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: : The

JOURNAL”. >,

x 2 bere oY

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXIII

NOS. 3 & 4

Price vo Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1930

can / > & ;

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Title page a. ah ser

Contents of Nos. 3 and 4o0f Vol. XXXII |

List of Contributors at

List of Plates ... re ey | To follow _ frontis-

Index to Illustrations bese ee t eo eh es erisl elt

Errata x |

List of Office Bearers, Life Members

and Members at ee

Index to Species ae .. To go at the end of

two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SIR REGINALD SPENCE, xt., & S, H, PRATER, c.m.z.s.

VOL. XXXII

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing g Coloured Plates, 66 Black and White Plates,

51 Text-figures and 2 Maps

Dates of Publication

Part Ill, (Pages 473 to 744) |... 30th May, 1929,

FH UY esis. iss 745 to 1005) =... 15th October, 1929.

LONDON AGENTS

DULAU & Co., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W. I.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS,

1930

CONLENES OF VOBONME XXXII

No. 3

THe Game Birps oF ‘THE INDIAN Empire. Part LX. (W2th

a coloured plate) of The Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydro-

phasianus chirurgus) and the Bronze-winged Jacana

(Metopidius indicus.) By E.C. Stuart Baker, J.P., F.Z.S.,

Bik. St. M.B.O.Us, HiFSA:O-U,,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE vere ts Cpaneeneee

PARE Ix. spy: Blatter *S:J.; PMs, el iS.aeiti ec at ye es>:

A GRASSHOPPER Mimic. (lLsopsera pedunculata.) (With a

plate.) By Major R. W. G. Hingston, I.M.S..

Ticers. (With a coloured and twelve black and Unite: Maes

By tikes ty FOCOCK,- FURS... .5. 5 Gia sees

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF ee By B. N. een. seer a vaatess

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS. PartIl. (With four plates.)

Me PO NO OMENS Lion Pic has ce tench ce Ras MR Maaieaateca RR ontEs os win 50

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY, No. XLIX

—A New Flying Squirrel from Nepal. By Mrs. H. N.

He TGGISTUVA NIE Aes LIB eS Ct iene icy 6 a7 is 40 Bed eerea ie di.es Coaweane 34

FLOWERLESS PLants. Part l. (Wzth one coloured and two

black and white plates.) By Mrs. M. Robinson, B.a.

(Gh. Cobe) Nid eaS Cle MID OS eC AlN. cern tu 5. aay eh eecen tna oier. >

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXXIII. (With two plates

and two text-figures.) By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, 1.M.s.

Some NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QugtmTA, (MW 2zth

two plates.) By Major C. H. Williams, M.z.o.U., and

C. BE. Williams.. i

BARLY STAGES IN THE Se LORIE OF eos nee

(Carassius auratus.) (With two tae By M. Hamid

Khan, M.Sc., LL... ‘

BomBaAyYy MINERALS. ES see Ribeiro, TsO, Hs: eee

Conspicuous FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA. Part a (Wath

two coloured blates, two black and white plates and tour text-

foumses.\ BY Wi S., Millardeand i. Blatter,, 5 ..cc.c0.s 028s

Bow. Nat. Hist. Soc. MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA

AND CEYLON. Report No. 46. PS accel By

SOUND EeOneC On, BY A bear OF Gusisien. one

Gro By DP MUKeriiv.s c..csect. es 5 a

PAGE

565

570

576

598

614

618

624

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

PAGE

A REED-BEDIN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR. (Vth stx plates.)

By Capt R.S. BP. Bates, MoRtosue sss eee 656

A NEw SPECIES OF GYANIKOTHAIPS FROM Snes

InpiA. By Dudley Moulton.. A is 667

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN Lanoeieer WITH ere

Hapsits..-By Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, u.A., eh.p.,

Bom. Nav. Hist. Socy.’s INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSI-

TION OF SALT LICKS. Parte” By Mathem: ch Cains.

~and Kk. El. Bharuchay 2.4., Bsc. SRC he 676

THE ee OF THE VENOM OF oe SeoneONe Be

Bather sea Cais. Sai... seen: 680

REVIEWS :—

QUERE PISH: = (G.F0B. eae Vase susate sicibiss « vet ueeematne See nt Ome erecta 2 63]

BLEUE: BLOOD IN. ANIMALS, | 3(S3HURR) one eee PM are api a 68]

‘TALES FROM SOME HASTERN JUNGLES. (R.B:)iccs.200l, jccenwedes -) 000

- MISHI: THE MAN-EATER, AND OTHER TALES OF BiG GAME.

C ROB) oisah Sev aret.k Hace eee Lena ee anne el ee eee 686

BEAULIFUL FLOWERS OF KAsHMtIR. (J. F, RO DAY 688

IE DITORTA Liveeun i cccetie es atet eae rece eet 689

BLACK PANTHERS. An face oie i, ‘Bocatiole SL eR, 693

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. The Sense of Smell in Indian 4elide. By R.C.Morris 695

II. A Wounded Sambhar seized by a Tiger. By

Oo WAG SM Or ris cat oes Rah ee ee eee eee 695

Ii. Decoyine Tiger by Sound. By Me@) Dalyaes-.- 696

IV. Are there more than one species of Panther in

India? By RieC A Morrise.: cet ee eee ee 697

VW. Vitality. of “a, Panthers (W212 a™ photo aby

A. 8S. Vernay.. ; ee 698

VI. A Record ba uphent le E. “Tie aee : 699

VII.. On the occurrence of. the Cheeta Cae

5 jubatus)in Iraq. (W2th a photo.) ByDr. N. L. Corkill. 700

~ VIL. A Brown Variety of the Sloth Bear (Melursus

i UYSINGS.) BY. J. ke WOU Gessner eee 702

IX.. On the Himalayan Palm-Civet (Paradoxurus

OVAYL. BY, 9) G.UMPARtIie. nen re oe eee 703

X.. How Wild Dogs kill their Prey.. By L. A. J..Rijk.. 704

Xie Wild’ Doo'vand-’ Barkines Deer sauBy.. J: aan

Mackenzie, I.F.S.. ee oan Pea eke 705

XII. . Bison eating Bark. Te Ets Oeiivien: Ae 706

XIII. ‘An Elephant with Bory Glands.’ By

G. Carmichael Low, M.D.. 707

XIV.

wave,

XVII.

XVIII.

XIX.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVILI.

XXVIII.

XXIX.,

XXX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXILII.

XXXIV.

XXKV.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIH

A- Jungle Tragedy.

The Racket-Feathers of Du¢ssemurus paradiseus.

(With a photo.) By Salim A. Ali.

A Note on the Breeding of the. iettioy: Bird

(Orthotomus sutortus.) By Rev. F. S. Briggs....

A Strange Pet. (Wztha photo.) By V.S.LaPer-

The Stork-billed Kingfisher (Ramphalcyon capensis

gurial) eating birds. By Miss 8. Wyatt..........

Migration of the Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator

RCQULILUS NE WIS VN. Kins IN «> ROLES vartre rhe dtecids bi cine pe odac

. Distribution of the Brown Shrike (Lanzus cristalus

cristatus.). By F. N, Betts.. ae

A Hawk incident. By Capt. L. 15) Nice eee cio

Notes on the Woodcock near Rangoon. By E. O.

Bloech.. a FO ee

eetareace: a ‘the Bee fated bodyie (Limosa

lapponicad lapponitcd) in Salsette (Bombay Subur-

ban District). By, ailing Ose ite kee a

Occurrence of the White-fronted Goose. (Anser

albitrons albitrons) in the United Provinces. By

Capt. MM... W., O° Donovan..

Pochard perching ona Tree. By weds A. Sic:

Ge CAS Pie Op PN Diran cates Wet enety sa eae aaleet vee lecwleian’ ne

The Kissing habit among Birds and Animals. By

Colonel Avis MahOmecD:StOe.. ease ase ooh ekews ec

Different Birds Nesting in Company. By W.A

oe FF OTHH - ceo eee os CHO THE HLE Heer MFT OHHE FT OH Hp eH HR HOH THR EHS

Bird Movements in Coorg. By F.N. Betts.........

Migration of Wildfowl.—Editors...............c.-0e 00:

The Distribution of the Mugger. By Dr. Malcolm

Smith.

eterna eee POP O Sree ewe roa te Ht F ee HX CoH CHS eeer FH eee eve 20m

An Unpleasant experience with a Python. By

BAA COl, Mixa WW tIGC AY Sits ly GAG, codit ka oes Gpeeeo ous

A True Snake Story. By Capt. L..E. Mac

(ECHO ea te Oe aiken aera hea oe Me tes deh ean

A Krait (Bungarus Ve riledss with divided Sub-

CAUGAISS Saag MUL PHY sesiacsee cas veea cade ass bled 64

Recovery from the bite. of a Phootsn (Echis

CORLNGIG) MOVE ete, OUND 21 poles. ste Ponda dee's's sass.

Occurrence of the ‘Slimy ’ Coecilian ( ne

glutinosus, Boulenger) in Panchgani.

Smear sor Ora rseeer erent Gt ees BAO reeset setoed gong pet 00d )d- 2008

By A. P. Mathew, M.A.........

Byid. Be

PAGE

707

709

716

hea

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

XXXVI. Do Frogs eat Snakes? By Beni Charan

Mahendra, “M-SCieis sa eee ree ee

XXXVII. Animal Barometers. By H. Renee Rh ers cea

XXXVIII. Migration of Butterflies. By G. Wesche-Dart......

XXXiX. Occurrence of the Oak-Leaf Butterfly. ( Kadlima

horstieldt) near Bombay. By G. Wesche- Dart...

XL. Note on the Breeding of 7erias leta and 7. venata

and the probability of their being seasonal forms

of a single species. 2 Lt.-Col. A. H. E. Mosse,

nent DERE Oe es ER a By:

XLI. Ants tabiner 4 to Waren oe Major W. M. Logan

Home, I.A.. BS

XLIT. A Note on ne Ocenia Ge Budet in the wale of

the Cotyledons (With two sak ae N...K;

Tiwary, M.SC.. ae

An APPEAL TO Seanecrn. ‘By R. L sPocoetl F.R.S..

ANSWERS: TO CORRESPONDENTS... .neo te. ose ea eleesieee

PROCEEDINGS.......

No. 4

THe GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. Part X.

(With a coloured plate) OF THE GRFAT STONE-PLOVER

(Esacus vecurvtrosirts.) By E.C. Stuart Baker, Js.P.,

E.Z:S5 RL. 8.5) MG B,O8U.;. Hin ACO. Uae

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE Bowe PEncweeNG sy.

Part X. By Rev. B. Blatter; s.J., Phi pi F-Es= :

THE ScubDy OF INDIAN Brrps. Part III. (With tour Me aad

white plates.) By H. Whistler, F.z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U,,....

FLOWERLESS PLants. Part Il. (Wath one coloured plate and

five black and white plates.) By Mrs. M. Robinson, B.a.,

(T-C.D.), Nat. SCI. Trip. Camis 307 pene unenie eeeen eeee roee

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BuRMA Hits. Part I.

(With a map and three black and white plates.) By P.F.

Wickham.. : : is el capeeslnees aetiee seer pee «

SHELLS OF THE tronics ower Ppa Ill. (With two black

and white plates and one text-figure.) By Ida Colthurst...

-InbIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXXIV. (W2th two black and

white plates and tour text-figures.) By Lt.-Col. F.C.

Praset, 1.M.S., F.R.S. 0.5. otags.e ce nedser iecae eeeeer ene ote

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. Part i (With two colour-

ed plates and two black and white plates and five text-figures).

By Rev. E. Blatter and W. S. Millard.............0000000.

PAGR

724

MES

726

Ved

730

731

733

735

737

793

800

828

834

85]

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXL

LirE-History NOTES ON Lamprosema indicata (Pyra.-

Lip.) 3; A CATERPILLAR PEST OF CHRYSANTHEMUMS.,

By M. C. Cherian, B.A., B.SC.......... adeee Meats ie:

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON THE Eeeices face

(MWiithia gate, + By: Randolph C.. Mortis 7 rac...

MossES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, THE HIGH Wavy

MOUNTAIN AND Mounr AsBu. By E. Blatter, s.J..........

THE Lirz oF A MEALY-BuG (Monophlebus stebbingt). (With

one plate and three text-figures.) By Major R. W. G.

Eingston; I.MiS.0 02. the. MR is a. ne Ma oe Ne sl Mae ‘e

A NOTE ON THE BUTTERFLIES AND HAWK-MOTHS OF

KATHIAWAR. By Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse, 1.4., F.Z.S.......

A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE OYSTER INDUSTRY IN THE ISLAND

OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. (W2th five plates and three

LOR TAURU VES.) MOVE EL. Weal; ME. SCA 8 je Necks, oie ea ati a

THE FLOWERING oF Bampoos. Part I. By Rev. E.

Blatter, S.J..

THE HISTORY AND SP paceanee OF THE Ce er ee

OF Inpia. (lxtroduction.) By Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour

Sewell, 1.M.S., M.A., F.A.S.B., F.L.S., F.Z.S..

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN THE avew Drones

Burma. By W. 8S. Wood.. pers be

‘HE PRESENT STATE OF THE Gage AND eWone LIFE IN

Creyv_on. (With five plates.) By W. W. A. Phillips, F.z.s.

GAME PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRiS IN 1929. By aor:

BE. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.4. (Retd.), F.Z.S.. ane

THe TOXICITY OF THE VENOMS OF INDIAN SeenON ah

CVs Gals, Sidi FeLiS!ic.ceess.-

REVIEWS :—

CENTENARY HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OFr

Lonoon. (N.B.K.)... OA eM es venees nas as Ase ind!

THE COWBIRDS. Ga ae inal atatNaie a ae eee ay.

THE PLANT IN RELATION TO WATER (E. B.)..;

OBITUARY—OLDFIELD THOMAG............... Rn ae Pee sa ee

NERORUATTON: OR MV EE D 1) O Willies. cass des vcaceldosecebiau siete gevsec sey ove ous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Alarm Call of Langoors. By Major W. M. Logan

Home,.1.A.:. ARN CANCE LIEE ERE OTT ETC

II. Food of the Sih ents Ostia ps coucaNg ).

yeu Wie, Die hae kenZien Ee .Siie sounscebsaes easiest

HI. Tiger Tracks. By A. A. Dunbar Brander..,,,,,,...

IV. Proportion of the Sexes in Tigers. By R. C.

NERC cc eene te Oe ital wen Pe ecktts slaesea spn se tees, ays

Vii

PAGE

Vili

XoVel:

XVII.

XVIII.

OXI:

.- An Experience with a Tigress.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX11]

On the Occurrence of Tigers on the Islands of

Bombay and __ Salsette. By (Ste Prater,

Mizsei eer ee eee

The Tiger’s Method a thane a “RG. (With a

photo.) By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1a. (Retd.).

By S. Hanhart,,.

Sense of Smell in the Lion. By Col. H. D. Olivier.

Rogue Elephants with malformed tusks. (With a

photos) e By Ili eeReade.g se Vea hee :

Notes on Bedmore’s Squirrel (A/enetes berdmore?.)

By J..M.D. Mackenzie Wa: x. een eaene eee

Blephant mistaken for a Tiger. By R.C. Morris.

Body measurements of a Gaur (Azbos gaurus).

(With @ photo.) “By 4. a Caniero nin. aces ea:

The Distribution of the Mouse Deer (Moschiola

meminna). (Witha Map.) By. F. W. Champion.

How the Female Dugong carries her Young.

By, S./ Hi. Prater. ¢,.M.z.S:..

The Sawn-off Shot- See Which nents S aaa

By W. W. A. Phillips... ese Fs

Occurrence of the Tr apelen Bulleonh (Pees

githaginea crassirosty7s) in the Punjab Salt Range.

By H.W. Waites... x00. 0y.n A gy ee ee

Migration Notes from Kashgar, Chinese Turkes-

eassceerees

tan. By Capt. Go Sherriff ReAS oe

Mortality amongst Hoopoe Nestlings. By H. M.

Griffiths...

Nidification oe Baehaay S owiniee® hended: Bulbul.

(Cerasophila eran By J. M. D. Mackenzie,

[.E.Ss. ee ee ee

Effect a ne on che aioe ai Theda, ‘(With two

diagrams.) By Major R. W. G. Hingston,

TMG, coast fo A Secu Seatcs + ot Rene eae ake, ane le eneneT nee ne

The Survival of nye Gavial (Gavialis gangeticus)

in Burma. (W2th three text-figures.) By Dr,

Mateolm-Sinitthaege eer ee tae eA Ba ae

Note on a Formosan Viper (Z7vimeresurus mucro-

sguamaius) from the North-East Frontier.

Si H. Prater, C.M.Z.S CO Ae 2 ee

PAGE

.. Wounded "Panther? returnine 310, 24Kull, | eb.

R.C. Morris.. Oe th

Panther Gimbinom up to a a Mecnane pe Lt.-Col.

R..W. Burton i,A, (Retda)t oa erent ee

99}

392

995

998

~~ XXKV.

XXVI.

XXVIT.

XXVIII.

XXIX.

XXX.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXI11

Record of Symptoms and Treatment of a Bite from”

a Formosan Viper (7rimeresurus mucrosqguama-

UUs) BY See AKI eco, 1 Seeeaane ata see dfs scveaees so:

Mahseer Fishing at Tangrote, Jhelum Dictniet in

December. By Capt. W. H. C. Jones..

Means of Defence in Insects. By J. M. Dz nee

Ie IZM Ie roa Ss hPa em eck. sontoes Ce ewh eh

On a New Form of Hesperid Butterfly (Baorzs cana-

viCa ya) from Coorg. By Brigadier W. H.

The ee of Germination of Cea

spores. (With a diagram). By N. K. Tiwary.

Some Orchids, not previously recorded, from the

Ganjam District, Madras Presidency. By

Cre RlCnGers@ lei G. Shey 1st awn rietiin ae eta tieeie ss

ES OG e DENG GE, Heenan ses ey Sens a bes ee Cuan ee eee ek

ALPHABETICAL TIS7 OF CONT RIBULORS

VOLUME XXXII

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE | PAGE

ALI, Satim A., M.B.O.U. The _ Berts, F. N.; Bird movements -

Racket-feathers of Dissemurus | in Coorg a ee ee aS

paradiseus sa .. 709; BLattER,E.,S.J.,PH.D., F.L.S.

- - Occurrence of the _ and McCann, C., Revision

Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa | of the Flora of the Bombay

lapponica lapponica) in | Presidency. Parts1X-X. 480

Salsette, (Bombay Suburban | Graminee ae ia ise

District) 3 oe AG ————; Mosses of the

Avyvar, Dr. T.V. RAMAKRISHNA, Bombay Presidency, The High

BA... PH.D. &.Z-S. Notes ee Wavy Mountains and Mt.

on some Indian Lepidoptera | Abu vs Me .. 869

with abnormal habits so, “008 Sets ; The Flowering

BAKER, E. Ce STUART, J.P. of Bamboos, Part I 899

f.2.5:, F.LIS. —M.BLOMws | Bratrer, E.,see MILLARD, W.S.

H.F.A.O.U.; The Game | BDLOncH, | F O.%: "Notes | on

Birds of the Indian Empire, | Woodcock near Rangoon 715

Part IX. (With a coloured plate) | BRANDER, A. A. DUNBAR ;

of The Pheasant-tailed Jacana Tiger Tracks . eo O72

(Hydrophasianus chirurgus) BriGGs, REv. F.S.; A note on

and The Bronze winged the breeding of the Tailor-

Jacana (JJeltopidius indicus)... 473 | Bird (Orthotomus sutorius ) 710

———-- ee The ; Burton, Lt.-CoLt. R.W.; The

Game Birds of the Indian | Tiger’s Method of making a

Empire, Part X. (With a }oae Saat te ie Ja 874

coloured plate) of The Great | ——--———-—_-——;_ Panther

Stone Plover (#satus recur- climbing to a Machan AILS,

virostrts ) ae Ea 4: 7454) Catus Jake SJ. 0 seo eald

BATES, Capt. R.S.P., M.B.O U.; BHARUCHA, K.H., B.A., B.Sc.;

A Reed-bed in the Dal Lake, | The Bombay Natural History

Kashmir. (W7zth six plates) 656 Society’s Investigation into the

BAYLEY-DE CASTRO, LIEUT. A.,, composition of Salt-licks.

I.M.D.; Pochard perching Part I ‘ soe ee SOF

on atree ... ss oe ue FG ~- ; The Toxicity of

BELL, ©-R;, C.1.B.6 "Coniments the Venom of Indian Scor-

on the breeding of Zerias lta pions oe me 680, 952

and 7. venata and the proba- CaMERON, I[. L.; Body mea-

bility of their being seasonal surements of a Gaur (260s

forms of a single species 129 gaurus) (with a photo) 983

Betts, F. N.; Notes on the CHERIAN, M:C.,. B.A:, E:Sc.,

Birds of Coorg... : sande a2 D.1.C.; Life-History Notes

-———— + Distribution of on (Lamprosema indtcata),

the Brown Shrike (Lanzus | (Pyvalide) A Caterpillar pest

cristatus cristatus ) 714 | of Chrysanthemums ie BOY

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

COLTHURST, Miss IpA; Shells

of the Tropical Seas. Part lI

{With four plates and fifteen

photos)

ae eNOS

; Shells of

the Tropical Seas. Part III.

(With two plates and one text-

figure) ane ane i

CORKILL, NORMAN L.; On the

Occurrence of the Cheetah

(Acononyx jubatus) in Iraq.

(With a photo) ... a

Day, M. O.; Decoying

by Sound oe

DUKES Jey TP S345

variety of the

(Melursus ursinus )

EDITORIAL oy se ae

EpiTorS; ‘The Migration of

Wildfowl ‘ a ian

; Mortality amongst

Hoopoe nestlings

; Means of Defence

Insects... aa tes

EVANS, BRIGADIER W.H.; On

a new form of Hesperid

Butterfly (Baoris canarica

yatest) from Coorg sei

FRASER, LT-CoL. F.C., I.M.S.

F.E.S.; Indian Dragonflies.

Part XXXILI. (With two plates

and two text-figures) ... ay

————-; Part XXXIV. (With

two plates and four text-

figures) *) os

Fry, T.B.; Bombay Natural

History Society’s Mammal

Survey of India, Burma and

Ceylon, Report No. 46 (Supfle-

mentary) er ee

GRIFFITHS, H. M.; Mortality

amongst Hoopoe nestlings

HANHART,S.; An experience

with a Tigress gee aes

HENDERSON, C., I.C.S.; Some

Orchids not previously recorded

from the Ganjam District,

Madras Presidency Nas .» 1003

HINGSTON, Masor R. W. G. ;

A Grasshopper Mimic (/sopsera

bedunculata). (With one plate)

oe ee

828

a sexe£O0

Tiger

A Brown

Sloth Bear

———ae eee

——_— =

PAGE

990 |

.. 1000 |

.. 1000

576

834 |

636

990 |

976 |

)

| Hineston, Major R. W. G.; The

Life of a Mealy-Bug (Mono-

phlebus stebbingi). (With one

plate and three text-figures)...

—_——- ———— ; Effect

OFF Wind) fom the: tight of

birds. (With two diagrams)...

Homr, Mayor W. M. LoGan,

I.A.; Ants taking to water...

JONES, Capt. W. H.C.; Mahseer

fishing at Tangrote, Jhelum

District, in December

JoucuET, H.:; Animal

meters seh es alee

Keays, R. W.; An unpleasant

experience with a Python

KHAN, M. Hamip; Early

Stages in the development of

Gold Fish (Carassius auratus).

(With a plate) tee Sai

LA PERSONNE, V.S., ; A Strange

Pet. (Witha photo) .., cee

Limouzin, E.; A Record Pan-

ther Ape ae ne

Linpsay, Mrs. H. M., M.A,,

B.Sc. ; Scientific Results

from the Mammal Survey.

No. XLIX: A new Flying

squirrel from Nepal ...

LOGAN-HOME, MaJOR

I.A.:; Alarm call of Langoors..

Low, G. CARMICHAEL, M. D.,

F.R.C.P.; An Elephant with

extraordinary glands ze

McCann, C.; see BLATTER, E.

Baro-

MACGREGOR, Capt, L. E.; A

Hawk Incident tuk

pea ee ese eee ee ee

True Snake Story as ‘sh

Macxkenzig, J. M. D., I.F.S. ;

Wild Dog and Barking Deer...

oo ——; Food of

the Slow Loris (Nycticebus

coucang ) ee bat ets

—— — -- ——_ —_--——— ; Notes on

Berdmore’s Squirrel (J/enetes

berdmoret) ses Mie 13%

——-—-j; Nidifica-

tion of Bingham’s White-head-

ed Bulbul (Cerasophila thomp-

sont)

W.M.,

PAGE

880

614

712

565

971

Y80

991

isi LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE | PAGE

MACKENZIE; J MoD... 1:2:S. MULLAN, J. P.; Occurrence of----

Means of Defence in Insects... 1000. the: “Slimy’? Cecilia

MAHENDRA, BENI Coan. (Lehthyophis glutinosus, Bou-

M.Sc, ; Do Frogs eat Snakes? 724 lenger) in Panchgani... eee oi 22)

MAHON, COLONEL A. E., D.S.O.:

The Kissing Habit among Birds

and Animals we sae

MARTIN, S.J. ; Onthe Himala-

yan Palm-Civet (Paradoxurus

grayt) a 34 ae

MatHEw, A. P., M.A; ex

Jungle Tragedy ne

MILLARD, W.S. and iia

E.; Conspicuous Flowering

Trees of India, PartI. (With

two coloured plates, two black

and white plates and four text-

figures) et We Bes

:ePart AiieGh/2ih

two coloured plates and two

black and white plates and five

text-figures) Ree ne

Morris, CHAS. W. G.; A

Wounded Sambhur seized by a

Tiger ' hn “Ar

MorRRIS, RALPH c The Sense

of Smell in Tidian Felide

——; Are there

more than one species of Pan-

ther in India ? ae eae

Morris, RANDOLPH C.; A Fur-

ther Elephant Shcot on the

Baragur Hills Cae a plate) ..

—_——-- eveneation

of the Sexes in Miceys

—_——-—— ; Wounded

Panther returning to ‘ Kill’

a ates

Mistaken for a Tiger

Mossz, Lt.-Cou. A. H.E., I. a

F.Z.S.; Note on the breads

ing of TZerias Jleta and

T. venata and the probability

of their being seasonal forms

of a single species

5 ee es Ses © ie ee

A Note on the Butterflies and

Hawk Moths of Kathiawar

MUKERJI, DURGADAS; Sound

production by a Larva of

Cybister (Dytiscide)

624

851 |

695

697

fied

888

635

$ erceenmcee a:

MurpHy, P.; A Krait (Bun-

garus ceruleus) with divided

subd-caudals up Soe hee

Obituary ;—Oldfield Tes G0

O’Donovan, Capt. M. J. W.;

Occurrence of the Whitefron-

ted Goose (Anser albitrons

aoifrons) in the United

Provinces aan ae 5.00 ao

Ocitvig, G.H.; Bison eating

Bark SF ee ae Re Sey Ause

OLIVIER, ~ Cor, “HARRY | De:

Sense of smell in the

Lion ae a ppp Pike ears? Yi

PHILLIPS, AWW. oP eZ:

‘The Present State of the Game

and Wild-Life in Ceylon.

(With five plates), by G. M.

Crabbe ..: + By, wee 942

The Sawn-off Shot Grete

Watchman’s Gun Bae 987

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, MAJOR E Gy,

LA. (Retd Sah ZS entice

Preservation in the Nilghiris

in 19294 i ry wee OAT

Pocock, oe es fe Pots

Tigers. (Wzth one coloured

and twelve black and white

pblaies) Va MS a pa sOOO

—— ———-—__ ——-—— ; Black

Panthers--An Inquiry ten S003

—- —— --—— ; An

Appeal to Sportsmen .,., 733

PRATER, 9). Ela Gaia oe . On~

the Occurrence of ieee on

the Islands of Bombay and =~ -

Salsette ... < et Seas 3

See oy aline

Distribution of the Mouse-

Deer (Moschiola meminna).

(Witha map) ... is Ohne seh)

-—_--—_———_-——- ; Note

on a Formosan Viper (7vime-

vesurus mucrosguamatus) from

the North-east Frontier ine fife}

Proceedings ai Ha .. 1400

ese Tens = or

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ray He S.,M-Sce,; ~ A short

Account of the Oyster Indus-

try in the Island of Bombay

and Satsette. (Weth five piates

and three text-figures) tee

REaDE, L. L.; Rogue Ele-

phants with malformed tusks.

REVIEWS : —

Oueer Fish

Blue Blood in Animals

‘Tales from some Eastern

Jungles ve ‘

Mishi the Man-eater, and

other tales of Big Game.

Centenary History of the

Zoological Society of

- London

The Cowbirds see

The Plant in Relation to

Water

RIBEIRO, JAYME ;

Minerals we nes aie

RIK Se Lig Aw day How Wild

Dogs killtheir prey ... ..,

RoBINSON, M., B.A, (T.C.D.) ;

Flowerless Plants. Part [.

(With one coloured and two

black and white plates)

Part. 11.

(With one coloured and tive

black and white plates)

SAKIA, J.; Kecora of Symp-

toms and treatment of a bite

from a Formosan Viper.

(Zrvimeresurus mucrosquama-

tus ) ae ae Be ae

SEWELL, Lt.-CoLt. R. B. SkEv-

MOUR, EL; Moss, M.A.,

PAe Se bi De Sey Fe. On,

The History and Progress of

Bombay

the Zoological’ Survey of |

Irn.dia ae es i: Ee

SHERRIFF,. Capt. G., R.A. ;

Migration Notes from Kash-

gar, Chinese Turkestan

SmitH, Matcotm; The Distri-

bution of the Mugger ei

; The Sur-

vival of the Gavial (Gavialis

ee eee

PAGE

893

793

998

Y&89Q

eal

gangeticus) in Burma. ( With

three text-tigures)

STRIP, S A ; Recovery from

the bite of a Phoorsa (£chis

carinata ) ne hy as

TIWARNG SO ONGEK, 7 iC, = A

Vote on the occurrence of

buds in the axils of the Coty-

ledons. (With two plates)

—-——; The

Discovery. of Germination of

Cyathudium spores. (With a

diagram) Ae ae :

TUCKER, W. A.; Difterent

Birds Nesting in Company

VERNAY, A.S.; Vitality of a

Panther. (With a photo)

Waitk, H. W.; Occurrence of

the: = Lrunipeter Bullfinch

(Bucanetes githaginta crassi-

vostris) in the Punjab Salt

Range

WESCHE-DaART,

of Butterflies ae a

=== ——- ; Occurrence

of the Oak-Leaf Butterfly

(Kallima horsfieldi) near

Bombay As ea ine

WHISTLER, HuGH; The Study

of Indian Birds. Part IJ.

(With plates, C, D, BE, F)

WICKHAM, P. F.; Notes on the

Birds of the Upper Burma

Hills. Part Il. (With a map

ana three plates)

WILLIAMS, C, E.

ETAMS,.C. ‘HH:

WILLIAMS, MAJOR C.

M.B.O.U. AND WILLIAMS,

G.; Migration

See WIL-

726

800)

C. E.; Some Notes on the -

Birds Breeding round Quetta, .

(With two plates) ies

Woop, W. 8.; A _ Butterfly

Hunter’s Ramble in the Tavey

District (Burma)

Wyatt, MISS SARAH ;

Stork-biiled Kingfisher (Aam-

phalcyon capensis gurial)

eating Birds

The _

598

931

713

LIST OF Fees

VOLUME XXXII

No, 3

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate—The Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) and

The Bronze-winged Jacana ( WVetopidius indicus)

A Grasshopper Mimic (lsopsera pedunculata)

Tigers :—

Plate 1,

Plate A.

Plate B.

Plate Il.

Plate. C.

Plate D.

Plate III.

Plate E.

Plate IV.

Plate F.

Tiger from the northern slopes of Elburz Mountains

(A) Left side of hyoid of Tiger (Panthera) showing

ligament, shortened and thickened by methylated

spirit, joining the upper and lower bones.

(B) The same of domestic cat (Felzs) on iarger scale,

showing continuous series of bones.

Mulema and Barengoland, E. Africa, showing

integration with those of tigers ce

(A) Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) from eoneesl

Provinces, showing typical shape in the Indian

race.

(B) Skull of Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatr@)

from Sungei Kumbang, showing likeness to the

Lion’s skull.

parison with A, B

Skin of a Bengal qicee

(A) Nasals and summit of eee of tices from

Darjiling.

(4) Posterior view of occiput of the same.

(C, D.) The same bones of a ‘Tiger from the Nepal Terai.

(A) ‘Tigress from Nepal, showing unusual reduction in

the stripes.

(4) Tiger from the Caucasus, in the Berlin Gardens ...

Skin of Afghan Tiger ..

(A) Skull of Tiger (Panthera Vinee REA eMTORGES) frots

Maruchak, near Pinjdeh, on the Russo-Afghan

frontier,

(4) Nasals and summit of maxilla of the saise.

Skin of Manchurian Tiger

(A) Manchurian Tiger, in the Wonder Zeoleicat Gar

dens, moulting his winter coat.

(4) Tiger, in the London Zoological Gardens, from the

Malav Peninsula

PAGE

473

498

505

506

908

o14

516

520

523

525

527

LIST OF PLATES

Plate G. (A) Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigrts styant) from North

China.

(8) Nasals and summit of maxille of the same.

Plate H. Two views of Tiger from Deli, Sumatra, in the london

Zoological Gardens

Plate 1. (A) Nasals and summit of eee of fies an iver

(Panthera tigris sondaica) from Probolingo.

(B) Occiput of the same, showing marked compression.

(C, D) Thesaine bones of Sumatran Tiger (Panthera

tigris sumatre) trom Deli

Shells of the Tropical Seas,—

Plate I. (1) Murex. Large,/W7. endivia. Left, The Thorny Woodcock

(AZ. tenuispina) right, The Woodcock’s Head

(MZ. haustellum).

(2) The Spindle Shells (Fuscus). Right Pyrila buce-

phala ; left, P. vespertilio.

(3) Trochus ( 7rochus niloticus) .

(4) The Banded Shells (Fasczolaria). Top, F. (tlamentos ;

right, Zudicla spirrilus ; left, F. perversum

Plate IL. (1) Left, Olives (O. mnebulosa) ; right, Mitra (1. epis-

copalis and M. ebernus).

(2) Helmet Shells. Above, Cassius ceranulata ; below,

left, C. salcosa; right, C. areola.

(3) Turret and Horn Shells. Left, Turretella duplicata,

middle Potamides sulcatus; right, Certthiada

telescopis.

(4) Varied forms of young Pteroceras oe

Plate IIl. (1) Turbines. Large one, 7. marmoreusus ; below

T. impertalis.

(2) Tritons. Top and left, 7. constrictum; right

below, Persona anus ; little one, &. horrida.

(3) Tun Shells (Doltum maculatum)

(4) Wing Shells (Strombsde}. Left, top, S. succinetis ;

left below, S. tsabella ; right, S. lentiginosus

Plate [V. (1) Harp Shells. Large ones, . ventricosa ; smail, H.

articularts.

(2) Left below, Bubble Shells (Haminea) ; others, Sea’

Snails (Nattca).

(3) Fig Shells (/%scus fiscotdes).

(4) Spider Shell ( Pleroceras lambts)

Flowerless Plants—

Plate 1. Some types of Flowerless Plants.

1. An Alga, one of the brown Seaweeds.

2. A Fungus, one of the mould fungi on a piece of

orange. .

3. A Fungus. Fructifications of one of the larger

fungi.

4. Atwig bearing four different Lichens with disc or

cup-shaped tructifications, a, 6, ¢, d.

5, A Lichen with stalked fructifications,

aYV

PAGE

531

535,

538

552

598

599

Evi | LIST. OF PLATES

PAGE

.6, A Liverwort with cupules (@) and a -female

Sporophores (6).

The same Liverwort with cupules (a) and male

Sporophores (6).

A group of Moss plants with Sporophytes.

9. A group of Moss plants with Speorophytes at clits

ferent stages.

10. One Moss plant with three Sporophytes.

11, A Fern plant. The Sporophyte only showing spore

cases on the back of one frond aS. Son. a SA

Piate Il, Some of the Green and Red Alge,

1. Some types of unicellular Alga, very highty

magnified.

2. Threads of four different filamentous green Algae,

showing different shapes of chloroplasts in the

cells, very highly magnified.

3. A marine green Alga, naturai size. Flat ribbon-

like thallus with large holes.

4, A freshwater red Alga growing on a stone. Two-

thirds natural size.

5} Types of marine red Alge,

No. 5slightly magnified. Coral-like appearance due

fe to deposit of calcium carbonate in thecell-walls. 573

Plate Il]. Some of the Brown Alge.

1. Aspecies of Laminaria. Long ribbon-like thallus

unbranched, reproductive bodies small nodules

down the centre. Much reduced.

2. Laminaria digitata. Thallus splits into several

ribbon-like portions. Much reduced.

3. A species of Aucus. hallus branched dichoto-

mously, bearing air bladders (@), and reproduc-

tive organs on separate branches (6). Two-thirds

natural size.

4. <A type showing differentiation into stem and leaf-

like structures, and special reproductive,

branches (a). Two-thirds natural size Lem OTGI

bo |

Indian Dragonfiies--

Piate |. Fig.1. Hind wing of eurobasis chinensis (Linn) &.

2. Wing of Vestalts apicalis apicalis, Selys. 2.

3. Wing of Echo margarita tripartita, Selys. &.

15,5 4+. Wing of Climacobasis modesia, Laid. 4.

,, 5. Wing of Matrona basilaris nigripectus, Selys. &.

This wing has been shaded light in order to show the venation ;

actually it is dark blackish-brown, the neuration invisible unless the wing

be held up to the light ine 57

Plate Il. Upper photograph Gaepee a jhestel doth Hom the Mie

at west end of fruit garden, Shillong, a favourite place

for Echo margarita tripartita, Selys.

Lower photograph is that of a stream at east end of

valley, Shillong, where are found Watrona, Echo and

Rhinocy pha ignipennis and Fk. spurtx Aen +e SG

02:

LIST OF PLATES XVii

PAGE

Birds breeding round Quetta, some notes on—

Plate I. (A) A spring in the Tuckatoo Ranye 9,000 ft.

(B) Lora River, looking down stream ... 598

Plate II. (A) Nest and eggs of Hume’s Crested are Galerida

cristata magna).

(B) Nest of the Himalayan Golden Eagle (dguzlz

chrysaétus daphan@) in a Juniper tree on a cliff face,

Tuckatoo Range : sa, Jd

Gold Fish (Carassius auratus) eariy stages in ine evelopment of—

Plate I. Fig. 1. Egy just laid. Fig. 9 newly hatched embryo.

Plate II. Fig. 10. First day after hatching. Fig. 15 Fully

developed. . \.:. 53 der on we O15

Conspicuous Flowering Trees of India—

Plate I (ccloured). Indian Coral Tree (EZrythrina indica. Vaam) ... 624

Plate I (black and white). (A) The Coral Tree (Arythrina tndica)

in flower.

(B) The prickle-covered stem of the

Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax

malabaricum) a: ne OS

Plate II (coloured). Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum) ages OOe

Plate II (black and white). (A) The Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax

malabaricum) in flower.

(B) Flowers of the Silk Cotton Tree

(Bombax malabaricum) ni ee.003

A Reed-Bed in the Dal Lake, Kashmir—

Plate I. Little Bitterns:—({A) ‘ Waiting forthe male; to remove

his presence, which he did

without noise or hurry.’

(B) ‘ He assumed what Icame to call

the ‘on guard’ ... 656

Plate 11. Reed warblers :—(A) ‘ One of the female as she enpocd on

to the nest.’

(B) ‘ Feeding the only two young ones

which condescended to remain in

the test” » 3: 657

Plate Ili. (A) Little Bittern. ‘ The remaining ones were discovered

clambering about the reeds.’

(B) Reed warbler. ‘She exposed them to his wondering

DZone ox ss ms i yr 00S

Plate IV. Little Bitterns.—(A) ‘Supported herself on the nest in the

same attitude as the male’.

(B) ‘Shielding the young ones, two of

which, were having a heated alter-

cation.” = “<.. «. 659

Plate V. Little Bittern. —‘ An exhibition of the suai Jeng ths to

which she was able to extend her neck’ 660

Plate VI. Little Bittern.—‘ Perturbed at the presence of the Reed-

warblers ’ a one se), 00k

Cotyledons, A note on the occurrence of buds in the axis of the,—

Plate I. Axillary buds in Cotyledons cae ees wel fae

Plate II. Axillary buds in Cotyledons 5 eee sod

AViii LIST OF PLATES

No. 4

| PAGE

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire— |

Plate. The Great Stone-Plover (Zsacus recurviryostrts) ... Pe a eS)

The Study of Indian Birds— |

Plates C. D.E.F. Beaks of Birds. es ant 776, 780, 783, 786

Flowerless Plants—

Plate I. Some types of Agarics or Gill-bearing Fungi ... 793

Plate II. Development ofsporesin Ascomycetes and Dacron. 795

Plate III. Sometypes of Gasteromycetes ee 796

Plate IV. Development of Sporophore of an Agaric, aie Aeeuane

showing method of insertion of gills i va, ae (97

Plate V. Some types of the Hymenomycetes ... a Wee fel)

Plate VI. Some common Polypoves ... iy ae soe 9

Birds of the Upper Burma Hills—

Sketch map of Burma re Bo te. OU

Plate I. (1) The Taunggyi crags. 5,600 feet, Southern Shan

States .. sae me ae .. 804

(2) Shan States — nee ae . 804

(3) Kachin Hills RC eae ie .. §€04

Plate II. (1) Mid-East Shan Hills. Valley 3,000 feet Peo

(2) Typical country, Northern Shan States, Elevation

over 6,000 feet... Pie One)

(3) Typical country, Southern Sian Sete, Mongyai

Valley, 3,000 feet. Hills, round rising up to 8,000

fet siete: 810

Plate III. (1) Irrawaddy at its Sena defile just below Beas

Hills occupied by Kachins.

(2) The Bhamo Plain. R. Irrawaddy Valley as viewed

from Kachin Hills, 3,000 feet.

(3) Kachin Hills, 5,000 feet. Typical view. ... nr B24

Shells of the Tropical Seas—

Plate I. (1) Left above, Cockle (Cardiade); Right, Wedge

Shell (D. scrotum) ~~ w» =»: 830

(2) The Spotted Bear’s Paw (FIs) pone) a ae = 1050

(3) Left, Window Oyster (Placuna placenta) ; Right

and above, Pearl Oyster (M/argaritifera) i 630

(4) The Giant Clam (7yvidacna) ... ie jai O30

Plate II. (1) Venus Shells. Large one on right, Chione Pinguis ;

Large one on left, C. vadiata: small ones, Merde. 831

(2) Left, The Sunset Shell (Psammobia) ; Right, The

Razor Shell (Solenide) ae ee ieee soo

(3) Cytherea ... Se Oo

(4) Angel’s Wings (Bholas) Buried in pone) Se ecood

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate I. Wing of Coenagrionid eae the notation used in the

text ae 835

Plate II. Anal appendages, ees ne 4; Megalestes fa. and 5-12

Lestes spp. ae - = 1. 846

Poinctana regia. Coloured Plate ee ace or ise 1 Gol

a x Plate fig. 1 In flower ... e oP As eEOOe

rs) ‘ 9) 33 Me} 2 In fruit eee oo ‘ @er See 852

LiIST OF PLATES

Butea trondosa. Coloured Plate us

= fe Plate IV. fig. 1. A flowering branch

” Sg :, 2, General appearance

Elephant. “Plate fig’. : Major Gillespie’s Tusker ...

jaa 2. Major Gillespie RA WM.C.,and his Record ie

Monophlebus, cluster of, round a stem ... = Fy aa

Ostrex gryphoides Plate Shell and anatomy

A es Oyster field at Mahim

Ostrea cucullatu. Plate 1. Oyster rock at Mahim

2. i

Oyster bac Bombay—-.

Plate I. Ostrea gryphoides

Plate II. (1) Oyster rock at Mahim at half fide (O. Pipa

(2) Exposed Oyster field at Mahim at low tide

Plate III, (1) Taking out Oysters at Mahim Creek

(2) Spat collectors. Cluster of O. cucullata...

Plate IV. (1) Sucked Oysters

(2) Oysters ready for market

Plate V. (1) Ostvea sp. & O. cucullata ee

(2) Map showing the distribution of Oy along fhe

coast ... ee

Ceylon, The present state of the Dame ana wild life in—

Plate I. (1) Ceylon Jackals (Canis lanka) drinking at a water-

hole

(2) A sounder of Pig and a Great White Beret

Plate Il. (1) Wild Buffaloes in the Menik Ganga | se

(2) Wild Buffalo (Bubalis bubalis bubalis) at a water-

hole

Plate IIf. (1) Wild Buffalo and Ceylon Spotted Deer on nthe Monit

Ganga

(2) Ceylon Spotted Deer ein aais Palos) aaa

Peacock at a jungle water-hole

Plate IV. (1) Wild Elephants (Z/aphas maximus SE ylinicus) on

- the Menik Ganga re oe

(2) A Crocodile basking

Plate V. (1) Young Grey Heron

(2) Young Pelicans

x1X

PAGE

853

854

861

86)

881

896

396

898

896

RCS

898

899

942

94?

943

944

O44

945

946

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XXXIll

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE | PAGE

Acononyx jubatus, Photo ot cub. 701 | Caliphaea contusa, Anal append-

Alg@ (Brown), Pt. = 974 age, fig. C, 581

——— (Green and Red) Pl, 5/3 | ——--—-——— wings of ¢ fig. 2. 596

Aguila chrysaétus daphan@, nest Carassius auratus, Stages in the

of 599 Development of, P's. 614, 615

Bibos gaurus, Photo sue 984 | Cassza tora, Axillary Buds in

Bittern, Nest of, Pl. I, figs. 1& 2, 659 Cotyledons, Pls I. & II. 733

—-——Young, amongst reeds, Cassius areola, Pl. 11, Lower

Plains. 1 a4 658 right-hand fig. ... 553

———fHlen on the nest, Il. IV, ——-—~-— coranulaia, Pl. 11, oe

fig. 1 659 fig’, 553

————-On nest, with akcended _ Bs ae ae 10 watt O00

neck, Pl. v. whe .» 660 | ———— sulcosa, Pl. II, Lower

——-—— On nest, perturbed by left-hand, fig. es 553

presence of Reed-warblers 661 | -—---— ¢fuberusa, fig. 11 561

Bombax matlabaricum prickle- Cerithiada telescopis, Pl. III,

covered stem of, Pl. fig. 2 629 right hand, fig... O05

—— —— —- ——- -—_——. Flowers Ceylon—The SRST! state of oe

of, Col. PI. 632 game and wild Life in,

———— ——_——. Tree in Plate I—

eee Plefigw 1 Ba (1} Ceylon Jackals (Canis

we Flowe: ers | lanka) drinking at a

of, Pl. fig. 2 oe 10331 water-hole 942

ee Ae iy Sey | (2) A Sounder of Pig aaa: a

fig. 3 A A 633 Great White Egret 942

—————- Stigma, Plate II—

fig. 4 30 : sane Oso (1) Wild Buffaloes in the

——_— —_ -— —-§ —— Fruit, Menik Ganga .. 943

fs Dene 50 ase fe Oe (2) Wild Buffalo (Bubalis

Burmah Hills, Birds of the bubalis bubalis) at a

Upper, Map of Burma, Pl.... 801 water-hole 943

1. Views of Scenery, Pl. 804 Plate III—

ae Ne ne Pl. 810 (1) Wild Buffalo and Ceylon

ay a ae Pl. 824 Spotted Deer on the

Butea frondosa, Col. Pl. da etek! Menik Ganga ... » 944

——_——--——_— Pl. IV. (i) A (2) Ceylon Spotted Deer

Flowering Branch we =854 (Axis axis ceylonensis)

——(2) General Appear- and Peacock at a jun-

ance ao ae .-. 854 gle water-hole coe 944

a oo

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Plate IV—

(1) Wild Elephants (Z/ephas

maximus zeylunicus) on

the Menik Ganga

(2) A Crocodile basking

Plate V—

(1) Young Grey Heron

(2) Young Pelicans

Climacobasis modesta, wing of 3,

Pl. fic:-4 .. ; ce

Conus Srias Gee 6, left

monachus, fig. 6, right ..,

——-— textile, fig. 6, middle

fig. nee

Crocodilus Pieris: Sr eteb of

palate of ...

sketch of

a es ee

dorsal armour of x

—_—---—— porosus, sketch of

palate of . ba eas

7+ + _—— en of

dorsal armour of a

— - gsiamensis, sketch of

palate of .

Cae ee me sietch of

dorsal armour of

Cryptogams (Flowerless Plants)

Coloured Plate ... é

Cyprus arabica, fig. 9, Botton

left fig. at,

——- ~— arabicula, fig. 8, ioe

left fig. mee

--—--— argue, fig. 8,

fig. ;

——-—- Fey) Tie es Se eBouern

piste fig. ses

- lynx, fig. 9, Top left

earidelte

a < Res

— Pannerine: he. 2.0)

Lower right fig. te

— tigris, fig. 8, Top eae

— undata,fig.9, Top ea.

figs. Ba se an ee

Dissemurus paradiseus smala-

baricus, Tail of immature

Dolium maculatum, P\. (III),

figs. 1-3...

Ebruna spirata, fiz. 12, "Bolton

left fig. a

Echo margarita bripartita, wine

Oho. Ele fins

570 | Flight of birds, Diagrams of..,$92

_ Fiowerless Plants :—

559 | I. Agaries or Gill-bearing

| Fungi, Col. Pl.

559 Il. Spores in Ascomycetes

and Basidiomycetes,

559 | El. aig ie ees

Ill. Some types ot Gaster-

559 omycetes, Pl.

IV. Development of Sporo-

559 phore of an Agaric,

and sections showing

559 method of insertion of

559 Gills, Pl. re

V. Some types of the

559 Hlymenomycetes, Pl. ...

VI. Some common Poly-

709 poses, Pi.

Galerida cristala magna, neat

558 and eggs of Bs oes

Ataliotis striata, fig. 2, Top

561 right, ig... fl as

Haminia, Pl, (I), Rewer left-

577 hand fig...;

xxi

PAGE PAGE

Elephant shoot on the Baragur

Hills :—

Plate—(1) Major Gillespie’s

945 | Tusker te 861

945 | (II) Major Gillespie,

RaAwM aC. and

945 | his record tusks... 861

946 | Elephant, malformed tusks of

| rugue, Photo 80

577. | Erythrina indica, Col. Pl. 624

S57 | ae eee ae Cab Ob, ie. 1 O25

557, ———"- ---—~ composition

of flower and bud, fig. 2 626

557. ~~ Tree in flower

Lid Depa beatae Ere ; +s. 629

ggg LSsacus recur Saye Oy, Col. PI. 745

| Fasctolaria filamentos, Pl. (IV),

997 | ‘Lop fig. 552

| -————-—--— eerie Pl. (IV),

ggg SCs eft-hand, fig. a 992

| Felts, sp. (Domestic Cat) Left

997 side of hyoid P1., fig. B 5C6

-——~- (Lioness), Nasals and

996 Sumuuit of maxilla, Pl. figs. C.

De, ‘a oe a 2» 3506

997 | Felts (Licness), skull, Pl. fig. C. 5u8

| Fiscus fiscotdes, Pi, (IIT) 959

25.993

793

795

796

561

559

XXL

PAGE

Harpa articularis, Pi. (1), left-

hand fig : 559

ae os venticosa, PL. a

right-hand figs. 2 ae OO

Hydrophasianus chirurgus, PL.

fig. (coloured) . 473

Indian Birds, Study of: Ears of

Birds, Pls. 776, 780, 783, 786

Indian Dragonflies, Pl. 1, wing

of Ccoenagrionid showing the

notation used in the text, Pl.

Isopsera pedunculata, stages of

Development, PI. a vee 493

Lestes ilata, mo Head and

Thorax a. 845

— — ey emorsa, fig.,

Wings 842

ee - - - —- ———__ figs.,

Head and thorax.. . 845

spp., Anal mia cetaes Pl,

II, figs. 5-12 ... 846

Margarita umbilicalts, Eee NZ

top left fig. ae, ia DOL

Matrona basilaris nigripectus,

wing of Q, Pl. fig. 5 ee hh

Megalestes major, fig., Wings &35

ed spp., Anal appendages,

PL. TE., figs. 1-4... ... 846

Melo ethiuvpica, fig. 7 a 55S

Metopidius indicus, Pl. fig. 2

(coloured) iin ay ge We.

Mitra eburnus, Pl. (I), right-

hand fig. S09

—-— episcopalis, PI. (1) : ene

hand fig. ES a DS

Monophlebus, and her mimics,

figs. 3 aa aos .». 886

— - attended by Black

Ants 7ies-.s:. th ... 881

————- clustered Pode a

stem, Pl. . 881

————=-—— siebbingt, ee ; Hate

and female is . 880

Mosthiola meminna, aheion: oe

_ showing distribution of wee O84

Murex adustus, fig. 3, left 554

——-— endivia, Pl. (I), top

fice a aa sate ‘oa DOL

~y——--— haustellum, P\. (1), right-

hand figs. . é 552

r= fig. 3, iene 554

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Murer tenuispina, Pl, (I), left-

hand fig. Fe og

Natica, Pl. (1), 4, right- fiend aoe 959

didyma, fig. 13, middle fig. 562

lineata, fig. 13, left, fig.

below ou Hroe

maculosa, ce 13, top fig.

right Je ez

Nerila oryzaru, he. (13), 2, left-

hand figs. ... bo tabe

Neurobasts chinensis, cial eee

dage, fig. -A. oe oes we O81

——. chinensis chinensis,

hind sine .of Os°P1. fig. 1 ovao/7

Olivia nebulosa, Pl. (I), left-

hand fig. Ef sik eae

Orolestes selys1, fig., Wings 839

Ostrea cucullata, fig. - sa. O09

= ————-Oyster rock, Pl.

figs. 1-2 .., ae seis wee O98

———gryphotdis, Pl. 896

——-— ——-—- Exposed oyster

field at Mahim at low tide, PI.

fig. 2 : a oat Are

Oyster ace Island of Bom-

bay and Salsette :—

Plate I—

(1) Shell of Ostrvea gryphat-

des at ae sos *GO

(2) Internal organs Ostrea

gryphotides .-- 896

Plate II—

(1) Oyster rock at Mahim at

half tide . 896

(2) Exposed Oyster- field at

Mahim at low tide . 898

Plate WI—

(1) Taking out Oyster at Ma-

him Creek as eee 899

(2) Spat Collectors and

luster of Ostrea ¢ucul-

lata am ito ««. 899

Plate IV—

(1) Sucked Oysters . 899

(2) Oysters ready for market 899

Plate V—

(1) Ostvea, sp. and O. cucul-

‘lata i 899

(2) Map showing the distri-

bution of Oysters along

the coast... . 899

INDEX TO LLLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Panther Skul!, Photo

Panthera tigris septentrionalts, Pl.

(coloured) ... ;

septentrionalts

Skull, Pl. fig. A: :.. fh

—_——_ -——. sondaica, nasals

and summit of maxille, Pl.

fig, A ie

Oe ck Sie er res Skull, Pl,

fig. A :

——— oo eee Sane

Pl, fio; B

a Nasal

and summit of maxille and

occiput of, Pl. figs. C.D.

Hg rvis, Skull Pl.

fig. A

——~ ——- -—— Skin of; “PL. LE,

-——— Left side of hvoid

PC VAP a: ae a

Persona anus, Pl. I, rine ae

right-hand

Poinciana végia, Col. Pl. ...

wee Es ET 4)

Re es es oo

een

flower : fe

——$—— - Piste eeieiits

Potamides sulcatus P\. (IIT) mid-

dle fig. :

Pteroceras, Pi. (1V), Sard forms

of young j.. ss

— chirarga,

figs,

ye2. 2. ae oes

——-———/ambis, P|. (IV)

Pyrula bucephali,

hand fig. PF aia

———vespertilto, Pl. on ieft- hand

fig. ae

Ouettan on spring in we Tuceatao

Range, Pl.

————Lora River.

down stream 5:

Ranella horrida, P\. I, heer fig.,

left-hand Fa ae

Shells of the Tropical seas :—

Plate I—

1. Cockle, Wedge Shell and

Arc Shells...

2. Spotted Bear’s Paw

3. Window Oyster and Pearl

Oyster

4 Giant Clam

Pl. (TI), right-

Looking

. 698

. 505

G 008

Pe oiele)

eros!

514 |

. 506 |

558

852

, 953

552

. 598

. 330

=o. O80 |

.. 830 |

.. 830

ja. 851 |

.. 851.

. 553 |

553 |

559

vas 598 |

{

XXALL

PAGE

Plate I~

z Venus Shells” . 83)

. Sunset Shell & Rajor Shell. 831

Cytherea 5p boL

4, Angel’s wings si8ol

Solarium, fig.12, Bottom manta 561

Stolymus cornigerus, fig. 5,left ... 556

Strombus isabella, Pl. (1V), lower

fig., left-hand 9 st ls

——- —— lentiginosus, Pl. (IV)

lower fig. right-hand 5000

~——--—— succinclus, P!. (IV), top

left-hand fig. Ke sis)

Terebra tigrina, fig. 12, mate

fig. eh fe Ok

Thomas, Mr. ‘Oldfela, Photo of. 966

Tiger, and its kill, photo 975

Tigers :—

From northern slopes of El-

burz Mountains, PI., colour-

ed en ea

Left side of hyoid AE meee

Pl, fos 505

Left side of hyoid of agniés:

tic. (Cat bi ho. B iy) 505

Nasals and summit o¢ inaxillee

of Lionesses, Pl. figs. C. D. 505

Skull of Tiger (Pazthera tig-

vis tigris), Pl.fig. A 508

Skull of Sumatran Tiger (FP. ¢.

sumatre), Pl. fig. B 508

Skull of Lioness (for compari-

son with A, B) 508

Skin of Bengal Tiger, Pl. 514

Nasals and summit of Maxilla:

of Tiger from Darjiling, Pl.

fig. A 516

Posterior view of ee of ive

same, Pl. fig. B S516

The same bones of a mee

from the Nepal Terai, Pl.

figs. C,D 516

Tigress, from Nepal, Sine

unusual reduction in the

stripes, Pl. fig. ae 20)

Tiger, from the Caucasus, in

the Berlin Gardens, Pl. fig... 520

Skin of Afghan Tiger, Pl. 52]

Skull of Tiger (Punthera tigris

seplentrionalis )from Maru-

chak, near Pinideh,Pl.fig.A. 523

RXV

PAGE |

Nasals and summit of maxillee

of the same

Posterior view of pect pu of

the same

Skin of Manchurian Titer

Manchurian ‘Tiver, in the

London Zoological Gardens.

Moulting his winter coat

Tiger in the Londoa Zoolo-

gical Gardens, from the

Malay Peninsula

Skull of Tiger (Panthera Bir

styant) from North China,

Plano

Nasals and sammit of rails

of the same, Pl. fig. B

Posterior view of occiput of

the same, Pi. ig. C

Two views of Tiger from Deli,

Sumatra, ia the London Zoo-

logical Gardens, PI. figs. A,

Nasais and summit of maxille

of Javan Tiger (Punthera

tigrts sondaica), pl.

fig. A ae “si

Occiput of the same, showing

marked compression, Pl. fig.

5227

523

025

527

927

527

531

538

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PaGE

The same bones of Sumatran

Tiger (Punthera tigris su-

matré) from Deli, Pl. figs.

C.D aes

Trttona constrictum, Pl. or Top

and left-hand figs.

Trochus niloticus, Pl. Til, figs. 1- 4,

Tudicla sbirrilus, Pl. IV, Right-

538 -

351

952

hand fig. eres)

Turbina inperials, Pi 1, lower

figs. 555

————— marinoreus, Pl. L, top ae 558

Turbinella napus, figs, 4, 5 555

| Turretella duplicata, Pi. Tit,

Left-hand fig. : 553

Upupa epops, Photo of young ... 712

Vestalis apicalis, anal Paes

age of, fig. B. ae 581

| —_-_-__-————- wing of ¢, Pl,

eicite e 577

Wasslen Reed, Remaster on peut

Plot howl panes)

- —— mecdigg two

| young in nest, Pl. II, fig. 2... 657

——_—_—— ———— ‘She exposed

them to his wondering gaze’

PY I sii ore 2a. eee. yi se O08

Xenophora eae, figs. 14,

15 ; 563, 564

538 |

ERRATA

Vol. XXXIII, Nos. 3 and 4

Page 544, /ize 12 for Larvirora read Larvivora

5, 454 ,, 19 for Copsychs read Copsychus

» 950 ,, 35 for icthytaeus read ichthyaétus

» 099 ,, 27 for argue read argus

, 578 ,, 17 for chenensis vead chinensis

, 9581 ,, 13 for Vestallis read Vestalzs

5 602 ,, 48 for Saxicoloa vead Saxicola

,, 810, Zznes 4, 6, 8, 11 & 12 from bottom, for Strachyris

read Stachyus

,, 812, line 2from bottom, for Stachydridopsis ~ead Stachyridops's

5, 815 ,, 24 for lonbergi scad lonnbergi

,», 815 ,, 27 for auricaster cad aurigaster

, 815 ,, 31 for Blandford read Blanford

,, 815 ,, 3) for blandfordi read blanfordi

,, 816 ,, 22 for mariia vead marila

, 818 ,, 1 for fugilinosa read fuliginosa

,» 819 ,, 17 for cinclornyncha vead cyaclorhyncha

,, 821. ,, 8 for monileger read moniliger

,, 824 ,, 41 for curstians read cursitans

GENERAL INDEX

‘.NOTFS AND DESCRIPTIONS OF INDIAN FISHES’

By H. W. Fow Ler.

Fishes—P. 20, line 27. Part I. Vol. XXX, p. 36

‘4 nelle iy. “pe Led

“ corm 5, p. 314

1S ,, p. 640

Should Read

Peco line 2/. Patt 1... Vol. “XXX pp. 36

55 el » p. 314

pea Gz 5, p. 640

as Page 121 of Vol. XXX is an article on ‘Mammals and Birds

of Kashmir.’

ae ie

has cores, Woy ©

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

OFFICE BEARERS, 1930

Patrons.

H.E. The Viceroy of India, G.M.S.I., G.M.I.E.

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G.

Vice-Patrons.

H.H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E.

H.H. The Maharaja of Jodhpur, K.c.$.1., K.C.Vv.0.

H.H. The Maharaja of Rewa, K.C.S.1.

H.H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar.

H.H. The Maharani of Dhar.

Mr. F. V. Evans, Haymans Green, Liverpool.

Mr. A, S. Vernay, New York, U.S.a.

Sir David Ezra, A7., Calcutta.

President.

H.E. The Right Hon’ blensin Frederick oy kes, P.C.,C.C,1,0,, Geli. KeCsB,

C.M.G.

Vice-Presidents.

H..H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.¢.S.1.,; G.e.1.8,

Rev. E. Blatter, S.5., Ph.pD., F.1..S.

The Hon’ble Sir Ernest Hotson, K.¢.S.1., I.C.S,

Managing Committee.

Mr Rv D. Bell}. ¢.2.8;,:1,.C.S.

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Rev. Fr. J. F. Catus,. S.J.

Prof. V. N. Hate, M.a.

Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Mr. J. G. Ridland

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Major S. S. Sokhey, 1.M.s.

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Sir Reginald Spence, At. (Honorary Secretary)

Advisory Committee.

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Brigadier W. H. Evans, R.E., C.F. ae «. Quetta.

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Bombay,

Calicut.

Dr. F. H. Gravely, D.Sc. Pe Madras,

Mr. C. M. Inglis, M.B.0.U., C.M.z.S. Darjeeling.

Mr. R.-C. Morris Mysore.

Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.a. Nilgiris.

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.Sc. Calcutta.

Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour-Sewell, 1.m.s Calcutta,

Mr, H.-C. Smith,.1,5.s. Maymyo.

Lt.-Col €. B.:Stockley, p.s.0:, M.c.; 0:3.5° Srinagar,

LIST OF MEMBERS

LIFE MEMBERS

Aga Khan, H. H. Aga Sir Sultan Mahomed Shaha

(G.C.S.I., G.C.1.E.) ‘ = ... Europe.

Aitken jC. Dye - a ie ... Bombay.

Ali, Hamid A. (J.C.S.) si nee 1... Alibag,

Alwar, Col. H. H. Sawai Maharaja Sir Jaisinghji

Bahadur (K.C.S'hy, (G:C. BE iG:C. Soames, .. Alwar.

Armstrong, Dr. J. S. (R.A.M.C.)... ... New Zealand.

Bahawalpur, H. H. The Nawab Cape Sh Sadiq

Mohammad Khan Abassi (K.C.v.0.) ... .. Bahawalpur.

Baini Prashad, Dr. (pD.Sc.) ae ae ww e Calcutta,

Baker, E. C. Stuart (F.z.S.) oy wy: .. England.

Balxrishna Vinayek Wassoodeo ... Bombay.

Bansda, H.H. Maharaul Shri Indra Senn eas

Singhji, Raja Saheb of se fe .. Baneda.

Baroda, H.H. The Maharaja Sir Sayaji Rao Gaekwar

(GiCiSi eC Le) Bhs ee eee, WOALOG AL

Barton, E. L. =. sBucland:

Bhavnagar, H.H. The Mahara Sin Kris ae rae

Siughji (Vice-Patron) Bhavnagar.

Bikaner, Col. H..H. The Manataye Siti ‘Sir Gunes

Singhji Bahadur (G.C.S.1, G.C.1.E., G.C.V.0., C.B.E.,

ChB eA D.C Arab.) a ... Bikaner.

Bikaner, Cuore. H. Ei. ete Kumar Shri Sadul

Singhji Bahadur (c.v.o.) _... ... Bikaner.

Bikaner, Maharaj Shri Bijey Singhyji B andr .. Bikaner.

Bodenham, Capt. Count K. Lubieaski EP ... London.

Bradshaw, J. P. as 2) bombay:

Bridgeman, Lt.-Col. Hon’ble H. G. OP Goss 0.) .... Northumberland.

Brook, Carlton P. ce fa) ie o. Notwieh.

Burton, Brig.-Gen. R. G. <7) Be .. England.

Burton, Lt.-Col. Richard W. ai ae .... Bombay.

Bute, The Most Hon’ble The Marquis of _... ... London.

Butler, Sir Harcourt (G.c.1.E., K.c.s.1., I.C.S.) . -....... London.

Caccia, Major A.M. (1.F.S.) re Oxford. a

Cambay, H.H. Nawab Hussain Vavartnanr Jatay. ee cS

khan Saheb Bahadur ae ont ee Cambayn.

Carter, Major H. St. M. (D.S.0., M.D.) a .. England,

Cassamali Jairajbhoy Becibnoye. ... Bombay, ;

Chhota-Udepur, Maharawa! Nae ar Sea F, .. Chhota-Udepur:._ |

Christopher, Sydney A. (Bar-at-law) at ico. FRAN POGH 2 ai 2)”

Clarke; Ov( Can. 1-CiS.) 2s... Sota A aheetea London, ~

Clutterbuck, Capt. J. E. (R.E.).... CM ak Oe Gee ODalaee: :

Clutterbuck, Sir Peter a Pensbury-England.

Cooch Behar, Maharaj Kumar Victor N. Narayan ... Cooch Behar,

—— -.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Coode, John M. ce

Corkill, Dr. Norman L. Ge B.C.H. .B. )

Cowie, Rev. A. G. G. ae

Cox, Lt.-Genl. Sir Percy (Gc. Le, K. ecu

K.C.U.E., F.Z.S., F.R.G.S.)

Craw, H. H. (1. Gone

Crawford, W. M, (¥.E.S., LC.S. ) ead. )

Culbertson, J. M.S, (A.M.1.¢C.E.)

Cursetji, Khan Bahadur C, M.

Cutch, H.H. The Maharao Sir Shri Kenan: Sut

Bahadur (K.C.S.I, K.C.v.0., K.B.E.) (Vice-Patron

and Vice-President)

Cutch, Kumar Shri Godji

Cutting, C. Suydam

Dalal, Rustomjee D.

D’ Almeida, I. F._R. [B,A., B.Sc. (clon )]

Davidson, Lt.-Col. J. (D.S.0., I.M.S. }

Dhar, Her Highness Laxmibai Saheb

Patroness) ik ve

Dharampur, H.H. The Meananane Shree Vijayadevji

Rana, Maharaja Saheb of

Dhrangadhra, H. H. Maharana Shri Sir Gh fea

Sinhji( KC. ST) as.

Dhunjibhoy Bomanji, Sir, Az.

Drake-Brockman, Lt.-Col. H. E. (#.Z.S., 1.M.S.)

Dungarpur, H. H. Rai Rayan Matarasnatiras MAN Ara:

wal Shri Lakshman Singhji Bahadur

Duxbury, Lt.-Col. C. D.

Elgee, Colonel J. W. L

Ellison, Bernard C, (C.M.Z.S.,

English, E. E.

Erb, E.

Evans, F. V. ( Vice- SPHyoN) Re

Ezra, Sir David, Kt. (Vice-Patron)

Ezra, Alfred [0.3.E., F.Z.S. | foe

Foulkes, Lt.-Col. T. H. (1.M.s.)

Frei, Max ~

Frere, Lt.-Col. A. G. cae aa Se )

Gammie, Prof. G. A.

Gauripur, Raja Besneerchendea Bares

Gharpurey, Lt.-Col. K. G. (1.M.S.)

Gonsalves, A. F. re

Gregory-Smith, Capt. H. G.

Harris, Jr.. William P.

Hades Pe, Meet)

Hill, Major R. D. O.

Holkar, Sir Tukuji Rao

Hopwood, S. F. (1.F.s.)

Hotson, Hon’ ble Sir Ernest (K:¢.S.1.

Hoyos, Count E. a ae oF a,

Husbands, Major H. W. S. (M.C., A.M.I.C.E., S.M.R.E.)

Hyam, Khao Bahadur Judah (G.B.v.C., F.z.S.)

Baar Crea NDs Gries

Puar (Vice-

F.R.G.S.)

ORB Eye loa

XXX

De oe Ly IMOUL Bye 57

Liverpool. —

ee Rawalpindi

London.

Rangoon.

S. Belfast.

Karachi.

Bombay.

Bhuj. Cutch.

Cutch.,

New York, U.S.A.

Bombay.

Bandra.

Lasswade.

Dhar.

Dharampur.

Dhrangadhra.

Bombay.

Twyford,

Dungarpur.

Poona.

London,

Cornwall.

Bombay.

Liverpool.

Calcutta.

London.

Kurope.

Switzerland.

London,

Gauripur.

eee =

Bandra: he

London,

U.S.A,

Oxford:

London.

Indore.

Rangoon.

’ Bombay.

Austria:

‘London. '

Poona,

Rx LIST OF MEMBERS

Ichalkaranji, Sardar Narayanrao Govind alias Baba- MoS

sahab Ghorpade ... Ichalkaranji.

Idar, H. H. Maharajadhiraj Lt. Col. Shree ‘Sir Dowlat yon

Singhji (K.C.S.1.) .. i. Himathagdr.

Indore, H. H. The Niareeaia Vethawantrae Holter . Indore,

Inglis, Chas. M. (F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.) ue! ... Darjeeling.

Ivens, J. H. (P.w.D.) .. Guildford.

Jamkhandi, Shrimant Sranter Tao Ea noHarAIniEs Pies

Appasaheb Patwardhan 4a0 .. Jamkhandi.

Jind, H.H. The Maharaja Sir Ranbir Sen (K-EVS6E.;

G.C.1.E.) ” iP fv Pd ll,

Jodhpur, Lt.-Col. Eh. The Manan. Sir Umaid

Sing Bahadur (K.C.S.1., K.C.V.0.) (Viee-Patron) .... Jodhpur.

Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, S.M., Lt.-Gen... Nepal.

Khairpur, H.H, Mir Ali Nawazkhan cor ... Khairpur.

Khetri, Raja Sardar Singh Bahadur a .. Khetri.-

Khilchipur, H. H. Durjansal Singh ae -Khilehipur;

Kirk-Greene, Mrs. Leslie hes London.

Kolhapur, H. H. The Maharaja we “Cole Sir Rajarae,

Chhatrapati (G.C.1.E.) ... Kolhapur.

Kotah, H. H. The Mata raradiess let iCal: Sir Umed

Singhji Saheb Bahadur (¢.¢.1.E., C.B.E.) --. Kotah.

ec estia ae As wee ... Europe.

Lewis, J. Spedan io ae an .... London,

bong, Gok .(eHsS.)) nee = ... Woodbridge.

Lorimer, Major D. L. R. (C.1.E., 1.4.) ay ... London,

Lowndes, Capt. D. G. eae i ... Peshawar.

Ludlow, F. (M.A., M.B.O.U., I.E.S.) mp ho OriNacar.

Lynes, Rear Admiral Herbert (c.B., C.M.G.) ... London,

Mackenzie, J. M.D; G.rs.) es ee ... Europe.

Manavadar, Khan Shree Fatehdinkhan nie ... Manavadar.

Mandlik, Narayen V. Ba ae ... Bombay.

Mangrol, The Shaikh Sabeb ca iy ... Mangrol.

Marshall, Arch. McL.... or fa; .. England.

Marshall, J. McL. oe: ay ae Zo Scouland.

Martin, Col. Gerald _... a a .. England.

Maxwell, M. son ... Europe.

McConaghy, Lt.-Col. C. B. (1.M, =) aa ... Camberley.

Millard, A. W. P. re ; oi .. England.

Milliard, W.S. (#.z.S.) Se ey .. England.

Mills, Major J. D. ae aig .. England.

Mic: Shrimant Sir eungadnar Rao Ganesh a/zas

Babasaheb Patwardhan (kK.C.1.E.) ee a Mitaga,

Mitchell, H.H.G. ... oe ue ... England.

Montagnon, D. J. a x i 2 Dibruparkt,:

Monteath, G. (1.C.S.) ae - ... Belgaum.

Morris, Lt.-Col. D. O. England.

Morvi, H.H. The Maharaja Sir Lakhairii Waghii (x CSTs 1) Morvi.

Mosse, Lt.-Col. A. H. E. (1.4. ) ae . ... Bhavnagar.

Murland, Major H. F. .., Suntikoppa

Mysore, H.H. The Maharaja Sir Kiiehnerai Woodayar

Bahadur (G.c.Sit), G. Bi.) es. aye ... Mysore.

LIST OF MEMBERS 5x

Namjoshi, V. K. th ap ‘eee ... Cambay.

Naraenji, Dwarkadas a or .... Bombay.

Narayanlal Bansilal, Raja at ae ... Bombay.

Narsingarh, H. H. Raja Vikram Singhji Sahib

Bahadur a wes “ ... Narsingarh.

Nawanagar, H.H. The Jamsaheb (G.C.S.1,, C.B.E.,

K.C.S.1.) Jamnagar.

Nepal, Supradipta Menvaner General Sir Moh un Shae

shere Jung Bahadur Rana (K.C.1.E.) —... ... Nepal.

Newman, T. H, (F.z.S., M.B.O.U.) Pers ... London.

Noyce, Sir Frank (1.C.S.) oe ee ... London.

Nurse, Lt.-Col. C. G. ee ae ie .. England.

Oberholser, Harry C. ae ae .. Washington D.C;

Ogilvie, G. H. (1.F. ay hase ... Rangoon.

Olivier, Lt.-Col. H. D. (R.E., F.Z.S. :.) oe ... England.

Page, A.J. (1.C.8.) ... London,

Palitana, H. H.~The Thakar Saheb Banadurs Siang

(K.C.1.E,) Palitana.

Parlakimedi, Shri Shri. ‘Shni Ree uncrandra Gajapari

Narayan Deo, Raja of fo an ... Parlakimedi,

Parlett, L. M. (I.C.S.) ; England.

Patiala, H.H. The Maharaja Sir Sti Birieena ar Singh

(G.C:S.Ie.GtGacE.,,.G.B.Es)! -..: en .. Patiala.

Patiala, Capt. Rao Raia Birindra Singhji ... +. Patiala,

Patiala, H.H. Maharaj Kumar Brijindra Singhiji >». Patiala,

Patuck, P.. SiC -s;) -England,

Peacock, E. H. (B.F.S.) Mawlaik.

Pestonji Jivanji (N.c.s.) Hyderabad, Dn.

Petit, Dhunjibhoy Bomanji Bombay.

Petit, ee Bomanji Bombay.

Phipson, H. M, (¥.z.s.) England.

Poncins, Viscount Edmund de ... France,

Porbundar, H.H. The Maharaja Nera Sin ghji

Bhavsinghji ss Porbundar.

Radhanpur, H.H. ae Jalaluddin hana ... Radhanpur,

Rae, Major M. E. (1.A.) 4 as .... Abbottabad.

Rajgarh, H.H. Raja Rawat Sir Birendha Singh

(K.C.1.E.) Rajgarh,

Rampur, U. P., Col. H. 1aG Nawab Sir Syed Mahom-

mad Henid Alikhan Bahadur (G.C.S.1., G.C.1E.,

G.C.V.O. ) Rampur,

Ravenshaw, Col. C. Ww. England.

Reid, Mrs. D. W. ae Bombay.

Rewa, H.H. The Maharaja Sir RGinbeinen Batadtr

(K.C.S.1.) (Viée-Patron) Rewa.

Ribeiro, J. (L.c.£.) ay sis 7.) manta Cruz

Roosevelt, Kermit $55 e, oe iin Wee ey

Roosevelt, Col. Theodore sf) ae Se USS VAs

Ross, Major Tyreil

England.

Roumania, H. M. King Carol Roumania.

Sanders, Major C. W. Jullundur,

Sanderson, Henry U.S.A:

xXXii LIST OF MEMBERS

Sangli, Meherban Sir Shrimant Chintamanrao Appa-

saheb Patwardhan (K.C.S.1. ) nas oo) Saneh,

Savile, Sir Leopold (k.c.B.)_... res .. England.

Schinid, W. - As ae .. Krenzlingen. —

Scott, R. Li ae ie 7) -Seotiang.*; 2%.

Seton-Karr, Capt. H. W. ee Si: .. England.

Smith, A. Kirke — se a 5 .. Bombay.

Smith, Major G. de Heriez oe ae ... Ootacamund.

Smith, H.C. a be? -.. ,-. London.

Spence, Dr. Arthur D. ‘(w.B.ch.B.) ‘Edin.) . .... Rangoon.

Spence, Sir Reginald ( K/.) #4 ae ... Bombay.

Spooner, TJ). (C:Ha)is.. ee ri i) UTOpEe.

Standen, Sir. (xk. Crim,,1 CS.) (retds) ic ... Europe.

Stanton, W.C. ike wie ee .. sangland:

Stewart, C. G. (1.P.S., M.A.) mee ee J. -lnsein..

Studd, E.=... ne ... Calcutta.

Suket State, H. H. Rana reper Sel auc Suket.

Surguja, Maharaja Ramanuj Saran Singh Deo (c.B. a Surguja.

Swaine, J. K. ae sc ... Matang.

Swithinbank, Mrs. B. W. seh =o jan) KAD SOON,

Tata, Sir Dorabji J. (K?z.) ce s. bombay.

Tehri-Garhwal, H. H. Raja Narendra Sian Saheb

BaAwaAdUT (C;S' 1,2 ae ine ae hebths

‘Thomson-Glover, Capt. J. WW. ... ue ... Malakand.

NU higted beans Ie ar i a a. SS HUTOpe.

Vaughan, Wim. (#.£.S.) ... Europe.

Venniog, Brigadier F. E. W. (o.3 B.ED: S10: ... Meerut.

Venour, Lt.-Col. W..E. (1.A:) Sa, ee £. cM UrOpe:

Vernay, A. S. (Vice-Patron.) _... ms ... England.

Vesugar, Jamshed (P.W.D.) es ae -., Jurope.

Waite, H. W. ... Rawalpindi.

Wales, H. R. H. Bdward pamee of flee CG RetG:}

(Patron) ae oe ey ... England.

Walker, Roland i ue ae ... Bombay.

Wauchope, Major R. S. ee) a Be ... secunderabad

Whistler, Hugh (M.B.0.U., F.Z.S.) bi . a England:

Williamson, W. J. F. (C.M.G., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.) .. England.

Wilson, Sir-Arnold'(C.S.1., C:M.G.4.D.S.0., K.C.1.E.)\ 9...) eugland:

Wyndham, ba(c; Bh, C.Sijm: oo. ate ... London.

MEMBERS

Acharya, H. N. (8.a4.) ee ce ... Ahmedabad.

Acland, Rt Rev. R. D. (&7shop of Bombay) ... Bombay.

Addyman, J. (M.L.C.) a bea a. bombay;

Aga Khan, H. H. Aga Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah :

(G.C.S.1., G.C.E.) (Life Member) if ... Europe.

Bard; Ss. 25.3 ah oa .. Nilgiris.

Aitken, C. E. (Life Monsen aN a ... Bombay.

Aiyar, T. V. Ramkrishna (B.A PEs ZicSs) eee .... Coimbatore.

Alimahomed Mecklai be) e .., Bombay,

Ali, Salim A.

Alintgon, Capt. N. S. :

Alipur, Agri. and Horticultural Society of India, The

Secretary

LIST OF MEMBERS

Ali Rajpur, Maharaj unat Capt, Patieneing

Allen, Major C. H.'P. (1.M.S..)

Alleyne, Lt. H. Massy

Als, A. M, (L.8.C.)

Alwar, Lt.-Col. H. H. Sawai Maharaja Sir Tene

Bahadtr (K C.S.I., G.C.LE.)

(Life Member)

American Museum of Natural History, The Librarian..

Amir Sheikh Mahomed Khan, Divan of Junagadh ...

Anamalai Game and Fishing Association

Anderson, J. S.

Anderson-Morshead, Capt. R. Y.

Andrew, G. P. (I.C.S.)

Andrews, E. A.

Angelo, Capt. N. L. (1.4.)

Annesley, F.C,

Anstead, R. D. (M.A., C.1.5.)

Antrain, Chas B. (8.£.S.)

Aquino, V,

Armstrong, Dr. J. S. (R.A.M.C.)

AshoeH: De

Ashley, The Lord

Aspden, H. L.

Atkinson, D. J. (1.F.8.)

Atkinson, G.

Atkinson, G.R.

Atwood, C. E.

(Lite Member)

Aundh, Shrimant B. S. ‘panteahen Pratnaiat Chief of,

Australian Museum, The

Bacon, A. Iu.

Secretary

Bahadurji, D. N. Bike AT- eae

Bahawalpur, H.H. The Nawab Cape. Sir Sei Monat:

mad Khan Abassi (K.C.v.0.) (Life ae

Bailey, Lt.-Col F. M. (c.1.F.)

Baini Parshad, Dr. (D Sc.) (Lzfe Nene

Baker, E. C. Stuart (#.z.S.) (Lzfe Member)...

Balasinor, Babi Shri Jamiatkhanji Manverkhanji

Bale Sons and Danielson, Ltd., Messrs. John

Balkrishna Vinayek Weeooden: ee Memter)

Ball, HP:

Bully, Bs O.

Bang-Haas, Herr Otto..

RXxili

Bom bay.

Bombay.

Alipur.

Ali Rajpur.

Naga Fills.

Oxford.

Garnich.

Alwar.

‘New York, U.S.A.

Junagadh,

Anamalai.

Bombay.

England.

Cinnamara.

London.

Bombay.

Madras.

Lakhipur.

Bombay.

New Zealand.

Bombay.

Maymyo.

Dehra Dun.

Bezwada.

Bomkay.

Aundh.,

Syaney.

Magok.

Bombay

Bahawalpur.

Loudon,

Calcutta.

England.

Balasinor.

l.ondon.,

Bombay,

Bombay.

Switzerland.

. Germany.

Bansda, H. H. Maternal Shri- qpava einen Pratap

Sirghji Raja Saheb of (Life eae

Barclay, J. B.

Baria, H. H. The Maharaja ‘Sin Ranjit

(K2C5S383)

Barker, A. N. ey

Barlee, K. W. ime sie

PuBebice

Bansda.

Bom bay.

Baria.

Meiktila,

Bombay.

aeey LIST OF MEMBERS

Barnard, J. T. O. (¢,1.8.) London.

Barnes, Miss Tirzah London.

Baroda Museum, The Curator Baroda.

Baroda, H. H. The Maharaja Sir Sayaji Rao Gaetan

(G.C.S.1., K.c.S.1.) (Lzfe Member) ... ‘ paroda.

Barraud, Capt, Peds EZ 2555 Es Se) Kasauli.

Barrett, Hi. B.([email protected]).. Rangoon.

Barrington, A.H.M. . Rangoon.

Barron, Capt. J. (R.A., M.C.) Ambala.

Barron, W. J. Rangoon.

Barton, E. L. (Life Member) England.

Bassett, A. E. ae Rampur Hat.

Bates, Capt. R.S. P. Ge B.O U)) >. Madras.

Battye, Lt. R. K. M. (R.A.) Mhow.

Baxter, N. B. = eo Poona.

Bayley d’Castro, Dr. Re (FMD) Hyderabad Sind.

Bazett, H. M. London.

Beadnell, C. B. cm Cannanore.

Beadon, W.R. C. (F.G.S.) Rangoon.

Beckett, James ae Mylapore.

Beeson, Dr. C, F.C, (ar Ay, D.SCi, BLES.) Dehra Dun.

Beg, Nawab Nazir Jung Banaduan Mirza Nazir Saifabad Dn.

Begbie, Lt.-Col. A.S.. London.

Belgium, Ie Directeur, Musee Rove! d? Austere Natatel:

le de Belgique Brusscelles.

Bell, Re D. (Ca. LCS Bombay.

Bell, T. R. (C.1.£.) Karwar.

Bell, W. E. Mergui.

Belmont, J. R. Bombay.

Benson, Capt. C. E. i London.

Benson, Major R. Li. (D.S.0., M.C.) London.

Benthall, E. C. Calcutta.

Berkeley-Hill, Lt.-Col. O. A. R. a M.S.) Ranchi.

Berlie; Dr. H.C, (M.R.C S., L.B-C.P., D:T-M.H.) Selang Hat.

Bernard, J. L. Bombay.

Berriff, A. H. ay Simla.

Betham, Brig.-Genl. R. M. (c.1.E.) England.

Betts, F. N... i ae Naduvattam.

Bevan-Petman, Mrs. B. Simla.

Beven, Dr. T. O. =e ie Ceylon

Bewsher, Major F. W. (D.S.0., O8.EB., M.C.

F.Z.S., F.R.G.S ) Kamptee.

Beynon, F. C. Solan-Brewery.

Bharucha, Farrokh B.. Bombay.

Bhatia, Major S. L. Ga M Ss.) Bombay.

Bhavnagar, H.H. Maharaja Shri een Sinan (Life

Member and Patron) 1 .. Bhavnagar.

Bignell, Major R. G. (R.G.a ) London.

Bikaner, Col. H.H. The Maharaj Sri Sir Gaiden Straits

Bahadur (G.C.S.1I., G.C.I.E., G.C.V.0.) (Life Member) Bikaner.

Bikaner, Capt. H.H. Maharaj Kumar Shri Sadul

Singhji Bahadur (c.v.o.) (Life Member) .. Bikaner,

LIST OF MEMBERS weet

Bikaner, Maharaj Shri Bijey eee Bahadur (Life

Member) sf ... Bikaner,

Billimoria, N. M. S. Ane = ... Karachi.

Binny, Major A. C. M. Be ae: .... Madras.

Birch, C. V. se a oe: ... New Zealand.

bird, Bo A. (L.C.S.) ..: ate Bis ... London,

Bissett, Frank A ve non ... Peermade.

Bissett, J. E. Be aos ae ... Meppadi.

Biack, Dr. John (M.B.) con ee .. Calcutta.

Blair, Dr. D. P. (R.A.M.Cc.) BR ae ... Liverpool.

Blanford, H. R. (0.B.E£.,1.F.S.)... 5 .... London.

Blatter, Rev. E. (S.J.)... oe ee ... Panchgani,

Blunt, H. R. es ze ont =. worinacar.

Boag, G. T. (1.C.S. y ae ms ie .., London.

Boalth, V. H. ae ie ie ... London.

Boas, H. A. ‘ Pi hs ... Kollengode.

Bobrinskoy, Count in RGIS Ves. ae .. England.

Bodding, Rev. P.O. ... ... Mohulpahari,

Bodenham, Capt. Count K. euprereri (are Menber)... London.

Bolitho, Capt. E. li, W. (R.F.A.,)... ies ... Bombay.

Boonell, Bonavis (M. A.) 2s, ae ... Madras.

Bor, IN: . (1.F-S.) S < ay .. Kochugaon.

Borao, Rev. Fr. G. Palacios de ... ue ... Bombay.

Borradaile, Lt. J. W.... oe bis ... Devon.

Botham, A. W, (C.1.B., 1.C.8.)_ ... fig .. Shillong.

Bott, J. R. E. me ... Sunthaik.

Boyd, Major J. E. M. fe A.M.C. o a ... Ferozpore.

Boyle, D. H.M. bier fe se ... London.

Bradbury, Rev. A. L.... ae ...- EWbli,

Bradshaw, J. P. (Life Menber) . we ... Bombay.

Braham, N. C. ; os a ... Lakon Lampang

Brassey, Lt.-Col. L. P. (i. M.S. ee o ... Peshawar.

Brayne, F. L. (1.C.S.) a Bee ... London.

Breithaupt, Lt.-Col. E. A. a the ... Mandalay.

Brent, H.2A. W. tt ae re ... Bombay,

Bridge, M. F. (1.§.S.) oP ... Ootacamund,

Bridgeman, Lt.-Col, Hon’ ble Ay G. O. (pD.S.0.) (Life

Member) cS if ee .. Alnwick.

Bridgnell, C. K. wh re Se .. Rajimak,

Briggs, Rev. Frank S. te .. Ghazipur

Bristow, C. H. (1.C.S.) o .. Ahmednagar.

Brock, Group Capt. H. LeM. (a S. :.6.) oe .. Peshawar.

Brocklehurst, Lt. A. E.(R.A.) ... he .. Bangalore.

Brook, Carlton P. (Life Member) - ... Norwich.

Brooke, Major A. S. (M.c.) “Ee ee. ... Bombay.

Brooke-Purdon, Major W. ites M.C., O.B.E.,

R.A.) i ... Belfast.

Broughton, Brigadier ., D. (R.E., C.R.E.) .. Pewsey, England.

Brown, George ; as ie .. Hungerford. —

Brown, L.N. (I.C. S.) om ce ».. Ratnagiri.

Browne, Lt.-Col. C, H. = ite .. N, Ireland.

Browne, E. G. a 7 fe ... Bareilly,

RXXVi LIST OF MEMBERS

Brownlow, A. L. E. SO ear

Bryden, Lt.-Col. R.A. (R. enrecehe a)

Buckwell, B. E. oy

Burder, John H.

Burdon, The eH on: ple Mr.

I.C.S >) ou

Burgess, F. G. Gh B.S, ¥

Burma, The Forest Zoologist

Burnett, Prof. K.

Burns, F. G.

Ernest (C.S.I.,

Oe Bombay.

Cal Be,

Lahore.

Calcutta.

Simla.

Rangoon.

Maymyo. |

Hyderabad, Dn

Shwebo.

Burton, Brig.-General R. G. Woe Mepoens England.

Burton, R. N. Boe Ae Jalpaiguri.

Barton. Lt.-Col. Richard W. me Memn$er) Bombay. :

Busher, Rev. R,C.. .... ve .. -Naini fal,

Bute, The Most Hon’ble Tie: Marquis of (Lzfe

Member) aS ine ee .. London.

Butler, Sir Harcourt (G.c.1.£., K.C.S.1., 1.C.S.) (Life ;

Member) * 2a Londen...

Butler, S. G. Tezpur. -

Caccia, Major A. M. (ta F.S.) (Life Mensa Oxford. |

Caius, Rev. John F (s.J ) ‘ ; ... Bombay,

Calcutta Zoological Gardens, ‘The Eiodoraty Neate? ary. 1Caleutta,

Caldecott, C D’a -Chanda.

Caldwell, John M. Panighatta.

Calvocoressi, Stephen Bombay.

Cambay. H. H. Nawab Pecae Vagerehoa Tae

Alikhan Sahib Bahadur (Life Member) .... Cambay.

Cambridge, University Museum of Zoology, The

Superintendent Cambridge.

Cameron, [. L. - Fortrose.

Cameron, Thos. H. (F.z.S.) Devicolam.

Campbell, A. S. Karachi.

Campbell, J. A. G. Bokakhat.

Campbell, R. G. England.

Campbell, S. P Bara Jamda.

Canning, Fred. (i F.S. ’ Nani Tal.

Capito, C. Ezik (0.B.H., M. INST. C.E.) San Fernando,

Captain, Mrs. A. H.C. Bandra. 7

Cardew, Capt. C. G. (R.E£.) Simla.

Carnegie Museum, The Director ue wee WieSa As

Carier, Major H. St. M. (p.s.0., M.D.) (Life Memter)... England.

Cartlaud, Murray A. mae GHZ pars.

Cassamalli Jairajbhoy ieceroner (Lite Member) . us bombay,

Cassell. “(Rwy i ot Moniarah. |

Casserly, Lt.-Col. Gordes France.

Castens, H. E. (1.F.s ) | “1 Eogland,

Gater “AUN, (Car: SIC, S 3) 2. ee Trivandrum.

Cathedral and Jonn Common High School for Girls . Bombay.

Cave, Capt. F. © ae ee ae ve Juliundar.

Cave, R. B. Ceo “ee ‘Brighton.

Cnaldecott, H. D.. England.

Chamba state, H.H. Raja Ram Sieh Chamba.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Chamier, Major R. O.

Cha.upion, F. W. (1.F.S.)

Champion, H. G. (1.F.S.) Re a

Chaudubhoy, Kaikhoshru N. (B.A., F.A.A.)

Chapple, E. . a:

Chartres, C. B. ie

Chevenix-Trench, C. G. (TL. C28: yt

Chhota-Udepur, Maharawal Natwar Sine eh

Chislett, H. V. D. ae 7c

Cnitham, C. C. :

Chepra, Dr. B. N. (p. se.)

Christopher, Sydney A.

ber)

Chrystall, A.

Clarke, A. M.

Clarkewice O% (C1... 1. C. Se} lite Member.

Clarke, M. H. : ~ .

Claudius, C. D.

Clee, CB. B. ects).

Clifford, Lt.-Col. R.

Clifford, W. Walters

Clittono, F.

Chive, Capt. J. Mie

Clough, R. J.

(BAR-AT-LAw)

C. (M.c.)

CLUBS—=

Bombay Club, The Honorary Secretary

Bombay Gymkhana Club, Ltd., The Secretary

Byculla Club, The Honorary Secretary

Club of Westera India, The Honorary Secretary

Cuttack Club, ‘ne Houorary Secretary .

Kolar Gold Field Club

Madras Club, The Secretary

Mawlaik Gata Club, Tne Monetary Scere

Naini Tal Club, Ltd., The Secretary

Nerbudda Club, ‘Che Secretary

Pegu Club, The Secretary

Puajab Club, Tne Secretary

Quetta Club, Ltd., The Secretary

Raniknet Club, The Honorary Secretary ..

Royal Bombay Yacht Club, The Secretary

Sardar Club, The Honorary Secretary

Secunderabad Club Library, The Honorary secretary

Sind Club, The Honorary Secretary

Srinagar Club, The Secretary ...

United Service Club, ‘he Secretary

United Service Club, Ltd.

Waltair Club, The Honorary Secretary

Wellington Gymkhana Club, The Honorary eseeay

Clutterbuck, Capt. J. E. (R.u.) (Life Member)

Clutterbuck, Sir Peter (Life Aleméer)

Cochrane, R. A.

(Lite Mem-

SEXVii

Neemuch.

Denra Dun.

Dehra Dun,

Bombay.

Bangkok.

Northumberland.

Udaipur,

Chhota-Udepur.

Satara.

Nagpur,

Calcutta.

Rangoon,

London,

Bombay.

London.

Jakhlabandha.

Myitnge.

Bombay.

London.

Belgaum

Bournemouth.

Nowshera.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

bombay.

Bumbay.

Poona.

Cuttack.

Oorgaum.,

Madras.

Mawlaik.,

Naini Tal,

Jubbul pore.

Pegu.

Lahore.

Quetta.

Ranikhet.

- Bombay.

Jodhpur.

Secunderabad.

Karachi.

‘Srinagar,

Bangalore.

Simla.

Waltair.

Wellington.

Bhopal.

Pe Pensbury-England.

Rangoon.

XRXVIii LIST OF MEMBERS

Cocke, Lady H.G. _...

Coldstream, Hon’ble Mr. maetiee. J: (1.C.8

Cole, Lt.-Col. B. L, ae

COLLEGES AND SCIENTIFIC INSTITUTIONS—

Aitchison College, The Principal

American College, The Treasurer

Assumption College, The Principal ie

Government Collegiate mae School, The Head

Master .

Baroda Col! ege, The Pracipales :

Bombay Veterinary College, The Pr cmeipel

Burma Forest School, ‘The Director

Carmichael Medical College, The Principal

Central College, The Principal...

Central Research Institute, The Direc:

Agricultural College and Central Research fastitute:

The Librarian se

Deccan College, ‘The Preipal.

Kings Institute, The Director .

Dow Hill Training College, The Principal

Ewing Christian College, The Professor

Forest Research Institute and College, The Fotest

Botanist

Forest Research iastitere and Callens, The Bancipall

Gujrat College, The Principal .., a

Institute of Plant Industry, The Director ...

Punjab Veterinary College, The Principal

Madras Forest College, The Principal

Presidency College, The Principal

Mayo College, The Principal .

Pasteur Institute, The Director

Rajkumar College, The Principal

Ravenshaw College, The Principal

Royal Institute of Science, The Principal...

St. Joseph’s College, The Principal

Victoria College, Palghat, The Principal .

Victoria Technical Institute, The Curator

Wilson College, The Principal...

Maharaja’s College, The Principal

Osmania Univeisity College

Rajaram College, The Principal iba

Royal College of Medicine, The Professor...

H. H. The Maharaja’s College for Women

University College, The Principal

Mrs. A. V. N. College, The Principal

Medical College, The Principal.

Government English School, The Head Master

Intermediate College, The Superintendent

Karnatak College, ‘The Principal

Colombo Museum, The Librarian

Colthurst, Dr. Ida

Bandra.

Lahore.

Ajmer.

Lahore.

Madura.

Bangkok.

Bangalore.

Baroda. ©

Bombay.

Pyinmana.

Calcutta.

Bangalore.

Kasauli.

Coimbatore

Poona.

Guindy

Kurseong.

Allahabad

Dehra Dun.

Ahmedabad.

Indore.

Lahore.

Coimbatore.

Madras.

Ajmer.

Rangoon.

Rajkot.

Cuttack.

Bombay.

Teppakulam.

Palghat.

Nagpur.

Bombay.

Eroakulam.

Hyderabad, Dn

Kolhapur.

Baghdad.

Trivandrum.

Rangoon.

Vizagapatam.

Virajpet.

Bangalore.

Dharwar.

Colombo.

Kurseone.

LAST OF MEMBERS

Colvin, Major E. J. D. (1.A.)

Commissioner, The Hon’ble The Chief,

Frontier Province ..

Condon, E. C. H. wad Sy ip ROPER)

Congreve, C. R. T.

Conley, Andrew es

Connor, Col. Sir Frank (D.S.0., I.M.S.) See

Cooch Behar, Maharaj Kumar Victor N. Narayan

(Life Member) ...

Coode, John (1.F.S.) ...

Coode, J. M. (Life Member)

Cook, Adrian H.

Cooke, E. Bernard

Cooper, Khan Bahadur D. B. iu L.A.)

Cooper, H. L. (1.F.s.)

Corbett, Major T, W. (M.c.) o

Corkill, Dr. Norman L. (M.B. C.H.B.) Gage Veo

Cosens, Lt.-Col. F. R.

Cousins, Capt. C. W.

Covernton, S. H. (I. C. S.)

Cowasji Jehangir, Sir, a (Jr.) CRAC.T. E.,. O. BE)

Cowie, Rev. A. G. G. (Life Member)

Cowper, G. St. John ne

Cox, Cabs) Cal(t.F.s

Cox, Lt.-Genl. Sir Pony (G.C.1.Bs EK. C S.J;

K.CA.E.; B.Z.S:, Fs RcG.Ss)

Cranfield, J.

Craw, a. A, (EC

Crawford, William G. (1.F.S.)

Crawford, W. M. (F.E.s., I.C.S.).

Crerar, Hon’ble Sir James (K.C.S.1.,

, HeZ.S))

Crofton, R. M. (I.C.S.)}

Cross, Alexander

Cruickshank, F. C. B. (1.C.S.)

Cuffe, Lady C. T. Wheeler a4

Culbertson, J. M.S. (A.M.1.C.£.) (ZLzfe Member)

Cumming, Capt. O. S. (R.A.)

( Life Member)

S.) (Life Member)

Cunningham, Col. A. H. (R.E.)..

Cunningham, G. (C.1.£., 0.B.E., I.C.S.)

CurriesAsd,

Currie, M. M. L. (.C.8.) oe be

Cursetji, Khan Bahadur C. M. (Life Member)

Cutch, H. H. The Maharao Sir Shri Kengurji Sawai

K.C,V.0O., K.B.E.) (Life Member

Bahadur (K.c.S.I ,

and Vice-Pitron)

Cutch, Kumar Shri Godji (Zzfe Meniber)

Cutting, C. Suydam

D’ Almeida, J. F. R. (B.A., B.Sc. fon. )) (Life Member

Dalal, Rustomjee D. (Lite Member)

Dalal, M. P. M.

Dalton, H. G

Daly, M. O.

EN ec West

K.G@:MG..

(Lite Member)

C.1.E., I.C.S.)

Rewa.

Peshawar.

Ajmer.

Va!parai.

Liguanla.

Calcutta.

Cooch Behar

Ootacamund,

Ply mouth.

Edinburgh.

Jhansi.

Satara.

Naini Tal.

Kohat.

Liverpool.

Fatelhgarh.

Fort Harrison.

Karachi.

Bomhay.

Rawalpindi.

Bombay.

Amraoti,

London.

Travancore.

Rangoon.

Belfast.

Delhi.

Nagpur.

London.

Sitapur.

Ireland.

Karachi.

Jhansi.

England.

Peshawar,

Bombay.

Lahore.

Bombay.

Bhuj-Cutch,

or eOuUtCh:

SSRs

Bandra.

Bombay.

Royston-Herts,

Misa,

XXXix

irae -LIST OF MEMBERS

Danson, J. W. W. cS

Darby, A. W. (0.B.E.)

Darjeeling, The Curator, Nat. ice Mus,

Davenport, Alex. L.

Daver, FramrozeA. ...

Daver, J. D. (Bar.-at-Law)

Davey, G. H.

David, Meyer I.

Davidson, E.R.

Davidson, Major F. H. N. (D.s.0, M.Cc., R =

Davidson, Lt.-Col. J. (D S.O., I.M.s.) URE Member) ...

Davies, T. G. B. (a.R.S.M.)

Davies, R. W. H. (1.C.8.)

Davies, Capt. V. K. N. (1.4.)

Davis, G. (I1.C S.)

Davis, P. W. (1.F.S.)

Davis, Dr. W. St. T.

Dawes, Lt.-Col. C. D. (1.M.s.)

Dawkins. C. G. E. (1.F.S.)

Delacour, Mons. Jean

Delaney, M. F. i Fa

Delme-Radcliff, Lt. ‘Col: A. (DES.0.))

Deo, Sri Balavadra Narayan Bhunj

deRhe-Philipe, G. W. V. (F.E.S.)

Dewas (Sr.) Prince Vikram Siagrao

Dhar, Her Highness Laxmibai Saheb. ipa Waite

Member and Vice-Patroness)

Dharampur, H.H. The Maharana Shree Py vesaae

Rana, Maharaja Saheb of (Life Meniber)

Dhrangadhra, H.H. Maharana Shri. Sir Ghanshyam

Sinhji (K.c s.1.) (Life Alember) ;

Dhunjibhoy Bomanji, Sir, At. (Life Member)

Dickins; HER (rks) : a

Dickson, Lt.-Col. H. R. P. (oe)

Dinajpur, Maharaja Jagadish Nath Ray

Dinshaw, Kaikobad cee (J.P.) he

Director of Museums, ae ~& 2.) Mby States). =

Dixon, A. F. W. (1.C.S

Dobson, F.

Dobson, Roderick

Dods, W. K. (C.1.E.)

Donald, C. H.

Donald, D. R.

Donald, Lt. J. O. 5.

Donovan, Lt.-Col. C. (1.M.S.)

Dow, H. (I.C.S.) ;

Doyle, Major E. E. (1.M:S.)

Drake Brockman, D. L. (c.1.E£., I.C.S.

Nene BY

Drake-Brockman, Lt.-Col. H. E. (1.M.Ss., F.z.s.) (Life

Member) 4;

Drummond, Major J. G. P.

Rangoon.

England.

.. Darjeeling.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

Kottayam.

Bombay.

Shanghai.

Huntley, Scotland.

Lasswade.

Rawalpindi.

Belgaum.

Bombay.

Mangalore.

Dwarbund.

London,

Dolton.

France.

Bombay.

London.

Keonjhargarh.

London.

Kolhapur.

Dhar.

Dharampur.

Dhrangadhra.

Bombay.

Chanda.

Persia.

Dinajpur-Rajbati.

Bombay.

Kuala Lumpur.

London.

Panposh.

Talawakelle.

Calcutta.

Dharamsala.

Pyinmana.

London.

Bourton-on-T he-

Water.

Hyderabad.

Poona.

Fyzabad.

Twyford-England.

Aurangabad,

LIST OF MEMBERS

-Dubash, J. K.

Duke, A. H.

Duke, J. A. 18%

Dunbar-Brander, A. A. ar B.E., 1.2.83)

Duncan, John E. (P.w.D.)

Duncan, P. R. (1.F.£.S.)

Dundas, A. D. F. (I C.S.)

Dungarpur, H. H. Rai Rayan Matereraahira: Manara!

wal Shri Lakshman Singhji Bahadur

Dunkley, E. J.

Dunlop, Dr. W.

Dunn; Cy W.(C:1-8., LC.S.)

Duxbury, Lt.-Col. C. D. (Lzfe Alember)

Dyer, Dr. J. C. ie

Eates, K. R.

Ebden, J. W.

Edge, Mrs. R. C.

Edmonds, A. C.

Einkaufsstelle des Borsenvereins der Weneonen

Elgee, Col. J. W. L. (Life Wember)

Eliot-Lockhart, Lt. Wm.

Elliott, A. (C.1.E.)

Elliott, A. G. C.

Elliott, J.

Bilis; Cz; (1C.S.,)

Ellis; E. FP. Hi;

Ellis, Ralph Jr.

Fllis, S. F. te as ss a

Ellison, Bernard C. (C.M.z.S., F.R.G.S.) (Life

Member) ..

Emerson, Capt. J. ae

English, E. E. (Lzfe Member)

Erb, E. (Life Member) ;

Evans, F. V. (Vice- Patron and Life Member,

Evans, Col.G. Hi. (¢:t. ari

Bvans, ak. Vie (Pi:

Evans, Brigadier W. a) (C.1.B., D.S.O.)

Evershed, John cae

Ewbank, R. B. (c.1.E., I.C.S.) .

Ezra, Alwyn (F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.) ...

Ezra, Sir David, AZ. (Vice-Patron and Pere Dense.

Ezra, Alfred (0.B.E., F.Z.S.) (Life Member)

Faith, N. W. sia Ean :

Fakirjee Cowasji

Farr, Ey .-C;

Fawcus, L. R. (1.C.S

Fedtschenko, Prof. Boris

Ferguson, I'd. T. D.

Ferrar, M. E. ae

Ferrar; Lt:-Col. M. L. Gi A., O.B.E.)

Fidlin, J. W. on

Field, Capt. F. D.S. (1 m.s.)

xii

Bombay.

Bangkok.

Bombay.

Elgin-Scotland,

London.

Dehra Dun.

Miranshah.

Dungarpur.

Rangoon.

Baghdad.

Rangoon.

Poona.

Sikkim.

Sukkur.

Delhi.

Enoland.

Waltair.

Leipzig.

London.

Jammu.

London.

Moulmein.

Calcutta.

California.

Poona.

London,

Bombay.

Cornwall-England.

Bombay.

Liverpool.

London.

Deolali.

Quetta.

Ewhurst-England.

Bombay.

Calcutta.

London

Bombay.

Karachi.

Travancore.

Calcutta.

Leningrad.

Tonk Raj,

Calcutta.

Port Blair.

Kalchini.

Bombay.

xii LIST OF MEMBERS

Field, Frank (M.B.O.U.) pe se:5 ... London.

Field, G. G. (1.P.s.) ve Bee ... Allahabad.

Fields-Clarke, V. H. T. (1.F.8.) ... Pen ... London.

Finlay, J. D. i ce .. Deori.

Fitz Gerald-Moore, A. N. Are »» Bombay.

Fletcher, Thos. Baiubrigge (F.E.s. :.) sek sox Pusa:

Florence, James 5 ae a ... Kievcote.

Flynn, A. A, (c.M.z.s. ae = 2s Karachi;

Fooks, H. A. ae _ ch », Calcutta?

Forrington, A. ice — ae .... Bombay.

Forsyth, Dr. Wm. Edinburgh.

Foster, Lt.-Col. Rodney (1.4.) a ... Folkestone, England.

Foulkes, R. oe = ... Madura.

Foulkes, Lt.-Col. T. H. (1.M.S.) (Life Member) vo Europes

Fountaine, Miss Margaret (F.E.s.) “i *. london:

Fraser, Duncan Ta A: ne ne) asondon:

Mraser,“iut:-Colsh= Coto. S..2nt. Dak wan ase) ... London.

Fraser, J. S. ¥ a se io) awondont

Fraser, Major S. G. G. Lee aoe ... Bombay.

Eraser) sit Stuart (:G:S., K/C.Sit., Cie) .... Bombay.

Frederickson, H. Beccles, England.

Frei, Max (Lzfe Mewen ah ... “Zurich, Switzerland.

French, H. A. L. oa, e ee = tecarachi,

Frenchman, D. P, (8.8c.) . Gandamanayakanour.

Frend, G. V. R. es ... Balehonur.

Frere, Major A. G. (1.4., F.z.S.) (Life Member) ... London,

Fry, John T. ie - By 2 eoanGtar

Gairdner, K. G. : ae m .. Lakon-Lampane.

Gallant, M. N. (B,Sc., I.F.S.) as Rue ww Uvonden.

Gamlen, R. L. ay .... Hyderabad, Dn.

Gammie, Prof. G. A. Give Wiewiber) a — london,

Gangpur, Ruling Chief 2 ee: 5 sunderoarh,

Garbett, C. C, (I.C.S.) A 1 - Bombay,

Gauripur, Raja Prabhatchandra Barna (Life Member \.. Gauripur.

Gaye, W.C. sas oe Ms ... Arlington.

Gentle, J. A. R. (1.8.S.) ae or .« Mandla.

Geoghegan, Mrs. O. A. ee S/ ve kolmilas

George, Hugh S. (1.F-.S.) eh Mee ie eBetuls:

Gharpurey, Lt.-Col. K. G. (1.m.s.) (Life Member) ... Ahmednagar.

Gibbs, A. F. a! — ee ap uimanias

Gibson, E. C. (1.C. S.) i ae .. Ajmer.

Gilbert, C. EB. L. (i.F.s.) ve we 1. arachi)

Gilbert, T. vat oe ... Hurope.

Gill, E. H. N, Gees as ae .. Budaun.

Gullo, Fei : a, .. Kalain.

Gillespie, Major F. 5. Gr D,, R.A.M.C.) Ootacamund.

(rillett, B. G. (O.B.B.)... Bombay.

Gimson, C. (I.C.S.) Nowgong.

(zirsperger, F. 7 Bombay.

(zladstone, Capt. H. S. (H.Z.S., FsRiS.s) Capenoch-Scotland.

Gladstone-Solomon, Capt. W. E. (1.E.s.) Bombay.

(zlascock, L. C. (M.v.0., C.1.E.) . Jaipur,

LIST OF MEMBERS °

Glass, E. L. am

Glennie, Major E. A. (D.S.0., R.E. a

Glover, H. M. =:

Godfrey, E. J. (B.Sc. _ se

Goldie, Dr. E. A. (M.C., I.M.S.)..

Gondal, Kumar Shree Nutversinhji

Gonsaives, A. F. (Lzte Member)

Gordon, F. W. (M.Cc., M.A. (OXON) I.F.S.)

Gordon, Major J. W...

Gordon, R. Gi(1L.C.S. )

Gore, F. W.

Gothorp, Percy

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS-—

The Agricultural Engineer, Kurima

Conservator of Forests, N. C. Division, C. P

Deputy Director of Agriculture, Burma .

Deputy Director of Agriculture, Myingyan Circle

Deputy Director of Agriculture, East Central Circle.

Director of Agriculture, Bombay

Director, Bureau of Science

Director of Agriculture, B. & O.

Director of Agriculture, Punjab

Gould, B. J. (c.1.£., 1.C.S.)

Gouldbury, C. P.

Gow, Cedric J.

Grabam, A. A. ay

Graham. Sin. (C-0bs,1-C:S., KiC.1.E-)

Grant, E.R.

Grant, F. A.

Gravely, Dr. F. H.

Graves, Mrs. D. J.

Greaves, J. B. i

Green, E. Ernest (F.E.S.)

Grezory-Smith, Capt. H. G. (ZL ite Memon

Gregson, T.S. = eS

Grennan, E. W. rf

Grieve, R. G. (M.A., C.1I.&., I.E.S.)

Griffin, A. M,

Griffiths, H. M. (1.S.g. 7 os

Grogan, Major J. B. (R.A.M.C. )

Grose, F. S. -

Gulamkadir Md. Saanpan

Gazder, H. B. ;

Hamber, Capt. L. G. W. ;

Hamid, A. Ali (I.C.S Lilo Member)

Hamid Khan, M. ae F.R.M.S. )

Hamilton, A. P. F. (D.S.0., I.F.S.)

Hamilton, K. L. B. (I.C.S.)

Hance, Major J. B. (0.8.E., I.M.S.)

Hancock, Major C, P

xiii

Ranchi.

Dehra Dun.

England,

Bangkok.

Lakoal, Assam,

Jetalsar.

Bandra.

Rangoon.

Jodhpur.

Nasik.

England.

Assam,

Mandalay.

Jubbalpore.

Mandalay.

Meiktila.

Pyinmana.

Poona,

Manila.

Sabour.

Lahore.

London.

Mattupatti.

Madras,

Rawalpindi.

London.

Washington, D.C.

London.

Madras.

London.

Camberley-England,

London.

Bombay.

Belgaum.

Madras.

Cocanada.

Rawalpindi.

London.

London,

Shikarpur.

Bombay.

Dharamsala, Canit.

Alibag,

Lahore.

London.

Raipur,

Bombay.

England.

Xliv LIST OF MEMBERS

Hanhart, S.

Hare, Lt.-Col. G.A. Gee

Harman, A. C. by

Harper, Lt.-Col. A. erect

Harper, William

Harris, D.-GA(Cit-n))<.

Harris, W. (M.R.C.V.S. ’

Harris; Jr WW mere tre Wee

Harrison, Mrs. H. Z. we

Hartigan, Capt. G.E. R.S. (m.c.)

Hartnoll, E. S. (1.§F.S.) os

Harvey, Capt. C. W, L. (m.c.) ...

Hasted, Capt. J. 5. H:

Hastings, J.R. G.

Haswell, Capt. F. W. me

Hate, Prof. Vinayakrao N. (B.Sc.

Haughton, Lt.-Col. H. L. (c.1.8.)

Hawes, C. G. ae =

Hay, Major R. (1.M.S.)

Hayes, A.

Heaney, Capt. G. F. oe E.) oe

Hearsey, Capt. L. D. W. (M.c., v.D.)

Hector, G. P. (M.A., D.Sc.) ae

Heilner, Van Campen (M.Sc., F.R.G.S., F-R.A.I.)

Henderson, Alexander

Henderson, Lt.-Col. D.

Henderson, J. L.

Heron, F. A. T.

Hewetson, C. E. (1.F.S.)

Hickie, Major F. C

Hickie, W. A.

Hicking=. 5.

Hide, P. (Life enibey

ie hoton Dr. Sam

Hiceinsd.C.(1:C_S-)

Hiley, Asc; (128:s:)

Pal ike As DiC €ss.)

Hill, Major R. D. O. (Life Member)

Hingston, Major R. W.G. (I.M.S.)

Hislop, Major J. H. (M.c., 1.M.S.)

Hodgson, R. C. ts

Hoge, Capt. RG...

Holkar, H. H.Tukuji Rao (Life Mener)

Holland, L: B. (1.¥.S.) ;

Holmes, H.R.

Homfray, Jeston (I.F-S.)

Hopkinson, A. J. (1.C.8.)

Hopwood, S. F. (1.F.s.) (Life Member)

Hora, Dr. Sunder La! (D.Sc.)

Horner, Capt. B. Stuart

Horst, W. (I.S.E.)

Horticulturist, Municipal Gardens The

Bombay.

Kirkee.

Bettiah.

London.

Bombay.

Ghazipur.

Gauhati.

Michigan, U.S.A.

Bombay.

Lansdowne.

Bhamo.

New Delhi.

Dehra Dun.

London.

Bombay.

Dera Ismail Khan.

Shwebo.

Maymyo.

Kkeri.

Dacca.

New Jersey.

Bombay.

Mhow.

Quilon.

Europe.

Bombay.

Quetta.

Singapore.

Sukkur.

Oxford.

Allahabad.

Imphal,

Dharwar.

Calcutta.

London.

London,

Mhow. —

Colombo.

Quetta.

Indore.

Lahore.

England.

Calcutta. |

Wachwan. |

Rangoon.

Calcutta.

Hazara.

Shibnagar.

Karachi.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Hoshang, N. E. Dinshaw z on ee

Fotson, Hon*ble:Sir Ernest (iK.¢.S.1., 0.8.E.,/ :€:S.)

(Life Member)

Hotz, E. ae

Howard-Bradshaw, ie kcomdt. C. An (CRaNa)

Howell, E. Berkley (c.1.8., I.C.S.)

Hoyos, Count E. (Lzfe Member) He

Hudson, Major-Genl. Corrie (C.B., C.I.E., D.S.O.,

K.oiS.. 1eM.Ss) ea:

Hudson, Sir Leslie ( 7.)

Huggins, J. R.

Hughes, A. R.

Hughes, Major J. E.

Hughes-Hallett, Capt. N. M.

Hundley, G..

Hunt, Lt.-Col. S. Gags ; Ate Boi

Husbands, Major H. W. S. (M.c., A.M.I.C.B., S.M.R.E.)

(Life Member)

Hutchinson, Lt.-Col. L. T. Rote, @ I.M.S. ea

Hutchinson, Lt.-Col. W. Gordon (1.4., 0.8.H.)

Hutchison, L. P.

Hutton, CC. H.

Hutton; G.I: ae ee oe

Hyam, Khan Bataan eigen (GoBavie., 6.2.53) (Lite

Meniber) ; ass

Ibbotson, Capt. A. W. caren HB. LCS.) :

Ichalkaranji, The Hon’ble Mehetban Narayan Govind

alias Babasaheb Ghorpade (Life Member) .

Idar, H.H. Maharajadhiraj Lt.-Col. Shree Sir Dowlat

Singhji (K.c.s.1.) (Lzfe Member) oe

Imperial Council of Agricultura] Research

Imperial Library, The Librarian

Inder, Ro. W..a(55E-S.) 4.

Indian Lac Research Institute

Indore, H. H. The Maharaja Vesnwaniiao Eola

(Life Member)

Ingham, J. L. e ~~ oe,

Inglis, Chas. M. (F.z.S., M.B.0.U.) (Life Member)

Inglis, Cy C... es oe ae

Irvine, A. E,. - oF = *

Irwin, H.E. Lord (P.C., G.M.S.1., G.M.1.E.) (Patron)

Irwin, Major H.R. (1.4.S.C.)

Isaacs, Miss Mozelle (M.A., M.Sc.)

Ishwardas Lukhmidas sah

Ivens, J. H. (P.w.pD.) (Life Alember) —

Jaboville, Pierre ae

Jackets, C. H.

Jackson, Dr Leis. *

Jacob; J. iB: 3

James, Lt.-Col. F. H. ;

Jamkhandi, Shrimant Sinieatrad ParAShuraniec aids

Appasaheb Patwardhan (K.c.1.E.) (Life Member).

Karachi.

Bombay.

Agra.

London, W. 1/4.

Srinagar.

Austria.

London.

Bombay.

Sunningdale.

Colombo.

Bombay.

Shrewsbur.

Rangoon.

London,

Loudon,

Bombay.

Cooch Behar.

Azamgarh,

England.

Insein.

Poona.

Puri.

{chalkaranji Z

Himatnagar,

New Delhi.

Calcutta.

Karachi.

Namkum.

Indore.

Bombay.

Darjeeling.

Poona.

ae Ootacamund. -

is. dmdias: t3 -

Bombay.

Dombivli.

Bombay.

Europe.

... Europe.

Vizian agram.

Bombay.

Bombay,

Jamkhandi,

xlw

xvi LIST OF MEMBERS

Jamsetji, M. Doctor (F.Z.S., C.M.Z.S. )

Jardine, Wh A(C.t.Ey, 1.C.S,)

Jarman, Capt. G. S.

Jatia, Sir Onkar sees O.B.E. )

Jefivks a

Jenkin, R. Trevor (1.5 F.S.)

Jenkins, J. B.

Jermyn, Lt. R. O.

Jhalawar, H. H. The Maharaja seariln Revencre Sink

Bahadur

Jind, Ha H. The Naharaia Sir Rane Stet GKGAS an

G.C.1.E.) (Life Member)

Jodhpur, Lt.-Col. H. H. The Maharaja Sir lonenuline

\ (Life Member

Bahadur (K.C.S.1., K.C.V.0., G.C.1.E.

and Vice-Patron) ...

John, A. W.

Johnson, Capt. A.

Johnson, Kav

Jones, A. E.

Jones, A. J. (J.P.)

Jones, Capt. N. J.

Jones, Capt. W. H.

Jones, Major W.E. ...

Jourdain, Rev. F.C. R.

Judge, C. E. M. ae se res

Jukes, Hon’ble Mr. J. EB. C. (c.1.z., 1.C.S.)

Junagadh, His Highness the Nawab of

Kaiser Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana, S.

(Life Member)

Kanga, Miss P. M. (M. Sc.)

Karachi, Victoria Museum, The Curator

Katrak, N. N.

Kazieb Dey.) *

Keays, Lt.-Col. R. W. C. (1.A.)

Keily, H. G.

Kemp, W. N. R.

Kempe, J. E.

Kennion, Lt.-Col. R. is mi ZS. E. )

Kermode, C. W. D. (1.F.S.)}

Kerr, (Dr. A. 2: G.

Khairpur, H. H. Mir Ali Nawanchdn (ite Member)

Khan, Sahebzada Sardar Mahomed

Khareghat, M. P. (1.C.S.)

Khetri, Raja Sarder Singh Bahadur (Lzfe Member)

Khilchipur, H. H. Durjansal Singh (Life Member)

Kiddle, J. A.:C. sat an -

Kiernander, Major O. G.

Kilburne, R. G.

King, E. O. (1A.R.0.)

King, Lt.-Col. J. St. Aubyn

Kinloch, Mrs. A. M.

Kirby, R. R.

M.*c.-Genl:

Bombay.

London.

Bombay.

’ Calcutta.

Linthouse.

Raipur.

London.

Bombay.

Jhalrapatam.

Jind.

Jodhpur.

Ellapatti.

Trimulgherrv.

Nazira.

Simla.

Bhamo.

Miranshah.

Europe.

Bombay,

England,

Dethi.

Simla.

Junagadh.

Nepal.

Bombay.

Karachi.

Bombay.

Madras.

Bombay.

Peeprah.

Knighton.

England.

London. °

Bangkok.

Khairpur.

Karachi.

Bombay.

Khetri.

Khilchipur.

Moulmein.

Iraq.

Nepal.

Kodaikanal.

Jhelum.

Kotagiri.

Tindharia,

LIST OF MEMBERS Xlvii

Kirk-Greene, Mrs. Leslie (Zife Menziber) *..) bondon:

Kirwan, Noel G. B. ... at at .... Mangalore.

Koioht, HH: Fi (L.C:s.) A Mii ... sholapur.

Knight, L. G. ie: fe: Re ... Kalthuritty.

Koechlin, E. L. 23 on me MPV Kara:

Koechlin, M C. ee ihe ei ».. 'Munnar.

Kolhapur, H. H. The Maharaja Lt.-Col. Sir Rajaram

Chhatrapati (G.c.1.B.) (Life Member) ... ... Kolhapur.

Kotah, H. H. Tne Maharajadhiraj Lt.-Col. Sir med

Singhji Saheb Bahadur (G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E, C.B.E. )

(Life Member)... ar xe faa sOtal:

Kothare, A. K. ae oe aoe ... Bombay.

Kothavala, T. T. via ae ae ... Sholapur.

Kunhardt,-Lt:-Cols J.C. G. (1. M.S!) as. ... London.

Kuroda, Dr. Nagamichi oe - ey LOKYO,

Kydd, De Ace, ae oe ahs a2, eOndon,

Lahora Singh, Dr. | -... Be Ea aa FO AUST;

Laidlay, J. C. : a mi ... Scotland.

Laird-MacGregor, E. G. ie Ghose) ae .. Belgaum.

Lakshminarayanan, C. ae re ... Madras.

Lalljee, Hooseinbhoy A. a se .... Bombay.

Lambert, Hon’ble Sir George (K.c.5.1., I.C.S.) .... Naini Tal.

Lampard, L. A. an re By ... Quilon.

Landells, W. J. a 5. ie? .... Lamok.

Lane, H.S. cs ae, a ... Gooty.

Latham, H. D. ae oh ae, ... Wellore.

Latif, Hasan (M.1.E., A.M.I.E.E.) ~ ... Hyderabad, Dn,

Latif, Sarhan C. ae eo bia ne Waracht,

Earfouches J. LsDs ss ae ae ... Rangoon.

Laud, D.S. Fr 04 oi ... Bombay.

Laughton, Capt. B gH. ce AS) kek: ons ... Bombay.

Laurie, M. V. (1.5F.S.) are bas ... Madras.

Laws, Wilfred cae ae ae ... Teok.

Lawther, B.C. A. a a yes ... Peshawar.

Layng, Brevet Major IT. M. (1.a.) o .... Bombay.

Leach, A. H. L.. ae gis ees ... Rangoon.

Lee, D. H. (Lite Member) on or 8 LOPE.

Leech, Mrs. A. J. ae a ae ... Kodaikanal.

Mees, E.. Mi. G-S.): 2. a ae ... Rangoon.

LeMarchand, A. E. M. we sey =) Europe:

LeMarchand, W. M. a a .... Dibrugarh.

Leonard, D. G. ~ i ve .... Bombay.

Leonard, Lt.-Col. W. ey ({.M.S.) ie ... Bombay.

Leonard, P. M. R. ae sen ... Kutkai.

Lewis, J. Spedan (Lzfe WERE ... London.

Beyatlon biemiri aA. Eby (CiS.1., Canker, 1:C. Ss ) =. Welk.

LIBRARIES—

Agricultural Library, The Librarian, U. P. .. Nawabgun).

Allahabad Public Library, The Secretary ... Allahabad.

Arthur Library, The Honorary Secretary ... Castle Rock.

Benares, Hindu University Library, The Librarian ... Benares,

al viii

LIBRARIES—continited.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Burma, Bernard Free Library, The Honorary

Librarian

Hyderabad, The ioranan. Crate Toren

Lahore, University of Punjab, The Librarian

Lucknow, &

Lucknow University Library

Madras, Connemara Public Library, The eRe

Librarian

Neilson Hays Library

Public Library, The Honorary Librarian ..,

Public Library, Museums eae National) Gallery of

Victoria, The Chief Librarian

Station Library, The Honorary Secretar t

United Service Library, The Honorary Secretary

Lieberherr, E.

Lightfoot, S. St. C.

Lightfoot, Capt. G. S. (1.P.)

Limbdi,

(K.C.1.E.)

H. H. Maharana Shri

Limbdi, The Yuaraj Sakep of

Lindberg, K

Lindley-Hinde, G.

Lister, R. S.

Little, E.

Lloyd, Col, C, R (AiS.C.,.D:S.0.)

Locket, A.

Lodge, G. E.

Logan Home, Major W. M.

Long, G. R. (1.F.8.) (Life AZeméer)

Longbottom, Capt. J. L.

Lorimer, Major D. L. R. (¢.1.£., I

Lory, F.-Bo Rea. Aw.

Loudon, Dr. J. (M.B.)

Sir

Daulatsinhjee

Rangoon.

Hyderabad, Dn.

Lahore.

Lucknow.

Madras.

Bangkok.

Melbourne.

Simla. |

Poona.

Bombay.

Taungeyi.

Assam.

. Limbdi.

a.) (Life Member) ...

Lowndes, Capt. D. G. ‘Life Member)

Lowndes, R. C.

Lowsley, C. O.

Lowther, EF. H. N.

Lucknow, Provincial Museum, The Gureee

Ludlow, F. (M.A., M.B.0.U.,

Luke, K. J.

Lunham, Lt.-Col. J. be ve M. aoe

Lushington, Mrs. C. G.

Admiral

Lynes, Rear.

Member)

MacColl, H. H. (1 £.S.)

Macdonald, A. St. J.

MacDonald, R.

Macdonell, J. F.

MacGregor, Major R: F. D. (1.M.S )

MacGusty, H. M.

Mackay, J. H. (1.F.S.)

Herbert

(C7B,

I.E.S., O.B.B.) (Life Member)

c.M.G.) (L7fe

Mackenzie, J. M. D. (1.F.S.) (Life Member) ..

Limbdi.

Kurduwadi.

Calcutta.

Ghoom, Bengal.

Kirkee, Poona.

Simla.

Numaligzarh.

England.

London.

Liverpool.

Peshawar.

Bombay.

Karachi.

Allahabad.

Lucknow.

Srinayzar.

Barrack pore.

Bombay.

Talawakelle , Ceylon.

London.

Marhowrah.

Chubwa.

Bombay.

B. E. Africa.

Rangoon.

Rangoon, °

LIST OF MEMBERS

Mackenzie, J. M.

Mackenzie, T. J.

Mackenzie, Wm.

Meckereth, J. (I.F.S.) .

Mackie, A. W. W. (L.C.S.: )

Mackie, Lt.-Col. F. P. (1.M.S., 0.B.£. EES.)

Mackinlay, Lt.-Col. Chas.

Mackwocd, F. E.

Mackwood, F. M.

Mac Lachlan, R. B. ..

Mac Lachlan, Capt. D.

Macleod, A. (I.C.S.)

Macleod, Lt, As Js Ws...

Macleod, R. D. (1.C.S.) ert

MacMichael, N. (¢.s.1., 1:C.S.) «..

Macnaghten, Sir Henry (X?.)

Macnaugnht, W. E.

Macqueen, H. C.

Madan,-H Re (0.E-S:)...

Madras, H. E. the Governor

Mahendra, B. C. (M.Sc.)

Mahon, Col. A. E.

Main, T. F. (B.Sc.)

Major, R. ee

Malcolm, C. A. (1.F.S. ) si

Maltby, Major C, M. (1.4., M.c.

Manavadar, Khan Shree BArCHainihan (Life Member).

Mandlik, Narayan V. (Life Member)

Mangrol, The Shaikh Saheb of (Lzfe Member)

Mann; Drs, H:.. Hs (Sc. )

Maricar, B. E. Aes ;

Marjoribanks, Sir Norman (K.C.1.E., C.S.1. 0S)

Marques, Dr. F. B. ;

Marshall, Arch. Mel. (Life Drenben

Marshall, A. W. om :

Marshall, Col. F. J. Ss ae D.S.O.)

Marshall, Mrs. H.A. ...

Marshall, J. McL. (Zfe, Newbery.

Marshall, Brig.-Genl. T. E. (R.A.)

Martin, Col. Gerald (Life Member)

Martin, Lt.-Col. H. G. (D.S.0., 0.B.£.)

Martin, S. J.

Marzban, K.B.

Mason, Miss E. D.

Matthews, W. H.

Maude, E. W.

Maxwell, M. (Zzfe Member)

Maxwell) KR. M> (1. C. 53 C:r.Bs)) ie

McConazhy, Lt.-Col. C. B. (1.M.s.) (Life Weniber)

MeGlashan, J. (C.E.,C.1.5.)

McLeod, Lt.-Col. D. K. ne

McMahon Museum, The Honorary Secretary

Mymensingh.

Edinburgh,

Madras.

Rangoon.

London.

Edinburgh.

Colombo.

Karachi.

Bombay.

Bournmouth.

Alipore.

Etawah.

London.

Perak.

Dehra Dun.

Ootacamund.

Madras.

eae Notas

Kulu.

Poona.

Patoree.

Nagpur.

Santa Cruz.

Manavadar.

Bombay.

Mangrol,

Poona.

Tavoy.

Madras.

Goa.

England.

Scotland.

England.

Travancore,

Scotland.

. N. Wales.

London.

Quetta.

Almora,

Bombay.

Madras.

Pashok.

Lebong.

Europe.

Bombay.

Camberley.

Calcutta.

Scotland.

Quetta,

] LIST OF MEMBERS

Mears, iC: BE. D:

Mehta, H. M.

Mehta, J. N.R. ae

Meinertzhagen, Lt.-Col. Rk.

Menezes, J. Hector

Menezes, V. T.

Merrikin, M.S.

Methold, J. H. 5

Millard, A. Wes |B%, Cite Wen bey\e

Millard, W.S. (F.z.8.) (Life A7ember)

Miller, A. C. (0.B.E., M.A.)

Miller, Johuely (eaR-G.S.o8:2.9.): a.

Miller, Lt. R.O. a ne

Mills, Major J. D. (Life Member)

Malls 3. 2Ps(1.C.5 3)

Milner, C. E.

Milroy, A. J. W. be, a ae

Miraj, Shrimant Sir Gungadhar Rao Ganesh adzas

Babasaheb Patwardhan (k.c.1.E.) (Life Member).

Mirchandani, Tolo K. (B.E., A.M.I.E., B.F.S.)

Mirchandani, U. M.

Mitchell, Lt. E. D. Treneer

Mitchell, F. J.

Mitchell, H;:H. G. ite Me bee

Mitchell, Capt. R. S. J. (R.E.) aR: Fike

Modi, - Sir Jivanji® Jamshet]i s(s7As, (PhD sc.1.n,,,

RYsc12= Del orane aoe

Mohr, Dr. V. der Meer

Moloney, W. J.

Montagnon, D. J. (rate Member)

Monte, Dr. D. A. de (L.M. & S.)

Monteath, G. (I.C.S.) (Lzfe Jember)

Monteath, J. (I.C.S.) ve

Montmorency, H. E. Sir Gentiey (KC... OnukeCalsbee

C.8.B., 1.C.S.)

Mooney, H. F. (1.F.S.)

Moore, Capt. A. C. {1.4.)

Moore, J.

Moore, G. D.

Morden, W. J.

Morgan, F. I.

Morgan, Major J.S. fo

Morgan, R. W. D.

Morison, Lt.-Col. J. (1.M.s )

Morris, Chas. W.-G. "..:

Morris, Lt.-Col. D. O. (Life enien

Morris, R. C.

Morton, Geo, B. an

Morvi, H. H. The Maharaja een weer CESCAS I)

(Life Member)

Mosse, Lt.-Col. A. H. E. (1.4.) (Z ve Member)

Mott, John L.

Indore,

Bombay.

Karachi.

London.

Goa.

Rangoon.

Calcutta.

London.

‘Poona.

Perthshire.

Calcutta.

Eneland.

Calcutta.

Rangoon

Shillong.

Mira}.

Dharwar.

Karwar.

Jullunder.

London.

Kurope.

30mbay.

Medan, Sumatra.

Bombay.

Dibrugarh.

Bandra.

Belgaum.

Satara.

Punjab.

Hinoo.

Ireland.

London.

Bombay.

UsSs A:

Clandy.

Sidapur.

Calcutta.

Rangoon.

Attikan.

London

Attikan.

Calcutta.

Morvi.

Bhavnagar.

Nagpur,

LIST OF EMBERS

Mudhol, Shrimant Sir Malojirao Raje Ghorpade

(KC.I.E:,)

Muir, Wm. Angus ay My es Ce; iS

Mullan, Prof. J. P. (M. ioe aS, ele. Se)

Muller; Dr) H: C. (p.sc.}

Mulroney, J. T.

Mundy, N.S.

Munns, F. A. C. ach

uurlane: Major H.cF. (£tfe Member)

Murphy, P. J.

Mursell, D. F.

Musgrave-Hanna, Cape Jie:

Mysore, The Director of Agriculture

Mysore, Government Museum, ”

Bahadur (G.C.S.1., G.B.E.) (Life Member)

Nagpur, Centra! Museum, The Curator

Namjoshi, VY. K. (Lrfe Alember)

Naraeaji Dwarkadas (Lite Jlember) ae

Narayanlal Bansilal, Raja (Lzfe ember) ...

Nash, HJ.

(Lite Member)

Neal, Dr. W. L. (I.M.S.)

Neathan, A. P.

Needham, F. M. ae '

Nehru, Diisics. (PH.Da, MAG, Eb.D, 1.C. S.)

Nevill, Capt. G. A. (1.4.)

Nevill, Capt. T. N.C.

Newcome, Lionel

Newland, Lt.-Col. B. E. M. (1.M.s. s.)

Newman, T. H. (F.z.S., M.B.O.U.)

Nicholetts, W. A. B. ay

Nicholson, Lt.-Col. F. L. (D.s.0., Mc.)

Nicholson, Lt.-Col. M. A. (1.M.s.)

Niederer, George Re 4s

Norman: Coll HH i CRAM, C. } oe:

Norris, J. P. A é a

Norton, Col.:E..F.(i.c,, D-S.0.)

Nougerede, L. J. de la

Noyce, Sir Frank (1.C.S.) Az. (Lite OO

Nurse, Lt.-Col. C. G. (F.E.s.) (Life J/ember)

Oberholser, Harry C. (“zfe Member)

O’Brien, Lt.-Col. Edward (C.B.£.)

O’Brien, H.C. es

O’Callaghan, T.P. M.

O’Donel, H. V.

O’ Donnell, C. O. <

O’ Donovan, Capt. M. J. W.

‘he Superincendens

Mysore, H. H. ‘The Maharaja Sir Krishnaraj Woodayar

Narsingarh, H.H. Raja Vikram Singhji Saheb BaHatee.

Nawanagar, H. H. The Jam Saheb (K.c.S.1.,

Nepal, Supradipta Menraber Gene Mohun Snmenee

Jung Bahadur Rana (K.c.1.E.) (Life JJenmber)

Mudhol.

London.

Bombay.

Kurseong.

Silchar.

Turkaulia.

Suntikoppa.

Rainmna Dacca.

London.

Fort Sandeman.

Bangalore.

Mysore.

Nagpur.

Bombay.

Narsingarh.,

Ajmer,

Jamnagar.

Gyantse.

Bombay.

Murkong-Sellek.

Naini Tal.

Nepal.

Norwich.

London.

Somwarpet.

Moradabad.

London.

Rangajan.

Ouetta.

Bombay.

London,

Use San.

Quetta.

Sadiya.

London,

England.

Washington, D. C.

Bombay.

London.

Sadiya.

Binnaguri.

ieee

Tyrone, Ireland,.

hii LIST OF MEMBERS

Ogilvie, G. H. (1.F.S.) (Life Member) ane .. Rangoon.

O’Grady, W. J. ae Ne -e oxo LHOMmOs,

Olivares, Senor Luis de i4 af, <ss7 oom bay:

Oliver, A. W. L. ie a ee eo HAC Al.

Oliver, L. C. fe a ae LeAthikans

Olivier, Col. H. D. (R.#., F.z.S.) (Life Member) ... Winchfield, England.

Ollenbach, O. C. (F.#.S.) fe — ... Mussoorie.

Ormiston, W. vt aS ie .. Haldummulle,

Ceylon.

O’Rorke, Major J. M. W. bes ae .. London,

Osborne, A. F. ae Me . + os CUT COR.

Osmaston, A. E. (i.F.S.) i: es ... Billingshurst.

Osmaston, B. e (CUIGH eT ES 3) 25s, ot OTOL,

Osmaston, F.C, (7.8.s. ; tee oF ... sambalpur.

Oswald- Little, fe =Col.J. * ee ... Darjeeling.

Page Ard (len oa Lene Member a | Ondon:

Palanpur, H.H. Sir Nawab Saheb Taley Mahomed,

Khan Bahadur (K C.1,E., K.C.V.O.) a Palanpur.

Palitana, H. H. The Paaeur Saheb Benner Sinhji

(K.c.1.E.) (Life Member) _... st ay JPabtana.

Palmer, W. L. nh ve os 2 sala:

PalmesW. LF oCEC:S3 ee ae -.. 5 HONGOn,

Panday,MisiJ. i 3. sa any ... Bombay.

Parker, Hvis 53)" cn ee ae rome,

Parlakimedi, Sri Sri Sri Krishnachaudra Gajapati

Narayen Deo ie om ee ... Parlakimedi.

Parlett, L. M. (1.C.S.) (Lzfe Member) ae ... England.

Parfsb ot. eet ve: as .. 2 sBbombay,

Parry. NN. (i:C7S..) ie Ss 2) dondon.

Patel, B. P. as a aa 4.) Bombay:

Paterson, E. A. ay mn 7.8. Caleuttea.

Paterson, T.R, ae ech ... Neora.

Patiala, 1. the Manacaia Siti Bhupendra Singh

(G.€.S.1.. G.C.1.E., Gic.B.E.) (Life Member) a watiala:.

Patiala, Capt. Rao Raja. Birindra Singhji (Lzfe

Member) ... Patiala.

Patiala, H. H. the Manan Reamer andre Smonn , Patiala:

Patterson, A. et 7 Sondon.

Pattison, R. Bombay.

Patuck, eo 5. (a. Cs5. \ (Lite Meio London.

Pawsey, C.R. (1.C.S.) Makokchung.

Peacock, E. H. (3.F.S.) (Life Member) Mawlaik.

Peck, Mrs. L.'J. aie New Delhi.

Peebles, W. J. M. London.

Peet, Maior L. M. Poona.

Peppe. Capt. F. H. Basti.

Percival, A. P. (1.F.S.) England,

Perfect, E. England.

Pershouse. Major Stanley London.

Pestonji Jivanji (N.c.s.) (Life Meween Hyderabad, Dn.

Petit, Dhunjibhoy Bomanji (Life Member) Bombay.

Petit, Jehangir Bomanji (Life Member) Bombay.

LIST OF MEMBERS

Petit, S. C. D.

Petit, k. C.

Petley, C. A.

Phayre, Lt.-Col. R. B. ion Ce)

Phillips, A. A, (1.S.R.)

Phillips, Charles H.

Phillips, W. W.A.

Phipson, H. M. (F.z.s.) (Life Member)

Phythian-Adams, Major BE. G. (1.4., F.Z.S.)...

Piggott, R. Ly. Bee

Pinhey, Capt. L. A. ee

Pipe; 2s:

Pitman, Major C. R. S.

Pizey, R. M.

Pogson, Major F.V. . in

Poncins, Viscount Edmund de (Zzfe Member)

Pope; J. A. (1:C.8.)

Porbandar, H. H. The Nenana Shri Natearcuehe

Bhavsinghji Rana Saheb

Porteous, A. B.

Prendargast, H. V.

Primrose, F. A.

Procter, Miss Joan B. (F.z.S.)

Puckle, Capt. H.

Pudukottai, State Museum, The Garter

Pullan, A. U. fe

Purkis, F. C. (B.E.S. )

Purkis, H. Vernon

Purvis; J. UL: EF.

Ouarry,, 2. 8.

Radhanpur, H.:H. Shri Jalaluddin Khanji (ZL7fe

Member)

Rae, Lt.-Col. M. E. Ge A.

Ragg, H. A.

Raitt, W. Chas. :

Rajadhyaksha, G. S. (I.C.S.)

(Life Memoer) .

Raigarh, H. H. Raja Rawat Sir Birendra Singh

(K.C.1.E.) (Life Member)

Ralston, Lt.-Col. W. H. (D.S.o., 1.4.)

Rampur State, Col. H. H. Nawab Sir Syed Makomed

Hamid Ali Khan Bahadur

Rane, K. R. (M.M. and S.P.)

Ranicar, E. E. :

Ravenshaw, Col. C. W. ‘(Life Meni |

Rayner, A. B. (I.S.£.)

Readymoney, N. J.

Irees;, HN;

Rees, R.

REGIMENTAL OFFICERS’ MESSES—

The Royal Engineers

The Royal

lint

Bombay.

Toungoo.

London.

Dehra Dun

Sonari.

Gammaduwa.

London.

Nilgiris.

Sangameswarpet,

Ziarat.

Karachi.

England,

Gohpur.

Bombay.

France.

Indore.

Porbandar.

Bhilad.

Cawnpore,

Bombay.

London.

Ambala,

Pudukottai.

Matelli.

Rangoon.

Wazirabad.

Mereui.

Dehra Dun.

Radhanpur.

Abbottabad.

Munnar.

Kutta.

Bombay.

Rajearh.

London.

Rampur.

Andheri.

Valparai.

London.

Sargodha.

Bombay.

Tavoy.

Mazbat.

Roorkee.

Trimulghery,

te LIST OF MEMBERS

REGIMENTAL OFFICERS’ MrssES—continued.

Royal Irish Fusiliers

Small Arms School..

Ist Bn. The worencterhine Regiment

lst Kings Shropshire

6th D.C.O. Lancers

Queen Victoria’s Own Madras Sappers Ad Miners ...

Ist Bn. 2nd Bombay Pioneers .

1/6th Rajputana Rifles

3/6th Rajputana Rifles

Ist Royal Bn. 9th Jat. Regt. L. é

4/10th Baluch Regiment

1/12the he Reot.cCPs-W..0; Sik hs)

4/12th F. F. Regt. (Sikhs)

6/13th Royal F. F. Rifles

3/15th Punjab Regiment

3/17th Dogra Regiment (Semi-L7fe Mente)

2/1ist K.G.O. Gurkha Rifles

2nd K.E.O. Gurkhas

1/10th Gurkha Rifles (Semi- Lire Meise

Ist Bn. Rifle Brigade

60th Rifles

Reid, H.-C... a a:

Reid, Mrs. D. W. (Life J/ember)

Reuben, D. E. (1.C.S.)

Rewa, H. H. The Maharaja Garena Bahadur

(K.c.S.1.) (Life Member and Vice-Patron)

Reynolds, Hon’ bieMrol. W. (Ci mc.s.1., ae ..

Ribeiro, J. (1.c.B.) (Life Jember)

Richards, B. D. (8.Sc.)

Richardson, F. D.5S..

Riches, F. C.

Richmond, G. N. :

Richmond, RB: D:.G.F.s.)

Ridland, J. G. om

Rishworth,. Dr. “RS (iM, S.)

Ritehie, Lt:-Col. Wo De(.ons 3

Roberts, Dr. C. L. Digby

Roberts, Major F. C. (v.c., D.S.0., M.C.)

Roberts, H. V. H. Bhs

Robertson, Lawrence (c.S.1., I.C.S.)

Robinson, A. C.

Robinson, G. C.

Robinson, Capt. J. A.

Robinson, Mrs. R. B.

Rodger, A. (1-F.S., 0.B.E.)

Rogers, C. G.'(LH.s.)..: at

Rogers, Rev. Kst. Av (C.M:s.)..:

Rogerson, A. M. ao

Rondano, Rev. A. (S.J.)

Roosevelt, Kermit (Life Menten)

Roosevelt, Col. Theodore (Life J/ember)

Agra.

Ahmednagar.

Meerut.

Poona.

Meerut.

Bangalore.

Bombay.

Razmak,

Landi Kotal.

Kyzabad.

Quetta.

Jhansi.

Ambala.

Delhi.

Allahabad.

Alipore.

Razmak.

Dehra Dun.

Fort Sandeman.

Juliunder.

Lucknow.

Bombay.

Cuttack.

Rewa.

Ajmer.

Santa Cruz.

England.

Rydak.

Bhamo, Burma.

Madras.

Bombay.

Tezpur.

Mariani, Assani,

Khartoum.

Karachi.

.. England.

Bedford.

Manantoddy.

Miranshah.

Negapatam.

Dehra Dun.

London.

Nairobi.

Rangoon.

Kodialboil.

New York.

— oP

LIST OF MEMBERS

Roper, Lt. J. R. Stockley (R.A.)

Ross, Lt.-Col. E. J.

Ross, Major Tyrell (Z7fe Nienben, :

Roumania, H.M. King Carol (Life Member)

Row, Dr. R. (M.D.) ; Lae

Rowland, J. W. (1.P.)

Rowson, W.S

Roy, R. Trevor

Ruddle, W. H. rr om

Russell, Lt.-Col. G. Hy (C.I.Es, D.S.0..)

Russell, Major J. Bertrand

Rustomjee, Miss Sherene B.

Ruttledge, Capt. R. F. (w.c.)

Sanders, Major C. W. (Lzfe Member)

Sanders, D. F.

Sanderson, Henry

Sanderson, P. M. D. (F.z.s.)

Sangli, Meherban Sir Shrimant Ghia taianr 0 a

saheb Patwardhan (k.c.S.1.) (ZLzfe Member)

Sant, Maharana Shri Jarwar Sinhji, Raja Saheb of

Sarangarh, Raja Bahadur Jawahir Singh

Sarawak Museum, The Curator ...

Sarma, M. R. Venkatarama

Satya Churn sLaw, -Dr.

M.B.O.U.)

Saunders, H. F. A

Saunders, J. A. (1.C.S.)

Saunders, L. (I. P.) das

Saunders, Lt.-Col. F. W. (R.E.)

Savantwadi, H. H. The Sardesai

Savile, Sir L. (c.B.) (L7fe Wember)

Sawyer, H. H. :

Schmid, W. (Z7zfe Wenben

Schomberg, Lt.-Col. R. C.'F. (p.s.o.)

scott, A. G.

Seott, ©. W:, (2.8S.)

Scott, Major F. B. (1.4.)

Scott, J. Ramsay

Scott, R. L. (Life Al7en5er)

scroope, Capt. Ci k..... oe

seanioht; Capt. EH. G, L. (M.c., RE: )

Seaton, BE. A. (1.5.S.)..

Secretary for ecules Sia 0% and F.M. S.

Seervai, Dr. Rustom F.

Sethna, C.B. a

Seton-Karr, Capt. H. Ww. (Lite, Member)

Sevastopulo, D. G, (¥F.E.S.) -

Seymour-Sewell, Lt.-Col. R. B. (1.M.s.)

Shah, Major B. (1.M.s.)

Shanks, A. D.

Shannon, G.C. (1.C.S. )

Sharif, M. (M.sc,, F.R.M,S. )

(iA, “Bak, Pi, Dawe oZeS.

Chitral:

London.

England.

Roumania.

Bombay.

Satara.

Vandi-Periyar.

Pegu.

Madras.

Damdil.

Saklaspur.

Bombay.

Peshawar.

Jullunder.

Arnritsar.

New York.

Bombay.

Saneli.

Sant-Rampur.

Saranegarh.

Kuching.

Aduturai.,

Calcutta.

Madras.

Patna.

Chittor.

London.

Savantwadi.

London.

Bombay.

Kreuzlingen.

Herefordshire.

Jubbulpore.

Rangoon.

London.

Cawnpore.

Greenock.

Bombay,

Bangalore.

Mogok.

Kuala Lumpur.

Bombay.

London.

Calcutta.

Belgaum,

Bombay.

Rajkot.

Calcutta,

lvi LIST OF MEMBERS

Shaw, G. E.

Riyang.

Shaw, G. L. Hatipatha.

Shaw, Col. H. D. Kohat.

Shaw, John (B.F.S.) Hsipaw.

Shebbeare, E. O. Darjeeling.

Shephard, T. F. G. Bombay.

Sheppard, S. T. Bombay.

Sherred, P. R. ae Ramegarh.

Sherriff, Capt. George (R A.) Bombay.

Shipp, G. W. 1. Glasgow.

Shiriey, G. S. re Rangoon.

Shortt, Major H. E. (1.M.S.) Bombay.

Shortt, W. H. O. ues Calcutta.

Shoveller, H. L. (A.c.A.) Bombay.

Silvester, C. N. (1.S.R.) Quetta.

Simmonds, A. he ae Me ... Dimakusi.

Simmons, R. M. ae me er ... Abu Road.

Simonds, Major M. H. oe ide .. England.

Sinan; Dr voR. Ps e. ne -, i erOals

Sitwell) Major Nis), H. iGR var) 4. se sh eR ATIS.

Skinner, Lt.-Col. J. M. (1.M.s.) ... re ... Bombay.

skrine, Capt. -P. Reo. oF aie 4, London.

Sladen, J. Ma(lCesac, ae iG i Karachi,

Sladen, DruR: J. (EBCisye a ey .... London.

Slater, A. F. (A.M.1.M.E., M.B.E.) sis ... London.

Slingsby, Major T. ... on .. Wellington.

Smith, A. Kirke (Zzfe Meena ae ... Bombay.

Simith, Capt.C.iC. a. - me ... North Wood.

Smith, H. C. (Life Member) Bs i.e london:

Smith, Major G. de Heriez (/7fe Nene .. Ootacamund.

Smith, Dr. Malcolm ... ae au irl eongon,

Smyth, C. P. a ae Hie a) Alipore:

Spiythi, Ji. L. ee it oe ow) Madapi;,

SOCIETIES—

Royal Society of i es eee ... Edinburgh,

New York Zoological Society ... aa o. .New?York; U.S.Ay

Sokhey, Major S. S. (1.M.s.) ea: eo a bombay,

Sotiter, CaA.4d-C.8.).¢'S.4,,) a 2. ... Madras.

Sparrow, Col. R. te ay: i .. England.

Spence, Dr. Arthur D., M.B., CH.B. (EDIN.) (Life

Member) . of .. England.

Spence, Sir Reseed Kt. (Life Member) Re ... Bombay.

Spong, Major William A. (R.A.M.C.) ax ... England.

Spooner, T. J. (c.z.) (Life Member) ue ... Europe.

Srinivasrao, Dr. H. (M.A., D.Sc.) tee i Caleutta:

Stable, Capt. R. H. (p.S.0.) ey, a ... Secunderabad.

Stables, Major Alex. (R.A.M.C.) . i scotland.

Standen,’ Sir B. (K.¢:1.8,. 1.C.S; ) Gone Member ... Europe.

Stanford, J. K. (M.c., M.A., M.B.O.U., I.C.S.) ... London.

Stanton, W. C. (Z ife Vowben) ae ae ... London,

Stapylton, J. M.- a ae er, +, Mandla,

LIST OF MEMBERS

Steele-Perkins, Lt.-Col. C. S.

Stent. b. J- i. (F.C.S.)

Stevens, Herbert (F.z.S., M.B.O.U,)

Stevenson, Capt. H. A. (1.A.) Ne

Stewart, C, G. (1.p.s., M.A.) (L2fe Alenber)

Stewart, Prof. R. R. (ph.D.)

Stileman, D. F. (1.F.S.)

Stilemans, Mrs. F. F. ..

Stirling, J. H. te:

serling, Coli Wm. (C.M.G.,; D:S.0., R.A.) <

Stockley, Lt.-Col. C. H. (D.8.0., one , Mec.)

stokes; HG, (¢.5.8., 1.C.S.) ve

Stokes, I. W. ee

Stoney, R. F.

storey, J. O%

Studd, B.C.

Studd, E. (Lzfe Member)

Sturm, Lt. M. G. de L’Isle (R.A.M.c.)

Sudan Government Museum, The Curator ...

Sujan, N. B. (g.sc..(Edin.) F.z.s.)

Suket, H. H. Raia Lakshman Sen (L2fe emben)

Sultanbhoy Hajeebhoy

Sundari Bai, Shrimati..

Surguja, Maharaja Remon Saran Singh ies (C.B.E: 5

(Life Member)

Suter, Dr. M. F. (D.Sc.)

Swaine, J. K. (Lzfe Member)

Swan, E.J.A,

Swithinbank, Mrs. B. W. (Life Member)

Sykes, H. E. The Right Hon’ble Sir Frederick ic cs

G.CVIB.,- etc.)

Brivester E.C.

Symes, A. W. J.

Symons, C, T. an oe ae

Symons, Major-General T. H. (1.MS..

CiS.1., KiB.E;)

Tait, Mejor H.C. (1.M.s.)

Talcher, Raja Kishorechandra

Taleyarkhan, K. M. (Bar-at-Law)

hacker. Pais (O.R. Bi, L-C.S.)

Tata, Sir Dorabji J., Kt. (Life Member)

Tate, Major J. C. (1.4.)

Mavlor,.G. Joo. ae ve

Taylor, Lt.-Col. J. (D.S.0., 1.M.S.)

Waylon Wie We We MRC. S41 ;.1.C.S.. Dei, 4

Tehri, Garhwal State, Fi. H: Ras Narendra Sian

Saheb Bahadur (c.S.1.) (Lite Member)

Tejpal, Laxmidas G. G. =

Thatcher, EF. C.

dneobald, Lt. d.. A.

Thom, W.S

Thomas, B.S

lvii

Calcutta.

Nagpur.

England.

Shillove.

Insein.

Rawalpindi.

England.

Bombay.

Jodhpur.

London.

Srinagar,

Chetput.

England.

Kilpauk.

Alleppey.

Calcutta.

Belgaum.

Khartoum.

Karachi.

Suket.

Bombay.

Coimbatore.

Surguja,

France.

Matang.

Papun.

Rangoon.

Bombay.

Vandiperiyar.

Abu Road,

Colombo.

Simla.

Bombay.

Talcher.

Bombay.

Hyderabad, Dn,

Bombay.

Chhota Udepur.

S. Rhodesia.

Rangoon.

Insein.,

Tehri.

Bombay,

Sahuspur.

London.

Kalaw.

Muscat.

ili LIST OF MEMBERS

Thonras, Pose PB: ed ify i .-. Caleutta.

Thompson, C. H. (1.F.S.) ee ... Darlington

Thomson, Major D. B. a ae ... England,

Thomson--Glover, Capt. J. W. (Lite J/ember) .. Malakand.

Throne, JA. (EC!S:) ae “a .. Vallam, Tanjore.

Thronton, H. A. (c.1.F., I.C.S.) aA ... Maymyo.

Thurstield, R.-MoC. ..; sa vee .... Shwebo.

Tibbs, Rev. Canon P. G. vas a ... Chelsea.

Ticehurst, DroC, B.(M.A., M.B.0O.U., R.A,M:-C.) ae ineland,

iddy «Drake ah a re .. lneland,

TMidenwHeb. (f.C3S;).. i ae .. Wahore,

Villy, Lf. AS Chite: Mernver) ae ah .. Europe.

ead, Ax we ca See aa Caleutta,

om baz, Na CE. R.G.Ss,, ACC. )ig.s ag ... Calcutta.

ravers, Wo W.(CBih GLE.) 1.0: st .. Jalpaiguri.

Traylen, G. D. ee oH ae ... Bombay.

Treasuryvala, N. J. ... ae a ... Bombay,

Treuthardt, M. ane ee hs Lec alcutta,

Trevenen, Major W. B. Be nes ei bil pore.

Triggs, Bernard a: Europe.

Trivandrum, ‘The Gove. Mus. ana Public Garden. The

Superintendent ro ae ae .. Trivandrum.

Trotter, Genl. E, W. ... ae Se w- Bangkok,

Tanstall,-A.C, ; aes oat .. Cinnamara,

Turkhud, Dr. D. A. re B.C.M., etc.) a ... Kodaikanal.

Turner, G. M. a ae a .. Mereui.

Turner, Sir Montague La ee 2) sw eondon:

Tutein-Nolthenins, A. C. rs a i Ohiya.

Twinberrow, J. D. (M.c., 1..P.) .:. oe ... Amritsar,

Vyrrelly it.-Coly Jick. (LMS: G ... London.

Tyson, John D. (I.C.S.) ta ay un Calcutta:

Tytler,’ Major-Genl. Sir Harry (K.C.B., C.I.E., C.M.G.;

D.S.0;):.: on ay ae ... Bngland.

Ubsdell, A. Re Calcutta.

University of Amoy, The. Head ‘of the Dep an: of

Zoology er he ... Amoy, China.

University of Calcutta, The Dabraaan eae (Waleuttas

University of Dacca, The Librarian ae ... | Dacca.

University of Madras, The Registrar nae! Svea ras.

University of Rangoon, The Registrar ae ... Rangoon.

U. P. Chief Conservator of Forests a .. Naini Tal.

Wipton, chats: tes .. New Delhi.

U. S. Department of otenicare, “The eAneraee io Washington. ie.

Van Ingen; DeWet <:: bes s. WiySOre:

Vaughan, Wm. (F.E.S.) (Lzfe Member, sae Europe.

Venning, Brigadier F.E.W.(c.B.r ,D.S.0.) (Life Member Multan.

Venour, Lt.-Col. W. E. (1.4.) (Life Member) ... Europe.

Vernay, A. S. (Life Member and Vice-Patron) .... London.

Vernon, HA. B:(C:S:1.,1,C:Ss) ae sony LOnden:,

Vesugar, Jamshed (Life Member) .. Europe.

Victoria Memorial Park, The Honorary Secretary .. Rangoon,

Vijayarajji, Maharaj Kumar, Shri Ce he Bhuj-Cutch,

LIST OF MEMBERS

Villar, A. R. (1.F.S.)

Volkart, L. at eee

Wadia, D. R. D. (Bar.-at-Law) ...

Wahtclas, EL(.5-s.})

Wait, W. E.

Waite, H. W. (Life Member)

Wales; , HOR Hy “he “Prince of (K:G., M.C., etc:)

(Patron and Lite Member)

Walker, Major E. Ciare (R.E.)

Walker, Roland eed Member) ... :

Walls Col.oh, (CM... CM. 22S.) IK.H.S.,, Ia M.S.)

Walsh, E. ...

Walton, S. W.

Wapshare, J. H.

Ward, Lt.-Col. A. E.

Waterfield, H. G. a

Waterfield, T. E. (1.C.S.) is

Watson, H. W. A. (I.F.S.) eet ae

Watson, Lt.-Col. J. W. (0.B.E., I.M.S.)

Watt) Wo Ke (Mota BeSCs, D.1.Cu,- F0G.S.) 95:

Wauchope, Major R. S. (1.a.) (Life JJember)

Webb, J. E. N. es

Webb, Lt.-Col. Geo. A. fom

Webb Ware, George Boe

Webster, Major W. J. (M.c., I.M.S.)

Welch, Lt. L. O. ;

Weldon, Dr. R. P. (M.D.)

Weston, A. T. _ vas ait

Whistler, Hugh (M.B.0.U., F.z.S.) (Life J/ember)

White, L. S. (I.C.8.) ...

Whitehead, John (1.F.S.)

Whitehead, Capt. W. A.

Whymper, S. L. :

Wickham, P. F. (c.£.)

Wightwick, Major H. M.

Wilkes, J. 5S. oa

Wilkie, J. 5S.

Wilkins, P. M. Ae

William, Major Chas. H. (IZA. S, Co, B. Oss)

Williams, Lt.-Col. C. E. (1.M.s.)

Williams, Capt. G. B.

Williams, J. L. H.

Williamson, A. (1.C.S.)

Williamson, W. J. F. (C.M.G.,

Member) A ge

Wilson, Sir Arnold Coe GM Gr yn Calls: ;

K.C.1.E.) (Lite Jlember)

Wilson, Charles

Wilson, The Rt. Hon’ble Lt.-Col. Sir Leslie (p.c.,

CxC AVE, C:M.G., D-S.0.)

Wilson, Lt.-Col. P. N.

H.Z.507 Mi BsOsU, i CL77e

D.5.0.,

fix

London.

Switzerland.

Bombay.

Rangoon.

Colombo.

Rawalpindi.

England.

Bombay.

London.

Europe.

Bombay.

Guynd, Nilgiris.

Pandrathan,

Kashmir,

Gwalior. |

Sholapur.

London.

... Bombay.

Cawnpcre.

Secunderabad.

Calcutta.

Mirik.

Kodaikanal.

Bombay.

Nasirabad.

Chittagong.

Papun.

London.

Lucknow.

Naini Tal.

Wana.

London,

Winchester.

Palanpur,

London.

Peermade.

Somwarpet.

Bangalore.

London.

Bombay.

Valparai.

Rangoon,

London.

Dehra-Dun.

Workingham.,

Kamptee.

Ix LIST OF MEMBERS

Winch, H. J. a wes

Winckworth, Lt.-Col. H. C. (R.A.M.C.)

