certain of the

non-vertebrate groups such as Hymenoptera and particularly the

Hawk-moths (SAsingid@) have a perfection of flight not surpassed

by any bird, and this they have attained by a still different method.

But regarding the various natural orders as a whole we see that the

birds have attained ageneral proficiency of flight so markedly higher

on the average than that of all other orders that we are entitled to

award them the palm, and for this they must thank the evolution of

the feather.

The light elastic build of a feather, with its vanes composed of

barbules linked by hooks, the almost air-tight surface that it presents,

and the extent of flying surface obtained at a sacrifice of weight

obtainable by no arrangement of bones and muscles, are all in turn

responsible for the bird’s superior mastery of the air.

There are other subsidiary uses of feathers but these are the two

main, an aidtothe regulation of the heat of the body, and the making

possible of perfect flight.

Feathers correspond not to the hair of mammals but to the

scales of reptiles, though the exact relationship between feathers

and scales is not clearly understood.

That they are closely connected is obvious from a microscopic

examination of the genesis of both scale and feather, which in each

case is found to spring from the epidermis starting as a slight

pimple or papilla fed by a nutritive core of dermis on the delicate

skin of the embryo; while an inferential proof of the connection is

to be seen in the fact that scales and feathers are to a certain

extent interchangeable as a covering for the foot and tarsus. This

is very clearly seen, as stated in the last chapter, in the family of .

the Gallinze. In three such closely related birds as the Pheasant,

the Black Grouse and the Ptarmigan we find that the foot is clothed

respectively in scales, in a mixture of scales and feathers, and ina

dense covering of feathers alone. In the Buzzards (Auteo) the inter-

changeability ot feathers and scales on the tarsus may be found in

the limits of a single genus. It is customary also to cite the scaly

covering of the foot and tarso-metatarsus of a bird as a relic of the

reptilian heritage of scales. Though it must be admitted that

there is some divergence of opinion as to whether a feather

is a modified scale or an entirely original form of growth even

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 313

though it may be derived from the same dermal pulp and epidermal

papilla.

The normal structure of a feather is as follows: It consists of

two parts, the main stem or quill (scapus) and the vane (vexzllum)

consisting of an inner and outer web on each side of the quill.

The main stem or quill itself consists of two parts, the calamus

and the rachis.

The calamus is the lower part of the quill which is hollow and

transparent with an aperture (zbzlzcus interior) at its junction with

the skin where it is embedded in a follicle. By this aperture the

pulp of the dermis enters the base of the calamusin the growing

feather, and the colourless horny caps in the centre of the calamus

are the cells which contained the pulp and mark its retreat as it

was gradually used up for nutriment. ‘The shrivelled end of the

last of the caps projects from another aperture (wmdzlicus superior)

which marks the point of junction of the calamus and the rachis.

The rachis is the remainder of the main stem which supports the

vane. It is roughly quadrangular in section and is marked along

its length on the under surface with a furrow due to the method of

growth. Pycraft explains that the rachis is formed by a process

of continuous growth of the dorsal surface of the calamus, and the

resultant lateral edges of this projecting outgrowth ultimately curl

inwards, meeting in the middle line ot the under surface of the

feather and leaving this furrow to mark the junction. The enclosed

hollow is filled with a kind of white pith which combines strength

with lightness. .

The vane is built up on a system which is unsurpassable for its

combination of strength, elasticity and lightness. It is composed of

ramt or barbs joined to each other by a series of rvadizz or barbules

by means of interlocking ¢z/za or barbicels. The rami are the long

slender plates or branches which project on both sides of the

main stem, not at right angles but with a very marked inclination

towards the tip of the feather. If the vane is pulled by the fingers

in a direction away from the tip of the feather it will be observed

to stretch and then reluctantly part, splitting neatly up the line on

one of these plates; the process can be repeated until the rami are

all isolated and the web is all split up. ‘Chen even to the naked

eye the edges of the rami have a faintly furry appearance. This

is due to the radii or barbules which project on each side of the

rami. Microscopic examination shows that the barbules have a

wonderful adaptation of their edges into barbicels or cilia, some of

which end in hooks (Aamuilz) ; the hooks of the barbicels on one

barbule lock with the upper scroll edge of the barbules of the

next barb. ‘This takes place over practically the entire vane of

the feather, the result being an elasticity and strength which a

solid plate could not give without a considerable sacrifice of

lightness. Gadow once counted the barbs on the inner web of a

primary feather of the Crane and found them about 659 in number ;

each barb he found contained about 600 pairs of barbules, and he

calculated that there were over a million barbules on the whole

feather. And who has had the patience to number the feathers on

a single bird !

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

In many feathers there is a further part known as the hyporachis

or aftershaft which springs from the under surface of the main

feather at the wmzbzlicus superior. This varies greatly in its develop-

ment. It may be egual in size to the main feather as in the Emus

and Cassowaries, or it may appear merely as a minute downy tuft.

In many families it is entirely wanting. In its most developed

form there is a main stem with barbs and barbules, but the barbi-

cels are always absent so that the vane never attains the firm

elastic surface of the ordinary feather. Asa rule it is best deve-

loped in the smaller contour-feathers, while it is absent or minute

in remiges and rectrices. Conspicuous examples of the aftershaft

will easily be found amongst the body feathers of the game-birds.

Now all feathers are based on the component parts described

above. The many modifications of shape and purpose are obtained

by a variable use of these parts. The stiff flight feather of the

wing and the small soft body feather are alike in their basic

structure, the parts being merely modified in connection with their

different uses. '

It is customary to classify feathers from two points of view, first

into types and secondly into generations.

Classified from the point of view of type, feathers may be divided

under three main headings: Contour feathers, Downs and Filo-

plumes, though there are many connecting links between these

classes.

Before proceeding to describe the feathers under these headings

it is as well to emphasize the fact that feathers do not grow evenly

over the surface of a bird as fur over a mammal. With the excep-

tion of the struthious birds and their allies, the Penguins, and the

South American Screamers (Palamedea), practically every bird has

its feathers arranged in definite tracts (pleryle) with featherless

spaces (apierza) in between them. ‘The reason presumably is that

a feather is always broader than its base, and not the same size

for its whole length like a hair; some such arrangement of tracts

and spaces is therefore necessary to allow the plumage to sit

properly. The variation of the tracts and spaces is considerable

and a study of their distribution under the name of Pterylosis is

of considerable value as an aid to classification. Pterylosis does

not only deal with the disposition of the contour-feathers but also

with the distribution of down on the featherless spaces and amongst

the contour-feathers.

The contour-feathers are those which form the main covering

of a bird and give it its main contour and appearance. Feathers

make the bird in very truth from the point of view of the human

eye. Pluck a Bird-of-Paradise, a crow and a seagull and the

bare bodies convey little of difference to the ordinary person.

Contour-feathers have generally speaking the full development of

the typical feather as described above, and they include not only

the body covering but the strong flight feathers of wings and tail.

Amongst the contour-feathers are found all the examples of

beautiful feathering which at once occur to the mind, first and fore-

most of which of course are the wonderful plumes of the Birds-of-

Paradise. But it is not necessary to go beyond our Indian birds

PLATE A

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST, Soc.

HEADS OF DRONGOS (Dicruride) to illustrate feather modifications :

1. Dicrurus macrocercus. 2. Chibia hottentotta.

3. Dissemuroidis andamanensis. 4, Dissemurulus lophorhinus.

5. Bhringa remifer. 6. Dissemurus paradiseus.

eRe aoa , sate

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md Jee)

j F ata!

. s ; , Wy i

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Rn) a ) ae

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THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 315

for a sufficiency of examples. Leaving aside the question of coloura-

tion, it is easy to see how beauty of plumes may be obtained simply

through a beauty of form gained by a mere modification of the

proportions of the individual parts of the feather. An excellent

example of this is atforded by the family of the Dzcruride@ or

Drongos to which belongs that familiar species, the Kiag-Crow

(Dicrurus macrocercus) A general colour of blue-black runs

throughout the family whose members attain their adornment by

modifications of the shape of the contour-feathers, possibly as a

result of their distant kinship with the Birds-of- Paradise (Paradtseide).

The new edition of the Fauna gives 7 genera and 11 species of

the Vicrurzde as found in Indian limits. In this small number we

find two directions in which the family attains adornment merely

by the shape of the contour-feathers, namely in the feathers of the

forehead and crown and in the feathers of the tail.

To take the tail first we find in our faunal limits the following

important modifications. The normal Dicrurine tail consists of 10

feathers of which the central pair are the shortest and the outer-

most the longest, the intermediate feathers being graduated to

perfect a deeply forked tail; the ends of the outer feathers are

sloped off on their inner webs so as to accentuate this fork. This

tail is familiar to all of us as the possession of both the common

King-Crow or Black Drongo (JD. macrocercus) and of the Grey

Drongo (LD. leucopheus). Slight changes on it are rung in other

species by varying the proportions of the fork.

The first real modification of it is found in the Hair-crested

Drongo (Chidia hottentotta). In this the tail has the fork so slight

that the tail when partly spread becomes almost square at the end

save for the outmost pair of feathers. These curve upwards and

inwards over themselves so that if the tail is closed the tips of

these outer feathers practically touch in the air above the central

pair. A slight tendency to this twist of the tips of the outermost

tail feathers is often visible in the tail of the King-Crow type.

The other important modification is found in the tail of the

Racket-tailed Drongos, Bhrvinga and Dissemurus. In these the fork

of the tail is so deeply exaggerated that we altogether lose the

idea of a fork at all, and look on the taii as almost square as in Chzbza

with the addition of two curious streamers. Yet the streamers are

merely the outer pair of tail-feathers exaggerated out of all pro-

portion to double and more the length of the next pair of feathers,

and with the vanes cut away from the middie portion of the rachis.

The ‘racket’ at the end of the feathers is merely formed by a

resumption of the vane in the normal way. It is interesting to note

that the method of producing the racket is different in the two

genera. In Dzssemurus the racket is composed of the outer web of

the feather, the inner web being absent except for just sufficient

at the end to emphasize a twist of the racket which recalls the twist

of the outer feather tip in Chzbza. In Bhringa the racket is flat and

composed of an equal amount of web on each side of the rachis. A

glance at the illustration should make the differences clear.

The method ot growth and formation of these rackets is not yet

understood and may be commended as a subject for careful

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

observation in the field. It has been suggested that the bird forms

the racket itself by trimming the vane off the rachis with its beak.

Strange as this suggestion may appear it has been observed to be

the solution of the formation of the rackets in the tail of the

Motmots, a purely Neotropical family of Picarian birds superficially

reminiscent of the Bee-eaters. We may at any rate suggest that

the various marked characteristics of the Dicrurine tail have some

connection with their wonderful mastery of the air. All are adepts

at mounting steeply in the air and swooping directly downwards.

Of Dissenurus paradiseus, the Larger Racket-tailed Drongo,

Robinson says, ‘ It is seen to great advantage in the early morning

and late afternoon, when it is very active, towering upwards into

the air, and then rushing downwards, the rackets on the outer tail-

feathers appearing like two enormous bees in attendance on each

quarter.’

There is a similar play on feather formation to produce marked

differences on the crown in the Dicruride. We start again here

with the Black and the Grey Drongos as having typical heads with

no special feature in the feathering of the forehead and crown. The

Bronzed Drongo (Chapitita enea) merely improves on this by having

the feathers of the crown longer and more pointed thus paving the

way for the Hair-crested Drongo (Chzbza hottentotta) which in addi-

tion to having the feathers of the crown as in Chapita has the

feathers on the sides of the neck also pointed and elongated but

to an extravagant degree which turns them into long lanceolate

hackles.

In other genera the modifications are formed in the feathers of

the forehead. Dussemurulus lophorhinus, the Black Drongo of

Ceylon and Travancore has a tuft of ordinary feathers about half an

inch long on the forehead. This in the Andaman Drongo Visse-

muroides andamanensts is replaced by a tuft of hair like feathers, half

an inch long, which are merely degenerate feathers with the vane

almost suppressed. A stage further is reached by Chzbza where (in

addition to the hackles mentioned above) this tuft is reduced to half

a dozen haiis, 2 to 3 inches long, which spring from the forehead

and lie back over the head and shoulders. ‘These hairs are really

only degenerate feathers in which the rachis has no barbs.

{In Dissemurus paradiseus, the Larger Racket-tailed Drongo, we

again find the frontal crest springing from the forehead composed of

ordinary feathers, but they are long, dense and hackle-like and

curve elegantly backwards above the head to the nape. It is inter-

esting to note that the foremost of these feathers are degenerate in

type resembling those of the crest of Dzssemuroides while one or two

are practically hairs. The Lesser Racket-tail, Bhvzzga, has no crest

but relies for ornament on the thickness and density of the forehead

feathers which slope forwards and lie nearly over the whole length

of the bill. An incipient tendency to this formation may be traced

in several of the other Indian members of the family.

It would be easy to multiply examples of ornamental plumes, all

of which are contour-feathers. The possibilities of ornament

arising {rom a mere use of structure (apart from colour-producing

structure which will be dealt with under the head of colour) are

PLATE B

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

ay oe

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aes

> eS) ij

SSS

Z PK SSS SSE SSS SS

fs GIT: WY 4jAW, WU. M7

illustrate feather modifications

TAILS. OF DRONGOS (Dicruride) to

2. Dissemurus paradiseus.

4, Bhringa remifer.

Chibia hottentotta.

3. Dtcrurus macrocercus.

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-- THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS ; 317

apparent from the example of.the Dicruride, and it will be sufficient

just to-cite one or two more examples.

The simplest form of modifying the shape of a feather to attain

beauty is to lengthen it as in the long tail feathers of the Blue

Magpies(Uvocissa). Keep the length and narrow the vanes and you

have elegant streamers as in the Paradise Flycatcher (7erpstphone).

Still further modify the vane until it has practically vanished and you

have the ‘wire’ of the Wire-tailed Swallow (Hzrundo smithiz). A

long feather may be narrow and pointed and you get the pintail of

the Parrakeets (Palwornis) and of the Sandgrouse (Péerocles). A long

pointed feather with different proportions between the inner and

outer webs and a differing amount of strength in the rachis easily

modifies the elegant tail of the Kalij Pheasant (Gezzeus) into the

familiar tail of the Jungle-Fowl (Gallus). The modification of a

feather in a lateral direction is much rarer probably because

interference in that direction is to affect the property of a

feather as regards flight—the ultimate end to which all feathers

have béen evolved. I can only think of one example of a feather

of which the vane has a conspicuous lateral projection and that

is the enormous tertiary plumes of the Mandarin Duck (4x galert-

culata).

Another method of attaining beauty is by softness of texture.

This is gained by sacrificing the cilia of the vane with their hamuli

and also by decreasing the number of the radii. The result is a

‘decomposed’ feather, most familiar to us in the wonderful dorsal

plumes of the Egrets (Herodzas) and other less famous members of

their family. A similar modification on a different type of feather

produced the ‘ marabout’ or downy under tail covert of the Adjutant-

Storks (Leptoptilus), and the similar under tail coverts of the

Peafowl (Pavo cristatus). Here the result to a human eye is also

beauty though nature’s purpose is not apparent unless it be warmth.

The same type of feather is again found inthe downy ruff of various

vultures, and one can only assume that the purpose here too is

warmth, to close the junction between the naked skin of the head

and neck and the commencement of the covering of contour-feathers—

in other words to shut out draughts.

Occasionally the modifications of feathers although clearly intended

to produce beauty, have in human eyes somewhat of a bizarre

effect, as in the crest of the Peacock.

Other modifications of feather are very curious and as yet leave

us without any clue totheir meaning. For instance in the Waxwing

(Ampelts) the tip of the rachis is expanded into a hard waxen point.

A similar structure is familiar to all who know the Grey Jungle-

Fow] (Gallus sonneratt) with the yellow wax-like tips to the hackles

of the cock.

Although nearly all feathers show a tendency to a curve in their

length, a true curly feather is almost unknown, amongst wild birds

again doubtless for the reason that it would be incompatible with

flight. Two of the slight exceptions occur in our Indian fauna, in

the curly feathers of the head and neck of the Dalmatian Pelican

(Pelecanus crispus) and in the central tail feathers of the drake Mallard

(Anas platyrhynchus), though the ease with which a curly-feather

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

could be produced from the typical feather structure, did nature

deem it desirable, is shown by the curly plumaged types of fowl

which the poultry-fancier has evolved.

Most of the modifications thus instanced have all been directed

apparently towards the attainment of adornment, though at the same

time many of them may have a greater influence than we know on

the powers of flight. But instances can be found in which the

modifications of feather structure are intended for utility alone. One

of the most marked of these is the pointing and stiffening of the tail

feathers to assist in climbing as in the order of the Woodpeckers

(Pict), a result which is attained in a similar manner by the totally

unrelated Tree-creepers (Certhitde). Its efficacy may be proved

directly by the shortest observation of a living member of one of

these groups, neither woodpecker nor creeper moving a step without

the support of the stiff tail-feathers. Anda comparison between

the easy skill with which a Tree-creeper moves up a trunk and

the fluttering progress by which a Wall-creeper (Zichodroma

murarza) ascends a bank or cliff shows how much the latter lacks in

its possession of an ordinary soft tail.

The second group of feathers includes the Down feathers,

which are smaller and softer than the contour-feathers and generally

concealed by them. ‘They possess no hamuli which accounts for

their fluffy appearance, and they frequently have no rachis in which

case all their long rami startat the same level from a short calamus.

The most familiar example of down is that of the ducks, in which

it forms a regular inner padding under the ordinary contour-

feathers.

There is a curious modification known as Powder-down. This is

so called from the powder produced by the continuous disintegration

of the numerous brush-like barbs and barbules, into which the barrel

in constantly splitting as it grows without forming a principal shaft

(Gadow). This powder-down grows in patches under the contour-

feathers, generally on the breast and thighs, and it is most developed

in the Ardeide, Herons and Bitterns. The purpose of it is quite

unknown unless the usual assumption is correct that it has a cleans-

ing effect on the feathers. It will be familiar to all as the curious

powdery bloom seen on the face of the ordinary African Grey Parrot

kept in cages asa talker. In India we meet with it not only in

the Ardevdz but in many of the birds of prey, especially the Harriers,

and in the Frogmouths (Podargus). Inthe last named the powder-

down attains its maximum development, being about 2 inches long,

while it is interesting to remember that those familiar birds the

Swallow-Shrikes (Avfamus) are the only genus in the whole of the

Passeres known to possess powder-down.

The third class of feathers are the Filo-plumes which consist of a

short calamus and a very thin hair-like rachis with few or no rami.

They are usually associated with contour feathers growing close to

their bases and are seldom visible except in a few genera where

they appear like hairs sticking out from amongst the contour-

feathers. A marked example of this is found in the genus Crin¢ger

(as figured in / B. 7. 2nd ed., vol. i, p. 36,), but the feature is found

almost throughout the Bulbuls (Pycnonotide). When a chicken is

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS. | : 319

plucked the long hair-like threads which remain sparsely distributed

over the naked body are filo-plumes. Very occasionally they affect

the appearance of a bird like contour-feathers, as for example in the

Cormorants (Phalacrocorax). ‘The white patches that appear on the

neck and thighs of these birds in breeding plumage are due to the

erowth of specialized filo-plumes.

Finally it must be emphasized that no true hair is ever found ona

bird. The eye-lashes found in the Ostriches and in the Hornbills

(Bucerotide) and the various forms of rictal bristles found round the

gape of many birds (most familiar to us in the case of the Flycatchers

(Muscicapide) and the Nightjars (Caprimulgzd@)) are all modified

forms of feathers, whether contour-feather or filo-plume, and have

nothing to do with hairs which under the microscope are found to

have an entirely different structure.

We have now pursued feathers through their classification into

types. It is however also customary to classify them by genera-

tions, for the first clothing of newly hatched birds consisting in

greater or less degree of some form of down-feather differs to some

extent from the downs described above. For this reason the first

generation of downy covering is distinguished by the name of

Neossoptyles (veoaaos a chick), while all other generations of feathers

are called Teleoptyles (réXeos mature).

A distinction is made in the Neossoptyles between the downs

which precede the contour-feathers and the downs which precede

the down-feathers; the former are called prepennz and the latter

are called preplumule. The prepennze may themselves have

two generations in which case they are distinguished as protoptyles

in the first generation and the mesoptyles in the second generation.

Once the Neossoptyles have given place by moult to the Teleoptyles

the latter remain for life being renewed merely by moult in conse-

quence of wear or to express the different plumages of age and

season. ‘They do not change in character as in the generations of

the Neossoptyles.

The study of the Neossoptyles is still far from complete and it is

most puzzling. The nestlings of some species develop both the

protoptyles and the mesoptyles; in others the protoptyles are

suppressed and the mesoptyles are degenerate; in others the teleop-

tyles may appear without the neossoptyles of either generation

appearing, the nestling remaining at first absolutely naked ; while

on the other hand the nestling of the megapodes (Megapoditde)

casts off the Neossoptyles before it leaves the egg and is hatched

clothed in a plumage of the second generation. It is not necessary

even that the sequence of generations should be the same on all

parts of the same bird. The only Indian bird of which the

sequence of these feathers has been worked out is the Common

Sandgrouse (Prerocles senegalensis). Those who are interested will

find a full summary of the changes as described by Dr. Claud B.

Ticehurst in the Bulletin of the British Ornithologists’ Club, vol. xlii,

pp. 9-11.

The process by which a bird changes its feathers is well known to

allunder the name of Moult. The necessity of some system of

replacing worn and damaged feathers is easy to understand for any

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

one who has examined birds shot at the end of the breeding season.

The wearing of the vanes of the feathers, which are subjected by

every movement of the bird to a constant friction, the one against

the other, is very great indeed. And this attrition is hastened by

the action of wind and sand carried by wind. Some idea of its

extent may be judged by the fact that in certain groups, as for

instance the Buntings (Amderizine), the summer breeding plumage

of the various species is attained simply by the wearing off of

the fringes of the feathers which were assumed new the previous

autumn. In the Buntings the body of the feather is one colour, a

broad outer fringe another colour. In fresh plumage only the

fringes are visible and their colour gives its tone to the bird.

Between the autumn and the spring the fringes are worn away and

the main colour of the feathers is visible instead, completely chang-

ing the appearance of the bird. By the end of the breeding season

even this colour-pattern is threadbare, so that without some system

of replacement the bird would be completely naked in a year or so.

Extreme examples of wear occur at high elevations under the com-

bined influence of high wind and desert conditions. There is inmy

collection a female of Giildenstddt’s Redstart (Phoenicurus e. grandis)

which I shot at the nest near the summit of the Baralacha Pass at

15,000 ft. in Lahul. In this bird the feathers are so terribly worn

that only the centres of the vanes persist and what should be a warm

brown bird appears a ragged streaky blue-grey hardly recognizable

asto species. The flight feathers, the rectrices and remiges, wear

in a corresponding manner to the body feathers, and in the course of

a single year this wear may shorten them by several millimetres in

the case of a small passerine bird. Leaving aside the consequence

of accidental breakage, and this is common, normal wear would

soon render a bird flightless unless the quills were annually replaced.

In addition to normal wear and accidental breakage there is a

third less important factor to be considered, namely the damage

done by parasites. There are certain biting-lice (AZa/lophaga) which

actually feed on the vane of feathers. The sum total of the damage

done by these lice is not usually noticeable, though it may be res-

ponsible for much of what we usually consider normal wear; but

that it may be considerable is shown by the case of the common Pariah

Kite (Zilvus migrans govinda), one of our Indian birds to whom its

feathers must be of the utmost importance for its wonderful power

of flight. I have repeatedly seen these birds with the vane of their

tail-feathers so eaten away that little but the shafts remained, the

tail a mere skeleton of itself.

The faculty of replacement of feathers lies in the unlimited

reproductive power of the follicle from which the feather grows.

When one generation of feather is complete the dermal pulp from

which the growing feather is nourished and the malpighian cells

which gave its structure lie dormant in the retracted follicle until

they are awoken to renewed growth by the season of moult. The

accidental loss of a feather is often sufficient to awake and stimulate

the appropriate follicle, an important attribute when the life of a

bird may depend on the undiminished power of flight. The effect

of the loss of a single flight feather is well known to all Indian

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 321

falconers who are accustomed to repair such damage by the process

of ‘imping’ or temporary grafting on the corresponding part ofa

duplicate feather to the remaining base of that broken. Once

awoken the active follicle pushes out the old feather and produces

anew one in its place. The process of the growth of a feather is

too long to be described here but it will be found at full length in

Newton’s Dictionary of Birds, pp. 245-248. What exactly starts the

follicle to activity in the case of normal moult is not known, but it

may be only a seasonal rhythm.

As ageneral rule it may be stated that all species undergo a

complete moult in the autumn after the breeding season is over.

That the act of incubating a clutch of eggs and feeding and brooding

the nestlings is one of the severest trials to which the feathers of a

bird are subjected is easily seen when we consider merely one

aspect of the damage, that to the breast feathers. Ifa brooding

bird is examined it will be found to be naked of feathers over a

very large area of the under parts where the skin has become in-

flamed and internally full of moisture. This occurs in both sexes

where both sexes incubate.

Yet it is after breeding that birds‘are in as great need of perfect

feathering as at any time of the year, for with the autumn comes

ina large number of species the autumn migration, and for those

that do not migrate the rigours of winter have to be faced.

A complete autumn moult then is almost universal in adult birds,

and it is very general also in the young birds of the year which

moult from the juvenile neossoptyle dress to their first teleoptyle

plumage. In many species there is in addition a spring moult,

though this is usually not extended to the quills of the wing and

tail. In afew species there is even athird moult in the year.

There is a great deal of variety in the sequence of the moults and

plumages amongst birds, and uniformity is not found even amongst

the members of the same family and genera; nor doesthe immature

bird necessarily moult the same feathers as does its mature form

at the same season. ‘There is however a general uniformity in the

changes undergone by the individuals of a species. Moult is not

haphazard ; all individuals undergo the series of moults customary

in their age and species, however details may vary between species.

It may be remarked also that moult is not entirely confined to

the feathers. Ina very few species it has been observed to take

place in the horny covering of the beak, though none of these

instances are recorded of any Indian species. Observers in India

may however be advised to pay attention to the comb of the Comb-

Duck (Sarcidiornis melanotus), or to see whether our breeding

Pelicans develop and shed a curious horny excrescence on the beak

similar to that recorded in the White Pelican of Northern America.

Larks, Pipits, Wagtails and Grouse are known to moult their claws

and the inference is that most birds do so.

The colour of a feather is produced in one of three ways: by

actual pigment, by physical structure, or by a combination of

physical structure with an underlying basis of pigment. The

brightness of colouration found amongst birds like that of insects

is considered to have some connection with the fact that birds and

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

insects are the creatures of intensest life, that the brightness of

their colours as represented by pigment are due to the waste-

products of an intense life. However this may be we must consider

the three methods by which colour actually appears in a feather

visible to the naked eye.

The simplest to understand is that of pigment. In such cases

the actual colour is present in the feather visible to the eye whether

as a solution suffused throughout the various parts, in the form of

little particles distributed in or amongst the cells of the organism.

Such a colour does not vary under any position of the eye or light,

or even under transmitted light. Black, red and brown feathers

always belong to this group, as do most cases of yellow and orange.

Blue and white are never due to pigment, and green only in the

case of the Plantain-eaters (Wusophagide), an African family whose

feathers are not only found to contain Turocoverdin (the name

given to their special green pigment) but also a curious red

pigment, Turacin, confined to them and found only in their wing-

feathers. ‘Turacin is so easily soluble in water that when the birds

bathe or are wet with rain the red colour runs out of the feathers

into the water ; it is however rapidly replaced.

Colour due to structure depends for its existence on the theory

of light. If the yellow pectoral tuft of a Sunbird is examined

microscopically it will be found to contain no pigment but its

surface is divided into a series of ridges and furrows. The width

of a ridge is less than 0°0007 mm. and of a furrow about 0-002 mm.

so that the surface of the feather may be said to consist of a system

of narrow gratings which isolate the yellow rays of light and give

the appearance of a yellow feather.

White is never due to pigment. The whole substance of a white

feather is colourless, but there are an innumerable number of inter-

stices beween the air cells in its substance. This texture forms a

fine net work which diffracts and reflects the light and produces the

effect which we call white.

Colour due to structure is usually found in combination with

colour due to pigment, that is to say it is very common to find pig-

ment in the feather overlaid with special structure of a superim-

posed colourless part, the result being apparent to the eye in

a colour different to that of the pigment actually present. Such a

feather when held up against the light appears of the colour of the

underlying pigment, and if the surface is scratched or crushed only

the pigmentary colour remains.

_ Violet and blue always belong to this class, green usually, and

occasionally yellow. Feathers of this type do not change their

colour with the incidence of the light or the movement of the spec-

tator, that is to say their structural colours are objective.

There are however certain subjective structural colours, which do

change according to the position of the light and the eye of the

observer. These owe their metallic or prismatic colour to a trans-

parent colourless layer which acts like a series of prisms on a black

or blackish-brown pigment below. All such feathers appear black

when their surface is parallel to the rays of light in the same level

with the eye and the light. As the position of the eye and the light

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 323

change the colour of the feather changes but always in the order

of the colours of the spectrum, though not necessarily all the colours

will appear.

The three types of colouration, to take an example, are found to-

gether in one of our commonest Indian birds, the Purple Sunbird

(Cinnyris astatica). The metallic portions of the plumage are due to

pigment overlaid with special prismatic structure, the unmetallic

black and brown and the red pectoral tufts are due to pigment, while

the yellow pectoral tufts are due to structure alone. The whole

effect is heightened by a surface gloss due to the polish of the horny

surface of the feather. As the feathers wear with age the gloss of

all parts of the plumage is affected, though such wear does not

affect the colour of the feathers except in so far as colour is due to

structure. In fact it is permissible to believe that the darker pig-

ments definitely contribute to the durability of a feather. Any one

who has shot many of the waders will be familiar with their tertiary

plumes in which a dark central area sends dark branches out to the

edges of the feather, each patch being separated by white or grey.

In worn plumage these white patches wear away leaving the dark

areas so that the feather appears deeply serrated.

As is to be expected there is a certain amount of abnormality in

the colour of feathers, though abnormality of shape and growth is

seldom found and never to aremarkable degree. The most familiar

examples of this are known as albinism, melanism, xanthochroism,

and erythrism, named according to the deviation of colour.

Albinism is an abnormal absence of colour so that the part affected

appears dead white. It may be total affecting not only the feathers

but even the beak, eyes and legs, or it may be partial either in

extent or degree. It is due to the absence of the usual dark pig-

ment or even to the absence of colour-producing structure whether

this be due at birth to the omission of some hereditary factor or de-

veloped later in life as the result of some abnormal disturbance of

the system. It is most familiar tous in Indiain the case of the

Common House Crow (Corvus splendens). Complete albinos of this

bird are not very common but most of us have seen partial albinos,

whether the specimen be piebald, a mixture of white patches

amongst the normal plumage, or the whole colour be pitched ina

lower tone, black replaced by brown, ashy-grey by cream colour.

Albinism is undoubtedly most common in resident birds of a seden-

tary nature so that its usual cause may be inbreeding. When single

abnormal white feathers occur in a bird they are generally due to

individual damage to that feather during development.

Melanism is the exact opposite of albinism and is due to a

superabundance of dark pigment. It is rather rarer than albinism

and I can think of no familar example amongst Indian birds though

we have all heard of Black Panthers. Xanthochroism when the

abnormal feathers are yellow and Erythrism where they are red or

reddish are much less common in wild birds than in captives.

The former is most frequently found in the Parrakeets where green

feathers are yellow, probably as the result of some fault in super-

structure, I once met an immature-Green Bee-eater (Merops

orzentalzs) in which the beautiful green of the normal plumage was

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

replaced by a delicate canary yellow. Xanthochroism is not

however confined to green feathers. ‘The wonderful scarlet males

of Hematospiza sipaht, the Scarlet Finch of the Eastern Himalayas,

become orange-yellow in captivity. One that was known to me in

captivity in England escaped and remained at large for several

months. The increased functional activity that resulted was

doubtless responsible for the fact thatthe bird moulted while at

liberty into the correct scarlet colour but when it was recaptured

this again gave place to orange-yellow at the next moult.

Erythrism is certainly scarcer than Xanthochroism as an

abnormal variation in wild birds. But on the other hand in one or

two species it appears to occur with a frequency that amounts almost

to a normal variation equivalent to dimorphism. The ‘ hepatic’

variety of certain Cukoos and the chestnut phases of the Scops

Owls of the Ofus sunnia group immediately occur to the mind in

this connection; while that gaudy-looking Barbet, Cyanops asiatica

rubescens, in which crimson irregularly takes the place of the green

of the typical form may perhaps be only another manifestation of

the same thing.

An interesting point in connection with all these abnormalities of

feather-colouring is that any actual patterns on a feather usually

persist in spite of the abnormality, even though they may be

reduced to a mere ghost visible only in certain lights.

The consideration of that aspect of feathers which relates to the

colouration of the bird as a whole, that is the significance of the

various types of plumage, must be delayed to a subsequent chapter.

Here it is sufficient to remark that the colouration of individual

feathers is based on two main types, the longitudinally streaked

feather and the transversely barred. The former is probably due to

a greater richness of pigment nearer the centre of the growth of

the feather; the latter is believed to be related to a diurnal fluc-

tuation of blood-pressure, as Thompson calls it ‘a ripple mark of

growth’, resulting in varying deposits of pigment in the grow-

ing feather, That growth and the deposit of pigment take place

transversely ina feather is familiar to most of us from the ‘ hunger-

marks’ or ‘fault bars’ so often visible on the plumage of a bird

which has moulted in captivity, which show up almost as a cut from

a knife across the surface of the feather.

Hitherto we have been considering the aspects of a feather in

relation to the parent bird which produced it. But no account of

feathers would be complete without some mention of the use of

them made normally by birds after primary functions have ceased.

It is well known that ducks and geese pluck their own feathers,

especially down, from their underparts to use them as material for

their nests. No softer or warmer nest material could be

imagined, and the fact is recognized by numberless other birds

which collect fallen feathers of any species as lining for their nests.

It is customary to quote the case of the Long-tailed Tit of England

in one of. whose nests Macgillivray counted 2,379 feathers, but in

India we have only to look for the nest of the familiar Himalayan

Red-headed Tit (4 gtthaliscus concinnus) to reach a similar total,

while less industrious gleaning is practised by many other species,

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 325

Less well-known is the fact that the grebes (Podicipid@) are

accustomed to swallow many of their own feathers, apparently as

an aid to digestion in place of the grit and stones used by most

birds for the purpose.

Finally the Bower-birds of Australia, allied to the Birds of Paradise,

have the unique habit of using brightly coloured feathers, as well

as shells and stones and flowers, definitely as ornaments to the

‘ bowers ’ which they construct as playing grounds. This is a use

which we cannot parallel in India.

(Lo be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY

No, XLVIII

INDIAN SHREWS

Mrs. HELEN M. LINDSAY, M.A., B.SC.

(By kind permisston of the Trustees of the British Museum)

The Indian shrews have been described from time to time and

many names applied to them, but only the collections made by the

Indian Mammal Survey have brought such a mass of material

together from all over the Peninsula and have thus made possible

a comparative study of the whole group. Amongst the early

writers on these shrews Blyth in 1855 and Anderson in 1877 have

worked out several species in detail, but in many cases they have

had only one single specimen of each for investigation. Hodgson

in 1845 working in Sikkim had no references at hand and no types

for comparison. The still earlier writers too, like Is. Geoffroy,

wrote without knowledge of the country and worked on isolated

specimens. Thus confusion in the nomenclature of the Indian

shrews has been inevitable. This paper is an attempt to systematize

the group from a careful study of all the old authorities and litera-

ture on the subject along with examination of the splendid series of

specimens collected by the Survey from completely representative

areas of India. The results obtained are another tribute to the

great value of a long series of specimens, just as were the squirrels

from Chindwin described by Oldfield Thomas and R. C. Wroughton

in Scientific Results No. XII, published in /.B.N.4.,S. of January

1916, and the Rats of India, Burma and Ceylon described by

M. A. C. Hinton in Scientific Results No. XVIII, in /.B.W.4.S. of

December 1918. 7

There have been several changes inthe course of time inthe

name of the genus itself but systematists have now decided that the

name Suzcus must stand. In 1924 Cabrera published a note in the

Journal of Mammalogy, vol. v, p. 131, revising the nomenclature of

this group of the Insectivora. He found that ‘the name Pachyura,

generally used for a genus of white-toothed shrews, is unfortunately

antedated by Swzcus, established in 1832 by Hemprich and Ehren-

berg (Symbole Physicz, 11. K), the genotype being Swcus sacer=

Sorex crassicaudatus, Lichtenstein. Cabrera in his Genera Mamma-

lium, p. 142, thus gives the synonymy of the generic name :—

1792. Sovex Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 207.

1832. Cyrocidura Wagler, Isis, p. 275.

1832. Sxacus Ehrenberg, Symb. Phys., dec. 2 K.

SCLENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY — 327

1839. Pachyura de Seiys Longchamps, Etud. Micromamm.,

| oe

1855. Pavadoxodon Wagner. Schreber Saug., Suppl., p. 805.

1897. Pterodus Schulze, Helios Abhandl. Vortr. Gesamm.

Naturwis., xiv, p. 90.

The oldest name of Sovex is now confined to European red-

toothed shrews, and that of Cvocidura to creatures with 16 upper

teeth instead of 18 as in the genus under review. Thus Szzcus must

be used as the next oldest on the list.

Blanford in his Manmalia, p. 232, notes that ‘ the species of this

‘genus are very variable and difficult to discriminate. One principal

‘reason, besides variability, for the large number of nominal

‘species in this genus lies in the fact that it is frequently impossible

‘by external characters, and even by an examination of the teeth, to

‘ascertain whether individuals are adult. The teeth are fully

‘developed and the animals breed freely long before they attain

‘their full growth. Most of the sutures of the skull too are anchy-

‘losed at an early age, the premaxillary suture being closed in

‘shrews at birth or very soon after.’ Here again is proved the

value of a long series of specimens which allow the general charac-

ters of the species to be noted and it is on these general lines that

the present distribution of species has been made. In all cases the

old papers on the group have been consulted. It has been found

impossible to retain the old specific name of murvznus as the confu-

sion surrounding it was too great. Then, too, the name of ceruleus

has been taken for the representative stock of the areas of the

Indian plains, and local differences are marked by subspecific

names. The establishment of a network of railways, and the

enormous growth of intercommunication between areas widely

separated tend to obliterate differences in such animals as shrews

that are so easily carried. In this collection, for example, speci-

mens of Suncus ceruleus giganteus were taken at Salsette, Bombay,

though the typical locality is Darbhanga district in Behar, and also

specimens of Sazcus ceruleus ceruleus were taken in North Ceylon,

both cases no doubt due to introduction of the creatures in consign-

ments of merchandise. Mr. W. W.A. Philips in Sfolza Zeylanica,

vol. xiii, part. 2, p. 189, has recorded specimens from Colombo as

Pachyura ceruleus which agree in every particular with the Survey

specimens of Szzcus ceruleus giganteus and he also has suggested

that ‘this species may have come over from India or elsewhere in

ships.’ Inthe work of determining these shrews which number

almost 1,000, invaluable help has been given by Mr. T.B. Fry and

also by the measurements so painstakingly made by the late Mr.

R. C. Wroughton.

SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIES OF SUNCUS

A. Large size.

I. Aabttat on Plains.

a. Ceruleus group.

al. colour pale ashy.

l. caeruleus—averaging H.,& B. 130 mm., H. F. 19 mm.

Habitat, Jumna and Ganges Plains.

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

2. gtganteus—averaging H. & B. 140 mm. H. F. 26 mm.

Habitat : Darbhanga.

61. colour all shades from fawn to ashy-brown.

1. sindensis—averaging H. & B. 116 mm., H.F. 18mm., claws

long and hooked, neutralgrey colour. Habitat: Kathia-

war and Sind desert areas.

2. fulvocinereus—averaging H. & B. 137 mm., H.F. 22 mm.,

claws long and pointed, fur brownish-grey, soft and long.

Habitat: Assam Valleys.

3. blanfordi—averaging H.& B. 108 mm., H.F. 21 mm., fur

very short and close. Habitat: Western Ghauts and

Deccan.

4. kanditanus—averaging H.& B. 137 mm., H.F., 19mm.,

fur short. Habitat: Kandy, Ceylon.

5. tytlevri—averaging (HH. .& By 113 mm... AE: 19 mim. iu

thick, soft and long. Habitat: Western Himalayas

and Siwaliks.

6. ftuliginous colour.

1. vtridescens—averaging H. & B. 123 mm., H.F. 19 mm.,

lower parts distinctly greenish-yellow. Habitat:

Trivandrum.

2. fultginosus—averaging H. & B. 140mm., H.F. 20 mm.,:

lower parts scarcely paler than the back. MHabitat:

Burma.

Il. Habttat on Alls.

a. unitorm brown colour with dark feet.

1. soccatus—averaging H. & B. 122 mm., H. F. 20 mm., feet

clad to the nails, fur soft and long, tail compressed and

tufted at tip. Habitat : Darjeeling District.

2. saturatior—averaging H. & B. 117 mm., H.F. 20 mm., feet

bare, fur close and short, very dark, tail cylindrical,

tapering, no tuft at tip. Habitat : Sikkim.

b. brown with lighter ventral surface.

l. gvtffithi—averaging H. & B. 123 mm., H.F.19mm., soft,

long fur, claws strong and short. Habitat: Assam

Hills.

2. niger—averaging H. & B. 97 mm., tail 68 mm., soft, fine,

short fur. Habitat: Nilgiri Hills.

3. niger malabaricus—averaging H. & B. 121, tail 76, Habitat: —

Coorg.

4. montanus—averaging H. & B. 93, tail 62, tail tetragonal,

fur very softand dark. Habitat: Ceylon Mountains.

B. Small size.

I. Aabitat on Plains—fawn coloured.

a. pale underneath.

1. subfulvus—averaging H. & B. 70, H. F. 10°5, colour pale

fawn. Habitat: Kathiawar and Sind.

2. nttidotulvus—averaging H. & B., 48.,H.F. 9, colour shining

brown. Habitat : Chaibassa (Bihar and Orissa).

3. leucogenys—averaging H. & B. 72, H.F. 11, colour light |

cinnamon brown, dirty white below. Habitat:

Rajputana. |

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY = 329

b, dark grey underneath.

1. stoliczkanus—averaging H. & B. 73, H. F. 12, colour dull

brown. Habitat : Gwalior and Central India.

Il. Habztat on Hills—brown coloured.

a. pale beneath.

1. mitcronyx—averaging H. & B. 41., H. F. 8., buffy-brown

on back, grey below. Habitat : Masuri.

2. perrotteti—averaging H. & B. 48 mm., H. F. 8mm,,

reddish brown, paler below. Habitat : Nilghiris and S.

India.

b. dark beneath sometimes with silvery sheen.

1. nudipfes—averaging H. & B.48mm., H.F. 8°5 mm., uniform

brown, naked feet and large ears. Habitat : Burma and

Assam Hills.

2. pygmacoides—averaging H. & B. 46 mm., H. F.9 mm.,

rich rusty brown. Habitat: E. Himalayan slopes.

34, dayz—averaging Hi. & Bb. 7/1 mm., He. 15) mm:,;. dark

brown. Habitat: Madras Hills.

1. Suncus ceruleus ceruleus.

1832. Sovex myosurus—Pallas, Gray and Hardwicke. Ill. Ind.

ZOO. te ple 1X

1843. Sorex murinus—Gray, List Mamm. Brit. Mus., p. 78.

1792. Sorex ceruleus—Kerr. Anim. Kingdom, p. 207.

This represents Sovex ceruleus, Kerr, of 1792 and Sovex myosurus

Pallas illustrated in Gray and Hardwicke’s IIlust. of Ind. Zool. i, pi.

ix. It is thus the oldest of the groups of this genus since the name

Sorex murinus of Linnaeus (1766) has to be dismissed (according to

Cabrera in Genera Mamm. p. 144) as indeterminable.

Distribution. Inthe Survey, specimens belonging to this species

were obtained from Gwalior (46); Central Provinces (37); Nimar

(4); Bihar and Orissa with Bengal (44); Ceylon (9). These areas

cover the countries drained by the Jumna and Ganges Rivers.

The finding of the nine specimens from the Northern province of

Ceylon is probably due to the carriage of such animals in trading

boats.

Colour. Bluish-grey, washed with fawn, pale clear grey or buffy

below. Tail, ears, feet and snout flesh-coloured. An accurate

representation of this creature is given by Gray and Hardwicke as

Sorex myosurus, Pallas.

Dimensions. Specimen No. 1520 from Chanda, Central Provinces,

may be accepted as typical, as its measurements are exactly those

of the average of 10 specimens. Head and Body: (131, tail 77,

H.F. 19, ear 14.

2. Suncus.ceruleus giganteus.

1837. Sorex giganteus. Is. Geoff. Voy. Belang. p. I17.

1800. Sovex cerulescens. Shaw. Gen. Zool. i. p. 533.

1796. Sovex pilorides. Shaw. Mus. Lever. ii. p. 31.

As the 31 specimens from Darbhanga District and those

taken in the east of Nepal and in Midnapore District were larger

than those of the other Plains areas it seemed advisable to record

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITII

these under a subspecific heading as Suncus ceruleus giganteus.

This is the Sovex cerulescens of Shaw (1800) and Blyth, and the

Sorex giganteus of Is. Geoff. (1837), Blanford describes it as bluish-

grey, paler below, the fur sometimes with ferruginous brown tips.

Specimens vary from true bluish-grey to rufous fawn tint above,

grey below. Skin of the snout, ears, feet and tail flesh-coloured,

hairs on the feet and tail white or nearly white.

Dimensions : Specimen No. 51] from Bahgownie, Darbhanga, is

typical of this group... H. & B. 140., Tl. 95, H.F. 24, ear 15. The

largest received measured H. & B. 157, Tl. 95, H.F. 24, ear 15.

Blanford notes that the tail varies in length considerably.

3. Suncus ceruleus fulvocinereus.

1877. Cvrocidura (P.) fulvocinerea. Anderson. J/.A.S.£8., vol. xivi,

DD. 20s: |

The fine series of 66 specimens obtained by the Survey in

Kamrup, Assam, illustrates well the separation by Anderson in 1877

of the group which he called Cvocidura (P.) fulvoctnerea, described in

the J.A.S.8., vol. xlvi, p. 263. His description is borne out by

these specimens. The snout is long and pointed ; feet well developed

and moderately haired; tail swollen at the base, rather long and

densely haired. The claws are long and pointed (not so hooked as

in the next group ofS. c. s¢densis).

Colour: Fur dark slaty in the basal portions, but broadly tipped

with fawn producing a brownish-grey mixed with tawny. There is

a rusty tinge on the head. Underparts more greyish.

Dimensions: In size this group resembles S.c. gzganteus but the

feet are not so large. The average measurements of 10 specimens

gave H.B. 137-4, tail 81:9, hindfoot 22°3, ear 14. Specimen No. 1225

from Angarakhata, N. Kamrup, gives head and body 142, tail 83,

hindfoot 23, ear 15.

Distribution: The valley of Assam whence at Gauhati Anderson

got his types No. 229 SS in Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus.

4. Suncus ceruleus sindensis.

1877. Crocidiuva(£.) sindenses.- Anderson; J.4.S.4:, vole. xiva,

p. 266.

Anderson (1877) describes this group as Crocidura (P.) sindensts.

He says that it has ‘snout moderately long and pointed; ears

‘full and rounded ; sparsely clad, the margins and flaps with longish,

‘somewhat stiff hairs; feet slender and toes rather long. Fur

‘moderately long, soft and glossy; neutral grey with a flush of

‘umber, very pale in some cases; underparts neutral grey with a

‘silvery sheen. Feet yellowish, sparsely clad with whitish hairs ;

‘claws rather long and hooked. Tail pale coloured, ringed, sparsely

‘clad with white hairs, a few long ones interspersed.’

Specimen No. 2019 from Kudia, Kathiawar, may be taken as

typical in its measurements. Head and body 115, tail 65, hindfoot

18. ecarskZ

Anderson gives the type as 229 vv of Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus. and

records this group as ‘ inhabiting (Sindh) Karachi’. The specimens

in the Survey collections came from Kathiawar (46), Rajputana (19),

SCIENTIFIC RESCLTS FROM THE. MAMMAL. SURVEY | 331

Cutch (9). It may be accepted as the western representative of the

ceruleus species, inhabiting desert areas.