Winterbotham, G. L. (M.t.c.)

Withers, D.S. 4

Withers, F. W. (1.F.S.)

Wood, Noel H.

Wood, W. S.

Wooldridge, C. J. Ae

Wordsworth, Major R. G. (R.A.)

Workman, W. H. (F.z.S., M.B.O.U.)

Wrangham—Hardy, G.

Wright, Capt. D. Moncrieft

Wright Neville, Capt. V. R.

Wylie, F. V. (1.C.8.) o Bo

Wyndham, P. (c.8.8., I.C.S.) (Life Alember)

Yates, A. : rs

Yates, J. A.

Yeoiekar, T. G. (M.A., B.Sc.)

Young, Major H.G. (D.S.0., R.F.A.)

Zoologisches Museum, The der.

Zorawarsingh, Major (M.c.)

Zurmuhble, E.

Shivrajpur.

Calcutta.

Bombay.

Mariani.

Mergui.

Astley Bridge.

Tavoy.

Odiham, England.

Bombay.

Belfast, Ireland.

Darjeeling.

Scotland.

Hongkong.

Delhi.

London.

Munnar,

England.

Poona.

England.

Berlin.

Bhavnagar.

Bombay.

INDEX OF SPECIES

Abrornis albogularis albogularis

. schisticeps flavimentalis

ripponi ...

—_—— ——- superciliaris salwinensis

Acacia arabica

‘ Acanthopneuste Bereatie! Horealis

- lugubris

- nitidus saturatus

—__—_—___—_—-~ occipitalis coronatus.

—-—__-—_-- magnirostris ..

—_—_—___—-—— nitidus Siti pita -

SUS

—________-- tenellipes

—__.__-—_—- trochiloides

loides

Accipiter nisus melanoscnistus

Acherontia lachesis

styx

S}0) Operas:

Acononys jubatus

Acridotheres tristis

Acrocephalus bistrigiceps

- stentoreus amye

- brunnescens.

Actinodura egertoni ripponi ...

- ramsayi ramsayi ...

Adolias dirtea ...

Aegilops saccharinus

4Egypius monachus

A2githaliscus bonvaloti honeaiee

————

——— ae

trochi-

- concinnus imanipuren-

——_ —___+—_—- ——--- pulchellus...

-——~-- talifuensis...

Afgithina aoa

Aeluropus ais

brevifolius

——---——- ]zevis ... hs

~_---——— pubescens... ee Set

—__---——-- villosus

Aerachne eleusinoides ..

-——_ = verticillata

- tiphia ... see ay

PAGE PAGE

826 | Aerolryum willisii 876

826 | Agaricaceze 798

826 | Agaricus campestris © 793

826 Agelaoides badius 961

670 Agrion chinensis 578

825 Agropyrum geminatum 762

826 Agrostis barbata 483

826 | —- B ae neealedes 483

826 | aa coromandeliana 485

826 ——-—— diandra 482

——-—— elongata 483, 484

$26 | ——-—— indica 483, 485

8Z6 ————— juncea we = 484

——-—— littoralis 433, 484

826 -————- matrella 481

610 ——--——— orientalis . «= 484

891 ——-—— pungens « =: 483

891 —-~—— tenacissima 483, 484

673. ——-—— tremula 484

700. ~—-—— virginica 483

546 Ageloeoides 958

824 Ailanthus excelsa 670

824 Alemon alaudipes palida 606

656 Alcedo atthis pallasii 607

812 | taprobana 549

812 Alcippe nepalensis fratercula.. 811

939 nepalensis 811

760 -- poioicephala haringtonice 811

608 | -————--————-——_——_ magnirostris .. 811

O54) Se phayrei 81]

_ Alcurus striatus hs 814

805 Alectoris graeca koriakovi 611

805 Alhagi camelorum 2 598

805 Alseonax latirostris farmoetriet 821

543 |} - poonensis... ve 848

813 | Amaurornis phcenicura phoenicura ,.. 551

495 | Amblypodia albopunctata 938

763 | ———-- camdeo varro 938

763 | ——-- eumolphus 941

763 -- subfasciata ss» 938

769 | Ammoperdix ee ea griseogu-

/62.| ---laris ext 612

762 ~Aneectangium etechens anum . 869

iii

PAGE

Anectangium walkeri ... 869

Anapates ... 504

Anas acuta 720

———- penelope 5 O70

——- platyrhyncha 720, 979

Anatrachyntis falcatella 672

Ancylis glycyphaga 672

Andropogon barbatus .. 7958

Anhinga melanogaster cc een,

Anomalococcus indicus 67057671

Anomobryum brachymenioides S69

- cymbifolium 869 |

Anser albifrons albifrons 716

Anthipes moniliger leucops 821

——-——-obvaieus poliogenys .. van. MOZA

Anthus richardi rufulus Se Sd 7.

- sordidus decaptus es OU

Apharitis acamas hypargyros... 888, 891

Aphrastobracon flavipennis 670 |

Appias libythea &89 |

Aquila chryscetus fephane 609

Arcada bistrigata 831

~ byssus 831 |

- granosa... 83]

- ineequivalvis 531

~ Japonica 831

~ lactea i 831

Archidium ie beapr ihe 870 |

Arctogalidia leucotis 640

Ardeola grayii Sol

Argya caudata 543 |

earlii bes 809 |

Argynis hyperbiuas hyperbis. A OOO

Artamus fuscus : u 545, 823

Artemis gibba 832

Arundinaria aristata 900

baviensis . S00 |

—— callosa 900

—_— densiflora... -900 |

eo elegans ... 900

ee faleata . cos ROO)

as rare panes a var. glomerata... 400

feces falconeri ore eOOL

corm - floribunda 901 |

es - glaucescens 771 |

——- - gracilis 901 |

Apes - griffithiana 901

———- hindsii a 901

nes HOOkKeriana 901, 902

ioe - humilima 902 |

== Intermedia ry, 902 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

re as

PAGE

Arundinaria khasiana 902

macrosperma 902

——_—_——— maling 902 —

—_————. maximowiczli 902

—_—__-————- nitida 902

———_———_ pantlingi seo) 0

———_———— polystachya 902

—_——_——- prainii 902

—_—__-—~—_—- racemosa 902

———_—__————- sat balansa 903

—__—_——. sjmoni a eeiee OS

——- var. variegata.... 903

SS spathiflora 903

——. trianz x 903

— variabilis er ive OS

—_____ var. wheter 903

—— walkeriana vee 903

- —-— wightiana ~~ +903

Arundo bambos 772

—— indica arborea 772

Ascomycetes - 795

Aspidoproctus xylicze 673

Asprella australis 769

-—— brasiliensis 768

—- hexadder 769

——_———- mexiana 769

——--——- purpurea 768

Astur badius ae 550

—_—— cenchroides 610

Atella phalanta 890

Aulacopilum Abbie viator 870

Aulis vestita 886

Avena mysorensis Pale AOC

Avia filiformis pea 4G

Axis axis ceylonensis 944

Azanus jesous 891

— ubaldus : uy 891

Babax lanceolatus lancoolatae 808

—- - victoriz oan | OUD

Badamia exclamationis .. Pepemecrots it

Bambusa arundinacea ... 772, 903

— arundinaria ... cme ihe

—— - aurea sey val

——- auriculata 772

——~ arundo (de

————-——. baleooa 905

————-—— burmanica ... 905

— ceesia aoe thas

— gigantea 773

—— glaucescens... es

= —— glauca 771

INDEX OF SPECIES

Ixiii

PAGE

Bombax anceps 635

ceiba ae 632

————— heptaphyllum 632

—_—__——— insigne 634, 635.

ee genuina var. wightii. 634.

——-——- malabaricum anceps var.------~

vera 635

scopulorum 635

Brachmia xerophaga bee, OFS.

Brachymenium acuminatum ... = ws---87#*

— — exile 870

—__-—— longifolium ote) 8708

a nepalense . +876

—_—-——_- pectinedeum --- $70

a turgidum 870.

a —nanum ... 870 -

——-: walkeri : $70

Brachypternus aurantius puncticollis. 548

Briza bipinnata 486

—-~—- eragrostis . =-493-

—- oblonga = 492.

| ——-rubra re 491

Brizopyrum mucronatum 495

Bromus polystachios = 495-

Bryosedguackia kirtikarii ~870

Bryum apalodictyoides - 870

——— argenteum geeks «ee 876-

— ——— var. australe ers

—-— coronatum 871

——— filiforme 869

——-— ghatense 871

——-— sahyadrense qe p

——— Sb. 871, 877

——— strigosum 871, 876

——— wightii 871

Bubalus bubalis ubaNe 943

Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris 989

Buvgarus czeruleus 722

Burhinus cedicnemus 745

— astutus ... 748

— indicus ... 746

Butea frondosa 851, 853, 855

superba 856

Buteo sp. f= Dol

Butheolus melanurus 952, 953

Buthus pachyurus 681, 953

-~- rugiscutis 681,..953-

- tamulus 681, 953.

Byasa aristolochic Serer stato)

coon doubledayi ears 3

neptunus ee 938

PAGE |

Bambusa eriffithiana 905

= humilis age

a khasiana we 905

=. lineata 905

— nana : ~~FF1; 905

—- —— var. pipnonce 905

—_—_—-—- var. gracillima ~:., 906

— neesiana The

— nutans 906

_—— oliveriana 906

———_——- orientalis sae ae

—— pallida 906

————- polymorpha S06

— pungens ae sae. LS

——_——_—— ridleyi ae fee 07,

——_—-——— ritcheyi T73

— sieberi Piz

— spinosa Tee

sterilis TAM

—-— striata dhe

——_—__———. surinamensis Bets eo pie

——-———— teres 907

a _--— thouarsii 772

a tulda 907

——_—__—— variegata ive mn LUE

——_— —_—__-—_--———_ var. dureo-varie-

gata Ae Vian

—————— viridiglaucescens ... ee hia

— vulgaris ae 772, 908 |

—_—_—___-____---—_ yar. striata 772 |

—_-—_—__--—_ var. vittata Tee

Bandicota nemoriwaga 649

Baoris canarica yatesi 1000

mathias 891

zelleri colaca 891

Barbella enervis 876

——— rufifolia A 870

Barbula comosa ; sae 870

——-——. consanguinea 870

———— dharwarensis 870

———— indica 870

—__—_—__.——-— sterilis 870

Basidiomycetes 795

Bathybius haeckelti fieoks)

Belomys pearsoni 648

——-——— trichotis 648

Belenois mesentina . ~ 889

Bhringa remifer tectirostris 823

Bibos gaurus 983

Blepharochloa ciliata 768

Boletus 798

ixiv

Byasa zaleucus

Byblia ilithyia

Cacomantis merulinus

Calandrella acutirostris acutirostris ...

Caliphaea confusa

—— consimilis

--581,- 596,

Calliocostella papillata Peeirasce ne)

Calliope calliope ;

Callosciurus ferrugineus

rufigenis ...

Calophyllum inophyllum

Calopteryx basiliaris

-———- chinensis

—— --——. disparilis

——--——- gracites

-—— SiNeNnsis

Calotes sp.

Calotheca elegans

Calymperes fosdii

—-—-nietneri var.

——- tortelloides...

Camponotus coimpressus

Campylopus aureus

comosus

See nennnice.

goughii

laetus

sedgwickii

Canis aureus

———-- chanco

indicus

lupus

———- pallipes

Cannomys pater ...

Capopteryx ameena

Capriola dactylon

Caprimulgus asiaticus .

Carassius auratus

Cardiada asiaticum

Carduelis caniceps subulata

Carine brama tarayensis

Carpodacus, sp. ...

Cassia kleinii

pumila

tora

Cassius areola

coranulata

smmecane PUfUus

sulcosa

- tuberosa

Castalius rosimon

643,

atro-viride.

497,

642,

Tails

, SS

INDEX OF SPECIES

Catachrysops strabo

Catapodium filiforme ... ve

Catopsilia crocale

florella

pomona

pyranthe

seyHa |

Cenchrus linearis

——~-—— muricatus

——--———. racemosus

tripsaceus

Centotheca lappacea

Centropus sinensis parroti

Cephalostachyum capitatum ...

———=

—

——- fuchsianum

—_—__—-—_—-——-- lactifolium ...

—_—__—___--—- pallidum

=~ persracile ja:

Cephonodes hylas

Cerasophila thompsoni

Cerithiada telescopis

Ceroplastodes caijani

— ceriferus

Certhia discolor fuliginosa

——_-_-—— Victorice

- familiaris khamensis

- vimalayana intermedia

- yunnanensis

Cervus eldi

Ceryle rudis leueonelontes

Cherocampa alecto

butus

celerio

oldenlandiz

theylia

Cheetornis locustelloides

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala

Chalcophaps indica

Chaptia znea eenea

Charadrius ocedicnemus

Charaxes fabius

Charronia flavigula RA

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum .

Chibia hottentotta hotttentotta

_Chilades laius me

Chilasa paradoxa Siearenus sie

- var. danisepa

Chione pipgius

radiata a

Chiropodomys gliroides

| Chloris abyssinica an att

PAGE

891

» -- 889

. ~~ BBY

726, 889

889

938

480

-480

.. ~ 480

770

549

908

909

g92

814, 991

553

670

816

815

651, 652

549, 784

g92

892

783

817

551

813

745

890

642, 648

821

546, 823

890

933

937

832

651

759

PAGE

Chloris barbata 758

- var, Gecora 758

- caudata Whey

- compressa 757

-cryptostachys ... : Se HO”

- decora ; 51s 150

——-- digitata tee FOO

- elegans 7d

- gayana 759

- glabrata 759

- incompleta 736

- meccana 757

- montana 157

- mucronata ee LOU)

- pallida 756, 757

- penicillata Fad

- polydactyla - They!

- quinquesetica .. 759

- radiata 756

- roxburghii 756

- tenella 756

- tetrameris 756

- tetrapogon 757

- tetrastachys Tod

- triangulata 756

- villosa 757

- virgata 757

Chlorophyceze BAe 573

Chloropsis aurifrons Benrone 813

- davidsoni 543

ae hardwicki hardwicki 513

————- icterocephala chloroce-

phala 813

Chusquea abictfolia 910 |

muelleri 910 |

pallida a 72010

Cicer arietinum FR YA AT (S 3)

Cinclus pallasii marila 3 816)

Cirrochroa orissa 938

Cissa chinensis chinensis 803

Cisticola exilis tytleri asa

———— juncidis cursitans 546, 824 |

Clamator jacobinus 714, 964

Clanis (ambulyx) sp. 692

phalaris Su2Z |!

Clayariaew 798

Clenium digitatum 756

———— indicum 150

Climacobasis lugens 589

——_——_-_——-- modesta . 589

Coccystes coromandus ... 807

)

INDEX OF SPECIES

Cochoa purpurea purpurea

Ccesalpinia pulcherrima

Colliocostella papillata...

Collocalia unicolor unicolor

Colotis amata

- danae

- etrida

- fausta fausta

- vestalis

Columba livia neglecta...

Conus ammiralis

geographus

gloria maris

monachus

mutahilis

pagodus

textile

Coprinus fe =

Copsychus saularis saularis

Coracias benghalensis indica

Corallina p a

Corvus corax ee re

- coronoides

See eee

- splendens

—- insolens

Coryllis indicus “%

Coturnix coturnix coturnix

Cricula trifenestrata

Criniger tephrogenys burmanica

grandis...

Crocidura kingiana

Crocodilus palustris

porosus

Crypsirhina cucullata ..

Ctenidium stereodontoides

Cuculus canorus

Cuon sp. : Ps

Cupha eriearinic eee

Curetis thetis oe

Cutia nipalensis nipalensis

Cyanophycece

Cyanopttrus sphinx Sivas

Cyanosylvia robusta suecica

Cyathodium cavernarum

Cybister confusus

557, 558

——-splendens ...

...691, 721, 996

=— felephonius &

Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis

-——_———-- orientalis

651, 652

Ixy

PAGE

819

852

871

ax 549

889

. §8s9

611

558

557

558

597, 558

558

798, 799

544, 818

548

575

598

542

802

787

802

542

550

612

673

813

647

721, 996

corodilus siamensis 691, 721, 996

803

Sal

816, 964

. 608

821

642

w- . 938

891

813

573

818

1002

653

Ixvi

Cynodon dactylon

elongatus

Cynopterus brachyotis Paalaene

——_-———— sphinx

Cynosurus ceegyptius

coracanus 5

distachyus ... ape

durus

——— —— indicus

retroflexus .. z

Cyers banyumas Aigliemar.

——hodgsoni

————. magnirostris

-——_—— melanoleuca

aes ee

———— pallipes pallipes

———— sapphira eG

——-———. superciliaris astigma

——-—— tickelliz tickelliz

——-—— tricolor cerviniventris

-———— unicolor unicolor

——-—— vivida oatesi

Cyproea arabica ...

—— arabicula

argus

histrio

lynx

mappa

——-——— moneta

sautherina

————- scottii

——_—— tigris

——_-——. undata

Cytherea

Dactylis previtolie a

cynosuroides ...

—— paspaloides

Dactyloctenium egyptiacum

——-——-~ aegyptium

—_——--—— distachyum ...

——_— —_——- glaucophyllum

——___—___——_-- radulans

-——_——- scindicum

Dactylopius sp.

Dafila acuta

Danais chrysippus

—— dorippus

———-- limniace

———- melanippus

—_—- —-—._ westermannt .

PAGE

636,

rubeculoides rubeculoides ...

O44,

var. alcippoides...

754

756

646

760

762.

760

486

762

820

82)

820

545

820

520

820

559

506

559

560

559

832

763

764

760

760 |

760

761

760

761"

672

719

890 |

890

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Danais plexippus 890

Daphnis nerii 892 —

Delias eucharis 889

Dendrocalamus rendiei 910

———-- calostachyus ... Orr

a collettianus 91}

-—-- flagellifer 91k

—__—_—__- giganteus 743, OU

—___—___- hamiltonii O1t:

ae hirtellus cpl

——— hookeri 912

—_—_—- latiflorus saee

—_—_— -longifimbriatus OMe,

—__—__—__-——- longispathus. ... 912

a macroculmis .. 91?

—-- mem branaceus 913

—_——- patellaris 913

——- sikkimensis 913

—__—_—— strictus ... 4/3, 913, 914

rs var. sericea... ‘O15

Dendrocitta rufa 542

—_-—___—___——— kinneari 803

—_——__-—_—-——- sclateri 803

sinensis assimilis 803

Dendronanthus indicus ‘ 547.

Dendrophasa pompadora pomuadaen 551

Desmazeria unioloides ... 495

Desmostachya biplumata 486

-- cynosuroides ... . 486

Diaphanodon procumbens flagellifera 871

Dice-um erythrorhynchus 548

Dicranella divaricata 871

Dicranoloma leucophyllum 876

Dicranum lactum 871

Dicrurus annectens A ama COME

— leucophzus . 546, 823

——_—___—_—__—_—__-——— hopwoodi 823

—___-—_________--—_ nigrescens 832

-——-- ——— macrocercus... 545, 823

Didymodon rufescens ... 871

Digitaria elongata 756

Dilephila livornica 982

Dinaba egyptiaca 764

Dinebra arabica ... 763

-- retroflexa 763

Dinochloa andamanica... gis

Diplachne elongata 490

--— fusca... 495

indica 495

Dipterocarpus tuberculatus 637

Dissemurus paradiseus... 709, 824

———

INDEX OF SPECIES Ixvii

PAGE | PAGE

Dissemurus paradiseus grandis .. 824 Eleusine scindica Pe a Vas

——malabaricus... 546 ——-— sphasrosperma i oe orks

——rangoonensis. 824 —-—— tocussa Pepts siete ph GD

Dolichos lablab Le ae .. 668 | ——--——- tristachya ee ne ge Oz

Dolium maculatum _... Pee O00) === === verticillata:. mes ve 769

Donax incarnatus Sie bie . 832 Elythrophorus articulatus —... = 469

scortum ... 6 - 832 KEmberiza stewarti oe ms, oe ©1605

Dremomys rufigenis aan 649 | Englossophyllum ligulatum ... fe OL!

Dryonastes ceerulatus kaurensis Soha ac10 7 | Enicurus immaculatus... oe Sales ir:

—-: chinensis leucogenys ... 806 -—-~-~--— leschenaulti indicus Ne el Wi,

—- galbanus ... AAP .. 07 |-———-—— maculatus cuttatus ... Sew Oly,

——- TUhcollis) s. a .. 806 -—--—— schistaceus ... St i Oly

—- sannio ioe ag weet O07, | Enneapogon elegans ... i St 700

Duchassaingia ovalifolia ee ... 629; Enteropogon badamicum see me 55

Dytiscus marginalis ... an 653, 654 | Entodon paca ns 872, 876

Ebruna spirata ... ae a Sor ley Sasser eee cour simonph opnuee oe

Eburna spirata ... aes yee ee WO lus. ve oe a =P eer OTe

Echis carinata ... ; se a 723,| woglaucomys” ... ve a > 565

Echo (Climacobasis) madeatal” Meee OO { = fim briatus oP eee OG

——- malayensis... fe re ... 589 | Epipyrops eurybrachides bas ae Oa

=eeenarcatita margarita <. .-:.. 587 | = fulginosa.., sai) ena O72

SE —tripartita ... 586;.588 <> polygtapbas.. . i. 674

Ectropothecium compressifolium ... 87] | Hragrostisamabilis ... —... 489, 49}

eee ee cyperoides fan ia 871 | -—~--—-——. arabica sat re Ae 488

Elaphas maximus zeylanicus ... a, 9405) Tee es aspeta ve vee .., © 488

Bictomercoyptiacds: Sct icc <6 f00 | Soa AEPO-Virens® 00. a, AOA

Pee an iCd aye at ek ty 67635 6 iltatia Sh ge age ds eee

——_——— aristata... elie wie 170) | os Uhachyphylia oe inet AOS

== brevifolia K ae Se A763 se, DEC MINONIA. "07 ae it 2403

cash eT, calycina Lae Dae nae 764 | -—---— brownei oa ate ei 492

——-——- cerealis... me WA Oo a ee caudate oe oe -.. 490

ae ciliata. :.. vs Lt ~ .. 760 | --—--=—— chinensis... a tans) 40

——--— coracqna Moe fo O24) aaa ey MOsuroides win ee 9 486

== crueiata eee 760 | = —— ciliaris Seale chs ae

== distachya ate oat GON a Cate fe a ves -487

————- distans ... ee mes .. 762| -——--—— collocarpa ... at we ~ 493

———— domingensis ... ws fae “AZ —-—— despiciens ... oe, .. ~489

——_—— flagellifera ... = (03 ee lanera, | Sa, % .. 490

———— glaucophylla ... 5 ae 761 | --——~--——— diarrhena ... ve: .. ~--490

——_—- gouini ... Kis re .. 762} -—-~—— diplachnoides a .. 490

SS gracilis ae a ee shen 762 | Sal ae elegantula aes oe w.. --- 492

— — inequalis is Bae .. 762) ——-~ ~~ eragrostis ... ak oe 492

——-— indica ... Ly a a. /G2n = tex UOSa, ee is wee - 492

—-——ridigifolia .. .. .. 762| --—-~--—-- gangetica .. ... —... ---492

a ereinata ~.., & E762. hapatantha <= ae ... -~ 490

——— mucronata... a .. 760) -———---- indica ae oat 494

——— pectinata i hs p68. POET Up tay 2 .. 490

—— prostrata in ao SeenON Ot tera: interrupta var. aienhenae 490

——-—— racemosa ae ae Pim oat ior aes pees ee ge ae diplachnoi-

—-—-—— radulans rm we hy MEOe des... 490

——~—— scabra ... as 3 a: 7620 —— —— tenuissima. 490

ixviii

nee PAGE

Eragrostis japonica 490

— kocenigii 490

~———---— lepida... 485

— lobata 488

aioe 492

——-~—--—- megastachya 492

——_——-—— minor 493

——— — minutiflora ... 490

~~——-—— mossulensis ... 490

—————_ mucronata ... 495

~———-——— multiflora 492, 493

——_—-~——— nutans 490

—————- paniculata 488

= Papposa 494 |

—_—_——— parviflora 494

——————- parviglumis ... 493

——— —— pellucida 494

———-—— pilosa .. 404

——_——-— plumosa . 488, 489

——-——-— poceformis .. ea 3

——_——— pceoides 492, 493.

— polymorpha... 49]

——_———_— procera 495

————— pulchelia 488

——_-—-— punctata 494

~——-———— rhachitricha... 493

——_— —— rigidifolia 494

———-— rupestris... a, 488

————— sp. sect. sclerostachya 495

————-— speirostachya 494

——_——— stenophylla... 492

—_—_——-— stricta ee ee!)

———_———_— tenella eas 489, 490

var. plumosa 489

riparia 489

——$ viscosa 489

————- tenellula 490

— —tenuifolia ... a 493

=tenwissima 27;5 0eee 490

————~ tremula 493

——-—--— unioloides si - 491 |

- var. brachvstachya 488

—_——_-_-——— ciliaris proper ... 488

———- verticillata 490, 494 |

——_——-- viscosa 489

- vulgaris var. megastachya, 492

——— speirostachya 494

Ergolis ariadne .. - 890

Eriboe delphis 933

Erpodium man giferee <re 9 OME

Erpornis xantholeuca.xantholeuea ..... 813 |

INDEX OF SPECIES

AN PAGE

Erythrina arborescens : Bnet oro

— blakei Mh eggle a 2a oe

-—_—_——- carnea eee ey ie eee

-———— corallodendron “a .. O29

-———— crista-galli 631

-———_———- fasciculata 631

-——-——- fusca we “O28

--——-——— indica §25, 851

see — var. alba hee ia te O28

—— - marmorrata 628

—————_—. parcellii 628

—_——— picta 628

—-— laurifolia 631

-——_—— lithosperma ... 629

-—_-———- mysurensis 650

-—————- orientalis 623

~-——-——. ovalifolia 629

——_-———- resupinata 631

~—————— secundiflora 630

~——-———- speciosa 631

-—_—-——- stricta 628

-—_————. suberosa Foy eee ae 629

—_—— var. glabrescens... 630

— sublobata ..... 630

—-——-——- subumbrans 630

--—_-_——— tomentosa 630

-——_——— umbrosa 631

-———_——-. velutina sy 631

Erytbrospiza githaginea crassirostris. 604

Esacus magnirostris 751

- recurvirostris 749

Eublemma amabilis 669, 670

—— coccidiphaga 669

—_———. gayneri z; 67]

——_-——— scitula ... 669, 670, 671

—— vinotincta 4 aeeeOO9

Euchrysops cnejus Heyer tote}

— - contracta .. a3 OO

Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus. . 519

Eulabes religiosa -§46

Eulaceura osteria 941

Euploea bremeri... wv - 93]

- core eo 80

- diocletiana 931, 937

— godarti ... sos OSL

— harrisi joel lo “eee: a OR

~ klugii «ov ---931

——- limborgi... rel ames se 91

- mulciber... ae ash ee ERS

Eurybrachus tomentosa wees OLD

Euthalia dunya .., 9.39

INDEX OF SPECIES

ris PAGE |

Euthalia nais’ 890

oe <a. 2900

Eutriana abyssinica SSS)

Euxophera cocciphaga .. 673

Everes parrhasius BY: Me 890

Falco peregrinus peregrinator hill

——-- subbuteo ... oy 787

——- tinnunculus i ferstinetas 611

Faunis arcesilaus ate 1-939

Felis affinis 642, 647

- bengalensis 642, 647

——- catus 506 |

——- domestica .. 647

——-- marmorata 647

—- ocreata 506

——- ornata a ; Sh arte

——- pardus 647, 651 |

ae pardus 945 |

——- sylvestris fe eee 5008

——- tigris ., 506, 512, 535

a balica ... 934, 539, 540

———_——_ longipilis ph)

———_——- mongolica 529

———— njgra... : 528

——_——- septentrionalis or oo OL

———— sondaica ... 534, 535, 537, 540

——_——— sumatrana 535

—— var. amurensis 527

——- virgata 519

Festuca fusca 495

— indica 495

— iscoides ... 557

Fisssidens crenulatus 872

——- diversifolius ... 872

——-———- immutatus 872

——-——~- karwarensis ... 872

—_——-- macropporus ... 872

———= sch midii 877

— sedgwichii 872

os splachnobryoides 872

subfirmus 872

—- walkeri ie 872

-_— var, elim batus 872

—- zipellanus 872

zollingeri 872

Floribundaria sparsa 877

Fomes 798

Franklinia Sere = 824

—— rufescens Prreceen: res 825

Fratercula arctica 782

Fucaceze 575

Fucus sp. ae

Fulvetta ruficapilla eeraiaior

———— vinipecta austeni

Funaria calvescens connivens

-- hygrometrica

-~ leptoda

-- nepalense

Galerida cristata magna

Galleria mellonella

Gallinago stenura

(ralloperdix spadicea

Gallus sonnerati :

Gampsorhynchus rufilus migies:

Garrulax leucolophus belangeri

leucolophus

——-—— moniliger

-—— pectoralis

Garrulus bispecularis Paragon

-—— leucotis leucotis

—— oatesi

Gasteromycetes

Gavialis gangeticus

Geocichla citrina citrina

—— cyanotis

-~——~-—— sibirica davisoni

——-——-— sibirica

Gigantochloa compressa

kurzii

——-——_——_ latispiculata

ligulata

macrostachya

scortechini

wrayi

Glaziophyton mirabile ...

Gmelina arborea...

Gossampnius rubra

Gracilea royleana a ot

ee VAT. pleniecs

Grammatoptila striata austeni

Graucalus macei macei

—— siamensis _..,

Gunomys varius

Gymnopogon digitatus

eee

a’

Gymnoris xanthacollis xanthacollis .,

Gymnostomillum vernicosum

Gymnostomum cylindricum

————- involutum

Gynatkothrips kannani sp. nov.

Gypaetus barbatus grandis

Halcyon smyrnensis

Haliastur indus indus .

iy note

873,

. 807

549, 713

lxix

PAGE

574

8ii

81i

877

873

607

672

551

810

807

804

795

995

819

544

818

915

645

632

754

755

808

S45

Peo 823

650

756

547

873

. 873

873

667

609

_...550

ixx

PAGE

Haliotis striata ~ 961 |

Halopyrum mucronatum 495 |

Haminea galba 054 |

Hasora alexis 891 -

Hebomoia glaucippe 935

Helarctos malayanus 648 |

Hemarthria compressa Fis |

_._ fasciculata 7/94

2 —— glabra Ce)

; - uncinata (io4

Hemichelidon cinereiceps es 820

— sibirica remata 820

a - rothschildi 820

Hemipus picatus capitalis 822 |

me —— picatus 545

Hemixus flavala flavala 814 |

Ener hildebrandi 814 |

___.--_— macclellandi binghami 814

——_ _— macclellandi.. 814 |

oe ~ tickelli S14

Herbivocula schwarzi a el NOeS

Herpestes birmanicus .. 636, 642, 648 |

-- nipalensis 636 |

——_ --——_ urva 642 |

Hesperia galba 831 |

Hetarolocha peauneets 787 |

Heterolepis elegans 7ST. |

Heteroxenicus cruralis qe IQ Gat

i. — nepalenisis wepalenee 816

ee iniciels 816

HierococcyxX varius ae 549

Himantocladium rugulosum ... S775

Hippopus oe Oo

Hipposiderus bicolor 646, 651

—_———_ — fuivus : 646

Hirundinapus gigantea iaaien 549

Hirundo daurica Bs i. 547

—_--— emironyera 606

ee COI ie 606

ooo = Tusticagutturalis 547

—_——_—__-+__——-- rustica... 506

Holarrhena antidysenterica 706

Holocerca iceryocella 672 |

—_—-———(Hypatima) pulverea 672

Homaliodendron javanicum ... 877

Homalocenchrus gouini 769

—_—- hexandrus 769

Homomallium simlense 877

Hordeum sativum 771

—-——- vulgare 771

pats -- var, qietionon A

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Hordeum vulgase var. hexastichon ... 771

-———_ ——————-- nudum 771

Horeites brununifrons brunnifrons 827

umbraticus 827

Ilorornis fortipes fortipes 826

-—— pallidipes pallidipes 826

Huhua nipalensis 550

Huphina nerissa 889

Flydnacee . 798

Fy aronnacante chindeens visa CEA

Hyelaphus porcinus st 645, 651

- porcinus... 944

Hygroryza aristata 769

——- ciliata 768

Hylopetes phayrei probus 648

Hymenogastracecé tt go

Ffyinenomycetes 795, 797

Hy:menostomun edoneuiies 873

Hy menostylium xanthocarcum 873

Hyophila cylindrica -27 MOL

——- involuta 873, 877

—. -—--- involuta elata 877

——_—-——. sternocarpa 873

————- subflaccida 873

—~ - walkeri 873

Hyophilopsis éatnattodanalacea 873

Hypaphorus subumbrans 630

Hypnoum ligulatum 875

Hypolimnas bolina 890

nisippus 890

— - var, inaria 890

Hypothymis azturea styani 821

sykesii 545

lanthia cyanura rufilata 818

- indica indica Ay 818

Ianthocincla austeni victorie ... 808

cineracea cineracea 807

_ -styani ... <3 OO

rufogularis assamensis... 808

Ichthyophis glutinosus Sa me®

—-— var. tricolor. 724

monochrous 723

Ictinaétus malayensis perniger 550

Idiocerus spp. 671

Impatience balsamina 732

Indicator xanthonotus 962

ole icterica 544

olivacea lonbergi 815

virescens ... 815

Irena puella 546

Ischurochloa Aeabunda

771

Isometrus europzeus

Isopsera pedunculata

Ixalus sp. .

Ixias marianne

-—— pyrene

Ixobrychus minutus Pitas

Ixops nipalensis poliotis

Ixulus flavicollis

—_—-——— baileyi

———$ —__ ——_ harterti

humiles clarkii

Iyngipicus gymnopthalmus

Jamides bochus

Kachuga sp.

— ——— trivittata

Kallima doubledayi

——_-—— horsfieldi

wardi

Kittacincla macroura albiv ents

indica

Koeleria brevifolia

——-—— lagopoides

Laiscopus collaris ripponi

Lalage melaschista avensis

- sykesii

Laminaria digitata

Lamprosema indicata

Lanius colluroides

cristatus cristatus

~ lncionensis

nigriceps nigriceps

schah caniceps

erythronotus

- tephronotus

Lappago allena

———— biflora

——_——— latipes

—-—— occidentalis

——_-———— racemosa

Larvivora brunnea

——-—— wickhami

Latipes senegalensis

_ Lawsonia sp.

Lecanium cle

—— Sp.

Leersia abyssinica

eegyptiaca

-aristata ...

- australis

~ brasiliensis

= CAPENSIS 5.

INDEX OF SPECIES these

PAGE

681, 953

544,

545,

54:

497

——

PAGE

Leersia ciliaris ... oe sigs a.) 109

= Ciliata’.- %.. a ee a 09

~ contracta 355 a) - 768

—- elongata a a a, 2 BOS

—ferox ... ere ee ASE

— glaberrima e. at aa, O09

-gouini... MAL a a 109

-gracilis ... ee ae ... 768

— griffithiana o a fon DS

— hexandra sy ee i ACS,

~ luzoniensis rd os ... 768

—mauritanica ne eth et 608

- mexicana 2 ee oe LOU

parviflora = a a... (68

- triniana oe ig, 2 108

Leioptila annectens Annectene vie Pole

- saturata ... ae POs

— castanoptera ... = mee FOL?

——-— eracilis ae ot. cole

———— melanoleuca Peis leticn fa: ., 7OLL

———__$ ——__—————- radcliffei eee Pole

Lepidopilum rhaphidostegium nn OLS

Leptochloa arabica ~ ve .. 164

——- bipinnata ... ie .. 486

——-——-- calycina ... ean se. - 708

—_——-——- chinensis ... i .. 496

—__—-———- filiformis... ve . 496

-tenerrima ... sd .. 496

Leptocircus currius ee a: eps 015)

——- meges = i 3 936

Leptccoma asiaticus ... a O47

-zeylanicus ... oe ha, | O44

Leptoderes ornatipennis ots .. 904

Lepturus aciculatus aa ~*~ eee!)

——_-———- repens... we ee LO

——-—_——- roxburghianus = 7. 700

Lepus peguensis mt ... 644, 650, 651

Lestes ms tre <4 3d Cnprtnehs «8040

angularis ae bas ... 848

decipiens ve wed ay ) eae

dorothea Si ae .. 844

elata elata ee * 845, 846

malabarica re .. 847

proemorsa Wade mancencls ad ee

ae —— precemorsa ... 811, 845

—— —— sikkima ee au O40

sponsa.... a be ... 840

viridula ... of ge ... 849

Ieucanitim:sp, 2... oak ace ck

——--- hemisphericum ... a O00

oho fay |

Leucobryum javense .., ea i

lxxii

PAGE

Leucoloma nitens 877

~—— renauldii 873

—_—--——- sarcotrichum 873

—_———- strictifoliuim 873

—— walkeri 873

Leucomium aneurodiction 873

Leucophlebia emittens oo) Shoe

Leucos pore on 798, 799

Levierella fabroniacia ... ah ecu Ore

ee var. dilatati-

nerve 874

Libellula chinensis 578

Lima indica 831

Limosa lapponica fagnenice a 716

Liothrix lutea callipyga 813

yunnanensis 813

Lobivanellus indicus indicus 551

Locustella certhiola 824

lanceolata 824

Lolium coelorachis a 770

Lophophanes dichrous wellsi .. 805

Loxia curvirostra a 790

—— himalayana 790

Lucniacea antiquata 831

Ludolfia glaucescens 771

Lycoperdaceeé 796

Lyroderma lyra 646

Macaca mulatta 640, 645

—— sinica .. 946

Machlolophus a loner: Supvitiate ae an O09

- xanthogenys 542

Macroglossa belis 892

gyrans 892

Macromitrium ceylanicum 877

— ellipticum 874

—— — neelgheriense ..: 874

—_— subleptocarpum 874

— sulcatum 874, 877

Macropteryx sublobata 630

Macrothamniella pilosula 877

Malacocincla sepiaria abbotti ... 810

Mareca penelope 719

Margarita umbilicalis 561

Martes flavigula 634

Matrella juncea 481

Matrona basilaris pesilenie 593

——- nigripectus 594

Megaderma sp. 643

Megalestes irma .. st BST

= major $35, 836

Megalurus palustris 825

INDEX OF SPECIES

Megastachya ciliaris

- eragrostis

- polymorpha

Melanitis Jeda : ™

Melanocenchris ‘eamecinad’,,.

—————- plumosa

royleana

—=

Melanochlora sultanea sultanea

Melanospore

Melia indica

Melica digitata =e:

Melittophagus eryiuroce phair.

Melo ethiopica sae

Molocalamus eomianernonts ee

Melocanna bambusoides

Melogale personata

Melursus ursinus

798,

Ss ; 702,

... 640, 644, 619,

945

Menetes berdmorei 980

———— —- decoratus... 649

Merceyopsis pellucida 874

Meré6e effosa 832

Merops apiaster ... 607

- orientalis onentalis 548

- persicus persicus i OOF

Merostachys capitata ... Bae IG,

clausseni ... 916

— fischeriana 916

Se kunthiana... 916

neesii 916

_— petiolata ... 916

racemiflora 916

Mesia argentauris argentauris 813

Metaponia pusilla wceot O05

Meteoriopsis squarrosa .. 874, 877

Metopidius indicus 474

Microchloa setacea 193

Microcichla scouleri scouleri 817

Microperdix erythrorhyncha O51

Micropternus brachyurus 548

Micropteryx stricta 628

suberosa .. 629

Micropus affinis affinis ... 549

Microscelis leucocephalus 814

——- psaroides concolor 814

——-—__ ———— vaneesa 543

— nigrescens 814

Microtassus melanocephalus melano-

cephalus a O86 Ole

Microtareus poliocephalus 544

_Milvus migrans govinda . 900, 610, 787

— lineatus 610

INDEX OF SPEGIES Ixxtit

PAGE PAGE

Mitra ebernus _... a a 2 2 550) Nardus thomoca Bek ae vet 53

——- episcopalis... ace 553, 555 | Nastus arundinaceus ... Me ae eae ACA

Mixornis rubricapilla rubr apie ... 811 | Natica didyma 562

Mnais andersoni ... a i" eee OUR lineata ie be pre OUS

-costalis... oF ie re hOcon| maculosa oe as oe AS

earnshawi... +9 Si Ga Veh rufa a tS Mort se SOS

icteroptera a e. ... 592 | Nazia racemosa aes bed .. 480

pruinosa ... ae 18 7 . o9d | Nekera andamana mA ‘te amc

Molothrus ff eu oa ... 958 | Nekeropsis andamana ... re i S74

— ater ... oT ee -« 96l-|* Nemeritis canescens... a ae 073

———_—— bonariensis ... oe ... 961 | Neohouzeana dallooa ... . ay 916

—— rufraxilaris... ire ne > 961s helfert * =, a ce eA)

Molpastes heemorrhous... baa pe Cie. gee stricta ie ee ae Ol)

—_—_ articapilla ... 814 tavoyana ... dee pane Ol

——_ ——_—_—_—_———-—-—burmanicus ... 814 | Neomyrina hiemalis ... pe ne 995

————_———_———-——-cchrysorrhoides. 814 Neophron percnopterus ginginianus... 550

———heemorrhorus... 543 _ —-percnopterus. 609

ae ——nigripileus .... 814 Neornis flavolivaceus intricatus Nee aOcU

——leucotis fe ae ... 599 | Neosuthora davidiana thompsoni ... 806

Monerma repens a io; .. (7/0: | -Nephele hespera ve ae are Ue,

Monophlebus stebbingi... a ... 880 | Nesokia bandicota iat ae se MOSG)

Monticola cinclorhyncha a 544, 819 -- elliotanus a aut ... 649

—- erythrogastra ae ... 819) Nestor notabilis am 5 lA LTS

———- gularis gularis ae ... 819 | Netta rufina aa ate aes Ke)

————- saxatilis ee a ... 819 | Neurobasis chinensis chinensis. 5/8, ool

———-- solitaria affinis rr .. 819 | NMidulariacee ... ie a Va 4700

—— ——-pandoo ... .. 544 |) Niltava grandis ox we a, Sed

——- transcaspia .. 604 ~macegrigoriz ... oe ae oed

Moschiola MEIN Nag 20: ee OSS: | — sundara sundara ae: teh. Ool

Motacilla alba Peer aren ... 547 | Notholestes el wesii ee ve. See Pew

—-cinerea ~_... 8: ... 047 | Notodela leucura ee cide 2s, OLS

Muntiacus grandicornis eat =. 600 || Nucula fultori el ath va. WOOE

—-- malabaricus i? ... 945 | Nurobasis apicalis a BY, Yh ee clo:

——sp.... arts a ... 644) Nycticebus coucang... 641, 971, 1000

Murex adustus ... it ite ... 994] Nyroca ferina oe i sek Al)

brandaris... ne ae ej OO ~~ rufa ey ea a a ae

endivia... at ie .. 894! Ochlandra beddomei ... Te ie = ay

haustellum Me re iad oro -—— brandisii ... se hae gh)

SCOEDIOM. ... ae ah ww. OO4 | ————-—— rheedei ae by oe ey

tenuisperia ei: a: O04 | —— var. sivagiriana... 774

~ Mus homourus ... eet 650, 651, 652 | .———_-——— ridleyi ie sa prea OL7

—— (Rattus) nemorivaga it, .. 649 | ———— Sivagiriana ee fay A AE

Muscicapa striata neumanni ... ... 602 | ——-— stridula ae iat ee Y)

Mycalesis fuscum ae a. ... §32 | ——-—— talboti ae ae 774, 917

Mycerobas melanoxanthus _... ea 7 Sl ——- travancorica Bre ee ely

Myiophoneus teminincki eugenii ... 819 Ochreospor@ ae ire a 798, 799

——-temmincki... 819 | Ocimum sanctum Ae 30: wn 670

Myrmecophana fallax ... a ... 498} Octoblepharum albidum Sy. fo S74

Mytila smaragdinus as pie ... 830} Odina decoratus eS aay i OGL

Nacaduba nora a ai Sy daw teal — hieroglyphica ANTE rin WOKE

Nardus indica oe ee ray isis) odiar a 43s x tee) 2618

Ixxiv

(Ecophylla smaragdina

CEdicnemus indicus salvadorii

magnirostris

recurvirostris

scolopax ;

(Enanthe deserti atrogularis .

—- isabellina

————-- picata

(Enopopelia tranquebarica

Oreicola ferrea haringtoni

— jerdoni

Oreiostachys pullei

Oreocincla aurea aurea...

—— dauma dauma

—__—_——___- nilgiriensis

a mollissima

Oriolus indicus

- oriolus

Orolestes selysi

Oropetium thomeum

Orthotomus artigularis nice

Orthomnium subcrispum

Orthorphamhus magnirostris

nirostris

Orthotomus sutorius Wneieaudatne

—_—____---——_ patia

Oryza australis

-- caudata

——-- coarctata ...

——-- communissima

——-- denudata

——-- elongata

——-- emarginata

——-- elumzpatula

——-- glutinosa

——--- hexandra

_——-- Jatifolia

——~ marginata

=——-- Mexicana).

-——-- montana ...

——-- mutica

——-- nepalensis... vr: See

—_———= --

palustris

——-- parviflora...

——-- perennis

——-— praecox

——-- pubescens...

Se pumila ee 580

melanoleuca ean Dore e

—- xanthoprymna ah SRS ATE

sutorius ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

767,

SS,

PAGES

767

768

767

481

893

894

815

543

815

608

560

874

917

918

773

918

773, 918

919

773, 919

919

891

953

681, 953

681, -953

681, 953

Se)

seks!

Epis

672

744A

762

754

480

483

527, 540

539

928, 540

PAGE

882 | Oryza repens

746 -~ rubribarbis

751 | ——-- rufipogon ..

... 749 | ——-- sativa

746, 748 | —— -segetalis

603 | ——-.- sorghoides

603 | ——--- triticoides ...

603 | Osterdamia matrella

603 | Ostrea cucullata

604 - gryphoides

718 virginiana

817 | Otocompsa emeria emeria

817 = fuscicaudata

917 flaviventris flaviventris

819 | Otus brucei

819 | Ovulum spelta

949 -- volva : oe

814 | Oxyrrhynchium Deon ath ae

546 Oxytenanthera abyssinica

546 == al bocilaata

S008. eee a ee eee Onl

103.) = = = hourdilion

52 | mOnostama

oe o/h Meraciliava

mag- —__—___——_ parvifolia

Cie een se ees richeyi ..

Cy) |e ee sinuata ...

- 824 | _——--___—. gstocksii...

946,- (10: | eee thwaitesii

769 | Padraona dara e)

767 | Palamnzeus peasnlcnes

767 ——— fulvipes

Kia = gravimanus

(Of) ee atts

(C7 ieee longimanus

AOE || aa phipsoni

Of swammerdami

OM es xanthopus

769 | Pammena isocampta

767 | Panicum arborescens

767.| ——_——. compressum

7695) == dactyion

.. /67 | —--—— dimidiatum

e. (767 | ——-——- squarrosum

767 | —— tenuissima

767 | ————tenuissimum ..,

767 | Panthera tigris amurensis

767 — balica

767 | ———-———— longipilis

767 | ———-——-—— septentrionalis., 511, 519, 540

BOVE) ee ea SCRA CPS

... 508, 535, 540

INDEX OF SPECIES

Panthera tigris tigris

Panthera tigrts styani subsp nov.

Pantoporia larymna

Papilio demoleus...

demolion ..

palinurus...

polytes

Papillaria fuscescens

Pappophorum elegans

Paradoxornis guttaticollis

Paradoxurus birmanicus

erayl

Parasa lepida

eenea

chinensis...:

Chirucous’...

indica

Parus maior cinereus

commixtus

mahrattarum

- monticolus monticolus...

- palustris poecilopsis

Paspalum dissectum

Passer domesticus indicus

montanus dilutus

Pathysa nomits ..

Pavo cristatus

Pecten

-jacobeus ..

Pelecanus Sai sihenchus

PAGE

931,

642,

Pellorneum ignotum cinnamomeum...

- ruficeps

ee ee MINUS

=-—_— tickelli tickelli

Pennisetum phemosum..,

Pericrocotus albifrons :

brevirostris afin

erythropygius

———_——— neglectus ...

—_-—_——- peregrinus vividus

—_-————- roseus roseus

solaris ripponi

solaris

speciosus flammeus

—__-—____—---—_ fraterculus

Perotis latifolia

- Persona anus

Petaurista caniceps

cineraceus

————— clarkei

—

- subochraceum ...

565, <

506, 512, 535, 540

540 |

939

888

936

Petaurista xanthotis

sp.

Pharus artistatus

- ciliatus

— natans

Phalaris muricata

—— oryzoides

Phalloidee...

Phaneroptera roseata

Phenacoccus glomeratus

—-—_—_—_—— hirsutus

iceryoides

Philonotis angusta

mollis

revoluta

Philopogon blumii

Phoenicurus auroreus

frontalis

———--——-- ochrurus phoenicuroides.

—__--——_—-——_ rufiventris

Phoepiga pusilla pusilla

——-— squamata squamata

Pholas

Phragmaticola eee

Phromnia marginella

Phycita dentilinella

Phyllergates coronatus poronstne

Phylloscopus affinis

armandi

fuscatus fuscatus

griseolus

humii premium

- proregulus forresti

li tees ty Oita h weet, Bins Pee ee TWN EOL

pulcher

sp.

Phyllostachys aurea

- bambusoides

ee ee VP CASTE

loni

- congesta

- faberi

- flexuosa

- mitis

- nana

- nevinil

- nidularia

- puberula

$$ ————_ ——__—_—__—_ fulva

boryana.

Ixxvi INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Phylostachys puberula var. nigro- Poa papposa ae ee Bs . 4949

plunctata’)..2 9204) ———panvatlonaaas nt the LS, Dae

Phyllostachys pubescens er ... 920 | ——pellucida a a ye .. 404

- stauntonii a ... 920 | ——pilosa oe Se: ay .. 4949

Pica pica bactriana ae ... 88 | ——plumosa ed es sh a Se

—- serica at dei <i * 202 polymorpha ee, PSs ... 498

Picus chlorolophus chlorogaster ... 648 | ——procera = oe a .. 495%

——-— squaimatus flavirostris ... we Oe punctata ve ad! wa . 404

Pinnatella calcuttensis MY, .. 8/75 | ——roxburghiana ee bi wa. 4S

—. limbata So See ... 875 | --—rubeus am Sa v4) we AGH

Pinnoteres abyssicola ... ae ... 831 | ——rupestris — Ae ah £88

Pistacia cubulica A th ... §98 | ——tenella ae 4 489, 490, 493

Pithecolobium saman ... ae 668, 673 | -——tenullulla ... aoe a -. 499

Pithecus entellus pallipes as ce, 940" | PLO nbitosa a a ae to ees

——IMelamentsim a... a ... §40 | ——unioloides... re ae 1.2? AGE

— pyrrhus phayrei a ... 645 | ——verticillata ... af “a = 494

— ——shanicus ... fe 640) Vinca Ba A i 96

———-— senex monticola ae eG viscosa oe - me or) es

— vetulans Fs ... 946 | Podiceps ruficollis albipennis pee ei 6))! 2

Pitta brachyura Ae = ... 548 | Podosemum virginicum eae -3. oe

Placuna placenta a 6 ... 829, Pogonatum alcides ete, eh

Plagiolytrum calycinum ote. IRS | -—— neesii ee St erg ol)"

- filiforme Aas i gee 616) | Poinciana elata Bh a Be uitites)”

-unidentatum ... See OG pulcherrima aa 1 EB Oe

Pleurotoma javana sa Rig “oe 2568 | —regia af ta Ac3. OOM

Poa amabilis ak et ie ... 489 Polioaetus ichthyaetus ie. ae SOO

aspera ae ma ... 488 Polyporacee rs is fon 2 hss

——asthenes fa £2 ae ... 496 | Polyptychus dentatus ... od Cop sooll

—bifaria ae + a ... 494 Pomatorhinus erytirogenysgravivox. 809

SeDTe Vito lia cas hg Men Oe eee 7638 — -imberbis 809

——chinensis ae aos ca oi 496 | Aches # SS CR ee ee ne macclel-

——cilianersis ... on oe cr RAS | landi 809

-——ciliaris xa A a .. 488 5 ——- ferruginosus phayrei... 809

ciliata Bi eet “rd tg 488 | ———- horsfieldi travancorien-

contrecta... ie. ae me, 496 sis DE Pcs: te)

——cynosuroides ies ae .. 486 | —— hypoleucus hypoieucus 809

decipiens], on v, .. 496 | ———--——— olivaceus ripponi rei OOS

-~——diandra ye ae oe ... 490 | ———- ruficollis bakeri chee OO)

——diarrhena ... bee <3 .. 490 | —— schisticeps mearsi ... 809

——eragroslis ... es # 492, 493 | ———-——-—_-———_ — ntcchalis... 809

— flexuosa aS sS oe .. 493 | Pommerculla royleana Ho en Oe

— indica ae OF: Be ... 494] Pontiothauma mirabile 4 Lass ceeohy

——inerrupta ... a Soe _... 490 | Poritia hewitsoni Aa a ... 936

——japonica te Aah = re 90 picurata 4a re 220 eto

——koenigii ae es =e .. 490 | Porphyrospore ee ee 798; 799

——malabarica ay hee ... 496 | Potamides fluviatilis... ae “sr 564

multiflora 1. 401 409"493 Sag SUILGAEtI Sg eee amen: 553, 564

——nigra ” ies Ae ... 494! Potamochloa retzii oes a3 Ho 08

——nutans a , a ... 490 | Pottia vernicosa as as eat ehh)

—panicea soe Sa ir ... 496 Precis almana ath ‘as 1a TRE OOO

——paniculata ... 48 a HL wee al hierta wad oe te . , 890

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Precis iphita 390

lemonias 890

orithya e 890

Prinia flaviventris flaviventris 827 |

inornata burmanica 827 |

socialis 546

Protoparce convolvuli .. 892

Psammobia ie 832

Psathyrella disseminata 799 |

Pseudococcus citri we OOSt|

- lilacinus 665, 670

Pseudogyps bengalensis abe SOU

Pseudominla castaneiceps castanei-

ceps A &11

Pseudoryza eiiata 769

Pseudospinx discistriga &92

Pseudostachyum polymorphum 620

Psittacula columboides 549

cyanocephala cyanoce- |

phala 549

Psittiparus gularis Paasteniaits 806 |

—— ruficeps bakeri S06 |

Pterobryopsis cavifolia 877 |

kanarense 875

oe maxwellii 875 |

- walkeri 875

Pterocarpus marsupium so)

Pteroceras chirarga 553

— millepoda 953 |

Pterocles coronatus 611

—- orientalis 611

Pteropus giganteus 6415 |

Pteruthius ceralatus 813 |

— erythropterus 813 |

—— melanotis intermedius 813

Ptilonema plumosum 755 |

Ptyas mucosus 724

Ptyonoprogne obsoleta eeblet 606 |

Puella fi? .. 840

Pulvinaria maxima 669, 670

— psidii ma o/0

Pycnonotus aurigaster peatner nore 1. VOLO

finlaysoni davisoni 815

— gularis 544

— plumosus blanford: 815

Pyctorhis sinensis sinensis 810

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 598

Querquedula crecca 720

Rabdochloa virgata fe VOT

Ramphalcyon capensis ee ue VIS)

Rana tigrina Bee ir ae 724, 725

ixxvii

PAGE

Ranella 556

-horrida ... 556

Rapala melampus 891

subguttata 940

Ratufa gigantea 648

- phceopepla marana ... Kot OAS,

Rattus concolor a O00 OS, 5052

- manipulus co ODI

rattus khyensis 650, 651

- rufescens 650

Regulus regulus yunnanensis 827

Rhabdochloa mucronata 760

Rhacophorus sp. 690

Rhinocypha ignipennis 586

spuria ie, AeOOU

Rhinolophus affinis tener 636, 646

bicol or a 646

Rhipidura albicollis albicollis 82]

— aureola burmanica S21

Rhizogonium spiniforme 877

Rhodophycece eo ae ie

Rhodospiza obsoleta 605, 608

Rhodos pore 798, 799

Rhopocichla atriceps es 943

Rhyacornis fuliginosa ... 818

Rhynchops albicollis 791

Rhynchostegium vagans 875

Ricania bicolorata 672

Ricinus communis (2

Rostellaria curte Joo

—— delicatula D0

Rottboellia compressa ... ie ee Ss

—_——__———-—- var fascicu-

lata dis

— - pilosa 193

— repens 770

-— setacea 199

—— thomoca 793

Rucervus duvancelli 698

Rusa unicolor unicolor ... 944

Salmalia malabarica . 632

Sarangesa sat! 891

Sasa albo-marginata 920

—— auricoma 920

— ents 920

; 920

Saxicola caprata erate 644

-— bicolor 602

— burmanica 816

————-—- torquata indica 817

——_—_-—_-——— leucura 817

Ixxviil

Saxicola torquata przewalskii...

Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata ...

Scalaria

Schizostachyum acca are

—_—--—— blu mei...

———_— ——_--—— brachycladum

—_—_—___-—-- elegans

———— —————— hindostanicum

a at Omum

——-——- tenue

Schoenfeldia pallida

Schoeniparus dubius genestieri

mandelli

2 ee

Sciuropsis senex ...

PAGE |

817

544

563

920

921

O21

773

921

756

81]

S11

565

Sciuvopterus gorkhalt s nov. -. 565, “566, 969

Sciurus maximus... = to, (O34

Sclerodermacee 796

Sclerophyllum coar center 767

Scolopax rusticola 787

Scolymus cornigerus oA ODO

Scorpiops asthenurus 6315-953

— montanus 6816953" |

Scotocerca inquieta striata nite 608 |

Scotophilus castaneus .. .. 646; 651, 652

——— wroughtoni 646

Seicercus affinis ... e 826

burkii epimoecnnalne 826

—_—-~-—— castaneiceps castaneiceps... 826

——-—— xanthoschistus xanthoschis- |

tus : ; 826 |

Sematophyllum piesneteuene 876 |

Semnopithecus sp. 640

Sesbania grandiflora 668 —

Sibia picaoides picaoides 811

Simiskina pediada 936

Siphia parva albicilla 820

parva 944

strophiata ae 820

Sitta castaneiventris neglecta .. 806

- europaea nagensis... 806

——.- formosa 806

——- frontalis x 542

—-— frontalis 806

——- magna 803

——- neuniayer ‘aaa 596

——- victorice 8 806

Siva cyanouroptera ETEnOuIOpIe 812

oatesi 812

—_—_- —_-_——-— wingatei 812

-—— strigula castaneicauda 812

Symphyodon angustatus 875

INDEX OF SPECIES

Symphyodon perrottetii var. myuro-

clada

Solarium

Spalgis epius

Spatula clypeata...

Spelzeornis longicaudatus

Spilornis cheela

Spindasis ictis

vulcanus

Spizixus canifrons canifrons

Splachnobryum indicum

Spondias magnifera

Sporabolus arabicus

——-———- ciliatus

—_—-——- commutatus

——_--——-—-- coromandelianus ..

——_—_———.- diander

——————- discosporus

————-—-- geniculatus...

—————-- glaucifolius

——_——-—- humifusus ...

——_——_—- indicus

——_———- ioclados

——__—_—-—- lindleyi

—__————- littoralis

—__———- minutiflorus

——-———- orientalis

—_—_——.—- pallidus

—_————- piliferus

scabrifolius...

sindicus

“tenacissimus

tremulus

virginicus

Stachyridopsis'ruficeps Gharieence?

Stachyris chrysza assimilis

——- bingham} ...

———— chrysaa

——-——-- nigriceps coltarti

davisoni

Stactocichla merulina merulina

Staphidea castaneiceps ...

Staphidia striata rufigenis

striata

Stereodon cyperoides

Sterophyllum anceps

- blatteri

ligulatum

——$ —___—__—_—— war. sedewickii

tavoyense

Stoparola melanops melanops

PAGE

875

563

668

779

550

891

815

875

644

485

484

485

482

485

484

483

484

483

485

483

484

485

484

485

482

483

484

483

810

>-- 808

812

871

875

821

Streptopelia chinensis ... ws

-—— decaocto decaocto

-—— senegalensis ermanni

Sturnia malabarica blythii

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii

Suastus gremius

Suncus fuliginosus

-nudipes ...

Sus cristatus

cristatus ...

Suthora gularis craddocki

-—— poliotis feze

ruficeps atrosuperciliaris

——— webbiana brunnea

Suya atrogularis khasiana

-——- crinigera

—— cooki

- superciliaris superciliaris

Sylviparus modestus saturatior

Symphyodon preemollis

Syntarucus plinius

Syrrhopodon semiliber ...

Tachardia lacca .

Talpochares eoecanines

Tamiops macclellandi ...

——-—— barbei.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE |

651,

645,

Syl

611

O47 |

781

891

647

652 |

651

945

805

806

805

827

805

877

891

875

670

672

636

649

a ma celstan al 636, 640,

Tangavius

—— oeneus

Tapes textrix

Taphozous longimanus...

Taraktogenos kurzu te

Tarsiger chryszeus chryszus ...

Tarucus theophrastes

Taxithelium nepalense

(Anastigma) vivicol

Teinostachyum attenuatum

eriffithii

wightii...

Telchinia violze

Telephoraceze

Tellinida emarginata

Aa uncata

Tephrodornis pelvicus nelvicns

ceriana

Tereba tigrina

——_——— manipurensis

646,

669,

or..

644

636

958

961

832 |

651

644

818

890 |

876

867

921

(14; 92N

- pondiceriana pondi-

554,

561,

890

798

832

822

564

Terias hecabe

leeta

libythea

venata

Terpsiphone paradisi AGATE

paradisi...

Tesia cyaniventer cyaniventer...

Tetrapogon triangularis

villosus

Thamala marciana miniata

Thereiceryx zeylanicus ...

Thuidium cymbifolium

—— trachopodum

Thyrsostachys oliveri

——-——— siamensis

Tigris amurensis

longipilis ...

mongolica...

regalis

septentrionalis

sondaica

striatus

tigris

Timalia pileata peneelent

——— jerdoni...

Tomeutes phayrei

—_—_—_—_.

phayrei

pygerythrus

—— rufigenis

Trachopodiopsis blanda

Trachyloina tahitense .

Trachyphylltim inflexum

Trachys mucronata

muricata

Trachystachys geminata

Tragus brevicaulis

- racemosus

- senegalensis

Trematodon schmidii

Tremellinaceeé

Triachyrum cor aoe

nilagiricum ..

Tribura lutcoventris

———— taczanowskii

Trichostelium monostictum

vius

Trichostomum pyaar

hyalinoblastum

—— stenophyllum...

Tridacna

xxix

PAGE

27 ok

727,

729,

508,

$08,

637,

... 643, 649,

889

821

545

816

IEG,

757

941

548

877

876

921]

wel

527

528

529

912

520

937

912

508

$10

810

643

649

651

637

876

877

876

480

. ~ 48)

876

a7,

485

484

824

876

877

876

831

IXxx

PAGE

Tridens indicus ... ' a ... 21 495

Triglossum antimdin aeeutn ne ee Aa

Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus Sew

Tringa chirurgus... Be oe en 17)

~ ochropus Ao A ian ONE

‘Triodia cynosuroides-... Be eo. OS

Tripogon bromoides _... aes 2 OS

——-——capillatus ... = eee oe 7/05)

— -capitatus —... ee ait AGS

——--——. festucoides ... ee A. 1664

——-—— filiformis i ee Wee Ooe

——-————. jacquemontii... Ee, ae OD

————— lanatus ae ee se -/66

J lisboz... a ae owe vom

——_-——— pauperulus ... a eo JOS

——-—— roxburghianum 28; a epee

——-—— semitruncatus is Fo One

——-——— unidentatum ... hes Wr. a A Oas

—- Sp. nov. ce af OO

‘Tripsachum distachyum ae va 480

Triticum geminatum ... 2: ie eV Oe

———— pilosa ... a eo can agate

= repos a. “e ne one e495 |

— sativum... nee ae ey |)

— var. pilosa ... sax — dpe

ee spelta ... Sa ali de

spelta ... - es

‘Trochalopterum emtareceonalen ery-

throlama a i ae . 808

rs mel-

anostigma sie ae ae es (OOS

— nigrimentum woodi. &08

a lineatum ziaratensis 599

eo milnei sharpei Boel apace:

ae nigrimentum he) O08

ee phoeniceum bakeri. 808

(ee ——ripponi. 808

—__—_—_—_———- squiamatum He OOS |

— virgatum: 9"... Sse OUS

‘Trochus depictus an ae A OO2

‘’roglodytes troglodytes Faiinensss fee OO

‘Trogopterus Be, an ie army OO,

Tropzeolum majus a ae eae ihuAoe

Tupaia belangeri ba «2: 642, 647, 651

Turbinella bufo nS a See OO

—— carinifera .... 27 DO

——_—-——— elegans ie ca O50

——_———— fusus . Lia me ah 050

—_—__—— napus Lon ee de o0 OOo

—— ovoides fas oe Grek

———-_— pyrum ae sa ya tsOoD

INDEX OF SPECIES

Turbinella retusum

purpura

Turdinulus brevicaudatus venningi ...

—— epilepidotus bakeri

Turdoides terricolor

Turdus dissimilis

- eunomus

~ fea

merula Panditenes

~ obscurus obscurus

— ruficollis

Turraya nepalensis

Turretella duplicata

Udaspes folus

Uniola bipinnata

indica

Upupa epops

- coyleucant:

- epops

— orientalis

Urociadium alopecuroides

Urocissa flavirostris flavirostris

————- melanocephala magniros-

tris

Urolepis dr eatondt

———— fusca

Uroloncha malabarica ...

striata striata

Urophlexis squameiceps

Utricularia orbiculata

Vanessa cardui

Venus imbricata

Vesicularia levieri

Vestalis apicalls ..

- gracilis gracilis

——--— nigrescens sp. nov.

—-——— smaragdina

Vicia faba

Vilfa arabica

—— barbata

—— capensis

—— capillaris

—— ciliata

—— commutata

—— coromandeliana

—— diandra

—— discospora

-—— exilis

—— elongata

PAGE

556

810

810.

543

818

544

818

768

553

891

486

491

789

549

607

876

803

495

783

547

827

764

890

832

873, 876

581, 583

~—gracilis amzena sub-sp. nov. 584, 585,

583

581

584

586

732

485

433

483

484

485

484

485

483

i te,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Vilfa erosa 482

—— geniculata 484

—— glaucifolia ... 483

— indica 483

—— mangalorica 483

—— minutiflora 483

— orientalis 484 |

—— pallida 485 |

—— pilifera 484

retzii : 482

—— roxburghiana 485

—— roxburghii 485

—— scabrifolia 483

——- tenacissima 483

—— tenuissima Re 483

— tremula wa 484

— virginica 483

Virachola isocrates 891

Viverra zibetha eae ae Soe 642

Viverricula malaccensis wes 642, 647

Volvaria wae os; seis w. 798

Welsia ghatensis ed aoe 876

Wendlandia notoniana

707 |

Xanthicus fllavescens flavescens

— vividus

Xantholeema hemacephala indica

Xenophora pallidula

Xiphiramphus superciliaris

Xylia dolabriformis

Ypthima asterope mahratta

Yuhina diademata ampelina ...

- gularis yangpiensis

nigrimentum nigrimentum ...

Zetides agamemnon

Zizania aristata

- ciliata

— retzii

Zizera gaika

lysimon

otis é

trochilus putli

Zizyphus jujuba

sp. oes

Zoothera monticola

Zosterops palpebrosa

Zoysia pungens ...

—=

Ixxxi

PAGE

815

548

563

789

643

890

$13

812

813

888

769

891

890

598

670

819

547

481

AN nt

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THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. Part IX. (With a coloured

plate.).. By E. C. Stuart Baker, F.z.s., Fel .Su,./ Mi BLO: U.;

H.F.A.O.U, eeeeceeeeeeene COT eee cee eee eeereeser ces FObcee BOO OsOe eer seer On eeenerrrssennserse

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PPB e APC Se ene PIN. Daw Baly Go ee Atm eee dete

A GRASSHOPPER ve (Lsopsera pedunculate,., By aes R. W. G.

Rete SUOMI PMG IIL ONC: DLALE)., osc te<seeucdhik sche ce thc ckbb is. censce ews

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WolstEc. Loncoah HeUDSE AGE DOR OREINGC bay fOCrits UM eRe: pnt icra ies Oat IND a oer

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TRIE OS ARSE BRC obser cs Wt Cle Paar a

[NDIAN DRAGONFLIES—Part XXXIII. (With two plates and two text-

MACH E Soin aya late: Ole WH CS: PTaSane TM VSS) 2 .ivesscateesvedseteecedses eee

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plates.) By Major C. H. Williams, m.B.o.u. and C. E. Williams

EAR Ly STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOLD FISH (Carassius auratus)

(With two plates.) By M.-Hamid Khan. M.SC!, LL.B. v.....cessoeses

BOMBAY: MINERALS, “By Jayme Ribeiro; BiG.) iii. cccecscesessdacveccececces

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA. Part I. (With two coloured

plates and two black and white plates and four text-figures.) By

Ne Sm MN aT vclinGl ype eter 60 115 soc a cadatsciss sf ncesbodeonsocsketuedcecseceen

Bom, Nat. Hist. Soc. MAMMAL SURVEY OF InDra, BURMA AND CEYLON.

REPORT INO. 4097p plementary). “By? T. Bi Bry. ccscdcccesds sce secvceees

SOUND PRODUCTION BY A LARVA OF CYBISTER (Dytiscide). By D.

AY Veteticte fash lorena eererrr tore eras en eters Sean wet cla hgcal Semieiels oe wicleoes ooouoite van me ssees ches cdasacdcetes

A R&ED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR. (With six plates). By

Sacer Se EO ALES NE BEO.W.2. Gowceceteten cete closes ccc acsiaiog Seace veden sesh:

A New SPECIES OF GYNAIKOTHRIPS FROM BANGALORE, INDIA. By

Dudley: Moulton: .......<..» nena sie Sesemiineeeotcant cose secpeseeseactscuceret sseCee see

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA WITH ABNORMAL HABITS. By

Wr Vi wamakrishia AV yar. BLA. PllsD., F.ZsS.° iessdsssesacseccserss's

Bom. Nat. Hist. Socy’s INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF

SArer wicks. Part I: - By Pather’ J. °F. Cees Sigs land’ K.. Hi:

PMA eC amm eaten: BuS Coe Wicca cteo:ceecas ss reves (aeaes siocbis tes seneed dese ale dasipadseuls te

THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOM OF INDIAN SCORPIONS. By Father J. F.

(CANNSISN (CRUGRE ae ceeeCnte es rote ane areas weleea Parana din re seuses cee raeticcses tases es.s Raasaers

REVIEWS—

MWe rME DIG EC mEr GS rollin le iio sat ceoes ch eseat se Dock cess diem inci cedehen etude <tcadessceese

BLUE BLoop IN ANIMALS. (S. H. P,) Mem anaeacinde oes cece ls eeateres saw seceents

MEMEES? EROM:SOME EASTERN JUNGLES. (R.B.)) .cidicccccccaceceessseesces

MISHI THE MAN-EATER, AND OTHER TALES OF BIG GAME. (R. B.)...

BEAUTIFUL FLOWERS OF KASHMIR. (F. F. R. D’A.)............ Sartre

SV TO TINO) 2 UNS OSE a SAGAR CHAD NRBROSO CECH Bondar GHaC ET EDCORERbASRe a niavalgletistasa.a'e's

PACK PANTHERS— AN INQUIRY. (POCOCK) .ei.cccicccccecccccesseesscceccceses

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—The Sense of Smell in Indian Felzde. By R.C. Morris ......

II.—A Wounded Sambhar Seized by a Tiger. By C. W. G. Morris.

III.—Decoying Tiger by Sound. By WME OR Daly’ Ria ericathe Joe ott

IV.—Are there more than one species of Panther in “India | tee LY,

Resi NUORTIS® -— ..408 Pema ote s Sacer NCNCING Shek gbiaiVeleges vais oa ce ee

CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXIUI, No. 3

Vi— Vitality of a-Panther.. aby AviS4eV Chilly aw ee sees ra ee een eee

Vike—AgRecord: Panther/.By. He Eimouziniiey sce.c eens eee cece ee

VII.—On the occurrence of the Cheetah (Acononyx jubatus) in

Iraq... «(With a photo... 3 Byer a Nese Cori lll eee rh coer,

VIII.—A Brown Variety of the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus). By

IX.—On the Himalayan Palm Civet (Faradoxurus grayi). By

sopra ge 2h oc 8 mare ener sho Secon sangcnool barnicoanens dogape dae aoononeba

X.—How Wild Dogs Killtheir Prey. By L.A. J. Rijk. Riceeetieeese

XI.—Wild Dog and Barking Deer. By J. M. D. Mackenzie, I.F.s.

XII.—Bison Eating Bark. By G. H. Ogilvie. .....

XUI.—An Elephant with Extraordinary Glands. By 'G. co ‘Low, M. D.

XPV. —Al Jungle Drasedy.. By A. Pi NMathewa We. -ens acetoacetate

XV.—The Racket-Feathers of Dussemurus paradiseus. (With a

PHOL:) BBY SalimyvAs Ale (va cttecesee ecco eee eee eee

XVI.—A Note on the Breeding of the Tailor-Bird (Orthotomus

SULOV IWS). BY REV, He Det PiGes Fe sac-asete cae eee nate eee

XVII.—A Strange Pet. (With a photo). By V.S. LaPersonne

XVIII.—The Stork-billed Kingfisher (Aamphalcyon capensis gurial)

eatine birds... *By. Miss. S28 Watt goauncce sees essen eeteneeetet es

X1X.—Migration of the Pied-crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus)

By. N. Betts: eA Rice vielica is Seimeen asset eee hese cee

XX.—Distribution of the Brown Shrike. “(Lanius cristatus cristatus)

By We IN@Betts aie, Se ee ssa cet ee rte eee eo eeeemeiees

XXI—A Hawkincident. Capt Law eMacGresvor= io. sssc.ceesoneees

XXII.—Notes on Woodcock near Rangoon. By E. O. Bloech ........

XXIUI.—Occurrence of the Bar-tailed Godwit (Lizmosa lapponica

lapponica). inSalsette, ‘By Salim “AVA. fy. o.oo. anceesceeen

XXIV.—Occurrence of the White-fronted Goose (Auser albifrons

albtfrons) in the United EHOVInICES: By Capt... Mone Wwe

O2 Donovan s oon. cseuatecscekace cee eee Se ema aen Cee Coit ecer aa nee

XXV.—Pochard Perching on a Tree. By ne A. Bayley de Castro ..

XXVI.—The Kissing Habit among Birds and Animals. By Col. A. E.

Mah One. seisatesint sae teuk cn ais selec meen hae celeeciccetscilan Care ntacie ben ome menace octets

XXVII.—Different birds nesting in company. By. W. A. Tucker

XXXVI. —Bird Movements in/Coore lob yst oN. Betts) © -ccuceteccaeteeataeee

XXX. —-Misoration of \Wildtowl? By Sthevl ds: s tre...) ssaseee ce eeeiescnes

XXX.—The Distribution of the Mugger. By Dr. Malcolm Smith

XXXI.—An Unpleasant Experience with a Python. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

WQCAYS.is Wadaet sulesaeiorea ccnace Jesmodies lek che ch Nala Mace area teresa ne aaecen actrees

XXXIT.—A True Snake Story. “By (\Capt._p. E.. MacGresor. ...2..<..-

XXXIII.—A Krait (Bungarus c@ruleus) with divided sub-caudals. By

Po Mair phiyse aetsecgies sens. ee nets racer eater teon se user senate eto asetioes

XXXIV.—Recovery from the bite of a Phoorsa (Fchts carinata). By.

SGA S SETI Teas aoc centre notes ake coon sotaeateswen selene seen ae rc omen

XXXV.- Occurrence of the ‘slimy’ ccecilian (Lehthyophis glutinosus),

Boulenger, in Panchgani. Sby J) Pe Mililani ans, 0.5. cee:

XXXVI.—Do Frogs Eat Snakes ? By Beni Charan Mahendra ............

XXXVI --Animal- Barometers: yy “rl > Jowewet =~ Wachee ceepeuen cst cc. tes

XXXVIII.-Migration of Butterflies. By G. Wesche-Dart — ..............000

XXIX.—Occurrence of the Oak-leaf Butterfly (Kallima horsfieldt)

near Bombay... -By iG. WiescheDart™ 2.2 0..0,cchecresree. cone eeees

XL.—Note on the breeding of Zerias [eta and 7. venata and the

prebability of their being seasonal forms of a single species.

By. Coles Ac HccEs MOSSe plete © eee cen cts one cer eee ance ne

XLI.—Ants taking to water. By Major W. M. Logan Home, 1. ..

XLII.—A Note on the occurrence of Buds in the Axils of the

Cotyledons. (With two plates). By N. K. Tiwary, M.Sc...

ANtAPPEKAL: LO, SPORTSMEN: | (POCOGKe weetn sine cise ee een tee

‘

WU OHERLE

vith

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BANE

Hanh

f tt ut i

"azIs JEN &%

‘snoipul snipidoqayy

“YNVOWT GSONIM- SZNOYW AHL

-eZIs “VEN 74 cS :

‘sngunuiyo snueiseydoupky

“YNVOVE GSTIVL=-INVSV4Hd 4A

‘009 LSI] LVN AvaWwog “NanoP

~ JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Naturai History Society

May 1929 Von. XXXITI No. 3

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

BE. €. STUART BAKER, F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.A.0.U.

NOE. WV

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

PART IX

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued trom page 228 ot this Volume)

Suborder : JACANA

Characteristics those of the family Jacanide.

Family : JACANIDA

This group of birds has hitherto been placed in the Order

Limicole but Lowe has recently shown that they are really nearer

the Rallide, a position in which the field naturalist would also

place them without doubt. At the same time, many of their charac-

teristics show an approach to the Grvues and it may eventually be

necessary to elevate these birds to the rank of an Order, /acane,

between the Grallgz and Limicole.

Two genera of this family are found in India.

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Key to GENERA

A. A frontal lappet ; primaries not attenuated

at the end ta Se .. Metopidius.

B. No frontal lappet ; first and fourth primaries

attenuated . .. Hydrophasianus.

Genus : METOPIDIUS

Metopidius Wager, Isis, 1832, col. 279.

Type, Parra ena Gav. = Parra indica Lath.

Head small; bill moderately long, straight and compressed, the

culmen curved at the tip; a lappet at the base of the bill resting

against the forehead and rounded behind; tail short; wing not

rounded, the first and second primaries subequal and longest; a

tubercular spur on the carpal joint ; middle toe without claw longer

than tarsus, hind claw excessively long ; tarsus transversely shielded

before and behind.

Sexes alike but juvenile and adult plumage differing greatly, the

latter acquired by a spring moult when the bird is a year old.

A single species.

METOPIDIUS INDICUS

The Bronze-winged Jacana

Parra indica Lath., Ind. Orn., ii, p. 765 (1790).

Metopidius indicus.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 218.

Vernacular Names.—Dal-pipt, Jal-pipt, Karativa (Beng.); Kattoz

(Purnea) ; 87 (Burma).

Description.—Feathers below the eye and a broad superciliary

streak from the eye to the nape pure white; remainder of head,

neck, lower parts, axillaries and under wing-coverts black, glossed

all over with deep green; hind-neck glossed with purple-blue and

then purple, the green-blue and purple grading into one another ;

back, wing-coverts and innermost secondaries olive-bronze ; lower

back, rump and upper tail-coverts chestnut with purple reflections ;

greater wing-coverts, primaries and outer secondaries black, glossed

with green on the outer webs; tail and under tail-coverts chestnut ;

vent and thigh-coverts dull brownish-black, sometimes extending on

to the centre of the abdomen.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown; bill greenish-yellow, tinged

with red at the base and pure yellow at the tip; frontal lappet or

shield livid red; legs and feet dull green.

Measurements.—Wing, ff 165 to 198 mm., 2 152 to 186 mm.; tail

34 to 52 mm.; tarsus 65 to 80 mm. ; culmen 31 to 39 mm.; mid toe

and claw 87to106mm. The great differences in the extremes of

size are not due to geographical variation.

Young birds have the crown and nape rufous-brown, darker on

the forehead and centre of the crown; short supercilium dull white ;

hind-neck black glossed with green; interscapulars black glossed

with purple; lower back and rump dull rufous barred with dusky

brown, upper tail-coverts barred white and brown ; tail rufous with

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 475

contour-bands of black: remaining upper plumage like that of the

adult; lores dull rufous; ear-coverts grey, chin white, changing to

pale rufous on the neck and breast; lower breast and abdomen

sullied rufous-white; flanks brown, rufous posteriorly and barred

with white.

Distribution.—Nearly all India, Burma,the Indo-Chinese countries,

Malay States to Java, Sumatra and the Celebes. It is rare in the

Southern Punjab and does not occur in the Northern Punjab, Sind

nor in Western Rajputana.

Niditication.—The Bronze-winged Jacana begins to think about

domestic arrangements as soon as the rains show signs of breaking.

With the advent of the first few showers, the birds start collecting

materials for their rather insignificant little nests. These materials

consist of a base of wet weeds, reeds, and stems of water lilies, upon

which a flimsy lining of dry rushes and bits of dry weed are placed.

Altogether the nest is so small and weak that it looks as if it could

never support the weight of the eggs or chicks. This apparent

flimsiness is however overcome by the nest being built on the tops

of semi-submerged lotus leaves or water lily plants, so that though

the base may be quite soaked through, the lining is usually fairly

dry. The site selectedfor the nest is generally a swamp or marsh

of some extent and the birds very seldom breed in small ponds or

tanks, whilst on the other hand they sometimes make their nest in

the middle of lakes, open except for the surface weeds and lilies which

lie in patches here and there. Occasionally I have found them in

quite small ponds and oncein the district of Rungpur a pair took up

their abode and made their nest in quite a small tank in my garden.

Here I noticed the birds only worked at their nests for a couple of

hours in the mornings and evenings and even then were very casual

and slow in their proceedings, often stopping work to feed or loaf

for afew minutes. Indeed the nestlooked as if it might easily have

been put together in an hour, though as a matter of fact the birds

took four days to build it. It was of course avery inconspicuous

nest, almost level with the water, and in colour the same as that of

the lotus leaves on which it was built. Had I not seen the birds

actually building the nest, it might easily have escaped my notice.

In this nest the bird laid only four eggs but five are not un-

common and I have once or twice found six, whilst on one occasion

Hume took seven. They are extraordinarily handsome eggs; the

ground colour varying from light yellowish-stone or buff to a deep

rufous or red-brown, whilst the whole surface of the egg is covered

by numerous long and twisted lines of black, looking as ifa child

had attempted to write all overit. Inshape the eggs are oval, very

little compressed at the smaller end, the texture is very fine, strong

and highly glossed and they are certainly amongst the most

remarkable, as well as the most beautiful of birds’ eggs. Bighty

eggs average 364 x 25:1 mm.; maxima 395 x 27:0 mm.; -

minimum 338 x 34°9 and 35°4 x 220mm. Under ordinary circum-

stances the Bronze-winged Jacana is a very shy little bird and the

hen sneaks off her nest long before the intruder has a chance of

seeing her on it, but the two birds which bred in my garden became

extremely tame and the little hen would sit on her nest within 30

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

yards of me without leaving, although all the time she kept hér

bright eyes fixed steadily upon me. Even when the tiny chicks

wete hatched, she was content merely to walk away into the reeds

with them when I appeared. Before these birds began to build their

nests I saw but few signs of courting or display. Occasionally the

malebird in the early mornings and late evenings used to run rapidly

backwards and forwards in front of the female with a little bit of

weed in his mouth, bob two or three times in an excited fashion and

then drop the weed and proceed with his feeding. Rarely the

female would pick up the discarded bit and also make two or three

little excited runs backwards and forwards, though as arule she took

not the slightest notice of the male bird’s performance, continuing

to feed as if he was not even present. Incubation, I believe, took

fourteen days but I was away from home when the eggs were

hatched, so cannot be certain. Nor can I say how long they took

to acquire feathers for all four young ones were killed by vermin,

orobably rats, within a fortnight of their birth.

Habits —The Bronze-winged Jacana keeps for the most part to

the larger lakes and swamps and where these are numerous and

contain water throughout the year this Jacana is common and resi-

dent but in those places where nearly all the water dries up during

the hot weather, the birds move into the adjacent and wetter

districts, though they are nowhere really migratory. They are

essentially birds of the plains and are not found in the Himalayas

or in the higher hills of Southern India. In preference they frequent

stretches of water such as have reed and rush cover round the edges,

whilst the centres are more or less covered with floating water plants

and, above all, they seem to like best the great stretches of lotus

plants, upon the broad leaves of which they can run with ease and

comfort and at the same tire have an ample supply of food. This

consists in great part of insects and a tiny water snail which also fre-

quents and feeds on the lotus leaves.- In addition to this, the birds

feed on small fish, crustacea, small worms, larve, etc. When feeding

their actions are rather slow and deliberate, alternating with quick

little runs hither and thither as they pursue insects on the move.

When one has a specimen of this bird in hand, it seems impossibie

for its movements to be other than clumsy, the legs and feet being

sO enormous in proportion to the bird itself. This is not, however,

the case and though its walk is slow and rail-like, itis distinctly

graceful, its high action in no way giving the impression of awk-

wardness. Moreover, if frightened, it is capable of great speed,

running over the floating vegetation with a velocity impossible to

birds with smaller feet. On the wing it certainly loses much of its

eracefulness. It flies slowly with rapid beating of the wings and

with its enormous feet hanging down below and looking out of all

proportion to the bird itself. They are rather crepuscular in their

* habits and feed mostly in the early mornings and evenings but

‘where they are not interfered with they sometimes may be seen

strutting about feeding during the hottest part of the day, whilst

they are fond of lying down on the lotus leaves and basking in the

sun. They have rather large range of low conversational notes and

a very pleasant piping call used by both sexes to one another

aha

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. 477

and to their young. The breeding note is a rather low guttural

grunt or crake which seenis to be uttered most often during the

night.

The natives say that the flesh is good to eat and I have known

some Englishmen say the same but the only bird I have ever tried

was very dry and tasteless, though not fishy. They are certainly

not worth shooting either from the point of view of food or of sport.

Genus : HyDROPHASIANUS

Hydrophasianus Wagiler, Isis, 1832, Col. 279.

Type by orig. desig. Parra chinensts auct.= P. chirurgus Scopoli.

In this genus the bill is more slender than in (7/e/ofidius and there

is no lappet ; the hind claw is shorter ; the first and fourth prima-

ries are attenuated, the first into a barbless shaft terminating in a

spatulate web and the fourth prolonged into an attenuated point ;

The wing is furnished with a strong sharp spur at the bend. Sexes

alike, both assuming a nuptial dress which is attained by a moult

and not by a change of the plumage as was at one time supposed.

The female is rather larger than the male.

A single species.

HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS

The Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Tringa chirurgus Scop. del Flor. et Faun., Insubr., ii, p. 92

(1786) (China).

Hydrophastanus chirurgus. Blanf. and Oates, iv. p. 219.

Vernacular Names—Peho, Pihuya (Hin,) ; Surkal, Sakdal, Miwa,

Dal-kukera, Bhepi, Jil-manjor, Chitra- Bila (Beng. and Behar) ;

Balal Sauru, Newiya (Ceylon) ; Rani di-dao gophita (Cachari).

Description—Breeding Plumage. —Head, throat and foreneck white ;

a certain amount of black on the occiput ; back of neck pale, ‘shining

golden-yellow, edged with lateral black lines; upper and lower

plumage chocolate-brown; blackish on the rump, upper tail-coverts

and tail ; wing- -coverts ie the primary covert with broad black,

tips to the inner webs; primaries black with increasingly white

centres, the middle secondaries being pure white and the innermost

like the back ; under wing-coverts and axillaries white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris brown ; bill slaty-blue, paler at the tip ;

legs and feet pale bluish-plumbeous.

Measurements. — Wing 182 to 242 mm. ; tail 145 (generally over

200) to 325 mm. ; tarsus 54 to 59 mm. ; culmen 25 to 29 mm.

Non-brecding Finger —Supercilia lien: - a line from behind this

running down either side of the neck golden-yellow, a black line

from the lores, through the eye and down below the yellow, expand-

ing into a broad gorget across the breast; remainder of upper

plumage light hair-brown; innermost and outermost wing-coverts

white ; intermediate coverts light brown barred with white .and

narrow black lines; quills as in Summer; lower plumage. pure

white. netoe ty

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Colours of soft parts.—Iris pale yellow; bill yellow, the terminal

half brown ; legs and feet dull greenish to dull plumbeous.

Young birds have no yellow on the sides of the neck; the dark

gorget is broken up with white ; the crown is dull rufous-brown and

the feathers of the upper parts are pale-edged.

Distribution.—Ceylon, all India and Burma, north to Kashmir,

east to South China and south to the Philippines and Java. It has

been recorded from Gilgit in the extreme north-west as well as

from Panji.

Niditiction.—The Pheasant-tailed Jacana breeds throughout the

plains of India and Burma, wherever there is a sufficiency of water

and, unlike the last bird, it also breeds at considerable elevations in

the Himalayas. It is very common on the Kashmir lakes up to at

least 6,000 feet and the members of expeditions to the Abor and

Mishmi Hills have also reported it from both of those districts. In

North Cachar I found it breeding, though not regularly, on a tiny

artificial reservoir surrounded by forest in the North Cachar Hillis

at some 4,000 feet, whilst in the Khasia Hills we more than once

have found nests at about 5,500 feet, at a place where there is a

little rice cultivation and a few small ponds.

It does not seem to mind much what kind of water it breeds in,

so long as there is sufficient cover round about it and enough float-

ing weed to give it support as it runs about. The nest is very

much like that of the Bronze-winged Jacana but is often very flimsy

and small. I have seen a nest supported on lily leaves, which con-

sisted of nothing more than a few scraps of rush blades and grass,

the four eggs it contained resting almost directly on the lily leaf.

Where the weeds are small and quite wet on the surface the nest is

sometimes rather more substantiai but never looks strong enough to

contain the four eggs. Inthe larger lakes and swamps it is often

placed right out in the open but it is never very conspicuous as it

agrees too well with its surroundings. In small ponds and village

tanks the nest is generally placed so that the floating weeds conceal

it to some extent. The full clutch of eggs invariably numbers four

and the colour ranges from a pale yellow-bronze or olive-brown to

a deep chocolate-purple. The shell is rather thin and the texture

fragile but the surface always carries a high gloss. Abnormally

coloured eggs are not uncommon and these vary from almost

white, pale grey or pale grey-green to the faintest yellow ochre.

In shape the eggs are peg-top, the larger end often very flat, and

they lie in the nest point to point, fitting very closely into a small

compass. A hundred eggs average 37°8 x 27'6 mm.; maxima 39:9

x 27:1 and 36:1 x 29:0 mm. ; minima 34:5 x 28:9 and 34°6 x 26°0 mm.

The breeding season commences at the end of June after the

first rains have begun and fresh eggs may be found up to the

middle of September. In Ceylon they breed from March to June

whether nesting in the plains or in the big forest tanks at a con-

siderable elevation in the hills. So far as I know, the female alone in-

cubates but she leaves her nest, even when it contains eggs, for long

periods during the heat of the day when the sun is hot enough to

prevent their being chilled. Whilst it is raining, however, she sits

very close and I have seen her squatting on her eggs entirely

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 479

unprotected by any cover during torrents of rain. The wet seemed

to incommode her in no way but every now and then she would get

up and shake herseif like a small dog, the wet drops off her oily

plumage scattering in all directions.

Hlabits—The habits of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana do not differ

greatly from those of the preceding species but whilst that bird

seldom haunts village ponds, there are few pieces of water, however

small, upon which a pair of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana do not take up

their abode. In every way they are much more confiding, friendly

little birds than their cousins and they will even wander about happily

on one side of a tank whilst the village washerman is busy at his work

on the other side. In spite of its enormous feet and long tail this

Jacana is a most dainty little bird in allits actions except in flight.

The Cacharis have given it the pretty, yet appropriate name of the

Little White Water Princess, a nameto which its white and black

plumage and elegant actions fully entitle it. In flight it loses all

its elegance and becomes a slow-flapping, ungainly little bird

apparently much overweighted by the enormous feet which trail

below it. Its food is both vegetarian and insectivorous and generally

when feeding on the floating lilies and lotus plants it may be

seen making little runs of a few paces from one place to another as

it catches insects on the move. Then for a few moments it stops

to pick up small water snails, etc., off the lily leaves or it thrusts

head and shoulders deep into the water to get at some attractive

morsel below the surface. It swims well and sits high on the

water, with its long tail sufficiently raised to avoid getting wet. The

ordinary note is a low mew which is like that of a kitten but it has

a rather pleasant and musical pipe as well and I have heard a pair of

birds uttering a little chuckling ncte when walking about together

on the surface weeds of a village pond.

Both this and the last bird are difficult to keepin captivity, a

great pity, as they would make most charming additions to any

private water and would. soon become very tame and fearless.

Possibly the Bronze-winged Jacana would not stand cold but the

Pheasant-tailed Jacana is tolerant of slight frosts and does not leave

the hills for the plains in winter.

(Lo be continued)

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

E. BLATTER, S.J., PH.D., F.L.S.

PART IX

GRAMINE4

E. BLATTER and C. McCann

(Continued from page 243 of this Volume)

TRIBE IX. ZOYSIEA

74. TRAcHYS, Pers. ; Cke. ii, 1013.

1. Trachys mucronata, Pers. Syn. i (1805), 85; Beauv. Agrost. 107, t. 21, f.7;

Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 96 ; Cke. ii, 1014.—Z. smuricata, (per errorem pro mucro-

nata) Steud. Syn. Gram. 112.—Cenchrus muricatus, Linn. Mant. 302.—C. trip-

saceus, Herb. Linn. ex Munro in Journ. Linn. Soc. vi (1862), 55.—Zvachye

stachys geminata, A. Dietr. Sp. Pl. ii, 16.—7vripsachum distachyum, Herb.

Linn. ex Munro l.c.—FPunitcum dimidiatum, Burm. FI. Ind. 25, t. 8, f, 3.—

P. squarrosum, Retz. Obs. iv (1786), 15, t. 1; Roxb. Cor. Pl. iii, t. 206 ; Fl. Ind.

i, 288.

Description : Cke. ii,'1014.

Locality: S. M. Country: Badami (Bhide!, Cooke, Woodrow) ; Gokak

(Talbot !) ; Dharwar (Woodrow).

Distribution - W. Peninsula, Ceylon.

75. Nazis, Adans. Fam. PI. ii (1763), 581 ; Hitchcock Genera of Grass.

Unit. St. in Unit. St. Dept. Agric. Bull. 772 (1920), 165.

(Tragus, Haller Stirp. Helv. ii (1768), 203: Cke. ii, 1014).

The type species is Cenchrus racemosus, Linn. and the genus Nazia, Adans.

is based on this species. As to 7ragus, Haller, this author, according to

Hitchcock, cites pre-Linnaean writers who connect Tragus with Cenchrus

racemosus, Linn.

Species 3.—Tropical regions of both hemispheres.

1. Nazia racemosa, Kuntze Rev. Gen. Pl. iii, 357; Hitchcock Genera of

Grass. Unit. St. in Unit. St. Dept. Agric. Bull. 772 (1920), 165.—7vragus

vacemosus, Scop. Introd. Hist. Nat. 73; Desf. Fl. Atlant. ii, 386; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 13, Indig. Fodd. Grass. t. 14, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 22;

Hook. f. in. F. B. 1. vii, 97 ; Cke. ii, 1014; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924),

979.—T. brevicaulis, Boiss. Diag. Pl. Or. Ser. i, xiii, 44.—Lappago racemosa,

Honck. Syn Pl. Germ. i, 440; Host. Gram. Austr. i, t. 36; Sibth. Fl. Graec.

ji, t. 101; Reichb..Ic.; Fl. Germ, ¢:-30;- Daw. Enum) Pl. Zeyl362 ; Aitenis.

Cat. Panjab Pl. 163 ; Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 506; Miq. Fl. Ind Bat. iii, 473.—

L. biflora, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 281; Grah. Cat. 234.—Z. allena, Dalz. &

Gibs. 295 (zon Spreng.).—ZL. occidentalis, Nees in Schimp. Pl. Arab. Fel. ed. ii,

No. 793. —Cenchrus racemosus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1049.—C. linearis, Lam. Fl. Franc.

iii, 631.—Pralaris muricata, Forsk. Fl. Aeg.—Arab. 302.

Description : Cke. ii, 1014.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 481

Locality : Sind: Tatta, Tombs (Blatter & McCann )D679!).—Gujarat :

Ahmedabad, waste ground (Sedgwick !); Domas, near Surat (Graham) ;

Rajkot, Kathiawar (Woodrow) .—Khandesh : Bor, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hall-

berg 5467!).—-Konkan ; Salsette (Graham).—Deccan: Poona (Woodrow!,

Jacquemont 386); Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Bhide!); Bijapur (Cooke,

Woodrow).—S. 7. Country: Dharwar (Sedgwick & Rell 4145!) ; Mallapur

Hill, Bagalkot (Paranjpe !) ; Gokak (Shevade !) ;, Badami (Woodrow !).

Distribution : Most warm countries.

76. LATIPES, Kunth.

1. Latipes senegalensis, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, (1829), 261, t. 42; Enum. PI. i,

171, Suppl. 125 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 13, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 22 ; Hook.

f. in F.B.I. vii, 97 ; Cke. ii, 1015.—Lappago Latipes, Steud. Syn. Gram. 112.—

Tragus senegalensis, J. Gay ex Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 171.

Description ; Cke, ii, 1015.

Locality ; Sind : (Woodrow !) ; Karachi (Burns!) ; 20 miles N. of Karachi

(Woodrow) ; Jamadar ka Landa, near Karachi (Stocks 1186).

Distribution : Baluchistan, Arabia, Abyssinia, Senegal.

77. PrROTIS, Ait. ; Cke. ii, 1016.

Species 2 or 3.—Tropics of the Old World and subtropical Australia.

1. Perotis latifolia, Ait. Hort. Kew i (1789), 85; Beauv. Agrost. t. 4, f.9,

Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 239; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 237 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. F1. 296 ;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 13; Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. iii, 479 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii,

98; Cke. ii, 1016; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 978.—For synonyms

see Hook. f. l.c.

Description : Cke. ii, 1016.

Locality : Gujarat : Baroda (Cooke) ; Surat (Lisboa) ; Domas near Surat

(Dalzell & Gibson) ; Daman, on sand hill (Bhide!) ; Ahmedabad (Saxton

1052!); Balsar (Herb. S. X. C.!).—Konkan ; Juvem (McCann 4312!) ;

Versova (McCann 4204!) ; Alibag, sandy shore (Ezekiel!) ; Bassein (Bhide !),

Malwan (Woodrow).—S. J. Country ; Mallapur Hill, Bagalkot (Paranjpe !) ;

Gokak (Shevade!) ; Badami (Bhide!, Cooke, Woodrow) ; Londa (Bhiva!) ;

Gokak Falls (Sedgwick !).—Kanara;: Kalanudi (Sedgwick & Bell 4287!) ;

Karwar (Talbot 1068!, McCann !) ; Honore (Talbot 1068!).

Usually growing on sandy shores. It is easily recognized by its purplish

squirrel-tail-like inflorescence.

Distribution : More or less throughout India, Ceylon, S. Africa.

78. OSTERDAMIA, Neck. Elem. Bot. iii (1790), 218.

(Zoysia, Wild. (1801) ; Cke. ii, 1016).

Species about 10, tropical Asia to Australia and New Zealand, Mauritius ; in

Japan alone there are 7 species (See: Honda Masaji Revisio Gram. Japoniz

i, in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 37 (1923), 113-124.

1. Osterdamia Matrella,O. Ktze. Rev.Gen. Pl, ii (1891), 781; Hitchcock Genera

of Grass. Unit. St. in Unit. St. Dept. Agric. Bull. 772 (1920), 166.—Agyrostis

matrella, Linn. Mant. ii, 185: Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 317.—-Matrella juncea, Pers.

Syn. Pl. i (1805), 73.—Zoysia pungens, Willd. in Ges. Naturf. Fr. Neue

Schrift. iii (1801), 441; Br. Prodr. x, 208; Beauv. Agrost. i, t. 4, f. 1; Migq.

Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 478; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 99; Cke. ii, 1016; Haines Bot.

Bihar & Orissa (1924), 979.

Description : Cke. ii, 1016.

Locality : Gujarat: Daman, on sand hills (Herb. Econ. Bot.!, Lisboa).—

Konkan ; Alibag, sandy shore (Ezekiel !) ; Juvem (McCann 4314!) ; Bombay,

Walkeshwar, seashore, rocks (Sabnis!) ; Marine Lines (Hallberg 9873!) ;

Versova, marsh (McCann 9875 !).— Kanara - Karwar (Talbot 1531!, McCann !).

Distribution : Tropical Asia,

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1If

TRIBE X. SPOROBOLEA

79. SPOROBOLUS, R. Br. Fl. Nov. Holl. (1810), 169; Cke. ii, 1017.

Species about 95.—Warm regions of both hemispheres, most abundant in

America.

Cooke describes 10 species. We retain all of them and add 3 others:

S. virginicus, Kunth, S. scubrifolius, Bhide, and S. tremulus, Kunth.

A. Involucral glumes both shorter than the floral

vlume

I. Stamens 2

1. Culms 30-90 cm. high ;' panicle reaching

Z51em, 1. S. diander.

2. Culms scarcely 15 cm. high j panicle

reaching 20-25 cm. seat ble lS SCOLCIS.

II. Stamens 3

1. Panicle narrow, 12-20 mm. broad. Spike-

lets reaching 2°5 mm. long west Ose We CHOTCUS:.

2. Panicle reaching 7°5 cm. broad

a. Panicle. 30-45 cm. long. Spikelets

lmm.long ... ot . 4. S. minutitlorus.

6. Panicle 10-15 cm. long. Spikelets :

2-mm,. 10ne7) i. aA eeO Os US eetOCLadOS

B. Lower involucral glume as long as the floral

glume or nearly so. Panicle interrupted

I, Spikelets 2°5 mm. long. Leaves very

pale aE oy <a> 10,0°5S2 ULF AUHICUS.

If, Spikelets 1:5 mm. long. Leaves glaucous. 7. S. glaucifolius.

C. Lower involucral glume much shorter than

either of the two others

I. Panicle contracted

1. Perennials

a. Margins of leaves smooth ... Seo) 1Gss Le CREHLUILLS:

6. Margins of leaves serrulate... an’, 19s)? 9 OLIENL ATES.

2. eAnnuale. f wae ... 10. S. pzléferus.

Il.) Panicle eftuse

1. Spikelets 2°5 mm. long a i Wl Ger S Or OLGIES):

2. Spikelets 1-1°5 mm. long

a. Floral glume ovate, acute ... « 125 GS. SCAOTLIOLEUS.

6. Floral glume ovate-Janceolate, acumi-

nate meme ee ... 13. S. coromandelianus,

1. Sporobolus diander, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 26; Jacq. Eclog. Gram. t. 28 ;

Link Enum. Hort. Reg. Berol. i, 87; Kunth Enum. Pl. i. 213; Griff. Notul.

iii, 46, Ic. Pl. Asiat. t. 139, f. 85 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 296; Aitchis. Cat.

Panjab Pl. 165; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 29; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 40, t. 63 ;

Mig. FI. Ind. Bat. iii, 375 ; Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii, 247 ; Cke. ii, 1017.— Agrostis

diandra, Retz. Obs. v, 19; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 317.—Vzlfa erosa, Trin. in Mem.

Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, Sc. Nat. ii (1840), 86. —V. Retzii, Steud. Nom. ed. ii,

ii, 768, Syn. Gram. 162.

Description : Cres 017;

Locality : Sind : Jamesabad, fields (Sabnis B927 !).—Gujarat : Ahmedabad

(Sedgwick !).—Konkan : Bombay (Blatter 5267 !).—Deccan: Deolali (Blatter

549!); Khandala (McCann 5409 !); Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel !,

Jacquemont 352) ; Katraj Ghat (Shevade !) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg

B1318!).—S. W. Country: Dharwar (Sedgwick 2658!) ; Londa (Bhide!).—

Kanara : Dandeli, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4221 !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, Asia, tropical Australia.

2. Sporobolus sindicus, Stapf in Cooke Fl. Bomb. ii, 1018.

Description: Cke. 1.c.

Locality . Sind: 20 miles from Karachi (Woodrow).— We have not seen this

species.

Distribution : So far endemic,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 483

3. Sporobolus indicus, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 170 ; Link Hort. Reg. Berol. i, 87 ;

Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 211; Duthie Fodd. Grass N. Ind. 49; Hook.f. in F.B.I.

e245; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 261 ; Prain Beng. Pl. 1213 ; Cke. 11,1018; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 974.—Agrostis indica, Linn. Sp. Pl. 63.—

A. elongata, Lamk. Ill. i, 142.—A. tenacitssima, Jacq. Collect. i, 85, Ic. Rar. 3,

t. 16 (excl. syn.).—Sporobolus tenacissimus, Beauv. Agrost. 26; Duthie Fodd.

Grass. N. Ind. 49.- Vilfa capensis G& elongata, Beauv. Agrost. 16; Trin.

Gram. Diss. i, 154 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 159.~—V. extlis, Trin. in Mem. Acad.

Petersb. ser. 6, Sc. Nat. ii (1840), 89.—V. tndica, Trin. ex Steud. Nom. ed. ii,

ii, 767, Syn. Gram. 162.—V. fenacissima, H.B. & K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. i, 138 ;

Trin. Sp. Gram, Ic. t. 60. d

Description: Cke. ii, 1018.

Locality : Deccan: Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!) ; Lina Hill, Nasik

Dist. (Blatter A59!) ; Kolhapur (Woodrow).—Kanara : Castle Rock, 1,600 ft.,

rainfall 250 inches (Sedgwick 2851 !).

Distribution : Most warm countries.

4. Sporobolus mioutiflorus, Link Hort. Reg. Berol. i (1827), 88; Kunth

Enum. Pl. i, 214, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 248; Cke. ii, 1019.—Vzlfa minutttlora,

Trin, Gram. Diss. i, 158 ; Steud. Syn. Grain. 158.—V. capillaris, W. & A. ex

Wight Cat. No. 2036 (zon Miq.).—V. mangalorica, Hochst. ex Miq. Anal. Bot.

ii, 24; Steud. le. 158.—V. fenutsstma, Schult. Mant. ii, 47.—Panicum

tenutsstmum, Mart. ex Schrank in Denkschr. Bot. Ger. Regensb. ii (1822), 26.

Description : Cke. ii, 1019.

Locality : Konkan : Bombay Island, very common (McCann 4296 !, 3635 !),

Parel (Woodrow) ; Mulgaum (McCann 3660 !).—Kazara ; Dandeli, 2000 ft.,

rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick and Bell 4220 !) ; Kumpta (Chibber !),

Distribution ; W. Peninsula.

5. Sporobolus ioclados, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. (1841), 161; Hook. f. in F.B.I.

vii, 249 ; Cke. ii, 1019.

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Sind (Stocks).

Distribution : S. Africa.

6. Sporobolus virginicus, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 67, Enum. Pl. i, 210, Suppl.

167; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 249.—Agvostts virginica Linn. Sp. PI. 63 ; Labill.

Pl. Nov. Holl. i, 20, t. 23.—A. darbata, Pers. Syn. i, 75.—A. littaralis, Lamk.

Ill. 161.—A4. pungens, Pursh Fl. Am. Sept. 64.—Podosemum virginicum, Link

Enum. Hort. Berol. i, 85.—Vzlfa virginica, Beauv. Agrost. 16; Trin. Diss. i,

155; Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 48; Baker Fl. Mauritius 449.—V. darbata, Beauv. 1.c.—

V. littoralis, Beauv. l.c.— Sporobolus littoralis, Kunth 11. cc. 68, 213.

Description : Perennial. Stems erect or ascending from a decumbent woody

creeping base, branched, hard and often tortuous at the base, 15-30 cm. high.

Leaves strict, close-set, distichous, erecto-patent, 2°5-7°5 cm. long or more,

narrow and almost terete for the involute margins, pungent, very pale, glabr-

ous or scaberulous above, striate ; sheaths terete, short or long ; ligule of long

soft hairs. Panicle 2°5-10 cm. long, elongate, narrow, subspiciform, interrupt-

ed, very pale; branches very short. Spikelets 2°5-2 mm. long, very shortly

pedicelled, crowded. Glumes 3, all 1l-nerved, keels glabrous or obscurely

scabrid towards the tip. Involucral glumes oblong-lanceolate, acute, the lower

shorter than the upper. Pale oblong, narrowly truncate. Grain broadly obovoid,

with a pericarp loosened if moistened.

Locality - Gujarat ; Porbandar (Chibber!). Chibber was the first to find this

species on the shores of continental India.

Distribution : India, Ceylon, westward to Africa and America, eastward to

Australia.

7. Sporobolus glaucifolius, Hochst. in Flora xxv, pt. 1 (1842), Beibl. 133

(z0men nudum) ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 250 ; Cke, ii, 1019.—Vilfa glaucifolia,

Steud. Syn. Gram. 154.—V. scabrifolia, Hochst. ex Edgew. in Journ, Linn.

Soc. vi (1862), 196 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab, Pl. 165.—Agrostis barbata, B, sene.

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

galensis, Pers. Syn. i, 76.—A. littoralis B, Lamk. iii, 161; Poir. Encycl. Suppl.

i, 200:

Description : Cke. ii, 1019.

Locality : Sind: Mirpurkhas (Bhide!), fallow fields (Sabnis B1191 !) ;

Jacobabad (Bhide!); Magarpir, near Karachi (Sabnis B224!); Karachi

(Woodrow 18).—Gujarat : Porbandar (Woodrow 21!) ; road to Gogha (Chib-

ber !); dry rice fields, Chandola, Ahmedabad (Sedgwick !).—Konkan :

Bombay fore shore (Sedgwick 2568!) ; Sion (McCann 3677!).—.S. M. Country :

Khanapur, 2,500 ft., rainfall 60 inches (Sedgwick 3011!).

Distribution : Panjab, Sind, tropical Africa.

8. Sporobolus tremulus, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 67, Enum. Pl. i, 210, Suppl. 166 »

Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 250; Sedgwick & Saxton in Rec. Bot. Surv. India vi,

219 : Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 974.—Agrostis tremula, Willd. Sp. Pl.

i, 372 (excl. syn.).—A. juncea, Lamk. Encyel. i, 60, Ill. t. 41, f. 2.—A. tena-

cissima. Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 316 (excl. syn.).—Vilfa tremula, Trin. Diss. i, 155.—

V. geniculata, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 156.—V. orientalis, Wight Cat.

No. 1745 (partim).— Sporobolus geniculatus, Nees ex Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl.

165.—S. orientalis, Trim. Cat. Ceyl. Pl. 108 (zom Kth.).

Description : A small grass, 2°5-30 cm. high, erect or prostrate, wiry, strict,

often tufted, from a hard, knotted, stoloniferous stock ; stolons 15-45 cm. long,

stout or slender, leafy, flexuous. Leaves short, 1-5 cm. long, rigid, subulate or

filiform, flat or convolute, pungent, narrowed from the usually hairy base to

the tip, margins smooth. Ligule a few hairs. Panicle narrow, 2°5-10 cm.

long, subspiciform sometimes longer, flexuous and interrupted, with erect

branches, rarely afew spreading. Spikelets crowded, 1-5 mm. long, articulate

on very short pedicels half their own length or less, very pale; rhachilla

readily disarticulate above the Jowest glumes and these also separately falling.

Glumes all l-nerved. Lower involucral glume about $ of the floral glume,

lanceolate ; upper involucral glume and floral glume subequal. Pale as long

as its glume. Stamens 3. Grain oblong.

Locality : Gujarat : Sides of the Chandola Tank which are submerged in

the monsoon (Sedgwick !).—S. M4. Country : Kunnur, margins of tanks,

2,000 ft,, rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4936!) ; Marrikop, margins of

tanks, W. of Dharwar, 1,800 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4495 !) ;

Ranibennur, grassy plains near water (Bhide!).

Distribution - India, Ceylon, Burma, Tonkin, Cambodia.

9. Sporobolus orientalis, Kunth Enum. Pl. i (1833), 211; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. |

Fl, 295 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 251; Cke. ii, 1020 ; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.

49; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 263.—Agrostis orientalis, Nees Agrost. Bras. 393 (excl. ~

syn. Roxb.).—A tenacissima, Linn. f. Suppl. 107 (excl. syn. Jacq.).—A. elon-

gata, Roth Nov. Sp. Pl. 41.—Vilfa orientalis, Nees ex Trin. in Mem. Acad.

Petersb. ser. vi. Sc. Nat. ii (1840), 65; Steud. Syn. Gram. 156.—V. diandra,

Trin. Diss. i, 154 (excl. syn. Retz.).—Sporobolus humifusus, Trim. Cat, Ceyl.

Pl, 108 (zo Kunth).

Description : Cke. ii, 1020.

Locality: Gujarat: Prantij Taluka, low grounds liable to inundation

(Sedgwick !) ; Karie Roa, Cutch (Blatter 3771!) ; Umrat, on salt land (Wood-

row !).—Konkan - Bassein (McCann 4481!).—Kanara: Karwar, borders of rice

fields (Talbot 1531!).

Distribution : Punjab, W. Peninsula, Ceylon,

10. Sporobolus piliferus, Kunth Enum. PI. i (1883), 211; Hook. f. in F.B.I.

vii, 251 ; Cke. ii, 1020.— Vilfa pilitera, Trin. Diss. i, 157, ii, 23, Sp. Gram. Ic. t.

58.—-Sporobolus ciliatus, Munro in Herb. Ind. Or. Hook. f. & T. ex Hook f. in

F.B.I. vii, 251: Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 29 (zon Vilfa ciliata, Presl.).-— Tria-

chyrum nilagirvicum, Steud.in Hohen. Pl. Ind. Or. no. 931.

Description : Cke. ii, 1020.

Locality: Deccan; Panchgani, Tableland, 4,300 ft., rainfall 60 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 4693!, Blatter & Hallberg B1319!, B1320!, McCann !).—

S. M. Country : Dharwar (Bhide !) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 836).

Distribution : W. Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Nilgiris, W. Peninsula, Malacca.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 485

11. Sporobolus arabicus, Boiss. Diagn. Pl. Or. ser. i, xiii, 47; Hook. f. in

F.B.I., vii, 252; Cke. ii, 1020.—S. palltdus, Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 514 (mon Lindl.) ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 165 (excl. syn.).—Vilfa pallida, Nees ex ‘Trin. in Mem.

Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, Sc. Nat. ii (1840), 62; Steud. Syn. Gram. 155.—

V. arabica, Steud. l.c. 241.

Hook f. calls the synonymy of this plant a perplexing one, ‘owing to the

double use of the specific name pallidus, and to the fact of Vzlfa being now

regarded as a synonym of Sforobolus. This name (pallidus) was applied by

Nees in 1840 to the Arabian plant described above, under Vz/fa; and by

Lindley in 1848 to a very different Australian one, under Sporobolus. Bentham

(Fl. Austral, vii, 623) assuming that Nees had referred his plant to Sporobolus,

renamed Lindley’s S. Linudleyi. Lastly, Boissier, when he founded his

S. avabicus, was not aware that it was Trinius’s Vz/fa pallida, which he erro-

neously cites in Fl. Orient., under Sporobolus pallidus, Trin. In this case the

proper course appears to me to be toretain the name Sf. pallidus, Lindl., for

the Australian plant, and Sf. arabicus, Boiss., forthe Arabian and Indian.’

Personally we are inclined to call this species S. pallidus, Boiss., as Vilfa

pallida, Nees is the oldest naine for the Indo-Arabian species.

Description : Cke. ii, 1020.

Locality: Sind: (Burns!) ; Laki (Bhide!); Mirpur Sakro (Blatter &

McCann D672!, D677 !, D678!) ; Gharo (Blatter & McCann D673!, D676 !) ;

Tatta (Blatter & McCann D674!, D675!) ; Jamadar ka Landa near Karachi

(Stocks 663); Karachi (Woodrow); between Karachi and Magar Peer

(Wykehain Perry).

Distribution: Punjab, Waziristan, Rajputana Desert, Afghanistan, Balu-

chistan, Arabia.

12. Sporobolus scabrifolius, Bhide in Journ, & Proc. As. Soc. Beng. new. ser.

viii (1912), 312, pl. xxv. :

Description : Stems erect, 20-75 cm. high. Nodes glabrous. Leaves 2°5—

12cm. long, 3-9 mm. broad, lanceolate, rounded or subcordate at the base,

hairy on both surfaces with bulbous based hairs, margins slightly thickened

and spinulosely serrulate ; sheaths glabrous ; ligule a fringe of hairs. Panicle

7°5-17°5 cm. long, 2°5-9 cm. diam. ; branches whorled or fascicled, a few

solitary ones or twins intervening. Spikelets about 1mm. long. Glumes 3,

involucral ones empty, ovate, acute, membranous, l-nerved, the lower one 3

the size of the upper; flowering glume just a little shorter than the upper

involucral, ovate, acute, membranous, l-nerved, paleate, bisexual; pale

shorter than the glume. Stamens 3; styles 2; stigmas plumose. Grain

rounded, slightly beaked at the extremities ; lodicules minute.

Locality : S.M. Country : Ranibennur (Bhide !) ; Haveri (Talbot 2176!).

Distribution : So far endemic.

13. Sporobolus coromandelianus, Link. Hort. Reg. Berol. i (1827), 89 (zn nota).

Kunth Rev. Gram. i (1829), 68 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 296 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I.

vii, 252 ; Cke. ii, 1021 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 975.—Agyrostis coro-

mandeliana, Retz. Obs. iv, 19; Vahl. Symb. i, 10; Roxb. Fl. Ind i, 316.—

A. indica, Forsk. Fl. Aeg.—Arab. 104.—Vilta coromandeliana, Beauv. Agrost.

15; Trin. Sp. Gram.Ic.t 11 (omitlens glumam involucri inferiorem) ; Steud.

Syn. Gram. 153.—V. commutata, Trin. Diss. i, 156.—V. discospora, Trin. in

Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, Sc. Nat. ii (1841), 59.—V. Roxburghii, Nees ex

Trin. l.c.—V. Roxburghiana, Nees ex Wight Cat. No. 1742 ; Steud. Nom. ed.

ii, ii, 59.— Sporobolus commutatus, Kunth Enum. i. 214 ; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii,

376 (excl. syn. pulchello) ; Boiss. Fl. Or. v (1884), 513; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab

Pl. 165 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 29.—S. discosporus, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr.

158. —Triachyrum cordofanum, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 176.

Description: Cke. ii, 1021.

Locality: Sind: Jamadar ka Landa near Karachi (Stocks).—Gwujarat :

Shady places at Dhansura Madasa-Petha (Sedgwick !).—Ahandesh : Bor, Bori

River (Blatter & Hallberg 4426!)—Konkan: Kennedy Seaface, Bombay

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

(Sabnis 4295 !) ; Bombay (Law).—Deccan : Poona, College Farm (Khomne!) ;

Gungapur (Blatter A56!).—S. 4. Country : Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34

inches (Sedgwick 2832 !).

ari ee - Punjab, Orissa, Burma, W. Peninsula, Ceylon, Afghanistan,

rica.

TRIBE Xl. ERAGROSTEZ

80. DeESMosTACcHya, Stapf. in Haines Bot. Bihar and Qrissa (1924), 962.

(Hragrostis, Beauv., partim).

This genus agrees with Hragrostis, Beauv., except in the following points :

Spikelets very closely packed, imbricate, laterally very much compressed,

secund, sessile and articulate on the very short densely crowded branchlets of

a tall narrow racem‘form panicle, acute and deciduous; rhachilla sub-

articulate.

Species 1.—India to Syria and N. Africa.

1. Desmostachya bipinnata, Stapf in Fl. Cap. vii, 632 —Briza bipinnata, Linn.

Syst. Nat. x, 875.—Uniola bipinnata, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. ii, 104.—Leptochloa

bipinnata, Hochst. in Flora xxxviii (1855), 422.—Ayragrostis cynosuroides, Beauv.

Agrost. 71, 162; Steud. Syn. Gram. 264; Wight Cat. No. 1774, 1774b ; Trin. in

Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1831), 415; Dalz. and Gibs. Bomb. FI. 298 ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 169; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 37, Fodd. Grass. N.

Ind. 62, t. 40; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 583; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

vii (1893), 387; Hook. f.in FB. J. vil 324; Cke: ii; 1028; -Prain Beng.2Fle

1221.—Poa cynosuroides, Retz. Obs. fasc. iv, (1786), 20; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 333;

Del. Fl. d’Egypt 159, t. 19; Gran. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 236; Kunth Enum. Pl. i,

227.—Desmostachya cynosuroides, Stapfin Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1924),

962; Blatt., McCann and Sabnis in Journ, Ind. Bot. vi (1927), 76.— Cynosurus

durus, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 71.

Description: Cke. ii, 1028 (under Aragrostis).

Locality : Sind: Jacobabad (Bhide!); Hyderabad (Bhide!, Woodrow) ;

Sukkur (Sabnis B550!, Bhide!) ; Miani forest, Hyderabad (Bhide!) ; Larkana

(Sabnis B100!) ; Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B66!) ; Sehwan, sand

dunes (Sabnis B674!); Sita Road (Sabnis B360!); Khairpur Mirs, forest

(Sabnis B328!); Phuleli Canal, on banks, at Hyderabad (Sabnis B181!) ;

Sanghar (Sabnis B895!); Pad-Idan (Sabnis B517!); Ghulamalla, fields

(Blatter and McCann D643!) ; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter and McCann D644!,

D646!, D647!); Gharo (Blatter and McCann D645!, 00648 !).—Cutch :

(Blatter !).—Gujarat: Surat (Gammie!); Nadiad Farm (Supt. of Farm !) ;

road to Lasundra (Chibber!) ; Charodi (Gammie 16526 !) ;-Mandvi, Kathiawar

(Woodrow).—Koxzkan : Palghar, Mahim (Ryan 2189) ; Bassein (Patwardhan !);

Dahana, Thana Dist. (Burns!).—Deccan : Nasik (Lisboa).

Distribution : India, Syria, Egypt, Nubia.

81. ERaAGROSTIS, Beauv. Ess. Agrost. (1812), 70, pl. 14.

fds; Ceci LOZ is

1 Hitchcock ascribes the genus to Host because Host was the first to describe

a species of Arogrostis (Gram. Austr. 4 (1809), 14, pl. 24). Host, however, did

not give a diagnosis of the geaus and so we retain Beauvois who first diagnosed

the genus, l.c.

Species more than 10).—Tropical and temperate regions.

Cooke describes 15 species Of these Eragrostis Cynosurotdes, Beauv. has

been put under Desmostachya above. The other species are being retained,

with the exception that Z. tenella, var. viscosa, Stapf is considered as a distinct

species (Z. viscosa). Of two species the names had to be changed viz. Z.

amabilts is here called &. unioloides, and E. mator goes under the name of £Z.

Eragrostis. E. papposa and E. brachyphylla are new to the Presidency.

Key, after Cooke.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 487

A. Spikelets panicled.

AA. Rhachilla of spikelets more or less jointed

and breaking up from above downwards

I, Panicle spiciform, compact, 5-775 cm. by

8 mm.; rhachis bearded at the nodes ;

margins of flowering glumes ciliate ... 1. &. ciliata.

II. Panicle open or more or less contracted ;

margins of flowering glumes not ciliate

1. Spikelets 5 mm. long; panicle large,

lax, thyrsiform, 20-50 by 10-l5cm.... 2.

2. Spikelets 2°5 mm. long; panicle short,

compact, cylindric, 12-40 mm. long. 3. A&. ezliaris.

3. Spikelets 2°5-4 mm. long; panicles

5-20 cm. long

a. Grain ovoid. Stamens 3

bs)

aspera,

aa. Not sweet-scented ... 4. E. tenella,

66. Sweet-scented Dy be UESCOSAs

6. Grain obovoid. Stamens 2 6. £. interrupta.

BB, Rhachilla of spikelets tough, persistent ;

flowering glumes falling away from its

base upwards

I. Spikelets flat, ovate-elliptic or oblong 3.

lateral nerves of flowering glumes very

prominent, straight, almost percurrent;

pales deciduous with their glumes... 7. &. untolotdes.

II. Spikelets less compressed, linear or

linear-oblong ; lateral nerves less pro-

minent. When spikelet compressed or

lateral nerves prominent, then with

persistent pales

1. Spikelets more or less fascicled on the

primary or secondary branches or

shortly pedicellatein narrow racemes

aa. Leaves glaucous; grainoblong. 8. &. gangetica.

66. Leaves not glaucous; grain

globose or nearly so .. 9<<. EE. stenophylla.

2, Spikelets not fascicled; long pedicellate,

more or less divaricate when ripe

a. Leaf-margins glandular

aa. Lower involucral glume 1-3-

nerved ; upper 3-nerved woe LO; 2. Evavvosizs.

66. Both involucral glumes 1-ner-

ved a sic fase ele est 0K.

6. Leaf-margins eglandular ; involucral

glumes 1-nerved

aa. Spikelets versatile, 2°5 cm. long

or longer, narrowly linear ;

branches of panicle solitary... 12. &. tremula.

66. Spikelets small, 4 mm. long

or less

§ Mouth of leaf-sheath naked. 13. &. tenuzfolia.

S$ Mouth of leaf-sheath

bearded

+ Perennial. Grain obovoid. 14. &. papposa.

tf Annual. Grain ellipsoid... 15. &. pzlosa.

B. Spikelets distichously spreading, secund, in a

long, simple terminal spike

1. Keels of pale distinctly winged ... won LO, 2. O2faria.

2. Keels of pale not winged Ss we 17. E. brachyphylla.

1. Eragrostis ciliata, Nees Agrost. Bras. (1829), 512, Obs. 1 (omen nudum) ;

Wight Cat. No. 1788; Steud. Syn. Gram. 265; Dalz. and Gibs. Bomb. FI. 298 ;

Hook. f, in F. B.I, vii, 313; Cke. ii, 1022 ; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1924),

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

956.—F. rupestris, Steud. 1. c.--Poa ciliata, Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 334.—P. rupestris,

Roth. Nov. Pl. Sp. 71.

Description : Cke. ii, 1022.

Locality: Gujarat: Domas, near Surat (Dalz. and Gibs.).—We have never

coine across this species.

Distribution : India, Cochin-China.

2. Eragrostis aspera, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. (1841). 408 ; Lisboa in Journ., Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 386 ; Hook. f.in F. B. J. vii, 314; Cke. ii, 1023.—

F.. paniculata, Steud. Syn. Gram. 278.—Poa paniculata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 340.

—P. aspera, Jacq. Hort.Vindob. iii, 32.

Description : Cke. ii, 1023.

Locality : Konkan : ( Lisboa !).—S. 17. Country: Hubli, in water hole,

2,500 ft., rainfall 30 inches; (Sedgwlck & Bell 4230!) in a small tank near

Dharwar, 2.500 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 1814! ) ; common in the water

holes in the Naval Tract (Sedgwick).—V. Kanara: (Lisboa !).

te euen - W. Peninsula, S. India, Ceylon, tropical and S. Africa, Isle of

rance.

3. Eragrostis ciliaris, Link Hort. Reg. Berol. i (1827), 192 ; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 582 ;

Baker Fl. Maurit. 456 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 37, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 62 ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 169 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893),

380; Hook.f. in F. B. I. vii, 314; Cke. ii, 1023.—Poa ciliaris, Linn. Sp. Pl.

102.—Fragrostis lobata, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1831), 396.—

E. lepida, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 424.—2. plwmosa, Boiss. Fl.

Or. v, 582 (excl. syn).—E. pulchella, Parl. in Hook. Niger Fl. 186.—Z. arabica,

Jaub. & Spach Ill. Pl. Or. iv, 31, t. 322.—Wegastachya ciliaris, Beauv.

Agrost. 74.

Stapf (in Hook. f. F. B. I. 1. c.) distinguishes 2 varieties :—

a. var. ciliaris proper, Stapf. Panicle spiciform, more or less lobed or

interrupted.

6. var. brachystachya, Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 582. Panicle short, compact,

cylindric.

In our opinion the many intermediate forms make it practically impossible to

keep up this varietal distinction. The above synonymy and the following

description are such as to include both varieties.

Description : Annual. Stem 15-60 cm. high, procumbent below and geni-

culately ascending, slender, glabrous, smooth. Leaves very narrow, flat,

tapering toa fine point ; sheaths striate, usually bearded at the mouth with

long hairs; ligule a fringe of short hairs. Panicle 1-15 cm. long, spiciform,

more or less lobed or interrupted, or short, compact and cylindric, appear-

ing hairy from the long cilia of the pales ; branches very short, divided from

the base, glabrous; nodes of glabrous rhachis naked; pedicels very short,

glabrous. Spikelets 2°5 mm. long and broad, crowded, 6-12-flowered, strongly

compressed, very pale; rhachilla breaking up. Involucral glumes subequal,

ovate-lanceolate, acute, 155 mm. long. Floral glumes about 1 mm. long,

oblong, subtruncate, mucronulate, spreading, lateral nerves submarginal.

Pales equal to their glumes and falling with them, the keels with long

rigid cilia. Stamens 3; anthers very short. Grain elongate-ovoid, about

0°5 mm. long.

Locality: Sind: Karachi ( Burns!) ; Jamadar ka Landa, near Karachi

(Stocks) ; Mirpurkhas (Sabnis B1175!) ; Mirpurkhas Farm, Mankad (Herb,

Econ. Bot.! ); Jamesabad, in fields (Sabnis B1109!); Nasarpur, clayey soil

(Sabnis B1053!) ; Sanghar (Sabnis B757!) ; Tatta ( Blatter & McCann

D649 !).—Cutch : Bhuj Hill (Blatter !).—Gujarat : Baroda (Woodrow) ; Domas,

near Surat (Bhide!) ; Porbander ( Bhide!) ; Nadiad (Chibber!) ; Broach

( Woodrow !) ; Sungiri (Gammie 16553!) ; Perim Isl., Gulf of Cambay

( Blatter!).—Khandesh : Taner, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5166!) ;

Nim, Tapti bed (Blatter & Hallberg 5400!) ; Tapti Isl. near Bor, on sand and

mud (Blatter & Hallberg 4394!) ; Bor, Bori River ( Blatter & Hallberg 4423 !);

Amalner, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5114 !).—Konkan ; St. Xavier’s

College, compound (McCann 4527! 4596!) ; Alibag, sandy shore Ezekiel !),.—

Deccan: Trimbak, Nasik Dist. (Chibber!).—Aazara : Honavar (McCann !),

Distribution : India, Arabia, tropical Africa and America,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 489

4, Eragrostis tenella, P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii (1817), 576; Stapl in

Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 315 ; Cke. ii, 1023.—Foa amabilis, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed.

i (1753), 68.— Poa tenella, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. i (1753), 69.

A. Camusin Lecomte’s Flore Général del’Indo-Chine has adopted the

name ZLragrostis amabilis for this species. Mr. Hubbard of Kew has informed

us that, according to the Vienna Rules of nomenclature (Art. 46} this does not

seem to be correct. Poa amadilis, Linn. is the sameas Poa tenella, Linn., and

Eragrostis tenella, P. Beauv. ex Roem. & Schult. is based on Poa tenella, Linn.

Apparently Stapf (in Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 315) was the first to unite the two

species ; asthe name first used when the species were united takes precedence

over the other, we have to retain the name #&. fenella, P. Beauv.

Description : Usually a small, very elegant and slender annual grass, very

variable, rarely 45 cm. high. Stems many, slender, densely tufted. Leaves

slender, narrow, acuminate, attaining 12cm. by 5mm., usually much less ;

sheaths long-ciliate near the mouth. Panicles decompound, excessively branch-

ed 2-8in. long, contracted or spreading, pale green or purplish, oblong-ovate

or cylindric, never with the long interrupted rhachis and pseudo-verticillate

branches of &. interrufta. Spikelets innumerable, minute to small on

capillary brrnchlets and pedicels, 1-4 mm. by 1mm. or less, not strongly

compressed, 3-9-flowered. Involucral glumes subequal or unequal. Flowering

glumes oblique, not mucronate, lateral nerves remote from the margins ; keels

of pale usually obscurely ciliate. Stamens 3. Grain broadly ovoid, pale brown,

polished. |

Var. plumosa, Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 315; Cke. ii, 1024 ; Haines Bot.

Bihar & Orissa (1922) 957.—Eragrostis plumosa, Link. Enum. Hort. Berol.

i. (1827), 192 (zon Boiss.) ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 38, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.

64, t. 38, 77 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 170; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. vi (1893), 385.— Poa plumosa, Retz. Obs. iv, 20; Kunth Enum. Pl.

i, 338; Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 337.—P. ¢emella, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. i, (1753), 69 : Burm.

Fl. Zeyl. t. 47, f.3; Retz. Obs. V, 19.—Ayvagrostis tenella, P. Beauv. 1. c.-—

P. despiciens, Link. Enum. Hort. Berol. i, 88.—vragrostis despiciens, Schult.

Mant. ii, 318.

Description: Stems tufted, sometimes reaching 40 cm. high and more, and

as well as the panicle eglandular. Panicle delicate, open, often flexuous ;

branches capillary, rhachis bearded at the nodes ; pedicels distinct, often long.

Spikelets 1:°2-4 mm. long, 3-9-flowered, rhachlila subarticulate. Involucral

glumes unequal, the lower distinctly shorter than the upper. Floral glumes

less than 1 mm. long. Keels of the pale pectinately ciliate with long hairs.

Anthers minute. Grain ovoid, less than 0°5 mm. long.

Locality : Sind : Mirpurkhas, on banks of dry watercourse (Sabnis B1023!) ,—-

Gujarat; Surat (Bhide!, Woodrow),—zandesh : Bor, Tapti Island, sandy

mud (Blatter & Hallberg 4395!) ; Umalla, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg

5230 !) ; Chanseli (McCann 9978!).—Konkan : Common (Lisboa) ; Byculla,

common in Bombay Island (McCann Al; Uran (Hallberg & McCann 5131!,

5124 !).— Deccan : Sholapur (D’Almeida 9977 !) ; Poona (Cooke, Woodrow).—

S.M. Country : Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2830!) ;

Yelvigi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 30 inches (Sedgwick 2035!) ; Badami (Bhide !) ;

Gokak (Shevade !),— Kazara : Halyal (Talbot 2383 !).

Distribution ; Throughout India and Ceylon.

Var. riparia, Stapf in Hook.f. F.BI. vii, 315 ; Cke. i, 1024.

Cooke included this variety on the authority of Graham (Cat. Bomb. Pl. p.

236, under Poa tenella). Graham does not give any locality ; Cooke has not

seen any specimen from the Presidency and we have not found it anywhere in

our area. We, therefore, drop this variety.

5. Eragrostis viscosa, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. 6, i (1831), 397;

Dalz, & Gibs. 298; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 386 ;

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1922), 957.— oa viscosa, Retz. Obs. iz (1786), 20;

Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 336; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 236; Kunth Enum. PI. i,

336 .—FHragrostis tenella var. viscosa, Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 315! Cke.

ii, 1024.

Description : A tufted, sweet-scented-grass, 15-40 cm high, the panicles

occupying the greater part of the plant. Stem and rhachis of panicle, pedicels

and glumes with scattered microscopic glands, Leaves mostly convolute,

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

erecto-patent, 2'5-3-5 cm. long with rigid tips, base and mouth of sheath

with very long cilia. Panicles dense, cylindric or oblong, 7-13 cm. long and

up to 3°5 cm. broad. Branches very numerous, more or less spreading, equal,

sometimes opposite or 2-nate, but never in interrupted whorls as in &. inter-

rupta ; rhachis usually glabrous, rarely obscurely bearded at the nodes. Spike-

lets 5-20-flowered, often purplish, usually about 3 mm. long ; rhachilla readily

breaking up. Involucral giumes nearly equal or the lower very slightly shorter

than the upper. Floral glumes broadly ellipsoid, obtuse or rounded, with the

keei minutely scaberulous. Pale nearly as long as the glume, rigidly ciliate on

the keels. Grain pale brown, polished, about 0°5 mm. long.

Locality: Gujarat : Junagad, Kathiawar (Blatter 3282 !, 3791!).— Khandesh:

Bor, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 4430!) ; Amalner, Bori River (Blatter &

Hallberg 5113!) ; Nim, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 3829!) ; Dadgaum

(McCann All !).—Konkan : Malabar Hill, Bambay.—Deccan . Khandala;

Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1280!).—S. 47. Cuntry : Dastikop fields,

2,500 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 1898! ).—Kanara : Sulgeri,

500 ft., rainfall 200 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4250!) ; Birchy (Talbot 2102 !).

Distribution : From the Gangetic Plain southward, Ceylon, tropical and

S. Africa.

6. Eragrostis interrupta, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 71 (zon Roem. & Schult. negue

Trin.) >; Stapf in Hook.f: F.BL. vii, {3165 .Cke.1, 10245 “Haines bow

Bihar & Orissa (1924), 957.—Poa interrupta, Lamk. iii, i, 185; Poir. Encycl.

v, 87 ; Heyne ex Roth Nov. Sp. 67; Koen. ex Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 335.—Poa

‘Kenigit, Kunth Enum. Pl.i, 346.—#ragrostis Kenigit, Link Enum, Hort.

Berol. ii, 294; Steud. Syn. Gram. 266.—Zyvragrostis interrupta, Beauv. var.

Kenigit, Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 316 ; Cke. ii, 1024; Haines Bot. Bihar &

Orissa (1924), 957.—4. hapalantha, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i

(1839), 409 (partim).—EH. minutiflora, Presl. Rel. Haenk. i, 274 (excl. syn.) ;

Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii. (1893) ,386.—. mossulensis, Steud.

Syn. Gram. 264.—#. nutans, Nees in Wight Cat. no. 1776; Steud. Nom,

ed: ii, i,--563; -Duthie Grass.: N. W. Ind. 38, Fodd. Grass. “N. Ind,

63, t, 76; Aitchis, Cat. Panjab Pl: 169°; Lisboa =1. ‘c:- 3812 *Boiss-- Be

Or. v, 583.—&. Rothii, Steud. Syn. Gram. 267.—Z. stricfa, Steud. lc. 264.—

F. verticillata, Nees in Wight Cat. no. 1784.—Poa nutans, Koen. ex Roth Nov.

Sp. 64; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 335 (zo Retz.).—Poa diarrhena, Schult. Mant. 616.—

Eragrostis diarrhena, Steud. Syn. Gram. 266.--Z. interrupta, var. adiarr-

hena Stapf 1. c.—Poa diandra, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 336 (zon Br.).—Hvragrostis

diandra, Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 169 (zon Steud.) ; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind.

37.—Diplachne elongata, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 268.— Aragrostis

diplachnoides, Steud.1. c.— Hragrostis interrupta. var. diplachnotdes, Stapf

lLc.—. caudata, Nees ex Steud. 1. c. 264; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 37.—

EF. japonica, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i. (1831), 405.—Z. ¢enella B.

Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 356.—. fenella, Benth. Fl. Hongk. 431, FI.

Austral. viii, 643 (#02 Beauv.) ; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 65, t,

78.—E. tenellula, Steud. Syn. Gram. 279.—E. tenuissima, Schrad. ex Nees

Fl. Afr. Austr. 409, 410.—Z. interrupta, var. tenuissima, Stapfl.c. ; Sedgwick

and Saxton in Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. vi, 219 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924)

958.—Poa Japonica, ‘Yhumb. Fl. Jap. 31.—FP. tenella, R. Br. Prodr. 181

(non Beauv.) ; Roxb. Fl. Ind, i, 337.—P. ¢enellulla, Kunth Enum. PI. i,

338. :

We have examined a great number of specimens from all parts of the

Presidency. Most of them cannot be classed under any of the 4 varieties

mentioned by Stapf. If we wanted to classify them we would have to greatly

multiply the number of varieties which could not be satisfactory neither trom a

theoretical nor practical point of view. Cooke puts the Bombay material

under /. interrupta, var. Kaenigii, Stapf. But then he has seen only one

specimen from Surat. We have dropped all the varieties as can be seen from

the above synonymy. The following description comprises them all.

Description: A very variable slender grass from 5-90 cm., annual or

perennial. Stems smooth and polished, tufted, geniculate and ascending from

the base, branched or not, nodes glabrous. Leaves slender, up to about 25cm.

long, narrow, flat, glabrous; sheaths glabrous, close; ligule a fimbriate

membrane. Panicle exceedingly variable, up to 60 cm. long, either contracted

with appressed branches or interrupted with many tiers of rather short

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 491

spreading subwhorled branches (either long narrow with short dense suberect

or erecto-patent pseudo-whorls or long effuse or contracted with solitary or

2-3-nate branches, simple or if branched the whorl] rarely overtopped by 1 or 2

branches, ultimate branches not divaricate or long loose narrow, usually stiff,

branches pseudo-whorled, spreading, ramified from the base, branchlets and

pedicels divaricate- or long linear-oblong, branches up to 5 cm. long, hardly

whorled, simple at the base, etc.). Spikelets usually very minute, from

1-6 mm. long, ovate to linear, few- to many-flowered. Flowering glumes

obtuse, nerves slender, green or pale brown, rarely coloured, keels of pale

scaberulous or smooth. Stamers 2. Grain obovoid.

Locality: Sind: Pad-Idan (Sabnis B513!); Mirpurkhas, fallow fields

(Sabnis B1175!) ; Jamesabad (Sabnis B1164!) ; Ganja Hill, near Hyderabad

(Sabnis B996!) ; Bhagar, Indus River (Blatter & McCann D650!).—Gujarat -

In water holes (Dalzell & Gibson) ; Dangs, 800 ft., rainfall 100 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 5392!) ; Surat (Gammie 16436!, Woodrow, Cooke) ; Kabir-

wad, Broach Dist. (Chibber!); Nadiad (Chibber!) ; road to Lasandra

(Chibber !).—Ahandesh : Tapti, Bhusawal, N. E. (Blatter & Hallberg 4437 !) ;

Bor, Taptilsl., sand and mud (Blatter & Hallberg 5475!); Nim, Tapti, left

bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5221!); Amalner, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg

4433 !); Muravat, ‘Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5151!, 5205!) ; Bor (Blatter

& Hallberg 5488 !) ; Chanseli Hill, northern slope (McCann 9986!) ; Umalla,

Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5214!); Toramnal (McCann 9976 !, 9995 !).—.

Konkan: Tisgaon, near Kalyan (Garade !) ; Borivli to Kenery Caves (McCann

9989!) ; Vihar Lake (McCann 9996!); Pen (McCann 8556!) ; Kase Dohan,

Thana Dist. (Ryan 1920!) ; Ghatkoper, Horse-shoe Valley (McCann 9994!) ;

Parel (McCann 5417!); Sion (McCann 5246!) ; Bassein (Lisboa) ; Thana

(Lisboa) ; Alibag, rocky river bed (Ezekiel !).— Deccan : Bhowdan, near Poona

(Woodrow) ; Bahuli, 14 miles N.W. of Poona (Woodrow); Ganeshkhinad

Botanic Gardens (Gammie!); Trimbak (Chibber!); Dhond, along river

(Bhide 1349!) ; Barsi River (Gammie 15766!) ; Khandala, very common in

fields (McCann 9998!); Khandala to Karjat (Blatter & Hallberg 5322 !);

Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5193!) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann 5056 !) ;

Tangawadi, Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 3334!) ; Lohagad (McCann 9987 !) ;

Vaslang, Sholapur (D’Almeida 9980 !).—S. WZ. Country : Margin of tanks,

Yelvigi, 1,800 ft., rainfall 28 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 3612!) ; Dharwar, 2,400

ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4975!) ; Dastikop, 2 500 ft., rainfall

35 inches (Sedgwick 2135 !).—Kanara: Halyal, 1,800 ft. (Talbot 2100!) ;

Kincholi (Talbot 944 !) ; Castle Rock, on banks of a tank (McCann 9993 !).

Distribution ;: India, Ceylon, tropical Asia and Africa.

7. Eragrostis unioloides, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 264; Trim. Cat. Ceyl. Pl.

109; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 38; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 65; Aitchis. Cat. Panj.

Pl. 170; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. viii (1893), 353; Griseb. in

Goett. Nachr. (1868), 76.—Poa untoloides, Retz. Obs. v, 19; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i,

330; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 335; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 236.—P. multiflora, Roxb.

F). Ind. i, 338.—P. polymorpha, R. Br. Prodr. 180.—P. vubews, Lamk. Illustr.

i, 184, t. 45, f. 2; Kunth Le. 335.—Zvagrostis amabilis, Wight & Arn. ex Nees

in Hook. & Arn. Bot. Beech. Voy. 251 (zon Linn.); Nees in Act. Acad. Nat.

Cur. xix, Suppl. i (1843), 205; Stapf. in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 317; Cke. ii, 1025;

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1922), 958.—. polymorpha, Trin. ex Steud. Nom.

ed. ii, i, 364, 562.—Z. rubeus, Hochst. ex Miq. Anal. Bot. ii, 26; Steud. Syn.

Gram, 265.—Briza rubra, Lamk. Illustr. i, 187 ; Kunth l.c. 371.—Uniola indica,

Spreng. Syst. i, 349; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 298.—Megastachya polymorpha,

Beauv. Agrost. 74.

Mr. Hubbard of Kew has helped us with regard to the synonymy of this

species. He says ina letter: ‘The combination 4. amadbilis, Wight & Arn. is

based on Poa amaétlis, Linn. but the majority of the references, the description

and the specimens refer to a different plant which has for a long time been

known under thisname. It cannot, however, be called &. amadilis, Wight &

Arn. and the next name for it is Hvagrostis untoloides, Nees (Poa uniolotdes,

Retz.). The fact that the name Z. amaédilis has been applied to a different

species might be used as additional justification for rejecting it.’

Description : Cke. ii, 1025.

Locality : Sind’: Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D651 !).— Konkan : Penn

(Bhide!, McCann!) ; very common in the Bombay and Salsette Islands

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

(McCann !); Alibag (Ezekiel!) ; Uran (Hallberg & McCann 5130!) ; Parel,

Bombay Island (Woodrow) ; Bassein (Woodrow) .—WLeccan » Igatpuri (Blatter

& Hallberg 5192!, McCann!); Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann 8739!) ;

Lohagad, way up (McCann 9504!) ; Khandala, very common (Blatter 4375 !,

5440 !, McCann!) ; Lonavla (Woodrow 165) ; Poona (Woodrow) ; Katraj Ghat

(Bhide!) ; Panchgani (Biatter 5387!, Blatter & Hallberg B1243 !) ; Mahableshwar

(Talbot 4511!).—S. 4. Country: Marshes N. of Belgaum (Ritchie 846) ;

Dharwar (Sedgwick 2114!).—Kanara: Karwar, sandy fields by the sea

(Sedgwick & Bell 5086!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15723!) ; Dudsagar Falls

(McCann 9985 !).°

Distribution : India, Ceylon, tropical Asia,

8. Eragrostis gangetica, Steud. Syn. Gram. (1855), 266; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v,

203 ; Stapf in Dyer Fl.:Cap. vii (1900), 6175. Prain Beng. Plo 2271 skein

1025; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 958.—. elegantula, Stapf in Hook.

f. F.B.I. vii (1896), 318 (won Nees).

Description : Cke. ii, 1025. __

‘ Very similar to &. stenophylia in the character of the panicle and the slatey-

blue spikelets, but the longer striolate grain is correlated in all the specimens

with the longer usually more acuminate glumes and slightly stouter pedicels

than occur in stenophylla.’ Haines.

Locality: Konkan; Vihar Lake (McCann 5096!) ; Campoli (McCann 9409!) .—

Deccan; Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5198!) ; Khandala (McCann A10!) ;

Khandala to Karjat (Blatter & Hallberg A3!); Poona, Canal (Ezekiel!) ;

Borkas, Mawal, Poona Dist. (Woodrow) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg

B1218!, B1276!); Lingmala, Mahableshwar, 4,000 ft., rainfall 200 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 4654!).—S. WW. Country : Hirdridihal, on the margin of a

tank, 2,000 ft., rainfall 30 inches (Sedgwick 3801!) ; Havasbhari, edge of a

tank, 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick 2110!) ; Tadas, tank, 2,500 ft.,

rainfall 55 inches (Sedgwick 1910!) ; Dharwar, rice field (Talbot 2637!) ;

Londa (Bhide !).—Kanara « Karwar (Talbot !) ; Halyal (Talbot 2381!) ; Tinai

Ghat (Gammie 15808).

Distribution : India, Ceylon.

9. Eragrostis stenophylla, Hochst. ex Miq. Anal. Bot. Ind. ti (1851), 27 ; Lisboa

in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist Soc. vii (1893), 385 ; Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii,

318 (excl. altg.syn.); Trim. Fl.’Ceyl. v, 294; Prain Bene. Pl. 1224; Cke rai:

1026 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924) , 959.--Z. Brownei, Nees in Wight Cat.

(1833) No. 1780 (partim) ; E. elegantula, Nees 1|.c. 1781, a, B (won Steud.) ;

Duthie Grass N.W. Ind. 37, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 63, t. 74.

Description : Cke. ii, 1026.

Locality: Khandesh: Tapti Island, near Bor, on sand and mud (Blatter

& Hallberg 5470!); Umalla, Tapti, on sand (Blatter & Hallberg 5180 !).—

Konkan ; Uran (Hallberg & McCann 5134!) ; Malwan (Woodrow).—Deccan «

Khandala (McCann 5319!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5142!) ; Pashan,

near Poona (Gammie!) ; Purandhar (McCann 5601!) ; Panchgani (Blatter &

Haliberg B1316!) ; Barkas, Mawal, Poona Dist. (Woodrow).—S. MW. Country :

Hirbudihal, on the margin of a tank (Sedgwick 2081 !).—Kanara: Halyal

(Talbot 2165!) ; Kulgi (Talbot !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, tropical Asia and Africa.

10. Eragrostis Eragrostis, Blatter & McCann, nov. comb. (non Karst. guae est

£. minor, Host.).—Briza Eragrostis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 70; Schreb. Beschr. Gras.

ii, 74.—Poa Eragrostis, Cav. Ic. i (1791), 63, t. 92; Sibth. Fl. Graec. t. 73.—

Megastachya Eragrostis, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 74.— Briza oblonga, Moench

Meth. (1802), 185.—Avagrostis maior, Host. Gram. Austr. iv (1809), 14, t. 24;

Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 320; Cke. ii, 1026; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), |

959.—E. flexuosa, Steud. Syn. Gram. 266; Duthie Grass. N.W. India 37.—

£. megastachya, Link Enum. Hort. Berol. i (1820), 187; Kunth Enum. PI. i,

333 ; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. t. 91; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab P]. 169; Duthie Grass.

N.W. Ind. 38, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 63, t. 75; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 382; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 580.—. multiflora, Aschers. ex

Boiss. 1.c.—Poa multiflora, Forsk. Fl. Aeg.-Arab, Ixi, no. 58, civ, no. 69,

p. 21.—Hyvragrostis peoides, Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1831),

404.—-E. vulgaris var. megastachya, Coss. ef Dur. Fl. Alger. 148.—FPoa

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 4y3

cilianensts, All. Fl. Pedem. ii, 246, t. 91, f. 2.—P. flexuosa, Roxb. FI. Ind.

i, 339.—P. Roxburghiana, Schult. Mant. ti, 315.—P. fortuosa, Spreng, Syst.

Veg. i (1825), 345.

Description - Cke. ii, 1026.

Locality : Sind: Sanghar (Sabnis B897!, B753!) ; Mirpurkhas, on bank of

dry watercourse (Sabnis B1024).—Gujarat ;. Kabirwad, Broach (Gammie!) ;

Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow) .—Ahandesh: Chauseli, N. slope (McCann Al4!);

Nim, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5109!); Umalla, Tapti sand (Blatter &

Hallberg 5177!) ; Bor, Tapti sand (Blatter & Hallberg 5187 !).—Xonkan :

Mahalaxmi, Clerk Road, along brackish water (Sabnis Al13!).—Deccan :

Kannala, Sholapur Dist. (Mamlatdar of Kannala!) ; Purandhar (McCann

5039!); Khandala, road (Blatter 5445!); Kirkee (Gammie 896!); Poona

(Jacquemont 349, Woodrow), Agricultural College Farm (Ezekiel !).—S.J/.

Country ; Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2834!) ; Badami

(Woodrow) .—Kanara ; Halyal (Talbot 2159 !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, westwards to the Mediterranean, tropical and

subtropical Asia.

11. Eragrostis minor, Host Gram. Austr. iv (1809), 15 (22 mofa), ef in Fl. Ausir.

im(isaed), t3o3 otapt in Hook. f. EF. B.al..vii, 321; Cke. 1, 1027;. Haines Bot,

Bihar & Orissa (1924), 960.—Z. poefornis, Link Hort. Berol. i, 188; Reichb.

Ic. Fl. Germ. t.91.--/. pog@oides, Beauv. Agrost. 76; Duthie Grass. N. W.Ind.

38, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 65; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 170; Lisboain Journ,

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 387 ; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 580.-—4. pogoides B,

Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1831), 404.—Poa Eragrostis, Linn. Sp,

Ele oo. partz |) > Kunth Enum.'Pl..1, 332; Schreb. Beschr. Graes,. 11, .t.38:;

Host Gram. Austr. ii, 50, t. 69.—Briza Eragrostis, Vill. Fi. Delph. ii, 50 (xox

Linn.).

Description : Cke. ii, 1027.— Stapf l.c. considers the glands on the leaf-

margins as ‘avery constant character’. It would be better to say that the

margins are usually glandular.

Locality : Sind: Jamesabad, in fields (Sabnis B1111!); Pad-Idan (Sabnis

B510!) ; Larkana (Sabnis B476 !); Sanghar (Sabnis B751!, B752!).—Gujarat -

Godra (Woodrow) ; Panch Mahals (Woodrow—Kzhandesh : Umalla, Tapti sand

(Blatter & Hallberg 5180!) ; Taptilsland near Bor, on sand and mud (Blatter

& Hallberg 4449 !, 5470!); Manmad, Redmond’s garden (Blatter Al2!) ; Tapti

Bhusawal, N. E. (Hallberg 5112!).—Konkan : Parel (McCann 5376 !); Bombay

(Lambert).—Deccan : Tangawadi, Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5835!) ;

Purandhar (McCann 5601!); Bhimthadi, Poona Dist.(Mamlatdar of Bhimthadi!);

Man, Satara Dist. (Mamlatdar of Man!) ; Poona (Jacquement 350), Chattar-

shinji Hill (Ezekiel!) ; Nasik (Lisboa).--S. 1/7. Country - Dharwar, 2,400 ft.,

rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4487 !); Gokak hills (Shevade!).

Distribution : India, Afghanistan, tropical Africa.

12. Eragrostis tremula, Hochst. in Schimp. Pl. Abyss. no. 6, in Flora (1842) I,

Beibl. 134; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 65, t. 79: Lisboa in Journ. Bomb.

Nat Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 382; Boiss. Fl., Or. v. 581; Prain Beng. Pl. 1221;

Stapf in Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 320; Cke. ii, 1027; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa

(1924), 969.— Poa tremula, Lamk. 11. i, 185.—Hyragrostis multitlora, Trin. in

Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1841), 401; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 298;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 38; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab. Pl. 169.—Poa multiflora,

Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 338 (zo Forsk.).—yvagrostis rhachitricha, Hochst. ex Miq,

Anal. Bot. Ind. pt. ii (1851), 25; Watt Dict. Econ. Prod. iii, 256.

Description : Cke. ii, 1027.

Locality: Cutch: Sumrasar (Blatter!).—Gujarat: Sevalia (Chibber !) ;

Perim Island, Gulf of Cambay (Blatter !); Gogo, Kathiawar (Dalzell & Gibson,

Woodrow).—Deccan : Lonavia (Lisboa).—S. 47. Country - Londa, on a rock

in the river bed (Bhide!); Gadag (Bhide!).

Distribution : India, Afghanistan, tropical Africa.

13. Eragrostis tenuifolta, Hochst. in Flora 24 (1841) i, Intelligenz. 20 (xomen

nudum) ; Stapf in Hook.f. F. B. I. vii, 322; Cke. ii, 1027; Prain Beng. Pl.

1221.—FPoa tenutfolia, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 425.—#. collocarpa,

K. Schum. in Engler’s Phanzenw. Deutsch—Ost Afr. C. 114.—2#. parviglumis,

Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 268.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1027.

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Locality : Deccan : Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1313!, B1317!).—S.7.

Country : Belgaum (Ritchie).--Kavara : Dandeli, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100 inches

(Sedgwick & Bell 4206 !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, tropical Africa.

14. Eragrostis papposa, Steud. Nom. ed. ii, i, 564; Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I.

vii, 322.—Poa papposa, Desf.in Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 585.—P. nzgra, Clem.

ex Willk. & Lange Prodr. Fl. Hisp. i, 83.—Avagyrostis atro-virens, Lange in

Koebj. Vedinsk. Meddel. (1860) (zon Desf.).—&. rigidifolia, Hochst. Herb.

Mem. Div. Forsk. (momen).—-E. speivostachya, Coss. ef Dur. ex Lange l.c.—Z.

vulgaris, vat. speirostachya, Coss. et Dur. Fl. Alger. 148.—. verticillata,

Coss. ex Lange l.c. (zon Cav.).

Description : An elegant perennial. Stems 30-50 cm. high, very slender,

simple. Leaves short, strict, very narrow, convolute ; mouth of sheath bearded

with long silky hairs. Panicle 10-20 cm. long, ovoid, very delicate, lax, open,

sparingly branched ; rhachis filiform, glabrous ; branches solitary, alternate,

rarely binate, spreading, almost capillary, naked below, loosely branched

beyond the middle with capillary, spreading, stiff branchlets; pedicels long,

capillary. Spikelets 4-8 mm. long, linear, 7-23-flowered, very pale yellow or

dark or pale olive-grey; rhachilla tough. Involucral glumes subequal or

lower shorter, hyaline; lower involucral glume 1 mm. long, usually Jess,

nerveless, upper slightly longer, faintly l-nerved. Flowering glumes broadly

ovate, margins above hyaline, about 1:5 mm. long ; pale rather shorter, obtuse,

denticulate, persistent, keels scabrid. Stamens 3, anthers 4 mm. long. Grain

obovoid, about } mm. long, dorsally grooved.

Locality : Sind (ex Agharkar).

Distribution : Panjab; Trans-Indus districts, westward to Arabia, N. Africa,

Spain.

15. Eragrostis pilosa, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 71 ; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. t. 91 ;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 38, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 64; Aitchis. Cat, Panjab

Pl. 170 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 381 ; Boiss. Fl. Or.

v, 581; Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 323; Cke. ii, 1028; Haines Bot. Bihar &

Orissa (1924), 960.—Pouw pilvsa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 68 ; Host Gram. Austr. ii, 168, t.

68.—Eragrostis indica, Steud. Syn. Gram. 264.—Z4. parviflora, Trin. in Mem.

Acad. Petersb. ser. vi, i (1831), 411.—Z. pellucida, Steud. l.c. 279.—Z. pune-

tata, Link ex Steud. Nom. ed. ii, i, 561, Syn. Gram. 264.—Z. verticillata, Roem.

& Schult. Syst. ii, 575 ; Reichb, Ic. Fl. Germ. t. Y; Aitchis. Cat, Panjab Pl.

170.—Poa indica, Koen. ex Rottl. in Ges. Naturf. Fr. Berl. Neue Schrift iv

(1803),.194.—P. parvitlora et pellucida, R. Br. Prodr. 180.—P. punctata, Linn.

f. Suppl. 109; Kuoth Enum. Pl. i, 330; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 338.—P. vertzczllata,

Cav. Ic. 1, 63; t..93 ; Kunth Maum:-Ph. 329.

Description : Cke. ii, 1028.

Locality : Sind ; Sanghar (Sabnis B902!).—Konkan : Byculla, common in

Bombay Isl. (McCann A8!) ; Karjat (Halberg 3502!); Kalyan (Garade!).—

cecan ; Lina Hill, Nasik Dist. (Blatter & Hallberg 9975 !) ; Khandala

(McCann A7!) ; Nasik (Lisboa) ; Deolali (Blatter & Hallberg 4559!) ; Igat-

puri (McCann 4590!) ; Gangapur (Blatter & Hallberg 4578 !) ; Waghoti, Mawal,

Poona Dist. (Woodrow) ; Poona (Cooke), Chattarshinji (Ezekiel!) ; Ganesh-

khind Botanic Gardens (Supt. of the Gardens!) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar

(McCann 5068 !).—S. 47. Country : Dharwar (Sedgwick 2672!, Woodrow).

Distribution : Most warm countries.

16. Eragrostis bifaria, Wight ex Steud. Nom. ed. 2, i (1840), 562, Syn. Gram.

264, Suppl. 282 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 387 ; Stapf

in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 325; Cke. ii, 1029.—Poa bifaria, Vahl Symb. ii. 19 ;

Roxb FI. Ind. i, 331; Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 334, t. 80, Enum. Pl. i, 327, Suppl.

282.

Description « Cke. ii, 1029.

Locality : Konkan; Bassein (Chibber!) ; Matheran (Gammie 16649!) ;

Parsik, hill (Ryan 1147!) ; Wada range, Thana Dist. (Ryan 687!).—Deccan :

Sinhagad, forests (Bhice !) ; Kirkee (Garade 479!) ; Chattarshinji Hill, Poong

(Ezekiel!) ; Khandala (Woodrow).—.S. 7. Country : between Yelvigi ang

Savanur, dry hill side, 1,800 ft. (Sedgwick 2019!) ; Hubli, dry hill sides, 2,00

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 495

ft., rainfall 28 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4915!) ; Badami (Talbot 2927 !) ; Haveri

(Talbot 2179!) ; Belgaum (Ritchie).

Distribution - W. Peninsula, tropical Africa.

17. Eragrostis brachyphylla, Stapf in Hook. f. F.B.1I. vii, 327; Haines Bot,

Bihar & Orissa (1924), 961. |

Description : Perennial. Stem erect, slender, 25-45 cm. high, from a tuft of

old fibrous leaf-sheaths. Leaves nearly all radical, 5-10 cm. long, 2°5 mm.

broad, coriaceous, linear, flat or conduplicate, obtuse or subacute, glabrous

above. Spikes 7-20 cin. long, slender. Spikelets 6-18 mm. long, close-set,

linear or linear-oblong, secund, 2-seriate, slightly compressed, olive-green,

about 20-flowered, lenticular in section. Glumes closely imbricate, involucral

ones subequal, up to 2 mm. long, lower one acute, acutely keeled, upper

obtuse, dorsally rounded. Flowering glumes up to 2°5 mm. long, rather

turgidly broadly ovate (when unfolded) with rounded tip or obtuse, lateral]

nerves very weak, midrib microscopically scabrid. Pale as large, somewhat

obovate, concave towards rhachilla, keels scabrid, narrow. Grain very small,

shortly ellipsoid, obscurely trigonous, epicarp coarsely reticulate.

- Locality : Gujarat : Sevalia (Chibber !).—S. AZ. Country ; Badami Fort

Bhide !).

Diibotin . Bihar, Central Provinces, W. Peninsula.

82. HALOPYRUM, Stapf; Cke. ii, 1029.

Species 1—Coasts of India and Ceylon, Arabia, tropical Africa.

1. Halopyrum mucronatum, Stapf in Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 2448 ; Hook. f. in F.B.1.

vii, 328; Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 299; Cke. ii, 1029.—Brizopyrum mucronatum,

Nees in Wall. Cat. no. 8898.—Desmazerta untioloides, Defl. Voy. Yemen 220.—

Eragrostis mucronata, Trim. Cat. Ceyl. Pl. 109 (zon Roem. & Schult.).—

Triticum repens, Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 376.—Aeluropus, Aitchis. Cat. Panj.

Pl. 169.—Fragrostis sp. Sect. Sclerostachya, Benth. in Gen, Pl. iii, 1187.

Description : Cke. ii, 1029.

Locality : Sind: Clifton, near Karachi (Sabnis B796!) ; Manora Island,

Karachi Harbour (Sabnis B832 !).—Gujarat - Porbandar (Bhide ! Bhiva).

83. DIPLACHNE, P. Beauv.; Cke. ii, 1030.

Species about 20.—Warm regions.—Only 1 species in the Presidency.

1. Diplachne fusca, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 163 ; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 561 ; Hook.

fo. Bale vil, o29 3 Crim. Fl, Ceyl. v, 299; Cke: 11, 1030 ; Haines: Bot, Bihar

& Orissa (1924), 962.— Festuca fusca, Linn. Sp. Pl. 109; Del. Fl. d’Egypt. 24,

t. xi, f. 1.—Uvalepis fusca, Steud. Syn. Gram. 247.—Diplachne indica,

Spreng. Syst. i, 351.— Zvidens indicus, Nees in Wight Cat. No. 1794.—Festuca

indica, Retz. Obs. iv, 21; Kunth Enum. 412.—Hyvagrostis procera, Steud. 1.c.