5. Suncus ceruleus blantordt.

1877. Crocidura (P.) blantordt. Anderson, /.A.S.B., vol. xlvi,

192,209:

This group is found in the Western Ghauts and Deccan area. In

the Survey collection specimens came from Khandesh 3; Poona5;

Dharwar 16; Kanara 4; Mysore 12; Satara 10-50 in all. Anderson

describes this as Cvocidura (P.) blanfordi in the J.A.S.B., vol. xlvi,

peicOU:

Colour : The fur is very short, dense and mole-like, greyish at

the base, the remainder deep fawn or brown showing a speckled

appearance or grizzle ; underparts greyish-brown with a silver sheen.

The gradation of colour is marked in the group, some being pale,

others, especially the younger ones, darker and there is one very

grey specimen. They resemble S.c. szzdenszs but have larger feet

and ears. he tail is paler than the feet.

Dimenstons : Specimen No. XLV from Poona has measurements

nearest the averge of 10 specimens and may thus be taken as typical.

Head and body 108; tail 75; hindfoot 21; ear 15. Anderson gives

the measurements of his type, which came from Khandalla on the

Western Ghauts, as: head and body 107; tail 60; hindfoot 18.

This must have been a young specimen. It is No. 231 gg of the Cat.

Mamm. Ind. Mus.

6. Suncus ceruleus kandianus.

1852. Sorex kandianus. Kelaart. Prod. Faun. Zeyl. p. 30.

In 1852 Dr. Kelaart described a shrew from Ceylon which he

called Sovex kandianus. A series of 19 specimens from Kandy was

got by the Survey and these, while bearing out Kelaart’s points,

agree so closely with others of the ceruleus group that it has been

thought better to call these creatures Suncus ceruleus kandianus.

The fur is short but not so close as in S.c. dlanfordi, ashy brown

with ferruginous smear on the upper surface ; paler beneath. The

whole set shows a heavily built creature. Specimen No. 912 from

Kandy, C.P., shows measurements head and body 134; tail 79:5 ;

hindfoot 19; ear 13, which is almost identical with those of S. c.

fulvocinereus from Assam. |

Kelaart gives the measurements of the type specimen, No. 231] ff.

of Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus., as head and body 118; tail 50; probably

a young specimen. ‘I‘he colour varies from brown to grey through

ail shades of these, though ail the specimens were taken at the one

place and at the same time of the year.

7. Suncus ceruleus tytlert.

1859. Sorex tytlert, Blyth, J/.A.S.8., vol. xxviii, p. 285.

In the /.A.S.8., vol. xxviii, p. 285, Blyth thus describes. the

species ‘a remarkable species from Dehra Dun of a light rufescent

‘sandy brown colour, unusually well clad even on the feet and tail.

‘Fur of the body dusky for the basal two-thirds or more and tipped

‘with the hue described; upper parts being more rufescent ; the

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

lower slightly paler ; form unusually robust.’ The splendid series of

specimens collected by the Survey verifies and amplifies the above

description. Specimens number 70 from Kumaon, 19 from Kangra,

15 from the Salt Range, 5 from Chamba, 7 from Murree, 8 from

West Nepal and 2 from Kashmir—126 in all. These all agree in

the main with the description of this species, the shade of colour

varying slightly with the altitude at which the specimen was

obtained, being a little darker in those from 6,000’, than in those

from 2,000’ or 800’, but the proportions and general character

remain unaltered. All specimens show a rufescent patch on the

throat extending between the forearms ; the tail is the same colour

as the body and the feet are a shade lighter than the tail. The feet

are slender and the toes long, the claws long and hooked. This

group represents the Western Himalaya area where the rainfall is

from 40”-50” annually, and includes the lower slopes of the

Himalayas called the Terai and the Siwaliks. There is no record of

the location of the type specimen.

Dimensions: A typical male from Kangra, 2,000’ (No. 2913)

measures : head and body 114; tail 75; hindfoot 19; ear 13. One

from Rohilkund, 800’ (No. 4552) measures: head and body 124;

tail 80; hindfoot 20; ear 12. One from Kashmir (Arpu] Valley,

6,300’) collected by Major Stockley, No. S. M. 23, measures: head

and body 115; tail 80; hindfoot 20; ear 12.

As the affinity of this set with the ceruleus group is so close this

has been called Suncus ceruleus tytlert.

8. Suncus soccatus. Hodgson, 1845. A.44.N.H., vol. xv, p. 135.

1855. Sorex heterodon, Blyth., /.A.S.B., vol. xxiv, p. 31.

Hodgson describes this group (4.44.N.47., vol. xv, p. 270) as

being distinguished from other Sikkim and Hastern Himalayan

species by its ‘feet being clad in fur down to the nails, by the

‘depressed head and tumid bulging cheeks,’ which give the face a

squat appearance compared with the long, attenuated snout of S.c.

fulvocinereus. He describes the colour as ‘uniform sordid or

‘brownish slaty blue extending to the clad extremities.’ Blyth in

J.A.S.B., vol. xxiv, p. 30 states that the tail is compressed toward

the tip, which is furnished with a pencil tuft of stiffish hairs.

The survey obtained 10 specimens of this group in Sikkim ; 96

from Darjiling ; 38 from Kalimpong and 70 from Bhutan Duars,

thus 214 in all from the area around Darjiling.

All the specimens agree with the descriptions given by Hodgson

and Blyth. These creatures are distinctly darker than those of S.c.

tytleyé and have the lower surface the same colour as the back, no

difference of the tint under the chin.

Measurements.—Typical are No. 5807 female from Rongli, Sikkim,

2799’ —head and body 116; tail 73; hindfoot 19; ear 12, mamme 6.

A male from Pashok, Darjiling, 3,500’, No. 333, measures: H. & B.

122; tail 82; hindfoot 21; ear 12; while a female, No, 463, from

the same place has head and body 117; tail 74; hindfoot 20;

ear 11; a male from Hasimara, Bhutan Duars, 600’, No. 1030, has

head and body 124; tail 80; hindfoot 22; ear 12. The area is on

the belt that receives fairly heavy rainfall 75”-100” annually and is

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY — 333

well wooded. Specimen No. 79, 11, 21, 472 B. M. is also typical

of this group.

9. Suncus saturatior. Hodgs. 1856, 4.47.N.H.,

Vole SV ir pr 10;

Hodgson has described this species in 4.47.N.H., vol. xvi, p. 110.

Its colour is deep brown with very slight rufescent shade ; fur short

and mole-like; tail cylindrical, iong, gradually tapering; snout

long, regularly attenuated; ears moderate. Only two specimens

were obtained. One was given by Colonel Bailey from Gangtok

6,000’. The other was got by Crump, No. 5687, female, in

Gangtok, Sikkim, 6,000’. The hindfeet and legs are not clothed

with hair as in Szzcus soccatus, the colour is much darker than in

that species and the fur shorter and closer. No. 5687 measured:

head and body 117; tail 72; hindfoot 20; ear 12. There is no

pencil tuft at the end of the tail as in S. soccatus. The type

specimen is B.M. No. 79, 11, 21, 474,

10. Sznucus griffitht. Horsfield 1851. Cat. p. 134.

1877. Crocidura (P.) blytht. Anderson, 1877, /.A.S.8. voi. xlvi,

p. 264,

This is the name that includes all the Assam Hill specimens of

which 23 were taken by the Survey.

Anderson in J/.A.S.B2., vol. xlvi, p. 264 (1877) describes this

group under Cyrocidura (P.) blythi, but as the older name is Suorvex

gritfttht (1863) that must now stand. It is described by Anderson

as ‘snout pointed and rather long; feet moderately large; fore-

limb with long hairs to the wrist, larger than those of the hind

limb; claws strong but short; fur soft and rather iong; colour

‘a rich rusty dark brown with a golden sheen in certain lights,

under surface greyer, with a rufescent flush below the chin.” Some

are darker than others.

Dimensions : Specimen No. 964 taken at Shangtung, Jaintia Hills

at 4,000’ may be taken as typical female—head and body 128;

taieo9) sbindioot 19 -ear 12.

There has been considerable confusion regarding the provenance

of the type specimen of this species but Blyth’s explanation seems

so reasonable that this shrew had been inadvertently entered as

from Afghanistan, rather than Assam, and since he himself saw a

specimen in the possession of Dr. Griffith which undoubtedly came

from Cherrapunji, Assam, it is safe to assume that Blyth is right

and so gyriffitht denotes the Hill species of Assam. The type is

B.M. No. 79, 11, 21, 471 and another specimen is B.M. No. 9], 10,

7, 54.

11. Szncus niger, Elliot. Horsfield. Cat. Mamm.

LS5ST. pp. 355:

This species is the shrew of the Nilgiri and Palni Hill areas of

6,000’ altitude. Horsfield describes it in his Catalogue, p. 135,

s ‘blackish brown with a rufescent shade on the upper parts

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

abdomen greyish. Snout greatly attenuated.’ The series got by

the Survey comprises 26 from the Nilgiris and 20 from the Palni

Hillis, the latter being much darker than the former, no doubt due

to seasonal variation as the dark ones were taken in the winter

months. They all agree in size, the soft fine texture of the fur

and the very pronounced thin snout. The feet are slender with

long toes and fine claws. Onthe dark specimens the underparts

are very little paler than the backs, while in the Nilgiri ones, taken

in July, the bellies are distinctly grey with a silvery sheen on

some, others showing both tints where the fur is changing.

Dimensions.—Specimen No. 22 from Kodaikanal 7,000’ is a typical

male. Head and body 97; tail 68; hindfoot 17; ear 12. The type

specimen is No. 147 of Horsfield’s Cat. Mamm.

12. Suncus niger malabaricus. subsp. nov.

The Survey collected 21 specimens from Coorg and 4 from Cochin

all at altitudes about 3,000’. As the series differs in size consider-

ably from Suzcus niger of the Nilgiris while retaining the character-

istic dark soft fur and attenuated snout of that species, it is thought

better to denote such shrews by a subspecific name and thus these

have been called Suncus niger malabaricus. This shrew is consis-

tently of larger build than the Nilgiri one. Thus specimen No. 2437

from Virajpet, South Coorg, 3000’, measures : head and body 118 ;

tail 75; hindfoot 19; ear 13; An average of 10 male specimens

gives head and body 121°3; tail 76; hindfoot 19; ear 13.

13. Swuncus viridescens, Blyth. J.A.S.B., vol. xxviii, 1859, p. 285.

Eight specimens of this species were obtained by the Survey, 3

in Madura and 5in Trivandrum. They are distinguished by their

fur (which, as Blyth notes, is unusually short and close) and their

size and build from the other South Indian shrews. The snout is_

not slender and so drawn out as in Suzcus niger malabaricus. Blyth

describes this shrew in /.A.S.8., vol. xxviii, p. 285 as having

‘colour very dark ; fuliginous on the face to behind the ears and

the upper parts slightly, the lower very conspicuously tipped with

yellowish which imparts a dingy, greenish aspect, whence the

name.’ ‘This has been reported as the common species of Southern

Malabar.

Dimensions : Specimen No. 11 from Trivandrum, female, may be

taken as typical. Head and body 125; tail 70; hindfoot 20; ear

15. This shrew was ‘moulting’ and shows the two shades of dark

and lighter greeny grey very plainly. The type specimens are

Nos. 231 cc, dd of Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus., which are Nos. 246g, h

of Blyth’s Catalogue.

14. Szncus montanus, Kelaart. Prod. Faun. Zeyi., 1852, p. 31.

Six specimens were obtained of this species in Ceylon, all above

5,000’, and in an area with a rainfall over 100”. This is the darkest

of all the shrews in the collection, the only ones approaching them

in depth of colour being Suncus saturatior from Sikkim and those

from the Nilgiris, Szzcus niger, in winter coat. ‘This set was taken

in end March and April before the shed of winter coat begins,

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY 335

Kelaart, who named this species, thus describes itin Prod. Faun.

Zeyl., p. 31: ‘ Fur above sovty black without any ferruginous smear ;

‘beneath lighter; claws short; ears large, round, naked. Tail

‘tetragonal, shorter than head and body, covered with short, dusky

brown hairs.’ Kelaart states that no sebaceous glands are visible,

but these specimens plainly show the glands. The average measure-

ments of these six shrews give: head and body 86; tail 61; hind-

foot 17; ear 10°5. Specimen No. 1024 male, from Pattipola, C. P.

Ceylon 6,210’, shows head and body 93; tail 62:5; hindfoot 17:5;

ear 11. Kelaart measured a shrew from Pedrotellagalla (8,000’) as

HB; 94. tail oo: E..Fe17.

1S. Suucus fuliginosus, Blyth, 1855,-A.AZN.7. 2,

vol. xvii, p. 22.

Blyth named a shrew received from Pegu as Sorex fuliginosus in

J.A.S.8., vol. xxiv, p. 326. He describes it as ‘ having the soles of

‘ the feet bare to the heel, the tail with small fine hairs scattered upon

‘it, the fur dense, porrect, somewhat velvety ; dark slaty at the base,

‘the rest fuliginous brown with inconspicuous dull hoary tips;

‘beneath scarcely (if at all) paler. Length of adult female 54

‘inches (137 mm.) ; tail 24 inches (56 mm.); foot inches (16 mm.).’

The Survey has from Pegu 8 specimens, from Mergui 4 speci-

mens and from Mt. Popa, 1 juvenile specimen that may be included

in this group, till more material from that locality is available for

comparison. It closely resembles the Mergui specimens in its

general look.

All those creatures agreé With Blyth's description of this species

in colour of the fur. In size too, one large shrew from Mergui,

No. 4815, male, measures : head and body 150 ; tail 68; hindfoot 20;

ear 15. Another from Pegu, No. 585, female, measures : head and

body 1335 tail./0; hindioot 18 ; ear 12:5.

There has been great confusion in the use of the specific name of

tuliginosus which Blyth plainly applied to a Szacus. Anderson, in

his Catalogue of Ind. Mus, 1881, describes Croczdura fuligtnosa, a

creature of 2°9 inches long and gives inthe synonymy the refer-

ence to Blyth’s paper which established Sorex fuliginosus quoted

above. Blanford repeats this in 1888 in his Wammalia, p. 242, and

Cabrera also in 1925 doesthe same thing. Thus the mistake was

perpetuated, but is now exposed. The type specimens are No. 253,

A. B. of Blyth’s Catalogue (Nos. 242 a, b of Cat. Mamm. Ind.

Mus.)

16. Szncus subfulvus, Anderson, i877. J.A.S.B2.,

vol. xlvi, p. 278.

A series of 19 shrews from Kathiawar and 5 from Sind agree so

closely with the description of Suzcus subfulvus given by Anderson

in J.A.S.B., vol. xlvi, p. 278 and differ so much in size from Suzcus

ceruleus stndensis, though they are fully adult, it seems best to call

them by this specific name. Mr. Wroughton in Report No. 24 of

the Mammal Survey onthe specimens from Sind notes ‘ three of

the specimens from Sukkur are young and the fourth is a nursing

Q. The young agree quite closely with Anderson’s description.”’

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Anderson thus describes this species ‘Snout rather short and

‘broad; ears moderately developed, rather flattened above; feet

‘moderately large and tolerably well-clad ; with pale-coloured hairs

‘which hang over the strong yellow claws; general colour of the

‘upper surface pale fawn, hairs ashy at base, the underparts silvery

S2Gey..

Dimensions : Specimen No. 2552, male from Dhrangadhra,

Kathiawar, may be taken as typical. Head and body 70; tail 46;

hindfoot 10°5; ear 8. Specimen No. 706 from Sukkur, Sind, the

nursing 2 of which Wroughton speaks, measured Head and body

74; tail 48; hindfoot 11 ; ear 10. The average of 10 specimens

gives head and body 69; tail 44; hindfoot 11; ear 9. AHadztat.

Kathiawar, Sind. Type specimens described by Anderson are

Nos. 238 a, b of Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus.

17. Suncus stoliczkanus, Anderson, 1877. J.A.S.B.,

vol. xlvi, p. 270:

The Survey obtained 19 specimens of this species a set of 14

from Gwalior, 2 from Salsette, 2 from Nimar and 1 from Hoshanga-

bad in the Central Provinces. These all agree with the descrip-

tion of the type specimen given by Anderson in /.A.S.8., vol. xlvi,

p. 270. ‘Snout rather short and broad, not densely clad; feet

‘well developed but not large and rather thinly clad, claws

‘moderately long and pale yellow. Tail not swollen at the base;

‘snout, hands, feet and upper surface of the tail pale yellowish

‘brown; fur soft, silky ; dull brown above, dark grey onthe under-

parts, some with silvery sheen.’ The upper surface of the tail

resembles the body colour, and the tail tapers to a very fine point

ending in a pencil of hairs.

Dimensions: Anderson gives the measurements of his type

specimen as: head and body 63; tail 48 ; hindfoot 12; ear 8. The

average of 10 specimens from the Survey series gives: head and

body 73; tail48; hindfoot 11:°8; ear 9. Specimen No. 529 from

Guna, Gwalior, may be taken as typical—-head and body 75; tail

48; hindfoot 11; ear 9. Ancerson’s typeis No. 2336 of Cat. Mamm.

Ind. Mus. . |

18. Suncus nitidofulvus, Anderson. 1877. J.A.S.B.,

VOl. Xvi, Da 21ee

1856. Sorex melanodon, Blyth. /.A.S.B., vol. xxiv, p. 33.

This set of 27 specimens collected at Luia, Chaibassa, are so

different from the other small shrews in N. E. India and agree so

closely with the description of this species given by Anderson in

J.A.S.B., vol. xlvi, p. 272 it has been decided to call them Szzcus

nitidotulvus. Anderson describes this shrew as having ‘limbs

‘ rather feeble, seminude in lower portion of legs, the upper surface of

‘the feet being sparsely clad with short whitish hairs. Claws well

‘developed, yellowish. General colour above shining brown, under

‘surface greyish brown with sometimes a silvery sheen; fur soft,

‘short, silky; tail is tapering, rounded.’ He gives the measure-

ments of a fully adult female: head and body 45; tail 27; hindfoot

8; ear 4:5.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY 337

The average dimensions of 10 specimens are: head and body

48:6; tail 37 ; hindfoot 9; ear 6°3.

Anderson gives as the habitat of this species Lower Bengal. It

is distinguished from S. mzcronyx by its larger, stronger claws and

colour of the body, being much lighter brown on the upper surface

and much browner on the under surface. The whole series agrees

in these characters. Anderson’s types are Nos. 234 f, g of Cat.

Mamm. Ind. Mus.

19. Suncus micronyx, Blyth. J.A.S.8., vol. xxiv, p. 33.

A specimen No. 4168 was taken by the Survey at Ramnagar, 30

miles W. of Naini Tal on the way to Masuri. Itis an adult male

agreeing in all particulars with the description of Suncus

micronyx given by Blyth in J/.A.S.8., vol. xxiv, p. 33. The fur

is buffy brown on the back and head, grey below with a silvery

sheen. The feet and tail with very close fur, the tail brownish

above, paler below. The claws are small and fine, the feet slender and

toes long. The ears are rather prominent. The skull is very small,

12 mm. in greatest length. Blyth gives as measurements of the

type specimen No. 258 B of his Catalogue (No. 2406 of Cat. Mamm.

Ind. Mus.) head and body 41; tail 28 ; hindfoot 10; skull 12:5.

This specimen from Kumaon measures: head and body 41 ; tail

32 ; hindfoot 8; ear 6; skull 12. Another specimen resembling

this one was taken at Dhamtal, Kangra. This, No. 3066, has the

same configuration and colouration as No. 4168 from Kumaon, but

it measures: head and body 52; tail 31; hindfoot 8; ear 6. There

is no skull available for examination.

20. Suncus perrotteti. Duvernoy. Mag. Zool. 1842, p. 29.

This is the tiny shrew of the Nilgiris and Southern India.

Blanford describes it as having ‘large ears ; feet thinly clad above ;

‘very thin tail tapering towards the end; fur short, reddish brown

‘to dark brown, paler below’ (but not glistening as in S. zudipes).

Duvernoy notes in Wag. Zool. 1842, p. 29 that the lower incisor is

straight, its extremity scarcely recurved and obtuse.

The Survey obtained 4 specimens in Bellary and 2 from Coorg,

Specimen No. 1456 from Vijayanagar, Bellary, is recorded to have

contained 4 young when caught. It measures head and body 49;

tail 35; hindfoot 8; ear 6. The average measurements of the

3 adults are: head and body 48°2; tail 32°8; hindfoot 8; ear 6:1.

Duvernoy gives measurements of his only specimen ( taken at

2,300 metres on Nilgiris as body 37; tail 34; H.F. 8.

21, Suncus nudipes, Blyth. J.A.S.B., vol. xxiv, p. 24, 1855.

Blyth describes this species as ‘ remarkable for its naked feet and

‘large ears; tail almost nude; fur uniform brown above, a little

‘grizzled and glistening ; the lower parts with a silvery shimmer ;

‘tail brown above, pale below, uniformly tapering.’ He gives as

the measurements of his type from Amherst, Tenasserim, head anc

body 43; tail 27; hindfoot 8°5. Of the5 specimens taken by the

survey 3 adults came from the Jaintia Hills, Assam, one adult trom

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol; XXXII1

Tenasserim and one juvenile from Hsipaw, Shan States. ‘The

average measurements of the 4 adults give: head and body 48; tail

30°5 ; hindfoot 8:5; ear 6. One specimen, No. 892, male, from

Shangpung, Jaintia Hills, measures: head and body 45; tail 30;

hindfoot 8 ; ear 6.

The face in all these shrews is elongated in shape. The feet are

very slender and delicate in make. Blyth’s type specimens are

No. 254 A—E of his Catalogue and Nos. 234 A—E of Cat. Mamm.

Ind. Mus.)

22. Suncus pygameotdes, Anderson. 1877,

J. ASD aVvOl. Xlviep. 279:

1845. Sorex pygmaeus, Hodgson, A.M.N.H., vol. xv, p. 269.

1867. Sorex hodgsoni, Jerdon. Mammals of India, p. 57.

This group represents the Sorex pygmeus of Hodgson which

he described in A.47.N.A., vol. xv, p. 269 as having ‘colour

‘ sootybrown, paler below; naked parts of a suSky fleshy hue, snout

‘“ouvent lessithan 2 inches ; tail 1,3,; head 41; palma 4; planta 3.’

Jerdon in 1867 called the group Sovex hodgsoni, the Nepal Pigmy

Shrew. He describes it as ‘uniform brown with a slight tinge of

‘chestnut, scarcely paler below; feet and tail distinctly furred ;

‘claws whitish and conspicuous; tail brown above, pale beneath,

‘tapering evenly throughout.’ Both descriptions are verified in

the collection of 25 specimens from Hasimara, Bhutan Duars and

4 from Darjiling District. The name Hodgson gave has been

applied to a European species of Sovex, by Laxmann in 1769 in

Sibtrische Briefe, p. 72; the name Jerdon used was intended by

Blyth to represent Sovex perrottetz, a species resembling the

Himalayan shrews in colour but differing in details. Blyth himself

said that the ‘ Darjiling female approximates to the description.’

As these two names are invalid, the next oldest name given by

Anderson in 1877, Cvocidura (P.) pygme@oides, must stand. He

describes this shrew in /.A.S.&., vol. xlvi, p. 279 as having ‘ snout

‘rather long and narrow, pointed, well clad; ears well developed ;

‘teet well developed, rather long and slender, toes moderately

‘long, claws strong and curved. Lower portion of all limbs clad »

‘with short brown hair; feet rather sparsely clad with the same.

‘Tail rather long, densely covered with short brown hair ; fur short,

‘soft, silky. General colour rich deep, rusty brown, underparts

‘brownish with a marked silvery sheen.’ Anderson gives as

the measurements head and body 1°85 ins. (46°25 mm.);_ tail

1-4 ins.,35 ae hindfoot. -37 -1ms. (9:2 mam.) eara-2eans.

(5 mm.).

_In the. series of Survey specimens No. 936 from Pashok,

Darijiling, corresponds exactly to this description and may be taken

as typical. It measures: head and body 46; tail 35; hindfoot 9;

ear 5. It differs from S. perrottefz in its smaller ear, broader head,

longer forearm, deeper colour, tail not white below. It differs

from S. zudipes in its broader head, smaller ear, duller fur and

longer tail. Its habitat is the Himalayan slopes.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY — 339

23. Suncus leucogenys, Dobson. A.M.N.A., 6, p. 428.

No specimen of this species has been taken by the Survey but

in the National Collection are three shrews which bear out the

description given by Dobson in 4.47.N.H., 6, p. 428 in 1888. He

says that the ‘ ears are short and clothed with a few whitish hairs ;

the tail is thick and fusiform ; feet are small and slender; the fur

is short, above light cinnamon brown with a reddish tinge mixed

with the grey, basal half of hairs bluish; the sides of the head

between the angles of the mouth and ears, the chin and part of the

chest are dirty white, remainder of the ventral surface greyish ;

tail upper surface like the back, under surface like the belly.’

Dobson gives the measurements of an adult male as: head and

body 75; tail 47; ear 8; hindfoot 12. The nearest to this is

specimen No. 339 collected by Major Dunn at Drug, Rajputana,

which gives : head and body 70; tail 45; hindfoot 11; ear 9. The

skull of this specimen is broken, but the skull of the type specimen

(which is in alcohol) is available and agrees with the fragments

of No. 339,

24. Suncus dayt, Dobson. A.M.N.H., 6, p. 428.

Of this species only one specimen was obtained by the Survey

and that came from the Palni Hills. It is in alcohol. The type

specimen is a skin in the National Collection and has thus been

described by Blanford: ‘upper teeth 18; size rather small;. snout

hairy; ears not large; feet thinly covered with hair above ; tail

long, thinly covered with short hairs. Dobson describes the speci-

men as having fur and integument dark brown throughout, the

ventral surfaces slightly paler, the basal three-fourths of the fur on

both surfaces being dark bluish grey. The teeth differ in the shape

of the first upper incisor as well as in the large size of the first pre-

molar, which is much Jarger than is usual in the genus. The lower

incisors are serrated above.’ Dobson gives the measurements ;

head and body 74; tail 60; hindfoot 15°5.

Only these two specimens of this group are known. The label

of the skin in the National Collection bears ‘ Madras’ but Blanford

surmises that this specimen came from the Palni Hills. The skin,

in colour and inits long hindfoot and thin long tail bears resem-

blance to Suncus niger which the Survey collected in the Hill areas of

Madras Presidency. But the skulls of these two species are distinct,

the main difference being the very large size of the first premolar

in Suncus dayt. More specimens of this species from the Madras

area would be most useful for comparison.

25. Suncus rubicundus, Andetson, /.A.S.&., voi. xlvi, p. 277.

There is no specimen of this species available for examination.

Only one specimen (from which the species was named by Dr.

Anderson) was obtained on the slopes of Paresnath Hill, Bihar and

Orissa. The Survey collected 6 specimens of Suncus ceruleus ceru-

leus at Nimiaghat, the village at the bottom of Paresnath Hill and

whence the path to the top of the mountain starts. One specimen

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI/I/

No. 5133 was actually taken on Paresnath itself and is undoubtedly

atrue Suncus ceruleus. It agrees exactly with the description of

Suncus rubicundus as given by Blanford. Since these specimens

were taken in the same place and agree with the description of the

Species given by Anderson and Blanford, it is reasonable to con-

clude that the species was founded on a young shrew of Suncus

ceruleus ceruleus. Specimen No. 5229 taken at Nimiaghat and

recorded as a juvenile agrees in colour of fur, and its dimensions

are: head and body 76; tail 38; hindfoot 16; ear 8. The dimen-

sions of the type are: head and body 85; tail57; hindfoot 16;

ear 8:2.

A STUDY IN INSECT PROTECTION

(ANOPLOCNEMIS PHASIANA, FABR.)

Masor R. W. G. Hinecston, I.M.S.

(With two plates)

The scheme of Nature is so closely knit; all living things are so

dependent on one another that many and varied schemes have been

devised for maintaining existence in the contest for life. One

animal has gone in for cryptic coloration, another for some type of

offensive weapon, another for some artful method of escape; then

others have taken to the ruse of mimicry, others to the develop-

ment of nauseous juices, others to the emission of noxious fumes.

And so on, ruse after ruse. In nothing has Nature shown more

ingenuity than in the creation of protective schemes.

But the point which I wish to make here is that we often find in

the same species not merely one of these protective devices, but

rather a combination of several devices on the interaction of which

its existence depends. These devices may exist at the same time,

or may follow one another as the creature develops. But in either

case, whether simultaneous or successive, each device has its

function to fulfil at some particular place or time. Let us, therefore,

consider one species of insect, a conspicuous example with a simple

history, and observe its manner of dealing with this problem at

successive stages of growth. We will not delay on anatomical

development. It has not the interest to the field observer that

have instincts and living acts.

The species in question is Axoplocnemis phasiana, a large bug,

repulsive in appearance, which may sometimes be seen on young

foliage after the rains have set in. Different kinds of vegetation

attract it; but its favourite plants in Central India are Cassia

occidentalis and A: gle marmelos. It is a stout insect, black through-

out, except for some yellow near the tips of its antennz, and on its

back an orange patch which is ordinarily hidden by the closed

wings. It possesses a peculiar geometrical appearance, as though

built on.some cubist plan. (See Plate 1, Fig. 5.) “Its thorax is a

sloping equilateral triangle ; its abdomen is isosceles in shape. Its

wings, owing to the way in which they overlap, make a pattern of

geometrical figures on its back. But look at its hindlegs. They

are very extraordinary. Those of the female show nothing in

particular, but in the male they are distended into clubs and

furnished with a strong tooth. On the whole we have an insect of

grotesque appearance, repulsive by reason of its black colour and

the extravagant conformation of its parts,

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Let us pass to its development and growth. In July I see the

sexes in union. It is a prolonged affair, without much enthusiasm,

and takes place on the terminal shoots of a plant. Eggs are layed

and spread along astem. They are elongated cushions, convex

above, but hollowed beneath so as to fit around the stem. Their

number varies. In one clutch I count eight; in another nineteen.

Their position, however, is always the same, a string of cushions

touching one another, each about one-tenth of an inch long. (See

Plate, Fig: 1:)

The casing of the egg is dark brown, delicately mottled, parti-

cularly at the sides, with a dash of silver grey. In this we have

the first of our devices for protection. The eggs are mottled to

harmonize with the stem; furthermore their arrangement in linear

series helps to bring about the same effect. Though freely exposed,

they blend well with their support; at most they look like a simple

swelling along the line of the brown stem. Hence we have the

ruse of protective coloration at the earliest stage of the insect’s

life.

Let us continue. Within the hard capsule of the egg a minute

creature assumes shape. Its development occupies ten days.

Then a breach occurs in the shell, a circular aperture at one

extremity, so perfect that it might have been made with a punch.

Through this gate of exit the little inmate emerges. First one egg

opens, then another ; until the whole family is born.

Anoplocnemis at birth is a spider-like object, absolutely black except

for a stripe transversely across the middle of its back. Its tiny

body is flat and triangular ; its legs are spread around it in a cluster :

its antenne are held erect in the air. As aruleit remains still, but,

if alarmed, it runs about with antennz swaying and abdomen raised.

The creatures are social at this period of their life. The family

tries to keep together, the members employing their long sensitive

antenne for the purpose of maintaining touch. Soon after birth it

begins to feed. It has along beak like a straight lance. This it

pushes into the plant. Through it sap is drawn to the mouth and

life’s continuous gorge begins. |

The next event is the casting of its skin, which takes place on

the fourth or fifth day. The superficial integument is shed, and out

comes the bug in anew dress. Though larger in size, it is little

changed in appearance, being still the same jet black colour. Its

legs have the same spider-like appearance. One thing, however, we

do begin to notice. The tibizon the front pair of legs are flattening

into a pair of blades. Also we observe that it is less sociaily inclined.

The family shows signs of scattering. Individuals wander away on

their own and collect in twos and threes on various tender shoots.

The second moult accentuates these changes. The insect is now

distinctly bigger. Alsoitis one of the most illshaped little creatures

that one could. anywhere expect: to<see (See Plate 1) Pig. 2)> dn

length about quarter of an inch, it is absolutely black save for bands

on the antenngze and a pale line across the middle of its waist. Its

gait is awkward and attitude unnaturai. Its long antenne are held

erect ; its abdomen hoisted ; its fore legs, dilated into flattened plates,

are thrust out conspicuously. in: front. It gives out a slightly

Journ., Bem. Nat. Hist. Soc.

vss wERREDM

(

ARH

C(t

é car gil

ay ce H

insti

DEVELOPMENT OF Anoplocnemis phasiana,

G1 te © DO et

Line of eggs affixed to stem,

\nsect after second moult.

Insect after third moult.

Insect after fifth moult,

Mature insect.

PLATE I.

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. : Prate IT.’

A STUDY IN INSECT PROTECTION 343

unpleasant odour, a foretaste of the foul effluvium which develops

at a later date. Allin the family have now scattered. Singly they

crawl from shoot to shoot, their queer-shaped bcdies apparently

well fitted to the slow paces of their ill-proportioned legs. Like so

many devilkins they stalk about, looking as if out of place in this

creation, and more fitted to some prehistoric life.

Now what is the reason for this strange conformation? I regard

it as the second of the devices used by this creature for its defence.

The raising of the abdomen and the dilatation of the front legs are

the points which concern us here. Why do these exist? The

hoisting upward of the abdomen is certainly protective. Many

poison-squirting insects habitually do it, for instance different

species of ants. Cremastogasier ants are specially instructive, for

when other ants are near them when they raise their abdomens, the

other ants immediately rush off. What raising of the abdomen im-

plies to an enemy is the danger of a poison squirt. Now, the bug,

at this stage, possesses no poison. What then does it do? It

mimics the poison-squirting movement. It gives an enemy the

false impression of having a poison jet.

A brief digression may be instructive. Are there any other

creatures in my district which employ the same deceitful plan? I

will mention afew. Rove-Beetles abound at the margin of the

river. They are elongated insects with stunted wings. Alarm one

of them, and see what happens. Up goes its abdomen into the air

after the manner of poisonous ants. Rove-Beetles, of course are

perfectly innocent. The hoisting actis pure deceit. Here is another

instance. A Tabanid fly, Gastroxides ater, used to visit the tree-

trunks in my garden. It was about as large asa bluebottle and

conspicuously marked with an orange coloured band. Alarm it,

and what did it do? Not fly away like an ordinary bluebottle. It

raised its abdomen over its back, then elevated and depressed the

erected point like a wasp when protruding and drawing in its sting.

Again another deceitful business, for the fly has not a trace ofa

sting. Moreover, it seemed to know the value of its ruse. It was

unusually careless of intrusion. I could even stroke its body whiie

it tilted its abdomen into the air.

Now for the flattening of the front legs. Why is this? It is

another of these simulating devices. Raptorial insects, which

clutch hold of their victims, often have their front legs flattened into

blades that are armed with sharp teeth. Axoplocnemts has no

armoury of teeth, but the flattening into blades is distinctly marked.

Moreover, it thrusts them out in front, the attitude which raptorial

insects assume. Hence we have another of these simulating devices.

The insect is really perfectly harmless, but it looks the very essence

of evil and danger. By hoisting the abdomen it pretends to be

poisonous ; by having flattened front legs it pretends to be raptorial.

It is nothing but a bundle of deceit.

But in addition to these simulating ruses the creature has still

another method of securing protection from attack. I often find it

on the foliage of the Bael tree with its spear stuck in the youngest

shoots. It sucks up the sap. The leaves wither, then droop in a

shrivelled cluster and end by getting absolutely black. The bug,

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

however, remains beneath the cluster and keeps on draining at the

sap. Now, the leaves in this withered state, are exactly the

same black colour as the bug; moreover, they droop in an unsym-

metrical cluster like the shapeless conformation of its body and

limbs. Also some of the leaves are tiny, and the smallest of them

are exactly the same shape as the insect’s dilated legs. The cluster

is therefore a vegetable shield beneath which the insect is hidden

from view. Nor must it be thought that the occurrence is just

casual. On the contrary, it is the habit of the creature to get under

this canopy of blackened leaves. Here then we have still another

device. The bug, through its own sucking operations, constructs

for itself a vegetable canopy, which canopy helps to protect it

by blending with its colour and shape.

Let us proceed. Its development continues. A third moult

occurs, the transformation taking place underneath the black canopy

where the insect is comparatively safe. The creature is now larger,

five-sixteenths of an inch long, and still the same flattened shape.

(See Plate 1, Fig. 3). The dilatations on the front legs are somewhat

smaller ; on the back of its abdomen are two small pores that were

scarcely visible at the earlier stage. The ruse of erecting the

abdomen has gone. The insect has become much more sluggish.

It remains for a long time stuck toa shoot, sucking at it till the leaves

are completely dry. In fact it is changing into a sucking-machine,

with no business in life but to drain out sap, andno other event in its

monotonous existence beyond the periodical shedding of its skin.

I have said that two small pores appear on its back. What are

these? Still another of this insect’s defensive methods. They are

apertures of exit for nauseous juice.

A fourth moult shows further changes. ‘The dilated front legs

have practically gone. The body is growing more in length.

Stumps, which represent future wings, are developing along its

back. It has got too large to hide beneath a canopy. Some other

kind of defence is needed. So conspicuous a creature must have

some kind of ruse to protect in on the open leaves. The new ruse

is the pair of pores which shoot out a disgusting juice. Also it

has tasen to another device, that of falling to the ground the

instant anything touches its stem.

A fifth moult brings out still larger wings. A double pair are

quite distinct, upper ones, large and conspicuous ; lower ones tuck-

ed in underneath. The dilated front legs have completely dis-

appeared. All the devilkin appearance is lost. (See Plate 1,Fig.4.)

The sixth moult gives us the mature insect. The event is one

of considerable change. Hitherto we have had a gradual transition ;

this is like witnessing a new birth. The great change is mainly

due to the wings. At one stroke they appear to have been

suddenly created out of mere triangular stumps. They now

cover the abdomen back to its extreme tip.

The full-grown bug is an ugly creature, massive, angulated,

exacily one inchiin length. (See Plate 1, Fig.5.) It sits atthe

extreme tips of the vegetation, clinging to one spot, beak in stem,

continuing the persistent gorge. Probably its revulsive appearance

protects it, but it also has a powerful weapon in the discharge that

A STUDY IN INSECT PROTECTION 345

issues from its pores. We have seen these pores during previous

stages. ‘They were placed on the dorsal surface of the abdomen,

and from them fluid could be shot forth. But now the insect’s

wings have developed and cover the whole dorsal surface of the

abdomen. Hence the pores will not work in that situation. A

change in the squirting machinery must take place.

Let us investigate this change in mechanism and see how the

new operation is performed. The bug is clinging passively to a

leaf, hanging head downward froma terminal shoot like an angulated

withered -lump. Note particularly that the point of its abdomen

is thrust erect into the air. (See Plate 2.) I bring a finger close

to the insect. As I approach it, but before it is touched, out comes

a sudden jet of liquid, and with it a penetrating smell. What has

happened? A slit has opened at the tip of the abdomen, and from

it a spurt of juice has been shot out to a distance of about a foot.

Now see the reason for the insect’s attitude. With head down and

tailerect it is in the best position for firing its gun. Were the

abdomen turned towards the ground then the insect would not

have a clear field for its projectile and its fluid would be lost in the

leaves. Thusit keeps its tail permanently elevated: its gun is

always in readiness to fire.

In this we have quite a different arrangement from the squirting

of fluid through poresin the back. The dorsal pores no longer

function, for the area they occupied is nowcovered by the wings.

In their place we have the more complicated apparatus, a protrusile:

organ at the tip of the abdomen, a telescope which, at the insect’s

will, can be made toopenor close. When the bug is resting the

telescope is sheathed, being drawn back into the abdomen and-

hidden under the wings. When danger threatens it is pushed out.

A slit opens on its upper surface ; the muzzle of the gun comes into

view. Through this muzzle issues the nauseating jet. Then the™

telescope is drawn back and disappears beneath the wings. .

The ejected fluid is clear and watery. ‘Though in taste: not

unpleasant, its smell is disgusting. Any object on which it falls

retains the odour for several hours. On evaporating, it discolours

the fingers with a brick red dye.

In this forcible spurt of disgusting fluid we have a most valuable

weapon of defence. ‘The same thing occurs in Carabid beetles. I

recall a particular species of Azthza. I touched it, and out from

the end of its abdomen came a sharp explosive jet. Tne discharge

was most irritating. It pricked the skin as if with fine needles,

anid burned the lips and eyes.

This power to shoot out irritating liquid is often associated with

conspicuous markings. These serve as danger signais, beacons to

warn off a foe. Thecreature not only possesses a weapon, but also

a signal to tell that itis armed. Take the above mentioned Anthia

for example. On its black body are white spots, large and

highly conspicuous markings to warn an enemy not to approach.

Anoplocnemts also flys asignal. It tells the enemy to keep clear.

The signal does not show when the insect is stationary. It is then

ugly and striking enough; no doubt its natural repulsive appearance

will be sufficient to tell what it is. But when it has to take to flight

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

then it might be mistaken for something attractive ; an insectivorous

bird might easily snap it up. But its signal guards against this

possibility. When its wings open we see an apparition. Hitherto

it was black all over, but now there appears between its wings a

flash of fiery red. The colour is onthe upper surface of its abdomen;

it did not appear there till the last moult. Thus here we have

another defensive method, a red signal flashing danger, only shown

when the insect is in flight. The flash tells that the creature is

offensive. A weapon lies hidden in the red gleam; enemies had

better keep clear.

The last of the devices employed be this insect is its habit of

dropping to ground. The act is most marked in the later moults ;

and its value, of course, lies in the fact that the insect gets lost in

the underlying scrub. Many tree-haunting insects adopt this ruse.

I come across numerous examples in the neighbourhood. Weevils

and Buprestids, a metallic Caztharis, a steel blue Haltica, a bright

orange Ozdes, all adopt this plan of escape. I see Longicorn beetles

and Aulis ladybirds dropping the instant they are touched. So do

dung-beetles when they get into foliage and millipedes when they

climb up grass. Tree-haunting spiders, byre-building ants, many

different kinds of caterpillars all adopt the same simple device.

It is a widespread habit of inestimable value, for the moment the

insect falls to ground it gets lost in the forest of grass.

This concludes my remarks on Anoplocnemzts. We have followed

it through its whole development. How does it protect itself ?

Not by one stereotyped method, but rather by a crowd of different

methods, each one specially adapted to a particular period of life.

First we have camouflage or harmonization. The eggs blend with

the supporting stem. Then comes deceit or simulation. The

insect lifts its abdomen to suggest a sting, and grows a pair of

flattened front legs that give the impression of cutting blades. At

the same time another device develops, the drapery it manu-

factures of blackened leaves that blend both with its colour and

shape. With growth these ruses cease to be effective. Then the

creature takes to cropping to ground. Also it develops two pores

on its back from which it squirts an offensive juice. But its wings

grow and cover these pores. Consequently it develops another

machinery, a telescope at the end of its abdomen from which issues

a nauseous jet. One last touch to complete the system. This is the

warning flash of colour, the red signal of danger which illuminates

its flight. |

Build up defences to guard against your enemies. This is one

of Nature’s strictest orders. Every kind of cunning, every kind of

skill seems to have been thrown into this necessary work. We

cannot discuss the whole assortment of devices. Azoplocnemis has

collected more than its share of them. Camouflage, simulation,

dropping to ground, canopy manufacture, shooting out fluid, flying

warning signals, no small collection for a single species in its cease-

less struggle to live.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE

FROM 1901-1915

R. SHUNKER NARAYAN PILLAY, C.M.Z.S.

(Late Curator, Trevandrum Museum)

INTRODUTION

The present paper on the Fishes of Travancore, with no claims

to originality in respect of any of the facts, is the outcome of my

studies, when as Curator to the Trevandrum Museum I was occupied

in making a collection of local fishes, and in arranging the material

for the Index to Fish in 1902, based on the notes taken by the late

Capt. Harold S. Ferguson, F.L.S., F.z.S., etc., Director, from the

S. Kensington Natural History Museum. The latter, it is much to

be regretted, is far from complete and has beenin abeyance since

1915.. This paper, as 1 have already mentioned in my note on the

Travancore Cetaceans published in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society (No. 3, vol. xxxi, November, 1926), is intended

as acontinuation to the series of articles on the Vertebrate and

Invertebrate Zoology of Travancore, which have appeared in the

same Journal from time to time. When Capt. Ferguson retired in

1904, there was already the nucleus of a modest collection, confined

to Trevandrum.

During the following six years, thanks to the liberality of Lt.-Col.

F. W. Dawson, 1.A., the then Director, who placed funds at my

disposal for the purchase of specimens for the Museum, I availed

myself of the opportunity to devote special attention to this group

of the animal kingdom, both at Trevandrum and during collecting

tours, with the result that in 1915, the collection comprised of 369

species referable to 74 families, the major portion being obtained

from Trevandrum and Cape Comorin.

I may venture to think that if at this rate the other districts of

Travancore, with its sea-board, its fresh and brackish-water lagoons,

the chain of back-water, stretching along the coast and coinmunicat-

ing with the sea in different places, and the tanks and rivers, were

systematically investigated, and the results published as Adminis-

tration Reports, as had been the case from 1900 to 1909 (during the

greater part of which the Museum and Public Gardens were under

a Committee of Management, invariably presided over by the British

Residents), considerable additions to the local collections would

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

have been made, and many interesting and -rare finds brought to

light.

On this point, a reference to the Administration Reports of the

departments referred to above, will bear ample testimony to the

fact that there are 5 Mammals, 6 Reptiles, 11 Batrachians and: 20

Arthropods from Travancore, described as new to science, beside the

new species of Oligochoetes, Porifera and Polyzoa, etc., subsequently

embodied in the volumes of the ‘ Fauna of British India’ series.

Of the 20 fishes recently added to the local collection, one ray

found for the first time in Travancore, was determined by the late

Dr. Nelson Annandale, D.sc., F.R.S., Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta, as the adult of Raza powelliz, sp. n., on the evidence

of a solitary immature ray, taken in the Gulf of Martaban.

It may be: safely asserted that Dr. Day’s ‘Fauna of British [ndia,

Fishes,’ 2 vols., 1880, which is an abridgment of his original monu-

mental work, ‘Zhe Fishes of India,’ 1876-1878, and which hitherto has

been the only work of reference, may be regarded as more or less

out of date in the light of the recent advances made by our

knowledge of Indian Ichthyology during the last two decades in

various parts of India, notably in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Here

among the innumerable additions to the Generaand Species, the

acquisition of Gobzus alcockit, (about § an inch long) one of the

smallest of vertebrates, found in association with the common

fresh-water sponge (Spongilla carterz), forms an important and

interesting discovery.

Furthermore, the recent researches of the rising generation of

naturalists, both in India and abroad, have effected such remarkable

changes in the classification that numerous Genera have come to be

recognized as Families.

The vernacular names of fishes, dealt with in these notes, form sub-

jects for controversy, in that, they are neither reliable nor significant,

and vary according to the age and color of fishes, as well as to their

sex and locality, so that some of the names are indiscrimi-

nately applied to fishes of different families, which is more or less

a source of confusion. Since the information herein contained, is

entirely popular, and has already appeared in a large number of

zoological publications, I have not thought it desirable to quote

references to authorities.

In conclusion the kind reception, accorded to my note on

Travancore Cetaceans by the Bombay Natural History Society, has

prompted me to prepare the present one, more with a.view to

presenting to the public, for the first time, almost all the fishes

recorded in Travancore, than under any misapprehension as to the

completeness of the collection : but however imperfect this attempt

may be, I shall feel amply rewarded, if this will serve as a starting-

point for further investigation and its defects treated with indulgence

by the scientific public.

CLAss. FISHES

The Animal Kingdom is divided into several groups or sub-

kingdoms, in each of which the members have some affinity in-

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE. 349

common. To one of these groups belongs the class of Fishes,

which constitutes one of the main divisions into which the Craniate

Vertebrates are classified.