266.— Poa procera, Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 322.—Urolepis Drummondi, Steud. 1.c.—

-Triodia ambigua, R. Br. Prodr. 183.—Bromus polvstachios, Forsk. Fl. Aeg.—

Arab.:23.

Description : Cke. ii, 1030.

Localily - Sind; Tatta, Kullan Kote Lake (Blatter & McCann D639!).—

Konkan ; Parsik, side of railway line (McCann A24!); Bassein (Bhide !) ;

Sion (McCann $238 !) ; Alibag, rice fields near salt marshes (Ezekiel!) ; Lower

Parel (Blatter 4283!) ; Antop Hill (McCann 3614!); Mahim to Matunga

(McCann 5139!); Matunga, near Bombay, in rice fields (Woodrow 10).—

Kanara ; Near Karwar, maritime marsh (Sedgwick & Bell 5095 !).

Distribution » Upper Gangetic Plain, Bengal, Orissa, W. Peninsula, Ceylon,

Egypt, tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia.

84. LEPTOCHLOA. P. Beauv.

Annual grasses. Leaves flat cr involute. Spikelets very minute, com-

pressed, 1-many-flowered, sessile or shortly pedicelled, alternate and

unilaterally 2-seriate on the very slender spiciform branches of a lax panicle,

sessile or minutely pedicelled, not jointed at the base ; rhachilla jointed at the

base and beneath each glume, produced Letween each glume and often beyond

the terminal. Glumes usually 2 (sometimes 1-)-many-flowering, membranous,

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX111

Involucral glumes subequal or unequal, oblong, lanceolate, or almost linear-

lanceolate, 1-nerved ; lower and other flowering glumes ovate when unfolded,

subacute or obtuse, 3-nerved, 1 nerve in the keel and usually 1 near each

margin, nerves usually hairy ; pale shorter, 2-nerved. Lodicules 2, cuneate,

Anthers 3, short. Styles free. Grain subglobose, oblong, obovoid or 3-gonous

closely invested by the glume or pale.

Species probably 20, in the warmer regions.

This genus is not represented in Cooke’s Flora.

Key :

1. Spikes 1-7°5, rarely 10 cm. long, Spikelets

2-3-flowered, under 2°5 mm. long ase hn LA ClenOv gts.

2. Spikes 5-10 cm. long. Spikeletes 4-6-

flowered, 2°5 mm. long sic 2. VL. CHIICHSTS

1. Leptochloa filiformis, Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 580; Kunth Enum. PI. i,

270, Suppl. 220; Steud. Syn. Gram. 209; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 192 ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panj. Pl. 167; Hook.f. F.B.1. vii, 298 ; Haines Bot. Bihar &

Orissa (1924}, 972.—Eragrostis chinensis, Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 59, t.

71.— Aira filiformis, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 326.—Poa mualabarica, Klein ex Steud.

Nom. ed. ii, 303, 60.—P. contrecta et panicea, Retz. Obs. iii, 11.—P. virgata,

Roth Nov. Sp. 66.

Description: A very slender grass, 30-70 cm. high. Stems tufted and

geniculately ascending. Leaves flat, flaccid, 10-25 cm. long, finely acuminate,

sometimes sparsely hairy on the nerves and on the sheaths ; ligule short, erose

or setosely lacerate. Panicle 10-20 cm. long, contracted or diffuse. Spikes

1-7‘Sorup to 10 or even 12'5cm. long, exceedingly filiform with 2-nerved

rhachis. Spikelets about 1 mm. long, 2-3-flowered, distant nearly their own

length on the rhachis on very short pedicels. Involucral glumes linear-or

oblong-lanceolate. Flowering glumes 2-3, broadly ovate, rather shorter than

the upper involucral glume, with median nerve and sub-marginal nerves

microscopically hairy ; pale rather shorter, reduplicate. Grain fusiform-

oblong, pericarp adherent, but slightly produced each end.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat, near Athwa Farm (Bhide!); Ahmedabad in

garden (Sedgwick !) —Konkan.: Parel, Bombay Island (Talbot!) ; Victoria

Gardens, Bombay Island (McCann 5351!, 5568!) ; Byculla, Bombay Island

(McCann A40!).

Distribution : Throughout India and Burma, Ceylon, tropical Asia, Africa

and America.

2. Leptochloa chinensis, Nees in Syll. Ratisb.i (1824), 4, Agrost. Bras. 432 ;

Benth. Fl. Hongk. 430, F!. Austral, vii, 617; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 35

(excl. syn.), Fodd. Grass. N. Ind, 59, t. 71; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc. vii (1893), 372 (excl. syn. tenerrima) ; Hook.f. F.B.I. vii. 299; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 972.— Poa chinensis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 69 (excl. syn.

Burm.) ; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 332.—P. malabarica, Retz. Obs. v, 19.—P. asthenes,

Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 574.—P. decipiens, R. Br. Prodr. 181.

Description : Stem tall, stout, 60-120 cm. high, erect or geniculately ascend-

ing. Leaves 15-45 cm. long, flat or convolute, scaberulous ; sheaths loose ;

ligule short, lacerate. Panicle 15-25cm.long. Branches numerous, slender,

simple, opposite or alternate, suberect or spreading, 5-10 cm. long. Spikelets

4-6-flowered, about 2°5 mm. long, alternate, short-pedicelled, distant or

approximated, narrow. Involucral glumes somewhat unequal, lanceolate,

acute or subulate. Flowering glumes broader, lower apiculate with pilose

nerves ; nerves of pale pilose. Grain loose, obtusely trigonous, subrugose.

Locality : Gujarat: (ex Lisboa).—Konkan;: Parel, Bombay Island (ex

Lisboa.—S. M. Country: Kilgerry Tank (Talbot !).

Distribution : Throughout India and Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, China, Japan,

Australia.

Note: Haines thinks that the two species are scarcely more than varieties.

We can’t say how far this view is correct as we have seen only a few specimens

(Zo be continued)

A GRASSHOPPER MIMIC (JSOPSERA PEDUNCULATA)

Mayor R. W.G. HinNGSTON

(With one plate)

The large Black Ant, Camponotus compressus,+ is a common insect

on the Indian plains. It establishes its nest at the foot of a tree.

A feature about itis the two castes, large soldiers and smaller

workers. The soldiers as a rule guard the nest. The smaller

workers ascend the foliage and search methodically for supplies.

During the cold season the ant disappears, remaining hidden under-

ground. In March and April it becomes active. The workers then

commence rebuilding their galleries and gathering in supplies. But

it is not until the rainy season that the commune develops into full

life. Large gatherings then congregate round the gate of the

formicary ; sexual forms establish new colonies ; dense armies are

despatched into the trees. An endless stream of busy labourers

continually enters and leaves the nest.

If we examine the bushes at this season we are likely to meet

with a small grasshopper that very closely resembles these ants.

We must search the places which the ants frequent, for the grass-

hopper has the habit of keeping in their company and haunting the

places where they abound. Moreover, our scrutiny must be care-

fully made. It will not suffice just to inspect the leaves and glance

along the multitude of moving spots. Each ant must be examined

individually ; otherwise the mimic will never be seen. Often I have

pointed one out to a friend, and he invariably took it to be an ant.

The mimic is the larva of a long-horned grasshopper belonging

to the species J/sopsera pedunculata, Br. W. In my garden at

Fyzabad it appeared in abundance shortly after the break of the

monsoon. The eggs of the grasshopper had lain dormant through

the winter implanted between the layers of a leaf. With the

first touch of moisture they awakened. Like the seeds of plants

hidden in the soil they had burst into active life.

Let us look at the mimic carefully. (See Plate, Fig.1.) Itis

about the size of a small worker ant, quarter of an inch in length.

Like its model it is almost uniform black and of the same build and

shape. There is no trace of wings nor vestige of wing-covers. Its

back is completely bare like the naked surtace of an ant. It has the

slender ant-like pattern of legs, possesses the same humped type of

thorax, the same globular-shaped abdomen like that of an ant

swollen with food. Being a leaping insect, its hind legs are dilated,

but the enlargement has been done without much injury to the

resemblance, since the swelling of the thighs is very gradual, also

1 The habits of this ant have been described in A Naturalist in Hindustan,

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

the shanks are of slender dimensions, and the legs bent in such an

ant-like attitude that they do not look like legs of a springing insect,

at least in the natural haunts.

But there is another point about the mimic which shows how

efficientiy it has been modified in order to complete its resemblance

to anant. Grasshoppers are insects with broad waists : ants have

their waists constricted toathread. Such a contrast would destroy

the harmony were it not rectified by a simple device. The grass-

hopper’s colours are arranged to make it look as if it had a waist.

This is seen only in the larger examples. It is like the device des-

cribed by Brunner in (/yrmecophana fallax from the Soudan. There

is a yellow patch at the front of the abdomen. It is spread over

half the under surface and up along either side. It forms an area of

pale colour in exactly that part of the grasshopper’s body which

corresponds to the ant’s waist. This pale area gives the impression

of deficiency. It suggests a loss of substance, which gives the idea

of awaist. Thus, where structure cannot be modified, the end is

obtained by simulation and deceit. ;

The similarity between mimic and model is seen in their habits

of life also. Structure and habit are interwoven to fulfil the same

end. The grasshopper, for example, has quick movements and

keeps its antennae in tremulous motion, both of which resemble the

ants. It occupies the places frequented by its model, climbing up

tree-trunks, wandering round nest-holes; but usually keeping to the

green foliage in which these ants abound. Some ants retire to the

nest at sunset, but Camponotus compressus remains out all night.

And so do the mimics spend the night with the ants exploring the

stems and leaves.

What can be the purpose of this similarity ? It can only be defen-

sive. It helps the grasshopper to escape its foes. Black ants are

sll protected. They shoot out poison and have powerful jaws.

They are very conspicuous, abound everywhere, yet very rarely are

they taken by birds. Asa consequence they have many mimics.

There is a bug, a mantis, and two kinds of spiders which resemble

them in the closest degree. In the case of the spiders the mimicry

is aggressive. It enables them to capture the ants. With the

orasshopper, however, the purpose is protective. These insects are

purely vegetable feeders. They are quite incapable of capturing

ants. Their enemies are probably the hunting-spiders which prowl

about near the ant’s nests. They will also be taken by insectivorous

birds. I suspect that they have a hymenopterous parasite which

searches for them amongst the ants. From these enemies they have

no very special defences. Hence the resort to simulation. They

escape through being mistaken for ants,

These mimics like the tenderest shoots. When suddenly alarmed,

they first sit motionless, their long antennae stretched out, quiver-

ing and searching the air. Often they dodge underneath a leaf.

But if this is not enough or if the danger presses, the mimic makes

a sudden spring and disappears into the foliage beneath. Their

capacity for leaping is not great, and they are quite incapable of

flight. Hence the valuable instinct of plunging into the thickest part

of the bush. Their bodies are remarkably fragile, especially the

st. Soc.

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A GRASSHOPPER MIMIC (ISOPSERA PEDUNCULATA) 499

long hind legs which break off at the slightest touch. When a little

bigger they spit out ajuice, probably an unpleasant fluid of some use

as a defence.

It is only at this early period that the grasshopper resembles an

ant. As well as I can tell from my attempts to rear it, its growth

consists of seven stages. At the second stage the mimicry is

closest. The resemblance diminishes with development: in the

end completely disappears.

Let us follow the mimic’s development. It has already had one

moult by the time it reaches the mimicking stage. We have seen

that it is black, its antennae paler; there is a yellow spot on each

hind shank. As it grows its colour changes. After the second

moult (See Plate, Fig. 2) the black is less intense and patches

cf yellow begin to appear. A yellow line runs across the thorax :

a yellow blotch comes on the base of the abdomen: the yellow on

the shank becomes more distinct. There is little more than a sug-

gestion of the ant-like resemblance of the previous stage. A third

moult terminates the: mimicry (See Plate, Fig. 3). The black is

gone. The insect is leaf green. Nota trace of the ant remains. It

has grown too jarge for mimicry to be effective. Also it is entering

another sphere of life, one in which it will harmonize with leaves.

There is still just a trace of the original black, a broken streak

along each side, and some brownish markings on the abdomen and

legs. Its previous ant-like activities have lessened. It is getting

sluggish and inert. Also it is growing more individualistic. It

wanders away from the gatherings of ants.

A fourth moult intensifies the green (See Plate, Fig. 4). The

darkish streak on each side has disappeared. A few black spots on

the middle of the back is all that remains of the ant-like dress. The

grasshopper’s shape is changing markedly. Its slender body, so

essential before, is now becoming massive and stout. The

imaginary waist has disappeared. The abdomen, which before was

ova], is now laterally compressed. Some locustid features are

becoming conspicuous, especiaily the hind legs which are getting

dilated, the stumps of wings which are shocting from the back, the

curved ovipositor -which, in the female, is projecting from the hind

end. The insect is now clearly a young grasshopper. It could not

be mistaken for anything else.

A fifth moult brings further change (See Plate, Fig. 5). The

colour distribution has not much altered. Except for the black line

on the back and the yellow streak behind each eye the grasshopper

is uniform green. Its body is now deep and markedly compressed.

The female possesses a powerful ovipositor. A large part of

the abdomen is hidden beneath the stumps of half-developed

wings.

A sixth moult gives us the mature insect (See Plate, Fig. 6). Of

all the transformations this is the most striking. We have now a

full-grown grasshopper furnished with gauzy wings. I have some-

times witnessed this final metamorphosis. A rent first occurs

across the insect’s back. The edges of the skin then separate

widely, and the grasshopper comes out through the breach. At

first it is pale with a yellow tinge. Exposure to the air is necessary

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

for the production of the leaf-green tint. Also it is weak from the

sudden transformation, its body being soft and compressible, and

its legs as flexible as if they were threads. Its wings too are

delicately fragile. It is they which have undergone the most

elaborate transformation, since their gauzy sheets and elongated

covers have come out from mere stumpy sacs. Asa consequence

they are very crumpled, also they are limp and droop about the body

with their points trailing helplessly behind. They need the stiffen-

ing that will follow on exposure before being fit for flight. Other-

wise the insect is complete, and dressed in its final garb. It remains

near its cast-off skin while the strengthening of its organs rapidly

takes place. The legs become hard, the wings stiffen, the antenne,

which at first were pale, assume a dark tint. It has become a

virile locust, anatomically and physiologically complete.

Its body length is about oneinch. With the hind legs pulied

back and antennz drawn forward it measures three inches or more.

Thus the little mimic has become immense. Who would think

that it once resembled an ant? Itis not without some trace of

elegance, chiefly because of its rich green dress. ‘The female is

particularly striking because of the powerful conspicuous sword

that curves up from her posterior end. But the special point

of interest lies in the wings. They are long and oval, green in

colour, and permeated with a delicate system of veins. In fact they

resemble very closely a narrow oval leaf. It is this which now

protects the insect. What in early life it gained by mimicry, it now

secures by resembling a leaf.

This shedding of integument is a serious business. It must be

responsible for much mortality at a precarious period of life. Apart

from the dangers connected with shedding, the developmental

period has other perils. The insect’s colours are in a transitory

State. They have ceased to resemble the ant and have not yet come

to resemble the leaf. Hence the insect is an easier prey. To this are

added the moulting dangers. For the shedding is not without

complications. The legs and antennz cannot always be withdrawn

without sometimes getting torn. Also, when moulting the grass-

hopper is helpless, its body being tangled in the separating skin.

Moreover, the act of shedding enfeebles it, and for a time it is an

easy prey. Also, when moulting, they appear less hardy. When

kept in acage, the developing ones die more easily than do the

adults. The last moult is particularly dangerous. Often the insects

perish in the act. One which I found, had died in this way. Its body

was still entangled in the skin: the wings had got properly out of

their sheaths: but the antenne were broken at their bases and the

hind legs were only partially out. I found another which had failed

to harden after moulting. Its wings were all crumpled: they had

never stiffened, andthe creature was permanently incapable of flight.

As a rule, however, the shedding is perfect. Every particle of

integument is removed. Indeed the perfection of the act surprises

us. That the hair-like antennz should come out entire shows how

perfect must be the separation all round the long fragile thread.

The slightest adhesion would stop withdrawal or would cause inver-

sion of the sheath. But accidents of this kind seldom occur. Asa

A GRASSHOPPER MIMIC (ISOPSERA PEDUNCULATA) 501

rule there is neither crumpling nor inverting : each antennz comes

from its tube like a sword drawn out of its case. ;

The mode of withdrawal is worth recording. A grasshopper is

hanging by a hind leg. Its whole body, except the antenne, is

already free from the skin. At the moment these organs are being

detached. The grasshopper swings from side to side as though

trying to shake itself free from an encumbrance. I then see it take

an antennee in its jaws, grip it by its base which is partially with-

drawn and gently pull it down from its case. Having done this, it

takes another purchase, grips the thread a little further up, draws it

down another stage. The same operation is repeated, until by a

series of these gentle tractions the delicate thread is hauled from its

tube. ‘The whole filament comes out entire and is lowered out of

harm’s way. The act is then repeated on the opposite side, and by

a similar machinery of traction the other antenna is hauled out.

Another feature that deserves attention is the final disposal of the

skin. I have never seen the act inside a cage but it happens in the

open air where the insect lives a free life. Here is one of half a

dozen instances. A full-grown grasshopper has just emerged: its

skin is alongside it stuck to a stem. The grasshopper hangs with

its back downward. Its antennze are widely stretched sawing and

sensing the air. Soon I see itnibble atthe skin. At first I thought

the act just a bite of curiosity, but very soon it becomes clear that the

insect intends to eat up its skin. Itcommences operations at one of

the wings, quickly chews up this fragile material and grinds it into a ~

soft pulp. This wing is finished in about aminute. Thenit goes to

the opposite side and the other wing follows equally fast. The head

and thorax are next attacked. These, being thicker, must be chewed

more thoroughly. Nevertheless, they too disappear. The abdomen

then meets with attention. This is a soft bit and gives little

trouble: a few bites and down it goes. Now only the leg integu-

ments remain. The front and middle legs went down with the

thorax; but the long stout hind legs have not yet been touched.

The sheaths of the shanks are swallowed easily enough. I thought

that the glutton would go no further. The rest of the leg looks a

formidable morsel. The tibia is stiff with projecting spines; the

tarsus has sharp claws. But the grasshopper did not reject even

these things. Taking them between its jaws, it cut them in pieces,

macerated the fragments and ground them into pulp. It was amuch

more tedious operation than the swallowing of the softer shanks.

The consumption of a leg took five minutes. Spines, joints, claws,

every bit of it, went down in the general gorge. The whole

deglutition lasted forty minutes. There was no cessation from

beginning to end. Inthe end not atrace was left. Ali had again

returned to the owner who kept hanging to the stem digesting its

gorge. :

What excellent examples of strict economy do we not find in

Nature’s works ? Papilio caterpillars, after leaving the egg, eat up

the empty egg-shell before starting on the leaves. Geometrical

spiders, when their snares are in fragments, first eat up the broken

fabric, then rebuild the snare. Nature will not waste anything if it

can have further use. A locust’s skin must be cast off. Does it not

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

seem a wasteful operation? Would it not be a much better plan

for the skin to regularly expand? No; there is no waste. The

grasshopper’s sheddings return to their owner. They are ground

again into digestible material, taken up in the chemical machinery

of nutrition, assimilated into living substance, perhaps built up into

anew integument which replaces that which was lost. ‘Thus there

is no extravagance nor waste. What appears rejected is just

temporarily laid aside. Everything again becomes living tissue

in the wonderful and economical machinery of life.

The grasshopper, now the image of a leaf, lives only in leafy

haunts. It is quite independent of its own companions, no

longer goes to the ground or the tree-trunks, nor takes any

notice of the ants. It lives in the open, on the surface vegetation.

As arule it sits absolutely motionless with its veined wings blend-

ing with the leaves, and its legs stiff like the rigid stems. The

only trace of movement comes from the antennz, just a quiver-

ing that can scarcely be seen. Yet often these antenne first attract

attention, not because they are conspicuous, but because there

is nothing quite like them on the tree. The grasshopper behaves

as though it realized that its satety depended on remaining still.

All its actions are exactly chamaeleon-like. When it moves, it does

so with the greatest circumspection, climbing in a slow and stealthy

manner, stepping craftily from leaf to leaf as if fearing to attract an

enemy’s eye. Even ina cage it is difficult to see when mixed up

with its accustomed leaves. At night it shows greater activity.

Its natural enemies have then retired. Hence it climbs about

fearlessly on the tree, feeds voraciously on young shoots and flies

off to find new haunts.

Though at first difficult to find, yet as the eye gets trained

with practice the insectcan more easily be distinguished from the

leaves. This may seem a very trivial observation, yet it is import-

ant to remember that greater powers of detection follow from

frequent efforts to detect. Certain naturalists can scarcely believe

that some of the most perfect examples of resemblance can have

been developed for protective reasons. The resemblance, they

consider, is too exact. Take, for instance, the Kallima butter-

fly. Its likeness to a withered leaf is marvellous. The superficial

veinings, the holes that correspond to insect-borings, the varied

pattern like a living fungus, all seem to be unnecessarily exact.

Would not a general similarity have been sufficient ? Why identity

in the minutest points ? But we must not forget the slow growth of

this perfection. Also that as the resemblance got closer, at the same

time the skill in detection improved. The two work against one

another. Continual practice improves detection. This again makes

the resemblance improve until the minutest perfection results.

The adult grasshopper has good flight, swift and straight, not

great in extent, yet sufficient to carry it from bushto bush. The

act demands considerable effort. All we see is a haze of wings as

the insect shoots off through the air. Its leaping powers are good

also, though not equal to the short-horned locusts. But it has a

peculiar faculty of shooting off in an unexpected direction, often

making a dive to the ground or into the thick of a bush. In fine

A GRASSHOPPER MIMIC ISOPSERA PEDUNCULATA) 503

weather it keeps on the open vegetation, but during rain it gets

under a leaf. The antennary quivering never ceases. Its mouth

parts too are incessantly in action, repeatedly polishing the palpi

and lips. It is very attentive to certain parts of its body. For

example it frequently licks its paws. Also it polishes the stick-like

legs, and sometimes bends its head to its tail in order to give

the ovipositor a rub. Though nibbling slowly, yet it feeds

continuously, eating away the leaves from the edges after the

manner of the locust tribe. Night and day it attacks the foliage,

especially the youngest and tenderest shoots which it finds at

the tips of the stems. When alarmed, it is instantly alert. Raising

itself, it shoots out its antennz and uses thei as arms to grope the

air. Often one antenna is thrust to a flank while the other is

directed ahead. The attitude seems strikingly unnatural, yet it

shows how the thread-like callipers investigate on every side. All

the time they are extended their tips are quivering. Then comes a

sudden jump, and the grasshopper is on another leaf.

So far as I know it is strictly herbivorous. In this district I find

it on the leaves of the Bael and the tenderest shoots of /uga dulcis,

common as a garden hedge. These it devours with the greatest

eagerness but refuses the older leaves. I also find it on the Falsa

and Ber and many garden shrubs. In a cage they ate a variety

of plants, also nibbled at a guava, but not a plantain. They

absolutely refused to eat the grass that sprang up on the floor

of their cage. Also they would have nothing to do with any kind

of animal food.

I never caught them in the act of pairing. It must have taken

place amongst those in my cages, for on two occasions I saw

a female dragging behind her the product of this act. A gelatinous

globule hung from her ovipositor. It was spherical and about the

size of a pea. This was the spermatophore, a delicate structure

extruded by the male. In the form of an opalescent bag, it

remained sticking on to the female, arid she carried it with her

wherever she went.

Nor was I able to observe the egg-laying. The females refused

to ovipositin confinement. But an allied species Phaneroptera roseata,

Walk, showed me how it probably took place. I see a female of this

species at the edge of aleaf. She holds it, with a fore leg on either

side. As well as I can see through the screen of vegetation she grips

the edge of the leaf in her jaws. Her next act is to insert her oviposi-

tor. She pushes it into the edge of the leaf. Extrusion of the egg

immediately follows. Then the ovipositor is withdrawn Jeaving

the egg inside in the leaf. The weapon is then brought to the

insect’s mouth. There it is given a careful polish in preparation for

the next thrust. The whole operation is very precise. Take a

knife and try to push it into the edge of aleaf. The manipulation

will require some nicety of action even in the human hand. Yet the

erasshopper does it with perfect ease, her jaws and fore legs

steadying the leaf and holding it to receive the thrust.

The egg itself is a flattened scale one-eighth of an inch long. It

looks like a fresh seed taken from a leguminous pod. Being flat

and oval, it is easily inserted, slipping in between the layers of the

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

leaf with little or no swelling evident from outside. Three or four

are placed along the same edge, evenly separated from each other,

indicating the rhythmical movement of the ovipositor at the time

when the eggs were introduced. There is nothing evident from the

outside beyond just a slight swelling and a paleness on the surface

of the leaf.

I have not observed the hatching nor the insect at its earliest

stage. This is a serious gap in its history. However we have

seen the most interesting points: how an insect at one time mimics

an ant and at another time mimics a leaf. Such an occurrence

almost sounds incredible. Yet there exist parallel instances. Mr.

Uvarov has described a wonderful example in the transactions of

the Entomological Society for the year 1922. It relates to Lehtoderes

ornatipennts from Java, which first mimics a Tiger-beetle of the genus

Collyris, ata later stage another Tiger-beetle of the genus 77rcondyla

and ends by resembling a green leaf. Again we have the African

Eurycorypha, which runs very parallel to my Indian example, in that

it begins by mimicking an ant and ends by resembling a leaf.

What name are we to give to this remarkable change, this transition

from one kind of resemblance to another ? Professor Poulton makes

the best suggestion in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society

for the year 1922. He proposes the expression ‘ ‘Transformational

mimicry ’, an expression which gives us a clear idea of the

extraordinary change involved.

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Lt4

ELBURZ

TIGER FROM NORTHERN SLOPES OF -@@ek@yiete@ IVIOUNTAINS.

TIGERS

BY <

R. I. Pocock, F.R.S.

Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Department of the Natural

History Museum

(With 1 coloured and 12 black and white plates)

INTRODUCTION

The collectors employed by the Mammal Survey of India,

organized by the Bombay Natural History Society, received

general instructions to pay attention particularly to the smaller

animals and to leave ‘ big game’ alone so as not to trespass upon

the province of the sportsman. Ina measure this is a matter for

regret, because there is still much to be learnt about big game which

will be the first to disappear from the fauna of India with the

steady encroachment of man on the wilds; and this applies in

particular to the tiger against which every man’s hand is turned.

The result of the instructions above referred to was the practical

absence of spoils of the tiger from the collections secured by the

Survey ;! and since sportsmnen very naturally like to. preserve for

themselves such handsome trophies as tigers’ skins, the material of

skins of this species from India in the Natural History Museum can

almost be counted upon the fingers of two hands. This, with afew

Persian and Manchurian skins, is a very smali number upon which

to come to definite conclusions with regard to the number of local

races that may exist and the range of variation in size, pattern,

colour and other characters upon which the admitted local races

have been established. Of these there are some four or five,

namely, the Mongolian, Persian, Indian and Sunda Islands races.

But there is evidence for the existence of others, without the

possibility of defining them owing to the absence of properly

localized material. Even within the precincts of peninsular India,

it is known that tigers vary to a certain extent lecally according to

environment; but information on this point, although full of

interest, is at present very vague.

The main purpose of this paper is to summarize the characters

of the tigers of different countries, so far as the limited material at

my disposal admits; and to show incidentally the defects in our

knowledge in the hope that sportsmen may realize that the National

Collection at South Kensington is badly in need of skins and skulls

of tigers from all the districts of the world where these animals

are found. _

1 Two, which would have been particularly interesting to me, namely one

from Jog in Southern India and one from Tenasserim, were not forwarded to

the British Museum.

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

THE NAME OF THE TIGER AND ITS KINSHIP WITH

THE LION

In the first place it is necessary to explain my use of the name

Panthera for the tiger instead of Felzs which will be familiar to most

readers of this Journal. The type of the genus Fe/zs is the

common house cat(/. catus); and in the strictest sense in which

Felis is now employed, it is limited to that animal and its near

allies, the European wild cat (F. sylvestris), the North African and

Asiatic wild cat (F. ocreala), the Indian desert cat (/. crnala) and a

few others. But years ago the old naturalists perceived vaguely

that the Felide or Cats of the world fall into several definite groups

for which they proposed a number of generic names, without being

able to lay their hands upon satisfactory characters to justify that

course. One of these names was Panthera, given to the leopard.

Now the leopard, jaguar, tiger, lion and snow leopard differ from

all the other groups of Felide ina very interesting character. In

the typical Cats the hyoid bone which strengthens and supports the

larynx, or organ of voice, is held close to the base of the back of

the skull by a series of short bones jointed end to end. But in the

tiger, lion, leopard, jaguar and snow leopard, this series of bones is

imperfectly ossified and largely replaced by a long elastic ligament,

so that the larynx has great range of movement which is connected

in some way with the voice. I donot know the voice of the snow

leopard; but the roars of the lion, tiger and leopard or panther, are

well known to all Indian sportsmen. ‘These species, moreover, do

not purr when pleased or in an ingratiating mood. In all the other

Cats, including the hunting leopard, the sexual call is different from

the deep-toned roar of the leopard-group and a feeling of content is

expressed by purring. (Pl. A, figs. A, B.)

It was Richard Owen who in 1834 first pointed out this structural

difference between the hyoid bone of the lion and some other

members of the Cat family and correlated the modification with the

difference in voice. Inthe case of the lion he stated that the

suspensory ligament of the hyoid is six inches long and is capable

of stretching to nine inches.

The tiger’s hyoid is similar to the lion’s and the roars of the two

Species are unmistakably alike in depth of tone. I have more than

once heard people at the Zoological Gardens in London exclaim on

hearing a .tiger roar? ‘Oh,-listen tothe lons roarine)| soit ic

true that tigers never, in my experience, roar in chorus, and that

the roar is, I believe, almost entirely a sexual call, consisting of a

single intonation which may be repeated after an interval, but is

never repeated in rapid succession with the head stretched forward

in a line with the back as is the case with the lion. Now voice in

animals is in nearly all cases a good indication of affinity ; and no

one who realizes this fact can doubt that the lion and the tiger are

nearly allied forms, more nearly allied indeed than either is to the

leopard or jaguar. The affinity, indeed, between the two giants of

the Cat tribe needs to be insisted upon because an eminent

American mammalogist recently defended his adoption of the

generic name Leo for the lion and 77zg7zs for the tiger because of

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuatTE A.

C D

A. Left side of hyoid of Tiger (Panthera) showing ligament, shortened

and thickened by methylated spirit, joining the upper and

lower bones.

B. The same of domestic cat (Felis), on larger scale, showing con-

tinuous series of bones.

C,D. Nasals and summit of maxille of Lionesses from Mulema and

Barengoland, HK. Africa, showing intergradation with those

of tigers.

TIGERS ; 507

‘the well-known differences between the two’; but he made no

attempt to state what the differences are.

In its general reddish colour, relieved by black or, in parts,

brownish stripes, white patches over the eyes and white under side,

a typical tiger differs markedly from a lion ; but the pattern of some

lion cubs is very tiger-like as I have elsewhere shown (Aun. Mag.

Wat. fist. (7), xx; p. 437, 1907); and in- the Sumatran tiger,

described below, the white is much less conspicuous than usual and

is even tinged with buff. Moreover, the Caspian tiger, also

described in this paper, with all the normally black stripes brown

and only a little darker than the ground colour, probably represents

the stage passed through by the lion when losing his pattern.

Hence in tigers occur variations from the normal pattern in the ©

partial suppression of the black stripes and white areas approaching

the uniform tint of the lion and showing that the differences

between the two species in this particular are not of fundamental

importance.

The mane, moreover, of the male lion is not a distinctive

feature. It varies enormously within the species and may, indeed,

be absent, as recorded by Col. Patterson of the man-eating lions of

Tsavo. On the other hand, even Indian tigers sometimes have a

distinct mat-like mane on the nape and in the old male Javan tiger

recorded below the mane was as large as in many lions. I at one

time thought there was a constant difference between lions and

tigers in the direction of growth of the hair on the neck, that of the

tiger growing backwards at least on the nape, whereas in the lion,

as in the leopard, it streams forwards from a whorl on each side in

front of the shoulder, the two streams meeting in the middle line

of the nape to form a median crest, where the mane begins. But I

find that tigers show great variation in this particular, the hair-

growth in some specimens closely approaching that of the lion.

Again, if it be claimed that the lion is distinguished by having a

black tuft at the end of the tail, it need only be pointed out that the

size of this tuft is very variable and that it may be reduced almost

to vanishing point. |

From my observation of living animals I should say that a tiger

has a more springy gait than a lion, with the back less straight

and the loins decidedly weaker at least as a general rule; but both

species vary a great dealin build and the differences are not of

much importance.

As regards the skulls of lions and tigers, Blantord (Fauna of

Brittsh India: Mammalia, pp. 56 and 59) gave two paragraphs to

the points by which he thought they might be distinguished. But

the examination of a larger series would have shown him the

inconstancy of most of the characters he relied upon. Typically a

tiger’s skull is elevated above the orbits so that its upper profile is

much more arched than that of a lion’s skull which is manifestly

flat in comparison. This difference in the shape of the head is

usually very obvious in living animals. But the tiger’s skull from

Deli in Sumatra, described below, is as flat as any lion’s; and if it

be claimed that this peculiarity is due to the animal being reared

from cubhood in captivity, I may add that the skull of the tiger

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

from Sungei Kumbang in Western Sumatra, obtained by Robinson

and Kloss, is as flat along the top as the skull of many lions. (Pl. B.)

So, too, with the nasal bones. Typically in tigers’ skulls the

posterior ends of these bones project backwards in the middle line

some distance beyond the maxillary bones which flank them at the

sides, whereas in lions’ skulls the ends of the bones in question are

approximately on a level, the nasals being sometimes shorter. But

the width and length of the posterior ends of the nasal bones in

tigers’ skulls are extremely variable as the sketches in this paper

show, especially the sketches of these bones in the skull of an adult

tiger from Nepal and another from Darjiling, which for

geographical reasons may be assigned to the same race. The upper

ends of the maxille in these skulls are also different, the Darjiling

skull being much broader in the interorbital region than the one

from Nepal. Again in the skulls from Mergui and from Sungei

Kumbang and Deliin Sumatra, the nasal bones only overlap the

maxilla to a very slight extent, and show a complete gradation to

the leonine type as also do the Sumatran skulls in the relative

length and width of the nasals. For example, in the Sungei

Kumbang skull the greatest width of the nasals by the nostrils is

much more than half their length, whereas in the skull from Nepal

the width is considerably less than half the length. (Pls. Ac. & D;

Cac, Ics)

I find similar variations in the bones forming the roof of the

posterior nostrils—a character which Blanford mentions as distinc-

tive. All indeed, that can be said with regard to the cranial

differences between these two species is that tigers on the average

have more vaulted skulls, with longer, narrower nasal bones,

narrower anterior nares, the facial part shorter as compared with

the cranial part and the lower edge of the mandible straighter than

in lions.

My puzpose in pointing out these resemblances between the lion

and the tiger is strongly to protest against the view that the

differences are sufficiently important to justify their assignment to

two distinct genera and to support my own opinion that they are

merely two well-marked species of the genus Panthera. And since

tigers, wherever found, are obviously the ‘same’ animal, I regard

the different kinds that have been described merely as local races,

or subspecies, and not as distinct species under the names 7Zgvzs

tigris, Tigris amurensis, Tigris sondaica etc., as is done by the

Russian Zoologist, Satunin, and some other authors quoted in the

Synonymies given below.

Tur DISTRIBUTION OF THE TIGER IN THE PAST AND Now

Skeletal remains of tigers indistinguishable from the existing

species have been found in Pleistocene deposits in northern Siberia

even as far to the north as the New Siberian Islands in the Arctic

Ocean, well within the Arctic Circle, north of latitude 70° and far

to the north of the animal’s present range. They were associated

with the remains of the elk, reindeer, Persian red deer (maral),

musk ox, saiga antelope, horse, brown bear, polar bear, Arctic fox and

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE B,

A. Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) from Central Provinces, showing

typical shape in the Indian race.

B. Skull of Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris sumatre) from Sungei

Kumbang, showing likeness to the Lion’s skull.

C, Skull of Lioness from Mulema, Uganda, for comparison with A, B,

TIGERS 509

wolf which are still in existence, and of a bison, the mammoth and

woolly rhinoceros now extinct (Tscherski, Wem. Acad. St. Petersburgh,

vol. 40, 1892). From the nature of this fauna of nowadays mixed

temperate and northern types, it must be inferred that northern

Asia throughout Pleistocene times was free from the glaciation

which supposedly affected other parts of the hemisphere and

supported a rich vegetation of grass, shrubs and trees supplying

food for the Ungulates upon which the Carnivora preyed, and that

the present arid, inhospitable condition of the country, with its

rigorous climate, is of comparatively recent date (Hinton, Proc.

Morkshire Geol. Soc. 1926).

Since the bones above referred to are the earliest known remains

of the tiger, it may be concluded, as a working hypothesis, that

central and northern Asia was the original home of the species;

and this conclusion helps us to understand the distribution of the

species at the present time. It survives in Mongolia, Amurland,

Manchuria and Corea, its most northern districts; and in the south-

west of Asia, from the Russo-Afghan boundary, to the north of the

Hindu Koosh, through the Elburz mountains, south of the Caspian,

as far as the eastern portions of the Caucasus. There is evidence

that the tigers of the Perso-Turkestan district are, or were,

continuous in their distribution with those of Mongolia; and from

the occurrence of tigers in northern China and southwards, there is

no doubt of continuity in the distribution of the species in eastern

Asia from Manchuria southwards. From South China, tigers

extend through Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula into the

Sunda Islands of Sumatra, Java and Bali, but not into Borneo,!

Bali being the limit of the range of the species in south-eastern

Asia.

Since tigers are not found in Tibet or on the northern slopes

of the Himalayas, and since those of Burma and Assam seem to be

the same in all essentials as those occurring on the southern slopes

of that mountain range, it may be inferred that the species entered

India from Burma round the eastern end of the Himalayas and

travelled thence westwards along those mountains through Bhutan

and Nepal and in Peninsular India reached as far as Gujerat in the

west and Cape Comorin in the south, arriving at the latter point too

late to get into Ceylon. This view of the route by which the tiger

gradually spread over India is borne out by several facts. Major

Burrard, for instance, states that in the Himalayas tigers are more

numerous to the east of the Bhagirathi river, a tributary of the

Ganges, than to the west of it (Big Game Hunting in the Himalayas

and Tibet, p. 243, 1925). Moreover, the tigers of the Perso-Turkestan

district are somewhat different from those of north-western India

and were doubtless excluded from India by the Hindu Koosh and

the desert areas of Persia and Baluchistan.

+ The idea that the tiger exists in Borneo is perhaps due to the record of an

old skull, ticketed Borneo, in the British Museum. This skull, judging from

its size and shape, is that of an Indian tiger.

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

THE SIZE OF TIGERS

Heighi.—In Rowland Ward’s Records there are a number of esti-

mated heights of Indian tigers.’ These range from 3 ft. 3 ins. (39 ins.)

to 4 ft. 2 ins. (50 ins.), the latter measure being taken from a skin

from Seonda measuring 10 ft. 3 ins. in total length, a good but not

very exceptionally large specimen. It is stated, moreover, that

the Maharajah of Cooch Behar measured a tiger standing 3 ft.

104 ins. (463 ins.) at shoulder. It is not explained how this

measurement was taken.

When I was Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens in London

I measured many tigers by means of a graduated scale on the front

of the cage. By watching the animals standing alongside or pass-

ing this scale day after day it was possible to judge their actual

standing height with tolerable accuracy, most certainly well within

1 inch. The largest tiger in the Collection was a Manchurian

specimen, and all the Indian sportsmen, acquainted with tigers, who

saw him, agreed that he was a splendid animal. Yet his standing

height at the shoulder was only just about 3 ft. 2 ins. (38 ins.). That is

to say, he was 84 ins. lower than the Indian specimen measured by the

Maharajah of Cooch Behar, 1 in. lower than the smallest of the

tigers whose estimated height is published in the Records and

exactly 1 ft. (12 ins.) lower than the largest of those, namely, the

tiger from Seonda! This measurement may, however, be reason-

ably set aside as due to the inadvertent addition of 1 ft. to the

animal’s stature ; and the estimated measurements may be neglect-

ed as such. But the case of the tiger with the alleged standing

height of 3 ft. 10$ ins. is on a different footing. Personally, I reject

it without hesitation ; and for the following reason. A good Indian

tiger stands just about 3 ft. at the shoulder and measures about

10 ft. long from nose tip to tail tip. That is to say, his length is

roughly 34 times his height. Judged by this method the Manchurian

tiger standing 3 ft. 2 ins., above referred to, measured about 10 ft.

7 ins. long, a reasonable estimate. But by the same standard the

tiger stated to have been 3 ft. 105 ins. at the shoulder was close upon

13. ft. long, which, as every sportsman knows, is a preposterous

supposition. Bae

Length.—The lengths of tigers have been discussed ad nauseam

and I have nothing to add here to what has already been written by

competent sportsmen on this subject, except. to say that what is

required for a correct understanding of the variations in the size of

tigers are accurate measurements of properly sexed, adult

individuals, whether large or small, from as many localities as

possible. From the scientific standpoint small tigers are quite as

interesting as large tigers.

Very useful tables giving the dimensions of Indian tigers may be

found in Rowland Ward’s Records. Particularly interesting is the

table (p. 474, ed. 1928) compiled by Sir J. P. Hewett, who states

that out of atotal of 250 specimens he has seen shot only eight

1 It is not quite clear whether these heights were taken by the owners in the

field from the dead body or from the stripped skin.

TIGERS 511

tigers ranged from 10 ft. and 4 an inch to 10 ft. 5$ ins. and only

seven tigresses were between 9 ft.and 9 ft. 3ins. It will be noticed |

that all the tigers were from Naini Tal or Garwhal and five of the

tigresses from the same places; one from Bijnor and only one, the

smallest, from as far south as Hoshangabad in the Central Provinces.

But what of the remaining 235 specimens ? Are we to infer that all

the tigers of Naini Tal are large ? Or did any of the smallest come

from that locality as well? Those are the kinds of facts one

wants to know.

WHITE, RED AND BLACK TIGERS

Apart from comparatively slight individual or local variations of

the normal type of colour, tigers sometimes exhibit striking varia-

tions due to suppression of pigment resulting in so-called white

tigers or to development of pigment resulting in black tigers.

So-called white tigers are particularly interesting from the

different grades of albinism they show. Of these three types are

known.

1. Tigers in which the red pigment is abstracted from the

ground colour leaving it cream or white with the stripes standing

out boldly in ‘dark brown’, ‘chocolate’ or‘ reddish black’ as

observers have described. To this, the commonest, variety belong

a white tigress from Orissa (Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xix,

p. 744, 1910) ; atiger from Bilaspur (Journ., Bomb. Nat. His. Soc., vol.

xxiv, p. 819, 1916); a tiger caught alive in the jungles of Sohagpur

(Journ., Bomb. Nat. Fist. Soc., vol. xxvil, p. 932, pl. 1921); and a few

recorded from Rewa. Of these there is in the British Museum a

mounted specimen deposited by H. M. King George V, to whom it

was presented by the Maharajah of Rewa.

2. Like those of the first category but with the black pigment

of the stripes diluted to tan. I am only acquainted with one

example of this type, namely, askin from Mirzapore presented to

the British Museum by Mrs. Craigie Halkett. ‘This type is inter-

mediate between the first category and the one that follows.

3. Tigers exhibiting the extremest stage of albinism, pigment

being absent not only from the ground colour but also from the

stripes. Of this type I am only acquainted with one record, namely,

a tiger exhibited in about 1820 in the Exeter Change and figured

and described by Hamilton Smith. In this animal, the locality of

which is unknown, the stripes were only visible in certain lights, as

in the case of some albino tabby cats. J. G. Wood aiso described

it, with a figure not taken from life, in the first volume of his well-

known Natural History, 1861.

Other white tigers which cannot be classified owing to absence of

particulars have been recorded, namely, one, presumably from

Poona, by Howard Saunders (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1891, p. 373); two

tigresses from Bhagalpur, and two tigers from the Central Pro-

vinces, one being from Korea (Rowland Waza’s Records, 1928,

p. 478).

Possibly the red tiger, illustrated in our coloured plate and

recorded below under the heading Panthera tigris septentrionalis,

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1/11

should come into this category of aberrations. Itisa unique type

with all the black pigment abstracted from the stripes, leaving them

reddish-brown and only a little darker than the ground colour.

Black tigers are much rarer than white tigers. There appear to

be only three records. Blanford, in his volume on the Mammalia of

the Fauna of British India Series, refers to one seen in Chittagong

by Mr. C. T. Buckland in 1846. A full account of the incident was

published in the F7eld, vol. 73, p. 422, 1889. The animal was found

dead, killed by a poisoned arrow, and decomposition was so far

advanced that the skin could not be saved. A second was seen

near Bhamo and wounded but made its escape, leaving its pug

marks as evidence that it had not been mistaken for a large black

leopard, as recorded by Mr. Hauxwell (Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

vol. xxii, p. 788). The third, found dead like the first, was seen in

the Lushai Hills; but in this instance also the skin could not be

saved (field, 1928, p. 656).

It is interesting to note that these black tigers all came from

localities, tolerably near at hand, to the north-east of the Bay of

Bengal; and it is significant that black leopards are far more plenti-

fulin what was formerly called Further India than in Peninsular

India.

INDIAN TIGERS

Before the existence of local races, or subspecies, of tigers was

established, the name Felis tzgrzs was applied in a comprehensive

sense by early writers to tigers in general. But the subsequent

admission of the occurrence of geographical races and their

designation by distinguishing titles necessitated the restriction of

figris to one particular form. In this matter I follow the opinion

expressed by Oldfield Thomas in his paper on the Mammals

described by Linnzus in the 10th edition of the Systema Nature :

‘Later revisers of the races of tigers, of whom Fitzinger and

Matschie may be specially quoted, have restricted /. ftzgrzs to

India proper and particularly Bengal’ (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1911, p. 135).

The Bengal tiger, therefore, becomes the representative of the race

Panthera tigris tigris and the example in the Natural History

Museum, ticketed Bengal (Col. Sanderson), which is described

below, may be regarded as a topotypical specimen of it. It is

important to bear this in mind in view of the possibility of the

admission of other Indian races in the future. At present, however,

I refer all Indian tigers to the same race, the name of which, with

its principal synonyms, is as follows :—

Panthera tigris tigrts, Linn.

Felis tigris, Linn., Syst. Nat. ed. 10, p. 41, 1758; and of most

authors who have written on Indian tigers, including Blyth, Jerdon,

Bianford and others.

Tigris regalis, Gray, Cat. Mamm. Brit. Mus., 1842, p.40; also of

some other authors, including Hodgson.

Tigris striatus, Severtzow, Rev. Mag. Zool., 1858, p. 386,

Type Locality. Bengal.

TIGERS 513

Distribution. India from the southern slopes of the Himalayas to

Cape Comorin; also some of the countries to the east of the Bay of

Bengal.

The names vegalis and striatus were proposed respectively by

Gray and Severtzow because, adopting 77gris in a generic sense,

they thought they had the right, not now admitted, to alter the

specific name to suit their personal dislike of identity between the

generic and specific titles of an animal.

SKINS OF INDIAN TIGERS

I have already referred to the vagueness of our knowledge of the

local, seasonal and individual variations in colour in Indian tigers,

although it seems to be generally agreed that such variations occur.

For instance, Major F. G. Alexander, writing on this subject

- (Harmsworth’s Natural History, vol. i, pp. 378-379, 1910) says :—

‘My field of observation has been limited to Rajputana, Central

India, and Bundel Khand, the junglesin which may be called ‘‘ open

jungles’’. The colour of all the tigers killed by myself and by

brother sportsmen was, with two exceptions, ‘‘a light red ochre.”’

One exception was a tiger, lured from acave in the Asseerghur

jungles, whose colour ‘‘ was dark red ochre, far darker than that of

any tiger I have ever killed.’’’ Another interesting variety he

described as follows :—‘ I have killed tigers during the hot weather, |

monsoon and cold weather ; and as regards the length of their hair,

I have found very little difference between a cold-weather tiger and

a hot-weather tiger. There was, however, one exception. ‘This

was apparently a very old male, measuring only 8 ft. 1 in.,-shot

in Pertaburgh territory within 20 miles of Neemuch; his fur was

quite an inch long all over the body ; his colour was ruddy ochre,

the ruff round the neck was particularly full and his whole appearance

led me to regard him as a dwarf-like specimen. If the skin had

been exposed for sale in a furrier’s shop, it would have been

accepted as a Chinese or Siberian specimen.’ These are interesting

instances of individual variation. As regards environmental! varie-

ties, Major Alexander says:—‘ There is no doubt that in dark

jungles, such as those of the Siwaliks or the Dun forests, animals’

[tigers’] skins assimilate themselves to the localities ... but in

open jungles the pigment of the tiger’s skin is invariably light. The

Beemashunker, Kanara and Belgaum jungles contain darker-coloured

specimens, and I have seen skins from them all which were, on

the average, far ruddier than the thirty-one I have obtained anda

dozen more which I have seen killed.’

I have selected these extracts at random from a volume that

happened to be athand, not doubting that other Indian sportsmen

have published similar experiences. But the observations recorded

require to be amplified and extended to all parts of India if the

tigers are ever to be known as some of the groups of smaller

mammals are now known, thanks to the Survey carried out by the

Bombay Natural History Society.

Owing to the scanty material at my command I can contribute

very little to this end ; but possibly the subjoined brief notes on the

014 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

skins in the British Museum may be useful in a small way as a basis

for further observations which so many Indian sportsmen have the

opportunity for carrying out. Such information would be much

more interesting and important than records of weights and

measures.

In the first place my experience with living tigers, when I was

Superintendent of the London Zoological Gardens, confirms Major

Alexander’s observation regarding the absence of any marked

seasonal change in colour or thickness of coat in Indian specimens,

whether they come from Nepal or Mysore. That the aksence of

such change was not attributable to their conditions of life in

England was shown by a pair of Manchurian tigers which with

perfect regularity donned a thick winter coat during the ten years

they were under my charge. Butthere may be parts of India in

which seasonal changes do occur.

The skins in the Museum are as follows :-—

1. Nepal.--A mounted tigress presented by King George, is

a normally coloured, fully striped, rather rough-coated specimen,

differing very considerably from a couple of tigresses from the same

country presented to the Zoological Society by the King, when

Prince of Wales. These tigresses were short and smooth coated

throughout the year, although kept in the open all through the cold

weather. They were remarkable for the reduction both in number

and length of their stripes, of which scarcely any showed signs of

looping. The greater part of the shoulder, the outside of the fore

leg and a large area of the side of the body behind the shoulder

were without stripes, and, except at the very base, there was

only. one stripe on the inner side of the fore leg. On the

hinder part of the body the stripes were comparatively thin and

widely spaced. I published a photograph of one of these

tigresses, which were probably from the same litter (Proc. Zool.

Soc., 1908, p. 892) and photographs of one or the other may be

seen in Harmsworth’s Natural History, vol. i, pp. 373, 374, 378. It

would be particularly interesting to know if these two different

types of tiger occur under the same or different conditions in

Nepal. (Pl. D, upper fig.)

2. NN. W. Provinces.—A mounted tiger, presented by

P. Wyndham in 1903, is a short-haired, very handsome large speci-

men, richly coloured, but not dark, and well marked with broad,

black, looped stripes. |

3. Bengal.—A dressed skin of a tiger, presented by

Col. Sanderson, closely .resembles the last in coat, colour

and pattern. The skull belonging to this skin is one of the

largest in the collection, but the dressed skin measures just under

104-feet. (Pl 11.)

4. Mirzapore.

presented by Mrs. Craigie Halkett. It is just under 10 feet in

length and is approximately similar in pattern to the skin from

Bengal.

5. ARewa.—A mounted white tiger, with deep chocolate stripes,

deposited by H. M. The King, closely resembles the last two in the

extent, spacing and formation of the stripes.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate

SKIN OF BENGAL TIGER.

TIGERS 515

6 and 7. Chota Nagpur.—The dressed skins of two tigresses,

from Palamau, presented by Capt. S. N. Walker, are not so brightly

tinted as the Bengal Tiger, but since they had been made up as

rugs, their paler hue is very likely due to exposure to light. The

stripes show pale ticking. Otherwise they are well defined. One

skin, however, has a bolcer pattern of broader stripes than the other

and is altogether handsomer. ‘They measure respectively 9 ft. 8 ins.

and 9 ft. 5 ins., but the head and body of the latter are 6 ft. 8 ins.,

its inferiority in total length to the other, which has a head and

body length of 6 ft. 3 ins., being due to the incompleteness of the

tail.

8. Guzerat.—The flat skin of a young tiger obtained by Major

B. H. O’Donnell at Dunta in Palanpur is pale in colour, with spaced,

looped stripes, but the loops are short. On the croup the stripes

fuse dorsally on each side, leaving a narrow longitudinal pale area

nearly as well defined as in the skins of the Persian and Afghan

boundary tigers described below.

9. Thana.—The flat skin of a full-grown tiger, shot by Mr.

T. B. Fry in‘ open’ jungle, about 40 miles north of Bombay, is rather

like the Palanpur skin but is still paler, the general hue being tawny

and everywhere blending with the white. The white on the belly is

extensive, the two combined about equalling the tawny area

between them. The skin measures only 8 ft. 7 ins., of which the

head and body are 5 ft. 9 ins.

10. Cotmbatore.—A flat skin of an old tiger, presented by Mrs.

Cozens, is very pale, the white everywhere blending with the pale

tawny hue of the ground colour, but the pallid hue is probably due

to exposure to light, the skin having been made into a rug. The

_ coat 1s very short and smooth, and the stripes are thin and not nearly

so black as in most Indian tigers owing to the hairs being pale at

the base. ‘The skin measures 10 ft. 2 ins.; but the label indicates

that in the flesh the animal was only 9 ft. 4ins., small, that is to say,

for an Indian tiger.

11. Madras.—The flat skin of a tiger presented by Col. Sykes

resembles the less handsome of the two Chota Nagpur skins

in coat, colour and narrowness of the stripes, but the stripes are

more numerous; the hair on the cheek and throat is much longer

than in the other skins described, and there is a distinct mat-like

mane, 2 ins. or more in length, extending over the nape froim the

occiput. The skull shows that this skin was that of an adult animal,

but the head and body measure only 5 ft. 6 ins., the tail being

absent. .

12. Coorg.—The skin ofa tigress, shot by Mr. G. C. Shortridge

is the only representative of the species that reached the British

Museum from the Survey. It is a richer and darker tinted skin

than those from Chota Nagpur but hardly darker than the one from

Bengal. All the stripes are deep black and well defined, broad,

normally spaced and some of them looped. The coat is longish and

rough. It measures 8 ft. 9 ins., but since the tail and head are very

much stretched from being pegged out to dry, the tigress was

evidently quite a small animal. But there is no skull by which her

age can be determined.

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

SKULLS OF INDIAN TIGERS

(Pls. BA; C a-p.)

To make clear the terminology used in the tables of skull-

measurements in this paper it may be explained that the dimen-

sions have been taken with callipers and dividers as follows :—

Total length from the edge of the occipital crest to the tip of

the premaxille above the incisor teeth.

Condylo-basal length (Cond. bas.) from the posterior edge of the

occipital condyle to the tip of the premaxille. This is a more

satisfactory measurement than the first because it is independent c*

the development of a muscular ridge.

Zygomatic width (Zygom.) across the cheek-bones.

Nasals; the length is taken from the middle line on the fore-

head to the tip of the process bounding the nostrils laterally above,

and the width across the nostrils from process to process outside.

Occiput ; the width is taken as nearly as possible at the points

where the vertical sides pass outwards into the lateral processes

ending in the mastoids behind the orifice of the ear; the height of

the occiput varies with the development of the median crest at its

summit.

Teeth ; these are measured in millimetres, not in inches, the

upper flesh-tooth (Upper carn.) along its outside edge, and the lower

flesh tooth (Lower carn.) from front to back, both being subject to

small variations with wear. The Canine is measured from front to

back close to the socket.

In the last edition of Rowland Ward’s Records, 1928, pp. 480-

481, the dimensions of a large number of skulls of Indian tigers are

given. They vary from about 134 inches to just under 16 inches,

the largest marked —16 having been obtained by Mr. B. B. Osmaston

n Naini Tal. Roughly, 50 per cent of them are between 14 and 15

inches and about 25 per cent between 15 and 16 inches and 133 and

14 inches respectively. They appear to be the skulls of males, and

their average length may be put at 144 inches. It may be noted that

they range in distribution from the Himalayas to the Central and

United Provinces, there being only one record from Southern India,

namely, from Kanara.

In the following Table I give the dimensions of some skulls of

Indian tigers in the British Museum ; but here again there are only

two complete skulls from Southern India available, namely, from

Kanara and Madras. The skulls have been arranged in the list, not

by size but by locality.

|ourn. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate C.

Aas

— y

=e g

San

fe)

ret

“fe

Uy)

Q xi el

“fi

A. Nasals and summit of maxille of Tiger from Darjiling.

B. Posterior view of occiput of the same.

C,D. The same bones of a Tiger from the Nepal Terai.

TIGERS 517

English Inches _ Millimetres.

pew a WERE ST a Se 2 Saar hy See ea

k al. dl ae . S ie ee OO

Loc. and Sex. St |Z nel Ss Nasals. 5 ad : S d » 2

a8 |S82) SE Oo 1S8/S33 las

Darjiling g pion s1SEs | 10k Re Six BE hese. 27e 300-1226

Kinaemandia: a: ars} 4. es 92, | 445 x 23 | ras oF ZOE 27

Nepal ¢ Pella a | TOR GY WAG ha se oe: 136 28

Nepal ¢ Piss, i? 93 4.4 De | Say F38) |: 28) | 26

Nepal ¢ pep dge. eee Ok | AAS se OR al oar | B78 |. 227 h99

Nepal Terai f... | 143, | 128 | 103 5 x 2} 24 a 29 | 29

Bhutan Terai gf ...| 14,3, | 12% 92 5S. xe 26 | 33 35 2/ \.28

Bengal g oo | Tags | 18a 1102) SE <2 | 3d | 87° 27.7) 30

C. Prov, J bal ddd 1.128 | 104. | Si oe-28 | 24 | 36 | 26 | 28

C. Prov. ¢ IG dee Ol de Oe |g | 35 | 25 | 26

Kanara ¢ Pepe leery Oa tate |e 2.) 2 sor.) #261 126

Madras 3 Riley | eel geo | 42 3 Draw Hoge Gael 926 re ls

Nepal 2 ae eae 08 Zeal at 8 | 24 | 35 |. 26 |°23

Nepal ? Pal izes lO io 74r Aat 2 ae 33 | 24 | 21

Nepal Terai 2 scat dle 1108 7H5 | 425 x 225 Le 22 | 35 20 ila? 3

Muttra 2 fig | 10a | 7@ | 3x .ag | 24} 31. | 22 [20

Mirzapur 2 he | 103% 74) 4b 'x-1a,| 2 | 33 |! 24 | 23

Chota Nagpur? ... 113 | 103 Bal Sed oe Dee Qeiel 72 21

Chota Nagpur? .../ 13 | 108] 7# | 325 2 92 |) 32° |. 25 -| 20

In addition to these skulls there are several others in the British

Museum; but since they are merely ticketed India and show no

special features, their measurements have not been included; and

all immature skulls have been omitted.

The average length of male skulls is about 14 inches and of the

females about 12 inches. Female skulls are also relatively lighter

and less muscularly developed, and the occipital condyles touch, or

nearly touch, a flat surface when the skull rests upon it; also the

carnassial teeth are a little smaller and the canine markedly thinner

at the base and shorter; but I have not recorded the length of the

canine in either sex because it varies with age and wear. In most

cases no sex mark is indicated on the labels; but by the use of the

518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXU11

above-mentioned data, any normal tiger’s skull can, I believe be

sexed correctly. The skull, for instance, from Kanara, which was

presented by R.C. Wroughton, although labelled @ I have no

hesitation in regarding as ao’. The label is not in Wroughton’s

handwriting; and I know nothing further of the history of

the specimen, but Mr. T. B. Fry, who knew Wroughton well,

tells me he does not think he ever shot atigress in Kanara. The

skull from Madras (Col. Sykes) I also sexed by the characters

mentioned.

The interesting point about these two skulls is that their average

dimensions are considerably below those of the male skulls from

northern and Central [ndia, intergrading between them and the

tigresses’ skulls from those districts. They confirm, indeed, the

opinion generally held, I believe, by Indian sportsmen, and express-

ed by Dunbar Brander, that the tigers of South India are smaller

than those of North and Central India. On the other hand, a skull

from Kanara in Rowland Ward’s Records for 1928 measures 144

inches and is about as large as most northern tigers’ skulls ; but of

course intergradation occurs. Also the jaws taken from the tiger’s

skin from Coimbatore, referred to above, are more massive than

those of the British Museum skulls from Kanara and Madras,

indicating a larger beast; but the skin in question measured only

nine feet four inches in the flesh, which is decidedly small for a

northern tiger.

There is one other skull to which I must refer in this connection,

namely, that recorded by Mr. Prater as a record panther skull

(Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxvii, p. 933, 1921). The animal

was shot in the dusk near Ootacamund by Mr. Limouzin! who

thought it was a panther and subsequently found in the jungle its

presumed remains eaten by jackals, with none of the pattern of the

skin remaining. Struck by the size of the skull, he sent it to the

Bombay Natural History Society where it was determined by Mr.

Prater as certainly a panther’s, and a good record at that, the dasal

length being 11,5, inches, the leopard’s skull, which at that date

headed Rowland Ward’s list, being a skull from the Gaboon, owned

by Sir Edmund Loder, which I described and measured in 1909.

This skull had a éotal length of 114 inches and a basal length of only

9 inches,” that is to say 24 inches shorter than Mr. Limouzin’s

specimen. There is-no doubt that the latter was the skull of a

tiger or tigress, probably a tiger since its basal lengthis exactly the

same as that of Col. Sykes’ Madras specimen. True it is nearly 4

an inch narrower across the zygomata, but that discrepancy is of no

great moment, as may be seen by comparing the lengths and breadths

of the skull from Bengal and of the one from the Central Provinces

1 (Vide note on page 699 of this Number—EDsS.)

2 T have italicized these measurement because, although this leopard’s skull

from the Gabocn was correctly entered in Rowland Ward’s Records 1914 as

measuring 114 inches in /ofal length, in the 1928 edition that figure is stated to

be its basal length, which is quite wrong. According, indeed, to the table

printed in that edition (p. 485), four of the leopards’ skulls are longer than any

Indian tigress’s skull 1 have measured and as long as several of the tigers’

skulls.

TIGERS 519

that comes next to it in my table. Fortunately Mr. Prater published

a photograpn of the skull of Mr. Limouzin’s specimen alongside

those of an Indian leopard, tiger and lion.t From this it may be

seen that the jaws and canine tooth of the first, the alleged record

panther, are much larger than those of the leopard. Mr. Prater,

moreover, records the weight of the skull as 24 lbs., which is 4 alb.

heavier than the heaviest leopards’ skulls, all African, in Rowland

Ward’s list. In this list of leopards Mr. Limouzin’s tiger takes

fourth place for size—it is really, on the data given, entitled to the

third place—but it should stand easily first, because its total length

was no doubt nearly 13 inches. Apart, however, from the errors

to which the records of this skull have given rise, it is an exceed-

ingly interesting thing that the skull of a South Indian tiger, if

adult, should be so small as to be mistaken for a panther'’s.

The history of the specimens mentioned in my list, setting aside

the two from Kanara and Madras, is as follows :—The skulls from

Nepal came from Hodgson’s and Hardwicke’s collections; those

from the Nepal Terai were shot by King Edward VII, when Prince

of Wales; those from Bengal and Mirzapur were secured by

_ Colonel Sanderson; from Darjiling by E. le F. Davys; from

Khatmandu by H. A. Ojidfield; from the Bhutan Terai, north of

Kangrabai, by M. Maxwell; the smaller of the two from the Central

Provinces was presented by F. W. Withers and the larger came from

Mawlia and was presented by B. B. Osmaston. This skull is wider

across the zygomatic arches than any in my list or Rowland Ward’s

list; and since a tiger shot by Mr. Osmaston at Naini Tal heads

Ward’s list with a length of 16—, Mr. Osmaston holds the records

for length and width. The two tigress’s skulls from Chota

Nagpur (Palamau) were taken from rugs presented by Capt.

S.N. Walker.

The tigers from Assam, Burma and the Malay Peninsula of which

I have seen no skins and only a few skulls, are briefly dealt with in

a later part of this paper. They are provisionally referred to the

same race as the Indian tiger, Panthera tigris tigris.

THE TIGERS OF THE CASPIAN AREA

The name and synonomy of these tigers, known to the ancients

as the Hirkan Tiger, are as follows :—

Panthera tigris septentrtonalis, Satunin.

Felis virgata, (ex Iliger) Matschie, Szfz. Ber. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin

1897, p. 13 (name preoccupied by Felis virgala given to the

Norwegian lynx by Nilsson in 1829).

Felis (Tigris) tigris septentrionalis, Satunin, Zeztschr. ‘ Priroda

tochota’, vii, p. 5, 1904.

1 In confirmation of his opinion that the skull under debate was a panther’s,

Mr. Prater draws attention to the height of the tiger’s occipital condyles above

the surface of the table on which it rests, whereas in the other three skulls they

rest upon it. But in many skulls of tigers the condyles similarly rest on a

horizontal plane, .

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Tigris septentrionalis, Satunin, MWitth. Kauk. Mus. ii, p. 308, pl.

iv (skull), 1905-1906 ; 7d., op. ctt. iv, p. 33, 1909; zd. Conspect.

Mamm. Imp. Ross. p. 156, 1914 (printed in Russian).

Tigers were procured near Lenkoran in Talish on the coast of

the Caspian, to the south of the Caucasus, by Radde in 1866 and

were identified as felis tigris. But in 1897 a specimen, exported

from Tiflis and exhibited in the Berlin Zoological Gardens, was

seen by Matschie who, considering it to represent a race distinct

from the typical tiger, called it Felis virgata. An enlarged photo-

graph of this tiger was published by Dr. Heck (Ledende Bilder, p. 157,

1899), a volume containing photographs of a number of interesting

mammals living in the Berlin Gardens at the time. The name

adopted by Matschie for this animal was, however, inadmissible

for the reason stated in the above-quoted synonymy. Subsequently,

in 1904, Satunin, in ignorance of Matschie’s paper, gave the name

septentrionalis to a Transcaucasian tiger preserved in the Tiflis

Museum of which he was Curator; and this was followed two

years later by a long and complete description in German. He

discussed the animal again in 1909, justifying the adoption of the ~

name septentrionalis because of the preoccupation of virgata and

because he thought it very possible that the Lenkoran example might

turn out to be a different race of tiger from the one seen by

Matschie, for which no precise locality was known. Since this view

appears to me to be very improbable, I follow Lydekker’s opinion

that virgata and septentrionalts were applied to the same local race.

There is little, if any, difference in size between this tiger and

the typical race from India; but the ground colour is a somewhat

richer, darker red with the stripes more numerous, closer set and-

showing a tendency, at least in some specimens, to turn brown ;

the coat even in the summer appears to be thicker and in the

winter the fringes on the sides of the face and along the belly arc

very long, asis clearly shownin Heck’s figure of the example describ-

-ed by Matschie. .(P]. D. lower fig.)

Satunin laid special stress on the colour of the stripes in distin-

guishing this race from the typical Indian tiger. He said :—‘ In all

the Transcaspian and Lenkoran tigers seen by me the stripes on

the shoulders, the hinder part of the neck and especially on the

outer side of the thigh are not only not black but even pale brown.’

From this, and other points of view, the specimens in the British

Museum which I refer to this race are extremely interesting in the

ereat variation they exhibit, two having the stripes as black to all

intents and purposes as Indian tigers, one having them partly brown

and the other wholly brown.

These skins may be described briefly in the order named :—

1. An old tigress in perfect coat obtained in 1886 by Dr.

Aitchison, of the Afghan Boundary Commission, on the Bala

Murghab river to the north of Herat and identified as Felis tigris.

The ground colour is rich tinted, rather darker and with the white

areas more strongly defined than in any Indian tigers I have seen.

The stripes are narrow, more numerous and closer set, quite black

all down the spinal area, on the flanks and belly but faint on the

Journ. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate D,

[Photo W.S. Berridge].

Tigress, from Nepal, showing unusual reduction in the stripes.

[Reproduced by the kind permission of Dr. Heck].

Tiger, from the Caucasus, in the Berlin Gardens.

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Puate If

SKIN OF AFGHAN TIGER.

TIGERS 52}

fore part of the shoulder, and on the thighs and outer side of the

hind leg indistinct and brown. It is noticeable that the upper ends

of the stripes on the croup unite on each side to form a longitudinal

stripe separated from its fellow by a median pale area. The coat

is longish, thick and soft, much longer than in any Indian skin in

the Museum. The stripes, however, in Indian skins generally, if

not always, show atendency to brownness at least low down on

the thighs... -(Pl.- III.)

2. A mounted tigress obtained at Astrabad in N. Persia

by Col. Beresford Lovett and presented to the British Museum

in 1882. As in the Afghan specimen, the stripes are as black

as in typical Indian tigers and are numerous and close-set,

but the fusion of the croup stripes is not so emphatic. This

tigress and the Afghan specimen apparently agree very closely

in pattern with the photograph of the skin of the specimen

shot by Col. R.L. Kennion in Mazanderan forest in Northern Persia.

3. A mounted male specimen labelled Persia and presented

by Messrs. Rowland Ward. This also is a rich tinted specimen

with numerous narrow stripes. On the top of the head and down

the back the stripes are black, but they fade to brown on the flanks,

and on the outside of the thighs they are only a little darker than

the ground colour; they are also brown on the base of the tail and

even on the belly and chest. The tendency toward the longitudinai

fusion of the stripes on the croup is also noticeable. The white spot

over the eye is smaller than in Indian tigers, and this appears to be

a general feature in this race; but this specimen exhibits the

peculiarity of having the spot on the back of the ear tan instead of

white. This tiger resembles the specimens mentioned by Satunin

in the brown tint of the stripes ; but the brown is more extensive.

4. The dressed skin ofa tigress ticketed ‘ Northern slopes of

Mount Elburz!’ and presented by Col. R. L. Kennion who told me

it Was presented to him by a native chief. This tiger, represented

in the coloured plate, is of extreme interest. The ground colour

and the pattern are as in the Afghan specimen; but there is not a

trace of black onthe skin, all the stripes being brown and indistinctly

defined owing to their approximation to the general hue of the coat.

It is possible, of course, that this skin may represent a red variety,

comparable to a red cat and coming into the same class as the black

and white aberrations of the tiger above described. On the other

hand it must be noted that the complete suppression of the black

pigment in the stripes is merely an extension of the process

observable to a lesser degree in the mounted male specimen

described above. ‘The available material, indeed, of this race

seen by me and recorded by Satunin seems to show a nearly

complete gradation between the black stripes typical of tigers

in general and the reddish brown stripes of the Mount Elburz

example, (Pl. I coloured.)

In the report upon the animals he collected as naturalist to the

Afghan Boundary Commission, Dr. Aitchison (Zr. Linn. Soc.

* Note :—On Pl. I representing this tiger, the locality was by error given as

Caucusus. The error has been corrected to ‘ Elburz’.

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Lond., Zool., vol. v, p. 56, 1888) states that the tigress above des:

cribed was killed at Karaol Khana on the Bala Murghab river,

which lies to the north of Herat, and brought into camp. She

measured in the flesh 8 ft. 42 inches, and, as indicated by her worn

teeth, was evidently old. Tracks of tigers were also seen in the

valley of the Hari-rud and at the Chasma Salz pass at 5,000 ft.

The tigers wander over the great rolling plains of the Badghis,

ascending to higher altitudes in the summer and preying upon pig,

oorial and even ibex. Although taken from an old animal, the skin

is in perfect condition with regard to coat and colour and has

scarcely been stretched by being dressed.

I can find no published particulars regarding the tiger, killed by

Major C. E. Yate near Pindjeh, the skull of which is in the British

Museum. It is not mentioned either in his book or in the report

upon the collection he sent to Calcutta (Journ. As. Soc. Bengal,

vol..56, p..68,.1887).

Col. R. L. Kennion gave an account of the shooting of the tiger

he secured in Mazanderan forest in Northern Persia (By Mountain,

Lake and Plain. Sportin Tastern. Persia, p. 244, 1911). “He

described it as big as a good Indian tiger, the skin when pegged

out measuring 11-ft. 6 ins., from which it may be inferred that the

animal in the flesh measured 10 ft. 6 ins. or less. - The coat, he

adds, was of course nothing like that of a winter Siberian tiger but

was perhaps a little longer than that of an Indian ‘ Christmas’

tiger. Col. Kennion only came across two examples of this tiger ;

and there is reason to fear that the race is on the wane. Satunin,

for example, records that when Radde made his first expedition

to ‘Transcaucasia in 1866, tigers were fairly plentiful; but

were much scarcer in 1879-1880 when he visited the country

again.

Records of tie size of this tiger are few and unsatisfactory.

The two stuffed specimens from Lenkoran in the Tiflis Museum

measure as mounted, according to Satunin, about 93 ft. and

84 ft. respectively. They are probably tigresses. The dressed

skin of Col. Kennion’s red tigress from Mount Elburz is about

8 ft. 2 ins., and Dr. Aitchison’s tigress from the Afghan

boundary was 8% ft. in the flesh. This is the only reliable record.

The newly stripped skin of the tiger shot by Col. Kennion

in the Mazanderan forest measured, when pegged out, 114 ft.

When dressed, the skin was reduced by Rowland Ward to

10 ft. 8 ins., which was probably about the natural length of

the beast. From these imperfect data it may be inferred that

this race of tigers is not larger, possibly it is on the average some-

what smaller than the typical Indian race. But I must not suppress

a surprising record published by Satunin, who states that he saw

in the flesh a Transcaspian tiger of ‘colossal dimensions’

‘hardly smaller than an ordinary native horse.’ Its stripped skin

from the tipof the nose to the voot of the tail (italics mine) was

34 metres—that is to say about 114 feet. This would have meant

a total length of about 144 feet! I must leave it at that, with the

comment that the learned Russian was not a sportsman ‘out’

for records, .

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate EK.

A. Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigris septentrionalis) from Maruchak, near Pinjdeh,

on the Russo-Afghan frontier.

B. Nasals and summit of maxille of the same,

C, Posterior view of occiput of the same,

TIGERS 523

The following are the measurements and particulars of: the

skulls :—

English Inches. Millimetres.

a ee ae 4 - ——- —_ + (tae rae ae —J-~ |

G Wis a ‘ d q s

& | SS) 8 B a © q

q fe’) 5S Q, oO Oo S

Loc. and Sex. Lv as : Nasals. _ be by ce

5 ies q 3 a v rs)

SRS ale oo Seles e

i N one

Lenkoran ¢ | 142

Mazanderan ¢ seer wlio ay le £0

Pindjeh ¢ ..| 133 | 11$ | 92, | 43 x24 Seon 2511026

Karaol Khana Q ...| 113! 10 8 Ga oe 24 39 91 | 19

| 6

Astrabad 9 va | 10 74 | 34 x22, | 22 32 2 Nei

Mt. Elburz 2 2 ce a | oF age ee Cre i, 20% | 21

These measurements confirm the conclusion to be drawn from

the skins that the Transcaspian tiger is about the size of an average

Indian tiger ; but the skull of the adult male from Pindjeh certainly

differs from the skulls of typical Indian tigers in the shape of the

dorsal profile. From the hinder edge of the postorbital processes,

which is more elevated than in ordinary tigers, the forehead and

nose slope tolerably evenly downwards and forwards to the end of

nasals above the nostrils and behind the processes the upper edge

of the skull slopes downwards and backwards at nearly the same

angle of inclination to the occipital crest. The edge, however, is

markedly sinuous but is much less concave than in typical Indian

tigers owing to the elevation of the longitudinal crest which rises

like a keel from the frontals a little behind the postorbital processes.

In Indian tigers this crest is always lower over the frontals and

parietals but increases somewhat rapidly in height towards the

occiput, giving the characteristic concave curvature to the upper

edge of the brain case. The differences above described may be

seen by a comparison between my figure ofthe skull of the tiger

‘from the Afghan Frontier and that of the one from the Central

Provinces of India. For the rest it may be added that in the

Afghan Frontier skull the occiput is remarkably broad and

unconstricted and that the nasals are shorter as compared with their

width than in Indian tigers. (Pl. E.)

So far as I can judge from the photograph published by Satunin,

the skull of a tiger from Talisch agrees very closely in shape with

the one from the Afghan Frontier described above except that the

upper edge of the median cranial crest is straighter; but in the

skulls of the two tigresses from the Afghan Frontier and Astrabad

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

respectively the forehead is much more rounded resembling the

forehead of Indian tigresses.

It is acurious and interesting fact that of all the tigers’ skulls in

the British Museum the one most like the male skull from the

Afghan boundary is the male skull from Sungei Kumbang in

Sumatra recorded below, although the latter has wider, shorter

nasals and the lower cranial crest. The resemblance is all the more

puzzling because the two races of tiger, so widely sundered

geographically, are also much alike in the number and closeness

of their stripes and the length of the fringe on the cheeks.

THe TiGers OF MONGOLIA, MANCHURIA AND Norts CHINA

In the account of the tigers of the Transcaspian area it was shown

that they extend from the south-eastern slopes of the Caucasus to

the Afghan boundary. From this district the species was formerly

at all events continuously distributed in a north-easterly direction

through Turkestan, Bokhara, the Altai and Mongolia as far as the .

Stanovoi mountains to the north of Manchuria. Records of their

occurrence in these countries were incorporated by J. B. Brandt in

his treatise on the geographical distribution of the species, published

in 1859 (Mem. Akad. Imp. St. Petersburgh Sct. Nat., vol. viii, pp. 144-

239). From Manchuria they pass southwards into Corea and at least

through the eastern and central parts of China; but they were not

encountered by the American zoological expedition through Shansi,

Shensi and Kansu to the south of the Ordos desert in Mongolia

(Clark and Sowerby, Through Shen-Kan, 1912). In southern China

they are apparently plentiful and their occurrence as far to the west

as Szechuen is attested by the skull of an immature male from that

district in the British Museum.

Owing unfortunately to the need of properly localized material,

our knowledge of the tigers of Central Asia, China and the areas to

the north of that country, where they occur, is very defective; and

accounts of them are in some cases bafflingly discrepant. For

instance, Swinhoe (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1864, p. 378) recorded a skin

from Newchwang (Niu-chwang), south of Mukden, in the northern-

most part of China, as pale coloured and scantily striped. Milne

Edwardes, on the other hand, had one from North China which

differed, he declared, from the skins of Indian, Cochin Chinese ana

Javan tigers in having a longer and thicker coat and in being darker

(plus brune) on the back (Rech. Mamme. i, p. 207, 1874). This author

also quoted an item of information received from l’Abbé David to

the effect that in Manchuria the tint of tigers varies from brownish

black to white. Dode (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871, p. 480) described a skin

from Amurland as having longer hair, less pronounced stripes and

paler colour than Indian tigers ; whereas D. G. Elliot (Monograph ot

the Felide, 1883) figured a tiger from one of Dode’s alleged Amur-

land skins, showing it to be not only darker but exceptionally

heavily striped.

Korean tiger skins, imported into Japan, Temminck (fauna

Japonica, p. 28) long ago described as longer haired and paler

PLATE “PV

BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc.

JOURN.

MANCHURIAN TIGER.

SKIN OF

TIGERS 525

coloured than Indian tigers; but Dunbar Brander wrote of Korean

tigers as follows :—‘ In Korea such specimens as I saw, compared

with the Indian beast, were higher on the leg, had a tendency to

have withers, the neck appeared short and did not flow on from the

shoulders as in the case of the Indian animal. In size and weight,

however, they were inferior to Indian tigers. As I only saw a few

specimens, I cannot say if these characters are general; but the

Korean animal is essentially different from what one understands

by a Manchurian tiger.’ (Wild Animals tn Central India, p. 46,

1923). His conception of Manchurian tigers was expressed in a

previous passage in which he classed them with the Siberian and

Amutrland tigers as ‘immense hairy animals, much larger than

anything now found in India’. But it does not appear that he was

here speaking of Manchurian tigers from his own knowledge in the

field. Probably he knew them from imported skins, from general

hearsay and from Rowland Ward’s Records.

However that may be, it is significant that Dode’s, Swinhoe’s and

Temminck’s descriptions of skins from Amurland, Niuchwang and

Korea respectively are in complete agreement, so far as they go,

and point to the occurrence in those parts of Asia of a tiger which is

paler coloured, less richly striped and thicker coated than the

typical Indian animal. This conclusion is borne out by a skin which

Mr. Swinhoe (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1870, pp. 3-4) subsequently brought

from Manchuria and sold to the British Museum, where it is still

preserved. (P1.IV). The coat is much longer and thicker than in any

of the Indian skins in the collection, and is also paler in tint than all

but those apparently faded by exposure to light as rugs, e.g. the skin

from Coimbatore referred to above; and it is markedly paler than

the skins from Mount Elburz and the Afghan boundary and is also

thicker in the coat. There is a distinct mane about 2 in. long. It

cannot be described as a well-striped skin as compared, for example,

with Col. Sanderson’s Bengal example. The stripes are thicker and

stronger on the hinder part of the body and croup than in the

middle of the body behind the shoulders where they are narrower,

shorter and more spaced. They are not markedly looped and they

are blacker on the middle line than laterally. On the flanks they

show a tendency to brownness, and this is still more evident on the

outside of the shoulder and thighs ; on the thighs they are so brown

as to be quite obscurely defined. The skinis that of a male and I

make its measurements as follows:—Head and body 90 ins., tail

42 ins., giving atotal of 11 ft. Ifthe tiger was that length in the

flesh, he was a big beast; but the deduction of a foot or ten inches

for stretching would bring him to about the size of an Indian tiger.

Dressed skins, however, do not always stretch.

Very similar to Swinhoe’s Manchurian skin is a stuffed male

specimen in the British Museum purchased from Rowland Ward

and labelled Manchuria but entered in the register as Mongolia. It

stands alongside a tiger from the Central Provinces and is certainly

not a bigger animal. It is curious for the absence of the stripes on

the flanks behind the shoulder. In this particular as in having a

whiter tail and the base of the tail more normally striped, this tiger

differs from Swinhoe’s skin, but it can hardly be doubted that the

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

two tepresent the same race of tiger. Whether this tiger came

from Mongolia or Manchuria I do not know. Indeed, it appears

that all the thick-coated tigers of Northern Asia are indiscriminately

cited as Manchurian, Mongolian or Siberian without regard to the

fact that Manchuria and Mongolia are different countries and may

possibly have different races of tigers.

I also refer to the Manchurian race a pair of tigers presented by

the Duke of Bedford in 1906 to the Zoological Gardens where they

lived about ten years. My reason for thinking they probably came

from Manchuria or from the coastal strip of Siberia or northern

Korea, which separate Manchuria from the sea, is that Vladivostock

was their port of shipment. The male of this pair, shown in one of

the photographs illustrating this paper, naturally appeared in his

winter coat to be a considerably more robust animal than the per-

ennially short, smooth-coated Indian tigers. (PI. F, upper fig.) He

was also somewhat larger, standing 38 ins. at theishoulder as opposed

to 36 ins. which is about the stature of a good Indian tiger. The

seasonal changes in colour and thickness of the coat in these tigers

were interesting. Thenew, short summer coat, donned by July,

was rich in tint, hardly at all paler than the coat of typical

Indian tigers; but in mid-winter, when the coat was long and

thick, it was paler, with the stripes iess sharply defined; and

as the time for the moult in early summer approached, the hair

had adull, pallid lifeless look. Now our knowledge of these

Manchurian tigers is derived mainly from traded skins stripped

from beasts shot or trapped in winter; and that accounts for the

invariable description of them as thicker coated and paler than

Indian tigers.

I am greatly indebted to the Duke of Bedford for the opportunity

to examine the skin of the tigress, shipped from Vladivostock,

which was sent to him at the animal’s death in the Zoological

Gardens. She died on December 30, in full winter coat. The skin

is noticeably paler in tint than Swinhoe’s Manchurian skin and the

coat, although thick and woolly, is shorter and closer ; and, perhaps

on that account, the stripes are more sharply defined; but they are

longer over the shoulder and not so brown on the flanks and thighs ;

only a few form short, narrow loops. There isa short mane. The

face is whiter, with a very faint wash of buff on the cheek; and

everywhere the white blends with the coloured areas; in the middle

of the skin the combined marginal white areas of the belly are less

in width than the tinted area of the flanks and back between

them, but the coloured area of the legs is narrow, hardly wider

than in the photograph in Rowland Ward’s Records. referred

to below. I make the head and body 74 ins., the tail 34 ins.,

giving a total of 9 ft., no larger, that is to say, thana North

Indian tigress. |

No skull of this tiger is available for examination, and none

appears to have passed through Rowland Ward’s hands; but

according to accounts, the skulls of northern tigers in general do

not differ in any points of importance from those of Indian

tigers. This was the verdict of Busk (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1874, p. 147),

who examined and measured the skull of a male brought by

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuatTR F.

[Photo by 7’. W. Bond],

Manchurian Tiger, in the London Zoological Gardens, moulting his winter coat,

[Photo F. W. Bond).

Tiger, in the London Zoological Gardens, from the Malay Peninsula.

TIGERS 527

Swivhoe from Kirin in Manchuria. The measurements he gave

are as follows :—

English Inches. Millimetres.

—_— OA CO St

Total | Cond. bas. |Zygom. Upper|Lower é

Loc. and Sex. length. length. width. Nasals. Carine (Carn, Canine

Kirin: «3... 133 12 + 84 44x23) 36 | 26 274

= Son Sno

This skull was a little smaller than average sized skulls of north

Indian tigers recorded in my list. It was also a little smaller than

the skulls of two Indian tigers and of one brought by Swinhoe from

Foochow in southern China with which Busk compared it. Thus in

the case of both skins and skulls the evidence of great superiority

in size of the Manchurian tiger over the Indian tiger falls to the

ground. All that can be claimed, in my opinion, is that they are

sometimes bigger. Since, however, the two are racially

distinguishable, the Manchurian may be given the name amurvensts,

used by Dode in 1871. The following are references to its litera-

ture :—

Panthera tigris amuvensis, Dode.

Felis tigris var. amurensis, Dode, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1871, p. 480.

? Tigris amurensis, Satunin, Neue Balt. Weedemann.-blatter, p. 73,

1907 ; zd. Conspect. Mamm. Imp. Ross, 1914, p. 157.

All the characters for this race known to me are mentioned

above. It remains only to justify the adoption of the name

amurensts for it. Dode, when describing this tiger as distinguish-

able from the Indian tiger by having longer hair, paler colour and less

pronounced stripes, stated that it occurs on the banks of the Amur

river and ofits tributary the Ussuri. He appears to have been in the

northern corner of Manchuria where it is bounded on the North by

the Amur and on the east by the Ussuri. Hence the western or

left bank of the Ussuri in Manchuria may be taken as the type

locality of amuvrensis. And since Dode’s description of the type-

skin of amurensis agrees with Swinhoe’s description of the skin from

Niu-chwang in the south of Manchuria and with Temminck’s

description of Korean skins, the reason for adopting amurenszs for

the Manchurian tiger becomes clear.

It seems to me to be doubtful if Satunin described the same race

of tiger as amurensis. He does not state where his material came

from except vaguely the most easterly portions of the Russian

Empire, and he diagnosed it as differing from the Mongolian race

in being more brilliantly coloured, in having the stripes more

sinuous with irregular outlines and mostly dupiicated, the general

colour being reddish-yellow and the stripes deep black with silky

lustre except a few on the outside of the thighs which are brownish.

He also adds that this tiger is slightly smaller than the Caucasian

tiger. This description may have been taken possibly from the

skin of a Manchurian tiger in summer coat.

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

_ Again, the tiger figured by Elliot as an Amurland tiger and said

to be a faithful likeness taken from one of Dode’s skins which went

to America, does not agree at ail with Dode’s description of his

original specimen. It is unusually heavily striped and very dark in

colour. It bears, indeed, suspicious likeness to the tigers of

Northern and Central China, described below, and quite possibly

Dode picked it up as a traded skin in the latter country.

Finally, I must refer to the reproduced photograph of a very

interesting alleged Manchurian tiger-skin in the later editions of

Rowland Ward’s Records. ‘The print is better in the 1910 edition

than in the last. It represents a tiger with the stripes much broader

and less broken up on the back, flanks and loins than in Swinhoe’s

Manchurian skin above described; but there is also a marked

tendency for the failure of the stripes to pass on to the white of the ©

chest and belly. This white, moreover, especially on the belly, is

more extensive than in any tiger-skin I have seen. Inthe middle

of the body, for example, the combined white areas exceed in width

the coloured area that lies between them, whereas in Swinhoe’s

Manchurian skin, as recorded above, they are only about two-thirds

the width of the median coloured area, a character in which this

skin resembles approximately the skins of all ordinary tigers in

which the white, in the living animal, is restricted to the ion side.

In the tiger figured in the Records the white must have extended

half way up the flanks. It will be noticed, too, in this figure that

the coloured areas on the legs are reduced to narrow strips by the

encroachment of the normal white on the inner side over the back

and front of the leg. Judging from the photograph, too, which,

however, may be deceptive on this point, the coloured area, of the

skin is much darker than in Swinhoe’s and in the Duke of Bedford’s

skins and in the mounted specimen in the British (Natural History)

Museum. The photograph of this skin, indeed, is no doubt

responsible for the statement, often repeated in accounts of the

Manchurian tiger, that this race is distinguished by the larger

extent of white on the under parts and inner side of the limbs, a

statement which is not true at all events of all Manchurian skins.

It may be found, for instance, in Lydekker’s text to Kuhnert’s

Animal Portraiture, in which there is a coloured plate of two

‘ Siberian or Manchurian tigers’ in the snow.

On the evidence, the tiger-skin above referred to cannot be

assigned to the Manchurian race (Paxthera t7gris amurensis\, as

understood and described in this paper. Nor canit be assigned to

the Mongolian race so far as the latter is known tome. This race

may take the name Jongzpil7s ina restricted sense. Its synonymy

is as follows :— |

Panthera tigris longipilis, Fitzinger

The Mongolian Tiger

Felis tigris mongolica, Lesson, Nouv. Tabl. R. Anim.; Mamm.

p. 50, 1842 (name unaccompanied by description and hence

unavailable).

Tigris. longipilis, Fitzinger, S&. Kats. Akad. Wien. 58; pie

p. 455, 1868 (in part).

TIGERS 529

Felis tigris longtpilis, Matschie, S&B. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin, 1895,

p. 195 (in part).

Tigris mongolica, Satunin, Conspect. Mamm. Imp. Ross., p. 157,

1914.

Fitzinger gave the name loxgzpilzs to the tigers ranging from the

Caucasus eastwards through the Russian territories of Central Asia.

A few years later Dode eliminated the Amurland tiger as amavensts

and subsequently Matschie distinguished the Transcaspian tiger as

virgata, thus leaving the name dougzpzlzs as applicable to the tigers

of the intermediate area. Satunin appears to have been the first

author to attempt to diagnose the three races under the names

septentrionalts, mongolica and amurensts. According to him the

Mongolian tiger is intermediate in characters, as it is in distribution,

between the other two, but his diagnosis is not very convincing and

is very brief. He states that the hairs are very long so that the tail

appears very bushy. The colour is pale and dull with the stripes

often indistinct and pale brown on the posterior part of the body as

in the Transcaspian race (septentrionalis). ‘The colour is less brilliant

than in amurenszs and the stripes are Jess sinuous.’

. It must be remembered, however, that there is some doubt

whether the tiger Satunin described as amurensis is precisely the

same as the one to which, for reasons given above, I have restricted

the name amurensis, namely, the Manchurian tiger ; and it is obvious

that Satunin’s description of mongolica applies very closely to the

skin of Mr. Swinhoe’s tiger which is known to have come from

Manchuria. I have never seen a skin which, so far as I know,

unquestionably came from Mongolia; and until properly localized

material comes to hand from the two countries, I can throw no

further light on the matter.

As regards the size of the Mongolian tiger nothing seems to be

precisely known. In Rowland Ward’s Records, 1928, p. 478, five

alleged Mongolian dressed skins measure 134 ft., 12 ft. 4 ins., 12 ft.

and 11 ft. 34 ins. respectively. But of these it is only the first

mentioned that exceeds the length of dressed skins of Indian tigers

recorded in the same volume. Satunin’s silence on the point shows

that he was not impressed by the size of the Mongolian tigers he

presumably knew; and it must be admitted that the positive

evidence in favour of the claimed great superiority in size of

Mongolian tigers over North Indian tigers amounts to very little.

For example, Ehrenberg (Azz. Scz., Nat.,vol. xxi, pp. 391-394, 1830)

described two alleged Siberian tigers in captivity in Moscow as ‘ far

froin attaining the size of the Bengal tiger’ from the published

statements regarding the latter. The size of the Bengal tiger, has,

however, been greatly exaggerated, as we know; and if Ehrenberg

was acquainted with records of this tiger standing 4 ft. or there-

abouts at the shoulder, he may well have been impressed by the

comparatively small stature of even big Siberian specimens. He

1 [am indebted to Mr. Uvarov, of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology,

for kindly translating for me the Russian text of Satunin’s paper quoted above

in the synonymy

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

- described these two tigers as having a rudimentary mane-and as

being a little longer in the coat, much paler in colour, with fewer,

browner stripes than a skin obtained between the Upper Irtish and

the Kirghiz Steppes, lat. 48°N. The living animals agreed very

closely with Satunin’s description of the Mongolian tiger; but the

skin with which they were compared is not easy to classify. It

may, however, have been a skin of the same race in summer coat,

colour being described as ‘an agreeable reddish-yellow’ and the

length as 64 ft. from the nose with root of the tail, which was 2 ft.

5 ins. but defective, the total being only a little over 9 ft., making

allowance for the missing 2 or 3 ins. of the tail. The sex was

unrecorded. ee

Finally, the tigers of North and Central China have to be dealt

with in this section.

I am informed by Messrs. Poland & Sons, the well-known whole-

sale furriers, that tiger-skins exported from China belong to two

readily distinguishable types. The first, known as Manchurian, are

large, thickly furred, shipped from Shanghai; and those known as

Hankau (Hankow) skins, are smaller, shorter coated, more richly

striped and darker in tint.

I referred above to a tiger-skin recorded by Milne-Edwardes

from North China which was described as having the yellow colour

of the back browner (plus brune) than in Indian, Cochin-Chinese

and Javan tigers, and Dunbar Brander states that ‘ tigers found in

China (and the Malay Peninsula) always struck me as being smaller

and having a tendency to be darker than Indian tigers.’ .

During a recent visit to Messrs. Poland’s fur store I was given

the privilege of-seeing a large number of the so-called Hankow

skins shipped from Shanghai. They were all untanned skins which

had been pegged out to dry ; but the measurements of four of the

biggest were only 9 ft. 9 ins., 9 ft. 8 ins., 9 ft. 4 ins. and 9 ft.

34 ins. approximately, whereas a small skin with a defective tail,

probably that of a tigress I estimated at 7 ft. 10 ins. allowing from

9 to 12 ins. for stretching they were obviously small as compared

with the Manchurian tigers known to me, and much darker

coloured, much more heavily striped and much shorter in the coat.

They were more like Indian tigers but were on the average

decidedly smaller, and darker and more fully striped, with a scme-

what longer and softer coat. The length of the coat was variable.

In one specimen at least it was almost intermediate in length and

thickness between average Indian and Manchurian skin. The tint

was also variable as well as the pattern which consisted sometimes

of stripes mostly looped, or diamond-shaped with darker centres,

sometimes unlooped and sometimes complete from the nape on to

the fore leg, sometimes interrupted. The extent of white on the

belly as compared with the coloured area was variable. On the

average it was about a half or two-thirds ; but in one specimen the

two combined white areas were equal to the rusty brown area

between them. This specimen comes in that particular nearer

than any to the alleged Manchurian skin figured by Ward and

referred to above, but the white on the limbs was normal in extent.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PruatEr G.

{

} Hy

i ip

Wises SZ

A. Skull of Tiger (Panthera tigris styant) from North China,

B. Nasals and summit of maxille of the same.

C. Posterior view of occiput of the same,

TIGERS 531

This Chinese tiger appears to me to be sufficiently well defined

to be worth distinguishing nominally as a local race, which I pro-

pose to name in memory of Mr. Styan to whom the British Museum

is indebted for much zoological material from China.

Panthera tigris styant, subsp. nov.

Differing from the average tiger of Northern India in being

smaller, somewhat darker and more closely or heavily striped and

longer in the coat, probably in winter; and from the Manchurian

tiger, as known to me, in being smaller, much darker and more

fully striped and in having a shorter less woolly winter coat.

Distribution.—Northern and Central China. No doubt blending

southwards with the tigers of Southern China, Siam, etc., the skins

of which are unknown to me.

As the type of this sub-species I select a skull ticketed

North China, whence it was brought by Mr. F. W. Styan(B. M.

No. 8.8.11.20.).

Mr. Styan collected in many parts of China ; but not, so far as I

am aware, to the north of Pekin. He brought back two skulls whose

measurements are as follows :—

Erglish Inches. Millimetres.

a a eae ——— on OO Se

a A rs aa ; v

re tgs qa | &

we 8a) 2 = FOU Ug

O ve fai a, OM a ro s

Loc. and Sex = i * Nasgals. = id 2 oO

3 RO) = 3 ® o ra)

Ae Ori fe) S =~ 5

SiS bo Oo a. 5 | a

a o iS P 4 S

N. China ¢ 13% | 114 83 | 42 x 2% 23 fs) | 2731) 28

5 peeps 12%, | 114 935 | 415 x 24 2f5 | 32 | 26 | 28

It will be noticed that these skulls agree very closely with the

Manchurian tiger-skull measured by Busk. They are smaller than

the average skulls of North Indian tigers ; and perhaps about the

size or a shade larger than those of South Indian tigers ; but the.

data are too scanty to form an opinion on that point. In both the

skulls the forehead is well vaulted as in typical Indian tigers; but

in neither is the median crest on the summit elevated over the

occiput as is usually at ail events the case in Indian tigers. But

until further material comes to hand, no great reliance must. be

attached to this character. (Pl. G.).

Tt may be seen from the table that the shorter of the two skulls,

the type, is broader across the zygomatic arches than the longer.

It is also heavier and altogether more robust, being noticeably

wider across the forehead from: the postorbital processes to the

lower edge of the orbit. Provisionally these characters must be

regarded as purely individual, although they impart a considerable

532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

difference to the two skulls when viewed from the front or |

above.

This tiger is the same, perhaps as the one Matschie described as

the tiger of the Hoang-ho watershed. (SS. Ges. Nat. Fr. Berlin,

1879, pp. 13-17).

Tue TIGERS OF BURMA, ASSAM AND THE MALAY PENINSULA

Dunbar Brander states that tigers found in China and the Malay

Peninsula always struck him as being smaller and having a tendency

to be darker than Indian tigers.

In the British Museum, apart from a few skulls, there is practi-

cally no material upon which to form an opinion, apart from the

mounted fore-quarters of a specimen from the Federated Malay

States which in colour and shortness of coat would pass anywhere

for a small Indian tiger, although erroneously ascribed by Lydekker

to the Sunda Island race. Similarly there were formely in the

Zoological Gardens a pair sent by Majer Bigge Wither from

Yamethin in Burma which were exactly like Indian tigers, but

perhaps rather on the small side. On the other hand I have seen

several examples exported from the Malay Peninsula which in

their darker coloration, copious whiskers and small size were

unmistakably like the specimen from Deli in Sumatra referred

to below except that the typical pale areas were normally white

instead of washed with buff and the stripes fewer and more

spaced. (Pl. F, lower fig.)

In Rowland Ward’s Records (1928) there are field measurements

of four tigers’ skins from the area under discussion, namely, one

from Annam (H. A. White) measuring 10 ft. 7 ins., as big as

most Indian tigers; two from Assam, one (R. Erskine Scott)

measuring 10 ft. 2 ins., and one (A. Simmonds) 10 ft. and 4 an

inch, both rather below the average of Indian tigers; and finally

one- from Siam (Col. C. H: Stockley): 9 it: 3 ins: 27th

specimen was unfortunately neither sexed nor stated to be mature.

If a tigress and mature she was on the small side as compared with

Indian tigresses; if a mature tiger he was no bigger than the

Sunda Island races, to one of which he may have belonged. It

cannot, however, be claimed from the data supplied by these skins

that the tigers to the east of the Bay of Bengal are smaller than

those to the west of it, although, as stated above, I have seen

tigers shipped from the Malay Peninsula which in size and

appearance suggested the occurrence of the smaller Sumatran or

Javan race on the mainland. Shortridge, on the other hand,

recorded a tiger, shot at Bankachon in Tenasserim, which, although

considered large for the district, only measured just over 9 feet in

total length. But the head and body were short, only 6 feet

(1,800 mm.), the tail being relatively exceptionally long, namely a

little over 3 feet (920 mm.). (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., May 25,

1915, p. 709).

The evidence supplied by the dimensions of the skulls in the

TIGERS 533

following table also noah to the tigers of these countries being of

average size :—

English Inches Millimetres

—— ee

Ea| | . a a | Yn | is 7 7 So

Loc. and Sex & Bae Sos g 3 Bd ae 23

A2 OS2/ NB Z Sites 145 [as

Annam J s5. LOE 113

Annam ¢ [ 12y5 | 118 | 88 | 43 x28 221. 35 | 28 | 26

Assam ¢ w. | 15¥5

Assam ¢ | 143 eee Bl “OE

Assam ¢ Rig hoe ose ape 193 2137. 2081) 27

Upper Chindwin § | 133 | lla | 985 | 43 22% 23 54 200 se,

Bera RMBs lio) |) Bee edge | ome) O38 | ee |G

Johore ¢ | 148 soe Se |

Burma ? al ieee one eee] Seon seeor tl ete | ag | 24 | 22

Mergui 2 dit 1. 102 38 Beane “les 2 ie 33° ln 5. es

This table includes the measurements of four skulls from

Rowland Ward’s Records, namely, one from Annam and two from

Assam, whose skins are referred to above, and one from Johore.

These are as big as average Indian tigers’ skulls or bigger. But

the full measurements of the skulls in the British Museum show

that the average is smaller all over, the total length, for example,

averaging a little over 13 inches. It may be that the sportsmen

who shot the tigers were aware of their exceptional size for the

district and sent the skulls to Rowland Ward on that account. It

is, however, interesting to note the occurrence at Johore, in the

extreme south of the Malay Peninsula, of a tiger as big, judging by

his skull, as an average Indian tiger.

The skull from Annam was brought with an immature specimen

by Dr. Vassal from Nahtrang; the one from Upper Chindwin was

presented by Mrs. Manby ; the one from Assam Ly Mr. M. Maxwell,

and the one from Perak by Mr. I. C. Ford.

The female skull from Mergui, presented by Dr. Oldham, is

about the same size as that of an Indian tigress. The only noti-

ceable character about it is the slight extent to which the nasals

overlap the maxilla. The one from Burma was obtained for the

Mammal Survey by Mr, J. M. D. Mackenzie.

THE TIGERS OF THE SUNDA ISLANDS

Accounts of the tigers of the Sunda Islands reveal great diversity

of opinion regarding their status and characters. If regarded as

534. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiti1

distinct from the typical form from India, they were formerly quoted

comprehensively as sondatca. But Schwarz in 1912 restricted that

name to the Javan tiger and distinguished three local races, one

from Sumatra, one from Java and one from Bali, the material he

had to work upon being :—a skin and a skull (() from Deli in

Sumatra, a skin and four skulls (3 #7, 1 2) from Java, and one skin

and one skull (2) from Bali. He left the Sumatran race without a

special name, quoting it as Felis t7gris subsp., called the Javan race

F. tigris sondaica and the Bali race /. tigris balica.

In 1918 Robinson and Boden Kloss identified a tiger from

Western Sumatra as soudazca and criticized Schwarz’s separation of

the Sumatran and Javan tigers as distinct subspecies. But they do

not appear to have had either adequate material to work upon or, in

all cases, direct access to the literature they quote. Kloss at all

events in 1921, as a result of the examination of a number of skins,

changed his opinion and came to the conclusion that the Sumatran

tiger differs from the Javan and Bali tigers in being more heavily

striped and in having less white beneath. He therefore referred

the Sumatran tigers, with those of the Federated Malay States, to

typical F. ¢igris, and. the Javan and Bali tigers to & éigris

sondaica, rejecting apparently the name déalzca as based on insufficient

material. ‘This view was expressed ina note to a paper by Jacobson

who quoted a long letter from Mr. B. Ledeboer about these tigers,

giving some interesting, if at times, puzzling information about them.

Mr. Ledeboer possessed over 100 skins from the three islands, all

of which, he declared, show the same kind of stripes, the slight

differences noticeable being due to age and mode of life. The

tigers, for instance, living in lalang fields are lighter in colour than

those inhabiting forests . . . andin very oldtigers the stripes on

the forepart of the body disappear altogether. This latter state-

ment certainly does not apply to tigers from other parts of Asia;

but it is not so startling as Mr..Ledeboer’s further declaration that

a Sumatran tiger may be distinguished at a glance from a Javan

tiger by having the throat, chest and belly unstriped and wholly

whitish, whereas in the Javan animal the white of the under side is

considerably reduced and invaded by the ends of the stripes from

the sides. This is the first record of the absence of stripes from

the under side in the species, and I do not believe it is true of any

tiger, Sumatran or otherwise. At all events it is quite untrue of the

specimen from Deli in Sumatra which I described in 1908. Also I

may add that this tiger from Deli obviously represented a type

which, by its smaller size and darker colour, could be distinguished

at a glance from typical examples of Indian tigers. I published at

the time a photograph of the living animal, and its skuil is preserved.

in the British Museum... The tiger, however, had been reared in

captivity from cubhood, and perhaps to that circumstance may be

attributed certain abnormalities in the skuil, Nevertheless the fact

remains that in its wider, shorter nasal bones and differently shaped

occipital plane, it resembles Kloss’s Sumatran skull and differs from

the skull of a tiger from Java in the characters Schwarz pointed out

as distinctive of the tworaces. This Javan skull indeed can be

picked out from all the tigers’ skulls in the British Museum by the

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate H.

[Photo W. S. Berridge).

Two views of Tiger, from Deli, Sumatra, in the London Zoological Gardens.

TIGR > (ee 935

‘constriction of the occiput, giving it a narrow, nearly parallel sided

aspect. Kloss explains this modification of the occipital bone as due

to the action of the jaw muscles and apparently thinks it of no

systematic importance. Nevertheless it does not occur to the same

-extent in any-of the skulls of Persian, Indian, Chinese or Burmese

tigers that I have seen, although, as might be expected, some skulls

including the Sumatran skull show an approximation to it.

Ledeboer, as cited by Jacobson, also states that full grown tigers

from Sumatra, Java and Bali do not vary much in size. The males

are much larger than the females; but the biggest obtained was

only a little over 3 metres, about 94 feet.

On the evidence available to me, however, I do not feel justified

in dissenting from Schwarz’s opinion that there are three races of

tigers in the Sunda Islands: one in Sumatra, one in Java and one in

Bali.

Panthera tigris Sumatra, subsp. nov.

The Sumatran Tiger

Felts tigris nigra, Lesson, Nouv, Tabl. R. Anim., p. 50, 1842,

(name unavailable, no description given).

Felts tigris sumatrana, Blainville, Ostéographie, vol. ii, Atlas pl.

vii (skull) and explanatory text 1839-1864, (name preoccupied

by Felts sumatrana, Horsf. 1824).

Felis tigris sondaica, Pocock, Prvc. Zool. Soc., April 1909, pp.

890-892, text-fig. 174 (living animal); Welch, Proc. Zool. Soc.,

1909, pt. 2, p.. 892 (in part, Sumatran specimen).

Felis tigris, subsp. Schwarz, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), x, p. 324,

a2; za. Senckenbera Natior.: Ges. 1913, pi. ii, fig. A (skull).

Felis tigris sondaica, Robinson and Kloss, Journ., Fed. Malay States

Wiis <pt. 2, p. 6, 1918 (Specimen from. Sungei Kumbang;

W. Sumatra).

Felis tigris tigris, Kloss, Journ., Fed. Malay States, x, p. 237, 1921.

In the above-given synonymy I have assumed that there is but

one race of tigerin Sumatra. And since, as may be seen, no valid

name is available, | have been compelled to introduce a subspecific

title because the only specimen I have seen of this tiger (Pl. H.)

clearly represented a race distinguishable from Indian examples of

the typical tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), and because on the available

evidence the Sumatran race differs from the Javan in pattern and

cranial characters.

The skin of the example I described and figured in 1909 was

unfortunately not preserved. Ihave therefore made its skull, which

is in the British Museum, the type of P. tigris sumatre.

The following is the description of the example above referred to.

It was:an adult male, one of a litter obtained at Deli in Sumatra by

Mr. Pinckney who presented it in 1908 to the Zoological.Gardens

where it died in 1912. Its ground colour was noticeably darker in

hue than in the Indian and Manchurian tigers in the adjoining cages.

The stripes were numerous, closely placed and broad, nearly ail of

those on the sides of the body behind the shoulders and on the hind

quarters being looped or reduplicated. The shoulder was scantily

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

striped, and the outside of the fore leg aimost unstriped. The

inner side of both fore and hind limbs was fully striped to the

feet. The pale areas over the eyes, on the cheeks, chest, belly and

inside of the limbs were only dirty white and not sharply defined

from the yellow-brown hue of the rest of the body. The yellow-

brown hue of the muzzle extended over the whisker-area down to

the black patch round the corner of the mouth, separating the

White patch on the front of the upper lip from the white of the

cheek. The hairs forming the fringe on the cheek beneath the

ear and those on the chin were long. This tiger was small, stand-

ing only about 29 inches at the shoulder, that is to say he was some

9 inches lower than the male from Manchuria recorded above and

smaller in proportion all over. Except for the larger number and

duplication of the stripes this tiger agreed with other Sumatran

tigers that have been described. In his Monograph of the Felidz

Elliot, for example, states that Sumatran tigers are smaller than

Indian tigers, their general colour being dark red and the pale areas

buff instead of white. Mr. F. D. Welch also drew attention to the

large development of the cheek-tufts in a young female from

Sumatra, said to be one and a half years old; and according to

Schwarz the skin he saw, also from Deli, the locality of the type,

was somewhat paler than his Javan skin and had broader stripes,

longer fur, a more distinct beard anda larger pale area above

the eve:

As regards the size of the Sumatran tiger I may repeat that the

living specimen, an adult male, stood only 29 inches at the shoulder,

and Robinson and Kloss record the length of an old male from

Sungei Kumbang in Sumatra as 8 feet 34 inches, smaller, that is to

say, than an average Indian tigress.

With regard to the skull, Schwarz does not mention any pecu-

liarities distinguishing it from the skull of the typical tiger. He

merely contrasts it with the skull of the Javan race from which, as

he asserts, it may be readily distinguished by the shortness and

width of the nasal bones and the shape of the occipital plane which

is broader and more rounded along the margins; but he adds that

the skull is somewhat smaller, markedly narrower across the cheeks

and has smaller auditory bullae and differently proportioned cusps

on the upper carnassial tooth. But without more material, it would

be unsafe to assume that all these characters constitute reliable and

constant differences. .

The only Sumatran tigers’ skulls I have seen have the occipital

plane and the wide nasal bones as described by Schwarz. But they

are. a little larger than the skull seen by Schwarz and are remark-

ably flat, the flattest and most lion-like tiger skulls I have examined.

But since Schwarz would presumably have noticed a similar flatness

had it occurred in his Sumatran specimen, its absence may be

assumed. Possibly the flatness in the type specimen from Deli

might have been attributed to the tiger having been reared from

cubhood in captivity, a condition which is known to have, usually at

all events, a profound effect on the shape of the skulls of Carnivora ;

but it is significant that the skull of the tiger obtained by Robinson

and Kloss at Sungei Kumbang, and presented to the British

TIGERS 537

Museum, is almost as flat and lion-like, as shown in my figure

of it. The carnassial and canine teeth too of the typical skull

of this race are also very small; but this feature is probably

I think, due to the conditions under which the animal was

peared, (Pl; I, ¢, »; PI.,'B,’B.)

From the synonymy quoted above it will be seen that Blainville

figured, under the name Felts tigrts sumatrana, the skull of a tiger

alleged by its collector, Duvaucel, to have come from Sumatra.

The sex of the animal was unrecorded ; but the skull has the short

nasals and broad occiput of other known Sumatran skulls, accom-

panied by a moderately high and rounded forehead. In the table of

measurements that follows I have given its dimensions as inter-

preted from the figures. which are half the size of the original.

Judging from its size, the skull was that of a male.

The following are the measurements of the two skulls in the’

British Museum and of the two in the Senckenberg Museum, Frank-

furt, described by Schwarz, and of the specimen figured by Blain-

ville :—

English inches. Millimetres.

A a as ae a ee By

e ed

“ . 3 u tw So o

Loc. and Sex. alto ans Es Nasals A ® Os foe

Sola y Ol bag 3; Oa) Fe las

od (o) a q Ses (5) as (eo) 3 (99) on

Cer on Cue Nye | e) On ewos WiGdne

Sumatra f (Blain- | 122 | 11% | 94 aa ‘ee re sid

ville) |

Sungei Kumbang ¢| 133 =| 11,5 | 9 47, x 28, | 24 35 26 | 28

Delt (type) @ ... | 124- | 11k | 9 Ae ei 2E VA 28s Sle | 29825

Deli ¢... Brad es ood ress 8i+ /4 »~%~ 2+ 23

Deli @ ... Pe lOse tie teh Shae 2 Da |

Although these measurements indicate that the average dimen-

sions of the skulls of male Sumatran tigers are considerably

less than those of male Indian tigers, nevertheless the skull

from Sungei Kumbang is larger than would be expected in the

case of an animal measuring in the flesh only 8 ft. 35 inches in total

length.

Panthera tigris sondaica, Fitz.

The Javan Tiger.

Tigris sondaica, Fitzinger, S.B. Kazs. Akad. Wien, 58, pt. 1, p. 454,

1868; Welch, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1909, p. 892 (in part; Javan

specimen) ; Schwarz, Aun. Mag. Nat. Fist. (8), x. p. 324, 1912 ;

id. Senckenberg Nattor. Ges. 1913, pl. ii, fig. B (skull).

The name sondaica, formerly applied by most writers to the tigers

of Sumatra and Java, was in 1912 restricted by Schwarz, as above

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1I1

stated, to the Javan animal because Fitzinger’s description of

the stripes as narrow applied to the Javan skin Schwarz

saw better than to the Sumatran skin. According to Schwarz

the Javan skin had much narrower stripes, shorter and closer

fur and darker ground colour, with a smaller pale area

above the eye. This description does not, however, agree with

that given by Welch in 1910 of a Javan male exhibited in the

Antwerp Museum, and believed to have been twelve years old.

According to Welch, this tiger resembled the living example

from Deli in Sumatra in pattern; but differed in the unusual

development of the hair on the neck and head. The cheek-

fringes and hair on the chin were very long and there were large

tufts of hair growing from the inside of the ears and projecting at

least three inches beyond their edge, recalling the ear-tufts of a

thhorned owl. The hair on the nape and sides of the neck was

quite five inches long and only a little shorter on the throat,

and it formed a loose mane, terminating suddenly at the junc-

tion of the neck and body, the body and limbs being normally

short-haired.

As described above, a small mat-like mane is sometimes present

on the nape even in Indian tigers; but this Javan example is the

only tiger on record with a mane recalling that of a lion and serving

to eliminate the mane as one of the specific differences between

the two species.

Schwarz, however, relied mainly on skull-characters for separating

the Sumatran and Javan races of the tiger. The only indisputable

material of the Javan tiger I have seen is the skull of an adult male

from Probolingo presented to the British Museum by M. Maxwell;

and this skull, with its greatly contracted occipital region and longer,

narrower nasals, differs markedly from the two Sumatran skulls

in the Museum and unquestionably bears out Schwarz’s con-

tention that the two races are distinct. The Probolingo skull

is a little larger in every respect than that of the adult male

recorded by Schwarz, and in its vaulted forehead and long nasals

closely resembles the skull from Teluk Anson in Perak, referred

to above.. (Pl. 7, A.B.)

But there are’six additional skulls in the British Museum which,

despite the unfortunate absence of locality, I refer to the Javan race

because of their general agreement with the skull from Probolingo.

Three of the skulls are those of adult males and three are females,

one being fully and the others almost adult. Their history, so

far as it goes, favours my determination of them. ‘They were

purchased in 1867 as part of the collection of Prof. Lidth de

Jeude, of Utrecht in Holland, who is more likely perhaps to

have received skulls of tigers from Java than from any other

couniry. |

In the following table I give the measurements of the skull

from Probolingo and of the male and female recorded by

Schwarz; and below these I have added the measurements of

the six unlocalized skulls assigned to this race, the original

- owner’s name in this case being substituted for the unknown

locality. ;

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puats I.

"th y

a lie

M, . 4

if iad

A. Nasals and summit of maxille of Javan Tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica)

from Probolingo.

B. Occiput of the same, showing marked compression.

C, D. The same bones of Sumatran Tiger (Panthera tigris swmatre), from |

Deli.

Te :

wen 4 : me

ae ¢

a : .

ri, “

hea ib

TIGERS 539

English Inches. Millimetres.

ee eee Ooo te _~

Loc. and Sex. 4% 3 4 oe Nasals. = Go g a F |

&§ (828) Ss 6 los lod iss

Probolingo ¢ Ba higt 112 93 Az x 2 Dex 34; Tau 25y 127 =

Java 3 as ples 84 4i x 2 2—

Java 2 pees wale thes 34 x 1% | 1%

Mecedeude)¢ ..1 12%, | 11g | Se.) 44% 28 024) 33°) 25 [254

flleie Seude) @ «| 1322,| tly, | 98 43% 23.) 22) | 85 | 26 29

(L, de Jeude) g .../ 122 | 11 So dae 2 ea, Saree oe 128

(ieide-Jeude) ©... 11,8 | 10i; | 72° | 34 x 2 2 31 | 24 |25

(L. de Jeude) 9 .../ 11 [te NSW Ne tes Lee SU. | O22 hom

(L. deJeude) 2 ...; 102 93, | 62 32 x 14 12, | 29 20 22

I do not think on the evidence that much reliance can be placed on

Schwarz’s contention that sozdazca is a larger animal than sumatre ;

but the skull from Probolingo and the six belonging to the Lidth de

Jeude Collection differ from the skull from Sungei Kumbang in

their longer, narrower nasals, more compressed occiput, less inflated

auditory bulla and more vaulted forehead.

Panthera tigris balica, Schwarz.

The Bali Tiger

Felis tigris balica, Schwarz, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), x, p. 325,

1912 ; zd. Senckenberg Nattor. Ges. 1913, pp. 1-2, pl. 1 (skin),

pl. 2, fig. ¢ (skull); Boden Kloss, Journ, Fed. Malay States,

Ria COOy Loe be

According to Schwarz the skull of this race resembles that of the

Javan tiger in its long narrow nasal bones and narrow occipital

plane, but differs in having much flatter auditory buliz and in its

smaller size.

Only one female specimen, represented by a flat skin and the

skull, was available for examination. From the tip of the nose to

the root of the tail this skin measured 1530 mm., that is to say just

over 5 ft. 1 in. the tail being 580 mm. or just over 1 ft. 11 in.

giving an approximate total of 7 ft., much shorter, that is to say,

than many leopards. Making ailowance, however, for the considera-

bly greater relative length of a leopard’s tail, this tigress, so far as

the head and body were concerned, was probably only as large as a

big leopard. ‘This conclusion is borne out by the following dimen-

sions of the skull which are approximately equal to those of the

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

skulls of large male African and Indian leopards, which may reach

11 inches or a little over in total length.

Locality and Sex. gece Picton eygom Nasals. |Occiput. pea

Island of Bali? ...| 10 | 9 — | 6§ |33—xh| 14 | 30 +

Schwarz described the one skin of this race he examined as

having broader and more duplicated stripes than the skin of the

Javan specimen; but Kloss, who saw four skins from Bali, stated

that the stripes were narrower and fewer than in the Javan skins

available to him. Probably there is no constant difference in

pattern between the tigers of the two islands. It is likely enough

that the Bali tigers may be smaller than the Javan, but at present it

cannot be claimed that da/ica as a subspecies rests on a very secure

basis.

SUMMARY

A brief summary of the characters of the races of Tigers as

known to me and described in this paper may be of interest.

1. The Caspian race (Panthera tigris septentrionalis). Generally

a medium sized or smallish tiger with a thick longish winter coat,

dark in colour, with numerous, close-set stripes showing a marked

tendency to brownness on the whole or parts of the body. From

the eastern Caucasus to the Perso-Afghan boundary. It is interest-

ing to note that this race of tiger extends into Europe.

2. The Mongolian race (Panthera tigris longipilis). This tiger

is unknown to me, but is said to be intermediate between the

Caspian race and the Manchurian or Amurland race which follows.

Central Asia.

3. The Manchurian or Amurland race (Panthera tigris amurensts).

Apparently larger than the Caspian race, but the evidence on this

point is conflicting. Certainly much less richly coloured, the

general hue being pale, and the stripes less numerous. The winter

coat apparently thicker and longer. Manchuria from the Ussuri

southwards. Probably Korea.

4. The Northern and Central Chinese race (Panthera tigrts

styant). Considerably smaller, shorter coated, more richly coloured

and more heavily striped than the Manchurian race. Approaching

the Indian form but rather smaller and with a longer softer. coat.

Northern and Central China, probably the watershed of the

Hoang-ho.

5. The Indian race (Panthera tigris tigris). Very variable and

imperfectly known, but the typical form from Bengal is a iarge,

rich-coloured, well striped, short and smooth coated animal, larger

than the Central Chinese tiger and nearly if not quite as large

as the Manchurian. India and Further India.

TIGERS 541

6. The Sumatran race (Panthera tigris sumatre). Smaller than

the Bengal race and more fully striped, with the white less

conspicuous and the skull typically apparently flatter. Sumatra.

7. The Javan race (Panthera tigi7s sondaica). Apparently closely

resembling the Sumatran race in size and coloration, but distingui-

shed from it, and from all other tigers, by the marked constriction

of the occiput. Java.

8. The Bali race (Panthera tigris balica). Resembling the

Javan race but smaller.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COORG

Hy N. BETTS

In the following notes, I have tried to make as complete a list as possible

of the birds of one district of Coorg. Its comprehensiveness is limited how-

ever, by the fact that it is entirely the result of persona! observation over a

very limited area in the short period of a year andahalf. Very few birds

have been shot and handled and in consequence it has been impossible

in many cases to identify the subspecies with any certainty. Besides some

families, notably the warblers and babblers, are, by reason of their skulking

habits and sober colouring, very hard to observe and identify and the list

of these is almost certainly incomplete.

The Province of Coorg includes country varying tremendously in elevation

and climate. On the West it runs down to the Malabar coastal plain, from

whose dense, humid forests only two or three hundred feet above sea-level,

tower up the Western Ghats rising to grassy summits nearly 6,000

feet in height. These hills and their western slopes experience a huge

rainfall. To the east there is a well-wooded, undulating plateau of average

elevation about 3,000 feet, with a fair rainfall and permanent streams, which is

almost entirely under cultivation, chiefly paddy, coffeeand oranges. Further

east still is a range of low hills, rising to 4,000 feet covered in dense bamboo

jungle. Beyond these lies the dry, hot Mysore plateau and the jungle is

low thorny scrub.

The notes refer chiefly to the central plateau of the province and especially

to the country round Pollibetta and Sidapur lying on the southern bank

of the River Cauvery.

As regards migrants, there are two categories. There appear to be no

summer migrants of any description. The true winter migrants, birds breed-

ing in the far North, seem to arrive first in Mysore and do not usually spread

westwards into Coorg for a fortnight orso. Besides these, there appears to be

a considerable amount of local migration, east and west, a number of species

occurring here during the cold weather but departing before the breeding

season whilst they may be seen in Mysore at all seasons of the year.. Notable

examples are the Common King Crow and the Common Bee Eater.

1. Corvus coronoides. The Jungle Crow.

Common everywhere around human habitations, occurring also in the

jungle though in smaller numbers. : .

2. Corvus splendens splendens. ‘The Common Indian House Crow.

Uncommon. Only a few odd pairs may occasionally be seen in villages

apparently living quite in harmony with the Jungle Crow.

3. Dendrocitta rufa. The Indian Tree Pie.

Fairly common. It is often to be seenin pairs or small parties in the

tops of talltrees. It appears to be exclusively arboreal and is rather shy.

It is a noisy bird, most of its calls being harsh but it has a flute-like note

very similar to the cry of the Indian Oriole.

4. Parus major mahrattarum. The Southern Grey Tit.

Fairly common, one or two may often be seen in the mixed blocks of small

birds, Minivets, White-eyes, Pied Shrikes and Nuthatches that roam through

the tree tops. A breeding resident.

5. Machlolophus xanthogenys. The Southern Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Commoner than the last species. It usually goes about in small parties

often in company with other small insectivorous birds. It appears to use old

Coppersmith’s nest holes high up in dead trees for nesting purposes. A quiet

bird for a tit, having a low, jarring note.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COORG 543

6. Sitta frontalis. The Velvet-fronted Blue Nuthatch.

A common resident. A typical nuthatch running the tree trunks and

branches like a mouse. It is exceedingly active and keeps up a continual

cheeping call, usually occurs in small flocks or pairs.

7. Turdoides terricolor. The Southern Jungle Babbler.

Fairly common. A skulking, noisy bird, always going about in flocks cf

six or seven birds, keeping very much to thick undergrowth and jungle and

very loath to fly far. It is far more often heard than seen.

8. Argya caudata. The Common Babbler.

Uncommon, though probably less than it appears, as it is a great skulker

and does not come near gardens and cultivation, preferring the thick jungle

undergrowth.

9. Pomatorhinus horsfieldi travancoriensis, ‘The Southern Indian Scimitar

Babbler.

Fairly common. It goes about in small flocks and has a loud hoofing

call and is exceedingly noisy when disturbed or frightened. It appears

to be more arboreal than most Babblers and may often be seen high up

in the trees.

10. Pellorneum ruficeps. The Spotted Babbler.

An extremely shy little bird haunting thick undergrowth and hardly

ever seen. A nest I found, however, on April 15, 1928, containing two hard

set eggs, was quite in the open in a heap of dead leaves at the foot of an

anthill and was a deep little cup, made of dry leaves and domed with the same

and lined with a few black rootlets.

11. Rhopocichla atriceps. The Black-headed Babbler.

Very common in all dense marshy jungles, and thickets near streams, in

reed beds and bamboo jungle. A shy bird but noisy, continually uttering

its whirring alarm note. The nests may be found in large numbers in such

jungles at any time of the year, mere rough balls of bamboo leaves and

reeds about nine inches in diameter, so loosely put together that they fall to

pieces ata touch. They are stuck in any bush or patch of grass three or four

feet from the ground. Only a very few of these nests ever contain eggs and

one may often find a number of half built or incomplete nests within a few

yards of each other, suggesting that these birds build spare nests for roosting

like wrens.

12. A€githina tiphia. The Common lIora.

Acommon resident, usually seen in pairs or small family parties. It hasa

great variety of notes including a very tit-like alarm cry. It is entirely arboreal

and haunts open jungle and gardens. A nest was found with newly-hatched

young in a coffee bush at the end of August.

13. Chloropsis aurifrons davidsoni. The Malabar Chloropsis.

A very common resident. It is a sweet songster and a great mimic. It

usually goes about in small flocks in thetreetops. It is very fond of any

honey-bearing flowering trees, especially Hyythrinas, searching the blossoms

either for the honey or the insects attracted.

14. Microscelis psaroides ganeesa. The Southern Indian Black Bulbul.

An occasional wanderer into the district but decidedly uncommon. It

is a bird of higher elevations and doubtless is common on the higher peaks of

the Ghats. A restless, strong-flying bird haunting high trees in smal! flocks.

It is extremely noisy and has a very harsh voice.

15. Molpastes hemorrhous hemorrhous. The Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul.

Not very common though a widely distributed breeding resident.

16. Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata. The Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul.

One of the commonest and most conspicuous birds of the district, abounding

everywhere except in dense jungle. May be found breeding at almost any

time of the year, making its nest in any low bush, often quite in the open with

very little concealment. |

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

17. tole icterica. The Yellow-browed Bulbul.

Common but not conspicuous. It shuns the haunts of man and inhabits

the edges of thick jungle. It is usually seen in pairs and has a low, sweet

whistle uttered on the wing but is otherwise very silent.

18. Pycnonotus gularis. ‘The Ruby-throated Bulbul.

A rather scarce resident ; living in dense jungle and very shy. It has a very

pretty tinkling call of half a dozen notes, really a song and far superior to the

efforts of the common bulbuls.

19. Microtarsus poliocephalus. The Grey-headed Bulbul.

Common in heavily-wooded swampy jungles. It keeps to the trees and is

shy and hard to observe. It has one continually uttered wheezy call note.

20. Larvirora brunnea. The Indian Blue Chat.

A rare winter migrant. Once seen on November 22, 1927.

21. Saxicola caprata atrata. The Southern Stone Chat.

Not very common but sometimes to be seen in pairs in open cultivated fields

and dry paddy Jand.

22. Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata. The Black-backed Indian Robin.

Very rare here. Only one doubtful record.

23. Copsychs saularis saularis. The Indian Magpie Robin.

A very common breeding resident and one of the best songsters.

24. Kittacincla Macroura indica. The Indian Shama.

Not uncommon but local It is a much shyer bird than the Dayal and keeps

to the jungle. It is a beautifulsongster and is decidedly crepuscular, being

most active at dusk and singing when aJmost every other bird has gone to

roost. It feeds much on the ground and in low bushes.

25. Turdus merula simillinus (?) The Nilgiri Blackbird.

A blackbird of some subspecies is a scarce resident, extremely shy and

never leaving dense cover. Its head is noticeably darker than the body

which agrees with ‘ szmzllimus’ but its habits are very different from the

blackbird which occurs on the Nilgiris, where it is tame and fearless, inhabiting

quite open country.

26. Geocichla citrina cyanotis. The White-throated Ground Thrush.

A fairly common resident in shady, well-wooded parts. It appears to

spend a lot of its time in the trees though finding much of its food by scrat-

ching among the leaves on the ground. It has a very pretty, though not

very powerful song, reminiscent of the Song Thrush, during the hot weather

and usually sings from a perch well up in a tree.

27. Oreocincla dauma nilgiriensis. The Nilgiri Thrush.

Rare. An extremely shy bird keeping tojungle with dense undergrowth.

28. Monticola cinclorhyncha. The Blue-headed Rock Thrush.

A common winter migrant. The males seem greatly to outnumber the

females. It is a solitary bird, haunting wooded country and keeping to the

trees. Earliest date of arrival October 27.

29. Monticola solitaria pandoo. The Indian Blue Rock Thrush.

An occasional winter visitor. One bird lived for the whole of 1927-28 cold

weather on or about a large store shed, spending most of its time on the

ledges under the eaves and never going far away from it.

30. Siphia parva parva. The European Red-breasted Flycatcher.

A fairly common winter migrant, haunting open shady woods. It is shy

and has one continually uttered little grating call note. The birds seem to

be all females or immature specimens. I have never noted a fully developed

male. A young one I shot was just growing red on the throat.

31. Cyornis tickellie tickellia. Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher.

A fairly common little bird inhabiting shady woods, orchards, etc. It is

quite tame and has a pretty little song somewhat reminiscent of a hedge

sparrow. A pair had a nest with young in June 1928 in an old barbet

hole in a broken off branch of a big tree some 35 feet up.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COORG 945

32. Cyornis pallipes pallipes. The White-bellied Blue Flycatcher.

Fairly common in the same sort of localities as Tickell’s Flycatcher. Very

similar in habits.

33. Alseonax latirostris poonensis. The Indian Brown Flycatcher.

ee common and resident. A very quiet and unobtrusive little woodland

ird.

34, Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi. The Indian Paradise Flycatcher.

Resident but notcommon. A shy and quiet bird inhabiting shady woodland

country.

35. Hypothymis azurea sykesii. The Madras Black-naped Flycatcher.

Very scarce. Only twice seen.

36. Lanius schach caniceps. ‘The Southern Rufous-backed Shrike.

Uncommon. Occasionally seen in the drier parts of the country in open

parkland or at the edges of dried paddy fields.

37. Lanius cristatus cristatus. ‘The Brown Shrike.

An exceedingly common winter migrant from September to the end of

March, occurring almost everywhere even in forest. It is an active, noisy

bird with a singularly harsh voice. It is atypical shrike in its habits, hunting

from some outstanding perch on a fence or tree whence it flies out and

catches its insect prey, either on the ground orintheair. Earliest date seen

September 1l.

38. Hemipus picatus picatus. The Black-backed Pied Shrike.

A common resident. These birds are very like Flycatchers in their habits

and usually go about in pairs or smal! flocks, often in company with minivets.

They nest about April, building high up in dead or leafless trees. The nests

are minute cups glued on top of a branch and are almost impossible to detect

from the ground and usually quite inaccessible if seen.

39. Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana. The Common Indian Wood Shrike.

Not common. May be seen occasionally in small flocks hunting through

the trees.

40. Pericrocotus speciosus flammeus. ‘The Orange Minivet.

A common resident and one of ovr most striking birds, the scarlet males

contrasting vividly with the bright yellow females. Usually seen in flocks of

both sexes though fully plumaged males are inthe minority. It appears to

breed very late in the season, the winter flocks not breaking up till May or June

and I found a nest in the Nilgiris in September.

41. Pericrocotus erythropygius. The White-bellied Minivet.

Common though not so numerous as the last species, which it much resembles

in habits.

42. Lalage sykesii. The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike.

Common in the winter months in well-wooded cultivated land but it disappears

about the end of March probably retiring to the jungle to breed. A silent bird.

43. Graucalus macei macei. The Large Indian Cuckoo Shrike.

A common resident. In the off season it forms small flocks, keeping to high

trees in the open. It has a very harsh, ill-tempered call rather like some of

the harsher notes of the Oriole.

44, Artamus fuscus. The Ashy Swallow Shrike.

Locally common. In the evenings they collect in large flocks on tall trees and

thence sail forth to catch flies with constant harsh, chattering cries. They are

especially active after showers when a flight of termites occurs. I have seen

them chase and mob a Shahin Falcon.

45. Dicrurus macrocercus. The Black Drongo.

Exceedingly common in the cold weather but they disappear almost entirely

in the hot weather and do not become numerous again until September. It

seems doubtful if they breed in the district.

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

46. Dicrurus leucopheus subsp. The Grey Drongo.

This bird of which I have been so far unable to shoot a specimen, is moderate-

ly common here. It appears to be almost as dark as the Black Drongo but is

considerably smaller and has a comparatively much shorter tail which is only

slightly forked. It is exactly similar to the Black Drongo in habits and like

that bird disappears almost entirely in the breeding season.

47. Chibia hottentotta hottentotta. ‘The Indian Hair-crested Drongo.

Rare. I have only seen this species on two or three occasions, always in

pairs. Its distinctive marks are its large size and its almost square tail with up-

turned outer feathers.

48. Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus. The Malabar Large Racket-tailed

Drongo.

A common resident in the wooded parts of the district. They appear

to pair for life and keep together throughout the year. Each pair owns a

considerable territory and allows no trespassers of their own species on their

domain. In spite of their size and pugnacity, however, I have seen one attacked

and fleeing from a common Black Drongo. They do not seem to wander much

and remain in their breeding haunts all the year round. They are very late in

going to bed and may be seen hawking insects from some high dead tree until

well after stnset when all the other diurnal birds have gone to roost. Their

prolonged tail feathers make a characteristic humming noise in flight which

can be heard at a considerable distance.

49, Orthotomus sutorius sutorius. The Indian Tailor Bird.

An extremely common resident though far from noticeable, except in the

breeding season when their loud calls resound everywhere. They are late

breeders, not nesting in any numbers till well after the monsoon has broken in

July.

50. Cisticola juncidis cursitans. The Streaked Fantail Warbler.

Very common in all paddy fields and long grass bordering on them.

51. Prinia socialis. The Ashy Wren Warbler.

Scarce,

52. Phylloscopussp. The Willow Warbler.

Some form of Willow Warbler, which I have been unable to identify, is

a common winter migrant.

53. Irena puella. The Fairy Blue Bird.

Fairly common in the cold weather. Harliest date noted November 26. It

haunts woodlands and gardens keeping to tall trees and has a very pretty

bubbling whistle. It is entirely arboreal and is apparently mainly frugivorous

being fond of various kinds of wild figs.

54. Oriolus indicus. The Black-naped Oriole.

One bird, a very brightly coloured female, seen on February 7, 1929.

55. Oriolus oriolus. The Indian Oriole.

Very common in the cold weather from about the end of October but they

all depart about the endof March. Earliest record October 23.

56. Eulabes religiosa. The Southern Grackle.

Common in all wooded parts of the district. They are very noisy birds

making the most extraordinary wheezes and chuckles interspersed with loud

whistles of a remarkably human ‘timbre’. They breed in colonies in natural

hollows or old woodpecker holes in high trees.

57. Acridotheres tristis. ‘The Common Mynah.

One of our commonest birds, swarming wherever there is cultivation but

shunning the jungle. In the cold weather they gather in vast flocks to roost in

reed beds. It is a most interesting sight to see them leaving these communal

roosting places in the early morning. ‘The various flocks burst out with a rush

of wings, one by one in most orderly manner and after a few preliminary

circles set off straight as a die for their various feeding grounds, each flock

keeping together and taking aseparate direction. It is a very prolific bird.

I found one nest with six eggs in March which were hatched and reared

successfully and the bird laid four more eggs in the same nest in May.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COORG 547

58. Sturnia malabarica blythii. Blyth’s Mynah. .

A very common resident though not so common as the last bird. It breeds in

barbet holes in high trees and often seems to evict the rightful owner. In the

cold weather it roosts in large numbers in reed beds in company with the

cominon Mynahs.

59. Uroloncha striata striata. White-backed Munia.

A comion resident, usually occurring in considerable flocks and picking up

much of its food which consists of grain and seeds on the ground. It breeds

chiefly in July after the rains break and nearly always makes its nest in small

trees standing by themselves right out in the open. It frequently breeds in

gardens and is very tame. Both birds of a pair usually roost in the nest both

before it is completed and while the eggs are being incubated.

60. Gymuoris xanthacollis xanthacollis. The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

A common resident breeding in old barbet holes in high trees. It keeps away

from human habitations being decidedly shy. It has a loud chirrup very like

that of the House Sparrow.

61. Passer domesticus indicus.. The House Sparrow.

Ubiguitous in all towns and villages but never seen far away from them.

62. Corpodacussp. The Rose Finch.

A somewhat uncommon winter migrant occurring in large flocks. First seeti

December 22, 1928.

63. Hirundo rustica gutturalis. The Eastern Swallow.

A common winter visitor. A very large number of these migrants are young

birds lacking the prolonged outer tail feathers, Earliest date for Coorg,

September 25, but in Mysore I saw them in large numbers on September

16. Nearly all our winter migrants arrive in Mysore at least a week before

they penetrate into Coorg although it is on the same latitude.

64. Hirunde daurica. The Striated Swallow.

A fairly common resident in the dryer parts of the district. It is fearless of

man but is especially prevalent round tanks in the jungle. It often nests

under bridges and culverts.

65. Motacilla alba maderaspatensis. The Large Pied Wagtail.

Occurs though not in large numbers along the banks of rivers and big tanks.

It is apparently resident.

66. Motacilla cinerea. The Grey Wagtail.

Our commonest winter migrant. Dates of arrival, August 28, 1927 (Nilgiris),

August 31, 1928 (Coorg).

67. Dendronanthus indicus. The Forest Wagtail.

A well distributed winter migrant, but never very numerous. It keeps to

shady woodlands clear of undergrowth and may be seen picking up insects

under the trees though it is much inore arboreal than other Wagtails. Its tail

is comparatively short and is wagged from side to side not up and down. It

is usually solitary or in pairs and hasa ‘ chink, chink’ call very like a Chaffinch,

Earliest record October 16,

68, Anthus richardi rufulus. The Indian Pipit.

A common resident breeding in all parts wherever this any open grass land.

69. Zosterops palpebrosa. The Indian Whiteye.

A cormmon resident.

70. Leptocoma asiaticus. The Purple Sunbird.

Common everywhere. The winter moult only seems to affect some birds, as

one sees males in breeding plumage at all seasons of the year.

71, Leptocoma zeylanicus. The Purple-rumped Sunbird.

_ Even commoner than the Purple Sunbird. There appears to be a great

increase in numbers of this species in the breeding season at the end of the

hot weather, though whether this is actually the case I do not know. It might

be due to be males putting on an ‘eclipse’ plumage fora few months after

the autumn moult and not moulting into breeding plumage till late.

548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

72. Diceeum erythrorhynchus. Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

A very common resident breeding about April, when they can often be seen

collecting down from the seed heads of various weeds. The nest is somewhat

like a small edition of a Sunbird’s but is more globular and lacks the tail of ©

rubbish hanging below.

73. Pitta brachyura. The Indian Pitta.

A fairly common winter migrant. It is a solitary bird haunting dense

thickets and thick shady forest where it hops about on the ground coming

out in the open occasionally in the evening. It has aloud shrill call which is

heard much more often than the bird is seen.

74. Picus chlorolophus chlorogaster. The Southern Yellow-naped Woodpecker.

Widely spread but nowhere numerous. It chiefly haunts damp swampy forest

land. It hasa harsh screaming cry but not nearly so loud as the Golden-

backed Woodpecker. It isan early breeder. I saw one evict a Green Barbet

and take possession of its nest-hole early in January and found a nest with

three newly-hatched young at the end of February. This nest was in a stump

not five feet from the ground, unusually low fora Woodpecker.

75. lyngipicus gymnopthalmus. The Pigmy Woodpecker.

Fairly common. An active little bird resembling a nuthatch in its habits,

and often going about with the mixed flocks of Tits, Nuthatches and other

small birds which are commonly seen in the cold weather. It keeps exclu-

sively to the tops of tall trees.

76. Micropternus brachyurus. The Rufous Woodpecker.

Fairly common. It is a great drummer and usually betrays its presence

in this way, but is otnerwise very silent.

77. Brachypternus aurantius puncticollis. The Southern Golden-backed Wood-

pecker,

Much the commonest woodpecker in these parts. It is a very noisy bird

with its harsh scream and an energetic drummer. It is an early breeder

usually hatching out its young in the first week of March.

78. Thereiceryx zeylanicus. ‘The Green Barbet.

One of the very commonest birds here, its loud monotonous call domi-

nating every other bird note except the Coppersmith, and resounding all day

the whole year round. Every dead soft-wooded tree is riddled with its neat

round nest-holes. It is a very early breeder starting in December. They

literally swarm on certain species of wiid fig when the latter are in fruit. They

seem to be almost entirely frugivorous but I have seen one catch and devour a

small lizard.

79. Xantholema hemacephala indica. The Indian Crimson-breasted Barbet.

As common as its larger relative and very similarin habits. They breed either

in dead trees or dead branches of living trees usually high up. They will

desert a hole at once even if a straw is pushed in to feel, before the eggs

are laid. They apparently never breed twice in the same hole.

80. Coracias benghalensis indica. The South Indian Roller.

An occasional visitor in the dry season never staying long. To be seen

on isolated trees in open fields or on telegraph wires.

81. Merops orientalis orientalis. The Common Bee-eater.

An exceedingly common species in the cold weather arriving in October

and leaving at the beginning of March. It is common at all times of the year

inthe dry Mysore plateau 20 miles to the Hast and apparently breeds there.

Arrived October 10, 1928. Last seen March 7, 1929.

82. Melittophagus erythrocephalus. ‘The Chesnut-headed Bee-eater.

This species appears to be a passage migrant in this part of the world.

It was extremely common in large flocks during June 1928 but disappeared

entirely at the end of the month. A flock was seen on September 24, 1928,

but since then none. They always kept very ciosely together and ten or

twelve might be seen huddled on one branch flying out atintervals to catch an

jnsect.

NOTES OF THE BIRDS OF COORG 049

83. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura. The Indian Pied Kingfisher.

Common on the Cauvery and other big streams but not on small brooks

or tanks much surrounded with trees. It never fishes from a perch but flies

over the water and hovers like a Kestral and then plunges headlong, often

from a very considerable height.

84. Alcedo atthis taprobana. The Ceylon Kingfisher.

Common. Most small ponds have a pair which are resident there through-

out the year.

85. Halcyon smyrnensis. The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Common. It is a solitary bird and much less of a fish eater than most

species. It is often seen well away trom any water, though it is very fond of

wet paddy fields. Its callis a loud, harsh scream usually uttered in flight.

86. Upupa epops ceylonensis. The Hoopoe.

Uncommon. May occasionally be seen in the cold weather in dry open

‘maidans’ picking up insects, usually solitary, but sometimes in pairs.

87. Micropus affinis affinis. The Common Indian House Swift.

Fairly common but its numbers vary greatly. One day it may be seen

in large flocks and then disappear for several weeks. I do not think it breeds

in the district, though I have found a breeding colony under a bridge in

Mysore territory some ten miles over the border.

88. Hirundinapus gigantea indica. The Brown-necked Spinetail.

Not very common. May be seen in small parties wheeling high in the air at

tremendous speed. They are magnificent fliers and few birds can be faster.

89. Collocalia unicolor unicolor. The Indian Edible Swiftlet.

The commonest swift here. It is always present in large numbers and

probably breeds in caves in the higher hills.

90. Caprimulgus asiaticus. The Common Indian Nightjar.

Common wherever there are patches of open land with jungle near at hand.

They have a great partiality for squatting on roads through the jungle after

dark ; driving a car at night one flushes them in dozens. Their eyes show

up when reflected in the headlights, as ruby specks, at a tremendous distance,

up to quite two hundred yards.

91. Hierococcyx varius. The Common Hawk Cuckoo.

Uncommon. I have never heard it calling. Usually to be seen slipping furti-

vely about in low treesin orchards and the edges of the jungle. Isaw an

immature cuckoo, which I believe was of this species being fed by a pair of

Magpie Robins in June.

92. Eudynamis scolopaceus scolapaceus. The Indian Koel.

Only a casual visitor to the district though very common down in the Mysore

plains.

93. Centropus sinensis parroti. The Southern Crow Pheasant.

Very common everywhere though most usually to be seen on the borders

of swamps and thickets of lantana and brushwood.

94, Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala. The Western Blossom-headed

Paroquet.

Extremely common and very tame. They do an enormous amount of

damage in orchards and paddy fields, eating the fruit and grain. They are

very early nesters, starting at the beginning of January, enlarging a natural

hole in a dead tree or an old Woodpecker’s hole. Their nests may always

be identified by looking at the chips underneath the tree. In the case of

the Paroquet they are almost cubic chunks evidently bitten off, whilst

woodpeckers and barbets make long thin slivers, using their beaks chisel

fashion.

95. Psittacula columboides. The Blue-winged Paroquet.

Common though not so numerous as the last species, Its cry is rather

harsher than that of the Blossom-headed Boned but its habits are quit

Similar and it breeds about the same time.

550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI111

96. Coryllis indicus. The Ceylon Loriquet.

Very common, thongh a quiet little bird keeping to the tree-tops and hence

inconspicuous. Its call is a weak little scream. It is very tanie especially

when any garden fruit is ripe, robbing the trees with the utmost boldness. It

is very fond of loquats.

97. Huhua nipalensis. The Forest Eagle-Owl.

Widely distributed though nowhere numerous. It spends the day in thick

evergreen trees and is much mobbed by Drongos and Minivets if discovered.

At night it may often be disturbed from stumps or rocks on road sides and is

very fearless, flying only a few yards and settling again. Its cry is a deep,

low moan.

98. Pseudogyps bengalensis. The White-backed Vulture.

The only common vulture here. A few birds may usually be seen soaring at

an immense altitude, whilst if anything has died in the vicinity scores of them

congregate in a very short time.

99. Neophron percnopterus ginginianus. The Smaller White Scavenger Vulture.

I saw one of these birds on February 26, 1929 circling round a slaughter-house

in company with White-backed Vultures. This is the only time I have seen one

in Coorg though they are common enough in Mysore.

100. Ictinaetus malayensis perniger. The Indian Black Eagle.

One of these birds visited the estate on which I live for about a week in

November 1928. It was very shy and wary and spent most of its time sailing

low over jungle and swamps quartering the country rather like a Harrier,

It was noticeably long winged. This is the only occasion on which I have seen

whe

101. Spilornis cheela. The Serpent Eagle.

Common, though not very numerous, each pair having a wide territory

of theirown. Itis rather sluggish spending most of its time perched on dead

trees by ponds and swamps. It apparently feeds largely on frogs, I have

several times seen it settled on the ground in paddy fields, probably frog

hunting, though I have never found any signs of anything on putting it up. I

once saw one eating offal from a bullock which had just been slaughtered.

At times it soars high in the air, often two or three together, uttering its

distinctive loud, whistling cry.

102. Polioaetus icthytaeus. The Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle.

The only pair I have seen haunt a small tank in the jungle on the

Coorg-Mysore frontier. They have their eyrie, a huge mass of sticks, in the

fork of a big jungle tree some forty feet from the ground.

103. Haliastur indus indus. The Brahminy Kite. .

Stray birds are occasionally seen, but it is far from common,

104. Milvus migrans govinda. The Common Pariah Kite.

Occurs in the neighbourhood of most villages, but notin any great numbers.

It does not appear to breed in the district, disappearing at the end of the hot

weather.

105. Astur badius. The Shikra.

Widely spread but not common.

106. Buteo sp. The Buzzard.

A buzzard of some species is a fairly common resident in the district. It is

usually to be seen in pairs, soaring high in the air, uttering a mewing whistle

very like the cry of the European Buzzard. In the breeding season they

go through curious aerial evolutions rather like the tumbling of a raven.

The bird swoops downwards and then turning sharply flaps vertically

upwards for a few feet, then rolls over and swoops headlong with closed

wings for several yards, flattens out and repeats the performance, all the while

uttering a sharp, short ‘kit, kit, kit.’ They are light coloured birds and have

a peculiar crest of a few black feathers sticking vertically up from the

back of the head. I saw a pair feeding a full grown young one with lizards on

July 24, 1928.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF COORG 551

107. Falco peregrinus peregrinator. ‘The Shahin Falcon.

An occasional wanderer into the district.

108. Dendrophasa pompadora pompadora. The Pompadour Green Pigeon.

Large ficcks of these birds come into the coffee estates from September to

Christmas to feed on the fruit of various fig trees which are grown as shade.

They spend the rest of the year in the jungle.

109. Chalcophaps indica. The Bronze-winged Dove.

A forest bird but occasionally seen in well-wooded coffee estates. Usually

encountered fiying/low and very fast through the woods or picking up grain

round cart stands on jungle roads. It is nearly always solitary.

110. Streptopelia chinensis. The Spotted Dove.

Swarms everywhere. One of our commonest birds. It is very tame and

confiding. It feeds mainly on the ground on grain and various wild seeds.

One which I examined, had its crop stuffed with the seeds of the Sensitive

Plant (J/imiosa).

111. Pavo cristatus. The Common Peafow].

Common in the scrub jungle on the Mysore frontier.

112. Gallus sonnerati. The Grey Jungle Fowl.

Common everywhere even jn cultivated land wherever there is sufficient

cover in the form of lantana scrub. They may always be seen in large

numbers soon after dawn on any road through the jungle.

113, Galloperdix spadicea. The Red Spur Fowl.

Common in the same sort of country as the Jungle fowl. It can be heard

very much more frequently than it can be seen as it is very shy and seldom

leaves cover.

114. Microperdix erythrorhyncha. The Painted Bush Quail.

Somewhat scarce, though one comes across a bevy of them now and then

dusting in the road.

115. Lobivanellus isdicus indicus. The Indian Red-wattled Lapwing.

Common around tanks and on maidans in the drier parts of the jungle,

also along the banks of the Cauvery where it is open.

116. Tringa ochropus. The Green Sandpiper.

These birds may be seen in the cold weather singly or in pairs in almost

every patch of marsh, in stream beds or round tanks. They never seem to

go far from water and move about very little.

Each pair have their favourite spot where they may be found at any

time and they seem to return to it year after year. They are early arrivals and

leave very late, often lingering on into May. First seen September 30, 1928.

117. Gallinago stenura. The Pintail Snipe.

Abundant in the cold weather in suitable swamps and abandoned paddy

fields. They are usually in large wisps at the beginning of the season but

split up into pairs before leaving. They are peculiar birds and may throng one

field one year whilst another apparently just as suitable will not hold one.

The next year the positions may be reversed. Date first seen October 10, 1928.

This is very late and birds were seen in Mysore three weeks earlier whilst one

hears of stray individuals in August. Most have left by the end of March though

a few pricked birds, which are not strong enough to migrate, linger on.

118. Amaurornis phcenicura phenicura. ‘The White-breasted Water-Hen.

A shy and solitary bird which may occasionally be flushed out of reed beds

near ponds and along the banks of streams.

119. Ardeola grayii. The Indian Pond Heron.

Widely distributed wherever there are paddy fields, ponds or swamps,

SHELLS

OF THE TROPICAL SEAS

IDA COLTHURST

PART II

(With 4 plates and 15 photos in the text)

(Continued trom page 383 of this volume.)

The Gastropods rank next in point of physical organization. They

are stomach-walkers, creeping by means of a strong muscular foot

running along the underside of their bodies. Most often they

carry a Shell and in all cases except one composed of one piece, a

Univalve. The animals possess a more or less distinct head carry-

ing from two to six paired tentacles, one of which usually bears eyes

at the base ; in some however, the eyes though present are covered

with a thick skin which renders them useless, while in others again

there is no trace of an organ of sight. The tongue is very charac-

teristic, long and ribbon-like and studded with teeth for rasping

and tearing ; but it varies in different genera according to the food

of the animal. The shells, very elegant and often beautifully

sculptured, are essentially longer or shorter hollow cones, some-

times quite simple, otherwise coiled spirally to the right, some few

being more rarely turned to the left; in the centre is a pillar or

axis, the top is the apex, each coil is a whorl, the largest being the

body whor!, and the aperture the mouth. Many close this mouth

when they retire within with a trapdoor called the operculum. The

organs of the body are asymmetrical, that is, those on either side

do not correspond, a condition brought about in the course of evolu-

tion by a complicated process of torsion and flexure.

The Strombide or Wing shells (from strombos =a top) areamong the

largest gastropods (see Plate II, Fig. 4); the shells are short-

spired, with an expanded lip, massive and thick, the substance

being laid in several different-colored layers which is easily worked

and consequently is in great request for the manufacture of

Cameos; the axis being hollow and of uniform thickness, is cut

into beads. The animal is very active and progresses by a series

of rolls and jerks among the reefs at low water, where it dwells;

these movements are effected by the alternate shortening and

lengthening of its strong muscular foot. It has a powerful tooth

ribbon and is an excellent sea scavenger, feeding on dead as well

as living marine creatures. The eyes are large, placed on thick

stalks with a distinct pupil and wonderfully colored double iris. In

Jed es Va

Murex. Large, M. endivia. Left, The Thorny Woodcock (M. ienuispina)

right, The Woodcock’s Head (M. haustellum).

THE SPINDLE SHELLS (Fuscus). Right, Pvrula bucephala; left, P. vespertilio.

TrRocHus. Tvochus niloticus.

THE BANDED SHELLS (Fasciolaria). Top, F. flamentos; right, Tudicla spirrilus

left, F. perversum.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc PLATE IJ

Left, OLIVES (O. nebulosa;\ ; right, Mitra (M. episcopalis and M. ebernits).

HELMET SHELLS. Above, Cassius covanulata; below, left, C. sulcosa;

right, C. areola.

TURRET AND Horn SHELLS. Left, Turvetella duplicaia; middle, Potamides sulcatus ;

right, Cerithiada telescopts.

Varied forms of young Pileroceras.

| SHELLS: OF THE- TROPICAL. SEAS. . ; 553

some places the Strvombid@e are used as food, and weapons and im-

plements are made from the shell by the Pacificis Janders. They

are common in the Red Sea, Indian and Pacific Oceans.

Allied is Ptevoceras,

whose flange is drawn }

into spines. (Plferon=

wing, Kervas=a horn); |

many have such

singular forms that

they are known as @

Scorpion and Spider

Shells (see PI; IV,

Fig. 4) P. chivargra |

resembles an Indian

lamp and P. millepoda

has several digitations

between the horns.

The young shells have

many varied forms,

very different to the

ment. Ones (Pl, “IT,

fig. 4).

Rostellaria or the oe

Spindle-Stromb has an Pteroceras chirarga.

elevated spire and

prolonged canal; Aostellarta

delicatula, common in the Bay of

Bengal at the 100 fathom line is a

characteristic deep sea mollusc,

very thin and light, small but

handsome. A. curta, a tapering

shell 5 to 6 inches long, smooth

and yellow, is common on the

west coast near Bombay. Other

species are found inthe Red Sea

and in the Indo-Pacific Ocean.

The Muricide or Rock Shells

are avery numerous family and

extremely varied in form, but all

have three rows of spines or

fringes at nearly coincidental

intervals on each whorl, which

become ionger each year (PI. I,

Big. 1)... They -have-.a large

body-whorl, short spire and often

a greatly drawn-out canal. The

eee animal has an oval body, a

Te mantle broken into many lobes,

a formidable toothed tongue with

which it bores into the shells of

bivalves, and two long horns with eyes at their base. It is

extremely carnivorous and not only has the power of secreting

Another form of Pferoceras.

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Shell substance, but can dissolve any of its spiny processes when

they grow inconveniently long.

M. tenuispina, Venus’ Comb, or as it is more popularly known the

Thorny Wood Cock, from the fancied resemblance to the head and

beak of the bird, is a common shell especially on the Eastern Coast.

[t is ornamented with three rows of long slightly curved and slender

spines. JZ. haustellum, the Wood Cock’s head is nearly as plentiful:

it has the body-whorl quite round and tuberculated and the mouth

circular, pink edged and porcellaneous. J. endivia grows to a

large size and has the spines replaced by fringed borders, pink-

tinged, and denoted on the inner surface by a coral-colored line,

which spreads to paint the mouth also. 4. brandarts is very similar

to M. tenuispina but has a short canal and a prickly surface; it

yielded the famous Tyrian dye of the ancients which was obtained

by crushing shell and animal together in a mortar. J/. adus/us isa

dark colored shell in

- which the spines grow

so gracefully that

they have been liken-

ed to the branching

of the Fir tree; it is

very common. af

Bombay. J. scorpio,

_ rather like JZ. endivia,

» bears. a fanciful

resemblance to the

venomous § creature

_ whose name it bears.

The Muricide are

distributed all over

__ the world and abound

in our warm seas.

Fic. 3. The genus Fusus,

Right : AZurex haustelum, Left: Murer adustus. ihe Spindle Shells,

also world-wide, has

may members which are tropical and numbers in its species two of

the largest known gastropods. The shell is spindle-shaped with a

whorled spire and a canal sometimes drawn out to twice the whole

length. (Pl. I, fig. 2). In certain localities all Spzzdle shells are

found to be sinistral, that is coil to the left, and a few are valuable.

And in many the sound of the seaseems to linger, the reverberation,

apparently being retained in the lip, which when pressed to the ears

simulate the rising and falling of the waves;

‘For murmuring from within

Were heard sonorous cadences whereby,

To his belief the monitor expressed

Mysterious union with its native sea.’

The empty shells suspended by a cord with the wick placed along

the canal, are used as lamps by fishermen. The rest of the anima!

is curious, a transparent amber colored bag, smooth and glossy,

within which the tiny Fusi may be seen moving about or adhering

to the sides with their feet.

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 555

The Fasciolaria or Banded Shells are similar in shape but very

elegant and ornamented with colored lines or tubercles arranged

spirally (Pl. I, fig. 4). They also congregate sometimes in beds

of sinistral members, and some grow to a great size.

Mitra, the Mitre shells, are a large family ‘abundant in our seas

at low water (PI. II, fig.1). They are long and pointed, rather

thick and white, sometimes beautifully blotched with brilliant

orange. Formerly when there were not so many trade facilities,

many of them were valuable. J. efzscopalis, a very abundant

form in the Bay, is often washed up at Gopalpore and other East

Coast places. The inmate of A/ztra is queer-looking with a very

long proboscis and when alarmed emits a disagreeably odorous

purple liquid.

Turbinella or Top Shells, thick and solid, with a short spire, round

body and a long canal intersected by 3 or 5 traverse ribs, are of

great interest in India, for to this species belongs the Chank, 7.

pyrum, the sacred ‘ Mazza’, which carved and ornamented is used

in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples. It is regarded as one of the

emblems of Vishnu who is represented in drawings as holding it in

one of his four

hands; especially

valued and valuable

is the sinistral

variety, Dakshina

varia, which is be-

lieved to ensure

wealth and pro-

sperity and is soid

for anything from

Rs. 300. In Ceylon

the Chank is em-

ployed to contain

the holy oil for the

anointment of

priests and for the

administration of

their medicines. In

Dacca, Dinajpore Fic, 4.

and other places in The Chank ( Zurbinella napus).

Bengal and Eastern

Bengal, all remote from where the shells are obtained, they are

manufactured into rings and ornaments and chiefly into Sakhas or

bangles which must be owned and worn by Hindu ladies of status,

and which are dearly prized. Inthis manufacture a cresentic saw is

used to make circular sections of the round body whorl, all uneven-

ness is removed by chiselling and rubbing on stone, and then the

circles are carved and polished and sometimes iniaid with precious

stones. Formerly the trade was in the hands of the Dutch, then it

became a British royalty, but now it is open to the world, the shells

being imported to Calcutta and distributed to the various industrial

centres. The mollusc within has also a certain value (known as the

pitta) is carefully removed and sold to Kavirajs who convert it into a

555 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1

specific for spleen. All useless scraps in the manufacture of orna-

ments, called Ghara, are either constructed into beads at Murshida-

bad or used as gravel in temple gardens, and the dust is worked

into a paste or cream for the prevention of pitting in small-pox.

: One of the varieties

Scolymus cornigerus

is flat-topped and

ornamented with

purple prickles.

Others are 7. zapa

‘The Pap-boat’ also

used as a receptacle

for sacred: oil «7%

ovoides and 7. fusus.

The 77ztons are

oval, ventricose,

few-whorled shells

ornamented with

“many excrescences

Ties: and varices, and are

familiar from old

my thedore scan

pictures in which the Sea-God MNepdtune is always depicted as

blowing one; being so tumid, they particularly lend themselves

to the use of trumpets, whose sound though loud is more

monotonous and dismal than can be imagined; they are

employed as musical instruments in the Indo-Pacific (Pl. III,

fig. 2). In quiet seabeds they are cloaked with a soft brown

velvety epidermis, and often occur in sinistral groups. 7. vetusum

has a long canal and was named to express the idea of a bottle

from which water could be poured in drops. The sub-species

purpura has an abrupt spire anda very large opening, the inner

lip being flattened against the whorl; it has been so called, because

the occupant can be induced by pressing on the operculum to

discharge a white fluid contained in a small sac by the throat, which

on exposure to the air runs through the yellows and greens and

finally settles into a brilliant purple, and was at one time valued

aS a permanent and beautiful dye in Irish manufactures, and so

expensive, that a pound of wool stained by it cost 425. Another

genus very similar in appearance and almost purely Indian is

Ranella, which abounds near coral reefs the thicker and more craggy

ones in shallower rocky places, the smooth species from the depths;

in them are two continuous varices running down either side of the

shell, demonstrating that it was constructed only half a turn between

each season of rest. Ldurna spirata (fig. 12). the Ivory shell is

pale yellow with brownish blotches. It is fairly common at Bombay.

fEnlima completes a whorl and rests, thus forming a straight

line on one side only. Razella horrida is tinged violet and has purple

tubercles. ;

In India the only edible univalves are members of the Triton

species ; 7. elegans, T. bufo with a thick shell generally encrusted

with lime, and 7. car7ntfera are eaten on the West Coast ; the last,

Right: Zwurbinella napus, Left: Scolymus cornigerus,

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 557

known as bhikari or beggar, as it is of poor quality and not much

relished. All the members of this species are very carnivorous

and are responsible for much havoc in oyster beds. The 77z¢on

fixes its large, thin foot on the shell of a bivalve and then with its

lingual file drills a neat round hole through and proceeds to rasp

out its victim. They are also sea-scavengers, eating any dead

creatures they come across.