The shape of the body is more or less like that of a spindle,

tapering at each end, and varies according to the different modes

and habits of life. For example, it is cylindrical, elongate and

serpentiform in the Eels (Murenide) ; compressed and leaf-like,

with the eyes on one side of the head, in the Flat-fishes (Pleuro-

necitde@); depressed and discoidal, with a whip-like tail, furnished

with a serrated spine, in the Rays (7rygonid@); depressed and

elongate in the Skates (AAznobatide) ; compressed and band-like in

the Ribbon-fishes (7rachypterid@) ; compressed and strap-like, with

the tail ending in a filament, in the Hair-tails and Scabbard fishes,

(Trichiuride) ; more or less round and trunk-like, in the Box-

fishes (Ostraciontide) ; the head and body depressed and enlarged in

the Frog-fishes (Pediculaiz); the head abnormally developed into

two hammer-shaped lobes in the Hammer-head Sharks (Sphyrnide) ;

the head and body resembling the knight of the chess-board in the

Sea-horse (Hippocampus); and like the stalk or blade of grass,

in the Pipe-fishes (Syzguathide@).

The body is covered with scales, which are of four different types,

namely :—

1. Cycloid, which are thin horny plates, with the edges

i 2, = smooth.

2. Ctenotd, which are thick horny plates, with the posterior

margin serrated or comb-shaped.

3. Ganoid, which are hard bony plates, covered with enamel.

4. Placoid, which are detached bony plates or tubercles,

resembling the teeth of sharks and rays.

The limbs of fishes, which correspond with the anterior and

posterior extremities of the higher vertebrates, are modified into

fins and are called the Aectoral and ventral fins respectively. The

former, are situated on either side, behind the gill-openings,

and the latter behind the pectorals. These are paired, and

like the umzpazred ones (dorsal, anal and caudal), which are also

present, are furnished with supporting fin-rays. The pectoral fins

are constantly placed high up or down below the sides of the body,

on the dorsal aspect, of the gill openings. They are absent in some

Eels, though abnormally developed in the Flying-fishes and the

Paradise or Mango-fishes of India, the lower portion of the pectoral

fins in the latter case being modified into long slender filaments.

—The ventral fins are smaller and far more variable in position

than the Aectorals. They are absent in the Eels, and when present

in the Physosiomz, are situated far back on the belly, behind the

pectorals (abdominal). In the Percide, they are situated far forward,

under or just behind the pectorals (thoracic) and in the Cod-fish, on

the throat, in front of the pectorals (jugular). The caudal fin is

often forked. Locomotion is effected by the action of the tail and

the caudal fin, the function of the other fins being only of secondary

importance.

The first pair of gill arches is modified into jaws and the embryo

develops without any amnion or allantois, which constitute one

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

of the most important appendages for the safe reception and

protection of the embryo.

Breathing in the majority is effected solely by gills, though some

fresh-water forms possess a lung in addition. The heart is situated

behind the gills, and consists of only two chambers. Like the

Reptiles and Amphibians, fishes are cold-blooded, that is to say, they

have not the power of generating heat of themselves and withstand-

ing the rise and fall of the temperature of their environment, owing

to the absence of a controlling nervous mechanism.

The eyes are destitute of true eye-lids, and there are no

external traces of an ear-opening. The nasal pits have no

communication with the mouth cavity, and there is usually a lateral

line of sense organs on both sides of the body, extending from the

back of the head to the tail. The scales that cover this, are found

on a closer examination, to be channelled and perforated, showing

the presence of nerve-endings, like the loreal pit of Pit-vipers.

Subclass I. CHONDROPTERYGII

Sharks, Rays and Chimeeras

Order 1. PLAGIOSTOMI

Suborder 1. Selachotdez

Family I. SCyYLLIIDzA

The Dog-fishes are sharks of predacious habits, having a wide

range of distribution. They are oviparous, i.e. the young are

hatched out, after the extrusion of the eggs.

1. Stegostoma tigrinum. Tiger-shark. Vern.: ‘ Udoomboo-

Sorah~.

Trevandrum, December.

A fairly common edible fish, said to reach a length of

18 ft.; it is a source of endless trouble to fishermen,

destroying their nets and their contents.

2. Chiloscyllium griseum. Dog-fish. Vern.: ‘ Korangu-sorah’.

Trevandrum, November.

A shallow-water shark, not recorded'in Dr. Day’s /auna

of British India.

Family II. CARCHARIIDA

Viviparous sharks without dorsal spines.

3. Carcharias laticaudatus. Shark. Vern.: ‘ Aul-pidiyan ’.

Trevandrum, November.

4. Carcharias walbeemi. Shark. Vern.: ‘Perum Sorah’.

Trevandrum, December.

5. Carcharias melanopterus. Shark. Vern.: ‘ Ramen Sorah’.

Cape Comorin, December.

6. Galeocerdo rayneri. Zebra-shark. Vern.: ‘ Valluvan Sorah ’.

Trevandrum, July.

It is said to grow to upwards of 12 ft. in length.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 351

The fins of sharks are exported from Travancore to

foreign countries, where isinglass is prepared from

them. The rough skin (Shagyreen) is used by artificers

for polishing wood, and the oil extracted from the

liver is used in medicine as an efficient substitute

for cod-liver oil.

Family III. SPHyRNID#&

These fierce and voracious creatures are called the Hammer-head

Sharks, from the abnormal lateral expansion of the head into two

depressed hammer-shaped lobes, at the distal extremities of which

the eyes are situated and the nostrils along the margin. ‘They are

said to grow to 15 ft. in length, and to occur in almost all warm

seas. The flesh is much esteemed.

7. Zygaena malleus. WHammer-head Shark. Vern.: ‘ Chatti-

thalayan ’.

Trevandrum, March.

8. Zygena tudes. Hammer-head Shark. Vern.: ‘ Madayan

Sorah ’.

Trevandrum, March.

Family IV. RHINODONTIDA

The Basking-Shark, otherwise known as Whale-Shark or Basker,

is so called from its fondness for lying at the surface of the sea in

warm weather, as if basking in the sun’s rays with the upper part

of the body exposed.

9. Rhtinodon typicus. Basking-Shark. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-udoombu’.

Trevandrum.

A carcase of this shark was stranded at Trevandrum in

1900, measuring 29 ft. with the greatest circum-

ference of the body 11 ft. 3 in. and the largest tail-fin

Orft..o im.

A specimen 13 ft. 7 in., reproduced as a painted plaster

cast, is exhibited in the Fish-Gallery, Trevandrum

Museum.

This shark is hunted for the large quantity of oil it

contains ; it is said to reach a lenghth of 50 ft. to

70 ft. It is not aggressive unless molested.

Suborder 2. Satotdez

Family I. PRISTIDA

The head of the Saw-fish is prolonged into a flat tapering snout,

armed with quadrangular saw-like teeth along both edges, each

tooth being firmly fixed in a socket. Its real teeth are minute and

obtuse. The Saw-fish frequent estuaries of rivers and lagoons and

are dreaded by fishermen and bathers on account of their saw-like

weapon with which, they can inflict deadly wounds beside destroy-

ing the nets. They are known to reach a length of 20 ft. and to occur

in the tropical and temperate seas.

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

10. Pristis cuspidatus. Saw-fish. Vern.: ‘ Vaul-sorah’.

Trevandrum, August.

During the winter of 1905, while engaged in making a

collection of migratory birds, for the Trevandrum

Museum, along the coast of the Vembanad Lagoon, N.

Travancore, I observed from a boat a Saw-fish about

5 ft. long, lying in ambush at the bottom, and rendered

almost invisible by the color of the mud, which

resembled its own. The flesh is excellent.

11. Pristts perrottettt. Saw-fish. Vern.: ‘ Komben-sorah ’.

Trevandrum, June.

There is a record of this fish obtained by the Indian

Museum, Calcutta, measuring 21 ft. long.

Family II RHINOBATIDA

The Skates are intermediate forms between the sharks and rays,

the body forming a depressed disc.

12. Rhynchobatus djeddensis. Mud-skate. Vern.: ‘ Poonthi-

sorah ’.

Trevandrum, February.

The first specimen received by the Museum was a

donation from Dr. A. Willey, F.R.s., Director,

Colombo Museum, obtained during his Zoological

Mission into Travancore in 1906.

13. Rhynchobatus ancylostomus. Mud-skate. Vern.: ‘ Kal-

poonthi’.

Trevandrum, March.

14. Rhinobatus granulatus. Mud-skate. Vern.: ‘ Kal-poonthi ’.

Trevandrum, March.

The skates are viviparous and their flesh is not savoury.

Family III. Raimpa&

The rays are destitute of electric organs and are armed with a

barbed caudal spine. In defending themselves, they are said to

bend their bodies in a bow and let themselves spring back with great

force, causing serious wounds on the body of the victim with the

spikes.

These are bottom fishes, and the genus with one species was

recorded in Travancore for the first time in 1912.

15. Raza powellit sp. n. Poweil’s Ray. Vern.: ‘ Thirandi’.

Trevandrum.

Dr. Nelson Annandale, to whom this ray was forwarded

for specific identification, determined it as FR. powellit

sp. m. on the evidence of an immature ray obtained

from the Gulf of Martaban.

Family 1V. ToRPEDINIDA

The family comprises the Blectric Rays, which are voracious

edible fishes. The electrical organs are composed of vertically

placed hexagonal prisms, situated between the head and the pectoral

fins and are controlled by several nerve trunks.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 353

16. Narcine timlet. Electric Ray. Vern.: ‘ Ullooku’.

Cape Comorin, December.

A specimen tresh from the net obtained at Cape

Comorin, on being handled, produced a peculiarly

numbing sensation when in a dying condition; itis a

widely distributed species and is good eating.

17. Astrape dipterygia. Electric Ray. Vern.: Thanni-thirukay ’.

Cape Comorin, June.

Family V. TRYGONIDA:

These are the Sting-rays, having a flat disk-shaped body with the

pectoral fins confluent with the snout. The tail is long and slender

and whip-like, and armed near the base with a sharp serrated spine.

The sting-rays are in the habit of enveloping prey within the folds

of the tail, and forcing it on to the deadiy spine, which is poisoned by

the slime with which it is bathed. The teeth are flat and pavement-

like.

18. Zyrygon sephen. Sting-ray. Vern.: ‘ Adavaulen-thirukay ’.

Trevandrum, June.

A specimen of this ray stranded at Trevandrum in 1906

measured 5 ft. across the disk.

19. Trygon walga. Sting-ray. Vern.: ‘ Thirachi’.

Trevandrum, June.

20. Trygon pastinaceae Common Sting-ray. Vern.: ‘ Thirukay’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Recorded in Travancore since the publication of the

Fauna of British India, fishes, by Dr. Day. This fish

occurs off the coast of Norway and the British Isles,

through the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to Japan.

21. Pteroplatea micrura. Short-tailed Sting-ray. Vern. : ‘ Meen-

thirukay ’.

Trevandrum, June.

Not uncommon at Cape Comorin.

Dr. Jerdon has recorded a specimen, 3 ft. long by 6 ft.

across the disk. The sting-rays are oviparous.

Family VI. MYLIOBATIDA

The Mill-stone rays, otherwise known as Devil-rays or Eagle-

rays, are named after the peculiar structure of their jaws, which are

paved with hexagonal teeth, adapted for crushing the hard shells

of molluscs and crustaceans on which they feed. The tail is

flexible, long and lash-like and armed with one or more serrated

spines. By means of the bat-like expansion of the pectoral fins,

the Eagle-rays envelope pearl-divers under water and drown them.

They are edible and viviparous.

22. Myliobatis netuhotti. Devil-ray. Vern.: ‘ Sappa-thirukay ’.

Quilon, December.

23. Aétobatis narinari. Eagle-ray. Vern.: ‘ Pulli Kaka-thirukay’.

Trevandrum, August.

An eagle-ray, taken at Trevandrum in 1906, was 6 ft.

4 in. from tip of snout to root of tail, 4 ft. 9 in. across

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the disk; but the tail, which appeared to have been

bitten off and healed, was 14 in. The tail of an

immature fish, subsequently obtained, was 3 ft. long

and the expanse of the disk 1 ft. 6 in.

24. Rhinoptera javanica. Bishop-ray. Vern.: ‘ Kaka-thirukay ’.

Quilon, March.

25. Diucerobatis ereegoodoo. Mill-stone Ray. Vern.: ‘ Komben-

thirukay ’.

Trevandrum, March.

Full grown rays, are said to measure 18 ft. across the

disk.

Order II. HoLOCEPHALA

The family Chimeride, consists of only one living species, not

represented in the Indian Ocean, though there are traces of their

having, at one time, existed in the Bay of Bengal. The order

forms a connecting link with the Ganoids.

Subclass II. DIPNOI

The Lepidostvens are known as double-breathers and possess a

single lung and gills throughout life. Owing to certain structural

peculiarities, many Zoologists are inclined to assign them toa

separate class, intermediate between the Amphibians and Fishes.

They are not represented in India.

Subclass III. TELEOSTOMI

This subclass comprises the true fishes, and is contrasted with

the Selachians (Sharks), and includes both Teleosteans and Ganoids.

Order I. GANOIDEA

The Ganoids, which are known as plated fishes, are covered with

hard bony plates, having a smooth surface, coated with enamel.

They are not known to occur in India, though some are found in

Central Asia and China. Comparative anatomy shows that they are

descended from the Selachzans (Sharks) and the bony fishes (Ze/eos-

teans) from the Ganoids. The living forms include the Sturgeons

and the tiles

Order [I]. TELEOSTEI

Suborder Il. Malacopterygti

Family I. ELoripa

The species are very few, though widely distributed in tropical

and subtropical seas, sometimes entering fresh-water.

26. Elops saurus. 'Ten-pounder or Big-eyed Herring.

Trevandrum, November.

A handsome elongate silvery fish, occurring in the West

Indian region, at the Cape of Good Hope, and off the

shores of East Africa and in Oriental seas.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 309

27. Megalops cyprinoides. Ox-eye. Vern.: ‘ Nanchil’.

Trevandrum, January.

Distinguished by the large scales, and the curiously

elongated last ray of the dorsal fin. The Ox-eye often

leaps out of the water, after the manner of Grey

Mullet. The scales are over 2 inches in diameter,

and are valued for fancy work. The young are

ribbon-shaped.

Family I]. CHIROCENTRIDA?

Edible fishes with the body elongate and compressed, covered

with deciduous scales. A single genus peculiar to the Indian Ocean

and seas of Japan and China.

28. Chirocentrus dorab. Vern.: ‘ Thuppoo-vahlay °.

Trevandrum, October

The flesh is palatable.

Family III. CLupErpa

The Herrings and Sardines are migratory fishes, swimming in

shoals generally near shores and estuaries. They are either dried

in the sun or salted or smoked. Large quantities of oil are extracted

from them, both in Travancore and on the Malabar Coast, from

October to January.

29. Clupea atricauda. Herring. Vern. : ‘ Keeri-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, October.

30. Clupea longiceps. Oil Sardine. Vern.: ‘ Pay-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, December.

31. Clupea timbriata. Oil Sardine. Vern.: ‘ Matthi-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

32. Clupea sindensis. Herring. Vern.‘ Vatta-kanni’.

Trevandrum, August.

Also occurs in the Seychelles.

33. Clupea kanagurta. Herring. Vern.: ‘ Ayalay’.

Trevandrum, June.

34. Clupea toli., Herring. Vern.: ‘Oolum’.

Trevandrum, June.

35. Pellona elongata. Herring. Vern.: ‘Matthi’.

Trevandrum, June.

36. Pellona byachysoma. Herring. Vern.: ‘ Matthi’.

Trevandrum, September.

37. Opisthopterus tartoor.

Cape Comorin, November.

38. Chatoessus chacunda. Herring or Shad.

Trevandrum, June.

An estuary fish found in the rivers of Central India and

Central America ; usually sold dry in markets.

39. Chatoessus nasus. Indian Herring. Vern. : ‘ Pananjaulay ’.

Trevandrum, June.

40. Engraults hamiltonz. Anchovy. Vern.: ‘ Charlay’.

Trevandrum, October,

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

41. Engvraults malabaricus. Anchovy. Vern.:‘ Poor-relan’.

Trevandrum, October.

42, FAngraulis mystax. Sardine.

Trevandrum, October.

43. Engraulis dussumiert. Sardine.

Trevandrum, October.

44. Engraults parava. Sardine. Vern.: ‘Kutthavoo’.

Trevandrum, November.

45. FEngraults commersonianus. White-bait. Vern.: ‘ Netholi’.

Trevandrum, November.

46. LEngraulis indicus. White-bait. Vern. : ‘Co-netholi’.

Trevandrum, November.

47. Dussumteria acuta. Malabar Sardine. Vern.: ‘Charlay ’.

Trevandrum, December.

48. Spratelloides malabaricus.

Alleppy, December.

49. Chanos salmoneus. Milk-fish. Vern.: ‘ Poomeen’.

Trevandrum, October.

This is the White-Mullet of Europeans ; the flesh is much

esteemed and the adult is said to weigh 20 lbs. to

30 lbs.

Suborder 3. Ostariophysi

Family I. CyPRINIDZ

Exclusively fresh-water fishes, noted for the small toothless

mouth, which is more or less protractile and furnished with barbels;

they are the least carnivorous of fishes and form objects of import-

ant culture in parts of the continent, and contribute largely to the

food-supply of the people in Europe and Asia; but in America very

few are of economic importance.

The Mahseer and Gold-fish are members of this family.

50. Nemachilus botius. Loach. Vern.: ‘ Auttu-meen’.

Tenmalai, November.

According to Dr. Day the Loach is not found on the

Malabar Coast, nor south of the Krishna River.

51. Nemachilus triangularis. Loach. Vern.: ‘ Kal-nakki’.

Tenmalai, November.

Travancore Hills only. A.B./.

52. Homaloptera maculata. Loach.

Tenmalai, November.

53. Discognatha lamta. Loach. Vern.: ‘ Koravai’.

Trevandrum, November.

54. Discognatha jerdont. Loach. Vern.: ‘ Kal-nakki’.

Tenmalai, November.

55. Amblypharyngodon mola. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Oolari’.

Shencotta, November.

56. Amblypharyngodon microlepis. Carp.

Alleppy, December.

57. Amblypharyngodon melittina. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Airay ’.

Sasthancotta, November.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE

Labeo dussumieri. Carp. Vern. : ‘Toolee e

Alleppy, December.

Barbus pinnauratus. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Panchala-kylie’,.

Trevandrum, November.

Barbus tor. Carp.

Parappar River. November.

Barbus curmuca. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kadi-meen’,.

Trevandrum, October.

Barbus lithopidos. Carp.

Trevandrum, October.

Barbus wynaadensis. Carp.

Tenmalai, November.

Barbus malabaricus. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Auttu-kendai’.

Tenmalai, November.

Barbus melanampyx. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kylie’.

Shoralacode, June.

Barbus parrah. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kylie’.

Trevandrum, November.

Barbus burmanicus. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Sappauli-kendai’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Barbus dentsontz. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kendai’.

Mundakayam, December.

Barbus mélanostigma. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kendai’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Barbus amphibius. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Urulen-kendai’.

Trevandrum, August.

Barbus arulius. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Kendai’.

Kulathupuzha, November.

Barbus mahecola. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Poovaulen-kendai ’.

Tenmalai, November.

Barbus conchonitus. Carp.

Trevandrum, November.

Barbus stigma. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Unda-kanni ’.

Karumaudi, October.

Barbus vtttatus. Carp.

Tenmalai, November.

Said to be destructive to mosquito larve.

Rasbora danicontus. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Parava-kendai ’.

Trevandrum, October.

Rasbora nilgiriensis. Carp. Vern.: ‘ Parava-kendai’.

Trevandrum, October.

Rohtee bakert.

Kottayam, November.

Bartilius bakert.

Tenmalai, November.

Danio malabaricus. Vern.: ‘ Cheela-pauray ’.

Parappar, November.

Perilamphus laubuca.

Vellany, February.

Not found in Southern India. 7. 2./.

Cheela boopis.

Cape Comorin, November,

357

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Family II. SiLuripa&

Tne Cat-fishes belong to a large family of fresh-water forms,

and include a few marine species (Plofosus and Arius). The

majority are edible, though according to some authors, the Maho-

medans do noteat them. They are coarse feeders, and thrive well in

muddy water, and their maws yield isinglass. Some build nests for

the reception of eggs, others, particularly the males, carry the eggs

within their capacious mouths and retain them there till they are

hatched. The Siluroids are of world-wide distribution.

83. FPlotosus canius. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Vari-choongum’.

| Trevandrum, September.

84. FPlotosus arab. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Choongum’.

Trevandium, September.

Wounds inflicted by the dorsal and pectoral spines of

these fish, are as intolerable as the sting of a scorpion.

85. Clarias magur. Mugger. Vern.: ‘ Yeri-vahlay ’.

Trevandrum, April.

86. Saccobranchus fossilts. Scorpion-fish. Vern.: ‘ Theyli’.

Trevandrum, November.

The Scorpion-fish is credited with causing serious

wounds, by means of the pectoral fins, resulting in

blood-poisoning and gangrene, sometimes necessitat-

ing amputation of the affected limb.

87. Wadtllago attu. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Auttu-vahlay’.

Trevandrum, November.

A cosmopolitan fish inuch prized for food, attaining a

length of 6 feet.

The Cat-fishes are so called from the barbels which

resemble the whiskers of a cat.

88. Callichrous bimaculatus. Dragonet. Vern.: ‘ Chotta-

vahlay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

89. Callichrous malabaricus. Dragonet. Vern. : ‘ Manjavahlay ’.

Alleppy, November.

90. Pseudotropius sykesttz. Vern.: ‘ Nauy-kelithi.’

Alleppy, October.

91. Macrones chryseus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘Moongil’.

Trevandrum, November.

92. Macrones gulio. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kadel-kelithi’.

Trevandrum, November.

93. Macrones vittatus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kallen-coori’.

Sasthancotta, November.

One of the commonest of food-fishes, protected by the

religious sentiments of the people at Sasthancotta,

particularly in that portion of the fresh-water lagoon

on the temple premises, where devotees and pilgrims

feed them with rice and handle them with impunity.

94. Macrones oculatus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Theydoo’.

Alleppy, October.

95. Macrones montanus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Vari Kallen-coori’.

Trevandrum, November.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 359

96. Macrones malabaricus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kallen-coori’,

| Quilon, August.

Oe Aviv’ celaiuss (“Catenshe Vern. ; ‘ Kelithi’.

Trevandrum, March.

98. Arius subrostratus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Theydoo’.

Trevandrum, March.

99. Arius thalassinus. Cat-fish. Vern. : ‘ Theydoo’.

Trevandrum, May.

100. Arius falcarius. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘Theydoo’.

Alleppy, October.

/101. Artus jatéus. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Mooken-theydoo’.

| Trevandrum, March.

102. Artus dussumiert. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kazhu-theydoo’.

Trevandrum, March.

103. Osteogentosus milttarts. Cat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Pon-kelithi’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Suborder 3, Afodes

Family I. ANGUILLID&

Typical Eels with serpentiform bodies, some undergoing meta-

morphosis. The strongly compressed transparent Leptocephalus

which for along time had been a puzzle to naturalists, has at last

been discovered to be the larval form of the Eel.

104. Anguilla bicolor. Fresh-water Eel. Vern.: ‘ Kuruttoo-

vilangu ’.

Trevandrum, November.

105. Murenesox cinereus. Marine Bel. Vern.: ‘ Kadel-vilangu’.

Trevandrum, November.

106. Murenichthys schulizet. Marine Bel. Vern.: ‘ Variyen-

vilangu ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

107. Ophichthys orientalis. Marine Eel. Vern.; ‘ Kadel-

vilangu ’.

Quilon, March.

108. Ophicthys microcepbhalus. Marine Eel. Vern.: ‘ Kadel-

vilangu’.

Trevandrum, November.

Family Il. Muranipa

Of predacious habits, these fishes inhabit the tropical and

subtropical seas, especially about coral reefs ; some adapt themselves

to a fresh-water life, others inhabit the deep sea, living in holes and

crevices of rocks. They reach a length of 8 feet and weigh 60 Ibs.

Sometimes they become a nuisance to bathers.

109. Murena punctata. Spotted Eel. Vern.: ‘ Pulli Anjaulay ’.

Trevandrum, October.

110. Murena tessellata. Marine Kel. Vern.: ‘ Puli Anjaulay ’.

Cape Comorin, December. |

111. Murena pseudothyrsoidea. Marine Bel. Vern.: ‘Anjaulay’.

Trevandrum, October.

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIIL

112. Murena undulata. Marine Eel. Vern.: ‘Anjaulay’.

Cape Comorin, November.

113. Murena nebulosa. Marine Eel. Vern.: ‘Anjaulay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

The flesh of Marine Eels is inedible on account of its

rank and disagreeable odour.

Suborder 4. AHaplomz

Family I. SCOPELIDA

Pelagic or deep-sea fishes, the latter with luminous spots on the

head and body. Not a favourite food-fish. A good number are

extinct.

114. Saurus myops. Vern.: ‘ Naucaudi’.

Sasthancotta, November.

115. Saurida tumbil. Vern.: ‘ Kal-nama Kendai’.

Trevandrum, November,

Family Il. CyPpRINODONTID/®

These are small fresh-water fishes, with many brackish-water

forms, the former being recognized by the flat head; the sexes in

many instances differ, the females being larger and more beautifully

coloured.

They occur in tropical America and Africa and in the Mediterra-

nean.

116. HAaplochilus lineatus. Vern.: ‘ Manathu-kanni’.

Sasthancotta, November.

117. Haplochilus panchax. Vern.: ‘ Manathu-kanni ’.

Sasthancotta, November.

Suborder 5. Catosteomt

Family I. FIsTuLARIIDA

A single genus, comprising one species, found in the back-waters

of the seas of India. Body elongated, snout long and tubiform,

ending in a narrow mouth, set with minute villiform teeth.

The flesh is excellent and the fish is otherwise known as Flute-

mouth, Sea-snipe or Tobacco-pipe Fish.

118. Fistularia serrata. Flute-mouth. Vern.: ‘ Kolauchi’.

Trevandrum, January.

Family II]. AMPpHISILIDZ&

An exception among fishes, for the fact that the body of this fish

is much compressed and enclosed in a transparent shell of bony

armour, which is fused with the endoskeieton. The snout is elon-

gated and tubiform, ending in a toothless mouth.

119. Amphtsile scutata. Needle-fish.

Trevandrum, February.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 361

Family III. . SYNGNATHIDA

Pelagic fishes, living in weedy rock-pools of the sea-shore. Body

protected by an exoskeleton of bony rings. Snout much produced,

tubiform with the mouth terminal.

120. Syngnathus. sp., Pipe-tish.

Cape Comorin, December.

121. Aippocampus guttulatus. Sea-horse. Vern.: ‘Kadel-kuthiray’

Trevandrum, June.

The tail is destitute of a fin and is prehensile, being

used for coiling round sea-weeds.

The name of the fish is suggested by the resemblance of

the body to the model of the knight in chess. ‘They

swim with the body vertical. Found in warm seas.

Suborder 6. ercesoces

Family 1. SCcomMBRESOCIDA&

Carnivorous marine fishes comprising the Gar-pikes, and Flying-

fishes, which are mainly herbivorous, the diet consisting of green

alge. The bones of several species, are green and remain unalter-

ed, even after cooking, and on this account many people refuse to

eat the flesh ; some are viviparous and adapt themselves to a fresh

water existence. They occur in the tropical and temperate seas

including the Mediterranean.

122. Belone melanostigma. Gar-pike. Vern.: ‘ Kolia-morel ’.

Trevandrum, November.

123. Belone choram. Gar-pike. Vern.: ‘ Pilla-morel ’.

Trevandrum, November.

124. Belone litura. Gar-pike. Vern.: ‘ Morel’.

Trevandrum, November. -- as:

125. Belone strongylura. Gar-pike. Vern.: ‘ Koliasmorel ’.

Trevandrum, December.

126. Belone cancila. Gar-pike. Vern.: ‘ Koraulen ’.

Trevandrum, November.

127. Hemivamphus far. Half-beak. Vern.: ‘Morel’.

Trevandrum, July.

The lower jaw of the half-beaks is prolonged into a long

weapon of offence.

128. Hemiramphus xanthopterus. WHalf-beak. Vern.: ‘ Paul-

more! ’.

Trevandrum, September.

129.. Hemiramphus buttonts. Half-beak. Vern.: ‘ Morel’.

- Trevandrum, September.

130. Hemiramphus dispar. Half-beak. Vern.: ‘ Karu-morel’.

Trevandrum, October.

131. xocetus micropterus, Flying-fish. Vern.: ‘ Parava-

charlay ’.

Trevandrum, March.

132. Exocetus evolans. Flying-fish. Vern.: ‘ Parava-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITI

133. Exocetus bahiensis. Flying-fish. Vern.: ‘ Parava-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

Family Il. AmMopyTIDz

Of small size, these fish are gregarious and are known as Sand

launces, from their habit of diving into sand and living in sandy-

beaches. They are employed in baiting fish-hooks and they occur

in the Atlantic, the Southern Pacific and Indian Oceans.

134. Ammodytes callolepis. Sand-launce.

Cape Comorin, December.

Family III]. ATHERINIDA

The Sand-smelts are carnivorous fishes, mostly marine.

They are related to the Sphyrenide and the Muglide.

135. Atherina forskallit. Sand-smelt. Vern.: ‘ Morel-kendai,

Trevandrum, February.

Family IV. MuGrLipa&

The Grey Mullets are edible fishes, occurring in shoals in brac-

kish water. They are found in the tropical and temperate seas,

some of them being fresh-water immigrants.

136. Mugil cunnestus. Grey Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Maula’.

Trevandrum, December.

137. Mugil pecilus. Mullet. Vern.: ‘Maula’.

Cape Comorin, December.

138. Mugil amarulus. Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Maula’.

Trevandrum, December.

139. Mugil borneensis. Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Maula’.

Trevandrum, December.

140. Mugil troschellit. Mullet.

Cape Comorin, March.

Family V. PoLyNemMip#&

Edible marine and estuarine fishes, occurring in the seas of

India and tropical Western Pacific. They easily take a bait, and are

one of the chief sources of fish-maw. ‘They are known as Topsi or

Paradise-fish.

141. FPolynemus sexiarius. Mango-fish. Vern.: ‘Manangu’.

Trevandrum, August.

142. Polynemus indicus. Paradise-fish. Vern.: ‘ Manangu’.

Trevandrum, August.

143. Polynemus plebtus, Paradise-fish. Vern.: ‘ Manangu’.

Trevandrum, August.

Family VI. SpHYR&ANIDA

A small family of marine fishes of somewhat large size and

extremely voracious habits. The flesh is not always edible on

account of the poisonous properties developed at certain seasons.

Specimens of abnormal size are injurious to people bathing.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 363

144. Sphyrena jello. Barracoota. Vern.: ‘ Madavooli’.

Trevandrum, August.

145. Sphyrena acutipinnis. Barracoota. Vern.: ‘ Madavooli’.

Trevandrum, September.

146. Sphyrena commersoniz. Barracoota. Vern.: ‘ Madavooli’.

Trevandrum, September.

147. Sphyrena obtusata. Barracoota. Vern.: ‘ Madavooli’.

Trevandrum, September.

Family VII. STROMATEIDA

Pelagic or deep-sea fishes, with the body oblong and compressed

as in flat-fishes. They are good eating, and are found fairly

common in Travancore from June to September.

148. Stromateus sinensis. White Pomfret. Vern.: ‘ Vellai Avoli’.

Trevandrum, November.

149. Stromateus niger. Black Pomfret. Vern.: ‘ Karutha

Avoli’.

Trevandrum, September.

150. Stvomateus cinereus. Pomfret. Vern.: ‘ Akoli’.

Quilon, November.

Sold raw or salted and dried for markets.

Family VIII. OpHiocEPHALIDA

A small family of fresh-water fishes occurring in shoals in tanks

and rivers, and usually called‘ Murrel’ or Walking fish. In thedry

season, they are known to bury themselves in mud ina condition of

suspended animation, or to migrate to the adjoining pieces of

water during the night: The males build nests for the reception of

eggs and guard over them till they are hatched. They are suitable

for stocking tanks, and are agreeable food-fishes.

151. Ophiocephalus marulius. Snake-head. Vern.: ‘ Pooviral’.

| Trevandrum, January.

152. Ophiocephalus leucopunctatus. Walking-fish. Vern.: ‘ Pulit-

Viral

Trevandrum, January.

153, Ophiocephalus micropeltis. NVern.: ‘ Karuvauhay ’.

Covalum, February.

154. Ophiocephalus striatus. Vern.: ‘ Viral’.

Trevandrum, October.

155. Ophiocephalus gachua. Vern.: ‘ Para-koravai’.

Kulathupuzha, November.

Family [X. ANABANTID4

The Climbing Perches, possess remarkable powers of moving over

land surface, and climbing trees in search of insects, which is

effected by means of the spines with which their gill-covers and

ventral fins are armed. Owing to the peculiar structure of the

supra-branchial organ, they are very tenacious of life and can live

out of water like the Ophiocephali for considerable periods.

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

156. Anabas scandens. Climbing Perch. Vern.: ‘ Panayeri

Kendai ’.

Trevandrum, February.

Suborder 7. Acanthoptery git

Family 1. BrrycIpa

The majority of the fishes of this family live at great depths

and are related to the oldest Teleosteans ; a good many are fossil

forms. .

Of the eight genera, hitherto. known to:be represented in India,

two from Travancore contain shallow-water species.

157. Wyripristis murdjan. Vern.: ‘ Manda-kann’.

Trevandrum, February.

158. Holocentrum rubrum. Vern.: ‘ Kadantha-mulli’.

Trevandrum, February.

Family [I]. PEMPHERID&

Edible marine fishes of small size, inhabiting the tropical parts

of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

159. Pempheris russelliz, Vern.: ‘ Kuthavoo’.

Trevandrum, August.

Family III. CypHosipa&

Herbivorous fishes occurring in the Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Fins covered with scales.

160. Pimelepterus vagiensis. Vern.: ‘Sathay-meen ’.

Trevandrum, October.

161. Pimelepterus cineraceus. Vern : ‘ Kandei’.

Trevandrum, October.

162. Pimelepterus fuscus.

Trevandrum, January.

Family IV. Nanpipa

Carnivorous marine and fresh-water fishes with a protractile

mouth. The marine forms have not been recorded in Travancore,

which contains, two fresh-water genera, said to be peculiar -to

India.

163. Nandus marmoratus. Vern.: ‘ Motahree’.

Trevandrum, January.

164. Pristolepis tasciata.

Alleppy, December.

165. Pristolepis malabarica. Vern.: ‘ Kalluringee ’.

Cape Comorin, October.

Family V. SERRANIDA

Edible marine fishes of extremely voracious habits, living in still

water ; sometimes ascending rivers.

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PR BICL A MAIA SY

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A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRA) ANCORE 365

Serranus areolatus. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-kalavai’.

Trevandrum, February.

Serranus undulosus. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kalavai’.

Trevandrum, February.

Serranus sonneratt. Sea-perch. Vern.. ‘ Kalavai’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Serranus gilbertt. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kalavai’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Serranus hexagonatus. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Aluvay’.

Cape Comorin, December.

Serranus diacanthus.

Cape Comorin, November.

Serranus maculatus. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-kalavai’.

Trevandrum, October.

Serranus lanceolatus. Sea-perch.

Cape Comorin, November.

Priacanthus holocentrum. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Pasuva’.

Trevandrum, October.

Priacanthus indicus.

Trevandrum, November.

Lates calcartfer. Sea-perch. WVern.: ‘ Narimeen ’.

Trevandrum, November.

Ambasts thomast. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Muiloo-cheru’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Ambasts nalua. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘Sennel’.

‘Cape Comorin, November.

Ambasts myops. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kaka-sennel ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Ambasis gymnocephalus. Sea-perch.

Cape Comorin, November.

Amobasts urotenia. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, October.

Apogon hyalosoma. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, January.

Lutjanus annularts. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kalavai’.

Trevandrum, October.

Lutjanus rivulatus. Sea-perch.

Cape Comorin, January.

Lutjanus argentimaculatus. Sea-perch. Vern. : ‘ Chempalli’.

Trevandrum, October.

Lutjanus tulviflamma. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Polay’.

Covalum, December.

Lutjanus unimaculatus. Sea-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kurumay ’.

Cape Comorin, January.

Lutjanus johni. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, November.

Lutjanus marginatus. Sea-perch.

Covalum, December.

Lutjanus quinguelinearts. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, November.

Lutjanus madras. Sea-perch.

Cape Comorin, November.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

192. Therapon theraps. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, July.

193. Therapon quadrilineatus. Sea-perch.

Trevandrum, July.

Family VI. SILLAGINID&

Contains a single genus, connecting the Sevvanide and Sctenide.

194, Szllago sthama. Whiting. Vern.: ‘ Kizhanga meen’.

Trevandrum, October. Edible.

Family VII. Scia@inripzA

Of worid wide distribution, these fish ascend rivers, where they do

not live permanently.

195. Umbrina dussumtert. 'Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Koray’.

*Trevandrum, August.

196. Scza@na voglert. Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Koray’.

Trevandrum, June.

197. Sciena albida. ‘Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Koray’.

Alleppy, December.

198. Sczena sina. Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Koray’.

Trevandrum, July.

199. Sciena diacanthus. 'Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kathalai’.

Cape Comorin, November.

200. Sciena aneus. Thread-fish. Vern.: ‘ Penna-meen ’.

Trevandrum, July.

201. Ofolithus argenteus.

Cape Comorin, November.

Family VIII.—GErRRIDA

Body compressed, jaws protractile, mouth toothless. Most of the

species are of small size, occurring in all tropical and subtropical

seas.

202. Gerres filamentosus. WVern.: ‘ Pulli-prauchi ’.

Trevandrum, March.

203. Gerres oyena. Vern.: ‘Oodan’.

Cape Comorin, November.

204. Gerres lucidus. Vern.: ‘Qodan’.

Trevandrum, August.

205. Gerres limbatus. Vern.: ‘ Prauchi’.

Trevandrum, August.

206. ., ,Gerves sp; » Vern: * Prauchir.

Cape Comorin, November.

207. Agquula longimanus. Vern.: ‘ Kauray’.

Cape Comorin, November.

208. Eguula edentula. Vern.: ‘Saluva-kauray ’.

Trevandrum, July.

209. Eguula dussumteyt. Vern.: ‘ Nama-kauray ’.

Trevandrum, July.

210. Eguula splendens. Vern.: ‘ Kauna-kauray ’.

Trevandrum, February.

Neil emi?

REIT PILI: oi BINY veh

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 367

211. LEguula insidiatrix. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-kauray’.

Trevandrum, February.

212. Lguula fasctata. Vern.: ‘ Kauray ’.

Trevandrum, December.

213. Gazza equuletormis. Vern.: ‘ Kauray’,.

Trevandrum, February.

Family [X.—LACTARIID&

Carnivorous marine shore-fishes, covered with cycloid deciduous

scales. The flesh is delicious and is salted and dried in abundance.

214. Lactarius delicatulus, Butter-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kuthippu ’.

Family X—PRISTIPOMATID&

215. Pristiboma maculatum Vern.: ‘ Pulli-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, January.

216. Pristipoma furcatum. Vern.: ‘ Vari-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, October.

217. Pristiboma dussumiert. Vern.: ‘Kuthavoo’.

Trevandrum, January.

218. Pristihboma argenteum. Vern.: ‘ Pauray’.

Cape Comorin, December.

219. Pristtpoma gouraca. Vern.: ‘ Konan-koray ’.

Trevandrum, July.

220. Diagramma crasstspinum. Vern.: ‘ Adayameen’.

Trevandrum, November.

221. Diagramma griseum. Vern.: ‘ Adayameen’,

Trevandrum, November.

222. Diagramma pictum. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-koray ’.

Trevandrum, November.

223. Déagramma punctatum. Vern.: ‘ Pulli-koray ’.

Family XI].—SPARIDA

A widely distributed family, consisting of carnivorous and herbi-

vorous fishes inbabiting the tropical and temperate seas.

224. Scolopsts vosmert. Vern. : ‘ Kallen-coori ’.

Colachel, March.

225. Pagrus spiniter. Snapper. Vern.: ‘ Coori’.

Cape Comorin, November.

226. Lethrinus karwa. Sea-bream. Vern.: ‘ Karuva-meen’.

Parur, July.

227. Chrysophrys datnia. Grey-perch. Vern.: ‘ Kuruthalay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

228. Chrysobhrys aries. Grey-perch. Vern.: ‘Matwa’.

Trevanudrum, January.

Pagrus and Chrysophrys are found off the Atlantic coasts

of N. America, in the Mediterranean and off the coasts

of India.

Family XII. MULLID&

The Red-mullets are carnivorous marine fishes, mainly teeding on

decayed vegetable substances. They are amongst the choicest of

food-fishes and are restricted to the tropical seas.

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

229. Upeneoides vittatus. Red Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Chennavarai’.

Trevandrum, May.

230. Upeneoides sulphureus. Red Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Navarai’.

Trevandrum, May.

231. OUfencoides tragula. Red Mullet. Vern.: ‘Cheeral’.

Trevandrum, May.

232. Upeneus macronema. Red Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Kal-navarai ’.

Cape Comorin, January.

. 233, OUpeneus indicus. Red Mullet. Vern.: ‘ Pon-navarai ’.

Cape Comorin, January.

Family XIII. CH#TODONTIDA

Carnivorous marine, estuarine and river fishes, remarkable for the

beauty and variety of their colour, which is more or less protective.

The diet consists of the small invertebrates of the coral groves.

Not a popular food-fish.

234. Ephippus orbits. Vern.: ‘ Thavanai kauray ’.

Cape Comorin, August.

235. Scatophagus argus.

Trevandrum, June.

236. Chetodon vagabundus. Bristie-teeth. Vern.: ‘ Manja-kuli-

-meen ’.

Trevandrum, December.

237. Chetodon collaris. Bristle-teeth.

Cape Comorin, December.

238. Heniochus macrolepidotus. Vern.: ‘ Chutti-kanni’.

Trevandrum, August.

239. Hvlacanthus nicobartensis. Angel-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kannandi-

meen.’

Trevandrum, August.

240. Holacanthus annularis. Angel-fish. Vern.: ‘ Tharattai ’,

Trevandrum, July.

241. Holacanthus xanthurus. Angel-fish. Vern.: ‘Kalkasu-

meen. ’

Trevandrum, August.

242. Platax tetra. Sea-bat. Vern.: ‘ Vavvaul-meen ’.

Trevandrum, July.

The Sea-bat is remarkable for the height and breadth of its body.

It occurs in the Red Sea and the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; the flesh

is exceilent. Itis found fossil in the tertiary of Monte Boleca in

Northern Italy. |

Family XIV. DREPANIDA

A family of Scombroid fishes, related to the Chetodontide from

which, it is distinguished by the falciform elongate pectoral fin.

243. Drepane punctata. Vern.: ‘ Payinthi-meen’.

Trevandrum, July.

Family XV. ACANTHURIDA

Mostly herbivorous fishes, living in shoals among coral reefs.

The skin is rough and leathery, and there is a short spine situated

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A LIST OF FISHES TAREN IN TRAVANCORE 369

on either side of the tail by means of which the fish is capable of

inflicting a deep cut on the hands of imprudent persons.

244. Zanclus cornutus.

Trevandrum, June. |

245. Acanthurus triostegus. Surgeon-fish. Vern.: ‘ Vari-pauray’.

Cape Comcrin, February.

A widely distributed species.

246. <Acanthurus gahm. Vern.: ‘ Koli-meen’.

Trevandrum, July.

- 247, Acanthurus celebicus. Vern.: ‘ Koli-meen ’.

Trevandrum, July.

248. Naseus unicornis. Vern.: ‘Ottay-komben ’.

Trevandrum, July.

Family XVI. TEUTHIDIDA

A gtoup of herbivorous fishes, found in the Indian and Pacific

Oceans, among coral reefs.

249. Teuthts java. Vern.: ‘ Polay’.

Trevandrum, May.

250. Teuthis nebulosa.

Cape Comorin, December.

251. Teuthis marmorata.

Cape Comorin, December.

-252. Teuthis oramin.

Trevandrum, December.

Family XVII. OspPHROMENIDA‘

Fresh-water fishes, which have much in common with the ye

tide or Ophtocephalid@, and like them, have the power of. with-

standing removal from water and breathing air for a time, owing

to the presence of a supra-branchial organ.

253. Polyacanthus cupanus. Vern.: ‘ Vannanthi-meen ’.

Trevandrum, February.

Family XVIII. CrcHLipa

A small group of fresh and brackish water fishes, restricted to

lagoons and rivers. Edible.

254. Etroplus suratensts. Vern.: ‘ Chauni-kendai ’.

Trevandrum. October. |

255. Etroplus maculatus. WVern.: ‘ Setha-kendai ’.

Trevandrum, October.

Family XIX. PomMacEntTRiIpa

Gorgeousiy coloured carnivorous marine fishes, confined to the

coral reefs, where their diet consists of the medusz of the reefs, as

also vegetable organisms. They occur throughout the trupical

parts of the Indo-Pacific, and off the Atiantic coasts -of tropical

America.

256. Glyphidodon sordidus. Vern.: ‘ Yeru-meen’,

Trevandrum, November. =

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXit/

257. Glyphidodon bonang.

Trevandrum, February.

258. Glyphidodon celestinus.

Trevandrum, January.

259. Glyphidodon leucogaster.

Trevandrum, November.

Family XX. LABRIDA

A large family of marine fishes, partially carnivorous and partially

herbivorous, of world wide distribution, and usually called the

Wrasse. Teeth strong and parrot-like with the lips thick. They

are all brilliantly coloured.

260. Cherops anchorago. Wrasse. Vern. : ‘ Kili-meen’.

Trevandrum, September.

261. Platyglossus marginatus. Wrasse. Vern.: ‘ Kallurivi ’.

Trevandrum, August.

262. Platyglossus dussumiert. Wrasse. Vern.: ‘ Kallurivi’.

Trevandrum, September.

263. Novacula sp.

Trevandrum, August.

Family XXI. Scaripa

Teeth coalescent, often forming a parrot-like beak. These fish

feed on vegetable matter, corals and hard-shelled molluscs. Some

are edible, others, reputed poisonous. They are closely allied

to the Labride@.

264. Pseudoscarus ghobban. Parrot-wrasse. Ver. : ‘ Kili-meen’.

Trevandrum, September.

265. Pseudoscarus rivulatus. Parrot-wrasse. Vern. : ‘ Kiliemeen ’.

Trevandrum, August.

Family XXII. CarANncGIpéi

The Horse-mackerels are predaceous migratory marine fishes for

the most part edibie. Owing to unwholesome diet some of them

develop poisonous properties. They differ from the true mackerels

in having fewer vertebre.

266. Caranx rotileri?. WHorse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Vankaday ’.

Trevandrum, February.

267. Caranx jarra. WHorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Pauray ’.

Trevandrum, August.

268. Cavanx carangus. Horse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Pauray '.

Trevandrum, February.

269. Caranx hippos. Horse-mackerel. Vern.:‘ Pauray’.

Trevandrum, December.

270. Cazanx sansun. WHorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Pauray’.

Trevandrum, January.

271. Cavanx gymnosthetotdes. Horse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Pauray’.

Trevandrum, January.

272. Caranx crumenophthalmus. Horse-mackerel. Vern. :

“Rauray

a ee Se ee We de ee th ta Dull

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 371

Trevandrum, December.

Caranx dejedaba. UWorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Pauray ’.

Trevandrum, December.

Caranx aftfints. WHorse-mackerel. Vern. :‘ Pauray ’.

Trevandrum, December.

Caranx kalla. WHorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Kalla-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, December.

Caranx atropos. Horse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Thovu-pauray ’.

‘TTrevandrum, November.

Caranx malabaricus. WHorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Tholum-

pauray ’.

Trevandrum, December,

Caranx armatus. Horse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Pauray’.

‘lrevandrum, January.

Caranx gallus. WHorse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Pauray’.

Trevandrum, February.

Caranx ctiliarts. Horse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Malankylie’.

Trevandrum, February.

Caranx nigripinnis. Horse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Vari-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, February.

Cavanx speciosus. Horse-mackerel. Vern.: Puli-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, February. Rare. |

Caranx xanthurus. WHorse-mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Pauray ’.

Trevandrum, December.

Caranx trachurus. Horse-mackerel. Vern. : ‘ Koli-charlay ’.

Trevandrum, February.

Not recorded in the Faunal volume.