In the depth of the Laccadive Sea, which is that narrow strip of

ocean lying between Malabar and the chain of coral atolls known as

the Laccadive Archipelago, one of the strangest gastropods has

been found: the sheli is that of the 7yzfon family of cold seas about

41 inches long, and the animal has neither a toothed tongue nor

even a semblance of eyes. It is burdened with the lengthy name

Pontiothauma mtrabile. The physical formation of this particular

sea-basin permits of the habitation of many diverse species, for on

the continental side it is shallow but by the island deep and often

abysmal ; another interesting point in this connection is that some

of the species of marine creatures found here are the same as those

inhabiting the Caribbean Sea, a part of the Atlantic.

Pyrula, signifying a little pear, is the name given to shells which

are also known as /ig Shells from their resemblance in shape

to both these fruits

(Bie lV,2 fig. 3).

They are thin and

large about 3 or 4

inches long, with

an expanded lip

which is particularly

delicate ; violet on

the inner surface,

white mottled with

brown and yellow

on the outer. The

animal has a_ very

broad foot and the

shell is practically

enveloped in the

wide mantle lobes.

A common species

is Fiscus tscoides.

One of the largest

families of tropical

gastropods are the

Cones (Conide)

which are exactly Fic. 6.

like what they are Left: C. Geographus, Middle: C. textile, Right:

supposed to repre- _ C. monachus.

sent, an inverted

cone. They have a short spire, a long and narrow aperture, a

sharp-edged lip and exhibit a variety of painting on the outer

surface. The animal has a longish head with two tentacles carrying

eyes, and the foot is wide and abruptly cut off in front. They

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

are found in the fissures and holes among coral reefs, and though

very leisurely in their movements they are most voracious and

even fierce, sometimes turning to nip the hand when captured.

They bore into the shelis of other molluscs and suck out the juice.

Very many species occur, some formerly very valuable; C. gloria

maris is believed to be worth ten times its weight in gold, and the

one in the British Museum was bought for!4 70. An amusing inci-

dent occurred when the second known specimen was put up to auc-

tion; it was bought in by a Frenchman who also owned the only other,

and was immediately crushed to fragments by him so that he could -

still remain the owner of the single and unique C. gloria maris.

C. ammitralis, the Admiral shell, has most elegant colouring, mottled

brown with bands of pale fawn; C. ¢exitzle, the Zextztle Cone, is nearly

5 inches long, a mosaic of magenta and brown and pale yellow

drawn over with fine white lines. C. pagodus has a raised spire.

C. mutabilis and C. monachus are common at Bombay, the latter

brownish encircled with dark lines.

The Volutes (Volutide) are somewhat similar in shape but are

notched in front and the coitumella is deeply plaited; they have

very bold markings and beautiful coloring and number many hundred

species. Particularly handsome is the genus J7/e/o, large, inflated

and in form some-

» what. like a melon,

* with either -a flat

spire which may be

embellished with a

circle of spines, or

a rounded one sur-

mounted by.a round

node.. Cyméa or the

Boat Shell, So called

as itis used to bail]

out canoes, is more

giobular. : Both

Cymba and Melo

‘ bring forth their

young alive without

egg shells.

The Cowrtes

(Cypreide) are an enormous family numbering about 2,000 species ;

the cylindrical mottled shell is too familiar to be described. The

tenanting animals have a large foot spreading out in all directions,

a fairly big head with two tentacles at whose base the eyes occur,

and a mantle whose wide lateral lobes almost envelope the shell,

often fringed and adorned with bright colors. The shell thus

almost concealed within the mantle is highly polished and preserved

from erosion, and a distinct line can always be traced where the

flaps just fail to touch and the shell is exposed.

For ages past Cowries have been used as ornaments and as chatms

against the evil eye, etc. The rare Ovange Cowrie is worn asa badge

of high rank among the Pacific islanders and is valuabie, the one in

the British Museum having been obtained for £30. The little

RIG.

The Volute (Melo ethiopica).

|e yale

TURBINES. Large one, T. marmoreus ; below, T. imperialis.

Tritons. Top and left, T. constrictum; right below, Persona anus ;

little one, R. horrida.

Tun SHELLS (Dolium maculatum).

WING SHELLS (Strombid@). Left top, S. succinctus; left below, S. isabella;

right, S. lentiginosus.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist.

1. Harp SHELLS. Large ones, H. ventricosa; small, H. articularis.

2. . Left below, BUBBLE SHELLS (Haminea) ; others, SEA SNAILS (Natica).

Fic SHELL (Fiscus fiscotdes).

4. SPIDER SHELL (Ptevocevas lambis),

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 559

Money Cowrie, C. moneta, is used as currency, the value in India

being about 96 to one pice; in some of the islands where Cuttle

Fish are eaten,

Cowries are broken 5

and tied to a line &

as bait; C. figris §

and other large @

varieties are em- |

ployed as a support Fa=

in darning stock-

ings, and strarger

still, for polishing

cloth that is con-

verted into the high §

Parsi hats; the &

cloth is imported |

from China and

well-rubbed with a |

shell on which a

little cocoanut oil

has been applied. |

Cowrie Shells con- =

tinually change ge

their shape until

they reach adult Fic. 8.

age; when young, Cowriss (Cypreide). Above C. tigris, Below right :

they resemble C. pantherina, Middle: C. argue, Left :

Vloutes with wide C. arabicula.

lips and = prominent

spires; gradually so

much shel]l substance

is deposited that the

spire is. obliterated

and at the same time

the axis is absorbed

either completely or

until it is nothing but

a thin plate. Some of

the varieties are be-

autifully marked;

C. argus with eyes

similar to those on

the tail of the Argus

pheasant; C. digris,

black or deep brown

distinct spots and

blotches; C. jpanthe-

i : ns 9. ee eee vina, very similar but

OwRIES (Cypreide). Topright: C. wnaata, Leit: the markings running

C. lynx. Below right: C. histrio, Left: C. arabica. together ; C. lynx with

scattered black dots; C. undata, a deep glossy brown with beautiful

white bands and lines; C. Azstvz0, a mosaic of white and brown ;

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIIL

C. avabica, covered with queerly set brown hieroglyphics ; C. scoé/zz,

almost black and C. mappa on which the mantle marks present a

deeply indented outline. =

Ovulum, the China Shell, is similar to the Cowries, but

the inner lip is smooth; it is never ornamented but is either

pure white or some delicate shade of pink, mauve or yellow. The

Weavers’ Shuttle, O. volva, has the aperture extended at each end.

O. spelta very similar, is common on Bombay shores. ‘The animal

of Ovulum feeds on the red corals, and many of the Ovuli attend

corals of similar colour.

The Harp Shells, (Harpa), have several, smooth, vertical ribs like

the strings of a harp, each of which has been a periodic mouth;

the spire is short, the aperture wide, and between the ribs are deli-

cately drawn patterns and lines (P]. IV, fig.1). The animal has

a very large foot, anterior part of which is distinct from the posterior

by deep lateral fissures which separate when the animal is irritated.

It frequents the muddy coasts of Ceylon but in rather deep water.

The Olives (Olivide) areas beautifully polished as the Cowries and

have lovely colour markings in a variety of patterns; they are

cylindrical with a short spire and long narrow mouth, and are some-

times called. Rice Shells (Pl Il, fig. 1)... The-animeals are iveny,

active and glide about swiftly in low water or bury themselves in

the sand as the tide goes out. It is one of the commonest shells on

all sandy Indian shores; O. nebulosa, whitish-yellow marked with

grey-brown zig-zags is found at Bombay.

The Helmet Shells (Cassidide) comprise many giant gastropods, all

living in shallow water near the coast. The shellis massive, always

thick with an almost obliterated spire ; the inner lip is amalgamated

with the body whorl andthe outer one is reflexed and toothed ; the

canal is sharply recurved

pins front (Blea, fig2):

The shell-substance is of

differently coloured por-

-cellaneous strata, which

Jends itself admirably to

cameo carving, an in-

dustry which since the

15th century has flourish-

ed“ iny aditaly. ©) CG 717,

yields palesalmon cameos

on coral or orange; C.

tubcrosa, White upon dark

claret.

> Doltum sor. thet 777

Shell, though belonging

Fic. 10. to the same class is very

Helmet Shell (Cassius rfus). thin and large with a

gaping japerture} ;orna-

mented with transverse ribs (Pl. III, fig. 3). D. maculatum has

these ridges speckled with brown, and is fairly common on the shores

of the Bay. Zw in Burmese means light. |

In the Zurbines, which are mostly littoral and all vegetable

SHELLS OF TE EROPIGAL SHAS) *)" * 361

feeders, the shell is convoluted, inflated and brilliantly nacreous,

but frequently covered with a thick fibrous coating (Pl. III, Fig. 1).

The head and sides of

the animal are fringed pum

and lobed; it generally §

lives near the shore,

but 7. zndicus is ag

deep-sea dweller and

hospitably accom-

modates on its shella

barnacle and asponge.

T. marmoreus is a

large pearly shell

which jewellers and

lapidaries employ in

their art; in Siam

and Japan it is in-

troduced into _ the

ornamentation of

screens, boxes, etc.

and is employed in the

famous aqua-marine

work of Jeypore.

BGs sds

Helmet Shell (Casszus tuberosa).

f. tmperialis is lined spirally ; Margarita umbilicalis (Fig. 12) is

globular with a deep, central, round indentation ; 7. elegans brown,

Ere.) 12,

Above right : Earshall (Hadiotzs striata). Below right :

Staircase Shell (solarium) Middle: Augur Shell

( Terebra tigrina) Above left: (Margarita umbilicalis).

Below left: Ivory Shell (Zéruna spirata),

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

with green and yellow blotches is ridged spirally, and very common

on Bombay shores.

In the allied genus 7vochus the shape of the shells is py lamiced

with a nearly flat base ; the outer covering has broad red or maroon

stripes running downwards (Pl. I, Fig. 3} ; when alive the interven-

ing colour is green or yellow—turning to white when dead. 7,

depictus is greyish-yellow with black markings, very plentiful on the

West Coast. The tiny highly coloured shells of Rotella vestiaria,

the Rosary or Button shells are common among the shingle of a

sandy beach; they are no larger than a two-anna bit, quite flat,

often pink and beautifully striated.

The Ear Shell (ffaliotis) has a dull outer surface often incrusted

with corallines, and an inner one brilliantly iridescent, with t'e

growth of each year marked by a fine ridge sweeping from the

flattened spire to the margin; each line is perforated by a single

hole near its extremity which are successively closed. The inmates

are sometimes eaten, and because of its wonderful mother-of-pearl

the shell is converted into buttons and ornaments and is used

chiefly for inlaying delicate papier-maché and wood work.

The Janthinide or Purple-Sea Snails are gregarious and drift

about in small companies. At certain seasons they send out a mem-

branous float full of air cells, to which the egg sacs are attached

beneath. These shells, very fragile toning from violet to purple,

come up in the nets of fishermen all round our coasts.

eT he's Seas Sag

mm (Natica) have

— globular, shining

- shells many of which

are of great beauty

and wonderful mark-

ings which are never

lost, not even in fossil

specimens. T he

aperture is large semi-

lunar and unbilicated

z.é. the axis is hollow

(PIIV,-Fig.-2).” The

animal is quite blind

and buries itself deep

in the sand by low

- water mark, a defect

however which does

not interfere with its

~~ extreme voracity ; it

Fic. 13. has an extension of

Left above and below: Nerita oryzaru. Middle: the forepart of the

Natica didyma. Right, below: WN. Jineata ; above: foot that projects over

N. maculosa. the head when crawl-

ing and_ probably

protects it. Vadicas prey on ABivalves and in turn are devoured by

Star Fishes, etc., /V. didyma attains a good size; itis fawn tinged

with plumbago and is easily recognized by adeep brown shield

ete SEIRELS OF. THE TROPICAL SEAS =. ----- 563

nearly closing the umbilicus. MV. limeata has irregular closely

drawn - purple-brown lines running -down the shell slantingly ;

NV. maculosa, smaller with dark red spots and markings, and JV. rufa

a yellowish shell banded with white, are found on all our coasts.

The Staircase Shell (Solarium) has been thus named because the

spiral edges of the whorls do actually ascend like a winding stair-

cease; it is orbicular and rather depressed, with a square aperture

hie. -12).

~The Ladder Shell (Scalaria) is pure white or pale fawn and trans-

parent, traversed in its length with ribs. At one time it was

considered invaluable, but with greater facilities afforded to trade,

all such shells have lost in money worth. It is found only in Indian

and China Seas.

The Indian Phorous or Carrier and Grotto Shell is very curious ; it

is dull yellow-brown in colour and in its anxiety to attempt a

camouflage or to fortify its very thin shell it sticks itself over

with fragments of stone or smaller shells, each variety exhibiting an

individual taste.in choice of materials ; those that employ stone and

eoral are known as mineralogists, those showing a preference for

shells, conchologists. They dispose of their acquisitions along the

spiral line of their growth

and in such a manner as not

to interfere with their own

freedom of movement. One ~~

species Xenophora pallidula

is. very common in the =.

Andaman sea, and allin- —

habit deep--water. :

The Pleurotoma are most

frequently thus acquired by

the Phorus ; they are a vast

family and 22 per cent. cf

Indian deep sea gastropods

belong to the species; they |

are turreted or fusiform -

with an elevated spire and

an oval aperture with the.

outer lip notched in front,

which has gained them their.

naine (plewva=the side and

tome=a notch); they include Fic. 14.

some of the most valuable Base of the Carrier Shell (Xenophora palli-

Shells. Sometimes the dula) with Plurostoma annexed.

animal is blind. PP. javana |

is fusiform; P. congener was found in the Bay of Bengal and first

described in 1894. Onits fragile outer lip it exhibits singular

prominent trumpet-like expansions of two main threads of the

convexity as they approach the aperture, which do not break the lip

margin and are quite shut off from the interior. The /Pleurotoma

are often annexed by the /zdian Phorus for adorning their shells,

and a little Pleurotoma, found near Cape Comorin, is always encrust-

ed with a particular species of Sea-Anemone.

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

~The Augur Shells (Terebra) are long and pointed, splashed and

dotted with deep brown. 7. tégrina is fairly common (Fig. 12).

The Bullide or Bubble Shells are delicate and oval with sunk

spires and very wide apertures, practically internal shells for the

mantle lobes almost

envelope them (PI. IV,

fig. 2): Dhe euler

live in the sand at a

considerable depth, in

low water. Hamdtnea

galba, transparent white

or yellow, is often

washed ashore at and

below Bombay.

The Umbrella Shell

is an irregular placque,

. nearly flat and some-

what like a Burmese

parasol; on the

~ outer surface appears

Paces) just the hint of an

Upper surface of same. apex, inside it is

rough and_ striated.

The inmate is large and round and covered with tubercles.

The Zooth Shells (Dentalide) are cylindrical, as long as 3 inches,

white, curved and open at each end. They are very common on all

shores.

The Zurretellide or Turret Shells, as their name implies are

elongated, many whorled, spirally striated and grow 4 to 5 inches

(Pl. II, fig. 3). 7: duplicata, a massive white shell with two parallel

ridges running spirally round each whorl, is fairly common.

The Certthiade or Horn Shells are also turreted and whorled

(Pl. II, fig. 3); some love to live where there are muddy stones, and

two C. movus, a small blackish shell and Potamddes fluviatilis, a

slender shell with each whorl beaded, are very frequent on the

Bombay shore, C. ¢elescopium, boldly banded in maroon and white

and P. sulcatus a deep purple-brown, each whorl showing 3 to 4

lines, are common in the Bay.

The Neritide are solid looking, semi-oval shells, flattish with a

large mouth, they have been likened to D in shape. They are white,

patched and streaked with black or a deep purple. The animal

lives near the shore; it has a broad head and very long eye-stalks,

and absorbs the internal surface of the shell to permit of room for

its increasing body.

(To be continued.)

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY

No. XLIX

A NEW FLYING SQUIRREL FROM NEPAL

HELEN M. LINDSAY, M.A., B.SC.

(By kind permission of the Trustees of the British Museum)

In April 1923 Mr. N. A. Baptista collected 8 specimens of a

species of flying squirrel which have been listed in Report No. 37A

as Petaurista caniceps, Gray. Further detailed examination of these

creatures shows that they do not belong to that genus but that they

are representative of a group of more ancient affinities than the

Petaurista family and that they form the connecting link between

the 7vogopterus family of China on the Bast and the Zoglaucomys of

Kashmir on the West. I have named these squirrels Sccuropterus

gorkhali. ~

There has been great confusion in the nomenclature of the flying

squirrels from this area. But careful investigation of the old litera-

ture and such plates as are available shows that Hodgson in 1842

described and pictured in his ‘Drawings of Mammalia’ No. 122 a small

flying squirrel which he called Sezuvopterus senex and that later

in 1847 he also pictured a larger creature with distinct interfemoral

membrane to which he applied the same name. Meantime Blyth

in J.A.S.B. xiii. (1844) p. 67 takes it for granted from

Hodgson’s picture No. 122 that this is a specimen of FPetaurista

caniceps of Gray, though by no stretch of the imagination could he

make the description of that species (which he quotes from the

A.M.N.H. for December, 1842, pp. 262, 263) fit the animal there

portrayed. Thus between Hodgson and Blyth lies the mistake

in not recognizing two distinct genera amongst these flying squirrels.

Later writers have followed these workers and only now that a

series of specimens has become available has it been possible to

decide that two genera do exist and are definitely distinct from each

other.

In the British Museum collection there are a few old specimens

which are true Petaurista caniceps, Gray, and are so labelled. These

agree in each detail with the descriptions of Gray and Blyth

and with the plate of Hodgson marked ‘ Sciuroplerus senex, Darjee-

ling, September, 20, 1847—India House, November, 1852, No. 28.’

The type No. is 79. 11. 21. 531. a skin without a tail. No. 45. 1. 8.

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

242 is labelled ‘Type of Scturopterus senex Hodgs,’ and agrees

exactly with the above-mentioned picture. Other specimens also

sent by Hodgson are No. 53. 8. 16. 9. and No.: 53. 8. 16. 10 (a

very immature specimen). These ail came from Nepal but not at

high altitudes as Hodgson notes.

Baptista’s specimens were all collected at 12,000 feet at Gorkha,

84° 50’ E. long. 28° N. lat. This district is the area which, as Mr.

Hinton noted in Report No. 37, shows the change in the character

of the fauna, ‘ the Oriental forms disappearing and being replaced

by Palearctic types’. Mr. Thomas gives the range of Sczuvopterus

as the Palearctic Region fram Scandinavia to Japan in 4.J.N.4A.

Ser. 8, vol. i, January [908. Thus these specimens are represen-

tatives of this genus ‘ the little modified remnants of a very old

and once widely spread group’, as Dr. C. Forsyth Major notes in

P.Z.S. 1893, in his paper on ‘ Some Miocene Squirrels.’

SCIUROPTERUS GORKHALI sp. nov.

The Skin

These squirrels are clothed in soft thick fie like that of eon:

comys fimbriatus in texture and, like that species, having the basai

3ths of the dorsal hair dark ashy. Above this ashy portion comes

a band of fawn colour, then one of brown abutting on the yellow

coloured tip. The effect of this dorsal fur is of a dark ground-work

with golden lights. Some of the hairs have black tips beyond the

yellow. The parachute above is clothed with hairs dark slaty

at the base passing into brilliant orange, whiist below, it is orange

with a grey edge which at the joint of the forearm has a whitish tip.

The size of the lateral parachute is small compared with that of the

Petaurista family and there is ‘either no interfemoral membrane

at. all or. what there is consists merely of a slight expansion of

the skin behind the knee, attached externally to the texdon achillis

about. halfway down and internally to. the hinder side of the

hips and never involving any portion of the tail’ as noted by

Mr.’ Oldfield Thomas in ?.Z.S, 1886, p..60 in his distinction

between the two genera of Preromys and Sciuropterus. The belly

is ochraceous white strongly tinged with orange and has a greyish

strip ventrally in the median line. Underneath the chin is a pure

white patch with a narrow line of dark brown above it just at the

mouth. The cheeks are clear grey, also the patch above the nose,

but the head has a brownish tinge on the grey ground-work which

passes on the nape into the dark coloration of the back. Under each

eye is a spot of red which colour extends also in a thin line round

the orbit. There is a large spot of brilliant orange behind each ear

and that colour extends halfway up the thinly clad ear which is

edged with dark brown. The whiskers -are black and-long but not

bushy, only eleven hairs or soon each side.’ There are no eartufts

as in Belomys. Specimen No. 917 has a group. of three or four long:

black stiff hairs projecting just above the inner corner of the orbit,

in the same way as shown int Hodgson’ ‘'s-picture No. 122, but none

of the other skins shows this’ There are no long interspersed black

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS. FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY _ 567

hairs on the head such as ; Gray notes for his species:of P. canitceps

in A..N.H., vol. x, p. 262 (1842). The feet are brilliant orange

like the upper side of:the parachute, and have claws strong and

sharply curved. ‘The hindfoot is large in comparison with the

length of the head and body, averaging 62-6 mm. The metatarsal

pad is elongate in shape, distant from the toepads as in Zoglaucomys.

The fur edging to the pad is light brown, but it does not extend so

far across the sole of the foot as in Trogopterus but considerably

further than in Aoglaucomys.. The tail is larger than the head and

body and is distichous, quite distinct from the round tail of

Petauvista. Its hair is ashy at the base passing into a broad band of

reddish-fawn, then a narrow band of black ending in an orange tip.

The tip of the tail is entirely black as in Zoglaucomys but it does not

taper to a point as in that species. The average sizes of 6 speci-

mens are H. © B...329,. Tail 354, H..F. 62°6,. Bart 43.

The Skull

Only four skulls are available for measurement. ‘Their average

gives greatest length 64, zygom. breadth 40°5 basilar length 50:5,

nasals 20, palatilar length 30. The dentition agrees with the

description given by Mr. Oldfield Thomas in his. paper ‘The

Genera and Subgenera of the Sczwropterus group’ in A.N.4.,

Ser. 8, vol. i, January 1908. The muzzle is narrow with parallel

sides which are nearly at right angles to the spring of the zygomatic

arch. P, is a little larger than m? while the molar ridges are well

developed and p, is visible externally. Cuvier in Mem. du Mus. @?’

Hist. Nat. x. pp. 126.-28 with pl. x, figs.5 and 6 of 1823 distinguish-

es clearly between the skull of Sczuropterus and that of Petaurista

(Pteromys). He says that the Sczaropterus has ‘ a head which seen in

profile has all the anterior part up to the middle of the frontals on

a straight line. The head is remarkable for the proportion of its

frontals which has breadth to iength as 1 is to 2.. The cerebral

capacity is 2ths length of the skull’. Petauwr7st2 onthe other hand

has the posterior part of the nasals slightly arched and frontals

strongly depressed in the middle. The posterior parts of the head do

not begin to curve until the middle of the parietals. The breadth

of frontals is to the length as 2 isto 3. The parietals are slightly

convex and the cerebral capacity equals 4 the length of head.

Another point of difference between these two genera, brought

out by examination of the series of skulls available in the National

Collection but not hitherto noted, is the shape of the anterior nares.

In Petaurista this has a squat shape since the proportion of its trans-

verse diameter to the perpendicular diameter is as 10 to 6. In

Scturopterus gorkhali this pr oportion is 8 to 7 which gives a more

quadrate opening.

This is constant throughout these groups.

The bullz of Sczuroptéerus gorkhali nave a much more constricted

appearance laterally than those of Fefaurista and show three

segments of.their wall very plainly. There is also a difference in

the narrowest part of the frontal bone at the postorbital process,

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Petaurista there shows a sharp angle like that of Zoglaucomys whilst

Scturopterus gorkhalt has an oblong incision more like that of

Trogopterus. ‘The incisive index taken by the method described in

A.M.N.FA1., vol. iv, 1919 gives 60° for Scturoplerus gorkhali and 65°

for Petar

The skins of the specimens marked Petaurista caniceps in the

National Collection have been carefully examined for purposes of

comparison. The type specimen No. 79. 11. 21. 531 labelled

‘Hodgson Nepal’ has no tail but the interfemoral membrane and

broad parachute together with the texture of the fur mark it asa

Petaurtsta.

No. 53. 8.16.10 similarly labelled is a very young specimen

which shows most plainly the broad parachute and interfemoral

membrane. No, 53. 8.16. 9 also. young is a very dark skin with a

broad membrane. Three large skins similar in size and fur are

No. 45. 1. 8. 242 (which according to its label is the type of Hodg-

son’s Sciuropterus senex and agreeing with his picture pl. No. 28 of

India House, 1852) and two from Mandelli’s collection Nos. 91. 10.

7.60 and 91. 10. 7.61. ‘These three all agree in the large para-

chute, interfemoral membrane, ears broader than in Sczuropterus

gorkhalt, the colour of the head being not such a clear grey as in

that group, whilst the proportions are altogether larger and heavier.

The claws of Petaurista are not so curved and sharp as in Sczuyvo-

plerus gorkhalt, Gray in A.V.N.A., vol. x, p. 262 of 1842 thus

describes Petaurista (Pteromys) caniceps :—‘ Blackish brown varied

with red bay ; hairs long, dark blackish with red bay tip; outside of

legs redder, beneath reddish yellow; throat white ; chin black: a

small lunate red spot on the upper edge (of each eye), and

roundish spot near the base of the ears bright red; tail flattish,

black with some reddish tipped hairs fewer near the end. Head and

Body QYins.: tail, 84 ins.—India, Dargellan’—These above speci-

mens agree with this description.

Inthe volume of Hodgson’s ‘ Drawings of Mammalia’ is No. 122

(so badly reproduced in /.4 S.8., No. 13, p. 67 and there called

Sciurobterus senex) which is undoubtedly a specimen of what I have

named Sciuropterus gorkhali and differing just as much from the

picture No. 28 of the large creature also called Sczuvopterus senex as

do the skins from Gorkha differ from that of No. 45. 1. 8. 242.

Since there has been confusion attached to the specific name of

senex it is much better to give an entirely new name to this fine

‘series of specimens.

The National Collection has in addition to those specimens

already described other two groups of Flying Squirrels with grey

heads and a red spot at the base of the ears. These are Petaurista

xanthotis, three specimens from N. W. Yunnan, and VPetaurista

clarket from the Mekong Valley, Yunnan. The latter set comes

closest to Sczuropterus gorkhali in character of skin coloration but is

altogether a greyer creature than the Nepal squirrel. The skull is

typical Petaurista.

A comparative table of measurements of the specimens examined

brings out the differences clearly.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS FROM THE MAMMAL SURVEY _ 569

Specimen | and | Tail | = |Ear| & | S0/% a a.) Remarks.

Body an ne O/ So ie

Grass Ay

oe fo

Sciuropterus |

gorkhalt. |

“No. 915 ¢ ../ 330| 350 | 64 | 42 64 | 49 | 41 | 20 | 29 | 12 incisive index.

: | pe el ae 60°

Pog 2 ...| 330 | 350 |-62 | 43 No skull

note |

917 ¢ ...| 330]. 345 | 43 | 44 No skull |

,, 9200 «| 340) 350 | 62 | 42 64 | 51} 40 | 20 | 30 | 13 | Type.

, 9282 ...| 315| 360 | 62} 46 65 | 51 | 40 | 20| 30 | 13°

on 5 ...f 330}. 370 | 63 | 42 63 | 50 | 40 | 20 | 30 |12°5 |

Average ...| 329| 354 |62°6] 43 64 |50 2|40°2| 20 | 30 |12°6

Petaurista ‘Incisive index

caniceps. ceed | 65°

me 11,21, 532. | 310 60. | 38 broken 19 | 28 | 14. Type.

53.8.16.9 ...| 330! 360 | 68| 35 67 | 52 | 42 | 19 | 30] 14 Young.

oo. 8. 26. 10...) ‘E75 | 135 } 40 no skull | | Very young.

i 1, 8.242...) 370] 365 | 65 | 39 67 ‘broken 43 | 20 | 30 | 14 | Type of Hodg-

7 | | gon’s Sc. senex.

Gi 10.7.60...( 410| 414} 66| 43} skull broken

| {

91.10. 7.61 ...| 390 |broken 68 | 35 no skull |

Average ...| 362 | 380 65°4/ 38 67 | 52 |4a-5 19°3.29°3 14

Petaurista

xanthotis.

| | incisive index.

No. 2775 g ...| 363 | 330) 65 | 43 no skull | 65°

, 27939 ...| 3531 340|/63|50| | 68| 54| 45) 21) 31 | 13 |

» 2794 g ...| 430| 345| 68 | 50] | 68 | 53 | 47 | 21) 32 | 14 |

Average ...| 382 |1338°3 '65°3l47-6| | 66 |53'5| 46 | 21 | 31 13.5

a Se pa a a fs a el ER pac

Petaurista | |

clarkei. | haa

| incisive index.

22.9.1. 40 | 315} 382] 60 { 49 64 | 50 | 41 | 17 | 30 | 13 | 65°

22.9.1.44 | 320| 370 | 65, 50 65 | 51 | 41 | 17 | 30 | 13 | Type.

22.9.1.45 2] 330 352 | 67 | 50 | 66 |proken 42| 18 | 30 |broken

Average _.,.|321°6 | 368 | 64 |49°6 65 |50°5141°3|17°3| 30 | 13

FLOWERLESS PLANTS

M. ROBINSON, B.A. (T.C.D.), NAT. SCI. TRIP. CAM.

PART I |

(With one coloured and two black and white plates.)

The science of Botany which deals with the study of plant life in

all its aspects, is one which appeals in some way or another to

‘everyone. The universal distribution of plants, and their easy cul-

tivation, render them a source of perpetual pleasure and interest;

and the economic uses of plants which provide food, clothing, oil,

dyes and many other commercial products are too well known to

need more than a passing mention.

There is however a large division of the plant kingdom which is

almost unknown to many people, probably on account of its lack of

economic importance in providing any of the useful commodities

usually derived from plants. This division includes all the plants

known popularly as flowerless plants; and contains several well-

defined and easily recognized groups, any one of which offers a vast

field for study, and a most interesting subject for the collector.

These groups include the Algz—both fresh water forms and the

sea-weeds, the Fungi, Lichens, Liverworts and Mosses, Ferns and

the Selaginellas.

In the two highest groups, the mosses and ferns are known to

everyone: the grace and beauty of ferns, and their great variety,

render them objects of interest and delight both to the gardener

and the collector. The seaweeds among the alge are familiar to

us all from childhood’s days, and most of us are aware of the

lichens encrusting old gnarled tree trunks or exposed rocks—with-

out perhaps knowing anything of their infinite variety, and their |

peculiar and interesting structure and mode of growth. The fungi

provide us with edible mushrooms and poisonous though beautiful

toadstools, and include the moulds that grow on all leather goods

and other articies during the monsoon months, and attack all kinds

of decaying vegetation, causing disease and death to many of the

higher plants.

These flowerless plants are called Cryptogams: the name having

been given them by Linnzeus, the celebrated Swedish botanist, who

was the first to introduce a natural system of classification of plants

based on their methods of reproduction. He divided the plant

kingdom into two main divisions. First, the higher plants which

he called ‘ Phanerogams,’ a word which means literally ‘ visible

marriage’ because they possessed flowers from which the develop-.

ment of fruit and seed could readily be seen; and secondly, the

Journ. BoMBAY INA Hisnr. Soc, PLaTE I,

wn H

SOME TYPES OF FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

AN ALGA, one of the brown seaweeds.

A FunGus, one of the mould fungi on a piece of orange.

A Funeus. Fructifications of one of the larger fung1.

A twig bearing four different LIcHENS with disc or cup-shaped fructifications,

arse .c. cd:

A LicHEN with stalked fructifications.

A LIvVERWORT with cupules (a) and female sporophores (b).

The same LIvERWoRT with cupules (a) and male sporophores (b).

A group of Moss plants with sporophytes.

A group of Moss plants with sporophytes at different stages.

One Moss plant with three sporophytes.

A FERN plant. The sporophyte only showing spore cases on the back of

one frond.

All the drawings ave two-thirds natural size.

wy FLOWERLESS PLANTS *\- 2 tt. SA

flowerless plants, or ‘Cryptogams’ meaning ‘hidden marriage’

because they had no flowers and no visible means of sexual repro-

duction. The names have remained though nowadays with the

higher powers of the microscope available, the methods of repro-

duction can be seen and studied in detail.

_ Intheir external morphology the Cryptogams show the very widest

range of difference, and vary in size and complexity of structure,

from the smallest of unicellular plants, visible only with the high

powers of a microscope, to some of the largest members of the

vegetable kingdom. The enormous tree ferns of a tropical forest,

and the gigantic seaweeds of the Arctic Oceans, attain dimensions

as great as or greater than many forest trees among the Phanero-

-gams. In structure they show as great a variety, and the vegeta-

tive body of the plant, which is known in the lower Cryptogams as

the /hallus, may consist of only one cell, or a chain of simple cells,

or a mass of threads woven together without any cellular structure,

as in the fungi and lichens; or it may consist of a flat, spreading,

green plate-like cellular structure variously lobed or branched, but °

showing no differentiation into root, stem and leaves, as in some of

the liverworts. In the higher Cryptogams however including other

species of liverworts, the mosses, selaginellas and ferns there is a

-complete differentiation of the thallus into root, stem and leaf

structures, and the internal cellular structure of the ferns resembles

that of the flowering plants, having a well developed vascular

-system throughout. All the Cryptogams with the exception of the

great group of the fungi, resemble the Phanerogams in containing

the same green colouring matter, known as chlorophyll, which plays

‘such an important-part in the physiology of plant life. Under the

influence of bright light, all plants containing chlorophyll can assi-

-milate free carbon dioxide from the air, and from it ‘manufacture

‘various carbohydrates, principally starch, which are utilized in the

-growth of the plant. This process-is known as assimilation and

photosynthesis, and is of immense importance to the plant, which

‘for healthy and vigorous growth must have plenty of chlorophyll

-and-abundance of light and-fresh air, The chlorophyll itself.is not

formed in plants from which light is excluded, such plants being of

a pale yellow colour, and they rapidly die if continually kept in the

‘dark, while if brought out into the light they soon become green.

Chlorophyll is contained in special bodies, known as chloroplasts,

occurring in the cells of the thallus, or of the stems and leaves of

the higher plants and these chloroplasts can be well seen under the

“microscope as many little round green bodies, often nearly filling

the cells, or as in the some of the green alga assuming various

shapes within the cell or cells composing the thallus.

In their methods of reproduction lie the essential differences

between the two great divisions. All the Phanerogams produce a

seed which is a multicellular body containing the germ or embryo

of a new plant, while Cryptogams produce spores which are unicel-

lular bodies containing no embryo.

_A seed is formed by the union of a male cell from the pollen grain,

with a female -cell in the ovule of the flower. It contains, when

tipe, besides the embryo which is already differentiated into root

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

and shoot, a supply of nourishment stored in surrounding tissue for

its use during germination, when it develops into a plant resem-

bling its parent.

A spore is produced in two ways. It may be produced asexually,

by simple cell division in the thallus, or in special structures borne

on the thallus, or sexually by the fusion of two separate spores or

cells. All Cryptogams produce asexual spores, and in some of

them, the fungi and lichens for example, this is the only method

of spore production, vast quantities of minute spores being formed

in oron special fructifications called shorophores or sporophytes.

But in other Cryptogams both methods are found, and the sexual

process varies from a simple conjugation of two similar cells, as

in some of the simpler alge, to the formation of a spore by the

union of two distinct male and female cells produced each in its own

special organ. In the alge the two methods may take place in

the same plant, and seem to depend on the occurrence of favourable

or unfavourable conditions, but in the higher Cryptogams, the two

methods occur in regular alternation; that is to say, a sexually

produced spore will develop into a plant or structure which produces

only asexualspores, and these on germination give rise to a plant

or structure which bears sexual organs from which the sexually

produced spore is againformed. The life history of a moss or liver-

wort, selaginella or fern, thus includes two alternating generations,

a sexual and an asexual—the small green moss plant produces male

and female organs, and is therefore the sexual generation; in the

female organ is produced a spore (by fusion of a female cell with a

male cell from the male organ), from which develops the long

stalked capsule found growing from the top of the moss plant. In

the capsule are produced a number of spores by vegetative growth

only, so that they are asexual spores, and the long stalked capsule

is the asexual generation of the moss. The spores, when liberated

from the capsule, develop into the little green moss plants, and the

life cycle is complete. In the ferns, on-the other hand, the leafy

plant which is the more conspicuous generation is. the asexual

generation, the spores being produced vegetatively in special struc-

tures known as sporangia on the backs of the fronds. On germi-

nation these give rise to a very small moss-like structure known

as the prothallus on which are borne the sexual organs and from

which a sexually produced spore is formed. From this spore arises

a new sporophyte generation on the prothallus which soon dies

away, leaving the sporophyte to an independent existence.

With the exception of the lichens which can grow in the driest and

most exposed situations, all the Cryptogams love plenty of moisture,

and must be sought for in the wettest places. The alge are almost

entirely aquatic plants and are found both in fresh and salt water.

The fungi, on the. other hand, are rarely found in water, but only in

very damp situations, and during or after the wet season. The

majority are parasites or saprophytes, and old tree trunks, damp

rotting leaves and decaying vegetation of all kinds, all offer suitable

habitats for fungi, and a walk in the ‘ wet wild woods’ after a period

of continued rain, will reward the collector with a host of specimens

of infinite variety of form and colour. -

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Il.

acess

Cer EAS:

SOME OF THE GREEN AND RED ALGAD

I. Some types of unicellular Alge, very highly magnified.

Threads of four different filamentous green Alge, showing different

shapes of chloroplasts in the cells, very highly magnified.

3. A marine green Alga, natural size. Flat ribbon-like thallus with large

holes.

4. A freshwater red Alga growing on a stone. Two-thirds natural size.

5. Types of marine red Alge.

6. No. 5 slightly magnified. Coral-like appearance due to deposit of

calcium carbonate in the cell walls.

“NI

FLOWERLESS PLANTS 78

Liverworts prefer the banks of streams or the rocks just above

water level, and clothe large areas with a flat green covering, often

mistaken for a moss. The true mosses and ferns also seek damp

and shady situations and are found at their best in woods and near

streams, a few of the mosses being aquatic, while some of the tiny

filmy ferns that cling to the underside of boulders and rocks in the

beds of streams can only live in a perpetually moist atmosphere.

With these few introductory remarks on the Cryptogams in

general we will pass on to consider each of the groups a little more

in detail and will begin with the alge, dealing in later atticles with

each of the other groups in turn.

THe ALG#

The alge form a very large group of plants, containing several

well defined families or natural orders. They are all aquatic plants,

being found both in fresh and salt water, the former inhabiting

either the running water of streams and rivers, or the still waters of

ponds and lakes, mountain pools or even merely the ‘ wetness’ of

damp rocks and tree trunks, during very rainy weather. The

marine forms are found in every ocean or sea of the globe, spread-

ing from the tropical seas of the Equator to the cold waters of the

Arctic and Antarctic regions.

All the alge contain chlorophyll, but some of them contain in

addition another colouring matter, a blue-green, red or brown pig-

ment, which masks the green of the chlorophyll and gives to the

plant its own particular colour. ‘These several colours appear in

groups of plants which show similar characteristics so that the

colouring is taken as the basis of a classification of the alge and we

get accordingly the blue green alge or the Cyanophycee ; the green

alge or Chlorophycez ; the brown alge or Phzophycee ; and the

red alge or Rhodophycez.

The Cyanophycez are very simple plants, being unicellular, or

grouped in. colonies, or a chain of cells forming a fine thread-_or

filament, too minute to be seen except with a very high power of

the microscope. ‘The threads are associated together into colonies

and may be found as a bluish green felt-like or jelly-like substance

on damp ground, or forming a thin layer at the bases of tree trunks

in wet weather. Some species live in water and form a blue green

scum floating on the surface of ponds and lakes or sticking to stones,

sticks and other water plants, and some are found in sea water.

Reproduction takes place by some of the cells breaking away and

by simple division forming new colonies. No sexual reproduction

has been observed.

The Chlorophycee are also very simple in structure, many of

them consisting of only one cell (see Pl. II, fig. 1) ora colony of

cells, or a chain of single cells forming a fine thread or filament (PI.

Pe fig: 2).

The er ied algze may be found in water taken from almost

any pond, pool or stream; and being relatively fairly large may be

seen with a fairly low power of the microscope. They assume

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII1

various shapes and most of them contain a large chloroplast almost

filling the cell and making the entire contents look green. (PI. II,

fio. 1).

se Rs green algz can be seen with the naked eye, as

masses of delicate green hair floating beneath the surface of the

water—sometimes free—and sometimes attached at one end to

stones or rocks in the bed of the pond or stream. Some species .

live in still water and some in running water—and though they all

look very much alike to the naked eye, examination with the low

power of a microscope reveals differences of structure, especially in

the shape of the chloroplast, which sometimes appears as a flat plate

almost filling the cell; sometimes winds about the cell in a spiral

band, or assumes the form of a broad ring, or takes a star like shape.

Species of Spirogyra are very common, and may be found in almost

any stream and are easily recognized by the spiral chloroplast.

The Chlorophycez reproduce themselves by means of asexual

spores produced by simple cell division; but they also have a well

marked method of sexual reproduction, in which the contents of two

different cells fuse andform a resting spore from which a new plant

develops.

The marine forms of the green alge are often much larger and

have a ribbon-like or plate-like thallus (Pi. II, fig. 2) more resemb-

ing some of the Brown Seaweeds, which with the exception of a few

species are confined to sea water.

The Phzophyceze or brown alga: contain a brown pigment,

which gives to the whole plant a greenish or yellowish-brown colour ;

it is soluble in fresh water and can be dissolved out, leaving the

plant a greenish-yellow colour. Among the Phaophycee are

found types ranging from the simple forms with a branching

filamentous thallus, resembling the green algae, to the gigantic

plants which inhabit the colder waters of the oceans, and have a

complex thallus differentiated into root stem and leaf like structures

(Pl. III, fig. 4). Air bladders developed in the thallus help to keep

them ‘afloat, and well developed . reproductive structures which

produce male-and female spores are found sunk in the thallus as in

Laminaria (Pl. III, fig. 1) where they are seen as little wart-like

structures down the centre, or developed in the higher forms as

distinctive structures (PI. LI, figs. 3 add 4). In the group represent-

ed by Laminaria (PI. III, figs. 1 and 2) the long ribbon-like thallus

often divides into several segments as in fig. 2. A second group—

the Fucacez (fig. 3), has a thallus showing well marked dichotomous

branching, and the rudimentary development of leaf-like structures,

while reproductive organs are borne onthe swollen tips of the

branches. A third group which includes Sargassum (PI. I, fig. 1)

which grows in such.quantities as to have given its name to a sea—

and other species such as Pl. III, fig. 4, has a thallus almost as

complex as a flowering plant, showing well developed root structures,

Stem, leaves and reproductive organs borne on special branches in

the axils of the leaves.

The last group of the alge, the Rhodophycez, or red seaweeds

contain a bright red pigment, soluble in fresh water, which masks

the chlorophyll and gives to the plants of this group their peculiar

Journ. BomBay Nar. His@, Soc, PLATE IIi.

Vad)

yl -X

s Zi asi = Ss.

L772

fey err <>

SOME OF THE BROWN ALG.

1. A species of LAMINARIA. Long ribbon-like thallus unbranched, repro-

ductive bodies small nodules down the centre. Much reduced.

LAMINARIA Diairata. Thallus splits into several ribbon-hke portions.

Much reduced.

3. A species of Fucus. Thallus branched dichotomously, bearing air

bladders (a), and reproductive organs on separate branches (b).

Two-thirds natural size.

4. A type showing differentiation into stem and leaf-like structures, and

special reproductive branches (a). Two-thirds natural size.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS 575

beauty of colouring, which may range from a delicate rose to a deep

purple. The red seaweeds (PI. II, figs. 5, 6 and 7) are usually

smaller and more delicate plants than the brown, and form little

tufts growing on the rocks at the edges of deep pools on the shore,

or just below low water mark. The thallus is usually filamentous

or flattened and branches often dichotomously ; and in many species

there is a deposit of calcium carbonate in the cells of the thallus,

which gives the whole plant a thickened coral like appearance and

has suggested the name Corallina for one of the genera (PI. II, fig.

5). These species are usually found in the Tropics where the coast

is exposed to a strong surf.

Both asexual and sexual spores are produced by the Rhodo-

phyceze. One or two genera of the Rhodophycez—such as

Batracospermum (illustrated in Pl. II, fig. 4) are found in fresh water,

and grow attached to stones or small rocks in the bed of streams.

A few of the seaweeds have a certain amount of economic import-

ance. Some of the larger Pheophycez furnish a useful manure,

while iodine is obtained from the ash, known as kelp, of certain of

the Laminaria and Fucacee. Many of them, containing a kind of

sugar, are used as articles of food by the Chinese and Japanese,

and in Ceylon under the name of Agar-Agar in the preparation of

a kind of jelly.

(To be continued.)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

F. C. FRASER, LT.-COL,, I.M.S., F.E.S,

Part XXXIII

(With two plates and two text-figures)

(Continued from page 301 of this Volume)

Subfamily AGRIONINAE Kirby.

Head transversely elongate; eyes globular, subpetiolate in some, and

widely separated from one another; frons sloping, broader than long, or

quadrate ; occiput broad depressed; ante- and post-clypeus not elevated or

projecting ; antennae four-jointed, segment 1 rudimentary or hidden beneath

the second which is the most robust and longest of all and usually applied flat

to the head, third and fourth segments much more slender and usually shorter ;

labium deeply fissured for its distal third or half.

' Prothorax robust, its posterior lobe large, tumid, triangular or crenate ;

middle lobe with a prominent boss on each side.

Thorax slender, flattened from side to side, elongate ; mesothoracic triangle

absent or very small. Legs long and slender, often very long, the hind pair

extending to the middle of segment 3 or apical end of segment 4 in the male,

or apical end of the 5th in the female; femora and tibiae with long fine

closely-set, bristle-like hairs ; claw-hooks short, situated near the end of

claws.

Wings hyaline, opaque or partly so, coloured or uncoloured, often of a bril-

liant metallic colour or iridescent in the males, but very variable in both genera

and species, usually hyaline and uncoloured in the female, the hind usually

rather broader than the fore and considerably shorter than the abdomen in

both sexes, base narrow but not petiolated; reticulation very close, cells

mostly rectangular in shape; nodesituate about the middle of wing or nearer

base than node ; membrane of wing often markedly pleated ; Azz contiguous

or nearly so with the Radius near its origin ; basal space reticulated, traversed

or entire, equal to about half the length of cubital space; discoidal cell with

the costal border slightly convex or straight, about equal in length to the

basal space, very narrow, traversed by several nervures, its ends squared or a

little oblique ; arc straight or markedly angulate its sectors arising from a

common point at its middle or below that level ; Cuzz markedly convex; /A

markedly convex and often branching proximad ; intercalated sectors between

most sectors, including Cuzz and 7A; most sectors curving strongly towards

the hinder margin of wing and, in some genera, pectinated near their distal

ends ; ante- and post-nodal nervures numerous, the primaries not usually dis-

tinct from the others and the costal and postcostal antenodals usually coincid-

ing ; pterostigma present or absent, often rudimentary in one or both sexes,

very variable in shape and colour, sometimes false in character especially in the

female.

Abdomen very long narrow and cylindrical, the end segments occasionally a

little broadened and depressed ; segment 10 rarely keeled and then only

towards the apex.

Anal appendages all very similar in the genera, superiors rather longer than

segment 10, subcylindrical, spined outwardly, curved forcipate like towards

each other, the apices slightly flattened and often slightly broadened ; inferiors

about two-thirds the length of superiors, broad at base, tapering to a point,

a a

etm taney

TN esis aay ai

Ser ves

Ee dan,

_ oe

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE ]

Ll ee g

TT trod? LRM,

LRP AI RIG

aOEESIMERRON EDIT Ey

i WT

ag ey

Ubi acai

hie:

Hind wing of NMeurobusts chinensis chinensis (Lin.) 2

Hig, 1.

Fig. 2, Wing of Vestalis apicalis apicalis Selys, 3

Fig. 3. Wing of Acho margarita tripartita Selys, 2

Fig, 4. Wing of Cltmacobasts modesta Laid. ¢

Fig. 5. Wing of Watrona basilaris nigripsctus Selys, 2. (This wing has

been shaded light in border to show the venation ; actually it is

dark blackish-brown, the neuration invisible unless the wing be

held up to the light.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES ; 577

straight conical. Genitalia very homogeneous ; penile lobe flattened, elongate

like the body of a tic; lamina deeply cleft ; hamules‘consisting of a quadrate

low-lying outer plate and an inner blunt spine.

Distribution. Throughout the world in temperate and tropical zones.

Represented within Indian limits by six genera, viz.—Neurvobasis, Vestalis,

Echo, Climacobasis, Matrona and Mnais.

KEY TO GENERA

1. Arc angulated ; basal space traversed or entire ;

sectors of arc separated at origin ; main sectors

not forked ; pterostigma absent or present ... 2

Arc oblique, not angulated ; basal space entire ;

sectors of arc arising from a single point ;

most main sectors forked ; pterostigma absent. Vestalis.

2. Basal space traversed; pterostigma absent or

present : Sie aes bc 3

Basal space entire ; pterostigma present sce. Mats.

fon Pterostigma present 4

Pterostigma absent, or if present then abnormal

and traversed by nervures 3

4, Pterostigma differing in the two Sexes , node

situated nearer the pterostigma than base of

wing Climacobasts.

Pierostigma similar in the ‘two sexes, white or

black in colour and broad and rather short;

node situated nearer base of wing than ptero-

stigma Echo.

5. All wings of both sexes opaque black ; ; pterostigma |

white, traversed by nervures, absent inthe male Matrona.

Forewings of both sexes hyaline, the hind opaque

or hyaline; pterostigma absent in the male,

false or absent in the female one .. LNeurobasis,

Genus NEUROBASIS Selys (1853)

Neurobasis Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 17 (1853); Id. Mon. Cal. p. 72 (1854) ;

Walk. List. Neur. Ins. B. M. iv, p. 602 (1853) ; Will. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus. vol. xxxiii, p. 170 (1904) ; Munz, Mem. Ent. Soc. Amer. No. 3,

p. 44 (1919).

Characters as for the subfamily ; forewings of male hyaline, hindwings opaque

and coloured partly with brilliant metallic green and blue; all wings of female

hyaline but with an opaque whitish spot at the node; pterostigma absent in

the male, false and whitish in the female; basal space traversed by several

nervures ; Azz near its origin almost confluent with the radius; Azzz usually

arising slightly proximad of the subnode ; sectors of arc arising from near middle

of arc which is distinctly angulated ; anal area of wings reticulated but no

distinct proximal branch running from /4.

Larvae very elongate and narrow, resembling a phasmid superficially ; head

rather small, eyes globular; antennae seven-jointed, the second joint very robust

and longer than all the rest taken together; synthorax long and narrow, wing-

cases leaflike, directed straight back and closely apposed to the body ; abdomen

cylindrical, long, narrow, tapering slightly towards the anal end; caudal gills

three in number, triquetral in shape, the dorsal one shorter than the latero-

ventral ones, which are very long and oar-like; legs long and spidery, slim ;

mask with middle lobe deeply cleft, setee present on lateral lobes and branches

of middle lobe, some robust spines on lateral lobes, one of which forms the

movable hook ; mask extending as far back as origin of hind legs. Genotype—

N. chinensis chinensis (Linn).

Distribution. Southern Asia and South China, Philippines, Ceylon, Java,

Borneo, New Guinea and Australasia. The genus contains two species, of

which only one is found within Indian limits, viz., chinensis, of which several

races or subspecies are known from the Philippines and the islands of south

Asia. As regards the second species, £awpi, I regard it as belonging doubtfully

to the genus.

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Both sexes are found along the banks of streams and rarely if ever stray into

the neighbouring jungles. Males are commonly seen flitting up and down

stream, hugging the surface of the water so closely, that when passing over

disturbed water, such as arapid, they are seen to rise and fall, following the

undulations and ripples of the water’s surface. In this act, only the forewings

of the insect are used to propel it, the hind being used as sustaining planes,

outspread and motionless like the wings of an aeroplane, and flashing with a

brilliant play of emerald green and peacock blue as the plane of the wings is

altered to sustain the insect’s balance. They rest on over-hanging ferns and

herbage beside the parent stream or more commonly perch with closed wings on

arock in midstream. Thefemale has somewhat similar habits but is not given

to planing over water; mating is rarely seen ; ovipositing takes place when the

insects are 77 Cop and this usually in a swift current, the insects clinging to some

object such as the rootlets of a tree and descending far under water, where they

are swept from side to side with every eddy of the current, the female meanwhile

Sinserting her eggs in the substance of the root.

Neurobasis chenensis chinensis (Linn). (1758).

Libellula chinensis, Linn. Syst. Nat. i. p. 545, n. 15 (1758) ; Edwards, Nat.

Hist. Birds, iii. t. 112 (1750) ; Donovan, Ins. China, t. 46, f. i, I (1798).

Agrion nobtlitata, Fabr. Gen. Ins. p 248 (1776).

Agrion chinensis, Guérin. Icon. R. Anim., Ins. p, 382, t. 60, f. 4 (1829-44).

Calopteryx chinensis, Ramb. Ins Névrop. p. 226 (1842).

Calopteryx dispartlis, Ramb. Ins. Névrop. p. 224 (1842).

Calopteryx sinensis, Walk, List. Neur. Ins. B. M. iv, p. 602 (1853).

Neurobasis chinensis, Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 18 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 72

(1854) ; Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xlvii, p. 359 (1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon.

p- 102 (1890) ; Id. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxiv, pp. 545, 558 (1893) ;

Selys, Odon. Jap. Ann.-Soc. Ent. Belg. ‘T.: xxvii, p. 149 (lesa

Forst. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. xli, pp. 204-210 (1897) ; Kruger, Stett. Ent.

Zeit, pp. 74, 75 (1898) ; Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. pp. 86, 87 (1902) ;

Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 187, fig. 18 (1904) ; Laid.

Fascic. Malay, Odonata, Part i, pp. 192-193 (1906) ; Ris, Ann. Soc.

Ent. Belg. T. lv, p. 234 (1911) ; Id. Fauna Simalur. (Odom) p. 6 (1914);

Laid Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. viii p. 340 (1914) ; Id. ibid. vol. xili, p. 25

(1917) ; Tillyard, Biol. Drag. Pl. fig..7 (1917) ; Munz, Mem’. Amer

Ent. Soc. No. 3, Pl. iii, fig. 14 (1919); Fras. Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat.

Hist. Suppl. vol. iii, No. 4, p. 459 (1919) ; Laid: Proce?” Zool? soe

Lond. p. 325 (1920); Fras. Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat. Hist. Suppl. vol.

iv, No, 3, p. 164 (1921) ;Id. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. xxix, p.

476 (1923) ; Id. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, pp. 428 and 479 (1924) ; Laid.

Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, pts. 47-48, p. 355 (1924); Fras. Treubia, vol.

viii, L. 3-4, p. 469 (1926) ; Fras. Journ. Siam Soc, Nat. Hist. vol. vii,

No. 2;°p.:.88; (1927):

Male Abdomen 45-50 mm. Hindwing 32-38 mm. ©

Head : labium with middle lobe whitish, laterallobes metallic green ; labrum

turquoise blue with a large triangular medio-basal black spot with its apex

directed towards the anterior border and sometimes meeting it; cheeks and

bases of mandibles palest blue ; anteclypeus with a small median yellow spot,

the remainder and postclypeus glossy metallic green; a large spot of yellow on

each side of postclypeus ; rest of head metallic green with a coppery reflex on

occiput and vertex ; antennae with the basal and second joints pale biue ; eyes

blackish brown in the upper two-thirds, bluish green in the lower third, the two

areas sharply defined.

Prothorax bronzed green with a coppery reflex ; posterior lobe truncate, its

sides bluish white.

Thorax brilliant green metallic with the humeral and antero lateral blackish

brown, the former diffusely so and clouded with bronzed brown anteriorly, the

latter finely, the postero-lateral suture white, bordered with black, which is

confluent in places, cutting up the white into spots ; beneath white barred with

black ; tergum brown with metallic spots at bases of wings and two coral-white

spots.

Shee very long and slim, the hind pair extending to apical border of segment

4; femora dark bronze, white on flexor surface changing to brown distad ;

tibiae white, black on flexor surface ; tarsi black, ;

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 979

Wings moderately rounded at apices, especially the hind ; forewings consider-

ably longer than the hind, hyaline tinted with pale yellowish green especially

along the costa and at apex, neuration brilliant emerald green especially the

costa and main nervures, node thickened and narrowly clouded with brown ;

hindwings opaque, the basal two-thirds brilliant metallic green or peacock blue

according from which angle viewed, apical third blackish brown with violace-

ous reflex and green metallic nervures. The change from metallic green to

black, near the apex, abrupt and nearly in a straight line from costa to hinder

margin of wing, the basal space and some adjacent cells, and some of the basal

cells of the costal space hyaline. Beneath wings, the fore similar to above, the

hind of nearly uniform blackish brown with dull coppery or golden reflex, the

neuration finely green metallic; 6 to 9, usually 7, nervures in basal space ;

discoidal cell traversed 7 to 13 times in forewings, 11 to 13 in the hind ; nodal

65~44|41-63 59-35/42-60 : . ;

i eins oii 4a, ee he eS : all wv

index =-Fj\49-72 ' 70-35|40-68° pterostigma absent in all wings

Abdomen narrow and cylindrical, much longer than wings, green bronzed

metallic above and at sides with the intersegmental joints brighter emerald

green finely bordered with black ; beneath black, except segments 9 and 10

which are whitish.

Anal appendages black, the superiors with basal half dull metallic green,

the inferiors white at base; superiors slightly longer than segment 10, sub-

cylindrical in the basal half, broadening and flattened in the apical and

furnished along the outer border after the middle with 4 to 6 spines; from

above they are seen to curve gradually and evenly in, their apices almost

meeting ; seen from the side, broad at base, tapering to a blunt apex. Inferiors

one-fourth shorter than superiors, nearly straight, moderately separated, very

broad at base then narrowing abruptly at junction of basal and middle thirds,

ending in a blunt apex which is furnished with a small inwardly directed

spine.

aiialc. Abdomen 44-50 mm. Hindwing 36-40 mm.

Differs in many respects from the male and therefore liable to be mistaken

for a different species.

Head : labium pale yellow, white at base; labrum, cheeks, bases of mandi-

bles, the lower third of eyes and the two basal segments of antennae greenish

yellow, the labrum with a small medio-basal tongue of black ; anteclypeus

pale; postclypeus metallic green with a small oval spot of pale yellow on each

side; upper two-thirds of eyes warm brownish black; rest of head brilliant

metallic green.

Prothorax and thorax as for male but the latter with humeral and lateral

sutures finely white bordered with black, the latter confluent in parts so

as to cut up the white into spots; postero-lateral suture very broadly white,

this colour completely framing the metepimeron enclosing an elongate

triangle of metallic green which surmounts a large triangular patch of yeilowish

white below. Beneath thorax greyish white, unmarked with black.

Legs as for male but the pale parts creamy yellow.

Wings entirely hyaline tinted with yellow palely enfumed with brown,

especially at apices and along costa from base to node in the forewings, and

generally deeper in tint throughout the whole of hindwings, which have

occasionally a diffuse denser patch nearly traversing the wings just proximad

of pterostigma. All wings with an opaque creamy yellow patch at the node

which usually covers one cell distad of node; a creamy white pterostigma

in the hindwings, variably present. reduced or entirely absent in the forewings,

made up of 7 to 9 cells in the hindwing but sometimes with as many as J4, the

nervures traversing it often incomplete and often missing in places ; made up

of 1 to several cells in forewing when present. (In specimens from the Malabar

Wynaad it is usually entirely absent in all wings, in Coorg forms it is very

small and traversed by only 3-4 nervures and there is no widening of the gap

between the costa and /’z as is usual in other species where the pterostigma

is situated ; Nilgiri forms are variable, there being a vestigial pterostigma in

one or other wing and none in the others ; in Siamese forms the pterostigma is

better developed and there is a definite divergence of the costa from the radius,

also in some specimens, the pterostigma is entire or at the most, a single

traversing nervure at the two ends.) Other details of neuration similar to the

male. ,

580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Abdomen dull bronzed metallic green with a golden reflex on dorsum, black

beneath but thinly pruinosed. Al] segments with a lateral stripe on each side,

rather obscure on segments 5 to 7, broad and conspicuous on 9 and 10, expand-

ing at the avex of each segment as a large spot, which on segments 5 to 7, -

is usually the only vestige of the stripe present. The stripe bordered above

and below with black. All segments with a transverse subapical black

marking ; segments 8 to 10 with the dorsal carina yellow, this stripe broaden-

ing progressively as far as the apical end of segment 10 which ends in a distinct

keel and a fine apical spine; laterally segment 10 has a small tubercle on each

side surmounted by some minute teeth.

Anal appendages stout, conical, pointed, rather shorter than segment 10,”

dark brown.

Vulvar scale greenish or olivaceous yellow, extending to apex of segment 10.

Distribution. Throughout India except in desert areas, up to about 7,500 ft.

I have taken it at sea-level at Vizagapatam, in the Lova Gardens, and at

Ootacamund on the kundah streams at 7,500 ft., but such situations are

exceptional, 3,000 to 4,000 ft. being the altitude it usually favours. It breeds

in montane and submontane streams, the larva clinging to roots and submerged

water plants. I have examined specimens from Ceylon, South Kanara, Coorg,

Malabar, Palni Hills, Deccan, Bengal, Assam, Burma, Siam and Annam and

find remarkably little variation save in size; females vary only as to the

pterostigma, as already commented on above. Definite races are unknown

within Indian limits. Specimens from Coorg and the Nilgiri Wynaad have

the pterostigma in the forewings of females absent but well developed in

the hind. Some of the Coorg females have the hindwings of a remarkably

deep tint of burnt brown and the dark preapical fascia intensely developed.

Females from the Palni Hills, 6,000 ft. have no pterostigma in forewings,

but a single female from Ootacamund, 7,500 ft. has it well developed in

all wings.

Although widely distributed, the species shows a predilection for certain

streams, thus its local distribution takes the form of widely scattered

colonies.

Genus VESTALIS Selys (1853),

Vestalis Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 24 (1853); Id. Mon. Cal. p. 79 (1854) ;

Walk. List. Neur. Ins. B. M. iv, p. 610 (1853).

Characters as for the subfamily; wings of both sexes rounded at apex,

entirely hyaline or partly opaque or metallic ; pterostigma absent in both sexes ;

basal space entire; Azz confluent near its origin and for some distance with the

radius ; Aez2zZ usually arising at or slightly proximad of the subnode; sectors of

are arising from the lower part of arc; discoidal cell equal in length to the

basal space, traversed by several nervures; arc not angulated; anal area

simple, /A not sending offany proximal branch ; JA, Cui, Riv + vand Riti

branched and pectinate at the distal ends, 7A unbranched.

Legs long and spidery. Abdomen cylindrical slim and of great length.

Ground colour of head, thorax, and abdomen metallic green or blue. Larvae

very similar to that of Wewrobasis. Genotype—V. luctuosa (Burm).

Distribution. Throughout the oriental region, Sondaic archipelago and

Philippines. Five species taken within Indian and Ceylon limits.

Breeds in montane and submontane streams, gregarious in nature. Large

colonies are found inhabiting the rides of open spaces in forests, and along

some shaded pathways, almost every twig will be found to have its occupant.

When aestivating cr feeding up, it will spread far inland from its parent

streams, thus I have found it on the top of wooded hills and it is not an

tuncommon insect on Malabar Hill, Bombay. It is as much a woodland insect

as Neurobasis is a riverine one, but appears to resort to streams for mating, as

courtship is never witnessed in the jungle. Unlike /eurobasis, the female

oviposits in blades of grass or juicy stems overhanging a stream, often several

feet above the water’s surface, the newly haiched larvaedropping from thence

into the water. (Similar habits have been noticed for Lestes and Jetrathemis.)

sy its habits and general facies, the genus is closely related to the African genus

Phaon whieh has a similar scattered distribution throughout. Africa and

dominates the Agrionide there as does Vestalis throughout the oriental

region.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 581

KEY TO SPECIES OF GENUS Vestalis

1. Apices of wings tipped with black ... ies 2

Apices of wings hyaline... aie 3

2. Labrum entirely black ; Ceylon species V. nigrescens.

Labrum yellow marked with black ; Continental

species Hoek te OP ICAl Use

3. Wings tinted uniformly with golden yellow eats 1S smaragdina. |

Wings untinted or but partially so

4. Two rows of cells between origins of Cuzz and IA V.amena.

Only a single row of cells between Cuzz and JA... V. gracilis.

Fic. 1.

A. <Anal appendage of Meurobasis chinensis Lin., seen form below.

B. The same of Vestalts apicalis Selys.

C. The same of Caliphaea confusa Selys.

Vestallis gracils gracilis (Ramb) (1842). poate

Vestalis gracilis, Selys, mee Cal. p. 26 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 84 (1854) ;

Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 102 (1890) ; pelys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Ce (2),

(XXX) De OO (1891) : Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii,

p. 183, fig. 15 (1904) ; Martin, Mission Pavie, Névrop. (sep.) p. 15

(1904) ; Munz, Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc. Pl. iv, fig. 18 (1914) ; Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus. vol. viii, p. 340, (1914); Id. lbid. vol. xili, p. 30 (1917);

Fras. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. xxix, p, 476, (1923) ; Id. Rec.

Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, p, 479 (1924)

Calopteryx gracilis, Ramb. Ins. Névrop. p. ?24 (1842) ; Walk. List. Neur.

Ins, 5. Mi iv, ps 611. (1853).

Male. Abdomen 45-56mm. Hindwing 34-38 min.

Head: labium yellow ; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks, anteclypeus, the

two basal seginents of antennae and an oblique oval spot on each side of frons

converging on each other above, bright yellow, the labrum with a medio-basal

triangle of black and occasionally an ill-defined bar of basal black ; tke yellow

spots on frons often obscure or even absent; the basal joints of antennae

occasionally dark brown; rest of head brilliant metallic green with a golden

reflex in some. Eyes dark brown in the upper two-thirds, greenish yellow in

the lower and beneath.

Prothorax metallic emerald green on dorsum and sides, yellowish on the lower

ae of sides and beneath. Posterior lobe truncate, bordered finely with

yellow.

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Thorax brilliant metallic emerald green, the middorsal carina finely black,

the humeral and antero-lateral sutures finely yellow, the metepimeron yellow

ochre except for a narrow elongate triangle of metallic green at its centre.

Beneath and veutro-lateral borders yellow ochre, unmarked.

Legs pale to-dark brown, the flexor surfaces of tibiae and extensor surfaces

of femora paler or yellow. In some, the legs are dark reddish or blackish

brown.

Wings hyaline, iridescent with colours of mother of pearl or blue in

some lights, especially the central parts of forewings, tinted variably with

greenish yellow as follows,—the whole of the hindwings uniformly, the base of

forewings as far as out as the distal end of discoidal cell, the whole length of

costa between the costa and nervure Azz and the extreme apex of wing. This

tinting very variable and quite absent in teneral forms, always more intense in

old adults and in forms from Assam, Burma and Siam, some of which, from

the latter country, have the apices enfumed as well as tinted, although not to

the same extent as in @pzcalis. Discoidal cell traversed 4-6 times in the

forewing, 3-5 in the hind, the more eastern forms seeming to te the most

: cant : 65-25|26-65

closely reticulated ; nodal indices of three random specimens, 53294 /04-54 °

§66-28/30-67 62-30/26-54

52-26/24-57 ’ 50-24125-48°

Abdomen metallic green or blue, usually peacock-blue in tenerals, emerald-

green in adults with a narrow interrupted basal yellow ring on segments 2 to 6,

and the sides of segments 1, 2 and basal end of 3 yellowish. Beneath black.

Segment 10 with a robust keel at its apical dorsal end which ends in an apical

spine ; a more or less robust spine on the apical border of same segment on

each side.

Anal appendages black ; superiors rather longer than segment 10, widely

separated, broad at base then subcylindrical and finally flattened at apex where

the end is bevelled and terminates in a sharp spine; a blunt dorsal conical

Spine at extreme base and some coarse spines along outer border, two or three

of which are larger than the rest. Seen from above, these appendages are

curved evenly inwards to almost meet at apex. Inferiors widely separated,

about two-thirds the length of superiors, conical, tapering to an obtuse

rounded apex.

Female. Abdomen 43-50 mm. Hindwing 36-39 mm.

Exactly similar to the malein colour and markings, but the abdomen usually

more dully metallic and segments 8-10 yellow laterally.

Anal appendages and ovipositor dark brown, the former conical pointed,

slightly shorter than segment 10 which latter is keeled and spined as in the

male.

Distribution. ‘That ofthe genus. After examining many scores of specimens

from the Western and Eastern Ghats, Bengal, Assam, Upper and Lower

Burma, Siam, Annam and Tonkin, I am unable to find differences of racial or

even varietal value, unless it be that specimens from the latter three localities

are of a deeper tint as to the wings. It is this tinting which serves to separate

gracilis from apicalis, some specimens of the former occasionally having the

apices of the wings enfumed and so liable to be confused with the latter.

Gracilis and apicalis are frequently foundin company, and taking pruinescence

as a measure of full adulthood, we find specimens heavily pruinosed, in which

there is either no sign of apical darkening of the wings or at the most, a poorly

defined shadow of such. These specimens are the true gracilis; similarly

pruinosed specimens of apzcalis found in their company have the apices of

wings deep blackish brown and very sharply defined. The great length of the

abdomen of gracilis mentioned by Rambur, Selys and other authors, is not

found to be constant when a large series of specimens is examined, the follow-

ing ratios of wing length being found from different localities :—

Abdomen Hindwing

Nilgiris 46-53 mm. 35-38 mm.

Burma 45 mm. 36 mm.

Siam 45 mm. 35 mm.

Bengal 56 mm. 38 mm.

Eastern Ghats 50 mm. 34 mm,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 583

Vestalis gracilis ama#na subsp. nov.

‘Male and female. Measurements, colouring and markings exactly similar to

gracilis gracilis but the venation corresponding to that of amena in that there

is only a single row of cells separating 7A and Cuzz. The venation is decidedly

closer than in am@na and there are 3 to 4 rows of cells between /A4 and the

hinder margin of wing as in true graci/is. On the whole this subspecies

appears to be rather smaller than gracilis gracilis and may represent a bridge

between two closely allied forms.

Distribution. Coorg and the Nilgiri Wynaad, all specimens taken at about

3,500 ft. altitude.

Vestalis apicalis apicalis Selys (1873).

Vestalis apicalis Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xxxvi, p. 612 (1873) ; Id.

ibid. (2) xlvii, p..362- (1879) ;. Kirby, Cat.»Odon. p.'.102 (1890) ; Id.

Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) xxiv, pp. 558-559 (1893) ; Laid. Rec. Ind.

Mus. vol. xiii, p. 30 (1917) ; Fras. Journ. Siam. Soc. vol. iv, p. 164

(1921) ; Id. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xsvi, p. 479 (1924); Laid. Spolia

Zeylanica, vol. xii, parts 47 and 48, pp. 355, 356 (1924).

Nurobasis apicalis Kirby, Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. p. 204, pl. xx, fig. 2

(1891).

Male. Abdomen 49-55 mm. Hindwing 36-39 mm.

Head: labium, labrum, cheeks, bases of mandibles and basal joints of

antennae coloured as in gracilis gracilis, rest of head metallic emerald green ;

eyes brown in the upper two-thirds, olivaceous or yellow in the lower. Antennal

basal joints often brownish black inwardly, and the labrum sometimes with a

broad quadrate basal spot or broad blackish brown line.

Prothorax and thorax coloured similarly to gracilis gracil1s but the posterior

lobe of former more conspicuously bordered with yellow. Legs blackish brown,

the flexor surfaces of femora, the extensor surfaces of tibiae and the coxae

yellow.

Wings hyaline, adult forms sometimes tinted as in gracz/zs but not as deeply ;

apices of all wings broadly tipped with blackish brown for about the distal

5 mm.; venational details very similar to those of gracilis; discoidal cell

traversed 4 to 5 times in the forewing, 2 to 4 times in the hind; 10 cubital

66-30/30-65

nervures in the forewing, 8 to 9 in the hind; nodal index — 61-97 /26-68:

68-24|27-69

54-24|24-55°

Abdomen metallic emerald green marked with yellow as in gracilis on

segments 1 to 3; intersegmental nodes black; obsolete subapical black

transverse spots on segments 1 to 4, beneath black, often pruinosed more or

less,

Anal appendages black ; superiors gradually curving inwards from base to

apex, coarsely spined along the outer border, broad at base, subcylindrical

thereafter but broadening at end and shallowly bifid at apex which is much

broadened and bevelled inwardly, the inner end bearing a sharp spine, the

outer truncate and blunt. Inferior appendages about two-thirds the length of

superiors, cylindrical but broad at base, apices blunt.

Female. Abdomen 46-50 mm. Hindwing 38-40 mm.

Closely similar to the male; the labrum usually with a basal line in

continuation with the medio-basal black spot ; often an oblique paler area on

each side of frons similar to that often seen in gracz/is, and often a small pale

area on the outer side of each lateral ocellus. °

Thorax with humeral and lateral sutures yellow, the former and antero-

lateral narrowly bordered with brown.

Wings similar to the male but the apical marking u:ually paler and less

Sharply defined.

Abdomen more coppery metallic and of a more dull metallic than in the

male; segments 2 to 5 with narrow basal interrupted yellow rings or paired

subbasal spots; the ventro-lateral borders of segments 1 to 4 or 5 yellow ;

segment 10 with a well marked dorsal keel ending in a sharp spine, and with a

smaller spine on each side. Ovipositor as in gracz/js,

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

Distribution. Coincides closely with that of gvacilis, but in Ceylon is

replaced by a closely allied species. Nearly always found in company with

gracilis and has exactly similar habits. Distinguished from other species by

the black apices of wings.

Vestalis apicalis amana subsp. nov.

Male and female closely similar to apicalis apicalis and bearing the same

relation to it as does gracilis amaena to gracilis gracilis.

Differs from apzcalis by the cheeks all glossy black and by the black apex of

wings much restricted, occupying only about 2°5 mm. (in some specimens

usually females, this marking is not sharply defined).

Venation resembling that of amcéna, there being only a single row of cells

between Cuzz and JA; usually 3 to 4 rows of cells between ZA and the wing

border for a short distance. In some specimens the dorsal keel and spine are

absent on segment 10, but the lateral spine is always present.

In a specimen from the Nilgiris, the labrum is bordered with black, the

cheeks are entirely black ; the thorax is a beautiful metallic emerald with black

sutures, even the upper part of the postero-lateral suture being of this colour ;

the abdomen is very dull metallic, the end segments being matt black. Ina

specimen from Anantagiri, Eastern Ghats, the colouring is coppery or golden

bronzed green, the head being coloured and marked as in the Nilgiri form ; the

thorax with the sutures black except the postero-lateral one ; the abdomen is

more brightly metailic; the size is much smaller (abdomen 47 mm. hindwing

34 mm.) ; the apices of all wings are deep black. These two forms may repre-

sent distinct races.

Distribution. Nilgiris and Eastern Ghats. Easily distinguished by the

combination of apical black marking to all wings and a'single row of cells

between Cuzz and JA, and the cheeks vlossy black.

Vestalis nigrescens sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 46-50 mm. Hindwing 35-37 mm.

Head : labium brownish yellow pruinosed white laterally and at base ; labrum

and epistome blackish brown ; cheeks, bases of mandibles and basal segments

of antennae black; rest of head dark metallic green with a blue reflex ; eyes

brownish black above, paler below.

Prothorax metallic green, borders of posterior lobe black.

Thorax dark metallic green, the dorsum with a peacock-blue reflex, middor-

sal carina finely black, humeral suture rather broadly outlined in black, antero-

lateral suture finely black, postero-lateral suture cinereous bordered with black;

beneath white with a posterior black spot which may be obscured by pruine-

scence, Legs entirely black.

Wings hyaline; apices of all, for nearly one-third of the distance from apex to

node, deep black ; nodal index similar to that of apizcalzs ; 4 to 6 transverse

nervures in the discoidal cell ; 2 rows of cells between Cuzz and JA at origins ;

Riz arising at, or slightly proximal or distal to the subnode.

Abdomen dark metallic green on segments 1 to 5, rest of segments matt black,

intersegmental nodes blackish brown, base of segment 1 pruinosed white ;

segment 10 with a robust apical keel and spine on dorsum, and a lateral spine

on each side.

Anal appendages black ; superiors and inferiors showing no marked differ-

ences from those of apicalis, the lateral spines finer, the apex of superior

appendages more truncate, the inferior appendages more sinuous and their

apex with a fine point on the inner side.

Female. Abdomen 43mm. Hindwing 38 mm.

Differs from the male by the labium whitish, labrum yellow with a medio-

basal black triangular spot ; cheeks, except against the eyes, bases of mandi-

bles and basal-segments of antennae yellow. .

Thorax very similar to that of male but the antero-lateral suture with a trace

of yellow, and the postero-lateral broadly so. Beneath yellow with a black

triangular spot asin the male. Legs entirely black.

Wings hyaline, apices of all wings enfumed, this tinting vignetted off

proximad. Details of venation similar to the male.

Abdomen with the metallic colouring confined tosegments 1 and 2 and base

of 3; segment 10 with a robust keel on dorsum, and lateral apical spines. Anal

appendages short conical pointed black ; ovipositor dark yellow,

LNDIAN DRAGONFLIES 585

Distribution. This beautiful species is confined to Ceylon and was dis-

covered by Col. F. Wall, I.mM.s., to whom I am indebted for specimens

collected by him at Nalande, 11. ix. 24 and Kandy, 1. ix. 24, at 2,000 ft. The

species is easily distinguished from others of the genus by its dark colouring

which gives it a close superficial resemblance of Hecho margarita, the dark

metallic colouring being more similar to that species. The black labrum,

antennae and legs and the non-metallic abdomen serve to distinguish it from

apicalis. Laidlaw reports apicalzs from Ceylon but has probably confused this

species with it. He gives the following localities and dates for his apzc¢alis,—

‘Kandy, July, November ; Ratnapura, October ; Haragama, July: Peradeniya

December 29.’

Vestalis amana amena ‘Selys.) (1853).

Vestalis amena Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 25 (1853) ; Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2),

Xxxv, p. 4/5 (1873) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 82 (1854) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon.

prc105 Gi3890) = Kruse. stett. nt: -Zewts p. 75 (1898) +3 Laid:-Proc, Zool.

Soc.” Lond. p..87 (1902); Id. ibid. pp. 30-31 (1915); Karsch, Ent.

Nachr.. xvii; No= 16; p:..243° (1881) ;'| Will. Proc. U. S.. Nat.. Mus.

vol. xxviii, p. 183 (1904) ; Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. p. 326 (1920).

Calopteryx ameia Walk. List. Neur. Ins. B.M. iv. p. 611 (1853).

Male. Abdomen 38-52 mm. Hindwing 31-38 mm.

Head: labium yellow clouded with black in adults; labrum black witha

small yellow spot om each side at the base, or in subadults, yellow heavily

bordered with black and with a medio-basal tongue of black ; the bases of man-

dibles and the base of the second joint of antennae yellow; rest of head a

beautiful dark metallic green ; eyes blackish brown above, paler below.

Prothorax metallic emerald green, the posterior border of posterior lobe

finely yellow. |

Thorax metallic emerald green with the humeral and first lateral sutures

black ; hinder suture and posterior border of metepimeron yellow. Beneath

pale yellow spotted with black. Legs dark brown to black, the hind femora

paler or brown towards the proximal end.

Wings hyaline often with a pale yellowish green tinge and iridescent if

viewed from an angle in a good light; only a single row of cells between the

proximal ends of Cuzz and JA and only 2 rows of cells between the latter and

hinder margin of wing; the distal ends of main sectors curved down at a

greater angle towards the hinder margin of wing ; discoidal cell traversed by 2

to 3 nervures in forewing, by 3 to4 in the hind ; 9to10 cubital nervuresin all

= Baa ind 55-25|27-53

wings ; nodal index, -- Fea 7\55—go:

Abdomen metallic green passing to matt black after segment 4 or 5, segment

10 with a dorsal keel ending ina minute spine and with a small spine on each

side of apical border as in graczlts.

Anal appendages black ; superiors rather longer than segment 10, curving

gradually towards one another and almost meeting at apices, subcylindrical at

base but compressed at apex and bifid so as to form two small branches, the

upper or outer the longer, the other lower or inner short and blunt, spined

coarsely on the outer side. Inferiors about two-thirds the length of superiors,

widely separated at base, subcylindrical, nearly straight, apex blunt, base

tumid.

Female. Abdomen 35-40 mm. Hindwing 34-39 mm.

Similar to male in markings and colouring and venational details ; nodal

EOE IA

index, — ae eel ;8to 10, cubital nervures ; discoidal cell traversed 2 to 3

times usually twice in all wings. Borders and apices of wings in old specimens

enfumed with brown.

Distribution. The type comes from Java but the species appears to be wide

spread, as 1 have seen specimens from Lower Burma, Sumatra, Borneo and

Siam. The markings vary considerably according to the age of speciinens,

especially the labrum and antennae which may be quite black in old adults.

The ground colour is peacock-blue in tenerals and changes gradually through

brilliant emerald green to coppery or golden bronze. The colour of the labrum

and venation will serve to identify it from other species,

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Vestalis smaragdina (Selys) (1879).

Vestalis smaragdina Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xlvii, p. 362 (1879) ;

Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 103 (1890) ; Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2) x

(xxx), p. 488 (1891) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. XXViii, p. 183

(1904) ; Ris. (subsp. vellata) Suppl. Ent. No. 1, p. 56, T. iv, fig. 2

(1912) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, pp. 29 and 30. (1917).

Male. Abdomen 42-45 mm. Hindwing 32-35 mm.

Head :labium black ; whole of rest of head including the labrum, bases of

mandibles, cheeks and basal segments of antennae brilliant metallic green or

peacock-blue according from which angle viewed ; eyes brown above for the

upper two-thirds, yellowish green below.

Prothorax metallic emerald green ; posterior lobe large, rounded.

Thorax brilliant metallic emerald green with a blue reflex on the dorsum ;

lower half of sides including the whole cf metepimeron, beneath thorax, and

all the coxae bright yellow.

Legs very long and slim, brown in tenerals, black in adults.

Wings hyaline tinted with yellow throughout in subadults but only at the

base in fuli adults, in which the wings have a pale greenish tinge ; only a single

row of cells between Cuzz and JA as in am@na, and not more than 3 rows

between the latter nervure and hinder border of wing ; cubital space with the

basal nervure (ac) usually isolated and with 2 or3 nervures traversing it at its

outer end ; discoidal cell traversed 2 or 3 times, usually only twice ; nodal index

54-20)21-53 52-20\21-53 40-24)20-42 Diceeiaal 1 q

49°T)|17-48' -4516| 1946 Se=Is7e7 eee

only once in all wings of one specimen.)

Abdomen metallic emerald green on dorsum and sides, black beneath ;

segment 1 broadly citron yellow on the sides and base of dorsum, the end

segments more dully metallic and often pruinosed white on dorsum. Segment

10 neither keeled nor spined.

Anal appendages black, rather longer than segment 10, curving in gradually

to meet at apices but inclined to be angulated in at about the middle, outer

border finely spined, base broad and with a very robust dorsal spine inclining

outward, then subcylindrical and finally broadening out at apex which is deeply

bifid, the outer branch much the longer, the inner about half its length and

both rounded and blunt at apex. Inferior appendage about two-thirds the

length of superiors, slim, cylindrical, ending in an acute inwardly directed

spine.

eee Abdomen 34-38 mm. Hindwing 30-34 mm.

Exactly similar to the inale in colouring but the sides of segment 3 and lower

parts of sides of segments 8 to 10 yellow. Segment 10 has a dorsal keel ending

in an apical spine and asmall spine on each side of the apical border as in

gracilis. Vulvar scale robust, yellow.

Wings more highly coloured and evenly saffronated except in very old

specimens, the nervures rich ochre ; venational details similar to the male.

Anal appendages short conical pointed, brown or blackish brown.

Distribution. Assam, Burma and Thibet. The type comes from the Khasia

Hills, Assam, from where also the species has been taken by Mr. Bainbrigge

Fletcher at Shillong, during the months of September to November, the

earliest date being 18. ix., the latest 6. xi. Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher sends me

the following note about the species,—‘ One seen over small stream with

muddy banks. Lower part of thorax sulphur yellow. Pruinosed marking on

dorsal Portions of posterior segments of abdomen very Svaeieaee when

flying.’

variable, —

Genus ECHO SELYS (1853).

Echo Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 19 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 67 (1854) ; Walk. List.

Ins, Neur, B.M. iv. p. 604 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 101 (1890);

Laid. Fascic. Malayenses (Zool. i, part i, p. 192 (1903) ; Will. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Hist. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 170 (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus.

vol, xiii, pp. 26-28 (1917).

Characters of the subfamily, ground colour dark metallic green and black ;

thorax short robust ; legs long and slim ; abdomen slim cylindrical, considerably

longer than the wings; wings closely reticulated, hyaline or partly opaque

buRN. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Ei

Photographs by Mr. Bainbrigge Hletcher.

Upper photograph shows a stream flowing from the lake at west end of

fruit garden, Shillong, a favourite place for Echo margarita tripartita Selys.

Lower photograph is that of a stream at east end of valley, Shillong,

where are found Matrona, Echo and Rhinocvpha ignipennis and R. spuria.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 587

black in both sexes ; apices of all wings rounded ; pterostigma opaque white or

black, short and broad, and of the same shape in both sexes, costal side shorter

than the posterior which is markedly rounded, situated much nearer the apex

of wings than is usual in the subfamily ; median (basal) space traversed by

many nervures; Azz near its origin, confluent with the radius ; #¢7zz usually

arising a little proximad of the subnode ; are angulated, sectors of arc arising

from it separately a little below its middle ; discoidal cell about equal to the

length of median space, traversed by several nervures; anal area moderately

simple ; /A strongly forked a little after its origin ; none of the sectors pectinate

or branched but numerous intercalated sectors between all main nervures ;

node situated nearer base of wing than to pterostigma.

Larva somewhat similar to that of Neurobasis. Genotype—cho margarita

margarita Selys.

Distribution. Assam and Upper Burma. Selys given ‘ China ?’ as the

locality of the genotype but this is probably an error. Dr. Laidlaw (Rec. Ind.

Mus. vol. xiii, pp. 26 and 28.) cousiders that his genus Climacobasis is

synonymous with “cho but this is due to an error in his interpretation of the

_ Selysian description of &. szargarita and secondly to a wrong impression gain-

ed of the shape of the pterostigma in amale in the Indian Museum collection,

He states that,—‘ When Selys described the male of &. margarita, he did not

call attention to the difference in the shape of the pterostigma in the two sexes ’

but as the shape is identicalin the two sexes, there was no call for Selys to

make any comment on this point. As regards the specimen in the indian

Museum, I have made a re-examination ofit and find that its pterostigma does

not differ from that of the female. For reasons mentioned under genus

Climicobasis, 1 consider it a good genus. Dr. Laidlaw also suggests that

Kirby’s Archineura and Martin’s Hcho maxima also belong to genus Acho. As

regards the former, the basal neuration is so different that one cannot recon-

cile it with Acho, and in regard to the latter, I have since made an examination

of the type and find important differences in the venation, thus Azz is not con-

fluent with the radius atits origin, being similar to the condition found in genus

Matrona ; the pterostigma is elongate in both sexes and situated in the usual

place, viz. moderately far back from the apex, the wings are longer, the apices

less rounded ; the anal area of wings more complicated and the node situated

neare the pterostigma than base of wing as in Clmacobasis. Thus the gents

contains but two species and one subspecies or race,—/. margarila margarita

Selys, &. margarita tripartita Selys, and &. uniformis Krug., of which only

the two former have been reported from within Indian limits.

These insects breed in montane streams, the adults being found along the

banks settled on ferns or overhanging vegetation and with a slow flitting flight

similar to Vestalzs.

Echo margarita margarita Selys. (1853).

Echo margarita Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 19 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 67 (1954);

ise bull Acad: Belg. (2). xlvii, p:.355 (1879) ; Kirby, Cat. -Odon.. px

101 (1890) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii. pp. 26-28 (1917).

Male : Abdomen 44-46 mm. Hindwing 36-37 mm.

Head. labium black ; labrum glossy black ; cheeks, bases of mandibles

anteclypeus and antennae matt black ; postclypeus glossy metallic dark bronzed

green ; eyes black above, pale brown to dove grey below. Rest of head dull

metallic dark bronzed green.

Prothorax shiny metallic dark green, pruinosed beneath.

Thorax on dorsum and whole of sides dark metallic green with a coppety

reflex, beneath black and thinly pruinosed. Legs black ; femora pruinosed

thinly on flexor surface.

Wings hyaline except the apices which are dark blackish brown for about

one-fifth the length of wing or about one-third or less of the distance between

peterostigma and node; aslight clouding of brown at the node in all wings 5

the inner border of the dark area running almost straight back from costa to

hinder margin of wing ; hyaline area with a beautiful bluish purple iridescence;

pterostigma milky white in all wings, about twice as long as broad, distal end

rounded, proximal end pointed, posterior border markedly rounded, the space

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

distal to the pterostigma reticulated with a double row of cells ; discoidal cell

traversed 7 to 9 times ; basal space traversed 6to 9 times ; 16 to 18 cubital

69-38)38-73 56-30|37-58

65-28|29-64 ’ 56-30!30-58 -

Abdoinen uniformly dark blackish brown, non-metallic, thinly pruinosed

beneath. Anal appendages black ; superiors tumid at base, then subcylind-

rical, finally compressed at apex and curving gradually in towards one another ;

outer border coarsely spined ; apices blunt. Inferior appendages very broad

at base, very narrow and slightly sinuous thereafter, apices slightly clubbed

and with a minute inwardly directed spine.

nervures ; nodal index ,

Female. Abdomen 37-41 mm. Hindwing 35-37 mm.

Closely similar to the male both as regards colouring of body and wings. Old

specimens have the hyaline area of the wings variably enfumed, often of a

warm brown and then lose their bluish iridescence. The pterostigma is usually

slightly shorter and broader than in the male so that it is subrotundate or

pyriform in some specimens. Venational details are similar to the male.

Vulvar scale very robust, extending to end of abdomen, black ; anal appen-

dages short conical acutely pointed, black.

Distribution. Cheerapunji, Assam. I have seen but one specimen of this

beautiful insect, a very dilapidated male in the Indian Museum collection from

Cheerapunji, taken by Dr. Kemp in October. The type is a female in the

Selysian collection labelled ‘China?’, and there is also a male in the same

collection from the same locality as that of the Indian Museum specimen.

Echo margarita tripartita, Selys (1879).

Echo margarita race tripartita Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xlvii, p. 356

(1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 101 (1890) ; Laid. Red. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii,

pp. 26-28 (1917).

Differs only from &. margarita margarita by the greater extent of black on

the wing apices which covers roughly the outer third of all wings but is subject

to slight variations. In some specimens it extends more than halfway from

pterostigma to node, in others, slightly less than this distance.

Distribution. The type is from the Khasia Hills and is a male in the Selysian

collection ; itis probably from Shilling, where Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher has

found the species moderately common from June to October. I am indebted to

him for a nice series of this beatutiful insect. A distance of son:e 30 miles

separates the localities of the two forms and it is possible that the future may

reveal specimens from intervening localities connecting up the two, but until

this has become an accomplished fact, it is preferable to regard them as two

distinct subspecies or races. It is to be noted that the climatic conditions of

the two localities differ widely, that of Shillong being comparatively dry, whilst

Cheerapunji is credited with being the wettest spot on earth. Mr. Bainbrigge

Fletcher sends me the following notes from Shillong,—‘ &. margarita tripartita

common beginning of August 1919, beside footbridge over stream at West

entrance of Fruit Garden. Few or none seen after middle of August.’ Begin-

ning of September a few in other localities, 5. ix. 19, 3 along Cave Stream,

mostly females. Weak flight, sits on bushes overhanging banks and on rocks

in midstream. Also along pebbly bottomed swift streams. Never over muddy

water. Never seen pairing or ovipositing. Occurs from June to August and

struggles into September, last specimen seen 12. ix. 19.

Genus CLimacoBasis Laidlaw (1902)

Climacobasis, Laid. Proc. Zool. Sec. Lond. (1) p. 85 (1902) ; Will. Proc. U.

S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 170 (1904) ; Laid ; Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii,

p. 26 (1917).

Characters of the subfamily and largely those of genus cho, from which it

differs by the following characters, —Wings entirely hyaline, apices less rounded,

pterostigma in the male elongate and of normal shape, situated more

proximal of the apex of wing, much reduced and more or less vestigial in the

female ; node situated much nearer pterostigma than to the base of wing ; Riz

fused with radius in forewing but not in the hind ; sectors of are arising froma

common point and occasionally fused at origin ; abdomen much more slender

and comparatively longer.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 589

Genotype—Climacobasis modesta Laid.

Distribution. Borneo, Siam, Assam and probably widely but sparsely

distributed over the intervening region and throughout S.E. Asia.

As mentioned under genus Acho, Dr. Laidlaw came to the conclusion that

his genus was synonymous with Echo, but the position of the node, the

similarity of the pterostigma in the sexes of Acho, the separated sectors of the

are and the shorter, more robust abdomen of the latter genus, seem to definitely

rule out Climacobasis, so that the genus still stands.

Climacobasis modesta Laid. (1902).

Climacobasis modesta Laid. Proc. Zool. Sect Lond. (1) p. 84; Pl. vi, fig. 6

(1902) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 186, fig. 17 (1904).

Climacobasis lugens, Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond, (isp. So; Pl viz figs

(1902).

Echo (Climacobasis) modesta Laid. Fascic. Malayenses (Zool) Pt. i, p. 191

(1903).

Echo modesta Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (1), p. 84, Pl. vi, fig. 6 (1902) ;

iid. Rec: Ind..Mus: vol: xiii, p. 28 (1917).

Male: Abdomen 52-54 mm. Hindwing 37-39 mm.

Head : labium black; cheeks and bases of mandibles glossy black ; ante-

clypeus dark brown ; postclypeus and rest of head dark metallic green, but in

adults, the frons and ocellar space pruinosed snowy white; eyes dark brown

above, paler beneath.

Prothorax and thorax dark metallic green with a coppery bronzed or golden

reflex, beneath black (but usually white with pruinescence in adults), Legs

long slim black.

Wings entirely hyaline iridescent with purplish blue; apices in adults

enfumed, especially that of forewing, and sometimes a cloudy fascia extending

over the distal two-thirds of the space between the node and base of wing,

especially in the forewing; pterostigma black, elongate, narrow, oblique at

both ends but more pointed proximad ; basal (median) space traversed by 8-9

nervures in all wings; discoidal cell traversed by 7 to 10 nervures, usually by 7;

42-39|40-43 39-36)35-40

” 33-31134-40’ 33-31|33-32°

Abdomen dark metallic green on segments 1, 2, and base of 3, black for the

remaining segments. Anal appendages black; superiors slightly longer than

segment 10, broad at base, curving gradually in to almost meet at apices,

subcylindrical after the base and slightly compressed at apex which is truncate

and obtuse; outer border coarsely spined ; inferior appendages almost two-

thirds the length of superiors, broad at base, then cylindrical, narrow, apex

blunt but furnished with a minute inner spine.

Female. Abdomen 46mm. Hindwing 41 mm.

Closely similar to the male but differing in regard to the wings, in which the

pterostigma is much reduced, being about one-third the length of the male,

its hinder border nearly twice the length of the costal and somewhat rounded ;

two rows of cells in the space between the costa and radius distad the

pterostigma ; about 50 postnodal nervures, the increase in number over that

found in the male being due to the shorter pterostigma.

Vulvar scale robust, extending to end of abdomen, Anal appendages about

as long as segment 10, black, pointed.

Distribution. That of the genus. I have seen a specimen from the Pusa

collection which was collected either in Assam by Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher,

or at King Island, Mergui, Burma, by Mr. Elton Bott. At the moment I have

mislaid the note and cannot say which is the correct locality, but the latter

is probably the more likely. Nothing is known of the habits of this insect but

it probably closely parallels Vestadzs in its breeding places.

Genus Mnats Selys (1853).

Mnais Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 20. (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 63 (1854) ; Walk.

List. Neur. Ins. B. M: iv. p. 605.(1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 101

(1890) ; Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 184 (1904) ; Ris,

Supplm. Ent. No. v, pp. 8 and 9 (1916) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol.

Mp. 29 (1947) Munz, Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc. No. 3, p. 44 (1919).

Characters of the subfamily ; ; ground colour dark metallic green or black,

often pruinosed in parts such as the head, dorsum of thorax and terminal

16-18 cubital nervures ; nodal index

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

segments of abdomen. ‘Thorax short robust; legs long and slim; abdomen

moderately robust, or long and slim, cylindrical, longer than the wings ; wings

very closely reticulated, hyaline or partly opaque black, or tinted with greenish

yellow or bright golden yellow; apices rounded ; pterostigma very variable in

the species, usually red in the male, white or cinerous in the female, often

vestigial, especially in the female in which it may be entirely absent ; arc

angulated ; sectors of are arising from a common point a little below the middle

of arc ; median (basal) space entire; Azz, near its origin, confluent with the

radius ; Azz arising at or a little distad of the subnode ; discoidal cell convex

towards the costa, traversed by many nervures ; anal area simple ; JA forked a

little after its origin, the hinder branch of fork weakly or not branched ; main

nervures rarely forked ; many intercalated sectors ; node situated nearer the

base of wing than to pterostigma.

Larva unknown. Genotype Wnats pruinosa Selys.

Distribution. Northern India, Burma, Siam, Tonkin, Annam, South China

and Japan. Some obscurity still exists as to the number of species or races.

belonging to this genus, Selys being of opinion that there were but two species

with a number of races or possibly merely age phases of the same insect. It

seems fairly clear however that such is not the case and that there are two well

defined groups separated by the neuration black and the membrane of wing

uncoloured in the one, and the neuration reddish and the wing membrane

bright golden yellow in the other. To the former group we may add MWnais

maclachlani Fras. in which the wing is partly opaque black with an outer

bordering to the dark area milky opalescent white. Williamson splits up the

species into two groups,—Palaearctic and Oriental, but the characters he gives

are not always constant, even in thesame species. The species so far described

are,—MW. pruinosa Selys, M7. costalis Selys, M. strigata, Selys, M7. andersont

MacLachlan, J. earnshawi Will. WM. mneme Ris and MW. maclachlani Fras., but

an eighth and new species is described below. Only three species are known

from within Indian limits. Nothing has been noted about their habits.

KEY TO SPECIES OF GENUS Wnais

1. Venation reddish; wings tinted with golden

yellow tes ane 50% ABP

Venation black ; wings untinted or at the most

with a faint greenish tint ah ... MW. andersoni.

Pterostigma quadrate or only as long as broad ... MW. earnshawt.

Pterostigma elongate, more than twice as long as

broad ake eae sae ... MW. 1tcteroptera.

Maais andersoni MacLachlan (1873).

Mnais andersont, MacLach. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xxxv, p. 472 (1873) ;

Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 101 (1890) ; Selys, Ann. Mus, Civ. Genov. (2) x

(xxx), p. 485 (1891) ; Id. Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. T. xxvii, p. 52 (1883) ;

Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 184 (1904) ; Ris, Suppl. Ent.

No. . pp. 8; 9 and 11 (1916); Laid. Rec. Ind.) Mus vol, xr, 29

(1917):

Male. Abdomen 35-42 mm. Hindwing 26-33 mm.

Head : labium black ; labrum.and clypeus metallic emerald green ; bases of

mandibles, adjacent parts of cheeks znd the base of second segment of antennae

bright yellow ; rest of head metallic green with a coppery or golden reflex ; eyes

brown above, paler below.

Prothorax and thorax brilliant metallic emerald green, the latter with a

coppery or golden reflex on dorsum ; antero-lateral suture finely black, postero-

lateral narrowly yellow, as also the hinder half of metepimeron. Beneath

yellow with a large spot of black, pruinosed in adults. Legs black, coxae and

trochanters pruinosed white.

Wings hyaline tinted with pale greenish yellow or quite colourless ; reticula-

tion black ; pterostigma small, about as long as broad, outer border straight,

inner border slightly oblique, posterior border slightly rounded, variably black

or dark brownish ; only a single row of cells between costa and radius after the

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 591

pterostigma ; 11-13 cubital nervures ; discoidal cell traversed 4-7 times ; nodal

30-23/22-34 |

31-20'25-30 ’

distad ; anal area simple ; Aizz arising variably at, or well distad of the

subnode.

Abdomen black, segments 1 to 3 or 4 bronzed metallic green or blue in sub-

adults remainder black, but segments 8 to 10 in adults pruinosed chalky white

on dorsum ; beneath black. eat:

Anal appendages black ; superiors tumid at base, subcylindrical at middle

and compressed and slightly expanded at apex, which is obtuse, coarsely

spined along outer border ; inferior appendages about two-thirds the length of

superiors (which are slightly longer than segment 10), thick at base, then

cylindrical and tapering to apex which is curved slightly in and ends ina

minute point.

Female. Abdomen 32-37 mm. Hindwing 30-34 mm.

Closely similar to the male ; wings limpid ; pterostigma smaller, red, brown

or cinereous, varying in shape and size, even in the wings of a single specimen

(In a specimen before me, one wing has the pterostigma blackish and as well

formed as in the male ; in another wing it is minutely triangular, the bordering

nervures meeting at the radius, brown in colour ; in a third wing it is normal in

size but is only faintly and partly coloured at the inner costal angle, whilst in

the fourth wing it is almost square, the outer border slightly oblique, the colour

cinereous). The second segment of antennae wholely bright yellow ; abdomen

entirely metallic green from base to apex, black beneath.

Anal appendages black, conical, pointed at apex, about as long as segment

10. Vulvarscale robust, extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Butma, South China, Formosa, Siam and Tonkin. Probably

widely distributed over southern Asia. Nothing is known of its habits but it is

certainly a riverine breeder and probably submontane in habitat. I havea

female taken at an altitude of 5,500 ft. in April. Localities given by Selys are, —

Leito, Burma in April and May, Cobapo in September, October and Novem-

ber, Meteleo and Puepoli in the same months, and from [ado at the beginning

of April. Williamson gives Toungoo, Burma asa locality for his material.

Much more material of these interesting insects is needed before we can defi-

nitely settle their relationships.

Mnais earnshawi Will. (1904).

Mnais earnshawi Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, pp. 185, 186

(1904) ; Ris. Suppl. Ent. No. v, pp. 8 and 10 (1916) ; Laid. Rec, Ind.

Mus, vol. xiii, p. 29 (1917) ; Fras. Journ. Siam. Soc. Nat. Hist.

vol. iii, No. 4, pp. 460, 461 (1919).

Male. Abdomen 40-44 mm. Hindwing 33-37 mm. .

Head : labium black ; labrum and clypeus glossy metallic emerald green ;

bases of mandibles and the adjacent portion of cheeks bright yellow, rest of

cheeks glossy black ; antennae black but the second segment variably bright

yellow from base to its middle or nearly to apex ; rest of head dull dark green

metallic ; eyes dark brown above, paler below.

Prothorax and thorax dark metallic green, the dorsum of latter between the

humeral sutures and including the antealar sinus, chalky white with pruines-

cence; laterally the postero-lateral suture, and rather more than one-third the

hinder surface of metepimeron bright yellow. Beneath thorax black, pruinosed

white. Legs black, ciliae numerous and very fine.

Wings hyaline tinted from base to apex with bright golden or amber yellow ;

reticulation reddish, the costal half of wings more deeply tinted, the costa

somewhat darker from node to base ; pterostigma very small, rather less than

1 mm. in length, variable in size and shape, usually with the costal border

about two-thirds the length of posterior, the outer border straight, the proximal

very oblique, the posterior rounded, deep blood red in colour, this colour some-

times spreading beyond the bordering nervures of the pterostigma distad and

proximad ; discoidal ceil rather convex costalwards, traversed 8-9 times in the

forewing, 6in the hind ; 12-15 cubital nervures; usually only a single row of

cells in the space after the pterostigma but occasionally two; zzz arising

widely distad of the subnode in forewing, a shorter distance in the hind ; 7A

forked shortly after its origin but its branches running distad ; anal area simple ;

some of the main nervures occasionally branched,

index, IA forked shortly after its origin, its branches streaming

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITI1

Abdomen with segments 1 and 2 dark glossy metallic green, remaining

segments black bronzed metallic especially 9 and 10; segments 8 to 10

pruinosed in adults. Anal appendages black ; superiors curving gradually

inwards to meet at apices, thick at base, then subcylindrical and finally com-

pressed and sligntly broadened at apices which are obtuse, outer border

coarsely spined. Inferior appendages slightly shorter than superiors, broad at.

base, then cylindrical and with a minute spine at inner side of apex.

Female : Abdomen 34-41 mm. Hindwing 30-36 mm.

Very similar to the male but the wings differing in some important respects,

—the tinting a much paler yellow, or entirely colourless; the reticulation

reddish brown, the pterostigma white or cinereous or occasionally quite uncol-

oured or entirely absent, usually much smaller than in the male and abnormal

in shape, sometimes triangular framed by two nervures which meet either at

the costa or at the radius, sometimes represented by a mere bordering of

opaque white on one or both sides of a postnodal nervure. Thorax and

abdomen without pruinosed areas.

Anal appendages small, pointed, conical, black. Vulvar scale robust,

extending to end of abdomen, blackish brown in colour.

Distribution. Burma, Siam, Tonkin, Annam, Formosa and South China.

I have not seen specimens from Burma and, unfortunately, the author’s descrip-

tion of the type is confined entirely to the wings. Thus the above description,

which is the first full one to be made, is made from specimens from Siam and.

Annam. So for as size and the wings are concerned, they agree entirely with

that of Williamson’s description of Burmese specimens. ‘The specimens from

South China and Formosa described by Dr. Ris. loc. cit. are decidedly larger,

as is also the pterostigima, they have alsoa much greater extent of yellow on the

sides of thorax, so that I consider these a distinct race.

Mnais icteroptera, sp. nov.

Male: Abdomen 47mm. Hindwing 36 mm.

Head: labium black ; labrum, clypeus and occiput brilliant metallic green,

the labruin with a bronzed or golden reflex. the upper part of head emerald but

the whole space confined between the antennae on either side, the clypeus, and

middle ocellus, pruinosed chalky white ; antennae black, the second segment

and base of third bright yellow ; bases of mandibles and cheeks adjoining the

mandibles bright yellow, cheeks against the eyes glossy black. Behind

occiput on either side, a very robust pointed spine, and behind each eye a

second conical eminence not amounting to a spine.

Prothorax metallic green with a golden reflex and patchy pruinescence,

especially on the posterior lobe; beneath densely pruinosed.

Thorax brilliant metallic green with golden or coppery reflex, the dorsum

including the antealar sinus, as far out asthe humeral sutures chalky white

with pruinescence. Laterally the sutures finely black, the postero-lateral one

having 2 to 3 small yellow spots which are rather obscured by pruinescence in

the adult, the ventroposterior border very narrowly yellow; beneath black

obscured by pruinescence.

Legs black, coxae and trochanters pruinosed.

Wings uniformly rich golden yellow throughout from base to apex, with a

satiny reflex; reticulation red; pterostigma 2 mm. in length, nearly three

times as long as broad, outer border straight, inner border oblique pointed,

34-29(31-33 |

30-26|25-31 ’

discoidal cell traversed 8-9 times; 10-14 cubital nervures ; anal area simple ;

Riii arising slightly distad of the subnode; only a single row of cells in the

space distad of the pterostigma.

Abdomen black, segments 1 to 4 metallic green with a bronzed or coppery

reflex on 5 and 4; segments 8, 9 and 10 obscurely metallic green, not pruinosed;

beneath black, pruinosed on segment 1 and 8.

Anal appendages black ; superiors rather longer than segment 10, forcipate,

curving in gradually to meet at apices, broad at base, then subcylindrical and

finally compressed and a little expanded at apices which are obtuse. Inferiors

about three-fourths the length of superiors, broad at base then cylindrical and

tapering to apex which is curled slightly inward and ends in a fine point,

posterior border rounded, colour deep blood-red ; nodal index ;—

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 593

Distribution. Kalaw, Chin Hills, Burma. Type in the author’s collection.

This very beautiful insect appears to be closely related to 7 earnshawt by the

pruinescence on dorsum of thorax and the colour of the wings ; it is distinguish-

ed from the latter by the larger size, the much larger pterostigma, the

pruinosed spot on vertex and the relatively longer abdomen. It appears to

link up the Oriental with the Palearctic forms by the large pterostigma and

the single row of cell following it, the former character being common to

M, costalis and MW. pruinosa.. Female unknown.

Genus Matrona, Selys (1853).

Matrona Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 17 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 32 (1854) ;

Kisby,Cat. Odon.p.100 (1890). 5 Will. Proc: U.S. Nat...Mius: vol

XXViii, p. 170 (1904) ; Ris. Suppl. Ent. No. v, pp. 5-8 (1916) ; Munz,

Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc. No. 3, p. 44 (1919).

Characters of the subfamily ; head wide, eyes widely separated and globular;

epistome flat, fronslow; thorax robust; legs of great length, slim, numerous

fine spines; abdomen of great length, slim, cylindrical, depressed at end

segments ; body colouring brilliant metallic green ; wings long, very broad,

apices rounded, reticulation very close, especially in the anal field, opaque. in

both sexes; pterostigma absent in the male but a false, reticulated creamy

white one in all wings of the female ; median (basal) space reticulated with 2

rows of cells; discoidal cell traversed by many nervures, equal in length to

median space ; numerous cubital nervures ; anal area complex, /A4 bifurcated

shortly ‘after its origin and sending a branch basad; great numbers of

intercalated nervures; zzz arising slightly or well proximad of the subnode ;

Ai not confluent with the radius after its origin ; node situated nearer base of

wing than to apex.

Larva very similar to that of VV. chinensis. Genotype 7. dasilaris basilaris

Selys.

Distribution, Assam, Burma, Siam, Tonkin, Hainan, Annam and North and

South China. Breeds in montane streams, habits, of the imago closely similar

to those of Calopteryx to which the genus is related. Great variability is

exhibited in forms from different localities, so that it would appear that there

are but one or two species with a number of subspecies or races. One species

and one subspecies are known from within Indian limits.

Matrona basilaris basilaris Selys (1853).

Matrona bastlaris Selys, Syn. Cal. p. 17 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 33 (1854);

Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 100. (1890) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, pp.

28-29 (1917) ; Selys, Cpts. Rend. Soc. Ent. Belg. vii, p. 5 (sep) (1888);

MacLach. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 17, p. 370 (1896) ; Kirby, ibid. (7)

5, p. 536 (1900) ; Mart. MWzsszon Pavie, p. 15 (1904) ; Bart. Ann. Mus.

“aie ACad, ot. ret. t7,- 0, 304 (1913) > Ris: Suppl. ote No; Vv; py 6

1916). ;

Calopteryx basilaris Walk. List. Ins. Neur. B. M. iv, p. 601 (1853).

Male. Abdomen 42-55mm. Hindwing 36-42 mm.

Head: labium black, the lateral lobes paler or brownish labrum and

anteclypeus steely blue; postclypeus brilliant biuish green metallic, rest of

nee dark green metallic; antennae black; eyes dark brown above, paler

elow.

Prothorax and thorax metallic emerald green with a bluish reflex on dorsum,

the humeral and antero-lateral sutures black, the postero-lateral suture and the

posterior ventral border of metepimeron bright yellow as also the underneath

of thorax which is spotted with black. (In a male from Tonkin the underneath

of thorax and postero-lateral suture are entirely black but there is a longish

streak bordering the lower part of metepimeron yellow).

Wings rounded at apices, very broad, varying from a dark brown to blackish

steely blue according to age, the outer fifth of forewings comparatively hyaline

but the nervures in this part all framed in opaque brown; reticulation and

hervures including costa black but the transverse nervures for a variable

994. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

distance from base, usually up to a short distance distad of the node bluish

white (This part of the wing viewed horizontally looks quite milky or bluish

150-63/60-148 |

138-58|59-145 ”

26-28 cubital nervures ; Azzz arising well proximad of the subnode; basal

(median) space traversed by 2 rows of cells, often in a network or with 10-12

traversing nervures ; anal area complex, filled with a very close network of

nervures ; the underside of wings similar but differing by the shorter extent of

bluish-white transverse nervures, which usually do not extend as far as the

node.

Abdomen brilliant emerald metallic green on dorsum, black below.

Anal appendages black ; superiors thick at base, then subcylindrical, finally

abruptly expanded and angulated inward at a little beyond their middle,

apices blunt, outer border with 3 to 5 coarse spines ; inferiors about two-thirds

the length of superiors, tumid at base, then cylindrical as far as apex which is

hooked slightly in.

Legs of great length, finely spined, black, distal ends of hind femora brown.

white) ; nodal index, discoidal cell traversed 18 fo 25 times ;

Female. Abdomen 50-54 mm, Hindwing 44-46 mm.

Differs in several respects from the male as follows,—labium, bases of

mandibles, outer sides of second segment of antennae and labrum bright

yellow, the latter bordered with black and with a basal line and medio-basal

point of the same colour. The yellow on sides of thorax of greater extent and

the coxae and trochanters spotted with the same colour; underside of thorax

almost entirely yellow ; abdomen with the sides of segments 8 to 10 yellowish

brown and the whole dorsum rather dull brown, segment 1 slightly metallic ;

segment 10 with a well developed dorsal keel ending in a robust apical spine,

and with a small tubercle surmounted with minute teeth on either side as in

Vestalis. Anal appendages short, pointed, brown. Wings uniform dull dark

brown, the bluish-white transverse nervures barely evident, the apices of fore-

wings much as in the male; in all wings a moderately large creamy white

pterostigma traversed by a variable number of nervures (In a specimen from

the Chin Hills, this varies from 2°75 to 3 mm. in length but in others it may be

aslargeas3‘5mm.) The milky-white or bluish- white transverse reticulation

is also very variable, being hardly evident in some but as well marked as in the

male in others.

Vulvar scale robust, yellowish or pale brown, extending nearly to end of

abdomen.

Distribution. The type, a male in the British Museum, is from Sylhet but

the species extends as far as Formosa and Shanghai. It has also been reported

from Tibet, Burma, Chin Hills, Hainan and Tonkin.

Matrona basilaris nigripectus, Selys (1879).

Matrona basilaris, race nigripectus Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xlvii.

p. 395 (1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 100°(1890) ; Will. Proc) U.S. Nat:

Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 187 (1904) ; Ris. Suppl. Ent. No. V, p. 7 (1916) ;

Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, p. 28 and 29 (1917); Fras. ibid. vol.

xvi, pp. 463-464, Pl. xxxv, fig. land P!. xxxvii, fig..1 (1919).

Male. Abdomen 52-54mm. Hindwing 38-40 mm.

Closely similar to 4/7. éaszlaris but differing in several important characters,

so that it seems preferable to treat it as a distinct species. Mr. Bainbrigge

Fletcher has sent mea fine series from Shillong, in the Khasia Hills, Assam

from where the type came, and a comparison of these with daszlaris reveals the

following differences,— Wings uniformly dark as far as the apices including the

forewing ; in some adults the whole wing is of a magnificent steely dark bronzed

or dark bluish metallic, the pleating of the wings showing this off to fine

advautage; the bluish-white nervures on the basal half of the wings are not

nearly as pronounced as in dasilaris ; the pterostigma in the female is consider-

ably smaller and more variable, forewing 1°75 to 2 mm. hindwing 0°75 to 1°25

mm ; labium with lateral lobes dark and middle lobe entirely black ; labrum

of female with a small spot of yellow on either side, otherwise black ; underside

of thorax entirely black, as is also the postero-lateral suture and that part of the

metepimeron which is yellow in bastlaris ; abdomen of male a much more

brilliant metallic emerald green. Female, Abdomen 43-53 mm, Hindwing

39-45 mm,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 595

Type, a male in the Selysian collection.

Distribution. Khasia Hills, Assam and Upper Burma for which latter place

Selys gives,—Pueopoli, in June, and Leito, in September. I am indebted to

Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher for the following notes,—* Common in Shillong

throughout August, sexes in about equal numbers. A female was seen oviposit-

ing in lower Trout Lake at the Fruit Gardens. Flapping along, settling on

reeds and grasses. Sat on stem well above water and palpated it with

ovipositor. Always as arule found along streams, so this was rather remark-

able, as the lake is so open (but has three streams flowing through it). Another

female seen ovipositing below water level, abdomen about two-thirds below

water. Bases of wings of males bluish grey, very noticeable in flight. A male

seen sitting on a patch of damp sand at edge of stream, a female passed Over

and the male elevated the end of abdomen like a Pierid and half opened its

wings at the same time but female took no notice and flew off and settled on a

twig. The male then followed and settled on atwig near her, but nothing

occurred. ‘Two males were seen sporting over stream, flying up and down for

a distance of about 20 yards, doing this for along time. Occurs usually over

tiny swift streams, usually clear pebbly streams, never over stagnant water

except as mentioned above. Flies for only a short distance asarule.’ Thus

the habits are very similar to those of Calopteryx to which genus these insects

are closely related. The latest date on which the insect was seen by

Mr. Fletcher was 18th October.

Subfamily CALIPHINAE subfam. nov.

Head transversely elongate; eyes hemispherical, tumid behind ; occiput

strongly ridged at its hinder border ; labinm notched deeply and narrowly for

about one-third its length, lateral lobes shorter than middle lobe ; face sloping

to vertex ; epistome not projecting.

Thorax robust, elongate, mesothoracic triangle absent ; abdomen cylindri-

_ cal, comparatively short, but longer than wings in both sexes ; legs long, hind

femora extending to beyond middle of segment 2, slim, spines long and hair-

like. Wings long and narrow, apices rounded, reticulation moderately close,

tetragonal in type; petiolation marked, extending nearly to level of arc;

discoidal cell elongate, convex costalward, broadening gradually distad, outer

end oblique, about half the length of median space which is entire ; antenodal

nervures numerous, costal and subcostal series coinciding, no primary anteno-

dals ; arc situated between the 4th and 5th or 6th and 7th antenodals, oblique,

not angulated ; sectors of are arising from its middle, separated at origin ; Azz

shortly after its origin confluent for a long distance with the radius, especially in

the hindwing ; 1A7zzz arising from this confluence; Cuzz and /zv-} v forked, the

latter pectinate ; no intercalated sectors between Cuzz and JA and onlyasingle

row of cells between the latter and hinder border of wing, so that the anal

field scarcely exists and is very simple ; intercalated sectors between J7/A and

Cuit and between the remaining principal sectors at apical half of wing ; node

situate well proximad of middle of wing ; pterostigma present in all wings of

both sexes. Anal appendages closely resembling those of the Agrionine but

the inferiors deeply bifurcate at apex; segment 10 not keeled ; ovipositor

robust.

Distribution. Tibet, Soth-western China, Bengal, Nepal and Assam.

Genus CALIPHAEA Selys (1859).

Caliphaea Selys, Add. Syn. Cal. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vii, p. 439 (1859);

Will. Proc. U. 5S. Nat. Mus. vol. xxviii, p. 167 (1904); Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, p. 30 (1917) ; Munz. Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc. No.

3, p. 46 (1919) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 108 (1890).

Notholestes McLach. Ent. Month. Mag. xxiv, p. 31 (1887) ; Kirby, Cat.

Odon. p. ill. (1890) ; McLach. Ann. Mag. Nat. His. (6), No. 71,

xlvi (1896).

Characters of the subfamily ; wings hyaline, tinted in adults ; pterostigma

about twice as long as broad, oblique at both ends ; A2z2z arising far distad of

the subnode ; cubital nervures numerous but far less thanin the Agrioninae,

usually 4 to 6 in number ; discoidal cell traversed once in all wings ; 1 or 2

intercalated sectors between Cwzi and 7A but none between Cwzz and JA,

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1

Distribution. 'That of the subfamily. ‘The position of the genus is obscure

and must remain so until the larva has been discovered. On the whole I am

disposed to place it near the Agriozinae on account of its metallic colouring,

the shape of the labium and anal! appendages, the confluence of Azz with the

radius and the short pterostigma. On the other hand, the extremely simple

anal field, the extraordinary long petiolation of the wings and the comparatively

short abdomen are all foreign to the Agrioninae and seem to indicate a

relationship with the genus Jucferzas, a relationship which is however more

apparent than real. We are faced with the problem as to whether this insect is

an early offshoot of the main stem of the Agrvioninae or a more modern insect

which has undergone great reduction in the breadth of the wings. Itis to be

noted that the archaic primary antenodal nervure are no longer apparent.

Caliphaea confusa Selys (1859).

Caliphaea confusa Selys, Add. Syn. Cal. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vii, p. 440

(1859) ; Cat. Odon: -p: 108°(1890); Laid. Ree.“Ind. Mus. “vol: sxin¢

pp. 30-31 (1917).

Notholestes elwesii McLach. Ent. Month. Mag. xxiv, p. 32 (1887) ; Kirby,

Cat:.. Odon: p. 111 (1890); MclLach. Ent. Month, Mas. (6)-xvi"p. 370

(1896) ; Laid. Ree. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, p. 30 (1917).

Caliphaea consimilis McLach. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) No. 71, xlvi. (1896).

Male. Abdomen 36-40 mm. Hindwing 30-32 mm.

Head: labium black; labrum brilliant metallic coppery ; clypeus brilliant

metallic coppery with a golden or green reflex; bases of mandibles, adjacent

portions of cheeks and second segment of antennae bright yellow ; rest of head

dark blackish brown with an obscure coppery glow (Teneral forms have the

upper surface of head metallic green or peacock blue). Eyes brown above,

paler olivaceous below.

Prothorax and thorax metallic coppery green with a crimson or gold reflex in

some lights (metallic emerald green in tenerals), the sides along ventral border,

and the whole of metepimeron save a small triangular area at its middle bright

yellow ; beneath thorax yellow. Middorsal carina and the humeral and antero-

lateral sutures narrowly black.

Legs black, coxae and trochanters bright yellow.

Fic. 2.

Wings of Caliphaea confusa Selys. & (x 3)

Wings uniformly pale chlorine yellow, hyaline (untinted in tenerals) ; ptero-

stigma reddish brown, covering 14 to 2 cells (pale brown in tenerals) ;

venation as for the genus ; the second basal antenodal often incomplete ; nodal

ender eotO|IS=28. 28-17]17-28

Antex 97-1A\12-06° 25=15|14205° |

Abdomen dull coppery metallic in adults, brilliant metallic emerald green in

tenerals ; segments 8 to 10 pruinosed white on dorsum in the adult, black

beneath. . : ; :

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 597

Anal appendages black ; superiors curving in forcipate-like to nearly meet

at apices, outer borders coarsely spined, tumid at base as seen from the

side, then subcylindrical and with a well-marked keel on dorsum extending

nearly from base to apex which is markedly broadened and rounded. Inferior

appendages about three-fourths the length of superiors, flattened, tapering

slightly to apex which is angulated in at a right angle as a robust pointed

spine ; on the inner border a second and equally robust spine situated as far

from apex as its own length so that the apex of appendage appears to be

deeply bifurcate.

Female. Abdomen 34-37 mm. Hindwing 31-32 inm.

The female has not hitherto been described but is exactly similar to the male

allowing for sexual differences ; the nodal index is usually slightly higher and

the majority of specimens taken are more metallic emerald green than coppery,

this only because adults appear to be scarce. Anal appendages short, conical,

pointed, brown.

Vulvar scale very robust, extending to extreme end of abdomen, brown.

Distribution. Thatofthe genus. Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher has found this

species common in Shillong, 6,000 ft. during May and June, and I have found it

in colonies in the Darjeeling district at 3,000-5,000 ft. in May. It breeds in small

brooks meandering through marshes on steep, heavily wooded hill-sides and the

adults are found perched on ferns or grasses overhanging the stream, or if

teneral, hiding up in scrub jungle near by. Theshallowness of the brooks and

the dense grass growing in their bottom made it impossible to dredge up any

larvae although I spent some time in ineffectual attempts to discover them.

McLachlan’s consimilis differs only by having two traversing nervures to the

discoidal cells and their tenerality.

( To be continued.)

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA

Masor C. H. WILLIAMS, M.B.O.U. AND C. E. WILLIAMS

(With two plates)

Quetta is as everybody knows a Military Station of considerable importance,

situated in Baluchistan at an elevation of 5,535’. Quetta itself is a quasi-valley

with mountains all round with narrow passes leading from them, whilst the

highest peak is in the Zarghum Range, some 11,738’.

The general aspect of the Valley is barren and arid to a degree, consisting of,

‘recent and sub-recent terrestrial deposits, cut up by dry water-courses, while

the surrounding hills are of cretaceous rocks which have been subject toa great

deal of lateral pressure and local disturbances.’ Erosion, also, has played a

prominent part in the rugged and barren nature of these hills.

The Quetta Valley is not well watered in a natural way, and hence vegetation

is of the scantiest. On the highest slopes Junipers are fairly common, lower

down a species of wild cherry, almond and eglantine, are to be found mixed

with astunted type of acacia and wild sage which becomes more common as the

level of the main valley is reached. ‘There are also other shrubs and bushes but

these latter play no part in the ornithology of this land. In the lower valleys

fairly large trees are to be met with, the chief of which are Zizyphus jujuba and

Pistacia cubulica. In the Valley there are also to be found many lowly shrubs

such as the wild caper and Camel-thorn Alhagi camelorum, beside large trees

such as the Mulberry, Apricot, and Afghan Willow.

The general aspect of Quetta, as before mentioned, is barren, except where by

means of ‘ Karezes’ water can be brought to the surface, when orchards,

gardens and fields of wheat and maize flourish. These ‘ Karezes’ are of very

ancient origin; being a series of shafts connected by underground tunnels which

drain the sub-soil water to the surface eventually. The first shaft of a ‘ Karez’

is sunk at the foot of the hills, but no cultivation is carried on there as a ‘ Karez’

is generally of great length before it becomes in any way effective.

Even in the hills where there are a few springs there is not much cultivation

on account of the sandy nature of the soil, and the small volume of the springs.

In summer the heat is intense, especially towards the end of July when the.

shade temperature is sometimes as much as 110. Winter sees a contrast of a

temperature in February of —10, with an icy-cold wind that blows over the snows

from the north. This is a strange region to classify, it is not Tropical, nor

Palearctic, yet it cannot be termed Sub-Tropical or Sub-Paleearctic ; it is one of

those glorious ‘ half-way houses’, which have much to yield to the ardent collec-

tor as the following notes show.

1. Corvus corax laurencei. The Punjab Raven.

This bird is a common resident throughout the Quetta Vailey haunting the

Cantonments in winter, when their numbers are augmented by birds from the

north. This Raven sometimes makes use of the deserted nests of the Magpie, a

clutch of five eggs being taken on the 26th of March from sucha nest, and some-

times it builds in theclefts in the numerous cliffs that are to be found in the

hills.

2. Pica pica bactriana. The Kashmir Magpie.

A common breeder in the Quetta Valley, nesting in the Orchards during

March and April. They sometimes lay as many as eight eggs.

3. Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax. The Red-billed Chough.

Although this bird is only a winter visitor to the Quetta Valley, a certain

number breed in the hills tothe north. On the 24th of May, while climbing up

into the Marachak Reserve Forest, I saw two of these birds fly from a cave in

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SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 599

the cliff face, and watching, saw them return. With excited cries they flew to

the upper corner, so feeling certain that a nest was there, Iclimbed up in an

endeavour to find it. The ascent was more difficult than it had appeared to be,

The cliff, after a rise of about 150 feet, barely receded 15 feet. The cave was

about 4 feet deep and about 30 feet high, domed and backed with crumbling

lime-stone, and upin the corner where the arch and wall met, in a small cleft

was a fair sized nest of sticks and twigs, in which was one young nearly ready

to fly. Unfortunately it was impossible to reach this nest without a ladder and

so it had to be left. On the ground below were two dead young, the bases of

their primaries still in the sheath, covered with vicious little red ants, and as I

could not manage to get rid of these latter I had to leave the bodies where they

were. A‘second nest was in the same cliff face of the ‘Marachak Tangi’, and

was equally impossible to get at on account of the nature of the cliff and the

position of the cave. Yet anoter nest was found in June ina ‘ Tangi’ at Ziarat.

This bird along with the Raven seem to be resident here. This record

extends the breeding range as hitherto recorded. The elevation was about

9,000 feet.

4. Sitta neumayer tephronota. ‘The Turkestan Rock-—Nuthatch.

This Nuthatch is to be met almost anywhere in the hills around Quetta, and

knowledge of its presence is forced cn one by its chattering, though pleasing

call. Itis alively little bird and extraordinarily active on its legs, climbing

almost any rock face, however perpendicular and precipitous, in search of food.

The first nest I found, was on the 21st of April and it held a clutch of four

eggs, of which two were unfortunately broken in getting them out. Many nests

subsequently found, were either deserted, with young or only partly built. A

~few nests had dead birds in them. The breeding season is an early one, the

first nest being found towards the latter part of February, whilst the last nest

was taken on the 6th of June.

The nests are all built inside small clefts of the rocks, but outside the actual

hole in which the nests are placed, the birds build most extraordinary structures

of clay, Shaped much like a woman’s breast. In some cases these are compara-

tively small, a foot in diameter and sticking out of the face of the cliff for about

six inches, The point of this mud entrance is sometimes prolonged in the

shape of @ cone, at the end of which isthe actual entrance hole, being about

one and @ half inches in diameter. In other instances the clay portion may

cover aS much as three square feet and in these instance the breast work is

generally built over the entrance to a cleft which is rather larger than usual.

The nest itself is made of fur, often that of the Mouse Hare, to which is

added a thick lining of feathers. Feathers and other bright objects are also

sometimes stuck into the clay outside, which when dry and set, is very hard.

The eggs differ from those of most Nuthatches in being larger, much more

glossy and more sparsely and boldly spotted with red.

5. Trochalopterum lineatum ziaratensis. The Baluchistan Streaked Laughing

Thrush.

This bird is fairly common and resident in the higher bush-covered slopes of

the hills, only moving down when the cold is more intense than usual, when it

comes right into the Quetta gardens. It breeds freely at Ziarat and on the

Zurghum slopes. cae

I found anew nest on the 17th of May, in a fair sized leafy bush at the head

of the.‘ Marachak angi’, and on visiting it a week later, I shot the bird off

the nest and secured a clutch of four fresh eggs. The nest was a massive

structure of fibrous material and buibous plant stems, lined with fine grass

stems and hair, and placed about 4 ft. high, in a green thornless bush. ‘The

diameter of'the inside cup was nearly 3inches, and its depth about 2 inches.

The thickness of the walls of the nest was approximately 2 inches. The eggs

are similar to those of the better known race 7. /. dineatum, fairly broad ovals,

very glossy and close in texture, and in colour a beautiful sea-green when fresh.

They fade considerably after being blown.

6. Molpastes leucotis. The White-eared Bulbul. =

The only member of its order in the Quetta Valley ; resident and fairly com-

mon, frequenting gardens and orchards. It commences nesting 1n April and

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIII

continues till mid-June, laying three comparatively small eggs of a pale pink

colour, marked but not boldly, with reddish-brown, with secondary markings

of pale lilac or inky-purple.

7. Hippolais rama. Sykes’ Tree Warbler.

This little warbler, first discovered to be a common breeding bird about

Quetta by General Betham in 1900, is just as common in the present day.

Practically every orchard and every garden of the Quetta Valley has a certain

number of these little birds breeding in them, and wherever there are any

tamarisk or rose bushes, it is sure to be found.

The breeding season starts about the end of April and closes mid-June.

During this period these birds are gregarious, and once a colony is located,

many nests may be found in a small area, a couple of nests are often in a single

bush. The nest is a neat compact little cup on a framework of grass, The

sides, nearly an inch thick, are built of grass, bits of rotten bark, hair, string or

any other soft material; the inside is lined with fine grass stems, feathers and

cotton. The diameter of the inside cup is nearly 2 inches and the depth is

about an inch and a half.

The eggs vary greatly both in size and colour. Some are pale-lilac whilst

others are whitish. In some the markings are spots and small blotches of black

with secondary markings of pale inky-grey, while in others they are bold

blotches, streaks, and hair-like lines of the same colour, with the same secondary

markings.

Taken as a whole the eggs are remarkably handsome. Four is the usual

clutch, though on one occasion a clutch of five was found.

8. Hippolais languida. Upcher’s Warbler.

Though very little has hitherto been recorded about this warbler or its

interesting habits, in Baluchistan I have found it far from uncommon upon the

stunted, bush covered, stony hillsides of the Quetta Valley. It 1s a rather silent

bird and in consequence its presence is often overlooked or if seen, it is mistaken

for the previous bird. It is a much later breeder than any of the other

warblers, the earliest date a nest was found was the 15th of May, and I was

very unfortunate in being able to find but four nests which contained eggs.

One of these contained an addled egg with two young ones; another egg was

taken from a nest which was deserted after it was first found, no more eggs

being laid, and the other two nests contained two, and three eggs respectively.

The birds are very shy, and we found that they deserted their nests on the

slightest provocation whether the eggs were laid or not.

The nest itself is a neat little cup made principally with grass, the lining

being of fine grass stems, whilst the outside is well plastered and matted with

cobweb. The nest is generally placed in small close-growing branches of

stunted thorny bushes.

The eggs are moderately long ovals slightly pointed at one end, the ground

colour is a pale pinkish-purple, sparsely marked with fairly bold blotches and

dots of black. The shell is fine and very fragile and slightly glossy.

9. Sylvia hortensis crassirostris, The Eastern Orphean Warbler.

The bird, as far as my observations go, appears to be confined to certain

localities only in the hills, where there is a fair amount of bush and not too far

from water, though they are sometimes met with in very arid regions.

Generally speaking in the better watered and bushed localities these birds

are fairly common. When I first noticed these birds, I was not certain to, what

species they belonged, so to make certain I shot one as it flew out of a bush,

and on examination, saw that I had obtained a specimen of a Sylvia hortensis

crassirostris. {at once searched for its nest, which was found near the top of

the bush from which it had flown. It contained three incubated eggs.

The earliest date on which a nest was found was the 9th of May after which

many more nests were found, the last being taken on the 9th of June. The

nest is a neat cup of grass bents and dead leaves of buibous plants, and is well

lined with fine grass stems.

They are generally built among the small branches of wild Sage bushes and

are secured to them with cobwebs.

In shape the eggs are long ovals, slightly compressed at one end, The

texture of the shell is close with little or no gloss.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 601

The colour is a very pale bluish-grey and even this is only noticeable when

the eggs are placed against or amongst really white eggs. ‘The markings which

are mostly at the large end with a few spots and specks scattered over the rest of

the egg, are olive and purplish-brown, with secondary markings of pale lilac.

10. Sylvia althea. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

In the spring of this year (1925), I noticed a large number of warblers, which

though similar to the Orphean, weresmalJer, I took them to be Whitethroats,

but did not shoot any. On the 10th of May, however, three nests were found

and a bird shotoffone of them, which on identification proved to be Hume’s

Lesser Whitethroat. Nests were found up to the 7th June.

The nests are fairly neat structures, cup-shaped and made of strips of leaves

of bulbous plants and lined with fine grass stems and hair.

They are placed either in wild Sage or in low thorny bushes, never-in a fork,

but always suspended between the upright and growing branches. When

disturbed off the nest the bird skulks away. A new nest is often deserted if

looked at.

The eggs three or four in number, are fairly broad ovals with a slight gloss

but not very close texture. The ground colour isa pale grey, white or creamy,

marked and streaked with brown and pale olive, with secondary markings of

inky-purple. The markings are scattered over the egg but have a tendency

to form a cap or zone at the large end. In some eggs the markings are small,

while in others they are bold and handsome.

This bird has rather a low, pleasing song when heard from a distance; but

when close there is a harsh rattle discernible through its softer tones.

11. Acanthopneuste nitidus nitidus. The Green Willow Warbler.

A couple of seasons ago a family party of these little Warblers were found in

a small, fairly well wooded valley inthe ‘ Marachak Reserve’ feeding young

fledglings that could just fly. Though a thorough search was made no nest

could be found. ‘This season (1928) during the latter part of May, a nest with

three fresh eggs was found in the same locality, the parent bird being flushed

and identified.

The nest was a large loosely put-together ball of grass and dry moss and

lined with fine grass stems and hair, and placed amongst the jumbled and

bush-overgrown roots of a Juniper.

The three eggs were fresh, and the yolks showed clearly through them,

imparting a beautiful pale pink colour to the eggs. When blown they were

pure white, slightly glossy, and of none too close a texture.

The average measurement of the three eggs is 16°7 mm. by 12°3 mm.

12. Scotocerca inquieta striata. The Streaked Scrub Warbler.

This little Warbler is common all round Quetta and affects the low thorny

shrub that is to be found both in the valleys and on the hillsides in Summer.

Its call is like the squeaking of mice, and it is a very restless little bird, continu-

ally moving about and jerking its tail over its head.

Several nests found were either deserted, or contained dead young. They are

well known and no description is necessary, but it is interesting to note that in

one nest found on the 8th of June, there were three Warbler’s and one Cuckoo’s

egg, and in another nest which was deserted, contained three of the foster’s

eggs (one broken) and a broken Cuckoo’s egg ; in a third found on 24th of May

three foster’s and two Cuckoos, in a fourth nest found on the 3lst of May there

was a well fledged young Cuckoo being fed by the little Warblers, this was

taken and kept in captivity for two months when it died. The Cuckoo in each

case was Cuculus canorus telephonius.

13. lLanius vittatus. The Bay-backed Shrike.

In Summer this Shrike is fairly common in the hills around Quetta but only

frequents certain tracts of the hillsides and does not encroach on the haunts of

Lanius phoenicurotdes.

The nests are placed in thorny trees and are of the usual type.

14. Lanius cristatus phoenicuroides. ‘the Rufous Shrike.

This bird is common in certain localities in the hills but not in the Quetta

Valley itself. It frequents open hillsides, scantily covered with bushes, and

its presence is always known by its noisy call.

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The nest is a well built one, a frame work of sticks and twigs the walls being

built of grass, fibre and fine flexible twigs, well lined with soft grass It is

placed in thorny bushes at no great height from the ground.

The eggs are broad ovals, close in texture and fairly glossy. In colour they

are (1) a beautiful salmon pink, (2) a pale stony-drab. The markings form an

irregular zone at the large end, and are pale brown with underlining clouds

of inky-purple.

The average measurement of 20 eggs is 22°83 mm. by 16:2 mm. Asarule

four to five eggs are laid but sometimes as many as six. The birds commence

to lay in April and eggs may be found as late as the middle of June.

}5. Lanius schach erythronotus. The Rufous-backed Shrike.

This Shrike is very plentiful in the Quetta Valley and is to be found in every

orchard and garden. lts nesting habits are too well known and need not be

described. - One thing however is deserving of mention.

There is a heavy toll of Sparrows taken by the Shrikes, just about the

time when their own young and the fledgling Sparrows are ready to fly.

The method by which the young Sparrows are done to death by the parent

Shrikes is neither quick nor businesslike, and the unfortunate victims are

submitted to much needless torture before being killed. This is how the

ghastly work is done: a young Sparrow on being caught is invariably held

pinned to the ground by the old Shrike, and the fledgling Shrikes collect round

ina close cordon, and a big din is set up to keep off the frantic parents of

the victim and while this is going on, the dreadful work proceeds.

The murderous Shrikes set to work and inflict a succession of sharp pecks at

the Sparrow’s head, and in its hopeless state it struggles and squeaks in

despair and terror, This bloody orgy brings forth a chorus of approval from

the feathered butchers, and the brutal onslaught is continued till the Sparrow

maimed, exhausted and spent, eventually succumbs. One would think that

the ravenous appetite of the young Shrikes would be glutted on the defunct

fledgling, but such is not the case, and it is a surprising fact that only the brain

and odd parts here and there are eaten, the rest being left to find its end

as a dainty morsel for some scavenger bird.

16. Muscicapa striata neumanni. ‘The Eastern Spotted Flycatcher.

This is the only Flycatcher that 1 have found breeding in the Quetta

Valley and it must be considered a rare bird. There is a specimen in the

McMahon Museum obtained at Nuskhi in May, and I.have seen a few

birds in April and May in the hills around Quetta where there are a few large

trees and water.

On the 18th of May, 1926, a nest was found built in a crevice in a ‘ Tangi’

from which three eggs were obtained, the bird being identified as the Eastern

Flycatcher. The ‘ Tangi’ was at an elevation of some 6,000 feet the nest

was built of grass roots and dried moss lined with fine grass and moss

roots.

The three eggs are moderate ovals slightly glossy and close in texture. In

colour they area pale green marked with brownish-red. The markings being

spread over the whole surface, giving the egg a darker greenish appearance.

The three eggs average 19°28 mm. by 14:0 mm.

17. Saxicolca caprata bicolor. The Common Pied Bush Chat.

This is a very common Summer visitor in the Quetta Valley arriving late in

Spring and frequenting the open spaces near orchards. ‘The breeding season

-is late, no birds nesting till May, although the male bird, who helps build the

nest, is in full song before nesting operations commence. They continue to lay

till mid-June.

‘The nests are built in various places, holes in walls, under bushes, in the

banks of nullahs, and even in the holes in the ‘ karezes ’.

‘They are merely pads of wool and horse-hair, intermixed with fibrous materials

and lined with horse-hair.

The eggs three to five in number, are broad ovals and slightly glossy. In

colour they are pale greenish-blue marked with brownish-red, generally in

the form of a zone at the large end.

They average 17°2 mm, by 13°8 mm,.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 603

18. (Enanthe picata. ‘The Pied Chat.

This Chat is very common in the Quetta Valley, and is to be found wher-

ever there are banks, fallow fields, broken and tumbled-down buildings. It is

also met with in the hills up to about 8,000 feet.

In the breeding season April to June the cock bird has a fine song and shows

off his black and white plumage to advantage while dancing before his mate.

The nests are pads, or shallow saucers, with no definite cup, of various

materials, such as grass feathers, wool tow, and bits of rag, lined with hair and

wool. They are placed in holes in banks, walls, houses, under rocks and in piles

of dried silt at the mouths of ‘ karezes ’.

The eggs, four to six in number, are pale blue, marked with reddish-brown

at the large end. In shape they are broad ovals and have aslight gloss. 50

eggs average 20'7mm. by 16°02 mm.

19. CEnanthe melanoleuca melanoleuca. Barnes’ Chat.

This Chat is by no means common in the Quetta Valley being found only in

the dry low foot hills, at an elevation of about 6,000 feet, and its nests are very

difficult to find, as it is a very shy bird.

One nest found in May, which was placed under a small heap of stones, was

a shallow saucer of sticks, fibrous plant stems, grass and hair.

The eggs, five in number, are fairly broad ovals slightly glossy, and ofa

deeper blue than is usual in Chats’ eggs. Marked chiefly at the large end inthe

form of azone with brick-red spots. Average 20°5 mm. by 15°4 mm.

20. CEnanthe isabellina. The Isabelline Chat.

This is one of the very common birds of the Quetta Valley, arriving early

in February and leaving in October. Though this bird is so common its nests

are very difficult to find, till the young are hatched, when the excitement of the

parent birds and the numerous foot marks near the nesting hole gives it away.

The site chosen for a nest is generally a Rat’s or discarded Bee-eater’s hole.

When built in the latter it is fairly easy to dig out, but when in a Rat’s hole the

chances of ever reaching the nest is very remote owing to the numerous branch

diversions in the burrow.

The nest is a shallow saucer made of wool, grass stems, tow, feathers and

bits of string and rag’, lined with hair and wool. The eggs are from four to five

in number, broad ovals, pale blue in colour and moderately glossy. An

occasional egg having a very few reddish-brown spots, The average of four-

teen eggs is 21°9 mm. by 16°7 mm.

I have seen the nuptial display of various birds but that of this Chat is,

I think the most remarkable. With drooping wings and outspread tail the

male approaches the object of his affections, uttering the whole while a pleasant

whistle. When within a foot or so of her, he rises about 18 inches off the ground

and flutters in a rapid oscillating motion in front of her, only the black sand

white of his plumage being visible against the drab colouredearth. After this

performance he alights near her and struts round with outspread wings and

tail, singing gaily allthe time. He then shoots up into the air, hovers and

performs aerial stunts, pouring forth his song the while. Gradually his

song becomes disjointed and he slowly desends to earth in a spiral motion, and

on alighting, approaches his lady love with a hesitating run, both wings adroop

and tail still outspread, chirping with satisfaction. All through this wonderful

exhibition the female takes not the slightest notice but carelessly preens her

feathers or feeds.

21. CEnanthe deserti atrogularis. Gould’s Desert Chat.

In spring and Autumn this Chat is to be met with in fairnumbersin the low

foothills chiefly to the north-west and north of the Quetta Valley. A few pairs

remain to breed in the Quetta Valley itself. The localities they frequent in the

breeding season are in the stony wastes, which form the predominating fea-

ture of the foothills, here there are afew hardy shrubs and a sprinkling of

Camel-thorn.

A nest found on the 15th of May, from which the bird was shot and identi-

fied, was built in a hole in the bank of a dry nullah, in the type of locality

described. The nest was built of grass hair and wool, lined with hair and

wool.

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiL

There were four eggs and they are a very pale blue, slightly glossy, with a

few faint markings at the large end.

They average 206 mm. by 154 mm.

22. (Enanthe zanthoprymna chrysopygia. ‘The Red-tailed Chat.

A rather rare bird breeding only in a few localities, and its nests are hard to

find. The site generally chosen is a hollow in a cave or cliff face; this cavity

is filled with small flat pebbles and the sides of the nest are supported by a

rampart of small flat stones, the nest itself being built of grass and lined with

fine grass stems.

The eggs, four to five in number, are pale blue, slightly glossy and very

sparingly marked with brick-red ; sometimes there are no markings at all,

The average size of eight eggs is 20°7 mm. by 15°9 mm.

The birds breed during April, May and June, my first clutch being taken on

the 13th of April and the last clutch on the 16th of June.

22. Phoenicurus ochrurus pheenicuroides. The Kashmir Redstart.

A Summer visitor to the hills around Quetta, where it breeds. ‘Iwo nests

were found on the 7th of June 1925, in the ‘Marachak Tangi’ but were deserted

before any eggs were laid as I had to put my hand in them to ascertain if there

were any eggs or not, being unable to look into them.

On the 30th of May 1926, a nest was found in the same locality and two eggs

were obtained and the parent bird secured.

The nest was built in a hole in a rock and was composed of dried moss, roots

and very fine grass stems and a few feathers.

The eggs are a pale blue, fairly glossy and without markings.

The two eggs average 19°1 mm. by 13°9 mm.

23. Monticola solitaria transcaspia. Hartert’s Blue Rock Thrush.

This Thrush is to be met with both in the hills to the north of Quetta, and on

the road to Ziarat, in any localities where there is water, no matter how little,

and where the surrounding country is extra rugged and boulder:strewn.

About the end of May I observed several pairs of these birds nesting, and

also saw young birds being fed. A search soon revealed several nests, but

when I visited thei a week later they were all deserted.

On the 15th of June a nest with three fresh eggs was found in a narrow gorge,

and the female was shot as she left the nest.

The nest was a deep cup of leaves, grass and dried bulbous plant stems, well

lined with hair, and placed in a niche about 18 feet high.

The eggs are pale clear blue, two being unspotted and the third slightly so at

the larger end with pale reddish-brown. In shape they are long ovals, minutely

pitted, and having little or no gloss.

The average of the three eggs is 26°9 mm. by 19°4 mm.

24. Erythrospiza githaginea crassirostris. The Eastern Desert Finch.

This is a rare bird in the Quetta Valley but breeds freely in the Pishin Valley,

mmaking its nest among the rocks, and, I am informed, in the trenches where the

vine is cultivated.

_ My first nest was found at Sheik Mundah, on the 14th of May, 1924, and two

otber nests have subsequently been taken in the Quetta Valley, (on the 25th of

May, 1926), and the bird secured in both the latter instances,

As regards the first nest, as soon as the female flew off the nest, I knew that

it was not a &. obsoletau which is so common round Quetta, and when the male

bird came on the scene, my companion pointed out the difference. The pink

breast of the male and the ashy hue of the female is an easy distinction from

Rk. obsoleta, and the owners of the nest were, without a doubt a pair of

E. g. crasstrostris.

The first nest was in an old deserted building, placed between two laths

going across a beam, and was a framework of thin sticks and twigs, lined with

wool and hair. The other two were also built in a ruined building, a watch

tower, and were placed in broken patches of the crumbling mud walls. The

nests were of the same type.

The eggs, four in number are broad ovals, slightly giossy, and in colour a

clear pale blue marked with a few black spots at the large end.

They average 18°3 mm. by 14°9 mm.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 605

26. Carduelis caniceps subulata. The Central Asian Goldfinch.

This Goldfinch is a local migrant frequenting the Quetta Valley in the Spring

and Autumn, and retiring to the hills in Summer to breed. A few pairs,

however, remain to breed in Quetta itself, as two pairs of adult birds were

constantly seen in, or in the vicinity of our garden, and in the late Spring were

seen feeding young, though we had not the luck to locate the nest.

The nearest to Quetta where they breed with any degree of frequency, is the

Takatu Ran<se, above an altitude of 8,000 feet among the Juniper covered slopes

of this and the neighbouring ranges.

All the summer I have seen birds there, and about the middle of September,

when out shooting, large flocks of these Finches have come down to drink.

With the aid of a decoy bird, and a trap cage these Finches are easily

trapped, and they take to capitivity very well, the song of the adult males

being similar to that of a Canary, though the notes are not so liquid. When,

however, heard from a distance it is quite pleasing. These Finches are

regularly trapped during the migration flights, and find a ready market.

27. Metaponia pusilla. The Gold-fronted Finch.

This little Finch is also common in the hills, keeping to the rocky hillsides

where a few small stunted bushes are scattered here and there. We have not

found their nests, but while resting under some trees near the only spring of

water in the hills, have seen family parties of seven birds or so come down

to drink.

I am informed that they breed freely at Ziarat, but as we have not worked in

that locality, we can record nothing further about them.

28. Rhodospiza obsoleta. Lichtenstein’s Desert Finch.

Next to the Sparrow this is the commonest bird in the Quetta Valley in

Summer, arriving in March and leaving in September, though a few birds

remain throughout the Winter. Once the breeding season has started, its

cheery call Pink? Pink? Pink?, is heard everywhere in Cantonments, whilst

its nests are to be found in nearly every tree, little or no attempt being made to

conceal them from view.

The nests are placed at various heights, from three to fifteen feet from the

ground, in forks of trees along roadsides, and in gardens. It is a compact cup

of wool, well felted in a slight framework of sticks and twigs. The breeding

season is from April to July, the majority of birds having two broods.

The eggs of which we have a large series, vary greatly in size and shape,

some being long narrow ovals and others broad ovals, The texture of the shell

is close and fine and silghtly glossy. The clutches range from five to seven,

those of five being most common.

The colour of the eggs is pale blue, and when fresh the yolk can be seen

through the shell. The markings, which are confined to the larger end, either

in zones or caps, consists of dark brown and black spots, scratches, and hair-

like lines.

My largest egg is 22°38 mm. by 14°7 mm. and the smallest 18°8 mm. by

14:0 mm., whilst the average of 50 eggs is 19°2 mm. by 14°4 mm.

29. Passer domesticus indicus. The Indian House Sparrow.

Very common during the Summer, leaving the Quetta Valley towards the end

of September. It nests in trees and holes in nullah banks, and only lives up to

its name when found nesting among the rough thached roofs of Pathan

villages.

30. Passer montanus dilutus. ‘he Afghan Tree Sparrow.

This species too is one of the very common birds of the Quetta Valley in

Summer, and a few remain during the Winter.

It keeps principally to the orchards and plantations, where it builds the usual

shapeless nest of grass, rags, string, etc., in the thin branches of trees, and lays

the usual type of egg.

31. Emberiza stewarti. ‘The White-capped Bunting.

This Bunting is to be found on the open grass covered and scantily bushed

plateaux where it is fairly common. Its call is similar to that of some Warblers,

and I have often mistaken it for these.

606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

‘Towards the end of May I observed several pairs of these birds with grass in

their beaks, but failed to locate their nests. On the 15th of June while coming

along a ridge after a day’s nesting one of these Buntings flew up at my feet

with a cry of alarm ; on looking down, I saw between a stone and a stump of

grass, a deep cupshaped nest of grass and fibres, lined with horse-hair. The

nest held three partially incubated eggs. The bird is a very close sitter, for my

foot was about nine inches from the nest when it flew up, and I must have

passed within a few feet of the nest the previous Sunday.

32. . Ptynoprogne obsoleta obsoleta. The Pale Crag Martin.

This Martin is very common in certain localities in the hills and its nests are

to be found under overhanging rocks and such like places, in the vicinity of

which it keeps a constant beat in its flight to and fro.

The nest is a half cup of mud pellets, with a few grass stems intermixed and

well lined with feathers. The whole is attached to the wall of a cave or rock

close under the roof,

The eggs three to five in number (generally three), are of two types. In

some they are white marked with fine spots forming a zone at the large end, of

reddish-brown, or with fairly bold marks and spots of the same colour. In

shape they are moderately broad ovals, with little orno gloss. In size they

average 18°2 mm. by 13°3 mm,

33. Hirunda rustica rustica. The Common Swallow.

Very abundant all over the Quetta Valley, arriving in early Spring and

leaving towards the end of October. Nearly every shop in Quetta, and the

huts in the villages has a nest or two, but as these birds are supposed to bring

good luck, the owners will not allow the nests to be taken.

34. Hirundo fluvicola. The Indian Cliff Swallow.

A clutch of three eggs of this Swallow were. brought in from Mastung, by

S/Serget. A. T. Webster, I.A.S.c., who was only able to get at one nest. They

were built under a1 overhanging ledge and were composed of mud lined with

grass and feathers.

The eggs are moderate ovals, white faintly marked with pale brown. They

average 18°3 mm. by 13:2 mm.

35. Hirundo daurica rufula.s The European Striated Swallow.

This Swallow isthe European form and not mepalensis ; the bird is large

with a wing measurement of 122°5 mm. and the tail is 102 mm., the colour of

the breast is chestnut and well defined. It affects certain localities and does

not come near human habitations, keeping more to the river courses and

valleys in the hills where they are only found in pairs.

The nests are retort-shaped, made of pellets of mud, fixed to the roof of a

cave or under an overhanging rock. ‘The needs of the nests are not nearly so

long as those of A. d. erythropygia, but the nests are more liberally lined

and padded with feathers.

The eggs are long ovals pure white with little or no gloss. The average of

four eggs is 19°2 mm. by 14:0 mm.

36. Anthus sordidus decaptus. The Persian Rock Pipit.

This Pipit is very common on the hills around Quetta, but a search for its

nests has ended in many disappointments.

It breeds in the latter half of April and in May, the nests are loose cups of

grass lined with hair and fine grass stems, aid placed under bushes or clumps

of dried grass.

37. Alewmon alaudipes pallida. ‘The Persian Desert Lark.

This Lark is to be met with fairly frequently in the stony wastes at the foot

of the hills. It is rather a silent and confiding bird and does not take to wing

as willingly as G.c. magna, preferring rather to run.

Round Quetta it breeds in the localities where it is found, making an untidy

nest of grass, lined with finer grass and hair, with a few feathers intermixed,

generally p!aced under a sheltering stone.

The egy's two to four in number, are moderately long ovals, fairly glossy,

and of a pale cream almost white ground colour. The markings are not

numerous, but are scattered over the whole surface being more dense at the

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA_ 607

large end. They consist of reddish-brown specks and blotches, with secondary

markings of neutral tint.

The average of four eggs is 23°4 mm. by 17°3mm.

38. Galerida cristata magna. Hume’s Crested Lark.

One of the commonest birds met with in the fields and waste lands around

Quetta, though it also frequents the more open hillsides.

This Lark has a fine song and isa perfect mimic, imitating calls of various

birds. Itsings asit soars out of sight, and continues its song till near the

ground. When on the ground its song finishes in a few disjointed notes.

It commences to nest towards the end of March, and continues to do so as

long as there are any standing crops.

39. Calandrella acutirostris acutirosiris. Htme’s Short-toed Lark.

A resident species inhabiting the foot hills of the Quetta Valley, and more

abundant among the low foot hills around Pishin and Khanai, where specimens

of the parent bird along with the nest and eggs were taken in June.

The nest is of the usual Lark type, placed among stones and small bushes,

built of grass and fibrous stems, and lined with fine grass and hair.

The eggs, four in number, differ from those of the Crested Lark only in size.

40. Picus squamatus flavirostris. Hargitt’s Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

This Woodpecker occasionally comes into Quetta, and there are two Quetta

specimens in the McMahon Museum. It is fairly common in the higher Juniper

covered slopes of the Miangandi and Marachak Reserves.

We have found its nests in Willow and Pistacia trees.

Though there is ample evidence that it breeds, we have been unable to obtain

its eggs.

I fave been informed by the Forest Ranger at Miangandi, that these birds

are to be seen with young towards the end of July. The nest-holes are very

common, three being found in an area of two hundred yards square.

We have not worked this area in June and July, on account of the absence of

water and the tiring heat of the place. .

This Woodpecker has a loud ringing call, and is common at Ziarat.

41. Merops persicus persicus. ‘The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater.

This Bee-eater passes through Quetta early in Spring, and breeds in the

territory situated due north. The nearest to Quetta where we have found its

nest has been Yaru in the Pishin Valley, on the 6th of July. There was a small

colony breeding in a dried-up river bed and all the nests contained young.

42. Merops apiaster. The European Bee-eater.

I observed these birds for the first time on the 16th of April, and later found

them breeding in the same localities where first seen.

43. Alcedo atthis pallasii. The Central Asian Kingfisher.

This little Kingfisher is the only representative of its order in the Quetta

Valley, and is to be found all along the River Lora and in gardens where there

is enough liquid inducement for it to take upits quarters. There is'no differ-

ence in its habits from those of the Common Indian Kingfisher.

In the month of June it burrows its nests in the river hanks the site of the

nest being well advertised by the bird’s droppings outside.

44, Upupaepops epops. The European Hoopoe.

Fairly common in the Quetta Valley where it breeds, it is a much bolder bird

than Upupae. orientalis, and 1 have seen it drive away a Raven from its nest,

which contained young.

Three nests of this species were found, one had eggs on the point of hatch-

ing, and the other had full-fledged young, and the third with two eggs, which

were left for a full clutch. On visiting the nest five days after, it was found

deserted, so the two eggs were taken.

All the nests were in old buildings, where the pointing had given away under

the roofs. They were built of various kinds of rubbish, and were very mal-

odorous,

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITII

45. Cuculus canorous telephonus. ‘The Asiatic Cuckoo.

This is the only member of its order which occurs in the Quetta Valley, and

it is not very common, though its call-is often heard in the hills to the north.

I have only obtained three eggs of this Cuckoo, all of which were deposited in

the nests of Scotocerca inguieta striata, whilst in a third nest of this species, a

broken egg of the Cuckoo was found. Ina Finch’s (#. odsoleta) nest, a couple

of nestlings were found, of which one was undoubtedly a young Cuckoo, and a

short time afterwards when showing the nest to a friend there was only one

young bird in it. A week later I went to procure the young Cuckoo for a

specimen and found it dead in the nest. Either the Finches discovered the

fraud and in dire revenge administered fatal punishment, or what is more

likely, the food of a hard billed bird did not agree with its interior economy.

Two eggs now in my possession are broad ovals, glossy, and creamy in

colour, marked with blackish- brown and inky-grey.

They average 22°5 mm. by 17'7 mm.

46. Asio otus otus. The Lony-eared Owl.

Towards the end of March, I came across a family of five of these quaint

Owls in Galbraith Spinney, about three miles from Quetta. They were quite

tame and flew about in the day time. The place where I found them was in a

plantation of young Poplars, Populus alba, an extension of the Spinney.

There are several old Magpie’s nests in this area and one of them looked

decidedly as if it had been used by the Owls for nesting purposes.

That they breed in Baluchistan there is not the slightest doubt, but the

confirmation of this statement must pend the finding of an authentic nest and

eggs.

47. Otus brucei. ‘The Striated Scops Owl.

Fairly common in certain localities round Quetta. On the 16th of April 1925,

I flushed a bird out of a hole in a ‘Sticky Plum’ tree in the Miangandi Reserve

Forest. On enlarging the hole I found one egg, the bird meanwhile sat close

by and when shot, a1 egg was extracted from the oviduct. The bird has been

identified, and is now in the McMahon Museum.

The egg was laid on a few rotting chips and no proper nest was made. The

egg taken from the nest was slightly glossy, but the one out of the oviduct was

chalky. They are broad ovals, almost spherical, and measure 32°4 mm. by

27°8 mm.

48. Carine bramatarayensis. The Baluchistan Spotted Owlet.

This is the commonest Ow! in the Quetta Valley, and its habits in no way

differ from the rest of its family. -

49. Agypius monachus. The Cinereous Vulture.

This large Vulture is to be met with in the high and rugged portion of the

district, often coming within the Cantonment limits to feed around the refuse

heaps and on carrion. Or the ground its movements are very sluggish and it

rises with great difficulty, as is common with all members of this family, but

once on the wing it is very graceful. ;

Once while watching a Markhor trail in the hills I observed this beating along

the cliff face ; there was never a movement of its stiff outspread wings and the

air sang through the end primaries with the same tone as through the stays of

an aeroplane.

Three nests of this species were found this season (1925), all on Juniper trees

growing in a deep gorge of the Takatu Range. Of these one nest was compara-

tively easy to get at but the others most difficult. 7

The second nest was located after we had climbed the summit of Takatu,

11,375 feet, and were working along the ridge which separates Marachak

Reserve from Burra-Marachak, which is a very steep valley with almost per-

pendicular sides of crumbling limestone and volcanic rock.

The nest was about 2,000 feet from the bottom, and the climb down was the

worst I have ever attempted. My companion and I, witha Brahuie shepherd,

climbed down the cliff—-more of aslide than aclimb—but however I reached the

nest I do not know and I am unable altogether to describe the last little bit.

The nest was in front of me and that was all I worried about, and at last we

managed to get down to it.

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 609

On climbing the tree, which was on the brink of a deep rocky gully, and

reaching the nest, I found I could just touch the egg as I stood with my feet at

the base of the nest, and eventually I had to scramble on to the nest itself to

secure the egg,

The nest was a huge structure of sticks, built and added to for many years,

and mixed with rags and skin; it was filthy and had a most offensive smell. In

size it measured more than six feet from the baseto the top, and about five

feet in diameter. The nest proper was a platform and the egg was laid on

some grass.

On securing the egg I climbed down and we at once started up the slope

again. I followed in the rear, being no climber, and for my temerity nearly got

killed by a boulder dislodged by my companion.

Twice on the way upI sat down and nearly cried with vexation. At last we

reached the top, and rolled over gasping for water, which was unattainable,

and we were faced with the prospect of three miles rough going to the nearest

spring,

The two eggs we obtained are broad ovals, pitted and slightly glossy, the

ground colour is white, marked with buff and brown.

The egg from the first nest is very beautiful, being nearly alla rich buff,

marked with brown, and here and there the white ground showing through.

The egg from the second nest is nearly pure white, being sparingly marked

at one end with dark brown and blood stains.

The eggs average 82°2 mm. by 69'4 mm. (C.E.W.)

50. Neophron percnopterus percnopterus. The Egyptian Vulture.

This Vulture is very common and resident throughout the Quetta Valley,

and in the hills of Baluchistan. Its habits are similar toits congener Neophron

ginginianus. It builds its nests onthe ledges of cliffs and many of them are

quite inaccessible. The nests are in some cases large, but more often than

not there are only a few rags and stick strewn on the ledge, and the eggs one

or twoin number, are laid in the centre of this.

The eggs of which I have only obtained two, are fairly moderate ovals,

slightly pointed at one end. The texture of the shell is rough, chalky and

pitted all over, and marked with reddish-brown and blood stains, on a white

ground, one being exceptionally marked. This egy measures 66°1 mm. by

49:0 mm.

Sl. Gypetus barbatus grandis. The Eastern Bearded Vulture or Lammer-

geyer.

This large Vulture is rather a common feature of the Cantonments above

which it is constantly to be seen sailing round in wide circles gradually des-

cending to the ground, where it alights without running as other Vultures do ;

also, when it rises, it does so with no more effort than a Pariah Kite.

While on the ground its walk is siow and dignified, the eagle like gait of this

magnificent bird on terra firma is very pronounced.

At the same time this does not do away with the fact thatit is just as com-

plete a scavenger as any other vulture. ts flight is strong and quick, but I

have not yet heard from the local inhabitants of it ever attacking live animals,

however much its strength and ease of flight along the cliff faces might suggest

such a possibility.

I have found several nests but only obtained two eggs. Another nest which

could be got at contained a young bird ready to fly.

All the nests were built in clefts in the cliffs, and were built of sticks, twigs,

rag and wool and skin, and anything else the bird could get. They were

structures of some depth, but the nest proper was a mere platform with hardly

any depression.

One egg now in my possession is a long oval, slightly glossy, and pitted.

The ground colour is a dirty white, and the whole egg is covered with brick-

red blotches. It measures 81°7 mm. by 66°1 mm.

52. Aquila chrysetus daphanae. The Himalayan Golden Eagle.

This fine Eagle is fairly common in the hills around Quetta but I have never

seen it in Cantonments. Its flight is strong and its stoop a wonderful sight. Its

call is like a yelping dog and it was this call that attracted my attention and

led to the finding of my first nest, while I was out Chukar shooting.

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The nest was placed in a Juniper tree growing out of a cliff about three

hundred feet high, and about half way up. I got ill at this time and could not.

get out, but I had the nest watched, and a week after I left hospital, we climbed

up toit after a great deal of troubie, and with the help of my shikari and col-

lector and a Brahuie shepherd, I managed to get to the nest and recover from

it a clutch of two eggs which were well marked.

The second nest was in a similar position and contained one , addled egg and

a fledgling. The third nest had twoeggs which unfortunately got broken in

the old shepherd's efforts to dodge the attacks cf the birds. He rolled

down the hillside about twenty yards, and landed against another Juniper tree,

with a cut leg and torn clothes and the eggs in an omelette! This was the only

occasion on which the birds attacked us. Several other nests were located but

could not be got at.

The breeding season is about the commencement of Spring, though this is

dependent to some extent upon the severity or otherwise of the Winter.

The nests were in every case placed in Juniper trees growing on the steep

slopes of cliff faces, were huge structures of sticks and twigs mixed with rags

and skin, the eggs being placed on a nest-lining of grass. The eggs are broad

ovals pointed at one end, slightly glossy, and close in texture, the ground colour

is a dirty grey marked with brown and deep purple, with secondary markings

of lilac.

They average 78°7 mm. by 41°5 mm.

The natives around here always destroy every nest and egg they can get as

the Eagles have the reputation of killing many kids, lambs and sick sheep.

53. Milvus migrans govinda. ‘The Common Pariah Kite.

A bird of the Cantonments as it is elsewhere, and in no way differing in its

habits from its cousin of the plains.

54. Milvus migrans lineatus. The Black-eared Kite.

This Kite is easily distinguished from J7. 7. govinda. by the conspicuous

white patch on the under side of the wing, this bird is rarely seen in Canton-

ments, keeping to the hills and their vicinity.

It breeds in the Spring and during the months of April, May and June. The

usual site is on a ledge in a cliff, or on a Juniper tree growing from a cliff or

steep hillside.

The nests are well built structures of sticks and twigs, with very little of the

rubbish that is usually found in the composition of a Common Kite’s nest.

55. Astur badius cenchroides. Severtzov’s Shikra.

This Hawk is fairly common throughout the Quetta Valley and breeds all

through the Summer, building its nests in lofty leafy trees or else comman-

deering a Magpie’s disused tenement.

At Pishin there is quite a colony of them nesting in Beech trees in the

Political Agent’s compound. This was towards theend of June, and nearly

every nest had young. From one nest I got a full fledged bird and an addled

egg.

si shape the egg is nearly spheroid and slightly points at one end. The

egg is very discoloured, with a bluish lining and with a few faint markings

of a pale brown colour.

It measures 40°03 mm. by 33°04 mm.

26. Accipiter nisus melaunoschistus. The Indian Sparrow Hawk.

A rather rare visitor to the Quetta Valley, arriving about the middle of May,

when a few pairs remain to breed.

It is a far more silent bird and more methodical in its mode of obtaining its

daily food, and its attacks are conducted without the theatrical show of 4. 6.

cenchroides. A nest found at Hannah on the 15th of June contained a clutch

of four incubated eggs.

The nest was built in an Apricot tree at a height of about 15 feet and was a

well built structure of sticks and twigs, lined with finer twigs.

The eggs are broad ovals, of a rough texture, and of a white ground colour,

marked with bold brick-red blotches which are fairly well spread over the

egg.

In size they average 43°2 mm. by 32°5 mm,

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 611

57. Falco tinnunculus interstinctus. The Indian Kestrel.

Very common and resident breeding throughout the hilly tracts towards the

latter part of spring.

Three types of eggs have been obtained :(1) White marked with burnt-sienna ;

(2) Buff marked with brown; (3) Pale brick-red marked with reddish-brown.

The two latter types are very handsome.

58. Columbia livia neglecta. Hume’s Blue Rock Pigeon.

This Pigeon is to be met with in certain localities in the hills during the

breeding season, otherwise it is very common throughout the Quetta Valley. It

‘builds its nests on ledges of cliffs and, where found breeding in the Quetta

Valley, it is sure to be in ‘ karez’ holes. Its habits are in no way different from

the down country Pigeon, nor can I trace any difference in its eggs and

Nest.

59. Streptopelia senegalensis ermanni- ‘The Persian Little Brown Dove.

This little Dove is resident through out the Quetta Valley andonly moves down

the passes if the Winters are too severe and the snowfall too heavy.

It starts nesting early in Spring and continues all through the Summer and

early Autumn. Its nest is the usual classic structure ‘two twigs and a cross

stick’, and the eggs laid in it are the prevailing type of its down-country

cousin,

60. Streptopelia decaocto decaocto. ‘The Indian Ring Dove.

This Dove is a Summer visitor to the Quetta Valley, migrating to the lower

valleys of Baluchistan in the Autumn.

I first noticed these birds towards the end of March, and a short time after

they started breeding.

The breeding season lasts from Spring all through theSummer. The nests

are better built than those usually met withelsewhere. ‘The eggs are in no way

different from those from any other part of India.

61. Pterocles orientalis. ‘Che Large, Imperial or Black-bellied Sand Grouse.

On the 18th of May I saw a large flight of these Grouse settle on the plain near

Samangli, in the Quetta Valley. They had evidently come from a long

distance, as they were not inclined to fly far when disturbed. This is the only

Grouse that is to be found in the Quetta Valley. In certain localities it

undoubtedly breeds freely, especially on the Mastung and Pishin Plains, and a

large number also breed among the low sand hills to the west of Quetta, but

many atiring trudge ended in a futile search for the eggs.

A single addled egg of this Grouse was sent to me by Mr. F. Good from

Chaman. It was found at Old Chaman among the foot hills of the Khawajah

Aniran.

In shape it is cylindrical, being of a pale stone ground colour, marked with

brown and underlying clouds of pale inky-purple.

It measures 49°9 mm. by 31°5 mm.

62. Pterocles coronatus. ‘The Coronetted Sand Grouse.

A migrant through the Quetta Valley, and while on migration is to be met

with in fairly large flights in the Bolan between Mach and Kirtha, but chiefly

being found on the open plain between Saranan and Gulistan. It is more

common along the Perso-Baluch border, and along the foothills and sandy

tracts towards Chaman, where it is replaced by P. alachata round Nushki and

Ahmedwal.

It breeds in May and June in the wind-swept sand dune tracts of the above-

mentioned places, its eggs being laid in a sheltered depression and no attempt

being made to line the nest, if such it can be called. __

The eggs, three in number, are broad cylinders, rounded at the ends, of a

close texture and glossy, the ground colour is either a pale drab, or stone,

marked with sienna of varying intensity and having underlying clouds of pale

inky-purple.

The average of six eggs is 43°7 mm. by 30 mm.

63. Alectoris greca koriakovi. The Persian Chukar.

Chukar are very common in the open season when they congregate in large

coveys for feeding and drinking. In the close season, especially when they

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

are breeding, one does not often see them as they keep to the higher portions

of the hills where the ground is rough, broken and dangerous.

In such localities there is an abundance of suitable cover in the form of

stunted bushes, clumps of grass and boulders which form natural and

sequestered nesting sites.

The nest which may be placed under the protection of any of these, is a

hollow scraped under the sheltering object. It is scantily lined with grass

and leaves, the majority of which are merely wind blown. The Chukar

commences to breed about the end of April and continues until about the end

of July, though the time is greatly dependent on the weather. It is a strange

fact, but true nevertheless, that when the spring rains fail, the following

season is a bad one for the Chukar, very few birds breeding. Correspondingly

in a year when there is a good rainfall in the spring the Chukar have two

broods.

A large number of nests were found, but only two clutches were taken.

Large clutches are laid which number anything from nine to sixteen eggs. In

shape they are broad long ovals, pointed, at one end; the texture is close,

glossy and pitted all over.

The ground colour is a dirty cream, marked chiefly with a pale brown.

These markings are minute and scattered all over the egg and nowhere very

dense.

In size they average 43°2 mm. by 30°9 mm.

64. Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis. The See-see Partridge.

The See-see affects the base of the hills, although at times it isto be met

with at considerable heights up the hills and valleys.

It isalively bird keeping to the fairly dense cover in the scrub of the foothills,

and is to be seen in the mornings taking sand baths in the pathways or running

over rocks with wonderful agility. It prefers to use its feet rather than its

wings.

They are very confiding birds, for, in the summer when the villagers have

left their huts in the valleys and moved up the hills in search of pastures new,

the See-see is to be seen running about like village chickens. When disturbed

they run a short distance but if further followed they take to wing and their

flight is strong and quick.

The nesting season lasts from March to June, at which time the male bird is

often to be seen perched on some outstanding rock and calling at all hours of

the day. In their wild state, they fight long and fiercely, but for all that they

are not so popular as cage pets as the Chukar.

The nest is generally a hollow under some sheitering object such as a bush,

rock, or a heap oi stones. It is slightly lined and this appears to be the work of

the bird, as there is a decided moulding and arrangement of the materials

which consist of grass, leaves, sticks, etc.

The eggs are eight to fourteen in number, and are broad ovals, compressed

and pointed at one end. Some have no gloss and other are slightly so, but all

have minute pittings.

In colour they are uniform white or creamy, and average in size 34°4 mm. by

25°6 mm.

65. Coturnix coturnix coturnix. The Common Quail.

The Common Quail has been known to breed at Mach in the Bolan and

Seistan, but of its breeding in the Quetta Valley I can find no record, though

large numbers pass through in Spring and Autumn.

At Woodcock Spinney on the 4th of May a clutch of seven eggs was found

in the grass which was then being cut. They were laid in a slight depression

tunder a bush with an apology for a nest. Further clutches ranging from five

to nine eggs have since been found. On the 29th of August a clutch of eight

partially incubated eggs were found ina ‘lucerne field.’ This I think is proof

enough that a certain number of birds remain to breed both in the Quetta

Valley and Mastung whence I havereceived eggs. The eggs average 28'7 mm.

by 23°24 mm.

These quail are difficult to flush but readily come to decoy birds from

the surrounding fields when they can be netted in large numbers. After

the netting is over the fields in the immediate vicinity of where the nets have

SOME NOTES ON THE BIRDS BREEDING ROUND QUETTA 613

been are dragged with a rope and a few brace can be added to the total bag

witha gun. The training and care of decoy birds is quite an art in itself and

they are treated witb more care than a pack of hounds.

66. Podiceps ruficollis albipennis. ‘The Indian Little Grebe.

These birds are resident wherever found in.the Quetta Valley, but I have

only taken its eggs at Khushdil Khan Lake, where it is very plentiful, frequent-

ing the large stretches of weeds, which in Winter, accommodate large flights of

duck, affording fine sport.

The nests are close together and are floating masses of weeds, rising

slightly out of the water. The egg cavity is a shallow depression generally half

full of water, which is the same temperature of the egg, The temperature

of the water in the lake itself is much lower, so whether this warmth is

derived by the chemical action of the partially decayed weeds or not is not

known.

What struck me most about the nests was the fact that though all contained

eggs, only asmall percentage of them, had their eggs covered, a remarkable

thing with Grebes. Some of the fully incubated eggs were as white as when

freshly laid. 1 mention this for purposes of comparison with eggs obtained

down country, e.g. in Poona and Bangalore, where in every instance, eggs even

if only partially incubated, were soiled or discoloured by their contact withjthe

weeds.

Khushdil Khan Lake, so sequestered and isolate, is'an ideal,breeding ground

for the Little Grebe, and is free from marauding intruders of the. Corvide

family, which may account for most of the nests being left uncovered.

EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOLD FISH

(CARASSIUS AURATUS)

M. HAMID KHAN, M.SC, LL.B

Superintendent of Fisheries, Punjab

(With two plates)

The Gold Fish originated with the Chinese in remote antiquity and was

introduced into Europe between the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and

into America in the nineteenth century. It has been produced from the Crucian

Carp, an Asiatic fish of the family Cyprinide, after centuries of careful selec-

tion and breeding and is therefore one of the Minnows.

The original colour of the Crucian Carp is olive brown and when the young

ones hatch out and for some weeks after, they possess this hue of their primal

ancestors. Ifthe Gold Fish are left to themselves as in an open pond, they will

degenerate more or less rapidly and gradually revert to the original form and

colouration of the Crucian Carp. Moreover a large proportion of fish hatched,

never do change from their sombre dress, nor take on the brilliant colour

so much desired.

Many of the grotesque forms which make some of the popular type of the Gold

Fish are the outcome of the centuries of laborious work by the patient,

persevering and ingenious Japanese in taking advantage of some curious freaks

of Nature.

Different varieties of Gold Fish are: Common, Comet, Nymph, Fan Tail,

Fringe Tail, Ribbon Tail, Veil Tail, Square Tail, Tripod, Telescope, Celestial,

Lion Head, Blue and Black Telescope.

Gold Fish begin spawning usually early inthe spring. The approach of

spawning time is indicated by males chasing the females about the tank, fight-

ing and spiashing the water. The eggs are laid at such times and are fertilized by

the milt from the male. ‘The favourite hours for spawning are those which just

precede dawn. With the advancing season however daylight spawning

becomes more frequent. Chasing and spawning have been observed in our

tanks at Madhopur from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. Only afew eggs are deposited at one

time and it sometimes requires several weeks for the female to discharge them

all.

The Gold Fish at our Farms spawned at frequent intervals from Apri! to

August. The eggs are very small, very light and very adhesive and are yellow-

ish white in colour. ‘They will not hatch if they get very many inches below

the water. With grass and weeds planted thicklyin the breeding tank the

eggs fasten themselves firmly to the leaves, roots and stems. The egg

bearing plants are placed in a separate tank with water of precisely the same.

temperature, as otherwise the adult fish will soon begin to eat them. The eggs

hatch out in from 46 to 60 hours.

A comparative study of the life history of the Gold Fish was made. Indian

Carp breed once a year during the rains, and it has not so far been possible

to find a parallel to the continuous spawning of the Gold Fish, in any other

members of the Indian Carp. But life histories of many fishes are still unknown

and it is very likely that further researches will throw more light on the

subject.

The fish spawned on May 27, 28, 29 and 31, 1926, at7 a. m. and the eggs were

collected on each day and kept separately under observation and preserved in

Formalin and Champy’s solution for further examination. Eggs are transpa-

rent yellowish-white in colour, spherical in form and1‘5 mm. in diameter.

The egg membrane is thin. The eggs after fertilization show the blastodisc

as circularin form and lying on the left side of the attachment of the egg to

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Fig. 11. Circulation in newly hatched embryo.

Fig. 12. Second day after hatching.

Fig. 13. Fourth day after hatching. Circulation in the caudal portion.

Fig. 14. Sixth day after hatching. Formation of the caudal rays.

Fig. 15. Half ofthe Gold Fish: Caudal portion eaten by fungus.

Abbreviations.—a.s. = Airsac; a. v. = Anterior vena cava; 6, = Blastodisc ;

6. ¢. = Basal cartilages; ¢c. = Cells; c.v. = Caudal rays; c. v. = Caudal vein ;

é. = Hye; é.@, = Embryonic axis: e.s; = Embryonic shield; g.7. = Germ ring;

h. = Heart; p. f. = Pectoral fin; g.v. = Posterior vena cava; s. = Somites;

c. = Segmented cells.

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Fig. 2. Eight-cells stage after one hour. 7

Fig. 3. Nine hours’ stage.

Fig. 4. Eleven hours’ stage.

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Fig. 6. Twenty-seven hours’ stage. ;

Fig. 7. Forty-six hours’ stage.

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Fig. 9. Newly hatched embryo.

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EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOLD FISH 615

grass or leaf. Segmentation of the egg begins soon after the fertilization;

and after one hour the blastodisc is seen divided into cells ; after this stage

the division is rapid and two hours’ stage shows the protoplasmic disc divided

into many cells. Thecells have become smaller and at the periphry a thick

layer of the protoplasm forming periblast is seen in three hours’ stage. In six

hours’ stage the periblast is seen cut off from the blastoderm, the periphral

margin of which is thickened to form the germ ring. ‘lhe blastoderm extends

over the yolk and consequently the germ ring also increases in width. In nine

hours’ stage the blastoderm seen from the dorsal surface shows a thick trian-

gulararea of the germ ring. This is the posterior Embryonic Pole. This area

marks the early stage in the differentiation of the embryonic shieid. The blasto-

derm increases in size very rapidly and the germ ring encircles the yolk

sphere ; the embryonic shield consequently grows larger and is more definitely

outlined. A plug of yolk cells forming the blastopore is seen in nine hours’

stage.

A longitudinal thickening from the blastopore to the anterior end is seen in

the embryonic shield at ten hours’ stage. This is the Embryonic Axis. Eleven

hours’ stage shows that segmentation of body has already begun, and four

somites are counted. Thirteen hours’ stage shows eight somites. The embryo

is well differentiated with head and tail ends, and with colourless eyes. The

blastopore is closed at 14 hours’ stage, which shows 13 or 14 somites ; impercep-

tible outline of 15th and 16th somites is also visible. Eye is still colourless.

No movement is yet discernible, the embryo is fixed to the yolk sac at both

ends, Sixteen hours’ stage has otoiths behind the eyes. The somites vary from

16 to 20. In 20 somites stage the embryo shows slight wriggling movement of

the whole mass like shrugging of shoulders ; the head and tail are not separated

from the yolk sac, no heart is visible as yet.

In 22 hours’ stage heart has appeared but no other vessel is discernible.

Embryo is moving wholly within the vitelline membrane. The tail end is

detached from the yolk sac. Brain is developed. Soon after, in 25 hours’ stage

the blood vessels make their appearance; dorsal aort2, ventral vein, anterior

vena cava are the only vessels visible. The eyes are a bit darker. Round pigment

cells have appeared. ‘Twenty-seven hours’ stage shows the typical embryonic

Teleostean circulation ; no gills are seen as yet; heart gives off branches to the

head ; and these unite together to form dorsal aorta, which, posteriorly turns

back to form the ventral vein, which anteriorly divides to form two posterior

vena cavee, and these passing through the yolk sac, open into the heart. Rudi-

ments of brain are visible.

In 32 hours’ stage the round pigment cells have branched to form stellate

pigment cells. Eyes are much darker and can be seen with the naked eyes as

two black dots inside the egg membrane. Thirty hours’ stage marks the

appearance of the segmental vessels. Anterior vena cava passing through the

yolk sac has got distinct walls studded with stellate pigment cells. Tail has

elongated. Temperature of water 82° F.; mixed fresh water of 72° F. ; mixed

temperature 75° F.

Forty-six hours’ stage shows the formation of the Pectoral fins inside the egg

membrane. Stellate cells have increased and have rendered the egg opaque.

Some eggs of one lot hatched out after 45 hours ; the remainder after 52 to 57

hours. The hatching depends mainly on the temperature of the water:

the colder the water the later the hatching. ‘Eggs in 84° F. hatched out in 46 to

54 hours, and in lower temperature in 60 hours,

One ege hatched out under the microscope. Segmental vessels, Pectoral

fins are present from the very beginning. The embryo bursts open the egg

membrane by its tail which comes out first, the head is still inside the mem-

brane. The embryo shakes its head just like a dog and frees itself of the

covering. To the egg membrane are attached innumerable verticelle. Yolk

sac is elongated posteriorly.

Three aortic arches are present. Posterior vena cavee join behind the yolk

sac to form the caudal vein. The path of the anterior vena cave is marked by

pigmented walls. The posterior circulation is typical ; just at the posterior end

of the yolk, posterior vena cava has got reverse circulation in a branched vessel.

The posterior circulation does not extend to the extremity.

First day after hatching ; the embryo shows (i) reduction of yolk sac, (ii)

round pigment and stellate cells on the dorsal surface of the head and (iii)

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII]

development of six aortic vessels. Head vessels have multiplied. The heart is

becoming complex. Stellate pigment cells have collected near the end of the

notochord. Pectoral fins are elongated and movements are very swift. Air sac

appears after 20 hours. Twenty-four hours after hatching, mouth opens for

respiration ; and opercular membrane appears over the gills, and an air bubble

is formed in the sac. Nostrils have appeared. Yellow pigment is laid over the

dorsal surface. The yolk sac is reduced, the embryo lies on its ventral surface.

Yellow colour predominates. Operculum is well developed ; stellate pigment

cells have become rounded and are fewer in number and are confined to the

dorsal surface. The caudal vessel has given off a tiny lranch to the ventral

mass of pigment cells, marking the beginning of caudal capillaries. Third day

shows yellow colour to be all over surface. Eyes have purple pigment as well.

Yolk sac is much reduced. Caudal capillaries and pigment cells have increased

in number. Simple gut is formed, the yolk sac has become converted into gut

cavity lined by colomnar cells. Dorsal view shows the formation of cerebral

hemispheres with olfactory lobes. Lower jaw is moving rythmically. External]

gills are seen peeping out of the operculum at its lower end and richly supplied

with blood vessels. Otoliths are enlarged and embedded in the sides of the

brain at the region of the auditory organs. Gut is simple, tubular structure and

opens posteriorly. ‘The yellow colouris more pronounced. The black pigment

cells are quite round and smaller in size and fewer in number and are on the

dorsal surface only. Caudal circulation is advanced to the extreme posterior

end of thenotochord. Caudal cappillaries have increased in number. Sixty-

five hours’ stage after hatching shows the appearance of three small bluish

basal cartilages, close to the notochord on the ventral surface, where caudal

capillaries are present ; and black pigment cells are mixed with yellow pigment

cells. Small round pigment dots appear on the lips.

Fourth day indicates the formation of the liver just below the air sac, red in

colour. Basal cartilages have enlarged. External gills have disappeared and

the operculum covers the internal gills. Caudal capillaries have increased in

number, and two more basal cartilages have appeared.

Fifth day. Four small bluish caudal rays have just appeared on the ventral

side amongst the black pigment cells which are arranged radially. The round

pigment cells (black) are present on the ventral and dorsal surface of the

notochord. Eight hours after, nine rays are discernible.

Sixth Day. Four caudal rays have elongated and reached the basal carti-

lages, and eight more are visible and two or three are developing, Eight hours

later, the caudal rays have elongated, five on each side and the blood vessels

are in the middle, Notochord is bending dorsally.

Seventh day shows ventral fin developing as well, while the dorsal is not yet

begun. The caudal is more or less fully developed and is separating from the

ventral.

Eighth day. Airsac is divided into two chambers. The notochord is bent

dorsally and whole of the caudal fin is formed from the caudal rays on the

ventral surface of the notochord. Dorsal fin has separated off from the caudal,

ventral has got four rays but is yet connected with the caudal, which has 14 to

15 rays and five to six basal cartilages.

Three months old fry have been seen to change their colour. But all the

young ones do not take up the parental colour; many of these remain olive

brown.

REMARKABLE VITALITY OF GOLD FISH

One of the Gold Fish, nine months old, born in April 1925, was seen on

January 23, 1926, to have a very big white tuft of fungus on its caudal portion.

It was removed from the main tank and put into a salt bath. Fungus out-

growth was removed with a pair of forceps and the affected portion smeared

with salt. The fish was kept for a fortnight in a salt bath and the wound

regularly cleaned. It was fed on wheat flour, and boiled rice. After a fort-

night of the treatment the flesh from the affected area began to peel off

gradually, ultimately leaving the caudal fin and the vertebral column up to the

posterior extremity of the dorsal fin quite bare. After the same treatment had

been continued for a week more, the whcle of the affected area including the

caudal fin and vertebral ‘column fell off; leaving only half of the fish quite

healthy. The wound was ugly to look at, but it healed completely in a week.

EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF GOLD FISH 617

The fish was found to be aripe male in March 1926. It was kept separate from

the other lot and its measurements were taken on March 3, 1926, as follows:

Total length of the body, 2”. Totallength of head, 9”. Total height, 1:2”,

Length of the Pectoral Fin, 5”,

Length of the Pelvic Fin, 6”.

Anal Fin was a hard mass of rays united together. Had the fungus extend-

ed alittle more anteriorly, the vital organs would have been affected and the

fish would have died at once. The fish, however, died in September 1926,

BOMBAY MINERALS

JAYME RIBEIRO, L.C.E.

FOREWORD

The main geological formation of this little Island of ours is a bit of the

western fringe of those stupendous flows of lava which have raised the vast

plateau of the Deccan to its present height, supplemented by a couple or more

of local outbursts of molten matter. Other minor volcanic activities of a

different type locally or in the immediate neighbourhood were not infrequent.

They have given us those distinctive rocks, the breccias, lying along the

eastern boundary of Bombay. Between some of these periods of cataclysmic

disturbances there occurred long, quiescent intervals which gave time for the

formation of lakes and rivers and for the deposition in them of sedimentary

strata. Thus within the small compass of our City we get three distinct rock

formations: the traps, the breccias and the aqueous beds. Each of these

being quite unlike the other in its physical aspect and composition we will not

be far wrong in expecting each formation to have its own characteristic

mineral deposits.

The geology of Bombay has been well studied by many eminent men and

the minerals met with in the rocks noted ; but so far asI am aware no geolo-

gist or mineralogist has considered it worth his while to give a detailed descrip-

tion of their natural setting or of the modifications occurring in the minerals

themselves. To say briefly that in the traps are found calcite, quartz,

zeolites, etc., gives one no idea of the wide range of the crystallisations of

calcite, of the pretty manifestations cf quartz or of the beauty of the zeolites.

Some twenty years ago having noticed the great variety of minerals to be

obtained in the Bombay rocks, I set out to collect them, at first in an amateurish

way, and the result of the twenty years’ labour is embodied in the ‘ Jayme

Ribeiro Collection of Rocks, Minerals and Fossils from the Island of Bombay ’

offered to the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India by the writer of these

notes. There are some minerals in the collection which, I believe, have not

been previously known to exist in the rocks of Bombay. The collection could

have contained better and more perfect specimens and perhaps even a larger

variety were it not for the apathy of the quarry owners who, though requested,

would never keep aside any mineral they came across. It was not their

business.

India is a place where one meets with a difficulty at every step. Neither in

Bombay nor anywhere else in India could I get facilities for identifying the

minerals I had collected. Having had an occasion to speak about it to

Dr. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., Professor of Geology at the Glasgow University, he

most sympathetically undertook to doall he could tohelp me. At his request

the determinations of most of the minerals described in these papers have been

made by Miss Agnes Neilson, Lecturer in Mineralogy at the same University.

I take this opportunity to tender to both of them my sincerest thanks.

Without laying claims to a specialized scientific training on the subject, I

consider that an accurate record of the mode of cccurrence of the various

minerals with theirsurroundings and associates may lead to a correct idea of

the way crystals areformed. A careful consideration of the minerals found iu

Bombay makes one doubt whether they are all deposited froni mineral laden

waters. There may have been other agencies at .work. The object of these

papers is to record the mannerin which the various minerals are occurring in

the rocks of Bombay. It is my earnest hope tnat a trained mineralogist may

come forward to make a systematic study of these minerals and that these

notes may be of help to him.

BOMBAY MINERALS 619

QUARTZ

The pride of place as the most widely disseminated mineral in Bombay, as

also in most parts of the world, is certainly held by quartz, even if we exclude

the sand on the sea-shore and treat exclusively of the quartz

Introductory. found as a chance mineral in the rocks of our City. Its

distribution in the different strata variesa good deal. Inthe

upper basaltic trap the occurrence of quartz is very rare but not so in

the soft grey scoriaceous lower trap. This rock is teeming with crystalline

quartz though even here the unequal distribution is in evidence. There are

sections of the quarry where no quartz can be seen while a few feet away it

strikes the eye everywhere. In some of the breccias quartz occurs extensively

whilst in the others there are only traces of the mineral. When however we

come to the sedimentary beds the presence of quartz becomes quite negligible.

lf one hopes to come across gigantic crystals of about 3 feet in length recorded

in the mineralogies as occurring in other parts of the world or even of as many

inches, he will be sadly disappointed. He will also be disappointed if he seeks

for semi-precious quartz. The mineral occurs in Bombay mostly in very tiny

crystals which are however perfect specimens of their type. They invariably

consist of a hexagonal prism capped at one or both ends by a pyramid. Chal-

cedonic quartz does exist but it is relatively rare. Even the quartz deposited

in the trap veins resulting from the cooling of the lava discloses more often

than not a crystalline nature though it does not show distinct crystals. As

the quartz found in each of the geological formations of Bombay has its own

distinctive characteristics, I have found it more convenient to treat the quartz

of each rock separately.

Besides the frequent deposits of crystalline quartz in the veins of the rock,

there are occasionally found small cavities which are lined with crystals of

quartz. These rock cavities generally occur in tiers and are

Quartz in upper flat. The quartz in them is of the usual type described

trap. under the lower trap and does not call for special notice. In

one case, however, the quartz was overlain with a fine crop

of smallsized stilbites of a pleasant green colour.

It is in the lower trap that the most striking and spectacular manifestations

of quartz vbtain. One finds the mineral embedded as needlelike crystals in

the mass of this soft, grey, scoriaceous rock, or lining with

Quartz in lower well formed minute crystals small drusy cavities, or enclosed

trap. Occurrence. in amygdules. It is, however, when we come to the larger

cavities that the best effects are seen. Here the crystals are

arranged in clusters on all sides or hang down. from the roof in festoons and

flimsy draperies. Very often the effect is heightened by larger but duller

crystals of calcite lying on the brighter quartz crystals. When the sun strikes

such a cavity the light scintillates, occasionally with rainbow colours, from

myriads of tiny facets. They are veritable fairy caves and defy description. The

prettiest effects were obtained in a cavity in the Sewri Hill near Jackeria Bunder

Road where in addition to calcite there were yroups of colourless, transparent

acicular crystals of aragonite which split up sunlight into its component colours

with more facility. ‘There is a marked difference in the nature of the larger and

the smaller cavities. The former seem to be due to the joints of cooling being

subsequently enlarged by the action of percolating waters, while the latter are

probably bubble cavities in a chilled mass of rock. Such masses are at times

very extensive, perhaps up to and above 50 c. ft. in volume. The whole mass is

honey-combed with small, very flat hollows set in tiers. The crystals in them

may have evolved by the sudden cooling of the rock. What caused this cooling

in the heart of the trap is rather difficult to say. In the eroded hollows the

quartz was probably deposited from percolating water. The quartz occurs in

such profusion that the crystals are cramped forspace. Itisa hard struggle

for life. They butt against, and penetrate into each other. They peep out from

prehnitic masses. Some shoot their heads high above their fellows as if to

gain more freedom. They lie on lumps and crystals of calcite, and are

even buried in them. They are found delicately poised on slender needles of

luamontite,

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The quartz in the veins of the rock is crystalline without distinct crystals

or chalcedonic. Inthe amygdules itis very frequently of the latter type. In:

gcneral, however, the quartz occurs in very small crystals in

Quartz in a good state of preservation. It is rarely that weathered

lower trap. crystals are found. They are of the usual hexagonal type

Crystallization. with pyramids at one or both ends. Inthe amygdules of the

Sewri Hill near Jackeria Bunder a very pretty modification

has taken place. The crystals appear in sheaves, the prisms thickening from

the pinched waist towards the pyramids. In a peculiar boulder met with in the

lower trap at Worli, some of the crystals have their tops fused and rugged as if

altered by intense heat, while others have their pyramids cut offin a plane

which gives a pentagonal appearance to the face.

The crystals are generally colourless and transparent, occasionally slightly

creamy. Very often they obtain a pleasant orange tint from

Quartz in lower decomposing cubes of iron pyrites resting on them. Those

trap. Coloration, foundin a cave in the Sewri Hill, Jackeria Bunder, have a

pinkish shade. The fused crystals of the Worli boulder are

smoky or rather dark brown. Weathered quartz takes on the appearance of

kaolin.

AS stated previously the quartz in this formation is found in pretty associa-

tion with a variety of minerals. ‘The ubiquitous calcite is the most important of

these, not only for its setting but for the variety of its cry-

Quartz in lower stallizations. Iron pyrites, which is unexpectedly so fre-

trap. Associa- quent in Bombay, penetrates even into the amygdules.

tion. Zeolites are frequent with the quartzin the Golangi Hill and

Worli Hill traps while aragonite isan addition in the Sewri

Hill and in rare cases apophyllite in the Worli Hill rock. The pinkish crystals

of quartz of Sewri Hill cave were lying together with the only specimen

of bluish barytes found in Bombay, pyrites and calcite being the other

associates.

The trap rock forming the Nowroji Hill in Dongri is akin to the rock of the

Sewri Cemetery Hill situated to the south and east of the Sewri Cemetery.

_ The formation is however quite distinct in its physical

Quartz in Sewri aspect from the upper basaltic or the lower scoriaceous trap

Cemetery Hill but the probability is that both these ridges owe their origin

trap. Occurrence. to the same flow of lava that gave rise to the latter trap.

The quartz found at Nowroji Hill, in veins as well as in cavi-

ties, has no special characteristics. The case completely alters when we come

to the quartz obtained in the Sewri Cemetery Hill. Here occurs the unique

manifestation of quartz in independent crystals. They are found in the bitu-

minous caves embedded in or encrusted on the surface of prehnitic plates and

masses, but most frequently lying loose in the ashy grey debris resulting from

the admixture of decomposing apophyllites and laumontite with bitumen.

When the largest cave was first blown through the workmen noticed these

bright, well facetted crystals and carefully picked them up with an idea that

there was money in them. On my learning of the find I went to the place and

with much difficulty picked up a few crystals from the debris and loose earth

lying about, as no workman would part with a portion of his holding. Sub-

sequently, when the smaller bituminuous caves were met with, careful observa-

tion gave me the clue that the crystals would be found in the debris covering

the cake of bitumen. This was forthwith collected. Following the system

adopted for obtaining placer gold, I was able to obtain a large quantity of

crystals. The quantity however pales into insignificance when compared with

the extensive deposits of quartz found in the other strata in Bombay, in fact all

the crystals gathered from a large cave discovered in the Municipal quarry will

weigh only about four ounces. A few solitary crystals were found attached to

the rock in the cave where the semi-liquid bitumen was discovered. In the

portion of the Hill to the east of the Cemetery where otherwise the rock -does

not show extensive deposits of quartz, the only specimen of bedded, chalce-

donic quartz, white with lighter bands resembling an agate, was met with in

December 1921. It formed a layer about 3 sq. feet in area and 1# inches thick

in arock cavity. The surface was covered with a mixture of earth and

weathered zeolites. The quartz is partially weathered and shows on tie

underside an excellent pattern of dendrites.

BOMBAY MINERALS 621

The crystals vary in size from microscopic dust to about an inch in length.

Whether small or large they are well formed, though, as is cominon with quartz,

the columns as well as the pyramids are in general irregu-

Quartz in Sewri iar. They have hexagonal prisms with pyramids at both the

Cemetery Hill ends. Very often the column is unusually long giving to the

trap. Crystalliza- crystals a needle like appearance while in other cases the

tion. prism is wanting altogether, the two pyramids being joined

at their bases. It is very common to see two or more cry-

stals joined together, or one crystal penetrating into another. Cases with

additional rhombic faces at the junction of the prism and pyramid are not infre-

quent. The interior of the larger crystals is invariably fractured. There are

indications of minute air bubbles. Striations on the faces are not so pronounc-

ed as is generally the case with quartz. On the plates of prehnite there are

small deposits of rough sandlike quartz.

The crystals are bright and colourless. In some, however, and especially in

the larger ones, the central portion is clouded and opaque.

Quartz in Sewri In a few cases the crystals at first sight appear black owing to

Cemetery Hill trap. the proportionately large quantity of enclosed bitumen.

Coloration. There are no instances of any coloration, either natural or

accidental.

The quartz crystals in the caves are associated with a variety of interesting

minerals. ‘They are certainly coeval with the bitumen and the prehnite. They |

are lying on the surface of the bitumen and at the same time

Quartz in Sewri carry particles of solid black, as also of the lighter semi-liquid,

Cemetery Hill trap. bitumen embodied in the mass of the crystal. While they

Association. were resting on the bitumen thin plates of prehnite seem to

have been deposited on them as evidenced by some of the

crystals being caught in the under surface of the plate. In other cases the

crystals are deposited on and partially encrusted in masses of prehnite, in the

sides and the roof of the caves. The calcite, apophyllite and laumontite

were probably later intruders. The mode of occurrence and of association with

the other minerals gives one the conviction that these independent crystals of

quartz evolved directly from a gaseous state of silica. Inthe Nowroji Hill Trap

the bitumen is absent but the other minerals with the addition of chabasite and

fibrous stilbite are found together with the quartz.

It is however when we come to the volcanic breccias of Bombay that we find

the mode of occurrence and the character of the quartz a good deal different

from the trap quartz. ‘The distribution is again unequal.

Quartz in breccia. Only minute crystals calling for no special notice are

Occurrence. scantily found in the thin veinsin the Bhandarwada and

Rowli Hill breccias which are soft and earthy, in striking

contrast to the hard, compact Golangi Hill rock which is liberally interspersed

with deposits of this mineral. The quartz occurs in well formed geodic cavi-

ties or nodules. They areinvariably crescent shaped in section with the con-

cave side downwards ; in fact a carefully detached geode gives the impression

of a hot water dish. The geodes vary from -very small amygdules to as

much as a foot or perhaps more, in diameter. The smaller nodules are

sometimes so profuse in the rock that the breccia has the appearance of a

pudding stone.

In some instances the surface of individual crystals is blistered by small

boils. The face of the crystal under the blister is eaten into to some extent.

The material destroyed is apparently more than what would

Quartz in breccia. be required to form the film of the blister. As the surface

Blistering. under the film is smooth and shining and not roughly cor:

roded, it seems that these blisters were bubbles resting on

the face of the primitive crystal which subsequently increased in size by the

deposition of fresh silica all round but not under the bubble. This view is

remarkably corroborated by specimens where the bubble is large enough to

cover several crystals. Thecrystals within the bubble are certainly smaller

than those outside it; nay, where the edge of the bubble. fiim rests on a part of

a crystal, the portion of the crystal outside the film has grown while that inside

remains small. Whether large or small the bubbles have a rough rhombic

shape. Some of the films themselves have become thicker by the subsequent

deposition of fresh silica. :

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXL

The crystals in the geodes are well formed and very often fairly large. They

are invariably of the hexagonal system. It is only the pyramids of the crystals

that in general protrude beyond the compact mass formed

Quartz in breccia. by the prisms. Pyramids at both the ends of the prisms are

Crystallization. occasionally found in smaller cavities within the geode.

Specimens are met with in which the crystals have the

appearance of frosted glass with a peculiar satin sheen. Under the

microscope this is found to be due to the deposition of very minute

crystals of quartz. Their form appears to be similar to that of the main

crystal, though even under a powerful magnification the form cannot be

definitely determined. Striz are distinct on the faces of the columns as also

on the fractures of the pyramids roughly following the contour of the faces.

It is rarely that the base consists of chalcedonic quartz. In one case the crystals

were starting from what seemed to be a block flinty layer. Some of the

crystals, due to weathering, are showing on the surface a kaolin-like opacity

though the interior is still crystalline and brilliant. It is not infrequent to find

the geodic cavity filled withlumps of badly formed, to all appearances, wea-

thered crystals. Under the magnifier some of these lumps, however, resolve

into very pretty clusters of well developed crystals. A very remarkable occur-

rence is the presence within the geodic cavity of very delicate and brittle films

of quartz showing minute crystals onthe surface. The structure is sometimes

so flimsy that the crystals seem to form anet work. The only object with

which I can compare these films is the envelope of a dried soap bubble. In

fact they give the impression of being bubbles. The compact nodules consist

of crystalline or chalcedonic quartz.

It is again the breccia that yields specimens of coloured quartz in Bombay.

Though in general the crystals are colourless transparent or milky white, there

are frequent instances where the crystals show a slightly

Quartz in smoky or a lightly amethystine colour, It is only the

breccia. Colora- apexes of the crystals that are tinted, and that also in

tion. patches. When however we come to the combination of the

two colours, we get adeeper shade of what may be aptly

called ‘Smoky-amethystine’. It is peculiar that in most cases of the real

amethyst quartz the tips of the roof and bottom crystals, which are otherwise

well formed, meet together and interlock giving a violet coloured band in the

centre of a colourless nodule. Besides the inherent colours, there are adventi-

tious shades of yellows, browns, and reds due to the oxide of iron. The

source of the coloration is still visible in most specimens as a weathered crystal

of iron pyrites diffusing colour all roundit. The colour is very often absorbed,

due to this peculiar property of quartz, into the body of the mineral and cannot

be washed off, differing thereby from the coloration due to earthy deposits.

The iron oxide is also found forming a film on the surface of the crystals which

thereby acquire a greater brilliancy and frequently give out iridescent colours

when held in the sunlight.

Unlike the trap quartz which is invaribly associated with other minerals, the

breccia quartz is practically unmixed, except for sprinklings of perfect cubes of

iron pyrites which not only lie on the surface of the quartz

Quartz in but are even found embedded in the mass of the quartz

breccia. Associa: crystal. The way the pyrites is deposited in the latter case

tion. throws an interesting side-light on the formation of the

crystal. It is clear that the pyrites got, in the first instance,

deposited on the surface of the crystal which subsequently grew by fresh

deposits of silica. In a specimen picked up from the so-called Lydian

Stone (generally considered to be a breccia) of Antop Hill, there are minute

specks of some sort of impurity other than pyrites inside the crystal.

Calcite, which otherwise intrudes itself practically into every rock cavity in

Bombay, is quite rare in the geodes. In the few instances where it does occur,

its presence seems to be resented by the silica, and it is thrown out as an

impurity on the quartz’ crystallizing. It is further encased within thin plates

of quartz. Inside the casing the calcite is seen as a dirty brown substance in

its common rhombic form. It would appear that once the rock cavity is com-

pletely lined with a deposit of quartz no further infiltration of mineral laden

waters is possible, though there is a chance of this taking place through the

thin veins that are usually found on the exterior surface of the geode. The

geodic hollow very often contains a deposit of loose, coloured earth akin to the

BOMBAY MINERALS 623

breccia. Either this material was already in the hollow in a loose condition

when the infiltration of silica took place, or it may have been carried down in

solution along with the silicious water to be subsequently thrown out as an

impurity on the crystallization of the quartz.

About a 100 feet east of Sion Road at mile stone VIII an extensive deposit of

mass quartz was met with in December 1921, The reef was about 40 feet lone

and 2 feet wide. Unfortunately its depth could not be ascer-

Quartz reef in tained as the quarrying operations were stopped at road level.

breccia. Its general appearance is that of quartzite being crystalline

without showing distinct crystals except in the small cavities

in the mass itself wherein there occur well developed minute crystals variously

coloured by iron oxide. Lumps of bright sulphuret of iron are not wanting.

Bits of the breccia itself are caught up in the mass of the quartz which

probably owes its slight tinge of colour to the same source. It would be worth

inquiring into the causes which brought together such a large mass of quartz

in a rock which otherwise shows no traces of the mineral.

When we come to the sedimentary strata we are greatly disappointed by the

very poor manifestation of quartz in these layers which are otherwise interesting

in furnishing a rich variety of calcite crystals. It is only

Quartz in rarely that one comes across very minute, colourless, hexa-

sedimentary beds. gonal crystals of quartz deposited in the vertical cracks in

the aqueous beds in Worli Hill, while so far, I have not

come across any traces of quartz in the Sewri Hill and Bhoiwada beds. This

remarkable absence of a mineral which isso profuse in the other strata in

Bombay is rather inexplicable.

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA .

W. S. MILLARD AND EK. BLATTER

Part lL—(With two coloured and two black and white plates,

and tour text figures)

INTRODUCTION

This series will deal with some of the most beautiful flowering

trees of India and it has been prompted by the many enquiries

which are constantly being made as to the correct names of such .

conspicuous trees when in flower.

It is not always an easy matter to find out such names unless

one is botanically inclined, and many people have not the time for

such research or the opportunity to visit Botanical and Horticultural

Gardens, where specimens of these trees might be found with the

correct names.

We are, therefore, giving in these articles short descriptions in

popular language, with coloured and black and white illustrations.

It is hoped that the series will prove of assistance to those who

take an interest in these beautiful trees and wish to know not only

their correct names but also something about their history.

The coloured plates have been reproduced from drawings from

life by the following artists to all of whom our thanks are due:

Miss M. Thacker, Miss Gwendolen Millard, Mrs. Kinnear, Sister

Mary Chionia of All Saints’ and Mr. S. H. Prater.

ERYTHRINA, Linn.

(The name is derived from the Greek erythros red, alluding to

the colour of the flowers which are mostly red.)

Erythrina is a genus of papilionaceous trees and shrubs, popu-

larly known as Coral-trees, but is also represented by herbs.

About 50 species have been found in tropical and warm temperate

regions. Some attain great dimensions, while others are dwarf

bushes with a woody rootstock or even herbs. In many the stems,

branches and leaf-stalks are beset with prickles. ‘The leaves con-

sist of 3 leaflets, with the lateral leaflets opposite to each other.

The flowers are large, mostly red, and arranged along a com-

mon stalk (raceme). The calyx is two-lipped or oblique (spathe-

like). ‘The standard is sessile or shortly stalked (clawed), upright

or spreading, much larger than wings and keel. The stamens are

united to the middle, the upper one free or united at the base

with the rest. The anthers are equal and the style bent inwards.

The fruit is a slender, stalked pod, constricted between the

seeds, narrowed at toth ends, opening more or less completely

into 2 halves; the seeds are mostly egg-shaped,

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hirst. Soc. Puate |.

INDIAN CORAL TREE.

Erythrina indica, Lam,

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 625

In India 8 indigenous species have been observed; two more

have been introduced.

Key to the indigenous species :

Aa 7ltees

I. Calyx spathe-like, oblique, splitting, not at all

2-lipped.

1. Calyx splitting to the base

(a) Tip of calyx 5-toothed Lie a C7G1Cu.

(6) Tip of calyx not toothed 2. &. stricta.

2. Calyx splitting half-way down ... 3. &. mysorensis.

II, Calyx bell-shaped, more or less distinctly

2-lipped, but not splitting down to the base.

1, Pod swollen, bearing seeds throughout the

whole length

(a) Leatiets much longer than broad Some CAs Lon feeSCU:,

(6) Leaflets as broad as long

* End-leaflet rhomboid or egg-shaped. 5. 4. suderosa.

** End-leaflet nearly kidney-shaped 6. &. arborescens.

2, Pod flat, seedless in the lower half we 7. B. subumbrans.

B. Undershrubs or herbs .. 8 &, resupinata.

1. Erythrina indica, Lam. Encycl. Meth. ii (1786), 391;

Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, 249; Wight Ic. t. 58; Baker in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. ii, 188; Brandis For. Fl. N.-W. & Central India (1874),

139; Talbot For. Fl. Bomb. 1 (1909) 400, fig. 225; Brandis Ind.

Trees (1911), 226; Cooke Fl. Bomb, i, 366; Gamble Fl. Madras,

353; Troup Silvic. Ind. Trees (1921), 265; Haines Bot. Behar and

Orissa (1922), 284. |

Erythrina corallodendron, Linn. Sp. Pl. 992 (partim).

Erythrina coraltodendyvon, Lam. Encycl. ii, 390.

Erythrina carnea, Blanco Fl. Filip. ed. i, 564.

Erythrina ortentalts, hae in Comm. Gétting. vili (1787), 35,

t. 1. Rheede Hort. Malab. vi, t. 7.

Popular Names -—The erie Coral- tree, Mochi-wood; Pangra,

Pangara, Mandara (Hind., Mar.);

Panaroo, Panarweo (Guz.) ; Halivara,

Mullumutala (Kan.) ; Modugu

(Tel.); Palte-madar, Palitamundar,

(Beng.); Marar, Pharar, Hadbad

(Bihar and Orissa); Kathit, Pinleka-

thit (Burm.); Mandara (Sanskr.).

Description: A moderate sized

tree, reaching 60 ft. in height, with

a straight trunk and numerous

branches. The branchlets are armed

with small, dark-coloured, conical

prickles up to third or fourth year.

The bark is thin, yellowish or

greenish grey, smooth, shining, with

longitudinal whitish cracks. It ex-

foliates or peels off in papery flakes.

The accompanying diagram ie.)

illustrates the leaf, which is com-

posed of three leaflets, the terminal one being the largest. The

leaf stalks and leaves are without prickles. The leaflets are

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

covered with star-shaped hairs when young but are hairless when

mature. The flowers, which are large and numerous, of a bright

dazzling scarlet, growing in a single or in several racemes, at the

ends of the branchlets, appear before the leaves and are arranged

in clusters, one to three blooms emerging from a common stalk.

The diagram illustrates the composition of the flower and the

appearance of the bud. ‘The segments which form the calyx of the

bud are fused to form a tube which is narrowed at the apex and

ends in 5 points, 2 of which are distinct and extend beyond the tip.

_ Standard

a Wing petal

4 Keel petal

FIG. 72.

When the bud opens the calyx splits down the back to the base and

forms an open sheath. The corolla, it will be seen, is composed of

5 petals :—an errect, oblong, standard which narrows at the base into

a claw, two small wing petals and two, almost similar-sized, keel-

petals of a distinctly darker hue. ‘The wing petals partially enclose

the keel.

The stamens protrude for almost their entire length. They are

united into a bundle at the base; higher up, the tenth stamen is

distinct and free, :

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 627

The pods, which are many, grow on a stout staik and attain a

length of 5-12 in. They are somewhat curved, constricted between

the seeds, beaked at the tip, and narrow down to a seedless base.

When dry they are black and wrinkled. The pod contains from one

to 12 seeds.

The seed is oblong, smooth, its colour varies from red or dark

red to purple or dark purple or brown.

In a former number of this Journal (vol. xxxili, p. 460) Mr. T. C.

N. Singh has described how the Mynahs (Aeridotheres tristis tristis)

promote pollination of the flowers of the Coral-tree in Lucknow.

The Editors have pointed out that in Western India a great variety

of birds are regular visitors of the Coral-tree when in flower con-

tributing thus to its pollination. Among the birds to be invariably

met, in addition to the Mynah and the Crow, are mentioned the

Rosy Starling (Pastor roseus), Babblers (Turdoides, Pyctorhis, and

Dnmetia), Drongo (Licrurus), Wren Warblers (Prinia socialis and

znoruata), ‘Tailor Bird (Orthotomus sutortus), Bulbuls (Ofocompsa,

Molpastes, Pycnonotus and Chloropsis), Grey and Black-headed

Mynahs, Black-capped Blackbird (Merula nigropileus) and the Tree

Pie (Dendrocitta).

Flowers from February to May before the young leaves issue.

Frutt ripens from May to July.

The old leaves are shed early in autumn,

Distribution : Reported to be indigenous inland in deciduous

forests of Thana, the Konkan, N. Kanara and Malabar, and from the

Sunderbunds along the coast through Arakan, Pegu, Tenasserim,

the Andamans and Nicobars, Java, Polynesia. On the west coast

it is found above high-water and, according to Talbot, sometimes

associated with Calophyllum tnophyllum, Salvadora persica, Cleroden-

dron inerme, Grewta microcos, Canavalia ensttormis, Derris uliginosa.

In the Andamans it grows together with J0zmusops litioralis, Calop-

hyllum inophyllum, Thespesia populnea, Terminalia Catappa,

Hleritiera littovalis, Afzelia bijuga, Pongamia glabra and Htbiscus

tiliaceus (Troup). Haines thinks it may be wild in Khurda where

the tree is very common.

Otherwise this species is cultivated and self-sown all over India,

in hedge-rows in Bengal.

Uses : In the Peninsula, and especially throughout the Presidency

of Bombay, it is largely grown to support the betel and pepper-

vine. In Indian agriculture it has been employed from the most

ancient times as a shade-tree. It was a universal belief that the soil

benefits by its presence, and it has been known for centuries that

other leguminous plants also have beneficent effects on the ground

in which they had been cultivated. ‘The Romans were aware of the

fact that cereal crops grow better in soil which has been under

vetches the year before, and they made use of the knowledge in

their system of rotation. It was only about fifty years ago that

nodules were discovered on the roots of leguminous and certian

other plants which contain large numbers of a living organism—a

species of bacterium (Bacterium radicicola). These possess the

power of fixing atmospheric nitrogen.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

In some districts of Bengal the Betel-nut Palms are planted in

groves of “rythrina indica. 'These enrich the soil, afford shade

from the intense heat, and protection from sudden wind storms.

Coffee planters in Assam appreciate, for the same reason, several

species of Arythrina—(L. indica, FE. subumbrans and EF. suberosa).

Also Tea-plantations derive advantages from the presence of

Erythrina. In Ceylon it is planted for fences. The wood is white,

light and soft (called Mochi-wood in Madras). It is much used for

toys, scabbards, light boxes, trays, jars and planking. It does not

warp or split and varnishes well. Much of the lacquered ware in

different parts of India is made of it.

In Ceylon the young tender leaves are eaten in curries. The

bark is used as acollyrium in ophthalmia (Haines).

The following varieties or forms of Erythrina indica are grown

in Indian gardens :—

Var. picta, Hort.—Erythrina picta, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. ii, 793 (zon Wall.).

The leaves are variegated.

Var. parcellii, Hort.—Ayrythrina Parcelliz, Ball. in Gard, Chron. ii (1874), 392,

ater

Has leaflets with variable yellow variegation. The flowers are bright

cinnamon-red.

This plant is very showy when young and is easily propagated by cuttings.

Var. marmorata, Hort.—Hrythrina marmovata, Veitch ex Planch. in FI. des.

Serres, xxiii (1880), 21.

It has large leaves attractively spotted with white.

Var. alba.

This is e« white-flowered form.—Nairne (Flowering Pl. of W. India, p. 87)

mentions it as occurring in Salsette, near Bombay. We have seen a specimen

in the Victoria Gardens of Bombay.?

2. Erythrina stricta, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1514), 53; Baker in Hook. f. FI.

Brit. Ind. ii, 189; Bedd.. Fl. Sylv. t. 175; Brandis Ind. Trees’(1911), 227;

Talbot For Fl. Bomb. i (1909), 402; Cooke Fl. Bomb. i, 367; Watt. Dict.

Eecons-erod,: ait, 270:

Micropteryx stricta, Walp. in Linnea, xxiii, 740.

Popular Names; ‘Taung Kathit (Burm.); Katiang (Lepcha); Fullidha

(Nep.) ; Murukhu (Tam. Mal.) ; Mouricou, Kichige (Kan).

Description: A large or moderate-sized tree. Stems with a rougher bark

than in Lrythrina indica. Bark pale, smooth, greenish after the papery

exfcliation. Branchés armed with numerous sharp, yellow or whitish prickles.

Leaves with prickly stalks sometimes 6 in. long; the two small leaficts at the

base cf the leaf-stalk sickle-shaped. Calyx 3 in. long, entire at the tip, but

splitting to the base down the back, almost hairless. Corolla bright scarlet.

' Sir George Birdwood, in his book ‘ Sva’ (pp. 32-33) mentions that the

white variety of the pangri (Erythrina indica) was first discovered near the

ruined Hindu temple at Chimbur (Near Trombay—Bombay Suburban District)

by a Mr. Bhasker, the £arbharz of the Victoria Gardens. He claims that he

himself was responsible for propagating innumerable cuttings from this tree in

the Victoria Gardens. Bombay, and for distributing them widely, even so far

as E &

Reeerdine to him this was the only place in the world where the white

variety existed, and seemed to him, for what reasons he does not state,

‘a distinct relic of the ancient Buddhists, who, as their grove at Lanouli

(W. Ghats) shows, were enthusiastic arboriculturists ’.

In addition to the Victoria Gardens and other localities in Bombay, the

white variety may, at the present day, be found growing in the Empress, Bund

Gaidens, Poona and in the Native lines at Satara. ADS.

Puate I.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

t=,

The prickle-covered stem of the Silk Cotton Tree

The Coral Tree (Hrythrina indica) in flower.

(Bombax malabaricum).

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 629

Pod 5-6 in. long, narrowed at both ends, slightly or not at all constricted

between the seeds, compressed, stalked, hairless, often beaked with the slender

style. Seeds 1-3, light brown.

Flowers: January tc May.—The tree is without leaves up to the time of

flowering.

Distribution : Assam, Manipur extending westwards to Nepal, Chittagong,

Burma, Orissa, deciduous mixed forests of N. Kanara and the Konkan

Uses; ‘Yhe wood is white, soft and spongy but tough and fairly durable,

weighs about 20 1b. perc. ft. It is used for fishing net floats on the W. coast oi

Madras, in the Bombay Presidency for scabbards, planking, and boxes to he

covered with lacquer.

2, Erythrina mysurensis, Gamble Fl Madras 354, in Kew Bull. (1919), 222.

escription: A tree, branchlets apparently without prickles. Leaf-stalk

4 in. long; stalks of leaflets § in. long. Leaflets almost leathery, broadly egg-

shaped, abruptly long-pointed at the tip, terminal one 5 in. long, 33 in. broad,

lateral ones 4 in. long and about 3 in. broad, flowers fascicled towards the tips,

scarcely 1} in. long, coral-red. Calyx split half-way down, minutely toothed

above.

Nearly related to &. stvicta, but the flowers are smaller, the wings and keel-

petals are of the same length, i.e., 3 in., the stamens are in two bundles.

It resembles &. zadica in having the wings and keel-petals equal length, but

the flowers are very much smaller and the leaves are different.

Flowers : November.

Distribution : Chickenalli in Mysore.

4, Erythrina fusca, Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 427.

Ervthrina ovalifolia, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 53, Fl. Ind. ii, 254; Wight

Ic. t. 247; Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 88; Bakerin Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. ii, 189; Brandis

Ind. Trees (1911), 227; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1922), 286.

Duchassaingia ovaltfolia, Walp.in Linnea, xxiii, 742.

“Popular Names: Hari-kekra (Beng.) ; Kon Kathit (Burm.).

Description: A moderate-sized tree. Trunk and branches armed with dark

brown or black or pale-coloured and black-tipped, very sharp prickles, arising

from pyramidal corky tubercles, and often extending even to the leaves and

leaflets. Leaflets 3, much longer than broad. Racemes lax, 5-10 in. long, several

at the ends of branchlets. Flowers crimson, mostly 3 in a fascicle. Calyx bell-

shaped, splitting irregularly into 2 or more unequal divisions, hairy. Pod 6-8

in. long, swollen, bearing seeds throughout, constricted between the seeds at

least on one side, finely downy, containing 6-8 seeds.

Flowers : February to May.

Distribution: Silhet, Lower Bengal, Plains of Lower Burma, Ceylon, Malay

Archipelago, Polynesia. ,

5. Erythrina suberosa, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 53; Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 87;

Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. ii, 189; Brandis For. F1. 140, Ind. T: ees (1911),

227 ; Cooke Fl. Bomb. i, 367 ; Talbot For. Fl. . Bomb. i. (1909), 402, fig. 227;

Parker For. Fl. Punj. (1918), 158; Troup Silvic. Ind. Trees i (1922), 265;

Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1922), 285 ; Gamble Fl. Madras (1915), 354.

Micropteryx suberosa, Walp. in Linnea xxiii, 744.

Popular Names: Corky Coral tree; Pangra, Pangara (Hind. Mar.) ;

Dauldhak, Rungra, Rowanra, Madara (Hind.) ; Gulmashtar, Pariara, Thab

(Punj.) ; Paldua, Chaldua (Ur.) ; Nasut (Oudh) ; Piri, Buru Marar, Pharar ;

Baldia (Bihar and Orissa) ; Mulu Modugu (Tel,) ; Sambar (Bombay Bhil).

_ Description: A middle-sized tree, 40-50 ft. high. Bark corky, deeply

cracked. Branches numerous, crooked, spreading, armed with stout, conical,

yellowish-white prickles #,- 4 in. long, which fall off after the third year.

Leaves of 3 leaflets, usually unarmed, but sometimes with a few scattered

prickles on the stalks. Leaflet: pale, 3-6in. long and broad, sometimes

broader than long, all more or less hairless above, matted with grey cottony

hairs beneath. End-leaflet rhomboid or egg-shaped. Racemes 1-4, forming

dense heads near the ends of the branchlets, 2-4 in. long; calyx bell-shaped,

soon becoming 2-lipped, not splitting to the base. Corolla scarlet. Upper

stamen free from low down. Pod stalked, 5-6in. long and 4in. diameter,

cylindrical, slightly constricted between the seeds, filled when young with

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

spongy tissue between the seeds which finally drops out leaving the seeds

attached to the margins of the grey, shining, valves. Seeds 2-5, pale brown

or black, dull, kidney-shaped.

Flowers: March to June.—The pods ripen after May.—The old leaves are

shed during the cold season. The young leaves appear in March and April,

generally shortly before the flowers open.

Distribution : Wild in the Siwalik tract and lower Himalaya, from the Ravi

to the Sarda, ascending to 3,000 ft., occasionally found at 4,000, Oudh, Agra

district, Merwara, Burma, Bihar and Orissa, N. Circars, Central Provinces,

Deccan in dry forests up to 3,000 ft., throughout the forests of the Bombay

Presidency, common in some of the Khandesh forests, up to 3,700 ft. in the

Akrani, notin the heavy rainfall zone, not uncommon in S. India. Frequent-

ly cultivated.

Uses: The wood is white, soft and light, but fibrous and tough. It weighs

about 19 lbs. perc. ft. Itis used extensively for scabbards, sieve-frames, jars

for household purposes, and occasionally for planking. A good cordage fibre

of a pale straw colour is obtained from the bark. ‘lhe wood, ash, and bark

are employed for dyeing, and the bark is also used in medicine (Haines).

Of Erythrina suberosa two varieties are sometimes distinguished :

Var. glabrescens, Prain in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. Ixvi, pt. 2 (1897), 410;

Duthie Fl. Upp. Gang. Pl. i, 239; Parker For. Fl. Punj. 152; Haines Bot.

Bihar and Orissa Pt. iii, 285.—Avythrina glabrescens, Parkarin Ind. For xlvi

(1925), 647.

The leaflets are asin type, but almost hairless beneath at an early stage. It

can be distinguished from &. stricia by the areoles of the leaves being less

conspicuous and not white. :

Distribution: Hot valleys of the W. Himalaya from Bashahr (up to 7,000

ft. ) eastward to Sikkim, also in Burma and on the Shan Hills.

Var, sublobata, Baker in Hook. f. Fl. Brit.Ind. ii, 1£0; Haines Bot.

Bihar and Orissa, Pt. iii, 285.—Hrythrina sublobata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, 254 ;

Bedd. Fl. Sylv. 87.—Macroptervx sublobata, Walp. in Linnea xxiii, 740.—

E. tomentosa, Ham. in Wall. Cat. 5964.

The leaflets are variously lobed or notched, very hairy beneath.

Flowers; At the end of the cold season. Seed ripens before the rains

begin.

De huhon: Parasnath, Hazaribagh, Monghyr, in land mountains in the

Circars.

6. Erythrina arborescens, Roxb. Cor. Pl. t. 219, Hort. Beng. (1814) 53. Fl.

Ind. iii, 256; Brandis For. Fl. (1874), 140, Ind. Trees (1911), 227; Baker in

Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. iti, 190.

Popular Nannies: Rungara, Mandiara, (Kumaon); Rodinga, Fullidha

(Nep.) ; Gyesa (Lepcha) ; Dingsong (Khasia).

Description: Alowtree, Trunk straight, with no more than two or three

simple ascending branches, armed with a few, scattered, small, sharp prickles,

otherwise smooth in every part. Leaflets entire, smooth above, whitish

underneath, the end-one nearly kidney-shaped. Flowers many, large, of a

vivid scarlet, in threes, stalked, drooping over each other in an elegant way.

Calyx entire, bell-shaped, coloured. Standard almost egg-shaped, boat-

shaped, hanging over the rest of the flower. Pod much curved, 4-7 ft.

long, 1 in. or more broad, 4-6 seeded.

The flowers resemble those of 4. subevosa, but the calyx is larger and the

limb of the standard broader.

Flowers : August to October.—The flowers appear together with the leaves.

Distribution - Outer Himalaya from the Ganges to Sikkim at elevations

between 4,000 and 7,000 ft., Melghat Berar, Khasia Hills. Occasionally

planted in Sind and elsewhere.

7. Erythrina subumbrans, Merr. in Philipp. Journ. Sc. 112 (1910), 113.

Hypaphorus subumbrans, Hassk. Hort. Bogor. Desc. (1858), 198.

E. lithosperma, Blume ex Mig. FI. Ind. Bat. i, 209; Baker in Hook. f, F’.

Brit. Ind. ii, 190; Kurz For. Fl. i, 367 ; Brandis Ind. Trees 227.

E. secunditlora, Hassk. Pl. Jav. Rar. 378.

Popular Name: Yekathit (Burm.).

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 631

Description : A tall tree, reaching a height of 45 ft., without or with a few

straight sharp prickles. Leaflets membranous, dark green, egg-shaped, long-

pointed, 4-6in. long. Racemes cf flowers appearing with the leaves, hairy, about

4in. long. Calyx velvety, finally splitting down nearly to the base in two lips.

Petals red, the standard about 13 in. long, keel and wings less than half the

length of the standard. Pod much bent back, 4-5 in. long, flat, seedless in the

lower half, bearing 1-3 seeds at the tip.

Flowers ; January, February.

Distribution : Burma, in moist valleys near streams up to 3,000 ft., Indo-

- China and Malaya.

Uses : Often grown to support the betel-vine.

‘This tree in universally employed inthe Java plantations asa shade tree

for coffee, and, with &. umbrosa, H. B. K. from Central America and Z&.

velutina, Willd. from the W. Indies, is used for the same purpose over cocoa

in Ceylon.’ (Gamble).

8. Erythrina resupinata, Roxb. Cor. Pl. t. 220, Hort. Beng. 53, FI. Ind. iii,

257; DC. Prodr. ii, 410; Brandis For. Fl. 141. Ind. Trees 227 ; Duthie Fl. Upp.

Gang. Pl. i, 238; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa, Pt. ii, 286.

Though the species is not a tree, but a herb or undershrub, we include it

here, because it is one of the curious dwarf representatives of otherwice tree-

producing genera. Similar instances occur in Ochna, Grewia, Combretum,

Careya and Premna. Gamble is of opinion that they ‘ have become definite

species through years of regular burning of the above-ground stems.’

Description: An undershrub with a perennial rootstock. Shoots a few

inches high, dying down annually. Leaf-stalks long, prickly ; Leaflets 2-3 in.

long and broad, round-heart-shaped, entire, nerves beneath sometimes prickly.

Racemes direct from the rootstock, under one ft. high, dense and many-

flowered, often appearing before the leaves; stalk prickly. Flowers bright scar-

let, large, in threes. Calyx 2-lipped, bell-shaped. Standard oblong, 3-4 times

the length of the calyx, keel half as long as the standard, tinged with red ;

wings much shorter, greenish. Upper stamen free from low down. Pods

stalked, about 3 in. long, flat, 3-seeded, constricted between the seeds.

Flowers: The flowers are produced in March after the fires of the hot

season, and present a very beautiful appearance. After the flowers appears a

short herbaceous stem which withers after the rains.

Distribution: Savannahs of tke subhimalayan tract from Oudh and

Gorakhpur eastward, also on Parasnath.

Introduced Species

Erythrina Crista-galli, Linn. Mant. i, 99.

E. laurifolia, Jacq. Obs. Bot. iii, 1.

E. fasciculata, Benth. in Linnea, xxii (1849), 518.

E. speciosa, Tod. Ind. Sem. Hort. Panorm. (1860), 11.

Description ; Bushy and woody, sometimes developing a very short trunk,

but the flowering branches dying back after blooming, the stronger branches

arising annually or periodically from near the root. Stem and leaf-stalks some-

what spiny. Leaflets egg-shaped oblong or lance-oblong, long-pointed, entire.

Flowers large, brilliant crimson; keel nearly as long as the down-folding

standard ; wings rudimentary.

This plant runs into many forms, varying in theshade of red, some of them

with variegated leaves.

It is a native of Brazil and has been introduced into Indian gardens.

According to Woodrow it thrives in any fair garden soil in the dry districts,

and is easiiy propagated by cuttings.

Erythrina Blakei, Hort.; Parker For. Fl. Punjab, 159.

Description . A small tree or large shrub; bole thick and crooked ; branches

massive, spreading ; bark grey, smooth; prickles very few. Leaflets round

or egg-shaped, long-pointed, hairless, 3-4 in. long. Racemes terminal, leafy

below with distant flowers, densely flowered above. Calyx bell-shaped, slightly

2-lipped, hairless. Corolla dark scarlet, 2 in. long; standard # in. broad ; keel

less than half as long as the standard ; wings narrow-oblong, as long as the

keel or nearly so, .

632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Parker says that this plant is cultivated in gardens all over Northern India

under the name given above. He thinks it might be a hybrid or form of the

American Erythrina herbacea, Linn.

BomMBAXx, Linn.

(From the Greek domdbux, signifying raw silk.)

The genus Bombax belongs to the family Bombacacee, formerly

included under the Valvacee. It comprises about 60 species, indi-

genous chiefly in Central and South America, A few are found in

the Tropics of the Old World.

They are desiduous trees with digitate leaves. The flowers arise

from the axils of the leaves and are gathered at the ends of branch-

lets. The calyx is leathery, cup-shaped and splitting irregularly.

The petals are 5. The stamens are many, inserted at the base of

the calyx, united into 5 bundles opposite to the petals. The fruit

is 5-celled; the cells are thickly clothed inside with long silky hairs,

in which the seeds are embedded in dense wool.

KEY

I. Stamens 60-70 Sas — .. 8B. malabaricum.

II.. Stamens about 400-600

1. Flowers scarlet or white ans .. SB. insigne.

2. Flowers salmon-pink a .. B. scopulorum.

III. Stamens about 350 sia B. anceps.

1. Bombax malabaricum, DC. Prodr. i i (1824), 4 479 5 Wicht Mist. 29.-

Bedd. FI. Sylv. t. 82; Brandis For. Fl. (1874), 31, Ind. Trees (1911):

77; Gamble Ind. Timb. (1902), 90: Cooke FI. Bomb. i (1903),:120;,

Talbot For. Fl. Bomb. i (1909), 130, figs. 79, 80; Parker For. FI.

Punj. (1918), 42; Gamble Fl. Madras (1915), 99; Watt. Dict. Ec.

Prod. i. 487; Troup Silvic. Ind. Trees 1 (1921), 135.

Salmalia malabarica, Schott. & Endl. Meletem. 35.

Bombax heplaphyllum, Cav. Diss. v, 296; Roxb. Hort. Beng. 50,

Cor. Pl. iii, t.. 247, FJ. Ind.-1117 167.

Bombax Ceiba, Burm. Fl. Ind. 145 (excl. syn.).

Gossam pinus rubra, Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. xv, 128.

Rheede Hort. Malab. iii, t. 52.

Popular Names ; Cotton tree, Silk-cotton tree, Red cotton tree ;

Simal, Shembal (Hind.); Burla, Sauri, Buruga (Kan.); Kate-Saveri,

Savar, Saur (Bomb. Pres.); Sayar (Mar.); Buroh (Ur.); Sawar

(Guj.) ; Mlavam, Pula, Parutti(Tam.); Ilavu (Mal.) ; Letpan (Burm.) :

Simbal (Hazara) ; Shirlan (Sutlej); Shimlo (Kumaon); Shimal

(Gharhwal) ; Bouro, Buroh (Uriya) ; Bolchu, Panchu (Garo) ; Sunglu,

Tunglu (Lepcha); Simal, Saodi (Melghat); Khatsawar (Bassim) ;

Kamba (Khond); Buroh (Saora); Wuraga (Palkonda); Edel

(Sonthal); Del (Kol); Simur (Mal Pahuri) ; Wallaiki (Gondi) ; Kat-

seori (Bhil); Lapaing (Magh); Katu-imbul (Cingh).

Description: A tall deciduous tree with wide spreading branches

atranged in whorls. The stem is usually undivided and is generally

supported at the base with large buttresses. The colour of the bark

is grey ; it is covered with sharp, conical prickles which disappear

with increasing age. The leaf is large and hairless. It is composed

of from 3 to 7 long, lance-shaped, more or less leathery leaflets,

arranged like the fingers of a hand on a long common stalk. The

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Pirate 2.

DILK —GOTTON TREE

Bombax malabaricum, DC.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate II,

The Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum) in flower.

Photographs by C. McCann.

Flowers of the Silk Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum).

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 633

diagram illustrates the shape and arrangement of the leaflets. The

crimson flowers are large and numerous. They grow in clusters on

short, thick stalks, towards the

ends of the branches and appear

before the new leaves. Occa-

sionally the flowers are yellowish

or white.

Calyx thick, fleshy cup-shaped,

smooth outside, bright silky hairy

within. The petals are hairy on

the outside, slightly hairy within.

They are fleshy, bent back and

marked with close parallel] veins.

The petals may be from 3 to6 in.

long. The stamens, of which

there are more than 60, are pink,

flattened, slightly hairy, rather

more than half as long as the

petals. They are united only at

the base to form 5 separate

bundles containing from 9 to 12

stamens each. There is in addi-

tion, an inner bundle of 15 stamens of which the 5 innermost are

the longest ; the anthers are Jong and brown. The accompanying

drawing of a longitudinal

Stigma section of the flower illus-

ty trates its general shape and

the arrangement of the inner

organs. The ovary is

conicalin shape. It contains

5 cells, each holding many

ovules. The ovary tapers

at the apex to form a club-

shaped style which exceeds

the stamens in length and

ends in 5 slender projec-

tions—the stigmas.

The fruit attains a length

of 45 in. Itis oblong-egg-

shaped, downy without and

lined within with white silky

hairs. It contains many

dark brown seeds packed in

white cotton.

Leat-shedding: In dry

Fic? 4, localities the trees start

shedding their leaves at the

beginning of December and are leafless by the end of that month.

In moist localities the trees may keep their leaves till March. The

new leaves make their appearance in March and April.

flowers: The large dark brown buds become visible in the month

of December and the flowers come out in January and February,

BIGa oy

NUNSNDSNARALELSLEY

— ty

SANTRTNSVENALTSTERANN

nites a

=«

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

and sometimes continue till March. At the time of flowering the

trees are usually leafless, but when flowers and leaves appear at the

same time, the flowers are usually, less numerous.

‘The trees when in full flower present a striking blaze of colour ;

the fleshy petals are attacked by crows, minahs, and cther birds, and

when they fall to the ground they are eagerly devoured by deer. I

have observed squirrels (Sczurus maximus) eating the flower-buds in

quantities. Pollination is effected by bees, which visit the flowers

in large numbers, as well as by birds, which seek the nectar or

search for insects, and get their heads covered with pollen. Even

martens (J/artes flavigula) have been observed visiting the flowers

in search of nectar.’ (Troup).

Fruits ; They ripen in April and May. Usually they open whilst

stillon the tree, but sometimes after falling.

As the seeds are packed in masses of silky

hairs they are easily blown about by the wind.

Distributton: Indigenous throughout India

and Burma, except in the most arid tracts.

In the subhimalayan tract it extends from the

Indus eastwards, ascending to 3,500 ft. in the

N. W. Himalaya, and is cultivated as high as

6,000 ft., very common throughout the

Bombay Presidency, in the Satpuras in exposed

situations on hard trap-rock at 3,700 ft., in all

forest districts of the Madras Presidency.—

Also in Ceylon, Yunnan, Cochin China, Tonkin,

Siam, Java, Sumatra, Queensland and N.

Australia.

Uses: The wood is not durable, except

under water where it lasts fairly well. It is

used for boxes, tea-boxes, planking, lining

| of wells. In Bombay, Bengal and Burma the

“unk is often hollowed out to make canoes. From the wounds in

the bark there exudes a brown gum, Mocharas or semul-gum,

which is used in Indian medicine. The silky floss which clothes the

seeds is used for stuffing pillows and cushions. The calyx of the

flower is eaten as a vegetable.

2. Bombax insigne, Wall. Pl. As. Rar. i (1830), 71, tt. 79, 80; Kurz in

Journ. As. Soe. Beng. ii (1873), 61, For. Fl. i, 130; Masters in Hook.

f, Fl. Brit. Ind. i, 349; Gamble Ind. Timb. 91, Madras Fi. (1915), 100;

Cooke Fl. Bomb. i, 120; Talbot For. Fl. Bomb. i, (1909), 132; Brandis Ind.

Trees (1911), 77; Troup. Silvic. Ind. Trees i (1921) 145 (partzm).

Bombax insigne subsp. genuina var. Wightit, Prain in Journ. As. Soe. Beng.

(1903), 62.

Popular Name: Didu (Burm.).

Descrption: Avery large tree, with more or less prickly bark. Leaves haitless,

long-stalked ; stalks as long or longer than the leaflets , leaflets 5-9 or more,

5-6 in. long, inversely egg-shaped, narrowed at the base ; stalks of leaflets }-

Lin. long. The foliage of this spectes is difficult to distinguish from that of

B. malabaricum. Flowers larger than in the previous species, solitary, on a

thick, club-shaped, priekly stalk which is jointed at the top. Calyx 1; in, long,

irregularly splitting at the top and finally deeply 2-cleft, sometimes prickly at

the base outside, densely silky-hairy within. Corolla snowy, scarlet or white ;

petals long, strap shaped, 5in. by 3 in., narrowed at the base, densely tomentose

on both surfaces. Stamens 400-600, arranged in bundles, but not so distinctly

CONSPICUOUS FLOWERING TREES OF INDIA 635

as in B. malabaricum ; filaments filiform, 3 in. long, forked at the tip. Ovary

egg-shaped, red-hairy. Style longer than the stamens ; stigma 5-lobed. Fruit

oe long, sausage shaped, woody 7-10 in. long, obscurely 5-angular,

airless.

Flowers and fruits at the same time as &. malabaricum.

Distribution : Burma, Pegu, Andamans, common onthe Ghats of the W.

Peninsula from the Konkan southwards, gregarious in N. Kanara froi the

coast upwards to the crest of the Ghats, also in the Konkan and Deccan districts,

Anamalai Hills. ;

Uses: The wood is more durable than that of the ordinary silk-cotton tree.

Thec ft. weighs 31 lbs.

a pone: scopulorum, Dunn in Gamble Madras FI. (1915), 100, in Kew Bull.

(1916) G5;

Bombax insigne, Bourdillon Forest Trees Travanc. 45 (mon Wail.).

Popular Names: Kal ilavu, Parei-ilavu (Tam., Mal.).

A small tree, having the appearance of the ordinary cotton tree, but never

attaining its size, about 40 foot high, 1 feet diam; stem covered with prickles

in clusters of 1-12, about 2 in. long. Leaves of 6-8 stalkless leaflets, 5-9 by 1-2

in., lance-shaped, dark green and hairless above. Flowers salmon-pink, 4 iu.

across, 7 in. long, solitary, appearing before the leaves. Stamens about 600,

slender, white. Style simple. Fruit 7-10 in. long, velvety-brown. Seeds

black, smooth, 4 ia. diam., packed in white cotton.

Flowers in December to January.

Fruits January to February.

Distribution : Travancore Hill, on rocks.

4. Bombax anceps, Pierre F]. For. Cochinch. (1888) t. 175; Brandis Ind. Trees

(1911),. 78.

Bombax malabaricum subsp. anceps, Prain var. vera, Troup Silvic. Ind.

Trees i (1921), 145.

Popular Names : Didu Letpan, Kokye (Pegu); Didu-pya, Didok (Burm. ) ;

Kowa (Karen.,).

Description : A lofty tree, reaching a height of 100 feet and a girth of at least

16 feet. Bark greyish, more or less prickly when young. Leaflets 5-7. Petals

red or white, 3 in. long, slightly hairy on both faces. Stamensabout 350, tube

formed by the stamens ¢ in. long. Style hairless. Fruit a capsule, woody, dark

brown, 34-4 in. long with 5 very prominent rounded ridges.

Distribution: Burma (Pegu and Arakan Yoma, Upper Burma, N. Shan

States, Salween), Cochin China.

(Zo be continued.)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S MAMMAL

SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMAH AND CEYLON

REPORT No. 46 (SUPPLEMENTARY)

ON THE SECOND, THIRD AND FOURTH COLLECTIONS FROM

TOUNGOO, BURMAH, MADE BY MR, J. M. D. MACKENZIE, I.F.S.,

BETWEEN DATES FEBRUARY 9, 1927 TO MARCH 2, 1928

AL @55 SRY:

In the Report (No. 46) for the first of the series of collections

made in the Toungoo District no attempt was made to describe the

character of the country worked over, and this no doubt may have

been considered a defect by some readers of the Journal. However,

Mr. Mackeuzie has now furnished the Society with data on this

subject in addition to many interesting notes on the habits of

various animals observed by him, together with information of a

similar kind gathered from local native hunting and cultivating

people. The omission noted above will therefore be best rectified

by the inclusion of these notes in full in this supplementary report,

which deals with practically all the animals referred to in the

original report.

The notes relating to sundry animals are of special value since

in some cases they confirm the published views of former observers,

while in others they indicate that mistaken ideas have sometimes

been adopted.

Two further points only seem to call for remark in these three

collections; one being that Mr. Mackenzie has scored a success in

obtaining another specimen of what appears to be a rare bat

‘ Rhinolophus attinits tener’, and secondly attention may be drawn

to the fact that Toungoo, Pegu and the Shan States appear to form

a meeting ground for several of the Northern and Southern Burmese

forms of mammals, such as for example Cynopterus sphinx and

Cynopterus brachyolis angulatus, Tamiops m. mantpurensts, mac-

clellandt, and m. barbet, possibly also Herpestes birmanicus which

differs but little from A. nepalensis. ‘This fact gives rise to doubts

whether some of these animals to which specific names have been

accorded, may not eventually be regarded as merely iocal races.

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF MAMMALS FROM TOUNGOO,

BURMAH

Nos. 879 to 1489 (About)

Area concerned.—The area concerned is that part of the North

Toungoo Forest Division, lying between the top of the ridge of the

Pegu Yoma on the West and the West boundary of the unadminis-

tered Karen hill tracts on the East, a line running about 15 miles

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 637

East of the Sittang River, which is the main river in the area. It

is roughly rectangular, 35 miles from North to South and 40 miles

from East to West. Between longitudes 95° 50’ and 96° 30’ East

and latitudes 19° 30’ and 18° 55’ North. The Burma Railway

line from Rangoon to Mandalay runs the whole way a mile or so

West of the Sittang River. It really forms a continuation of the

collections made in South Pegu (No. 28) and Prome. South Pegu

is the drainage of the Pegu River, extending to the sea in the South

as far East as the Sittang. There is a gap of about 80 miles

between this area and the present one. The Prome collection was

made in the extreme Northern part of the drainage of the Rangoon

River (including Prome itself in this, though it is on the Irrawaddy)

East to the Pegu Yoma ridge. Though this area is actually some

30 miles South of the present one, it gives a fair representation

of the Western slopes of the Pegu Yomas, while the Toungoo and

Pegu collections give the Eastern slopes. The Toungoo collection

differs from the Pegu one in covering a certain area East of the

Sittang River. The grey squirrel, Zomeutes phayrez, was found

exclusively on the East bank; while rufzgenzs (Nos. 1479, 1484, 1485,

etc.) was only found in the Karen hills on the East. There may

well be other differences in the fauna East and West of the Sittang,

which is big enough to form a barrier, with the strip of paddy

cultivation on both banks.

I enclose notes! from the Gazetteer ; but the division may roughly

be described as a patch of paddy cultivation either side of the Sittang,

with jungle beyond it in both directions. On the west, this jungle

is mainly moist deciduous forest, with patches of dry jungle of

which Dipterocarpus iuberculatus is typical (Burmese In, or Eng,

the type of jungle being called ‘Indaing ’) near the Railway. There

are considerable areas of reserves, one patch along a ridge some

5-10 miles West of the Sittang, the next on the Pegu Yomas slopes,

with a 10 miles strip of unclassed forest in the valley between,

in which there are villages and a good deal of cultivation, perma-

nent and shifting (Taungya). On the East there is a strip of re-

1 From the Gazetteer, Toungoo District (1914).

- Note.—These refer to the district of which the N. Toungoo Forest Division

is only the Northern part.

‘ The rocks of the Pegu Yoma are, so far as js known entirely of tertiary age,

consisting of miocene beds of shale and sandstone belonging to the Pegu group.

The ranges to the East of the Sittang are far more ancient and are composed

principally of crystalline gneissic rocks. In the N.E. of the district there are

outcrops of harder rocks of a granitoid type. Thecentre of the district consists

of the Sittang alluvium merging in the N.W. into fossil wood beds, which are

almost entirely denuded. Large quantities of limestone are found in parts of

the N. Toungoo division. ... (There are also beds of laterite. D.//.)

Fauna :—Animals (szc. i.e. mammals. D.J7.) Those not mentioned already

in my notes are:—Clouded Leopard: bear (2 kinds) Serow and Gooral occur

in the Eastern hills, but unless exceptionally, not in the Pezu Yomas; other

animals found are Wild dogs (two kinds) (1 doubt this. D.47.). ...

Rainfall is said to decrease from S. to N., i.e. Yedashe, 20 miles N.. of

‘Toungoo, and about half way through the area is given as 70” only. This is

as would be expected, but is not necessarily an indication of the fall in the

jungle clad slopes on either side of the valley. D. JZ.

- The forests on the E. slopes of the Pegu Yomas are of a moister type than

those on the W. (Prome). D.J7.

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

serves, moist deciduous forest with considerable patches of Indaing

on the West beyond which lie the Karen foothills in which most of

the cultivation is Taungya, except for extensive betel gardens,

mostly terraced and irrigated. To the extreme East lie the Karen

hills, with Thandaungg yi, the highest point 4,822 ft. above sea-level.

Hilly, broken country continues into Karenni, where Fea collected,

some 15-20 miles to the East, but no specimens in this collection

come from further East than Thandaung. To the South and East

of the area lies Shwegyin, the ‘Schay Gyeen’, etc. of Blanford.

Toungoo itself is 166 miles north of Rangoon and is on the

extreme South of the area. .

In addition to the Railway, there is a certain amount of small

boat traffic on the Sittang, and there are trade routes running to the

East on which pack bullocks are the chief form of transport. There

is the Mandalay-Rangoon road, running North and South along

the Railway which is only now in process of being metalled, though

it has been in use for carts for many years. The only other metalled

road of any length in the areais the Thandaung road, from Toungoo

to Thandaung, 30 miles almost due Hast (about 18 miles as the crow

flies) all except the first 5 miles running through a strip of reserved

forest. At Thandaung, there is a tea estate, and there are rubber

estates elsewhere East of the Sittang. Conditions vary consider-

ably ; rainfall is 87 inches in Toungoo and 225 inches in Thandaung,

18 miles away, but 4,500 ft. higher. Toungoo itself is only about

100 ft. above sea-level. The Pegu Yoma ridge runs up ot 2,000 ft.

and the Karen hills on the Kast vary from 4,822 ft. to say 2,000 ft.

with deep valleys between the peaks.

The climate is that common to Lower Burmah, though the

dry zone with semi-arid conditions, begins not very far North. The

inhabitants on the West differ little from those of Prome and Pegu

as far as their effects on the fauna are concerned and generally

speaking as might be expected, the fauna is similar. On the Hast,

however the country is inhabited by a very backward class of

hill Karen practising shifting cultivation in the main, and inveterate

hunters. | have seen no country in which animals are so scarce

except the Chin Hills where conditions are in many ways

similar. The result is seen in the scarcity of all mammals on

the East bank at any distance from the river. At Thandaung in

14 days collecting only 13 specimens were obtained and though

during four days in November we had a mist most of the time and

in April were hunting for eggs, I have no hesitation in saying that

inammals are far scarcer in the Karen Hills than elsewhere. The

older inhabitants say that monkeys used to be comparatively

common; that is, they were generally to be seen or heard near the

road. We saw one only and the pace at which it made off was

eloquent of its desire to avoid human beings. My collector saw

it and says it was darkish brown different from anything we

had got; he had no time to see anything else.

Presumably the reason for this scarcity is to be found in the

increase of guns, and in the security enjoyed under British Rule,

which allows all and sundry to go hunting in safety whenever

they feel like it.

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 639

The following animals are said to exist in the area but are

not represented in the collection :—

1. Gitbbons.—Said to have been found in the Karen Hills

in the past. None heard or seen. None in the Pegu Yomas.

2. Tiger.—Occurs throughout the district. Believed to be on

the increase, on account of increased depredations amongst

domestic animals, but I think this is largely due to the decrease

of game and hunting areas due to the spread of cultivation. The

same remarks apply to leopards.

3. The less common forms of small Carnivora are not easy

to get. There are certainly some which are not represented. I

heard of an Arctonyx being caught, but failed to get hold of it.

4. Otters—Certainly occur. I have seen tracks and have

heard of at least one being shot. We failed to get a specimen,

though they are said to do considerable damage in certain

fisheries.

5. I was toid on very reliable authority that a cat bear had

once been seen hanging round a kill in Thandaung. It was not

shot, and I think (partly because the beast is said to be strictly

vegetarian in its diet) there must be some mistake. It is very

difficult to identify an unknown animal from a description.

6. Bamboo Rais—There is said to be a big bamboo rat ‘ about

the size of a hare’ in the Karen Hills. I failed to get any

specimens.

7. Porcupines—I have found spines and deserted burrows.

8. Hlebhant—One herd of about 2V in the North-West,

occasional rogues elsewhere.

9. Rhinoceros—One reported to turn up periodically. I have

no doubt that he wanders over a considerable area, and is probably

reported from at least 2 other areas and counted as three beasts

instead of one.

10. A&zson—Occur.

11. Sazeg—Occur. They had been driven away from the

area where concentrated extraction of hardwoods was in progress

but are now coming back into closed areas after 6 or 7 years.

12. Serow :--—-Reported to occur, but I have never seen signs

of them. .

13. Thamin—(Eld’s deer) I have neither seen nor heard of

these. They occur to the North of the area.

14. Pangolin—I have heard of them, but not seen them. I

got a specimen in Pegu.

General Notes. Wherever possible, I have sent foetuses.

Nos. 1085 and 1088 were entirely omitted in error.

Nos. 1376-1380 and 1478-1486 come from Thandaung 4,500 ft.

about. Thandaunggyiis merely a point of rock—20 yards square on

thetop. lomo sapiens inhabits almost at the extreme top—say 4,810

ft. where there is'a cave to which a local holy man retires for medita-

tion. I tried to get along the ridge to Leiktho (22 miles north) but

a broken path in a steep hillside would not let my elephants across

in safety. I may be able to manage it next year, when I hope

to improve the collection of these ‘ Hill’ things,

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

No. 1489 (a bat) is from Maymyo, caught in a house at night.

It will be noted that the Burmese names are very ‘unstable’.

Except for animals (including birds) which are either common,

or conspicuous or used for food, Burmans do not have any fixed

names, or if there is one, the average jungle Burman does not

know it. A man with a reputation to keep up promptly coins one

if asked. My own collector and I have a series of names by which

we know the various animals, but I question whether anyone

else would recognize them, e.g. ‘the striped squirrel ’ is 7. macclel-

landi, the ‘ big striped squirrel’ Z. berdmorei. The small carnivora

which are not dogs or otters are almost universally ‘ Kyaung’ or

cat to the normal Burman; a Tupaia is a squirrel though the Chins

have a name for it in the Chin Hills, and this leads to another point.

It is the less civilized races, such as Chins, Kachins and Karens

who have to depend largely on hunting for their food and con-

sequently have names to distinguish the various species.

In the Prome and Pegu collections (excluding bats) 4 species

occur which are not included in the present one. Pithecus melamerus

(N.B. now P. pyrrhus shanicus, T. B. F.) Arctogalidia leucotis,

a Serow and a Pangolin. The first may be the form from the

East slopes of the Yomas, but this hardly seems a convincing dis-

tribution, and I have heard of a Semnofithecus here said to be

distinct from the one obtained in the arrangement of hair on

the head, but have been unable to get a specimen.

Shooting at night. A hint which may be of use to others is

the use of an electric torch at night. All my flying squirrels were

obtained this way, their eyes showing up bright red. Many of

the civets, etc., were shot in the same way in various fruit trees.

NOTES ON SPECIMENS

(B = Burmese).

Macaca mulatta.—956, 1148, 1149, 1150, 1322, 1323.

B. Myauk pin-ne. (1322 East bank ‘ Myauk Nee’).

No. 1149 (May 15, 1927) had a young one, about 6 weeks old, still

hanging to her. It was caught and got quite tame, too tame,

as it was killed by a passing pi-dog.

No. 1322 had No. 1323 and another fyoung one (which got away)

with it. I have usually met with them close to cultivation, as

opposed to Semnopithecus, found in heavy jungle away from villages,

usually found in herds of 20-30 or more. Nothing to add'to Blan-

ford ve habits.

Pithecus.— Nos. 1115, 1116, 1420, 1422, 1423; 1426, 1499, 1434.

B. Myauk-Nyo.

No. 1429 was found alone in a stream much lower down than

usual and alone. ‘ Orbits white, with blue skin round.’

Usually found in dense high forest in parties of about 20. It is

usually the males which are shot, as the females make off at once

with their young, on being alarmed. I have twice shot with a

rifle (they know the range of a gun, I am sure) males who stayed

behind in a very high tree, barking. The whole party in moving

follows the same route, running along the same branches and

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 641

jumping from and to the same spots, often stopping at the same

places for a look back, a useful habit to the collector. Their

leaps look tremendous, they seem usually to jump into a group

of branches or the top of a lower tree rather than on to a particular

branch, spread-eagling themselves so as to distribute the weight.

The tail seems of use in balancing.

‘I have noticed the same trait of sticking to the same route in

gibbons and macaques in Katha. I was in camp not far from a

Ficus in fruit. The first day, 4 or 5 gibbons came to it, the next 20

to 30 macaques. In each case, once they got back from feeding, to

certain fixed points all the beasts followed the same route, though

this route was different for the two species.

All my specimens are from the West bank, but I saw a party on

the East bank one day ; they were very shy, but I had a rifle, and

was firing at a stopping point. They are not a very big mark from

the shoulder in a high tree, but I must have been very close to one,

which fell at least 100 feet, breaking the fall somewhat with

branches. It lay stillfor a bit and I thought it was dead. While

I was trying for a second, it suddenly got up, went like a lamp-

lighter and cleared out. I think it cannot have been hit, as there

was no blood, but I have never before heard of one falling.

3. Nycticebus coucang. 1482. Bus?

This specimen was caught on the tea estate in Thandaung, at

4500 ft. It must have been benighted-or rather be-dayed. I got

another about a week before near Toungoo, and still have it alive.

It is in all respects similar to the skin, except that the brown stripe

and spectacles are perhaps more distinct. I was offered another,

but really hadn’t the heart to chloroform it. During the day it is

inconceivably slow in all its movements absolutely like a slow

motion picture but it speeds up considerably at dusk. It feeds on

rice, fruit and any insects it can get hold of, though I have found

several which it rejects absolutely. Large longicorn beetles and

blattidze seem to be its favourites. It will cling to a branch with its

hind legs, and stretch out almost to its full length to grab an insect,

which it almost invariably seizes with its hands. It approaches

them very slowly with a final grab which might be mistaken for a

pounce. I] have never seen it actually pounce, or ‘ throw itself

on an insect’. It can cling desperately tight as I found when chang-

ing cages. It can also give quite a nasty bite. Its method of

seizing prey is a clutch mainly with the fingers and palm as oppos-

ed to a hold with the thumb. But the thumb is usedin gripping a

branch, in moving being opposed to the fingers. So is the hallux.

It never seems to come down to the floor of its cage, if it can

be avoided, though. I have once seen it fall off a branch when

asleep; it picks things up by clinging with the feet and lowering

the body as well as the arms if necessary. I have once seen it

drinking by lowering its head to the water. But it can walk

in a clumsy way, if put on the ground. It sleeps as described

by Blanford.

From the eagerness with which insects are taken—its enormous

eyes almost seem to sparkle when one is produced and its whole

attitude is one of intense interest and concentration, I imagine that

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

these must. be a considerable item in its diet when wild. If it

manages to catch any number of longicorns and grasshoppers or

crickets, it must do good. Its method—a slow approach and a

final grab—would probably be fairly successful, especially with

big insects. On occasions, it has caught big moths on the wing in

its cage, but I am not sure what luck it would have in the

open, except when wings are being dried after emergence from the

pupa.

Felis bengalensts—One killed on or near the Thandaung tea

estate, the second in dense jungle. Burmese, Ayaung Ba, or

Kyaung Kwet.

Felis affinis.—Shot round Toungoo, for the most part, usually

found near villages, with wild domestic cats, with which it is said

to inter-breed. Burmese, Ayaung Ba,

Viverra zibetha.—One or two seen at night, but they made

off from the light too quickly to give a chance. One dried skin.

Burmese, Ayaung Myin.

Viverrwula malaccensis.—Burmese Kyaung pazun-gaw or

Kyaung Na Tha. One killed contained 4 foetuses.

Paradoxurus birmanicus.x—One lives in a palm in my garden.

Three more lived in the roof of my house in Katha. No. 1474

contained two fcetuses only ; they were mostly shot feeding on

various fruit trees.

FHlerpestes birmanicus.—Burmese, Mwe ba; obtained in the scrub

jungle round Toungoo.

| Herpestes urva.—Shot on a path in the hills round Thandaung.

The stomach contained fragments of the shell of some crustacean.

Cants aureus.—Burmese Away-at; Kye kway is probably

Strictly a fox, and Wunbalwe a wolf, though my specimen got all

three names given it by the pandits consulted. It was shot coming

to a light, in an open Indaing reserve, in which half a dozen or so

are said to live now. It is the only record of which I know so far

from the dry zone, where they are fairly common in places.

Cuon sp.—I sent in a skin shot about 20 miles South of Toungoo

but, I believe it was lost. (It was never sent to the S. Kensington

Museum. 7. B. F.) No. 1089. The beast is said to have gone for

the man who shot it. The skin was in very bad condition and-had

no skull. :

Charronia flavigula.—Burmese Thit-tet-she. The specimen

sent was one killed by dogs out of 4 or 5. I have seen another

(a dark specimen) in the jungle on the West bank and a second

(a light one) nearly on the top of Thandaunggyi.

Melogale personata.—-Burmese Kyaunga U-Gyi. Caught in a

garden.

Tupaia belangeri.i—Burmese ‘Swe’ 3 prs. abd. mamme, and not

as stated by Blanford 2 prs. only. Near a certain rest house one of

these little beasts turned up every day, atthe same hour (about 3.45

p.m.) and ran along the fence, getting on to it, and getting off it at

the same points. One day I saw it come off the fence into the

compound and eat something—apparently the seeds of some weeds.

They are usually found in scrub jungle, or heaps of rubbish.

The pigmy shrews.—Usually caught when driven out of their

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 643

burrows by floods. Two were found, fighting fiercely at the mouth

of a tiny hole. They were brought back ina vaseline bottle just

being able to run round the bottom in ‘tandem’ without getting in

each other’s way.

Bats.—Burmese (generic), Lzzok., Pteropus sp. Lin Swe. Ihave

given notes on the labels as to where each was found. My collector

is not very good on them, and I have little doubt that there are

a good many more than I have found. The one exception is the

Megaderma. ‘Three of these were found flying round a jungle

bungalow. I can confirm Mr. Frith’s remarks quoted in Blanford,

in every respect. The beasts used to drop frogs’ hind quarters, etc.,

on my mosquito curtain. On one occasion a mouse’s head was

picked up. Remains of small fish were found, though how bats

catch a fish, I am not prepared to guess. Frogs and mice would

seem to present sufficient difficulties, even aliowing the beast

to have the powers of a hawk or owl. ‘They are not very big.

Petaurista (Large Flying Squirrel)—Burmese Shu Byan. Shot

feeding at night. Feeds on shoots as well as fruits. Very

destructive to tree seeds of all sorts, especially Pyinkado (Xylia

dolabriformts). 1. have never seen nests down here such as I

have found in the Upper Chindwin.

Small Flying Squirrel:—A very inadequate lot, I am afraid.

Burmese Shing Shu. A wood-cutter told me he had seen about

three dozen of these come out of one hollow tree which he felled.

Squirrels. —Burmese (generic), Shzzg.

Ratufa.—Burmese Shing-apaw (not apfan, Blanford) Upper

Burma), Z7n-thet (Lower Burma). I can find nothing governing the

colour variations from brown to black, having shot two specimens

almost extreme in both directions from one tree at the same

time. A squirrel of high forest. Has a habit of lying asleep along

a branch, and the only thing to be spotted is the tail hanging down.

Callosciurus fterrugineus—Burmese Shing-apaw, or Shing Ni-

paw. Found on both banks but I have not found it on the East

bank, farther up than 25 miles North of Toungoo.

A squirrel of high forest and tree tops. _

Calloscturus rutigents. —Only found round Thandaung, say above

3,000 ft. (East bank).

Tomeutes phayret.—Burmese Shing apaw. -Only found upon the

East bank. Some seem to have grey feet. Lives in high forest,

where I have seen both it and C. fevrugineus diligently eating

teak seed off the tree.

Tomeutes pygerythrus:— Common in the scrub round all villages

and in all clearings and gardens, rare in heavy jungle.

A friendly little animal. I have two in my garden, who run along

the same branches, of the same rain-tree, in exactly the same way,

and at exactly the same time, every day, just outside my bed-room

window. ‘They are even more punctual than my boy in waking me

by their shrill squeaks. They eat all my custard apples and I regret

to say, were once guilty of eating the eggs of a magpie robin which

built in the rafters of my verandah. They often come down to the

ground and run across my lawn from hedge to a palm. I have also

often seen them on the ground in the jungle. They run very quick-

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

ly for their size, on the ground, but on trees, they have a funny,

jerky motion, almost hopping in fits and starts, both when

spread-eagled on the bole and running along abranch. They jerk

their tails in time with their movements, in a most amusing

way.

Tamiops macclelland?.—Burmese Shing, Gya. A_ squirrel of

medium and high forest, never found on the ground. It has a

shrill high squeak like a bat’s which some people cannot hear. It

is very shy, and very quick and so very Cifficult to get, as it lies flat

on a branch, and is completely lost from below.

Menetes berdmoret.—Only found on the West bank and very scarce

at that, though it may be mistaken for pygerythrus, which it closely

resembles in its habits. | Blyth is incorrect in doubting that it ever

ascends trees. I have shot one out of a tree 40 ft. high. But

I think it prefers the ground and scrub, also heaps of firewood and

branches. Always found round clearings for cultivation, but usually

in rather jungly clearing; i.e., not close to the railway with a

long stretch of paddy fields between it and the nearest real jungle.

Bandicoots, Rats & Mice.— Burmese (generic, Aywet, Bandicoots,

Mye Kywet). JI am afraid I do not know enough about them to

give any details other than those on the labels. Some were caught

in a nursery feeding on Kalaw seed (Zavaktogenos Kurzu) and I

should be glad to know their names Nos. 879-887 and 900-903.

(See corrected list of spirit specinens appended. 7. B. F.).

They do much damage, and the first step in stopping it seems to

be identification.

Bamboo Rats.x—Burmese; Pwe I have never heard Blanford’s

‘Khaz’ I found one lying dead on a jungle path—no apparent

reason. Common.

Lepus peguensis.—Burmese You. It is to be remembered that

at the time Blanford wrote what is practically now Lower

Burmah, was then called Pegu. Most of my specimens were

shot with the aid of ‘Mok So Kwaya’ or hunting dogs; the

dogs got to some of the specimens before they could be coilected,

but they lost some behind bunds or furrows. I saw one which I had

been after for some days, put up out of a patch of weeds by a crowd

going home after a football match. It took refuge in a drain,

but was promptly got out with a bamboo and taken home to or

for dinner. I have often put them up in scrub jungle round villages ;

they make a ‘form’ under a tuft of grass or small shrub and sit very

tight; when put up in scrub jungle, they jink so much as to be

almost unsnootable. I have never heard of them using holes, but

they may do so. All I have put up have been from forms ; they are

undoubtedly filthy feeders, and should not be eaten if shot near any

human habitation.

They are quite easy to get with dogs in the rains, when their

movements are circumscribed by floods. Ihave heard on good

authority of 5 being seen together in a jungle bungalow compound

on a moonlight night.

Muntiacus.—Burmese Gyz. Very common. I shot one with its

stomach full of ‘gwe’ (Spondias mangitera, Willd.) fruit. The fruit

had been eaten whole.

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 645

Sambhur.—One skin. Burmese Sat. Quite common, judging

from tracks but I have never seen one here. They chew the bark

off young Yemané (Gmelina arborea) trees to such an extent that they

kill whole plantations. They also break and eat the leading

shoots of smaller trees. Once a plantation is found it is killed

out.

Hyelaphus porcinus.—Burmese Daye. Allthose shot were obtained

when they were cut off on temporary islands made by floods. ~The

method leaves much to be desired from a sporting point of view but

the specimens were wanted. In any case—a plea of very doubtful

validity--they would have been killed and eaten when cut off in this

way. Lam sure the animal mortality is very heavy from this cause;

floods come up every year, and I think every beast cut off in

this way ends up in someone’s cooking pot. They are gramivorous

and require long periods for feeding, given time, they can be killed

by starvation and exhaustion consequent on continuous hunting

and harrying as every local man knows.

Sus cristatus.—Burmese Wet. (Jaw Wet = jungle pig). Very

common, but also very wily. Tracks all over the place, but I have

only seen one, and he got away before I could get a gun. My man

has spent a good deal of time trying to get specimens. and the only

result is the juvenile skin sent.

_ I am afraid the above are rather scratch notes. I have put in full

details on my labels and have tried not to repeat them here.

J. M. D. MACKENzIE.

Deputy Conservator of Forests,

North Toungoo Division.

MACACA MULATTA, Zimm.

The Rhesus

(Synonymy in No. 16).

Toungoo, ¢ 2,21; 13 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢1, @1.

PITHECUS PYRRHUS PHAVREI, Blyth.

Phayre’s Langur

(Synonymy :—See note below)

30 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3; 30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, 2 2.

35 miles N. W. of Toungoo, 2 1.

No specimen of what was known as P. obscurus barbet which closely resem-

bles P. p. phayret, was obtained during the Survey, although it may exist in

some of the areas worked over. Mr. Pocock has recently reviewed the Indian

Langurs, and his classification is now adopted ; his reasons for removing this

monkey from the odscurus group will be found in his paper published in the

Society’s Journal (Vol. xxxii).

PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS, Bruenn,

The Indian Flying Fox

(Synonymy in No. 2)

Toungoo, ¢ 2, 25.

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIUi1

CYNOPTERUS SPHINX SPINX, Vahl.

The Southern Short-nosed Fruit Bat

(Synonymy in No. 6.)

Toungoo, ¢ 3, 23; 40 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

In the first collection from Toungoo the single specimen of Cynoplerus

included was reported as C. brachyotis angulatus, making it apparent that both

species (if indeed there are two species) exist in this locality ; the present

speciniens have a somewhat longer fore-arm and the skulls are of a slightly

heavier type, broader more especially in the brain case; otherwise there is no

very marked difference in the two species.

CYNOPTERUS BRACHYOTIS ANGULATUS, Mill.

The Malay Short-nosed Fruit Bat

(Synonymy in No. 17)

Toungoo, J, 22; 16 miles W. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 2 3.

These specimens show the slight differences from C. sp. spinx noted above and

are classed accordingly. It may however be added that Mr. J. H. Lindsay,

I.C.S. (retired) has recently studied these bats and could not find any definite

grounds for separating the one from the other.

RHINOLOPHUS AFFINIS TENER, K. And.

The Pegu Horse-shoe Bat

1905. Rhinolophus atfinis tener. K. Andersen, Pros. Zool. Soc. vol. 2, p. 75.

‘Toungoo, ¢ 1; 40 miles N. E. of Toungoo, 21.

kK. Andersen separated this bat trom &#. affinis on a spirit specimen obtained

from Pegu, though recognizing it as a species closely allied to R. vouxi. No

doubt the bat is comparatively rare except perhaps in this part of Burmah.

HIPPOSIDEROS BICOLOR, Temm.

The Bicoloured Leat-nosed Bat

1835. Rhinolophus bicolor, Temminck, Mon. Mam, ii. p. 18.

1838. Hipposiderus fulvus, Gray, Mag. Zool. Bot. ii, p. 492.

1889. AHipposiderus bicolor, Blanford’s Mamm. No. 166.

Thangdaung, 20 miles N. E. of Toungoo, 21.

LYRODERMA LYRA, Geoff.

The Indian Vampire Bat

(Synonymy in No. 1)

36 miles N. of Toungoo, 21.

SCOTOPHILUS CASTANEUS, Horsf.

The Chesnut Scotophil

(Synonymy in No. 17)

Toungoo, J 7, & 8,3 unsexed ; 40 miles N. E. of Toungoo, ¢ 6, 96.

Ten specimens of this bat obtained in Tenasserim by Mr. G. C. Shortridge

were shown in Report No. 17, as S. wroughtoni, this error being subsequently

corrected by Mr. Wroughton. These two bats are not readily distinguishable,

but S. castaneus is slightly the Jarger of the two, the skull being of a distinctly

heavier type and somewhat longer. As in the case of the Cynopterus these two

species appear to meet in Burmah somewhere about the latitude of Toungoo.

TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS, Hardw.

The Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat

(Synonymy in No. 6)

30 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1, 9 1; 16 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 9 4.

The range of this bat is a very wide one, covering the greater part of India

and Burmah. Blanford states that it is found in Ceylon, but no specimens were

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 647

procured from the Island by the Survey, nor again were any received from East

of Palanpur or from N. W. Punjab. (fz occurrence of this species in Ceylon

and change of colouring from young to adult see note by W. W. A. Phillips,

vol, ¥xxii, p. 371 of the Journal. EDs.)

TUPAIA BELANGERI, Wagn.

The Burmese Tree Shrew

(Synonymy in No. 17.)

Toungoo, ¢ 2, 21; 30 miles N. of Toungoo, 2 1.

6 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 2; 30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

36 miles N. E. of ‘Toungoo, ¢ 2; 10 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 2, 21.

30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 6 ; 35 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1; 40 miles N.

of Toungoo, J 1.

SUNCUS FULIGINOSUS, H. Lindsay.

The Common Pegu Shrew

Toungoo, 2 7 ; 40 miles N. E. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

Beyond noting that the older generic name ‘ SUNCUS’ has been reverted to in

the place of ‘ PACHYURA’, no remarks are called for here, as details regarding

this and other Indian Shrews will be found in Mrs. Lindsay’s paper on the

subject published in the Society’s Journal, vol.xxxiii, p. 326.

CROCIDURA KINGIANA, And.

King’s Shrew

6 miles E. of Toungoo, 2 1.

FELIS AFFINIS, Gray.

The Jungle Cat

Toungoo, ¢ 2,23;6 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

FELIS BENGALENSIS, Kerr.

The Leopard Cat

(Synonymy~See remark in No. 2)

3 (oars 20 miles N. E. of Toungoo, ¢ 1; 40 miles N. W. of Toungoo,

FELIS DOMESTICUS

The Tame Cat

Toungoo, J 3.

One yellowish and two greyish coloured, varieties that may be found almost

anywhere.

FELIS MARMORATA, Martin,

1836. Felis marmorata, Martin, P. Z.S. p. 109.

1846. Felis charltoni, Gray, A.M. N. H. xviii, p. ii.

1849. Felts marmorata, Blanford’s Mamm. No. 33.

Two native dried skins, no other specimens obtained by the Survey.

FELIS PARDUS, L.

The Panther

Skin from Toungoo District but no details given.

VIVERICCULA MALACCENSIS, Gmel.

The Small Indian Civet

(Synonymy in No. 3.)

l unsexed. No details,

6418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX111

PARADOXURUS BIRMANICUS, Wrought.

The Burmese Palm Civet

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

6 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢ 4, 21; 30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, 2 unsexed.

40 miles N. W. of Toungoo, Jj 1. ;

HERPESTES BIRMANICUS, Thos.

The Small Burmese Mongoose

Toungoo, ¢ 4, 24; 40 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1, 1 unsexed.

CANIS AUREUS, L.

The Jackal

6 miles E. of Toungoo, fl.

Jackals from Mt. Popa and Chindwin were reported as C. indicus but

possibly zwdicus as a specific name will be dropped when Blanford’s Mammalia

is revised, since it seems to be generally recognized that all the Jackals are of

one species.

CHARRONIA FLAVIGULA, Bodd.

The Northern Indian Marten

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

35 miles N. W. of Toungoo, 1 unsexed.

HELARCTOS MALAYANUS, Raffles.

The Malay Bear

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

40 miles N. E. of Toungoo, 1 unsexed.

PETAURISTA CINERACEUS, Blyth.

The Tenasserim Brown Flying Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 29.)

20 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, Q 2; 30 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢6; 36 miles

N. W. of Toungoo,@ 1. 13 miles E. of Toungoo, 2 1; 6 miles E. of Toungoo,

@1; 30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 2; 40 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

BELOMYS TRICHOTIS, Thos.

The Black-eared Belomys

(Synonymy in No. 20.)

13 miles E. of Toungoo, @ 1.

The English name given here was proposed by Mr. Wroughton to distinguish

B. trichotis from &. pearsont which has red ears.

HYLOPETES PHAYREI PROBUS, Thos.

Blyth’s Flying Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

5 miles. E. of Toungoo, 1 unsexed ; Toungoo, ¢ 1].

20 miles N. of Toungoo, $1, Q1.

RATUFA PHHOPEPLA MARANA, Thos & Wrought.

The Central Burmese Giant Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

6 miles E. of Toungoo, 2 2; 10 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

20 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 2; 30 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

36 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3,21; 40 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1,

30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 3.

A specimen of this Squirrel was incorrectly reported in No. 46. as A,

gigantea. The English name was altered in the Pegu Report. No. 29,

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 649

DREMOMYS RUFIGENIS ADAMSONI, Thos.

The Red-cheeked Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

Thandaung, 4,500, feet, 20 miles N. E. of Toungoo, Q 2.

CALLOSCIURUS FERRUGINEUS, F. Cuv.

The Burmese Bay Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

30 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 5, 9 2; 36 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 6, 25.

30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 2,94; 40 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 2.

30 miles N. E. of Toungoo, @ 1.

TTOMEUTES PHAVREI PHAYREI, Blyth.

Phayre’s Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

Tounsoo, 2) 9.25 5 miles BH, of Toungoo, ~2,.9 3.

6 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢ 3,21; 16 miles N. of Toungoo, 41; 20 miles KE,

of Toungoo, fl.

10 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1, 9 2; 40 miles N. E. of Toungoo, 41.

‘TOMEUTES PYGERYTHRUS, Geoff.

The Irrawady Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 29.)

16 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 5, 2 2; 20 miles N. of Toungoo, #1, 21.

30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 2 3; 40 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 2 6.

‘Youngoo, ¢ 3, 2 3.

MENETES BERDMOREI, Blyth.

Berdmore’s Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

35 miles N. of Toungoo, unsexed 1; 36 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 2

MENETES BERDMOREI DECORATUS, Thos.

Berdmore’s Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16.)

10 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢1; 6 miles N. of Toungoo,21; 30 miles N. W.

of Toungoo, @ }.

TAMIOPS MACCLELLANDI BARBEI, Blyth.

The Striped Burmese Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

6 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢4, 92; 8 miles W. of Toungoo, 91; 13 miles I,

of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

30 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢1; 35 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢1_.

BANDICOTA NEMORIVAGA, Hodgs

The Smaller Bandicoot Rat

1836. Mus (Rattus) nemorivaga, Hodgson, J.A.S.B. , p. 234,

1878. (Nesokia) elliotanus, Anderson, J.A.S.B. xlvii, p. 231.

1889. Nesokia bandicota, Blanford’s Mammalia, No. 296.

Toungoo, & 6.

This bandicoot was incorrectly recorded as &. ellzotana in Report No. 19, .

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

GUNOMYS VARIUS, Thos.

The Malay Mole-Rat

(Synonymy in No. 17.)

Toungoo, ¢ 7,25; 35 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 1. :

Among these specimens were skins of 9 young ones which were originally

identified as B. savileiz, but Mr. Thomas has recently been working on this

species and has now definitely classed all the specimens in Mr. Mackenzie’s last

two collections as Gunomys varius.

RATTUS CONCOLOR, Blyth

The Little Burmese Rat

(Synonymy in No. 17 ) ja

Toungoo, ~ 4, 294; 6 miles E. of Touagoo, ¢~ 1; 30 miles N of Toungoo, ¢1.

RATTUS RATTUS KHYENSIS, Hint

The Shan Tree Rat

1918. Aattus rattus khyensis, Hinton, J.B.N.H. Soc. vol. xxv, p. 60.

Toungoo ¢3 96; 36 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢5, 22, unsexed 1.

40 miles N. W. of Toungoo, ¢ 1, @ 2.

The white bellied rat from this district is undoubtedly similar to that found

in the Shan States, the type locality of Ayensis.

RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS, Gray.

The Common Indian Rat

(Synonymy in No. 1)

‘Toungoo, 2 2, é1.

Mus HOMOURUS, Hodgs.

The Himalayan House Mouse

(Synonymy in No. 15.)

Toungoo, ¢ 16, 2 12, unsexed 1; 36 miies N. of Toungoo, @ 4.

40 miles N. of ‘Toungoo, ¢:1, 2 6, unsexed 2.

CANNOMYS PATER, Thos.

The Bay Bamboo Rat

(Synonymy in No. 14.)

11 miles N. of Toungoo, 91; 10 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 3, 28.

LEPUS PEGUENSIS, Blyth.

The Pegu Hare

(Synonymy in No. 16)

Toungoo, ¢ 9, 9 4; 30 miles N. of Toungoo, #1.

40 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 4, 29 2; 40 miles N.W. of Toungoo, ¢ 1.

MUNTIACUS GRANDICORNIS, Lydd.

The Tenasserim Rib-faced Deer

(Synonymy in No, 2)

Toungoo, 9 1; 11 miles N. of Toungoo, 2 1,30 miles N.W. of Toungoo, 41.

35 miles N.W. of Toungoo, 2 2; 36 miles N. of Toungoo, 2 1;

40 miles N. of Toungoo, J 1.

The Muntjac is found throughout India, Ceylon, Burmah, Malay States, etc.

and showing slight differences in size, color and horns has consequently been

separated into a number of species by various zoologists, but it would appear

to be very doubtful whether all these species are worthy of recognition. _ Quite

possibly after further study of these small deer it may be decided that they are

all of one species, varying slightly according to local conditions, and therefore

entitled only to subspecific or racial names,

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 651

1842.

1838.

CERVUS FLDI, Guthrie.

The Pegu Thamin

Cervus eldz, Guthrie, Cale. Jour. N. H. ii, p. 417.

Cervus eldi, Blanford’s Mammalia No. 366, p. 541

Toungoo, 2 1.

HVYELAPHUS PORCINUS, Zimin.

The Hog Deer

(Synonymy in No. 20)

Toungoo, ¢ 2.

SUS CRISTATUS, Wagner.

The

Indian Wild Boar

(Synonymy in No. 5)

10 miles N. of Toungco, ¢ 1. (juv.)

An interesting specimen, illustrating the striped appearance of the very

young animal.

SPIRIT SPECIMENS

List (duly amended) attached to third Collection.

879.

S80.

881.

882.

883.

884.

885.

886.

887.

893.

894,

S95.

896.

897.

900.

901.

OZ.

903.

26.

927.

966.

1027.

1045.

1047.

1049,

1055;

1064.

da:

1087;

1130.

¥132.

1133.

1145.

1174.

1173;

1184.

Rattus mantpulus 22- 9-1926

5 concolor 28-10-1926

ie i 31-10-1926

Ae 7-1] 1926

ee é 3-11-1926

5 5 8-11-1926

i y khyensts (melanistic) ,,

is 4 14-12-1926

Cynoplerus sp. sphinx

Rattus concolor 11-11-1926

$5 ss: 19-12-1926

Ae mantipulus 22- 9-1926

Chiropodomys glirotdes 2-10-1926

Cynopterus sp. sphinx 10- 1-1927

Hippostderos bicolor

Scotophilus castaneus

Tomeutes pygerythrus

Cynopterus sp. sphinx

9 aE)

a9. 3:9,

Taphozous longimanus

Tupata 6. belangert

a5), 9)

Felis pardus

Scotophilus castaneus

Rattus concolor

Lepus peguensis

Tomeutes pygerythrus

Mus homourus

Mus homourus (juv.)

Suncus nudipes

»>”Y

(foetus) (ex 1006)

Toungoo.

359,

13 miles E. of Toungoo.

a2)

Toungoo.

a5)

30 miles E. of Toungoo.

Toungco.

30 miles N. of Toungoo.

13 miles E. of Toungoo.

2?)

35)

Toungoo.,

(foetus ex 1044 name doubtful)

( ex 1046

( ex 1048

(foetus ex 1053)

(foetus ex 1063)

(foetus ex 1125)

(foetus ex 1087)

13- 5-1922

19- 5-1927

(fcetus ex 1144)

1- 6§-1927

1- 6-1927

4- 6-1927

79 , 9 )

)

9? a”

Toungoo.

36 miles N. of Tounzoo.

Toungoo.

»)

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXi11

1201.

1202.

1203.

1204.

Zoe

1232.

1236.

1265.

1292.

1294.

1309.

Je M i le

1353.

Mus homourus (juv.)

9? a?

3 2)

bbe) 3)

Scotophilus castaneus

? 69

Suncus nudipes

Cynopterus sp. sphinx

Cervus eldt

Mus homourus

Rattus concolor

Cynopterus sp. sphinx

12- 6-1927

”

20- 6-1927 ©

21- 6-1927

Toungoo.

OY)

(foetus ex 1268) (name doubtful)

(foetus ex 1293)

(foetus ex 1258)

22- 8-1927

36 miles N, of Toungoo.

Toungoo.

SOUND PRODUCTION BY A LARVA OF CYBISTER

(DYTISCID A)

DURGADAS MUKERSJI,

Lecturer in Zoology, University College of Science, Calcutta

in July last, I collected a live larva of a beetle belonging to the Dytiscidze

family, from a small ditch of water in the neighbourhood of Halisahar in the

district of 24-Perganas, Bengal, and had an opportunity of observing the inter-

esting phenomenon of sound production by the emission of tracheal air through

its meso-thoracic spiracles.

The larva was aquatic in habit and measured nearly 55 mm. in length. It

seemed to ine that the specimen was at the final stage of its larval life, judging

from its rather long body.

The larva belongs to the genus Cydisfer and appears to be that of Cydister

contusus Sharp, occurring in Bengal. It closely resembles Dyézscus larva in the

possession of a flat head, curved and pointed jaws, pigmented eyes and Jast two

abdominal segments provided with hairs on their Jateral edges. It is easily

distinguished from the latter by the absence of a pair of styli at its posterior

end. The Dytiscus larva hangs with its head downward keeping the tip of the

abdomen above the surface of water and the styli help itin hanging. ‘the tip

of the abdomen contains a pair of spiracles. The Dytzscus larva takes up air

by means of these spiracles. Portier (1911)! mentions that Cydister larve, in

view of the absence of styli at their posterior end, cannot remain suspended

from the surface of water or live long in deep water. The larva, as in the case

of Dytiscus larve, possesses ten pairs of spiracles. Of these, two pairs belong

to meso-and meta-thorax and the rest to the abdomen, each abdominal segment

carrying one pair. The thoracic spiracles lie on the ventral side while the abdo-

minal pairs except the last, are found on the lateral margins of the body. The

last pair of abdominal spiracles is situated at the tip of the abdomen and being

pushed up above the surface of water enabled it to have direct access to the

atmosphere for respiration. All the other spiracles, due to the habit of larva in

keeping itself under water, have little or no chance of coming in direct contact

with air, and are non-functional so far as respiration is concerned and are

regarded as closed. It must, however, be noted that the meso-thoracic spira-

cles are of considerable importance in the present case as they alone are

concerned in the production of sound and clearly open to the exterior.

The larva was quite active during its captivity inthe laboratory. It was

placed in a petri dish half filled with water just enough to cover the body of the

larva. The larva lived in this state for four days without taking any food and

was afterwards killed. It obtained air for respiration by lifting the tip of the

abdomen above the surface of water while its body rested upon its legs.

On the day following the capture I took up the live larva in my hand and

was examining it undera hand lens. The larva apparently did not like the

situation and attempted to wriggle out of my fingers. The consequence was

that I had to tighten my grip over it and the larva responded by emitting a

strange squeaking sound which indeed took me by surprise. To enquire as to

the exact cause of the sound’the larva was put back in water and | waited for

an hour in vain to see if it would produce the same sound again. Then I

teased it with a blunt mounted needle. The larva got irritated, jumped sud-

denly up by throwing its body into a curve and emitted atthe same time the

* Portier (1911), Recherches physiologiques sur les insectes aquatiques

Archiv. Zool. Esp., Ser. 5, vol. viii.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

peculiar sound. The larva, of course, was forced to repeat the sound several

times that day and there was no doubt about the production of sound by it. I

observed that it could more easily be induced to make the sound if its abdomen

was pressed hard or squeezed. It wasalso seen that the larva would produce

the sound on being sufficiently disturbed without being hurt. The sound was

given out on irritation whether the larva was in or out of water. It did not,

however, make any noise when le{t undisturbed.

It is interesting to note that each time the sound was emitted the body was

thrown into muscular jerks and the larva after emitting the sound at short

intervals appeared fatigued.

The sound was of short duration but intense. Its intensity was such that my

colleague, Mr. J. L. Bhaduri, who was working at the next bench a few feet

away, came to mineattracted by the sound, and also began teasing the creature.

The larva, however, had now its revenge. It drove its powerful pointed jaws

right into his finger and drew blood, before Mr. Bhaduri could satisfy his

curiosity. It was noticed further that a clear fluid of greenish brown colour ran

out of the mouth of the larva when its jaws pierced Mr. Bhaduri’s finger.

The object of making the sound probably is to frighten its enemies as it was

produced only when the creature was in danger.

The larva was then examined by me for the mechanism of its sound produc-

tion. A careful search under the binocular microscope did not show the

existence of a stridulatory organ. As the production of sound other than by

means of friction could be possible by the expulsion of a current of air from the

trachea, the spiracles of the larva were subjected to careful observation by

placing it under water and irritating it to emit sound. When the larva was

placed under water on its dorsal surface and was forced to give out the sound,

a small stream of air briskly bubbled out through water from the right spiracle

of the mesothorax. The quick escape of air from the same aperture was also

observed when the larva produced the sound on being poked without being hurt. °

But no bubbles of air could be seen escaping through thoracic spiracles during

ordinary respiratory activity. Since the issuing of air through the right meso-

thoracic spiracle-was concomittant with the emission of sound there could be no

doubt that sound was produced by the forceful expulsion of tracheal air through

the spiracle. As sound in the present instance was caused by emission of air,

the larva in this respect might be said to have a voice. Spiracles were further

observed under binocular microscope after the larva was killed and put under

water. Bubbles of air were found around the right as well as left spiracles of

the meso-thorax adhering to their surfaces and glistening through water. On

pressing the body of the larva for the first time after its death, bubbles of air

were liberated from the meso-thoracic spiracles. The presence of air bubbles

on the external surface of both right and left spiracles and disengagement of

air from them indicate the possibility of ejection of air through both spiracles

and not through a single spiracle as the actual observation of the live specimen

disclosed. An explanation of why the air was seen to pass-out of the right

spiracle only might be found in the fact that during the observation the larva

was forced to lie on its dorsal surface which limited the movement of its body

in certain directions and thus the tracheal air was forced to pass out through a

particular spiracular aperture of the meso-thorax.

As to the cause which leads to the forcing out of the tracheal air through the

thoracic spiracles resulting in the emission of the sound, it may be mentioned

again that just before or at the time of emission of the sound, the body of the

larva was either thrown into powerful musclar jerks or its posterior region of

the abdomen was artificially pressed. It is evident from this that the expulsion

of air from the trachea was brought about by the muscular contraction of the

body especially of the abdominal region. It may also be noted that the main

trunks of trachez of Cydzster larve as shown by Portier are peculiar in present-

ing a number of constrictions along their lengths..

It may be further mentioned that W. Alt (1912)* from his study of the struc-

ture and histology of respiratory system including spiracles of the Dytiscus

larva suggests the possibility of sound production in the larva by the escape of

air from the trachea through the thoracic spiracles which he shows as open..

1 W. Alt (1912), Uber das Respiration system von Dytiscus marginalts,

Zeit. Wiss. Zool,, xlix. . *

SOUND PRODUCTION BY A LARVA OF CYBISTER 655

Miall (1912), however, states these spiraclesas closed. ‘The tracheal air there-

fore when forced out possibly sets into vibration the membranes and hair lining

the trachez near their spiracular openings, resulting in the production of

sound.

It is also interesting to note that Wesenburg-Lund (1911-12)? reports the

buzzing noise emitted by the winged forms of Dytzscus beetles. He points out

that such buzzing noise is distinct from the note produced by the stridulatory

organ when present. The buzzing sound, in his opinion, is caused by the

emptying out of air from the trachez through the first pair of spiracles, The

first pair of spiracles (prothoracic) of winged forms of the Dytiscida may be

considered, in view of the shifting forward of spiracles during the develop-

mental history of insects in general, to correspond with the first pair of spiracles

(mesothoracic in position) of their larve. Thus there appears to be certain

similarity in the physiology of production of sound among the larval and adult

stages of the beetles of the Dytiscidee family.

Further, the emission of air from the meso-thoracic spiracles of the larva

coming as it does under the Dytiscidee family has an important bearing on the

disputed question of open or closed nature of spiracles of larve of the

Dytiscidee. The passage of air through the meso-thoracic spiracles clearly

shows that the spiracles of the meso-tborax of this particular larva at this stage

of its life are open to the exterior. The entry of water into trachez through the

open spiracles is prevented from mainly by the action of surface tension as pointed

out by Alt as well as by Wesenburg- Lund.

1 “Miall (1912), Aquatic Insects. . |

* Wesenburg-Lund (1911-12), Biologische studien uber Dytisciden, Biol,

Suppl. vol, v, Series v, zur Inter. Nat. Rev. ges. Hydro. Bio, Hydrog., ve

A REED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR

CAPTAIN R:S. P. BATES, “M.E0:0:

(With six plates)

After a lapse of seven whole years I found myself on the 18th of

June contemplating once more the beds of swaying reeds and bul-

rushes which flank the canal between the Dal Gate and Gagribal

Point. This thoroughfare to the Dal Lakes is thronged throughout

the day and obviously the greater part of the night with scurrying

shikaras, the crews of which invariably hate the idea of being passed

by any other craft, and with shouts of exhortation and much splash-

ing of the unfortunate occupants institute a race on every possible

occasion. Lumbering country boats, the families inhabiting which

are continually engaged in wordy warfare with one another, glide

slowly up and down, and house-boats of all sizes and descriptions

occupy every backwater and line almost every yard of the edges of

the canal itself. Even so my recollections of the last time I waded

amongst these self-same quivering green masses left no doubt in my

mind that the fortnight I had allowed myself for attempting to

photograph their bird-life would be fully occupied and such was the

case.

Our house-boat was ensconced in a backwater on the east side of

the canal about midway to the point, a large patch of tall green

rushes on either side of it rustling and sighing at every puff of wind

and of course I first turned my attention to these to explore their

somewhat steamy interiors. Mosquitoes did not prove to be sucha

pest as I had feared, but by the afternoons the air within the beds

was most humid <nd unpleasantly hot with the result that to begin

with I confired my explorations and photography within them to

before and after breakfast. The former habit I soon gave up as I

found the quality of the light up to about 9 o’clock was most doubt-

ful and consequently results rather poor.

For the first two days I felt distinctly disappointed. Birds seemed

amazingly scarce. Even the chattering Reed-Warblers appeared to

me to be in lesser numbers than formerly though their strident

voices were, as ever, a distinct feature otf that beautiful stretch of

water and weed. The Little Bittern I hardly saw, one flopping lazily

across the prow of the boat from one side of our backwater to the

cover of the reeds on the other. The Dabchick I did not remark

and the Indian Moorhen only made its presence felt by upraising its

voice once or twice from the depths of the reeds. The Indian

Whiskered Tern never once appeared, and this bird and the Dabchick

I am of opinion are definitely scarcer than formerly in the Dal Lake

_Atiny 10 oslou JNOYIIM pIp oy

-¢ piens uo, 9} [Teo 0} SWIeD JT JeYA\ pournsse oF ,, yoryM ‘aouesoid SI IAOUWI O} o[eUL JY} AOZ SUTFIVAA ,,

‘T ALWId ‘90S “LSIET “LVN Avawog “Nuno[f

"ySou OY} UT UTeUTOI 04

papusdsepuod YyoTyA souo SuNOA OM ATUO OY} SUTPII7 ,, _ysou 04} 0} uO poddiys oys se oyeulof 94} JO 2uQ

TT ALY Id ‘90S ‘LSI ‘LVN Avawog ‘Nunof

A REED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR 657

as a whole than they were seven or eight yearsago. The former pro-

bably owing to persecution as their eggs are always collected for food-

stuffs, and the latter partly owing to the great increase of traffic, both

tourist and otherwise, and partly because the eggs are also collected

by the villagers. On one occasion, when near Renawari, an old

woman in a shikara who had just left the reeds showed to us a

bowl in which were some half dozen Moorhens’ eggs and between

20 and 30 Dabchicks’, fresh and nearly all quite unstained.

Swallows of course abounded and the brilliantly-hued little Central

Asian Kingfishers were as numerous and cheeky as ever, using the

duck-boards around the house-boats with complete disregard for the

presence of the occupants as vantage points for fishing sallies or for

beating to death their victims.

The water in the reed-beds on our side of the canal was somewhat

deep and the growth very thick and herein lay the reason for my

unpromising start. Wading waist deep and pushing through the reeds

with very considerable difficulty was the order of the day and meant

that thorough searching was out of the question, so I probably

missed a number of nests in consequence, though I am also certain

that these same two factors were not tothe liking of the birds. All

I could find was an apparently half-finished Little Bittern’s nest and

an empty Reed-Warbler’s, both close to the boat. As a matter of

fact I later discovered that had I waded but four or five yards

beyond this Bittern’s nest I would have come upon another contain-

ing newly-hatched young.

At midday on the 20th, when returning with my wife from a shop-

ping expedition, I noticed a Reed-Warbler’s nest in a very unusual

position. Owing to the wind and the current—the Lake was

abnormally full—the shikara was hugging the west side of the canal,

so I was studying each reed-bed as we slowly made our way up

stream and thus spotted the nest in question. The Great Indian

Reed-Warbler, though bolder than most of his tribe, is still a confirm-

ed skulker and prefers to be heard rather than seen, consequently the

nest too is almost invariably well within the outer fringe of the reeds

amongst which it is built and which are used to support it. This

nest however was not only on the outer fringe but was not even

supported by reeds, though a couple of bent ones ran through it in

the usual manner but almost horizontally. It rested on a fork of a

branch of a small willow tree which had been pushed right over and

lay partly in and partly out of the reeds. The nest was thus in full

view of passers-by. It was empty much to my regret and still

incomplete though both birds were in attendance at the moment of

discovery. Unfortunately next morning a house-boat tied up with

its prow almost touching the nest with the result that the foolhardy

birds naturally deserted. This event however led to me abandoning

the reed-beds on our side of the canal in favour of those on the west

side, as the water around this nest was barely a foot deep.

That same afternoon therefore I transferred my activities to

an area directly opposite the house-boat which proved so productive

that one smalJ corner thereof occupied my complete attention for

the remainder of our stay in Srinagar. I did not wade straight into

the reeds from the side facing the canal but had the shikara pushed

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

up a narrow ditch partly dividing this patch from the next, down the

middle of which rana line of small willow saplings. In one of

these was a White-cheeked Bulbul’s nest containing 4 eggs. Hav-

ing left the shikara, I had not waded more than 15 yards into the

reeds in about 2 feet of water before I found myself confronted by

a Little Bittern’s nest in which were 5 well incubated eggs, quite

warm to the touch showing that the sitting bird had just vacated the

nest though I had not heard a sound. The nest was roughly 8 inches

across and 18 inches above the water and composed of dead rushes

as well as of the growing reeds bent down and across to form

a lattice-work platform.

I continued my way through the forest of reeds which blocked out

all but a narrow patch of sky above my head and consequently

made it rather difficult to maintain direction or keep count of

distance, not unimportant items when it is necessary to visit a nest

a second time. Soon a lane is formed, but not necessarily on one’s

first venture as one is continually veering from side to side to look

at supposed nests or investigate suspicious noises, added to which

in one’s wanderings a maze of passages is soon made which cross

and recross one another at all angles.

After coming upon 3 more Bitterns’ nests, none containing eggs

however, I reached a minute pond, a little space clear of reeds

some 15 yards long and 3 or4 wide. I felt it was a good locality

for a Moorhen’s nest and I was not disappointed. A nest contain-

ing 7 eggs, very boldly-marked ones, was situated about 6 feet

from the edge of the pond. It was a very substantial nest more or

less solid from water level even though the top of it was a good 2

feet from the surface. The eggs were So very near hatching point

that the shell of one showed numerous cracks culminating in a ridge

where the downy baby was attempting to thrust its way out. I had

the half-plate camera produced and used up 2 plates, the exposures

employed being F32 and 10 seconds and F44 and 5 seconds. The

former resulted in a badly over-exposed negative and the image on

the latter flashed up far too quickly for my liking. I was without a

watch so my supposed 10 and 5 seconds were probably somewhat

exaggerated. On the way back to the shikara I came across a new

but empty Reed-Warbler’s nest about 20 yards from the original

Bittern’s.

About 6.30 p.m. I again visited the Bittern’s nest, towing behind

the house-boat’ shikara the minute shikara I had hired to support

the hiding-tent. This boat was most conveniently the same width

as my hide, thatis 2 ft. 6 ins., so it was an easy matter to erect the

latter firmly upon it. The hiding-tent occupied the central portion,

the two ends sticking out into the reeds also requiring to be camou-

flaged when the boat was in position in front of a nest. With

the help of the man whose services I had also hired with the shikara

we soon had the tent in position, as narrow a lane as possible

having been cut through the reeds from the nest to the spot in the

side of the hiding-tent whence the enormous eye of the camera

would protrude. The tent was rapidly screened by drawing

numbers of the growing reeds through the rope loops caught to its

sides, and the ends and top were likewise covered with reeds cut at

‘Spool ot}

(9Z0S SULIOpUOM. STY O} Woy} pasodxs o9yY¢ ,, yHOGe SUTIOGWUIL]D PoTOAODSIP OOM SOUO SUTUTRUIOT OY],

ROT

i, ALY Id ‘90S ‘ISIH “LVN AVaWwog ‘xuno[

_ UOlIZPLIIA}][eV pszesy ke .

SUIALY JOM YOTYM JO OA} ‘souO SUNOA OY} SUIPTETYS ,,

ME GHD Akal

‘yeu oy} se

opnzizze auies ay} UT }SaU oY} UO jJesIoy poz10ddns ,,

‘00S ‘“LSIH ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof

A REED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR 659

a distance so as not to disturb the vicinity of the nest. A number

of rushes were then laid over the bare ends of the shikara. It was

now getting dusk, so we left the reed-bed fairly confident that how-

ever shy or suspicious the Little Bitterns might be they would

return to the nest at nightfall and certainly be accustomed by next

day to the proximity of the hide and the smail clearing running

from the nest to it.

By 7 o’clock next morning I was enclosed in the hiding-tent, and

very comfortable I was too as I was able to sit on the narrow seat

in the shikara looking straight down into the focus sing screen

of the reflex. I had been much relieved to find the eggs warm so

knew my fears of desertion to be needless. Hardly had the sound

of the boat shikara died away in the distance, taking away the men

who had tucked me in so to speak, than I suddenly became aware

that the head of the female was poking up over the back of the nest

to be followed by the rest of her body as she clambered in a

peculiarly slow and sure manner onto the platform and settled

onthe eggs. I was disappointed to find how extraordinarily

low she snuggled down in the nest, sinking lower and lower by a

strange sidelong swaying motion until all I could see was her head

aud but a fraction of her back. This swaying she kept up for a

minute at least and repeated at intervals. Sitting thus I exposed

2 plates only on her and then waited for developments. She was

very restful and showed little interest in the lens, except for staring

rather fixedly at it whenever I made a noise. On occasions she

thrust out her head and neck in a rather threatening manner towards

a fussy little Reed-Warbler which ventured on one occasion to

within a couple of feet of her.

I was just beginning to feel symptoms of boredom coming on

when the female showed distinct signs of liveliness. The reason

was soon forthcoming ; a slight rustle behind the nest presaged the

arrival of the male. The female seemed to resent his intrusion and

remaining seated in the nest turned her head towards him, opening

her bill and giving one the impression of hissing at him with anger

though I heard no sound. The male paid no attention to this

display but advancing steadily stepped on to the edge of the nest

and remained standing there until she very reluctantly made way

for him.

As soon as she had gone, the male took over the care of the

eggs and swaying gently in the same manner as she had done

he sank down on the nest. He gave one the feeling of being not

altogether an adept at the self-appointed task, as he sat very high

in the nest and was decidedly prone to nervousness. The lens

engaged his attention for a considerable time, and with his bill

pointed upwards at an angle of about 45° he gazed fixedly at it

from under this dagger-like weapon, giving one the impression

that his eyes were set in his head actually lower than the line of the

gape. In this position I photographed him using a stop of F8 and

1/15 second but as it was still barely 7.30 a.m. the negative turned

out to be slightly under-exposed though the plate was an Iso-Zenith.

He did not remain seated for long but after about 10 minutes left the

nest for a brief space, to my surprise returning with a length of dead

660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

reed with which he proceeded to repair a portion of the nest which

evidently did not meet with his approval. This done he spent a

further 10 minutes over the main duty and then left the nest once

more. I could hear him paddling in the water only a couple

of yards behind his home and after an absence of 3 minutes

he reappeared, without the further piece of building material I had

expected.

During the time he was incubating he was never still but forever

looking this way and that for possible enemies. At every sound he

assumed what I came to call the ‘on guard’; neck outstretched

and bill forming one line with it, obviously ready to impale upon its

sword point any intruder with which he could contend. Should

a Kite or Crow pass over head, with amazing speed his bill was

pointing skywards with his neck stretched to impossible limits.

From assuming this position of readiness he withdrew with a

steady movement but extreme slowness, some seconds elapsing

before nis head was back in the normal position tucked well in

between the shoulders with the invisibly-coiled neck within the mass

of feathers over his breast. It was now breakfast time so not

wishing to frighten him unduly by a sudden appearance I put a

finger out of a spy-hole and waved it about. The one and only

effect was an immediate assumption of the ‘on guard,’ so I shout-

ed to the Manjhi who was now waiting for me outside the reeds to

wade up to the tent. My shout merely produced a lengthening of

the neck, and not until the boatman was some 10 yards from the

hide though still out of his sight did the Bittern slip noiselessly

from his possessions.

| We towed away the hide-boat as my programme for the following

day was to attempt the Moorhen’s portraiture before breakfast

and afterwards to pay a visit to the Nishat Bagh, taking note of the

extensive weed and lotus patches around there with a view to possible

Jacana photos and to see at what stage the nidification of the

Whiskered Terns had arrived. Unfortunately I did not take the

hide-boat across in the evening, as the behaviour of the Moorhens

when I found the nest had led me to believe that they would give me

no trouble, especially as I knew that at least one young one would

have just hatched out. On my finding the nest one of the birds had

made great demonstrations to draw me away from the locality,

clucking loudly and flopping repeatedly and heavily into the water

with loud splashes only a few yards away out of sight in the thick

reeds.

Next morning therefore I got up fairly early so that by 7 a.m. I

was within the hide with everything in readiness. The bird—I

could only be certain of the presence of one—approached almost

immediately but for two hours it dared not clamber up to the

nest. On one occasion only did I catch a glimpse of it some

6 ft. from the hide but weil out of the line of the 4 inches wide

lens, the obvious cause of its timidity. Its approximate position

was easy to divine as the one and only chick as yet hatched dis-

played remarkable energy, forever turning itself round to face

towards the direction of its longed-for parent and doing its very

best to scramble out of the nest in which it very nearly succeeded.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEATE V.

‘An exhibition of the amazing lengths to which she wa; able to

extenduher eck,

Journ, BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEATE Nae

‘“ Perturbed at the presence of the Reed-Warblers.’

A RPBED- BED IN@ FHECDAL LAKE, KASHMIR 661

Fortunately it became entangled in the loose outer material of

the platform whence it was rescued at 9 o’clock when hunger over-

came my keeness. Removing the lens and camera, I pulled the

reeds across the passage from hide to nest leaving the tent in

position for another attempt next day. Success was not to be how-

ever. On my visit 24 hours later the chick had been removed and

the nest obviously deserted. Thus it is that we live and learn.

The bird-photographer’s motto should be ‘caution’ and he should

never take anything for granted.

The Reed-Warbler’s nest on the edge of my reed-bed had also

been given up, so once more was the hide placed in front of the

Bittern’s nest as I wished for records of the relief between

male and female. On this day however, the 22nd, the female alone

appeared. Completely oblivious to the presence of the camera

and hide she amused herself and me until I had to quit, leaving the

nest on a couple of occasions and once or twice putting: in a short

time on household repairs. This time the hide was left zz sztu, not

for further immediate work on the Bitterns but because a Reed-

Warbler’s nest containing 4 fresh eggs had been come upon

while cutting rushes with which to camouflage the tent, and

being but 15 yards to one side of the Bittern’s nest I did not see

the sense in taking the hide to the house-boat only to have to

bring it back again at nightfall. At dusk therefore we merely drew

the hide-boat the few intervening yards and placed it in position

facing the Reed-Warbler’s abode. Passing the Bittern’s nest on the

way back I could just make out through the intervening reeds one

of the birds at the ‘on guard’ on the nest, so used were they

becoming to our comings and goings.

The morning of the 25th had now arrived and I was awaiting

what I expected to be an easy task, namely the return to the nest of

the Reed-Warbler. Nevertheless for 2 hours I sat there with both

birds making incessant harsh noises around me. ‘The hide was not

at fault as on occasions the roof was used as a landing grounca

and once one of my Little Bitterns actually clambered over the end

of the boat. It was the lens once more. Gaining experience from

this second failure, 1 have since employed a circle of dull black

paper, which, though the same diameter as the lens, is yet not

so startling on account of its lack of lustre and flatness. Neverthe-

less it appears to be what is needed and when the projecting Dallon

lens is substituted for it alarm is not occasioned.

Eventually I carefully withdrew the lens into the hide while

the birds were behind me and but 5 minutes later one of them

was seated over its eggs. Toreplace the lens was easily accomplish-

ed as the head of the bird was so low in the nest that it was unable

to see the slit through which I had to push it. This fact of course

also went against me as I wanted photos of the bird, not of a

bill and tail pointing almost vertically upwards. The shikara now

being in the offing, I called up the boatman hoping to get the.

bird as it became alarmed at his approach, but on his arrival it

sat up in the nest with great suddenness and flew off without

giving me the necessary interval of time for an exposure. Be it

noted that my voice caused no alarm.

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Determined to succeed I left the tent where it was and 24 hours

later I returned once more. Five photographs were my reward

though only 3 of them, all obtained with an exposure of 1/50 second

at F5-6, turned out good enough to keep; two of the male looking

down at and admiring his possessions and one of the female as she

slipped on to the nest. I think I am correct in presuming to dis-

tinguish their sexes as one bird did all the incubating, the other

merely approaching the nest to take stock of its contents—seemingly

without parallel in his opinion—when exposed to his wondering

gaze. I tried hard to get photographs of the two birds together,

but found it impossible to get both in focus at one and the same

time.

The entire time I was in the hide I was periodically bewildered

by hearing the unmistakable squeaks of young birds being fed, but

cooped up in the small tent I found it almost impossible to deter-

mine the direction whence the sounds came. However by throwing

caution to the winds and poking out my head, I was able to as-

certain that not far behind me in the reeds there must be another

Reed-Warbler’s nest. Such was the case. It was within 5 ft. of

the path from the Bittern’s nest to the one I had just been operating

upon but it was low down and the rushes were very thick. It was

obviously the owners of this nest who were wont to annoy my

Bitterns, as the two domiciles could not have been more than 15 ft.

apart. The parents were inordinately tame and, when I stepped

back a couple of feet into the reeds on the opposite side of the

path, one of them actually came to the nest and fed its rowdy

offsprings.

This determined me to try a method I had as yet never employed

to get records of the proceedings, and let me say here and now that

as long as I live never again will I try the cloth over the head or

any other like method on a hot summer’s afternoon, this side of

Suez at any rate. I have seen photographs of people observing the

ways of wild creatures standing up with portions oi tree trunks,

sacks and other strange implements over their heads. I take off my

hat to them. Never in all my life have I spent such an uncom-

fortable 40 minutes as I did then to obtain 4 decidedly mediocre

negatives of this Reed-Warbler feeding the only two young ones

which condescended to remain in the nest. The other two clambered

out and disappeared into the reeds soon after I had taken my

stance in front of their home. By next morning the nest was

empty. However to go back to my self-inflicted torture.

I went over to the spot just after a very good lunch on top of

which a sleep would have done me much more good, I’m sure, than

being stewed alive. I fixed the reflex on to the stand of my half-

plate camera, screening it as much as possible in the reeds just on

the opposite side of the above-mentioned path we had formed

through the rushes, taking my stand behind it. The water was just

-knee deep, so within less than three minutes a number of water-

beetles and other small insects were tickling the backs of those

portions of my anatomy, nearly driving me off my head. To bend

down to remove the offending things was out of the question, as

the slightest movement produced much alarm and a volley of

A REED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR 663

chattering from the parent Warblers creeping about in the reeds in

close proximity and obviously delayed their appearance at the nest.

However this discomfort was nothing compared with that of the

mosquitos and the heat. I was very soon reminded of the fact that

I had forgotten to smear myself with oil of citronella, and of course

just at a critical moment as one of the birds at last pitched on the

rim of the nest a sharp stab on my elbow, another on my cheek and

a third on the back of my knee almost made me leap out of the

water with anger and pain.

I had first tried merely bending well over the focussing screen

so that my face was more or less hidden from the birds by my topi,

but they objected to my head-gear’s shiny brown top and I objected

still more strongly to the sun which shone with appalling ferocity on

the back of my neck. There was nothing for it but to drape a large

focussing cloth I had brought out with me over my entire head and

shoulders and down to the hood of the reflex. With this arrange-

ment the birds agreed but all other discomforts paled into insignifi-

cance. After midday the reed-beds were always humid and un-

pleasantly hot. Within a very few moments therefore I was pers-

piring so profusely that the focussing screen was rapidly covered

with moisture. Ten minutes of this, in which the birds appeared

6 times and in which I exposed 4 plates, were all I could stand. I

then fled back to the house-boat feeling a complete wreck and

wondering whether fever was to be my subsequent portion for my

foolhardiness and forgetfulness. All this time I could not have

been more than 3 yards from the Bittern’s nest and I could distinctly

hear sounds of a bird on it. It must have known of my presence,

but was apparently no longer afraid of me.

On my way back to the house-boat and also on a previous occa-

sion in the same place my wife drew my attention to a Central Asian

Kingfisher hovering in the air in exactly the same manner as does

the Pied Kingfisher. Aim was taken in just the same way, the body

being at an angle of about 60° with the bil! pointing straight

downwards. The plunge which followed was not however quite

vertical but at a very steep angle indeed and from a height of

roughly 15 ft.

I now come to my last and most interesting morning with the

Bitterns. On the 26th 1 egg had hatched out; on the 27th 3, and

by the 29th all 5. It appears therefore that incubation probably

commences with the laying of the first egg, especialiy as I had also

under observation another nestful of young ones in which the differ-

ence in age was even more marked. This was the nest I referred

to earlier on as being quite close to the house-boat. On the after-

noon of the 24th I came across this family but only one, the youngest,

was content to remain in the nest; the remaining ones were dis-

covered clambering about the reeds at varying distances from it.

Whether this is a normal habit, as they were still in down, or whether

my floundering through the reeds set them rambling, of course

I have no means of telling. [had all along felt certain that there

must be a nest in this corner of the house-boat patch, as not only

had I heard occasional croaks, but I had noticed Bitterns to settle

in the reeds at this spot quite a number of times, and one had the

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIETY, Vol. 2“X22071

habit of coming out to fish at the very corner of the reed-bed within

a few yards of the boat.

To get back to my pet pair however. As all the eggs were now

hatched I had every reason to expect a fully employed morning.

They were very lively youngsters and from the first exhibited many

of the characteristics of their parents, assuming the ‘on guard’ with

the same alacrity and coming back to normal in the same slow motion.

They also gave vent to frequent fits of bad temper, digging at one

another with their somewhat blunt bills most viciously. The down

on their heads stuck out like the bristles of a bottle brush and of

course they varied considerably in size owing to the different dates

of their arrival on the scenes. Altogether they were very quaint

little creatures.

I had upwards of quarter of an hour to wait before either of the

parent birds put in an appearance. The male was the first

to engage my attention and I soon made an exposure on him

shielding the young ones, two of which were having a heated alter-

cation and refused to be covered up. He appeared to be support-

ing himself on the shoulders of the wings, thus leaving plenty of

room for his offsprings whose wonted activity never ceased inci-

dentally since heads were for ever popping up from under the

male’s wings or breast. His manner now showed much more

confidence and he took little interest in outside matters. For some

minutes nothing of note occurred, then however he gave evidence

of the reason why the chicks had been left to their own devices for at

least quarter of an hour. Depressing his bill almost onto the breast

he proceeded with very little effort to disgorge a fish. The food

however was not allowed to fall to the ground as a young one at

once seized his bill in its own minute appendage and seemed to

follow the fish down from the gape to near the extremity whence

it passed into the youngster’s gullet. This method of feeding made

it distinctly difficult for me to make out the state and size of the

fishes disgorged, but I judged them to be about 2} inches long

though one was undoubtedly larger. Four fishes having been thus

transferred his stock was evidently finished, thus leaving one

young one unfed, that is presuming that each fish had been handed

over to a separate chick, a matter which I was unable to

determine.

At 10.45 a.m., that is half an hour after the advent of the male, a

slight rustling was followed by the appearance of the female, who

stepped on to the back of the nest and stood there in a most

dejected attitude waiting for the male to remove his presence

which he did without noise or hurry. They were exceedingly

silent birds and on only one occasion did either of them give vent

to a sound of any sort while on the nest and then only to a single

low croak. I cannot remember which of the two it was. As onthe

previous relief I had witnessed he seemed to take little notice of

his spouse, and clambering off the edge of the nest disappeared into

the reeds in what one might almost describe as a surly manner.

This was the moment I had longed for on every one of my visits

but to get the photograph showing both birds in focus was no easy

matter, The moment I heard her coming [ hurriedly altered stop

A REED-BED IN THE DAL LAKE, KASHMIR 665

and exposure to F4 and 1/90th second and was ready only

just in time to press .the release as the male’s body moved out

of the way of hers. A fraction of a second later he would

have been in the reeds and as it is his head is partly screened by

them. However I think I got the photograph at the only possible

moment as had I taken it earlier his body would have got in

the way.

Since the occasion of my last visit they appeared to have

exchanged characters. She was now the nervous one, continually

on the look out for the advent of enemies, and I had a most amus-

ing and instructive time watching her extraordinary postures. At

first she supported herself on the wings in the same attitude as the

male, and I did my best to secure a portrait as like as possible to

the first one taken of the husband, a comparison of the two showing

off well the difference in colouration.

After a short space of time she also disgorged two portions of

food, one of which was certainly a fish of more than 3 inches in

length. This food was passed on to the young ones in the same

manner as previously. No other food was given them while I was

present. Thus in nearly 4 hours each young one received a single

meal—one of them I presume had two—consisting of a small fish

between 2 and 3 inches long.

After picking a large fly off an adjacent reed with amazing speed

of movement, making an unsuccessful snap at a daddy-longlegs, and

eventually disposing of an incautious dragon-fly, she gave me an

exhibition of the amazing length to which she was able to extend

her neck. I was unable to decide on the object of her suspicion

but think it must have been a thieving crow, as on my way to the

hide I had remarked the last scenes of a tragedy. Noticing the

Crow with an object in its bill fly from beneath the Bulbul’s nest in

the willow, the eggs in which I knew had been hatched for a couple

of days, I looked inside the nest and found it on one side and empty.

At any rate whatever the cause, it appeared to be behind the tent

and possibly the Bittern was endeavouring to see over the obstruc-

tion. From the ‘on guard’ her head shot up a number of inches

and then continued to move upwards ina series of jerks, each jerk

lengthening her neck about quarter of an inch, until her appearance

bordered on the comic. With each jerk the feathers were more and

more flattened against the sides of the head and neck until the latter

tapered almost to a point and her head looked absurdly small.

Knowing that the downward movement would be exceedingly slow

I was able to wait until it just commenced, thus being certain of a

photograph showing the neck stretched practically to its utmost

limit.

It was now about midday and, as I had bent back and cut some

of the reeds around the nest to avoid annoying shadows falling

across the birds, she obviously began to feel the heat. Her first

action was to half open her wings to afford further protection to her

young ones and soon she began to gape in the way birds do when

feeling the effects of a hot sun. It was thus that I obtained the

photograph in which she appears to be warding off with such fierce-

ness an attack from the flank, In reality she was merely slightly

20)

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

perturbed at the presence of the Reed-Warblers which were feeding

one of their young ones rather closer to the nest than she considered

quite permissible, and so unhurried were her movements that this

photograph was obtained with an exposure of 1/20 of a second at -

F8, the plate having an H & D speed number of 400. A few

minutes later I left the hide, bent a number of reeds over and

around the nest and left her and her absent husband to bring up their

family in peace.

A NEW SPECIES OF GYNAIKOTHRIPS FROM BANGALORE,

INDIA.

DUDLEY MOULTON

San Francisco, Caltfornia

GYNAIKOTHRIPS KANNANI, Sp. nl.

Female holotype ;—Colour dark brown. Antennal segments 1] and 2 con-

colorous with head except a lighter area near base of first segment and tip of

second which are lighter, 3 to 6 yellow and shaded darker in the distal portions,

7 yellow in basal two-thirds, grey-brown in distal third, 8 grey-brown. All

femora blackish brown, four tibize yellowish brown at base shading to clear

yellow at tip, middle tibia dark brown in basal half, hind tibia in basal-three-

fourths, otherwise rather abruptly yellow, all tarsi clear yellow. Wings

transparent except for grey clouding at base. Body and basal wing spines

dark brown.

Total body length °3 mm. (body distended) ; head length °38 mm. width

"21 mm.; prothorax ‘18 mm., width, including coxe, ‘38 mm. ; pterothorax

width ‘48 mm.; greatest width of abdomen *45mm.; tube length °26 mm.

Antenne : length (width) i. 33 (42); ii. 57 (33) ; iii. 99 (30) ; iv. 120 (39) ; v. 114

(31) ; vi. 84 (30) ; vii. 63 (21) ; viii. 30; total length 600 m Length of spines:

postoculars 30 m. on anterior angles of prothorax 36 m., on anterior margin

30 m., mid-laterals 60 m., on posterior angles, outer 105, inner 39 m., on ninth

abdominal segment 150 m., at tip of tube 240 m. Basal wing spines, 60, 66 and

75 m. respectively.

Head i'8 times longer than wide with straight, almost parallel sides, apex

swollen, vertex with numerous indistinct transverse lines. Postocular spines

very short and inconspicuous, Eyes large, prominent, occupying °36 the

length of the head and together.°66 its width. Ocelli large, their diameter

three to four times larger than facetsof eye. Posterior ocelli contiguous

with anterior inner margins of eyes, anterior ocellus on swollen vertex and

slightly overhanging basal antennal segments. Mouth cone short and broadly

rounded, extending two-thirds over prosternum. Antenna slender, 1°6 times

longer than head, segments 3, 4 and 5 each more than three times longer than

wide ; sense-cones long, slender and pointed.

Prothorax ‘5 its width and ‘5 length of head. Pronotum sculptured with

closely placed wavy lines. Normal spines stout, with blunt tips, those on

anterior angles short, mid-laterals longer and outer spines on posterior angle

longest, inner spine on posterior angle approximately ‘3 as long as outer,

Pterothorax with evenly formed arched slides. Legs slender. tfrore tarsi.

unarmed. Wings with parallel sides 11-12 double fringe hairs on posterior

margin of fore pair, three basal wing spines stout and conspicuous by their

dark brown colour.

Abdomen long and slender. Tube -7 the length of head and three times

longer than width at base.

Maleallotype: Similar to female in colour and shape ‘Tctal body length

1°3 with abdomen distended. Spines on posterior angles of ninth abdominal

segment 60 m., those along posterior margin 126 m.

This species is most closely related to G. claripennis, Karny, but is easily

separated from that species by its longer head, more elongate intermediate

segments of antenne and the stouter anterior angular and mid-lateral spines of

prothorax.

Type material: Female holotype, male allotype, six 2 and four % paratypes

taken on Augenia sp., May 4,.1927 (Dr. K. K. Kannan). I take pleasure in

naming this species after the collector. Types in author’s collection (Moulton

No, 2196).

Type locality : Bangalore, Province of Mysore, South India,

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA WITH

ABNORMAL HABITS

Dr. T. V. RAMAKRISHNA AYYAR, B.A., PH.D., F.Z.S.

Madras Agricultural Department, Coimbatore.

It is a fact well known to all entomologists that the great majority

of butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera) are plant feeders, either

found on growing plants or breeding in dry vegetable matter ; a

few are also found on clothes, wool and fur, but very few exhibit

the abnormal habit of living in company with other insects and

often at the expense of the latter. While instances of Lepidoptera

which are subject to the unsolicited attentions of other insects,

especially of parasites and predators of sorts, are numerous and

quite common all over the world, examples of moths or butterflies

which seek the company of other insects and live in association

with them appear to be comparatively few; and in some of the

known cases our knowledge of the mutual relations between such

hosts and guests is also quite imperfect. In spite of these facts,

the few Lepidoptera that exhibit such abnormal habits are not

uncommon in different parts of India, and observations on their

bionomics go to show that some of them are also of economic

importance. This paper presents a brief record of some of the

observations made by the writer on the bionomics of a few such

Lepidoptera with curious habits noted so far from South India ;

incidentally a few records of such examples noted by others in

different parts of India are also included, the idea being to make

the whole paper a brief summary of our knowledge of entomophil-

ous or entomophagous Lepidoptera recorded so far from India. —

- Butierflies—Among the Rhopalocera the Lyczenid species Spalgius

epius, West. is the only insect so far known, which has been found

to seriously interfere with the economy of other insects. The

caterpillar of this butterfly, unlike other known forms of the group

which are free living and mostly phytophagous, is predaceous on

different kinds of mealy bugs. It has been noted on the often

injurious mealy bug Phenacoccus iceryotdes, Gr. in Coimbatore and in

other parts of India; and in Ceylon Green has noted it on

Phenacoccus glomeratus, Gr. and Pseudococcus lilacinus, Ckli. Recently

in Coimbatore the butterfly was found in numbers on the mealy bug

Pseudococcus citri, R. which was badly infesting some Agathi

(Sesbania -grandiflora) plants and also on Phenacoccus iceryotdes,

Gr. infesting plants such as Pithecolobtum saman, Odina odiar and

Dolichos lablab. The thick set fleshy caterpillar with the hidden

head and limbs and covered with a white mealy coating slowly

*E. E. Green, Coccide of Ceylon, vol. v, p. 396, 1922.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 669

moving in the midst of a colony of mealy bugs forms an excellent

example of insect camouflage and is often mistaken for a mealy bug.

The naked chrysalis into which the caterpillar changes and which is

found generally attached to the plant surface on which the host and

guest are found, presents a curious appearance to the casual

observer ; it is not unlike the face of a monkey in general contour

and is known as the monkey face pupa! ( ). The colour is

dark greyish with a mealy pubescence here and there over the

surface. The adult butterfly that emerges out of this monkey face

pupa is of medium size and has dark brown wings with a pale white

spot on each fore wing. Sometimes swarms of these butterflies

congregate on plants where there are masses of mealy bugs,

evidently for the purpose of oviposition. From observations made,

one is led to infer a this insect plays the part of an efficient

natural check on some of the destructive mealy bugs, and attempts

may be made whenever possible to test the efficacy of the insect by

utilizing it by artificial methods.

Speaking of lycaenid larvae, it is not uncommon to find some of

them associated with ants of different kinds ; the writer has noted

this particularly in the case of the Zizyphus—leat caterpillar 7arucus

theophrastes, F. But in such cases it will be found that the ants

seek the caterpillar for some sweet secretion, and as such, the

caterpillar is only the passive agent and not the aggressive or

active party, as in the case of Spalgzus.