Seriolichthys bipinnulatus. Vern.: ‘ Poonguzhal’.

Trevandrum, February.

Chorinemus lysan Vern. : ‘ Manja-pauray

Quilon, July.

The flesh of this fish is rather dry and insipid.

Chorinemus toloo. Vern.: ‘Manja-pauray ’.

Trevandrum, May.

Chorinemus sp. Vern.: ‘ Pauray’.

Trevandrum, July.

Trachynotus batllont. Vern.: Valayodu’.

Trevandrum, February.

Trochynotus russelltz. Vern.: ‘ Valayodu’.

Trevandrum, July.

Mene maculata, Vern.: ‘ Pulli-kauray’.

Trevandrum, November.

Family XXIII Scomprip&

Active carnivorous fishes of pelagic habits, living in the open

seas and comprising the true mackerels. They vary in form and

color and are among the swiftest inhabitants of the sea. Some are

migrants.

292%

295:

Scomber macrolepidotus. Mackerel. Vern.: ‘ Ayalay’.

Trevandrum, January.

Thynuus thunnina. Tanny. Vern.: ‘Choora’,

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Trevandrum, January.

The Tunny reaches a length of 10 feet, though usually

it is about 2 feet. It is about the only fish known to be

warmblooded. At times its fleshis unfit for food, due

to its bad and unwholesome diet.

294. Thynnus pelamys. Bonito. Vern.: ‘ Kutti-choora’.

Trevandrum, January.

295. Cybtum gutiatum. Seir-fish. Vern.: ‘ Ney-meen’.

Trevandrum, August.

One of the favourite palatable staple food-fishes, most

delicious when it is 14 ft.to2ft.inlength. It grows

to 6 ft. and occurs in profusion in Travancore from

August to November.

296. Cybtum commersontz. Seir-fish. Vern: ‘ Mauvilasu’.

Trevandrum, January.

297. Elacate nigra. Vern.: ‘ Mothay’.

V'revandrum, October.

Family XXIV. ‘TRICHIURIDA

The Hair-tails and Scabbard fishes devour their own kind. They

are usually dried inthe sun or salted and they occur in the W. Indies,

the Atlantic and the Eastern seas from India to Japan.

298. Trichturus haumela. Hair-tail. Vern.: ‘ Sunnambu-vahlay ’,

Trevandrum, June.

299. Trichiurus savala. Scabbard-fish. Vern.: ‘ Kolla-vahlay’.

Trevandrum, July.

Family XXV. HIsTIOPHORIDA

The Sword and Spear-fishes are members of this family. Their

snout is prolonged to form a formidable weapon of offence, covered

with innumerable minute teeth on the outer surface.

The sword-fishes are conspicuously aggressive and attack whales

and other cetaceans, which they kill by repeated thrusts of the

sword. Sometimes they attack ships right through their timbers,

though sheathed with copper, under a mistaken idea of their being

whales, and in consequence their snouts get fixed and broken.

Portions of ships thus pierced, with the broken ends zz sztu, are

exhibited both in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and the Natural

History Museum, 8. Kensington.

These fish are said to attain a length of from 12 ft. to 15 ft. and

to weigh from 300 lbs. to 400 Ibs.

The flesh is palatable and nutritious.

-The sword-fishes are the largest of the bony fishes and occur iv

the Atlantic, the Indian and Pacific Oceans and inthe Mediterranean.

309. Histiophorus gladius. Sword-fish. Vern.: ‘ Myil-kola’.

Trevandrum, November.

It is known as ‘ Zhalay’ in Travancore.

The specimen exhibited in the Trevandrum Museum is

following legend;

‘Cases of injury inflicted by this fish on unfortunate

fishermen, have been treated in the General Hospital,

Rit Caden 9 VARA seatnn ka Aad

Pe ne ee Nt a, a me re

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE ' 373

Trevandrum. In one of these about 9 inches of the

sword, was taken from the fleshy part of the shoulder

of one man, who while sitting on his catamaran had

been wantonly attacked.’

301. Alistiophorus brevirostris. Spear-fish. Vern.: ‘Kattay-komben ’.

Trevandrum, March.

The spear-fish differs from the sword-fish in the modera-

tely developed dorsal fin and in the presence of spines,

representing the ventral fins. The Trevandrum

specimen is a painted plaster cast, reproduced from

the original which was 11 ft. 9 in. long.

Family XXVI. CORYPHANIDA

The Dolphins are swift, active and extremely voracious fishes,

inhabiting the high seas of the warm regions. They are remarkable

for their varying hues when taken out of water and on dying, and their

diet chiefly consists of flying-fishes. They occur in the Atlantic and

Indian Oceans and the Mediterranean

302. Coryphena hippurus. Dolphin.

Trevandrum, August,

Family XXVIII. PLEURONECTIDA

‘The Flat-fishes or Turbots live in sandy gravelly shores. The

young are symmetrical in shape; but in the course of development

there is a deviation from the bilateral symmetry characteristic of

the Craniate Vertebrates. The body becomes laterally compressed,

and the fish instead of turning over on one side, swims vertically ;

the eye of this side travels round till it comes close to the other eye,

so that both eyes are on one side of the head. ‘There is adistortion

of the skull and a fusion of the dorsal ard anal fins and there is also

a blind side to the body, which is white, the upper being brown.’

Flat-fishes occur in all seas, some in estuaries and some

exclusively in fresh-water. They are absent from rocky shores.

303. Synaptura commersonianus. Soie. Vern.: ‘ Nauku’.

Trevandrum, Augusi.

304. Synaptura orientalis. Sole. Vern. ‘ Sappathi

Trevandrum, August.

305. Synaptura mulitfasctata. Sole. Vern. : ‘ Sappathi ’.

Trevandrum, September.

306. Cynoglossus dubius. Sand-sole. Vern. : ‘ Sappathi’.

Trevandrum, October.

307. Cynoglossus brevis. Sand-sole. Vern. :‘ Nauku’.

Alleppy, October.

Only in the Hoogly at Calcutta 7. A./.

308. Cynoglossus brachyrhynchus. Sand-sole. Vern. : ‘ Nauku’.

Trevandrum, November.

309. Cynoglossus bengalensts. Sand-sole. Vern. : ‘ Nauku ’.

Trevandrum, October.

310. Cynoglossus, sp. Sand-sole. Vern.: ‘ Nauku’.

Trevandrum, October.

)

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

311. Psettodes erumet. Flat-fish. Vern. : ‘ Yerumay-nauk ’.

Trevandrum, June.

312. Pseudorhombus arsius. Tile-fish. Vern. : ‘ Manangu ’.

Trevandrum, June.

313. Pseudorhombus javanicus. Tile-fish. Vern.: ‘ Manangu’.

Trevandrum, September.

314. Pseudorhombus triocellatus. Tile-fish. Vern. : ‘ Pulli-man-

angu’.

Trevandrum, September.

315. Plagusta marmorata. Tile-fish. Vern. : ‘ Olay-manangu ’,

Trevandrum, March.

Family XXVIII. Gosimp#

A family of cosmopolitan fishes of carnivorous habits and small

size, haunting rocky coasts. ‘The pelvic fins are fused together to

form a ventral suctorial disk, which enables the fish to attach itself

to rocks and withstand the force of raging waves.

Some are marine, some brackish-water forms and some fresh-

water immigrants.

316. Eleotrts fusca. Goby. Vern. : ‘ Kuthira-vauly ’.

Trevandrum, November.

317. Eleotris butts. Goby. Vern. : ‘ Kuthira-vauly ’.

Trevandrum, November.

318. Gobtus giurus. Goby. Vern. : Poonthy’.

Trevandrum, September. :

319. Gobtus tentacularis. Goby. Vern. : ‘ Poonthy ’. ;

Quilon, April.

320. Gobtus striatus. Goby. Vern. : ‘ Kadel Uluvay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

321. Gobitus personata. Goby. Vern. :‘ Uluvay ’.

Trevandrum, January.

322. Gobius griseus. Goby. Vern. :‘ Uluvay ’.

Trevandrum, May.

323. Apocryplits bato.

Cape Comorin, December.

Family XXIX. ECHENEID

Edible carnivorous fishes, having the spiny dorsal fin modified :

into a flat laminated disk by means of which, they attach :

themselves to sharks, turtles and even ships, or any floating object

in the sea, and profit by the refuse of the shark’s dinner or offal

thrown overboard.

In Cuba and Jamaica, they are used for hunting by fishermen who

attach to their tail a strong cord ot palm-fibre, which serves to

draw them out of the water along with the prey.

324. Echenets naucrates. Sucker-fish. Vern. : ‘ Uru-kunjoo’.

Trevandrum, October.

325. Echenets remora. Sucker-fish. Vern. : ‘ Uru-kunjoo’.

Trevandrum, September.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 375

Family XXX. ScCoRPa:NIDA

Carnivorous marine fishes of viviparous habits, for the most part

of small size. They have astay or buttress across the cheek and the

head which is large. The opercles are armed with poisonous

spines, and in some species are transformed into poison glands.

The majority are found among coral groves and their fin-rays are

curiously elongated and fringed. Some are ugly, others remark-

able for their brilliant color. The young are born when about one-

fourth of aninch long. The flesh is relished by the poor.

326. Scorpena bleekert. Scorpion-fish. Vern.: ‘ Moochay ’.

Cape Comorin, February.

327. Scorbenaarmata. Scorpion-fish. Vern.: ‘ Moochay ’.

Cape Comorin, February.

328. Scorpena venosa. Scorpion-fish. Vern.: ‘Moochay

Cape Comorin, October.

Coromandel Coast of India, /.&./.

329. Pterois miles. Vern.: ‘ Thoombay ’.

Cape Comorin, October.

330. Pterots russelliz, Vern.: ‘Thoombay ’.

Cape Comorin, October.

331. Pterots antennata. Vern.: ‘ Thocmbay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

332. Pteroits zebra. Vern.: ‘ Vari-thoombay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

333. Apistus carinatus. Vern.: ‘ Vari-thoombay ’.

Trevandrum, September.

334. Gymnopistus dracena. Vern: ‘ Vari-thoombay ’.

Cape Comorin, February.

335. Minous monodactyla.

Cape Comorin, February.

Family XXXI. PLATYCEPHALIDA

The Crocodile-fishes, also known as Spiny-heads, inhabit the

Indian ocean and the Western Pacific. They are bottom fishes, and

their colour is protective. Only one genus, consisting of two species,

is represented in Travancore.

336. Platycrphalus scaber. Crocodile-fish. Vern.: ‘ Orathay ’.

Trevandrum, June.

337. Platycephalus tnsidiator. Crocodile-fish. Vern.: ‘ Ullpathi ’.

Trevandrum, June.

Family XXXI. DACTYLOPTERID

The Flying Gurnards are edible fishes of elongate form, charac-

terized by acovering of osseous keeled scales, with the head complete-

ly mailed. The pectoral fins, which are enormously developed and

wing-like, are divided into two portions, and the flight of the fish,

which consists of long or short leaps, is effected by the stout tail

and the caudal fin. The eggs are pelagic and buoyant, and are

found in almost all warm seas.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

338. Dactylopterus orientalis. Flying Gurnard. Vern.: ‘ Anei-

thoombi ’.

Trevandrum, May.

Family XXXIII. URANOSCOPIDA

The Star-gazers are rapacious fishes, lying in ambush at the sea-

bottom in shallow water. Eyes on top of head and capable of being

raised or depressed at will. They chiefly inhabit the warm temperate

seas of both hemispheres. .

339. Urvranoscopus guttatus. Star-gazer. Vern. : ‘ Manathu-kanni’.

Trevandrum, October.

340. ILchthyscopus inermts. Star-gazer. Vern.: ‘ Nelam-kodan-

jan @

Trevandrum, November. Not uncoinmon.

Family XXXIV. BLENNIIDA

The Blennies are shore-fishes, resembling the Gobies in size, with

a covering of soft shining skin, which is either naked or scaly.

They inhabit brackish and fresh-water onrocky shores where they

lurk about the crevices of rocks, among sea-weeds or under stones.

Some are oviparous and some viviparous; some carnivorous,

others herbivorous. ‘They are known as jumping-fishes.

341. Salarias steindachnert. Blenny. Vern. ‘ Kallappi’.

Cape Comorin, January.

342. Salarias kirki. Blenny. Vern. ‘ Kallappi’.

Covalum, May

343. Salarias bilitonensts. Blenny. Vern. ‘ Kallappi’.

Cape Comorin, November.

344. Salarias unicolor.

Cape Comorin, January.

Family XXXV. BATRACHIDA

The Toad-fishes are creatures of sluggish habits ascending rivers.

The males take care of the brood. They occur in the tropical warm

seas and are not edible.

345. Batrachus grunniens. Toad-fish. Vern.: ‘ Thavala-meen’.

Cape Comorin, November.

Suborder 8. Opzsthom

Family I. MASTACEMBELIDA

The Spiny-Hels are edible carnivorous, fresh and brackish-water

fishes of Southern Asia and tropical! America. Dorsal and anal

fins confluent.

346. Rhynchobdella aculeata. Thorn-backed Eel. Vern.: ‘ Aural ’.

Trevandrum, October.

347. Mastacembelus armatus. Spiny Eel. Vern.: ‘Kal-aural’.

Trevandrum, October.

348. Mastacembelus guenthert. Spiny Eel. Vern.; ‘ Kal-aural’,

Trevandrum, October.

RPA ea ge ae ae

;

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 377

Suborder 9. FPediculatz.

Family I. ANTENNARIIDA:

Body compressed, tumid. Dorsal fin modified into tentacles and

the carpal bones, into a long arm-like appendage.

The Frog-fishes lead an inactive life on the bottom of coral reefs,

where they lie in wait for prey. Their brilliant color harmonises with

that of the sea-weeds, and is protective.

349. Antennartus mummiter. Frog-fish. Vern.: ‘ Moochay.’

Trevandrum, November. ‘

Family Il. MALTHIDA

Head and body covered with bony tubercles or spines. Spinous

dorsal absent or reduced to a more orless developed tentacle,

lodged in a cavity under the snout.

350. Halieutea stellata. Bat-fish. Vern.: ‘ Vavvaul-meen’.

Trevandrum, September.

Suborder 10. Plectognathi.

Family I. TRIACANTHIDA

The body is covered with hard prickly scales, with a pair of

strong erectile ventral fins. Pelvis present.

351. Tvriacanthus strigiliter. Vern. : ‘ Kiauthi’.

Trevandrum, November.

352. Triacanthus indicus. Vern.: ‘ Komben-klauthi’.

Trevandrum, July.

Family II. BALIsTIDa

This family comprises the File-fishes which are covered with

juxtaposed movable scutes or rough spines. Teeth in jaws power-

ful and incisor-like, which enable the fish to break off pieces of coral

or hard-shelled molluscs, on which they live.

The flesh has a rank odour andthe poorer classes eat it on

account of its cheapness.

The file-fishes occur around coral reefs; their rough skin is used

as a substitute for sand-paper and the largest specimen is said to

reach upwards of 3 feet in length.

They are found in the tropical parts of the Atlantic and the Medi-

terranean, beside the Indian Ocean.

353. Baltstes mitts. File-fish.

Cape Comorin, November.

354. Baltstes viredescens. File-fish.

Colachel, August.

355. Balistes erythrodon. File-fish.

Trevandrum, December.

356. Balistes stellarts.

Trevandrum, December.

357. Monacanthus scriptus.

Trevandrum, August.

This fish is covered with rhomboidal scales which are

rough and so small, as to give the skina velvety

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

appearance. It is herbivorous, living among coral

reefs.

The flesh of many is poisonous.

Family III. ORSTRACIONTIDA

The Ostracion or Trunk-fish, derives its name from the angulated

box-like carapace or cuirass, composed of innumerable close-fitting

juxtaposed hexagonal bony plates, forming a mosaic, sometimes

with two horn-like projections in front above the eyes and two on

either side behind the origin of the caudal fin. They live in shallow

water near the bottom in the tropical seas.

358. Ostracion turritus. Coffer-fish, Vern. : ‘ Yavay’.

Trevandrum, June.

359. . Ostracton cubzcus. ‘Cofter-fish. - Vetn. ? SYavaye™.

Trevandrum, December.

360. Ostracion nasus. Coffer-fish. Vern.: ‘ Yavay’.

Cape Comorin, July.

361. Ostracton cornutus. Coffer-fish. Vern. : ‘ Yavay’.

Cape Comorin, July.

Family IV. TETRODONTIDA

The name Globe-fish is applied to several fishes of the genera

Tetrodon and Diodon. Body short and thick, either naked or

covered with scutes or spines and inflatable. The bones of the

jaws are confluent, forming a parrot-like beak, and present the

appearance of four large front teeth, owing to a median suture on

each jaw. The skin is naked or covered with movable spines,

rarely with bony plates.

They haunt coral groves and live on molluscs, and they have the

power of suddenly inflating the body by swallowing air and assum-

ing a globular form, the spines become erect and form formidable

weapons. They float at the surface of the sea on their backs; the

flesh of some is regarded as poisonous, though others are said to

be regularly eaten.

They inhabit all the tropical and warm seas ; some enter estuaries

and ascend rivers. Many of the Tetrodons make a croaking

sound.

362. Tetvodon tnermis. Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay’.

Trevandrum, December.

363. Tetrodon lunaris. Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay ’.

Trevandrum, December.

364. Tetrodon patoca. Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay’.

Cape Comorin, February.

365. Tetrodon unimaculatus. Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay’.

Trevandrum, February.

366. Tetrodon stellaris. Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

367. Tetrodon tluviatilis, Globe-fish. Vern. : ‘ Paythay’.

‘Trevandrum, February.

A LIST OF FISHES TAKEN IN TRAVANCORE 379

Family V. DIODONTID&

Body covered with strong stout movable spines, which are erec-

tile and constitute a defensive armour and an offensive weapon ;

these can be distinctly seen when the body is inflated. The jaws

are topped with ivory-like enamel instead of teeth. They are

undivided, so that there appears to bea tooth above and another

below, whence the name of the family. The Dzodons are innocent

creatures until molested when they become truly formidable to deal

with. In their inflated condition they are unable to swim but come

to the surface, lying on their backs, and allow themselves to be

carried along by the tide. They are destructive to sharks.

When they desire to revert to their normal condition, they expel

the air or water from the gullet through the mouth.

368. Diodon hystrix. Porcupine-fish or Sea Hedge-hog. Vern. :

Mulloo-paythay.

Trevandrum, March.

369. Dzodon maculatus. Spotted Hedge-hog. Vern. : ‘ Pulli-

paythay ’.

Cape Comorin, November.

SHELLS

OF THE TROPICAL SEAS

IpbA COLTHURST

PART I

(With a photo)

Unviewed, the mysterious construction of the beautiful is con-

tinually proceeding in the sea, revealed, generally speaking, only

by the scatter of shells on the shore, the architecture of myriads of

creatures to whose very form we are strangers and of whose

manner of life we are ignorant. What produces such exquisitely

delicate objects ? And what is his wonderful natural history ?

Did he stand at the diamond door

Of his house in a rainbow frill ?

Did he push when he was uncurl’d

A golden foot or a fairy horn

Thro’ his dim water world ?

The quondam inmates of shells are known as Mollusca; most

wonderful and interesting creatures in their physical formation and

modes of life. To the merely indifferent observer they appear to

be nothing more than amass of slimy matter, insensible to every-

thing but touch, either burdened with a house on their backs or

imprisoned between two calcareous leaves. Butin reality, they

have every faculty requisite for the life they lead in a watery

element; they have a wonderfully constructed breathing apparatus,

heart, nerves and strong muscles to hold them to their shells, eyes

placed on retractile horns or mere spots in contact with a nerve;

some have minute and rapidly vibrating structures called Cz/za by

means of which they move their bodies, others have tubes or

syphons to take in water and eject it in the opposite direction thus

enabling them to swim. Some lead an independent life, moving

freely where they will, either in the water or progressing along sea-

bottom by means of a slimy, strong foot; others fix themselves to

foreign objects as soonas they attain adult age, or anchor them-

selves by spinning a set of silky threads known as a byssus; others

again work their way into wood or soft calcareous rocks and there

imprison themselves for life. Some are carnivorous, ‘ devourers

all, all in turn devoured’, with few but strong teeth and sometimes

poison glands; others are vegetable feeders browsing on seaweeds ;

SHELLS: OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 381

and many have innumerable teeth arranged in rows on a long

ribbon-like tongue.

Each sea-basin produces its own peculiar inhabitants, the species

being controlled by geographical situation, ocean currents, struc-

ture and outline of the coast, and chiefly depth, because pressure

and diminution of light are very important factors. As regards

depth, there are distinct zones of life succeeding each other.

First, the Lzttora/ zone, the tract of beach covered and uncovered

by the tides, inhabited by animals capable of bearing periodical

exposure to light, air and the heat of the sun, where what may be

termed the ‘ passive molluscs’ throng ; secondly, the Lamznarian

zone, which simply swarms with all marine life living in the

meadows or tangle-forests of sea-weeds. Thirdly, the Coradline

zone extending from 30 to 100 fathoms, where plants are rare but

are replaced by graceful corals and their feathery allies, simulating

fairy-like gardens in which avast number of carnivorous molluscs

prowl and other rainbow-hued creatures congregate to form

A world of wonders, where Creation seems

No more the works of nature but her dreams !

All the marine JZollusca do not burden themselves with shells,

but when present they are amost conspicuous feature. In many,

it is just a coiled and ornamented tube, termed a Unzvalve ; in others,

it is a two-hinged piece, a Bzvalve ; and in the Chztons it appears as

light, overlapping plates. The shell is secreted by special cells in

the mantle or covering skin of the animal, increasing in size by

fresh deposits to its free edges, and in thickness by additions on

the inner surface. The process is periodical and there are seasons

of rest indicated on the shell surface by marks and ridges. The

composition is Carbonate of Lime mixed with a horny substance

which also frequently forms the outermost layer; below this is

the main layer, either porcellaneous or crystalline and in certain

cases prismatic; the innermost layer is often pearly, the iridiscence

arising from the refraction of light by the very thin plates of its

structure. The species of shells in tropical and shallow seas are

brighter coloured than those confined to colder and deeper water.

Shell bearers are a vast host, and a handful of beach shingle or

a pinch of ocean sediment will reveal their diversity. Their

history too is that of the world, for through the ages, dead shells

have built the solid portions of the earth in the ancient seas. And

putting aside pearls (the most precious produce of the ocean), the

Mollusca are of great economic value, affording man food and

entering into many industries particulars of which will be mentioned

in dealing with individual species.

The most highly organized of the race are the Cephalopoda, which,

as their name implies, walk on their heads when they are not

‘winnowing with giant arms the slumbering green ;’ ‘ jabbewocky,’

snake-armed monsters, concerning whom fable and fancy have run

wild from the days of the Hydva of Hercules and the Pveuvre of

Victor Hugo to the devil fish of modern sailors. Members of this

family generally have an internal, rudimentary and uncalcified

shell; but the Pearly Nautilus (NN. Pompilius), an inhabitant of the

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Indo-Pacific Seas has a large and beautiful external one which is a

fairly familiar object among the dédris of the waves. The outer

THE PEARLY NAUTILUS

(VV. Pompilius.)

surface is porcelain-like, boldly ornamented with chestnut splashes

and lines, the inner one is nacreous; internally, it presents a series

of chambers divided by most delicate partitions and connected by a

tube which reaches to the very core and through which the animal

is believed to pass a syphon in order to steady itself in the shallow

outermost chamber where it lives.

The Pearly Nautilus is a part of Nature’s oldest book, for through

all the diverse marine conditions and the altering temperatures

during the long periods of the deposition of the various sedimentary

rocks of the globe, it has lived and still flourishes in as great abun-

dance in our warm seas as it did in Palgozoic times. Although the

shell is so common the animal is rarely seen, fcr it is one of the

depth-dwellers and most plentiful in the vicinity of coral reefs. In

calm weather numbers may be met with floating on the surface of

the sea, with head and tentacles protruded and very little of the

sheil above water. They are trapped and eaten by the Pacific

islanders; and in India begging pilgrims who have visited Rames-

waram use the shell, which is much larger in the male, as a beggar’s

bowl. Dr. Holmes wrote thus fancifully in describing one, dead

and broken :—

‘ This is the ship of pearl, which poets feign

Sails the unshadow’d main—

The venturous bark that flings

On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings,

Its webs of living gauze no more unfurl ;

Wrecked is the ship of pearl !

And every chamber’d cell,

Where its dim dreaming life was wont to dwell,

As the frail tenant shap’d his growing shell,

Before thee lies reveal’d ;

Its irised ceiling rent, its sunless crypt unsealed !

Year after year beheld the silent toil,

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 383

That spread his lustrous coil ;

Still, as the spiral grew

He left the past year’s dwelling for the new,

Stole with soft step its shining archway through,

Built up its idle door,

Stretched in his last-found home and knew the old no more!

Another shell-owning Cephalapod has also inspired the muse of the

poets, the Argonaut or Paper Nautilus, which has been believed from

very ancient times to float over the sea in its horn-shaped boat,

holding up as sails a couple of distended arms, and using the others

as oars.

Light as a flake of foam upon the wind,

Keel upward from the deep emerged a shell,

Shap’d like the moon ere half her horn is filled ;

Fraught with young life it righted as it rose,

And mov’d at will along the yielding water.

The native pilot of this little bark

Spread to the wafting breeze a two-fold sail,

And mounted up and glided down the billow

In happy freedom.

Unfortunately, this delightful description is purely mythical.

The wide membranous arms do not perform the duties of sails, but

have a more prosaic utility, that of secreting the shell, while the

more slender ones capture small marine creatures, especially a

beautiful butterfly-shaped mollusc on which the Argo chiefly feeds.

The shell, open and thin as paper, corrugated but only slightly

coiled, is secreted by the female alone and is a receptacle for her

eggs. She is much larger than the male and very beautiful, a

silver mass spotted with rose and banded with blue. In the ocean

the Argonaut progresses by violently ejecting water through a

moderately long tube called the syphon, the reaction driving it in

the opposite direction. ‘

The Nautilus is believed to live on crabs and prawns.

SAtrula also is a Cephalapod with a shell which is common and

frequently thrown up in thousands on our shores, tiny, spirally-

coiled and chambered, with the whorls widely apart; but the animal

itself was rarely seen, as it is an inhabitant of deep water, until 1922

when large numbers were obtained by a Danish naturalist off the

West Indies.

(To be continued)

(ae

REVISIONAL NOTES ON THE GENUS HELIOPHORUS

(LYCE#NID4) WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW FORMS

N. D. RILEY

British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington

(With twenty-eight text-figures)

The best attempt at a complete revision of this essentially Himalayan genus

hitherto published is that by Fruhstorfer (1918). It is accompanied by photo-

graphs of the ¢ genitalia of certain species, and is based upon a study of these

parts. In the light of a fuller examination of the ¢ genitalia, however, certain

of his conclusions appear no longer tenable, and as, further, he misidentified

several of the species concerned, the following notes, which, it is hoped, will

render these very beautiful little Lycezenidz more readily and certainly

identifiable, may not be out of place.

Col. Evans has recently (1927) published an excellent key of the Indian

representatives of this genus, amending his earlier key (1925) after seeing the

material in the British Museum and making full use of the information

on synonymy that had since become available. The following notes are in the

main in agreement with his revised key. Col. Evans quite rightly removes

Heliophorus from the Theclinz and associates it with the Coppers (Heodes),

with which, as pointed out by Fruhstorfer, it is indeed very closely allied.

In writing these notes I have been very greatly assisted by the material

placed at my disposal by Major-General Sir Harry Tytler and by Mr. G. T.

Bethune-Baker. But for the loan of preparations made some years back by

Mr. Bethune-Baker Heliophorus bakert might yet have remained unrecognized.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF Heliophorus

1. (2) Underside dull ochreous with very wide

orange marginal band and 2 promi-

nent black spots, 1 costal, the other

in lc, of hindwing oh Sena.

2. (17) Underside bright ochreous, red marginal

band clearly continued, less broadly

than on hindwing, to apex of fore-

wing; no prominent black spots ;

discal line represented in areas 2-5 of

hindwing by white splashes.

(8) Upperside deep shining purple.

(5) Purple area occupying less than two-

thirds of forewing ; oblique subapical

red bar sometimes present epitles g.

(6) Same area occupying much more than

two-thirds of forewing.

(7) Forewing below much suffused with

orange-red... : ame the

(6) Not so, uniformly ochreous . kohimensts 3.

(3) Upperside deep brown, with red mar-

kings.

10. (13) Red markings consisting of an oblique

subapical bar on forewing, and

marginal band on hindwing, only.

Hq G2

WM Dm

Ld.

WZ:

IS.

18.

19.

. (27) Upperside golden coppery

. (28) Upperside brassy-green

(12) Underside forewing red marginal band

extending to beyond vein 6 Ja

(11) Same band barely extending beyond

vein 5; red markings of upperside

very dull, not bright red

(16) Red markings of forewing forming large

circular discal patch, but not ex-

tending to base.

. (15) Hindwing upperside without discal red

scales

. (14) With discal red scales

(13) Forewing red markings extending to

base ; hindwing also mostly red

. (18) Underside ochreous with red marginal

band of equal width on both wings ;

outer two-thirds of hindwing above

grey-blue ; tail long, white os

(17) Underside forewing with, at most, a

very narrow red marginal line; no

white splashes on hindwing disc

beneath ; faint discal lines and lines

at cell ends generally traceable on

; both wings, but often absent.

(24) Hindwing with a tooth only, no tail,

at vein 2 ; gf above non-metallic blue ;

2 as usual in genus.

. (21) Underside discal lines straight, promin-

ent (especially on forewing), dark;

forewing disc in both sexes flushed

orange

» (20) Discal lines absent, or if faintly indicated

then consisting of a series of fine

arched lines most readily seen in

areas 2 and 3 of forewing

. (23) Hindwing underside red marginal band

evenly irrorated with white scales

throughout. d¢ upperside mane

at least two-thirds blue ...

(22) Hindwing marginal band not so. 8

upperside forewing basal half only

blue aes

. (19) Hindwing distinctly tailed at vein 2,

; (50) Upperside with at least basal metallic

scaling, generally for the most part

some shade of brilliant metallic

blue, green, bronze, or coppery——

MALES.

(37) Upperside silvery blue.

. (34) Silvery blue barely extending beyond

cell-end

. (31) Underside hindwing marginal red band

entirely irrorated with white

. (30) Same band irrorated with white only on

inner half.

. (33) Hindwing upperside with only two

narrow red lunules

. (32) Hindwing apse with five wide

lunules Ms Ane

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYCAENIDA) — 385

epicles Q.

subspp. zudicus,chinensts,

phentcoparyphus and

matsumure.

kohimensts &,

epicles ssp. sumatrensts 2

epicles subspp. epicles

and Azlima 2.

tla Q.

kiana,

oda.

bakert.

bakeri tf. vernalis,

bakert t. bakert.

brahma &.

Aybrida &.

androcles rubida &.

a.vrubtda t. gemma 2.

androcles tytleri &.

andyrocles rubtda 8.

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

34.

33.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44,

45.

46,

47.

48,

49,

50.

Sl.

56.

o7.

(29) Silvery blue extending directly beyond

cell-end for (as a rule) at least 2 mm.

(36) Underside marginal red band entirely

and evenly irrorated with white

scales aoe ve an:

. (35) Same band not so irrorated ...

. (44) Upperside deep blue.

. (41) Upperside hindwing blue area extending

narrowly into area lc, not reaching

marginal red lunule broadly, if at

all.

(40) Underside hindwing marginal band

entirely and evenly irrorated with

white scales; no discal line either

wing ae be

(39) Same band not so ‘irrorated : “discal lines

present eee oa eee

(38) Upperside hindwing blue area occupying

practically the whole of area lc, and

broadly reaching red marginal

lunule.

(43) Underside hindwing marginal band

entirely and evenly irrorated white

scales was Are Ra

(42) Marginal band not so irrorated. A

larger form aoe fe

(45) Upperside silvery green cas as

(44) Upperside forewing at least basally

frosted with green scales.

(47) Frosted area moderately dense, occupy-

ing approximately basal half of fore-

wing ee aa

(46) Frosted area much Jess; sometimes

represented by a few scales only.

(49) Hindwing upperside without marginal

red lunule in area 3

(48) With red lunule in area 3, and ‘sometimes

also in 4

(25) Upperside without metallic colouring,

but with prominent red or orange

markings—FEMALES.

(54) Hindwing underside red marginal band

evenly irrorated throughout with

white scales.

. (53) Underside without discal lines

. (52) Discal lines present S

. (51) Hindwing underside marginal band not

so irrorated.

. (58) Upperside marginal lunules narrow—

less than 1mm. widein area2; fine

grey marginal line continued into

area 5.

(57) Hindwing underside discal lines promi-

nent, marginal red band narrow,

moderately even, the white lunules

bordering it inconspicuous

(56) Discal lines almost absent, marginal band

unusally broad (at least 2 mm. at

narrowest point), very uneven

between vein 3 and 7, white lunules

large and prominent :

androcles coruscans f.

langit &.

androcles coruscans &

androcles mooret &

androcles moorei f.

scintillans J.

saphir saphir &.

saphir f. marica db.

androcles androcles &.

tamu tamu &.

tamu kala g.

tamu eventa &.

saphir f. saphir Q.

androcles spring or dry

season forms 2

tamu &.

saphir f. marica &.

a. 4 See ee

eee ee eee ts Se Clee Sere ae

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYCAENIDZE) 387

58. (55) Upperside marginal lunules wider, fully

1mm. wide in area 2; grey marginal

line only present in areas lc and 2.

59. (60) Hindwing upperside marginal band

ending at vein 6, and not noticeably

wider there than elsewhere ... androcles &,

60, (59) Same band noticeably wider at vein 6

than elsewhere, and always continu-

ed to vein 7, sometimes further .. brahma &.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE SPECIES

GRovup I.—Clasps simple, without teeth or strong spines.

1. HELIOPHORUS SENA Koll. 1848

Llerda cadma Dbl. List Lep. B.M. (nom. nud.) 1847.

Type locality: ‘In Himalaya, Massuri, Belaspur.’ Obtained in both places

by Hugel.

Fruhstorfer (1918) gives a very good photograph of the ¢ genitalia of this

species, showing well the short, stout and bluntly terrninated claspers. A. sena

has the most simple ¢ genitalia of any species in the group; its geographical

range (Chitral to Kumaon) is distinctly different from that of any other species ;

and it is stated to frequent more open ground than the other species and to

have rather different habits. The larva feeds on Rumex. It isin fact a some-

what isolated form.

2. HELIOPHORUS EPICLES, Godt. 1823

Type locality: Java. ,

Fruhstorfer (1918) gives a good figure of the genitalia of this species, taken

apparently from a Formosan specimen. He is also responsible for most of the

named forms.

Outline drawings of ¢ genitalia,

Fic. 1.—Heliophorus epicles indicus, \ateral aspect, from the left.

ae 8 iA ventral aspect.

Outline drawings of the ¢ genitalia, showing lateral and ventral aspects

(Figs. 1 & 2), and made from dissections of a ¢ from Darjeeling, are given for

the sake of comparison with the next three species. The long, narrow distal

portion of the valve in particular should be noted.

(a) H. epicles indicus, Fruhst. 1908

Type locality: Originally given (1908) as Sikkim, Bhutan, Assam, Annain.

Modified by Fruhstorfer (1912) to Sikkim to Assam, Bhutan, Kumaon and

Burma; and again (1918) to Kumaon to Upper Burma. Sikkim should be

taken as the type locality.

Fruhstorfer’s description appears to have been based upon dry season (? early

spring or late autumn) specimens from Sikkim. At the same time he described

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

the commonest (? wet season form) as f. datelimbata, and as ab. rufonotata

males with red subapical patch on the forewing upperside. The characteristics

distinguishing f. zxdicws and f. latelimbata apply throughout the genus. In

the former, as in spring examples of other species, the marginal bands on the

underside are narrow and almost completely and evenly irrorated with white

scales ; on the hindwing upperside the marginal band is very fully developed.

In f. latelimbata, as in the summer broods of the other species also, the

marginal red band of the upperside of the hindwing is much reduced, sometimes

almost absent, but, on the underside, wide and well developed and only

irrorated with white scales in its outer half.

Ab. rufonotata isa very common form among summer brood examples.

Fruhstorfer remarks that it occurs in f. zzdicus and f. latelimbata, yet, although

I have examined some hundreds of specimens from India, Burma and Assam,

I only know of one case of its occurrence inf. zudicus, a g from Sikkim.

About half the latelimbata examples exhibit the vufonotata character in

Sikkim, Bhutan and Assam, but it is rarer in Burmese specimens.

fH. epicles indicus occurs from Kumaon to Burma (as far south as ‘Tenasserim

at least), in the Middle Andaman, W. Siam and Yunnan. Fruhstorfer (1908)

stated that it also cccurred in Annam, but later (1912) referred Annamese

specimens to the next subspecies.

(6) HY. epicles chinensis, Fruhst. 1908

Type locality : West China.

The brief diagnosis runs: ‘ Separable from iudicus by the more reduced,

strongly narrowed subapical transverse red band of the forewing of the Q.’

This character holds good in most cases. To it should be added that the

colour of this band is duller than in epicles indicus, and that the blue areas

of the upperside in the male are less extensive, especially on the hindwing.

It is at best however but a feebly marked race and may well prove untenable

when further material comes to hand.

It isin the B.M. from Chia-ting-fu (Leech Coll.), Kiang-Si and Siao-lou

(Oberthtir Coll.). Draesecke (1925) records it from Omei-Shan. Fruhstorfer

(1912) refers Annamese specimens to it and suggests that it also occurs in

Tonkin.

In ab. stotzneri Draesecke (1925) the discal black spotting on the under

surface is absent except for the hindwing cell-spot.

(¢) H. epicles matsumure, Fruhst. 1908

Type locality : Formosa, L. Suisha.

Formosan males, upon which Fruhstorfer’s description was based, were

said by him to be larger than continental (Indian) epzcles, to have less blue

and wider dark margins. These three features are far too inconstant to

distinguish them from Indian or even Chinese examples. The females are

quite indistinguishable from Chinese females by their uppersides. The

ground-colour of the underside, however, is much less ochreous, much more

greenish, the discal black spotting greater, and the red of the marginal bands

much duller vinous red than in any other subspecies, and these features should

serve to differentiate matsumure (= sakai Mats., 1910) in both sexes ; they are

constant in a series of 10 ¢é¢ and 6 92 derived from a number of different

localities.

(d) A. epicles phenicoparyphus, Holl. 1878

Ty pe locality : Hainan.

Under this name should be united both Hainanese and South Chinese speci-

mens. In the ¢ they are well characterized by the pronounced development

of the red sub-apical bar, the rather light purple, and by the wide and almost

complete red hindwing margins; the 9 resembles strongly marked Indian and

Burmese eficles, but the sub-apical red patch of the forewing is occasionally

extended almost to the margin along veins 2,3 and 4. The underside ground-

colour is rich ochreous, and very free of spotting. —Hainan, Hong Kong,

Ting-Wa-Shan.

(@). A. epicles sumatrensis, Fruhst. 1908

Type locality : W. Sumatra, Pad. Bovenland.

The @ is barely distinguishable from Javan epicles (see key), resembling best

the E. Javan subspecies hilima. The ¢ differs from Javan epicles only in

7”

5 ca ge ol sch we tiie Se Tale

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYC4ANIDZE) 389

having much less red on the forewing, or none at all; about 50 per cent of

the examples examined clearly show it, the others having only a trace or none.

; (f) HI. epicles epicles, Godt. 1823

Type locality ;: Java (W. Java feste Frushtorfer),

The ¢ is almost identical with phenicoparyphus of Hainan and S. China, the

red sub-apical patch being, however, perhaps rather more diffuse, and

broader, very rarely suffused blackish and inconspicuous. The Q is at once

recognizable by the extension of the sub-apical bar to form a large orange-red

rounded discal patch occupying the greater part of the wing-surface ; the disc

of the hindwing is also often much invaded by orange-red. On the forewing

the orange area extends broadly across vein 2 almost as far as vein 1.

(g) Hi. eptcles hilima, Fruhst. 1912

Type locality : E. Java, Mt. Tengger.

In both sexes smaller than epzcles epicles, male otherwise the same ; 2 with

reduced and rather duller orange-red patch extending only diffusely across

vein 2 about centre of area 1b.

Fruhstorfer stated (1912) that the species occurs in the Celebes and that he

saw it commonly on the Pic of Bonthain, but this has not yet been confirmed.

3. HELIOPHORUS KOHIMENSIS, Tytler. 1912.

Type locality: Naga Hills, Kohima.

Several constant features serve to distinguish the males of this species from

those of HZ. epicles indicus. Chief amongst these is the great extent of the

violet suffusion of the upperside, and its much duller, softer tone On the

3 4

Fic. 3.—A. kohimenstis, lateral aspect, from the left.

sees ee ventral aspect.

underside the red marginal band of the forewing does not reach the apex

so fully as in epzcles indicus, the ground-colour is paler, and the discal lines of

the hindwing (black in area 7, white in 4 and 5) are further from the marginal

red band. The only apparently constant characters by which to distinguish the

females are the duller red, almost orange colour of the upperside markings

and the shorter (than in efzcles) red marginal band on the underside of the

forewing ; in addition, the outer edge, as well asthe inner, of the forewing

subapical patch seems always to be sinuous, and the red lunules of the

hindwing border on the upperside, though forming a continuous waved band,

do not as a rule extend so far from the margin as in females of epzeles

indicus. : rs

The ¢ genitalia (Figs. 3 and 4) are of the efzcles type, but present many

clear differences, mainly in the shape of the claspers, that should be readily

appreciated from the accompanying drawings.

A solitary ¢ of this species was obtained at Boac-Kan, Tonkin, in January

1927, by Delacour and Lowe. Formerly it was known only from the Naga

Hills, Assam, where it flies together with epzcles,

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

4, HELIOPHORUS ILA, de Niceville. 1895.

H. epicles nila, Fruhst. (1918) ; Llerda nila, Seitz, ix, p. 933, 1923.

Ty pe locality : Battack Mts., N. E. Sumatra.

On the evidence of a very poor preparation of the ¢ genitalia, which he

reproduced, Fruhstorfer (1918) sinks this species as a Sumatran race of epicles,

Fic. 5.—A. ila, lateral aspect, from the right.

4) 6: a ventral aspect.

misspelling the name zz/a, in which he is followed by Seitz (1923). If it is to

be allied with any cther species it should be with kohimensis Tytler rather than

with epicles Godt., as may be judged by the resemblances of the claspers

in those two species. The uppersides of the males of kohimensis and 2/a,

in the extent of their purple areas, are extremely similar ; the female uppersides

on the other hand are totally dissimilar, that of kohimensis being deceptively

like epicles indicus, that of z/a resembling an exaggerated epicles epicles,

in which not only most of the forewing, but the greater part of the hindwing

also is bright orange. J/a is always recognizable by the red-tinted underside,

and the wide and even marginal red border of the forewing underside. It

occurs commonly in Padangsche Bovenland, where H. epieles also flies, and in

view of all the circumstances certainly is to be regarded as a good species.

5. HELIOPHORUS KIANA, Gr. Smith. 1889.

Type locality : Kina Balu, N. Borneo.

Fruhstorfer was probably right in suggesting that this aberrantly marked

species is the Bornean representative of H. epicles, the underside markings of

which are readily traceable on its underside, in spite of the whitening of the

vl 8

Fic. 7.—A. kiana, lateral aspect, from the left.

poe 5 ventral aspect.

greater part of the normally red border. The development of blue on the

upperside of the hindwing in the ¢, and of grey-blue in the female, marks a

considerable departure from the normal appearance of Hleliophorus, and is

probably to be explained by association with the similarly coloured Theclinz

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYC4NIDE) 391

of Mt. Kina Balu, such as Zeltus etolus Fab., Sinthusa amata Dist. and

S. skapant Druce, Marmessus surindra Druce, Virgarinia scopula Druce

and others.

Except for the expanded and truncate distal portion of the claspers, the

genitalia are essentially like those of the other members of the epzcles group

of Heliophorus.

6. HELIOPHORUS BAKERI, Evans.

Heliophorus oda bakeri (Riley MS.), Evans, Ident. Ind. Butt. p. 158. 1927,

Ilerda eos ? Doubl. List Lep. B.M. ii. p. 25, 1847 (nom. nud.).

Type locality ; Murree Hills.

Fic. 9.—/7/. bakert, lateral aspect, from the left.

reeks 7 ventral aspect.

(a) Wet season form éakert.

Upperside, both wings rich deep blue, non-metallic, rather silky, with

very wide black margins ; cilia black, tipped with pale grey between the veins.

Forewing blue area occupies the whole of cell, three-fourths of areas la and lb,

basal two-fifths of area 2, one-third of area 3, and is represented by a few

scattered scales just beyond cell-end, z.e. it occupies little more than basal half

of wing: its outer edge is very uneven, there being a strong projection in area

lb and another on vein 4. Hindwing patch leaving a black margin almost

exactly 2 mm. wide all round, except along costa, where it is somewhat wider ;

narrow deep red lunules are present against margin in areas lc and 2, but they

are heavily obscured with black scales; hind margin slightly dentate at

extremities of veins 1b—5, but no tail present. Underside, both wings grey,

green ochreous; cilia as above. Forewing witha faint line at cell-end and

discal line faintly present in areas 2 and 3, rarely very faintly indicated also in

area 4; aprominent black tornal spot, inwardly bordered with white, and

similar, narrower, progressively smaller spots in 2 and 3; a very narrow black

marginal line. Hindwing with a black point in cell, another below it in lc; a

very faint line across cell-end, and avery indefinite (or absent) discal line;

border deep, clear red, moderately dentate outwardly, comparatively even

inwardly ; white lunules bordering its inner edge prominent and edged with

dusky ; outer white crescents narrow and not heavily surrounded with black ;

a very narrow marginal black line.

Q. Upperside, both wings dark brown ; cilia as in ¢, or slightly darker.

Forewing with a very dark spot at cell-end, immediately followed by a rather

narrow, outwardly evenly curved, inwardly angulate, crescentic orange band

ending ina blunt point a little short of vein 2. Hizudwing with a series of

narrow, but strongly arched lunules in areas Ic to 4 (or 5) of amore reddish

orange than band on forewing. Underside as in the male.

Type ¢ from Murree, 15. VIII. 86, in B.M, ; 9, Murree, VIII. 1919 in Gen.

Tytler’s collection.

(6) Dry season form vernalis..

dé. Differsfrom typical dakerz, as described above, as follows: Upperside

both wings with much more extensive and brighter blue areas; cilia much

paler. forewing blue patch extends into costal area, reaches to within 4-5

mm, of apex, and about 1 mm, of anal angle, its outer edge evenly curved,

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

but slightly indented at each vein, MHindwing black border only 1-1:5 mm.

wide except along costa ; red marginal lunules (in le and 2) less obscured with

black, rather flattened, not strongly arched. Underside clearer and rather

brighter ochreous, the discal lines and those closing cells virtually absent ;

narrow marginal black line very faint; cilia paler. Forewing anal black spot

slightly smaller, those in areas 2 and 3 much smaller and mainly replaced

outwardly by reddish. Aindwing red border densely irrorated with white, the

white lunules bordering its inner edge reduced and almost devoid of their

dusky edging, the outer white crescents similarly modified, very inconspicuous.

2. Differs from the typical2 on the upperside in having the forewing

orange subapical band slightly paler, approximately twice as broad, and just

reaching vein 2. MHindwing marginal red lunules fused into a solid band,

running up to, and ending squarely on, vein 6, inwardly comparatively even,

outwardly moderately dentate at the veins. Underside as inthe g. The orange

band of forewing shows through slightly, but should not be confused with the

orange flush in this position in AH. oda.

Types, ¢ and 2 in B.M. from Goorais Valley, Kashmir, June 1887.

Length of forewing: ¢ 14-17 mm.; @ 15-18 mm.

Localities : KASHMERE: Chitral: Utzen Nullah, VI. VII; Tarben Nullah,

8,000 ft. Goorais Valley, VI; Kaj Nag, 7,000 ft. VI.

PuNJAB: Murree, VIII and IX; Dalhousie, V ; Campbellpor.

N. W.E. Prov. Thandiani,

Hf. bakert shows little variation apart from the seasonal differences alluded to

above. It is most easily confused with HY. oda, under which species will be

found a note on the characters that serve most readily to distinguish the two.