Moths.—Coming to the group of moths, over half a dozen Indian

forms are so far known living in active association with other

insects, and in some cases causing definite injury to the hosts. Of

the Jatter, some of the species of the noctuid genus Zudblemma are

the best known and very widely distributed. The caterpillars of

these species are predaceous on different kinds of scale insects, and

in the case of those Coccid hosts which are bad pests of different

cultivated plants, the caterpillars often act as very effective natural

enemies. The following Coccid feeding species of Eublemma are

known from India and Ceylon :—

£. coccidiphaga* feeding on some species of the scale Lecanium

in Ceylon, and on the ‘lac’ insect in North India.

E. vinotincta® on Lecanium sp. Ceylon.

E. amabilis* on Lac insect. All over India and Ceylon.

£. scittula in South India> and probably in North India too.

Of these forms &. scztula R. has been noted to be commonest in

South India. In Coimbatore the writer has bred this moth from

caterpillars found predaceous on |

1. Pulvinaria maxima, Gr. a pretty bad pest of Nim (J/eia)

trees in and around Coimbatore.

—— — Ere pee ee Oe ae te as

1E. H. Aitken, Bombay Natural History Society Jobonal: vol. viii, p. 485,

1894.

2G. Hampson, Catalogue of Phalane, British Museum, vol, x.

3 Jord.

~4#C. S: Misra, Bulletin on Lac, Pusa. (No. 142), 1923.

5 Ramakrishna Ayyar, Memoir on Pulvinaria maxima 5GP.s Rusa Ent,

Memoirs, vol. vii, 1925. ; >

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

2. <Anomalococcus indicus, Gr. equally bad on ‘ Babul’ tree

(Acacia arabica) in and around Coimbatore.

3. Ceroplastodes cajanz, Gr. a pretty bad pest on Ocimum

sanctum, Red gram, Lablab, etc.; also in different parts of South

India.

4. Cevoplastes certferus, A. The Indian white wax insect found

on various plants, Lawsonia, Mango, etc.

5. Tachardza lacca, K. On Zizyphus, Rain tree, Butea, etc.

6. Lecanium hemisphericum, T. On Ferns, Sandal Wood,

Guava, etc. :

7. Pseudococcus lilacinus, Ckll. On Ailanthus excelsa shoots.

This insect has been noted on Pulvinaria psidiz, Gr. and Lecanium

hemisphericum also in Mysore. In Coimbatore it is not found

so commonly on spp. of Lecanium as on Pulvinaria maxima,

Anomalococcus indica and the Lac insect.

Though in the case of Coccid pests the Aublemma caterpillar

performs the function of a beneficial agent, in the case of the lac

insect which is useful to man, this moth unfortunately proves a

serious pest by devouring the lac scale and the lac encrustations ;

in some tracts the ravages of this caterpillar are so very bad that

its control and prevention from being carried from place to place

with brood lac, have become serious problems. In South India an

interesting Braconid wasp? (Aphrastobracon tlavipennts Ashm.) has

been discovered by the writer as a parasite on the predatory

Eublemma caterpillar. This parasitic wasp, therefore, is a useful

agent in the case of the Audblemma caterpillar on lac, while it is not

so when the caterpillar infests plants of economic importance. The

life-history of &. sc¢tula is practically similar to that of &. amadzlis

described by Misra. On stems and shoots, covered by the host

insect, the moth lays its egg singly in the midst of the scales,

often on the bodies of the latter. The eggs are of a shining pinkish

brown colour with a bluish tinge, spherical in shape, and beautifully

sculptured. The caterpillar that hatches out feeds on the soft por-

tions of the growing scaies one after the other and covers its body

with a case or house made up of the empty scales of its victims

cemented together.. With this covering the creature moves like

a limpet among the colonies of scales, especially when the host is a

Pulvinaria or Lecanium and devours the soft parts of a number of

these latter. The presence of this predatory enemy on a scale

infested branch can be easily made out by the sickly appearance

of some of the growing female insects inside which the young

caterpillar might be feeding, or in other cases by the presence of

the conical houses of the caterpillar which are distinctly bigger than

the scales around; the characteristic locomotion of the caterpillar

drawing the house with it is also another indication. The larva

becomes helpless without this dome-shaped covering and its body

has become adapted to occupy this artificial house. The posterior

1 Coleman and Kannan, Scale Insect Pests of Coffee in S. India, 1918.

? Ramakrishna Ayyar, ‘ The Genus Aphrastobracon’, Bull. of Ant. Res., vol.

xviii, 1926, p. 91.

3C.S. Misra, Bulletin on Lac, Pusa,, 1923 (No. 142).

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 671

region of the abdomen becomes swollen and gets attached to the

inner surface of the shell by means of the muscular suckers provided

with numerous horny hooks. The head end is narrower. ‘The

prolegs are reduced to three active pairs including the two anal

claspers transformed into suckers for fixing on to the sheil. The

body becomes fleshy and plumpy. A full-grown caterpillar has a

pale fleshy-brown colour with the head, prothoracic shield and the

tips of the thoracic Jegs shining black. It measures about 6 to

6:5 mm. just before pupating and the colour becomes greyish-white.

Pupation takes place inside the dome-like house itself, which is

turned by the larva into a cocoon by the closing the ventral opening

of the shell with a pale white screen of silk. The chrysalis taken

out of the coccoon measures 6 mm. and is of a light greenish-brown

colour soon after pupation. It is cylindrical with the anterior end

roundish and the posterior bluntly pointed ; the latter bears five

short brown bristles arising from small chitinous tubercles. The

moth is a small pale white insect with olive brown marks on the

wing. In certain seasons it is not an uncommon sight in and around

Coimbatore to find stems and branches of Acacia trees infested

with the scale Anomalococcus indicus, Gr. covered with clusters of

Eublemma cocoons by the thousand; of course, the caterpillar often

harbours its own enemy in turn, viz. the braconid wasp mentioned

above.

Before leaving Eublemma it may be worth while pointing

out that &. scztula R. is one of those natural enemies which had

attracted the attention of pioneers in the biological method of pest

control some years ago; under its other name /rastrvia scitula R.,

material of this insect was transported from Italy to California! for

trials in checking the Olive scale Lecanium clee in that state.

Another species of Eublemma—A. gaynert Rot is recorded by Hall?

as a predator on the mealy bug Phenacoccus hirsutus in Egypt.

The interesting butlittle known family of moths called Epzpyropide

includes species of caterpillars which have been noted to live in close

association with different forms of homopterous bugs. Fletcher’s”

account of the known Indian forms gives some information about

this family in India. Hardly anything definite is known regarding

their bionomics, especialiy as to whether the caterpillar causes any

injury to the homopteron or merely lives on as a scavenger or a

help-mate. Spipyrops polygrapha HH. and &£. eurybrachides, F1.

are two definitely known Indian species both bred from the fulgorid

Eurybrachus tomentosa in Coorg and Coimbatore.*+ Species of

Epipyropide have aiso been noted in Central Provinces and

Mysore. Ina paper on ‘ The Natural Enemies of the Mangohopper

(/diocerus spp.)’ in Mysore by my brother T. V. Subramanium there

is a record of an Epipyropid which is described as a new species

1 Insect Life, U.S.A. , vol. vi, p. 10, 1894.

2 W.- J. Hall, Bulletin yi Ministry of Agriculture, Bev pk on ‘ Hibiscus

Mealy Bug’, p. 25, 1921.

2 a B. Fletcher, Report of the Third Entomological Meeting, Pusa, 1919.

+ Joid.

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

(Epipyrops fuliginosa) (see pp. 466 and 468 of Bull. Ent. Res. xii,

1922). Recently while engaged in observing the bionomics of a

fulgorid Ricania bicolorata a minor pest of coffee and citrus and

very common on the Nilgiris early in summer, the writer came

across a caterpillar among the nymphs of the bug, which latter

possess profuse waxy tassels; but unfortunately the caterpillar

dried up before maturing, probably this was either an Epipyropid or

the caterpillar of the moth Ancylis glycyphaga Mey. noted else-

where in this paper. It is not unlikely that more Epipyropide will

be met with on species of homopterous bugs like Fulgora, Eury-

brachys, Ricania, Kalidasa, etc., species which are in certain seasons

found in swarms along the Nilgiri slopes.

Among the Microlepidoptera a few forms have been noted asso-

ciated with other insects, but the relationship in some of these cases

is still not quite clear. These are—

Ancylis glycebhaga, Meyr.’ noted to breed on the sugary secre-

tion of the homopterous bug Phromnia marginella in Pusa appears

a doubtful case.

Pammena tsocam pta, Meyr.” noted to feed on scale Lecanium Sp.;

locality —Paradeniya, Ceylon.

Brachmia xerophaga, Meyr. 3 Found breeding in nests of spider

living among insect remains and grass ; Madras, a scavenger ?

Anatrachyntts falcatella, St. On the lac insect in Ceylon* and on

mealy bugs (Dactylopius) in Pusa.®

Holcocera (Hypatima) pulverea, Meyr. Noted by cultivators of lac

in North India both on the living and stored lac, known to be a

very serious pest on Jac.

Ancylis and Brachmta do not appear to be injurious to the host,

while the others are more or less harmful to Coccidae—particularly

to the lac insect. Ina recent paper by Bassinger, it is found that a

moth Holcocera iceryaelja, for a long time supposed to be beneficial

as being predatory on scales has recently been noted as a pest of

oranges in California.© A fairly well known Microlepidopteron

outside India which also attracted the attention of early parasite

collectors similar to Aublemma settula R. is an Australian Coccid-

feeding moth Zalpochares coctcophaga,’? Meyr which was taken to

California for trial against scale pests.

Coming to the family Pyraiide, the wax moth—Galleria mello-

nella L. is a notorious pest of bee hives found apparently all over

the world. Though it does not directly affect the bees themselves,

the insect causes a considerable amount of damage to the hives.

The dark brown moth lays eggs on the wax combs often in groups

and from there the caterpillars hatch out and feed onthe wax. The

dirty yellowish white caterpillar which grows to about an inch

17T. B. Fletcher, Pusa Ent. Series Memoirs, vol. vi, p. 45, 1921.

2 E. Meyrick, Hxotic Microlepidoptera, vol.i, p. 196, 1914.

3 E. Meyrick, Ento. Month. Magazine, 1914, p. 219.

+E. Meyrick, Bombay Nat. His. Soc. Jour., vol. xvi, p. 607, 1905.

5T. B. Fletcher, Pusa Ent. Series Memoirs, vol. vi, p. 45, 1921.

& A.J. Basinger, Journal of Economic Entomology, 1924, p. 637.

7 W, W. Froggatt, Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, 1910, p. 801. ~

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 673

in length tunnels through the waxen frame work of the combs and

covers them with webbing of silk, in some cases the inhabitants

of a bee colony are compelled to desert the hive due to the depreda-

tion of this caterpillar. It is interesting to note that the wasp

Nemeritts canescens, Grav, has been recently noted by Richmond asa

parasite of the wax moth in Colorado. With the wax moth may be

included some sphingide, especially the spp. of Acherontia (Death’s-

head Moth) which rob the bees of their honey from their hives.

Among the Pyralide there is another example—a Phycitine moth

(Phycita dentilinella), the caterpillar of which was first noted by the

writer in Coimbatore as early as 1914, often living in association

with the chrysalis of a Limacodid caterpillar Parasa lepida—the

common ‘ nettle grub’ of South India. This predatory caterpillar

appears in numbers in certain years and a good percentage of the

cocoons of the Limacodid harbour the predatory larva. The

life-history of this predatory caterpillar has not yet been fully

observed, but since the caterpillar is found more in evidence inside

the cocoons of the host, it appears likely that the predatory moth

lays eggs on the nettle grub at an advanced stage just before it begins

to spin its cocoon. Cocoons containing the caterpillar side by side

with the chrysalis of the host appear somewhat weak and yielding

to pressure unlike healthy cocoons which are hard and shell-like ;

the predatory caterpillar is short and-is of a pinkish-brown colour.

This moth has also been recorded from Bengal! as feeding on the

wild silk worm Cricula tritenestrata.

In September 1924 while collecting and making observations

on different Coccide in and around the Coimbatore Agricultural

College, numerous examples of a giant scale insect (Aspidoproctus

xylig, Gr.M.S) were noted on a few rain trees (Pzthecolobtum

saman). In the course of a study of this insect in captivity it

was a surprise to find that some of these big dome-shaped scales

harboured one or more larve of a species of Lepidoptera. Numerous

specimens of the adult moth were reared out in capitivity and the

species has since been kindly identified by the Imperial Bureau of

Entomology as Euzophera cocciphaga, H. The insect was originally

noted in Sikkim and the only information about it in Hampson’s

description? is that ‘the larva lives under a Coccid on which it

feeds’. A few notes on the bionomics of this insect as studied

at Coimbatore are added below :—

One or more caterpillars and pupz are found inside some of

the infested scales. The external indication of a scale badly infested

with the caterpillar is the presence of a dirty grey attachment of

silk and frass all round the base of the scale fixing the same firmly

to the plant surface. In course of time each infested scales become

partially dark coloured and sickly. This habit of the caterpillar in

binding the scale all round with such an attachment appears to be a

device to prevent the Coccid embryos, which hatch out in hundreds

*-H.M. Lefroy, Zadian Insect Life, p. $14, 1919.

2G. Hampson, Bombay Natural History Society Journal, vol. xviii, p. 262,

1908. .

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

from inside the Coccid, frown crawling out from beneath the mother

insect as is normally the case. It was noted that, while from these

scales which had the firm silken fastening at the base no embryos

emerged even after longer periods, from others where there was no

fastening or where the attachment was interfered with and small

passages made, the small flattish golden coloured coccid larvze with

their fringe of long hairs characteristic of this scale began to emerge

and crawl over the plant surface in numbers. Some of the cemented

scales when opened contain two or three caterpillars in different

stages of growth or one or two pupz in tough silken tubular

galleries in the midst of dead and partially destroyed eggs and

embryos of the host. From observations made so far, the cater-

pillar appears to be predatory and in order to secure its own safety

and conserve its food, which apparently consists of the eggs and

larvee of the coccid, it constructs the firm attachment around the

base of its host. The following points so far noted in its life-

history may be added. Glistening light greenish-yellow eggs are

found laid singly on the dorsal surface of the host insect mostly

at the posterior region. The egg is spherical and flattish resem-

bling a scale with the surface beautifully reticulated. Numerous

eggs are found laid on single coccids though the exact number laid

by each moth was not observed. The young caterpillar that hatches

out crawis about the posterior edges of the scale insect for a time

and gradually disappears inside the Jatter entering the same by

making a passage through the ventral region. Gradually the cater-

pillar or if there are more, these caterpillars fix the host scale to

the plant surface by means of the fastening described above. A

fairly well-known caterpillar about to pupate measures 6°5 mm.

In colour it is greyish green above, pale gray below, head and

prothorax dark brown, and head almost black. A glistening hemi-

- spherical spot is found on each dorso-lateral side of the mesothoracic

region dark in colour and enclosing a glistering space giving rise

to one or two hairs. Similar but much smaller ones are found on

the dorso-lateral region of the penultimate abdominal segment also.

Spiracles are light brown and the body is fringed with short isolated

transparent hairs. Two or three very faint longitudinal stripes are

seen in some specimens along the dorsal region. Pupation takes

place within a tubular closely woven silken coccon inside the host

scale. Pupa is 6 mm. long, general form short and stout, colour

reddish brown, wing sheaths and ventral region of a paler brown;

there are two short dark spines at the posterior tip. The pupation

period in some cases noted in captivity in November lasted 7 to 10

days. The moth is dark greyish-brown in colour. Each upper

wing has a double transverse dark marking. ‘The palpi are upturned

and sickle shaped. Compared to the hinder ones, the first pair of

legs are much smaller. While resting the moth has the head end

raised and the hind end lowered, the wing tips touching the sitting

surface. As far as the writer is aware this moth appears to be first

recorded example of a lepidopterous insect living in association

with the giant Coccide of the family Monophlebine, and the

only recorded example of a Pyralid found in association with

Coccide.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 675

There is no doubt that many more cases of moths or butterflies

with these curious habits might exist in different pairs of India and

discovered in due course of time. As stated before this paper is

just an attempt to invite the attention of entomological workers all

over India to this aspect of insect bionomics—an aspect which is

not only of biological interest to the pure scientist, but has its own

econoniic importance and value.

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION

OF SALT-LICKS

BEARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA

). SE (CATUS HES dae ar aes

AND

K. He -BHARUCHA, BUA) oB:SC..

Pharmacological Laboratory, Parel, Bombay

Para a

INTRODUCTION

Geophagy or earth-eating is a matter on which much has been

said and written. ‘The subject has been much laboured but little

advanced, unless we agree to use the term advance for the propound-

ing of not less than half-a-dozen theories to explain this ‘ strange’

habit.

‘ Barth-eating is a habit which overspreads all countries and breaks

ethnological boundaries of every sort; it is found among the peoples

of. every continent, and apparently of almost every race. In this

country it extends throughout the length and breadth of the land ; it

is common on the boundary of Baluchistan, and is also found in

Assam and Manipur near the North-East Frontier ; it is known and

practised among the jungle tribes of Chota Nagpur and also by the

high-caste Hindus of Bengal and the Muhammadans of the Punjab;

the Kolarian, Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, and Mongolian peoples, all

indulge in the habit of earth-eating. ‘This universal practice points

to a deeper-seated cause for the habit than any ethnological or

national distinction.’!

Earth-eating is indulged in by both the sexes, at any time of life,

in all states and grades of society. Moreover, the purpose differs

no less widely than the condition of the eaters as regards sex, age,

or health before and after acquiring the habit. Earth is eaten asa

delicacy, as a surrogate for confectionery, as a condiment, as a

recognized article of food, as a medicine, as a tonic, as a charm, or

as the result of imitation. Again, we find the most extraordinary

1‘Rarth eating and the Earth-eating Habit in India,’ by B. Hooper and H.H.

Mann, Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. i, No. 12, 1906, pp. 249-

270.

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF SALT-LICKS 677

variety of material used. Not only are clays, shales, and alluvial

muds commonly taken; but,-with the exception of sand, earth of

almost every description is eaten.

Earth-eating has been referred to as a strange habit, an unnatural

habit. Strange, no doubt, when we consider man’s usual bill of

fare. Unnatural ? Surely not in the sense of contrary tothe com-

mon laws of morality and decency. Is it then unnatural in the sense

of a nutritional abnormality ? Wedonot think so. The purport of

this inquiry is to show that this widespread craving for earth of

some kind is the psychological expression of a physiological need,

that the habit primarily rests on a physiological basis.

The notion of food is natural. It belongs to that common sense

physiology which is transmitted from parent to child by heredity,

and which the scientific fraternity find a difficult task to alter. We

eat by instinct and habit, and it is instinct and habit which prescribe

the menu. But whereas wild animals select their food naturally, the

food of civilized man and of domestic animals is provided and

prepared artificially.

It is generally admitted that an adequate diet must contain an

adequate supply of the various inorganic substances which enter into

the structure of the body. In contrast to the ‘ organic’ nutrients,

which act primarily as carriers of energy, the mineral ingredients of

food introduce no energy into the organism but do serve important

purposes, both structural and functional, which we shall consider

and discuss later when we bring this inquiry to a close.

The human body contains approximately: 2 per cent calcium,

1 per cent phosphorus, 0°35 per cent potassium, 0°25 per cent sul-

phur, 0°15 per cent sodium, 0°15 per cent chlorine, 0°05 per cent

magnesium, 0:004 per cent iron, and very minute quantities of

iodine, fluorine, and silicon.

The dietary adequacy of the last three elements is left to chance.

Iodine, however, is an essential constituent of the thyroid gland

and it seems probable, from recent investigations, that an adequate

supply of iodine in the food is essential for the normal functioning

of this gland. The presence of iodine is moreover inseparable

from certain periods in a woman’s life, and these are precisely the

periods when in their case the earth-eating habit is contracted.

The sulphur requirement is met by the proteins—the nitrogenous

compounds of food—of which it constitutes about 1 per cent. In

practice, when the protein is adequate, the sulphur has not been

found deficient.

If a reasonable amount of vegetable diet is used, the potassium

requirement is fully met; and the universal practice of using salt

as a condiment insures a sufficient supply of both sodium and

chlorine. Since salt is constantly being eliminated by the skin and

kidneys it must be supplied by the food, and the reason for the

addition of salt to potatoes and other vegetables is physiological as

well as condimental.

The magnesium requirement has not been thoroughly studied ;

but it seems to be adequately supplied by the mineral content of

vegetables and meats, in many of which it is present in greater

quantity than calcium.

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI111

The inorganic elements that are most likely to be deficient in a

diet are calcium, phosphorus, and iron. We are inclined to attribute

earth-eating among men and _ salt-licking among wild animals

primarily to a deficiency in one or more of these elements. A

superficial examination of the soils sought after by wild animals

point to the fact that they are closely related to, if not the same as,

the materials used by earth-eaters. And one thing which stands

out prominently is that, whatever it is the wild animals seek in the

salt-licks, it is not sodium chloride. What it is may be revealed by

a careful analysis of numerous samples of soils from the tracts

visited by them. This is to be the first step in our inquiry.

It will be seen that our percentages do not total a hundred. We

want it to be understood that chemical analysis has not yet reached

perfection. If for example, we were to analyse 100 grams of dry

potato, we should find that the sum total of the constituents would

amount to about 97 grams. It can be shown that the balance of 3

grams is not due to starch or some other known constituent having

been lost in the process of isolation, but that it represents a quan-

tity of unknown substances which- the now accepted methods of

chemical analysis are unable to separate.

As ours is a prolonged inquiry, we think we are justified in pub-

lishing occasionally the results of our work. We proffer them

unreservedly to all who may be engaged in the study of the same

problem, and we offer them gratefully to all who have assisted in

collecting material.

ANALYSES

1. SorL FROM SALT-LICK

SERIAL INO. J

LocaLiryv—Maungmegan (Hot Spring), Tavoy Dt.

PROCURED BY—Mr. A. Brownlow, District Superintendent of Police, Tavoy.

SEnt BY—-Mr. W.S. Wood, Tavoy.

Heterogeneous mixture of earth, pebbles, fragments of quartz, fine sand,

mica, orthoclase, hematite, cassiterite, and organic debris.

Minerals ... me + ave ee ... 49°80 per cent.

Sand a ae ne ee a ... 46°70 a

Organic debris... es aa La Pree 4a7 40) Hf

Humus .. ore ee ae et i. = 0°64 de,

Moisture ... ae ie re ‘aise en 40°33 ie

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) A ae ncoh i oOecO i

Insoluble in nitric acid ... <a ae ... 46°480 "

Lime (CaO) na SH a i capi OLO0 7

Tin oxide (SnO,) ac oh ake s21 403694 3%

Phoshorus (P,O, ) oe ya cos aoa OLOZE i

Sulphur (SO,). -..: nee ter ae ere OL 000 -

Ferric oxide (Pe,0O,). a... ca ae ououOerlo c

Moisture and organic matter a de ee 71596

Remarks:—1. The soil contains traces of sodium, and carbon dioxide.

2. The lick is frequented by animals from the local forests,

INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF SALT-LICKS 679

II. Sor FROM SALT-LICK

SERIAL No. 2.

LocaLity-~—~-Kaleinaung (Hot Spring), Tavoy Dt.

PROCURED BY—Mr. A. Brownlow, District Superintendent of Police, Tavoy.

SENT BY—Mr. W. S. Wood, Tavoy.

Ashy grey powder and pellets. Soft to the touch.

Clay

Sand ¥

Organic debris

Humus

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ...

Insoluble in nitric acid...

Soda and Potash {Na,O,K $20)

Magnesia (MgQ)...

Lime (CaO) ee

Phosphorus (P,0;)

Sulphur (SO) ...

Ferric oxide: (Fe,O; }

Moisture and organic matter

76°

17°79

96 per cent.

212

0°60

0°30

99°28 m

81-600 ;

0°200 5

0-085 iH

0°215 re

0°026 -

1°239 5

3°600 - ,,

11°&70 oy

Remarks:—1. The soil contains traces of aluminium, and about 2 percent

water-soluble organic matter.

2. The lick is frequented by animals from the local forests.

(II. Som FROM SALT-LICK

SERIAL No. 3.

LocALiry—Sal Forests about 10 miles east of the town of Pilibhit.

PROCURED BY—Mr. A. E. Osmaston.

SENT By—The Conservator, Working Plan Circle U. P., Naini Tal,

Pale yellowish brown powder and pellets with mica and organic debris,

Gritty to the touch.

Clay os

Sand and mica

Organic debris

Moisture

Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve)

Insoluble in nitric acid

Soda (Na,O) ..

Magnesia (MgO)...

Lime (CaO) ‘

Silica (Si0,) soluble

Phosphorus (P,O,)

Chlorine (Cl) es

Manganese (Mn)...

Ferric oxide (Fe,O,)

Moisture and organic matter

9 per cent.

‘0 ~

4 Ss

0°027 ie

0°074 ‘3

0020 Be

3°750 .

2°900 ‘5

Remarks:--1. The soil contains about 2°5 per cent water-soluble organic

matter,

2. The lick is frequented by chital and sambar.

THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOM OF INDIAN

SCORPIONS

PROGRESS OF THE SOCIETY’S INVESTIGATION

Since the publication of my last list on page 412 of this volume,

the undermentioned quantities of poison have been collected by me

from live specimens received through the co-operation of members

and the Medical Departments of the various Provincial

Governments. :

Number of Weight of dry venom

scorpions in milligrams.

Buthus pachyurus BA 2 92)

5, vugiscutts < 12 2°6

,, tamulus a 70 122:

Palamneus tulvipes ie 2 8:7

5 6 gvavimanus ay 4 14:6

,, dturus ae ig 125

,, phipsont 9 42°5

5, swammerdamt ei 1, 244:2

,, xanthopus a 3 12:4

Scorbiops asthenurus 5 5°6

5» montanus Bee 5 2°4

Tsometrus europaeus (vesicles) g 6:7

Pharmacological Laboratory, J. F. -CATUS; -s.- 5:

Parei, Bombay.

March 18, 1929.

REVIEWS

1 QOUBER PISH:] By—CaM.. Yonge, -DiSc,, (Pa.D:, George

Routledge & Sons, London, 1928. 5s.

2. BLUE BLOOD IN ANIMALS. By H. Munro Fox. George

Routledge & Sons, London, 1928. 5s.

Issued with the ‘ Science for You’ series, the purpose of these

books is to acquaint the layman with various aspects of scientific

discovery. Each volume consists of short readable essays on

various problems which are attracting the attention of modern

Biologists. The language is simple and therefore readily intelli-

gible, hence, in spite of the highly technical and complicated nature

of many of the subjects dealt with, these books charm, surprise,

yet stretch the mind and increase their grip with every new

reading.

In ‘Queer Fish’ Dr. Yonge deals mainly with various problems

of Marine Biology. ‘This is the special subject of the author who

was the leader of the recent expedition to the Great Barrier Reef.

The purpose of Marine Biology is ‘ the intensive exploitation of the

seas for the benefit of mankind.’ Dr. Yonge reveals the tremendous

contribution which the Marine Biologist is making towards the

improvement of the Fisheries of Europe and America. In addition

to investigations into the structure, habits and development of

marine animals his programme of research includes the study of

diverse problems affecting the abundance and scarcity of fishes,

their food, and the factors controlling their distribution. ‘The

temperature and salinity of the water, the extent and direction of

ocean currents, the nature of the ocean bed and the deposits which

cover it-—all these have a direct bearing on marine animal and plant

life. Of equal importance to the sea farmer is a knowledge of the

vast multitude of animals and plants, mainly microscopic, which

float or drift at, or very near the surface of the sea. ‘This is the

Plankton. Our knowledge of it is still very imperfect but there can

be no doubt as to its vital importance in the economy of marine

life. It is the prime source of food in the sea. Many diverse

animals go to make up the Plankton. In addition to animals of all

kinds there is a dense Flora consisting for the most part of

microscopic plants known as Diatoms. Just as on land, marine

animals depend for their food on plants, upon the number and

distribution of Diatoms, which form one of the principal sources of

food in the ocean, depends the abundance or scarcity of all other

forms of marine animals, which either feed upon these minute

plants or in turn become the food of animals larger than themselves.

Data of this description, collected by Marine Biologists, is forming

a mosaic of knowledge which is paving the way to the prosperity

of those connected with the Fishing Industries. Nearly 70,000 men

and boys are employed in the Fisheries of Great Britain. In 1925,

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

nineteen and three-quarter million hundredweights of fish were

landed which represented a value of nearly twenty million pounds.

Two economists have attempted to estimate the total value of the

fisheries in India. One estimates it at some crores, the other at

only a few lakhs. Statistics recently compiled and issued by the

Madras Fisheries Department are available. They deal only with

a small portion of our coastline, a stretch of some 240 miles forming

the seaboard of the districts of Malabar and South Kanara. An

interesting fact brought to light is that the Malabar fishermen,

fishing only within sight of their huts and using the most primitive

types of boats and tackle, can catch as much fish as the Scotch

fishermen, fishing along a wide belt of sea with the aid of the most

up-to-date appliances. The conclusion drawn is that our Malabar

waters are more productive than Scotch waters which are considered

amongst the best fishing grounds in the world. Yet along the

entire coast-line of India there is only one scientific organization

actively concerned with the improvement of fisheries and that is the

Madras Fisheries Department. The contribution in the matter of

Marine Biological research of the Bombay Presidency, with over

1,000 miles of coast-line, as far as affects our fishing industry, is nil.

Here we prefer to put exploitation before exploration—witness the

abortive termination of our experiments with the steam trawler

‘William Carrick.’ ‘To come back to our book, in addition to fishes

both in and out of the water, Dr. Yonge deals with a variety of

Marine products. Oysters, cockles, pearls and sponges all are

considered, both on their own merits and from the point of view of

the sea farmer. Other attractions offered are chapters on ‘ Growing

Smaller’, ‘ Regeneration in Animals’ and ‘ Heredity and Environ-

ment.’ One of the great advances of modern Biology has been the

affording of definite proofs that schemes for social amelioration

are not mete gropings in the dark, but have a definite biological

justification. We cannot alter inherited factors but we can control

environment and so order social conditions that the highest qualities

latent in the constitution of a child may be able to develop.

Professor Munro Fox’s ‘ Blue Blood in Animals’ is planned on

the same lines as the preceding work. The essays which make up

the volume give a number of results of biological researches of

to-day. The various processes and their partial solutions are

lucidly described. Particularly interesting and of perennial interest

are the chapters on ‘Growth’, ‘ Youth and Age’ and the ‘ Control

of Sex.’

What is it that decides whether a child shall be a boy or a girl ?

Shall we be able to control the sex of the offspring and decide

whether a child shall be aboy oragirl? Several independent lines

of research have convinced biologists that the sex of the offspring

is usually determined at the moment of the fertilization of the egg

by the sperm. A fundamental recent discovery bearing on the

question is that we know now that in mammals, while the ova are

alike, sperms are of two kinds. Fertilization of the egg by onetype

produces a male, fertilization by the second produces a female. With

this knowledge of how sex is settled we are in a stronger position

to attempt the control of the proportion of girls and boys born,

REVIEWS 683

There is more than one method of attacking the problem. The

more direct istoinfluence the activity of the sperms since it has been

found by experiments with rabbits that one type of sperm is more ©

susceptible to the influence of a drug, such as alcohol, than the other.

In some such way, by using a drug which gives an advantage to one

of two kinds of sperms it is conceivable that one kind of sperm

might be made more successful in fertilizing eggs than the other

kind. Inthis manner the desired sex might be produced at will. No

attempt to do this has yet been made. Nevertheless we have taken

a long step in advance in discovering exactly what is required to

control sex proportions.

William Blake pleasantly classified those who took no interest in

Art or Literature with the lower animals. To Arts and Literature

he would now be induced to add Science. ‘There is much truth in

the dictum that Science, well taught, provides as much information

and culture as the study of the humanities. These informative

and fascinating volumes issued with the ‘ Science For You’ series

are a convincing proof.

Si o lee

3. TALES FROM SOME EASTERN JUNGLES. By K. W.S.

Mitchell, author of ‘ Stalking Big Game with the Camera’. 276 pages,

with 32 tinted photographic illustrations. Published on January

8, 1929. Cecil Palmer, London. Price, 15s. net.

This charmingly illustrated volume is descriptive of the jungles

of Ceylon: and in its twenty-nine chapters the author introduces us

to the jungle life of the country of which many of us have read in

‘The Rifle and Hound in Ceylon’ by Sir Samuel Baker. There

have also been other books dealing with the sport to be had in

those dense forests. .

Mr. Mitchell’s book is on different lines. He is a lover of wild

life, and one of those sportsmen, the number of whom is increasing,

who prefer as a trophy, and record of hardly come by achievements,

the photograph which records for the eye, facts and situations that

were otherwise dead for ever in a moment.

Photographs of wild life by other authors are, as we know, very

excellent ; Lut our author presents to us living pictures—photo-

graphs tinted by himself—which have about them a very special

charm such as cannot be obtained by the printed photograph alone.

All who take up this book will agree with the author’s remarks in

the preface. ‘Look at a photograph—it appears dead. A title only

or a few words of explanation by word of mouth or pen—it lives.

A touch of colour added, and the picture speaks as when it was

taken, whether the subject was of still life or throbbing with

vitality.’ He asks the reader to judge how far he has succeeded,

and the answer will be that nothing could be better.

In addition to the colouring which gives such reality to the

pictures, there is with every photograph ample comment to explain

it, how and where it was taken, and those small attendant circum-

stances the relation of which mean so much, and explain so much,

to the reader.

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Several of the tales have for their theme that unconscious

heroism so often shown by the dwellers in jungle lands. Of these

‘Greatheart’ is a story relating how he so-named saved the life of

the author when in pursuit of a dangerous man-killing elephant:

‘A Jungle Hero’ is a tale of the slaying, by one Kandatai, of a

panther which had just killed his uncle and was on the corpse in the

tropic moonlight ; and of the wild beasts we have the somewhat

incredible yarn of ‘The Determined Mother’ a panther, a tale

related to the author by Jungle Wallah and dished to’ us to

swallow if we will! Will we? The story of the brave stag sambur

who ‘For the love of a lady’ drove off the panther which had

seized his hind in the act of drinking at a forest pool. is true to life

and no doubt related by the author on the basis of his own

observation.

Why does Mr. Mitchell call. the females of the deer tribe, the

sambur and the chital, ‘does’ and not ‘hinds’ ?

Is the author correct in saying that the ‘ fang teeth,’ as he terms

them, of barking deer, mouse deer, and, we may add, musk deer,

are possessed by these animals for tearing the bark off shrubs, etc.

It may beso, but we do not recollect having read of that before.

The hill man of the Lower Himalaya will tell one that these teeth

are for piercing the skull of the panther when that blood-thirsty

feline has the deer by the throat!

The autobiography of a spotted deer contains in this form the

life history of a chital stag, and is well told.

The Rilowa is a yellow-brown monkey peculiar to Ceylon and

we are told of the very unusual case of a monkey of another

species attaching itself to a troop of Rilowas. It is not likely that

the stranger was admitted by marriage into the community with

which he was associated by some accidental circumstance during

his adolescence.

In the chapter ‘ Jungle Cries and Curiosities ’ Mr. Mitchell talks

of the ‘ Horror Bird’, otherwise known as the ‘ Devil Bird’, and is

at a loss as to its identity. For many years the cry, which may be

likened to that of a woman in mortal peril, was supposed to be

made by one of the owls, and Blanford and Oates put it down to

one of that species. Not long ago a correspondent from Ceylon

contributed a note to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society clearly proving that this weird cry, so long a cause of

surmise, is uttered by one of the night hawks; I have heard the cry

in the jungles of the Jeypur Zemindari of the Vizagapatam District,

but nowhere else in India. It would be interesting tolearn its dis-

tribution and perhaps members will send in notes in regard to it.

The tact, recorded by the author, of a leopard devouring more

than half the quills of a porcupine is most interesting. Most of us

who shoot have found panthers, and tigers, to be on occasion well

studded with porcupine quills, even—in the case of panthers—to the

serious detriment of their health. But for a panther to swallow

quills is indeed an extraordinary occurrence.

The tale of the pursuit to the death of a proclaimed wild buffalo

is an exciting one. The conclusion that the buffalo is a crafty and

courageous beast is a true epitaph for him.

REVIEWS 685

At page 111 we are told that the timid wild creature of the day is

quite a different beast atnight. This is very true, and is brought

to notice by several incidents. The sport of roaming about of a

moonlight night in search of wild boars is shown to be not

unattended by danger to the sportsman; and we have read in other

sporting books of a similar pastime in the shooting, and even

spearing, of bears by moonlight.

Talking of bears. The author does not, we hope, wish us to

believe the yarn of Kyra waltzing with a male bear which took him

being such a hairy man, for a female bear !

Also about bears he says that in all his experience he has never

heard of a bear charging a light. There is no knowing what a

sloth bear will, or will not do. Of his charging a light there are

several recorded instances, one of which (early in 1917) was fatal to

the sportsman returning from his machan after dark, with a lantern

carried before him.

Of cobras, and the catching of them ; also of the cure of a person

bitten by a cobra by means of a snake-stone; the author relates an

interesting tale. To the author ‘ seeing is believing’, but in spite

of his assurance the reader will be wise, should necessity occur, in

trusting not toa snake-stone.

As to the common habit of unsporting people of shooting from

motor vehicles, either by day or by night, the author has much

righteous condemnation. There is not an atom of sport in such

shooting which is, indeed, mere butchery. Mr. Mitchell also

condemns the shooting of a tiger or a panther at night over a kill

as ‘butchery ’, but there we do not agree with him as the animal

has all his wits about him and much technique of that class of

sport and a considerable amount of endurance also is essential to

success.

In the tale of a mad elephant there is much of interest to the

reader. ‘There was expectation in every moment.’ That is the

root cause of our pleasure in the jungle life in tropical forests. The

foot note as to the sense of smell of the leopard for the following

up of a blood trail, or the scenting of a high kill is in accordance

with fact. The real danger of sitting up at night in forests where

the wild elephant roams is well shown. The machan in such a case

should be wholly out of elephant reach.

The relation of the tracking of an elephant will hold the reader’s

attention from start to finish; and he will wonder why the author

did not enter the ‘ Sanctuary ’ to recover his well deserved trophy,

as itis an established law that a wounded bird or beast may be

pursued over the boundary whatever that may be.

At page 195 Mr. Mitchell questions the possibility of the shooter

being able to hear the ‘ thud’ of the bullet on its impact with the body

of an animal. In the jungles of Ceylon, where animals are seldom

shot at any thing over sixty, it is probable that the ‘ thud’ would

be not often heard; but in open country it is commonly heard,

whether the rifle in use be one of low or of high velocity.

This very interesting book is an inducement to an unduly long

review of it; there is so much to attract the attention. For

instance, it is not all people who use the term ‘survival of the

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

fittest’ as the law of the jungle, who realize that it is not only the

physical fitness that is essential, but the mental fitness also. In

such ways the author interests and teaches the reader all through

the volume.

The closing chapter is explanatory of cameras and simple photo-

graphy for the purpose of nature study, and will be useful to those

who may be inspired by the beautiful results obtained by

Mr. Mitchell to try and do likewise.

So we leave the book, confident in the unstinted praise that

it will receive at the hands of the wide circle of readers to whom it

will appeal.

R.B.

4. MISHI THE MAN-EATER, AND OTHER TALES OF

BIG GAME. By E. C. Stuart Baker, 0.B.E., F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U.

222 pages, frontispiece and three full page iliustrations. H. F.&

G. Witherby, London. 10s. nett.

All members of the Bombay Natural History Society are familiar

with the valuable ornithological contributions of Mr. Stuart Baker,

which have appeared in serial form in our Journal prior to publica-

tion as beautifully illustrated volumes for which the editors

controlling our finances would wish a greater sale—and now we have

from his pen a work of an entirely different kind—stories of big

game gathered from fifteen years of shikar among the animals of the

North Cachar Hills.

The experiences given to us are from the early days of the

author’s service in India—the days of the black powder express

rifle—and but few of us have had the fortune to enjoy such grand

opportunities of sport of all kinds.

The first hundred pages contain the tale of Mishi the Man-eater

as related by himself, and a gruesome story it is. ‘This Mishi, as he

is now named, is the same monster whose initiation as a man-eater

was described by the author in volume xxvii of this Journal.

Vividly does the narrative of Mishi enlighten the reader as to the

upbringing of a young tiger, and the accidental killing of the first

human being out of which, by degrees, grew the unnatural lust for

the flesh of man, and man alone.

If there be any criticism to offer it is that perhaps Mishi is

credited with a greater power of scent than a tiger ordinarily

possesses. But that question is still a subject of controversy. If

the analogy of the domestic cat be taken as a guide, then the tiger’s

power of scent is more than is generally supposed; yet it has been

proved that tiger cubs, made to hunt for their food in the grass

of the bungalow compound, have practically no sense of smell.

Probably tigers, when obliged to become more than ordinarily

cautious, do make greater effort to use such sense of smell as they

possess, and we have several times observed their audible efforts in

this direction.

Much does Mishi relate as to his upbringing and habits: his

pace in pursuit of startled game; his manner of ham-stringing a

REVIEWS 687

ponderous bison or buffalo ; his lesson as to the danger incurred by

killing an elephant calf; and a good deal more.

Then he recounts the heroism of some of the human beings he

attacked. The brave mother who beat the ravening brute about

the head and so rescued the lifeless corpse of her tiny baby ; the

equally brave and aged parents of a son, slain by the striped

scourge, whose mangled body they recovered ; and the gallant fight

for his life put up by one of his victims. And there is the narrative

of that night of horror when he three times raided a habitation, on

each occasion extracting one of the four inmates, the last being

the wife of an old man who bravely belaboured the monster’s

head with a burning brand in vain endeavour to save her life.

All this is most absorbing reading and, as Mr. Stuart Baker tells

us, absolutely true in every detail. The reader can imagine for

himself the intrepidity of the white man ‘the wearer of a great

round thing on the top of his head, quite unlike anything I had seen

or heard of ’, who, on many occasions, followed hot-foot in the

fruitless endeavour of making Mishi pay the penalty of his career of

crime. The tale is all absorbing.

The next twenty-four pages tell us how this white man, who is our

author, at long last succeeded, and rid the country of this terrible

scourge which had killed no less than fifty-two people in the short

period of eight months. We take off our hat to Mr. Stuart Baker

as a most intrepid sportsman.

Of buffaloes and pigs we are given some stories which contain

much of shikar, and little of natural history, which is a pity as

the author is a trained observer and must have a great store of

interesting knowledge of the habits of the animals he knew so

well.

So also in the case of bison and rhinoceros. Many most exciting

incidents are related, including instance's of resulting injuries and of

narrow escapes—on one occasion even ‘by the skin of his shin

bone’ !—but we can with difficulty forgive Mr. Baker for not telling

us more of the ways and habits of the fifty-four picked bison bulls

which he laid low, ana of the rhinos he came across so frequently.

But perhaps he has much of this kind in store for us and we look

forward to much enjoyment, and instruction, in the reading of it.

Of bears the author tells us something, but not all that he could

relate. In common with all writers, he appears to accept the

popular belief that bears mostly use their fore-paws, and the claws

with which they are furnished, when attacking man. This we

believe not to be the case, and remarked upon the subject in

a former review (Wild Animals in Central India, vol. xxix, p. 1032)

and a request for information on the subject was made in one

of our Editorials, but without any result. Perhaps this opportu-

nity of again mentioning the matter may have a better response.

~ The book under review is printed in large clear type. The proof-

reading might have been more carefully carried out. The book

will be widely read by the general public as a record of some of the

experiences of a gallant sportsman, and by members of our Society

with the hope that there is more to come,

R. B,

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

5. ‘BEAUTIFUL FLOWERS OF KASHMIR’. By Ethelbert

Blatter, s.J., Ph.pD., F.L.S. Illustrated by Mrs. G. A. Wathen and Haldar

Joo Walli, vol. 11 (London 1929; John Bale, Sons and Danielsson,

Ltd., pp. 204, frontispiece and pls. 34-62, Cloth. Octavo.)

In the Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir, vol. ti of which is the

subject of the present review, Father Blatter has excelled himself.

The book is popular in every respect. It is primarily intended as a

guide to the uninitiated, and as such there is little left to be desired.

Technical terms are as far as possible avoided, and the very few |

which could not be avoided are explained in a comprehensive

glossary at the commencement of each volume. Further, in the

present volume, at the request of many of those who used the first

part of the work, the derivation and meaning of botanical names

have been added thus enhancing the value of the book as a popular

guide. Buta guide, however popular and simple it may be, need

not necessarily be so rudimentary in its presentation as to lose its

scientific value and thus be of little use to the learned in Botany.

Father Blatter’s book belongs to this category. It is a book useful

to the amateur, as much as it is of value to the advanced botanist.

The artistic composition of the book is excellent, and this is due

chiefly to the carefully selected and beautifully executed illustrations

in natural colour contributed by Mrs. Wathen and Mr. Haldar Joo

Walli. The flowers depicted seem to breathe the freshness of the

niountain air and are shown as realistic as they would appear in

their native haunts. The feature of the illustrations is that the ~

flowers are not shown as aggregations of calyx, corolla, stamens

and pistil, but simply as flowers displaying wealth of form and

glorious array of colour. Not all the flowers are illustrated, but

those which are represent the most remarkable, most characteristic,

and most commonly seen. Tothe dweller of the plains of India

most of the species will be new, and a revelation as regards beauty

of form and colour. The printed record conveys a very good idea

of what is in store for those who are fortunate enough to visit the

Happy Valley.

The book, therefore, will prove an invaluable guide to the tourist

in Kashmir be he an amateur ora botanist of standing. Every

lover of flowers should make it a point to provide himself with a

copy.

JOR IN Daas

EDITORIAL

SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS

The question of a Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats, which

is for Indian Zoologists practically a virgin field, has been

engaging the attention of the Society for a considerable number of

years. It had been our intention to send collectors to this import-

ant area during the period we were undertaking our original

Mammal Survey in the years 1911 to 1920. The main difficulties

we were faced with were the unhealthy nature of the country which

is, over its greater part, malaria-ridden, and the lack of transport

facilities. Consideration of the question was however abandoned on

the outbreak of the World War and the subsequent closing down of

regular survey work. As regards malaria we can only trust in pre-

ventive measures—a good mosquito net, Wellington boots, and,

according to taste, the application at sun down to all exposed

parts of the body of either lemon grass oil or kerosine should,

together with quinine, keep our men free from the scourge; whilst

as to transport difficulties—where there are roads there are now

motor cars, and where there are no roads there is time !

There is no doubt that collections of mammals from the eastern

provinces of India would be very valuable. A survey in this area

would add greatly to what has already been done and would help to

link up with the material and data obtained from the neighbouring

provinces during the original Mammal Survey. Very little from

the modern scientific point of view is known about the mammals

and birds of this portion of the Indian region. A few sporadic

notes have appeared in scientific publications, but so far no system-

atic effort has been made to study the mammal and bird life of the

province. The absence of adequate and suitable material from so

extensive an area leaves a considerable blank in our knowledge of

the fauna of this country.

Barly in 1928, the Society’s Curator had the opportunity of dis-

cussing the question of a Survey of the Bastern Ghats with Mr.

A. S. Vernay, the leader and organizer of various Natural History

expeditions in India. At the end of the year, on his return to this

country, Mr. Vernay requested the Honorary Secretary to put up a

definite programme of the work it was proposed should be done.

The outcome was that Mr. Vernay gave the Society £1,000 to cover

the cost of maintaining a bird and a mammal collector in the field

for the period of one year. Mr. Vernay is a Vice-Patron of the

Society and one of its most generous benefactors, and we feel cer-

tain that members will join with us in thanking him for this

practical demonstration of his interest in our Society. The collec-

tors chosen for work inthe field are Mr. V.S. LaPersonne and

N. A. Baptista. Mr. LaPersonne has had considerable experience

as a collector on various expeditions in Mesopotamia, Persia,

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Baluchistan and the Trans-Himalayas. Baptista was for many

years with the Mammal Survey where he was trained in field work

by Mr. Crump, one of our most successful collectors. He was

subsequently sent on several expeditions, notably the Roosevelt

and Vernay-Faunthorpe expeditions, and carried out very success-

ful survey work in Nepal. The present survey is concerned not

only with mammals and birds but is to be extended to include

general zoological collecting. In this connection we are glad

to announce that the Indian Museum authorities are co-operating

with the Society and are sending parties to join our collectors in

the field. This will considerably enhance the scope and the value

of the work.

Our collectors commenced work in the Salem District in April

this year. As at present planned, the party will work gradually

northwards through the districts of Cuddapah, Kurnool, Godaveri,

Vizagapatam, Ganjam, Balasore. Collections will be made at

various elevations in the main range of the Eastern Ghats and in

its immediate spurs and also in the adjoining plains.

COLLECTING IN OTHER DISTRICTS

Mr. J. K. Stanford, Deputy Commissioner, Prome, has employed

one of the Society’s assistants in making a collection of the birds

of Prome from January 9th to April 20th of this year and we

are very grateful to him. We have not always collectors available

but we are always glad to hear from any member who thinks he

could look after a collector for us whilst the member is on tour in

favourable zoological districts.

FORTHCOMING VOLUMES IN THE FAUNA OF BRITISH

INDIA SERIES

Mr. Malcolm Smith, who is responsible for the revised edition on

Reptiles and Amphibians in the above series, advises us that the

work will be issued in 3 volumes:

I. Crocodiles, Cheionians and Lizards.

II. Snakes.

Ill. Amphibians. 1

The scope will be much as ‘n the original volume but more atten-

tion wiil be paid to general bionomics and to general introductory

details, so as to make it a little easier for the beginner to under-

stand.

He tells us that two of the greatest wants in the British Museum

are ; (1) good series of the small tree-frogs Rhacophorus and /xalus

from the hills; they are best caught at night by going out with a

lantern and tracking them down when they call; and (2) good series

of the tadpoles of all Amphibians. These mzs¢ include fully deve-

loped individuals showing all four legs, that is to say some that are

sufficiently advanced to enable them to be identified. They are

best preserved in 3 or 4 per cent formalin.

Mr. Malcolm Smith also complains of paucity of material in the

genus Aachuga (fresh water turtles) and particularly wants spirit

“EDIFORTAR Se OS So egy

specimens, as practically nothing has been added to the British

Museum collection since Boulenger’s Catalogue in 1889. He does

not require shells of the big Kachuga trivtttata, but would welcome

anything else. Will members help by sending us any tortoises and

turtles (except marine turtles) they can procure from India and

Burma? The difficulty in preserving these bulky creatures can be

overcome by putting the head, limbs and tail in spirit, and pre-

serving the shell dry, making sure of course that corresponding

numbers are given to avoid confusion.

Many problems await solution. One is what is the Mugger of

Burma? Is it the Indian one C. palustris, or is it C. stamensis ?

Specimens of Burmese crocodiles are wanted.. The skull or a piece

of the skin from the back will be sufficient.

THE SOCIETY'S JOURNAL

The present issue is rather an abnormal one and whilst the

Committee hope it will be helpful as a good advertising number, it

must not be considered as a typical issue even when being used

as a lever to obtain new members.

The publication of Mr. Pocock’s paper on Tigers (How are the

mighty fallen! who would have imagined that the tiger would have

given pride of place to the panther as head of the family !) has been

delayed longer than we care to think of and though somewhat

lengthy is hardly suitable for division into two parts. The illustrated

article—the first of a series—on the Conspicuous Flowering Trees of

India was planned many many years ago. We think it really origina-

ted with Mr. H. M. Phipscen who worked up a wonderful collection

of illustrations of the flowering trees and shrubs of India. Certain it

is, however, that before Mr. W. S. Millard left India he had had

painted by various artists numerous illustrations of our flowering

trees which he knew would be of use should he ever be able to get

a really popular illustrated book on the subject published. His fore-

thought has been of great assistance to the Society as we have not

had to pay for the painting of the pictures. Have we succeeded

even now in getting a ‘popular’ paper written? Time will show

but what we have tried to do is to publish a description of trees

which the ordinary man in the street will be able to understand. If

we have succeeded the present Journal will be an excellent recruit-

ing agent.

PUBLICATION OF THE THIRD VOLUME OF THE GAME BIRDS OF

INDIA SERIES. PHEASANTS, JUNGLE FOWL AND SPUR FowL

We are instructed by the Committee to advise that publication of

the third volume of Stuart Baker’s Game Bird series has been

sanctioned and orders have been sent home for the printing of the

book.

Orders have up to now been booked on the assumption that the

published price would be £3-10-0 and that members not possessing

either of the two previous volumes would pay Rs. 40; that those

possessing one copy of the previous volumes would pay £2-10-0 or

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Rs. 33-5-0 ; and that those members possessing both volumes would

pay £42 or Rs. 26-10-0.

On the above terms we have registered orders for 135 copies.

We have now pleasure in advising that it has been decided to

reduce the published price to £3, or to members to £2-10-0, and to

reduce the price to members who possess one of the previous

volumes to £2 and to those members who possess both to £1-5-0.

All orders already booked will be executed at these reduced rates.

It is admitted that the reduction has been made to increase the

sale of the first two volumes.

The members’ price of the first volume (Ducks) is Rs. 35, of the

second (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustard and Sandgrouse) Rs. 30.

A member not already in possession of any of the volumes and

particularly wanting all three will, by purchasing the third volume,

have (so to speak) £1-5-0 (say Rs. 16-12-0) in hand towards the

purchase of the first two which will thus only cost him for the pair

of books Rs. 48, and yet the benefit he gets is little compared to

the benefit the non- member gets who joins the society and buys all

three volumes.

Readers will miss in the present issue, the third part of Mr. Hugh

Whistler’s serial on ‘The Study of Indian Birds’. The author

writes to say that due to his recent collecting expedition to Kashmir

and Gilgit and to the work entailed on the collections, he has not

been able to settle down to this paper. We are glad to hear

however, that the thread will be taken up again in our September

number.

FINANCE

The Honorary Tieasurer has prepared his budget for 1929-1930.

It has been a difficult matter as we are not getting as many new

members as we ought to. Without an ever-increasing membership

we cannot bring out four Journals in a year and there is a deal of

difference between three Journals brought out at four monthly

intervals and four Journals brought out at three monthly intervals.

The-difference is not ee in cost but also in the interest taken

in the Society. ) st

- Museum

We are still lacking a lakh.

693

BLACK PANTHERS—AN INQUIRY

To owners of Zoological Gardens and to dealers in wild animals

it is well known that black panthers, which command a much higher

price than the normally coloured specimens, are almost invariably

exported from the Malay Peninsula where, according to Mr. Boden

Kloss, they replace the ordinary type to the South of Malacca.

They are found too, in Java and Burma and a few years agoa

specimen from Assam was exhibited in the Gardens in Regent’s

Park, London. -In- Hodgson’s collection in the British Museum

there are also skins from Nepal, and Blanford declares this variety

to be commoner in the hills of Southern India and in Travancore

than elsewhere in the Peninsula.

The purpose of this note is to procure from anorianen infor-

mation regarding the black panthers from Southern India. This

may seem a superfluous inquiry. My reason for making it is this.

Blackness in panthers is brought about by two different processes.

In the commonest type it results from the development of dark

pigment, or melanin, in the hairs which are normally orange or

white. The spots themselves, apart from their centres which are

dark, remain unaffected and show up clearly in certain lights owing

to their greater glossiness. Onthe belly they are usually better

defined because the melanin added to this white area is commonly

dark rusty brown and therefore paler than the jet black spots.

These panthers are typical ‘melanos’, and in my experience this

kind of black panther, and no other, is the form that commonly

occurs to the East of the Bay of Bengal. Inthe second case the

blackness may be described as due to the breaking up and coales-

cence of the spots and their encroachment over the orange inier-

spaces so as to obliterate them to a greater or lesser extent.

Panthers exhibiting this peculiarity were recorded long ago from

Grahamstown in South Africa. But they were not known, so far as

I am aware, from India until 1927 when Mrs. C. A. Souter sent to

the Natural History Museum a flat skin of one which was killed at

Kanara and secured by her husband who told me the native who

shot the beast had some difficulty in getting his due reward because

the identity of the animal was disputed owing to its dissimilarity to

the panther with which the authorities were familiar! 1 described

this skin in the Proceedings of the Zoological Socrety for 1927 as

having ‘the rosettes broken up and fused to such an extent that,

supplemented with additional pigment, they convey the impression

of a blackish animal speckled and streaked with yellow.’ The

interspaces, indeed, are so reduced in extent that they are repre-

sented mainly by narrow lines, straightish or zig-zag or shaped like

forked lightning. This very peculiar variety, in which the belly is

normally white whereas the body is mostly black, is nota true

‘melano’. Nevertheless it might, with a little latitude, be des-

cribed as a black panther ; and it would be particularly interesting

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

to know if the black panther of Travancore and other parts of South

India mentioned by Blanford belongs to this or to the ordinary type

of black panther. In vol. xvii of this Journal, for instance, Lieut.

Col. W. B. Ferris referred to a black panther from Kanara, where

Mrs. Souter’s specimen was killed; but he gave no particulars to

help to a conclusion on this point, although it seems certain that

his example, if of the same type as Mrs. Souter’s, retained none of

the yellow specks and streaks or the white belly of that variety.

Information regarding the question here raised would be espe-

cially welcome in view of the forthcoming publication of a new and

enlarged edition of the ‘ Mammals of British India.’

BRITISH MusEum, (NATURAL

HISTORY), R, 1, POCOCK, Fxss:

SOUTH KENSINGTON,

LONDON, S.W.

February, 1929

695

MISCEELANEOQUS NOTES

I.—THE SENSE OF SMELL IN INDIAN FELID A

With regard to the controversy that is going on in the /7%eld as

to whether Tiger, Panther and Lion, rely on their sense of smell

or vision when hunting, I am interested to find that Sir John

H. Parsons, the eminent ophthalmologist, and R.R.S., in his

Introduction to the Theory of Perception says, ‘In the dog smell

is the dominant factor, in the cat vision.’ In the same work the

author remarks on the acute sense of vision the cat has as regards

moving objects, but poor for stationary objects. Most sportsmen

[ think will agree that this applies equally to tiger and panther.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O. RALPH C. MORRIS.

Via MysoRE,

(S. INnpra).

December 8, 1929.

[The concensus of opinion of competent Indian sportsmen and

naturalists seems to point to the a cuteness of eyesight in the

tiger and panther, and, unlike the African lion, to a corresponding

dullness of their sense of smell. Moreover, there also seems

general agreement on the point that although these animais hunt

almost entirely by sight, they are singularly indifferent to objects,

often quite conspicuously coloured, unless some movement, be

it ever so slight, is manifest in them. Eps. |

II.—A WOUNDED SAMBHUR SEIZED BY A TIGER

I had wounded quite a good stag late in the afternoon of the 21st

of this month, on the top of which it came on to pour with rain thus

making it later still before I could follow up, so the shikari and I

merely entered the jungle where the stag went in. In this very

piece by the way I had heard Langur monkeys clamouring, which

often indicates a tiger or panther on the prowl. We soon found

blood tracks and, shortly after the stag broke away, having lain

down quite close. While we were discussing the wisdom of taking

up the tracks next morning, we suddenly hearda great outcry from

what was evidently my stag, so much so that I suggested to my

tracker a tiger might have seized the wounded brute, but my Sholaga

would not accept this theory and as it was getting dusk we retraced

our steps.

Next morning the shikari Kerta and I started off, on what meant

a big climb of 1,000 ft. to the hill-top. The sambhur had plunged

down-hill in dense jungle and we were nearing where we reckoned

the stag had cried out, when Kerta, whom I had warned to stop every

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY. Vol. SOCa]/

few yards to look well ahead, pointed out a light coloured object

lying down in the S¢vodolantht. Getting out my field-glasses, I was

surprised to see a huge tiger, stretched out on its side, having a

siesta after its night’s feed, having seized the oncoming sambhur.

Its position was such that it could not possibly see me, its back

being turned my way, so using the greatest of caution, we stalked

it to within 40 yards, when taking advantage of a sapling to steady

my gunon, a Westley Richards 12-bore Explora, I put a bullet

plum in the centre of the back of the tiger’s neck, just behind the

ears. He never stirred except for a slight twitching of the ears, and

I thus bagged two trophies as the stag’s horns were beautifully

beaded, having just lost its velvet, and the tiger was a splendid male

specimen.

CHAS. W. G. MORRIS.

‘GARSTEAD’

ATTIKAN Gb...

MYSORE STATE,

October 29, 1928.

II].—DECOYING TIGER BY SOUND

I give below a true account of ;an experience that I had witha

tiger a few months ago and am anxious to know if anyone else has

had a similar experience.

‘On the evening of July 19, a couple of tigers had been

frightening the ponies by calling and snarling ina small ravine that

is just behind the stables and bungalow and it was only due to the

servants making a row that they did not come out to attack them.

I came home about 8 o’clock and, as they were still arguing, fired a

shot to scare them. I heard nothing further till 3.30 a.m., when

one of them called rather near the stables, so I flashed a torch to

see if I could locate the brute, but he was a bit too shy as he went

back into the jungle before I could view him.

The next night at 9 o’clock I heard one of them ‘ oughing’ (calling)

on the main road which is about 300 yards in front of the bunglow,

so I started imitating it and after a few calls had passed between

us, I found that the animal was coming closer. It passed the

stables and called again near the ravine and as it was still answering

me I kept up the imitation.

While it was passing the stables I moved to the corner of the

verandah and when it stopped calling I kept quiet and after a minute

or so’s silence I heard a slight rustle in the tea in front of me.

I put on the torch and saw Stripes a few yards away just as he was

getting on to the road leading to the stables, so I immediately drew

a bead on his head. He received the bullet a bit low as it hit the

centre of his nose and travelled down his throat; most likely injur-

ing his vocal chords, as he staggered away without asound. He

was facing me when shot but the shock threw him back and he was

facing the stables when staggering off. He fell into a drain and as

I could not make him out clearly, 1 waited until he came out and then

gave him another behind the shoulder. He staggered another few

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 697

yards and fell and all I could see were his hind quarters and tail

which was still twitching.

I waited half an hour and seeing no movement went up to him.

I wanted to bring him into the bunglow but my Chowkidar was

averse to soiling his hands and was too frightened to help so I had

perforce to leave himthere. 1 took his measurements next morning

and found him 9 feet between pegs. The animal was exactly 14

yards away from me when he received the first bullet and the marks

of his pugs were distinctly to be seen, where he had walked up

and where he jerked with the shock. I noticed when the animal

was calling that there were two distinct calls. One was the usual

‘Aough’ with the ‘Ugh’ very deep and drawn out, and the other

sounded exactly like an Indian saying ‘Aw’ (come). I should

like to know ifany one has ever had a like experience as I have

heard of deer being called up but never tiger. The weapon

I used was a-470 Hammerless D. B. H. V.

THE CHUBWA TEA Company, LIMITED. M> OF DALY.

KELLYDEN DIVISION.

October 7, 1928.

[We have known tigers in Burma to be attracted by the peculia-

bleating noise produced by blowing over a tender leaf held edge-

wise between the palms of the hands. This dodge is commonly

employed by the Burman pot-hunter for calling up Barking Deer

and Sambar to be shot, and when a tiger is anywhere in the neigh-

bourhood it not infrequently happens that he puts in an appearance

instead, much to the embarrassment of the ambushed hunter !

It is probably nothing but curiosity that attracts animals to this

noise, as it is certainly very different from the call of any of the

species attracted by it. Eps.]

IV.—ARE THERE MORE THAN ONE SPECIES OF

PANTHER IN INDIA?

Articles recently appearing in the Field ve. Pigmy Panther in

Somaliland have interested me, especially in view of the fact that

I am not sure we have not a similiar case in India. While on the

Nelliampathy Hills (Malabar) in 1919 I shot. a small very dark

panther which struck me at once as being a pigmy of its species.

The panther was first seen lying on a rock and it looked so dark

that I took it to be a black panther which was not the case however.

On killing the animal I found to my surprise that, although only

about 5’ long it was old as its teeth clearly showed. As already

stated, the skin was very dark and the rosettes and spots very close

together. The loca] trackers declared that it was one of a species

of panther that preys on the Ibex (Nilgiri Tahr) on the cliffs there,

and this is quite possible as I actually shot it on a rock on the sum-

mit of a cliff, and a herd of Ibex was at the time grazing below. I

later learnt that the late Mr. A. M. Kinloch had shot two panthers of

the same species very similar to the one I shot, both of which had

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

taken to trees having been chased by his dogs. Iregret that I have

mislaid the measurements of the panther taken at the time, but I

have of course in my possession the mounted head and skin. At

first glance the head can easily be mistaken for that of a half grown

ordinary panther except that it is very dark. Apart from this

species, the ordinary type of large panther are to be found on the

Nelliampathis, including a fair number of black panther.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, RALPH C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

Via Mysore, S. INDIA..

iZih January, 1922.

V.—VITALITY OF A PANTHER

(With a photo.)

Whilst shooting last January onthe Nepai border in the Gond

(Rucervus duvaucellt) preserves of the Maharani of Khairigarh with

Kunwar Dillipat Shah and the Maharaj Kumar of Bikanir, an

interesting episode occurred. The Maharaj Kumar and we had

- been beating for Gond all day and in the evening shot a fine 36}

inches Gond stag, 15 points. We were consequently somewhat

delayed in getting to the motors to take us back to camp, and

after going approximately a mile through thick jungle on one side

and thatching grass on the other, we saw, by the head-lights, a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 699

large leopard lying across the road. He was seen about 50 yards

away. He got up ina leisurely manner and walked slowly into the

thatching grass, and we thought disappeared inside. However, we

approached carefully turning on the spot-light and coming up to the

place where the leopard had gone in we saw him exactly 5 paces

away. ‘The Maharaj Kumar fired killing the animal, a very fine

leopard of 7 ft. 83 inch. On skinning him it was found that he had been

previously wounded in the skull (see illustration) although there

was no sign of this in the head-skin. It seems inconceivable that

any animal could withstand a wound of this kind without being killed.

He had been shot at and wounded by a solid bullet probably from

something around ‘375 bore.

It is interesting to note that inspite of having previously been

wounded he should stand at 5 yards (the distance was measured as

he fell in his tracks) without showing any alarm at all.

BOMBAY, A. S. VERNAY.

March 13, 1929.

[An examination of tbe skull in the photograph showed that the

bullet had entered above and behind the left eye completely des-

troying the post orbital process of the frontal bone. Jt had then

passed obliquely across the top of the skull, threugh and across

the base of the frontal bone, raking a furrow 24 inch in length

and # inch at its broadest. The bullet had come out above

the right eye also smashing the frontal bone down into the

eye-socket for 12 inches by 4 inch at its broadest. The lower

part of this fracture was completely healed by a callosity forming

over it for } inch from the base. Eps. ]

VL—A RECORD PANTHER

I note that some doubt has been cast on the identification of the

skull that I sent you in-1921 (See paper on Zigers by R. I.

Pocock, p. 518 of thisnumber. Eps.) In March 1921, when I shot

the beast I had no idea it was a ‘ record’, as I only learnt this later,

on receiving your letter, with measurements, etc. I have shot many

large panther and tiger, and have shikared for 29 years, in India,

South and East Africa, so though it looks boastful for me to mention

this fact, the person who doubts as to whether I know the difference

between ‘Spots and Stripes,’ must give a little credit for my

knowledge on shikar.

The panther in question, was seen by me several times, also by

Col. W. Ward. He saw it about 15/20 yards away, (two miles

from here) and told me, it was the largest panther he had ever seen

and he has shot very many.

My attention was attracted to the beast, by hearing the ‘ sawing’

call of panther, which is very different from any noise made by

tiger.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

If the light had been better, (to see my foresight clearly) I would

have obtained a finer shot, but, the panther saw me raise the rifle,

jumped aside and I could only get a snap at him, going downhill, still

it was easy to see the spots on him, note his crouching and cunning,

his call, (like ‘sawing wood’, as mentioned) and the quick way he

spotted me and jumped, which is very different from the habits of

tiger. Most tiger | have seen out stalking don’t display cunning

and, when seen, do not crouch or jump aside.

Pieces of skin that I found with the entire skeleton were dark,

not an inch of fur without black, this proved it to be the panther, as

the ground fur was yellow, and not tawny or orange-red, like a

tiger’s coat.

I told Mr. Van Ingen this and said I was positive that the animal

I had shot was apanther. At this time Mr. Van Ingen was very

young, and has rather mixed his remarks in his letter to your

Society, so to make quite sure I sent the skull to his uncle,

Mr. E. M. Van Ingen, the noted shikaree and taxidermist (who died

last year). He carefully examined the skull and in his reply dated

October 29, 1921, says:—‘Of course the skull belongs to a

panther’. Mr. E. M. Van Ingen of Mysore in the last half century

probably had serveral thousand tiger, panther, and other animals

pass through his hands; is it likely he would make a serious

mistake also ?

Clavicles of my record (adult) panther are 23” x 4”, my best tiger

35 x £%.

E. LIMOUZIN.

DUNSANDLE TEA ESTATE,

OOTACAMUND,

NILGIRI HILLs,

February 14, 1929.

VIIL—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE CHEETAH

(ACONONYX JUBATUS) IN IRAQ.

(With a photo.)

In the pamphlet on Mesopotamian animals issued by the Society

in 1916 a note states that ‘the cheetah may occur in Upper

Mesopotamia as it is still found in Asia Minor, Syria and perhaps

Palestine. ’

In 1925 a cheetah cub was secured at Jumaimah, Muntafiq, Iraq,

by a member of the Dahamshah tribe and brought in and presented

to Mr. G. C. Kitching of the Ministry of Interior.

It is said to have been identified and placed on record by

Sir Percy Cox. It was said to be about three weeks old, was fed

on milk and died after three weeks’ captivity.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 701

In July 1927 Nahaita, an Araif tribesman and professional desert

hunter, reported to Captain C. E. Corry, Inspecting Officer of

Police, Nasiriyah, that he had seen a leopard (fahad) in a ‘ wadi’

near Busiya. We visited the ‘ wadi’ and Captain Corry remarked

that certain tracks were like those of a panther. We spent three

hours in a vain effort to locate the animal.

In July 1928 the same hunter reported the same occurrence in the

samne wadi.

He was told to fetch in the skin but returned better still with two

cubs. He had followed tracks to an old well, thrown a stone down,

and after hearing a whimpering, the mother baving flashed out and

away, had climbed down and found the two youngsters.

The cub in my possession is a. female and probably about two

months old. It is thriving, playful, and even affectionate. It plays

amicably with dogs. | |

THE CHEETAH CUB FROM BUSIVA,

The fur on the back is fawn, quite long, being two and a half to

three inches, and unspotted. Belly and limbs are tawny and

spotted black. The spots on the tail towards its extremity become

rings. The legs are relatively long and the claws are semi-

retractile. The tail is more than half the lengh of the body. The

ears are relatively large, roundish and black exteriorly ; they are

very mobile and are constantly being moved. The head is broad,

round and high, the tear ducts being defined.

It tumbles and springs about clumsily when free, eternally stalk-

ing playfully a small terrier upon whom it leaps from behind

chairs, tops of tables, etc. It is very restless when tied up

and purrs intensively when I go to release it.

It sleeps at night lying fully out-stretched.

As regards diet, milk, cooked liver, meat, and rice seem to suit

it perfectly.

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

It was taken between Abu Ghar and Busiya on the Shamiyah

Desert, S. W. of a sand-belt that teems with wild-life.

This region is about Lat. N. 30° 40’, Long, E. 45° 45’ and altitude

about 100 metres. Many old disused wells are scattered about, and

I know of at least one perennial pool further north. Gazelle

abound, so do hare. The place Jumaimah referred to above may

be considered in the same region. The ‘ wadis’ here are thickly

covered in places with vegetation, even ‘ nebuk’ trees occurring.

Captain Corry very kindly gave this cubto me. Its fellow is

also in Baghdad in the possession of an Iraqi Army Officer.

The local Arabs are as surprised as we. They have no special

name for it, merely speaking as they do of a ‘fahad’ i.e. leopard ;

even so their talk has a legendary ring, none of them having seen

one before.

One wonders if after all the Babylonian lion is really extinct.

There are still in Iraq many regions virgin to man’s recording.

NORMAN L. CORKILL,

RoyaL COLLEGE OF MEDICINE, BAGHDAD,

August 211926.

VIII.—A BROWN VARIETY OF THE SLOTH BEAR

(MELURSUS URSINUS)

I enclose a photograph of the skin of a sloth bear shot by me .

some years ago in these Provinces. The colour is a light golden

brown and the hair is particularly long and thick. It was accompan-

ied in the beat by three ordinary black sloth bears and two leopards.

It was an average sized male. I have never seen another of this

colour, but have heard people assert there are other known specimens

of a similiar colour.

RATPUR. b; J.Ac DUKE,

September 4, 1928. LE. Ss

[Several instances are on record of a similar variation in the colour

of the Sloth Bear, which, as suggested by us on a previous occasion,

may be brought about through the action of the physiological condi-

tion known as erythrism or of partial albinism. The brown and

isabelline forms of our common Indian House Crow, not un-

commonly met with, are also due te the same causes.

A Sloth Bear of the brown colour variety is reported from the

Hazaribagh jungles on p. 145, vol. xxiii of the Society’s Journal,

while earlier, a correspondent writing in the defunct sporting

paper, Aszan, of March 9, 1886, gives an account of his killing a

Sloth Bear with 2 cubs, one of which was brown instead of the usual

jet black.

Mr. Duke’s photograph of the skin is unfortunately not suitable

for reproduction. Eps.].

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 703

IX—ON THE HIMALAYAN PALM-CIVET

(PARADOXURUS GRAYI)

Some days ago I had occasion to place a trayful of ripe and semi-

ripe tomatoes on a wall in front of my house. The following

morning I found that the tomatoes had been raided by some un-

known animal, most of the ripe fruit had been eaten, and the unripe

lay strewn about. Altogether about 50 fruits had been eaten, and

it appeared clear that more than one animal had been implicated in

the theft. Various suggestions were made by my orchard staff and

servants, which included rats, porcupines, pine martens and foxes; but

on the arrival of my head gardener, an experienced man, he at once

declared it to be the work of a pair of Kerodes—the local name for

the hill civet. This proved to be correct, as the next morning

one was caught in a cage trap baited with ripe tomatoes. ‘This was

a female, and this morning a second was secured which proved to

be a male, no doubt the first one’s mate.

The colouration of the animals agrees with that given on p. 113

of the Fauna of British India. In the intermingled black and white

hairs on the face of the female, white predominates and forms a

white pattern down the face from the top of the forehead and nearly

down to the nose and under the eyes; whereas the head of the

male presents a more grizzled appearance, the dark hai:s predomi-

nating. The vibrissz of the male are all white while in the female

the upper two are black. The male is aliogether darker than the

female.

When first caught and occasionally since, the female gives vent

to a curious staccato noise, something between a snort and a sneeze,

made no doubt to intimidate the observer. A curious point which

I observed in both sexes is the movements of the vibrisse; one

moment they appear to be projected forward longitudinally with

the line of the mouth, and the next moment are switched back close

to the cheeks, giving the impression that the vibrisse are extremely

sensitive; for instance they always touch an apple when presented to

them with the end of the vibrissee. Another curious habit observed

is the way in which they eat fruit. The female when given a small

apple takes it up in her fore paws, sits on her haunches and eats it

in exactly the same way as a squirrel does, giving one the

impression of a gigantic squirrel eating a nut. If the apple is a

large one it puts it on the floor of the cage between its fore paws

and eats it in the same way as adog does abone. I daresay the

male will act in the same way when we become more intimate.

I can readily believe that this animal is easily tamed. Although

caught less than a fortnight ago, she comes to the bars of her cage,

and takes pieces of apple from my hand never attempting to

bite my fingers, and altogether appears to be a gentle creature.

BINSAR ESTATE, S, J. MARTIN.

Via Atmora, U.P,

704: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

X.—HOW WILD DOGS KILL THEIR PREY

In Miscellaneous Note No. XI of volume xxxii, page 591, a corres=

pondent denies that wild dogs are in the habit of emasculating the

prey attacked. I had a very curious experience in Java where I

saw a pack of five native trained pariah-dogs kill a big boar.

Having seen how they did it, I think it more than likely that wild

dogs follow similar tactics. In that particular part of Java there

are few wild dogs left and I have never seen them there nor

their kill, but the native fox-red pariah-dog ‘gladak’ is said to

have been bred from them, possibly crossed with jackal.

When in Sourabaia in 1910-11 I used to go south to Lawang for

week-ends for pig-shooting in the forests on the eastern slope of the

Tenger mountain ridge. I used to get trackers from a village there

and the ‘loerah’ (headman) having on various occasions greatly

assisted me, I made him a present of a hundred cartridge-cases,

powder, caps, wads, shot, bullets and the necessary implements for

making his own cartridges for his 12 bore-gun. I am afraid

I broke a whole lot of laws in doing so, but I made a friend for life.

To show his gratitude he promised me a treat on my next visit.

The treat proved to be a boar hunt with his pack of dogs.

He had five native pariah dogs, fox-red but scanty of hair, in

patches practically naked, stiff-eared and about 2 feet high at the

shoulder; awful, cringing, slinking, sneaky curs when alone but real

devils when in a pack after prey.

We started at sunrise. The loerah, his son and I had 12-bore

guns, to be used only in case of tiger or panther. Each dog was

led on a leash by a native armed with a_ serviceable ‘ parang ’

(chopper). We followed the path through the jungle until tracks

had been found near the older forest; the natives and dogs halted

and the loerah, his son and I went on for another quarter mile until

we came to old forest with little undergrowth. The. game was

driven towards us and a big boar came out with the five dogs behind

and beside him.

The dogs never tried to bring the boar to bay as long as they

were in thick jungle or ‘lallang’ (/mferata sp.), but once they

had him on comparatively open ground in the old forest they closed

in. The boar sought refuge between two buttress roots of a big

forest tree and was kept at bay there, and then the fun began. For

more than a quarter of an hour the dogs baited him furiously

in order to tire him out and then suddenly came the dramatic

finish.

The leader of the pack who was in the centre apparently com-

manded silence with two highpitched sharp barks: 72-47. Silence

fell. The two sharp barks were repeated and both the dogs on the

extreme flanks replied with three sharp barks: f#7z-yz-yz. The next

moment the leader in the centre made a feint at the boar and drew

him out for about a foot anda half. The boar tried to gore the

dog by a mighty upward sweep of his head, half turning to the left,

but missed him by half an inch. At the same moment the dog on

his right, at the end of the pack, leapt at his right flank that was

exposed for half a second. In his leap the dog bit the boar’s right

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ? 705

ear and, keeping a good grip on it, slung his whole body across the

boar’s neck. Next moment the three dogs in the centre got busy,

going for him zz turns and never giving him a chance of getting at

the dog across his neck; the moment his left flank was exposed,

the fifth dog on his extreme left, sneaked in like lightning between

the root buttress and the boar that had been enticed out partly, got

behind him, snapped at and made one mouthful of the boar’s testi-

cles and was out at the other side like a flash. Twenty seconds

later that boar was lying on his back with throat and belly ripped

open and yards of intestines all over the place; the fight was over

and none of the dogs had been seriously injured.

It was beautiful teamwork and the signals given had been as

‘clear as bugle-calls and showed perfect understanding between the

five dogs. The natives said that near the finish of the preliminary

baiting the dogs always were in the same formation and that it

always was the same dog on the extreme right that went for the

boar’s right ear and slung himself across the boar’s neck and always

the same dog on the extreme left that went for the boar’s testicles.

The leader was said always to keep on feinting at the boar until

the latter exposed his right flank sufficiently to give the dog on his

right a chance to leap. I have never heard of any other pack of

hunting dogs that operated in this way and it may have been unique,

but I do not think so, for these dogs had worked out these tactics by

themselves and had a strong strain of wild dog. They were all

from the same bitch, but of two successive litters ; father or fathers

unknown.

That particular boar weighed nearly 260 pounds without the

viscera torn out by the dogs and after great loss of blood; it was a

healthy beast with a healthy skin and fairly large tusks that did not

as yet show any sign of decay.

KuaLa Lumpur, F.M.S. Tee de ele) ee

December 10, 1928.

[A reference to the statement to which allusion is made in the

first para of Mr. Rijk’s note, will show that the fact of wild dogs

occasionally emasculating their prey is not denied by Mr. Dunbar

Brander. He only seeks to maintain that the detachment of the

scrotum and testicles of a stag which sometimes takes place is due

rather to accident or circumstances than to deliberate design on the

part of the dogs. Eps.| .

XI.—WILD DOG AND BARKING DEER

When in camp in the West Swa Reserve, in the Yomas, 6 miles

or so beyond the last forest bungalow, I was talking ‘shop’ to my

assistant, Mr. D. P. Gréenep at about six o’clock. on, January

29; it was just getting dark when we heard an extraordinay cry,

evidently of an animal in pain, which was repeated. We couldn’t

decide where it came from—even thought it might be some one

calling a gyi with a leaf, or a split bamboo. In five minutes

Mr. Greenep’s boy ran in from his camp, about 50 yards above.

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

mine, to say that a gyi (Barking deer) had been killed by a tiger, and

two of them had driven it off, and got the gyi. This had happened

50 yards above his camp, in the stream. My wife and the two of us

went to investigate: the gyi was dead and stiff, with as far as

we could see only one wound, a fang hole on the inside of one

of her hind legs. We went to look at the tracks, and as we got

into the stream, a spaniel with us got very angry, barking with

his hackles well up, and looking at a spot up stream, on the opposite

bank. We could see nothing, but when we went on a bit, the

tracks shewed that the gyi followed by a wild dog had come down

to a pool about 2 ft. deep, along a ledge of rock, and had been

seized by the dog on the edge of the water, and knocked down.

The pair had apparently struggled across the pool, as we found the

place, on the opposite bank where the dog had tried to pull her up out

of the water. It was here the two boys had seen her, and after

driving off the dog with stones, caught her just before she died,

chiefly of fright as far as I can see.

Tracks of wild dogs I had seen myself in the stream and one

of my foresters reported that he had met four on a ridge, but as far

as the tracks shewed, only one dog was after the gyi, though

others may have been ‘cutting corners’. He must have been

either very keen on the hunt, or very fearless to follow the gyi

to within 100 yds. of acamp containing the usual dozen or so fires,

and some 30 to 40 men, to say nothing of 6 elephants who were

being washed down below.

The dog tracks were not very clear, and there was some doubt as

to whether they were those of a dog or a very small leopard. I

haven’t very much doubt about the one clear track myself, as it

shewed claw marks, though it was in mud just where the gyi was

first seized. But the spaniel always cowers for a leopard instead of

which he was obviously angry, and started to run in; a leopard,

however small, would have left claw marks, as well as those of his

teeth, and the boys say the beast that went off was red, though they

couldn’t see it clearly, being more engrossed in securing a free

meal than in accurate observation.

Camp, NATSEBAUK

TOUNGOO, BURMA. J. M. D. MACKENZIE, 1.F.s,

January 30, 1929.

XII.—BISON EATING BARK

I am sending you herewith a photograph of a tree, Holarrhena

antidysenterica (Burmese name Leffok ), showing the fresh tooth-

marks of bison. I should be interested to know if it is a common

habit of bison to eat the bark of this tree. The photograph was

taken by me in the Pidaung Game Sanctuary on June 14, 1928,

a few minutes after the bark had been eaten, as the herd had

been tracked by me to a salt lick and then back from the salt lick

on a parallel line and I came on it about 200 yards from where

the photograph was taken.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 707

Unfortunately they happened to be in thick jungle when I

came on them and they went off down wind across the open

plain andI could not get near enough for a photograph. There

were 60 or 70 of them, three herds combined together.

MYITKYINA, G. H. OGILVIE,

Camp Maymyo, Deputy Conservator of Forests.

October, 8, 1928.

[We understand from Mr. R.C. Morris that the bark of

Wendlandia notontana, Wall. is also largely eaten by Bison in

Mysore. We regret the photograph will not reproduce. EDps.]

XIII.—‘ AN ELEPHANT WITH EXTRAORDINARY GLANDS’

Patholcgical Report a the Condition

Mr. W. S. Millard, of Tunbridge Wells, to whom a portion of

the extraordinary gland of the elephant was sent (vide Bombay

Nat. His. Soc. Journal, vol. xxxii, 1928, No. 4, pp. 792-793) kindly

sent this on to me to see if I could have a section cut of it. The piece

of tissue sent measured 2 inches in length, by 1 inch in breadth, and

had dried up into a hard, horny mass. So hard had this become

that it was only possible to remove a portion of it by sawing it

off. Dr. Newham, whom I consulted on the matter, suggested we

might try softening it with caustic soda. This was done and as

the piece then was sufficiently pliable, it was carried through

the ordinary alcohols, xylol, etc., and embedded in paraffin.

Sections were then cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin

and considering the condition of the tissue on arrival, were

extraordinarily good.

They showed that the tissue was not glandular as supposed

by Mr. Laurie, but consisted of ordinary fibrous tissue with very few

cells present. The tumours then, are typical fibromata, very

similar in structure to those seen in man and in other animals.

G. CARMICHAEL LOW, .D., F.R.C.P.

86, BROOK STREET,

GROSVENOR SQUARE,

Lonpon, W. 1.

November 21, 1928.

XIV.—A JUNGLE TRAGEDY

Seguel to a tight between two wild bull Elephants.

While camping at Karupanthode (Reserve forests, Central

Travancore) news was brought to us by the hill-men (Kuravas)

that some ten miles away in the interior of the reserve there had

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiI1

been a furious fight beetween two tuskers as the resuit of which

one was killed. In an instant we were ready and ran to the spot.

As we approached within a mile of the place where the dead

elephant lay, signs of the death struggle between these monsters

of the forest were evident. The shrubs and the bamboo clusters’

were all trodden down flat on the ground and splintered. A little

further on there was evidence of aseverer struggle. The ground

was still moist and the earth was powdered to clay and mire. As

we proceeded we came across three or four more of such arenas

that bore the marks of a severe struggle. It would seem that in

the affray, one was losing and was attempting to escape: but the

other following up closely, hard struggles ensued and that these

places marked the scenes of such engagements.

The last arena was really dreadful. There was evidence to show

that the vanquished had been brought low to the ground and had

been actually dragged along the miry soil a considerable distance.

The victor does not seem to have relented: it is quite likely that

it was at this time that he pierced the body of his antagonist by his

iusks in a number of places—scattered all over the body. This was

on a slight precipice and below went merrily babbling along

amongst the stones and pebbles a little brook, one of the tributa-

ries of the river Achankovil. Into this stream the disabled body of

the vanquished monster was hurled probably by his bitter anta-

gonist. There he lay, as we saw him, an awful spectacle, his body

partly washed by the swift-flowing current, partly resting on the

banks of the stream. The body was covered by no less than 50 tusk

thrusts—all huge gaping wounds that made one think of an old torn

up pin-cushion! One of these cruel thrusts piercing ona side of

the abdomen, brought out a fewcoils of the small intestine safely

held together in its mesenteric fold.

Examining the wounds we were struck to find that there were a

few marks that evidently were quite recent. The hill-men assured

us that these fresh wounds were made by the original antagonist

and victor, who, his bitterness not in the least appeased by the

death of his enemy, would still be paying every night visits to

the dead body and venting his malice by piercing the corpse again

and again. ‘Their version probably has a bit of coloring: for, they

also told us that these nightly visits would continue till the body is

all decomposed and the skeleton stands alone bleached in the sun and

wind, and that then the victor would scatter the bones about and

trample on them—the last act of triumph, the closing scene in the

story of a long-cherished hatred and bitterness, a vengeance that

ceases not till the last trace of the foe is wiped off the face

of the earth!

A. P. MATHEW, B.a.,

Lecturer in Biology.

WOMEN’S COLLEGE, TRIVANDRUM,

February 15, 1929

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 709

XV.—THE RACKET-FEATHERS OF

DISSEUMURGS PARADISEEGS:

(With a photo.)

In 1862 Jerdon described accurately the structure of the ‘ rackets’

in the outermost tail feathers of the Racket-tailed Drongo, though

itis unfortunate that at first sight his description should appear

somewhat confusing. He wrote: ‘... the shaft having the terminal

end, for about 34 inches, barbed externally, but towards the tip only

on the inner side, and turning inwards, so that the under side becomes

uppermost.’

TAIL OF AN IMMATURE D.d. malabaricus FROM TRAVANCORE.

Coming later, in 1877, Sharpe (Catalogue of Birds in the British

Museum, vol. ili, p. 259) omits to mention whether the spatula 1s

produced by the outer or the inner web of the vane.

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

On page 325, vol. i of the Fauna (Ist edn.), Oates writes:‘...

the terminal portion of which (the lateral tail-feathers) is Benned on

the outside for a distance of about four inches and twisted upwards.

The web on the inner side of the shaft is very narrow.’ .

Stuart Baker perpetuates Oates’ misleading statement in the

second edition of the Fauna (vol. ii, p. 376) by saying‘... having

the rackets of the long outer tail feathers webbed broadly on the

outer side but only very narrowly on the inner.’

More recently still, Mr. H. Whistler on page 315, vol. xxxiii,

(No. 2) of this Journal, in the course of his paper on ‘ The Study of

Indian Birds’ follows his predecesors and says: In Dzssemurus the

racket is composed of the outer web of the feather, the inner web

being absent except for just sufficient at the end to emphasize a

twist of the racket ....’ To make his meaning clearer, Mr. Whistler

has illustrated the tail of Dzssemurus paradiseus which shows per-

fectly the condition he has described !

In matters of this nature it is obviously customary for one writer

to follow another unquestioningly and seldom to stop and examine

things for himself. As it is not every amateur who is fortunate

enough to have a series before him for comparison, it is desirable

that this oft-repeated fallacy should now be finally disposed of.

I have carefully examined all the skins in the Society’s collection

besides many others, and find that the racket at the end of the

outermost elongated tail feathers is of formed by the outer web of

the vane at a]l as stated by the recent writers quoted above, but by

the zzzer web as recorded by Jerdon undoubtedly as a result of

personal investigation.

The appearance of the racket being composed of the outer web

is due to a twist in the rachis just above the spatula which in many

cases is practically imperceptible unless the main-shaft be followed

right down its length with the aid of a pocket lens.

I reproduce a photograph of a rather unusual specimen in our

collection where the rachis is not completely bare along its middle

length, but retains the barbs on the inner web, which, as will be

seen, expands lower down into the spatula. . This was the specimen

that led me to examine the others and to verify that the racket

actually owes its existence to the zzzer and not to the outer web.

BomsBay Nat. Hist. Socrgery. SALIM Ac ALI.

6, APOLLO STREET,

March 12, 1929.

XVL—A NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF THE

TAILOR-BIRD (ORTHOTOMUS SUTORIUS)

Several descriptions of the operations of Tailor-Birds in con-

structing their nests have been published, but, as they all differ

in some small details from my own observations last summer

I venture to think that those observations may possibly be of

interest.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 711

The nest in question was constructed in the leaves of a croton

in a pot on the top step leading to the front verandah of my

bungalow. It was placed on the side of the plant next to the steps,

so that everyone entering or leaving the bungalow had to pass

within a foot or two of it, besides which my dog was in the habit of

lying exactly under the nest, which was then less than three feet

from her head.

The following observations are copied direct from my diary :—

June 8, 1928. A pair of Tailor-Birds have begun a nest on the

verandah in acroton. About three stitches have been put in, and

several holes bored for more.

June 9. Tailor-Birds very busy. Male seems to do most of

the work. The sewing of the leaves together seems to be almost

complete. Material used for thread seems mostly to be obtained

from spiders’ seed-bags. A little material for the actual nest has

been placed in position. Raw cotton placed about six feet from the

nest entirely ignored. Heavy rain from about 4.30 p.m. to 6.30 p.m.,

during which no work was done on nest.

June 10. Cock working hard on nest all morning : both of them

in the evening. A few more stitches put in, but most of the work

consisted of carrying white down.

June 11. Both Tailor-Birds working. Nest appeared to be

nearly finished when I left for Mount Abu in the afternoon.

June 20. ‘The Tailor-Bird was sitting on her eggs for the first

time about 5.30 p.m.

June 29. The Sun-bird and Tailor-Bird are still sitting. The

latter frequently leaves the nest during the day for fairly long

periods. She seems to try hard not to be seen leaving it, but is

less particular about returning. She flies to the foot of the plant

and climbs up to the nest hidden by the leaves. She always returns

to the nest if rain begins to fall.

6.45 p.m. Two of the Tailor-Birds hatched.

June 30. Both Tailor-Birds feeding the young, female seems

to come oftener than male.

July 2to 7. Out of the station.

July 8. The young Tailor-Birds are now well grown, five in

number. Both parents feed them and take their share in the sanita-

tion of the nest. The hen is the bolder of the two in approaching

the nest under observation. The cock draws considerable attention

to himself in approaching the nest with food by calling loudly.

The hen comes in silence. Both perch on the pot and hop from

leaf to leaf till they enter the nest, and both fly away direct on

leaving it. They seem to find much of the food in the pots on the

back verandah, and frequently take a short cut to it through the

bungalow.

July 9. Young Tailor-Birds began to leave nest at 4.30 p.m.,

some of them breaking away a few stitches at the back of the nest,

and coming out that way. Two only were left inthe nest at 5.0 p.m.,

when I went out, and only one at 7.30 p.m., when I returned.

July 10. One Tailor-Bird chick was in the nest at 10.0 p.m.

last night, but has left since, and none of the family seem to be

about to-day.

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

July 11. Whole Tailor-Bird family feeding in the garden at

8.45 a.m. 7

July 13. Tailor-Bird family feeding in the garden. Impossi-

ble to count the young, as they are constantly slipping in and out

of the bushes. Cater in the day the old birds hung round the nest

a little, and the cock entered it.

July 14. Tailor-Bird family still about.

- July 15. An adult Tailor-Bird again entered the nest to-day.

July 18. In the evening the young Tailor-Birds were in the

garden.

July 19. Young and old Tailor-Birds in the bushes.

July 24. Young Tailor-Birds still being fed by their parents

in the garden.

After this date the young were not again seen, though the old

birds continued to live in the garden. On September 4 they were

feeding another brood of young in a bed of Sunflowers. The

young birds had evidently only just left the nest.

Mnow, Rry,.F.S: BRIGGS.

CENTRAL INDIA.

XVII..—A STRANGE PET

(With a phote)

The photograph is of ‘ Suleiman’ a cheerful young hoopoe, who

accompanied me for over a month during my trip to Gilgit and the

Karakoram.

i ox

a He was dug out from a

| cairn, but not without a

stout struggle, much hiss-

ings and swayings of his

_ head. (This behaviour I

have noticed is a peculiarity

of the hoopoes and is

strangely reminiscent of

the cobra.)

Two days of voluntary

starvationbrought Suleiman

to his senses—and me to

mine—for waddling up

under cover of the table he

drove his long bill through

agapin my slipper tinder

my big toe nail and emitted

a doleful ‘ cheep’.

Thereafter we became

friends and Suleiman had

his hard-boiled eggs every

day though he would not eat the yolk, no matter how hungry

he was.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 713

Difficulties arose as to his mode de conveyance when we began

our trek, and the only device I found beneficial to him was to perch

him on my hat. As he grew older he rather wearied of this and

broke the monotony of a long march by taking short flights, but

always returning to his ‘ perch’. He had his own travelling basket

which he detested, and the greatest penalty for keeping his‘ perch’

waiting was a good shaking up in the basket.

As we moved into the higher altitudes our bond of friendship

became stouter. Suleiman would snuggle into my coat in the

day—while I sat skinning—and persisted in wanting to share my bed

at nights. The temperature then hovered just over zero and after

a night of snow storms, followed a blizzard, I missed the cheerful

‘cheep’ and a long bill probing into my ear-hole. This was

Suleiman’s method of waking me up to snuggle under the flaps

of my furry head gear.

V.S. LA PERSONNE.

BomBay NATURAL History SOCIETY,

6, APOLLO STREET,

January 8, 1929,

XVIII.—THE STORK-BILLED KINGFISHER (RAMPHAL-

CYON CAPENSIS GURIAL) EATING BIRDS

Can you or any of your correspondents kindly tell me if Ram-

phalcyon capensis gurial—the Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher,

is known to eat other birds? This morning I saw this bird sitting

on the branch of a tree near a stream above a cane-brake, greedily

eating what I think, by what I could see of it, was a red-vented

bulbul. As the meal was already begun when I first saw the

Kingfisher, I do not know if it was a freshly killed bird or not. I

shall be most grateful for information about this.

DANTI FOREST BUNGALOW, (MISS) SARAH WYATT.

HULDWANI DIVISION,

January 12, 1929.

[ The partiality of kingfishers for food very different from what

their name would imply, is well-known. Field mice, lizards, frogs,

insects and crabs are freely devoured at all times. Esa observed

that a Halcyon smyrnensts swallowed small birds when kept in an

aviary, and Stuart Baker has seen a stork-billed kingfisher take

a young myna from its nest and devour it. All available evidence

therefore goes to show that several members of this family are

possibly addicted to help themselves to young birds whenever they

can conveniently come by them. EDps.]

714. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

XIX.—MIGRATION OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO

(CLAMATOR JACOBINUS)

In view of the article on the ‘ Migration of the Pied Crested

Cuckoo’ in a recent number of the Society’s Journal, it may be of

interest to record that this bird is common in the open scrubby

plains round Penipatam in Mysore State, some forty miles west of

Mysore City, near the Coorg boundary. Ihave only noticed it in

the last few months, as I only visit the locality occasionally, but

I believe it is a permanent resident there. It does not occur

through the greater part of Coorg as the country is well watered

and thickly wooded, there being but little of the bare open scrub

land that it appears to prefer.

YEMMI GOONDI, POLLIBETTA, | F. -N. BETTS.

S. Coorc.

November 18, 1928.

XX.—DISTRIBUTION OF THE BROWN SHRIKE

(LANIOS CRISTATOS, CGRISTALEGS)

Can you tell me if the Brown Shrike, Lazzus cristatus cristatus,

is a visitor to Southern India? A shrike that appears to corres-

pond exactly to the description of this bird in Stuart Baker’s

Fauna of British India, is one of the commonest cold weather

visitors here. The Fauna only says however: ‘In winter it is

found practically throughout Northern India as far south as Mount

Abu on the west and Orissa on the east.’ According to Waite

(Birds of Ceylon) it is a common North-east Monsoon migrant

to Ceylon and I have frequently seen it near Newara Eliya in that

island at an elevation of 6,000 ft.

S. Coorc. FUN. BETTS:

November 18, 1928.

[Stuart Baker has obviously overlooked the distribution of this

species in South India. In the first edition of the Fauna, Oates

gives it as ‘a winter visitor to the whole of the Empire except

that portion lying to the west of a line roughly drawn from the

Sutlej Valley to Mt. Abu; Ceylon; the Andamans.’ — According

to H.S. Ferguson (The Birds of Travancore, Bi V..A. Sa ven7

vol. i.) this shrike is quite common in that area between

September and April. Eps.]

XX—A HAWK INCIDENT

One afternoon at about 3p.m. a hawk entered my chicken-run

and caught one of my chickens. The alarm was at once given by

the rest of the chickens and, proceeding to investigate, I saw the

hawk with the chicken. As soon as the hawk spotted me it tried

to escape, and I was extremely surprised at seeing it unable to rise

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 715

off the ground. One of my servants rushed up to the bird and

clubbed it with a stick. On examination I found the hawk’s talons

so deeply imbedded in the spines of the chicken that it was unable

to free itself. For this reason, I presume, it was unable to rise.

The incident struck me as being rather strange, as the hawk was a

huge bird and in extremely good condition, weighing 6% Ib.,

whereas the chicken was only 14 Ib.

I should like to hear of a reason for the hawk’s inability to

rise.

BurMA MILITARY POLICE, L. E. MacGREGOR,

MYITKYINA, UPPER BURMA. Captain.

XXII.—NOTES ON WOODCOCK NEAR RANGOON

There having been a certain amount of interest shown in wood-

cock, as evidenced by the various articles in your Journal as well

as in the local Press, a few observations may be of interest to some

-of your readers. The woodcock near Rangoon is by no means the

vara avis some people imagine; on certain grounds within forty-

miles from Rangoon they can be found regularly, as the following

may illustrate: Ground ‘A’ is a swamp surrounded by low

scrub jungle and paddy fields; the swamp dries up completely in

March. I visited this ground in all six times last year, and failed

only on one occasion in getting woodcock ; in all ten woodcock

were bagged here, and one more was seen. Ground ‘B’ is also

low scrub jungle, quite close to the Forest Reserve, with an inter-

vening narrow stretch of grazing ground, which at this time of the

year is already quite dry. Here my beaters have seen regularly a

woodcock in a certain beat, but I did not get a shot at it until early

December ; since then, with the accustomed regularity in which one

woodcock takes up the residence of his defunct brother, I have seen

another in this beat, but we were unable to get a shot at it. About

a mile away from this beat I missed a woodcock last year. A few

days ago I saw one (? 2) woodcock in a beat along a narrow

almost dried up streamlet, over-grown with scrub jungle, and

flanked by paddy fields. Ona similar ground a few miles away a

few years ago woodcock were shot, but none appear to have been

seen lately. One or two woodcock were shot even nearer to

Rangoon, about thirty miles away, in a little bit of swampy low

jungle. All woodcock were shot in Junglefowl beats, with beaters

and not with dogs. There can be very little doubt, that woodcock

will be found on a number of grounds near Rangoon, provided

there is a swamp, and some low scrub jungle.

It seems a puzzle on what woodcock feed during February (the

season closes end of February) and later as there is not a drop of

water then on the above described grounds, and the soil is as hard

asabrick. As the birds shot during February are in prime condi-

tion, I should be glad if any of your readers can offer any informa-

tion as to what these birds exist upon in the dry weather.

RANGOON, E. O. BLOECH.

January 2, 1929.

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXi11

XXIII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BAR-TAILED GODWIT

(LIMOSA LAPPONTICA LAPPON TCA) ANS ASE VE,

(BOMBAY SUBURBAN DISTRICT)

While going through the Society’s collection of birds obtained in

Bombay and its immediate environs, I came upon an unnamed

specimen which is undoubtedly the Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa

lapponica lapponica). The bird which is unsexed was shot by Lieut.

Tebbutt at Bhayandar creek, about 20 miles to the north of Bom-

bay city. The measuremernits are as follows :—

Bill 82°5 mm. ; Tarsus 49 mm.; Wing 210 mm.

As Bombay is far too south of its hitherto known range in the

Indian Empire, I consider the occurrence worth recording.

SALIM 2A. Ace

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

6 APOLLO STREET,

March 14, 1929.

XXIVI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE

(ANSER ALBIFRONS ALBIFRONS) IN THE

UNITED PROVINCES

I was shooting with a small party about 20 miles from here on

November 15. The bag included two geese, one bar-headed and one

young white-fronted goose. On reading Stuart Baker’s book I see

that the latter goose is rarely if ever found east of the Punjab. I

thought perhaps the incident was worthy of note.

THE ROYAL IRISH FUSILIERS, M. J. W. O DONOVAN,

AGRA. Captain.

November 22, 1928.

[Unfortunately Capt. O’Donovan was unable to let us have any

portion of the skin for confirmation, but from the size of the bird

and the general description in Stuart Baker’s book he is convinced

as to its identity. Eps.] |

XXV.—POCHARD PERCHING ON A TREE

Last December I was out shooting duck in the lake at Rahalia

about 21 miles from the Railway Station of Mohoba in the Central

Provinces and was surprised to find a White-eyed Pochatd sitting on

a tree tlose to the bathing ghat. Thebird was not wounded, nor was

he one that had been flushed, as I had not started shooting. As I

have never known this duck to perch on a tree I write this note.

QUETTA, BALUCHISTAN, A. BAYLEY-pE CASTRO,

February 20, 1929. Lieuts, PART:

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 717

XXVI.—THE KISSING HABIT AMONG BIRDS AND

ANIMALS

‘ , . every power in nature seems

To teach us how to love and kiss.’

Victor Alugo.

Kissing is a habit that is common among animals, although

Voltaire stated that to man alone among animals are known the

embrace and the joy of the kiss. Ludgwig Hopf (The Human

Species) notes that kissing as a sign of affection is not entirely

peculiar to man. ‘Many animals,’ he says, ‘appear to kiss one

another. Dogs, and less often cats, lick with their tongues other

dogs and men upon whom they have bestowed their affection.’

Licking with the tongue or merely touching the lips as a sign of

affection is common amongst mammals. Animals have the maternal

impulse to kiss the young by licking them.

It is obvious that the kiss among many animals is an olfactory

one. ‘ Licking the hand, or, where itis accessible, the face, is a

common display of attachment on a dog’s part’; writes Spencer,

‘and when we remember how keen must be the olfactory sense by

which a dog traces his master, we cannot doubt that to his gustatory

sense, too, there is yielded some impression associated with those

pleasures of affection which his master’s presence gives.’

The caressing of the antennze practised by snails and various

insects during sexual intercourse is of the nature of a kiss. Hurstcot

says: ‘ The human love embrace is an advance on that of the beast ;

but the principle of physcial contact is equally common to human

and animal embraces.’!. ‘The billing and cooing of birds during

their love season is undoubtedly a form of caress, as is also their

nibbling at and preening of each other. Birds use their bills for a

kind of caress and the cataglottism of pigeons are typical. ‘You

would think,’ writes Charles Buxton, ‘if our lips were made of

horn and stuck out a foot or two from our faces, kisses at any rate

would be done for. Notso. No creatures kiss each other as much

as birds.’ Catullus stated that the dove is said to surpass al! others

in the indefatigable ardour of its billing kisses. And Thomas

Campion wrote :—

‘ The Dove alone expresses

Her fervencie in kisses,

Of all most loving.’

Edmund Selous says that the female sea-gull looks fondly up at

the male, and ‘ raising her bill to his, as though beseeching a kiss,

just touches with it, in raising, the feathers of the throat—an action

light, but full of endearment. Among the higher animals, such as

the bear and the dog, there is a development, which seems to lead

up to those forms of the act most prevalent among the lower races

of man and also characteristic of the peoples of Eastern Asia. Far

more similar, however, to the civilized human kiss is the habit

attested for cats of pressing or squeezing one another’s nose.

1 Love Ethics, John Hurstcot.

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Darwin cites the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older

animals than those generally imported into England. ‘ They sat

opposite, touching each other with their much protruded lips; and

the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other. They then

mutually folded each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood

up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, and yelled with

delight.!’

The fact that the kissing habit is so common among animals has

given rise to the belief that it is instinctive in human beings. Even

in those countries where the kiss, as we understand it, is unknown,

mothers have been observed to fondle their infants with their lips,

and this maternal caress certainly does appear to be instinctive both

in animals and human beings.

C/o Messrs. GRINDLAY & A. E. MAHON, D.s.o.,

Co., Lrp., BoMBAY. Colonel.

XXVII.—DIFFERENT BIRDS NESTING IN COMPANY

The following note on the nidification of the Indian Red Turtle

Dove (4nopopelia tranquebarica) may be of interest. In the com-

pound there is a ‘Nimb Tree’ (JZelia indica) about 30 feet high on

which a King Crow, or common drongo, has a nest of young ones;

and on the same tree under the King Crow’s protection no less than

seven Red Turtle Doves are seated on eggs.

BHANDARA, C. P. W. A. TUCKER.

May 18, 1928. Deputy Commitsstoner.

[A number of notes have appeared in the Journal on the same

subject before. We would refer readers to one by Mr. G. O. Allen,

I.C.S. (vol. xxvi, p. 1044) and another by Mr. H. W. Waite

(vol. xxvii, p. 171).

In all the instances cited, there has been one Drongo’s nest in the

trees tenanted by doves, green pigeons and bulbuls, and it may well

be that the presence of this indomitable buily serves to keep would-

be intruders at a respectful distance. Eps.]

XXVIII.—BIRD MOVEMENTS IN COORG

I append the dates of arrival of some winter migrants in this

district, which may be of interest :—

August 31, 1928.—Grey Wagtail ;

Sebtember Uh 1928.—Brown Shrike ; ;

September 30, 1928.—Green Sandpiper, Eastern Swallow ;

October 15, 1928.—Indian Pitta ;

October 16, 1928.—Forest Wagtail :

~ October 27, 1928.—Blue-headed Rock Thrush ;

November 4, 1928.—Pale Harrier.

1 Charles Darwin, ‘ The Expression of the Emotions.’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 719

The following are local migrants which only spend the cold

weather in this district of Coorg but appear to be permanent resi-

dents in the dry Mysore plains:

October 10.—Common Bee-eater ;

October 25.—Indian Oriole.

The Indian Pitta and the Chesnut-headed Bee-eater appear to be

birds of passage, as they are very common for a few days in the

spring and again in the autumn but are never to be seen at any

other times.

S. Coorc.

November 18, 1928.

F, N, BETTS,

XXIX—MIGRATION OF WILDFOWL

Since the publication of the last number of the Journal, the

following recoveries of ringed birds have been reported to us.

In future we propose to tabulate all such reports from time to

time in the Society’s Journal.

All comments on the results will be reserved until a sufficiency

of data has accumulated in this manner, except only by way of

explanation where considered desirable :—

: | Date

Rea No.| Date Species Bee | of Re- | Locality | Remarks

| covery

Dhar hi Feb, Pintail Lise a 29- 5-27 | River Captured

State '26| (Dafila| Late Tira left; bya

acuta) | Maharaja branch native.

of Tiga

(a tribu-

tary of

Chatan-

ga,

(Middle

Tung-

uska)

Siberia.

Dhar 43 Feb Wigeon Do. 15- 8-28} 45k.m.S | The bird

State | 26 | (Mareca of Tara,, wasin

penelope) lying N.| moult

of Omsk| and

on River| could

Irtysh not fly.

| 50° 44’

N, 74°

ee Dy

Dhar ?| Feb. | Pochard Do. 28-12-28 | One of Shot by

State 726 (Nyroca the Col.

ferina) tanksin| Daven-

Dhar port.

| | State

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Place of | ps Date

Ringing | No.| Date | Species Bees of Re Locality | Remarks

5 covery

Jhajja, 2182 | Dec. Common | Bahawal-|12- 2-29} Tochi Shot after

Bahawal- TZ Zoe. Wear pur (Gambi-| 71 days

pur State (Querqu-| Durbar la) about

dula River, 260

crecca) g near miles

Bannu, NNW.

N.W.F.

P. circa

322N.

jata7 1

K. long.

Rajghat, 469| Apr. Jarganey| A. C. 1l- 4-29 | Jhandola,

Bettiah, 1,’29| Teal Harman Muzaft-

Champ- Quer- arpur

ran (B gudula District

& O) circta & (Bihar &

Orissa)

Sujawal, | 1803) Feb. Pintail Meherally|25- 2-29 | Thain

Sind O29\ A Anoesd Sshak Dhund,

acuta) | Buk- Sujawal

hari Sind

Sujawal, | 1820| Fek- White- Do. 23- 2-29 | Near

Sind 9, 29) eyed Sujawal

Pochard (Sind)

(Wyroca

ruta)

Kashgar | 2952) Jan. Mallard | Capt. G. |24- 1-29| A few Caught

(Chinese 17, ’29| (Anas Sherriff, miles by

‘Turkes- platy- RAG from trained

tan) | rhyncha)g Kashgar) falcon

Jhajjd, 2111; Dec. | Red- Bahawal-|6- 3- 29| On a lake Circa 580

Bahawal- Hl, 728) crested’) spur near | miles

pur State Pochard| Durbar River NNW.

( Netta Amu of

rutina)? Daria Baha-

(Russian) walpur

Turkes-

tan) 375%

212 Ne

lat 66°

20’ E.

long

No. 3 is a very interesting record.

The bird was recovered not

far from where it was ringed almost three years previously, during

which time three journeys to its breeding haunts and three back

again are indicated !

One of the objects of our Ringing Scheme, it will be recalled, is

to ascertain whether migrants return from the same breeding

haunts to the same winter quarters year after year.

BomMBAY NatuRAL History SOCIETY,

6, APOLLO STREET.

Mareh 12, 1929.

EDITORS.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 721

XXX.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MUGGER

I should be glad if any reader of this Journal can tell me of an

authentic record of the ‘ Mugger’ (Crocodylus palustris) in Burma.

Its distribution, as given by Boulenger in his Fauna of British India

is India, Ceylon, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago.

This as I showed in 1919 (Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam, iii, p. 220)

was not correct. The freshwater crocodile of the Indo-Chinese

region as distinct from C. sorosus which is marine or estuarine

in its habits—is Cvocodylus stamensis, its range being through Siam,

French Indo-China and ? the northern part of the Malay Peninsula.

Annandale (Rec. Ind. Mus., viii, 1912, p. 38) has recorded the

‘Mugger’ from the Brahmaputra, Darrang district, Assam, but I

do not know of any specimen or statement to show that it exists

further east than this. If any reader can furnish one I should be

grateful. A specimen, or parts of one, a skull, a dried head or

a piece of the skin of the back, would serve for identification and

would, I am sure, be welcomed by the Society’s Museum.

LONDON, MALCOLM SMITH.

November, 1928.

XXXI—AN UNPLEASANT EXPERIENCE

WITH A PYTHON

When staying with a planter friend, Mr. Baker, who owns a cocoa

nut estate situated on the eastern shore of the Travancore back-

water, he mentioned that one of his coolies recently had an unplea-

sant experience with a python when wading in shallow water to catch

fish. ‘The fish here lie frequently in hollows and cavities in the mud

embankments and are caught by covering the entrance of a hole

with a net and then by driving the fish out with a stick. In this

particular instance the cooly, after adjusting his net, noticed some-

thing just under the surface of the water which in the dim light of

the cave appeared to be a large fish that would not respond to the

persuasion of his stick, he therefore thrust in his leg to investigate

and was at once seized by the occupant of the hole who turned out

to be anine-foot python. The snake firstly threw one coil round the

man’s thigh and subsequently in the struggle succeeded in getting

two more round his body raising its head and neck to the height

of the man’s shoulder. The terror stricken cooly seized the neck

of the snake and managed to hold it at arm’s length; then a violent

struggle ensued for the next two minutes or so between man and

snake. The cooly’s shouts were luckily heard by another estate man

who ran to his assistance. The rescuer was fortunately at the time

carrying a sharp sickle the blade of which he managed to insert be-

tween one of the python’s coils and the cooly’s body and succeeded

in cutting the snake intwo. This took time however, and when

freed from the severe constriction the cooly was found to be un-

conscious, but had not sustained any serious injury. He remained

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU4

however paralysed for about three months and then made a gradual

and steady recovery to complete health. Mr. Baker says that pythons

appear each year in considerable numbers on his estate during the

rainy season and depart at the end of the monsoon. During this

period they live almost exclusively on fish and rats which they

capture witbout difficulty in the swamps and pools which at this time

of the year contain fresh water. ;

The largest specimen that Mr. Baker has seen in these parts

measured 15 feet and was of a lightish blue-brown colour; he adds

that he welcomes these creatures on his estate as they are excellent

ratters and assist materially in keeping these pests of the cocoanut

tree under control.

I send this note chiefly to illustrate the extraordinary strength

of so small a python.

BANGALORE, R. W. KEAYS.

February 18, 1929.

XXXII.—A TRUE SNAKE STORY

At about 6 p.m. one evening one of my servants reported that he

had seen a snake enter a hole in a wall. I went out and looked at

the hole and could see the snake quite distinctly coiled up in it.

I got hold of a stick and sat over the hole and waited for the snake

to come out. Shortly afterwards the snake began to come out and

I clubbed it. I then pulled the snake, and when it was nearly out

I noticed that another snake was holding on to its tail. I continued

to pull and the other snake was hauled out and slain in the same

way as the first. On pulling out the second, a third was found

hanging on to its tailend. This was pulled out still hanging on

and slain. This seems a tall story, but the fact remains that three

banded kraits were slain by me, one after the other, each one

hanging on to the tail-end of the previous one.

L. E. MACGREGOR,

Burma MILITARY POLICE, Captain.

MVYITKYINA,

UPPER BURMA.

XXXITI.—A KRAIT (BUNGARUS C4RULEUS) WITH

DIVIDED SUB-CAUDALS

It may be of interest to record that I came across a very fine

specimen of a Krait (Bungarus ceruleus) with only the 10th and 11th

sub-caudals divided counting from the anal downwards. I take

it this is abnormal as I see no mention of it *n Col. Wall’s book or

in any of the other articles on snakes printed in the Society’s

journals.

PAKSEY, | P, MURPHY.

PaBNA DISTRICT,

BENGAL,

September 2, 1928.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 723

XXXIV.—RECOVERY FROM THE BITE OF A PHOORSA

(ECHIS CARINATA)

In vol. xxxii, No. 4, of the Bombay Natural History Society’s

Journal, | see an account of the recovery from the bite of a phoorsa,

in which there is some doubt whether any poison was injected when

the man was bitten. I can give an instance of complete recovery

within twelve hours and with no doubt whatever as to the injection

of poison from the fangs of the viper. Years ago my brother, the

late Mr. John Strip, Assistant Collector of Customs, Karachi, and I

were out after ibex and oorial inthe Pabb Hills about thirty miles

from Karachi, and early one morning, while returning from our

trip, one of our camelmen, as he was getting his camel to be

saddled, was bitten by a phoorsa on the foot. He had a stick in his

hand and killed the reptile bringing it to ourtent forus tosee. My

brother, who always catried ammonia and other medicines in his

shooting trips, promptly gave the man a stiff dose in water making

him move about briskly as he was beginning to feel drowsy, a sure

symptom of the effect of the poison. After that we had to doa

stage of twelve miles on our camels with the result that the jolting

of his camel prevented the poison having greater effect on the man.

We halted for a short time at Band Muradkhan and the man being

still a bit drowsy got another dose of ammonia. When we

reached Karachi in the evening he was all right and made a hearty

meal. He had quite recovered.

MEREWETHER ROAD, S. A. STRIP.

KARACHI,

October 31, 1928.

XXXV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE ‘SLIMY’ COECILIAN

ICHTHYVOPATS GLUTINOSUS, BOULENGER) IN

PANCHGANI

The Coecilians are worm-like and blind Amphibians which inhabit

damp situations and burrow in soft mud. In the Fauna of British

india, Boulenger describes three genera and five species of these

Batrachians.

In the collection of snakes, sent to me ‘for identification by the

Rev. E. Blatter, I came across a specimen of /chthyophis glutinosus.

It is interesting to note that this species has not been recorded so far

from Panchgani (Satara District) or its vicinity, in spite of the fact,

that its cousin—J/chthyophis monochrcus—has been recorded from

Malabar, Western Ghats, Surat and Khandalla. In the Fauna

Volume the range of /. glutinosus is given as ‘ mountains of Ceylon,

Malabar, Eastern Himalyas, Khasi Hills, Burma, Siam, Malay

Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java.’ I am much obliged to Col.

Sewell and Dr. Prashad for kindly informing me that a variety of

924 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Z. glutinosus, entitled ¢ricolor has been recorded from Travancore

and Cochin, but not the type species. From the above-mentioned

facts it becomes evident that the presence of /. glutinosus at Panch-

gani is worth recording.

BioLoGy DEPARTMENT, J. P. MULLAN.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BoMBAY,

October 21, 1928.

XXXVI.—DO FROGS EAT SNAKES?

Last year, while I was supervising the Intermediate class in their

Practical Work in Zoology, my attention was drawn by a student to

the much swollen stomach of a frog (Rana tigrina) dissected by

him. On cutting open the stomach, we found to our great surprise

a wolf-snake (Lycodon daulicus), one foot long. It was not much

affected by the gastric juice ; only at the neck, near the anus and at

three places in the mid-body disintegration had set in. The head

was intact, and there was no doubt about the species of the snake.

I could not definitely ascertain whether the frog had eaten it alive

or dead. These snakes, though menacing in attitude have a nervous

disposition and are much susceptible to injury. Once the frog held

its victim between its jaws, the latter might have made a few futile

efforts to bite at the slimy and smooth skin of the amphibian and

ultimately succumbed. Ofcourse, I do not regard this as sufficient

evidence to prove that the frog preyed upon a living snake; far

from it. I merely suggested that it is not unlikely. The more

probabie explanation seems to be that the snake was eaten, already

dead.

BENI CHARAN MAHENDRA, M.sc.,

St. JOHN’S COLLEGE, Lecturer on Zoology.

AGRA,

November 29, 1928.

[Snakes do not infrequently figure on the menu of the Bull Frog

(Rana tigrina). On page 500, vol. ix of the Journal Mr. E. H. Aitken

records seeing one in the act of swallowing a snake, while

Mr. Sundara Raj mentions a specimen sent to the Madras Museum

from Travancore which had swallowed over three-quarters of the

length of a young Rat Snake (Ptyas mucosus) measuring 34} inches.

The Bull Frog’s dietary is extremely comprehensive and few

living things that can be easily overcome are passed by. We

have records of its swallowing alive garden lizards (Ca/ofes), a toad,

chickens, a wounded snipe, sparrows, a pitta, mole crickets, scarab

beetles and the cocoon of a psychid moth made of sharp babool

spines, with larva inside.

D. Gostling (vol x, p. 151) removed 3 Guinea-fow]l chicks

(about a week old) from the stomach of a Bull Frog that had

become.a menace to his poultry yard, and on another occasion a

dead individual on being cut open was found to have swallowed a

scorpion, the obvious cause of his demise.

The Emperor Akbar trained Bull Frogs to capture sparrows. Eps. ]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — ey’ 795

XXXVIL—ANIMAL BAROMETERS

Yellow frogs are the males of Rana tzgrina, the largest of Indian

frogs, which invariably make their appearance on some spot of

ground converted into a quagmire of shallow pools of water after a

heavy fall of rain. Here in Bombay a piece of waste land in a

congested part of Mazagon was converted into a series of shallow

pools littered with heaps of old disused bricks, and in the early

morning hours of June 12, after a night of heavy rain, great yellow

frogs were observed bellowing and baying and leaping about in the

slushy pools of mire and water impelled by that universal cherchez

la femme instinct implanted in the bosoms of frogs, beasts, and

humans to show off before the fair sex. There were about ten

‘he’s’ to every ‘she’ and the competition for partners amongst

the ‘he’ bull frogs was consequently rather keen. ‘The females

were of a uniform muddy brown colour, harmonizing in tint with the

muddy bricks and clods of earth submerged in pools of dirty rain

water and surrounded at times by three or four gaudy coloured

males in their liveries of flunkey yellow who appeared to be bawling

at the top of their voices a refrain which suggested the lines from

the famous play of Aristophanes which will bear repetition if only

for its onomatopoetic and nonsensical jingie :

‘We've aright’

‘And we croak at ye for spite ’

‘We've aright’

‘We've aright ’

‘Day and night’

‘ Night and day ’.

‘ Still to creak and croak away ’

‘ We proceed as we began’

Kooash ! Kooash.

There is nothing mysterious about the sudden appearance in

great numbers of these bull frogs at the onset of the rains, who

during the dry hot months remain hidden away under broken bits

of masonry and in the recesses of cool cisterns and drains under-

going a sexual colour change from dark or brownish-green to the

deep canary yellow assumed by the males when they burst forth in

all their splendour at the breaking of the rains. The yellow nuptial

dress rapidly fades to the usual normal tint with the exception

perhaps of a faint yellow line traced along the back from the

posterior to the front indicative of the sex of a batrachian reveller

who bellowed his loudest on some dark morning at the onset of the

monsoons. The frogs are in fact animal barometers as on the same

piece of ground already referred to they appeared on June 16, 1927,

the date of the bursting of the monsoon that year in Bombay

that is four days later than 1928 (June 12). One of the male frogs

it was observed had not assumed his full nuptial garb of flunky

yellow but was in a transition state. The monsoon was a bit too

early for him! It had no effect however on his voice as he

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

bellowed as loudly as the other masculine suitors, relying perhaps

on his vocal powers. These great bull frogs are very voracious.

On one occasion a large frog was seen to leap out of a cistern and

seize by the head a small duckling which was rescued with difficulty

from the predatory maw of the batrachian.

THE STRANGER’S HOME, H. JOUGUEBT:

MAZAGON,

BomBAY.

XXXVIIL—MIGRATION OF BUTTERFLIES

With reference to your enquiry regarding migratory flights of

Indian butterflies, I have repeatedly seen large flizhts of Catopsilia

pomona in Kumaon. These appear to be of two different natures,

as follows :—

(a) In more or less of a herd.

(6) In single file.

In the former, which I have seen at different times of the day and,

on one occasion, as late as 6 p.m., the formation is irregular, eleva-

tion from 30 to 100 feet and the speed comparatively slow, whereas

in the latter the flight is characterized by great rapidity and purpose-

fulness and, as far as I have seen, is always at an elevation of less

than 15 feet.

On one occasion last year I counted upwards of 200 insects in a

flight of the latter nature, each insect at a regular interval after the

other and so close to methat I was able to determine the cadz/la

variety, of which there were several, from the common type. ‘The

line of flight was across a flower garden. in which other Catopsiliads

were feeding but which appeared to have no attractions for the

migrants as none slackened speed but continued in a straight line

until out of sight.

It would appear that ‘Herd’ formation and slow speed is the

order of the day when a long migration is contemplated and single

file and rapid speed when the goal is comparatively near. At the

same time it is remarkable that, when passing over an attractive

flower garden, swarming with other butterflies, no single member

of the flight should be sufficiently distracted to even check its

speed. .

BOMBAY, G. WESCHE-DART.

August 25, 1928.

XXXIX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE OAK-LEAF BUTTERFLY

(KALLIMA HORSFIELDI) NEAR BOMBAY

I sould be interested to hear whether any member can give me

any information as to whether this butterfly is a regular inhabitant

of the Salsette country.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 727

During the past month (August) in the vicinity of Borivli, I have

taken several specimens of ward? ( = doubledayi, Moore) the very

small wet-season form of horsfield?. According to Fruhstorfer this

form is common in Kanara but I can find no record of its previous

capture as far north as Bombay.

BOMBAY, ~ G. WESCHE-DART.

Augusi 24, 1928.

[There is no doubt that this species inhabits Salsette throughout

the year as we have met with it in almost every month. The dry

season form appears to be somewhat larger and paler coloured and

prefers fallen leaves and the ground to the tree trunks to which its

wet season congener is partial. EDs.]

XL.—NOTE ON THE BREEDING OF TERIAS LATA

AND 7. VENATA AND THE PROBABILITY OF THEIR

BEING SEASONAL FORMS OF A SINGLE SPECIES

When dealing with the genus Zerzas, in the series of articles on

Common Butterflies of the Plains—vol. xxii, p. 525 of the Journal—

Mr. Bell has referred to the fact that in Kanara, a district where the

monsoons are very heavy, 7. /eta does not occur during the rainy

season, and has suggested, as a possible explanation, that /ez¢a is

not a distinct species but a dry season form of 7. venafa. But he

added, however, that there was no evidence on the subject as there

was no record of the breeding of either species.

I have recently succeeded -in finding larvee and in breeding

imagos of both forms and the evidence obtained, though not entirely

conclusive, points strongly to the probability, in my opinion almost

the certainty, of Mr. Bell’s suggestion being a definite fact. 1

therefore propose to place the facts on record.

In Kathiawar the monsoons are not heavy: here in Bhavnagar

our average annual rainfall is about 22 inches. Nevertheless

I noticed last year that 7. /efa, common in the hot weather, dis-

appeared about the second week of June, before the burst of the

monsoon, and did not re-appear until the middle of September.

T.. venata, on the other hand, made its first appearance just before

the first rains at the end of June and continued on the wing until

the end of September, after which there were no more seen until

the following rains.

My interest in Bell’s suggestion was aroused and I maintained

a look-out for an ovipositing female of either form. Patience was

rewarded on August 1 this year when I caught a venata female

in the act of laying an egg on a leaf of a small semi-trailing plant

since identified as Cassia pumila, a near relation of C. kéeznz7, the

food-plant of 7. /ébythea. On this occasion I obtained three eggs,

all of which hatched on the fourth day after being laid. Of the

three larvez, one only survived to maturity, producing a normal

male of 7. venata.

So far I had done no more than discover the food-plant and larva

of 7. venata, but this was an important initial step. It was on

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

September 10 that I found more eggs and some half grown larvee

on the same plant. I could detect no difference between them

and those of the original vexata batch of August. From these

larvee, in due course, I bred seven butterflies, all typical /efa,

the first of which emerged on September 19. Meanwhile I had

taken the first, a perfectly fresh specimen of 7. (eta on the wing

on September 17. 7. venata was still fairly common at this date

but had disappeared and /efa become common by the end of the

month. :

Now, as to the larvee and pupz. Unfortunately I am not expert

enough to give a thorough scientific description. But both larva

and pupa in each case closely resembled that of 7. hecabe, with the

following differences in each case :—

LARVA—

(a) Possession of a dorsal line darker than the ground colour,

as in Bell’s description of the larva of 7. lzbythea.

(6) Above the yellowish-white lateral line is a definite though

not distinctly marked line of darker green than the ground colour—

this line apparently does not exist in 7. /zbythea.

PuPA—

No.1. In shape very like hecabe, but smaller. Colour green,

not shiny. A whitish dorsal line. Spiracles white. Two sub-

dorsal rows of dark brown double spots like a horizontal colon,

the spots in the upper row placed obliquely, in the lower row

longitudinally and more pronounced. A somewhat diffuse brownish

lateral line with a brown patch on segment seven and a fainter one

behind the antenne. Faint brown markings on wings. Distinct

black specks between ends of veins on termen. Snout brownish-

pink.

No 2. Dark markings much accentuated, the upper sub-dorsal

row containing three instead of two obliquely placed spots in each

segment.

No. 3. Markings less distinct, upper dorsal row of spots

obsolescent.

No. 4. Brown and black markings alinost obsolete.

The four pupz above described all produced the /efa form. —

No. 5. Which produced the vezafa imago, was almost devoid

of markings, except for traces of the dorsal and lateral lines and

the pinkish brown snout, thus resembling No. 4 (¢/@¢a). Had this

specimen had more pronounced markings it might have finally

solved the problem.

As I have said the evidence cannot be considered absolutely

conclusive, but I would invite attention to the following consider-

ations. If the September larvze hatched from eggs laid by a

leta female, they must have been deposited not later than the

middle of June. I was looking out for either form and am as

nearly certain as it is possible to be that there were no specimens

of /gta on the wing after the third week in June and before the

break of the monsoon. ‘The venata eggs hatched within four days

of being laid. Like them, the early September eggs were all laid

on the upper sides of leaves which appeared of recent growth and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 729

which I do not believe could have been in existence before the rains

commenced. Moreover I believe it to be a fact that when the oval

stage is prolonged a butterfly’s eggs are never laid on leaves but

on the stems of a plant. Again, if the two species are distinct,

then the vezata brooG which appears at the end of June must have

passed a period of eight or nine months in either the oval or the

pupal stage. This is perhaps not impossible but seems most

unlikely, in the climate of Kathiawar, in the case of a small insect

which, in August, spends no more than ten days in either of these

stages and whose nearest relations are on the wing and therefore,

presumably, produce brood after brood during the whole of the dry

season from October to June.

Practically no doubt remains in my own mind that vewata and

leta are seasonal forms of the same butterfly, but I should be glad

to know what Mr. Bell thinks of the evidence. In any case, now

that the food plant is known, it should be possible to place the

matter beyond doubt before long.

In this connection, I wonder if Mr. Bell could find time to pire us

an article on the breeding of Lepidoptera in India? I entirely

failed in my attempts to induce 7Zerzas females to lay eggs in

captivity.

There is one other point, by the way, which in this district brings

leta and venata closer together in respect of colouring. Evans, in

his key to the genus Zerzas, gives the following characteristics of

venata, apart from the rounded apex as distinguishing it from

leta :—

“Upt marginal band reaches dorsum. Uph black eee to

V 1 or farther.’

Now, in Bhavnagar, I find that, in females of the first anal

brood, appearing end of June, this does not hold good; for some

specimens, while possessing the rounded apex and being covered

with minute black scales, otherwise resemble /¢za in that the uph

marginal band ends at V 2 and the uph black margin consists of

merely a diffused patch at apex. Apart from shape the invariable

differences consist in the uph margin in male venata and in the

typical colouring and markings of the underside of /eta.

Finally, surely the illustrations of Fig. 70 in Plate K of The

Common Buttertlies of the Plains, vol. xxii, represent /zbythea and not

venata? Note the undiminished extension of uph black margin

right on to the dorsum and the markings of the underside.

BHAVNAGAR, A. H. E. MOSSE, .a.,

December, 1928. Lieut.-Colonel.

Mr. T. R. D. Bell, ¢.1.e., commenting onthe above note under

date May 1, 1929 writes :—

~Colonel Mosse’s note on TZerias venata-lacta. Are they the

same species ?. The foodplant offered no difficulty in settling

the question with me down here as I knew both species will feed,

as.caterpillars, on the same Cassia klein77. It was really the want

of enthusiasm (?), time or energy that prevented me finding out

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

definitely whether the two forms are seasonal or constitute good.

species. It is only a matter of collecting eggs at the beginning or

end of the rains, enough eggs ; and that means watching females

laying and collecting the very eggs laid together with the female

that lays them or the females that lay them, a rather lengthy

and monotonous proceeding ; one might of course have luck and be

able to do the thing in a single day but, in my case, I never did have

any luck and was never able to get more than one or two females a

day that obliged me by laying at ali. If the beasts would lay in

captivity it would greatly facilitate matters but apparently they are

unwilling to do so. Any way I have never succeeded in getting

them to lay in cages though I have tried twice or thrice. And,

apparently, Colonel Mosse, now, has had a similar experience. At the

same time I have little doubt that with perseverance one could get

them to lay all right. One of the chief difficulties is the foodplants

(there are several species) which is very deep-rooted, that is, has a

strong, long, hefty taproot and is, therefore, very difficult to keep

properly inacage. The little leaflets all close up immediately the

plant is (practically) touched and butterflies that lay on the upper

surface of leaflets or leaves, wont lay on the under surface, so

that too goes against ovipositing in captivity. I fancy the best way

ito do things would be to go and camp where the plants (and the

butterflies) are to be found (damp fields generaily, or damp grass-

lands), catch paired females (that is often not at all difficult) and,

having covered a certain number of the naturally-growing plants

with a mosquito-netted frame, put the insects inside and await

results : You see it means a lot of bandobast and none of us have

time, or inclination, or opportunity.

I do not think Colonel Mosse’s experiences are conclusive in

any way more than my original observations were. If he were

quite sure that no lata were to be found in the rains and no venata

in the rest of the year, it would be all right; but he is not; neither

am |; although both of us are nearly certain that such is the case.

But we are not absolutely certain. And, there is another thing as

well and that is that leta may well last a great deal further into

June and July in an open, dry country than it would in a moist,

jungle-covered region. Ido not think we shall ever get anything

satisfactory out of the problem until we actually succeeded in

breeding a venata froma leta or the other way round. Ihave

described caterpillars of both species and have not been able

to detect any differences in them or in their pupe.

I hope you will publish Colonel Mosse’s article; it will perhaps

attract the attention of some enthusiast who might spend enough

time on the question to settle it once for all—by breeding one form

from the other.’ '

T, R. BELL.

XLIL—ANTS TAKING TO WATER

The following ant incident which occurred at Lucknow may be

of sufficient interest for inclusion in Miscellaneous Notes of the

Journal. Last autumn I had some rather sweet hairwash on my

ae Se ee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 731

wash stand; the day after I had opened it I found it covered with

small dark brown ants 3 inch long. I cleared all these ants off and

thinking no more about it, placed the bottle in my soap dish full of

water, the sides of the bottle were about one inch from the outer

edge of the soap dish. Next morning to my surprise I found the

bottle again covered with ants. I then watched carefully and soon

saw several ants ‘take off’ from the edge of the soap dish and

Swim across to the bottle and carry on, others again left the bottle

swam to the edge of the soap dish. ‘To carry out further experi-

ments I placed the bottle in the middle of my basin, after clearing

all ants off the bottle. I put in absolutely fresh water at about 9 a.m.

and at2 p.m. I hada look and found the bottle again with ants on

it, not many of them but there they were, and while I watched I saw

several deliberately ‘ take off’ again from the edge of the basin and

swim absolutely straight for the bottle. I got a magnifying glass on

to them and saw that they gathered an azv-bubdle under them before

taking off. There was absolutely no film of dust or anything like

that on the surface of the water.

I think readers will agree it was a remarkable performance for

these ants to do this, as apart from the actual swimming per-

formance, everyone know how ants wander about in every direction

when by themselves, whereas these all made a bee line for the

bottle and back, and there were never more than one on the water

at the same time. They had nothing to guide their sense of

direction. The distance they had to swim across was about

43 inches.

JAMRUD, N.W.F.P. W. M. LOGAN HOME,

April 26, 1929. Major, L.A.

XLII.—A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF BUDS

IN THE AXILS OF THE COTYLEDONS

(With two plates)

The presence of buds in the axils of the cotyledons, and the

developinent of shoots from them, so far as [am aware, has not yet

been described. It appeared, therefore, desirable that the following

observations should be recorded :—

It was while examining once the seedlings of Cassta tora that the

attention of the writer was drawn to the existence of such buds. In

one of the plants, while at the height of its vegetative activity,

shoots were seen developing from the axils of the cotyledons. The

plant had not suffered from any injury, and was otherwise in a

perfectly healthy condition. Cases of this kind, however, in which

the shoots begin to develop from the cotyledonary buds without

injury, at an early stage, to the primary shoot, are not generally

met with. But it was found that whenever the plant was decapitated

close to the cotyledons, whether in the seedling condition or a little

later, these shoots invariably developed in due course.

Another interesting feature that was noticed was that the epigeal

cotyledons remained green and functional for an unusually long

732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

period of time, instead of dropping away, as they usually do, when

the seedling has established itself. For instance, in this particular

case the plant was in vigorous condition of growth, and was about

to enter into the reproductive phase, but still the cotyledons were

thriving and there was nothing to indicate that they would cease to

do so. Unfortunately the plant was accidentally removed before the

observations were complete.

My attention was jater drawn to the occurrence of axillary buds

in the cotyledons of Cicer arietinum. Here too, as in the case of

Cassia tora, shoots had developed out from the axils ot the cotyle- °

dons, while the primary shoot was uninjured. Butin this species

also as before, such cases are not generally met with, and the

axillary shoots only begin to develop on the destruction of the

primary axis close to its origin.

Since observing these cases the writer was led, out ons mere

curiosity, to determine whether similar behaviour is revealed by the

seedlings of other plants. As the result of observations he has now

found that the seedlings of the following plants exhibit identical

behaviour :—

Impatience balsamina; Vicia faba; Tropeolum majus; Ricinus

communis and some others. From this there appears to be little

doubt that this phenomenon will be found to be of general occur-

rence.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, N. K. TIWARY, M.sc.

BENARES HinpU UNivVERSITY.

1 For this I am obliged to my former pupil Thakur Chandra Narain Singh

M.Sc., now on the staff of the Department of Plant Industry, Indore.

Prate l

NC IK. Tf. del.

AXILLARY BUDS IN COTYLEDONS.

Seedlings of Vicia faba; natural size.

A and B—Seedlings in which the plumule had been injured.

C—Healthy seedling.

Pl—Plumule ; Ax. sht—Axillary shoot ; Cot—Cotyledon ; Ax. Bd—Asxillary bud

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate [I

Seep

N. K.-T, del.

AXILLARY BuDS IN COTYLEDONS.

Seedlings of Cicer arietinum.

A—Seedling whose plumule had been injured.

B—Healthy seedling.

Pl—Plumule; Ax. sht.—Axillary shoot ; Cot—Cotyledon.

AN APPEAL TO SPORTSMEN

Ree hePOCOCK, Fr RS:

(British Museum Natural History.)

Wanted! The Skins and Skulis of Tigers, Panthers, Bears, etc.

Readers of this Journal, interested in the Mammal Survey of

British India, inaugurated and carried to such a successful issue

by the Bombay Natural History Society, will be aware that the

collectors whose services were requisitioned for the purpose received

general instructions to devote their energies to the capture of

the ‘smaller fry ’, which might be classified as vermin, and to neglect

‘game’ animals so as not to trespass upon the province of the

sportsman. The success of the survey along the lines indicated is

attested by the numerous reports and papers on the results publish-

ed in the Journal during the past fifteen or sixteen years. So great

indeed were the additions to our knowledge that need for a new

edition of the Mammals of the Aauza of British India Series became

apparent and urgent. This volume is now in progress; but at the

very outset the authors are confronted with the difficulty arising from

the dearth of material of ‘big game.’ There are, for example,

only about a dozen skins of tigers and a few more of panthers and not

a single specimen of the Himalayan red bear in the National

Collection !

The purpose of this note is to appeal to sportsmen in the first

place for the skins and skulls of tigers, panthers and bears, leaving

antelope and deer for the moment alone. It is of course quite

understood that the skins of tigers and panthers, and in a lesser

degree, the skulls, are treasured trophies. But it is felt that a

number of these beasts must be shot which are not wanted or

not preserved, more particularly perhaps those killed by Indians,

for the reward, which would naturally not appeal in the same way to

the sportsman as those falling to his own gun. Many also must be

killed which are not considered worth preservation as rugs on

account of defects in the coat due to old age or sickness. It must

also be explained that from the naturalist’s standpoint small

tigers and panthers, adult or immature, are just as interesting as

those which sportsmen preserve for their size. All the spoils

indeed of these beasts that can be spared will be most acceptable to

the National Collection in the British Museum, which, doubtless

largely from want of asking, has a comparatively very poor series

of these predatory beasts.

Some sportsmen perhaps may exclaim in response to this

neglect :—‘ Since a tiger is a tiger and a panther a panther

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

wherever you meet him, what purpose is served by amassing a big

collection of them?’ That is the view that prevailed half a

century ago. But in these days intensive study of the smaller

mammals has shown, by means of big series of skins from many

localities, that species vary in size, colour and other characters

according to their environment. This is known to hold to a great

extent in the case of tigers and panthers. What is wanted is a

collection, available at any time te all interested in the subject,

showing, for instance, that the tigers and panthers from Cape

Comorin, the Sunderbunds, Nepal and Rajputana differ, or, may be

do not differ from each other; and what applies to India applies

equally to the Malay Peninsula, Burma, China, Persia, to all places

indeed where these animals are found.

If the facts we wish to know are ever to be known, no time

should be lost, because in many districts where these animals, and

particularly tigers, were formerly abundant they are now quite rare.

It must be remembered that of the lions recorded as shot in Bengal

a century ago none remains and no spoils, so far as is known, are

preserved ; and that the hunting leopard or cheetah seems to be fast

disappearing from the Indian fauna. Of these two species, so far

as India is concerned, the British Museum has practically no material;

and the expectation of getting any is, I fear, now well nigh hopeless.

~ It is true the Indian lion still occurs in small numbers in the

forest of Gir, Western India, where fortunately it is protected.

The National Collection does not possess a specimen of this

lion—and if it is possible to obtain one, it would be a valuable

acquisition for the British Museum (Natural History).

But it is not yet too late to acquire tigers and panthers; and the

hope that some sportsmen will generously help, induces me to make

this appeal.

~ With regard to bears, mentioned above, it is the Himalayan

‘red’ or ‘ isabelline’ bear, the Indian representative of the Russian

brown bear, that is particularly required, although the commoner

Indian and Burmese species are also desiderata. Wolves too and

hyenas are wanted, more particularly wolves to help clear up some

puzzling points connected with the kinship between the small wolf

of the plains (C. pallzpes), the Himalayan wolf (C. chanco) and the

European wolf (C. dupus).

~ In making this petition on behalf of the National Collection, I am

aware that lam asking much, knowing the value sportsmen natu-

rally set upon skins and the time and labour involved in taking and

tecording separate measurements in the flesh of the head and body

atid the tail, stripping the skin, roughly cleaning the skull, recording

the locality, altitude and date, packing anddespatching. But I am

asstited that the Bombay Natural History Society, which has always

been consistently helpful in the past, will in this instance continue

its kind offices and forward to London any specimens sent to them

narked For the British Museum.

ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS

Ss S.K.—/ read a reterence in the Press to Huxley's Bathybtus ;

can you tell me something about tt ?

The story of Bathybius is a classic demonstration of the fallacy

of scientific theory-making on the strength of insufficient data. The

great stir caused in the scientific world by the Darwinian researches

in the middle of the last century, produced feverish activity and much

premature cocksuredness among men of science to discover the

origin of life, regarding which numerous and elaborate theories had

come to the fore. The obvious beginning for an enquiry of this

nature demanded at the outset the isolation of the simplest living

organism ; in other words, a connecting link between the simplest,

known (though still comparatively highly organized) Amoeba on the

one hand, and what we call lifeless matter on the other.

All eyes were turned to the abyssal ocean depths which it was

hoped would ultimately furnish a clue, and a number of expeditions

were put out by almost all the maritime countries of Europe for

investigation in this field. One of these expeditions dredged up

mud from the bottom of the Atlantic which, when preserved in

alcohol, revealed the presence of a quantity of soft gelatinous

matter. A noted scientist of the day, Prof. Wyville Thomson,

was not long in pronouncing that given certain stimulus, distinct

traces of movement were discernible in this matter, a revelation

which he asserted left no doubt that the substance manifested the

phenomena of a very simple form of life.

The ‘ discovery ’ startled the scientific world and was hailed with

acclamation by ardent Darwinians like Huxley in Great Britain (who

promptly christened the slime Lathydtus haeckelit?) and Haeckel in

Germany, and indeed for a time the prospect of running to earth the

elusive missing link between the living and non-living appeared

assured. The sensation which this ‘ discovery ’ caused in scientific

circles soon led to more intensive investigation on the same lines

with a view to the final elucidation of that probiem of problems, the

Origin of Life, which had been apparently brought within

realization by the advent of Bathybtus. ;

The gelatinous matter though again brought up in quantity from

great depths while cruising between China and Japan, by the

investigation ship ‘ Challenger’ in 1872, completely failed to show

any signs of the movements described by Wyville Thomson, despite

continuous observation. After much experimenting, it was finally.

discovered by the senior chemist on board, Mr. Y. J. Buchanan in

1875, that in reality Bathybius was not an organic body at all but,

according to him, ‘ sulphate of lime which had been eliminated from

the sea water, always present in the mud as an amorphous precipi-

tate, on the addition of spirits of wine. The substance when.

analysed consisted of sulphuric acid and lime; and when dissolved,

in water and the solution allowed to evaporate, it crystallized in the-

well-known form of gypsum, the crystals being all alike and ETE

being no amorphous matter amongst them’.

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Subsequent to this announcement the professor of Chemistry at

the Edinburgh University was able to demonstrate the truth of

Mr. Buchanan’s observations by manufacturing Bathybius in his own

laboratory !

Thus died rather abruptiy the high hopes and confidence that had

sprung in the bosoms of scientists for the speedy solution of that

most vexed problem, the Origin of Life.

~PR.L. A friend recently bred a large moth ina prune Jar with a

mosquito net covering. A few hours atter the emergence of the insect it

was vistted by six or seven other moths of apparently the same. species.

Can you explain the meaning of this attraction. We have never seen

these moths in our neighbourhood.

~The moth bred was a female and the visitors were males in the

role of would-be suitors. The phenomenon has often been

observed. A female Tussar Silk moth was recently bred in the

Society’s rooms. The insect emerged at night. Inthe morning we

discovered three males of the species in the vicinity of her cage.

How far these males had travelled in search of a mate we are

unabie to conjecture but these moths are certainly rarely seen in our

city. The power that certain moths have of sensing the presence of

afemale from apparently considerable distances is attributed to

their sense of smell. There is no other sense of which we have any

knowledge which can explain it. The fact that this attractability is

lost when the female is imprisoned in amore or less air-tight

container lends colour to the theory. Again it has been shown that

in the absence of the female the box or cage which recently

enclosed her may hold the same power of attracting the males of

her species. ‘This suggests plainly the existence of some material

emanation which can be perceived by her would-be suitors. The

presence of other smells does not appear to effect this sense in

moths and it is believed that these insects only. perceive the parti-

cular odours which are vital to their being, that is odours which

suggest food ora mate. The perception of odours may be regarded

as achemical action. Infinitely small particles of the substance,

probably in the form ofa gas, permeate the air and coming into

contact with the sense organ, produce an effect recorded by the

brain, which can distinguish between the stimuli of different

substances. What astonishes us is that the scent of the female

is perceptible to the males at such remarkable distances; that it

effects so great an extent of atmosphere. In explanation it is

suggested that the scent in question is not perceptible to our

senses. We have therefore no means of guaging its real strength.

We know for instance that even an extremely small quantity of

musk will scent a room for long periods of time without suffering

any appreciable loss in weight. If so small a quantity of musk

can make the presence of its particles felt in the circulating air of a

room for months and even years, there seems no difficulty in

supposing that the Moth’s scent, probably infinitely more volatile,

ean, for a short time, fill the air for hundreds of yards or even for.

miles around. The error seems to lie in the idea that because we.

cannot perceive the scent it must of necessity be very weak whereas

it may be, and doubtless is, extremely strong.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 3], 1928

The Committee of the Bombay Natural History Society have the honour

to submit their Report on the operations and progress of the Society for the

year ending December 31, 1926.

_ Important changes were made in the constitution of the Society during the

year under review.

Administration.—At an Extraordinary General Meeting held at the Prince of

Wales’ Museum on Tuesday, January 31, 1928, the draft Memorandum of

Association and Rules which were laid before the Meeting and which had been

previously published in the Society’s Journal on October 20, 1927, were

approved, and the following gentlemen were duly elected to serve on the

Executive and Advisory Committee of the Society.

President; H.E. The Right Hon’ble Lt.-Col. Sir Leslie Wilson, P.C.,

GCA. CoM.G., Dis.0.

Vice-Presidents: WH. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.CS.I., G.C.L.E.;

Revd. E. Blatter, S.J., Ph. D., F.D.S. and the Hon’ble Mr. J. E. B. Hotson,

C.S21.2, ©7585. 1.6.8.

Executive Committee :—Mr.R. D. Bell, C.1.E.,1.C.S.; Mr. H. A. W. Brent ;

Prof. V. N. Hate, B.Sc.; Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson.; Lt.-Col. F. P. Mackie,

I.M.S.; Mr. A. M. Todd.; Mr. J. B. Greaves (Honorary Treasuyver) and

Sir Reginald Spence, Kt. (Honorary Secretary).

Advisory Committee :—Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, F.E.S. (Pusa); Mr. T.

R. Bell, C.I.E., I.F.S. (Retd.) (Karwar); Brigadier W. H. Evans, C.I.E.,

R.E. (Peshawar); Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, I.M.S. (Vizagapatam); Dr. F. H.

Gravely, D.Sc. (Madras) ;'Mr. C. M. Inglis, M.B.0.U., C.M.Z.S. (Darjeeling) ;

Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, I.M.S. (Calcutta).

Arrangements for the Registration of the Society and the transfer to it of all

the property and assets, including securities and cash, belonging to the

unregistered Society were completed by Sir Reginald Spence, Mr. H. A. W.

Brent and Mr. J. B. Greaves who were authorized by the Meeting to carry them

into effect and a Certificate of Registration, dated March 14, 1928 was received

from the Registrar of Companies. A Report of the Extraordinary General

Meeting and of the various amendments to the draft of the Rules and Regula-

tions of the Society was published in the Society’s Journal issued on

May 31, 1928. 2

Finance :—The publication for the first time last year of a Balance Sheet has

enabled us to do away with the Summarized Cash Account and the Ordinary

Receipts and Expenditure Accounts, producing in their place a simple

Revenue Account and Publications Account along the lines of a Profit and Loss

statement.

Dealing first of all with the Aevenue Account :—The figures on the expense

side remain very similar to what they weve last year.

On the receipts side—Life Membership Fees Rs. 2,450 as against Rs. 4,200.

Entrance Fees Rs. 1,644-S-0 as against Rs. 2,980-0-0.

Subscriptions Rs. 28,556-1-9 as against Rs. 28,711-8-10.

The Taxidermy Department has been placed on a paying basis and has

resulted in asmall profit to the Society of Rs. 63-1-2.

The total loss on Revenue Account is Rs. 4,682-3-0.

Publications Account :—Shows a satisfactory profit of Rs. 3,053-10-10

although a considerable proportion of the expense in connection with these

publications has been dealt with in previous years.

Dealing now with the Balance Sheet :—The Balance Sheet discloses an

extremely satisfactory position.

The Assets side is self-explanatory with the possible exception of the head-

ing ‘Game Books ’, Last year we created a reserve equal to the total value of

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the Game Books in stock. A number of the Game Books have been sold and

in consequence there is a balance of Rs. 2,847-8-0 to be transferred back to the

surplus assets account.

Liabilities :—Life Membership fees remain at the same figure ; those paid in

during the year having been appropriated for General Revenue purposes as it

is considered that the figure of Rs. 42,000 represents an ample reserve against

Life Membership Fees.

Under our Articles all that is necessary to be doneis to maintain Government

paper investments up to the total value of Life Membership Fees. Our Invest-

ments in Government Paper total Rs. 76,270 as against fees received from

present Life Members amounting to Rs. 42,000.

Donations for specific objects unexpended:—The Society is holding this

money as a Trustee.

Surplus Assets:—To last year’s balance have to be added the profit on

publications and the profit on Game Books sales, and to be deducted the sum of .

Rs. 2,092-8-0 being depreciation on our Securities. In no case have any

Securities been written up and the depreciation is merely a routine one, to

bring our 33 per cent Securities down to market value on December 31, 1928,

the actual value of our Securities being considerably above the figure shown.

Also to be deducted is the loss on Revenue Account.

The nett difference therefore in the Society’s position between last year and

this year is ;a loss of Rs. 873-8-2 which appears to be a not unsatisfactory

result.

Membership:—During the year, 83 new members joined the Society, 4

rejoined and 103 resigned. The total membership on December 31, 1928, was

1,392 including 190 Life Members.

The Society’s Journal,—The 32nd volume of the Journal was completed and

the first number of the 33rd volume was issued during the year. The

Scientific contributions included:—Mr. Pocock’s important paper on the

Langurs. The author’s conclusions regarding the number of different Langurs

occurring and the importance of the differences between them vary considera-

bly from previous authorities who have dealt with the subject. The material in

the British Museum collections and particularly the large series of specimens

obtained during the Society’s Mammal Survey have enabled Mr. Pocock to find

evidence which divides the Langurs into three groups sharply distinguished by

the colours of the new-born young. Papers on birds included ‘ Birds of the

Peshawar istrict ’ by Rev. F. S. Briggs and B. B. Osmaston, ‘ Further Notes

on the Birds round Simla’ and ‘ The Migration of the Pied Crested Cuckoo’

by H. Whistler.

Two papers on Indian Marine Fishes by Mr. H. Fowler of the Academy

of Sciences, Philadelphia, dealt with fishes collected on the Bombay and

Ceylon coasts and in addition to general notes, described three new species.

Major Fraser continued his serial on Indian Dragonflies, Parts XXIX, XXX,

XXXI of which were published during the year. Several botanical papers

were issued ; the most important was the Revision of the Flora of the Bombay

Presidency by Rev. Fr. Blatter. Since Cooke’s Flora was published in 1900,

a number of monographs dealing with various orders and genera have appear-

ed and these and the study of systematic botany during the last 28 years have

made the present revision necessary.

Pobulay Articles.—Mr. E, C. Stuart Baker continued his articles on Indian

Wading Birds which form a supplement to the serials on Indian Game Birds of

which Volumes I and II have already appeared in book form. A recent

feature, introduced particularly for the benefit of members anxious to interest

themselves in and take up asa hobby a particular branch of Natural History

are the papers by Mr. H. Whistler on the ‘ Study of Indian Birds ' and by

Mr. C. McCann on the ‘ Study of Plant Life.’ It is hoped to extend this

series so as to include other divisions of Natural History.

Parts I, II and III of Mr. Prater’s articles on ‘Modern Museum Methods’

~ were published during the year. ‘The papers were based on his recent study of

Museums in America and Europe. Copies have been sent to several Museums

in this country and abroad.

Forthcoming Publications in the Journal.—For many years a popular illus-

trated book dealing with the commoner flowering trees of India has been a

greatly felt want. The serial dealing with the conspicuous flowering Trees of

India shortly to be published inthe Journal, which utilizes flower paintings

ANNUAL REPORT 439

procured by Mr. W.S. Millard when in India and in the writing of which

he is collaborating with Father Blatter, will it is hoped fill this want and

eventually appear in book form.

Birds of Burma, by P. F. Wickham.—This is to be written on the lines of

Mr. H. Whistler’s Popular Handbook on Indian Birds and willit is hoped do

for residents in Burma what Mr. Whistler has done for bird lovers in India.

Flowerless Plants, by Mrs. Robinson.— This will deal in simple language

with Sea Weeds, Fungi, Ferns and Lichens and so withthe little known,

though nonetheless interesting, forms of plant life. It will be illustrated in

colour and black and white.

Forthcoming Publications in book form.—Indian Game Birds, Volume III.

This volume will deal with the Pheasants, Jungle Fowl and Spur Fowl and it

is hoped to publish it next cold weather. Publication has been made possible

by the keener interest taken recently by members in the first two volumes with

the result that the Society should be clear of debt on the first two volumes this

year. A greater demand is necessary however if the author and the Society

' are torealize any profit at all out of their labours. Publication of the third

volume depends also on the number of orders registered before we instruct our

printers to proceed. In the Journal published in January 1925 (No. 3,

Vol. XXXIII) we asked members to register their names for the third volume

and to say whether they would order it asa bcund volume orin parts. On

February 1, 1929 we had received 133 promises to buy Volume III as a

bound volume. A better response than this is necessary if we are to proceed

with publication. It is intended not only to revise the matter already pub-

lished in the Journal but to issue more plates—coloured and uncoloured.

Bird Charts.—Although the Bombay Government has for financial reasons

had to close down the work the Society was doing to encourage in schools the

study of zoology—it, as well as other local Governments in India, recognizes

the need of such work as students at present commence the study of zoology

and botany only when they enter universities. Most of the Provincial Govern-

ments have therefore approved the propcsals of the Scciety to issue a series of

wall charts illustrating in colour no less than 200 common Indian birds, and

schools in different parts of India have been advised to purchase the charts, at

a cost of Rs. 36 for the series, as soon as published which it is hoped will be in

September this year.

The publication of the Bird Charts will enable the Society to issue early next

year an illustrated book on the common birds of India. The format will

follow that of Zhe Book of Birds published by the American Geographical

Society and in addition to coloured illustrations and photographs will contain

short descriptions of field characteristics and habitat.

Publications in book form issued during 1928. Identification of Indian

Butterflies.—The profusely illustrated series of articles on Indian Butterflies by

Col. W. H. Evans were issued in book form. ‘There was a good demand for

the book which is evidence of the interest created by the articles. ‘The edition

was practically sold out within a few months of publication.

Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of India.—A fourth edition of this important

book by Col. F. Wall was published during the year. ‘The present edition is

revised and brought up to date and improved by the addition of several new

and better text figures.

Expeditions and Researches. Mammal Survey of the Toungoo District,

Burma.—Since the closing down of the Mammal Survey the Society has been

dependent for collecting on the efforts of individual members. The principal

worker in the field in 1928 was Mr. J. M. D. Mackenzie who during the past

three years has been carrying on a Survey of the Mammals of the Toungoo

District. A report on his collections was published in Volume XXXII, No. 3.

Subsequent reports are pending. We take this opportunity of expressing to

him the thanks of the Society.

Vernay-Faunthorpe Expedition.—The thanks of the Society are due to

Mr. A. S. Vernay for the opportunity offered by him to the staff of the Society

to obtain experience in the field of collecting material for the preparation

of Museum Groups. In January 1928 Mr. Prater was invited to join the

expedition brought out to India by Mr. Vernay to collect material and to

paint backgrounds for a series of groups representing game animals of

India obtained during the Vernay-Faunthorpe expedition. ‘The groups are

being erected in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Mr. K. B. Savardekar, the Society’s Museum Artist, also accompanied the

expedition. The expedition visited the Nepal Terai, Burma and later Mysore.

Material for a group of Gaur and for a group of Tigers was collected in the

Billigiri-rangan Hills, Mysore, where Mr. R. Morris, a member of the Society

rendered great assistance to the party. In this area was also Obtained the

material and the background studies for a group illustrating life in a South

Indian Forest which was completed and placed on exhibition in our museum

during the year.

Admiral H. Lynes’ Expedition in Gilgit.—Mr. V.S. LaPersonne, Assistant

Curator of the Society, joined the expedition organized by Admiral H. Lynes,

who, with Mr. H. Whistler and Mr. B. B. Osmaston, visited Kashmir in April

1928 for the purpose of collecting specimens and studying the bird life of the

Province. Mr. LaPersonne travelled through Gilgit to the borders of Russian

Turkestan. Notes and observations were made and about 500 specimens were

collected by him in the areas visited.

Bird Migration in India,—A review of the progress of the Society’s bird-

ringing scheme organized with a view to studying the problems connected

with the migration of birds in India was published in Volume XXXII, No. 2.

About 5000 rings have been distributed and about forty members of the Society

are now helping in the scheme. Out of 200 birds ringed by the Maharaja of

Dhar in 1926 eight recoveries have been reported. These results are very en-

couraging. Several recoveries of the rings issued during the year by the Society

have already been reported. It is confidently hoped that more members will

co-operate in this useful work during the cold weather of 1929-30.

Toxicity of the venoms of Indian Scorpions.—We published in an editorial

note in Volume XXXII, No. 2 of the Journal a brief summary of the plans and

the purpose of the investigation into the toxicity of the venoms of Indian

scorpions. ‘This investigation was prompted by the reports of several deaths

from scorpion sting in the C. P. Fr. Caius, who commenced his researches

into the toxic properties of the venoms of Indian scorpions in 1912, has

consented to resume the work on behalf of the Society. Live scorpions are now

being collected and sent to the Society from all over India; our thanks are due

for the co-operation with us of the Medical Departments of the Government

of Bombay, Madras, Bengal, Punjab, Central Provinces, United Provinces,

N.W.F.P., Assam and Burma. Varying quantities of venom were extracted

from six different species during the year. As the amount obtained from

individual specimens does not exceed a few milligrammes it is essential for our

purpose that large numbers of scorpions should be collected, The co-operation

of all who are able to assist by sending live scorpions to the Society is solicited.

Salt Licks. —As indicated in an Editorial note published in Volume XXXII,

No. 2, the Society, with the help of the Rev. Father Caius of the Haffkine

Institute, Parel, is carrying out an investigation into the chemical composition

of Salt Licks. The purpose of the investigation is to discover the element

in the earth which attracts animals to Salt Licks. Samples of Licks analyzed

by Major Clive Newcomb contained none or very little trace of Sodium chloride.

Father Caius is of opinion that the investigation may throw light on the practice

of earth-eating by human beings. Members of the Society and of the Forest

Departments in India and Burma are helping us by sending samples of earth

from ‘licks’ for analysis. About sixty-five samples have been collected up

to date.

Educational.—The Nature Study classes for local schools at the Prince of

Wales’ Museuth, inaugurated by the Society in December 1926, were discontinued

at the end of February 1928. The total number of lectures delivered by the

Society’s Guide Lecturer, Mr. Salim Ali, was 195. The number of schools

who co-operated in the scheme was 21. The total number of children who

attended the lectures was 6,200. The lectures were discontinued owing to the

inability of the Bombay Government to provide a grant for the maintenance

of a Guide Lecturer at the Museum. It is regretted that Government’s

action has compelled the Society to postpone indefinitely the training of

teachers able to instruct the young in the study of Natural History. The

work that was being done for the schools in Bombay involved a great deal

of preliminary labour. The scheme was successfully launched and was

receiving the enthusiastic support of schools in this city and gave promise of

very great development. A detailed report of the work done in this connection

was published in Volume XXXII, No, 2 of the Journal.

ANNUAL REPORT AND PROCEEDINGS 741

Extension of Museum Accommodation.—The most important developinent of

the year was the appointment by the Trustees of a Sub-Committee to consider

the question of increasing the existing accommodation in the Museum. As

far as the Natural History Section is concerned, an insufficient provision of

exhibition space has. proved an obstacle to its proper development from its

inception. The galleries it occupies at present are inadequate for its immediate

requirements—setting aside the question of future expansion. The section

now has a gallery for mammals and a gallery for birds—both overcrowded.

Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes are shown in a single gallery whereas at

least two galleries are required for the suitable presentation of exhibits illus-

trative of these classes. The whole Invertebrate Section, inclusive of insects,

is located in one gallery, part of which is reserved for a Section of Economic

Botany. It should perhaps be stated that the inclusion of the Natural History

Section in the present building, designed solely for Art and Archeology was a

temporary expedient. It was always intended that Natural History should be

accommodated in a separate wing.

Report of the Sub-Commniuttee.—The Sub-Committee reported that both for

the present and future requirements of the Museum an extension of accommoda-

tion was an urgent necessity. They were of opinion that no structural altera-

tion to the present building could provide the extra space required. They

believed that the most satisfactory solution would be to remove the whole

of the Natural History exhibits from the present building to a new building,

constructed on the most modern lines and to confine the existing building to

exhibits of Art and Archeology. It was further recommended that the

architectural design of the exterior of the new building should conform as

closely as possible to’'that of the existing structure. As far as its interior was

concerned, it should be on the lines of the preliminary plans prepared by the

Curator of the Natural History Section. In conclusion the Sub-Committee

proposed that, as a preliminary measure plans and estimates for the new wing

may be prepared. The question of its construction could subsequently be

considered as it depended among other factors on the restoration by Govern-

ment of the annual grant to its original figure.