Col. Evans has recently (1927) published a brief diagnosis of this species

(under the name of H. oda bakeri, although bakeri and oda are unquestionably

distinct species), in the belief that my description had already appeared.

Bakerz is therefore to be attributed to him.

Group II.—Claspers slightly or strongly inflated ; tegumen with at least a

protruberance in upper half laterally, directed backwards.

7. HELIOPHORUS ODA Hew. 1865.

Lype locality: ‘India’. Simla should be taken, as Hewitson’s specimens

most probably were from that district.

3. Upperside, both wings rich deep blue, non-metallic, rather silky, with

wide black margins; cilia pale grey, darker at extremities of the veins.

Fic. 11.—#H. oda, lateral aspect from the left.

ey ae 4 ventral aspect.

Forewing black margin narrows from about 6 mm. at apex to 1'5 at anal angle,

and extends narrowly along costa; outer edge of blue area evenly curved but

somewhat indented at veins 2 and 3. MHindwing black margin occupies whole

of costal area above vein 6, except fora small basal portion of area 6, and

tapers thence strongly to margin at vein 2, continuing as a marginal black line

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYCAENIDZE) 393

interrupted by the red submarginal lunules; prominent and strongly arched

red submarginal lunules are present in le and 2 (and indicated sometimes in 3),

that in lc being noticeably expanded at anal angle; they are not obscured by

black scales. Underside, as described for AH. dakeri but with the following

differences :—Ground-colour brighter ochreous. Forewing line at cell-end

more sharply defined ; discal line proiuinent, and continued to costa; tornal

spot surmounted by a series of very shadowy, often reddish tinged spots, which

can be traced almost to costa; margin narrowly tinged with red ; the lower

discal area with a distinct and extensive orange flush. Aindwing discal line

obvious, but not. so prominent as on forewing; outer two-thirds of red border

irrorated with white scales, inner third clear; marginal iine red; margin

rather more dentate, especially at vein 2, but no tail present.

2 Upperside, both wings dark brown; ciliaasin ¢. Forewing with a dark

bar at cell-end immediately followed by a broad (3 mm.) orange subapical

band, the inner edge of which is almost straight but not sharply defined, in

line with bar at cell-end; its outer edge runs straight from vein 7 to vein 4,

where it is sharply angled to run parallel with the margin to vein 2. Hindwing

lunular band equally wavy on both sides from anal angle to vein 4, thence

broadening a little and thickening to vein 6, above which itis represented only

by scattered scales. Underside as in the g.

Length of forewing :—¢ & 9, 16-17 mm.

A full description is given of this species in the hope this may prevent further

errors of identification in the future. Bakeri, oda, the Chinese species saphir

and the Sikkim moorez are superficially very much alike in both sexes and

have in the past been hopelessly confused. Examination of very long series of

bakert and oda indicates that the surest guide for their separation is furnished

by the markings of the underside, particularly the discal line of the forewing.

This seems quite reliable. With regard tothe males, confusion may possibly

arise between oda and bakeri {. vernalis but the arched hindwing ]unule in the

former is quite different from the broader flattened lunule of the latter. The

width of the black border in the g, said by Evans to distinguish the species,

only applies to the wet season form of dakerz ; in oda I cannot distinguish two

seasonal forms. and all the specimens I have examined have black borders of

the same width as those of the spring form (vernalts) of bakertz. The female

uppersides are not readily distinguishable, but it would seem that strongly

arched hindwing red lunules only occur in dakert in the wet season, and are

then accompanied by a very small subapical forewing band, whereas in oda,

the subapical band is invariably very large. The hindwing in édakerz is notice-

ably more rounded than in oda,

The ¢ genitalia (see Figs. 11 and 12) are abundantly distinct. The distal por-

tion of the clasp in dakerz is evenly rounded, as in many of the species of the

next group, whilst in oda it is expanded and squarely cut off after the fashion

of kiana ; the shape of the upper portion of the tegumen of dakerz is like that

of epicles, kohimensts, kiana and sena in being devoid of the strong lateral lobes

that characterize oda and the species of the azdrocles group. The ventral

aspects of the claspers also emphasize the affinity of oda with the androcles

group, and of dakeri with the epicles group, but the relative length of the penis

in both species would associate them with the avdrocles group rather than with

epicles.

Localities; CASHMERE : Chumba State.

PonyJAB : Bushahr: Rala, VI, VIII; Kulu: Chini, VI, etc.,

Simla: Simla, Narkanda.

UNITED PROVINCES: Dehra Dun: ‘ Mussorie and Nag Tiba,

only on bare spo(s in VI. V and X’ ; Garwhal; Kumaon ;

Naini Tal.

8. HELiopHORUs BRAHMA, Moore. 1857,

Type locality + Darjeeling.

The brilliant metallic upperside colour of the ¢, changing trom fiery red

to greenish bronze serves to distinguish this species at once. The female is

less easy to recognize, but has a brighter red subapical patch and hind wing

band than its nearest allies, and the latter is extended practically to the apex

of the wing and is more solid-looking anteriorly than in anzdyrocles, tamu, etc.

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Autumn specimens from Assam (August-November) are consistently larger

than those from Kumaon or Sikkim, and might be considered a good race were

it not for the fact that in March-May they are replaced by a form exactly like

that of Sikkim. They agree with Chinese examples in having a rather more

Fic. 13.—AH. brahma, lateral aspect from the left Teeth on distal edge of claspers

not shown.

,, 14.—H. brahma ventral aspect.

fiery colour and the marginal band of the hindwing above fairly well indicated

in area6. In examples from farther south (Ruby Mines, etc.) the red band is

continued prominently into area 6 and indicated also in 7. In both Assamese

and Burmese specimen there is, as a rule, a fairly prominent black spot at the

anterior edge of area 7 on the underside of the hindwing, above the cell spot,

and itis often produced towards thecell bya dusky line. This spot and line

are rarely discernible in Himalayan examples.

The ¢ genitalia exhibit the strongly inflated claspers that characterize this

and the new two species, but the upper portion of the tegumen, though mode-

rately expanded, is devoid of the large projection to be seen in androcles, taniu

and even in oda. Fruhstorfer (1918) gives a very good figure of them.

9. HELIOPHORUS HYBRIDA Tytler. 1912.

Type locality : Kohima, Naga Hills, Assam.

In addition to the two specimens in General Tytler’s collection there is a male

from Darjeeling in the British Museum, and another from the Naga Hills in

Mr. Joicey’s collection. Possibly also the two specimens mentioned by De

Fic. 15.—A. hydrida, lateral aspectof ¢ genitalia.

ape Loe 7 ventral aspect

Niceville (1890, p. 330) should be placed here as well. The four specimens I

have seen agree exactly in external features. ‘They are intermediate in colour

and markings between Assamese androcles and brahma, the metallic colouring

of the upperside being bronze, but decidedly greenish The red marginal

band on the hindwing upperside is half the width of that of dbvahma, slightly

broader than in the wet season androcles from Assam and Darjeeling, and it

extends continuously up to vein 6.

The ¢ genitalia of the single specimen. examined are almost exactly inter-

mediate between those of androcles and brahma, which will be appreciated from

the figures (Figs. 15 and 16) more readily than otherwise (the profile drawing

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYC4NIDZ) 395

of 6vahma is inaccurate in that it does not show the distal ‘saw-edge’ of the

clasper). The outline of the claspers seen in profile, and of the upper halves of

the tegumens should be carefully compared.

In the present state of knowledge itis not possible to decide whether these

insects are hybrids, as suggested by Tytler, or not. The fact that four (possibiy

six) are knowa to exist rather militates against that view, but the precision

with which /yérida shows the exact middle line between dvahma and androcles

both in external and internal characters (so far as: ascertained) strongly

suggests a hybrid.

10. HELIOPHORUS ANDROCLES, Dbl. and Hew. 1852.

Type locality > Sylhet, Assam,

The various subspecies of androcles have been at one time or another very

much confused. The W. Himalayan coruscans has been generally identified

with the Assamese androcles, or with tytleri (see below), even Swinhoe so lately

as 1911 repeating this mistake. Fruhstorfer (1918) recognized it asa good

subspecies, but treated the connecting link, moorei of Darjeeling and Sikkim,

as a distinct species, relying apparently upon avery poor preparation of the

male genitalia. Many authors, including even Draesecke so recently as 1925,

have regarded moorez as conspecific with the Chinese species saphir.

I regard androcles as consisting of five distinct sub-species, three of which

have well marked seasonal forms. Some of these seasonal differences were

recognized by Swinhoe (19]1). Swinhoe’s descriptions, so far as they go, are

moderately accurate, but his figures are so misleading that I have considered it

advisable to refer to them in detail (see p. 401).

(a) H. androcles coruscans, Moore

This is the subspecies of the W. Himalayas, being found at Mussooree,

Kangra, Kulu, Rala, Almorah, Kali, Busahir, etc. It occurs in two well-marked

seasonal forms (w.s.f. coruscans and d.s.f. /angii Moore), both of which are,in

the g, pale silvery blue on the upperside, and to be distinguished from the

‘FIG. 17.—A. androcles coruscans, lateral aspect of ¢ genitalia.

similarly coloured Assamese fytlerz by the fact that this blue colour extends

well beyond the cell on the forewing. The seasonal differences are those com-

mon to other species in the genus, 2.é. w.s.f. upperside with narrow red hind-

wing lunules, usually in areas lc and 2 only in 8, and a narrow marginal red

line in 2, d.s.f. with wider and longer red marginal line in both sexes and

underside red marginal band completely irrorated with white scales in both

sexes in the d.s.f., only partially so in w.s.f,

(6) HA. androcles moorei, Hew.

_ The typical form of this subspecies, the range of which extends from Sikkim

and the neighbouring region of Tibet to a point just north of Burma (Seinghku

valley), appears to be excessively rare, which may account to some extent for

the failure of many authors to recognize it. It is the dry season form, and it is

_ characterized by an almost immaculate yellow underside except for the comple-

tely frosted marginal band of the hindwing; only the unique ¢ type is known

to me. The black borders on the upperside are very much wider than in any

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

saphir 1 have seen. The much commoner wet 'season form may be des-

cribed as

f. scintillans, Nov.

&. Upperside quite deep metallic blue, the blue on the forewing extending a

little beyond the cell and there sometimes expanding slightly towards costa, on

the hindwing of the same extent as usual in the species ; red lunules distinctly

narrow and very rarely extending at all beyond vein 3. Underside clear but

Fic. 18.—H. androcles moorei, \ateral aspect.

», 19. An lateral aspect, another view.

rather dull ochreous,* with discal and discocellular lines well-developed and

conspicuous ; forewing tornal black spot prominent and with well-marked

prolongation in areas 2-3; Aindwing red border not wide, irrorated with white

scales only in its outer half in areas 3-6, white lunules present and clearly

black-edged inwardly; black marginal triangles moderately prominent,

marginal line black, tail rather more than 1mm. long, only basally red,

then black, tipped with white.

@.. Only distinguishable from the female or typical subsp. coruscans by the

richer ochreous tint of the underside and the frequently red-tinted discal hind-

wing line—characters that can hardly be appreciated except from the

examination of a series of specimens.

The type ¢ and 9 allotype from Sikkim, in B. M.

(¢) H. androcles rubida, ssp. nov.

Wet season form.

d. Upperside slightly paler than in ssp. mooret, almost as in ssp. Coruscans,

the blue extending a little beyond the cell-end on the forewing. Hindwing

with a well-developed series of broad red lunules extending as far as vein 6

Underside, discal and discocellular lines present, broad, but somewhat diffuse,

outer half only of marginal red band irrorated with white in areas 3-6.

Fic. 20.—H. androctles rubida, lateral aspect of ¢ genitalia

Q Upperside subapical band broad, short; hindwing marginal band little

wider than in ¢. Underside as in ¢.

*The underside colour differences are most readily appreciated under

ordinary electric light.

ee ee eo

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELOPHORUS (LYCLENIDA) 397

Type ¢ from Lankhaung, Upper Burma (A. E. Swann) ; 2 Fengyueh-ting.

C. Yunnan (H.M: B.); both ino B. M.

Dry season form gemma nov.

d@. Hindwing red marginal band much wider (1'5 mm. at vein 6) than in

the wet season form, and, on the underside, completely irrorated with white

scales,

Type ¢ from Langkhaung, Upper Burma, 4,000 ft. 7.3.23 (A.E. Swann).

This little race is well characterized by possessing a complete hindwing mar-

ginal red band in both dry (spring) and wet (summer) season forms. In colour

it is intermediate between moorez and the next subspecies. There are only 5 ¢¢

and 1 Qin the B.M., from a restricted area in northern Burma, and from central

Yunnan, but from the latter locality there is a long series iti Mr. Joicey’s

collection. More recently General Tytler has obtained good series from Sadon

(Fort Harrison), and Htawgaw, N. Burma, both lying to the east of the

‘triangle’ and also from Konglu (7,800 ft., June-July 1925), which lies to the

north of the triangle, alittle east of Fort Hertz. All these specimens are refer-

able to ssp. rvwbida. Though many do not show such a complete red band on

the hindwing as is present in the types, its development is always greater than

in ssp. ¢ytlert.

(2d) H. androcles tytleri ssp. nov.

Wet season form.

Upperside rather light metallic sky-blue, much as in ssp. coruscans, but

the blue hardly extending (sometimes not at all, anteriorly) beyond cell-end.

Hindwing red lunules very narrow, never present above vein 3. Underside

dull, dusky ochreous, the lines comparatively broad, smoky black ; marginal

band of ‘ wet’ type.

g. Resembles rwbida 2 most closely. Subapical band large, broad, its inner

edge scarcely sinuous, reaching vein 2; hindwing marginal band widened

anteriorly, thick, reaching vein 6. Underside as in ¢.

Types g and @ from Kohima, Naga Hills, 5-6,000 ft., Sept. 1908, both in

General Tytler’s collection.

No dry season form is known. It appears to be common in the Naga Hills.

Rarely specimens occur with the characteristic green tint of true androcles,

serving to ei:phasize the close relationship of the two subspecies,

This race has been almost invariably regarded as identical with coruscans.

Moore, which it closely resembles. The discontinuous distribution of that form

then presented a difficulty which, however, is removed by recognizing that its

two halves are distinct subspecies of azdroclés connected by the intermediate

mooret and rubida.

It is possible that Fruhstorfer’s ‘A. saphir birmana’ (1918) applies to a

specimen of this or the preceding subspecies. His description is based appar-

ently upon 2 ¢¢ alleged to have come from Upper Burma and stated to be

darker blue than saphir and to have wider blacker borders, and, on the under-

side, narrow red marginal bands. Thelast two characters are of no value;

they are extremely variable! judginy by the series of over 100 males in the B.M.

The first seems to exclude the possibility of either rwbzda or tytleri being

Fruhstorfer’s dzrymana, for both are very much galer than saphir. Fruhstorfer

figures the ¢ genitalia of H. saphir but fails to state definitely whether they are

of saphir saphir or of ‘ saphir birmana.’ he key to the plate, however,

attributes them to the latter, and as they are unquestionably those of saphir

and not those of any azdrocles form, Ican only conclude that the name d1rymana

rests upon a Chinese saphiry bearing an erroneous locality label—there are

unfortunately many such current in collections—for it is inconceivable that if

saphir really exists in any part of Burma none should have found its way to the

British Museum.

(e) HY. androcles androcles.

llerda androcles viridis Evans 1912,

Type locality: Sylhet.

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The males are readily recognizable by the green tint of upperside, the under-

side being like that of ssp. ¢y/leri. The female has a rather narrow subapical

band, a moderate marginal hindwing band, both of rather dull colour, and an

Fic. 21.—H. androcles androcles, lateral aspect of ¢ genitalia.

underside like that of the male. Only the wet season form is known. Its

range extends from the Khasia Hills to Mt. Victoria, Burma. Presumably it

occurs at moderate altitudes only.

Genitalia. The ¢ claspers in this species are very much dilated so that it is

extremely difficult in unmounted material to obtain the precisely similar

views necessary for an exact comparison. No two specimens mounted in

canada balsam ever present exactly the same aspect. Figs. 17 to 21 are outline

drawings of the profiles of four subspecies. It will be noticed that azdrocles

androcles and androcles rubida are perhaps the closest in the form of the clasper,

but that gemma exhibits in the outline of the upper and distal edges a slight

flattening, as compared with androcles, that may be regarded as an approach

to mooret. ‘The teeth in this region are also far less prominent than in androcles

androcles. In ¢oruscans from the other extremity of the Himalayas there isa

recrudescence of the bulge on the dorsal edge of the claspers, and of other irregu-

larities which however are hardly to be called teeth. Incidentally the close simi-

larity of the ¢ genitalia of coruscans to those of oda, with which species corus-

cans would appear to fly, is worthy of note; but for the possession of a large

and very strong spineon the near endof the upper edge of the clasper oda

might almost be mistaken at first sight for Coruscans.

Fie. 22.—H. androcles coruscans. ventral aspect of $ genitalia.

23.—H. androcles mooret, ventral aspect.

24.—H. androcles tytleri, ventral aspect.

The ventral aspects of the claspers of these subspecies (Figs. 22, 23, 24), so

faras examined, also show an interesting gradation. The distal portions of

the approximated edges in coruscans are gently curved and furnished with

short blunt teeth. In moorei they are produced somewhat towards each other

and more strongly toothed, but in axdvocles tytleri the process has gone much

further, and, owing to the excavation of the adjacent edges of the claspers

r Nae

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYCA(° NID) 399

beneath the tips, a quite different appearance is produced. ‘The example

illustrated in this third figure may, however, be unusually extreme; others

examined do not show such a great departure from the mooret typeof formation.

It has already been mentioned that soorez has very generally been associated

with the Chinese saphir. Comparison of the outline drawings of the ¢ genita-

lia of the two species will make it quite clear, itis hoped, that there can be no

such association in reality, as Fruhstorfer (1918) has already pointed out. But

that moorez is only a subspecies of androcles is a little less easy to demonstrate.

Fruhstorfer denied their affinity, but I think this must have been due to mis-

leading preparations ofthe genitalia. Figs. 18 and 19 show slightly different

views of the ¢ genitalia of the same specimen of moorez, representing a rotation

of approximately 15°. If Fig. 190f moorez alone were compared with, e.g.

Fig 17 of coruscans it is excusable that they should be regarded as representing

distinct species.

The modifications in the ¢ genitalia of the different subspecies appear to be

of no greater order or importance than those of their external appearance and

hence I consider the arrangement suggested above to be the most natural at

present attainable. There is little evidence of the different subspecies over-

lapping, which one would expect where they met, but this is probably to be

attributed in the main to the lack of material from the border regions. On the

other hand they are surprisingly constant and confined to easily delimited

geographical regions,

HELIOPHORUS TAMU, Koll. 1844

Tlerda viridipunctata De Nicev. 1890.

Llerda hewitsont Moore MS.

Hewitson (1865), Moore (1865 and 1882) and Doherty (1886) correctly identi-

fied this species, but the mistake made by de Niceville (1890) has been copied

Fic. 25.—H. tamu, lateral aspect of 3 genitalia,

Pets fy ventral aspect.

by all subsequent authors. Through the kindness of Dr. Rebel of the Vienna

Museum I have been enabled to examine the typeof Kollar’s ‘ Polyommatus

tamu’ and have found that it is unquestionably the species subsequently des-

cribed by De Niceville as viridipunctata. De Niceville’s name is certainly the

better as it very well describes the frosted, powdery green appearance of the rai

upperside, a feature that renders that sex of the species unmistakable. The

female is extraordinarily like those of AY. androcles and H. brahma. It is

however generally duller than either species and usually larger than any of the

others in any given locality where they occur together ; but the best character is

provided by the continuation of the fine white anteciliar line on the hindwing

upperside beyond vein 3, sometimes as far as vein 6.

This species appears to inhabit the same region as AH. androcles moorei and

Hi. a. tytlert, but at slightly lower altitudes, and with an extension westwards

as faras Gahrwal and eastwards to Szechuen. Three subspecies are distinguish-

able, the characters which are given in the key; (a) and (4) are more widely

separated than (6) and (c).

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1I

(a) A. tamu tamu

Garhwal to Sikkim and Bhutan.

(6) HY. tamu kala Tytler 1912

Naga Hills, Assam.

Northern Yunnan and W. China.

f. verna nov.

I have seen only two specimens that can with certainty be attributed to the

spring brood. Both are small males with very little green powdering on the

upperside, and with the red hindwing marginal band extending to vein 6 on the

upperside and uniformly irrorated with white on the underside in the manner

usual to spring specimens. Both are from the Oberthir collection. One

specimen, the Type, is labelled ‘Thibet, Ta-ho, printemps 1895’, the other

‘Vallée due Tong-ho, 15 Avril—15 Mai 1893’.

d—ab. rufa nov.

A®considerable proportion of the males of ssp. eventa show at least traces on

the upperside of the forewing of an orange band like that of the female. In the

Type (Tse-kou, N. Yunnan, 1895) it extends from vein 2 to vein5, but it is

seldom so well developed ; usually it is a good deal duller than in the female.

The ¢ genitalia (figs. 25 and 26) exhibit a greater degree of inflation of the

claspers than those of any other Hfeliophorus. They are very like those of

HI. androcles androcles, but broader, and well characterized by the strong ante-

riorly directed projection arising from the dorsal edge of the claspers, and the

greater length of the toothed edge; the ventral aspects of the two show obvious

differences in shape. The base of the tegumen projects distad, as well as basad,

which is not the case in A. androcles.

HELIOPHORUS SAPHIR, Blanch. 1871

This extremely beautiful species is confined entirely to central and western

China, so far as at present known, and would appear to be moderately common

there. The male is at once recognizable by its very brilliant blue upperside

and narrow costal black border. The red lunules of the hindwing upperside

Fic. 27.—H. saphir, lateral aspect of ¢ genitalia.

» 28. Ht ventral aspect.

(in both sexes) are more flattened than in any androcles race, being in this

respect reminiscent of dakerit. In both sexes there is an almost complete

absence of discal spots on the underside. For the rest, the characters given in

the key should serve to distinguish the species.

REVISIONAL NOTES ON HELIOPHORUS (LYCA4:NIDZ) 401

Fruhstorfer (1918) has inadvertently treated saphir as the wet (summer) form,

marica Leech, as the dry season form. In fact, the oppositeis correct. Leech

based his marica on summer specimens ; Blanchard’s figure clearly indicates a

spring brood specimen. The identity of Fruhstorfer’s ‘A. saphir birmana’

has already been referred to under androcles (see p. 14). For the present

birmana should be treated as synonymous with marica.

The ¢ genitalia, as already pointed out by Fruhstorfer, are very interesting.

The relation of the saccus to the tegumen, and its length, suggest the epzcles

group ; but the strong lateral projection in the dorsal half is clearly of the

androcles type. The shape of the claspers, seen in profile, is unique in the

genus, resembling kzama more closely than any other species. But the most

remarkable feature is presented by the production of the penis funnel to form a

pair of long narrow sharp-pointed projections reaching almost to the level of

the extremities of the claspers, and possibly to be considered analogous to the

organs found in Heodes (Chrysophanus) and described by Bethune-Baker as

virge excitate. Ihave been unable to find the ‘ sharp vertical double-tooth in

the median part’ of the clasper mentioned by Fruhstorfer. The claspers are

unusually devoid of projecting surfaces or organs of any kind. In his figure

the lateral projections of the upper part of the tegumen are so placed that they

might be mistaken for parts of the claspers; or on the other hand if would be

easy to mistake the modified penis funnel extensions as part of the claspers.

Identification of the Afeliophorus figured in Moore’s Lepidoptera Indica,

vol. viii,

Plate 662.

Figs. 4, 4a, 4b. AZ. sena.

Plate 663.

Fig.1, lb. A. dvahma ¢.

la, le. HA. androcles coruscans. d. s. f. angi. The actual specimen

figured isin the British Museum.

2: HI. epicles indicus. A normal wet season J, f. latilimbata

Fruhst.

2a FA. epicles indicus. Probably a dry season female.

2b. Underside of fig. 2

20% HT, epicles indicus ab. rufonotata. g. This may be either

a wet or a dry season 4, as the aberration rufonotata

occurs in both, though much more rarely in the latter.

The extent of the red marginal band on the hindwing,

however, suggests that the specimen is the rarer form.

More probably it is Javan.

2a: H. epicles indicus. A normal wet season female (f. latilim-

batus).

Fig. 3, 3b, HY. tamu tamu ZS.

Sai, A, tamu tamu &.

Plate 664.

Fig. 1, lb. ¢, ‘laQ. A. oda. in fig. ithe red hindwing lunules are

shown less arched than usual.

Aa Fi. bakeri f. bakert (wet season form) ¢.

ae Not identifiable. Probably a small 2 of A. oda.

Fig. 2, 2b. AY. androcles coruscans 8. The artist has quite failed to

indicate the true extent of the blue area of the upperside.

The specimen figured is in the British Museum.

2a, 2c. H. oda. Thespecimen figured is in the British Museum.

Fig. 3, 3b. HY. androcles mcorei f. scintillans J.

3a. Probably the @ of 3.

3d, 3e. According to the statement by Swinhoe on p. 107 these figures

should represent the dry season form of A’. androcles ssp.

moore? (i.e. typical mooret) from Sikkim. Actually, I am

convinced, they are drawn from thedry season form of

ssp. coruscans i.e. f. langit Moore,

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

REFERENCES

1865. Hewitson, 12. Diurn. Lep. p. 57.

1865. Moore Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 773.

1882. Moore, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 248.

1886. Doherty, J. As. Soc. Bengal, p. 130.

1908. Fruhstorfer, vt. Zs., vol. xxii, p. 49.

1911. Swinhoe, Moore’s Lepidoptera Indica, vol. viii, p. 100 e¢ seq.

1912. Evans, J. Bombay.N.. Soc.; vol. =xi, p. 989.

1912. Fruhstorfer, Berl. Ent. Zs., vol. lvi. p. 253.

1918. Fruhstorfer, 7z7ds. v. Fnt., vol. lxi, pp. 44-53.

1925. wDraesecke, vis, vol. xxxix;p. 223.

192535, Evans,:/. Bombay N.wSTisty Sec., Vol.x=x, prol7s

1927. Evans, Zhe Identification of Indian Butterflies.

REVIEWS

l. SQME FRESHWATER FISHING IN MALAYA. By

Simon and Leona Starr. 129 pages. 18 photographs and one map;

obtainable from the Authors, Railbridge, Galle Face, Colombo and

Messrs. Kelly and Walsh, Singapore.

The authors of this little book are apparently residents of Ceylon

who paid a visit to Malaya and have narrated their fishing experi-

ences. In their ‘ Foreword’ they claim to be ‘ original in our sport

in the Malaya of to-day’. ‘This is not the case: there are several

skilful and enthusiastic fishermen in the Malay States but they do

not write of their pursuit: this book can perhaps be regarded as a

pioneer of Malayan fishing books but its authors are not pioneer

Malayan fishermen.

Mr. and Mrs. Starr visited Singapore Island and the States of

Selangor and Perak where they fished in ponds, reservoirs and

rivers : and they have written a chatty account of their experiences.

The information on Bait, Ground Bait, Striking, Tackle and Outfit

will be useful to beginners or visitors. There are chapters on

Native Methods and Tuba fishing i.e., a method of stupefying fish in

pools by means of the roots of the shrub Derrzs elliptica.

We find Chapter VII the least attractive part of book and hope

that the authors, in their fishing excursions, usually show more

regard for the susceptibilities of native owners than they appear to

have done in the case of the Chinese ‘ Nonia’: they had with per-

mission fished in a pond in a private garden stocked with fish

imported from China and on returning next day found the gate to

the pond doubly locked. ‘ Not for one moment did we consider

ourselves foiled. My husband climbed over the baibed wire easily,

then hung my Burberry over it close to the pillar to give me sup-

port, and we were both inside and soon by the water’s edge.’ Then

came the gardener to say that the owner did not want them there,

‘we said nothing but went on fishing’. Truly ‘the angling Briton

is hard to deter’!

The photographs illustrate native life in the Malay Peninsula

particularly in regard to methods of fishing.

We recommend the book for light reading to all interested.

FNC;

Bo SPORT AND WILD LIFE IN THE -DECCAN, {By

Brigadier-General R.G. Burton. Seeley, Service & Co., Ltd.,

1928. 282 pages. 19 Illustrations anda Map. 21s.

The late General E. F. Burton, author of Reminzscences of Sport in

India and An Indian Olio, served forty-four years in India prior to

the year 1884; about which time our present author, one of his nine

sons, all of whom entered the Indian army, came out to this country

to follow his example as to big game shooting and literary work.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

‘Sport and Wild Life in the Deccan’ will be read by all with

pleasure on account of its easy literary style; with a special interest

by those who have now, or have had in the past forty years, a

knowledge of the country between the Satpura Hills and the

Godavery river; and with additional interest by those who love the

jungles, and the people and wild animals which inhabit them.

Much of the book has appeared in one form or another in previous

newspaper and magazine articles. These are now brought together,

with new material, to torm a happy blend of wild life, military

history, and big game shooting.

The author writes of those spacious days when game of all kinds

was more plentiful, work less exacting, and prices and expenses

about half what they are at the present time.

The young officer of the present day can, if he has the inclina-

tion and the will, do much shikar in hills and plains: but he will

not do it under the pleasurable and leisurely conditions described

by Brigadier-General Burton. He wiil not be able to post a relay

of horses to take him to his previously prepared camp; to employ

three or four mounted men to inspect a number of kills within a ten

mile radius; to beat out two or three tigers in a day, or, indeed,

beat out any tigers at all. He will have to do his annual shikar in

more humble style—bullock carts and machan vigils—-but do it he

can; and the more he does it the better for the fuller determination

of his character and the preservation of game.

So let sportsmen old and new read of the wild life and sport there

used, and is still, to be had.

In Chapter IX the author discusses the interesting question of

when the tiger first migrated into India. A conclusion appears to

rest on the reply to the query; ‘When was Ceylon separated from

the mainland ?.’ The tiger must have migrated into India subsequent

to that says the author. But is it certainthat Ceylon was at any time

joined to the mainland? A recent letter to the Field newspaper

gives good reasons to show the contrary. So we are still without

an answer to the question as to when the tiger first came in to India.

In the same chapter the colouration of the great felidz is

considered, the conclusion being that all were originally spotted.

A spotted sabre-tooth tiger must have been a fearsome beast !

The method by which the greater carnivora hunt their prey is

discussed in Chapter X. There has been much correspondence this

year in the columns of the 7zmes newspaper on this subject which,

arising out of a book on African sport, was originated by a letter

from Brigadier-Genera! Burton. Sportsmen with Indian experience

will agree with the author that it is almost wholly by hearing and

sight that the hunting is done.

Remarks on the ‘ pooking ’ noise made by tigers are in accordance

with the conclusions noted at page 198 of volume xxxiii, published

since the issue of the book under review.

In the chapter on man-eating tigers the idea of the use of fires in

scaring off wild beasts which have the will to attack is discounted ;

in our opinion quite rightly, and with good reason. A bear fatally

wounded a sportsman in the United Provinces in 1917, first knocking

c REVIEWS 405

over the attendant who was walking in front with a lantern. They

were returning from a machan. Last hot weather a tigress walked

at night past our camp kitchen within ten feet of a cooly slumbering

by the embers. Jungle animals are well acquainted with fire, and

the mere keeping up ofa fire is but little protection against an

animal which has the will to attack.

At page 137 mention is made of a black panther having a black

tongue. An eye witness informed us lately that a black panther

shot some years ago in the Central Provinces had a black tongue,

and a mouth the inside of which, gums and all, was entirely black.

In Chapter XXIV various interesting subjects are discussed:

protective colouration ; sense of smell of bears; drinking habits of

wild animals, etc. The conclusions of the author are in consonance

with those of observers.

‘Bison and Bear’. Would not the quotation at the head of the

chapter have been more suitable for, say, ‘ Bears and Burhel’ ?

The photographs of animals are excellent. To how many

sportsmen will they not vividly bring to memory similar rewards of

successful shikar !

Times have changed. Successive decades produce books which

impress that upon us. The very outlook upon sport is changing.

The author is imbued with the love of nature and the wild things of

the forest. To such sportsmen-naturalists as Brigadier-General

Burton India owes, for many reasons, a deep debt of gratitude.

RR; .b:

3. SHIKAR: being Tales told by a Sportsman in India. By

Lieut-Colonel C. H. Stockley, D.S.O., O.B.E., M.C., F.R.G.S.,

F.Z.S., 192 pages, 37 Illustrations. The Oxford University Press,

1928.

In volume xxxiii of this Journal (page 177) we reviewed a book

Big Game Shooting in the Indian Empire by Colonel Stockley and

now have the pleasure of reviewing the present volume by this

experienced sportsman.

The tales told take us to the Higher Himalaya, Ladak,

Kishtwar, the Trans-Indus hills, Sind, the Nilgiri Hills, Burma,

and Somaiiland.

As a commencement we are taken to the shooting grounds,

sometimes—as the author tells us—a difficult and even dangerous

journey. ‘ The ordinary every-day incidents of the march belong

to a different world to that of city and cantonment.’ How true!

And what a joy it is to be on ‘The Road There’. It is not the

unpleasant experiences that dwell most in one’s memory, as the

author very truly remarks, but his journey to Kishtwar in 1911 he

can never forget; and it reveals to the reader the man he is.

Reading the tale of the pursuit of the wily Tahr we again travel

in Kishtwar.

Do you know the long day’s patience belly down on frozen snow,

When the head of heads is feeding out of range?

We do! And all those who have risked life and limb over the

execrable ground beloved;by Tahr will enjoy every word of this tale,

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The tale of the Nilgiri Tahr gives one an excellent idea of the

Kundahs near Ootacamund. Beautiful hilis and a perfect climate.

We ourselves will profit much by this story when we go in

the near future to follow in the footsteps of the author in that

direction ! ;

The Tsine of Burma is the subject of an interesting account of

shooting in that country. Again we read of a grand opportunity

lost for want of a cartridge. How often that happens! And it is

So easy to devise means of putting on cartridges with one’s clothes

and so obviate being ever let down in this way. The reader may

recollect that the explorer Colonel Etherton, having travelled to

the far distant mountans of Central Asia—a journey of months—

failed to bag a bear of a species new to him, and perhaps to science,

for want of a cartridge.

The loss of that bull Tsine was not ‘bad luck’. In the next

chapter the author tells us tales of Luck. Nearly always is it that

bad luck is merely the punishment for faulty work, that is very true

and is brought home to one throughout one’s shooting career.

Lost opportunities seldom recur.

The Straight-horned Markhor mostly inhabits most villainous

country. The tale cf The Patriarch gives a vivid idea of what is

entailed by pursuit of this beast in the Trans-Indus hills. Good

heads of this variety of markhor are, owing to the use of high

velocity rifles by hillmen of the border lands, becoming increasingly

difficult to obtain.

The Sind Ibex takes one very frequently over almost as bad

ground as the markhor. Large heads are still to be found; but

here again the use of the high velocity rifle by the hill tribes is

fast wiping out game.

Sportsmen of the younger generation desirous of following the

excellent advice of Colonel Stockley in his former book as to

making it one’s aim to obtain as many varieties of game animals

as possible, have no time to lose.

From the Sind hills we go across the sea to Somaliland, to learn

something of the Lesser Kudu. ‘Of all the many animals I have

hunted the Lesser Kudu bears the palm for grace and beauty.’ A

well-told and interesting tale.

‘The Tyrant’ is atale of a Himalyan black bear “of truculent

character. He inhabited the Kaj-i-Nag Mountains on the borders

of the Vale of Kashmir.

‘Quaint Beasts and Queer Habits’, is a collection of interesting

incidents as to birds and beasts. Very readable.

Reading ‘A Mixed Bag’, one is carried to the dreamland of

bygone days when every Sunday and Thursday took us all out to

enjoy the varied small game shooting within a day’s ride, or drive,

of the cantonment. Game was plentiful in those days; and still is,

where the motor car is not. And where is that ?

With a chapter on ‘ Shikaris’ the book is ended in a fitting

manner. For what would we do without the shikari?

There is a great charm about this book, and much for the ex-

perienced to enjoy. The reading of it, and the illustrations, will

REVIEWS 407

take them back to many similar scenes and incidents. The novice

will gain much by reading and re-reading all that these attractive

tales contain,

R. B.

4. BIRDS AT THE NEST. By Douglas Dewar, John Lane,

The Bodley Head, Ltd. 7s. 6d.

5. BIRDS AND BEASTS OF THE ROMAN ZOO. By

Th. Knottnerus Meyer. Translated by Bernard Miall, George Allan

and Unwin, Ltd, 16s,

In Birds at the Nest Mr. Dewar provides an interesting study

of the mind of the nesting bird. He is concerned mainly with the

powerful impulses which govern the behaviour of the bird during

this critical period. Mr. Dewar endeavours to show that during the:

nesting season birds are impelled to go through their programme

of activities by a blind instinct. That is to say a bird nesting for

the first time builds its nest, incubates its eggs and rears its young

without knowledge of the end in view and without the benefit of

observation or previous experience. While the author admits the

impossibility of a definite statement to the contrary, he is inclined

to doubt whether a bird’s knowledge in connection with its nesting

activities has been inherited from its forbears. Here we think it is

necessary to distinguish between those activities of a bird which

depend solely on how its nervous system has been built up through

heredity (activities which are common to all members of its species,

for example, the plan or type of nest architecture which characterizes

a particular group or genus of birds) and those activities which

spring from the same inherited disposition but are at the same time

influenced by experience acquired in the course of individual life.

The behaviour of the bird nesting for the first time is in the former

instance rendered definite through heredity, whether the experience

it acquires in subsequent operations is or is not transmitted to its

offspring is a question upon which naturalists are not quite agreed.

Lloyd Morgan in /mustinct and Habit tells us that animals possess

a sort of ‘Oral tradition.’ Itis due to this tradition that young

Mallards observed following their wild mother in a crowded public

park, where they have no enemies and come into daily contact with

human beings who are not dangerous to them, behave themselves

quite otherwise than in astate of complete freedom. ‘Their beha-

viour it is believed is based on a tradition transmitted by the mother

who has already adapted her own behaviour to altered conditions.

Yet it seems fairly apparent from the many examples put forward

by the author that in some respects the bird’s instincts of nest-

building, incubation and rearing offspring, while being founded on

a heredity basis are less liable to be modified by the exercise of

the inherited modes of procedure. The author has collected a

comprehensive series of observations on the behaviour of birds

during the nesting season, based on his own wide experience and on

the experience of other naturalists. It is difficult however to believe

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

that a collection of anecdotes based on casual observation can

afford a satisfactory solution as to whether the various activities of

a bird during the nesting season are consciously or unconsciously

performed. There inevitably arises the difficulty of finding a

satisfactory test or criterion for deciding the presence or absence

of consciousness in animal behaviour and of distinguishing how far

or how much the motive of a bird’s behaviour is due to inherited

disposition and how much to acquired tendencies, but the author’s

painstaking work admittedly provides an excellent basis for further

study of this very interesting though controversial subject. The

truth of the matter, as Mr. Meyer indicates in his Bzrds and Beasts

of a Roman Zoo lies somewhere between the extrerres. Those

are wrong who regard the animal as something human and those

are equally wrong who conceive it merely as a living machine. It

is quite conceivable that an animal’s mind is not only more sensitive

‘or more obtuse than our own but entirely different in its nature, and

who can say that this is or is not so. Mr. Meyer believes that

intellectual arrogance has no place in the understanding of those

that stand on a lower intellectual level than ourselves. We must

endeavour to step down to them and enter into their lives. In

reading Mr. Meyer’s book one cannot help being struck with the

confidence and love Mr. Meyer displays towards his charges. It is

a confidence born of happy experience due in no small measure to

his innate love for and understanding of wild things, and to the

sympathetic bond so firmly established between himself and the

animals to whose care he has devoted so many years of his life.

Particularly interesting are the author’s observations on the methods

adopted by various animals*in giving expression to their feelings.

His experience has led him to conclude that animals—the higher

animals at least—possess a language of sounds which express all

possible feelings—hunger, pain, contentment, joy, fear, anxiety

which may be understood and interpreted in their correct meaning,

as is shown by the author’s experiences with the apes, the larger

cats, the wolf, horse and parrot. These animals appear to have a

distinct sense of right and wrong and a manifest sense of guilt, joy

and grief which is not unrelated to abstract thought. Mr. Meyer

readily acknowledges that the tendency to humanize the animal is

almost unavoidable. But what standards have we for judging

animal behaviour except in a human fashion and from a human

standpoint from which alone we can make comparisons and draw

conclusions ? It is inevitable that all that lies beyond the range of

our ideas, beyond our understanding, must remain to us a sealed

book. As Jean Henri Fabre so finely put it, the inner life of the

animal must remain for ever a mystery and a secret. Mr. Meyer’s

book, is full of interesting and entertaining anecdotes of animals

and birds in captivity which will delight the general reader and

lovers of animals in particular, and which will offer a great deal

that will be useful to the student of animal psychology.

hye diets

REVIEWS 409

6. GAME BIRDS. By Douglas Dewar, with wood engravings

by E. Fitch Daglish, London Chapman Hall, Ltd. 42s.

Mr. Douglas Dewar, a prolific begetter of books, has found

justification to add to his already numerous family of voiumes on

Bird life. His most recent is the present sumptuous work on Game

Birds—let us be more precise than the author and call it British

Game Birds. In his introductory chapter he gives his personal

definition of that very indefinite and elastic term ‘Game’. He refuses

to include under this category any song bird, any wader, except

snipe and woodcock, and any water fowl save the edible ducks,

swans and geese. In his opinion, no creature should be deemed

game unless its habits are such as the shooting of it calls for the

exercise of skill and some knowledge of its Natural History and

further it affords good eating and be of such a size as to be worth

‘ plucking and cooking. Discrimination now becomes a matter of

taste and Mr. Dewar’s definition ought to be comprehensive enough

to suit all palates! Faithful to his opinions, Mr. Dewar confines his

book mainly to those birds which the more fastidious sportsman

lays himself out to shoot. He develops his purpose admirably, as

becomes a man with much knowledge and personal experience of

what he writes, but we can hardly excuse a writer of his standing

for the many errors in spelling of the scientific and proper names

of various species described in this work.

For those whose interest in birds goes beyond the shooting of

them, the author offers a series of interesting studies of a class of

birds which to many are perhaps the most alluring. His chapters on

individual species are prefaced with a summary of what is known

relative to the colouration, moulting and hybridization of game birds.

He introduces the reader to various problems of a controversial

nature, which can only be solved by further observation and research.

Here he provides a valuable field for study. For if the sportsman

and the naturalist is to make a contribution to our knowlege of the

lives, the habits and the history of the species which he sacrifices to

his skill, he must as a preliminary know what he is to observe and

the problems about which further intormation is needed.

The mouliting of birds is a subject about which we have surprising-

ly little information. Every species of bird appears to change the

greater part if not the whole of its feathering at least once a year.

With many species the moult produces a distinctive change in the

colouration of the plumage. In the opinion of many naturalists this

change of colouring is brought about by the shedding and replace-

ment of the old by new feathers. Yet it is maintained by a minority

of observers that a considerable number of species assume their

nuptial liveries, not by moulting alone, but also by the infusion of

pigment into feathers till then uncoloured. Mr. Dewar quotes his

own observations and those of other naturalists on the moulting and

colour changes of the Mallard and other species in support of the

latter theory. The proofs he affords in support of his claim indicate

that the feathers of birds may be alive to colour transmission. ‘The

subject of the pigmentation of feathers, like that of the moult, offers

a most promising field for observation,

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Chapters on the Pheasants, Partridges, Quails, Geese, Ptarmigan,

Blackcock, Capercailzie, Snipe, Woodcock, Mallard, Teal, Widgeon

and Pochard provide the reader with studies of the exquisite beauty,

wonderful structure, habits and behaviour of these birds. Short

descriptions of other British waterfowl which sportsmen are likely

to encounter are included in Mr. Dewar’s Key to the Wildfowl of

the British Isles which forms the subject of his concluding chapter.

The book is illustrated with 23 wood-engravings by E. Fitch-

Daglish.

S. Ho. Pe

7. BULLETIN OF THE RAFFLES MUSUEM, SINGAPORE

(Straits Settlements), No. I. September, 1928.

We extend a welcome to this new-comer amongst current

biological journals. Hitherto the Raffles Museum, has been without

a publication of its own, but the increasing output in recent years

of papers on its collections, prepared by the museum staff and others

has made it imperative for the museum to issue its own bulletin.

Mr. Boden Kloss, Director of Museums, Straits Settlements, in an

introductory note to the first number gratefully acknowledges the

hospitality offered by a number of societies and institutions which

have in the past placed space at the disposal of the museum in their

publications. It is a hospitality which the museum still hopes to

avail itself of occasionally. The Bulletin will be published as

material is available. Each number will be complete in itself and

will have its own pagination. It is intended, however, when suffi-

cient numbers have been produced to form a volume of reasonable

size, to issue a title page, table of contents and index. It is

appropriate that the first paper in the new journal should be by

Dr. Hanitsch, who retired from the Directorship of the Raffles

Museum in 1919, relinquishing his charge after 25 years of service.

Dr. Hanitsch’s paper deals with the Blattid#, obtained during

Mr. Boden Kloss’ expedition to the Mentawi Islands. The

scientific results of this expedition, dealing with the Fauna and

Flora of this interesting group of islands have already appeared in

various publications. A list of these papers is given by Mr. Boden

Kloss in his introductory note to Dr. Hanitsch's paper. Consider-

ing how little is known of the Blattid fauna of the Malaysian Sub-

region, it is not suprising that the 53 species obtained by the

expedition include one new genus, 19 new species and one new sub-

species. Notwithstanding the number of species old and new, the

present collection revealed no distinctive facts of distribution.

‘Owing to the proximity of the Mentawi Islands to Sumatra, their

Blattid fauna shows a close relationship to that of the much larger

Island. The Table at the end of the paper gives a list of the

Blattide taken on the expedition with their distribution. It shows

that of the 53 species obtained, 25 are common to Sumatra, 17 to

Java, 22 to Borneo and 30 to the Malay Peninsula. The author

believes that these figures do not indicate the true relationship but

merely express the degree to which the Blattid fauna of these areas

has been worked out.

3. ae die

‘WITH A CAMERA IN TIGER-LAND’

AN APOLOGY

With reference to the review by ‘R.B.’ of my book With a

Camera tn Tiger-land, published on pages 775 to 779 of volume

xxxli, No. 4 of the Journal, the reviewer draws attention to my in-

accurate remarks on the subject of the type of camera used by

Mr. Marius Maxwell for animal photography in Africa.

Unfortunately I wrote the chapter in question when I was out in

camp, where it is quite impossible to carry a book of the weight of

Mr. Maxwell’s superb volume. I thus trusted to memory anda

newspaper review, which was, of course, a foolish thing to do and

led me into misrepresenting Mr. Maxwell. I have referred to his

book again and I find that, as ‘R.B.’ says, most of his pictures, like

those of other animal photographers, were taken with ordinary reflex

cameras, some of which are illustrated in his book.

The main point where my experience differs from Mr. Maxwell’s

is over the question of lens. Mr. Maxwell believes in the use of

fast anastigmat lenses of such short focal lengths as 6 inches, whereas

I am of the opinion that suchlenses are practically useless in India,

my reasons being as follows :—

(2) Most animals in India are very shy owing to continuous

shooting and such a close approach is often almost impossible.

(6) Even if one does succeed in approaching sufficiently close,

the subject will be almost certain to see one so that the resultant

picture will represent a wild animal staring at the photographer—

perhaps with a nervous or frightened expression. In my opinion,

the best natural history photographs are those in which the subject

is absolutely unconscious of the presence of man. .

(¢) With dangerous animals such a close approach is unneces-

sarily risky. Mr. Maxwell was able to cover himself with one of

the famous white African hunters, who are usually dead shots. He

could thus take risks which the ordinary amateur in India, often

quite alone, is not justified in doing—at any rate if he be a married

man.

(d) A 6” lens, used head-on, gives a false perspective.

Personally I have found a 12” Dallon fixed-focus telephoto lens

quite satisfactory, although many pictures will be ruined by movement

during the exposure. I think a 17” similar lens could also be used

with advantage, in cases where it is possible to get some sort of

rest for the camera. I entirely agree with Mr. Maxwell as regards

high power telephoto lens. I think the results they give are poor

and they are so slow that they are almost impossible to use in dark

forests anywhere. In India, they might be useful for the Himalayan

goats and sheep and for black-buck, but that is all; and even under

the best conditions the pictures they produce at full aperture—

which has to be used for moving animals—leave much to be desired,

both as regards sharpness and perspective.

F. W. CHAMPION,

Indian Forest Service.

AN APPEAL FOR SCORPIONS

THE EDITORS,

JOURNAL OF THE BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Bombay.

DEAR SIRS,

I should esteem it a favour if you would interest yourself and the

members of the Bombay Natural History Society in my investiga-

tion into the toxic properties of the venom of Indian scorpions.

I began the work early in 1912, but could not proceed beyond a

few experiments on birds with the venoms of Buthus tamulus and

Palamneus swammerdamt. There are several reasons to account

for such a slow progress. Scorpions are undoubtedly plentiful in

India, but one has to find them, and that supposes a degree of free-

dom which men of the laboratory rarely enjoy. Moreover the

amount of venom given by an adult scorpion never exceeds a few

milligrams ; and it takes 1000 milligrams to make one gram which

is the least quantity needed fora iairly complete study. Again, the

glands are by no means always full; of the 22 specimens of

B. rugtiscutts which I received from Panchgani (June) only one gave

a full dose of venom; of 52 B. éamulus (June-August) 26 had glands

partly empty and 8 gave no venom at all. No wonder, then, that I

should not have troubled overmuch about an enquiry which gave so

little promise of a speedy and satisfactory conclusion.

The whole question of the toxicity of the venom of Indian Scor-

pions was, however, raised again when Mr. Prater, the Curator of

the Society, reported the occurrence in the Central Provinces of

several deaths from scorpion sting. I allowed myself to be per-

suaded to resume my enquiry and, thanks to Mr. Prater, Iam now

the happy possessor of the following :—

B. pachyurus .. 30 mgms. average per scorpion = 3:0

B. rugiscutts ik ClO. Matas a ie ay 0be,

B. tamulus 2 243'0 Oe. i o = ]°5

P. phipsoni JPA O22 eat » = == 5:4

P. swammerdami...85°3 _,, — 12-6

3) 99

Isometrus europaeus 9 vesicles (= 6°7 mgms).

All this, however, is still the proverbial drop of water in the

ocean—or rather, out of it—; and I do not see any other way of

getting over the difficulty, save to appeal to the members of the

Bombay Natural History Society and ask them to help me to coliect

sufficient material for my work by sending /zve scorpions to the

Curator. ‘ The more the merrier.’

With the hope that my appeal will meet with ready response on

the part of your numerous subscribers,

I remain,

Sirs,

HaAFFKINE INSTITUTE, Yours very truly,

Bombay, October 9, 1928. J. F. Carus.

EDITORIAL

THE TOXICITY OF SCORPION VENOM

Amongst the many questions which griffins—and for that

matter old residents in Presidency towns—put to their friends inthe

mofussil when they first arrive are questions as to toxic pro-

perties of the poisons of Snakes, Scorpions and Centipedes. Are

all snakes poisonous ? What are the chief poisonous snakes? Are

many people bitten by poisonous snakes ? If bitten by a poisonous

snake, what chance has a man got? These questions have been

answered for several years past in this Journal and in the fascinating

pages of Col. Wall’s ‘ Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of Our British

Indian Dominions and how to Recognize Them ’, and our task in the

editorial office has been materially lightened by the publication of

the fourth edition of Col. Wall’s book.

We can speak authoritatively on snakes, but can we speak so

authoritatively as regards the bites of centipedes and the stings of .

scorpions ? Up till recently the generally accepted dictum has been

that children of very tender years and grown-ups in a weak condi-

tion could die from the bite of the centipede or the sting of the

scorpion but that however virulent the poison of the centipede or

scorpion, and however tender or susceptible the part affected, it

was not fatal to a grown human being in sound health—and in the

expression ‘ grown human’ were included children of over seven

or eight years of age.

That is the position which from lack of information on the

subject we must still maintain as to the centipede, but as regards

the scorpion we may have to modify our opinion and admit that

the poison of certain species of scorpions may be fatal to a grown

up human being, even though the latter be in sound health.

The frequent cases of mortality from scorpion sting, reported

from the Central Provinces and other parts of India, led the

Society in 1926 to request the Inspector-General of Hospitals in

Central India to issue orders for the collection of scorpions by the

staff of hospitals and dispensaries under his control. It was our

intention first to discover what species occurred in the Central

Provinces and then to initiate and assist in an investigation into

the toxicity of the venoms of Indian scorpions in general. Asa

result of our request a large number of scorpions were obtained.

These were identified by Mr. Pocock at the British Museum. ‘Two

of the scorpions sent to us—one from Raipur and the other from

Drug, C. P.—had caused the death of two healthy children, boys of

9 and 11 years respectively. Both specimens were identified as

Buthus hendersont.

The toxicity of the venom varies according to species. ‘The

small red scorpions of the genus Authus are known to be far more

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUIT

virulent than are the large black rock scorpions (Palmneus) though

the latter look very much more deadly and forbidding. While the

dose of poison given out by sucha species as Buthus australis is of

course infinitely smailer, its toxicity is comparable in virulence to

that of the cobra. .

The toxicity of the venom may also vary in the same species,

this being dependent on the conditions of secretion. The first drop

of venom given out by a scorpion is far more potent than succeed-

ing drops. The scorpion carries its offensive armoury at the end

of its tail. Its poison apparatus consists of a gland which terminates

inasting. The sting is perforated to allow for the delicate poison

duct. It has been proved by experiment that the venom contained

in the duct is far more virulent than that which is secreted in the

gland itself. The venom found in the duct is a more elaborate

product. It is believed to be the result of the maturation of the poison

secreted in the gland. When the mature venom is exhausted the

supply which follows immediately loses much of its toxic properties.

Early this year Father Caius, S. J., Bio-Chemist of the Haffkine

Institute, Bombay, undertook at our request an investigation into

the toxicity of the venoms of Indian scorpions, but to obtain satis-

factory results large numbers of live scorpions must be collected. As

Father Cauis points out in a letter which we publish on page 412 the

amount of venom which may be extracted from an adult scorpion does

not exceed a few milligrammes. Yet it takes 1,000 milligrammes to

make one gramme which isthe least quantity required for a 1eason-

able study! The Society has been ableto add somewhat to the material

now available for investigation but the quantities of venom

obtained from the various species so far collected is still very

limited. Numbers of live specimens from all parts of India are

urgently needed for bringing the work to a successful issue. Will

members of the Society, who are in a position to help, co-operate by

sending us live scorpions ? When you have obtained your scorpion

drop him into a cigarette tin or stout wooden box and post the box

to the Society’s offices. Please be very careful to mark this

‘Open carefully’.

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF SALT LICKS

What is the element in the earth which attracts animals of various

species to areas known generally as ‘‘ Salt Licks’’? The obvious

answer seems to be salt. The word ‘‘lick’’ was first used in

America to denote a place where animals collect in numbers to lick

or eatearth. It was commonly believed that animals were attracted

to these spots by the salt with which the soil was impregnated.

But an actual examination of the earth taken from various licks

would seem to show that there is no foundation for this belief. In

a paper read by Major Clive Newcomb, I.M.S., before the Far

Eastern Association of Tropical Medicine in December 1927 it was

stated that an analysis of seven samples of earth taken from

‘licks ’’’ showed there was none or very little Sodzum chloride pre-

sent. Inthe discussion which followed the reading of the paper

the suggestion was put forward that perhaps iron was the element

EDITORIAL 415

sought after by the animals which visited “ licks’. All the ‘* licks ’’

examined contained iron, yet from other considerations it was

assumed that this was not the real explanation. A field of specu-

lation is thus opened up as to what is the element which attracts

animals of all species to such places. We should like to have

had the opportunity of publishing Major Newcomb’s paper but

- circumstances have prevented our being able to do so. The

question is one that should interest many members of the Society

whose co-operation we seek in our efforts to throw further light on

an interesting problem.

We have recently received from Tavoy, Burma, samples of earth

taken from two ‘‘ licks’’. The two samples are as unlike as they

could be. One of themis an ashy grey powder, perfectly homo-

genous in character; while the other consists almost entirely of

pebbles with a little earth and organic debris. Mr. W. S. Wood

who sent us these sampies, writes that he came across one instance

of a ‘‘ lick’? which appeared to him to give an indirect indication of

some constituent which had a violent purging effect on the animals

which visited it. Further it has been suggested by Father Caius,

who is now taking up the investigation on behalf of the Society,

that a knowledge of the chemical composition of ‘ licks’”’ might

throw light on the very obscure question of earth-eating as

practised by human beings the world over. There are as many as

six theories to account for this practice which is known by the name

of ‘* geophagy ’’, but none of them are satisfactory.

For the purpose of chemical analysis at least 5 lbs. of earth taken

from licks are required, and for comparative study an equal quantity

of earth from an adjoining area inhabited by the animals which visit

the licks. Samples of earth commonly sold in the bazaars for

human consumption would also be useful in the proposed investi-

gation. ‘There are, we feel sure, alarge number of members

sufficiently interested in the subject who would be willing to help

us in this inquiry. ‘To make the investigation complete sampies of

earth from as many licks as possible are necessary. Samples should

be labelled as to date and locality of origin and forwarded to the

Honorary Secretary of the Scciety.

THE RINGING OF MIGRATORY BIRDS

In the last editorial we announced our intention to carry out the

ringing of birds during the present cold season with a view to assist

in the solution of some of the problems relative to their migration.

The Society is now supplying rings, stamped with its address,

suitable for geese, duck, cranes and the larger waterfowl, and has

prepared a pamphlet of instructions outlining what should be done

and the manner of doing it. With the rings it is also issuing blank

schedules where particulars as regards all birds ringed are to be

entered. Members of the Society who are in a position to help are

requested to communicate with the Honorary Secretary. So farabout

3,900 rings have been sent out to people who have volunteered to

assist in the scheme and it is hoped that ringing wil] be done during

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

the current season in the following areas :— Kashgar, Tibet, Siestan,

Kabul, Hazara, Kashmir, Baluchistan, Sind, Bahawalpur, Punjab,

Alwar, Dhar, Indore, Jaora, Patna, Nagpur, Cutch, and Madras. It

will be seen that the majority oi helpers are resident in Western

and North-Western India. Co-operation from other areas of the

Indian Empire would add completeness to what is being done, but

by this we do not in the least wish to imply that we have now .

a sufficiency of workers in the areas indicated above. The more we

have, the better, as to obtain really satisfactory results through this

means, ringing must be done on a very extensive scale. What has

been accomplished in the United States may serve as an example.

During the period form July 1, 1923 to December 31, 1926, no less

than 234, 692 birds were ringed through the agency of the State

Biological Survey and 10,338 recoveries were reported.

In connection with the ringing of migratory duck we would refer

to a note which appears amongst the Miscellaneous Notes in this

number and which deals with migration from Denmark to Western

Siberia. It will be recalled that some of the duck ringed in Dhar

State, C.I. were recovered on their breeding grounds in middle

Siberia.

A glance at the map which we have reproduced on page 448 shows

that the breeding grounds of the duck from Dhar State and those

from Denmark are practically the same. This leads one to speculate

whether duck invariably visit the same winter quarters every year.

Is there an occasional change ? Do ducks which winter in Denmark

sometimes visit India? This is another of the problems which our

bird ringing scheme might help to solve. We earnestly hope that

more members will take up ringing work during the present season.

ENGLISH NAMES FOR INDIAN BUTTERFLIES

The first two volumes on Butterflies in the Fauna of British

India series were published over ZO years ago under the authorship

of CojJ. Bingham. Col. Bingham died before completing the third

volume. ‘The first volume has been out of print for some years.

To include the discoveries of recent years and to accord with

modern ideas regarding classification, etc. both volumes require

revision. Under the direction of Col. H. Stephenson, ¢.1.E., (late

I.M.S.,) of Edinburgh University, who is the general editor of the

Fauna ithas been decided to revise the present volumes'on butter-

flies and to complete the series. The new edition will comprise

five volumes, the first of which will be published in 1932. The sub-

sequent volumes will be issued at the rate of one volume annually.

The authorship has been entrusted jointly to Capt. N. D. Riley,

who is in charge of the Butterflies in the British Museum, and

Brigadier W. H. Evans, C.1.E., D.S.0., R.E. whose work in con-

nection with Indian butterflies is well known to members of the

Society. The introductory part will be greatly expanded and the

number of woodcuts increased. As far as lies within their power,

the authors hope to make the forthcoming work in every respect a

complete handbook to the study of Indian butterflies. They

have under consideration the assignment of English (or trivial) names.

EDITORIAL 417

to the various species on the lines adopted by Brigadier Evans. in

his /denttfication of Indian Butterflies recently published by the

Society. The names given in that work were in most cases arbi-

trary and the authors would be glad to receive suggestions through

the Honorary Secretary of the Society to improve these so as to

meet the wishes of collectors in India. Will members of the

Society who are interested communicate with us ?

CHANGES IN THE SOCIETY’S DIRECTORATE

Since the last number of the Journal was issued there have been

important changes in the directorate of the Society. We have lost

one President and welcomed another ; we have exchanged Honor-

ary Secretaries and Editors and we hope Mr. Sanderson will have

as pleasureable a leave as the manhe so ably acted for had. In Sir

Leslie Wilson we had a President who was very keen on the work

the Society was doing for the spread of an interest in Natural

History amongst dwellers in this great city. His help and advice

has been of great assistance to the staff of the Natural History

Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and it is a pity that he left

India before the scheme for establishing a separate wing —designed

for the purpose—for the location of the Society’s exhibits became

an accomplished fact. In welcoming His Excellency Sir Frederick

Sykes as our new President, may we express the wish that before he

Jeaves India he will see a Natural History Museum in full working,

worthy of the city of Bombay and of the Natural History phaeas

which bears its name.

FINANCE

It is too early to publish in this number the financial results of the

year 1928, but it may be said here that 1928 will be remembered for

three main reasons. First the incorporation of the Society, second

the turning of the corner in the sale of the Society’s publications

(we are paying our way now with all the publications so far issued)

and thirdly for the proof afforded that it pays to advertise even where

scientific societies are concerned—at least that one suffers if one

does not. How best to advertise is not the point, but it is a point

and an interesting one to note that during 1928 the staff of the

Society did not have the time to devote to ‘‘ booming ”’ the Society

nor to enlist in a special recruitment crusade the services of mem-

bers. As aresult we had fewer new members in 1928 than during

the two previous years when we made special appeals and this is a set-

back which must be more than regained. The Society is a mutual

one, the more the Society benefits the more the member benefits, and

in a material age itis surely only reasonable that a scientific and non-

material Society should appeal, and let us hope not in vain, to every

member to do his or her best in 1929 to enrol another member.

Were our membership doubied we could indeed talk !

GENERAL

We welcomed in December the Roosevelt Brothers who with

Messrs. Suydam Cutting, H. Stevens and others are makinga shooting

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

trip on behalf of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago,

to secure if possible specimens of Schomburgk’s deer (Cervas schom-

burgkt) no specimen of which has been seen alive by European

sportsmen for many years (we have two heads in our Museum) and

the Panda. The particular Panda they are after is the Giant Panda

(Eluropus melanoleucus) which is believed to inhabit the mountain

ranges of Szechuan north of Ta-chien-lu. It is somewhat like a

diminutive bear with glossy reddish fur and a white face. It is a

representative of the Procyontde of the which American racoons and

our Himalayan Cat Bear are members. No living Panda has been

seen by a white man. Col. F. M. Bailey tells us that when he left

Batang on the China-Tibet border, he was informed that the Chinese

soldiers there had a tame one. He was very sorry to have missed

the opportunity of seeing a living example of this very rare animal.

There is a skin and skull from Szechuan in the Royal Scottish

Museum at Edinburgh and a skin in the British Museum collection.

We also welcomed Mr. Vernay, who has helped us in so many

ways before and who we believe is going to help us in the future.

At the moment he is helping us by the gift of 5,000 feet of edited

film taken by him in the jungles of Nepal, Mysore and Burma and

illustrative of the larger game animals of these countries. It is

undoubtedly the finest film of its kind taken in India. After the

film has been exhibited for the personal benefit of our members it

is hoped to benefit the financial resources of the Society by exhibit-

ing itto the public in the ordinary cinema halls of India.

Congratulations to Brigadier-General R. G. Burton and Lt.-Col.

C. H. Stockley on their recent books on shikar and to Father Blatter

and his financial godfathers on the success of his two very fine

volumes on the Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir.

MisCELEANEOUS NOTES

I.—AFTER BISON AND BUFFALO IN THE HIGH

SAL FORESTS

On the morning of St. Patrick’s Day, 1928 I rode into my camp at

Baisagaon, a place far off the beaten track to which I had been

drawn by great stories of bison, buffalo, and tiger. 1 was met by a

a little group of Gond shikaris. All Gonds are shikaris more or

less. They are the aboriginal inhabitants of these Sal forests and

eke out a precarious living from the produce of their fields, as much

of it as is left to them by the marauding sambhar and pig. Nearly

every Gond can track a bison or a buffalo through dry grassy jungle,

where to the ordinary eye there is absolutely not a sign to follow.

A pressed leaf ora broken blade of grass is as good as a sign post

to him.

The leading shikari, Karriya, told me they had tied up four garas

(bullocks) the preceding night in the river bed, but though a tiger’s

tracks were seen near by he had happened to miss my‘ garas’.

This river ran due east and was joined about 3 miles from camp by

another of equal size from the south. But there were fresh tracks

of bison in two places in the river, one 2 miles away due west, and

one 2 miles due east down stream. This was good news as I

particularly wanted to get a bison. Karriya said there were also

buffalo tracks at the place down stream. I1 decided to go out that

afternoon to the upper place as a local Gond called Kuja said the

tracks were of a solitary bull. I marched off at about 3 p.m.

through high Sail forest, and then suddenly dipped down a steep

slope into a sandy river bed. Water was lying in small pools here

and there, and in the bed of the river and along the banks were

patches of the coarse green grass the bison and buffalo love.

After scouting along the river bed for about half a mile Kuja

suddenly squatted down and pointed excitedly to what he said was

a ‘Burra bhari’ Gaur, a great big bison. I looked and saw the

horns of the animal above the high grass in the middie of the river

bed, but a careful inspection through my glasses showed me that it

was either a young bull or a cow, certainly not an animal to be

shot. Muchto the disappointment of my keen little companion we

returned to camp without firing a shot. I arranged to be up next

morning at 4.30 to visit the other good spot. As usual when I am

looking forward to doing something in the early morning I woke up

far too early. My first consciousness was of the village cocks

crowing, and when I looked at my watch I found it was only 2.30.

I’ve never known. them so early before. Before going to sleep

again I heard a sambhar bell in the forest about half a mile away,

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

and I sleepily wondered if a tiger was on the prowl and if he would

find one of my garas. My tea was brought at 4.30 sharp, and I

drank it sitting on the edge of my camp-bed, with the stars brilliant

above and the trees forming a black wall50 yards away. I was out

on my way by five. Wehad to go about amile along a rough

cart track and then another along the bed of the river. As we

marched along in single file the silver sickle of a waning moon was

shining ahead through the trees, which were here so tall that they

seemed to reach right up amongst the stars. Some night bird was

calling at intervals, and, as we proceeded, the sky began to lighten

in the east and the first peacock woke up and sent forth his mourn-

ful call over the jungles. We hadto sit down and wait for afew

minutes when we reached the river, here a broad expanse of dry

sand, as there was a gara tied up some 500 yards away and there

was not enough light to shoot if by chance we found a tiger

present. However eventually we found the bullock lying happily

chewing his cud, and we passed on quietly towards where thick

patches of green grass invaded the river bed. Suddenly round a

corner I saw a black mass standing close to the bank and while I

was trying to geta clearer view, it turned up the bank into the thick

forest. I cut in and had a glimpse of the black back and wide horns

of a bull bison, as it went up a slope and disappeared. I followed

with what I considered the best combination of speed and caution,

the crackling leaves making me feel I could be heard a mile away.

I topped the crest to find the grass much shorter and the jungle

thinner. There was no sign of any bison, but as I went along with

my double :375 ready I was suddenly startled by a tremendous

snort and the violent stamping of feet on the ground on my left

front. There I saw two bull bison standing side by side about 120

yards away. Both were coal black, but one was doing all the

threatening, while the other stood stock still. Neither gave a very

clear shot as there were alot of creepers and twigs between us,

but feeling they would bolt at any moment I fired at the chest of the

one I saw best, the silent one, intending to give it the second

barrel as it swung round. Alas for human plans! The great beast

swung round at the shot as expected, but my second barrel missed

fire ! I followed these two old veterans for miles but found no trace

of blood, so I hope my first shot was a miss, due either to my not

steadying my rifle against a tree, or to my bullet being deflected by

a branch. I returned to camp at 10.30 feeling very annoyed with

myself, and determined to take a heavy double ‘577 with me next

day, even if the weight should become rather a burden after 2 or 3

hours slow tracking.

On my return to camp I was greeted with the news that a eet

had attacked one of my gavas half a mile from camp, had bitten it

in the neck, and then left it. It had then had a drink near by, and

gone off. This sounded mysterious and, as a tiger which had been

wounded some 15 days before this was said to be still wandering in

these jungles, I thought he might be responsible for this unsuccessful

attack. I therefore had a hurried breakfast and went out to investi-

gate. I] found things were as reported. On the edge of the river-

bed the bullock was tied about 50 yards from a small water hole.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 421

There were tooth marks on the back of the animal’s neck and no

other injury. From the tracks in the sand the assailant was a

tigress or a small tiger. I had a native bed and ropes with me and

had a machan tied up in a tree over-looking the kill, hoping that the

tiger might revisit the place inthe day time. I was up at midday

and settled down comfortably witha rug, a pillow, and a book.

Also arifle, a bottle of water, and a rain coat. And luckily the

last, for it had clouded over, and from one to two it rained steadily.

However I and my belongings were quite dry under the rain coat

draped from my shoulders like a tent. Time passed happily in

reading, drowsing, and watching the birds, especially two gorgeous

wood-peckers, their plumage slashed with brilliant yellow and

scarlet. The jungle behind my tree rose in a steep slope above the

level of my machan. At 3.30 I heard some large animal, approa-

ching from over the top, and swinging round, I saw twenty yards

away an immense bull buffalo striding towards me as if he owned

the whole forest. Indeed there is no animal which would readily

contest his claims. His great black horns curving outwards and

upwards from his mighty head must have measured over 9 feet

from tip to tip. He suddenly saw the miserable bullock tied to the

tree and pulled up with a snort of surprise. At the first noise my

hand had sought my rifle, but I now gently put it down—to shoot

would have been murder—and waited breathlessly to see what he

would do. He stared at the gava for a few moments, and then with

a toss of his head and another snort he turned round and swung

away through the heavy grass. As I saw the tips of his horns

disappear I breathed a silent prayer that I might meet this worthy

antagonist again on more equal terms. At dark I heard the

monkeys proclaim some dangerous beast away down stream and a

sambhar also gave the alarm from the same direction, so I became

very hopeful. But the tiger had not turned up by 8 p.m., so I

whistled up my men and went back to camp, feeling sure that there

was another kill five or six hundred yards away.

Next morning I was out at 5 o’clock and started off

eastwards to look forthe two old bison. About a mile from

camp I suddenly got a terrific whiff of something very

dead, and told two of the shikaris to search round for a kill

of some sort. I had an unsuccessful stalk after bison, only seeing

one go off at full gallop. On my return the shikaris told me they

had found half a sambhar hind which had evidently been killed two

or three days before, as it was covered with maggots. Here wasa

clear case of a tiger preferring his meat high. I decided to sit up

over the remains, but when I went out in the afternoon the vultures

had finished all but a few bones, so I gave orders for a bullock to be

tied on the spot, and went off again down the bison river. When I

had reached a spot near where I had seen the first of the old bulls

I heard a snort in the jungle on the north side of the river. I

Slipped up this bank about 100 yards from where the noise seemed

to come and concealed myself and my men behind trees. After

half an hour or so a cow bison came out through the long grass and

grazed her way down into the river bed. She was followed by two

other cows and two little calves. I felt there must be. a bull

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

coming, and sure enough there he came, a fine big fellow, coal

black, andin the prime of life as shown by his unbroken sharp

pointed horns. [ was watching the first cow who had now come

along within 5 yards of my tree and seemed to feel there was some-

thing wrong, when I felt a gentle touch from the Gond behind me,

and following his carefully raised finger I saw on the south bank

directly opposite me a huge bull bison stroll slowly down the slope

towards the herd. He was much more ponderous than the other

bull and his horns spread out wider from his head. As he advanced

the younger bull stepped out in the sand and with nose thrust for-

ward and mouth open gave two or three shrill challenges. I had

never heard this noise before. It was a sort of musical whine, like

a small steam whistle. Then he threw up the sand in showers

with his feet and advanced towards the intruder while the rest of

the herd looked on with every show of great interest. The old

bull came down a bit more, whereupon the other advanced up the

bank and to show his strength and valour charged and knocked

downtwo quite respectable saplings. This was too much for the

veteran. He turned away from his antagonist with sad dignity,

and as my foresight swung on to his massive shoulder and steadied

I felt no compunction. As he fell to the shot I hoped that his

spirit would soon be wandering in that jungly paradise where

old age and blunted horns, and strife, and defeat would not

disturb his peace.

For several minutes the other bull and his family stood transfixed

with astonishment. Then a movement from me and they stampeded

the way they had come. I went to the fallen giant and found his

horns were very worn and splintered to within a foot of the base.

They measured 65 all round from point to point, and had a 36 inch

spread. I walked home with a jubilant following of Gonds, all

determined like myself to go forth the next morning and find the

big buffalo, if we had to spend all day in doing so. The camp was

very excited at the news of my success, and I indulged in a bottle

of beer to celebrate the event.

Next morning I was out again before dawn. There was a lot to

arrange. Some shikaris were detailed to start searching for tracks

of buffalo in the river bed from near the camp, where I had seen the

big bull, on down to where I had shot the bison. Here I was to

start searching with the shikaris and when joined by the first lot,

pool our discoveries and decide on the plan of campaign. Some

other men were detailed to go out and fetch the bison’s head. So

we dispersed. I took some sardines, bread, and a water bottle.

No fresh tracks of buffalo were found till we got into the main river

3 miles from camp. ‘There to our joy we found solitary tracks.

Optimistically feeling sure it was my big bull off we went first

through light hilly jungles and then into heavy grass. I suddenly

gota sight of his body ina hollow, but he disappeared before I

could see his horns. Then he got wind of us and increased his

pace, and I only got one more glimpse of him in a 3 hour track.

This glimpse was of the tips of his horns, and showed he was

obviously not the one we thought we were after, so we gave up the

chase at about 10.30 all of us fairly weary already.

- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 423

We worked our way back to the river, and while the men revelled

in the beautiful clear water that here was running freely I had my

fish breakfast. Then we all lay down in the thickest shade we

could find and discussed our further actions. We decided to rest

till 3 p.m. and then to work up the other tributary of the big river

looking for other solitary tracks and hoping to come across our

buffalo on the way home in the afternoon. It meant along way to

camp, but the memory of that mighty head made it seem worth

while. So we spent the afternoon sleeping and exchanging yarns.

Karriya told me he had come across a tiger treed by wild dogs.

The dogs had killed a sambhar and evidently the tiger had tried to

butt in, for when Karriya arrived on the scene the dogs were eating

the kill and the tiger was clinging to the sloping trunk of a tree

ten feet from the ground. He was sure the sambhar had been

killed by the dogs, and not by the tiger. When he appeared the

tiger sprang to the ground and dashed off, and the dogs dispersed

in all directions, while Karriya annexed the kill which was. quite

fresh, a good effort for aman armed only with the light axe every

Gond carries in the jungle. Mahadeo shikari had got into trouble

last year for shooting a tiger outside the area permitted on his gun

license, and I asked him how it had happened. He said he was

going along and suddenly saw some wild dogs rounda kill. When

he appeared the dogs retreated and he found the remains ofa

sambhar fawn. He went scouting round to get a shot at the dogs

with his ancient muzzle loader, and about 400 yards from the kill he

saw some yellow animal in the grass about 15 yardsaway. Tohis

horror he saw it was striped, and as it had not seen him he fired and

dropped it dead with one shot in the shoulder. Another stout effort.

On going up he found it was a tigress which had been killing a

sambhar hind. This is 1n extraordinary case of traditional enemies

hunting together. The cream of the story is that the hind suddenly

to Mahadeo’s disgust got up and ran away, the explanation being

evident from an examination of the tigress which was so old that

her teeth were all blunted andinnocuous. She had managed to pull

the hind down but could not kill it. These men also told me they

had heard tigers imitate a sambhar’s call and their theory was that

this call was an invitation from a tiger to his mate to come and

share a kill.

With these and other yarns from the wise men of the forests the

time passed pleasantly enough till it was time to move. We pro-

ceeded up the new river bed and the trek was brightened by the

sudden appearance of a fine sambhar stag near the edge of the

jungle, which I dropped with a shot from the °577. Unfortunately

it dashed wildly over some rocks and crashed, breaking off both its

horns, which were just on the point of being shed naturally We

eventually found buffalo tracks, but it was then late and we were

seven miles from camp and dog tired, so I decided to make for

home. We were all very glad to see the first flicker of camp fires

through the trees.

Next morning I bade a regretful farewell to my Gond friends and

rode away from Baisagaon taking with me happy memories of my

few strenuous and interesting days in these beautifu] jungles.

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Some day perhaps I may return to find that buffalo with his horns

bigger and his temper shorter, and then, well here’s hoping !

J. A. DUKE,

Raipur, C. P. I[ndtan Police.

II—MONKEYS AND CARNIVORA

A point which I would like to mention in connection with ‘ R.B.’s’

review of my book in Vol. XXXII No. 4 is in regard to the accuracy

of the information of the presence of Carnivora as indicated by the

alarm cries of jlangoors. I have given this point my very careful

attention for a long time and particularly after discussing the matter

with Colonel Burton. Personally, I have never yet been let down

by a langoor, whereas, as far as these particular forests are concern-

ed, Macacus rhesus, although a useful indicator, is otten quite

unreliable. ‘R.B.’ mentions that he has had langoors give the

alarm call for a yellow dog, whereas the MWacacus monkeys were

silent: I would reply by saying that I have a black Labrador bitch,

who habitually accompanies mein the jungle, and wherever I go

the Macacus monkeys call at her, whereas the langoors usually ignore

her altogether! Evidently conditions vary tremendously from

place to place and this example only emphasizes how very unwise

it is to make a definite statement about the habits of any particular

species of animal. Truly Emerson knew what he was saying when

he wrote :

‘ Nature will not be Buddist ; she resents generalizing and insults

the philosopher in every moment with a million of fresh particulars.’

F. W. CHAMPION,

Indian Forest Service.

LANSDOWNE,

August 3, 1928.

Ill—' THE MAN-EATERS OF TSAVO=

(With a plate)

Tinose who have read Zhe Man-caters of Tsavo will be interest-

ed in the accompanying photograph of the two lions which

formed the subject of Col. Patterson’s classic work. The original

specimens were purchased by Mr. Stanley Field and presented by

him to the Field Museum, Chicago, where they have been mounted

and placed on exhibition. The ferocity, the boldness and infinite

cunning of these lions was almost beyond belief. Their victims

included several white men, 28 coolies and more than 100 Indian

and African labourers. Their ravages put a temporary stoppage to

bid

RAT

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 425

the construction of the Uganda Railway and the story of their

depredations is perhaps the most extraordinary one of man-eating

beasts on record.

Although both were males it will be seen that they carried prac-

tically no manes. Among African lions, between the animal with

hardly a vestige of a mane and the much less common though far

handsomer beast with a owing black mane, every possible inter-

mediate variety may be found. Selous has shown that full-maned

lions and others with scarcely any mane at all may be found occupy-

ing the same territory. The maneless condition of the lions of

the Gir Forest of Kathiawar, the last stronghold of the lion in India,

is well known. Yet lions from Africa and India grow luxuriant

manes in captivity. Selous was unable to account for the variation

in the length and colour of the mane in different individual lions.

He did not consider the theory tenable that the maneless condition

of many lions in the wild state was due to the density and thorny

nature of the jungles in which they lived. He shows that on the

high open plateaus of Matabele and in the Mashuna country, where

scarcely a thorn bush is to be seen, lions of every variety as regards

length and condition of mane are to be found. The same variation

also occurs in the neighbourhood of Tati where the country is for

the most part covered with thick thorn jungle.

Our thanks are due to the Field Museum, Chicago for permission

to publish this interesting photograph.

BomBAay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

October 12, 1928. EDITORS.

IV.—-WOUNDED TIGER RETURNING TO KILLS

It is an interesting fact that in recent years two cases have

occurred in this District of wounded tiger returning to their kills on

the foliowing night, or rather in one instance the tiger killed again

on the following night. In the first case a planter on these hills

wounded a tiger at night and on approaching the kill early the

following morning observed the tiger standing alongside the kill.

The tiger saw him and dashed off and fresh blood was found all

round the kill where the tiger had been feeding. The tiger did not

appear again and could not be located. In the second instance a

visitor to these hills wounded a tiger at night when sitting up over

its kill. On the following morning every foot of the jungle was

searched for some distance round with the aid of a herd of buffaloes.

There was very little blood and the tracks of the tiger were lost

not far from the kill. On the following night another kill occurred

and was obviously the work of the same tiger as blood was found in

three or four of its forms where it Jay up in the jungle near the kill

after feeding. The tiger returned to its kill again the next night,

but as the kill had been dragged from the very thick stuff it had been

in for a yard or two into more open ground, the tiger evidently

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIT/

got suspicious and went off without actually coming up to its kill.

In both the above cases the tiger must have only received a

slight wound.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, RALPH C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

Via MYSORE,

June 7, 1928.

V.—MEASUREMENTS OF PANTHERS

Major Logan Home in his letter dated August 1927, asks for

particulars of any large leopards. I enclose the details of a

particularly Jarge panther, shot by mein Nimar in April 1923. It

was a large massive animal and I at first thought it must be a tiger

as it had killed a large cow from the local herd. I was alone at the

time so have no witness to corroborate the measurements.

Measurements taken with a steel tape

Length between pegs cee et, ae Hei nrhe ROG

Tail a re - bie oe spat fh tcuee

Girth — ne oe tae a ah See

Forearm me Be; a5 a re ae ey

NeCkinm. ar os sa ies = ses. seer Aor

‘The present length of the skin (which was salted and not pegged

out) is 8’ 4”,

QUETTA, J.R. STOCKLEY ROPER,

June 1928. Lieut., R.A.

VI.—BREEDING HABITS OF THE COMMON MONGOOSE

(HERPESTES EDWARDS!)

The following notes on the breeding of the common Indian

Mongoose may be of interest.

In mid-1926 my daughter obtained a pair of young animals who

must have been born about May 1926. The male was given to

biting the servants’ bare feet and died young, death being attributed

to a party of chokras in the neighbourhood. The female, of an

unusually timid and retiring disposition, continued to inhabit the

bungalow but would not let any one but my daughter, who fed her,

handle her.

In February 1927 she took to wandering out into the highways

and hedges for about a week or ten days, and early in May she

gave birth to a pair of young in the roof of the bungalow. I should

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 427

say that she can climb a!most as well as a cat and has been seen to

jump a vertical height upwards of 4’ 2” witha ten-day old baby

in her mouth. The animal herself is some 15”—20” long, small of

her kind. This family gives us a probable period of gestation of

at least sixty days.

Some ten days to a fortnight after the appearance of her nipples

and sundry squeaks and scufflings in the roof had roused suspicion,

she brought one down when she came for her food, a male

which spat and tried to bite when picked up, but soon became

amenable.

The mother to my surprise made no objection to her baby being

handled by myself or my servants (my family had fled from the

approaching South-west monsoon) but after a time having fed

she came, calling, and the, baby, whom we will caii the ‘ First male’,

was released and after a thorough exploration of the bungalow, was

taken back up into the roof.

The following day a female was brought down and much the

same performance gone through. She was a good bit smaller than

her brother and as she only lived about three weeks, dying of some

stomach trouble, we need not bother to name her. The mother

made a fuss calling if they were detained so they were let run

loose and soon took to evading any attempts to handle them.

First male continued to run with his mother and to come to

food until in September 1927, when he was about half grown, a

second pair of babies were produced in the roof. Much the same

performance about oringing them down, and I was surprised to see

that the mother made no objection to First male joining the family

party. Again the female died young leaving the mother with two

sons First male and Second male.

In the end of October and early November the mother and

First male were seen pairing on three or four different occasions,

and at Christmas a third pair of babies was born out in the

compound. We have never handled these but from later observa-

tion I am able to say that they were male and female, Third male

and third female, period of gestation about sixty days again.

On April 1 and 4, 1928, I saw the mother pairing with First

male, easily distinguished by his size from Second male. The act

was repeated half a dozen or more times, in my view, at intervals

of a few minutes on each occasion.

Now comes a puzzle as on April 28, she was seen, again by ie,

apparently pairing with Second male. Same repeated performance

with no attempt at evasion on the part of the female, yet she must

have been impregnated on April 1/4, as the fourth pair were

produced on June 5, sixty-one days from April 4, and only thirty-

eight from April 28. What is one to believe?

Now, in September 1928, the mother, third female and fourth

pair, who are again male and female, come in to feed. First male

has not been seen for some time though his presence in the roof

has been suspected. Second male and Third male gave up coming

to food about the middle of August though they probably inspect

the bungalow when it is quiet in the afternoon, when they used to

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

come into my daughter’s room for a game that didn’t run to

handling, just the usual look through my hind legs, jumps and

combined family ball wrestle quite a tangle with about four in the

ball. They are very intrigued by anything, an egg for preference,

in a basin of water. The babies we were able to handle swam well

and strong from the beginning though they did not appear to like it.

When the babies were very small the mother used to hide one

and be seen convoying the other, the hidden one remaining silent

and still until mother returned for it. Later both would run with

her. They run ciose into her side stopping when she does and are

very inconspicuous. The mother was seen to attack, furiously, a

prowling cat four to six times her size. The cat didn’t wait, and

I’ve never seen one travel faster. No notice is taken of a terrier

in the house; no familiarity, just friendly neutrality on both sides.

They are regularly fed and I daresay there’s lots of small game

about, but, in a good hour be it said, they have not so far

interfered with the chicken run which is easy of access.

Scorpions and such like small game are not uncommon in these

parts but none have been seen in my bungalow these past two years.

It has been an interesting performance to watch, as I did not

know that they bred more than once in a year though where I got

that idea I cannot tell you.

CANNANORE, A. G. FRERE, 1.A;; F:2:S:,

September 11, 1928. Lieutenant-Colonel.

{Writing to us further on the subject on November 14, Colonel

Frere states as follows :—‘ The mother produced a fifth family on

the night of October 28/29, 1928. No pairing had been seen.

Her figure was commented upon a week previously and on 29th

was seen to be reduced and nipples prominent. Beyond that, only

scamperings in the roof, as she had not brought them down when

I proceeded to camp on the 10th.’

These notes are of great interest as so little is known of the

breeding habits of this exceedingly common animal. Blandford

commenting on the breeding of the mongoose says that ‘ young

are seen in the Spring’ but it is obvious from Colonel Frere’s

experience that they may be seen at any time of the year. Enps.]

VIl.—A STALWART PARIAH DOG

During my tourin April I got khabber one day of a tiger kill 5

miles away, a cow being the victim. On going to sit up I found it

was obviously aleopard kill. It was so close to the village that

I felt sure the leopard would come late if at all, so I went back to

camp. Next morning news was brought that a mile from the

previous kill one of my tied-up bullocks had been killed by the same

leopard. I sat up till 1 a.m., but the leopard did not come though

I heard him ‘ sawing’ in the distance. Next morning there was no

kill, but as I had nothing else to do, and this leopard appeared to be

an exceptionally big one, and an absolute scourge to the villages,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 429

having killed two ponies as well as many cattle, I determined to sit

up over api-dog. Onarrivalat the village I found the only dog they

had succeeded in catching was a half-grown pup, which wagged its

tail at me in sucha friendly way that I could not bear to have it tied

up. So I demanded a goat instead. I went out and chose a tree

about 400 yards from the village and 200 from a big hill from which

I thought the leopard was most likely tocome. [had a machan put

up about 8 feet from the ground ina thick fig tree, and the goat

was tied up about 20 yards away. The shikaries went off, and the

goat took up a statuesque attitude beside the peg to which it was

tied, and remained absolutely silent. I sat this out for 10 minutes

and then blew my whistle. When the men turned up I ordered a

change of goat. They had another ready and the change was

quickly made. The new recruit was as useless as the other. He

started trying to commit suicide by hanging, but never opened his

mouth. Again I whistled and this time sent for a pi-dog. After some

delay they caught a full grown medium-sized dog and chained him

up to the peg. He also was a non-co-operator, so again I whistled

for help. By this time I was getting a bit fed up and pessimistic,

as it was quite dark and the men came along with lanterns. How-

ever I said another dog must be produced. The shikaries were

also a bit fed up at the unaccommodating attitude of the local

domestic animals, and before going off one of them gave the pi-dog

a couple of whacks witha cane. Thedog was naturally furious and

expressed his feelings in fierce growls and, thank goodness, two or

three loud barks. The men and their lantern had just got out of

sight and silence reigned, and I had put my rifle down on the

machan and my back against a branch, thinking of the 4 miles back

to dinner and was it worth it, etc., etc. I had an electric torch

fastened on to my rifle. Suddenly the silence was rent by a series

of howls, growls and barks from the dog. [leapt to attention,

seized my rifle, put it up, and turned on the light. There was the

dog dancing round his peg, demonstrating furiously against some-

thing which was outside the circle of vision revealed to me through

the hole I had made through the leaves. I switched off my torch.

In a few seconds the uproar again increased, and again I switched

on the light, to find only the agitated dog visible. I switched off

again. Ina few seconds the noise redoubled in intensity and when

I switched on this time I saw a very large leopard attacking the

unfortunate dog. ‘The leopard was moving round in a circle and

hitting out at the dog with his claws, but was obviously deterred

from going right in and killing with his teeth by the dog’s gallant

and terrific defence. Neither took any notice of my light, which was

almost horizontal, my machan being so low, and I got my sights on

to the leopard and put a bullet into his spine as quickly as I could

He went off a short distance and was picked up next day. After

the shot the dog continued to bark vcciferously in the directions in

which the stricken leopard had gone, bravado I suppose. Just as

I was getting down he managed to detach the chain, and bolted off

into the jungle, naturally in the opposite direction to that of the

leopard. [am glad to record he rolled upin his village alright

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

and complete with chain. He had lost a good deal of skin from his

face and chest, but so far as I know is alive and well to this day.

Is there an expression ‘ The face of a lion and the heart ofa pi’?

If so, for ‘ pi’ read ‘leopard’ in future.

J PASS DUCE:

Indian Police.

VIIIL—SOME OBSERVATIONS ON WILD ELEPHANTS

IN ORISSA

(With a map)

Wild elephants in the province of Bihar and Orissa are entirely

confined to the Native States, Angul district and a small area in the

west of Singhbhum district. Outside this tract they are nowhere

else resident in the province, but do occasionally wander into the

adjoining districts of British India at certain times of the year.

The Feudatory States of Orissa (with Angul district) are about

thirty thousand square miles in extent; they are very sparsely

populated and largely covered in forest. Some of these jungles are

very extensive, especially those lying between the Mahanadi river

and the main line of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway, and contain vast

quantities of bamboos. These forests provide an ideal sanctuary

for elephants as both water and fodder are plentiful, while their

inaccessibility and dense cover afford an excellent retreat in the hot

weather. It is interesting to note that, with the exception of one

large herd in the extreme south-west of the area on the borders of

Vizagapatam district, elephants are not found permanently south of

the Mahanadi, although they occasionally cross it in the rainy

season. The jungles south of the river are similar in all respects to

those lying north of it and abound in bamboos, but the water supply

of the southern States is scanty and this wouid account for their

absence from this tract. An abundant supply of water is essential.

Mayurbhanj State with its vast extent of forest-clad hills and perennial

streams is the largest sanctuary in Orissa.

It would be extremely difficult to estimate accurately the number

of wild elephants in the Feudatory States, but there are not less

than five hundred, and may be considerably more. The herds seem

to contain nine to twelve individuals as a rule; but occasionally they

are met with in considerably larger numbers, probably due to the

temporary fusion of two or more herds. Single animals are fre-

quently met with and appear to be invariably bulls. These males

do not, I believe, lead an entirely solitary existence but associate

with the herd when so inclined. It is my experience that they are

for the most part the biggest tuskers, so that their absence from

the herd is more likely of their own choosing, and not because they

have been driven from it. A few old males may through failing

strength be deprived of the leadership of the herd and compelled to

lead a solitary life, for a time at least. I have frequently watched

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.

MAP OF ORISSA

HAZA RIBAGHA

\ BAL MORGANS.

aN (GARH

a RASINGH Por Naa

BAY

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BENGAL

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GANJAM,

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VIZAGAPATAM °. ra ae & /

‘ CwaT RAPOR Geng.

3 Area permanently

vr =) p

a inhabited by wild elephants =

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 431

herds feeding and have noticed that they usually consist of young

bulls, cows and calves ; the big tuskers being generally found feed-

ing at some distance from the main herd. It appears to be not

unusual to find two such bulls in company.

From February to the break of the monsoon the elephants are

located in the heavier jungles where feeding is good and water

abundant, but during the rains they move widely throughout the area

and take a heavy toll of the crops in their wanderings. The damage

done to paddy and sugarcane is considerable and in a few places

this has become a serious menace, land going out of cultivation

since the raiyats seldom succeed in reaping a tithe of what they have

sown. The problem of reducing the number of elephants is a

difficult one ; for beyond the limited utility of Rhedda operations, no

effective solution presents itself.

It is accepted as a fact by those with long local experience that

elephants have been steadily on the increase in Orissa in recent

times. This I believe to be unquestionable. The Elephant Pre-

servation Act applies only in the British district of Angul, but

elephants have always been protected in the States by the Rajas.

Both Angul and the Feudatory States have been the scene of khedda

operations for many years past and from time to time considerable

catches are made. Beyond this casualties are very few indeed. The

number of elephants trapped during the past ten or fifteen years

would not exceed an average of twenty annually. The calves born

each year must be in excess of this figure so that kheddas, on their

present scale, do not succeed in coping with the natural increase.

Last cold weather exceptionally large catches were made, aggregat-

ing sixty-nine animals in all.

Mr. Champion, in vol. xxxii, No. 1 of the Journal, attributes the

slow rate of increase among the wild elephants of the United Pro-

vinces to in-breeding. The fact that in Orissa the numbers are

considerable and the herds are spread over a larger area might

account for their being more prolific. Certainly any of the herds

I have seen have contained a good number of calves, and they also

invariably constitute a large proportion of the number trapped.

Casualties from disease and bullet are not great ; perhaps four or

five animals each year. |

Much mystery has become attached to the death of elephants.

They are reputed to seek out some remote and secluded spot, to

which they retreat when they feel their powers failing and death

approaching. This legend is very widespread but has not yet been

substantiated. It is a picturesque story, which seems in keeping

with such a unique animal as the elephant. The actual facts appear

to me to be very ordinary. When one takes into consideration the

long life span of an elephant, deaths amongst them must be compar-

atively infrequent. One would not therefore expect to find many

corpses even where elephants were numerous. Furthermore, the

rapidity with which decomposition sets in and removes all traces of

the animal must be seen to be believed. Two rainy seasons are

sufficient for the complete destruction of everything except the

largest bones.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

In the area with which I am dealing, annually a few elephants are

found dead and some tusks are brought in for the reward. Even

though much of the tract is sparsely populated, [| am of opinion

that most elephants that die are found by the villagers living on the

outskirits of the forests and are thus accounted for. Such deaths

probably do not exceed three or four annually in the whole area, if

as many. In addition, a few rogues are occasionally shot. Thus

the total decrease from death and capture would not exceed twenty

to twenty-five yearly.

Of the deaths recorded a large number seem to be the result of

wounds inflicted in fights between tuskers. Two instances of this

have come to my notice in the last four years in which both animals

succumbed, and two other cases of tuskers being gored to death

were reported. As tothe cause of death in other cases, I am unable

to give any details, but mortality from old age must be extremely

rare.