The Sub-Committee’s report was laid before the Trustees at a meeting held

on December 9, 1927. It was then resolved that the Sub-Committee’s report

should be adopted and that detailed plans and estimates for the proposed new

buildings should be called for. The work of preparing the detailed plans and

estimates was subsequently entrusted to Messrs. Gregson, Batley & King,

Architects, Bombay.

PROCEEDINGS

The Annual General Meeting of the Members of the Society was held on

Tuesday,. March 26, 1929 at 6 p.m. in the Prince of Wales Museum, the

Hon’ble Mr: J.E.B. Hotson, C.S.1., O.B.E., I.C.S. presiding.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 55 new members since the

last meeting.

The report for 1928 printed on the foregoing pages was taken as read and

ordered to be published in the Journal.

The office-bearers elected at the Extraordinary General Meeting held on

January 31, 1928 were re-elected with the following exceptions and additions :

President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Sir Frederick Sykes, P.C., G.C.LE.,

C.B.E., K.C.B., C.M.G. was elected in place of Sir Leslie Wilson, left India.

Executive Committee.—The following additional members were elected:

Rev. Ere: Caius, S:J., Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F.R.G.S., Mr. J. G..Ridland, and

Major S. S. Sokhey, I.M.S.

Advisory Committee.—Lt. Col. C.H. Stockley, O.B.E., D.S.O., M.C. (Fort

Sandeman) was elected additional member.

The Honorary Treasurer, Mr. J. B. Greaves, then presented the accounts

which are printed on pages 742 and 743 of this journal.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY ,Vol. XXXII

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dV sa ad V sa ad v su

8261 ‘IE MAINWADAA CYAN AYWVHA AHL AOH LNAODIK AANAALZA

, Madras, and published by

History Society, Bombay,

Printed by George Kenneth at the Diocesan Press

Sir Reginald Spence for the Bombay Natural

Crown 8vo. Cloth 5 29,

A NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA

By R. A. STERNDALE, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Author of ‘ Seonce,’ ‘ The Denizens of the Jungle,’ etc.

WITH 132 ILLUSTRATIONS

A New Edition. Thoroughly Revised

With a Supplementary Section on the Reptilia of India.

By FRANK FINN, B:A., F-z:s.

In preparing the present revised and abridged edition of Sterndale’s well-

known work, the editor has quoted the author’s original observations verbatim

as far as possible, and relied on condensation and on the omission of unneces-

sary matter, and of such as is only likely to be of interest to specialists, for

reduction of the volume to the compass of a practical manual.

REVIEW.

As it now appears the work has ‘the compass of a practical manual for

beginners’ and it will be found a useful and pleasant companion, for the

arrangement is convenient, illustrations are numerous, Indian names are given,

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Just published. 8vo. Paper Boards. Pp. 189. Rs. 5

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By DOUGLAS DEWAR.

INDIAN BIRDS’ NESTS is a companion volume to Mr. Dewar’s /ndian

Birds—A Key to the Common Birds of the Plains.

It contains a summary of practically all the published facts regarding the

nests of the birds with which it deals; it will therefore be invaluable to the

novice and useful to the ornithologist who is desirous of adding to our know-

ledge of birds, by focussing his attention on the lacune in our knowledge.

The book reveals how little there is on record pes eee the nesting operations

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Mr. Antram, a keen Entomologist and his own artist, has provided just the

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIII, No. 4

PAGE

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. Part X. (With a coloured

DUNC) a DY we CAs otidante baci EiZsS.. ” B.1.S.,.> M.B.O.Us,

PEM AIG) Wagar enema ne Corser ol tn c'c Nea eA are Hoos Satie oe Mew ullie ance thed iis of bk abe ideas een 745

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Part X.

BV EINCV sy fol aeten ees Ine Piller efile S. no snveSeccac de Oo cs occ lrs doweba ke ahecke 753

THE StuDY OF IN: IAN BirpDs. Part III. (With four black and white

PLATES) oye Ele Wiaistler, ths ZeSi, Hel. SeeNE BiO Us" ness. coc lebedosdhdeess 776

FLOWERLESS PrLants. Part Il. (W7th one coloured plate and five black

and white plates.) By Mrs. M. ROBINSON, B.A. (T.C.D.), NAT. SCI.

peR EP AGCAM Oo, ck icemur bac eter eat eeoe eT TRACERS Oe TSe tet ic op rake ano aee vee en we 793

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA Hits. Part I. (With

a map and three black and white plates). By P. F. Wickham ......... 800

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS. Part ILI. (With two black and white

Plates anaionetext-1rioure.) By lda, Colt hurst (2.05... ¢.scesee vocssseesccceee 828

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXXIV. (With two black and white plates

and four text-figures.) By Lt.-Col, F.C, Fraser, I.M.S., F.E.S. ... 834

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. Part II. (With two coloured plates

and two black and white plates and five text-figures.) By Rev.

Perea leneaitatie Th Ata ec WP AGN ATG: ? 8,503 cs oe Corwee hove tks cues ces ke humiedobec anes eave 851

LirE-History Notes on Lamprosema indicata (Pyralidz); a Caterpillar

pest-or Chrysanthemums: By M.-C. Cherian, BLA; BeSC.Jauentetsercoa OOF

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON THE BaAaRAGUR HILLs. (Witha

Plate). By Randolph C. Morris ...... Pe Henne Onsen eer anaee ea bow e maces sanscieeciess 861

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, THE HIGH WAvy MOUNTAIN

AND Vee BU nV ure ALLE a Grdls, meta, ane ksces secae se sveniins see caltteeascibiees 869

THE Life oF A MEAry-Buc (Monophlebus stebbingi). With one plat

and three text-figures. By Major R. W. G. Hingston, I.M.s. ......... 880

A NOTE ON THE BUTTERFLIES AND HAwK-MOTHS OF KATHIAWAR. By

e.- COL Aso. sVMiOSSe) EArt HZ SL aS Saas no OR, ERE RT RIN te OSE 888

A SHorr ACCOUNT OF THE OYSTER INDUSTRY IN THE ISLAND OF

BOMBAY AND SALSETIE. (With five plates and three text-figures.)

PS aed SPN neh Serres Og ne. acu eee cee c cen vues evasasbecteesnind vue’, «se deswionses40s 893

THE FLOWERING OF BAmBoos. PartI. By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J. ...... 899

THE HistoRY AND PROGRESS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.

INTRODUCTION. By Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, I M.S., M.A.,

EGMAG SS SESE IREGHIE SIL Ei Zc Gn ee ce See Na tec Baud sok sea be cics'e cus avistesc binGs's gioctenidis seme veer 922

A ButreRFLY HUNTERK’S RAMBLE IN THE Tavoy District (BURMA).

BYIWe ie WOOG Si terest has ee ee wopds eels awe» Di tLe otee eaeah ace eam miata 931

THe PRESENT STATE OF THE GAME AND WILD LIFE IN CEYLON.

(With five plates:) 2 By We We. A.PAIMNpS,. F.Z.S. — .orcseccoasndes ser ssever 942

GAME PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRIS IN 1929. By Major E. G.

Pinythnian-Adaims We Ar INCEG: ) > ReZ.Se: fce.cacesseebensstsswoenpemenarensbesseces 947

THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOMS OF INDIAN SCORPIONS. By J. F. Caius,

PENT Sil rac oecc ceem thon cease needs seeicielac ta Gewese e's ric oaieisieesveie(seciclleiseeisieblesiaisvses. 992

REVIEWS.—

CENTENARY HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. 954

Met © ON BIRDS = ate eee eer cade cee cteu ocin essaecein abies a vedere Wa aR se sey oie 957

es PTAND IN REL ADIONSEO* WATER © cscccecedsstoccan obotecteViceves seen 964

OBILUARY —ODDETEE D THOMAS Giocc cece: «csc cssicoccevsrtedececstientle cveceoseerseceseetioes 966

NV LeTGSESENGIST Gh PaG@) Tone NWGTIE TDP LOW Ie tae nei enki ciclo cules s nelsv es oc vaseseseeercevmarccscceetevees 970

CONTENTS OF Vol X20WsE oad

PAGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.—

I.—Alarm call of Langoors. By Major W. M. Logan Home,1.A. 971

II.—Food of the Slow Loris (Nycticebus coucang). By J. M.D. °

Mackenzie; tii.) ci, sc. tisnaasessse a Cee eee cand ee ee 971

Iit.—Tiger Tracks: By A; A> DunbarsBrandersscs.ccu cee sede eee 972

[V.. > Proportion or the:sexesn! Tigers. byt a, Monies. cree 972

V.—On the Occurrence of Tigers on the Islands of Bombay and

Salsette.<” By Si) HerPiratersCaMe Zee: Gorka naeeece nero nee 973

VI.—The Tiger’s Method of making a ‘kill’. . By Lieut.-Col.

FRAG SS LOT 515 sh ar creeiclariee nat oRetpen se ie ae ee ae ee eet ane 974

Vil. —AntE sperience with-a (oress.9 By -S..llannart 42.1. sane 976

VIIT.—Sense of Smell in the Liom:. By. Col: Ebb: Olivier sc. 0. ON

IX.—Wounded Panther returning to‘ kill’. By R.C. Morris .. .. 977

X.—Panther climbing up to a machan. By |! ieut.-Col. R. W.

Button; TiAy GREE) sy. c52, Racers tccoeaes nee alee eee emer 978

XI.—Rogue Elephants with malformed tusks. (Witha photo). By

De REA Gi ries ac garac swiamatie st te naw nena acer ero Nae clarence eeenae 979

XII.—Notes on Berdmore’s Squirrel (J/enetes berdmoret). By

Jeo D5 MACK Onze ShGnee contain vist Sroseast wae taasie eae ree 980

XIfI.—Elephant mistaken fora Tiger. By R.C. Morris ............... 981

XIV.—Body measurements of a Gaur (Bibos gaurus). By R. C.

Morris, “(W2th.a@ proto)... 0 By Valse Cameron —r ss.e0. 0. eee eee 983

XV.—The Distribution of the Mouse Deer (MWoschiola Weninnay.

CHALE Map)... > Byte We Cam plOiin sa.1-ese ces sse cde ee 985

XVI.—How the Female Dugong carries her Young. By S. H.

Prateri€3MiZ iS. (perce cnactas ace ote eee cee ea ae ee ce 987

XVII.—The Sawn-Off Shot Gun--The Watchman’s. Gun. By

DW Wes As PU DS. cn aati. Mesies ne cr esaseavestire sc soseunce eee 987

XVIII.—Occurrence of the Trumpeter Bullfinch Geneon gtthaginea

crasstrostvis) in the Punjab Salt Kange. By H. W. Waite. 989

XIX.—Migration notes from Kashgar Chinese Turkestan. By

Capt. Gissherrift oR tA oe caret eceniin weet tinge cuaeeeerasess 989

XX.—Mortality amongst Hoopoe nestlings. By H. M. Griffiths ...... 990

XXI.—Nidification of Bingham’s White-headed Bulbul (Cerasophila

thonipsont). IBY)... Vi. WD Mackenzie, d..BiS eae. pone eee Jail

XXII.—Effect of wind on the flight of birds. (With two diagrams).

By Major 2W Ge sei O StOMiriM-S... cae eee cee 992

XXIII.—The Survival of the Gavial (Gavzalis Ronee eas) in Burma.

(With three text figures). By Dr. Malcolm Smith ............ 995

XXIV.—Note on a Formosan Viper ( 7rimeresurus mucrosquamatus )

from the North-East Frontier. By S. H. Prater, c.m.z.s.... 998

XXV.—Record of symptoms and treatment of a bite from a Formosan

Viper ( Zrimeresurus mucrosquamaius). By Medical Officer,

PASio tats. scacenet ote eneeiacenaens sins s seen tea ie cen sous ne aman enaeee 998

XXVI.—Mahseer Fishing at Tangrote, iaresternn District, in Mpecemncn)

By Capt Ws TRAC 2 JO near: iscmscsccecchcusice toenemstean mean rome es 999

XXVII.—Means of Defence in Insects. By J. M. D. Mackenzie, 1.F.s. 1000

XXVIII.—On a new form of Hesperid Butterfly (Saoris canarica yatesz)

from Coorg. By Brigadier W: MH. Evans, Cl. RE) ...:.-- 1000

XXIX.—The Discovery of Germination of Cyathodium spores (With

BALL AM) oh PEV AN RG EIWAGY: sec) pelsc sa crlcnce nat ene 1001

XXX.—Some Orchids, not previously recorded, fiom the Ganjam

District, Madras Presidency. a C. Henderson, 1.c.s. 1003

PROCKEDINGS© &.... 00 Sines Besos By state oy eee NaN eae eee ee 1004

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc:

es,

Seine

RB es:

THE GREAT STONE-PLOVER.

Esacus recurvirostris.

ASN EN er

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Naturai History Society

OcTOBER 1929 VoL. XXXIII No. 4

—

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

HC. STUART BAKERS FiZ.S;, FsE.S., M.B.0:U.,; HiFi AO: 0%

VoL. V

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

PART, X

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued trom page #79 of this Volume)

Suborder: Ori-LIMICOLA

Family : G@DICNEMIDA

Genus: BURHINUS

burhinus Uiger, Podr:, Mamet Aves, p. 150 (1811).

Burhinus edicnemus

Charadrius edicnemus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., p. 151 (1758)

(England).

The typical form is larger and more buff than B&B. @. indicus and

darker than #. @. astutus.

Kky TO SUBSPECIES

A. Smaller, wing 203 to 222 mm.; darker and

more buff ae ae . DB. @. indicus.

B. Larger, wing 228 to 244 mm.; paler and less

buff oH Py 2 B. a. astutus.

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT/7

BURHINUS CEDICNEMUS INDICUS

The Indian Stone-Plover

CGidicnemus indicus salvadori—Atti Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat. vol. viii,

p. 381 (1866) (India).

(Edicnemus scolopax.—-Blanf. & Oates, vol. iv, p. 204 (part).

Vernacular Names.—Karwanak, Barsiri -(Hin.); Lamébz of

Falconers; Aharma (Beng.); Kaledu (Tel.); Kana musul (Tam.).

Description.—-Forehead, lores, a ring round the eye and a broad

supercilium to the nape white; upper plumage ashy-brown, the

feathers edged with buff or ashy-buff and with black central

streaks, these are broad on the head, narrower on the nape and

much broader again on the scapulars; lesser wing-coverts brown,

edged rufous and with black subterminal bars ; median wing-coverts

white with brown or blackish terminal bars just edged with rufous

or rufescent white, the basal white forming a distinct diagonal

wing-bar ; greater coverts dull white, with broad subterminal black

bars ; primaries black with a broad white patch on the middle of

the two outermost, the other primaries with concealed white bases

and the innermost with white tips also; innermost secondaries like

the back; tail ashy-brown, tipped paler and with two irregular dark

bars on the pale tips; outermost feathers white, with broad black

tips anda faint dark band across the white of inner webs, other

feathers grading from this tothe central ones; sides of head white ;

the ear-coverts streaked with black; a black and rufous streaked

line from the gape to the ear-coverts ; chin and throat white; fore-

neck and upper breast pale buff, streaked with blackish-brown ;

under tail coverts pale buff; remainder of lower plumage white.

Colours of sott parts.—Iris bright yellow; bill black with a yellow

base; legs and feet yellow or greenish yellow.

Measurements.—Total length about 400 mm ; wing 203 to 222 mm.;

tarsus 72 to 77 mm.; culmen 41 to 47 mm.

Young birds are paler, more marked with buff and have the

streaks on the lower part narrower ; the white wing-bar is not so

distinct.

Nestling.—Sandy-grey, the crown marked with black Jines; two

broad lines on each side of the centre of the back and two lateral

bars to the tail tuft; underparts buffy-white, darker buff on the

breast.

Distribution.—India excepting that portion inhabited by the next

bird, B. @. astutus, Burma, Ceylon, S. W. and Central Siam.

Nidification.—_Over the greater part of its habitat, our Common

Indian Stone Plover breeds principally in April and May but a good

many eggs are laid in June and they may be found at odd times

from January to August. The birds breed either in bare, open

country or, less often, in thin scrub jungle. Another favourite place

is a mango tope in which the grass has been allowed to grow

fairly thickly amongst the trees. The birds select some small bare

patch amongst the grass and deposit their eggs on the ground

without any nest or attempt at a lining. When laying in the open

country the eggs are occasionally deposited amongst stones, or in

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 7479

ploughed fields and sandy wastes without any cover whatsoever

but, as a rule, the birds prefer plains on which there is a little

stunted grass or a certain amount of cover, under the shade of

which their eggs are placed. Occasionally I have known them to

lay amongst fairly thick bushes but this is exceptional. On the

other hand, in the north-west of India, mango orchards are

undoubtedly the favourite site and Hume mentions finding no fewer

than thirteen nests in one such orchard and he adds that there were

also present many other birds which had apparently not then laid.

Normally, the birds scratch a small hollow in the soil to receive

their eggs, but often they are deposited in amongst stones and

clods without any attempt at a hollow having been made. Some-

times there may be a little grass or a few stems of weed placed

as a lining for the eggs, but more often there is nothing atall. A

normal clutch of eggs is two only but Hume several times found

three eggs in a clutch and Blewitt also took three eggs together.

In shape the eggs are regular ovals, the smaller end but rarely

at all compressed, and never peg-top in shape. The ground colour

varies from a faint yellowish or greyish white to a deep buff or

stone colour. The marking varies considerably. Generally it

consists of rather large bold patches and smudges of brown and

blackish brown sometimes with a rather strong tinge of red or

purple, whilst the secondary markings are of the same character

but neutral tint or grey in colour. Occasionally the marks consist

in part of patches and in part of irregular streaks and twisted lines,

whilst yet more rarely they are all very small and profusely speckled

over the whole surface. One such pair of eggs in my own collec-

tion, unless closely examined, appears to be a rich buff, and another

pair an almost uniform dull grey buff. Sixty eggs average 47°6 by

34:7 mm. : maxima 52°O0 mm. by 34:2 mm. and 4871 by 36:2.mm..:;

minima 44:0 by 34:0 mm. and 50°3 by 320mm. In Ceylon the

Stone-Plover is said to breed from the end of May to October and

Parker took eggs in those months, but the only clutch I have seen

from that island was taken, fresh, on the 3rd of May.

The incubation seems to be carried on entirely by the female,

though the male is occasionally found keeping watch by his mate

when sitting and may possibly take his share of incubation during

the night. During the middle of the day the eggs are often left

unbrooded, unless they are directly in the sun, the heat of which

would be sufficient to destroy them.

The Young when first hatched are said to be very helpless and

unable to run about at all until they are partially fledged. Indeed

Marshall says that they are unable to run until fully fledged. On

the other hand some young birds which I found on a sand bank

in Assam and which were certainly not half fledged, were able to

run well and freely. When they noticed me, it is true they both

squatted and lay flat in the sand with their necks outstretched,

evidently thinking that they would be more likely to escape detec-

tion by hiding than by running away. I picked the little birds

up and examined them but when released, they both ran quickly

till they reached some stunted grass when they again squatted,

compressed as closely as possible in the sand.

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel, XXXII1

Alabits,—Our Indian Stone-Plovers frequent almost any kind of

dry open country and they may be found as often in ploughed

fields and fallow lands as in semi-desert or desert. It is never

found in forest and never, I think, among evergreen bushes, but it

occasionally resorts to thin deciduous forest such as Sal or scanty

scrub. When haunting the banks of rivers or sandbanks, I think it

more often selects those which have a little thin cover of grass or

equisetum than such as are absolutely bare. Normally it is a

plains bird but it occasionally ascends the hills of Southern India,

whilst Primrose found it breeding on the banks of the Teesta at

about 3,000 feet. Its food consists of insects, worms, snails, frogs,

etc., whilst it also swallows many tiny flints and small stones,

presumably as an aid to digestion. Occasionally, at all events, it

eats grain, as one bird whose stomach I examined had swallowed a

large number of grains of millet. This, however, may have been

taken together with some small beetles which were infesting the

millet at that time. During the heat of the day the Stone-Plover

moves about but little and, altogether, they are very crepuscular in

their habits, feeding principally in the early mornings and evenings.

Their call is a wailing note, sometimes said to be rather like that

of the Curlew. It is: not at all a: bad bird to eat if one can get

nothing else but it can hardly be said to have any claim to rank as

a sporting bird. In the field it is easily distinguished. When

unwatched, it stands about with a rather erect carriage, every now

and then making little runs with both head and tail depressed. Its

most notable feature undoubtedly is the large size of its head in

comparison with the body, whilst, from a short distance, its large

eyes attract attention, a fact which has given it the trivial name of

the ‘ Goggle-eyed Piover’. It is a shy bird, difficult to approach or

to watch.

BURHINUS GEDICNEMUS ASTUTUS

The Persian Stone-Plover

Burhinus edicnemus astutus Hartert, Nov. Zool., 1916, p. 93 (Fao,

Persia).

Edicnemus scolopax.--Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 294 (part).

Vernacular names.—Karwanak, Barstri (Hind.).

Descriplion.—Similar to the preceding bird but much paler, less

buff and generally with finer dark striations.

Colours of sott parts as in the other races.

Measuremenis.—Wing 228 to 244 mm. ; culmen 38 to 45 mm.

Distribution.—Merv in Turkestan, Mesopotamia, Persia to Fao

and the Persian Gulf, Mekran and Baluchistan, Sind to the Sirsa

Desert. Stragglers occur in winter as far as Lahore and I have

seen a specimen, apparently of this race, from Oude.

Nidification.—This bird differs inno way inits nidification from

the preceding, though it keeps more exclusively to desert country

and low stony hills. Occasionally it breeds in thin scrub cover or

in thin grass, but the majority of eggs reported have been taken

from completely open country. Fifteen eggs average 48°7 by

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 749

SOD) Mim) Maxima o 2:2. bys 3/°4 ann, and 49-0" by 35°07: ram. ;

minima 46°6 by 35°5 mm. and 48:0 by 35:5 mm. ‘The eggs are

indistinguishable trom those of the preceding bird but perhaps

average paler on the whole. The breeding months are April, May

and June.

Flabitts.—Similar to those of the other races. Hume found this

Stone Curlew frequenting both tamarisk jungle and open hill-sides

and refers to their collecting in flocks, on one occasion seeing no

fewer than forty of these birds together. Owing probably to the great

heat of the sun in Sind and the barren character of the country, it

frequents, this race seems to be even more crepuscular than the

common Indian form. Ticehurst, Bulkley and Eates all say that

during the hot hours of the day one never sees it unless flushed by

dogs or beaters, when shooting, for it will lie until almost

trampled on.

GENUS ESACUS

Esacus Lesson, Traité d’Orn., p. 547 (1831).

Type, by monotypy, Asacus recurvirostris Cuvier.

ESACUS RECURVIROSTRIS

The Great Stone-Plover

(Edicnemus recurvirosiris Cuvier, Regne An., i, p. 500 (1829)

(no type-locality) (Nepal).

Esacus recurvtrostris.—Blanf. & Oates, iv, p. 205.

Vernacular names.—Barra Karwanak (Hind.); Adz of Falconers ;

Gang Titaz (Beng.) ; Mzen-zix (Burm.).

Descriptton.—Lores, feathers round the eye and short supercilium

white ; above the latter a blackish streak and below the eye another

through the ear-coverts down the side of the neck; remainder of

upper parts pale ashy grey-brown; the crown and nape with very

fine shaft-streaks of brown and the shafts elsewhere a little darker

than the webs; lateral tail-feathers with broad black tips, white

sub-tips, followed by a narrow dark brown line ; wing-coverts paler

than the back; the innermost lesser coverts and the greater and

primary coverts blackish; primaries blackish-brown with a broad

white central splash on the first two, smaller on the third and basal

on the fourth and fifth; inner primaries white with broad subter-

minal bands of blackish-brown; outer secondaries brownish-black

with white bases and tips paling to the colour of the back on the

longest and innermost; a short grey-brown moustachial streak ;

remainder of lower plumage white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris yellow or greenish yellow ; bill black,

ereenish yellow or yellow round the base of both mandibles and

the posterior nostril ; legs and feet yellowish-green, dull pale olive-

greenish or pale bluish-green.

Measurements.—Total length about 550 mm.; wing 252 to 273

mm. ; tarsus about 80 to 84 mm. ; culmen 74 to 87 mm.

Distribution.—India, Burma, Ceylon ; Hainan.

Niditication.—The Great Stone-Plover breeds throughout its

range from early March to early April and it is probably only when

750. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1

the first clutch has been destroyed that it ever lays later than this.

The birds make no nest but lay their eggs in a depression on the

bare sand of sandbanks in river beds, more rarely on the shores of

the bigger rivers and, not infrequently, on shingle beds. As the

eggs have to be hatched and the young able to run about before

the rivers come into flood, it is essential that they should be early

breeders. There are no authentic records in India of this bird’s

ever depositing its eggs in ploughed fields or land away from river-

beds. In Ceylon, however, Mr. W. E. Wait took eggs on a small

island in the Minneri Tank, a large piece of water of some 4,000

acres, in Polan Nasawa in the North-East Province, whilst Oates

took eggs in Burma which had been deposited in fallow land on the

first of May. The eggs are invariably two only in number and both

in Shape and colouration are very like those of the Common Stone-

Plover but are, of course, considerably bigger. It is, however,

noticeable that scrolled rather than blotched eggs are the more

numerous with this species. Forty-four eggs average 54'4 by

40:7 mm. ; maxima 57:7 by 43:6 and 55:1 by 43°8 mm. minima 50-1

by 39:0 mm. and 53:2 by 38:7 mm. So far as is known the female

only carries on the duties of incubation but the male bird is general-

ly to be seen not far from the nest and may at times relieve her.

They do not breed in colonies but two or even three sets of eggs

may be found laid in fairly close proximity.

Habits.—The Great Stone-Plover is almost entirely a river bird,

though it may occasionally be found feeding on barren or fallow

jand, not far from the rivers. In their actions they are very much

like the Common Stone-Plover. They have the same slow, rather

stilted walk and, as soon as discovered, run away with the head

and tail depressed just as those birds do. They are generally shy

birds, difficult to approach. If disturbed at her nest, the female .

sneaks off, creeping away as close to the ground as she can and

though so large a bird, it is really not very conspicuous. Returning

to the nest, she does so with the greatest caution, running towards

it a few paces at a time and then stopping to scan the country for

any sign of danger. Very often, even when she has got to the

eggs, instead of squatting down, she will run forwards a few yards

and reconnoitre on the opposite side. Like all this family, they are

lethargic birds during the heat of the day, feeding in the mornings

and evenings, when they hunt the sand banks for crabs, small

molusca, insects, etc. Their principal food undoubtedly consists of

the first-named and I have found their stomachs full to repletion of

the little, tiny, bright red landcrab so common on the bigger rivers

of Eastern India. ‘The Plover has, however, to be very smart to

catch these, for his presence on the bank is the siginal to every crab

to retire to the depths of his burrow, so that the bank which, in the

distance, has appeared to be arosy red from the multitude of red

crabs on its surface, changes like a flash to its original dirty

mud colour. The bird’s call is a loud harsh single note and

when frightened or angry they utter a low hiss. Their flesh is

quite eatable and at its best tastes rather like Golden Plover

but they should only be shot for food when nothing else is

obtainable.

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 751

GENUS ORTHORAMPHUS

Orvthoramphus Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genoa, V, p. 312

(1874).

Type, by monotypy, Grdicnemus magnirostris Vieill.

ORTHORAMPHUS MAGNIRGSTRIS MAGNIROSTRIS

The Australian Stone-Plover

Fdicnemus magnirosirts Vieill., Nouv. Dict. D’Hist. Nat., xxiii,

pe 2k (sis) (Timor):

Esacus magntrostrts.—Blanf & Oates, iv, p. 351.

Vernacular names.-—None recorded.

Description.—Whole upper parts light | brown, the feathers of the

head with dark-brown centres occupying most of the webs and mak-

ing it look very dark; feathers of the remaining upper parts dark-

shafted and with pale tips ; tail like that of 4. recurvtrostrzs but central

rectrices with broken paie and dark termina) bars; lesser wing-

coverts tipped white, making a wing-bar; remaining wing-coverts

pale grey, the greater with broad white tips, forming a central

white bar; outer primaries brown banded with white, this increasing

until the inner primaries are pure white ; secondaries like the back ;

feathers round the eye and behind the ear coverts white, all round

the white and the lores blackish; a broad black streak from the

iower mandible ; chin and throat white ; lower neck and breast pale

grey, with darker shafts, those on the neck broadening to dark

streaks ; under tail-coverts buff ; remainder of lower plumage white.

Colours of sott parts.—Iris and orbital skin chrome-yellow ; bill

black, yellowish at the extreme base; legs and feet yellow,

greenish-yellow or greyish-yellow ; claws blackish.

Measurements.—Total length 620 mm.; wing of Andaman birds

266 to 277 mm.; tarsus 80 to 84 mm. ; culmen 76 to 82 mm.

Distribution. Andaman Islands, the coasts of the Federated

Malay States and islands of the Malay States to Australia.

Niditication.—Within our Indian area this fine Stone-Plover has

only been known to breed in the Andamans, where an egg was

taken on the 24th of March by Hume and in April by Monsieur

Bonig. In the further Eastern Islands it is said to breed from

the end of August to early November. Unlike our Great Stone-

Plover, which invariably breeds by the larger rivers, this bird is a

purely coastal form, laying its eggs on the shingle and sand just

above high water mark. It makes no nest, merely scratching a

depression either in the shingle itself or in amongst the debris

which collects at high water-mark. A single egg only is laid,

which in colour and shape resembles those of the Great Stone-

Plover but I have one or two eggs which are unlike any others

I have seen in this group of birds. In these the ground colour is

a very pale stone yellow, almost white, and the markings consist of

- pale grey patches and smudges, not very large but scattered

profusely over the whole of the surface. Fifteen eggs average

63:7 by 45-0 mm.; maxima 685 by 443 and 64:3 by 47-27 mm. ;

minima 60:2 by 42°8 mm. An abnormally small egg, measures

only 54:3 by 41:0 mm.

752. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIITI

Habits.—There is very little on record about the habits of this

bird, which are apparently very similar to those of other members

of the family, except that it is a bird of the sea coasts rather than

of the rivers. Its food consists almost entirely of smail crustacea

and its voice is the loud croak of the family. In its flight also

it resembles the other genera and species, that is to say, it is

capable of flying at considerable speed but with the expenditure of

a great deal of energy in flapping. ‘The legs and head stick out in

a line with the body., Like all the Gedicnemide it is a good swim-

mer, though it seldom indulges in swimming as a recreation.

(To be continued)

REVISION OF |

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

EY BLATTER, S.J., PH.D., “F.E.S.

PART X

GRAMINEA:

E. BLATTER and C, McCann

(Continued from page 496 of this Volume)

TRIBE XII, CHLORIDEE

85. OROPETIUM, Trin, ; Cke. ii, 1045.

Species 6.—India, Ceylon, Algeria, S. Africa.

1. Oropetium Thomeum, Trin. Fund. Agrost. (1820), 98, t.3; Kunth Enum.

Pl. i, 464; Suppl. 375; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 403; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind.

45, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 69; Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 366; Cke. ii, 1046; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa 964.—NMardus Thomea, Linn. f. Suppl. 105; Sm. in

Trans. Linn. Soc. i, 116.—ARottbellia Thomea, Koenig in Naturf. xxiii (1788),

Z105 Waillde Sp. Pl. 1. 4604; Roxb. Ply Corom® 1,17, £. 133,.' El. Ind..1, 357 ;

Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 300.—A. pilusa, Willd. 1. c. 465.

Description : Cke. ii, 1045,

Locality: Konkan: Trombay, on rocks (McCann A32!); Antop Hill

(McCann 3611!, 2449!).—Deccan : Gungapur (Blatter A33!, 584!); Poona

(Woodrow) ; Junnar near Poona (Woodrow).—S. MM. Country : Dharwar Dist.,

dry uplands, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2656!) ; Badami, Fort

(Bhide!, Talbot 2923!) ; Ranibennur (Chibber !).

Distribution - Throughout the plains of India, Ceylon.

86. MrcrocHioa, R, Br.; Cke. ii, 1031.

Species 7. One distributed throughout the tropics, 3 in Afreia, 3 in Australia.

1. Microchloa setacea, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 298; H. B. and K. Nov. Gen.

@iSp. i, 84-t22)> Beauv, Acrost. 115, t.20; 1. 8';aNees Agrost. Bras. 441 ;

PI. Afr. Austr. 247 ; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 258; Doell in Mart..Fl. Bras. ii, iii,

76; t.. 21; steud., Syn--Gram. 202; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 428. Fl. Austral. vii;

6038; Hook, fin PB. vil, 283; Cke. i1, 1031; Prain Bene.:Pl. 1226.;) Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 964.—ARoufoellia setacea, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832),

357, Corom. Pl. ii, 18, t. 132.—Nardus indica, Linn. f. Suppl. 105.

Describtion : Cke. ii, 1031.

Locality : S. M. Country : Dharwar (Woodrow), on dry hill sides, 2,400 ft.,

rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2908!) ; Dumbal (Talbot 2949 !).— Kanara -

Halyal (Talbot 2387'!).—Usually growing on old walls.

Distribution : Tropics of the Old and New World.

87. CyNopon, Rich ; Pers. Syn. Pl. i (1805), 85 ; Cke. ii, 1032.

Hitchcock (U.S. Dept. Agric. Bull. No. 792 (1920), 178) considers Panicum

dactylon, Linn. as the type species. He justifies the change of Cynodon into

Capriola in these words: ‘‘ Capriola Adans., Fam. Pl. 2 ; 31, 532, 1763. The

genera are indicated and distinguished by Adanson in a much abbreviated and

often unsatisfactory manner. The tabular arrangement of the genera of

Phalarides, his first section of the grass family or Gramina, includes Capriola

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

with the following diagnosis, interpreting the table: Summit of leaf sheath

hairy ; flowers in digitate spikes ; glumes laterally compressed, leinna awnless.

In the index there is given as a synonym under Capriola, ‘ Gramen dactylon

Offic.’ The last phrase appears in the first edition of the Species Plan-

tarum?* in the synonymy under Panicum dactylon as ‘ Gramen dactylon,

vadice vepente s. officinarum, Scheuch. gram. 104,’ thus connecting Capriola

dans. with Panicum dactylon.

‘* Cynodon Rich. ; Pers. Syn. 1: 85, 1805. Only one species described,

C. dactylon, based on Panicum dactylon L.’’

In spite of this we have to retain Cynodon. Mr. Hubbard of the Kew

Herbarium informs us that Cynodon is on the list of nomina conservanda and

according to International Rules must be used, although it is antedated by

Caprivia, Adans. (1763).

Species 3.—India, of which one is cosmopolitan.—Only one in the Bombay

Presidency.

1. Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Syn.i (1805), 85; Cke. ii, 1032. — Capriola dactylon,

O. Ktze. pt. ii (1891), 764.— For synonyms see Hook, f. in F. B. 1. vii, 288.

Description : Cke. ii, 1032.

Locality : Sind: Sita Road (Sabnis B361!) ; Jamesabad, fields (Sabnis

B907!, B1108!); Sanghar (Sabnis B896!); near Phuleli Canal, cultivated

fields (Sabnis B135!) ; Mirva Canal, sandy banks (Sabnis B265!) ; Sehwan to

Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B300!) ; Mirpurkhas, fallow fields (Sabnis B1i90!);

Gizri, near Karachi (Sabnis B783!) ; Larkana (Sabnis B458!, B477!) ; Baghar

(Blatter & McCann D690!).— Gzzaraé: Junagad, Kathiawar (Blatter 3785 !) ;

Cutch (Blatter 8553!); Dakore (Chibber!).—Khandesh : Ankai Hill

(Blatter!); Bor, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5482!).— Konkan: Very

common in Bombay and Salsette Islands (McCann !) ; Parsik, railway line

(McCann A181!) ; Vihar Lake (McCann 182 !).—Deccan : Igatpuri (Blatter

& Hallberg 5486!, McCann!); Devlali (Blatter & Hallberg 4570!) ;

Khandala, very common (McCann 5433!, 5301!) ; Purandhar, N. foot and

top (McCann 5042!, 5604! bis); Wai (Mamlatdar of Wai!) ; Panchgani

(Blatter & Hallberg B1264!, B1270!, B1329!).—.S. WZ. Country ; Devarayi

forests, 1,800 ft. (Sedgwick & Bell 4102!) ; Dharwar (Sedgwick !) ; Haveri

(Talbot !).— Kanara : (McCann !).

Distribution : Cosmopolitan.

88, GRACILEA, Koen. ; Cke, ii, 1030:

Species 2.—India and Africa.

1. Gracilea Royleana, Hook. f. in F. B.I. vii (1896), 284; Prain Beng. Pl.

1226; Cke. ii, 1031; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 955.—Melanocen-

chris Royleana, Nees in Proc. Linn. Soc. i (1841), 95 (momen tantum) ; Aitchis.

Cat. Panjab Pl. 168 (excl. sym.) ; Duthie Grass. NW. Ind. 33, Fodd: Grass:

N, Ind. 54, t. 67; Lisboa in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. viii (1893), 370.—

M. Jacqguemontii, Jaub. & Sp. Ill. Pl. Or. iv (1850-53), 36, t. 325.— Pom-

mereulla Royleana, Steud. Nom. ed. ii, ii, 379.

Description : Cke. ii, 1031.

Locality : Gujarat: Daman (Bhide!) ; Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 3764 !).—

Khandesh ; Toranmal, rocks (McCann A54!); Amalner, Bori River (Blatter

and Hallberg 4451!) ; Tapti, Bhusawal (Blatter and Hallberg 5453!) ; To

Naradana (Blatter and Hallberg 5212 !).—Konkan: Bandra (Ryan 1432!) ;

Parsik (Ryan 1215!); Trombay (McCann A352!) ; Worli Hill, common along

sea shore (McCann 5516!) ; Antop Hill (McCann 3612 !).—Deccan ; Panchgani

(Blatter & Hallberg B1278!) ; Katraj (Bhide!); Sinhagad forest (Bhide !) ;

Near Poona (Jacquemont 383) ; Poona (Woodrow !); Pashan, near Poona

(Gammie!); Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (dzekiel!) ; Kirkee (Gammie!) ;

Khandala to Campoli (McCann A57!); Deolali (Blatter A53!, 4545 !).—

S. M. Country: Dharwar Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick 2278!) ;

Yelvigi, dry hill sides, 1,800 ft., rainfall 28 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4902!) ;

Dharwar (Talbot 2008!) ; Belzaum (Stocks, Ritchie 831).—Kanara : Yellapore

(Talbot!) ; Karwar (McCann!).

Distribution : Bihar, Rajputana, W., Peniusula, Socotra, Nubia.

UL) Sp. Pl. 58, 1753.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 755

Var. plumosa, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii (1896), 284; Cke. ii, 1031.—M/elanocen-

chris plumosa, Jaub. & Sp. 1. c. 37; Hochst. in Flora (1855), 273, 417.—FPen-

nisetum plumosum, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 201.—Pfilonema plumosum,

Steud. l.c.—Hutriana abyssinica, R. Br. ex Fresen. in Mus. Senkenb. ii,

(11837), 142.

Description » Clusters of spikelets larger, 1°2 cm. long including the awns.

Locality ; Jemadar ka Landa near Karachi (Stocks 646).

89. ENTEROPOGON, Nees; Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 284.

Tall, slender, perennial grasses. Leaves long, very narrow. Spikelets very

narrow, 1-2-flowered (lower flower perfect, upper if present male or neuter)

unilateral in a solitary terminal slender spike, not jointed at the base ; rhachilla

jointed at the base. Glumes 3 or 4. Lower involucral glumes unequal,

narrow, hyaline, 1-nerved, persistent ; lower floral glume much larger, linear,

rigid, scabrid, dorsally rounded, 3-nerved, tip entire, or acutely bifid with a

short erect awn in the cleft ; callus bearded. Palelanceolate, 2-toothed, keels

scabrid. Lodicules2. Anthers very Jong. Styles distinct. Grain narrow,

free within the hardened glumes.

Species 3.—India, Africa.

1. Enteropogon badamicum, Bhide in Journ. & Proc. As, Soc, Beng. new series,

wit GLO1T) Sif:

Description : Stem60-75 cm., slender, erect, glabrous. Leaves narrow,

10-18 cm. by 3-6 mm., tapering to a fine acumination, glabrous; sheath

glabrous, finely long-ciliate at the mouth and sides ; ligule a short membrane

with a fine fringe of hairs. Spike solitary, terminal, 15 cm.long. Spikelets

2-seriate and secund ona flattened, trigonous, slightly scabrid rhachis, sub-

sessile or very shortly pedicelled. Involucral glumes persistent, empty,

scarious, l-nerved, glabrous or very minutely puberulous, the lower less than

half of the upper, more or less unequal-sided and sometimes slightly lobed on

one side, ovate, subacute and erose at the apex; upper shortly unequally

2-dentate at the apex with a short mucro between. Lower floral glume slightly

longer than upper involucral, 2-dentate at the apex, 3-nerved witha dorsal

stiff awn about as long as the glume, scabrid at the back and sides, ventrally

grooved, the groove corresponding withthe dorsal ridge which is continuous

with the awn. Callus bearded with short white silky hairs. Pale a little longer

than the glume, scabrid at the back and on the keels, 2-nerved, apex slightly

bifid and erose, with a bisexual flower. Grain cblong, flattened, as long as the

pale. Upper floral glume like lower, but smaller and also bisexual ; rhachilla

produced beyond the upper floral glume and bearing a sterile awned glume

which is much smaller than the upper floral glume.

Locality: S.M. Country: Badami (Bhide ! Talbot 2924 !).

Distribution: So far endemic.

90. CHroriIs, Swartz Prod. Veg. Ind. Occ. (1788), 25 ;

(Cke. ii, 1033).

Species about 75.—Tropical and subtropical regions of the Old and New

World.

Cooke has 4 species. We add 5 more: C. pallida, C. quinquesetica,

C. virgata, C. montana and C. gayana.

A. Rhachilla not at all produced beyond the

lower flowering glume ... 1. °C. pallida.

B. Rhachilla produced beyond the lower flow er-

ing glume

I. Rhachilla produced beyond the powers

glume and bearing 1 awn 2. C.incompleta.

II. Rhachilla produced beyond the ‘flows ering

glume and bearing 1-4 reduced empty

glumes

1. Spikes 1-3. Lower flowering glume

broadly cuneiform ... cess oe G. tencllar

2.2 -opikes= 1-3.) Bower flowering giume

ovoid, hirsute all over sek ye cdee, Cy VILLLOSHs

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

3. Spikes 2-10. Lower flowering glume

bearded at the base and on the margins

above the middle

a. Rhachilla bearing 1-2-awned, tubular

or inflated glumes

* Upper involucral glume awned, C. virgata.

** Upper involucral glume awn-

less C. barbata.

6. Rhachilla bearing 3-4 empty ‘glumes,

Spikelets 4-awned aitogerliel

4, Spikes 5-18

a. Spikes 2°5-5 cm. long

6. Spikes 6-10 cm. long

C. montana.

C. quinquesetica.

C. gayana.

Oo ND

1. Chloris pallida, Hook. f. in F.B.I., vii, 289; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa

(1924), 967.—.Schoenfeldia pallida, Edgew.in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. xxi (1852)

161, 183; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 166; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 32, Fodd.

Grass. N. Ind. 52, t. 64.—S. gvaczlis, Kunth. Rev. Gram. i, 283, t. 53; Enum.

Pi. i, 258 ; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 365.

Description: Aslender tufted annual, 25-45cm. high; stems simple or

branched, almost filiform. Leaves 10-20 cm. long, linear, very narrow,

flaccid, tips capillary, sparsely hairy inside towards the base; ligule of a few

hairs. Spikes 1-3, erect, digitate, golden-yellow, 7-13 cm. long, up to 5 mm.

broad, closely pectinate with the two rows of erecto-patent long-awned spike-

lets. Spikelets narrow, tapering, about 2 mm. long without the awns,

subsessile. Involucral glumes ovate-lanceolate, subaristately acuminate,

l-nerved, keels ciliate, lower 4 shorter than the upper. Lower floral glume

rather longer than the lower involucral, sessile, ovate, 1l-nerved, hairy, base

bearded, tip minutely notched, awn 15-25 mm. long, capillary, curved. Pale

narrow, keeis ciliate, tip 2-dentate. Grain linear, very slender, acute, pericarp

loose. Rhachilla not produced beyond the lower floral glume. No rudimentary

upper floral glume.

Locality: Gujarat: Sevalia (Chibber!) ; Lasundra (Chibber!) ; Khara-

ghoda, dry salt ground (G.C.H. 537!).—Deccan : Lonavla (Gammie!) ;

Charodi (Gammie 16531 !).

Distrijution : Bundelkhand, Bihar, Central India, W.-Peninsula.

2. Chloris iacompleta, Roth. Nov. Pl. Sp. (1821), 60; Steud. Syn. Gram. 207 ;

Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 290 ; Cke. ii, 1034 ; Achariyar South Ind. Grass. (1921);

258; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 968.—Chloris digitata, Steud. 1.c. ;

Dathie Grass N. W. Ind. 23; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893) ,

369 (excl. syn.).—C. radiata, Heyne ex Roth 1. c. 61.—C. Roxburghii, Edgew,

in Journ. As, Soc. Beng. xxi (1853), 160, 183 ; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 54.

t.65; Lisboa l.c. 368.—C. tetrameris, Trin. Gram. Unifl. 235; Steud. l.c.

206.—Digttaria elongata, Spreng. Syst. i, 271.—Gymnopogon digitatus, Nees

in Wight Cat. No. 1753 (ex Hook. f.); Steud. Nom. Ed. ii, i, 713.—Melica

digitata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 326; Kunth Enum. Pl.t, 37.—Clenium digitatum,

Spreng. Syst. i, 274.—Cynodon elongatus, Trin. in Spreng. N. Entdeck. ii, 64.

Description » Cke. ii, 1034.

Locality : Gujarat: Bulsar, in the shade of trees (Sedgwick 1114 !).--Khan-

desh; To Toranmal, in a stony watercourse (McCann 9773! 9774 !).—Konkan :

Thana (Lisboa). —Deccan : Nasik (Lisboa).—S. J7. Country. Deciduous

forests W. of Dharwar, 2,000 ft., Sat 40 inches (Sedgewick & Bell 4499 !).—

Kanara: N. Kanara (Woodrow); Goond (Talbot 2203!); Halyal (Talbot

2382.1 222001)

Distribution : Throughout the plains of India, Ceylon, China, Afghanistan.

3. Chloris tenella, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 329; Kunth Enum. PI. i, 267;

Spreng. Neue Entdeck. iii, 126; Steud. Syn. Gram. 204; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bomb. F 1. 296; Lisboa“in ‘Journ. Bom. Nat. ‘Hist: “Soe: vii (1893) ..368=

Hook. f. in F. 1B. 1. sviijez9l-. Cke. “a1, 1033.; . Achariyar, South: Inds Grass.

(1921), 259.—C. triangulata. Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 409;

Steud 1. c. 203: Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 33. Clenium indicum, Spreng

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 757

Syst. i, 274.—7Zetrapogon triangularis, Hochst. Pl. Arab. Schweinf. No. 967

(ex Hook. f.).

Description : Cke. ii, 1033.

Locality: Sind: Jemadar ka Landa near Karachi (Stocks).—Gujarat :

Surat, on the city walls (Dalzell).—Khandesh: W. Kbandesh (Blatter!),—

Deccan : Bijapur (Woodrow).—S. M. Country » Badami Fort (Bhide !).

Distribution: Rajputana, W. Peninsula, S. India, Arabia, Abyssinia,

4. Chloris villosa. Pers. Syn. i (1805), 87; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 267, Suppl.

2a Pie WO, fa .3 sh SaubDacce ope PoP. Or, 1v; 40, t-:3275.- Coss: & Dur, FI,

Alger. 87 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 167; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 291; Cke. ii,

1034.—Chloris tetrapogon, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 158.—Tetrapogon villosus,

Desf.. Fl. Atlant. ii, 383, t. 255; Trin. Fund. Agrost. 760; Boiss. Fl. Or. v

555; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 33, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 55, t. 68.

Description « Cke. ii, 1034.

Locality : Sind: Gharo (Blatter & McCann 1D655!).— Gujarat: Ahmedabad

(Sedgwick !).—S. MZ. Country: Sluavar, on dry bunds, 2,000 ft., rainfall

35 inches (Sedgwick 3095!) ; Yelvigi, 2,000 ft., rainfall! 30 inches (Sedgwick

O23}.

Distribution ; Punjab, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, westwards to the Canaries.

’

5. Chloris virgata. Sw. Fl. Ind. Occ. i (1797), 203; Trin. Gram. Unifil. 136;

Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. ii, iti; Hook. f.in F..B,. I. vii, 291; Achariyar South

Ind. Grass. (1921), 260; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 968 ;—Raddochloa

virgata, Beauv. Agrost. 84.—Chloris compressa, DC. Cat. Hort. Monsp. (1813),

94; Nees Agrost. Bras. 421, Fl. Afr. Austr. 240 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 204,—

C. caudata, ‘rin, ex Bunge Enum. Pl. Chin. Bor. 70.—C. cryptostachys, Steud.

in Schmidt Fl. Cap. Virid. 148.—C. decora, Nees in Herb. Royle; Steud. 1.

c. 205.—C. elegans, Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 264.—C. mec¢ana, Hochst. & Steud.

ex schult. Ind. Sem,-Hort. Hal. (1843) 7; Steud. t..c.; Boiss. Fl: Orient. v,

544; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 33.—C. montana, Griseb. in Goett. Nachr,

(1868), 84, Abhandl. 300; Duthie 1. c. (won Roxb.).—C. pallida, Link

Hort. Berol. i, 56, ii, 223.—C. penicillata, Hort. ex Nees l.c. (on Poir.) —

C. polydactyla, Durand Diss. Chlorid. (1808), 14, 22; Jacq. Eclog. Gram. 12,

t. G (non Sw.).—C. tetrastachys, Hack. mss, (ex Herb. Duthie).—Feterolepis

elegans, Ehrt. ex Boiss. 1. c. :

Vern. Names: Kharrut (Sind), Sikaliu, Gadhiu (Surat), Fulkalu (Dohad),

Faliu (Broach), Khariu (Charodi), Gonde gavat (Deccan), Ganjali hullu

(Karnatik ).

Description: A tufted leafy annual grass, 30-60 cm. high. Stems some-

what flattened, erect, leafy at the base, occasionally with creeping stems

_ rooting at the lower nodes. Leaf-blades rather narrow, linear flat, acute,

glabrous when old, with scattered long hairs in the leaves of young branches,

5-25 and even 40 cm. long, 3 mm, or less broad. Sheaths glabrous, compressed,

upper ones somewhat inflated, margins thin and membranous, mouth of

sheath bearded with long hairs in the leaves of young branches, quite glabrous

when old and in flower-bearing branches. Ligule a thin, narrow, mem-

branous ridge. Spikes 6-15, erect, crowded at the end of the peduncle,

2°5-6 cm. Jong, rhachis fine, angular, scaberulous on the edges. Spikelets

about 2°5 mm. long excluding the awns, 2-awned, short-stalked, consisting

of 4 glumes. Lower involucral glume slender, subulate, glabrous, with the

keel glaberulous, 1-nerved, about half the upper; upper involucral glume

oblong-lanceolate, 2-fid at the apex, glabrous except the scaberulous keel,

nerve produced between the lobes into a scaberulous awn. Lower floral glume

oblong-ovate, cymbiform and rather deep, bifid at the apex and awned in the

sinus, margins slightly ciliate up to about the middle and then closely ciliate

with long hairs almost to but not to the tip, awn about 6 mm. long, bearded

at base, on each side of the dorsal nerve there is a shallow groove with short

scattered appressed hairs. Pale much narrower and rather shorter, often

reduplicate, toothed or notched. Rhachilla somewhat adnate to lower floral

glume, shortly produced, bearing a curious semitubular or bucciniform trun-

cate glume with 2 minute auricles at tip and an awn 8 mm. long. Grain

fusiform, sometimes slightly curved, pericarp loose.

Locality: Gujarat: Sungiri (Gammie 16585!); Perim Island, Gulf of

Cambay (Blatter 3816! 3820!).—Khandesh; Bor, Bori River (Blatter &

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Hallberg 4425!) ; Toranmal, S. E. slope (McCann A194 !).—Konkan ; Lower

Parel (Blatter 4279!), very common in Bombay Isl. (McCann!); Parsik,

railway line (McCann A195!).—Deccan : Abundant on old walls of houses

in Poona (Achariyar) ; Mangiri, near Poona (Gammie 15342!) ; Katraj Ghat

(Gammie 1042!) ; Gangapur (Blatter & Hallberg 4574!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter &

Hallberg 5118!, 5145!) ; Lina Hill, Nasik Dist. (Blatter & Hallberg A190!) ;

Sholapur (D’Almeida A193!).—S. M4. Country: Hubli 2,000 ft., rainfall

30 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4219!) ; Dharwar, 2,500 ft., rainfall 34 inches

(Sedgwick 1818!).

Distribution: Kashmir (Ladak), Rajputana, Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Burma,

W. Peninsula, Central & S. India, westward to Algeria; Mongolia, tropical

and S. Africa and America.

6. Chloris barbata, Sw. 1. Ind. Occ. i (1797), 200; Jacq. Eclog. Gram. 10, t.

8; Kunth Enum. Pl.-1,.264,°Suppl. 209; Trim. (Diss... 232, sp) Gram. ert.

306 ; Nees Agrost. Bras. 421; Steud. Syn. Gram. 204; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 331;

Grah.Cat.° 234 Aitchis: (Cafe Panjab, Pl. 167; 1Dithie (Grass. IN.We-laduaco,

Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 53, t. 34; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893),

367 ; Griseb. Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 539; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 429, Fl. Austral. vii, 613

(excl. syn. decora); Doellin Mart. FY. Bras. ii, ili, 67; Hook. £, 1) F.B.1: vii,

992 -*Prain Bengs: Pl, 1227 ;-Watt. Diet. con, Prod: ai, 2095 .Cke vi 035..

Achariyar South Ind. Grass. (1921), 264 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924),

969.—Andropogon barbatus, Linn. Pl. Jam. Pugill. 30, Mantiss. ii, 302.

Rheede Hort. Malab. xii, t. 5].

Description : Cke. ii, 1035.

Locality : Sind: Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D656!); Tatta (Blatter &

McCann D657!).—Khandesh : Nim, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5399 !) ; to

Naradana (Blatter & Hallberg 5163 !, 5182 !); Umalla, Tapti bank (Blatter &

Hallberg A188 !).—Konkan » Patel, very common in Bombay Island (McCann

5381 !); Sion (McCann 5220 !, 5245 !).—Deccam : Chattarshinji Hill, Poona

(Ezekiel !); Jeur, Anmednagar Dist. (Woodrow!).—.S.M7. Country : Dharwar

Dist., 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick 1962 !); Haveri (Talbot 2215 !).—

Kanara : Kulgi (Talbot 2311 !); Yellapore (Talbot 1524 !).

Distribution : Tropics generally.

7. Chioris: montana,. Roxb. Fi.-Ind. i, -329%- Kunth “Enum. Pi; i1,.265;

Spreng. Neue Entdeck. tii, 127; Steud. Syn. Gram. 204; Lisboa in Journ.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.-vil (1893), 3693 Hook. f..in FB. vil, 2922) Achativar

S, Ind. Grass. (1921), 270 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 969.—-C. decora,

Thw. Enum. 371 (excl. syn.).—C. barbata var. decora, Trim. Cat. Ceyl, Pl.

109.

escription : Perennial. Stems erect, tufted geniculately ascending from a>

creeping base, rooting at the nodes, quite glabrous, 10 cm. to 1-2 m. high.

Leaf-blades narrow-linear, finely acuminate, rounded at the base, glabrous,

folded flat inwards, 10-20 cm. long, 1-5-3 mm. broad ; sheaths shorter than the

internodes, flat, compressed, glabrous, with a few hairs or none at the mouth

and with membranous margins, uppermost sheath spathiform, enclosing the

inflorescence when young ; ligule a thin ridge of short hairs densely arranged.

Nodes glabrous, dark-ringed. Spikes 2-6, very rarely up to 9, 2°5-7°5 cm.

long, connate at the base, erect and never spreading. Peduncle slender, long,

glabrous, but copiously pubescent just below the base of the connate spikes ;

rhachis angular, slender, scabrid. Spikelets about 3mm. long excluding the

awns, short-pedicelled, unilateral, biseriate, thin, slender, 1-flowered, pale or

purple tinged, disarticulating above the 2 lower empty glumes which persist

on the rhachis, generally 4-, rarely 3- or 5-awned, awns pale or purple, 3-5

mm. long; pedicel short, angular, scaberulous with a few pilose hairs;

rhachilla produced, but is shorter than the flowering glume, Glumes usually 6,

very rarely 5or 7. Lower involucral glume hyaline, awnless, white or lightly

purplish, about 1'5 mm. long, lanceolate, finely acuminate, l-nerved, and with

a scabrid keel; upper twice as long as the lower, hyaline, oblong-lanceolate,

finely acuminate or obtuse and shortly awned, l-nerved. Lower floral glume

broadly oblong, chartaceous, 3- nerved, bearded with long hairs along the

margins from a little above the base and witha tuft of hairs at the base, awned at

the apex; upper floral glume much smaller, cuneate, conduplicate, awned from

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 759

the truncate tip, embracing glumes v and vi; glume v cuneate or subglobose,

small, enclosing the still smaller or minute glume vi, both awned. Pale

oblong, alittle smaller than its glume, folded along the margins. Stamens 3,

anthers pale yellow. Styles white with purple stigmas. Lodicules narrowly

cuneate.

Locality ; Deccan : Nasik (Lisboa).

Distribution: Upper and Lower Gangetic Plain, southward to Ceylon,

Coromandel Coast.

8. Chloris quinquesetica, Bhide in Journ. & Proc. As. Soc. Beng. (new series)

viii (1912), 311.

Description: A glabrous, perennial grass, creeping and rooting at the

lower nodes and there forming small tufts of leaves and an erect flowering

stem 60 cm. high; nodes glabrous. Leaves 2-15 cm. long and 3-5 mm. broad,

sparsely, delicately long-ciliate when young, ultimately glabrous, lanceolate,

acuminate, truncate at the base, margins minutely scabrid; ligule a narrow

fimbriate membrane. Spikes 5-18, 2°5-5 cm. long, crowded in a very short

racemose fascicle the branches of which are often decurrent into the peduncle

fora short distance and form ridges on it which are also studded with stray

spikelets. Peduncle below the spikes and the rhachises hairy. Spikelets 8mm.

long including the awns. Glumes 7: iandii empty, iii flowering, awned,

paleate, iv-vii barren, epaleate, gradually smaller and rounder, all awned.

Lower involucral glume 15 mm. long, elliptic-lanceolate, membranous,

strongly l-nerved, slightly oblique: upper 14 times as long as the lower,

elliptic-oblong, membranous, shortly mucronate, strongly l-nerved. Lower

floral glume without the awn as long as the upper involucral, elliptic-obovate,

cuneate, coriaceous, 3-nerved, and with a dorsoterminal awn 5 mm. long,

lateral nerves densely bearded with long white hairs nearly from the base.

Pale as long as the glume but narrower, slightly hairy at the back, very shortly

2-fid at the apex, 2-keeled, keels minutely ciliate. Stamens 3, styles 2, stigmas

plumose. Grain plano-convex or trigonous. Lodicules minute.

Locality; Sind: Jamesabad, in fields (Sabnis B1116 !).—Gzzarat: Bhuj,

Bhodir Maka, Cutch (Blatter 3748!) ; Runn of Cutch (Blatter 3732!).—

Konkan : Versova (McCann A185!) ; Papadi, Bassein, growing on the bunds

of rice fields, in semi-salt land (Bhide!); Colaba, near a swamp, on

rocks, very common (McCann Al198!, A199!, A200!).—Kanara- Karwar, on

red mud near the shore (Hallberg & McCann A197 !).

Distribution : So far endenic.

9. Chloris gayana, Kunth. Rev. Gram. i, 89, 293, .t. 58, Enum. i, 267, Suppl.

216; Nees Fl. Afr. Austr, 240);> Steud: Syn: Pl. Glum. i, 207 ; Oliv: in ‘Trans.

Linn. Soc, 29,174; Durand & Schinz Consp. Fi. Afr. v, 861.—C. abyssinica,

Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 406; Engl. Hochgebirgs Fl. Trop.

Att déZer scuweint..10 Bull. Herb. Boiss 11, App. 11,32; Durand & Schinz

Consp. l. c. 860.—C. glabrata, Anderss. in Peters Reise Mossamb. Bet. 557.

Popular Name: Rhodes Grass.

Description: Perennial or annual, 0'6-1'2m. high; culms erect or geni-

culately ascending, or prostrate at the base, simple or branched, often emitting

fascicles of barren shoots or short runners from the lower nodes, often robust,

3-9-noded, compressed below, glabrous, smooth, upper internodes usually

exserted; sheaths glabrous or sparingly hairy near the mouth, smooth, the lower

strongly compressed, keeled, keels sometimes scabrid, the uppermost some-

times tumid ; ligules membranous, very short, long-hairy ; blades linear, long-

tapering to a fine point, 15-more than 30 cm. by 6-8 mm. when expanded, flat

or folded, glabrous or hirsute near the base, green, smooth below, rough above

on the margins. Spikes 6-15, umbelled, sessile, suberect, rarely spreading,

6-10 cm. long, greenish or brownish ; rhachis scabrid ; spikelets 3 mm. long,

3-4-flowered, shortly 2-awned, glumes very unequal, the lower involucral

ovate-lanceolate, acute, subhyaline, 1-1°5 mm. long, the upper oblong, obtuse,

mucronate, 2-3 mm. long, firmer, scaberulous ; lower flora! glume oblong, sub-

obtuse or acute, minutely 2-toothed, ciliolate along the marginal nerves

and shortly bearded below the tips or only finely bearded or almost glabrous,

with a (sometimes minutely hairy) groove on each face ; awn as long or slightly

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

longer than the glume, straight ; callus minutely bearded, pale glabrous, keels

scabrid. Anthers 1°5 mm. long; second floral glume with a male flower, like

the preceding, but glabrous, 2 mm. long, awn 2 mm. long or less; vth and vith

glume rudimentary, cuneate in profile, empty, awnless.

Locality: Deccan: Poona (Burns!).—See also Mann in Bull. 77, p. 72 of

Dept. Agric. Bombay.

Distribution : S.and tropical Africa,

91. DactTyvLoOcTENIUM, Willd Enum. Pl. (1809), 1029.

Annual or perennial; leaves flat, subflaccid; spikes in umbels of 2-6,

erect or stellately spreading; tips of the rhachis barren, mucroniform,

usually curved. Spikelets 3-5-flowered, laterally compressed, densely imbri-

cate, biseriate, sessile, unilateral on a flattened rhachis, the uppermost

reduced ; rhachilla tardily disarticulating above the empty glumes, tough

between the flowering glumes. Flowers bisexual, the uppermost rudimentary.

Involucral glumes 2, unequal, strongly keeled, the lower ovate, acute, thin,

persistent, the upper elliptic-oblong in profile, obtuse, mucronate or awned,

firm, deciduous. Flowering glumes ovate, subacuminate, 3-nerved, mucronate

or awned, deciduous with the grains. Pales about as long as the flowering

giumes, 2-keeled, subpersistent. Lodicules 2, cuneate, minute. Stamens 3.

Ovary glabrous; styles distinct, very long, subterminally exserted. Grain

subglobose, slightly laterally compressed, not grooved or hollowed, rugose or

punctate ; pericarp very delicate, irregularly breaking away ; embryo scarcely

equalling 3 the length of the grain ; hilum basal, punctiform.

1. Annual; grain subglobose ae wv LL. D. aegyptium.

2, Perennial; grain ovoid ae .. & WD. Sendicum.

1. Dactyloctenitim aegyptium, Richt. Pl. Europ. i (1889), 68; Muschler Fl.

Egypt i(1912), 108 (omen attributum Waildenowio per error.).—Cynosurus

aegvptius, Linn. Sp. Pl. 72.—Dactyloctenium aegyptiacum, Willd. Enum. Pl.

(1809), 1029; Beativ. Agrost. 72, t. 15, £. 2; Kunth Enum. Pl.i, 261, Suppl. 1.

204; Steud. Syn. Gram. 211; Grah.'Cat- Bomb.) Pl. 2235-7 Dalz.. Gibbs:

Bomb. F1.°297 ; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab. Pl. 167; Mig, Fl. Inds Bat.aii; 384.

Boiss. Fl. Or. v,'556; Griseb. FI. Brit. W. Ind. 540; Baker Fl. Maurit. 452.—

Elleusine aegyptiaca, Desf. Fl. Atlant. i (1798), 85; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 344;

Griff. Notul!iij.ol,. Ics Pl. Asiat. t.0139) ab79s eben ih ere Austral eat a bom

Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 34, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 56, t. 35; Hook. f. in

B.B.. vii, 295; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Neat. sHist.-S0c. evil, (1693)he o74e

Prain: Beng. Pl. 12295 ‘Cke. ii, 10385 Achariyarys. dnd. (Grass. (1921) 5276.

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 970.—#. czliata, Rafin. in Desv. Journ.

Bot. iv (1814), 273.—#. cruciata, Lamk. Ulustr. i, 203, t. 48, f. 2.—E. mucro-

nata, Stokes Bot. Mat. Med. i, 150; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii

(1893), 376.—4. pectinata, Moench Meth. Suppl. 68.—Z. prostrata, Spreng.

Syst. i, 350.—#. vadulans, R. Br. Prodr. 186.—Dactyloctenitum distachyum,

Bojer Hort. Maurit. 370.—D. Figarei, DeNot. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iii, ix

(1848), 325.—D. meridionale, Ham. Prodr. Pl. Ind. Occ. 6.—D. mucronatum,

Wild. l.c.; Trin. Sp. Gram, Ic. t. 69.—D. prostratum, Willd. 1.¢c.—D. radu-

fans, Beauv. Agrost. 72; Kunth ll. ec. 262, 204.—Cynosurus distachyus,

Rottl. ex Steud. Nom. ed. ii, i, 465.—Chloris mucronata, Mich. Fl. Am. Bor. i,

59.—Cenchrus aegyptius. Beauv. Agrost. 157.—Rhabdochloa mucronata,

Beauv. 1. c.—degilops saccharinus, Walt. Fl. Carol. i, 249.—Rheede Hort.

Mal. xii, t. 69.

Vern. Names: Gandhi:(Sind); Anchi, Manchi (Kaira); Tagar sammi

(Dharwar) ; Hakki kalin hullu (Karnatik).

Description : Cke. ii, 1038 (under Hleusine aeygptiaca).

Locality : Sind: Ghulamalla, garden (Blatter & McCann D599!) ; Tatta

(Blatter & McCann D600!); Indus Delta (Blatter & McCann D601!) ;

Karachi (Bhide!) ; Mirpurkhas (Bhide!, Sabnis B1170!) ; Umerkot (Sabnis

B1001!) ; Hyderabad, cultivated fields (Sabnis B50!) ; Sukkar, cultivated

fields (Sabnis B540!) ; Nasarpur (Sabnis B1138!, B1059 !) ; Sanghar (Sabnis

B888 !).—Gujarat : Sumarasar, Cutch (Blatter 3759 !) ; Perim Island, Gulf of

Cambay (Blatter 3818!) ; Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 8551 !).—Khandesh:

Muravad, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5164!) ; Bor, Bori River (Blatter &

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 761

Hallberg 5483!).--Konkan : Wada Range, Thana Dist. (Ryan 685!) ; Juvem

(McCann 4264 !); Vetora (Sabnis 33592 !); Mulgaum (McCann A208!) ; Versova

(McCann A205!) ; Uran (Hallberg & McCann 5135!) ; Marine Lines, Bombay

Isl. (Hallberg A206!) ; very common in Bombay Isl. (McCann!) ; Ratnagiri

(Woodrow 41).—Deccan : Poona (Jacquemont 399, 486), Agricultural College

garden (Garade 665!); Bopodi, near Poona (Gammie 15310!); Manmad,

riverbed (Blatter A211!) ; Khandala to Campoli (McCann A209!) ; Khandala

(Gammie 15395 !, McCann!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5195!, McCann !) ;

Sharanpur, near Nasik (Woodrow).—S. M7. Country: Yelvigi, 1,800 ft.,

rainfall 25-30 inches (Sedgwick 2002!) ; Gokak (Shevade!) ; Badami (Wood-

row 12).—Kanara : Dundeli, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100 inches (Sedgwick & Bell

4215 !); Halyal (Talbot 2306!) ; Karwar, sea shore and near sea (Talbot 1298 !).

Distribution - Spread throughout tropical and subtropical regions.

2. Dactyloctenium scindicum, Boiss. Diagn. Ser. 2, fasc. 4 (1559), 131, Fl. Or.

v (1881) 557.—Hleusine scindica, Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. (1888), 58 ;

Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 377.--Dactyloctenium

glaucophyllum, Courb. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. iv, xviii (162), 133.—-Hleusine

glaucophylla, Munro ex Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. xix (1881), 107.—2Z.

aristata, Ehrenb. ex Boiss. Fl. Or. v (1881), 557; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 296;

Cke. ii, 1039.

Description : Cke. ii, 1039 (under Elewsine aristata).

Locality: Sind : Karachi, (Burns !), seeds*grown, taken from a bird’s crop

(Ticehurst !) ; Sanghar (Sabnis B893!); Indus Delta (Blatter & McCann

D602!) ; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D603!); Gharo (Blatter & McCann

D604 !); Mundgiro (Stocks 637). —- Gujarat - Ahmedabad (Woodrow), dry open

hills (Sedgwick !); Sevalia (Chibber !);— Konkan : Ratnagiri (Woodrow).

Distribution : Punjab, Rajputana, W. Peninsula, Baluchistan, Afghanistan,

Arabia, Nubia.

92. ELEUSINE, Gaertn. Fruct. & Sem. i (1788), 7, pl. 1, f. 11; Cke. ii, 1037

(partis).

Annual or perennial ; leaves long, flat or folded, flaccid or firm ; spikes in

interrupted spikes or the upper or all in a terminal umbel, straight, suberect,

spreading or deflexed ; spikelets glabrous, 3-6-flowered, laterally compressed,

densely imbricate, alternately biseriate, unilateral, sessile on a flattened rhachis,

the uppermost terminal, perfect ; rhachilla disarticulating above the involucral

glumes and between the flowering glumes, or tough, produced, sometimes

terminating with a rudimentary glume. Flowers bisexual. Involucrai glumes

2, subequal, persistent, obtuse or obscurely mucronate, membranous, strongly

keeled, 3-5 nerved, the lateral nerves close to the keel, the lower shorter, with

the keel crested. Flowering glumes very similar, 3-nerved near the base;

lateral nerves submarginal above, with 1-2 short additional nerves close to the

keel. Pales slightly shorter than the glumes, 2-keeled, keels winged. Lodi-

cules 2, minute, cuneate. Stamens 3. Ovary glabrous; styles slender from a

broadened base, distinct ; stigmas plumose, laterally exserted. Grain broadly

oblong to globose, broadly grooved; pericarp loose, delicate, breaking up .

irregularly or almost circumscissile ; seed finely striate ; embryo suborbicular,

basal; hilum punctiform, basal.

Species 6. In the warm regions of the E. hemisphere, 1 widely spread

through the tropics.

Of the 5 species mentioned by Cook, 2 have been transferred to Dacty-

loctenium above, viz. &. aegypliaca and F. aristata. We add 2 species new to

the Presidency: /. verticillata and E£. brevtfolia.

A. Erect.

1. Spikes digitate

I. Spikes slender, nearly glabrous at base

Seed oblong, obtusely trigonous ws 1. “2 indica.

2. Spikes stout, often incurved pubescent

at base. seed globose 2. £. Covacana.

II. Spikes scattered or whorled 3. £. verticillata.

B. Prostrate or creeping and rooting

I. Ligule hairy. Spikes digitate ... .. 4. &. flagellifera.

Il. Ligule obsolete. Heads of spikes globose... 5. &. brevifolia

762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIIL

1. Eleusine iadica, Gaertn. Fruct. i (1788), 8; Lamk. Ill. i, 203, t. 48: Kunth

Enum. Pl:.i, 273, Suppl. 224, t. 16, £. 4; Steud: Syn. Gram- 211 ; Roxb. FI.

Ind. i, 345; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl: 235; Griff. Notul: 111,-525-53,21e.22). Asiat. t.

119, f.- 156 & t,- 150, f. 1: Thw. Enum.’ Pl :Zeylan.:371 ;.Trim.: Cat. Ceyl: Bl.

109; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 168; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 34, Fodd. Grass.

N. Ind. 57, t. 69; Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, 385; Boiss. Fl. Orient. v, 555; Benth.

Fl. Hongk. 429, Fl. Austral. vii, 615 ; Nees Agrost. Brass. 439, Fl. Afr. Austr.

251; Griseb. Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 540.—Z. distachya, Trin. ex Steud. Nom. Ed.

ii, i, 549.—Z. distans, Moench. Meth. 210.—. domingensis, Sieb. ex Schult.

Mant. ii, 323.—E. Gouint, inaequalis, rigidifolia, & scabra, Fourn. ex Hemsl.

Biol. Centr. Amer. iii, 565.—. gracilis, Salisb. Prodr. 19.—E. marginata,

Lindl. in Mitch. Three Exped. i, 319 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 212.—£. tristachya,

Lamkyl.c.; Kunth Revis: Gram? 1, 92, Enum 1, 273°; Steud=l.c>; Hook.7f,.1n

FEF. By 1. vii,-293'; Cke. 11,.1037;:Achariyar:S.- Ind-(Grass:«(1921), 27S saie 0G

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa 970.—Cynxosurus indicus, Linn. Sp. Pl. 72.—

Panicum compressum, Forsk. Fl. Aeg. Arab. 18.—Paspalum dissectum, Kniphof

Cent. Bot. in Orig. t. 11.—Zyviticum geminatum, Spreng. Syst. i. 326.—

Agropyrum geminatum, Schult. Mant. iii, 655.—Rheede Hort. Mal. xii, t. 69.

Description » Cke. ii, 1037.

Locality : Gujarat » Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 8549 !).—Ahandesh -: Umalla,

Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5231!) ; N. slope of Chanseli (McCann

A202 !).—-Konkan : Byculla (McCann A207!) ; very common in Bombay and

Salsette Isls. (McCann!) ; Alibag (Ezekiel!) ; Vetora (Sabnis 335951) ;

Bassein (McCann 4478 !j}.—Deccan : Khandala, very common (McCann 9407 !);

Khandala to Karjat (Blatter & Hallberg 5323!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg

5199!) ; Poona (Woodrow).—S. M. Country : Dharwar, 2,400 ft., rainfall 34

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4988 !).—anara ; Yellapore (Talbot 1523 !) ; Halyal

(Talbot 2103 !) ; Nencholi, near banks (Talbot 954 !).

Distribution ; Throughout the plains of India, tropics of the Old World.

-* 2, Eleusine coracana, Gaertn. Fruct. & Sem. i (1788), 8,t.1; Lamk.

Illustr. t: 28: Schreb.. Gram. 11, t.35; Trin. Sp. Gramleet. 70 -s5teudsesyn-

Gram. 211 ; Panz. in Muench. Denkschr. iv (1814) t.8 ; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 342.

Grah.' Cat. 235; Dalz.& Gibs.s Suppl; 97; Aitehis:. Cat. Panjab jel 1687.

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 34; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 57, t. 69, Field & Gard.

Crops 15, t. 28; Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii (1893), 373 ; Hook.

fin F=-B.4. vii; 294°; Ckes1i;- 1039 5 Prain: Bene Ply 1229 Haicesssot. -binan

& Orissa (1924), 970.—Cynosurus coracanus, Linn. Syst. Ed. ii, 875.—leusine

cerealis, Salisb. Prodr. 19.—. sphe@rosperma, Stokes Bot. Mat. Med. i,

149.—Z. stricta, Roxb. l.c. 343.—. Tocussa, Fresen. in Mus. Senkenb. ii

(1837), 141.—Rheede Hort. Mal. xii, t. 78.

Vern. Names : Nachni, Nagli, Ragi, Makra, Nanguli.

Description ; Very like Hleusine indica, but stouter, up to1‘5m. high. Leaves

often far overtopping the stem, 5-6 mm. broad ; sheaths compressed, loose ;

ligule of hairs. Spikes 4-7, suberect, with their ends or whole spike frequently

incurved, rhachis of spikes often pubescent at base, somewhat 3-gonous or

back flattened. Spikelets much congested, awnless, 3-6-fid. Flowering glumes

more broadly ovate than in &. zzdica, and often with 1-2 nerves in the sides,

variable in size, up to 5 mm. long. Seed globose, dark brown, smooth in some

varieties, in other cases somewhat rugose, with a depressed black hilum and

slightly flattened on one side.—A cultivated form of &. 7ndica.

Locality ; Extensively grown in the hilly districts of the Presidency.

Distribution : Cultivated in the tropics of the Old World for its seed.

Uses ; ‘It is often said to be a good fodder. This is not my experience, the

leaves though soft have very tenacious vascular strands and I have noticed

animals frequently reject them after chewing a few times.’ (Haines).

3. Eleusine verticillata, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 346 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 211 ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 168; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 34, Fodd. Grass. N.

Ind... 58;t. 70 ;-Lisboa: in- Journ: Bom-Nat--Hist..Socvil- (4893) 7377-; Hook

f.in F. B. I. vii, 295; Saxton & Sedgwick Plants of N. Gujarat in Rec. Bot.

Surv. Ind. vi (1918), 322.—&. racemosa, Heyne in Roth Nov. Sp. 80.—

Aerachne eleusinoides, Wight & Arn. in Wight Cat. No. 1760 ; Nees ex Steud.

l.c.—A. verticiilata, Lindl. Introd. Nat. Syst. ed. ii, 381.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 763

Description : Anannual grass. Stems 30-90cm. high, erect, stout or slender,

simple or branched, soft. Leaves flat, rather broad, flaccid, acuminate, gla-

brous ; sheath compressed ; ligule a few hairs. Spikes few or many, scattered

or whorled, or opposite or alternate, suberect, 2-7°5 cm. long, very many-

flowered. Spikelets 4-6 mm. long, 8-12 flowered, shining ; glumes small,

acute, glabrous. Involucral glumes broadly ovate, finely acuminate or

aristulate. Flowering glumes 2 mm. long, very broadly ovate, 3-nerved, keel

excurrent, lateral nerves ending in small teeth. Grain rugose, pericarp

caducous,

Locality: Gujarat: Ahmedabad, compounds, lanes and banks, common

(Saxton and Sedgwick !)

Distribution : ‘Tropics of the Old World.

4. Eleusine flagellifera, Nees in Linnea xvi (1842), 220; Steud. Syn. Gram.

211 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 34, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 57,t. 37 ; Boiss FI.

Orey, Goo; Hook. £, in H. Bil, vii, 204; \Cke. 11,1038. -'2..avabica,: Hochst. ex

Steud. Ics; “Aitchis,. Cat, Panjab’ Pl: 167; Lisboa in. “Journ... Bom. Nat.

Hist: Soc. vil (1893), 377 ;-> Watt.:Dict. Econ. Prod, iii, 241,

Description: Cke. ii., 1038.

Locality ; Sind: Jacobabad (Bhide!) ; Mirpurkhas (Jhaveri !) ; Sanghar

(Sabnis B889 !, A236!) ; Umerkot, sand hills (Sabnis B1002 !, B1017 !); Sehwan

to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B616!); Pad-Idan (Sabnis B511!); Gharo

(Blatter & McCann D605 !).—Khandesh : (Lisboa) .—Gujarat : Bhuj Hill, Cutch

(Blatter 3746 !). Deccan : Poona (Lisboa).

Distribution : Punjab, W. Peninsula, Afghanistan, N. Africa.

5. Eleusine brevifolia, R. Br. in Wall. Cat. No. 3815; Hook.f. in F.B.I. vii

294; Achariyar S. Ind. Grass. (1921), 274.—KXoeleria brevifolia, Spreng.

Pugill. ii, 21.—K. lagopotdes, Panz. ex Spreng. 1. c.—Dactylis brevifolia, Koen.

ex Willd. Sp. Pl. I, 410 (excl. syn.) ; Roxb. Fl. Ind.i, 341.—D. cynosurotdes,

Koen. ex Roth. Nov. Sp. 74 (zom Linn.).—/oa brevifolia, Kunth Rev. Gram.

i, 111, Enum, Pl. i, 324.—Aeluropus brevifolius, Nees ex Steud. Nom. Ed.

ji, i, 30. A. levis, Trin. Fund. Agrost, 143, t. 12.—A. pubescens, Steud.

Nom. 1. c.—vragrostris brevifolia, Benth. in Hook. Ic. Pl. xiv, 51.—7yriodia

cynosuroides, Spreng. Syst. Vee. i, 331.

Description ; An annual grass. Stems creeping and spreading from the root,

ascending from adecumbent base, generaily slender and small, sometimes

large and proliferously branched, leafy, 7-18cm. long. Leaf-blade linear,

acute, with a sub-cordate or rounded base, 2-5 cm. long, 3-4 mm. broad ; sheath

compressed and glabrous ; ligule a very short membrane, ciliate at the margin

or obsolete. Spikes usually many, sessile and crowded in globose heads,

varying in diameter from 8-16 mm. Spikelets sessile, biseriate, ovate-oblong,

3-4 mm.long, 4-10-flowered. Involucral glumes membranous, ovate-oblong,

acuminate, shortly awned, glabrous, the lower shorter than the upper, 1-3-

nerved, the upper 3—5-nerved, and the nerves very close to the middle one in

the keel. Lower floral glume and the succeeding ones ovate, cuspidately

acuminate, 3-nerved, nerves villous below the middle and paleate. Pale

oblong, lanceolate, truncate and minutely 2-toothed, keels villous below the

middle. Anthers small. Lodicules small and cuneate. Styles long and slender.

Grain orbicular to ovate, concavo-convex, red-brown, and transversely rugose.

Locality : S. M. Country :, Ranibennur (Bhide !).

Distribution - Coromandel and Carnatic coasts,

93. DINEBRA, Jacq. Fragm. (1809), 77, t. 121, f. 1; Cke. 1i, 1039.

Species about 10.—India, Ceylon, Afghanistan, westwards to the Mediter-

ranean and tropical Africa.

Cooke describes one species: Dinebra arabica, which name has to cede to

Dinebra retrotlexa, Panzer.

1. Dinebra retroflexa, Panzer in Denkschr, Acad. Mtinch. (1814), 270, t. 12;

Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 557 ; Muschler Fl, Egypt i (1912), 106.—Cyxosurus retrotlexus,

Vahl Symb. ii, 20.—Dzinebra arabica, Jacq. Fragm. (1809), 77; Beauv. Agrost.

98, t. 16, f. 2 (Dineba) ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 34; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.:

jo hisboa. in Journ, Bom. Nat, Hist; Soc..vii:(1893), 372 ;; Hook.f. in F. Bi. I.

WileecO7. 5 rain Benen Pll 12305 -Watt. Dict;.Econ; Prod. i, 115 ;°Cke.x 11;

764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

1039 ; Achariyar S. Ind. Grass. (1921), 279; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924),

971.—Leptochloa arabica, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 91; Enum. Pl. i, 271, Suppl.

221 ; Wight Cat. No. 1756 ; Aitchis. Cat. Punjab Pl. 167.—Dineba aegyptiaca,

Del. Fl. d’Eg. 25, t. xi, f. 3.—Leptochloa calycina, Kunth ll. cc. 91, 272 ; Dalz.

& Gibs. Bom. Fl. 297.—#leusine calycina. Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 346.—Dactylis

paspaloides, Willd. Enum. Hort. Beroi. 111.

Vern. Names: Kali Kauli (Sind); Kharia (Broach) ; Lona (Poona,

Sholapur) ; Halligyan hullu (Bijapur) ; Halgyan hullu, Ululgyan hullu, Nari

baluda hullu (Karnatik).

Description : Cke. ii, 1039.—A more complete description in Achariyar 279.

Locality : Gujarat : Banks of the Tapti above Surat (Dalzell & Gibson) ;

Surat (Woodrow); Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow).—Khandesh : Dadgaum

(McCann A37 !) ; Dhulia, Moti Tank (Chibber !); Antab, Bori River (Blatter &

Hallberg 5147!); Bori, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5490!) ; Bor, Tapti

River (Blatter & Hallberg 5469!) ; Tapti River, Bhusawal (Blatter & Hallberg

5157 !).— Konkan - Bandra, damp fields at Khar (Vakil A35 !) ; Sion (McCann

5242 !) ; Parel (McCann 5104!) ; Byculla (McCann A39 !).—Deccan : Deolali

(Blatter A34 !) ; Sholapur (D’Almeida B36 !) ; along the river, Dhond (Bhide

1346 !) ; Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann 5050!) ; Poona (Woodrow), Agri-

cultural College Farm (Ezekiel !).—S. 17. Country : Dharwar Dist. (Sedgwick

2101!) ; Kelgerry (Talbot 2623!) ; Haveri (‘Talbot 2184!).—Kanara : Yellapore

(Talbot !).

Distribution - India, Ceylon, Afghanistan, westward to Egypt and Senegal.

94. TRIPOGON, Roth Nov. Sp. (1821), 79; Cke. ii, 1035.

Species about 13.—Tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa, one in

Ainerica.

To the 4 species given by Cooke we add 3others: 7. dromoides, Roth,

T. filiformis, Nees, and 7. Roxburghianum, Bhide.

Key :

A. Flowering glumes simply bifid with an inter-

posed awn, the lobes awned or not

I. Awn as long or longer than its glume

1. Under 8 cm. high. Leaves 2°5 cm. long.

Ligule membranous, ovate so l.» De pauperculus.

2. 15-45 cm. high. Cauline leaves 15-20

cm. long, Ligulea ridge ... eee) 2 De Capellarus.

II. Awn shorter than its glume

1. Lateral lobes of floral glume not

awned

a. Leaves 30-60 cm. long. Spikelets

o-12-flowered. Lower involucral

glume 2 mm. long, lanceolate ... 3. 7. Lisboe.

6, Leaves 5-20 cm. long. Spikelets

10--20-flowered. Lower involu-

cral glume 3 mm. long witha

projecting lobe at one side 4. ZT. Jacguemontit.

2. Laterallobes of floralglume mucronate 5. 7. Roxburghianwm.

B, Flowering glumes 4-fid, outer lobes awned or

not, inner membranous, sometimes very

short or truncate

I, Upper involucral glume deeply notched or

bifid at the apex ca 6. Z. bromotdes.

II. Upper involucral ‘sl ume minutely 2-toothed

below the tip . si Aes sos © if aude OCELOW INES:

1. Tripogon pauperculus, Stapt i in Hook. Ic. Pl. (1896) t. 2442 Sekhar per

err.) ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 285; Cke. ii, 1036.

Description : Cke. 1]. ¢.

Locality: Konkan: Matheran (Woodrow !).—Deccan : Mahableshwar, rocky

suminit of Sindola plateau (Sedgwick & Bell 4845!) ; Panchgani (McCann LS es

on the crest of the Western Ghats (1890 ft.) 8 miles south of Lonavla on Ficus

glomerata, in company with mosses and Ufricularia orbiculata (Woodrow 25) ;

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 765

Khandala, common on rocks (McCann A65!, A66!); near Karli on rocks

(Woodrow!).—S. M7. Country : Dud-sagar (Talbot 2568); Castle Rock, on

rocks (Bhide!) ; Poondra (Talbot 4306!).—Kaxara: On rocks ona hill near

Nagangari 2,600 ft., rainfall ]00inches (Sedgwick 2895!).—This grass usually

grows on rocks together with mosses and other small plants during the rainy

season,

Distribution : Endemic in the W. Peninsula.

2. Tripogon capillatus, Jaub. & Spach Illustr. Pl. Or. iv (1850-53), 47, t. 332 ;

Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 285; Cke. ii, 1036; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924),

9€6.—7. capitatus (per error.) Lisboain Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. vii

(1893), 371.

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality: Khandesh: Toranmal, edge of plateau, 3,000 ft. (McCann

A6{t!),—Konkan: On trees, Matheran (Woodrow!, Lisboa).—Deccan :

Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1247!, B1288!); on trees about Poona

(Jacquemont 580); Khandala, common ontrees and rocks (McCann A61!,

Garade!).—S. M. Country: Castle Rock, 1,800 ft., rainfall 300 inches (Sedg-

wick & Bell 4332!) ; Belgaum, on trees on Samboti Hill (Ritchie 866) ;

Anmod, on trees (Talbot 2621!).—Kanara; Sumpkhund to Sirsi, on trees

(McCann !).

Distribution : Bihar, W. Peninsula, Mt. Abu.

3. Tripogon Lisboae, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1892), 84; Hock. f. in F.B I. vii,

286; Cke. ii, 1036.—7rzpogon sp.nov. Lisboa in Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Viio(1893), 370: ;

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality: Konkan: Parsik Hill (McCann A337!).—Deccan: Purandhar

(McCann 5009!) ; Khandala, common, on rocks (McCann A334!, Bhide!);

Karli, between Poona and Lonavla (Jacquemont 581) ; Panchgani, on Table-

land (Blatter A338!). Generally forming large tufts and growing on rocks

overhanging water-courses,

Distribution: Mt. Abu, W. Peninsula.

4, Tripogon Jacquemontii, Stapfin Kew Bull. (1892), 85; Lisboa in Journ.

Bom, Nat. Hist. Soe. vii (1893), 370; Hook.f. in F'.B.1. vit, 286 ;Cke. ii, 1037 ;

Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 966.

Description: Cke.1.c.

Locality: Gujarat: WLasundra (Chibber!).—XKhandesh: N. slope of

Chanseli (McCann A335 !).--Konkan - Bombay district, without precise loca-

lity (Lisboa) ; Matheran (Woodrow).—Deccan,; Devlali (Blatter & Hallberg

4468!) ; Sholapur (Pinwill) ; near Ahmednagar (Miss Shatuck) ; Gangapur

(Blatter & Hallberg A339!): Khandala (Blatter & McCann 3599!); Poona

(Jacquemont 353, Woodrow) ; Agricultural.Coliege compound, Kirkee (Bhide!) ;

Purandhar (McCann 5573 !) ; Mahableshwar, W. side of plateau (Sedgwick!).—

“S. M. Country: Belgaum (Talbot!) ; Dharwar (Talbot 2301!) ; dry hill sides

near Dharwar (Sedgwick 2896 !).

Distribution: Bengal, Bihar, Central India, W. Peninsula.

5. Tripogon roxburghianum, Bhide in Journ. & Proc. As. Soc. Beng. (new

series) vii (1911), 515.—Lepturus Roxburghianus, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 365

(fortassis Steudel).

Description: 10-18 cm. high. Stems tufted. Leaves filiform, scarcely

longer than 2°5cm., ciliate with long hairs on the margin and at the ligule ;

sheaths glabrous, margins hyaline; ligule an oblong lacerated mem-

brane. Spike solitary, 5-6 cm. Jong. Spikelets 3 mm. long, 1-2-flowered, with

the rhachilla jointed and produced beyond the upper flower and borne on a

flattened rhachis, the internodes of which are alternately concave and convex.

Lower involucral glume hyaline, very oblique or slightly lobed on one side,

broadly 1l-nerved, remaining attached to the hollow in the rhachis when the

spikelet is removed. Upper involucral glume very coriaceous and thick,

broadly 3-nerved, about 24 times as long as the lower. Lower flowering glume

a little shorter than the upper involucral, dorsally hairy in the lower part,

membranous, 3-nerved, 2-toothed with a short mucro between, teeth also shortly

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

mucronate. Callus bearded. Pale nearly as long as the glume, 2-keeled, keels

minutely scabrid. Stamens 3. Styles 2, distinct, stigmas plumose. Grain terete.

Lodicules 2, cuneate. Upper flower also bisexual or imperfect or 0. When

complete it is like the lower.

Locality : Deccan: Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Bhide! , Ezekiel !).—S.27/.

Country : Badami Fort (Bhide!); Dharwar, dry barren uplands, 2,400 ft.

(Sedgwick !).

Distribution : Sofar endemic.

6. Tripogon bromoides, Roth Nov. Sp. (1821), 79; Steud. Syn. Gram. 301 ;

Stapf in Kew Bull. (1891), 85 ; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii,:287.— 7. festucoides, Jaub.

& Spach Ill. Pl. Or. iv, 49, t. 333.—7. dazatus, Hochst. ex Steud, 1.c.—Plagio-

lytrum calycinum, Nees in Proc. Linn. Soc. i, 95.—Avena mysorensis, Spreng.

Syst. 1, 337.

Dee Aion - Stems 15-45 cm. high, stout or slender. Leaves usually

short, but sometimes as long as the stem, flat or convolute, and filiform. Spike

long or short, 7-20 cm. long. Spikelets very variable, 4-12 mm. long, few- or

many- flowered, close or distant. Lower involucral glume ovate or lanceolate,

deeply notched on one side, membranous, nerve stout; upper oblong-lanceo-

late, deeply bifid, with a short awn in the cleft, membranous or coriaceous,

with broad membranous margins. Lower floral glume and following bearded

at the base, broadly ovate, strongly 3-nerved, 4-fid, outer lobes small, placed

low down and margined with their awns half as long as the glume or longer,

inner lobes often half as long asthe glume, much larger than in any other

species, awn rarely as long as its glume.

Locality : Deccan: Poona, Agricultural College Farm (Chirka!); Katraj

Ghat (Gammine!) ; Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches (Sedwick &

Bell 4567 !), summit of Sindola plateau (Sedgwick & Bell 4841!).—S. 27.

Country : Belgaum Fort, walls, 2,600 ft., rainfall 50 inches (Sedgwick 2950) ;

from Belgaum southwards (¢este Hook. f.) ; Dharwar (Talbot 2301!) ; Bijapur

Dist. (Talbot 2929!); Badami (Bhide!).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, Ceylon.

7. Tripogon filiformis, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 301; Duthie Grass. N. W.

Ind. 33; Hook. f. in F.B.1. vii, 288; Collett Fl. Simlensis (1902), 619, fig. 196.

—T. semitruncatus, Nees et 7. unidentatus, Nees ex Steud. l.c. ; Duthie 1.c.—

Plagtolytrum filtforme et unidentatum, Nees in Proc. Linn. Soc. I, 95.—Cata-

podium filiforme, Nees ex Duthie l.c.

Description : Stem.10-40 cm. high, very slender. Leaves filiform, as long

asthestem. Spikes 4-25 cm. long. Spikelets crowded, 4-10-flowered, 3-8 mm.

long. Lower involucral glume ovate, broadly lobed on one side ; upper narrowly

lanceolate, sharply toothed on one or both margins near the tip. Flowering

glumes 2-toothed at the tip, teeth actute or jagged, a long awn inserted in the

cleft and a shorter awn on the outer side of each tooth, the glume thus being

3-awned, middle awn twice as long as the glume or longer.

Locality: Deccan: Wai (Talbot 4485!).—S.47. Country: Belgaumr

(Talbot !).

Distribution : Temperate Himalaya, Khasia Hills, W. Peninsula.

TRIBE Xill. PAPPOPHORE

95. ENNEAPOGON, Desv.; Cke. ii, 1040.

Species about 6, in the dry warm regions of the Old World and in Australia;

1 species in Western N. America.

There is only one species in the Bombay Presidency.

1. Enneapogon elegans, T. Cooke in Cooke Fl. Bomb. Pres. ii, 1040.—-Pappo-

phorum elegans, Nees in Wight Cat. No. 1771 (1833) ; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii,

301 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 199 ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 35.—Calotheca elegans,

Wight & Arn, ex Steud. l.c.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1040.

Locality : Sind: Laki (Bhide!) ; Karachi District (Woodrow).

Distribution ; Peshawar, W. Pennisula, Burma.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 767

TRIBE XIV. ORYZEA

96. Orvyza, Linn. (Cke. ii, 1042).

The spikelet of Oryza has been variously interpreted. Hook. f. has the

following description - ‘Glumes 2-3, i and ii much the smallest, empty, scale

or bristle-like, rarely 0; iii chartaceous, obtuse, actute or awned, strongly

3-5-nerved ; palea as long as the glume.’

Cooke speaks of 5 glumes, ‘ the 2 lower involucral glumes below the articu-

lation of the spikelet minute, scale-like (rarely absent) ; the 2 next involucral

glumes, above the articulation of the spikelet subulate ; floral glume solitary,

dimidiate-oblong, coriaceous or chartaceous, 5-9-nerved, awnless or with a

short or long straight terminal awn ; palea linear or lanceolate, as long as the

glume, 3-5-nerved.’

Stapf thinks that the usual 2 outer empty involucral glumes are absent, that

the next 2 (scales or bristles) are empty florets (valves). He also takes the

ivth-glume to be a pale.

Species about 17.—Tropical.—2 species in the Bombay Presidency.

1. Ligule very short, scarcely longer than broad,

fringed with short hairs te . 1. O. Coarctata.

2. The lower ligules very long, up to 4 cm.,

always much longer than broad Rane acen SOIC Os

1. Oryza coarctata, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 87, Fl. Ind. (1832), 206; Griff.

Notiwl.111;°8, Icy Pl-Asiat. t.442, f. 0:'Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. 1115-371 ; Hook. £; in

F. B. I. vii, 93; Prain Beng. Pl. 1184; Cke. ii, 1042 ; Prodoehl Oryzee in Bot.

Arch. i (1922), 232.—0O. triticordes, Griff. Notul. l.c. -- Sclerophyllum coarctatum,

Griff. Lc:

Description ; Cke. ii, 1042.

Locality - Sind: Karachi, in Herb. Kew without collector’s name ; covering

large flats at the mouth of the Indus River (Blatter & McCann !) ; Shikarpur

(Dr. King’s collector) ; Keti (Blatter & McCann D666!) ; after Keti (Blatter &

McCann D665!).—Kanara,; Sulgeri (Sedgwick & Bell 4241!).—Forming

dense mats and covering miles of flat land at the mouth of the Indus river

within tidal influence, being covered at high tide.

Distribution : Sundribuns, W. Peninsula.

2, Oryza sativa, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 333; Gaertn. Fruct. ii, 5, t. 80, f. 5;

Host. Gram. Austr. iv, t. 325; Lamk. Encycl. t. 264; Kunth Enum. Pl. i,-7,

Suppl. 4; T. Nees Gen. Fl. Germ. Monocot. i, 2; Roxb. Fl. Ind. ii, 200 ; Griff,

Ic. Pl. Asiat. t. 1389, f.. 149; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 12, Field and Gard.

Crops 15;t: 4, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 20; .Miq. Fl. Ind: Bat. 111,'368 ; Doell-in

Mart. Fl. Brass. ii, .i1, 7, ts } ; Benth; Fl. Austral. vii, 550 ; Hook. f.:in F, B. I.

vii, 92; Cke. ii, 1043.—O. communtssima, Lour. Fl. Cochin (1790), 267.—

O. glutinosa, Lour.-1.c. 267.—O. montana, Lour. lc. 267.—O. montana, Ham.

in Wall. Cat. (1828), 8633.—O. praecox, Lour. l.c. 267.—O. perennis, Mnch.

Meth. (1794), 197.—O. palustris, Hamilt. Prodr. (1796), 25.—O. latifolia,

P. Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 27 (zon Desv.).—O. parviflora, P. Beauv. 1.c.—

O. denudata, Desv. ex Steud. Nomencl. ed. i (1821), 577.—O. elongata, Desv.

ex Steud. 1l.c.—O. marginata, Desv. ex Steud. le.—O. mutica, Lour. ex

Steud. l.c.—O. pubescens, Desv. ex Steud. Il.c.—O. vrubribarbis, Desv. ex

Steud. l.c.—O. emarginata, Steud. Nomencl. ed. ii (1841), 234.—O. pumila,

Host. ex Steud l.c. 234.-—O. rufipogon, Griff. Not. iii (1851), 5.—O. gliumepa-

tula, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.i (1854), 3.—O. nepalensis, Don ex

Steud. lc. 3.—O. vepfens, Herb. Ham. ex Steud. l.c.—O. segetalis, Russ ex

Steud. l.c.—O. sorghoides, Desv. ex Steud. 1.c.—O. caudata, Trin. ex Doell in

‘Matt. Bl; Bras; 15 2 (1871);.8:.

Description: Annual. Stems creeping or floating, 60 cm. to 3 m. high.

Leaves 30-60 cm. by 6-8 mm. or more, striate, scaberulous, l-nerved ; sheaths

smooth ; ligule long 2-partite. Spikelets loosely panicled, not imbricating,

awn 7-13 cm. long, yellow or reddish, shining. Involucral glumes 4-3 the

length of the floral glume, lanceolate; floral glume hispid above, dorsally

spinescently ciliate, awn very long.

This is Hook. f.’s description prepared from the plant which Roxburgh and

other Indian writers consider to be the indigenous Rice.

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

For a note on the inflorescence see: S. G. Bhalerao: The Morphology of the

Rice Plant and of the Rice Inflorescence. In Journ: of Ind: Bot) Soc. v

(1926), 13.

Much interesting information on Oryza sativa can be had in

Watt, G.: Dictionary of Economic Products of India v (1891).

Watt, G.: Commercial Products of India (1908).

Heuzé: Les Pl. Aliment. des Pays Chauds (1899), 14-116.

Mollison : Textb. Ind. Agric. iii (1901), 32-44.

Semler: Trop. Agrik. iii (1903), 1-48.

Copeland, E. B.: Rice (1924).

Statistical Atlas of the Bombay Presidency, 1925.

Wild Rice: We possess little reliable information regarding the Wild Rices

of the Presidency. S.G. Bhalerao (in Agric. Coll. Mag. xx (1928), 45) has

published a paper on ‘ The Wild Rice (Oryza sativa) of the Bombay Presi-

dency’, which contains a number of interesting observations.

According to hiin the wild type of Rice ‘ occurs abundantly on the Western

Ghats and occupies the zone where the rainfall is over 30-35 inches. Asan

annual aquatic, it occurs in marshy areas, in small pools and ponds and on the

margins of the big tanks. It is rarely found in more than 3 feet depth of

water and on land without any standing water as well.’

nee found a Wild Rice in pools on Tableland at Panchgani (rainfall

60 in.).

97. HOMALOCENCHRUS, Mieg. Act. Helv. Phys. Math. 4 (1760), 307.

( Leersea, Sw.)

Description : Cke. ii, 1041 ( Leersea).

We follow O. Kuntze (Rev. Gen.) and Hitchcock (Genera of Grass. Unit. St.

in U.S, Dept. of Agric. Bull. 772 (1920), 205) in going back to the genus

Homalotenchrus. Hitchcock says that one species is referred to the genus with

certainty, another being doubtfully referred to it. No specific names are

used, but under the first there are two citations which appear in the Species

Plantarum under Phalaris oryzoides, Linn. which Hitchcock considers as type

species.

cemenes 14.—Tropical and temperate regions.

Only one species in the Presidency.

1. Homalocenchrus hexandrus, O. Kuntze Rev. Gen. (1891), 777.—Leersia

hexandra, Sw. Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. (1797), 131; Fl. Dan. t. 1744; Kunth

Enum. Pi. i, 6; Host. Gram. Austr. t. 35 ; Engl. Bot. t. 2908; Reichb. Ic. Fi.

Germ. i,t. 523 Duthie Grass; ‘Ni W:Ind..12;° Mig. sFlind? Bat» i11;367)-

Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 549; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 94; Cke. ii, 1042; Haines

Bot. Bihar & Orissa (1924), 981.—Asprella hexander, Roem. & Schult. Syst.

ii (1817), 267.—Leersia australis, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 210; Kunthl.c. 6.—

Asprella australis, Roem. & Schult. 1. c.—Oryza australis, A. Br. ex Schweinf.

Beitr. Fl. Aethiop. (1867), 300; Aschers.—Schweinf. Il. Fl. d’Eg. 167,

No. 1148.—Leersia ciliata, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 26; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab

Pl. 157 ; Duthie 1. c., Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 21.—Z. ciliaris, Griff. Not. iii, 2.—

L. glabervima, Trin. Oryz, 7; Miquel 1: c. 368.—L. mexicana, H. B. & K.

Nov. Gen. & Sp. i.(1815), 195; Kunth 1. c. 6 and ii, 2, Suppl. 2, Rev. Gram.

178, t. 1.—Asprella mexicana, Roem. & Schult. 1. c.-—-Oryza mexicana, Doell.

in Mart, Fl. Bras. ii, ii (1871), 10.—Zzzanza ciliata, Spreng. Syst. ii (1825), 136 ;

Kunth Rev. Gram. i. 8; Griff. Not. iii, 1--Oryza hexandra, Doell in Mart.

Fl. Bras. ii, ii (1871), 10.—Pharus ciliatus, Retz. Obs. v (1779), 23.—Pseudoryza

ciliata, Griff. Ic, Pl. Asiat. t. 144, f. 1.—Zurraya nepalensis, Wall. Cat. 8637D.—

Blepharochioa ciliata, Endl. Gen. 1352.—Hygroryza ciliata, Nees ex Steud,

Nomencl. ed. ii, i (1841), 783.—Leersia brasiliensis, Spreng. Nov. Prov.

(1819), 47.—Asfrella brasiliensis, Roem. & Schult. Mant. ii (1824), 153.—

Leersia contracta, Nees Agrost. Bras. (1829), 516.—L. luzoniensis, Presl.

Rel. Haenk. i (1830), 207.—Z. parviflora, Desv. Opusc. (1831), 61.—Z. abyssi-

nica, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii (1851), 356.—Asprella purpurea,

Bory Hort. Maurit. (1837), 376.—Leersta elongata, Willd. herb., No. 3511

ex Trin. in Mem. Acad. Petersb. 6 ser. iii (1829), 172.—Z. mauritanica, Salzm.

ex Trin. 1. c.174.—Z. Triniana, Sieb. ex Trin. 1. c. 174.—ZL. gracilis, Wiild.

herb. No. 1512 ex Trin. 1.c.173.—Z. Griffithiana, C. Mill. in Bot. Zeitg. xiv

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 769

(1856), 345.—Z. capensis, C. Mill. l.c. 345.—Z. Gouini, Fourn. ex Hems!. Biol.

Centr.—Am. Bot. iii (1885), 514 (omen).—Homalocenchrus Gouint, O. Kuntze

Rev. Gen. (1891), 777.—Leersta egyptiaca, Fig. & De Not. in Mem. Ac. Torin.

ser. ii, xiv, (1853), 317.— L. ferox, Fig. & De Not. 1. c. 319.

Description : Cke. ii, 1042, under Leersza hexandra.

Locality: S. M. Country - Devaraji (Sedgwick & Bell 4463!) ; Sadambi

Tank, Tadas (Sedgwick 2052!) ; Sluavar, in tanks (Sedgwick 2289!); Castle

Rock, in rice field (Bhide!); Kunnur, margin of tank (Sedgwick 4930!) ;

Londa (Woodrow).—Kanara: (McCann !); Halyal Tank (Talbot 13451},

2147 !).

Distribution : More or less throughout India, Ceylon, Africa, America,

‘Australia.

98. HvyGrorvyza, Nees in Edinb. N. Phil. Journ. xv (1833), 380;

Cke. ii, 1041.

Species 1.—India, Ceylon, Tonkin.

1. Hygroryza aristata, Nees in Edinb. N. Phil. Journ. xv (1833), 380 ; Duthie

Grasss. Ne Wind: 12, Fodd. Grass.—N: Ind: 20 ;:: Aitchis. “Cat. Pan.: Pl. 157 ;

Hook, f.:in®- F. Bl; vii, 95:) "Erin. -F1:°.Ceyl..‘v, 185 ; Prain Beng. Pl. 1185.—

_ Pharus aristatus, Retz. Obs. v (1779-91), 23.—Leersta aristata, Roxb. Hort.

Beng. (1814), 26, Fl. Ind. ii (1832), 207; Griff. Not. iii,3.—Zzzanza aristata,

Kunth. Rev. Gram.i (1830),8; Enum. Pl. i, 10.—Z. Retfziz, Spreng Syst. ii

(1825), 136.—FPotamochloa Retziz, Griff. Journ. As. Soc. Beng. v, (1836), 571; t.

24, f. 2, Not. iii, 8, Ic. Pl. Asiat. t. 139, f. 147 & t. 140.—Pharus natans, Herb.

Russell ex Wall. Cat. (1828) No. 8638 ; Rheede Hort. Mal. x, t. 12.

Description: Cke. ii, 1041.

Locality : Gujarat: Chikli (Woodrow).—Konkan > Bhiwandi, near

Kalyan (Chibber!) ; Nagotna (Gammie 16063!) ; Kurnul, pond (Ezekiel !) ;

bank of Vihar Lake (McCann !).—Deccan - Poona, Agricultural College

Garden (Bhide!, McCann !),

Distribution : Of genus,

TRIBE XV. FESTUCE

99. ELYTROPHORUS, Beauv. ; Cke. ii, 1044.

Species 1.—Tropical Asia, Africa and Australia.

1. Elythrophorus articulatus, Beauv. Agrost. (1812), 67; Cke. ii, 1044.—For

synonyms see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 1044.

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality: Gujarat: Godra (Woodrow).—Konkan ; Alibag, rice field

near water works (Ezekiel!) ; Penn (McCann 5504 !, 5509!) ; Condita (McCann

4242!) ; Bhandup, in damp rice field (Nana A46!) ; Kalyan (Woodrow).—

Deccan: Khandala, Bushy Lake, in dry bed (McCann 9392 !); Matheran

(Gammie 1664!) ; Karjat, Honad Taluka (Bhonsle!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter &

Hallberg 5144 !, 5494 !).—.S. 47. Country : Chabbi, rice field, 2,000 ft., rainfall

30 inches (Sedgwick 3705 !) ; Londa (Woodrow).—Kanara - Halyal (Talbot

1370 !).

Distribution: Of the genus.

100. AELUROPUS, Trin ; Cke. ii, 1045.

Species few.--From the Mediterranean and Caspian regions to the: Punjab,

Sind, and S. India.—Only 1 species in the Bombay Presidency.

1. Aeluropus villosus, Trin. ex L. Mey. Verz. Pflanz. Cauc. (1831), 18; Cke.

ii, 1045. For synonyms see Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 334.

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality ; Sind: Near salt creeks in Sind (Stocks 506) ; Gharo (Blatter &

McCann D659!, D660!) ; Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D658!) ; Karachi

(Bhide!, Woodrow) ; Laki (Bhide!) ; Kotri, banks of Indus (Sabnis B370 !) ;

Sehwan, clayey plains (Sabnis B606 1) ; : Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis

B108!); Sanghar (Sabnis B891!).—Gujarat: Surat, mud-flats, mouth of

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

Tapti River (Hallberg A29!) ; Porbandar (Bhide!) ; Dharasna (Chibber !) ;

road to Gola (Chibber!); Karie Roa, Cutch (Blatter 3770!, 3773!) ; Kala,

Pachan Isl., Cutch (Blatter 3739!) ; (Runn of Cutch Blatter 3730!, 3731 !).—

Konkan: Onthe salt ground nearthesea (Graham, Lisboa) ; Bandra, salt

marsh (Vakil A28!); Penn (McCann A31!); Bassein Creek’ (Chibber !) ;

Nagaon, Sion, salt marsh (McCann 5240 !) ; Saisette (Wight 53).

Distribution : Punjab, Sind, W. Peninsula, in salt ground, Ceylon,

Afghanistan, Persia, Caspian region, Arabia, Mediterranean region.

e101 CENTOTHECA, Desv. ; Cke. ii, 1043.

Species doubtfully 3.—Tropical Africa, Asia, Australia.—One species in the

Presidency.

1. Centotheca lappacea, Desv. in Nouv. Bull. Soc. Philom. ii (1810), 189, e¢ ix

Journ. Bot. i (1813), 71; Cke. ii, 1043.—For synonyms refer to Hook. f. in

Ribs Vil, so2e

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality: Konkan; Vetora (Sabnis 33564 !, 33727 !).—Kanara: Castle

Rock, evergreen forests, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 inches (Sedgwick 2714! ;

Gammie 15693!) ; Guddhalli, Karwar (Hallberg & McCann A235!) ; Katgal

(Hallberg & McCann A26 !) ; Devimani Ghat (Hallberg & McCann A27 !) ; on

a fern stem (Woodrow !).

Distribution : Himalayas, Khasia Hills, Central India, Burma, W. Penin-

sula, Ceylon, Malaya, China, Polynesia, tropical Africa.

TRIBE XVI. HORDE

102. LEPTURUS,; Br. +; Hook. 4.10 FB Levin 365:

Smali, slender grasses. Leaves flat or convolute. Spikelets 1-2-fowered

sessile, solitary, half-immersed in hollows of the rhachis of a simple, terminal,

articulate or not-straight or incurved spike with the back of the lowest floral

glume opposite the rhachis ; rhachilla jointed. Glumes 3 or 4. Lower involucral

glume minute or 0, upper longer than the flowering glumes, linear, rigid

acute, 5-nerved, erect or at length deflexed ; flowering ylumes much shorter

than the upper involucral glume, hyaline ; pale 2-keeled. Lodicules 2, cuneate

or lobed. Stamens 1-3. Ovary glabrous; styles short, distant. Grain narrow

or oblong, glabrous, free.

Species 6.—The Old World. —One species in the Presidency, new to it.

1. Lepturus repens, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 207; Brongn. in Duperr. Voy. Bot.

57, t. 16; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 463, Suppl. 374; Steud. Syn. Gram. 357 ; Benth.

Fl. Austral. vii, 6683; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 365.—Rotboellia repens, Forst.

Prodr. 9.—Monerma repens, Beauv. Agrost. 117.—Lepturus aciculatus, Steud.

Syn. Gram. 357.—Lolium Coelorachis, Forst. in Herb. Paris, Steud. Nom. ed.

1,411,664,

Description : A perennial grass. Stem elongate, woody, branched and

widely creeping below. Leaves 7 to 15 cm. long, 3-6 mm. broad, spreading or

erect, acuminate, glaucous; sheaths glabrous or mouth ciliate ; ligule incons-

picuous. Spikes shortly peduncled, fragile. Spikelets 2-fid ; rhachilla elongate

bearing an upper imperfect flower. Involucral glumes 1 (or 2 in the uppermost

spikelet) flat, rigid, 6-12 mm. long, closely appressed to the rhachis ; flowering -

glume, much shorter than the involucral, elliptic, concave, 3-nerved. Pale 2-

keeled. Lodicules fleshy, obliquely truncate or 2-lobed, glabrous. Grain

oblong.

Locality: Kanara: 4 miles from Halyal (Bhide).

Distribution: N. Kanara, Ceylon, Malay and Pacific Islands, Australia.

103. TRiITICUM, LINN.

*1. Triticum sativum, Lam. Fl. Fr. ed. 1, iii (1778), 625.

We are not ina position to discuss the many varieties or forms that are

cultivated in the Presidency. We refer to some literature which may help those

who wish to make further inquiries into this very complicated question.

Hackel in Engler & Prantl. Pflanzenfam. ii, 80.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 771

Murray in Watt Dictionary of Economic Prod. vi, pt. 4, 89.

Koerneck & Werner, Handbuch der Getreide Arten.

Howard, A. and Howard, G.L.C. The varietal characters of Indian wheats.

Mem. Dept. Aor. Ind. (Bot. ser.) ii (1908), and many other papers on wheat

which were mostly published by the Department of Agriculture in India.

Schulz, A. Die Abstammung des Weizens. Mitt. natf. Ges. Halle a.

S. I. (1912), 14-17.

Percival, J. The wheat plant: a monograph. 463 p., 218 f. London 1921.

Huber, J. A. Ueber Abstammung und Systematik des Weizens. in Natur-

forscher iii, (1927), 577-582.

Cooke mentions 2 varieties which are chiefly grown in the Presidency :

(a) Var. spelta. This is Linné’s 7riticum Spelta.

(6) Var. pilosa. This is Triticum pilosum, Dalz. & Gibs.

104. HorpDEUM, LINN.

1. Hordeum vulgare, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 84.

The following three varieties are grown in the Bombay Presidency.

(a) Var. herastichon = Hordeum hexastichon, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 85.

(6) Var. distichon = H. distichon, Linn. lc.

We refer to:

Schulz, A. Die Abstammung der Saatgerste, Hordeum sativum. Mitt.

Natf. Ges. Halle a. S.I. (1912), 18-27.

Wiggans, R. G. A classification of the cultivated varieties of Barley. Cornell

Agr. Exp. Stat. Mem. 46 (1921), 365-456.

Blaringhem, L. Sur les caractéres d’espéces élémentaires d’Orges

(Hordeum). Bull. Soc. Bot. France 71 (1924), 623-27.

TRIBE XVII. BAMBUSE

105.. BAmBusa, Schreb. Gener. Plant. (1789) no. 607. (Cke. ii, 1046).

Species 73.—Eastern Asia, Australia.—One species indigenous in the Presi-

dency, and 2 commonly cultivated. 2

I, Stem and branches unarmed :

1. Spikelet subcylindric; fertile flowers 59) 1, Be nana.

2. Spikelet compressed, flattened, distichous,

fertile flowers 5-6... bes et 2 VULZAVIS.

II. Stem and branches armed Rs .. 3 B. arundinacea.

*1. Bambusa nana, Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 25, Fl. Ind. ii, 190; Munro

Monogr. Bamb. in Transact. Linn. Soc. xxv (1866), 89; Gamble Ind. Bamb.

Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. vii (1896), 40, t. 38; Brandis Ind. Trees 669 ; Camus,

Bambusées (1913), 121, pl. 37, f. BAB. glaucescens, Siebold Cat. ex Munro.—

B. glauca, Lodd. Cat.—B. caesta, Sieb & Zuce. ex Munro.—B. slerilis, Kurz

in Miquel Ann. Mus. Bot. Lugd. Bat. ii, 285.—B. viridi-glaucescens, Carriére

in Revue Hortic. (1869), 292 (oz Riv.).—&. aurea, Franchet & Savatier (ox

A. & C. Riviére).—Ischurochloa floribunda, Btse in Miq. Pl. Jungh 390;

Miquel FI. Ind. Bat. iii, 422.— Arundinaria glaucescens, P. Beauv. Agrost. 144 ;

Ruprecht in Act. Acad. Caes. Petrop. (1840), 23, t. 1, fig. 3; Munro Monogr.

l.c. 22.—Panicum arborescens, Linn.—Tyriglossun arundinaceum, Fisch. apud

Roem. & Schult. Syst. 846.—Ludolfia glaucescens, Willd. in Mag. Gesell.

N. F. Berlin (1808), 320.

Description ; Stems densely tufted, 2-3 m. high, rarely more, 3cm. in diam.,

glabrous, green when young, then yellow, unarmed, hollow, much branched

from the base; branches fascicled, semiverticillate, often dichotomous.

Sheaths of young shoots glabrous, striate, very long, attenuate, apiculate,

lanceolate, truncate at the apex, surmounted by an imperfect limb rather

long-acuminate and decurrent into 2 ciliate auricles. Leaves often small,

2°5-7'5 cm. long, the larger ones often attaining 14 cm. by 5-7 mm., rounded

at the base, long-acuminate, smooth or pubescent below, scabrous on the

margins, glaucous-bluish ; secondary nerves 5-7 pairs, not tessellate, but

provided with pellucid glands. Spikelets 12-45 mm. long, few clustered or

solitary on the branches of short diffuse panicles, stra w-coloured, shining,

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX111

5-9-flowered ; sometimes with bractiform subfoliaceous scales at their bases ;

rhachilla glabrous, flattened. Glumes all flowering or rarely the lowest empty,

ovate, actite, many-nerved. Pale shorter than the glumes, keels minutely

ciliate at or near the tip only. Stamens long-exserted, pendulous ; anthers

obtuse or finely apiculate, yellow. Ovary obovoid, pubescent at the apex.

Style very short, divided from almost the base into 3 long and hairy stigmas.

Grain elliptic, furrowed, shortly beaked, top hairy.

Distribution - China, Japan.—Cultivated in Manila, Luzon, Java, Malay

Peninsula, India, Europe.

*2. Bambusa vulgaris, Schrad. avd Wendl. Collect. Pl. ii (1810), 26, t. xlvii;

Rupr. in Act. Acad. Caes. Petrop. (1840), 137, t. xi, fig. 47 ; Munro, Monogr.

107; Bedd. Fl. Sylv. ccexxxii; Brandis Ind. Trees 670; A. & C. Riviére

Les Bambous 191 ; Gamble Ind. Bamb. 43, pl. 40 and in Hook. f. F. B. I. vii,

391. Camus Les Bambusées (1913), 122, pl. 76, f.fA.—B. Thouarsii, Kunth

Not. Gen. Bambus. in Journ. Phys. (1822), 148; Rupr. Bambus. 48, t. xi, f.

48.—B. surinamensis, Rupr. in Act. Acad. Caes. Petrop. (1840), 49, t. xi, 49.—

B. Sieberi, Griseb. Fl. Brit. W.Ind. 528.—S. humilis, Reichb. ex Rupr.—

B. arundinacea, Moon Cat. 26; Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. ii, 316.—S. auriculata,

Kurz. apud Houz. de Lehaie.

Description : Stems unarmed, 6-15 m., 5-10 cm. in diam., first green, then

yellow, or striped, polished ; nodes hardly raised, with usually a ring of brown

hairs ; internodes 25-45 cm. long, walls rather thin. Stem-sheaths 15-25 cm.

by 17-23 cm., often streaked with yellow, thickly hairy above, top rounded,

retuse ; blade 5-15 cm., appressed hairy on both surfaces, base rounded, decur-

rent with rounded, falcate, fimbriate auricles; ligule broad, toothed or

fimbriate. Leaves linear-lanceolate, 15-25 cm. by 16-40 cm., pale, petioled,

glabrous, tessellate by pellucid glands, tip twisted, scabrid, nerves 6-8 ; sheath

laxly hairy; ligule short, ciliate, auricle rounded. Panicle large, leafy.

Spikelets 15-20 mm., in bracteate clusters of 3-10 oblong, acute, bifid, empty

glumes, 1-2 ovate, many-nerved with the tip ciliate; flowering glumes 6-10,

larger. Pale as long asthe glume, keels white, ciliate. Lodicules 3, winged,

ciliate. Anthers obtuse, hairy, apiculate, purple. Ovary narrow, hairy ;

style long.

Distribution : Mauritius, Bourbon, Madagascar, Hawaii, Java.—Cultivated

in other countries.

A handsome variety is grown in Indian gardens :

Var. striata, Auct. mult.—Bambusa striata, Lodd. ex Lindl. in Penny

Cyclop. iii (1835), 357; Munro Monograph 121; Curtis Bot. Mag. xxx (1874) t.

6079.—Var. vittata, A. & C. Riviére]. c—B. vulgaris vel culmis variegatis,

Hort. Gall.— &. variegata, Hort.—Var. auvreo-variegata, Hort.

Rather smaller in size. ‘The stems are striped with yellow and green, the

stripes alternating at every node; the branchlets are yellow and the leaves

somewhat smaller and paler. On drying the stripes disappear.

Distribution ; Probably the result of cultivation in China and Japan.

3. Bambusa arundinaria, Retz. Obs. v (1789), 24 swb6 Bambos ; Willd. Sp. Pl. ii

(1799); 245; Roxb. Corom, Pls 1,96, t279, Fr. Ind. ii, 1915: Poir. Wnceycl. vail,

701; Rupr. “in “Act. Acad. Gaes. Petrop: °(1840),151,.t. :xili, fo. 50:. Nuno:

Monogr. 103; Brandis Ind. Trees 671; Bedd. Fl. Sylv. ccxxi; Gamble Ind.

Bamb. 52 ef zm Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 395; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 70;

Cke. ii, 1046 ; Camus Les Bambusées (1913), 128, pl. 75, f. A.—B. Arundo,

Klein ex Nees in Linnzeaix (1834), 471; Rupr. Bamb. 1. 7c. 53, t..13; 4. $3.—

B. Neesiana, Arn. ex Munro 1. c.—B. orientalis, Nees 1. c. 475; Rupr. 1. c. 52,

t. 13, f. 51.—A/. pungens, Blanco FI. Filip. ed. i, 270.—#B. spinosa, Roxb. FI.

Ind. ii, 198.—Arundo Bambos, Linn. Sp. Pl. 81.—A. indica arborea, Auct.—

Nastus avundinaceus, Sm. in Rees Cycl. xxiv, no. 1.

Description : Cke. ii, 1046.

Locality : Gujarat: (Gamble); Dangs (Woodrow).—Konkan: Kanary

Caves (McCann A215!, A216!) ; Wada Range (Ryan 494! ) ; Vetora (Sabnis

33282! ); Western Ghats (Gamble).—Deccan: Igatpuri (McCann A218! ) ;

Karli (Gammie 16169! );-Khandala, St. Xavier’s Villa (McCann A224!,

A225 !).—Kanara : Karwar (Hallberg & McCann A217!); 3 miles from

Mirjan (Hallberg & McCann A 220!).

Distribution : India, Burma, Ceylon.—Often cultivated.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 773

106. OXYTENANTHERA, Munro; Cke. ii, 1047.

Species 16.—Malay Peninsula, Siam, India, tropical Africa.—2 in the

Bombay Presidency.

1. Spikelets 1-flowered ; style glabrous Seensls. On terteneys:

2. Spikelets 2-flowered ; style hairy ... Beaten On SLOCL SIU:

1. Oxytenanthera Ritcheyi, ov. comb.—Bambusa Ritcheyi, Munro in Trans.

Linn. Soc. 26 (1868), 113.—Oxytenanthera monostigima, Bedd. For. Man. in FI.

sylv. (1873) ccexxsxiii, e¢ Ic. Pl. Ind. Or. (1874), 56, t. 234; Gamble Ind. Bam-

bus (1896), 74, t. 65; Brandis Ind. Trees (1911), 674; Talbot For. Fl. Bombay

ii (1911), 571; Camus Bambusées (1913), 148; Troup Silvic. Ind. Trees iii

(1921), 1006.—Schizostachyum hindostanicum, Kurz in Proc. As. Soc. Beng. 52,

Na(VS7a)e2oe.

Why we made the change from O. monostigma to O. Ritcheyi is evident

from the synonymy.

Description : Cke. ii, 1048.

Locality : Konkan : Ghats (Talbot, Woodrow).—Deccan : Sakhar-Pathar

Hill near Lonavla (Woodrow) ; Satara Ghats (Brandis) ; Mahableshwar

(Fagan); Poona District (Wroughton); Ahmednagar (Wilkins).—S. JZ.

Country ; (Ritchie 820).—Kanara: N. Kanara (Woodrow) ; Wuddermone

(Talbot 905!, 252!) ; Arbail Ghat (Talbot 906 !) ; Arbail (Talbot 251!, 857 !) ;

Godhuli (Talbot 583!) ; Supa (Talbot !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula.

2. Oxytenanthera Stocksii, Munro in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxvi (1868), 139,

Bedd. For. Man. in Fl. Sylv. (1873), cexxxiii; Gamble Bamb. Brit. Ind. 75,

t. 66, ef in Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 403 ; Cke. ii, 1048; Talbot For. Fl. Bombay ii.

570; Camus Les Bambusées (1913), 149.

Description ; Cke. ii, 1048.

Locality : Konkan ; (Stocks).—Deccan : Panchgani, planted (Woodrow).—

Kanara: Kumpta, cultivated (Talbot 269!, 3601!) ; Karwar (Talbot 856!) ;

commonly cultivated along the coast; rare in the Ghat forests of N. Kanara

(Talbot).

Distribution -: W. Peninsula, Indo-China.

107. DENDROCALAMUS, Nees; Cke. ii, 1049.

Species 24.—Africa, Indo-Malaya, Philippines, China.

1. Stem-sheatlis 7-30 cm. long; leaves up to 25 by

3cm. os oe Bae seat le OE SEVICEUS:

2. Stem-sheaths 50 cm. long, as broad at the

base ; leaves up to 50 by 10 cm. ... ive, 2s LD), 212 0n1EUS.

1. Dendrocalamus strictus, Nees in Linnzea 9 (1834), 476; Miq. Fl. Ind.

Bat. ii, 421; Munro Monogr. 147; Bedd. Fl. Sylv. t. ccexxv; Brandis Ind.

Trees 675; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 71; Gamble Bamb. Brit. Ind. 78,

t. 68, 69 ef zm Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 404; Cke. ii, 1049; Camus Les Bambusées

(1913), 152 pl. 87, f. B.— For synonyms see F.B.I. vii, 404.

Description : Cke. ii, 1049. :

Locality ; Sind: Junnar Hill (Burns !).—Guwyarat: Junagad, Datar Hill,

Kathiawar (Chibber!) ; Panch Mahals (Woodrow) .—Kzhandesh - To Toronmal

(McCann 9791!); base of Toranmal (McCann A221!).—Konkan ; Planted

(Woodrow).-—Deccan: Rocky hills (Gamble) ; Karli (Gammie 16167 !) ;

Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens (Patwardhan !).—S. MW. Country: Byadgi,

Dharwar Dist. (Talbot !).—Kanzara : Karwar (Talbot !) ; Ambgaum (Talbot

1788 !) ; Dongi Nallah (Talbot 959 !).

Distribution : India, Java.

*2, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Munro in Trans. Linn. Soc. xxvi (1868), 150;

Kurz Ind. Forester i, 346; Gamble Bamb. Brit. Ind. 88, t. 76 ez. zz. Hook. f.

F.B.1. vii, 406 ; Brandis Ind. Trees 678; Cke. ii, 1050 ; Camus Les Bambusées

(1913), 159, pl. &5, f. A.—Bambusa gigantea, Wall. Cat. Bot. Gard. Calc. 79;

Gardeners’ Chronicle pl. Sept. 1892.

774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Description : Stems 20-30 m. by 20-25 cm. in diam., branched above ;

nodes hairy, internodes rather short, grey-green, young with waxy scurf ; walls

thin.’ Stem-sheaths 50 cm.long, as broad at the base, deciduous, thinly

strigose with golden hairs, top depressed ; blade 12-40 by 9 cm., decurrent into

glabrous, stiff, brown wavy auricles, narrowed above into a short point ; ligule

5-12 cm., stiff, black, margin serrate. Leaves up to 50 by 10 cm., oblong,

cuspidately acuminate, tips twisted, young hairy beneath, midrib strong,

nerves 12-16 pairs, with pellucid cross bars. Panicle very large, branchlets

slender, curved; heads up to 2°5 cm. diam., 1°2-2°5 cm. apart. Spikelets 12

mm. long, ovoid, acute, spinescent,’ puberulous, sometimes all flowering ;

rhachilia produced with an imperfect glume. Involucral glume ovate,

mucronate, striate; flowering glumes 3-6, thin, mucronate, many-nerved.

Anthers acuminate. Ovary ovoid and long style hairy ; stigma simple. Grain

oblong, obtuse, hairy above.

Distribution: India (Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula, Penang, Malacca,

Perak), Cochin-China. Cultivated in gardens of India, Ceylon and Europe.

108. TEINOSTACHYUM, Munro.

Stems thin, overhanging, sometimes climbing. Stem-sheaths usually thin.

Leaves various. Panicle spiciform, on leafy branches. Spikelets up to 7'6 cm.

long, slender, many-flowered, sometimes pedunculate, in bracteate whorls,

upper and lower flowers imperfect. Involucral glumes 1-2, mucronate;

flowering glumes similar, mucros longer. Pale convolute, keels ciliate.

Lodicules 3, 3-9-nerved. Stamens 6, filaments free, slender, Anthers obtuse or

obtusely apiculate. Ovary ovoid or depressed-globose, apex produced enclos-

ing the style; stigmas 2-3, plumose. Grain ovoid, acuminate, beaked,

pericarp crustaceous.

Species 5.—India, Ceylon.~One species in the Bombay Presidency ; not

mentioned by Cooke.

1. Teinostachyum Wightii, Bedd. Fl. Sylv.t. cccxxiii, Forest Man. ccxxxiii

(excl. syn.) ; Gamble Bamb. Brit. Ind. 99, t. 87, ef zz Hook. f. F-.B.1.-vii,; 410;

Brandis Ind. Trees 679 ; Camus Les Bambusées (1913), 163.

Description : Stem 3-6 m. by 2°5-3cm., semi-scandent ; branches pendu-

lous ; nodes narrowly ringed; internodes bright green, rough above ; walls

thin. Stem-sheaths 25-30 by 2° i 3 cm., papery, hirsute with black- brown hairs,

top truncate, not auricled ; blade subulate, 12-17 cm., decurrent on the sheath;

ligule 2°55 mm. Leaves 15- “40 em. by 2'5-5 cm., oblong- lanceolate, acuminate,

tip scabrous, twisted, whitish and sparsely hairy beneath, midrib broad,

yellowish, nerves 6-7 pair, tessellate by glands; sheath glabrous ; ligule

narrow. Panicle large, with spiciform drooping branchlets ; rhachis smooth,

slender ; rhachilla of spikelets slender, flattened and concave below, thickened

and ciliate above. Spikelets 12-25 mm. Involucral glume l, ovate, mucro-

nate, 5-7-nerved, dorsally hirsute; flowering glumes lor 2, mucronate,

nerved trausversely. Lodicules ovate, short-ciliate, 3--5-nerved. Ovary stalked,

depressed-globose, smooth, style included inthe long beak of the ovary,

Grain stoutly stalked, ovoid, beaked, glabrous.

Locality : Ghats of N. Kanara.

Distribution: Nilgiris, Anamalais, about 3,300-5,000 ft. altitude.

109. OCHLANDRA, Thw. ; Cke. ii, 1050.

Species 11.—India, Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, Java, Madagascar.—Only one

species in the Bombay Presidency.

I. Ochlandra Talboti. Brandis Ind. Trees (191i), 684; Talbot For. FI.

Bombay ii (1911), 572 ; Cke. ii, 1050; Camus Les Bambusées (1913), 181.-

O. stridula, Wood. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. xiii (1901), 442 (zon Thw.).

Ochlandra Rheedii var. Stvagtriana, Gamble which Talbot (1. c.) identifies

with Ochlandra Talbott, has been described as a distinct species by Camus

under the name : Ochlandra Stvagiriana in Les Bambusées (1913), 181.

Description: Cke. ii, 1050.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 775

Locality : Kanara; Gersoppa Falls (Talbot 3628!, McCann !); Katgal

(Talbot 3506!, McCann !); Yellapore (Bell !); near Sulgeri (Bell 3357 !) ;

Dadmune (Talbot!) ; common throughout the Kanara forests (McCann !) ;

Honavar, at Alanki (McCann !).

Distribution : Endemic in N. Kanara.

A CORRECTION.

In vol. 32 (1927), 27 we made a new combination Hemuarthria glabra.

Mr. Hubbard of. Kew informs us that this combination is invalid and gives

the following explanation :

‘R. Brown described the genus AHemarthria in his Prodr. Fl. Nov.

_Holl. 207 (1812). He had two species H. compressa and H. uncinata. The

first, HY. compressa, is accompanied by a descriptive phrase of three words,

then the letter J. denoting one of his specimens from Port Jackson or that

neighbourhood (in Australia), followed by Rottboellia compressa, Linn. f.

Suppl. 114; thus Hemarthria compressa was really based on Rottboellia

compressa, Linn. f. The Australian plant which R. Brown cited, was

incorrectly identified by him with #. compressa, Linn. f.; that together

with all the Australian material is referable to his Hfemarthria uncinata.

Rottboellia compressa, Linn. f. was based on a plant collected in India ;

our Indian specimens all agree with this speciinen and are all Hemarthria

conipressa, (Linn. f.) R. Br. Wehaveno Indian material of Hemartéria

fasciculata, (Lam.) Kunth and those specimens identified by Hooker in Flora

of British India and by others as Rottboellia compressa var. fasciculata, (Lam.)

Hack., are all typical MHemarthria compressa. H. fasciculata, Kunth

is based on fottboellia fasciculata, Lam., a species originally described

from North Africa and now known to occur throughout Africa, in the Medi-

terranean region and in America.’

Our Hemarthria glabra, therefore, must be called Hemarthria compressa,

Chinn ta)eixe br,

The species is known from Afghanistan, India, China and Indo-China.

The other species, Hemarthria fasciculata, Kunth (xxxii (1927), 28 of

this series) for which we had no locality, but which we included on the

authority of others, must be excluded, as it has not been observed in India.

(Lo be continued.)

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS

HuGH WHISTLER, F.Z.S., F.L.S.

PART III

(With plates C, D, E and F.)

(Continued from page 325 of this sialic)

SOME EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BIRDS

The Beak

After the feathers of a bird I think we are accustomed to think

of its beak’ as one of, itsemost “Gharacteristic features. lnm. the

beak, at any rate, there are far more important and conspicuous

variations than in the wings, tail or feet, and they are closely

correlated with the most important question in a bird’s life, its

food and its manner of attaining it. We should start, however,

with examining the geography of a typical beak, the structure from

which all modifications have started.

The bones of the beak are so bound up with the bones of the

skull that to enumerate the one without the other is valueless while

the bones of the palate are of great importance in classification ;

to enumerate the lot is hardly worth while here, as any serious

student of the subject would need something far more exhaustive

than this paper. I will content myself with saying that full details

may be found in Professor Newton’s valuable Dictionary of Birds

and proceed forthwith to enumerate the ordinary external features

of the beak.

The beak, as we see it, consists of an upper and lower half; the

former consists largely of the pre-maxillary and maxillary bones

and is often termed the maxilla. The lower half is known as the

mandible. In popular phraseology it is customary to speak of the

two halves as the upper and lower mandibles. Their point of

junction at the base is known as the gape and their cutting edges

the commissure. The high central line of the upper mandible, ofter

marked by a ridge, is thesculmen. (Plate C, ‘fic. 1.) ~The bare skin

which encloses the nostrils in birds-of-prey, owls, parrots and

pigeons is the cere. (Plate C, fig. 2.) In the gulls a conspicuous

angle appears on the lower surface of the lower mandible, marking

the junction of the two sides; this is known as the gonys. .

The horny covering moulded largely on the shape of the bones

and producing many of the conspicuous features of the bill is

known as the rhampotheca; it is akin to those other horny structures

the claws, nails and spurs, and to the scales on a bird’s feet.

* Beak and bill appear to me to be synonymous terms and I have used them

as such without distinction of meaning,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE C

MAXILLA

MAN DIALE

COMMISSURE

Fic. 1.—The beak of a bird

\ Gas

OS ‘GON

Fic. 2.—Head of a Falcon to show the cere

Fic. 3.—The beak of a Sunbird enlarged to show serrations

BEAKS OF BIRDS

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS Vid

The horny covering of the bill as a rule forms a coherent sheath

separate for the two mandibles. Examine the decaying corpse of

a bird and you will find that the whole of the beak, as we see it,

slides off into the hand leaving the bones all exposed to view.

In some groups of birds, however, such as the Gannets and Cormor-

ants, in the Ostriches and Tinamous, and in that common Indian -

bird the Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax) the rhampotheca

consists of separate horny plates, and we have already seen in our

discussion of the ancestry of birds that these plates are considered

to represent certain types of reptilian scales on their corresponding .

parts. To quote Professor Thompson :—‘This illustrates a frequent

method of evolution—making a new thing, in this case the sharp

edged horny bill, out of a very old thing, in this case the scales

of the reptile’s jaws’.

The development of the rhampotheca in various directions

provides the bird with its various substitutes for teeth, a use that

is paralleled amongst the Turtles and the Tortoises which have

the horny covering of their jaws similarly used to provide cutting

edges. Before proceeding to examine the ways in which the

rhampotheca is so adapted one must recall the fact that teeth have

two main purposes. They not only cut off the food into appropriate

pertions but they also masticate it. The birds beak is used to

fulfil the first of these purposes and it does so most efficiently, but

it is very seldom used for actual mastication. That function is

provided for by the gizzard, the posterior portion of the stomach

which is unprovided with digestive glands and works merely by

mechanical muscular effort to prepare the food for the action of

the digestive secretions in the intestines; as is well-known, most

birds swallow a certain quantity of small stones and grit, which

mixes with the food in the gizzard, and ground together by the

action of the muscular wall further assists in its mastication. The

compound muscular stomach is a peculiarity of birds.

The use of the horny covering of the beak as a substitute for

teeth is attained in several ways. Vhe most universal is of course

that of the cutting edges of the beak, a use so universal and obvious

that it need not be lingered over; it is present more or less even

when the following more interesting modifications are present.

Of these the most obvious is the lengthening and turning over

of the tip of the beak to form a piercing or tearing point. This

form of beak is well known as the special characteristic of those

large and conspicuous groups, the Birds of Prey and Owls and

the Parrots. It is interesting in this connection to notice two

points; first of all that the one group is flesh-eating and the other

vegetarian; that is to say this type of beak has been evolved not

with reference to a particular class of food, but simply with reference

to food which needs-a particular type of treatment—food that

cannot conveniently be swallowed whole, and food that is exceedingly

hard to tear to pieces. Watch a hawk tearing up a small mammal

or bird and you will see the immense muscular effort involved in

the process, and the splendid adaptation of the tool with which the

work is done; or watch a parrot gnawing a brazil-nut and you will

see a similar perfection of the adaptation of an organ to its work.

778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The second point is that we see a perfect example of the funda-

mental law that similarity of form does not denote relationship.

The two classes of birds in question are not nearly related in the

scheme of classification; they share a form of beak found hardly

elsewhere in the whole world of birds, yet it denotes nothing more

than that both feed on food that requires similar treatment; while

those foods themselves are inherently and widely different.

Even so, Nature’s laws are seldom rigid. The Lories share the

beak of the Parrot order yet feed almost entirely on soft foods;

‘and many other orders are able to feed on fruit without this special

form of beak.

While the full development of this type of beak is limited to

Birds of Prey, Owls and Parrots, an approach to it may be met

with in other forms. A familiar example is that of the Shrikes

(Laniid@) and here again we find that the Shrike is accustomed

to feed on prey that he needs to tear up, with difficulty. The

Shrike is a miniature bird of prey in his fondness for small birds

and mammals and large insects. Without a tearing flesh-hook

he could not break them up. But because nature did not provide

him like the parrots, hawks and owls with the necessary adjunct,

the strong grasping feet and claws to hold the food firmly whilst

it is being torn, he has had to use his brains and find a substitute.

The food is hung on to a thorn and so held whilst it is being

torn, with the further corollary when hunting is good that the thorn-

tree becomes a storehouse or ‘larder’.

Although it is not an Indian bird I cannot refrain from mention-

ing the case of the Kea (Nestor notabilis), a large parrot found

in the Southern Island of New Zealand. This parrot has been

provided with the typical hooked beak and its real food is of a

vegetable nature as with all others of the family. Yet with the

arrival of the colonists and the introduction of their sheep it has

discovered that a beak provided for the tearing and gnawing of

vegetable food is equally good for the tearing of flesh; it has

learnt to assault sheep and picking holes in their sides wounds the

intestines and causes death. How far this action is the result

of deliberate intention and how far the bird profits by the resulting

supply of meat is unknown to me; I merely quote the case to

emphasize my previous assertion that the one type of beak suits

two very different foods. Whilst as a final reminder that similarity

of form does not betoken relationship I would remark that in

the octopus a very similar type of beak has developed in response

to its predaceous habits.

Another form of modification of the horny sheath of the beak

to supply the lack of teeth consists in serrations along the commi-

sure, the cutting edges of the mandibles. In their most undeveloped

form they consist of mere indentations along the edge; these may

consist of a single pair as in the Falcons, a mere reinforcement of

the tearing point of the beak, or even simply of a sinuous curve

(known technically as a ‘festoon’). In the Toucans the serrations

are more numerous. In India we are more familiar with the case

of the Flower-peckers (Diwid@) and the Sun-birds (Cinnyride),

though as both these families consists of tiny birds the line of close

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 779

serrations which occur on each of the four inner edges of the beak

are very minute and are more easily perceived by touch than sight.

(Plate C, fig. 3). It 1s commonly assumed that these serrations

are intended to secure a firmer hold on the food; though if that

is the correct explanation it still remains to be shown why these

two families alone require it out of the great body of Passerine

birds in India. The point requires investigation. That serrations

may often be intended to secure firmness of grip will, I think, be

clear to anyone who examines the tip of the beak of a Little Bittern

(Ixobrynchus) in connection with its food and manner of feeding.

This type of serration, presumed to be to secure a firmness of

grip, finds its maximum of development in that curious bird the

Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) which is perhaps one of the most

expert swimmers and divers in the world, pursuing and catching

fish under water. In this case the serrations have become a series

of fine needle-like points and these must be intended to secure the

erip of a very slippery and elusive prey, caught in its own element

by sheer superiority of movement.

The system of serrations finds however its most wonderful

cevelopment in another direction, when it becomes a sieve or strainer

for birds that find their food in water or mud, that food being

usually of a minute character. As in the case of the Parrots

and Birds of Prey the sieve has been developed in unrelated

orders.

In this type of beak we find that the horny edges of the mandibles

have become not merely serrated, but the serrations are produced

into definite lamellae or plates, roughly speaking like the teeth of

a comb. At the same time the tongue has become a large and

fleshy organ also fringed with horny processes. ‘Tongue and beak

together form a most elaborate strainer. We are all familiar with

the characteristic habit of the domestic duck which ‘puddles its

beak’ incessantly in mud and water, and if we watch it carefully

we shall see that it is simply using this strainer to capture food,

the soft mud and water being put through the sieve leaving behind

in the mouth the required food. Jhe degree of development of

this strainer varies in the whole of the Anseres (Geese, Swans and

Ducks) and will be found correlated with their feeding habits.

It is least developed in the Geese which obtain most of their food

by grazing and its maximum development is in that common Indian

duck the Shoveller (Spatula clypeata) whose bill has been widened

and flattened to accommodate the tremendous combs of lamelle.

(Plate D, fig. 4). Small wonder is it that the Shoveller is of

small account amongst sportsmen who complain that it is found

in the dirtiest of village ponds and that its flesh has a rank and

muddy taste. Nature has specialised the Shoveller to feed where

there is less competition from other ducks, and the very success

of his side-line has cut him off from many of the cleaner foods

that other ducks enjoy. How little importance in classification,

that is the expression of descent and relationship, are the most

conspicuous features and developments is most clearly shown in

this development of the beak as a sieve; for in addition to meeting

it again in other families, we find that it is not even universal

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

amongst the Anatidea. The Mergansers and Smews, which occur

in winter in Northern India are diving ducks which normally pursue

and catch fish under water. The serrations along the edge of

their beaks have not become a sieve; they are developed into

sharp spikes, for all the world like teeth, directed backwards so

that there is little hope of escape for any fish once caught in the

beak, save headlong down the gullet.

To return to the sieve: it is found again in other forms in two

well-known Indian birds, the Flamingo (Phaenicopterus) and the

CGpen-bill (Anastomus), in each case connected with other remarkable

peculiarities of structure—these last, due in all probability to the

fact that their possessors are long-legged birds and not like the

Anatide close to the element in which the sieve is employed.

(Plate: DD, fig-9b).

The edges of the beak of the Flamingo are well-furnished with

the sifting lamellae; in addition the two halves of the lower jaw

are considerably enlarged so that the upper jaw closes into a wide

cavity; in other words the normal relationship and fitting of the

two jaws is practically reversed, a point which becomes intelligible

when it is understood that in feeding the Flamingo reverses the

usual position of the bill, assisted thereto by the fact that the whole

bill is bent sharply downwards; in short when the Flamingo feeds

iis head is upside down, an attitude which allows the mud and

water to be sieved in spite of the extremely long neck and legs;

otherwise the long neck would have had to be of ungainly length

to secure the necessary proportion with the legs, to allow use of

the sieve.

In the Open-bill (Anastomus oscitans) the sieve is in the shape

of a dense brush-like mass on the inside of the pre-maxillary region

of the upper mandibie. The great peculiarity of the beak is how-

ever that the mandibles do not shut properly (to speak popularly) ;

when the beak is closed there is a gap in the centre, as both

mandibles are curved. There has been much speculation over the

meaning of this gap and it is usually said to be due to wear as

the bird feeds on molluscs and breaks the shelis with its beak.

[ have not had sufficient opportunities of meeting this bird in

life to speak positively as to its feeding habits, but cannot help

wondering whether the old name of Shell-Ibis has unconsciously

affected, the usual estimate of its food. Large molluscs are un-

doubtedly eaten but the staple food must be connected with the

sieve, and I imagine that the open beak is connected with the

unusual position of the sieve and is merely another device, like the

Fiamingo’s, to let a long-legged bird use its sieve in water; that

the beak instead of being used parallel with the water, is plunged

in point downwards, the water being taken in through the gaps

and expelled through the sieve at the tip of the bill. This would

still allow fresh water mollusca to be the principal food, as they

are abundant and minute. Many of our members have opportunities

of watching the bird and should soon be able to settle the point.

I make no apologies for doubting the established theories on the

point, remembering how it is only a year or two since Major

Hingston with a little observation in the field settled the parallel

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THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 781

mystery of the curious beak of the Scissorbill, which I shall presently

describe.

We found the beak of the Parrots and Birds of Prey had been

developedy fon ysimilar. uses’ by the’ Octopus. -) The sieve of the

Anatide and the Flamingo is found again in the ‘whale bone’ of

certain whales; with it they strain the sea water for the minute

crganisms that comprise their food.

Finally there is another form of development of the beak which

may be considered as a substitute for some of the uses of teeth.

In this pads and bosses of horny structure are developed either on

the edges of the rhampotheca or inside the mouth on the palate.

The Hawfinch (Coccothraustes), for example, according to Pycraft,

has on the horny sheath of the lower mandible a pair of tumid

swellings with serrated surfaces and they work against a large

cushion of similar structure borne by the palate, the whole forming

a regular crushing and grinding mill. The Hawfinch is a rare bird

in India, confined to the extreme north-west, but we have several

allied Grosbeaks (Mycerobas and Perisosspiza) and even the little

Munias (Uroloncha) whose conical heavy bills are intended to crush.

In the Grosbeaks we find developments at the gape which enable

these birds to crack wild cherry-stones with the greatest ease, and

some idea of the tremendous force exerted can be seen by a mere

inspection of the appropriate muscles. These attain their greatest

development in the Spotted-winged Grosbeak (Mycerobas melanox-

anthus), the muscles covering the whole of the cranium and

even affecting the bony structure by the necessities of their

attachment.

The presence of internal bosses and ridges is found also in the

Parrot and this helps to account for the ease with which they open

the hardest nuts. Examine any of our Indian Parrakeets and the

lower mandible will be found to end in a transverse blunt edge,

which presses against a corresponding horny prominence of the

upper beak, behind its tearing hook; whilst in various species of

the family this prominence is reinforced by transverse horny ridges,

like those of a file; these serve more than one purpose. They help

to hold and to crush a nut or seed, and they are also used to file

and sharpen the tip of the lower mandible, -an action in which any

captive parrot may be frequently seen to indulge.

In an earlier chapter I have already emphasised the fact that

true teeth exist in no existing species of bird; and the so-called

‘egg-tooth’ has already been described. It only remains therefore

to remark about the rhampotheca that it is capable of renewal and

that it is not necessarily hard.

There is continual wear on a bird’s beak, either in the normal

actions of feeding, or in some species like Woodpeckers and King-

fishers through the use of the beak as a tool. This wear is rein-

forced by constant growth, and curious malformations of the beak

are common when wear has not kept pace with growth, especially

as a result of captivity. At Phillaur, Punjab, I shot a starling

(Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskii) in which the beak had attained a

length of 44 mm., as compared with the normal length of about

30 mm., and more marked examples are found in every museum.

'82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Crossed and curved mandibles also occur, but they are naturally

iot commonly seen, as their presence must cause mortality.

Growth of the horn from the base of the beak and wear from its

tip and edges serves as a substitute for the moult of feathers and

reptilian scales, but cases of literal moult of the horny covering

do occur.

In the Puffin (Fratercula arctica) and several allied species, as

is well known, a regular breeding adornment of a brightly coloured

sheath to the beak accompanied by horny excrescences above the

eyes and at the gape is assumed in spring and moulted again in

autumn, while in one of the American Pelicans (Pelecanus eryth-

vorhynchus) a triangular compressed horny excrescence is assumed

on the beak and moulted again after the breeding season. It is

possible that some such example may be discovered amongst our

Indian birds.

Before leaving the subject of the rhampotheca I may remark

that whereas it is normally hard, in some cases it may be soft. This

is usually about the area of the nostrils and produces the familiar

‘cere’ of parrots, owls and birds of prey (Plate C, fig. 2), and the

curious tumid powdery-looking swelling of the nostrils of pigeons

and doves. Occasionally, however, almost the whole of the beak

appears soft, as in the case of geese.

The gape is the name given to the angle of the mouth at the

apparent junction of the two mandibles, where a fold of tough skin

marks the limit of the opening. In adult birds it is not particularly

conspicuous but in the nestlings of nidicolous! birds it is usually

tumid and conspicuous if not also curiously coloured and

ornamented.

Now the whole subject of the mouths of nestling birds, for the

palate as well as the gape may show conspicuous colours and

markings, is a difficult one which is not yet fully understood.

Mr. C. F. M. Swynnerton has attempted a study of the subject in

the case of the African birds (Ibis, 1916, p. 264 et seq.) and it would

be well if some of our keen bird-nesters would read this paper

and attempt to carry on similar investigations in India. The usual

theory is that these markings are intended as a guide to the nest-

ling’s mouth in the dark interior of the nest, so that the parent

may quickly place the food in the right place. ‘The necessity for

such a guide seems hard to understand when we know that the

parent has a keenness of sight sufficient to enable it to secure an

unending supply of minute seeds and insects and their larvee and

eggs. Mr. Swynnerton is of opinion that these colours and mark-.

ings are more of a warning and a deterrent to possible enemies,

though this seems equally hard to believe. That the gape should

be swollen and therefore conspicuous is easily explained by the

mere physical fact that it is the point of greatest weakness in a

young bird’s mouth, the point which, unless fortified, might easily

be split by the continual entry of the parent’s beak with food.

* As opposed to, nidifugous birds which leave the nest as soon as_ they

are hatched, and are able to pick up their own food.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. PLATE E

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f ~~ ———

Fic. 7-A.—Rictal bristles of Chetornis Fic. 7-B.—Rictal bristles of Chetornis

(side view)

(from above)

MASIHYAL

OS ENTOGLOSsUM

TRYROHYALS oR.

ANOID HAHORNS.

Fic. 8.—Bones of the Hyoid apparatus

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To THE TONGUE

Fic. 9.—Head of a Woodpecker to show the position of the tongue

BEAKS OF BIRDS

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 753

That common and otherwise dull little bird, the White-throated

Munia (Uroloncha malabarica) furnishes a good example of mouth

markings, and might serve as a starting point for an investigation

into the whole subject.

The gape or rictus naturally leads to mention of the rictal

bristles, which to a greater or lesser extent fringe the base of the

beak from culmen to the gape. Their development varies greatly,

but as a rule they are most highly developed in insectivorous

groups. In both the Nightjars (Caprimulgid@) and the Flycatchers

(Muscicapide) which habitually chase insects on the wing it is

usually suggested that their presence is intended to increase the

catching area of the mouth, an inference which seems irresistible

when one opens the enormous mouth of a Nightjar and notes how

the bristles continue its lines. But that this can be their only

purpose is negatived by their great development in some fruit-

eating birds like the Barbets (Capitonida). (Plate D, fig. 6 a. & B.).

My own impression is that the primary function of the rictal

bristles lies in the protection of the eye, for eyelashes are found

in very few birds, and this view receives confirmation by the

case of the Bristled Grass-warbler (Chaetornis locustelloides). The

Fauna remarks badly: ‘The genus Chetornis is characterised by

having unfeathered lores with five exceptionally strong rictal

bristles arranged in a vertical row in front of the eye.’ From the

dry skin one would never appreciate the fact which I discovered

accidently in the field that these five bristles are set in a loose

moveable flap of skin—hence the bare lores, for feathers would

not be compatible with this movement—so that the five bristles move

on a hinge backwards and forwards, and when pressed back cover

the eye completely with a grating. The value of this to a small

bird which skulks perpetually in heavy grass must be obvious.

(Plate Bs fot 1A. & -B:).

The nostrils of a bird exhibit much variation, both internally

and externally. There are two main types of nostril known as the

nares impervie and nares pervie@, according to the presence or

absence of a complete vertical inter-nasal septum. The septum

or wall between the two nostrils may be composed of either cartilage

ot bone. When the septum is present and complete the two

nostrils are entirely separate, forming the condition known as

nares impervie. When the septum is incomplete the two nostrils

communicate with each other and are nares pervie. The two

types of nostril appear to be somewhat capriciously distributed

amongst the natural orders; for instance to quote a well-known

example our Vultures in India (Vulturid@) have nares impervice

while the other condition is found in the Vultures of the New

World (Cathartide). |

Externally the nostril may appear as a simple hole or slit, some-

times covered with a leathery operculum or valve, sometimes naked

and visible or sometimes covered with a dense mat of feathers or

naral bristles. In the Nightjars (Caprimulgid@) each nostril is

produced into a short soft tube. In the Petrels and Albatrosses

(Tubinares) each operculum forms a regular tube which may or

may not fuse with its counterpart in the middle line, and thereby

7384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY. Vole Xd TT

produces the appearance of a single tube along the top of the culmen.

In the Gannets (Sulid@), on the other hand the external nostril is —

entirely closed, the inner openings of the nostril being very large

and communicating directly into the mouth. The value of this

arrangement is easily suggested to anyone who has seen the vigour

of the Gannet’s dive in the roughest of seas, yet our Indian Pied

Kingfisher (Ceryle rv. leucomelanura) dives as well without it.

The reason for most of the variations in bird’s nostrils is clearly

still unknown to us. Birds as a class are believed to have little

or no sense of smell.

The tongue of a bird is often greatly affected by the purpose and

modifications of the beak. Its structure is typically very easy to

understand, bearing the collective name of the Hyoid apparatus.

This diagram (Plate E, fig. 8) explains the arrangement of bones (or

cartilages) forming the framework of an ordinary bird’s tongue; it

need only be explained that the arrow-headed os entoglossum is the

basis of the tongue proper which we see on opening a bird’s beak ;

while the urohyal rests on the larynx and is attached to it. The

Hyoid horns lie backwards under the base of the skull. The Hyoid

apparatus varies a good deal in shape, proportions and in the

presence or absence of certain parts and is undoubtedly of taxonomic

value. I will confine my remarks however to the variations

commonly visible in the tongue itself, without dissection.

The variations in bird’s tongues are endless, both in form and

size, and greater than in any other class of vertebrates. They are

used apparently not so much as an organ of taste or touch, but to

assist the beak in the management of the food.

In certain birds such as the Gannets (Sula) and the Cormorants

(Phalacrocorax), the tongue is a mere degenerate vestige and

Pycraft explains this by the fact that the food (fishes) is bulky and

swallowed whole, and therefore a tongue of ordinary proportions

would merely be in the way. Unfortunately, however, for this

theory a similar condition of degeneracy is found in such widely

unrelated birds as the Nightjars (Caprimulgus) and the true Storks

(Ciconia), whose food is the reverse of bulky, so that it is evident

that this explanation is not satisfactory. The smallness may be due

to mere atrophy, Nature’s usual penalty for the disuse of an organ.

That the shape and size of the tongue is connected with the feed-

ing habits, in some way or another, is clear from numberless

instances; to quote a most suggestive one, we may take the case

of the Flamingo (Phoenicopterus). Now the Flamingo is merely

an aberrant stork and the true storks have no tongue at all

to speak of; yet we have already seen how the Flamingo feeds

not like a stork but like a duck, and has to that end a beak that.

is in essentials a sieve like a duck’s beak. A duck’s tongue is

extremely thick and fleshy, fitting the whole cavity of the beak and

fringed along its edges with fine horny or fleshy processes comple-

mentary to those of the beak. So is the tongue in the Flamingo.

In the majority of birds the tongue is comparatively small, horny

at the tip and with the back armed with small pointed processes

directed towards the gullet. The function of these processes is

evidently to direct the-food into the gullet. In the Birds of Prey

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 785

and the typical Parrots, whose beaks we found such perfectly

developed implements for handling difficult food the tongue becomes

thick and fleshy, with the tip sometimes hollowed into a sort of

spoon. This hollowing of the tip seems to be very definitely

connected with the holding of the food in place for the operations

of the beak, for we find it again in the heavy-beaked finches of the

Hawfinch and Grosbeak type which split strong seeds and fruits

by a mixture of skill and strength, while in the Crossbill it is known

to be connected with the extraction of seeds from the cone.

In the Lories, on the other hand, which feed on soft fruit and

nectar the tongue has become a regular brush and to it is due

their other name of Brush-tongued Parrots.

Lack of space prevents mention of more than two other important

forms of tongue, and both these are extensile, a condition rare

amongst birds as a whole; both are intimately connected with the

obtaining of food.

In the Woodpeckers (Pict) the tongue is very long, thin and

pointed, and the bones of the Hyoid horns are similarly lengthened

to such an extent that to accommodate them they have to curl round

the base of the skull over the top of the head to the base of the

_beak, lying just under the skin. (Plate E, fig. 9). The pointed tip

of the tongue is coated with a sticky saliva furnished by two large

glands which lie near the base of the tongue. The length of the

Hyoid horns forms a kind of spring which enables the tongue to be

extruded and retracted very rapidly and there is no doubt that this

sticky tongue is used for the capture of small insect food. How far

the tongue is used to draw food from burrows and crevices in trees,

and how far its maximum development will be found amongst those

Woodpeckers whose food consists chiefly of ants is a matter that

still requires investigation. That a similar modification of tongue

is found in ant-eating mammals is suggestive, as also is its absence

in the sap-sucking Woodpeckers (Sphyropicus), of America whose

tongue is virtually made into a brush by the short hair-like processes

on each side near the tip. There is a good deal of difference in the

degree of development of the tongues of our large selection of

Indian Woodpeckers and it merits study in connection with their

varied habits.

In a large number of birds the tip of the tongue is split into

several minute fronds, often so numerous as to become practically

a brush, and this development appears to be largely connected

with insect or semi-liquid foods. In the Sunbirds (Nectarinide) it

is found in conjunction with a rolling up of the edges of the tongue

until it has become a regular tube, extensile and connected in some

way with the extraction of food from flowers, whether nectar or

insects. Careful field observations are badly needed on the feed-

ing habits of our Indian Sunbirds and { feel sure that they would

reveal a great deal of information in connection with the peculiar

structure of the beaks and tongues of this group and also of their

importance in the life histories of many Indian plants.

Before leaving the subject of the tongue I may emphasise the

point that it has no connection with a bird’s voice or song. They

are produced in the Syrinx or lower Larynx and the barbarous

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

practice of splitting a bird’s tongue in order to make it sing or

tall better is therefore entirely pointless, as is the Lucullan idea

of a dish of Nightingale’s tongues, being sweeter for the song.

The specialised tongues of the Woodpeckers go with a special-

ised type of beak, which may be described as a chisel. This is

meant for cutting wood and it does so most satisfactorily, worked

as a chisel with incessant blows (for hammer and chisel are here

necessarily combined) or as a gouge. With the beak rotten wood

is cut away, holes are opened and bark is chipped off, preparing

for the specialised tongue to function as the food is laid bare.

Most unusual perhaps of all the beak is also a drumstick. The

Pied Woodpeckers of the genus Dryobates, in particular, definitely

drum as an outlet for sexual emotion, vibrating the beak rapidly

with a quick succession of blows on a dead bough. ‘The chosen

bough is used again and again for the purpose and this drumming

undoubtedly performs the function of a song and is its substitute.

Amongst the definite types of specialised beak found in India

must be reckoned that of the Hornbills (Bucerotide), with the

several species. (Plate F, fig. 10). There has been much

speculation as to, the purpose of this casque which, if cut open, is

found to consist not of solid horn but of a mass of bony props and

tissues with numberless open cells between them. Now an

examination of the whole structure clearly shows that it is in the

nature of a shock absorber, and the belief has arisen that the casque

is used as a hammer to break open nuts. In what attitude the bird

could break nuts with its casque has never been explained. From

what I have heard of captive Hornbills I feel sure that the whole

beak is used literally as a pickaxe or adze and that the casque is

merely a means of absorbing the resultant heavy shocks and so

preventing injury to the brain. That the Hornbills throw most of

their food in the air and catch it before they swallow is merely a

result of the fact that the beak has been specialised to form a heavy

tool and so is inconvenient for the lighter work of directing food up

its length.

These general aspects and lines of development of the beak which

we have been considering are all connected with its primary use

in connection with food. It must be remembered, however, that

the beak has a secondary. and indirect function. It has to take

the place of the hand.

A very few birds are able to use the foot to a limited extent as

a hand. This ability is most marked amongst the Parrots and

Parrakeets who habitually hold the food up in one foot while it is

being eaten. I believe that. very occasionally some of the Owls

and Shrikes may do the same thing but very few birds even attain

to the fairly obvious method of holding food on to a perch with

the feet and pecking at it down in that position.