A very curious incident took place in Keonjhar State in

November last, which is worth recording.

A villager was sitting in a machan watching his crops, when an

elephant entered his field and commenced helping itself to his paddy.

In the hopes of driving the animal away, the man fired an arrow at

the elephant which was fifty feet from him. The elephant, which

turned out to be a very ancient and decrepit cow, left the field and

was found dead two hundred yards away next morning with the

arrow in its forehead. The villager was arrested for killing the

elephant and there was much discussion as to whether the arrow

was poisoned or not. The man himself said that it was not, and

this is probably the truth as the aboriginals of these parts do not

normally use poisoned arrows. It may have been poisoned but I

think not. It is unfortunate that the skull was not examined to

ascertain how far the arrow had penetrated. It must, one presumes,

have reached the brain to have caused death, but it is difficult to

believe that an arrow shot from an ordinary bow could do so in

spite of the fact that it would only have to pass through soft tissues,

and little or no bone. Again, even had the arrow been poisoned,

death seems to have followed very rapidly on the infliction of the

wound. Whatever the exact cause of death, the fact remains that

the elephant was struck by the arrow and was found dead close by

next morning.

The facts of this remarkable incident were related to me by the

magistrate before whom the case was brought, and by the forest

officer of the State, within a month of the occurrence and their

accuracy can be vouched for.

The bulls seem to carry, on the whole, very fair sized ivory in

Orissa. The largest pair of tusks I have seen are a pair in the

possession of the Maharaja of Mayurbhanj, which measure 8! 6”

along the outer curve. They are a symmetrical pair of great beauty

and are said to have been taken from a tame elephant, which died

in captivity. One which I shot in 1925 had tusks measuring 6’ 10”

and 6’ 6”, which weighed 62 and 59 lbs. respectively. These were

not at all symmetrical and one was considerably broken at the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 433

point. This elephant taped .9’ 1” at the shoulder, as accurately.

as I could measure, the girth of his feet being 55” and 544 inches

Another rogue shot in Angul district in 1923 hada single tusk

which weighed 6245 lbs. This was a very massive tusk and had a

girth at the thickest part of almost 20 inches. A large bull, which

was found dead in the same district in March this year, had tusks

measuring 6’ 1” each and weighing 140 lbs. the pair. This elephant

had a deep wound in his flank, probably inflicted in a fight with

another tusker.

I have seen a number of tusks weighing between forty and fifty

pounds, and I should say as a result of my observations that many

elephants have tusks of forty pounds apiece and not a few carry

ivory much in excess of this figure.

As far as Iam aware, the elephants in Orissa are isolated and

are not connected with herds in any other part of India unless

perhaps in the extreme south-west of the area, where it borders on

the Vizagapatam district of Madras. I believe that a few solitary

elephants occur in Ganjam district, but whether or not there is any

connecting link between those of Orissa and Southern India I do not

know and should be interested to learn.

SAMBALPUR, B..N. Ry., H. F. MOONEY,

ORISSA, | LES.

July 24, 1928.

IX.—ON ‘ NATURAL DEATHS’ IN WILD ELEPHANTS

I was very interested in Mr. Morris’ comments on my article

‘Wild Elephants in the United Provinces’, which were published in

volume xxxii, No. 4, page 794 of the Journal. I am glad to hear of

other cases of wiid elephants attempting to move the carcases of

their dead companions and it would be of absorbing interest to

learn why they attempt to do this. A ‘jungle funeral’ by elephants

would certainly form a very fine theme for those who write fantastic

stories on life in the jungle!

In my own mind I have little doubt that the case I previously

recorded was a genuine one of death from over age ; but Mr. Morris’

suggestion of poisoning by villagers is a very sound one, which had

not occurred to me before and which might certainly account for the

deaths of some wild elephants. In this connection we have recently

had another death in the jungles in my charge and it is possible

that this case might be attributed to this cause. The elephant in

question was a mediumssized tusker, with tusks 48 inches and 44

inches long and of atotal weight of 65 lbs. The tusks were in

moderately good condition and did not appear to be very old. The

animal was found dead on the side of a small stony stream

on June 1, 1928 and had presumably died the night before. Iwas un-

fortunately unable to visit the spot, but I give below some notes on

the case based partly on my own knowledge and partly on a report

from a local Range Officer.

History. This tusker had been living alone in the Rawasan

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

forests for some years. He was quiet in temperament and did not

attempt to interfere with the local jungle workmen.

Appearance. The carcase was found lying on its side on the

edge of water. The body looked fairly healthy and was not

emaciated. The skin was considerably wrinkled, and there were

deep depressions above the eyes. Theears had lost their shape

after death, but they were not ragged. Unfortunately no obser-

vations were made as to the amount of turn-over of the upper rims

of the ears.

Teeth. There was one small very worn molar at the back of each

side of the lower jaw. The upper jaw was damaged in removing

the tusks, so that an examination of the upper molars could not

be made. The tusks were 48” and 44” jong respectively and

together weighed 65 lbs. They were in moderately good condition.

Droppings. Old and fresh droppings and the contents of the open

stomach were examined. In all three cases the bark of Pula

(Kydia calycina) had been eaten and was not properly masticated or

digested, long fibres. being present.

Cause of death. No wound of any sort was visible on the upper

side of the carcase, which was too heavy to lift for an examination of

the lower side. As far a laymancould tell, a contributary cause of

death was impaired digestion owing to failing teeth; but, although the

animal was considerably past his prime, he did not appear to have been

sufficiently old to have died from this cause. There is extensive

cultivation on the edge of the jungle less than a mile away from

where the elephant was found dead and I know that he and other

local wild elephants occasionally raided the villagers’ crops,

paticularly during the monsoon. The villagers indignantly deny

naving put out poison for the wild elephants, as they must do if they

wish to avoid prosecution: but there is a distinct suspicion that this

may have been done, and I much regret now that I did not have

samples of the blood and stomach contents taken for microscopic

examination.

In any case, whatever the cause of death may have been, it is to be

noted that the carcase was found in a very open river-bed, on the

edge of water, and within half-a-mile of human habitation. It may

be that, if the animal had been poisoned, death came so suddenly

that it did not have the chance to seek seclusion in the dense neigh-

bouring forests, which it should have done if we are to accept the

usual theory on the subject.

LANSDOWNE, F. W. CHAMPION,

November 2, 1928. [ndian Forest Service.

X.—A LARGE TUSKER FROM SOUTH INDIA

(With a plate)

Having read various notes regarding the height attained by Indian

Elephants in your Journal, Iam sending you the measurements of

a tusker I was lucky enough to bag on the Gandamanayakanoor

Zamindaries in the Madura District on 15th April last.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A Good Tusker shot by Mr. D. R. D. Wadia in the Madura District

(South India).

The same animal, showing position in which measurements were taken.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435

You will notice that I have taken two measurements of the animal

—one at the highest point and one at the shoulder.

I was unable to make the fore legs of the animal absolutely

straight after it had fallen on its side, and I mention this point to

make it clear, that, if, anything, the measurements are rather on the

pessimistic than on the optimistic side.

Perhaps afew details of the shoot may be of interest to your

readers, so I give a short account below :—

The Gandamanayakanoor Zamindaries cover an area of 240

sq. miles out of which only 100 are cultivated (tea, cotton, wheat,

cardamons, etc.) The headquarters are at Gandamanayakanoor,

65 miles from Madura which, incidentally, is your last rail-head. 1

left the H.Q. on April lst for my first camp at Myladampadi which

is 12 miles away. ‘This place was selected because there is a tin

shed there, and as it was continually raining inthe evenings, the

prospect of spending nights under damp canvas did not quite appeal

tome! As things turned out, it was just as well that I did not push

on intotheinterior. After 14 days of depressing inactivity, owing

to incessant rain I had nearly made up my mind to chuck it, and

pack up forhome. However signs of favourable weather made me

decide to chance it and push on another 20 miles to Udangal, where

according to local gossip dwelt ‘Record’ Bison, Tiger, and a host of

other game! Consequently I got all the necessary things ready,

and we left on the 15th, at 7 a.m. on foot. Wehadhardly gone for

half an hour when we happened on alot of elephant tracks which

could not have been very old. There were over 20 distinct sets of

foot prints of fairly large animals as well as some of baby elephants.

After searching about for the definite tracks of a tusker, and not

being satisfied, I decided to push on ata rapid pace to the next

village (Kumlundhulu) 73 miles further, so as to circumvent the herd

if possible. However, we were spared the trouble as 100 yds.

further fresh spoor of elephant’ were picked up and this time

we could hardly restrain our excitement as among them were a set

of huge footprints which my men swore were those of a ‘ mighty

tusker’; this was soon confirmed by the damage to the tree trunks,

and a little further on the impression of a tusk in the soft mud-bank

of a dry nullah. Here was undoubtedly the best piece of luck

we had struck so far, and we decided to track the animal forthwith.

Tracking through the soft sand was easy enough, but five minutes

of it brought us into very thick jungle. We were stalking along a

regular elephant run; the visibility ahead was fairly good, but

hardly encouraging. Another 15 minutes and we heard the elephant

behind us not more than 150 yds. away; we hastily tested the

wind and finding it against us ran back 50 yds. or so and

waited. There was another path at right angles to the

track we were following and the shikaris expected them to break

cover about 30 yds. in front, when I could have a good shot as they

crossed the opening. All the time we could hear the herd feeding

and approaching well spread out, but we could not get a glimpse of

the animals. It was hardly a comfortable situation, specially

when I realized that they were rather a large herd and that there

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. OS OINM

was no means of avoiding a stampede, should it take place in our

direction. We had no choice, however, so we decided on the ‘ wait

and see’ policy, frequently testing the wind which was most fickle.

We had not long to wait before a fairly large female leisurely

strolled past the expected spot ; she had a calf at heel. Then followed

another female who half glanced towards where we crouched,

then another calf. This little chap took quite agood lookin our

direction, but fortunately his interest was not intelligent! The fifth

to cross was the ‘ Lord and Master’ of the herd, with a natty line

in ‘ivory tuskings ’, so I let him have the right in the.temple—a 470

solid. He fell on his knees, but recovered himself and just as he

was trying to stand up, I gave him the left, which I found later hit

him 2” below the first shot. This crumpled him up completely,

and after turning in our direction he collapsed. All this time,

which could not have been more than a few seconds, we had hardly

paid any attention to his companions who were feeding around.

These got alarmed on hearing the sudden reports, and a general

stampede commenced. One of my men shinned up a neighbouring

tree, the other whisked forward and crouched near the dead elephant,

while I made for a small opening where the bushes were not so

thick. I had just enough time to turn back and see five or seven

elephants rushing past in Indian file within 2 yds. of the spot

whence I had fired, and immediately under my second shikari. I

pushed through the thorny undergrowth to what I imagined

was safety; when, looking down, fresh footprints and droppings

all over the place reminded me that it was not so very Safe after

all. I had no idea whether the whole herd had passed or

whether there were more coming over, but needless to say, I beat it

quick.

Fortunately the storm had blown over, everybody was safe, and the

tusker was bagged. I shall never forget the moment when I came

up to see the stout lad! As he lay there, he presented a magnificent

spectacle and seemed immense. My men were highly excited and

started tugging at his tail and slapping him in delight.

The measuring was done in under 30 minutes of the animal’s

being shot, and were later checked by the Manager of the Estate

and another gentleman.

I sent the measurements to Rowland Wards and they are

published in the new edition of their Records. Iam toldthat

the correct method of measuring an elephant is to take the height

at the highest point, i.e. to the slight ridge they have on their spine—

please correct me if I am wrong, and Rowland Ward’s best

is. 10/6":

Any members wishing to go ona trip to these jungles should

write to Messrs. Patel Bros., 6, Napier Road, Fort, Bombay for

full particulars, and if there is anything they would like me to tell

them, I shall be very glad to give every help.

The measurements of my tusker were as follows :—

Height at shoulder (between pegs) ... Oh oe

” , highest point Ay IY, Sao hon G/

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 437

Total length from tip of trunk to tip of tail (over

GULVES) sae ee ae se gt eor nom

Circumference of left forefoot as = 5° 0?

Tusk (r) sae Bee ee | (6 4”

pak. ae vo = eo, a

D. R. D. WADIA.

7, MARINE LINES,

FoRT,

BOMBAY,

Sily 27,1920,

[The correct method of measuring the height of an elephant

according to Lieut.-Col. G. H. Evans (‘ Elephants and _ their

Diseases ’) is at the shoulder, as is done in horses. The height at the

highest point of the back, however, would always form an interest-

ing and useful additional record. Eps. ]

XI.—HEIGHT IN ELEPHANTS

With reference to the note No. XVII in vol. xxxii, No.3 ‘A

Large Tusker Elephant’, I would point out that during several years’

experience of measuring elephants in jungle camps in Burma I

invariably found that twice round the forefoot gave the height at

the shoulder within (at the most) one inch of accuracy. This would

tend to confirm Mr. John’s estimate of 10’ 9” (twice 65”) in regard

to the tusker discussed despite anything that Mr. Sanderson (great

authority that he was) may have written. I fancy others engaged

in timber work or forest service will back me up in this; above all

it would be interesting to learn what Col. G. H. Evans'thinks, since

in Burma, before the war we regarded him as /¢he authority on

elephants.

AT SEA, DAVID BOYLE.

WIG) ees AI Zo%

[In ‘ Blephants and their Diseases’ Col. G. H. Evans writes,

‘We may take it on the authority of Sanderson, a most careful

observer, that such a thing as an elephant measuring 10 ft. at the

shoulder does not exist in India, nor may I add in Burma.’ The

largest male met by Sanderson measured 9 ft. 10 ins. The biggest

male owned by the Bombay Burma Trading Co. measured 9 ft. 63

ins. and the company have records of more than a thousand animals.

Twice round the circumference of the forefoot is as nearly as

possible the height at the shoulder. This rule, however, according

to Evans, does not always hold good in the case of young growing

animals. In the case of a young elephant owned by Mr. P. B. Kelly

of the Forest Department twice the circumference of his forefoot

exceeded the height by 9 ins. Eps].

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

XII.—ABNORMAL ANTLERS OF A KASHMIR STAG

| (CERVUS HANGLD)

(With a photo)

I enclose a photograph of the head of a barasingh shot by me.

{t appears exceptional in view of the fact that it has only 6 points.

The following are the measurements.

Shot in Basmai Nullah, Sind Valley, Kashmir, September

16th.

Right horn ; eae

Left horn ee Oe

Widest, tip to tip w. 4247

Circumference at base. eee ed

- in middle cn OR”

MURREB, G. M. GAMBLE,

June 4, 1925. Capt.

The Sherwood Foresters.

i ay

(‘ppAjoppvjuad siuvjit)

‘NITOONVd HSHNIHD AHL

‘Aajpuipy uopaor) Aq sydvasojoyd

‘SUISOY

‘suNOA pure dsTRUdy

‘90S ‘ISIH “LVN AvaWog nunoft

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

XIII.—CLICKING NOISE MADE BY MUNTJAC

It is, I think, necessary—in view of the note on this subject at page

795, vol. xxxii, No. 4, by Mr. B. B. Osmaston—to elucidate further

my meaning. Possibly I did not express myself sufficiently clearly

when writing on former occasions, and I am now without any of the

previous notes or copies of them to refer to.

My contention is that the very slight clicking noise which is to be

heard when the Muntjac is close to one moving slowly and quietly

in puzzled alarm cannot be heard when the animal bounds off.

When the animal, fully alarmed, bounds away, a much louder click-

ing is heard. I have of course heard it many, many times during

the past thirty-eight years in India and in all parts of the country

including the United Provinces and the Central Provinces. A voice

call itis without doubt. Possibly it is merely a louder development

of the low and quiet clickings which I have heard, as I have tried to

explain, defore the animal has made any audible movement at all.

I have arecollection of having read somewhere lately—perhaps it

was in a recent issue of this Journal ?—that a Muntjac in captivity has

been observed making this clicking noise to which I refer by a

movement of its tongue. That, if a fact, should put an end to any

doubt in the matter,

R. W. BURTON,

Lieut.-Colonel,

Indian Army (Retired).

[The reference in the last para of the above note is to the

remarks made on the subject by Mr. Theobald on page, 593 of vol.

XXxli, EDs.]

XIV.—SOME NOTES ON THE PANGOLIN (47ANIS

PENTADACTYLA) IN BURMA.

(With a plate)

Recently Mr. Gordon Hundley of Messrs. Steel Brothers and

Company, Limited, captured in the Pyinmana district, Upper Burma,

two adult females and one baby Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) and

sent them to the Rangoon Zoological Gardens. As the Rangoon

Zoo has received several of these animals in recent years and as they

have all died owing to their being impossible to feed, it was

decided to release them and they were let loose in the jungle near

Rangoon—the mother carrying away the baby riding on her tail as

is shown in the accompanying photograph.

Pangolins are common throughout Burma and it is believed

that their food consists chiefly of white ants. They spend the day

as arule in deep holes but they are good climbers and I have found

them in the daytime in the branches of atree. They are of interest

owing to the fact that though possessing scales they are mammals

and suckle their young. Unlike most small mammals, they have

only a single pair of mammary glands on the chest. They share

with the binturong (Avctictzs binturong), also found in Burma, the

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

distinction of being the only two mammals of the Old World

possessing prehensile tails. (Nearly all mammals having prehensile

tails are natives of South America).

The Burmans call them (¢hingwegyat and believe that they

have the power of making a sound resembling a human voice and

in this way they call people. If aman is called by a pangolin and

replies, it is believed that he will die immediately. The death of a

Forest Ranger at the Pyinmana Forest School some years ago was

ascribed to his having replied to a ¢hingwegyat. It would be inter-

esting to know the origin of this superstition, which is widespread

throughout Burma and also among the Laos and Karens, especially

as it is most probable that these animals are incapable of making

any noise at all. The Burman is, owing to this belief, always reluc-

tant to answer the shouts of any travellers who have lost their way

and who may be making for camp at night.

I enclose three photos which were taken by Mr. G. Hundley

showing the infant riding on his mother’s back and also the infant

suckling.

Ss. F. HOPWOOD,

July 25, 1928. LFS:

| Three species of Pangolins or Scaly Ant-eaters are included in

the Indian fauna. The Indian Scaly Ant-eater (Manzs crassicaudata),

the Chinese species (17. pentadactyla—M. aurita of Blanford) which

ranges through Nepal, Sikhim, Assam and Burma and the Malayan

species, A/. javanica which occurs in Tenasserim. Our Scaly

Ant-eaters are generally, though erroneously, referred to.as Arma-

dillos. Armadillos are members of a distinct family, the Dasypodide,

confined to the American Continent. They have all a more or less

rigid covering of bony plates imbedded in the skin which are not

in the least comparable to the scales of our Pangolins. The Scaly

Ant-eaters are characterised by their want of teeth; while the term

‘Edentate’ (without teeth) is scarcely applicable to the Armadillos

all of which possess teeth. Between the scales of a Pangolin lie

hairs which seem to be absent in the adults of African species,

though present in the young. This serves asa distinguishing feature

between Oriental and Ethiopian forms. The scales may be looked

upon as hairs, or rather spines, enormously enlarged and dilated.

In vol. xi, p. 165 of the Journal, Mr. A. L. Butler records the

digging out of a family of Scaly Ant-eaters. ‘The burrow was about

8 feet in length and ended 4 feet underground in a circular chamber

some 2 feet in diameter. The young one taken at the time was

18 inches long, much paler than the adults, and, says Mr. Butler,

‘the female carried him everywhere on her back.’ Mr. C. G.

Chevenix Trench records his efforts to rear a baby Pangolin in

vol. xxiv, p. 590 of the Journal. It was fed on cow’s milk three times

a day from an ordinary feeding bottle with a rubber nipple and drank

about one-third of a pint daily, diluted to the proportions of two

parts of milk to one part of water. The note records that the

animal was quite healthy but very sensitive to cold and died on its

transfer to a colder district early in December. Between August and

December on the above regimen it had nearly doubled its weight.-

MISCELLANEOUS ‘NOTES 441

In his notes on the habitat of the Chinese Pangolin, published in.

vol. xix, p. 254, Capt. F. E. Venning mentions a curious supersti-

tion prevalent among the Chins. According to them it is an

exceedingly evil omen to meet a Pangolin (sapu) by day. Writing

of a specimen brought to him by some Chins, he states that as a

climber it was most agile and when once ona bough was very

difficult to detach. It would roll itself into a ball round a bough

and even when its tail was detached by main force it still clung on

tightly with its fore claws hooked over the bough and its stumpy hind

feet pressed against it. Mr. Trench’s specimen was also an active

climber andif left on the ground would make for a chair leg ora

human being and climb up like a bear.

We reproduce the following note by Mr. W. W. A. Phillips, F.z.s.,

on the habits of the closely related Indian species (V/. crassicaudata)

which appeared recently in Sfolia Zeylonica : —

‘I have recently received letters from Dr. Pearson, Director of

the Colombo Museum, and Dr. Lucian de Zilwa of Colombo, which

are of much interest as they throw new light upon the habits of that

little known animal, the Pangolin.

It is well-known that the Indian or Ceylon Pangolin is normally

purely nocturnal in its movements, spending the day curled up

asleep at the bottom of its burrow. It is therefore interesting to

learn something of the habits of this curious animal when in

captivity, almost the only condition under which it may be studied.

Not long ago a female and her baby (the Pangolin usually

produces only one at a time) were brought to the Museum and lived

observations upon their habits.

He writes to me as follows :—‘‘ The mother has a very curious

way of carrying her baby. ... The baby scrambles on to the

mother’s tail and hangs on tight, lying across the tail as a rule;

then the mother starts off in a very clumsy manner, first lifting her

tail clear off the: ground. When the mother is alarmed she flexes her

tail and neck under the ventral part of her body and the baby finds

shelter in the cavity thus formed.”’

It would seem probable that this is the usual method adopted by

the Pangolin when transferring its young from place to place; and

that, should an alarm occur, the mother protects her otherwise

defenceless young in the manner described in the latter part of

Dr. Pearson’s letter.

Unhappily, although the mother lived for some considerable

time the young one did not survive long enough to permit a

satisfactory photograph being secured of it in this position.

Dr. Pearson also informs me that the adult Pangolin is able to climb

the trunks of trees with the aid of an oblique grip of its tail.

The second letter, from Dr. Lucian de Zilwa, is chiefly concerned

with the feeding of the Pangolin in captivity. He writes as

follows :—‘‘ I have trained my Pangolin to drink unboiled milk. I

had to dip his nose in it at first, but he now laps it up with great

avidity and makes a dash for the enamelled plate as soon as he is let

out of the wooden cage in which he lives. He drinks about half a

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

bottle of milk daily and also gets some leaf-nests of ants when we

can procure them. Besides this he is given custard or milk

pudding such as sago, tapioca, etc. He grubs about apparently

finding alot to eat under flower pots and barrels and will burrow

into an ant-hill and apparently find food. White-ants (termites)

found under a stone or a log he will not look at, and he will not eat

the ferocious little red ants commonly found in the garden, but he

will lick up the inoffensive black ant. He relishes ant’s eggs more

than ants themselves and particularly loves those big leaf-nests of

the red ant, with millions of ants and eggs. The large red ants out

of these leaf-nests bite his stomach and get on to his face, so that

he has to pause occasionally toscratch his abdomen or remove them

from his face.”’

Dr. de Zilwa goes on to say ‘‘sometimes he appears very

excitable and rolls himself in a puddle of mud or wraps himself round

a stone or fallen coconut. I have wondered whether he might be

suffering from sexual excitement at such times. .. . He enjoys a

swim ina big bath-tub and often wallows in mud.’’ Dr. de Zilwa has

had his Pangolin for over 18 months and it has now grown

considerably. It is interesting to note that it does not appear to

relish white-ants (termites) which are believed to be its usual food

and also that it prefers the leaf-nests of the large red-ant to any

other focd. It is possibly these leaf-nests which induce the animal

to climb.”

_ .In his field notes relating to a female J/. pentadactyla collected

by Mr. J. P. Mills, I.C.S., for the Society’s Mammal Survey in the

Naga Hills (HE. Burma), he remarks: ‘Can burrow with amazing

speed. Chang Nagas will only eat one if they can kill it before it

has curled up sufficiently for its tongue to reach its genital organs.

Otherwise the meat will be bitter.’ Eps.]

XV.—THE BABBLER AS A BAROMETER

-Dhe following little incident with regard to the Common Babbler

(Argya caudata caudata) might be of some interest to our members

and I send it for what it is worth.

“I was spending July in a Canal Bungalow in the Gujranwala

District, and just in front of the verandah is a small Tun tree, not

more than 20 feet in height. Every evening a flock of babblers

arrived and settled down for the night on one of the lowest

branches. I could easily have reached them from the ground wa

my raised hand.

“It was most amusing to see them select their perch. Three or

four would first of all make themselves comfortable and others

would line up on either side, but invaribly one or two appeared to

be left out. They would-not settle down at the end of the line but

must needs try to get in the middle, by hopping about on the backs

of those already there, which would resist the attempts. It usually

ended in the interloper selecting a stray branch for himself and once

there he, or she, hopped round and round as though extremely

pleased with the choice and chirruping to the others. Sooner or

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 443

later one or two would leave their original perch and go and join it,

thus upsetting the whole party, as one by one they would all follow.

Then one would come back to the original spot and would be

followed by the others. This happened every evening and at least

three attempts were made to select the right spot, which invariably

ended in their going back to exactly the same one each night, and

every night two, or three would be left out of the party to sit by

themselves elsewhere. There were nine in all.

They did not mind me at all and, once comfortably settled, would

allow me to come immediately under them, and not 2 feet distant.

I noticed that normally they sat anyhow, i.e., two facing one

way and the next in the opposite direction, and so on throughout

_the line.

On the 11th evening I noticed them all facing in the same direc-

tion, facing east. That evening there was a fairly heavy storm

from the south-west but the prevailing wind was due east.

On the 14th there was another storm about midnight, and before

I went to bed I had a look at my friends and found them all facing

east again.

On the 24th there was not a cloud in the sky, and it was dead

still, when the babblers went to roost, but I noticed they had all

faced the east from the start, and there was not a single tail in that

direction. J remarked to my servants that there was going to bea

storm during the night and told them how I knew! Sure enough

there was a colossal one witha wind that uprooted a good many

trees in the vicinity. How the babblers weathered it | do not know,

for their little tree, to say nothing of the tiny branch they sat on,

must have been beaten down almost to the ground many tirnes.

However, next evening they were there again, all nine of them,

and thereafter one or the other of my servants always come to see

how the birds were sitting !

When sitting so close together it is obvious they cannot turn

round to face any storm, but what happens should the wind change

direction ?

DHARMSALA Cantonment C.-H. BONALD:

August 5, 1928.

[Mr. Donald’s notes on the babbler recall Mr. Meyer’s observa-

tions on the peacock as a weather prophet. In his recently

published book &zrds and Beasts of a Roman Zoo (reviewed on p. 394

of this journal) which contains much interesting information on

the behaviour of animals in captivity, Mr. Meyer recognizes three

distinct calls in the peacock. Firstly, the well-known unmusical

call, secondly a quavering note of alarm which his birds invariably

used when they were disturbed by a tame cheetah which had a free

run of the gardens and lastly a peculiar creaking cry, not so loud

as the ordinary call, which always accurately foretold rain or

thunder. As a weather prophet, Meyer considers the peacock

superior to the tree-frog. Its peculiar cry is never deceptive, rain

or thunder always follows shortly. Have any of our readers made

a similar observation on the peacock in the wild state ? Eps. ]

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU

XVI.—THE NESTING HABITS OF THE NORTHERN GREY

HORNBILL (LOPHOCEROS BIROSTRIS)

I discovered a nest of the above in a large hole in a mango tree

at the south end of a fair sized mango grove, enclosed by a high

wall. This nest was difficult to discover, as the male bird was very

wary and would not approach anywhere near when I was about.

The hole too, was on the upperside of a stunted bough, and could

not be seen from the ground as it was some 25 or 30 feet

high. - It. was an: ideal*place for a nest of “the kinds. On

May 23 1 had a long ladder brought and mounting this I dis-

covered that my suspicions were correct as the entrance to the large

hole was packed with ordure on both sides, as is the custom with

this bird—the slit in the centre was about §” wide and about 4” long.

I opened up the entrance, and putting in my arm to beyond my

elbow discovered two eggs which were lying on decayed pieces of

bark, etc. With the exception of a few feathers (evidently the bird’s

own) there was no attempt at making anest. The bird disap-

peared up the large cavity inside the tree, and I could not reach her

at all. The eggs when blown were quite fresh. I came away leaving

the hole open and the bird inside, thinking she would now forsake

the nest, but, on visiting the place again on June 2, I discovered

that the hole had been closed in againas formerly. I had it opened

up again thinking, she might have laid a second time, but on this

occasion there were no eggs. On June 6 and 16 I paid it other

visits thinking the bird must surely have forsaken the hole after so

many upsets of the domestic arrangements, but no, she had packed

herself in again as before. I opened the nest twice again thinking,

that she must have laid by now, or, perhaps that she had laid

farther up the cavity somewhere; I had the hole opened up again

and then the old bough sawn off to enable me to make a thorough

search, which I did, but no eggs were forthcoming, nor was there

any ledge farther up the tree where she could have deposited the

eggs. I got the female out of the nest, and discovered later that

there was no sign of her laying atall in thenear future. It surprised

me to discover how quickly she could pilaster up the hole again

which was large enough to let my arm and hand in easily as such

a lot of ordure was required for the purpose, and what her object

was in staying in the hole so long when her nest had been so fre-

quently disturbed would be interesting to find out, particularly as

she hadn’t laid a second time, nor were there any signs of her doing

sc. Perhaps this account of the only Hornbill we seem to have in

the Punjab may prove of interest to some of the memberxs of the

Bombay Natural History Society, and if any of them can throw any

further light on this interesting bird’s habits and intentions, one

would be glad to hear of similar experiences of others for reference

and comparison.

The bird is rather rare here and the nest hard to find. I have

been fortunate in discovering two nests with fresh eggs in them

this season but the nests were eighteen miles apart. You’ll notice

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445

that J opened this one up no less than four times, and I suppose the

bird would have carried on still turther if I hadn’t cut the nest about

so badly.

She was in fairly good condition, and only moulting of the

primaries had taken place and new quills had been formed, and

these were about half-developed I should say. The old feathers

were all in the nest. In both instances when I took the eggs

from the nest of a Hornbill, the male bird didn’t put in an

appearance at all nor did the female put up any kind of a fight with

the exception of pecking at one’s finger once or twice. She did not

screech at all either. If I get a chance again I will make closer

observations next time,

J. DE RINDAY:

BATALA,

GURDASPUR DISsT.,

PUNJAB.

June 20, 1928.

[General Osborne, in a note published in vol. xiv, p. 715 of the

Journal, indicated that the peculiar nesting habits of the Hornbills

was due to the fact that the sitting hen moulted all the quill feathers

of her wings and tail during the period of her incarceration. Thus

in the security of her walled-in nest she was protected and concealed

at a time when she would have been otherwise at a great dis-

advantage. In his examination of the nest of a Great Indian Hornbill,

in a tree in the Kanara forest, containing a young one,

Mr. Tugersee discovered a quantity of tail and wing quills at the

bottom of the hollow, which were shed by the sitting bird. Her

condition when she arrived in Bombay a few days after capture

showed that flight would have been a practical impossibility till the

primary feathers of her wings, which were just sprouting, had

matured. The rebuilding of the protecting wall after the eggs had

been removed, as observed by Mr. Finlay is an interesting point.

A possible explanation is that the incubating instinct being still

active, the bird continued to sit in spite of the fact that her eggs

were removed. There are several instances on record of birds

‘brooding in empty nests. Again it may be suggested that the

bird’s reluctance to leave the nest was an instinctive disinclination

to abandon the seclusion of her retreat until her powers of flight

were fully restored. EDs. |]

XVII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE XMAS ISLAND FRIGATE-

BIRD (FREGATA ANDREWST) ON THE WEST COAST

OF INDIA

Among the contributions to the Museum recently received by the

Society is the skin of an Xmas Island Frigate Bird or Man-of-War

Bird (Fregata andrews?) from Quilon, Travancage. The specimen was

presented by Mr. L.A. Lampard. It was caught in a fishing net in

a rough sea at the onset of the monsoon. ‘ When being examined,’

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ALST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

writes Mr. Lampard, ‘ it ejected a small fish which apparently came

out of its guilet.’

This frigate bird is described as a rare visitor to the coasts

of India. It is found throughout the tropical seas and oceans

and is pre-eminently oceanic in habit, seldom coming to land

except near its breeding quarters. At rare intervals they may

be found sitting asleep upon the shore. Surface-swimming fish

are said to be their main food. Squids, small crabs, flying-fish and

young turtles are also eaten. Their habit of pursuing Terns,

Boobies and the like and forcing their terrified victims to disgorge

their prey which is nimbly caught up, before it drops into the water

is recorded by Forbes in his ‘ Naturalist’s Wanderings.’ If secured

in an akward position the captures are tossed in the air caught up

again and swallowed. The young are fed by regurgitation. Both

parents incubate and are very close sitters merely snapping at an

intruder and showing the greatest reluctance to leave the nest.

>. H, PRATER:

CIERZES:

BoMBAY NATURAL HIsTORY

SOCIETY,

July 1928.

XVIII.— OCCURRENCE OF THE SHELDRAKE

TADORNA TADORNA IN THE UNITED PROVINCES

I see some letters about the ‘Common’ Sheldrake in your Journal.

I found a pair once in the year 1894 in Banda District, U.P. and shot

one. I have never seen it in the U.P. since then. These birds were

ona small tank quite close to a village. The one I shot proved to

be quite uneatable.

J.C. FAUNTHOREE:

I.G.S:, CB BM. Chavab:

XIX.—MIGRATION OF WILDFOWL

(With a map)

Since we published the last record of the recovery of ducks

ringed in Dhar State in the Journal (vol. xxxii. p. 222) the follow-

ing interesting note referring to the subject has appeared in the

German publication Ornzthologische Monatsberichte (vol. xxxvi, No. 3,

May 1928) by H. von Grote of which a free translation is given

below. The question whether our wildfowl always return to India

after breeding or whether some of them intermittently wander off

to Denmark and the neighbouring countries and vice versa, is one

of the many problems whose solution we lookefor to our Ringing

Scheme. This manifestly is the only means by which definite

knowledge of the movements of individual birds can be btained,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447

provided of course that members will give it the support it

deserves.

‘We are indebted to Siberian ornithologists for their work in

throwing light on the routes taken by migrating ducks which breed

in Sibera. It is well known that some time ago von Mortensen suc-

ceeded in tracing down marked Pintails (Azas acuta acuta) to their

breeding grounds about 200 kilometers east of Perm (near the

western trontier of Siberia). Later, during the war, A. Tjulpanow

recorded in Poljakow’s Orntth Mitt. (p. 252, 1915) the recovery of

a Wigeon (Anas penelope) on May 6, 1915 below the town of Tobolsk,

on the river Wogulka, which carried a ring with the inscription

‘H. Chr. C. Mortensen, Viborg—Denmark 782 X’. The former

bird as well as this Wigeon had their breeding haunts in West

Siberia and had sought winter quarters in a directly western direc-

tion towards Denmark. ‘To these very important records we have

now to add three recent and remarkable instances of middle Siberian

ducks journeying for the winter in a directiy southern direction

towards India. This was discovered by means of the ducks which

H.H. The Maharaja Saheb of Dhar had captured and ringed in his

state in large numbers during the winter months. The first of

these records is made by H. Johansen in the journal for Siberian

ornithology ‘ Uragus ’ (1927, No. 1, pp. 30-31) to the effect that on

May 30, 1926, there was caught in a fishing net near the village of

Ssusslowo near Barnaul) a Pochard (Vyvoca ferina ferina) which had

a metal ring on its leg with the inscription ‘ Inform Maharaja Dhar

58’. Enquiries showed that this duck was marked in Dhar in

February of the same year. The ring had consequently been on the

bird for a hundred days before it was recaptured in its Siberian

breeding grounds.

The second report is in connection with a Wigeon (Anas penelope)

and is published in the same journai by J. M. Salesski. This Wigeon

accompanied by young ones was taken on August 1, 1926 onthe

Ilbosch Lake in the neighbourhood of Kargat station of the Omsk

Railway. The ring which she carried had the same inscription only

with the number 38. This specimen had also been ringed in Dhar

in February 1926.

The third report is made by W. Troizky, Curator of the Zoological

Department, Novo Sibirsko Museum in the ‘ Uragus’ No. 4, 1927,

p. 26, who states that on August 6, 1927, an aluminium ring was

received by him from a man named Kacherowsky, a State commer-

cial officer, which bore the inscription ‘ Inform Maharaja Dhar’.

he ring was rather mutilated, so that the last two letters of the

word Maharaja were lost as was also the number. This metal ring

had been obtained on May 29 froma female Pintail (dzas acuta

acuta) captured by a native on the river Tira, the left branch of the

river Tiga, which in its turn flows into the Chatanga (middle

Tunguska).

We see therefore that two ducks, a Pintail and a Wigeon,

journeyed from their West Siberian home to winter in Denmark,

while three others, a Pintail, a Pochard and a Wigeon migrated to

India for their winter quarters. However, on the strength of these

(oe

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

MIGRATORY DIRECTIONS TAKEN BY MARKED DUCKS

——PINTAIL (Amas aczta),........ WIGEON (Anas penelope), ......6+

PoOCHARD (Wyroca ferina)

few records it would be too premature to form the conclusion that

it is the custom with all West Siberian ducks tc migrate in one

direction while all middle Siberian ducks take another, especially as

itis known that the Anatide are somewhat erratic as to the direc-

tions they select for flight. The precise routes followed by Siberian

ducks to India is a matter for conjecture. It is possible that they

take a westerly direction to circumvent the Highlands of Central

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

Asia. But in this connection it must also be remembered that

Sven Hedin has seen Jarge numbers of migrating ducks at great

heights in Tibet, as for example at the source of the Indus, in

autumn.

It is to be hoped that the zeal of the Russian ornithologists will

soon bring to light fu:ther material in connection with the routes

taken by Siberian ducks.’

6, APOLLO STREET, EDITORS.

. November 8, 1928.

XX.—THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS AT HIGH ALTITUDES

It seems to me a remarkable fact that birds can fly with such

apparent ease through very attenuated air. We are so accustomed to

regard birds as highly modified for their particular medium. Their

bones are hollow, and they are provided with air-sacs, it is said,

in order to fit them for flight. Consequently we may feel a little

surprise when we find how independent they are of the supporting

power of the air.

When we ascend to 15,000 feet we find the pressure of the atmos-

phere almost halved : it possesses only half its supporting power.

It might be anticipated that birds would suffer as a result of so great

a change. Butthe facts are completely different. Birds at this

height, and at much greater altitudes, fly with apparently the same

facility as they do at sea level. ‘To all appearances they are un-

affected by the change.

Those of ordinary capacities of flight, such as mountain finches

and ‘Tibetan larks, fly about with their accustomed ease. Hil]-

pigeons fly as swiftly round the cliffs, choughs come as freely to

the travellers’ camps as do their representatives at the level of the

sea. Even birds with highly specialized forms of flight seem

equally unaffected by the lighter air. The snowcock is a bird that

glides or parachutes, rarely if ever beating its wings. Yet it lives

exclusively in this rarified atmosphere where it floats majestically

across a gorge. The kestrel and some terns are poising birds,

holding themselves stationary at one spot by forcibly beating their

wings. Such poising is a highly specialized evolution. No form

of erial activity calls for so much exertion on the part of the bird.

One might think that a mode of flight demanding so much effort

would be impossible in rarified air. Yet in Tibet we see terns

hovering over lakes, their bodies on a slant, their wings forcibly

beating as they hold themselves stationary at fixed points. They

poise as efficiently at 15,000 feet as they do along the sea shore. It

is the same with the kestrel at high altitudes. I have seenit poised

at 16,000 feet, and, when the wind was strong, it held itself station-

ary with scarcely a quiver of the wing. Indeed, so far from the

thin air preventing its evolutions, the kestrel in Tibet has to hover

perpetually. For on the plateau there are no trees or points of

vantage from where it can keep a look-out for prey. Certain other

birds surprise us by this remarkable independence. The ground-

chough, for instance, has unusually weak flight, seldom going more

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

than a hundred yards at a time, and looking something like a fledg-

ling that has just escaped from the nest. Yet itis a bird that lives

exclusively at high altitudes. We meet with it in Tibet at 13,000

feet where it seems quite at home in the rarified air. The flight of

the skylark is out of the ordinary. It towers up perpendicularly

through the air while pouring forth its melodious notes. Yet

its towerings seem in no way affected by altitude. In Tibet

it towers and sings at 15,000 feet as delightfully as in an English

field.

It is the same with soaring birds. Eagles and buzzards at 16,000

feet sail and circle with the same ease as do their representatives at

moderate heights. The griffon loves to sail over Himalayan passes.

I have often watched its effortless motion at a height of 20,000 feet.

The lammergeyer used to visit our Mount Everest base camp and

at that height of 17,000 feet used to float and circle and glide down-

ward after food with all its accustomed facility and grace. Nor can

it just sail in circles at this considerable height, but can carry itself

up through the attenuated air without making the slightest move-

ment of its wings. Ido not know to what a height it can perform

this feat. Certainly it can sail across the main Himalaya at the

great height of 23,000 feet.

Birds which visited the Mount Everest base camps seemed in no

way incommoded by the thin atmosphere. We had choughs and

pigeons in Camp I at 18,000 feet, crows and mountain-finches in

Camp III at 21,000 feet, choughs almost daily in Camp IV at 23,000

feet. Indeed choughs seemed completely independent of altitude

for they followed the climbers to the immense height of 27,000

feet. Their capacities of flight appeared in no way diminished.

There was nothing to show that they moved through an atmosphere

reduced to one-third of its supporting power.

Thus we see how independent birds seem to be of the supporting

influence of the air. Diminish the pressure of the atmosphere by

half and ordinary flight seems in no way affected. And even those

more elaborate zrial performances, such as parachuting, hovering,

towering, soaring, are all performed with perfect ease.

R. W. G. HINGSTON,

Major, I1.M.S.

XXIL—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GHARIAL

(GAVIALIS GANGETICUS) IN BURMA

Mr. H. B. Prior has very kindly forwarded to me the skull of

a crocodile recently shot in the Shweli River in Upper Burma.

We have sent you the skuli because it is believed to be a

gharial and the first record of its occurrence in Burma.

Moreover the fact of its being killed in the Shweli, well over a

thousand miles by river from the delta of the Irrawaddi, is a point

of great interest.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 451

The crocodile was shot by Mr. Hannyngton at the mouth of

the Maingtha Stream some 40 miles from the mouth of the Shwelli,

which runs into the Irrawaddi about 20 miles below Katha. |

It was shot in July ofthis year (1927) and the measurements

were as follows : —

Over-all length Or 6

Mid girth (at thickest point) ied On O%

Breast girth wes ae ke

Tail length wh Oe

Body (neck to base of tail) oh Oe.

Mr. J. A. E. Upton has kindly supplied the following details :—

‘TI saw it the day after it was shot. It is undoubtedly a gharial

or fish-eater, the technical name being I believe Gavialis gange-

ticus, colour, webbed feet, crested legs and long snout all agreeing

with W. S. Burke’s description in the J/nzdian Field Shtkar Book.

When skinned, one spherical ball was found in the stomach,’

‘A crocodile’ has been reported by villagers at the mouth of

the Maingtha for some years past. It is usually seen after the first

rise in the Shweli, about the end of June, and never after the river

has sunk to its cold weather level in December.’

Since this one was shot another is rumoured to have appeared

on one or two occasions near Molon (near mouth of Maingtha), but

so far I have had no opportunity of verifying this. A crocodile was

shot in the Shweli some years ago but unfortunately was not

identified.

These crocodiles appear to go to the main Irrawaddi after the

rains as I have rumours of them having been seen near Tagaung in

the hot weather.

I should be very grateful if you would let me have a note as to

its identification after you have examined it.

Maymyo, BuRMA,

December 24, 1927. C.G. BARTON.

[The skull torwarded to us Is, as identified, that of a Gharial

or Gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) and its occurrence in the area men-

tioned, marks a considerable extension of its known. habitat. This

species has hitherto been known to occur in the Indus, Ganges and

Brahmaputra rivers and their larger tributaries, also in the Mahanadi

of Orissa and the Koladyne (Koladainge) or Kaladan River of

Arrakan—the latter being the only known record of its occurrence

in Burma. Its discovery in the Maingtha Stream a sub-tributary of

the Irrawaddy therefore is of considerable interest.

The Irrawaddy is formed by the confluence of the Mali-Kha

and N’mai-Kha rivers both of which appear to have their sources in

the region of the Nam-Kui Mts. on the southern borders of Tibet on

whose western slopes some of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra

have their origin. The small streams and water courses of this

region may have provided the means of intercommunication between

the tributaries of the Brahmaputra and the Irrawaddy and have

accounted for the extension of the range of this crocodile. Eps.]

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

XXII.—ON SOME COMMON INDIAN LIZARDS’

Readers of Pierre Loti’s diary during his two years sojourn in

French Guinea (Senegal) will remember that this emotional

impressionistic writer refers to the glowing coerulean-hued lizards

with orange coloured heads that sometimes strayed into the wooden

bungalow which he occupied. Loti was not drawing on his

imagination, nor was he seeing objects through a haze of the ‘ blues ’,

as large massive-headed lizards of the agamoid family, the males

glowing with the tints of a turquoise or sapphire, can aiso be seen in

East Africa where the gaudy coloured maies are known to residents

of the colony as ‘cocks’ and the females as ‘hens’. In India on

barren rocks at the Himalayan hill-stations of Simla, Mussoorie and

Naini Tal thelarge ugly blackish-brown Agama tuberculata is com-

monly met with, the male of which develops a blue patch on the throat

during the hot months. It is not quite certain whether the Agama

found at the foot of the hiils near Dehra Dun belongs to this species.

They are thirsty creatures as during the hot months drowned

specimens are sometimes to be seen in the waters of the fresh-water

canal that flows along the side of a low spur of the Himalayas that

overhangs the village of Rajpur about five miles to the east of

Dehra Dun. This reptile like the first already alluded to, is perhaps

equally ugly buthas its redeeming points in the exhibition by the

male of a series of spots of an intense peacock-blue during the hot

months on the sides of the tail and flanks of the body. Boulenger

in his hand-book on Indian Reptilia refers to Agama dayana as

occurring at Hardwar about 40 miles further east but does not

describe this lizard which must be identical with those seen near the

village of Rajpur. Charasia dorsalis is very common on the volcanic

groups of gneiss and trap rock that form so prominent a feature of

the landscape in the vicinity of Bangalore. The usual colour of

immature males and females is a greyish-white strongly assimilating

in shade with the jagged surfaces of the rocks where they are found

but the old males are highly conspicuous when perched on a

pinnacle of rock, the upper parts of the body glowing in patches

of lurid yellow and red in strong contrast to the jet black of the

throat, the abdomen and the sides:of the body. It certainly would

not be difficult in the tumbled wastes of rock for a recluse to find a

spot satisfying the requirements of the lines written by the great

Roman satirist (Juvenal).

‘Est aliquid, quocumque loco, quocumque recessu unius sese

dominum fecisse lacertae’.

Charasta dorsalis does not seem to be distributed outside the

Mysore plateau, as it was not observed amongst the boulders of the

Mount of St. Thomas, noron the high stony hill overlooking the

little settlement of Pallaveram, nor on hills in its neighbourhood

geologically interesting as the spot where Sir Thomas Holland

procured specimens of ‘Charnockite’ gneiss and plutonic rock and

which forms so considerable a part in the construction of the

Madras Harbour Works.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

The ‘bloodsucker’ is not a fearful form of Vampire but a

harmless garden lizard about 16 inches in length with a spiny

crest running down the back of the neck and the upper part of

the dorsum. The scientific name Caloles versicolay as well as the

popular one both refer to the occasions when the head, neck and

upper portion of the body in this lizard acquire a dull sanguine

hue whilst the remainder of the body may remain a pale greenish-

yellow. Sometimes when running up or down a tree trunk a

Calotes may assume a dark unpleasant tint mottled with patches of

livid white, heightening its tout ensemble to the background of the

tree-trunk scarred with the remains of the white and withered lichen

of a past rainy season, or the body may be ofa pale fleshy colour

with lateral markings of pale yellow and a white throat but these

are invariably females and young or immature males.

Punnett, in his ‘‘Mimicry amongst Butterflies’”’ ina chapter devoted

to the natural foes of those insects, suggests that the crimson colour

assumed by the males of Ca/otes may serve as alure to bring insects

within striking distance of the lizard’s mouth. An untenable sugges-

tion, the colour being a secondary sexual characteristic like that of

the vivid yellow assumed by males of the Indian bull-frog (Rana

tigrina) at the onset of the rainy season. It has been ascertained

by experiment that Ca/o/es will devour at sight both palatable as well

as distasteful butterflies. It has devoured indiscriminately Catopszlia

crocale, Papilio demoleus, P. polytes agamemnon of the palatable group

and equally impartially Danats chrysippus, Euplwa core, Acrea

viole, anG Papilio hector of the distasteful, and Punnett from such

data is doubtful whether the phenomenon of mimcry amongst

butterflies has arisen from the action of lizards of the Calotes group.

Such experiments under artificial conditions are really inconclusive

as in a state of freedom Calotes does exhibit preference for certain

butterflies that are found associated with particular trees or bushes.

It has been observed on shrubs of 7rzphasta t77zfoltata and Murraya

exotica on the look-out for stray specimens of Papilio polytes which

frequently flit around the branchlets of such rutaceous plants. It

may also be seen on branches of Capparis zeylanica which during the

hot season are frequently visited by butterflies of the genus

Anaphets and other Pierines. On one occasion a large male Calofes

was seen to seize and devour a Soap-nut Bug ( Zessevatoma javanica),

so common on the inferior surfaces of the leaves of Sapzndus

tritoliatus, the Soap-nut tree of Bombay and Western India. This

large red shield-bug is very conspicuous on the wing from its slow

laboured and beetle-like flight. Sometimes turning turtle when

alighting on the ground and lying on its back it is a most conspicuous

object from the contrast of the chalky whiteness of the abdomen

against the colour of the earth ; feebly moving its legs it endeavours

to right itself, an action which at once attracts the attention

of any passing Calotes. The lizard is in its turn palatable

and sometimes falls a prey to the Shikra Hawk (4stur badius)

or to the Jungle Crow (Corvus coronotdes) An azure-winged

Indian roller (Coraczas tndica) has been seen to suddenly seize and

carry off a small Calotes. ‘A bolt from the blue indeed.’ The long

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

limbs and toes of Calotes are perfectly adapted for a life amongst

the trees and bushes on which it is found, but unlike the chamzeleon

it can run very quickly over the surface of the ground. It is a fact

worth noting that the colour of the parasites which sometimes infest

the body of a lizard can assume the colour of the scales of their

host. Sir Joseph Hooker in his Azmalayan Journal writes,

‘Mr. Theobald pulled a lizard out from a hole. Its throat was

mottled with scales of brown and yellow. Three ticks had fastened

on it each of a size covering three or four scales. The first was

yellow corresponding with the yellow colour of the animal’s belly

where it lodged. The second brown from the lizard’s head but the

third which was clinging to the particoloured scales of the neck had

its body particoloured, the hues corresponding with the individual

scales which they covered. The adoption of the two first specimens

in colour to the parts to which they adhered is sufficientiy remarkable

but the third case was the most extraordinary.’

All observers must have frequently noticed a link of intimacy or

friendship between animals that frequent the same spot although

otherwise entirely dissimilar. One hot day at Madras the writer was

watching a pair of ‘blood-suckers’ (Ca/ofes) basking in the sun.

Close by an attractive little grey squirrel was steadily munching at

some choice nutty or fruity morsel held between his fore paws in

typical sciurine fashion. Suddenly the smailer of the two lizards,

the female, scurried up to the squirrel and tried to snatch his tit-bit

away from him. He repelled her but not ungently with an air of

disdainful but easy familiarity. Truly a pretty sight!

The little Indian wall-lizards or geckos that scamper across

the walls and ceilings of rooms in keen pursuit of winged termites

and fat-bodied moths are too well known to leave room for any

further detailed observation. ‘There is however an innate ferocity

and pugnacity in these small geckos that is truly remarkable. A

long sinuous rusty stain on the wall of a room recalls to the writer

a conflict between two males of these Croquemouches, who clung

to one another with the tenacity of bull-dogs, and the ferocity

of their great ancestors, the monsters of the ancient slime. One

of the combatants, after one of his fore-limbs had been crushed

almost to a pulp inthe jaws of his adversary, managed to break

away and dragged his weary length along the surface of the wall

until he finally disappeared behind the top of an adjoining cup-

board. Who, unless he had witnessed such a conflict, could have

guessed that the stain on the wall was that of a cold blooded reptile

influenced by the same emotions that are only associated with the

higher animals and the gods. ‘ Tantoenze animis ccelestibus ire.’

Sometimes a small gecko may be seen resting on the side of a wall in

the attitude of a cat asleep with its forefeet tucked under the body

and the hind legs stretched out backwards. Or yet again he may be

seen clinging to the outer surface of a window-pane but evincing

no concern if the fingers of the hand are drummed against the inner

surface of the pane. He is fully aware as long as he stays on the

outer surface that he cannot be captured but will dart away like a

flash even though the window be cautiously opened and the hand

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 455

carefully exserted to capture him. Like the famous Dr. Johnson

he takes a practical view on the resistibility of matter and is aware

that the hand cannot pass through window-panes without breakage.

The great Burmese house-lizard or gecko (Gecko verticillatus),

known as a‘ Tuctoo’ from its startling sonorous call is not un-

common in jungly suburban parts of Calcutta. They are considerably

larger and decidedly uglier than the small geckos already consider-

ed, with fat bodies and large heads cryptically coloured in dark

brown or grey shading to assimilate with the trunks of the trees to

which they cling, the resemblance being further heightened by rusty

or white mottling, over the body surface which gives the lizard an

unpleasant appearance when closely viewed although it is perfectly

harmless. Boulenger in his handbook on Indian Reptiles confines

the limit of its extension into India to Eastern Bengal. In Calcutta

it does not generally intrude into houses but confines itself to an

arboreal life. One was heard however to utter its cry one evening

from the wall of ahouse in Alipore Park, South, and another was

said to have been seen and heard at the Golf Club at Tollygunge. The

loud ‘ gee-ko ’, ‘ gee-ko’ call from which it gets its onomatopcetic

name may frequently be heard of an evening in the jungly bit of

country adjoining the Jodhpur Club and its vicinity. There is a

green gecko which inhabits the recesses of the torests of the Anda-

mans and some parts of India. A true child of the wild it can only

be sought for in the jungles where it is indigenous. Unlike the

last it is a small gecko about the same size or a trifle smaller than

the house-lizard first considered. Evento those who have never

seen this beautiful little gecko, its verdant colour would indicate

its arboreal habits and its close association with the leaves of

trees.

THE STRANGERS HomgE, H, JOUGUET.

MAZAGON, BOMBAY.

XXIII.—SOME NOTES ON THE TRAVANCORE EVENING

BROWN BUTTERFLY (PARANTIRRHGA

MARSHALLI) IN COORG

Some time back Major H. C. Winckworth wrote to you announ-

cing his capture of a Parantirrhea marshalli gf near Watekolli in

Coorg. Antram in his book Butterflies of India is of opinion that

it appears in May and is probably single-brooded. By his capture

of it in October (1926), Major Winckworth could claim that it is

double-brooded. I obtained a male in May 1927: I believe Major

Winckworth got several males in October of the same year. I[

missed one in that month and saw another in a neighbouring valley

in Coorg. On January 28th last I caught what now I know to have

been an old and damaged specimen ofthe female. I caught it at

dusk above Watekolli on the Virajpet-Tellicherry ghaut road. In

March, also at dusk, and again in April, I saw but failed to take this

fly ; whether male or female, I cannot say.

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

_ This month I determined to comb out the part of the jungle

where I believed it to be. It has always been seen flying into or

from anear ‘ Wate ’—the giant bamboo reed (Ochlandra Rheedie)—

which grows luxuriantly in this valley, asin other valleys. I had

recently three days at my disposal and got fourteen specimens, of

which four were females. Two of the females and two of the males

were damaged in capture.

As the female is not described in the books, and, I believe, was

sent to South Kensington only a very short time before Col. Evans’

Identification of Indian Butterflies was published, I venture to

send you the enclosed note on the insect. Jam also sending you

specimens of gt and Y. I fear there may be -technical errors in the

description and hope you will set me right. My excuse is that

I took up collecting only fourteen months ago, and am the perfect

amateur. ;

I add a few notes on its habits as I have observed them in making

my catches and my misses.

In the first place its flight is very slow and easy, as might be

expected from its fragile wings. It protects itself by its shape and

its colouring. Usually it is to be found sitting on the stem of the

reed, or ona green leaf—often on the underside—, or on a dead

Jeaf, or a loosened piece of dead fibre, such as surrounds the nodes

With its curiously pointed wings folded, and its yellowish-brown (0)

or yellowish-grey (2) underside, it is often very hard to distinguish

from its perch. By tapping the stems of a clump of‘ Wate’ it can

be disturbed, when it flies a yard or two on to another stem or leaf,

more like a shadow or a falling leaf, such as frequently falls when

the stems are tapped, and is, until the eye gets accustomed to its

movements, almost immediately invisible. Sometimes it flies low

and settles inside a clump of ‘ wate’ stems at the base, when it is

particularly hard to reach. This reed grows densely ; it is difficult

to worm oneself in and out of it, and more difficult to wield a long

stick (I generally use a ‘wate’ pole forits lightness), which is

necessary because the butterfly often sits high up. I suppose the

dark upperside, and even the white spots, are a natural aid to pro-

tection : the sunlight enters sparsely into these ‘ wate’ groves, and

only in patches; the stems are dark green, and the effect is a jazzed

light. The butterfly-colour is protective jazz.

In gloomy damp weather the male will fly into the open, across a

road or a glade—I say the male because the female, so far as Coorg

goes, has never been caught in the open by day. It(the #1) may be

caught sitting on the underside or the upperside of a leaf on the

shady side of a glade—generally in the morning until 11] or 12

o’clock. The female seems to come out at dusk, otherwise is to

be got in the dark parts of a ‘wate’ grove. In flight, because of

its greyer colour beneath and plain and lighter brown above, the

female is less obvious than the male. Ihave noticed that in the

day-time the fly seemsto prefer those parts of a ‘wate’ grove

which are denser and less penetrated by the sunlight. The same

seems to be true of its co-habitants of the grove, Zzpwlzs saztis and

Discophora lepida :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 457

In mentioning these two last, is it known on what they feed? I

have cane nt many of the first and several of the second: all either

in or near ‘wate’. HadI time! should eae eeu to find out if

their food was the § wate ’ leaf.

In your note to Major Winckworth’s letter you remarl that this

fly is evidently spreading. It is, I suppose, 250 miles from

Travancore to Coorg as the crow flies, and between the two are

numerous valleys as rich probably in butterflies as this. I do not

imagine that they have all been examined, or that Parantirrhea

marshallt has been searched for. The chances against getting it

outside its jungle haunts are very small. Probably the butterfly is

in those valleys as well, and the process of spreading has been of

long duration. The flight of this fly does not suggest a leap of 250

miles in order to spread.

DESCRIPTION :

PARANTIRRHOEA MARSHALLI

Male

Below uwzf general effect pale yellowish-brown, obscurely striated

darker brown. ‘Three pale brown bars, basal, sub-basal and across

cell from costa to vl orv2. Cell band diverging and making a

more or less obscure Y to costa. Broader discal band, slightly

darker; also post-discal band of approximately the same colour.

Space between discal and post-discal bands varied by series of minute

black spots outwardly circled by opalescent or pearly white patches.

Apex produced and pointed ; termen nearly straight, rounded at

tornus.

Unh subbasal and cell bars of uwzf obscurely continued. Two

more or less dark spots in cell. Spot below cell. Spot near base.

Discal and postdiscal bands of wzf continued to v2. In interspace

2(?) dark spot: between bands as on uzf opalescent or pearly

patches round darker minute spots.

HT. W. half way along costa widely angled to apex. From apex

to v4 (or 5?) termen straight (angle about 120) but slightly scalloped.

At v5 (?) a tail inclined upwards. ‘Tornus slightly outside a per-

pendicular drawn from apex. Dorsum nearly straight.

Above. General colour dark brown with purple tinge. Off a

somewhat kidney-shaped band of pale purple, starting just below

costa beyond cell and continuing in patches between veins to near

vl. Nearly parallel with termen, three white spots (appearing also

unt) between vv3 and7; the middle one of the series nearer to

the upper one than the lower one. ‘These traverse the purple band.

[I make no reference to the fold along the dorsum fF. w.]

Female

cla Spread of wings + 3.” to 4” wider than in male. Height, when

sitting with closed nos, om apex Awtodorsum hw 3,” to 3”

greater than that of male.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIiii

2. Dorsum fw nearly straight, only slightly bowed. Costa hw

also nearly straight or only slightly bowed at centre.

3. Beneath more greyish-ochreous than yellowish-brown, with

darker striation and bars. General markings much the same; but

sub-basal band across cell fw and hw—especially fw—darker than

in op’ and discal band broad and inner edge sharper thanin male. Uzh

spots cell and base obscure.

4. Above general colour dull bronze: series of five white spots

parallel to termen. Nos. 2, 3, 4 most prominent, in decreasing

magnitude. Nos. 1and5 varying from obscure to distinct, but not

clear as Nos. 2, 3,4. Nos. 2, 3,4 appear beneath between discal

and postdiscal bands, as in male.

5. Just below costa, above end cell a whitish spot, and

between this and No. 3 of the postdiscal series two very pale pur-

plish patches, white in centre.

6. Whereas in 6 the dark brown wf reaches almost to the

margin, in 9 upf there is a lighter marginal and submarginal area,

the inner edge of which corresponds to the outer edge of the post-

discal band below. This lighter area is continued wf as far as the

tail. Also wph is a whitish discal spot, inward from tail, varying in

obviousness.

tA; YATES:

BANGALORE,

May 31, 1928.

[The female ot P. marshalli was first described by Col. N. Manders.

(Ann. Vag. Nat. Hist. London (6), 1910.) Eps.]

XXIV.—A SHORT NOTE ON A LYMANTRID

CATERPILLAR (DASYCHIRA MENDOSA) (?) HUBN.!

FEEDING ON MANGO LEAVES

(With a block)

‘The Lymantrid larva, which is described below, was collected

from a mango tree at Cossipore, a suburb of Caicutta, on March 13,

1928.

Description of the Larva.——-Whereas in most other species of this

group, the hairs are distributed more or less uniformly throughout

the body, in the present species they are arranged in tufts, each

segment bearing a pair in its lateral regions. These lateral tufts of

hairs are long, erect and greyish-white in color. The general

coloration of the body is mottled grey with red patches on certain

segments. The head is somewhat oval in shape and bears an

additional pair of long tufts of hair in its dorsolateral regions. The

additional tufts in the head look very much like a pair of antenne

and these together with a similar tuft on the last abdominal

1 Unfortunately, in the present state of our knowledge of the group,

several species are mixed up under this name, and this note may prove an

incentive to further research on the life-histories of Lymantrids.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459

segment may at times serve the purpose of frightening its enemies

They usualiy remain projecting forwards making an angle of about

45° with the longitudinal axis of the body (see Fig.).

LaRva : (Dasychira mendosa) {(?) HuBN

The first two thoracic segments are sub-equal and without any

ornamentation. The third on the other hand possesses in addition

to the lateral tufts, another pair of tuft of hairs which are white

in colour. Dorsally the third thoracic segment bears an arc-shaped

pad composed of creamy yellow pilose hairs.

In the first abdominal segment the lateral tufts are different in

shape and structure from those of the rest of the body segments.

They are short and greyish black mottled with white. This

segment also bears dorsally an irregularly oval area similar to that

of the preceding segment. The second abdominal segment bears

dorsally asimilar triangular pilose area, while on the third abdo-

minal segment the triangulr pilose area is smaller than that on the

second. Mid-dorsally a fine whitish pilose line runs backwards

from the posterior edge of the creamy yellow pilose pad of the

second abdominal segment to the middle of the last abdominal

segment. The fourth, fifth and sixth segments bear mid-dorsally a

transverse pilose band speckled with reddish pilose spots. The

seventh or the last abdominal segment bears an additional pair of

posteriorly directed tufts similar to the lateral ones.

The thoracic as well as the pro-legs are pinkish in coloration.

The only larva that was collected measured roughiy 30 mm. in

length and 3mm. in breadth.

The larva in captivity was fed on young mango leaves and the

full-fed larva pupated on the night of March 14, 1928. The pupal

cocoon is oval in shape and brownish-white in color. It was spun

in a top corner of the glass trough in which the larva was kept and

is composed of larval hairs loosely gummed with a superimposed

somewhat flimsy layer of loose silk. A few strands of loose silk

irregularly gummed to the sides of the jar kept the cocoon in

position. The cocoon was interspersed with larval frass,

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

~The adult emerged on March 22, 1928, at night and has been

presented to the Indian Museum Collection. 7

I have to record herein my thanks to Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher,

Imperial Entomologist to the Government of India, who so kindly

identified the imago for me.

S. MUKERJI, m.sc.,

Zoological Survey of India.

XXV.—A PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE POLLINATION

OF THE CORAL TREE (ARYTHRINA INDICA; GAMK,)

(With two plates)

The observations recorded in this note were made by the writer

during the months of February and March of 1926 and 1927, while at

the Lucknow University. A detailed study of the plant with special

reference to its pollination, will form the subject of another paper

which will be published later.

There are only a few flowering plants which are pollinated by the

agency of birds. The phenomenon involved is a very specialized.

one and is technically known as Ornithophily. The genus Avythrina

—to which the popularly known coral-trees belong—1is peculiariy

interesting among the Legumznose, because in some of its species

ornithophily seems to have been established. Delpino was one of

the earliest investigators who supposed that cross-pollination in

Erythrina crista-gallz, a Brazilian species, takes place by the agency

of humming birds.’ Later Thomas Belt? established that in a

species of Erythrina in Nicaragua, the fertilization was effected by

humming birds.

This observation was followed by that of Trelease? who showed

that in Avythrina herbacea, cross-pollination was carried on by ruby-

throated birds. But as far as I am aware nothing adequately is

known about the pollination of A7vythrina indica, Lamk., which also

seems to be Ornithophilous.

Lrythrina tndica, Lamk. (the Parijata tree of the Sanskrit authors)

is a native of Bengal near the sea,* but is now cultivated in gardens

or on road-sides as an ornamental plant and is also ‘ largely planted

as shade for coffee, etc. and as support for pepper’.° It is a big-

sized tree and towards the approach of March it sheds all its foliage

leaves and consequently looks altogether bare but the most promi-

nent and conspicuous feature of the tree during this season, is the

large number of scarlet-coloured flowers which occur in bunches,

1 Knuth, P.: (1908) Hand Book of Flower Pollination (English edition), vol.

ii, pisos.

2 Belt, ay. : (1880) A Naturalist in Nicaragua, p. 130.

3 I'release, W.: (1880) ‘ Fertilization of Flowers by Humming Birds ’ Amr.

Natur. 14: pp. 363-364.

+ Watt, Sir George : (1908) Zhe Commercial Products of India, p. 523.

5 Willis, J. C. : (1919) lowering Plants and Ferns, pp. 252-253,

JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I.

The Tailor-Bird.

(Orthotomus sutorius.)

Photos by Sdim A. Alt,

The Jungle Babbler.

(Lurdoides terricolor.)

SOME AGENTS IN THE POLLINATION OF E. INDICA.

‘VOIGNI VNIMHLAYA AO NOILVNIT1IOd AHL NI SLNADV ANOS

("saqp190s DIUIAd) (‘SNIAIDOAIDUL SNANAIIC)

"Ig[qieM-UsIAA AYSY UT. ‘osuoIq Yor[q oy

‘UP CR Wipes Aq S0J0Ug

‘TI ALWId ‘90S ‘LSIF[ ‘LVN Avawog ‘Nunof[

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES... «461

borne in a pendulous manner at the tips of branches in such great

abundance, as to make the tree most attractive to look at, from

a distance. ee ieee, ae

The inflorescence is a tri-chotomous cymose raceme and although

it is borne in a pendulous manner, the flowers are all pointed

upwards. The general structure of the flowers is similar (with minor

differences) to that of Avythrina crista-galli.1 (The pedicels of the

flowers are twisted at anangie of 180°. Thus the monoadelphous

stamens together with the style are exposed towards the apparently

posterior (virtually the anterior), side of the flower, the standard

being a little deflexed outwards. The alz are small. The margins

of the carina (keel) tightly overlap each other and together with the

closely fitted standard at the basal region form a conical sack which

is full of sugary juice, secreted by the nectary gland, situated at the

base of the gyncecium. ‘This juice is sweet tothe taste and is pro-

duced in such great profusion that when the flowers are in full

bloom, a gust of wind often causes something of a mild shower of

rain below the tree. aie

Amongst the birds, the Mynas (Acridotheres tristts tristts) are the

most common visitors to this tree. Throughout the day, they may

be seen hopping from one bunch to another in the act of sipping

the sweet juice from the flowers—their fairly long beaks being of

advantage in the process. In so doing, they naturally have to sit

on the drooping branches and before they actually reach at the

honey, their throat and beak invariably first touch the essential

organs (androecium and gyncecium) of the flowers. Thus they

unconsciously bring about the cross-pollination of the flowers by

the transference of the ripe pollen grains (which remain sticking to

their beak and throat) from the ripe stamens on to the mature

stigmas”. For verifying this point some Mynas were captured alive

and others shot, while in the act of sipping the sugary juice. It

was found that the pollen-grains which were observed sticking to

their beak and feathers were identical—on microscopic examination

—with the pollen grains of Arythrina indica, Lamk.

Several observations made during the different hours of the day,

have convinced me that in keeping with their habit,? it is during the

hours of 4.30 p.m. and 6 p.m., that one sees them thronging on the

tree in large numbers; consequently this seems to be the most

favourable time for pollination. An observation with powerful field

olasses is specially interesting in watching the intelligent way in which

they carry onthe whole process. No insects, ants or butterflies

have been noticed, thus excluding any suspicion of their (the

Mynas) visiting the flowers for the sake of catching them to feed

upon. However sometimes crows, parrots, etc., may be seen on the

tree but they act like thieves and steal away the honey as they often

do in the case of Bombax malabaricum.

a Kotte Paw loc. C77.

? Also self-pollination taking place simultaneously, may be possible.

3’ Bainbrigge Fletcher, T. and Inglis, C.M.: (1924) Birds of an Indian

Garden, p. 53; Stuart Baker, E. C.: (1926). Zhe Fauna of British India, vol.

iii, p. 54,

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1I1

Thus the available facts all seem to show that the pollination of

this interesting Leguminous plant is carried on by the Mynas

(Acridotheres tristts tristis).

In conclusion I have great pleasure in expressing my sincere

thanks to Mr. T. Trought, Cotton Research Botanist, Lyallpur, for

kindly reading through the manuscript and other facilities which he

readily provided during the course of the preparation of this note.

T.C. N. SINGH,

Microsco pist,

Cotton Research Laboratory, Lyallapur.

LYALLPUR,

May 17,.1928.

[A far greater variety of birds are regular habitués of the coral

tree (Erythrina indica) in bloom and contribute to its pollina-

tion than appears to have been observed in Lucknow. Among the

birds to be invariably met on the flowers in this part of the country,

in addition to the Myna and the Crow, may be mentioned the Rosy

Starling (Pastor roseus), Babblers (Turdotdes, Pyctorhis and Dumetia),

Drongo (Dicrurus), Wren Warblers (Printa soctalts and inornata),

Tailor Bird (Orthotomus sutorius), Bulbuls (Otocompsa, Molpastes,

Pycnonotus and Chloropsis), Grey and Black-headed Mynas (Sturnia

and Zemenuchus), while we have frequently noticed the Black-capped

Blackbird (Turdus merula nigropileus) and the Tree Pie (Dendrocitta).

A Coral Tree in flower is in fact a rendezvous for almost every bird of

the countryside, most of whom feed on the nectar and unconscious-

ly promote pollination. Purely insectivorous species, though doing

no such service, are also invariably present in the vicinity for the

sake of the visitant insects. Eps. ]

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS

BE. L. S.—What ts the etfect of castration on horned animals ?

Experiments carried out with domestic animals and with wild

animals in captivity have revealed the effect of castration on

the development and growth of horns. It is first: necessary to

distinguish between animals in which both sexes carry horns and

those in which horns are confined to the male. In breeds of sheep

where horns are developed by the males alone, castration has a direct

effect on horn growth. It has been shown by. experiment that

young rams of these breeds never develop horns if castrated. In

breeds of sheep in which both sexes are horned, castration has no

effect whatsoever on the development and growth of the horns. A

parallel effect is seen in deer, though here the question is slightly

complicated by the fact that the antlers are shed annually. As with

sheep, castration has no effect on reindeer as, both sexes carry

antlers. If astag of any other species is castrated early enough

antlers never appear. If castrated rather late, when the horns have

begun to grow, but before the velvet- has. been ‘ shed’, they never

develop properly. The velvet covering then: persists, the horns

become small and misshapen and are never cast off. Ifa stag with

fully developed horns is castrated his antlers are soon thrown off.

They are either never replaced or are replaced by malformed antlers.

The question as to whether injury to the testes suppresses the

growth of antlers or horns depends largely on the extent -of the

damage. Experiments in partial castration have shown that a

fragment, only one hundreth the size of the two testes, suffices for the

complete development of the sexual characters. If, however, the

amount of the testicular substance be even very slightly less than the

minimum, the sexual characters do not develop at all. It is believed

that intermediate amounts of testicular substance would \produce

intermediate results but this has still to be proved by experiment.

A curious effect of castration on a Blackbuck has been indicated by

Mr. Wilson (Journ., vol. xxii, —p. 622) and Capt. C. R. S. Pitman

(Journ. vol. xxii, p. 575). In both cases castration resulted in a

change in the colour of the coat. The rich black coat of the

gelt buck faded to fawn, which is the colour normal in does and

immature males.

A. J.—How many species of cobras are there in India? Is the black

cobra a distinct spectes? What ts the general distribution of cobras?

Only two species of cobra occur in India—the King Cobra (Waza

bungarus) and the Common Cobra (Waza tripudians). Like the King’

Cobra, the Common Cobra varies considerably in colour and mark-

ings. The various recognized forms: of this snake might be

regarded as distinct species but for the absence of any sharp lines

of demarcation between them. In many parts of India, in the United:

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIH

Provinces, Sind, Rajputana, the Punjab and the southern portion of

the Malay Peninsula the cobra is commonly uniformly black, with no

apparent markings on the hood. This colour form is known as

ceca. Inmany black cobras the black markings on the hood escape

notice, unless especially looked for. In some, the hood markings

are limited to a few spots, in others there is a modified form of

spectacle and in others again the spectacle is as perfect as in the

typical cobra (var. ¢ypzca). Thus we have black cobras that are

scarcely distinguishable from the typical form and many intermediate

variations which cannot be identified with the Jd/ack or the typical

variety. It has been suggested that a method based on lepidosis

i.e. on the number and arrangement of the scale rows, the ventrals

and subcaudals would provide:a better means of differentiating

between the various forms of cobras. The cobras of South India

generally have 23-25 scale-rows in the mid-body, while in the Punjab

the scale rows are limited to 21. But actual investigation has shown

that differentiation based on these characters alone does not yield

consistent results, though it provides, to some extent, a means of

grouping these snakes more in accordance with their geographical

distribution. Cobras are restricted to Southern Asia and Africa.

Eleven species are recognized. Our Common Cobra has a wide

distribution. It ranges from Transcaspia to China and the Malay

Peninsula. Other Asiatic species are Maza morgan7, which has been

recorded from Persia and Mesopotamia, Maza samarensts of the

Philippine Islands, and the King Cobra (JV. duxgarus) which is found

through the forest tracts of India, Burma, Southern China and the

Malay countries. Maza haje the ‘ Aspis’ has been recorded from

Southern Palestine. The last named species is widely distributed

in Africa. In addition to V. haje the genus Maza is represented

by 7 species on the African Continent—/. flava, WN. nigricollis,

N. melanoleuca, N. anchietae, N. goldi and N. gunthert.

W. J. W.—Whai ts the longest known migratory journey performed

by any bird ?

Birds are great travellers. Many species undertake enormous

journeys to and from their breeding haunts, i.e., between their

summer and winter quarters. It has been clearly established from

recoveries of ringed birds, that Swallows from Great Britain migrate

to South Africa, a distance of nearly 6,000 miles ‘ as the crow flies ’.

Much remains to be learnt regarding the routes taken by the birds

and it is therefore quite possible that we may have to add several

hundred or even a thousand miles to this figure when further

information becomes available !

The White Stork (Ciconia alba) is another well-known traveller.

Birds breeding in Denmark, Germany and Hungary find their way

to South Africa to ‘ winter’ there in the southern summier.

In this sphere, however, the palm must indisputably go to the

Arctic Tern (Sterna macrura). Inthe Northern summer this bird is

not found south of about 40° N. lat., but is known at this season to

reach as far north as 82°, Yet in winter the Arctic Tern’s range

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS 465

extends to the Antarctic, where it has been seen as far south as 72°

S. lat. It is evident therefore that while 6,000 or 7,000 miles may

ordinarily constitute a single migratory journey of this bird, as many

as 11,000 miles might not infrequently be covered during the move

from the Arctic summer right across the world to the Antarctic

summer.

R. L. B.— Where do bees obtain the wax with which they butld their

combs. 2?

The production of wax by social bees and of a substance similar

to wax by certain solitary species, appears to be the result of

the great amount of sugar consumed by these insects. Similar

exudates are produced by such far removed insect forms as the

scale insects, aphids and lantern flies (/w/gorids) which live on the

sap of plants and consume so much sugar that they have to rid

themselves of much of it in their feces. Again it has been

discovered, strangely enough, that the larva of certain lady-bird

beetles (Cocctvelide) which feed exclusively on sap-sucking aphids

also produce abundant exudations of wax, In the honey bees only

the young workers produce wax. It is secreted in glands situated

in the hind body of the bee. ‘lhe wax makes its appearance on the

lower surface of the insect’s abdomen, passing from the interior

of the body through thin, projecting, plate-like membranes. ‘The

bee removes the wax with an apparatus on the hind pair of legs

and, after working it up with its mandibles, applies it to form the

cells in which the young bees are to be reared and the food stored.

A large number of bees working together thus produce the regular

and beautiful structure known as the comb. Although wax is now

exclusively used in comb building, the question arises whether its

use as building material may not have arisen originally from its

use by the immediate ancestors of the higher social bees as a

provision of food for their larvee. Earlier observers have claimed

that the pollen paste, a mixture of pollen and wax in which the

queen humble bee (Sombus) lays her eggs, is devoured by the

larve. Recent investigations have been unable to confirm this

point. Elaboration of the suggestion that the ancestors of the three

higher groups of social bees fed their larvee on fatty exudates would

be therefore in the present rudimentary state of our knowledge

pure speculation.

As stated previously, wax is also produced by othe: insects.

With some of the aphids its purpose appears to be protective. The

wax—this has nothing to do with the ‘ honey dew’ or ‘ milk’ which

is so attractive to ants—oozes from two wart-iike tubercles situated

near the end of the aphid’s body. On reaching the air the liquid

issuing from these tubes stiffens almost instantly into a wax-like

mass. When attacked by the larva of a lady-bird beetle an aphid

has been obsetved to set its tubes in motion and to besmear the

head of the attacker with a discharge of sticky fluid. Waxy matter

is also produced by several Coccids or Scale insects.

This white insect wax has a certain commercial value in India

and China. The Fulgorids, a large family of sap-sucking insects

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiU1

which includes the* so-called lantern flies (in which the head is

produced to form a huge misshapen proboscis), secrete large

quantities of white flocculent wax. ‘This wax forms the favourite

food of certain butterflies. It is used by the Chinese for candles.

[ts exact use to the insects themselves has not been ascertained.

.A.F.B.—Ayve there carnivorous plants tn India? How do they

absorb food ? .

..About 400 species of carnivorous or insectivorous plants have

been found. all over the world. They belong to the following

families : Droseracee, Cephalotaceze, Lentibuiariaceze, Nepentbacez,

and Sarraceniaceze. Of the 400 species about 50 are indigenous

in British India (inciuding Ceylon, Burma and the Malay Peninsula),

The following families are represented :—

1. Droseraceze. Oniy 2 genera are indigenous in oe Drosera

| and Aldrovanda. —

~ Of Drosera 3 species are found practically all over India :

Drosera Burmanni Vahl, D. indica Linn., and V. peltata Sm.

They all go under the name of Sundew. In these species

the leaves are spoon-shaped or linear or half-moon-shaped.

They are set with curious tentacles, i.e. with rather stiff

hairs ending in swollen reddish heads which secrete a

sticky giistening fluid. Flies and other insects mistaking

it for honey are held by it. The tentacles are exceedingly

sensitive to continued pressure even by the slightest

bodies. The result is to cause an inward and downward

movement of the head of the tentacle, finally placing the

insect upon the blade of the leaf. At the same time the

stimulus. passes to the neighbouring tentacles causing

these also to bend downwards to the same point. The

victim is thus smothered and now the glandular heads of

the tentacles secrete a ferment which acts upon the proteids

and brings them into solution, when they are taken up by

the leaves. The food thus absorbed is of benefit to the

~ plant, though it can jive without it.

Of the other genus Aldrovanda only one species is ate

A. vesiculosa Linn. It spreads from Europe to Australia

and is also known from India. It is a rootless swimming

plant with whorls of leaves. Hach leaf has a stalk portion

and a blade like Venus’ Fly Trap, working in the same

| way, capturing and digesting -small animals.

2,.. Lentibulariaceze, represented by 2 genera in India: Utricularia

and Pinguicula.

Of Utricularia (Bladderwort) about 210 tropical and tem-

perate species have been observed, in India alone about 30.

The Indian species are badly in need of revision. Some

. live in water, others are land plants, and some again are

‘epiphytic. As the name implies the plants bear on their

‘leaves or on peculiar runners the so-called bladders which

~are. curious hollow structures: with trap-door . entrances,

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS 467

Small crustaceans and other animals push their way into

the bladders and are not able to escape, for the doors only

open from outside. The plant takes up the products of

the decay of the organism thus caught. It is very doubtful

whether any special ferment is secreted. We possess

very few observations regarding the physiological part of

food-absorption in Indian species.

— Pinguicula or Butterwort is the other genus of Lenti-

bulariacezee. We know 30 species, but only one from India,

viz. P. alpina Linn. or Alpine Butterwort. It is an

inhabitant of the alpine Himalaya, but occurs also in

Europe and North and Central Asia. It has a rosette of

radical leaves which are covered with glands secreting a

sticky fluid to which small insects adhere.

3. Nepenthacez or Pitcher Plants.

This family contains only 1 genus with about 60 species,

all belonging to the tropics of the Old World. In the

botanical region of India, chiefly in the Malayan Peninsula,

there are about a dozen species. They are mostly herbs

growing in boggy places and climbing by aid of tendrils

which are prolongations of the leafmidribs. ~The end of

the tendril develops as a rule into a pitcher, with a lid

projecting over the mouth, but not closing it except in

the young state. The edge of the pitcher is curved inwards.

At the entrance are numerous honey-glands, and for

some distance below it are other glands, sunk in little

pits on the inner surface. Insects attracted by the honey

or by the bright colour gradually work their way downwards

among the glands, and presently get upon the slippery

lower part and ultimately into the water at the bottom of

the pitcher, where they are drowned. he piant absorbs

the products of their decay.

PROCEEDINGS

Opening of New Museum Groups by His Excellency the Governor

on November 22, 1928.

(With two plates)

In spite of his very numerous engagements, Sir Leslie Wilson who

throughout his tenure of office has shown the keenest interest in the progress

and development of the Museum and of the Natural History Society of which

he is the President, visited the Natural History Section on Thursday the 22nd

instant to see and open to public exhibition the remarkable series of groups,

prepared by the Curator and staff. His Excellency was received at the

entrance to the Museum Building by Mr. G. A. Thomas, C.I.E., I.C.S., the

Chairman and the Trustees of the Museum and by the Executive Committee of

the Bombay Natural History Society.

There was a large and distinguished gathering of representative citizens

who were invited to meet His Excellency and to look over the new groups.

In opening the proceedings and in inviting His Excellency to inspect the

groups, Sir Reginald Spence, Chairman of the Committee of Trustees of the

Natural History Section and Honorary Secretary of the Society outlined the

plans for the development of this Section of the Museum.

Sir Reginald Spence said :—

‘Your Excellency,

I am afraid I am notorious for long speeches and therefore whilst I should

like to be the channel] of communicating our thanks to you for your presence

amongst us and for the help you have given tothe work of the Museum and

our regret at your approaching departure, I will leave this to others and try

and concentrate on the object of cur meeting to-day which I think is to

demonstrate what Swadeshism—properly applied—can do for India and the

City of Bombay in particular. This is not a political meeting nor is evidence

being given before the Simon Commission, and | am therefore emboldened to

give a definition of Swadeshism, a definition which is applicable to any country

andanyrace. Swadeshism, in my opinion, means the gathering of the know-

ledge and experience of other countries and applying that knowledge and

experience for the benefit of yourown country by means of your own people

who have taken advantage of the experience and knowledge of those other

countries.

I give this definition because this Museum and today’s ceremony are a

proofs of its correctness. The East has learnt from the West the value of

Museums, and through the generosity of Bombay citizens has taken advan-

tage of that knowledge. The inception of the Prince of Wales’ Museum may

have come from the West, from your distinguished predecessor Lord

Lamington, but the idea was turned into reality by the generosity of the

people of India—I will only mention at the moment the names of the late

Sir Currimbhoy Ebrahim, the members of the Tata family, and Sir Cawasjee

Jehangir.

Coming from the Museum as a whole to the Section of it we are concerned

with to-day, the exhibits which Your Excellency is about to open have only

been made possible through the East learning of the West and through the

generosity of the East and the skill and aptitude for absorption displayed by

those born in and belonging to this great City.

From the Museums of the West we have learnt what a great aid to educa-

tion, what a great source of pleasure, a Museum can be, but had it not been for

the skill and assiduity of the people of the East we could not have demonstrated

to the people of the East what we had learnt.

Journ. Bomsay Nar, Hist. Soc.

THE KASHMIR STAG (Cervus hanglu)

Group exhibited in the Prince of Wales’ Museum, Bombay.

Stag shot and presented by Group presented by

Col. R. W. Burton Sir Davip Ezra, Kt.

PROCEEDINGS .- 469

We have a great deal more to learn—we have to learn the truth, so well

demonstrated in America, that it isthe duty— because it is for the good of the

country—of the citizens of a State to make the Museums of their State as

much the object of their care and assistance as they door should do their

Hospitals and their Schools. If the sole financial responsibility for the

maintenance and equipment of Museums is left to Government, or the

Municipalities, we shall remain in the unfortunate impasse at present created

by the decision of Government to curtail its grant to this Museum and its in-

ability to carry on the educational work in the schools of Bombay commenced,

owing to the generosity of the late Sir Sassoon David, by the Natural History

Section of this Museum. Our object to-day however is not to criticise Govern-

ment or the Municipality—after all weowe them thanks--but to express our

gratitude to the private citizens who have made these exhibits possible and,

through these exhibits, to appeal to other citizens.

In America it is the right thing for private citizens to spend money on

Museum work and so we have the Vernay-Faunthorpe expeditions to this

country to obtain for the great Museums of America material to enable the

citizens of the United States to see for themselves—shown in their natural

surroundings—the fauna of this great country. But thanks to the generosity of

Mr. Vernay and the kindness of American Museum authorities, men of India—

of our own city—have been given —and have taken advantage of—opportunities

to learn how to give to the people of India the same advantages, as through

the generosity of her private citizens, the people of America enjoy. .

I will leave to the Curator, Mr. S. H. Prater, any word painting if such

be necessary, and I do not think it is, of our exhibits. I wish merely to

emphasize the fact that what we see to-day is but a fraction of what would be

possible if the citizens of Bombay would take the same personal interest in the

Museuins of this City whichis taken in America. We have the material, we

have the site, we have the men, and, thanks largely to the first Sir Currimbhoy

Ebrahim, we have a portion of the money which, added to, will give this City

a Natural History Museum the finest in the East and so worthy of Bombay,

which will enable the Arts and Archzological Sections of the Museum—like

our Section at present cribbed and confined but I am glad to say not cofined—

to do for this City and to be to this City what they were intended to be—worthy

of it.

May I in conclusion express the thanks of the Committee of Trustees of this

Section to the Trustees of the late Sir Sassoon David—to Sir David Ezra a

citizen of Calcutta, to Mr. Evans at one time a resident in this City and to Mr.

Vernay—merely a passer-by—for their financial assistance, and to Mr. Prater

and his assistants, Messrs, McCann, LaPersonne and Salim Aliand to Mr. K. B.

Savardekar for the way in which they have taken advantage of that assistance

and made to-day’s meeting possible. Also to Mrs. Sanderson, the wife of my

colleague, for the beautiful wax flowers made by her which are used in the

roups..

I will now ask Your Excellency to unveil the cases and Mr. Prater will

explain if desired any point in connection with the structure and purpose of the

groups.’

His Excellency was then conducted over the Galleries by Mr. S.H. Prater the

Curator who explained in full the purpose of the various exhibits.

The new groups illustrate the most modern phase of Museum development.

They are all constructed on the lines of a diorama, with curved backgrounds.

This mode of scenic representation is now being generally adopted by the more

advanced Museums of Europe and America. By a combination of transparent

and opaque painting, of reflected and transmitted light a diversity of scenie

effect is produced. Besides illustrating the fauna and flora of the country, these

groups reveal something of the charm of India—India with its wonderful

vicissitudes of climate and physical characters.

The three groups now completed in the Museum illustrate a South Indian Hill

Range with its wealth of animal and plant life, a view in the Liddar Valley,

Kashmir (a summer haunt of the Kashmir Stag, a grand specimen of which is

seen in the group) and a view of the Sind Desert. They are one of the ‘ Show

Sights’ of the City. An important exhibit, seen by His Excellency, are the

cases illustrating the life history of Anopheles stephenst, the Malaria-carrying

mosquito of this City, and of Stegomyzia fasctata, a Culicine species which does

470. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

not carry Malaria. The exhibition of these cases coincides with the publication

of Major Covell’s important report on Malaria in Bombay and the methods of

eradicating the disease. These cases represent the Museum’s contribution to the

education of the public in a matter which intimately concerns their health and:

livelihood. A Mosquito enlarged 28 times reveals its structure and its armoury

of weapons; enlarged models of the egg, larval and pupal stages of these insects

are also shown. They are the excellent work of Mr. P. F. Gomes of the Museum

staff. Accompanying the cases are maps, one prepared by Dr.Bentley in 1912, the

other by Major Covell in 1928. They graphically illustrate the northward spread

of the disease in this City. The cases and their exhibits were presented to the

Museum by Mr. F. V. Evans, Vice-Patron of the Bombay Natural History

Society and a most generous benefactor of the Museum. Mr. Evans’ generosity

has also enabled the Museum to undertake the preparation of a series of

beautiful models in wax illustrating the fishes of ourlocal waters. Incidentally.

these exhibits reveal the great variety of food fishes which are to be had in our

local markets. In this connection the Museum is indebted to Mr. Esuf Hassam,

a prominent fish merchant of Bombay, for presenting the specimens from which

the models were made. They are the work of Mr. Wandrekar of the Society’s

staff who has shown the greatest skill in their preparation.

After inspecting the various exhibits His Excellency addressed the gather-

Sir Leslie Wilson said :—

‘Sir Reginald Spence, and Trustees of the Prince of Wales’ Musuem

of Western India

Although my visit here this afternoon is necessarily a very short one, I am

greatly indebted to you for inviting me to see the very interesting exhibits which

I have just had the pleasure of unveiling and inspectiny. These beautiful groups,

which are now open to the public, are in part the result of the policy of the

Committee and the Trustees in enabling the Curator to visit and study in the

Museums abroad, and I feel sure that these improvements will commend thein-

selves to the public for whose pleasure and profit they are intended.

For the first group the Museum is indebted tothe generosity of Mr. Vernay,

who permitted the members of the staff to join the Vernay-Faunthorpe Expedi-

tion, and so enabled the Museum to collect the material and paint studies for

the background of this group. It illustrates animal and plant life in the South

Indian Forests, and, from my own experience I can say that it isa most lifelike

and realistic representation. It is not everyone who can afford the time and the

money to visit the forests of Southern India, but it is now open to any citizen of

Bombay, at the cost of no more than a tram fare, to come here and get for

himself some idea of the interest and beauty of a South Indian jungle,

The second group has been presented to the Museum by Sir David Ezra, one

of the Vice-Patrons, and shows the haunts of the finest Indian Deer, the Kashmir

Stag, with a distant view of the valleys and mountain peaks of the Himalayas

The third group, which has been presented by His Highness the Maharao of

Cutch, illustrates animal and plant life in the Indian Desert, and reveals the

harmony of colour between the desert animals and their environment.

It shows a portion of desert country, in the Larkana District of Sind,

and gives a view of the sand dunes and thorn-covered wastes and barren lime-

stone hills with which those of us who have visited Sind are so familiar. AU

three groups reveal something of the varying physical characters, the sharp

contrast of climate, and the beauty of different parts of this country, using that

beauty, which is universal in its appeal, as a means of arousing the interest and

attention of the visitor.

Anyone who carefully studies these groups will acknowledge the brilliant

work of Mr. Sawardekar, the Museum Artist, to whose skilful and painstaking

work in painting the backgrounds the success of these exhibits is largely due. I

should also like to congratulate Mr. Charles McCann, Mr. V. S. LaPersonne and

Mr. Gilbert for the preparation of the various plant forms, trees and other acces:

sories in wax. Their work has added greatly to the realism of these groups, and

their skilled craftsmanship must be seen to be fully appreciated. The beautiful

representations of orchids and other flowers prepared by Mrs. P. M. D. Sander-

son have added greatly to the beauty of these exhibits.

1 need not refer at length here to the smaller groups and cases, which contain

so much_to interest both the scientist and the casual visitor. Here ‘one is able

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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PROCEEDINGS 471

to study the habits of Indian snakes, as well as the life and development of

mosquitoes—an intelligent study of which should do much to help the public of

Bombay to get rid of one of the most serious menaces to life and health in this.

city. The generosity of Mr. Evans has also enabled the Museum to undertake

the preparation of a series of beautiful models illustrating the fish of our local

waters, and the Trustees have reason to be grateful to Mr. Esuf Hassam, a

prominent fish merchant of Bombay, who has generously presented the speci-

mens from which these models have been made.

Any visitor to this Museum will, I think, entirely agree with the Trustees that

it is now quite time to extend the accommodation available, and will cordially

endorse their decision that the most satisfactory solution would be to remove the

whole of the Natural History Section from the present building to a new wing,

and to confine the existing building to exhibits of Art and Archzeology which

are at the present time badly overcrowded. For this purpose additional funds

are required, and I sincerely trust that there will be a generous response from

the public, so that this can be done at an early date. As Sir Reginald Spence

has pointed out, the work in the Museum is being done by Bombay men for the

benefit of Bombay people, and only a comparatively small effort is required to

carry out the plans of the Trustees, which will make this Museum, in Sir Regi-

nald Spence’s words, the finest in the East, and consequently worthy of the

City of Bombay. -

I feel sure I am only giving expression to the sentiments of all the Trustees

and of the visitors to this Museum in very warmly congratulating Mr. Prater,

the Curator, on the excelient work that has been done by him and by the staff

of the Museum. I have had many opportunities of seeing Mr. Prater work,

and I can personally testify to the zea] and energy, coupled with great ability,

with which he labours so hard for the Museum. I need say no more about his work,

for it is all around you for you to appreciate it yourselves. I must again express

the hope that the appeal which the Trustees are making for additional funds

will receive the support that it deserves, and that Mr. Prater and the ‘Trustees

will have an early opportunity of bringing about that extension and improve-

ment which will make the Prince of Wales’ Museum, even more than it is at

present, a source of pleasure and profit to our citizens, as well as an outward

expression of the culture and enterprise cf Bombay.’

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R. A. Spence for the Eombay Natural History Society, Bombay

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