Using the foot to carry food or nest material is almost equally

rare. The birds of prey, diurnal and nocturnal habitually carry

food or sticks in their talons and one or two of them even use one

foot to carry the food to the beak in flight (though they have not

attained the parrot’s gift of doing this when perched). The most

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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Fic. 10.—The casque of the Hornbill

(Dichoceros bicornis)

Posifion OF SENSoRY

i NERVES

Fic. 11.—Diagram to show position of the ear in Snipes

Fic. 12.—The beak of the Slender-billed Scimitar Babbler

(Xiphirhamphus)

BEAKS OF BIRDS

PLATE. &

VSVAL POSITION OF

EAR IN RBRBDS

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BLRDS 787

familiar example of this is the common Pariah Kite (Milvus m.

govinda) who feeds in mid-air, biting fragments from the food

held in the foot which is stretched forward to meet the beak. The

Hobby (Falco subbuteo) is said to do the same thing but I have

never personally seen it do so, though I have had many opportunities

of observing the species.

Twice I have seen a House Crow (Corvus splendens) carry a stick

grasped in both feet, but the awkwardness with which it did so,

the legs hanging low below the body, confirmed the unusualness

of the act. The manner in which the Woodcock (Scolapax

rusticola) transports its young between its thighs has often been

described.

With a few exceptions of this type, the beak has to do all the

funetions of the hand in birds. It carries the nest materials and

builds the nest, often a piece of most intricate workmanship; it

carries the food to the young and cleans out their excreta; it preens

the feathers; it is far more useful an organ than any of the other

natural orders possess and it is second only to the hand.

Depending as it does on feeding habits for its form the beak

exhibits little or no sexual dimorphism. The classic example of

sexual dimorphism in the beak is that of the Huia-bird (Hetarolocha

acutirostris) of New Zealand. In this species the beak of the male is

short and but slightly curved, while that of the female is rather

more than twice as long and much decurved. These birds live on

wood-boring grubs and it is believed that the male reaches these

by chiselling away the rotten wood while the female probes for

and extracts those ensconced in the sounder portions of wood, too

hard for the male’s method of attack. We have no such example

cf dimorphism amongst Indian birds so far as form is concerned.

A moderate degree of sexual dimorphism in the colour of the beak

is common, and a seasonal dimorphism of colour is often found,

as for instance in the Sparrows (Passer).

This completes our general review of the beak and its attributes.

It will, however, be of interest to remark on a few of the other

very highly specialised beaks that we meet with in the rich Indian

avifauna.

One of the most obvious ways for a beak to attain specialisation

is in the direction of length and slenderness to enable the owner

to extract food from a hiding place, whether in a crevice amongst

stones or bark, from the interior of a flower, or from mud or

water. To this end the beak has to be used either as a forceps

cr a probe, the former being far the commoner use. In such

a beak a curve is of distinct utility as it saves the neck from the

extra contortions and strain which would be necessary when the

food was found in all but the most straightforward positions. In the

majority of cases therefore a long thin beak has also a downward

curve; a Sunbird, a Tree-Creeper and the Curlew are instances which

readily occur to the mind—occasionally however the curve is up-

wards, though this is rare, and it is confined to long-legged water-

birds such as the Greenshank or the Avocet which take their food

from soft mud and water. The probing type of beak on the other

hand is best straight.

788 JOURNAL, BOMBAYV/NATORAL Ais®, | SOChEI«, Wo. ea

The Godwits (Limosa) and the Snipes (Capella) afford the best

examples of the use of the beak as a probe. Its development is

highest in the Snipes and Woodcocks where there are several

modifications of importance. To begin with the tip of the beak

is furnished with an extremely sensitive arrangement of sensory

nerves. To quote from Yarrell: “The end of the beak of the Snipe,

when the bird is alive, or if recently killed, is smooth, soft and

pulpy, indicating great sensibility; but some time afterwards it

becomes dimpled like the end of a thimble. If the upper mandible

be macerated in water for a few days, the skin, or cuticle may be

readily peeled off. The external surface then presents numerous

elongated hexagonal cells, which afford at the same time protection,

and space for the expansion of minute portions of nerves supplied

to them by two branches of the fifth pair; and the end of the

bill becomes, in consequence of this provision, a delicate organ

of touch, to assist these birds when boring for their food in soft

ground; this enlarged extremity of the beak possessing such a

degree of sensibility as to enable these birds to detect their prey

the instant it comes in contact with it, although placed beyond

the reach of sight.’?

It is not, however, sufficient that the Snipe should be aware

that ‘there 1s food: down in ‘the ground atthe end, of, its, beale; sit

has to seize that food and the effort involved would be very

great. if ‘the beak ~had’ to ‘open (for its “whole, leneth arith, tne

implication of shifting the mass of surrounding soil. A mechanism

has been involved whereby only the tip of the beak is opened

sufficiently wide to grasp the food. The mechanism is simple, and

is thus described by Pycraft: ‘The beak of the Snipe is formed

by the elongation of the premaxilla and the extension forwards

of the naral fossa to within a short distance of the tip of the beak.

Thus is formed an upper and a lower pair of lateral rods of great

slenderness and elasticity. By the contraction of muscles attached

to the quadrate bones the pair of inferior bars are thrust forwards,

and this results in forcing the: tip of the beak. upwards. » The

relaxation of the muscle brings the curled up tip down again so

as to close on the worm and hold it securely until brought to the

surface.’? Some idea of the perfection of this mechanism is gained

from Mr. F. Norwood’s statement, made on observation of a

captive Woodcock, that ‘the flexibility of the upper mandible of

the bill was so great that it more resembled the writhings of a

worm than a beak.’

So highly important are these specialisations in the economy of

the Snipes and Woodcocks that the apertures of their ears have

shifted from the normal position forwards to in front and below

the eye, that is near the base of the beak: and it is clear that this

is in order to reinforce the sense of touch with the sense of hearing

while the long beak probes for its subterranean food. (Plate F,

fiz 11). It is interesting to remark that another bird which feeds

chiefly on earth worms—though it is not Indian and belongs to

a very different order to the Snipe—has not its ear but its nostril

1 Yarrell, ‘British Birds’, 4th edition. Vol. Ill, iD: 346,

2*A History of Birds’, p. 414.

——

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 789

entirely shifted to aid in the search for its prey. In the Kiwi or

Apteryx of New Zealand the nostril is at the tip of the long bill.

The use of a long beak as a forceps is so obvious and straight-

forward and so common that I need not labour examples of it.

But it is well to remark on the extreme example of it which we

meet with amongst Indian birds, in the Slender-billed Scimitar-

Babbler (Xiphiramphus superciliaris). (Plate F, fig. 12). A glance

at my illustration will show the disproportionate looking size of

the beak in this species, one of the most marked amongst all

Passerine birds. To our shame we have to admit our ignorance

of the reason for this extreme specialisation in one member of the

large group of Babblers and Laughing-Thrushes. There must

be some particular reason for it connected with some special feeding

habit and I would hazard the guess that the bird feeds particularly

at some special flower and is the means of its fertilisation. I can

trace no note on its feeding habits except that Meinertzhagen (Ibis,

1927, p. 575) remarked that near Darjeeling a pair used to vist a

Red Cotton-tree in bloom and studiously probe the flowers.

The most extreme comparative length of bills occur amongst

the Humming-birds of the New World, but their long bills cannot

be rerarded? as of the forceps type; they serve: more ‘as sheaths

for the tubular tongue through which food appears to be largely

taken by suction.

In a few birds the beak may serve the purposes both of a probe

and a forceps, and of this type the Hoopas (Upupa epops) may well

serve as an illustration. It is equally skilful at extracting grubs

from the interior of the earth or picking beetles from its surface.

Breadth of bill is another method of attaining specialisation and.

there are various devices by which breadth is attained without

too great a weight which would disturb the balance of the bird.

A broad bill is generally not broad for its whole length. A very

broad gape with the bill tapering rapidly to the point is the normal

way in which undue weight is avoided; and as we have remarked

above the fringing of the gape with long rictal bristles doubles

the breadth without increasing its weight. A beak of this type

is the obvious instrument for the capture of living insects and

we see it in several totally unrelated families, such as Flycatchers,

Swallows, Swifts and Nightjars, its perfection of development

occurring in the last named (Caprimulgidz). There are two special

points of interest however. This type of beak carries the obvious

corollary. that the captured insect must pass straight into the gullet

and therefore the food must consist of insects which are unprotected

with stings and such as are easily swallowed. A Swift therefore

does not capture bees, and butterflies are fairly immune from these

types of insect feeding birds for the simple reason that their large

wings would prove rather a stumbling block to rapid feeding methods.

It will be remarked that the Bee-eaters (Meropide) which habit-

ually catch bees and wasps on the wig have the wide gullet

protected by a long sharp pointed beak; the insect is captured in

the point of the beak and rendered innocuous before it is swallowed.

Specialisation seldom affects only one part of an’organism. Short-

ness of beak appears to be a necessity for the speed and dexterity

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1IL

required to catch insects on the wing. The Bee-eater’s bill has

lengthened to let it catch the more dangerous insects; its central

tail feathers have proportionately lengthened to restore the balance

of flight.

In this specialisation of the Bee-eaters we see a good example

of the important fact that variation is a means by which Nature

minimises the competition amongst birds. The Bee-eater is able

to use a source of food unavailable to other insectivorous birds

in the same locality.

A rarer method of attaining breadth of bill without weight is

to broaden the tip of the beak and leave the base normal; but this

can only be done where the food is of a minute character and the

breadth of beak is required to attain quantity rather than size.

The most familiar example of this type of beak is found in the

Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), and we find it again in that rare

Plover (Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus) which has a place in the Indian

list. In the Spoonbill this beak is associated with a very curious

feeding action; the bird wades quickly through the water with

its neck stretched out and the beak half immersed, turning from

side to side with a regular sweeping action like a man scything

grass, so that the beak is passed sideways through the water.

There is nothing on record about the use of the beak in the Plover.

Actual comparative breadth of bill is rare amongst birds. Under

this head I should include forms like the Whale-billed Stork

(Baloeniceps rex), but there is no really outstanding Indian example,

though the Broadbills (Eurylaimi) approach to it.

Finally the effect of breadth may be attained by elasticity.

The Pelicans (Pelecanus) and the Cormorants (Phalacrocorax),

for instance, possess bills which cannot be considered as unduly

wide in proportion to the size of their owners. Yet there is such

elasticity in the bones of their lower mandibles and in their gular

pouches that they are able to swallow fishes out of all proportion

to the apparent size of their bills and gullets, while the lower

mandibles and gular skin of the Pelican stretch into a regular

fishing net.

Space will only permit of my describing two more specialisations

in detail, namely those of the Crossbill and the Scissor-bill.

The Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra) 1s a widely spread finch which

is represented in the pine forests of the Himalayas by a local race

(L. c. himalayana). _This bird may be described as parasitic on

various species of conifer on the seeds of which it feeds, and its

movements are in consequence irregular beyond the movements

of most birds, depending on the seeding of the forest trees over

immense areas. As a substitute the pips of apples are also eaten.

To extract the seeds from their cones the Crossbill’s beak has

become so specialised that the bird cannot normally exist where

this food is net obtainable. As indicated by the name the tips

of the two mandibles cross each other, and thus are widely separ-

ated when the beak is closed. The upper mandible crosses to the

right or left of the lower mandible in different individuals. (Plate F,

fig. 13). The action and use of this curious modification was first

fully studied and described by Yarrell with a wealth of anatomical

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 791

detail. I may quote Professor Newton’s less technical summary of

the process: ‘In the Crossbills the articulation of the mandible to

the quadrate bone is such as to allow of a very considerable amount

ot lateral play, and by a particular arrangement of the muscles

which move the former, it comes to pass that as soon as the bird

opens its mouth the point of the mandible is brought immediately

opposite to that of the maxilla (which itself is moveable vertically)

instead of crossing or overlapping it—the usual position when the

mouth is closed. The two points thus meeting, the bill is inserted

between the scales or into the cone, but on opening the mouth

still more widely, the lateral motion of the mandible is once more

brought to bear with great force to wrench aside the portion of the

fruit attacked, and then the action of the tongue completes the

operation, which is so rapidly performed as to defy scrutiny, except

on very close inspection.’ The tip of the tongue ends in a horny

scoop and while the two mandibles hold the scales of the cone

apart the spoon-like tip of the tongue is inserted under the seed

and loosens it to drop into the mouth.

The Crossbill is a most wonderful climber and uses its bill for

climbing just like a parrot, so that it is able to attack the cones

in any position on a bough. I have always seen them thus feeding

on the cone still attached to the tree, but it is said also to cut

cones off and hold them with one foot supported against its perch,

in a manner which I have already noted as rare amongst birds.

The nesting Crossbill has a perfectly normal finch-bill and the

peculiar curvature of the tips of the mandibles only commences

about the time of fledging.

There is a pleasing medizval German legend which attributes

the bird’s beak to its efforts to pull the nails from the Cross at the

Crucifixion, while its colour is due to the blood that then stained

its plumage.

The Scissor-bill (Rhynchops albicollis), 1s an aberrant Tern.

It breeds with the Terns on the sandbanks of the larger Indian

rivers; its eggs are similar to theirs. In plumage it greatly

resembles them, and its young are similar to those of typical Terns.

Yet in the adult there is one of the most curious specialisations

of the beak found in the whole of the order Aves; and this is

correlated with a peculiar and unique method of feeding, which has

in turn affected the bird’s flight and wings. The wings of the

Scissor-bill have lost the perfect proportions of those of the true

Terns and the flight is heavy and laboured in contrast to the dainty

evolutions and swiftness of speed which have gained for the family

the popular name of Sea Swallows.

Both mandibles are deep and greatly compressed from the gape

forwards to the thickness almost of two knife blades; the maxilla

or upper mandible is shorter than the lower and is capable of much

vertical movement.

The reason for the shape of this curious organ is soon apparent

as one cannot watch a party of Skimmers (as they are also called)

on the wing for long without seeing it in use. Singly or in parties

of ten to twenty birds they fly slowly backwards and forwards along

the surface of the water, as if they were ploughing it, the elongated

792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

portion of the lower mandible cutting through the water with

scarcely a ripple to mark its progress, so thin is the knife-blade.

The older writers speculated a good deal on the meaning of this

action, and with their frequent bias to theory as opposed to obser-

vation even in one instance decided that the bird found a mere

fascination in disturbing the placid surface of the water. But the

bird is catching fish. It skims with the beak wide open in shallow

water, the lower mandible cutting the water, the upper clear of

its surface; a small fish strikes the razor edge and runs up the

incline and the jaws close swiftly on it, holding it firmly in three

cutting edges; for an examination of the beak shows that the two

mandibles close together in the same fashion as a curling iron.

The fish is then swallowed head foremost and if the bird’s gizzard

is opened the fishes will be found all packed neatly Satine lying

parallel like sardines in a tin. The fish thus captured are all of

course of small size.

It remains to sum up the result of our study of the bird’s beak,

and I think it will be found that certain points emerge which hold

good not only in respect to the structure of the beak but as general

natural laws.

The structure of the beak, whether in shape or size or unusual-

ness of feature is usually closely correlated with the food of the

species. It is not therefore a very good guide to relationship or

classification. For, when we find two species with very similar

beaks it may mean nothing more than that their beaks are similar

as the result not of relationship but of ‘convergence’. That is-to

say the similarity of beak may have been attained through

similarity of food; or the actual foods may be entirely different

but a similarity of needs in dealing with it may have produced

superficially the same structure.

On the other hand closely related species may have developed

very different beaks. This may be due to the very different foods

available in the different areas that they inhabit; or it may be due

to the need of eliminating competition in one area which they share

as a habitat.

Adaptations may reach a very high degree of specialisation, in

which case they postulate the presence of a special diet or manner

of obtaining it. The species that attain to them are usually not

to be considered as very vigorous or likely to survive in the struggle

for existence. For the attainment of high specialisation may mean

a shirking of competition for the ordinary standard foods, and its

presence might mean extinction if the special source of food were

to fail from any cause.

The most highly specialised forms of beak appear at a compara-

tively late stage in the development of an individual, an indication

of their recent development in the species and an additional reminder

of the fact that the superficial structure of a beak is of little value

in classification.

Finally the structure of the beak needs to be considered in close

relationship with that of the tongue, and it may also need to be

ae Come ae with special modifications in the digestive apparatus.

(To be continued) :

, is ah

yn AL

Ripe 8

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist, Soc.

SOME TYPES

PLATE I.

OF AGARIOS OR GILL-BEARING FUNGI.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS

M. RoBINnson, B.A. (T.C.D.), NAT. SCI. TRIP. CAM.

Part I]

THE FUNGI

(With one coloured and five black and white plates)

(Continued from page 575 of this volume)

The Fungi are probably the widest known of the Cryptogamic

plants, and have always attracted popular attention and appealed

to the popular imagination. The old names given to many of

them, such as toadstool, mushroom, puff-ball, ink-cap, lawyer’s

wig, horn-of-plenty, fairy club, stink-horn and dry to rot, to mention

only a few, bear witness to the fact that they must have been

familiar to the old country folk, and were known in the same way

as were the wild flowers of the fields and hedgerows, which often

have such delightfully descriptive names.

Their wide range of habitat, and almost universal distribution

render them familiar objects everywhere; and it is an interesting

fact that the same species are found in many different parts of the

world, occurring in all kinds of different localities; the common

English mushroom (Agaricus campestris) for instance, has been

found in India at sea level, where the mean annual temperature is

83° and also at an altitude of 7,000 feet and over, with a mean

annual temperature of 57°. Several other species also found in

England have been found in these places, as well as in other distant

parts of the world, such as Australia and America.

There is one characteristic which is common to all fungi, and

which distinguishes this group from all other groups of plants.

No fungus plant ever contains any chlorophyll, the green colouring

matter found throughout the plant world. The importance and

use of chlorophyll to a plant was described in a previous article,

and lies in the fact that in its presence, the plant can obtain carbon

dioxide from the air, and under the influence of sunlight, can

manufacture it into other substances necessary to the growth of

the plant. In the absence of chlorophyll, this photosynthetic process

cannot take place, and plants that lack it, like the fungi, must

therefore obtain their carbon material from other sources; either

from other living plants, which already contain it, or from dead

or decaying plant or animal matter. Those that choose living

plants are known as parasites; while those that prefer dead and

decaying organic matter are known as saprophytes.

794 JOORNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOGILTY Vo tows

All fungi therefore are either parasitic or saprophytic, and will

be found growing upon living trees, roots, trunks and branches;

cn leaves; and on the flowers and stems of many grasses and

grains. They generally cause the death of the host plant, and

it is no uncommon sight to see giants of the forest slowly dying

from the effects of the fungus that infests them, their leaves

becoming patched and mottled, shrivelled and discoloured; while

whole fields of wheat, rye, barley and other cereals are ruined, and

vast crops destroyed by the attacks of the deadly smut, ergot or rust

fungi. Species of pine and fir are particularly liable to be attacked,

and enormous annual losses among the pine forests of America and

Germany have been recorded.

The saprophytic fungi do almost as much harm, as they attack

timber used for buildings and other similar purposes, and so

thorough is their action that a large solid beam may be reduced

in course of time, to a powdery mass, and become a positive source

ef danger. Others prefer leather and other manufactured geods,

particularly in a damp climate; and all decaying fruit and vege-

table matter instantly offer a home to the wandering spores of all

the moulds and mildews.

Many of the fungi are edible and form delicious dishes when

cooked; but on the other hand, many are poisonous and very un-

pleasant effects may be the result of sampling a species that is

not known for certain to be harmless. The poisonous varieties

so often resemble the edible ones, that it 1s sometimes difficult to

tell the good from the bad. Poisonous kinds in the fields and open

ground are often eaten by grazing cattle, causing iUlness and death

and consequent loss to the farmer. A pamphlet published in 1926

by the British Ministry of Agriculture, at three shillings, entitled

‘Edible and Poisonous Fungi’, describes sixteen species of the

former and nine species of the latter, and all are illustrated with

coloured plates.

The economic importance of the fungi lies chiefly in the evil

that they do, and there is still a vast field open to the investigator,

in studying the life histories of the more minute kinds that produce

so many of the deadly diseases of the higher plants. Their number

is legion, and it is not with these that this paper will deal, but only

with those that are usually called the ‘larger fungi’ those common

and more familiar kinds that can be found everywhere, and that

can be readily recognized and often identified without the use of a

microscope.

The part of the plant usually called ‘the fungus’ is the sporophore,

and generally bears thousands, often millions, of spores. When a

spore germinates, it sends out a slender colourless thread known

as a ‘hypha’; these hyphe branch and intertwine, and ultimately

form a felt-like mass of anastomosing threads, which is known

as the ‘mycelium’, and is really the thallus or body of the plant.

The mycelium can often be seen on branches or twigs of trees,

on dead leaves, or on any of the usual fungus habitats, as a soft

white or greyish mass, woolly or silky in appearance : but more often

it remains hidden below the bark or other surface, or beneath the

eround, among rotting manure or humus, and it is only the sporo-

JOURN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PrateE II.

OVS)

——

SES

WwW

BOS

NAAN

SCS

Neues

DEVELOPMENT OF SPORES IN ASCOMYCETES AND BASIDIOMYCETES.

An ascus containing 8 spores.

Fructification or cup of Peziza, an ascomycete.

Section through cup showing asci on inner surface.

Section through part of cup, asci and paraphyses, with tangled hyphe below.

A basidium with two spores.

Fructification of a basidiomycete.

Section through same showing plates or gills which bear spores.

Tangential section through upper part of 6, showing gills bearing basidia and

spores on edges.

9. Section through one gill showing centre part of tangled hyphe, basidia and

paraphyses on edges.

10. Fructification of a basidiomycete with holes or pores in under surface.

11. Section of under surface.

12. Section of one pore showing basidia lining inner walls.

Figs. 1, 4, 5, 9 and 12—very highly magnified. Figs. 3, 8 and 11—slightly magnified.

Figs. 2, 6 and 10—3 natural size.

DWrAID OH wD

FLOWERLESS PLANTS 795

phore that emerges and can be seen. The mycelium may often

remain in this condition for a long time until favourable conditions

arise for the production of sporophores, which arise on the mycelium

as little swellings formed of masses of densely conglomerated hyphae

ultimately developing into structures of a highly complex character.

The structure of the sporophore differs very widely in different

fungi, and the classification into divisions, families and genera

is based on this. There are three main divisions, but we are only

concerned with the one that contains the larger fungi and which is

divided into two main orders, the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomy-

cetes.

The Ascomycetes.—In the Ascomycetes the spores are enclosed

in a sac-like spore case which is called an ascus. Each ascus

contains either four or eight spores, and when highly magnified

appears as shown (Pl. II, fig. 1.) The asci are grouped together

with sterile hairs which are known as ‘paraphyses’ on the inner

surface of a more or less open cup or disc-like fructification (Pl. II,

fig. 2.) These little cups or discs are often brightly coloured and

extremely pretty, and can usually be found on tree trunks, and

twigs and branches in any wood or forest. A section through

one of the cups of the genus Peziza is shown (PI. II, figs. 3 and

4.) In another group, the Tuberacee, the asci are completely

enclosed in more or less spherical or tuber-like fructifications which

are always subterranean. ‘These are the famous edible truttles

chiefly found in the South of France and the West of England.

The Basidiomycetes.—In this order the spores are not enclosed

in a spore case, but are borne free, two or four together on the end

or a club-shaped structure known as a ‘basidium’. A very highly

magnified basidium bearing spores is shown. (Pl. II, fig. 5.)

There are two divisions of the Basidiomycetes, the Gasteromycetes

and the Hymenomycetes.

In the Gasteromycetes the basidia are borne inside a closed fructi-

fication which bursts or splits or simply rots away liberating a

cioud of spores when ripe. In this sub-order are the puft-balls,

earth balls and a few other genera. (Plate Ill). In the Hymenomy-

cetes the basidia are not enclosed but are freely exposed to the

air, and are borne on a special layer known as the ‘hymenium’

or hymenial layer, which may spread all over the sporophore; or

may be confined to certain portions such as the underside of the cap

of a mushroom or the inside of numerous small holes or pores where

it gets a certain amount of protection. (Plate II, figs. 5-12.)

The Basidiomycetes contain by far the largest number of species,

and include all the larger and better known fungi, so we will take

the two sub-orders in a little more detail.

The Gasteromycetes.—The fungi in this sub-order produce their

spores on basidia, in a more or less spherical or nodular structure,

which is covered with a rather thick outer skin called the ‘peridium’.

The peridium only ruptures or decays to liberate the spores when

they are quite ripe. There are five families or natural orders

included in the Gasteromycetes.

l. The Hymenogastracee or False Truffles.—These resemble

the true Truffles, which belong to the Ascomycetes, in being

795 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX XU

subterranean, nodular structures, dark brown or reddish in colour,

and in being edible. They were formerly very plentiful in the

West of England and were often found in the shops of Bath and

other market towns under the name of ‘red truffles’.

2. The Nidulariacee or Birds’ Nest Fungi.—These are dainty

little fungi which can be found growing on dead twigs and among

dead leaves at the base of forest and jungle trees. They are at

first little ovoid or spherical structures about a quarter of an inch

in diameter only, and with a rough slightly spiky outer surface.

They open at the top forming a little cup, at the bottom of which

are seen several small spherical bodies, each of which contains

spores. The whole structure looks exactly like a tiny nest with

é€ggs in it.

3. The Sclerodermacee or Earth-balls.—The fungi in this order

very much resemble the Puff balls of the next order, but are usually

darker in colour and generally have a rough and warty outer

surface. Some of them contain a substance which gives a yellow

aye when dissolved in water, and are still used in the South of

France for the dye. The spore mass does not split up and become

powdery when ripe.

4. The Lycoperdacee including the Puff-balls and Earth-stars

(Plate III, figs. 1-9).—This order includes the familiar Puff-bails

which are distinguished from the Earth-balls by the fact that when

ripe the spores form a greyish or greenish powdery mass. The

peridium is generally smooth and shiny and a light cream colour,

resembling white kid, and some of the fructifications grow to an

enormous size. The big white giant puff ball may be found of

-any size up to twelve inches in diameter but much larger specimens

have been recorded. When young the whole of the inside is a soft

white spongy mass, and if gathered in this condition, cut in slices

and fried, it is said to be delicious to eat.

The Earth-stars resemble the Puff-balls in their early stages, but

here the peridium consists of two or three layers. The outer layer

splits into five or six regular segments, and turns backwards, and

remains spread out on the earth like a star. At the centre of the

star is a little globular body usually of a delicate slate grey colour,

sometimes sessile but sometimes borne aloft on a little slender stalk.

The top is peaked and marked with curved striations, as though

one had twisted it. This curious and beautiful little fungus is

iilustrated in Pl. III, figs. 10 and 11. Another species found in

pine woods was much larger, being about five inches across when

expanded, and having thick fleshy segments of a deep orange

yellow, while the centre was dark reddish brown, so that the whole

thing rather resembled a sun-flower lying on the ground.

5. The Phailoidee or Stink-horn Fungi.—These fungi as their

name implies are characterized by a highly foetid odour when ripe.

The sporophore when young is ovoid and covered with a whitish

peridium the whole resembling an egg partially buried in the ground.

When ripe the peridium ruptures and the spore mass which is

enveloped in a glutinous evil smelling substance is borne up on

a long stalk, which grows with great rapidity, as much as four

inches in an hour and a half having been observed.

JOURN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. Prater III,

SOWIE o POH

past

pout,

SOME TYPES OF GASTEROMYCETES.

A young puff ball.

Section through same—spore walls pure white.

Older stage of same—outer skin rots away.

Section through older stage—spore mass deep purple.

A young puff ball—another species.

Section through same.

Older stage of same—outer skin splits at definite opening.

Section through same—spore mass dark olive brown.

Young stage of Geaster or Earth star.

Later stage of same—outer peridium split and turned

back forming a star.

Giant puff ball.

Figs. 1-10—3 natural size. Fig. 11—# natural size.

JOURN. BomBpay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate LV.

IR.

DEVELOPMENT OF SPOROPHORE OF AN AGARIC, AND SECTIONS

SHOWING METHOD OF INSERTION OF GILLS.

Young fructification.

Section through same—showing volva (vv.) intact and rudimentary gills (g.).

Later stage—volva just ruptured—showing differentiation of pileus (p.) and

stem (s.).

Section through slightly later stage—showing gills (g.) still covered by veil (vl.).

Section through mature sporophore (p.) expanded, vl]. has ruptured, exposing

gills and forming ring (r.) on the stem.

Gills, adnexed.

Gills, adnate.

Gills, decurrent,

Gills, free.

Gills, remote.

SS ard

FLOWHREESS "PLANTS: ©. 797

The Hymenomycetes.-_In this sub-order, the basidia are borne

on a special surface known as the hymenium which is not enclosed

in an outer covering, except in a very young stage of the sporophore,

but is freely exposed to the air before the spores are ripe. The

hymenium may spread over the whole surface of the sporophore,

or it may be confined to the under surface, where it covers project-

ing’ teeth, or lines the inside of small holes or pores (PI. -II,

figs. 10-12) or edges both sides of a folded plate or gill (Pl. II,

figs. 6-9). A number of natural orders are distinguished by the

manner in which the hymenium is borne. The sporophore itself

shows great variety of structure; the simplest form, which is usually

found in the pore-bearing, or teeth-bearing fungi being merely

a thickened hymenium layer spreading over the surface of the host

plant. This form of sporophore is said to be ‘resupinate’ (Pl. V,

figs. 3, 4 and 8) and usually occurs on horizontal logs and tree

trunks. In some species of the polypores, if the log is in a vertical

position, it is found that the resupinate layer often becomes much

thickened at the edges, or at one edge, and forms a projecting

portion which is plain and sterile on the upper surface—having the

liyimenial dayer som the under ‘side (Pi +V,* fic. 8)" This as. the

simplest form of the bracket or shelf-hke form of sporophore,

which is so common on tree trunks. Sometimes hundreds of them,

one above the other, run up the side of a tree trunk, thin and deli-

cately coloured like little fans (Pl. V, figs. 9 and 10); or one or twe

huge, thickened, weird looking structures may be found at the base

of an old tree trunk, resembling nothing so much as a large mis-

shapen hoof (Pl. VI, fig. 5). The highest development of the

sporophore is seen in the familiar mushroom or toadstcol form—

where the hymenial layer is borne on the under side of the cap or

‘pileus’ which is borne aloft on the stem or ‘stipe’ (PI. I and Pl. II,

figs. 6 and 10). When very young the sporophore is globular or

egg shaped, and entirely covered by an outer protecting skin known

as. the volva.(Pl. IV, figs. 1 and 2). - This very scon: ruptures,

and fragments of the lower part remain at the base of the stem,

often forming a kind of cup (Pl. IV, figs. 3-5, and Pl. I, figs. 7

and 14) while fragments of the upper part are often carried up on

the top of the pileus where they form white or cream or brown

flecks, or scales (Pl. 1, figs. 7; 9 and 14),.%A further protection

for the hymenial layer is sometimes found in the form of a thin

membrane called the ‘veil’, which stretches from the edge of the

pileus to the stem (Pl. IV, No. 4), covering the gills till the

spores are nearly ripe, when it ruptures as the pileus expands and

fragments remain forming a ‘ring’ on the stem (PI. IV, No. 5,

Pl. I, Nos. 9 and 14). Amanita (Pl. I, No. 14) has a double veil,

which leaves an upper and a lower ring on the stem. The ring

is often evanescent and not found in old specimens.

The Hymenomycetes are subdivided into natura! orders according

to the manner in which the hymenium layer is borne on the sporo-

phore. There are six of these natural orders and specimens of

most of them can be found in almost any locality.

1. The Tvemellinacee or Gelatinous Fungi.—These are fungi of

a gelatinous consistency when moist, becoming thin and papery or

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1/

horny when dry: and of a yellow or brownish colour, drying to

erey or brown. They are usually fan-shaped or bracket-shaped

and wrinkled, but may be club or cup-shaped, and are practically

all found on tree trunks or branches either living or dead.

2..The Clayariaee (clava, a club) also called Fairy Clubs.—

These are dainty little plants usually not more than one or

two inches high, and most descriptively named. The hymenium

is spread over the surface of the clubs which are white, yellow or

brown. They are found on wood, or among the grass in the ground.

One resembles a miniature bulrush (Pl. V, figs. 1 and 2).

3. The Telephoracee@ or Leathery Fungi.—The sporophore here

is flat and spreads over the surface of the host, like a thin plate

(Pl. V, figs. 3 and 4) or is bracket-shaped (PI. V, fig. 5) or cup-

like. The well known ‘horn-of-plenty’ which is an edible species

when young, has the hymenium spread over the outer wrinkled

surface of the horn. ;

4. The Hydnacee or Teeth-bearing Fungi.—In these the hymenial

iayer is spread over spines or teeth which project from the under

surface of the pileus (Pl. V, figs. 6 and 7) or merely from resupinate

patches of irregular lumps or tubercles on the dead branches of the

host. In colour they are dingy white, yellow, orange or brown.

5. The Polyporacee or Pore-bearing Fungi.—Here the hymenium

lines the inside of numerous pores or tubes, on the under surface

of a pileus (Pl), fig. 9 -and Pl V1) iorumerely spread ourgin

resupinate patches:.on the»host’ (Pl. Vj. fo. 78)- Thes pores scan

generally be seen with the naked eye, but are sometimes too

small to be distinguished without the aid of a lens. The hymenial

layer often differs in colour from the rest of the sporophore—as

in species of Fomes (Pl. VI, fig. 7) where the pileus is a bright,

~ foxy red, while the underside is white. Many beautiful colours

red, purple, orange and yellow are found among the polypores,

especially ‘in the .genus, Boletus (Pl. Al, 7g. .10), which@has the

mushroom-like sporophore, and grows in the ground chiefly under

pine, fir, and larch trees. It is also edible and much liked in Italy.

A few other common polypores are shown in Pl. VI.

6. Agaricacee, the Agarics or Gill-bearing Fungi.—This is the

largest order of all, and contains an immense number of species.

A number are illustrated in Plate I, all found in South India, some

at sea-level (Figs. 1, 2, 4 and 7), the rest in the Hills at an altitude

of 7,000 feet and over.

The Agarics are usually classified according to the colour of the

spores, into Melanospore, Porphyrospore, Rhodospore, Ochreos-

pore and Leucospore, indicating black, purple, red or pink,

yellow and white spores respectively. The colour of the gills when

mature usually indicates the colour of the spores, but when young

‘the gills are often of a paler, sometimes different, colour—white

becoming rust red or black as in Volvaria and Coprinus; pale pink

changing to deep purple brown, as in the common mushroom,

Agaricus arvensis. The shape and insertion of the gills varies

in different genera. Sometimes they run right into the stem, but

do‘ not: touch: it. for the whole ‘of their depth (Pl) V,, me. 6);

they are then known as ‘adnexed’. ‘Adnate’ gills touch for the

ee ee

JouRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V.

A711 (WWW

HMM WMS

Apts

: is

6-0

SOME TYPES OF THE HYMENOMYCETES.

1, 2. Two species of the Clavariace or Fairy clubs.

3,4, 5. Three species of the Telephoracee or leathery Fungi. No. 3 is a deep salmon

pink with a white edge, and No. 4 is black with a frilled edge, both

encrusting small twigs.

6,7. Hydnum Ochreum, one of the teeth bearing fungi. No. 7 is a section

through the pileus.

8. A resupinate polypore, which in the lowest figure is developing a horizontal

pileus.

9. Polystictus Abietinus, pale mauve bracket-like pilei.

10. Anagaric with bracket-like pilei of velvety grey.

11. Under side of 9.

12. Section through a pileus of 9.

18, Under side of 10,

14. Section through a pileus of 10.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pratt VI.

ANAT DTN

<)) WMATA

=> —— VY Hy Ny

SSS a \\

ne eh yi,

de ii WN ‘

: Wy ys Ww :

SOME COMMON POLYPORKES.

Deedalea Unicolor—rather leathery grey.

A soft white fleshy species growing in the ground.

Fomes pitchii—very hard and woody, quite black.

A hard woody species—upper surface bright, chestnut

brown, lower surface white.

Polyporus agaricans.

Polystictus flabelliformis.

Fomes Applanatum—bright foxy red, with white

under surface.

Pw be

SSO

Fig. 1-6—reduced to 1 natural size. Fig. 7—reduced to ;}, natural size,

PU aon

PLEOWERLE SS PLANTS. 799

whole of their depth (Plate V, fig. 7). When they run down the stem

as in fig. 8 they are called ‘decurrent’, while fig. 8 shows them

‘free’ from the stem, and in fig. 9 they. are ‘remote’ and joined at

a ‘collar’ well away from the stem.

When coilecting Agarics some of the spores should be taken

for examination and identification, and the best way to do this

is to make a spore ‘print’. The stem is cut off close to the gills,

and a large pin pushed through the centre of the pileus, to protrude

through the cut stem, and then stuck into a piece of absorbent

paper. on a board. If left in a sheltered place for an hour or two,

the spores will fall on to the paper, and when the pileus is lifted

carefully away, a complete ‘print’ formed by radiating lines of

spores will be found on the paper. A dark paper should be used

for white spores. In order to keep the print, it should be fixed

in the same way as a pastel or chalk drawing is fixed. The medium

sold for this purpose is quite successful or a weak solution of gum

arabic may also be used. For white spores a solution of | part

of gelatine in 30 parts of water is recommended. The print should

be laid on a flat dish or plate, and allowed to soak up the fixative

from below, as the spores are very easily displaced.

For those interested in the study and collection of Fungi, a most

useful little book to have is ‘Fungi and How to Know Them,’ by

E. W. Swanton (Methuen). This has numerous. excellent

coloured plates and is full of interesting and useful-information and

is quite inexpensive. There is no book on Indian Fungi yet publi-

shed, and it is difficult to identify the various species. The writer

would like to acknowledge here, with grateful thanks, the help

received from Professor S. R. Bose, of the Carmichael Medical

College, Calcutta, in identifying many species, chiefly of the

Polypores.

Explanation of Plate I (Coloured)

1 and 2. Species of Coprinus (Melanosporee).

3. Psathyrella disseminata (Melanosporee).

4, 5 and 6. Species of the Ochreosporee.

7. A species of the Rhodosporec.

9. A species of the Porphyrospore.

8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14. Species of the Leucosporee.

(1 to 13 reduced to 4 and 14 reduced to } size).

(To be continued)

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE

UPPER BURMA HILLS

Part I

P. F. WICKHAM

(With a map and 3 plates)

‘ Hast thou learnt all the birds without a gun

Loved the wood rose and left her on her stalk ??

Emerson,

Reminiscences are always delightful to oneself, and this must be

partly my excuse for presuming to write these notes so soon after

the Second Edition ofthe Fauna of British India ‘ Birds’ by Mr.

E. C. Stuart Baker has been published.

The ordinary ornithological enthusiast, generally termed a Field

Naturalist, in reading this Second Edition is rather overcome, I

speak for myself anyway, by a sense of confusion in elaborated

nomenclature and description; the old favourites have in many

instances lost their familiar scientific names and to differentiate

them from their relations in other parts have generally now a third

name added. The reduction in the number of species is very wel-

come and no doubt the inauguration of subspecies has been

inevitable, but I believe the ordinary ‘ Field naturalist’ would have

preferred that a description of any species with a note of geogra-

phical variation might have sufficed, such a variation being named

or not. However, trinomial nomenclature has come to stay and

must be accepted—Geographical distribution and general features

of the different parts of the Indian Empire require careful study as

they now play such an important part in such nomenclature—Mr.

Stuart Baker’s note ‘ Subspecies and the Field Naturalist ’ (vol. xxvi,

p. 523,) of this Journal is more than sufficient to lead one to accept

the necessity for trinomial nomenclature. No field naturalist can

fail to enjoy the description of the birds he knows, as given in this

last edition of the Fauna, and it is difficult to add to them.

The liberty has however been taken in these notes to correct any

mistakes in the names of places (distribution) mentioned in the

new edition of the Fauna which seem apparent.

Burma is the largest province of the Indian Empire and seems to

be a buffer area for the birds of India (proper) and China; the

country is not well known, at any rate to most of the members of

this society, and therefore further notes may be of interest, especi-

ally if one is able therein to help members visualize the features

of the country of Burma.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS.

NOTES ON - THE BIRDS OF THE UCPPER BURMA HILLS. 801

Shortly after Mr. Oates wrote his ‘Birds of Burma’ in 1883,

Upper Burma or, as he called it, Independent Burma, was annexed

and with it those parts of Burma which come so frequently under

notice by name in the Fauna, the Chin and Kachin Hills and the

Shan States (also hills); I quote Mr. Oates’ description of Burma

as it was in 1883 and enlarge on it to describe Burma as it now is.

‘British Burma is an irregular narrow maritime country, hardly

any portion being more than 200 miles from the sea; it lies entirely

within the tropics. It is bounded on the east by Independent

Burma and Siam ; the general character of the country may be said

to be mountainous, the only flat portions being strips of land along

the banks of the larger rivers and considerable areas at the mouths

of these rivers.’ Mr. Oates divided his British or, as we now call

it, Lower Burma into three divisions, Arakan, Central and Tennas-

serim, and proceeded to describe their features. The Western

Division, Arakan, he describes as ‘ mountainous throughout’, and

mentions the range of mountains separating Arakan from Upper,

or as it was then, Independent Burma and Central Burma as being

of considerable altitude and unexplored ornithologically then. The

Central Division he describes as traversed by two great rivers.

‘The Irrawaddy River, which passes through British Territory for

300 miles, is a noble stream seldom less than one mile broad ’ with

a fertile Delta. The second river, to the east is the Sittang of less

magnitude and the range of hills between these two rivers is said

to reach an altitude at the highest point of 2,500 ft. Tennasserim, he

describes as ‘consisting of amass of mountainous ranges’—its

northern portion traversed by the Salween River, ‘one of great

size but useless for purposes of navigation by reason of its

numerous rapids’. Two of the highest peaks in Tennasserim are

named Mooleyit and Nwalabo about 7,000 ft. altitude. The

description almost applies to his Independent Burma, or as we now

know it, Upper Burma, the Arakan range of hills continue north as

the Chin Hills and the Tennasserim ranges continue north through

Karenni, as the Karen country is called, and the Shan Hills both

joining up into the Kachin Hills, which cover the whole north part

of Upper Burma. Thus arises the formation of the hill divisions of

Upper Burma, summarized by Government as ‘ backward tracts’,

occupied by the Chin, Kachin and Shan; racial names which com-

prise many tribes speaking different languages and having totally

different customs and habits. These areas, I should add, are

large; the Shan hills alone cover an area of 40,000 square miles.

~My map is intended to emphasize the position of these three hill

divisions, as it is on the birds inhabiting them only that these notes

are written. Some Assamese species of birds find their way down

south vza the Chin hilis, Arakan hills, and across to Tennasserim, or

ii they go west through the Kachin hills, they keep west into

Yunnan. The Shan hills, except perhaps in the extreme north,

seem to pick up birds spreading west from China which at any rate

are generally of a different subspecific rank to the Assamese birds.

How far this is due to the area of plain country lying in Central

Burma between the Shan and Chin Hills being a ‘dry zone’ one

cannot say, but the dry zone with its annual rainfall of barely ©

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

20 inches (it contains a solitary volcanic formed hill about 3,000 ft.

high called Mt. Popa) cannot be very attractive to the birds of the

Eastern and Western hills accustomed to jungle anda good rainfall.

If the lower hills mentioned by Mr. Oates as forming a range

separating the Irrawaddy and Sittang river valleys, continued north

through the dry zone, we might have hada totally different distri-

bution of Burma birds, and Mr. Stuart Baker perhaps spared the

description of many subspecies. On the west of Upper Burma

flows that large tributary of the Irrawaddy River, the River

Chindwin which is the eastern border of the North Chin Hills. The

upper waters of this river is in unexplored country and contains the

mountain ‘ Sarramatti’ over 12,000 ft. in altitude. Ornithologically

a great deal remains to be done in these hills as the distribution of

subspecies seems to me to be confused. Unfortunately any

kee1ness on the subject seems to be confined to Europeans and their

work nowadays is more exacting but many will still, I hope, look

to birds to furnish them with enjoyable and interesting relaxation

and in time subspecific geographical boundaries, if possible, will

become definite ; to such these notes may be of assistance as I have

endeavoured to provide a list of birds available in these delightful

hills.

Personally I have tried ‘ to learn about birds without a gun’ and

regret having been of so little use in the scientific study of them, .

but they have given me endless enjoyment.

I.—Family CoRvIDA

Burma, even in these northern hills, is only represented by two species

of crow. One might have expected a raven or a carrion crow in the very north

of the Kachin Hills which border on Tibet, but so far these birds have not

been recorded therein.

1. The Jungle Crow. Corvus coronoides andamanensis.

‘Andamanensis’ is our subspecies in all these hills and throughout Burma

I have never shot it nor measured it and never looked to see if it had white

bases to its feathers or not. My idea of the bird is that it is ubiquitous

but perhaps less communistic than the House Crow, and every jungle

village knows them—neither shy nor retiring—-and if one camps in any out of

the way spot or even halts for a rest'- and snack a jungle crow must needs

inspect you. Asa poacher of eggs and young of other birds he has no equal.

In the Shan Hills they roost together in selected trees or bamboo patches

in some numbers, and can beseen homing as Corvus stlendens does in the

evenings, although never in such large numbers; in fact they have much the

same habits as the House Crow. In the Burmese hills the first fortnight in

March will be found the best time for eggs, which vary even in the clutch in

colour shape and size.

2. The House Crow. Corvus splendens insolens.

[Is the Burmese hill subspecies but confines itself more to the large towns

at low elevations, in fact has not much use for jungle villages and the higher

elevations.

3. The Magpie. Pica pica serica.

As might be expected, the Chinese subspecies inhabits the Eastern hills

of Burma. The species has not been recorded in the north west,i.e., the

Chin Hills.

In the Shan Hills this bird comes almost as far West as it can without

leaving the hills, and as Mr.Oates does not record it in his Birds of British Burma

the southern boundary presumably is the Karen country. Resident and a very

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 803

confiding bird, seemiug to like the proximity of man—noisy, continually

chattering in the breeding season ; the young apparently keep with their parents

till the next breeding season comes round.

Early March for eggs, but like rooks in England it visits the old nest long

before it commences to lay. Harington found koel’s eggs in the nest of this

magpie on more than one occasion, but it was in the Shan and Kachin Hills

as recorded in vol. xix, B.N.A/.S. Journal, page 108, and not in the Chin Hills

as recorded in the Fauna.

4, Red-billed Blue Magpie. Urocissa melanocephala magnirostris.

The Burmese Red-Billed Blue Magpie is a familiar bird and occupies, accord-

ing to my observations, both plains and hills alike all over Burma, but the

subspecies melanocephala may take its place in the eastern part of the Shan Hills.

I saw a solitary individual of this species capture and carry off in its bill

a large lizard—The lizard was on a tree trunk and tried to dodge the magpie

by running round it, but the quarry was well hunted and after repeated digs

or pecks fell to the ground when it was seized by the scruff of the neck

and carried off—I expect this magpie to be about as big a poacher as the

Jungle Crow.

Eggs in my collection taken near Rangoon, Chin Hills and Shan Hills, vary

as to size, shape and colour. Old birds get very excited and noisy when their

nest is approached by man and ‘give it away.’ April appears to be the

nesting month.

5. The Yellow-billed Blue Magpie. Urocissa flavirostris flavirostris.

So far this species is only recorded from the Chin Hills at about 7,000 ft. on

the higher part of the main range north of Falam. I discovered the bird nesting

at the end of April and shot one of the parent birds. It was kindly identified by

Mr. Stuart Baker and, as now recorded in the Fauna, he stated it differed

somewhat from the Indian bird. Sites of nests were lower down on the tree

than those of the red-billed blue magpie generally are and the two clutches vary

somewhat in colouration, one clutch being rather coarsely and the other very

finely spotted, and also vary in size.

6. The Green Magpie. Cissa chinensis chinensis.

This bird is found in all these Burma hills, but one would say is rather

sparingly distributed. They are shy birds and hence not often come across and

dificult to study. April seems the breeding month and numerous nests

were taken by Mackenzie in the N. Chin Hills. The bird defeated me in the

Shan Hills, but Harington records a seven-egg clutch in the Kachin Hills.

7. The Tree-pie. Dendrocitta rufa sclateri and kinneari.

A species inhabiting all these Northern Burmese Hills, but the Chin and

Kachin birds are separated subspecifically as above. This Tree-pie seems

to be more of a plains bird than the next and does not usually extend higher

up than the foot hills.

Mackenzie records the taking of a nest of this species at Maymyo in the Shan

Hills about 3,500 ft. elevation in April, but otherwise my records show eggs

taken in the plains only and although I often found nests of Dendrocttta

round Maymyo I always attributed them, I daresay wrongly, to D. sinensis.

8. The Burmese Hill Tree-pic. Dendrocitta sinensis assimilis.

Distribution as for rufa above. This bird does not vary subspecifically

in Burma, and Chin and Shan birds are similar. In the Fauna the

western limit is given as the Pegu and Arakan Yomahs (Hills). The Pegu

Yomahs lie in the centre of Burma and this is therefore, I think, somewhat

misleading. A garden visitor with a familiar call, nesting often quite low

down on tree stumps and bushes within easy reach, but always well away

from houses, usually during the last fortnight in April.

9, The Hooded Racket-tailed Magpie. Crypsirhina cucullata.

Personally I have never seen this small Magpie in either the Shan or Chin

Hills, but a nest was taken by Sir S. Robinson near Maymyo in the Shan Hills,

the eggs being identified by Mr. Stuart Baker. In the /auna the distribution

is alittle confused. Monywa on the Chindwin River might be taken as its

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

northern extremity, the foot of Mt. Victoria as its western and Pynmana (not

on the Chindwin River) as its southern ; practically the ‘ Dry Zone’ of Burma

as described under ‘ habits’. Harington did not record it round Bhamo,

Kaciin Hills.

10. The Burmese Jay. Garrulus leucotis leucotis.

The bird is found in the EKastern hills—recorded in the Kachin Hills, China

side, by Harington and again by him in the Shan Hills, in the Journal of the

Society. Itseems to be very like its English cousin iu habits. Haring-

ton’s record of this bird’s nesting ina community must be unique, for although

I have often found the nest I have never come across a similar ‘jayery’. For

his description see Journ. Bomb. Nat, Hist, Soc., vol. xx, p. 1003. Breeding

month is April. The most favoured site for the nest is, I think, undoubtedly

the end ofa big leafy branch of an oak tree generally high enough to necessitate

a climb ora ‘leg up’.

11. Sharpe’s Jay. Garrulus leucotis oatesi.

In the Northern Chin Hills, Mackenzie records the above subspecies, but in

the Southern Chin Hills, Mt. Victoria, skins sent home by me were identified as

the next species.

The distribution of oatesz, as noted in the Fauna, is not very happy, as the

Chindwin River is like the Irrawaddy River—east of the Chin and Lushai Hills—

The Irrawaddy River is a long way to the east but it may be this bird’s eastern

boundary in the Kachin Hills.

It may be as well also to note that the description of the colouration of the

head in the new edition of the /aunu appears quite different to the colouration

given in the Appendix to vol. iv, of the old edition. In the latter, more over, its

distribution includes North-Eastern Burma, but it is evident that by this only

the Shan Hills is meant. The bird at Maymyo, Shan Hiils, has been identified

as leucotis and it seems to me fairly certain that the subspecies vatesz is one

inhabiting the N.-W. Burmese Hills only.

12. Rippon’s Jay. Garrulus bispecularis haringtoni.

The new edition of the /auwna gives the distribtition of this bird as South

Chin and Kachin Hills. I think the inclusion of the latter country must be

wrong unless G. leucotis leucotis and G. leucotis vatesi, and G. 6. haringtont

all meet there.

The British Museum identified birdsI sent home from Mt. Victoria as G.

bispecularis and Rippon has evidently sent other skins home.

Both leucotis and bispecularis seem to have exactly the same habits.

The subspecies vufescens may come through the north of the Kachin Hills

from south of the Brahmapootra River to Yunnan,

WI.—Family PARIDZ

13. The indian Grey Tit. Parus major cinereus.

This bird must be included in this list as it has been recorded near Bhamo

Kachin Hills (Harington) and North Chin Hills (Mackenzie).

14. The Burmese Grey Tit. Parus major commixtus.

The commonest representative in the Hastern Hills of Burma, as far north as

Bhamo. It was this subspecies that obliged me by nesting in boxes in my

garden in Maymyo (Shan Hills), not P. 7. cinereus as recorded in the Fauna.

‘This tit nests about the middle of March generally very low down, often in

the ground on a bank, under a stone perhaps or even in an old white ants’ nest

hole, but a pair nested’ in the eaves of my two storeyed house. ‘They sit tight

when once incubation is started.

15. . The Green-backed Tit. - Parus monticolus monticolus.

This subspecies inhabits the Western Burinese hills probably down to Mt.

Victoria and Arakan hill tracts.

16. The Yunnan Marsh-Tit. _Parus palustris pecilopsis.

To correct the Fawna, Maymyo is in the Shan Hills, not Kachin Hills, but I

cannot find the record. and Maymyo should perhaps be read as Bhamo.

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NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 805

17. The Yunnan Brown-crested Tit. Lophophanes dichrous wellsi.

North Shan Hills. -

I regret I have never noticed either the Marsh or Cole Tits in any of the

Burma hills. They are evidently rare.

18. The Chinese Yellow-browed Tit. Sylviparus modestus saturatior.

Recorded from Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills, but it is also stated to be found in

N. Burma and east into China—a record of a Chinese bird finding its way

across to the western hills of Burma, but probably this bird has been

overlooked.

19, The Burmese Black-spotted Yellow Tit. Machlolophus spilonotus subviridis. -

I saw this bird in the Kentung State Shan Hills, which is the furthest

eastern partofthe Shan Hills. In April it was building, but some travellers

passing disturbed it while I was watching, and the nesting material it was

carrying was dropped, and the bird flew off.

Kachin 4ills (Harington), N. Chin Hills (Mackenzie).

Mr. Oates in his Birds of Burma says, this subspecies is, according to Mr.

Huine, only the young of 47. s. spilonotus, but this is perhaps ancient history.

20. Hume’s Red-headed Tit. A€githaliscus concinnus manipureasis,

Each of our hills has its own subspecies of this bird. Mackenzie records

itin the Chin Hills. (vol. xxv, p. 75).

21. The Shan Red-headed Tit. A&gitialiscus concinnus pulchellus.

South-eastern Hills.

22, Ripgon’s Red-headed Tit. A-githaliscus concinaus talifuensis.

North-eastern Hills. Hariugton’s description of the nesting of the latter bird

is in (vol, xix, page 110) of the Journal, Kachin Hills not Shan Hills as

recorded in the Fauna, to be exact.

23. The Chinese Black-headed Tit. Agithaliscus bonvaloti bonvaloti.

Occurs in North-east Burma and the other subspecies sharpez the Mt.

Victoria Black-headed Tit, in the higher mountains of the Chin Hills.

24. The Indian Sultan Tit. Melanochiora sultanea sultanea,

Occupies all our three hill divisions, I know the bird well in the Shan States,

but cannot say leversaw it in the Chin Hills. It has an unmistakable call

as it forages in the high tree tops. I only once found the nest and that was

destroyed before I calculated the time for robbing it had arrived. The nest

was in a tree hole almost within reach of the hand, the tree being on the edge

of a perennial stream (Elevation 3,000 ft.) and there was a dense lining of

cotton down. I think the bird likes to be near water—April.

II].—Family PARADOXORNITHID

25. Austen’s Parrot-Bill. Paradoxornis guttaticollis.

Kachin Hills (Harington), N. Chin Hills (Mackenzie).

26. Salvadori’s Suthora. Suthora polictis fee.

This bird is apparently only known to occur at Fort Stedman, in the Shan

Hills. Fort Stedman was a military Post and stands on the shores of Lake Inle

just below Taunggyi. Elevation about 3,000 ft.

27. Rippon’s Suthora. Suthora poliotis ripponi.

This subspecies occurs in the Chin and Kachin Hills,

28. Bingham’s Suthora. Suthora gularis craddocki. .

Recorded from the far east of the Shan Hills at high elevations.

29. Anderson’s Suthora. Suthora webbiana brunnea.

Kachin Hills only (Harington).

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

30, The Black-browed Suthora. Suthora ruficeps atrosuperciliaris.

Kachin Hills (Col. Rippon). i

3l. Thompson’s Suthora. Neosuthora davidiana thompsoni.

Southern Shan Hills.

32. Baker’s Parrot-Bill. Psittiparus ruficeps bakeri.

The new edition of the Fauna gives all these hills as the habitat of these

subspecies.

33. Hartert’s Parrot-Bill. Psittiparus gularis transfluvialis.

Distribution as for the species ruficeps. I must confess I am myself very

ignorant of this family of interesting birds. I have seen them very occasion-

ally when I had not a gun and I once found anest, without eggs, but could not

visit it again. They seem rare and very local.

IV.—Family SItTip#

34. The Chin Hilis Nuthatch. Sitta victoriz.

One of the numerous finds of Col. Rippon.

35. The Burmese Nuthatch. Sitta castaneiventris neglecta.

To be found in the Eastern Hills of Burma. Thecall is a familiar one and

unmistakable. I found the species common to the Shan Hills. It is stated in

the Fauna, quite correctly I think, to be an early breeder, but I was fortunate

to get a clutch of fresh eggs on April 26th. 33 ft. up in a cotton tree. ‘In

taking the nest the climber had to come down before actually getting to the

eggs and the two parent birds returned and began to pull out the cotton wool

which had been stuffed into the hole to protect the eggs. The ustal plastering

had been done which had set very hard and the nest, if it can be called one,

consisted of leaves with some thin flat tree seeds.

36. Austen’s Nuthatch. Sitta europea nagensis.

Distribution Chin and Kachin Hills only.

37. The Giant Nuthatch. Sitta magna.

Shan States. Not recorded from the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills. Isaw

this bird on more than one occasion near Taunggyi, Shan States. Even in the

compound of my bungalow, when I could watch it through glasses, it behaved

more like an ordinary bird than a nuthatch and did not climb about the tree

trunks. It seemed to be feeding on insects which were on the limbs of the trees

and was active in its movements, and did not take long to examine the few trees

in my compound. It made no call. Nidification is not recorded. I had

hoped to find it in the rocky crags of Taunggyi Hill and searched for some

signs, but I had no luck.

38. The Beautiful Nuthatch. Sitta formosa.

Shan States.

39. The Veivet-froated Nuthatch. Sitta frontalis frontalis.

Apparently to be found in all these three parts of Burma. I have seen

it in the Shan States at nearly 4,000 ft. I once saw a party of four or five,

presumably a family party, but they did not give me much time to watch

them,

V.—Family TIMALIDZ

40. The Rufows-122ked Lauzhing-Thrush, Dryonastes ruficollis.

North Chin Foot-hills (Mackenzie) and round Bhamo, Kachin Hills

(Hariagton). It has not been recorded from the Shan Hills.

41. The Black-throated Laughing-Thrush. Dryonastes chinensis leucogenys.

Only recorded so far in the Shan States. This is a fine bird going about in

parties and behaving like D. sannio and as noisy and garrulous as the rest of

the tribe. I have shot it in many places in the Shan States to try and find its

breeding places but never succeeded.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA AILLS 807

I am quite sure it migrates, locally only perhaps, but in two different years I

have noticed its arrival at a place near Taunggyi at the end of March or begin-

ning of April, the birds being numerous and singing where there was not one

to be seen before, and then after a few days the birds would disappear again

towards the east. I thought and my idea is they breed, if in Burma at all, near

China (Yunnan) and Siam. Hopwood, however records (Vol, xxvi, page 855)

of the Journal the finding of one nest of this bird on Nwalabo mountain in

Tennasserim. Eggs, skim-milk blue in colour 1°23” & 88”. Harington’s record,

which he himself describes as doubtful, were white eggs and measured 1:04 x

‘79, in fact the same size as J). sannio.

Two eggs said to be of this species sent me by a friend from a place over

100 miles East of Taunggyi were very light blue and measure the same as

Hopwood’s, but I doubt the authenticity.

42. The Kachin Hills Laughing-Thrush. Dryonastes cerulatus kaurensis.

Only the Kachin Hills (Harington and Grant). Grant obtained eggs early in

June.

43, The White-browed Laughing-Thrush. Dryonastes sannio.

Very common in both the Kachin and Shan Hills, Mr. Stuart Baker in the

Fauna says it occurs in the Chin Hills. I never came across it nor does

Mackenzie record it ; however I only mention this as proof against it being

common in these hills, asstated in the Fauna under habits.

The description given by Mr. Stuart Baker in the Fauna is all that one can

want.

In my experience the commonest nesting site in the Shan States is low down

in brambles or other bushes. The eggs are generally white, but Cook curiously

states that all his eggs, taken in April, were of the light blue type which he

took at Kalaw, a place some 40 miles to the west of Taunggyi and near the

valley.

44, Austen’s Laughing-Thrush. Dryonastes galbanus.

This species of Dryonastes appears to occur only in the Chin Hills. Late April

and May according to Mackenzie is the nesting season.

45. The Himalayan White-crested Laughing-thrush. Garrulax leucolophus leucolophus.

Records show that the subspecies occupies the west of Burma, which means

the Chin and Kachin Hills.

46. The Burmese White-crested Laughing-Thrush. Garrulax leucolophus belangeri.

This race inhabits the East of Burma, i. e. east Kachin and Shan Hills.

More noisy than Dryonastes, which is saying a good deal. When taking a nest

in the North Shan States, at about 3,5(0 ft., which by the way had an egg of

H.. sparvertotdes in it, | was almost mobbed by a whole party of them, friends no

doubt of the owners of the nest. Other birds also called up to witness the

robbing were G. pectoralis and O. emeria, all giving vent to their feelings of

sympathy. May seems the best month for eggs in the Hills,

47. The Burmese Black-gorgeted Laughing-Thrush. Garrulax pectoralis.

48. The Indian Necklaced Laughing-Thrush. arrulax moniliger.

Both these very similar birds inhabit all these three Hill countries and

seemingly are found in the same jungle.

The ‘ Buff-ended ’ subspecies do not occur in these hills. I havea clutch

of 4 G. pectoralis with 5 of C. coromandus eggs taken on the Ist of May. I

have also noted the finding of a nest nearly on the ground in grass, a rare

position, and shot the bird off it.

49. The Ashy Laughing-Thrush. lanthocincla cineracea cineracea.

The Chin Hills only.

50. Styan’s Laughing-Thrush. Janthocincla cineracea styani.

Occurs in the East Shan States, but I have no record of it. A chance for

Some one to collect itin the Kengtung State! I obtained the nest and eggs /.c.

cineracea in the South and North Chin Hills, Mackenzie, still further north, took

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

many nests and gives an interesting description of the nest, etc. (Journ. Bon.

Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 77). He does not however give the number of

eggs he found. Asarule, I have noted 2 only in the few nests I have taken

myself.

51. Hartert’s Laughing-Thrush, lanthocincla rufoguiaris assamensis.

Chins:

52. The Chin Hills Laughing-Thrush. lJanthocincla austeni victoria.

Only recorded apparently from the South Chin Hills.

53. Hume’s Red-headed Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum erythrucephalum erythrolema.

Chin Hills only. Mackenzie has given a good account of this bird’s nesting.

(Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., vol. xxv, p. 78.)

54. Wood’s Red-headed Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum erythrocephalum woodi.

55. Blyth’s Red-headed Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopteruni erythrocephalum melanos-

tigina.

The above two subspecies occur in the Shan States.

56. The Sikhim Red-headed Laughing=-thrush. Trochalopterum eythrocephalum

nigrimentum. 5

Recorded from the Kachin Hills.

57. The Burmese Crimson-winged Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum phoeniceum

ripponi.

Kachin Hills and Shan States. I can record it right away to the most eastern

limits (Kengtung State). A bird shot by me on the 30th March at an elevation

of 4,000 ft. showed no signs of breeding, but about a fortnight later I saw many

pairs going about together and they were calling a great deal. They certainly

occurred only in the higher parts and seemed to prefer old clearings in heavy

jungle.

58. The Assam Crimson-winged Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum phoeniceum bakeri.

Recorded by Mackenzie from the North Chin Hills where he took the nests.

59. The Burmese Red-tailed Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum milnei sharpei.

Kachin Hills and North Shan Hills. Harington records it in the former and I

have myself shot the bird in the N. Shan States (Taungpeng Hills) at about

5,000 ft. one of a party of ten or a dozen which came out of the jungle on to the

road. This party was feeding in the densely covered nullahs which occur

among the Shan Tea gardens. Harington took the nest in the Kachin Hills.

60. The Blue-winged Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum squamatum.

According tothe Fauna, fourd in all these hills, but Harington’s record in

the Kachin Hills seems to show that it is a rare bird.

61. The Manipur Streaked Laughing-Thrush. Trochalopterum virgatum.

A Brahamaputra bird, coming down to the Chin Hills only. Mackenzie

records it. He obtained a nest with incubated eggs, May.

62. Austen’s Striated Laughing-Thrush. Grammatoptila striata austeni.

Mackenzie’s record of this bird in the North Chin Hills is new. He took a

nest with eggs (fresh) on 29th April.

63. The Spotted-breasted Laughing-Thrush. Stactocichla merulina merulina,.

Remarks above apply. Only the nest of this bird was taken the 27th April.

64. The Chinese Babax. Babax lanceolatus lanceolatus.

Kachin Hills and North Shan States.

— alae ate

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 809

65. The Mt. Victoria Babax. Babax lanceolatus victoriz.

Occurs in the South Chin Hills. The nest of one which I took just below

Mt. Victoria was high up in a tree and nota bit difficult to find. ‘The skin, if

I remember correctly, of the parent bird is in the Society’s Museum where it

was kindly identified—2 blue eggs, April. Venning’s eggs must have come, I

think, from 50 or 60 miles further north,

66. The Striated Babbler. Argya earlii.

Recorded in the Fauna as occurring in the Chin Hills—the only place I ever

Saw it in Burma and took its nest was in the plains near Rangoon. Probably

only to be found in the valleys bordering on the Hills as recorded by Harring-

ton at Bhamo. The whole of Burma is very poorly represented by the genera

Turdoides and Argya although the latter is represented by A. gularis, a Burmese

bird of the Dry Zone.

67. Grant’s Slaty-headed Scimitar-Babbier. Pomatorhiaus schisticeps mearsi.

Recorded from the Chin Hills only, differs in no way from its confreres. The

nests [ found on the Mt. Victoria range were on the hill-side, on the ground

just above the edge of the road-cutting at low elevations. The bird slips off

and down the ‘ Khud’ pretty quickly. Generally 3 eggs ; middle of April and

perhaps earlier.

68. Tweeddale’s Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus schisticeps nuchalis.

Appears to be confined to South Burma and the South Shan States only in

the area dealt with in these notes; Prome mentioned in the Fauna isin the

West of Burma and Harington in his notes on the Vimelid@ and their allies

records a specimen obtained from Mt. Popa in the dry zone.

69. Harrington’s Shan Scimitar-Babbler, Pomatorhinus olivaceus ripponi.

The east of Burma; a very common bird throughout the Shan States.

‘What! What! (pause) What! What!’ expresses, when quickly said, the

comnion call of the bird. A bird of scrub jungle, and open cultivated spaces,

seen round villages: likes the top of a stump of a tree or even a pine-apple bush

as a nesting site, but often builds in the grass edges of banks of streams and

sometimes even on the ground in Jungle. Middle of April seems the best time.

Eggs 2 or 3, generally the latter; the young are clothed in black down.

70. Phayre’s Coral-billed Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhiaus ferruginosus phayrei.

Mackenzie records this from the North Chin Hills.

71. Baker’s Rufous-necked Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus ruficollis bakeri.

North Chin Hills and through the Kachin Hills into Yunnan. Recorded by

Mackenzie in the former locality and Harington in the latter,

72. McClelland’s Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys macclellandi.

Chin Hills—very common. ThenestI took of the bird in the Chin Hills was

on the ground and atthe bottom of a small hollow—a domed nest as usual.

April is the month.

73. David’s Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys gravivox.

Apparently a Kachin Hills subspecies.

74. Salvadori’s Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus erythrogenys imberbis.

Shan States only apparently,

Cook describes its nest in his articles on the Birds of Kalaw (Journ. Bomb.

Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxii, p. 200). Lonly found young in the nest at Taunggyi,

23rd April. The nest was curiously placed, as Cook describes his find, in a

place where it could have easily been trodden on by cattle. The nest was on

the ground and rather difficult to see, but the parent birds were both very

agitated and showed no fear.

75. The Arakan Scimitar-Babbler. Pomatorhinus hypoleucus hypoleucus.

Chin Hills only.

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

76. The Burmese Red-capped Babbler. Timalia pileata jerdoni.

Evidently to be found in all three areas, but it is a wonder that the Bengal sub-

species (dengalensts) does not come down to the Chin Hills. Ihave found it in

suitable places in the Shan Hills up to 5,000 ft. A common bird nesting on the

ground; mostly a domed nest.

77. The White-headed Shrike-Babbler. Gampsorhynchus rufulus rufulus.

I only came across this bird in the Arrakan Hills and I do not know how far

north it extends, but the Mauna records its occurrence in the Chin Hills—Har-

ington away north in the Kachin Hills,

78. The Indian Yellow-eyed Babbler. Pyctorhis sinensis sinensis.

Ubiguitous—a bird to be congratulated, considering the extent of its distri-

bution and its numbers, in not having evolved any subspecies in Burma. I

should tike to call attention to its song, because on first hearing it I had a fine

hunt and eventually secured what I had hoped would be something new.

79. The Malay Spotted-Babbler. Pellorneum ruficeps subochraceum.

Harington, Mackenzie and Cook give the subspecies as minus Sharpe’s

Spotted Babbler, for Kachin Hills, Chin Hills, and Shan Hills, but birds

from Maymyo in Shan Hills have been identified as swbochraceum. I have

shot some myself and a skin was identified forme in England as ‘ minus’

as far as East as the Salween River in the Shan Hills. Harington in his

notes on the Timeliides locates this subspecies (swb-ochraceum) in the South,

even South of the Shan Hills and as he had access in writing these notes to

skins from Maymyo, it is probable that birds from there were wrongly

identified and these subspecies excluded from my areas. Mr. Stuart Baker

in the Fauna also notes he is puzzled about the distribution of these two

subspecies.

80. Rippon’s Babbler. Pellorneum ignotum cinnamomeum.

Seems universally distributed in the hills of Upper Burma.

81. Tickell’s Babbler. Pellorneum tickelli tickelli.

Mackenzie records it in the Chin Hills. A species which apparently comes

down to Assam vza the western area of Burma and down the Burmese

peninsula of Tennasserim, avoiding the Shan Hills, a part of Burma where the

species is not represented.

82. Venning’s Wren Babbler. Turdinulus brevicaudatus venningi.

Southern Shan Hills.

83. Baker’s Wren Babbler. Turdinulus epilepidotus bakeri.

Southern Shan Hills.

84. Abbott’s Babbler. Malacocincla sepiaria abbotti.

Probably occurs in the lower Hills of all these three areas but I had only a

personal acquaintance with it in the plains near Rangoon.

85. The Assam Black-throated Babbler. Strachyris nigriceps coltarti.

86. The Malay Grey-throated Babbler. Strachyris nigriceps davisoni.,

The former subspecies seems to inhabit all the three areas being dealt with;

but in the S. Shan Hills birds are stated to be intermediate.

87. The Nepal Golden-headed Babbler. Strachyris chrysxa chryseea.

Kachin Hills. (Harington) North Chin Hills.

88. The Chin Hills Golden-headed Babbler. Strachyris chrysea binghami:

Chin Hills. -

89. The Burmese Gelden-headed Babbler. Strachyris chrysza assimilis.

South Shan Hills.

90. The Bhamo Red-headed Babbler. Stachydridopsis ruficeps bhamoensis.

Kachin Hills and South Shan States.

JouRN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 2,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS.

Mid-East Shan Hills. Valley 3,000 feet.

Typical country Northern Shan States. Elevation over 6,000 feet.

Chin Hills are similar.

Typical country Southern Shan States.

Mongyai valley 3,000 feet. Hills round rising up to 8,000 feet.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA AILLS 811

91. The Yellow-breasted Babbler. Mixornis rubricapilla rubricapilla.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. The bird is said to be more of a plains bird,

but I have taken a nest in the Hills at about 3,000 feet, probably its limit.

Apparently a bird with very variable plumage.

92. The Nepal Babbler. Alcippe aepalensis nepalensis.

Chin Hills.

93. The Shan Hills Babbler. Alcippe nepalensis fratercula.

Kachin and Shan Hills.

94, The Arakan Quaker-Babbler. Alcippe poioicephala phayrei.

Recorded by Mackenzie in the Chin Hills.

95. The Upper Burina Quaker-Babbler. Alcippe poioicephala haringtoniz.

Harington records this subspecies, in the plains of the Kachin Country and

North Shan Hills. .

96. The Lower Burma Quaker-Babbler. Alcippe poioicephala magnirostris.

Recorded from the South Shan Hills.

97. The Assam Tit-Babbler. Scheeniparus dubius mandelli.

Chin Hills.

98. Rippon’s Tit-Babbler. Scheniparus dubius genestieri.

Kachin and Shan Hills.

99. The Chestnut-headed Babbler. Pseudominia castaneiceps castaneiceps.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills,

100. Godwin Austen’s Fulvetta. Fulvetta vinipecta austeni.

Eggs taken by me at the end of April in the N. Chin Hills | attributed to

this subspecies, but it may have belonged to the next rzfponi fromMt. Victoria.

This little bird is common in high evergreen forests of the Chin Hills.

101. Rippon’s Fulvetta. Fulvetta ruficapilla sordidior.

Eastern Shan Hills.

102. The Long-tailed Sibia. Sibia picaoides picaoides.

According to the Fauna to be found in all the three areas, but it has

curiously not been recorded by either Harington or Mackenzie in their notes on

the birds of the Kachin and Chin Hills, nor have I ccme across it in the Shan

Hills,

103. The Grey Sibia. Leioptila gracilis.

Col. Rippon recorded the bird from the Kachin Hills and it is the common

species of Sibia in the Chin Hills. I took two nests on the 28th and 2yth April.

They were built about 12 ft. from the ground in the top fork of saplings. The

eggs varied much in size, and in depth of blue of the ground colour.

104. Tickell’s Sibia. Leioptila melanoleuca melanoleuca.

105. Radcliffe’s Sibia. Leioptila melanoleuca radctifiei.

The common Sibias of the Shan Hills are the two above subspecies, if they ave

separate subspecies! I have taken two nests of vadcliffet; the eggs vary ; in

one case they were like my gracilis eggs in colouration, in the other a light

blue ground very sparingly spotted. I should call them blackbird and thrush

types, but the spots are dark red. One nest, 24th March, was built more

against than on a branch of a pine tree just out of ordinary reach. Pine nee-

dies, and grass and a few leaves had been used with pine-needle lining, and it

was coated outside with wool giving the whole a greyish appearance ; a bit of

string and a bit of paper also decorated the outside. The structure measured 65

mm. inside and 110 mm. in diameter outside. This nest was in the hedge of

a house compound, the other (28th March) being in a roadside tree. I dis-

covered they were early breeders(end of March) by picking up a fully-fledged

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

young bird at the end of April the year before. The skins I sent home have

been identified as radcliffet. The call is like the description given of the

species castanoptera (p. 306, vol. v of the 2nd Edition of the Fauna)

rather mournful but not unmelodious and frequently uttered during the breed-

ing season. It is particularly common round Taunggyi where IJ took one of the

above-mentioned nests. Itis avery quick rat-like mover amongst branches

when feeding. I notice the eggs of the subspecies smelanoleuca taken in

Tennasserim were unspotted and the bird has a different note by Davison’s

description.

106. Fea’s Sibia. Leioptila castanoptera.

Shan Hills. Cook identified a Sibia shot at Kalaw about 45 miles due west

of Taunggyi as this.

107. Blyth’s Sibia. Leioptila annectens annectens.

Recorded by Harington from Bhamo—Kachin Hills also according to the

Fauna found in the Kachin Hills.

108. Walden’s Sibia. Leioptila annectens saturata.

The Eastern Hills.x—Kachin and Shan.

109. Rippon’s Bar-Wing. Actinodura egertoni ripponi.

Chin and Kachin Hills.—Seeminegly a rather curiously distributed bird.

According to Harington, occupying the §. Chin Hills (Mt. Victoria) and‘ the

Kachin Hills (Bhamo) although Harington says his Kachin Hills skins more

nearly resemble the subspecies khasiana. Nests taken by Harington at the end

of April contained kard-set eggs ; so they are evidently early breeders.

110. Ramsay’s Bar-Wing. Actinodura ramsayi ramsayi.

Shan States. I obtained this bird on thecrags at Taunggyi (Plate 1). One

of a party of five or sixin October, and although I saw them in the breeding

season there, I never found the nest. The subspecies vadcliffei, the Ruby

mines Bar Wing is apparently a Northern Shan Hill bird only.

111. The Chin Hills Bar-Wing. ixeops nipalensis poliotis.

South Shan Hills.—Mt. Victoria.

112. The Chestnut-headed Staphidia. Staphidia castaneiceps.

Now recorded by Mackenzie from Chin Hills.

113. Tickell’s Staphidia. Staphidia striata striata.

Apparently only in the Shan and Kachin Hills as Bhamo is in the Kachin and

not Chin Hills as stated in the Fauna.

114. Hume’s Staphidia. Staphidia striata rufigenis.

Harington obtained this subspecies also in the Kachin Hills.

115. Hume’s Siva. Siva strigula castaneicauda.

Chin Hills. I once shot one inthe Chin Hills, north of Falam, but identified

it probably wrongly as the subspecies stvzguda; occurs also in the Kachin

Hills.

116. Hodgson’s Blue-winged Siva. Siva cyanouroptera cyanouroptera.

Chin Hills.

117. The Yunnan Biue-winged Siva. Siva cyaniouroptera wingatei.

Shan Hills and Kachin Hills.

118. Oates’s Siva. Siva cyanouroptera oatesi.

Very south part of Shan Hills and apparently only discovered on the western

border of these Hills.

119. Sharpe’s Yuhina. Yuhina gularis yangpiensis.

The subspecies is distributed from the hills south of the Brahmaputra to the

Chin Hills, Shan Hills and Yunnan where the next species is also found,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 813

120. Rippon’s Yuhina. Yuhina diademata ampelina.

This latter bird is recorded by Harington from the Kachin Hills—breeding

April and May.

121. The Black-chinned Yuhina. Yuhina nigrimentum nigrimentum.

Chin Hills.

122. The Yellow-headed Ixulus. [Exulus flavicollis.

The subspecies dazleyz or flavicollis occur in the North Chin Hills; harterti

in the S. Chin Hills, Kachin Hills and Trans-Salween River, Shan Hills—

a curious distribution.

123. Oate’s [xulus. [xulus humilis clarkii.

Another ‘sport’ like Szva oatesi found on a hill on the extreme western

border of the South Shan Hills.

124, The White-bellied Herpornis. Erpornis xantholeuca xantholeuca.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills at low elevation—An early breeder apparently.

125. The Indian Red-billed Lithorix. Liothrix lutea callipyga.

Chin Hills. .

126. The Yunnan Red-billed Liothrix. Liothrix lutea yunnanensis.

Kachin Hills.

127. The Nepali Cutia. Cutia nipalensis nipalensis.

Recorded by Mackenzie from the North Chin Hills.

128. The Red-winged Shrike-Babbler. Pteruthius erythropterus.

Chin Hills;

129, Tickell’s Shrike-Babbler. Pteruthius sraiatus.

Kachin Hills. This species was not uncommon on the crags at Taunggyi,

Shan States, but I could not find the nest.

130. Hume’s Shrike-Babbler. Pteruthius melanotis intermedius.

Inhabits the Eastern Hills of Burma, i.e. Kachin and the Shan Hills.

131. The Common lora. Agithina tiphia tiphia.

Apparently this is the subspecies that inhabits all these three parts of Burma.

It is very common,

132. The Gold-fronted Chloropsis. Chioropsis aurifrons aurifrons.

Seems to be distributed throughout these areas.

133. The Orange-bellied Chloropsis. Chloropsis hardwickii hardwickii.

Distributed as above. I found it near the most eastern point of Burma

in the Shan Hills.

134. The Burmese Chloropsis. Icterocephala chlorocephala.

Also occurs in these three areas.

135. The Silver-eared Mesia. Mesia argentauris argentauris.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills,

VI.—Family PyCNONOTIDZ

136. The Burmese White-throated Bulbul. Criniger tephrogenys burmanica.

Is stated to inhabit the Eastern Hills of Burma, east of the Salween River

in the Fauna, from Yamethin to Moulmein. Yamethin is a place in the centre

of Burma just north of Pyinmana. Moulmein is at the mouth of the Salween

River.

137. The Yunnan White-throated Bulbul. Criniger tephrogenys grandis.

The subspecies is obtainable apparently in the N.-E. corner of the Shan Hills.

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

138. The Assam Black Bulbul. Microscelis psaroides nigrescens.

Nigrescens from Assam reaches the North Chin Hills.

139. The Burmese Black Bulbul. Microscelis psaroides concolor.

The Kachin and Shan Hills.

140. The White-headed Black Bulbul. Microscelis leucocephalus.

A bird omitted from the Fauna. Recorded from Taunggyi Shan Hills,

(Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxix, p. 559). I . saw a number of

these birds in the company of .p. concolor in the Northern Shan States

in the month of January at about 5,000 ft. and noticed them in the breeding

season on the crag at Taunggyi alone and very rare, and I am not sure if they

actually bred. If it had not been that I actually observed them in the breeding

season, one would have said they were cold weather visitants. Anyway

they are more numerous in the cold weather; it is hoped the bird is ex-

tending its habitat westwards as it is a handsome species.

141. Thompson’s Bulbul. Cerasophila thompsoni.

The occurrence of these birds in the Kachin Hills has also been observed.

The finding of its nest in the Shan States has been recorded. (Journ, Bomb.

Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxx, p. 223). I have not any doubt now that it breeds in

the Shan States and probably Kachin Hills but is not so common as in the

cold weather. I was very unsuccessful in finding a nest after the one

recorded,

142. The Himalayan Brown-eared Bulbul. Hemixus flavala flavala.

Chin and Kachin Hills.

143. Hildebrand’s Brown-eared Bulbul. Hemixus flavala hildebrandi.

May be obtained in the Shan Hills.

144, The Rufous-bellied Bulbul. Hemixus macclellandi macclelandi.

In the Chin and Kachin Hills.

145. Tickell’s Bulbul. Hemixus macclellandi tickelli.

In the South Shan Hills.

146. Hartert’s Shan Bulbul. Hemixus macclellandi binghami.

Found in the Shan Hills. Harington records Hemixus m. holtt from the

Kachin Hills, but there is apparently some doubt on the subject. The Fauna

asks for more specimens of the species from different parts of Burma.

147. The Striated Green Bulbul. Alcurus striatus.

Chin and Kachin Hills—Probably also throughout the Shan Hills in suitable

elevations. I shot a specimen near Mt. Victoria and remarked it was behaving

rather like the genus Spzzz7vus.— Beginning to breed at end of April.

148. The Red-vented Bulbul. Molpastes hemerrhous.

A species with seven subspecies. There seems to be some difficulty in sepa-

rating the Burmese subspecies ; burmanicus, the Burmese Red-vented Bulbul

is found in the Chin and Kachin Hills (Harington) and the eastern edge of

the Shan Hills. It is recorded from at least 40 miles east of Mandalay.

Further east in the Shan Hills we get, according to the Fauna, the subspecies

chrysorrhoides, the Chinese Red-vented Bulbul, which extends north into the

Kachin Hills and Yunnan; the 3rd subspecies, migripileus, the Tenasserim

Red-vented Bulbul, being found south of Toungoo, i.e., not in the Shan Hills.

Personally this has upset my own ideas. I always assumed chrysorrhoides (late

atricapilla) as the bird which inhabited Tennasserim and wzgrifzleus as the

north-eastern subspecies. I notice Cook identifies his MWolpastes from the

South Shan Hills, west of Taunggyi, as nigripfileus and Harington says it

occurs in Taungegyi itself and that birds about 50 miles east of Mandalay more

nearly approached uigripileus. Harington identifies the Kachin J7olpastes as

burmanicus. Anyway it is satisfactory that.the distribution only affects sub-

species now. The detailed description of the subspecies. YW. h. nigripileus is

omitted in the new edition of the Fauna,

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA AIL LS 315

149. Blyth’s Bulbul. Xanthixus flavescens flavescens.

Chin Hills.

150. The Muleyit Bulbul. Xanthixus flavescens vividus.

Inthe Shan and Kachin Hills. I have noted that a pair on the crags at

Taunggyi took only six days to build their nest with two eggs complete. The

nest was by no means an unsubstantial one. They appeared to me to always

build very low down in thick bushes or even grass. End of April for fresh eggs.

151. The Bengal Red-whiskered Bulbul. Otocomipsa emeria emeria.

Apparently the subspecies in the north of Burma, while péeguensis, the

Burmese Red-whiskered Bulbul occurs everywhere else. The latter is a new

subspecies. This Bulbul is very easily tamed, coming into the house for food.

I know of an instance of it nesting in grass in a vase in a drawing room.

152. The Black-crested Yellow Bulbul. Otocompsa flaviventris flaviventris.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills; but a bird of somewhat low elevations and

very local—likes to be near water.

153. The Finch-billed Bulbul. Spizixus canifrons canifrons.

Chin and Kachin Hills. Early breeders, generally young by the end of

April but I took eggs from a nest-on the 28th of that month. The curious

nest of tendrils has been often noted, there isno mistaking it. Prefers ever-

green jungle at high elevations.

154. The Olive Bulbul. lole elivacea virescens.

According to the Fauna distributed throughout Burma in the Chin, Kachin

and Shan Hills. -

155. The Siam Bulbul. Tole olivacea lonbergi.

I shot this bulbulin the Shan Hills at an elevation about 3,000 ft, Breeding

17th March.

156. Anderson’s Yellow-vented Bulbul. Pycnonotus auricaster xanthorhous.

Shan and Kachin Hills.

157. Davison’s Stripe-throated Bulbul. Pycnonotus finlaysoni davisoni.

Chin Hills,

158. Blandford’s Olive Bulbul. Pycnonotus plumosus blandfordi.

Chin Hills—very doubtful ; but I have had it breeding in my garden in the

Shan Hills and it is said to occur in the Kachin Hills, but nowhere in the hills

is it as common as in the plains. The dry zone of Burma is literally full of

them ; rather a scolding note. The nest is a very shallow and small cup, and

the eggs never so richly. coloured as other Bulbuls.

159. The Black-headed Bulbul. Microtarsus melanocephalus melanocephalus.

Ubiquitous ; but by no means ever common. The only nest I found which

was in the Shan Hills near Taunggyi, but at a good deal lower elevation—had

one egg a little set. I notice in the /auna that another species WZ. potocephalus

has this habit of only laying 1 egg.

VIIl.—Family CERTHIDIZ

160. The Yunnan Tree Creeper. Certhia himalayana yunnanensis.

Shan Hills.

161. The Chin Hills Tree Creeper. Certhia himalayana intermedia.

Chin Hills.

162. The Tibetan Tree Creeper. Certhia familiaris khamensis.

Extreine North-east Kachin Hills.

816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIII

163. The Chin Hills Tree Creeper. Certhia discolor victoriz.

Apparently this subspecies and Hume’s Tree Creeper (C. d. mantpurensis)

meet where Mackenzie worked in the North Chin Hills. (Jowrn. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xxv, p. 82) as he obtained both these subspecies and the nests

the latter end of April and beginning of May.

164. The Karenni Tree Creeper. Certhia discolor fuliginosa.

Occurs in the Shan Hills in the east.

VIII.—Family TROGLODYTIDA

165. The Yunnan Wren. Troglodytes troglodytes taliiuensis.

Shan Hills.

166. Long-tailed Wren. Speleornis longicaudatus.

Kachin Hills (Harington). The two subspecies szmluimensis and kauriensis

appear doubtful. S. 2. reptatws occurs in the Shan Hills and S. 7. oatesi in the

Chin Hills.

167. The Scaly-breasted Wren. Pnoepyga squamata squamata.

Chin Hills.

168. The Brown Wren. Pnoepyga pusilla pusilla.

Chin and Kachin and Shan Hills.

169. The Slaty=bellied Wren. Tesia cyaniventer cyaniventer.

Chin and Kachin Hills.

IX.—Family CINCLIDA

170. The Formosan Brown Dipper. Cinclus pallasii mariia.

Is apparently the only Dipper which inhabits Burma and is the same as the

Assam one. I have never shot one, but have watched them from quite near.

They behave just like the English species, so far as my observations go. They

seem to inhabit the big rocky streams only.

X.—Family TuRDIDz&

171. The Indian Blue Chat. Larvivora brunnea.

Apparently to be found in the North, i. e., Kachin Hills.

172. The Chin Hills Blue Chat. Larvivora wickhami.

Chin Hills. The nest taken by mein April, when I shot the parent bird, was

on the side of a hill just above the road cutting at an elevation of about 5,000 ft.

173. The White-browed Short-wing. Heteroxenicus cruralis.

In all three Hills.

174. The Nepal Short-wing. Heteroxenicus nipalensis nipalensis.

Probably in all three Hills, but as yet unrecorded from the Shan Hills.

175, The Chinese Short-wing. Heteroxenictis sinensis.

Kachin Hills probably.

176. The Burmese Stone=Chat. Saxicola caprata burmanica.

Ubiquitous. Probably breeds more in the hills than in the plains and it is

perhaps the commonest of the common birds of the country. Whereas some

nests are beautifully hidden under a bush, like our English Stone Chat an

empty tin or the hollow of a bamboo lying out in the open on the ground may

be utilized; again a favourite site is a hole in a bank, the nest just placed in the

edge or under aclod. I have seen a nest actually down a hole in the ground

and one also in a small grassy hollow in a field, absolutely open and exposed to

the weather. I suppose I have taken more cuckoos (C. canorus) eggs out of

the nests of this species than nests of any'other bird. One egg inthe clutch is,

like the House Sparrow, as a rule different in colouration to the others.

Although fresh eggs may be obtained in May, it begins to breed asa rule at

the end of March.

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NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA AILLS 817

177. The Turkestan Bush-Chat. Saxicola torquata przewalskii.

This is probably the subspecies of S. forguata which inhabits all our areas,

although, according tothe Fauna indica may be found in the north-west corner

of Burma. In places where I have spotted it, it never seemed to stay to breed,

but Haringtonis sure that it bred in the Kachin Hills. The Fauna records

its breeding at a place called Monywa, but Monywa is not in the Chin Hills

and there seems to be some mistake.

178. The White-tailed Bush Chat. Saxicola torquata leucura.

May be found in our areas although I have never noticed it in the Shan

States. Mackenzie records its breeding in the plains.

179. Jerdon Bush Chat. Oreicola jerdoni.

I have only seen this bird in the plains in the valley of the Irrawaddy River,

well north of Mandalay almost in Kachin country and Harington records it in

Bhamo plain, Oates, in 1883, when he wrote his Birds of Burma said it had

only once been recorded in British Burma, but noted its occurrence at Bhamo,

not then in British Burma. Its occurrence in the ‘upland grass plains’ of

the Chin Hills, as stated in the Fauna, I find difficult to believe, as, to start

with, such plains are not present in any parts of these hills that I have been in.

180. The Eastern Dark Grey Bush Chat. Oreicola ferrea haringtoni.

A fairly common bird in all these hills. It certainly does not confine itself to

open grass lands like the subspecies ferrea is stated todo. In habits it appears

very different to O. jerdont which enjoys open country. O. f. haringtoni likes the

jungle although its nesting site is generally an open bank. Early April for

fresh eggs.

181. The Eastern Spotted Forktai!. Enicurus maculatus guttatus.

Chin Hills, where I shot the bird off the nest, Kachin Hills and Shan States.

The nest I took was on a ledge of rock on the roadside cutting. Fresh eggs

April 28th.

182. The Slaty-backed Forktail. EAicinie schistaceus.

All these hills, but personally I have only noted it in the Southern Chin Hills

where I took its nest in the hollow stump of a tree leaning over astream early

in April. A bird, Ishould have thought, which preferred the larger streams

near the valleys and not the wee streams up inthe hills which 4. m. guttatus

delights in.

183. The Black-backed Forktail. Enicurus immaculatus,

Chin Hills and I procured it in the Shan States. The nest was under an over-

hanging bank in a very small water course which was dry but was within 40

or 50 ft. of a perennial stream ; May 14 being the date. In the plains I noted

it as rather a later breeder than other Forktails.

184. Leschenault’s Indian Forktail. Enicurus leschenaulti indicus.

The subspecies zzdicus inhabits the Chin and Kachin States, but the Shan

States sub-species is designated szmensis, Leschenault’s Chinese Forktail.

185. The Little Forktail. Microcichla scouleri scouleri.

The Upper Burma Hills. I should say an uncommon bird.

186. The Biue-fronted Redstart. Phcenicurus frontalis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Breeds in the former and Northern Shan Hills.

187. The Daurian Redstart. Phoenicurus auroreus.

A winter visitor to the Shan Hills—Arrives about November.—Uncommon

andtimid. Another winter species of redstart which come to these Burma Hills

is P. hodgsont, Hodgson’s Redstart.

188. The Eastern Indian Redstart. Pheenicurus ochrurus rufiventris.

I have seen this redstart as late as April in the Shan Hills.

189. The White-capped Redstart. Chaimarrhornis lecuocephala,

A winter visitor to all these hill streams,

818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

190. The Plumbeous Redstart. Rhyacornis fugilinosa.

Also a winter visitor to the Northern Burma Hills.

141. The Chinese Red-spotted Blue-throat. Cyanosylvia robusta suecica.

A winter visitor.

192. The Common Ruby throat. Calliope calliope.

A winter visitor—November to April. Starts to sing before leaving us, a

low, pleasant song uttered from a dense bush.

193. The Golden Bush-Robin. Tarsiger chrysaus chryseus.

Recorded as occurring in the Chin Hills in the Fauna and, as it goes through

to Yunnan, probably also to be found in the Kachin and Shan Hills.

194. The Red-flanked Bush-Robin. lanthia cyanura rufilata,

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills.

195. The White-browed Bush-Robin. Janthia indica indica.

According to the Fauua does not seem to be recorded from the Chin Hills

but only from the Kachin and Shan Hills. I may be wrong as I did not shoot

it, but I considered | identified this bird just below Mt. Victoria, Chin Hills.

The nest I found in a bank was destroyed by tree falling on it before eggs

were laid. The birds were very tame and behaved like the English robin.

196. The White-tailed Blue Robin. Notodela leucura.

Occurs in these Northern Burma Hills.

197. The Indian Magpie Robin. Copsychus saularis saularis.

To be found everywhere in these hills where man stays.

198. The indian Shama. Kittacincla macroura indica.

The Burmese name in the /auna is wrong ; it is known to the Burmansas the

jungle Magpie-robin and the prefix ‘Tau’ means jungle. ‘ Tauthapatel-

way’ (see C. s. saularis) not ‘ Tai-tha-laik-swe.’ ‘The subspecies inhabit-

ing these hills of Upper Burma seems to be zudica. A shy bird, but in the

breeding season will answer any attempt at copying its song.

In the Andamans, Osmaston yot its subspecies aléiventris to breed in nest

boxes placed in the jungle, a fact which seems to have beea overlooked in the

Fauna as the nidification of this particular subspecies is said to be ‘ not re-

corded.’

199. The Dusky Thrush. Turdus eunoius.

A winter visitor to Burma.

200. The Red-throated Thrush. Turdus ruficoilis.

A winter visitor to Burma.

201. The Black-breasted Thrush. Turdus dissimilis.

A resident species in the Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Mackenzie took the

eggs in the Chin Hills in Aprilaad records it as fairly common. .

202. The Dark Thrush. Turdus obscurus obscurus.

A winter visitor. Harington records it up to May in the Kachin Hills. but

does not think they bred there.

203. Fea’s Thrush. Turdus fex.

A resident of the Burmese Hills.

204. The Siberian Ground-Thrush. Geocichla sibirica sibirica.

This Thrush and G. s. davisoni, Davison’s Ground-Thrush are winter

visitors.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 819

205. The Orange-headed Ground-Thrush. Geocichla citrina citrina.

Without reading other descriptions I should have said it wasa bird of the

higher elevation, 4,000 ft. in heavy jungle in Burma. It iscommon on the crags

at Taunggyi, but I did not meet with it often elsewhere in those hills except

where such similar jungle existed and such places are uncominon in the

Southern Shan Hills. Eggsendof May. ~

206. The Small-billed Mountain=Thrush. Orescincla dauma dauma.

Apparently resident in our area.

207. White’s Thrush. Oreocincla aurea aurea.

208. The Plain-backed Mountain=Thrush, Oreocincla mollisima.

This and the above named species are only winter visitors.

209. The Large Brown Thrush. Zoothera monticola.

All the hills. I found it in the Chin Hills, but not common.

210. The Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush. Monticola erythrogastra.

A common bird of the hills. It has a habit of building its nest in the

cuttings of the hill roads. Nests in April.

211. The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush. Monticoia cinclornyncha.

Breeds in the Chin and Kachin Hills. Mackenzie records its nesting even

further south—Probably a winter visitor to Shan Hills.

212. The Burmese Blue Rock-Thrush. Monticola solitaria affinis.

This is the Burmese subspecies of the Blue Rock-Thrush; a winter visitor to

most of our area but said to breed probably in the very north. This is a

familiar bird which is noticed by many people on account of its lonely habits

and the frequency with which it visits our dwellings, perching on the roofs, etc.

Although not really shy, it always has the appearance of being frightened and

never looks contented.

213. Swinhoe’s Rock-Thrush. Monticola gularis gularis.

I aim sure I saw this species on the crag at Taunggyi, Shan Hills in March,

but I had no gun with me to procure it. It does not appear to enter the Chin

and Kachin Hills.

214, The Rock-Thrush. Monticola saxatilis.

A winter visitor.

215. The Himalayan Whistling-Thrash. Myiophoneus temmincki temmincki.

The subspecies in the Chin and Kachin Hills.

216. The Burmese Whistling-Thrush. Myiophoneus temmincki eugenii.

The Shan Hills. A pair of these birds always frequented the foot of the

Taunggyi crags well away from any stream,but | never discovered its nest there.

Its liking for streams is of course well-known.

217. The Purple Thrush. Cochoa purpurea purpurea. .

This and the Green Thrush, Cochoa viridis are both inhabitants of these hills.

218. Rippon’s Hedge-Sparrow. Laiscopus collaris ripponi.

Recorded only from the North Shan Hills, but I expect it could be found in

the Kachin Hills too. Apparently the only representative of this sub-family in

Burma. .

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

XI.—Family MuScIcapipa

219. The Sooty Flycatcher. Heimichelidon sibirica cacabata,

Is the subspecies in this area. ‘The Fauna says north-east Burma but this

little flycatcher certainly inhabits the north-west Hills, i.e., Chin Hills,

220. The Yunnan Sooty Flycatcher. Hemichelidon sibirica rothschildi.

Probably in the Shan Hilis.

221. The Ferruginous Flycatcher. Hemichelidon cinereiceps.

In all these hills. Macdonald found its nest on Mt. Victoria, the eggs very

hard set on 13th May.

222. The Orange=gorgeted Flycatcher. Siphia strophiata.

A winter visitor throughout.

223. The Eastern Red-breasied Flycatcher. Siphia parva albicilla.

Also a winter visitor only.

224. The Rusty-breasted Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis hodgsoni.

In all these hills.

225. The Eastern Slaty-blue flycatcher. Cyornis tricolor cerviniventris.

An inhabitant of the Chin, Kachin’ and Shan ,Hills. TetOunCeatt

breeding in the former, and a bird from the Chin Hills shot off a nest is in the

Society’s Museum. Small moss nests placed in a hole or on a small ledge of

roadside cutting generally without lining, but sometimes afew moss roots. The

eggs look a dark buffy white—Beginning of May or end of April for eggs.

226. The Little Blue and White Flycatcher. Cyornis superciliaris astigma.

Chin and Kachin Hills.

227. The Burmese Little Pied Flycatcher. Cyornis melanoleuca.

228, The Burmese Little Pied Flycatcher. Cyornis melanoleuca westermanni.

Chin Kachin and Shan Hills. Although often met with, itis by no means a

common bird and very unobtrusive.

229, The Sapphire-headed Flycatcher. Cyornis sapphira.

Chin and Kachin Hills.

230. The Rufous-beilied Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis|vivida oatesi.

Chin and Kachin and Shan Hills.

231. The Pale Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis unicolor unicolor.

Chin Hills.

232. The Blue-throated Flycatcher. Cyornis rubeculoides rubeculoides.

All three hill areas. Mackenzie records it as common in the Chin Hills and

took its eggs early in May in the Chin Hills.

933, Salvadori’s Biue Flycatcher. Cyornis banyumas dialilema.

Kachin Hills east of Irrawaddy and Shan Hills. a found this bird common

in the latter and it breeds on the crags at Taunggyi. Ishot the female off a

nest, but this hardly helped me to identify the species and I subsequently got

a male. The nests are neat and well hidden against the moss green trunk of a

tree, sometimes quite low down. I found thenests in May and June, but I

believe they also sometimes breed much earlier than this as I shot a young fully-

fledged male early in March. This young bird had a blue tail and a bluish

tinge to all its feathers ; it was with its parents.

234. Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis ticketliz tickellia.

In ail three hills. I procured a specimen as far south as Mt. Victoria.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 821

235. The Large-billed Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis magnirostris.

I shot a specimen which I[ identified as this in the North Shan Hills in the

rains. The Fauna does not place it as a Burman species, so I may have been

wrong.

236. The Verditer Flycatcher. Stoparola melanops melanops.

Any of these hills, as the Fauna says, over 4,000 ft. A common bird and

particularly partial to nesting along roadsides.

237. Sharpe’s White-gorgetted Flycatcher. Anthipes monileger leucops.

Chin Hills and probably Shan Hills.

238. Brooks’ Flycatcher. Anthipes olivaceus poliogenys.

Chin Hills the Fauna says as far east as the Irrawaddy River ; perhaps their

area comprises also the Kachin Hills therefore.

239. The Sumatran Brown Flycatcher. Alseonax latirostris latirostris.

I understand an entirely winter visitor to our hills and plains.

240. The Grey-headed Flycatcher. Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis.

Apparently ‘the subspecies in the north-west and C. ¢. orientalis, the

Chinese Grey-headed Flycatcher in the north-east. Shan Hills. Breeds

from end of March into April: neat nests, against a rock or tree trunk of moss,

covered with spiders’ egg cocoons.

241. The Large Niltava. Niltava grandis.

Chin Hills and Kachin Hills. Breeds end of April at well over 3,000 ft.

elevation,

242. The Indian Rufous-bellied Niltava. Niltava sundara sundara.

Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, probably Shan Hills. It breeds quite commonly

in the former hills and I found it as far south at Mt. Victoria. Breeds end

of April often in holes of roadside cuttings at an elevation about 3,000 ft.

243. The Small Niltava. Niltava macgrigoriz. ;

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Harington took a nest at the end of April in

the Kachin Hills.

244. The Burmese Paradise Flycatcher. Tersiphone paradisi affinis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills much more common in the valleys than at

higher elevations. Breeds April.

245. The Northern Indian Black-naped Flycatcher. Hypothymis azurea styani.

A fairly common bird in all these hills,

246. The Yellowsbellied Flycatcher. Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum.

Throughout these hills, but I do not know it personally ; it seems a bird of

high elevations. Harington found it breeding in the Kachin Hills about the

middle of April.

247. The Burmese White-browed Fantail Flycatcher. Rhipidura aureola burmanica.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I have obtained the nest at about 5,000 ft. on

the Tauneggyi crag, 21st March, but this seems early.

248. The White-throated Fantail Fly-catcher. Rhipidura alibicollis albicollis.

In all three hills; Macknezie took its eggs in the Chin Hills at the end of

April.

XI.—Family LANIDA

249. The Burmese Shrike. Lanius colluroides.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills; in the latter it is a very common breeder and

undoubtedly moves up from the plains to breed.

250. The Indian Black-headed Shrike. Lanius nigriceps nigriceps.,

Distributed as above but not such a common bird.

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

251. The Grey-backed Shrike. Lanius tephrenotius.

Apparently cnly a winter visitor to Burma.

252. The Philippine Shrike. Lanius cristatus lucionensis.

A winter visitor, but I have seen it in the Shan Hills up to April. The song

of this bird always reminded me of a sedge warbler at home and is also like

the Thick-billed Warbler, Phvagmaticola edon.

253. The Brown-backed Pied Shrike. Hemipus picatus capitalis.

All Burmese Hills.

254. The Nepal Wood Shrike. Tephrodornis pelvica pelvica.

All the Burmese Hills. I shot it at 5,000 ft. on the Taunggyi crag. In company

with others, the bird was hunting in the top branches of the higher trees. I

cannot find any note of the nest being found in Burma, but it must breed in

that country.

255. The Indian Common Wood-Shrike. Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. The nest taken at the beginning of April in

the Shan Hills 3,000 ft. was in scrub jungle about 8 ft. above ground in a small

tree standing by itself; very shallow cup; outside moss and lichen. Lined

hair. In the plains the bird, I think, breeds later and often higher up.

XII.-—Family PERICROCOTIDE

256. The Burmese Scarlet Minivet. Pericrocotus speciosus fraterculus,

Chin, Kachin and Shaun Hills.

I once found the nest of this bird in the Chin Hills and twelve years after,

almost to the day, there was a nest in, as far as I could remember, the same

tree;

257. The Assam Short-billed Minivet. Pericrocotus brevirostris affinis.

Kachin and Shan Hills probably. I should say the Chin Hills. I found a

nest on the top of the Taunggyi Hills, Shan Hills, and shot both parent birds

on 22nd March 3 eggs fresh, the nest and eggs similar to other iminivets.

258. Hume’s Minivet. Pericrocotus neglectus.

Recorded by Col. Rippon, according to Harington, from the Kachin Hills

which is some way from Tennasserim, the habitat of this bird according to the

Fauna. There may bea mistake?

259. The Yellow-throated Minivet. Pericrocotus solaris solaris.

. The Chin and Kachin Hills.

260. The Shan Minivet. Pericrocotus solaris ripponi.

Shan Hills.

261. The Rosy Minivet. Pericrocotus roseus roseus.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills, I remember Osmaston taking a nest in the

latter hills.

262. The Burmese Small Minivet. Pericrocotus peregrinus vividus.

Common everywhere and breeding well up to 3,500 ft. I once found the nest of

this minivet only two feet above the ground, but generally they are well out of

reach. Eggs beginning of May.

263. Jerdon’s Minivet. Pericrocotus albifrons.

In the Fauna said to occur in the Chin Hills, but I doubt this and believe it is

only a bird of the dry zone of Burma.

264. The Pale-grey Cuckeo-Shrike. Lalage melaschista avensis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I have taken the nest at Taunggyi, Shan

States about 4 to 5,000ft. It was placed fairly high up in afork of a branch

almost like a drongo’s. 3 fresh eggs end of April.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 823

265. The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike. Lalage sykesii.

Mackenzie records this bird from the North Chin Hills,

266. The Siamese Large Cuckoo-Shrike. Graucalus macei siamensis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. The raucous cry of this bird can be often

heard. It has a wonderfully neat and small nest for its size, generally high up

and in a tree fork, rendering it difficult to see.

Mackenzie took eggs at the end of April in the Chin Hills and I took eggs at

Maymyo at end of May, but I think this was unusually late. Generally 2 eggs.

XIV.— Family ARTAMIDA

267. The Ashy Swallow-Shrike. Artamus fuscus.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. A bird of the plains and hills alike. The

description of their habits in the Fauna seems very good and brings out their

characteristics well.

XV.—Family DIcRURIDA

268. The Crow-billed Drongo. Dicrurus annectens.

Distributed throughout these hills but the Field naturalists who have collec:

ted birds in Burma do not seem to have recorded it. Presumably they are so

like the next species ! they have not been shot and identified and seem to have

been missed. I certainly have never noticed it, nor handled a specimen.

269. The Black Drongo. Dicrurus macrocercus.

Apparently of this species the subsnecies D. m. albirictus, the Himalayan

Black Drongo is found in the north and VD. m. cathecus, the Chinese Black

Drongo in the southern portion of these hills. End of April and beginning of

May seems the breeding time.

270. The Grey Drongo. Dicrurus leucopheus.

According to Mr, Stuart Baker, the subspecies which inhabits the north of

our area is Aopwood1, the Assam Grey Drongo and in the south nigrescens, the

Burmese Grey Drongo, this applying tothe Kachin Hills (please see map.)

The distribution is difficult to understand, and the same remarks apply to the

subspecies of macrocercus. [have taken the eggsof this species all over the

Shan Hills and on the last occasion shot the bird to the east of Mandalay and

should have said it was Hofwoodz, butto really identify these subspecies one

wants a series of skins for comparison. They begin to nest at the end of March

in the Shan States : the nest is not as a rule difficult to find as the birds return

to it fearlessly. The eggs seem to me to be always squat ovals and not like the

Black Drongo’s in shape and as a rule very much more handsome in

colouration.

271. The Northern Bronzed Drongo. Chaptia enea enea.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I found this bird breeding late in March at

Taunggyi, Shan Hills and noted young birds on 19th of that month further east

but Mackenzie took them a month later in the Chin Hills.

272. The Indian Hair-crested Drongo. Chibia hottentotta hotteatotta.

A common bird in all our hills, breeding end of April. The nests I note are

very untidy cradles and one cannot understand what governs the choice of site

for more variable sites for nests it is difficult to find. Sometimes hidden away

injungle, sometimes overhanging a highway, sometimes very high and out of

1each and sometimes quite low enough toreach by hand by pulling the branch

down a little.

273. The Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo. Bhringa remifer tectirostris.

Chin and Kachin and Shan Hills. Mackenzie says breeds sometimes quite

low down and I have noticed this myself. Breeds end of April.

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

274, The Large Racket=tailed Drongo. Dissemurus paradiseus.

A third species of these drongos which appears to vary sufficiently in size to

enable different subspecies to be created. The subspecies inhabiting the

northern range is D. p. grandis, the Assam Large Racket Tailed Drongo, and

the southern D. p. rangoonensis, the Burmese Large Racket-tailed Drongo.

This species never seems to build low down and the nests are very difficult to

get. Breeds end of April.

XVI.—Family SvLvIIpDza

275. Mrs. Stevens’s Reed-Warbler. Acrocephalus sientoreus amyz.

Is now known to breed in the Shan Hills on the Lake below Taungegyi about

3,000 ft. Captain Livesey found its nests in the middle of June and the bird was

identified for me by Mr. Stuart Baker. The birds are numerous on the lake

and probably are winter visitors to the plains. They build in the rushes on the

islands mostly and make a typical reed warbler’s nest. Captain Livesey

told me there were two varieties of colouration in the eggs, as described in the

Fauna in the nidification of A.s. dbrunnescens. It is curious that the breeding -

of this bird escaped the notice of Col. Rippon, Harington and others.

276. Schrenck’s Reed-Warbler. Acrocephalus bistrigiceps.

Stated to occur in the Chin and Kachin Hills as a winter visitor. It is

probable that other reed warblers come over to Burma in the winter, but live

mostly in the plains.

277. Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler. Locustella certhiola.

278. The Streaked Grasshopper-Warbler. Locustella lanceolata.

Chinese birds said to winter in Burma and might therefore be found in the

N. Burma hills.

279. The Chinese Bush-Warbler. Tribura taczanowskia.

Winter visitor to Burma may be found in these Hills.

280. The Brown Bush-Warbler. Tribura ltuteoventris.

Chin Hills only apparently.

281. The Burmese Tailor-Bird. Orthotomus sutorius patia.

Throughout these hills but not at the higher elevations. The subspecies

O.s. longicaudus, the Chinese Tailor-Bird, is recorded from the Northern

Shan States. A darker bird, but apparently from the meastirements given in

the. Fauna, not well named. Breeds from Apri! and on, mostly in the rains

I think.

282. The Burmese Black-necked T ailor Bird. Orthotomus atriguiaris nitidus.

Probably occurs in these hills. ;

283. The Yellow headed Fantail-Warbler. Cisticola exilis tytleri.

Throughout these hills in special localities seemingly ; personally I never

spotted it.

284. The Streaked Fantail-Warbler. Cisticola juncidis curstians.

Throughout the Upper Burma hills but rere in the Chin Hills, chiefly because

there is little if any suitable country. For so small and apparently feeble a

flier this little warbler makes extraordinary undulating flights, uttering its sharp

note on the ‘ up gradients.’ Its nest is a picture of bird architecture, a small

edition of Szya, and it seems to have a habit of making a trial nest or two

before making a final approval of the nursery. I have noted it as being

cuckolded by Cacomantis merulinus. Starts breeding in May and goes on

throughout the rains, even up to the end of September.

285. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler. Franklinia gracilis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. ;

One year it was particularly common at Maymyo in the Shan Hills east of

Mandalay and Osmaston found several nests, two of which had been used by the

ohne

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS.

A. R. Irrawaddy at its second defile just below Bhamo Hills

occupied by Kachins.

B. The Bhamo Plain. R. Irrawaddy Valley as viewed from

Kachin Hills. 3,000 feet.

C. Kachin Hills. 5,000 feet. Typical view.

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 825

above named Cuckoo. In subsequent years I found them less common. It isa

bird of the open scrub jungle. Eggs found mostly end of May and beginning of

June, The nest is like that of O. sutorius, but lined with grass only, and never

higher than 2 or 3 feet off the ground. .

286. Beavan’s Wren-Warbler. Franklinia rufescens rufescens.

A bird of all these Upper Burma Hills, but more of an inhabitant of jungle

than gracilis. Personally I have only taken the nest in the plains, the eggs

were light blue, unspotted. End of May.

287, The Striated Marsh-Warbler. Megalurus palustris.

I never came across this bird actually in the Chin Hills because of lack of

suitable country and Harington only records it in the Kachin Hills round

Bhamo which is the plains country, In the Shan Hills where rushy swamps

are common, this bird makes itself very conspicuous and one cannot help

liking its fine song often given on the wing as well as from the top of a bush in

theswamp. Both Mackenzie and Hopwood took theeggs of C. canorus from

the nests of this bird. Nests early May.

288. The Thick-billed Warbler. Phragmaticola edon.

Winter visitors to the Burmese hills. I note it strikes the Shan Hills on

migration and remember the species suddenly appearing in the jungle round

Maymyo early one May. The birds rested a week or two before going on—three

or four birdsin asmall patch of jungle, singing away like our sedge-warbler and

difficult to get sight of. I remember shooting one by getting a friend to doa

small drive. Harington used to tell me he was sure it bred in Burma, but he

never found the nest that I know of.

289. Radde’s Bush-Warbler. Herbivocula schwarzi,

A winter visitor ; I notice recorded by Col. Rippon in the Kachin and Shan

Hills ; in the latter Cook says it was common.

290. Tickell’s Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus affinis.

Probably ail the Burma. Hills.

291. The Olivaceous Tree-Warbler. -Phylloscopus griseolus.

N. Western Hills.

292. The Dusky Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus fuscatus fuscatus,

This subspecies and P. f. homeyret, Dybowski’s Willow-Warbler, probably

occur in the Upper Burma hills.

293. Milne-Edward’s Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus armandii.

Recorded by Harington as very common in the Kachin Hills. It is probably

also a visitor to the Shan Hills.

294, The Nepal Orange-barred Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus pulcher.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. My nests of this bird as recorded in the

Fauna must, I regret to say, be considered doubtful. It was not near Haka

that 1 got them, the eggs were not speckled but white and the bird I shot off

one of the nests was never gathered as it was only wounded and I only saw it

and shot the first warbler I saw after. I never got a shot at the actual owner

of the other nest.

295. Pallas’s Himalayan Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus proregulus newtoni.

The Chin and Kachin Hills.

296. Forrest’s Yunan Willow-Warbler. _Phyllosopus proregulus forresti.

Shan Hills.

297. The Crowned Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus humii premium,

Winter visitor to these hills.

298. The Arctic Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste borealis borealis.

Winter visitor to these Upper Burma Hills,

ear

srt

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITIT

299. Middendoff’s Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste nitidus plumbitarsus.

In the Kachin Hills,

300. The Annam Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste nitidus saturatus.

A winter visitor to Shan Hills.

301. The Large-billed Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste magnirostris.

Nothing much recorded of this bird but said to be a winter visitor to Burma.

302. The Pale-legged Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste tenellipes.

Winter visitor to the Kachin Hills and probably also the Shan Hills.

303. The Dull Green Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste lugubris.

Winter visitor to all these hills probably.

304. Temminck’s Crowned Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste occipitalis coronatus.

Winter visitcr.

305. Blyth’s Crowned Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste trochiloides trochiloides.

This and 4.¢. harterti Baker’s Willow-Warbler occur as winter visitors and

the subspecies 4. ¢. davisoni, the Tennasserim White-tailed Willow-Warbler,

breeds in the Burmese Hills—the Fauna says ‘ from Karenni to Tennasserim.’

but it was found nesting in the Bhamo and Kachin Hills which are a long

way north of the Karen country.

306. The Allied Flycatcher-Warbler. Seicercus affinis.

Chin and Kachin Hills.

307. Anderson’s Flycatcher-Warbler. Seicercus burkii tephrocephalus.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Breeds in the two former at any rate and it

was probably this species [ saw building a nestin the Shan Hills. I see

Mr. Stuart Baker says these Flycatcher-Warblers have no fear of man, as an

instance the above bird building a nest just above my head on the edgeof a

roadside cutting went on building while 1 stood within a foot or two of the

nest.

308. The Grey-headed Warbler. Seicercus xanthoschistus xanthoschistus.

Chin Hills, recorded from Mt. Victoria and I myself took the nest further

north at Falam. 19th April eggs a little set. Nest found by bird flying off !

309. The Chestnut-headed Flycatcher-Warbler. Seicercus castaneoceps castaneoceps.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills.

310. The Burmese Yellow-bellied Flycatcher-Warbler. Abrornis superciliaris salwinensis.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills.

311. Sharpe’s Fiycatcher-Warbler. Abrornis schisticeps ripponi.

In the Shan Hills.

312. The Chin Hills Black-faced Flycatcher-Warbler. Abrornis schisticeps flavimentalis.

Chin Hills.

313. The White-throated Flycatcher Warbler. Abrornis albogularis albogularis.

Chin Hills.

314. The Shan Aberrant Warbler. Neornis flavolivaceus intricatus.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Its breeding is recorded in the Kachin Hills,

May and June,

315. The Strong-footed Bush-Warbler. Horornis fortipes fortipes.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills.

316. Blandford’s Bush-Warbler. Horornis pallidipes pallidipes.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I was with Osmaston when he found the nest

of this bird at Maymyo, east of Mandalay, in the Shan Hjlls. The eggs were

sucked by acuckoo, unfortunately as they had been left for a full clutch, I must

NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 824

have spent hours, like Col. Harington, trying to find the nest of this bird, but

without success and yet the only one I saw, that mentioned above, it was not a

dificult nest to find. Unfortunately later on building drove the birds awav

from their favourite corner of jungle at Maymyo and I could never discover

where they had moved to for their breeding operations. The bird has a very

loud unmistakable call.

317. The Rufous-capped Bush-Warbler. Horeites brunnifrons brunnifrons.

Chin Hills.

318. The Yunnan Rufous-capped Bush-Warbler. Horeites brunnifrons umbraticus.

Shan Hills.

319. Swinhe’s Reed-Warbler. Urophlexis squameiceps.

Probably to be found in the Shan Hills.

320. The Golden-headed Warbler. Piyllergates coronatus coronatus,

Chin and Kachin Hilis.

321. The Brown Hill-Warbler. Stya crinigera.

The subspecies assamica occurs in the Chin Hills. Vunnanensis, the Yunnan

Brown Hill-Warbler, and covkz, Harington’s Brown Hill Warblerin the Shan

States. I have taken eggs of assamica and cooki in April and other months

during the rains, but May seems the real month. My eggs vary very little,

being all of the pink variety with generally a dark ring at the big end. The

nests are generally made all of vrass and differ from S. superciliaris which

uses a little moss mixed with the erass.

322. Austen’s Hiil-Warbler. Suya atrogularis khasiana.

Chin Hills where I found the nest below Mt. Victoria on Ist May. Mackenzie

took it much further north at end of April. My eggs are of the greenish

ground red-spotted type.

323. Anderson’s Hill Warbler. Suya superciliaris superciliaris.

Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Quite common at Taungegyi and in that

neighbourhood at 4 to 5,000 ft. elevation. Eggs taken are like S. atrogularis

rather than ¢vinigera being smaller and unlike the latter in colouration. But

the nests I found were all similar to S. crinigera with the exception of the

addition of small scraps of moss to the outside. Harington noted this in the

nests he found in the Kachin Hills. May is the month in the Shan Hills.

324, The Yellow-bellied Wren-Warbler. Prinia flaviventris flaviventris.

Apparently to be found in all the Upper Burma Hills in suitable localities

but I never came across it inthe hills, and Harington in recording from the

Kachin country says it occurs on the plains round Bhamo.

325. The Burmese Wren-Warbier. Prinia inornata burmanica.

Weseem now to he fairly certain of the races of these species and durmanica

seems the only one inhabiting these Upper Burma Hills. They do not go much

above 3,000 ft. Ithink inthe Shan Hills they breed much earlier than they

do in the plains where June seems about the height of the season. I should

have said the nests were generally purse shaped. I think one would be right

in asserting this species must have water near it either in the form of rivers or

alake. Prinia seems to go mad in the breeding season and makes extra-

ordinary contortions in the air. The tail taking charge of the fusilage!

XVII.—Family REGULIDA

326. The Yunnan Goldcrest. Regulus regulus yunnanensis.

Apparently our only goldcrest from the Northern Shan Hills. I do not know

the place quoted in the “Fauna. Our hills are not as a rule high enough for this

race, Isuppose, or they may have escaped observation in the Chin and Kachin

Hills,

(Zo be continued)

SHELLS

OF THE TROPICAL SEAS

IpA COLTHURST

ParRT III ,

(With two plates and one text ftgure)

(Concluded from page 564 of this volume.)

THE CONCHIFERA

The Conchifera, from concha a shell and fevo 1 bear, are better

known as S#izvalves, and form a vast family very difficult to deter-

mine into well-defined groups. Many are sedentary only having

a short free-swimming youth, after which they either bury them-

selves or anchor to some stone, rock or foreign substance. They

have no definite head, many are without eyes and the foot is fre-

quently rudimentary because of their limited powers of locomotion.

The burrowers, however, have a thick, fleshy foot which is thrust

down into the sand, and then with either a little jerk or a half-

rotary motion a portion of the shell sinks and the action is repeated

until the animal descends to a depth convenient for the extension

and protrusion of the respiratory tubes; in some, the fringed

mouths lie on the surface of the sand and can only be discerned by

tiny swirls and squirts, which are the currents of water they are

attracting and repelling, a process adopted for the purpose of

filtering all nutrimental and shell-producing matter and then reject-

ing the effete water; others accomplish the same thing by means of

opening and shutting their shells and by a continual movement of

the Cz/ia. Allare enclosed in a pair of shells united by a hinge, in

afew of which the spiral tendency is evident. Some live ina

vertical position as regards the planes of the valves, others lie on

one or the other side, in which case the lower shell is deeper than

the upper one. The apex, thatis where shell growth commenced,

is called the Umbo in bivalves, and here, the leaves are united by a

hinge-band of horny fibre called Chz¢zz, and by interlocking teeth.

By the elasticity of this attachment and the action of certain muscles

the valves are opened and shut. In most Azvalves this muscle

adjustment and the mantle line are evident on the interior surfaces

of the shells ; the latter is known as the Padllzal line, and where it

is observed not to run in a continuous curve but to form a bay,

that is, a sharp bend inwards, it indicates that the animal had.

retractile breathing tubes.

The best-known ofthe Bzvalves are the Oysters. They frequently

have the valves unequal, the upper flat, the Jower slightly convex.

The shells increase in size first by adding new marginal rings, then

by growing thicker. There are agreat many kinds of oysters, and

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 829

although they have been preyed upon by man and other animals for

ages, yet their numbers appear to be legion. One of their worst

enemies is the Star-fish.

‘The prickly Star keeps on with full deceit

To force the Oyster from his close retreat ;’

JONES’ OPPIAN.

Tritons also bore into their shells, making a cleanly cut, perfectly

round hole. Oysters are very intolerant ofcold and thrive in warm

seas ; from very ancient times India has been famous for her oysters

and has been regarded as the chief market of the world for the best

pearls, the fisheries at Ceylon being the largest. Another great

centre is the Island of Bahrein in the Persian Gulf, and on the

West Coast the trade is prosecuted at various places, Nawangar in

the Gulf of Cutch, at Ratnagari, and about twenty years ago there

was considerable excitement over some pearls found at Belapur in

the Thana Creek, Bombay.'

The most valuable pearls are niodtecd by the Margaritttera ; at

one time they were believed to be caused by a worm, the larva of a

Cestode, which occasioned the oft-repeated French epigram that ‘A

pearl is the glittering sarcophagus of a worm’! Now, however,

they are known to bedue toa pathological process brought about

by the introduction of some irritating substance, like a grain of sand,

into the mantle. The Chinese, always with an eye to the main

chance, profit by this fact and introduce between the valves little

scraps of mother-of-pearl, or tiny images of Buddha attached to

wires, which they remove when coated withnacre. Similar concre-

tions of various colours surrounding a foreign body are found in

porcellaneous shells and are used as beads. Oysters cast their

spawn or spats, as they are called, upon rocks, shells, etc. to which

they immediately adhere: they look exactly like drops of greenish

tallow, but soon a tiny transparent shell appears provided with a

fringe of hair-like processes or Czl7a, with which the baby oyster

can paddle in the water.

Scallops, genus Pectez, are fan-shaped and the valves are flat and

usually decorated with radiating ribs. The older Scallops moor

themselves by a dyssus, but when young they are very active and

swim by rapidly closing and opening their valves ; when the sea is

calm they move about in little fleets, the yawning of the shells dis-

closing their many eyes which lie on the edge of the mantle and

shine most brilliantly. One of the family Pecten jacobeus, St. James’

Shell, in ancient times was the badge of the pilgrim to the Holy

Land

‘ Who quit his cell ; his pilgrim staff he bore,

And fixed the Scallop i in his hat before ’!

The flat, white, round and beautifully translucent shells of the

Window Oyster, Placuna placenta are avery common object on our

shores. They are exactiy like discs of mica, quite smooth and

delicately lined, young ones being tinged with pink. In China, cut

into squares of two inches and secured between light strips of woad,

1 These were seed pearls obtained from the Window- -pane Oyster (Placuna

placenta). A small industry in these pearls is still carried on.—£ads,

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXL

they are used as window panes. Hornell says, that the Portuguese

borrowed the idea and introduced the use into India in the

Sixteenth century, and that even to-day the windows of old houses in

Goa and Diu and the Governor’s Palace at Marmugoa, have many

windows glazed in this peculiar way. Sometimes tiny seed pearls

are enclosed in the valves which are not of much value, but are

calcined in crucibles and used by wealthy Indians as lime with betel

and paz; also they are burnt to form the black powder so sought

after to beautify and strengthen the eyes of children and are placed

in the mouths of the rich dead at cremation ; and, from very ancient

times, boiled with the juice of certain flowers and leaves and

reduced to a powder with burnt coral, they are administered in

tuberculosis and other wasting diseases.

The Mussels, Myttlide, are wonderfully prolific and the greatest

enemies of oysters, settling down over a bed and simply smothering

them; their shell is wedge-shaped and they moor themselves, by

means of a strong, silky dyssus or line which they spin, to piles,

stones, etc. Though not so highly esteemed as the oyster, the

mussel is edible and on the West Coast from Karachi to the Cape,

M. smaragdinus is eaten and is considered by fishermen and low

caste Hindus an excellent shell-fish, though at certain seasons it is

unsafe, as partaking of it causes nausea anda skin eruption. In

some places man has put musselsto an extraordinary use ; being

aware of the inefficacy of the tide to dislodge them because of their

strong anchorage, they are employed in boatloads to fill in all

interstices of a bridge where the tide runs so rapidiy that repair

cannot be effec-

ted in the usual

way with

mortar. °° Fihas

was the case at

Bidet oxrd= i

North Devon,

where, at the

junction of the

aw: anc

Torridge rivers

a long bridge of

24. arches was

Gi Th e-ui tt = to -

repair ordinarily

because of the

SWitt currents.

an dd ma ny

boatloads of

MMUSSel= =Wwaedae

regularly im-

ported by the

Dark shell—Scallop ; others Cockles, common in Town Council

Bombay for such work.

Many of the

Mussels have a tiny crab living with them under the shell as a

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuateE I.

3 a

1. Left above: Cockle (Cardiade); Right: Wedge Shell (D. scrotum) ;

Middle: Arc Shells.

2. The Spotted Bear’s Paw (Hippopus).

3. Left: Window Oyster (Placuna placenta); Right and above: Pearl

Oyster (Margaritifera).

4. The Giant Clam (Tridacna).

JOURN. BomBAay Nat Hust. Soc. Prate II.

1. Venus Shells. Large one on right: Chione pinguis ; Large one on

left: C. radiata; Small ones: Merde.

2. Left: The Sunset Shell (Psammobia); Right: The Razor Shell

(Solenide).

3. Cytherea.

4. Angel’s Wings. (Pholas buried in stone.)

SHELLS OF THE TROPICAL SEAS 831

mess-mate, which the older naturalists believed warned it when

danger threatened, by nipping the mantle.

Lima indica, found off the Travancore coast, gives home to

Pinnoteres abyssicola, a wee crab.

The Arc shells Avcade are thick, witha long, straight hinge-

line, distinctly humpy and generally found covered with a rough

epidermis. The inmates are exceedingly retiring and hide away

under stones and in the crevices of rocks. The West Coast is rich

in the species. A. dbistrvigata, a rough, oblong, lime-covered shell

fastens itself to rocks, etc. by a strong, horny déyssus and is most

difficult to remove. A. tneguivalvis, is very thick and broadly

ribbed, and as its name implies, has uneven valves; A. japonica

is of a glistening white; A. granosa like an equilateral triangle

with 20 ribs. A. lactea very humped, small and’ yellowish, forms

apart of the shore shingle at Bombay and on all coasts. At the

north end of the Bay of Bengal a lovely little Avca is found which

has the lustre of mother-of-pearl when the outer epidermis is

removed, called Mucula fultont.

Tridacna or the Giant clam is found in the Laccadive Sea and in

lagoons of coral fields. The shell is thick, strongly ribbed, some-

times also furnished with squamous plates, and very heavy, often

attaining great size as it grows older. One weighing five hundred

pounds had an animal of twenty pounds. They moor themselves

by a powerful byssus and Darwin believed the shell muscles to be

so strong that if a man were to insert his hand between the valves

he would have to leave it in the tremendous grip until the death of

the creature. Old mythological pictures show Venus emerging

from the sea riding ina pair of the opening valves and to this day

the dead shells are used in churches as Jdbénefzers for holding holy

water. At St. Sulpice in Paris, a pair two feet across presented by

the Venetian Republic to Francis I, are still in use ; these, however,

are exceeded by a pair three feet wide at the British Museum.

The Azppopus or Spotted Bear’s Paw is also a large shell, but not

anything of such gigantic proportions. It is found near coral reefs

and is radially rayed and crimped.

The Cardiade or Cockles, are free, that is they never moor

themselves to objects: the valves are strongly ribbed and have

a waved margin. The animal, living in sandy places in low

water, is largely used for food and sometiines occurs in immense

beds. C. asiaticum, pale yellow and deeply ridged is found on our

shores : the double shell viewed sideways clearly demonstrates how

the species have obtained their specific name. Lucniacea antiquata

too iS very common: the valves are almost circular and their

surface is dull, white with irregular blotches and streaks of rusty

brown. All round the coasts of India these shells, which are very

gregarious, are extensively burnt for making lime, known as s7zfz-

ka-chuna, which however contains lttle cementing property and

is only employed in white-washing. In South India, however,

lately they have successfully mixed it with laterite to form a Port-

land Cement.

The Venus Shells are also free, living deep-burrowed in sandy or

muddy sea bottoms, The shell, oval or almost circular in shape, is

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

often very beautiful in its colour and markings. Chione pinguts is

common in India: it is very shining and smooth, rather thin and in

colour a light or dark grey with concentric lines. Very like it is

C. radiata but the colour isa mottled grey, sometimes reddish.

Tapes textrix is ovate, oblong, very shining and yellowish marked

with a black network of zig-zag patterns. Merde effosa is concentri-

cally lined and nearly covered with bold angular markings. And

the tiny ribbed bivalve shells, white, yellow or faintly purple which

comprise so large a part of the shingle are Venus imbricata.

Artemis is nearly circular, and immediately under the beak a small

heart-shaped indentation can be discerned, which is largest in

A. gtbba a very thin shell, much swollen near the beak.

Donax or Wedge shells are inequilateral and the posterior valve,

on which it lies, is truncated. WD. scortum is found all round our

coasts : it is sharply shortened, is concentrically striated forming

ridges anteriorly, brownish grey on the outer surface and a

polished violet onthe inner. D. zucarnatus, a pretty pink or purple

tinged smooth little shell, is plentiful in the shingle.

The Cytherea are elegantly sculptured with transverse ribs and

darker rays passing from beak to margin. ‘They are called after a

classical name of the Goddess Venus who loved the island of

Cytherea.

The Tellinide have equal valves richly coloured and marked,

very flat and closely compressed. They are found in sandy places

burrowing beneath the surface, and are largely represented in

Indian Seas. The Sunset Sheli, Psammobia is purple, thin, almost

transparent and oblong with whitish rays passing from beak to

margin. TZ. fruncata is thinner, very smooth and pure white, but

very inequilateral. T. emarginata has the posterior side scooped,

and is pinkish and very polished.

The Solentdae or Razor Shells are Jong, either straight or slightly

curved, of a transparent browny-purple with tranverse and

longitudinal bands ina darker or lighter tone; they are so called

because of their fancied resemblance to a razor. The mollusc

always lives buried in the sand in an upright position as it is quite

incapable of progression: its strong cylindrical foot pushes its way

down with amazing dexterity, leaving on the surface a little double

aperture like the figure 8 which is the position of the two siphon

tubes and from which spirt up little jets of water. Notwithstanding

the fact that the natural habitat of Razor Shells is salt water,

they have a remarkable dislike for salt and can always be made

to jerk right up above the surface by dropping a few grains

where their water jets appear. However, if once they are taken

up and put down again no amount of salt will induce them to

reappear.

Angel’s Wings, Pholas, also lives perpendicularly, but buried in

spongy rock or wood. The shells are equal, white, rather thin and

brittle and gape at either end, faintly resembling wings of cheru-

bim; when young they penetrate the rock, both foot and shell

helping in working their way, moving the body first to one side and

then to the other, inwards of the rock and finally downwards,

exactly as a carpenter employs a broad awl; as they grow in size,

SHMLES OF THE TROPICAL SHAS 833

they enlarge their burrows, affording a most wonderful instance of

perseverance and patience, and attaining with a soft fleshy instru-

ment what stronger animals find impossible to accomplish; there

it lies for life, at ease in a dark sepulchre, content to find sufficient

nutriment in the sea water which trickies through the aperture of

its tunnel, truly fortunate in having learnt to ‘Translate the

stubbornness of fortune into so quiet and so sweet a Style.’ !

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

FC, FRASER, 1LT;-COlL., 1,M.S: aE. ES.

Part XXXIV

(With two plates and four Text-figures).

(Continued from page 597 of Volume XX XIII).

Family CdtNAGRIONIDA,

( = Family Agrionide Selys, and Subfamily Cenagrionine Kirb.)

Dragonflies of small or medium size with characters of the suborder

Zygoptera of which they form by far the largest division.

Wings very narrow and of equal sizeand shape, the base of hind not more

dilated than the fore, all four markedly petiolate, venation very simple espe-

cially at base of wings, only two antenodal nervures, discoidal cell entire,elon-

gate, squared cr acutely pointed distad, often differing slightly in shape in the

fore- and hind-wings, arc situated about midway between base of wing and node

or nearer node than base. Abdomen long and attenuated.

Larvee elongate, cylindrical, breathing by means of caudal gills, all

active swimmers living usually in weed. Breeding in still and running

water.

Distribution. Cosmopolitan. The Indian faunais a very rich one and

belongs to seven subfamilies of which the Cenagrioninae form the greatest

bulk.

KEY TO THE SUBFAMILIES OF THE Canagrionide

(The nervure 7A absent, and Cuzz markedly

, reduced

Platystictine.

[ . The nervure /A present, Cuii of normal length or

{ reduced a 2

( No intercalated sectors at apical end of wing... 3

2. 4 Avariable number of intercalated sectors at apical

| endofwing ... 4

(Cells of wings mostly four- sided ; discoidal cell

with costal side about one-fifth shorter than

lower side and with outer angle sub-acute .. Platycnemine.

Cells of wings mostly four-sided ; discoidal cell

3. -~ with costal side of the same length as lower and

‘with outer end of cell squared, not angulate .... Protoneurine.

Cells of wings mostly five-sided ; discoidal cell with

costal side much shorter than lower and with

| outer end acutely angulate Cenagrionine.

(Riv +v and Ji taking origin closer to node

than arc; oblique vein absent; distal end of

| discoidal cell sub-acute or blunt Megapodagrionine.

4. 4 Riv +vand LR taking origin closer to are than

node; an oblique vein present between A777 and

| IRiti about halfway between node and ptero-

\ stigma ; distal end of discoidal cell very acute... 4

(Cuii at its origin from discoidal cell strongly

| arched towards the costa; moderately large

4 species

| Cuzz at its origin only slightly arched towards the

| costa; rather small species : .. Lestine,

5. Synlestine.

.» Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Journ

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

SHOWING THE NOTATION USED IN THE TEXT

CCGENAGRIONID

WING OF

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 835

Subfamily SYNLESTIN# Tillyard, (1917)

Synlestine, Tillyard, ‘ Biology of Dragonflies’, p. 277 (1917) ; Laid. Rec.

Inde -Mus.; vol-xix, p. 187; (1920):

Dragonflies of medium size, considerably larger than the average Coena-

grionid, usually with green metallic head and body ; resting with wings wide

spread. Wings with along petiole, hyaline or barred with blackish brown,

discoidal cell elongate, narrow, acutely angulated distad ; sectors of arc aris-

ing just a little above middle of arc; A7zzz arising from Azz far distad of node ;

Riv+v arising from As at or a little proximad of the subnode; Cuzz arched

strongly costalwards at its origin; Azv+z~ and Jizz, except in genus

Megalestes; arising closer to node than to are and closely converged at their

distal ends ; an oblique vein present or absent between Azzz and A772 at about

midway between node and pterostigma; pterostigma variable, usually

elongate ; intercalated sectors at apical end of wings usually present: anal

bridge (a6) very short but well developed in the Indian genera ; anal field

small. Abdomen very long and slim. Superior anal appendages of male

forcipate, spined outwardly.

Larva. Long slender; pedicel of antennze much elongated ; caudal gills

lamellate, lanceolate, oar-shaped; mask long, median lobe deeply .and

narrowly cleft, lateral lobes without setee, with short robust movable hook,

two apical robust teeth, and the biting border minutely dentate. Legs long

and spider-like. Gizzard with a few robust teeth on each fold. Breeding in

streams in montane or submoutane areas,

Distribution. Only two genera known from within Indian limits, viz.

Megalestes Selys and Orolestes MacLach. This subfamily is represented in

Australasia by Synlestes, in Africa by Chlorolestes, in Asia by the two Indian

genera mentioned above.

Gentis MEGALESTES Selys (1852).

Megalestes Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vol. xiii, p. 293 (1862) ; Kirby,

Cat. Odon. p. 159 (1890) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus, vol. xix, pp. 186, 187

(1920).

SESS

aartun XK WSS

Fic. 1. Wings of Megalestes major, Selys

Comparatively large Ccenagrionids with vivid metallic green body marked

with pale yellow and abdomen of great length. Wings long and narrow ;

pterostigma elongate, nearly three times as long as broad, broader at middle

than either end, braced ; postnodal nervures numerous; arc situated at the

distal antenodal nervure; postcostal nervure (ac), arising much nearer the

distal antenodal nervure and petiolation of wings ceasing some distance before

its junction with the anal bridge (ad), this point slightly distad of the level of

the midpoint between the two antenodals in the forewing, and well distad of

that point in the hind ; discoidal cells very acutely pointed distad, the costal

side not quite double the length of the basal in the forewing, and slightly more

than double in the hind ; JARizzz7 and Riv+v arising much closer to are than

836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1/1

node and running parallel to each other for some distance; oblique vein

usually present between A2zzi and /Aiiz; Riii arising from Azz ‘much nearer

node than plerostigma; 3 or 4 intercalated sectors at the apical ends of

wings.

‘aedoron very long and slender, much longer than a wings; legs mode-

rately long, hind femora extending to hinder end of thorax and armed with

10 to 12 rebust spines; tibicee with longer finer spines ; tarsal claw-hooks

robust, situated at end of claws. Anal superior appendages forcipate ; inferior

short rounded. Female with robust ovipositor, abdomen considerably shorter

and stouter than in male.

Distribution. N. E. India, Nepal, Sikkim, Burma, Indo- China and S.

China. Genotype, JZ. major, Selys.

Megalestes major, Selys (1862).

Megalestes major Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (3) vol. xiii, p, 293 (1862); Kirby,

Cat. Odon. p. 159 (1890) ; Needham, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxvi,

Pl. Iivne.- 7 (1903). Laid. “Rees Ind. Mus., vol, xix, pp. 148 and 185- 187

(1920).

Male. Abdomen 48-54 mm. Hindwing 33-36 mm.

Head ; labium yellow ; labrum brilliant metallic emerald green; bases ‘of

mandibles bright citron yellow; anteclypeus black; postclypeus, frons and

vertex glossy metallic emeraid green with a royal blue reflex when viewed

from certain angles; occiput and whole of area behind ocelli and eyes dull

metallic green with a coppery reflex ;. eyes dark brown ; antenne black.

Prothorax dull metallic emerald green pruinosed to white in. adults at sides

and middorsum ; posterior lobe dull black, with a medial spot of yellow a

tenerals.

Thorax brilliant glossy metallic emerald green on dorsum, antealar ‘sinus

and laterally as far as the postero-lateral suture; méiddorsai suture and

lateral suture finely black as also a narrow stripe along the anterior border of

metepimeron, posterior to which the rest of metepimeron bright yellow... The

lower portion of midlateral suture also narrowly yellow, this colour broadening

out below over trochanter. Beneath entirely ight yellow with the lower part

of sides and whole of beneath, in adults, pruinosed white so as to obscure the

ground colour.

Legs bright yellow as seen from behind, dull black or enfumed when viewed

from the front ; spines and tarsi black.

Wings hyaline, uncoloured or palely enfumed especially at apices;

pterostigma variably yellow to brown intenerals, black in adults, covering 23

to 33 cells, strongly braced ; 16 to 21 postnodal nervures in forewings, 15 to 16

in the hind ; other items of venation as for genus.

Abdomen dull metallic green on dorsum and sides, more brilliantly metallic

on segments 1 and 2; the sides of segments 1 and 2 and base of 3 pale yellow ;

intersegmental joints narr owly black as well as beneath ; dorsum of segments

9 and 10 pruinosed white in adults.

Anal appendages black; superiors slightly longer than segment 10, forcipate,

the apices meeting or even overlapping, broad at base where, on the inner side,

is seen a Short robust quadrate process after which the appendix is-sli ghtly

tapered and strongly twisted on its long axis so that the outer side comes to

look rather upward ; a robust spine on the inner side at junction of apical and

medial thirds. Inferior appendages rudimentary rounded and with a mode-

rately robust short spine directed upwards and analwards.

Female. Abdomen 45-47 mm. Hindwing 36-35 mm.

Very similar to the male but of more robust build and with a shorter stouter

abdomen. A specimen from Assam differs as follows :—Prothorax with the

whole of posterior lobe and a large triangular middorsal spot bright chreme

yellow ; antealar sinus with a spot cf yellow on each side, variable in size ; the

whole of metepimeron except for ashort upper anteriorspot of metallic green,

bright chrome yellow, as also a broad wedge-shaped stripe on midlateral suture

broadening below. Hinder pair of femora all yellow save for the distal ends

which are enfumed brownish black; wings rather broader; 18 postnodals in

forewings and 16 to 17 in the hind; pterostigma dark reddish brown.

Abdomen with the yellow markings more extensive, the sides of segment 1

broadly, the whole ventral border of sezment 2, a narrow basal ring to segment

3, repeated, but obscurely so on segments 4 to 7, the ventral. border... of

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 837

segment 8 and a ventro-lateral spot on segment 9, whilst segment 10 has the

greater part of the dorsum yellow, the middorsal carina, a_ subdorsal

spot on each side confluent with an apical border alone being blackish metallic

green. In a specimen from Dehra Dun the dorsum of segment 10 is thinly

pruinosed, partially obscuring the markings, the whole of the dorsum of this

segment dull metallic green, whilst the whole of the sides are yellow ; segment

9 has a small baso-lateral and a large apico-lateral spot of yellow ; the ground

colour of the abdomen in this specimen being coppery metallic.

Anal appendages moderately short, about three-fourths the length of

segment 10 in the Assam material, and about half the length of that segment

in the specimen from Dehra Dun, short pointed conical, widely separated,

black. Ovipositor dark blackish brown with a spot of yellow variably present

laterally, very robust, extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution:. Assam, Bengal, Sikkim, Nepal and the North Punjab Hills

up to an altitude of about 8,000 ft. Thespecimens reported by Martin from

Tonkin are a distinct race or even species and not 47. major. Dehra Dun 26.

IX., Shillong and Mawpnhlang, Assam, 10. X., Mangpoo, Darjeeling District

3,000 ft., 18. V. and 12 VII, Muktesar, Kumaon Hills, 7,009 ft..9. V., Kakani

Nepal, 7,000 ft., 18. VII.

I found the larva, which has been described by Dr. Laidlaw, 1. c.,in a sandy

and gravelly stream at Ghoom near Darjeeling, 8,000 ft., in the month of May,

the water then being icy cold at that elevation, but the larva, nevertheless,

full-grown. Lower down the hill slopes, at about 6,000 ft., in a scrub jungle

and hillside marsh, I found tenerals emerging from small brooklets which

formed a network throughout the marsh.

Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher has sent me the following notes on the occur-

rence of this species in Shillong :—‘ Moderately common amongst bushes

below Kenilworth 5,000 ft. during the second half of August, 2o0r 3 seen

daily. Always solitary although 2 or more may be seenin one locality,

generally 100 yards up and down stream and about 20 yards from the stream,

never more, and on bushes. Slow unsustained flight, settling with wings half

expanded. None seen in crop. Specimens seen right up to the 20th October.’

Similar habits were ubserved by myself near Darjeeling, tenerals hiding up in

dark jungle in company with Caliphea confusa.

Megalestes irma, Fraser (1926).

Megalestes irnia, Fras. Journ. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc., pp. 32, 33 (1926).

' Male. Abdomen 60-65 mm. Hindwing 36-37 mm. : pat

Head: labium yellow; labrum glossy metallic emerald green ; bases of

mandibles bright yellow, the upper apical half glossy black; anteclypeus.

yellow marked with two submedial blackish spots inclining to metallic ;

postclypeus, frons and vertex glossy metallic emerald green with a peacock

blue reflex in certain lights; rest of head dull metallic green ; eyes brown ;

antennee black.

Prothorax dull black with two large rounded bosses and the middorsum

dull metallic green, and the whole of the posterior lobe, except the extreme

base which is black, bright yellow ; the lower part of the sides aiso yellow.

Thorax brilliant emerald green on dorsum and sides as far back as the

hinder suture, the sutures finely black, a narrow medial stripe on each side

of the mesepimeron bright chrome yellow as also the whole of metepimeron

except for a narrow irregular stripe of metallic green along its anterior border.

Beneath black, pruinosed white. Legs wholly black except the trochanters

and coxe of the anterior pair which are yellow.

Wings hyaline, uncoloured; pterostigma reddish brown, strongly braced,

covering 2 to 3 cells ; postnodal nervures to forewings 18-24, hindwings 17-18.;

ac andaé in the hindwing meeting at hinder border of wing, petiolation

ending however before a¢ in the forewings.

Abdomen much longer than in 47. major and nearly twice the length of

wings in some specimens, dull black w'th a dull metallic reflex green or

coppery ; segments 1 and 2 brighter glossier metallic green and rather broadly

ye low on lower part of sides ; segments 9 and 10 pruinosed white on dorsum.

Anal appendages black, differing markedly from those of M. major.

Superiors as long as segment 10, forcipate, strongly curved in to meet at

-apices, outer borders uaspined; no vestige of an inner medial spine as in

M. major ; base thickened and with an inner blunt but prominent tongue-like

838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

spine somewhat similar to that seen in A/7, major but longer, curled inwards

and downwards and tipped with yellow. Inferiors differing still more, short

rounded tumid masses with two strongly imbricated spines, one short and

robust on the outer side shaped like a rose thorn ; the second springing from

the apex below, very long and curling strongly upwards like the horn of a

oat.

: Female. Abdomen5lmm. Hindwing 37 mm.

Similar to the male but with shorter-and more robust abdomen. Yellow

on abdomen more extensive, obscure basal rings on segments 3 to 6, anda

ventro-lateral stripe on segments 8 and 9. Anal appendages short, black,

conical pointed. Ovipositor robust, extending to end of abdomen, blackish

brown.

Distribution, Sikkim.

Differs in many respects from J7. major, viz. by the black spot on bases

of mandibles; by the great length of abdomen ; by the greater number

of postnodal nervures; by the black legs and black wunder surface of

thorax (which latter forms an easy method for identification), and lastly

by the entirely different character of the appendages, especially the inferiors

which bear two spines instead of only one.

Type male and femalein the Darjeeling collection, paratype males in the

Fraser collection, one of which goes to the British Museum. All specimens

collected by Mr. Chas. M. Inglis at Gangtok 5,000 to 6,000 ft, Sikkim, 29. v.

24 near the source of the Rani Khole river.

Genus OROLESTES MacLach (1895).

Orolestes MacLach., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) vol. xvi, p. 21 (1895) ; Laid

Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xix, pp. 146, 148 and 186 (1920); Needham,

Ent. News, vol. xxii, pp. 342-344, pl. xi figs. 1-4 (1911); Munz,

Mem. Amer. Ent. Soc. No. 3, p: 48°(1919).

Moderately large Coenagrionids with wings partly coloured and opaque

black ; body non-metallic and abdomen of great length. Wings long narrow,

largely opaque blackish brown ; pterostigma elongate, more than four times as

long as broad, dilated at the middlle, braced ; postnodal nervures numerous ;

are situated at the level of distal antenodal nervure ; postcostal nervure (ac)

situated much nearer the distal antenodal nervure and petiolation ceasing at its

level, that is ac meets a6 at the hinder margin of wing; discoidal cell broad,

markedly acute distad, its hinder border longer than costal and thrice as long

as the base; /Az7z2 and Az + v. arising much closer to arc than to node and

running parallel to each other for some distance ; oblique vein usually present

between Azizi and /A777 ; Aiiz arising trom Azz 8 cells after the node in

forewings and 7 cells after in the hind ; only 2 intercalated sectors at apical end

of wings, between Azz and Azv + v. Abdomen slender, long, much more so

than wings; legs moderately !ong, hind femora extending to hinder end of

thorax, spines of moderate length and similar to those of Megalestes ; anal

appendages very long, forcipate, inferiors short, triangular, without spines.

Distribution. N. W. India, Darjeeling district. (Female unknown.)

Genotype—O. selvst MacLach.

Orolestes selysi Maclach. (1895).

Orolestes selyst MacLach. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) vol. xvi, pp. 21-23

(1895) ; Mart. Mission Pavie, p. 18 (1911) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vel.

xix, pp. 148-150 and 186 (1920).

Male. Adbomen 57 mm. Hindwing 36-39 mm.

Head : labium yellow ; labrum olivaceous green, as also the bases of mandi-

bles ; rest of head black except the back of occiput and eyes which are

yellowish ; eyes brown.

Prothorax olivaceous green clouded on the middorsum ; posterior lobe

simple, rounded.

Thorax bronzed green on dorsum as far out as the hinder margin of humeral

suture ; an ill defined stripe pale olivaceous on either side of middorsal carina;

the sides pale olivaceous green or yellow with a trace of the dark bronzed green

on upper part of midlateral suture.

Legs black, femora yellowish brown on flexor surface.

Wings hyaline at base and apex, blackish brown between these two points

with a steely blue reflex, this broad fascia with an oblique border proximad and

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 839

a straight slightly irregular border distad where it ends about one cell proximad

of the pterostigma and is edged narrowly with a milky opalescent white border;

the cell-middles in the dark area paler; reticulation black ; pterostigma dark

brown between thick black nervures, 3°5 mm. in length ; 21-24 postnodal

nervures in forewing, 19-20 in the hind.

Abdomen bronzed green on dorsum of segments 1 and 2, bronzed black on

the remainder but segments 3 and 4 with a medial bluish area and ringed with

black at either end ; segments 1 and 2 broadly olivaceous green laterally,

narrowly so on segments 3 to 5 and basal half of 6; margins of segments 7 to 9

minutely spined apicad : segment 10 slightly notched.

Anal appendages black, the inferiors tipped with yellow ; superiors half as

long again as segment 10, slender, regularly curved and forcipate so that the

apices meet or overlap ; outer border finely spined along apical half ; a robust

basal tooth on inner side and a dilatation, which extends along inner border

nearly to apex and ends in a broad triangular acute tooth ; apices rounded,

blunt. Inferiors barely half the length of superiors, broad, triangular with

inner borders straight and closely apposed.

Distribution, Darjeeling District. Two males in the MacLachlan collection

in rather poor condition, the dark fascia in one being much paler than in the

other from the teneral condition of the specimen. ‘The species must be either

very rare or very localas Mr. Chas. Inglis has not so far rediscovered it,

although all other of the Selysian species from that area have fallen to his net ;

it is quite easily recognized from all other Indian Lestids by its coloured wings,

these being hyaline and uncoloured in all others save for some slight or

occasional enfumation.

SUBFAMILY LESTINZ.

Dragonflies of small size with metallic or non-metallic markings on head,

body and abdomen ; resting with wings nearly wide open, or more rarely with

the wings closely apposed over the dorsum.

Wings hyaline, uncoloured except for occasional enfumation ; with a long

petiole, petiolation begins at the postcostal nervure (ac) about midway between

the two antenodal nervures, ac meeting ab at the hinder border of wing ;

discoidal cell elongate, narrow, similar or differing in the fore and hind-

wings, very acutely angulated at the distal end; sectors of arc arising from

middle of arc ; A7zzZ arising: from Azz well distad of the node; Cuzz only but

slightly arched or not at all at its origin; Azv + v. and /A777 arising much

nearer arc than node and far proximal of the subnode ; an oblique vein always

present between Azzz and /A77zz at about midway between node and ptero-

stigma; pterostigma variable, nearly always at least twice as long as wide, often

more so; intercalated sectors usuaily present at apical end of wings ; anal

bridge (ad) always present and well developed ; anal field small.

Abdomen long and slender ; superior anal appendages of male forcipate

spined outwardly ; inferior appendages variable.

840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Larva long, slender, abdomen cylindrical ; caudal gills Jong: rounded:

at apex, paddle- shaped, secondary trachea arising at right angles to the main

stems ; mask with the lateral lobe greatly expanded, concave ; deeply and-

irregularly toothe.t ; setae on middle lobe and movable hook usually to the:

number of 5 and 6 respectively ; middle lobe simple, not. fissured, movable -

hook of great length; gizzard with 8 folds, 4 major and 4 minor, the former

with a specialized dentition of 3 to 5 very large teeth and numerous smaller

ones; antennz with elongate pedecil. Breeding in tanks and ponds, rarely

if ever in running water.

Distribution. Cosmopolitan. Five genera known from within Indian ~

limits,—Lestes, Leach, Platylestes Ramb, Jndolestes Fraser. Ceylonolestes

Kennedy, and Sympycna Charp.

KEY TO GENERA.

(Eterostigms nearly as broad as long, nearly

squared ... Platylestes.

I : Pterostigma at least twice as long as broad,

( usually more so 2

(puseote cell of hindwing longer ‘and much

narrower than that of forewing... 3

4 Discoidal cell of hindwing shaped similarly to

( that of forewing , Lestes.

( Posterior lobe of prothorax trilobed, the

middle lobe projecting far beyond the late-

| rals; ac almost at the level of the basal

! antenodal nervure; palaearctic species ... Sympycna Charp.

| Posterior lobe of prothorax a single simple

lobe uniformly arched; ac almost at the

| level of the distal antenodal nervure ; tropi-

| cal and montane species 4

(Ground colour of body pale brown marked

with black ; wings tinted with pale yellow

ape Or palest brown : Indolestes Fraser.

Ground colour of body azure blue marked

with bronzed black ; wings not enfumed or

tinted =: eee ah ... Ceylonolestes Kennedy.

Genus LEstxs Leach (1815).

Lestes Leach, Edinb. Encycl. vol. ix, p. 137 (1815); Steph Ill. Brit. Ent.

Mand. VI, p. 76 (1836) ; Ramb., Ins. Névr. p. 243 (1842) ; Selys, Mon.

Lib. Eur. p. 135 (1840) j Id. Rev. Oden p. 146 (1850) ; Id. Bull. Acad.

Belg. (2) vol. xiii, p. 395 (1862) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 160 (1890); Till-

yard, Biology of Dragonflies, pp. 276, 277 (1917) ; Lucas, British

Dragonflies, p. 58 (1900) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xix, pp. 145, 146

(1920). Tillyard, Ins. Aust. and New Zeal. p. 78 (1926).

Puella Brulle, Expl, Moree, vol. ii. (i), p. 104 (1832).

Anapates, Charp. Lib. Eur., p. 18 (1840).

Characters of the subfamily ; always resting with the wings nearly fully

open ; petiolation beginning a little before the level of ac, which latter is

situated about midway between the level of the two antenodal nervures ;

pterostigma at least twice as long as broad; discoidal cell similar in fore and

hind-wings, its base two-thirds the length of costal side; /A7zz only slightly

zigzagged ; body with or without metallic markings.

Distribution. Cosmopolitan. Represented in India, Burma and Soe

by several species and races. (Genotype.—Les/es sponsa Hans.

KEY TO SPECIES OF GENERA Lestfes and Platylestes.

( Thorax without metallic markings ee 2

1.4 Thorax witn green metallic antehumeral

\ stripes ae ve ue §

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

Pterostigma unicolorous

Pterostigma bicolorous

3.4 Vertex of head pale brown

(

{

Vertex of head matt black

Thorax with about 10 small black Spots

on each side ; De esee white at both

ends...

Thorax immaculate ; pterostigma with its

costal third palest brown, posterior two-

thirds dark brown nee

( Thorax with a uniform narrow eaten

| meral stripe on each side

expanded outwardly at the upper ends.

Thorax with antehumeral stripes deeply

3 scalloped or crenulate on the outer

sides ..

Thorax with the whole of dorsum and

| forepart of sides brilliant metallic

lL green is

( Vertex of head metallic green ; thorax

largely. black; only 11 postnodal

6.~+ nervures to forewings site

| Vertex of head non- “metallic ; 12 to 14

| postnodal nervures to forewings

( Vertex of head pale brown ; dorsum of

thorax pale brown with very prominent

| brilliant metallic green antehumeral

stripes ; 12 postnodal nervures to fore-

7.4 wings

Vertex of head matt black ; “dorsum of

2 thorax black with an obscure narrow

| metallic green stripe on each side; 14

| postnodal nervures to forewings

(Sides of thorax pale brown with a few

| black points...

8.4 Sides of thorax with two thick black bands

| enclosing a medial narrow brown

stripe 3 ae

[Small species with apasinen “3C- -32 mm.

9.4 and hindwing 20-21 mm.

, Larger species ‘with abdomen 36-39 mm.

{ and hindwing 24-26 mm. ...

( Mesothorax with a long irregular ects

| humeral stripe and a “large lower spot

10.4 of metallic green ss noe

| Mesothorax without metallic or other

| markings ay ose

( Small species with abdomen about 30 mim.

| and hindwing 21 mm.; pterostigma

4 bicolorous ;- paleearctic in distribution.

| Large species with abdomen 52 mm. and

| hindwing 38 mm.; pterostigma uni-

i colorous ; oriental in distribution

Lesies prémiorsa premorsa, Selys (1862).

Lestes premorsa Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg.(2) vol. xiii,

Thorax with narrow antehumeral stripes

841

Lestes umbrina Selys.

Lestes thoracica Laid.

Platylestes platystyla Rambo,

Lesies nodalis Selys.

Lestes angularis sp. nov.

Lestes virridula Ramb.

Lestes patricia Fraser,

Lestes elata Selys.

Lestes malabarica sp. nov.

Lestes dorothea Fraser,

Lestes stkkima sp. nov.

Lestes premorsa Selys.

Lestes barbara Fabr.

Lestes orientalis Hagen,

p. 320 (1862) ; Id. Mitth.

Mus. Dresd. vol.iii, p. 317(1878) ; Id. Odonates des Pippin. Ann. Soc

Espan. Hist. Nat. 1. vol. xi, p. 49 (1882); Id. Odonates de Birmanie. Ann.

Mus. Civ. Genov. vol. xxx, pp. 495, 496 (1891); Kruger Stett. Ent. Zeit.

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

p. 130 (1898) ; Laid. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. p. 382 (1902) ; Id. Rec.

Ind. Mus. vol. xix, pp. 147, 154 and 155 (1920) ; Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus.

vol. xxvi, p. 484 (1924).

Lestes premorsus Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 162 (1890).

Lestes decipiens Kirby, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool vol. xxiv, pp, 565, 566 (1893) ;

Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xix, p. 154 (1920).

ees premorsa subsp. andamanensis Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus, vol. xxvi, p. 410

24).

Male. Abdomen 32-35mm. Hindwing 21-22 mm.

Head: labium yellowish; labrum turquoise blue; bases of mandibles

glossy brown; anteclypeus, cheeks and a narrow basal streak to postclypeus

turquoise blue; rest of head matt black, pruinosed over lower and back part

of eyes; eyes deep sapphire blue.

Prothorax black with obscure yellow markings largely hidden by pruines-

cence.

Thorax black on dorsum marked bya pair of dark green metallic antehu-

meral stripes, straight on their inner border, deeply crenulate or lobed on their

outer. (This stripe subject to some variation, but usually with a somewhat

quadrate lobe projecting from the upper end of stripe, a medial hooked, with

or without a serrate hinder border, and an elongate clubbed lobe formed by an

expansion of the lower part of stripe). Laterally blue or pale greenish yellow or

in others (decipiens) black, heavily pruinosed so as to appear violaceous. In

non-pruinosed examples, several irregular spots present on the sides, one on

the upper part of humeral suture, two spots below this on mesepimeron, one a

short distance behind the humeral-suture and the second or lower just touching

the suture. Two spots on middle of mesepimeron, one at upper end of

postero-lateral suture and another pair, rather wide apart, situated on the

ventral border. Beneath thorax black heavily pruinosed. In melanotic

examples, the metallic antehumeral stripes and lateral spots are almost or

entirely obscured and the whole overlaid by pruinescence.

Legs black with a pale bluish green longitudinal stripe on the outer side of

femora and extensor surface of tibiz.

Wings hyaline or palely enfumed in adults ; pterostigma dark reddish

brown or blackish brown, covering 2 cells; 10 to 12 postnodal nervures in all

wings; a¢ slightly nearer the basal antenodal in the forewing, but about

midway between the two antenodals in the hind; //A7zz situated about 5-6

cells proximal of the pterostigma in forewing, 8 to 9 in the hind.

eS Se

eae Fe

Fic. 3. Wings of Lestes pramorsa, Selys.

Abdomen pale blue marked broadly on the dorsum with bronzed green or

coppery metallic changing to matt black on the hinder segments; segment 1

with a broad quadrate spot of bronzed green on dorsum, not extending to

——

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 843

apical border in subadults; segment 2 with a broad stripe shaped like an

elongate thistle-head, falling short of both ends so as to leave a narrow basal

bluish annule and asimilar, broadly interrupted, one at the apical border;

segments 3 to 7 with similar bands, the apical ends abruptly expanded and then

contracted before joining narrow apical black rings, and with narrow basal

and apical interrupted rings blue; segment 8 with only a vestige of the basal

ring ; segment 9 with a very large lateral spot of blue; segment 10 witha

small ventro-lateral spot of thesame colour. Segment 8 often with a large

apico-lateral blue spot, obscured in some. .

Anal appendages: superiors as long as segment 9, pale yellow or ochreous

with the base and the apex black, forcipate, finely spined on the outer border

near apex which is blunt and curved in strongly; on the inner side near the

base, a robust spine followed by a thin shell-like expansion inwards which ends

in a minute spine ; inferior appendages much shorter, apposed at base where

they are very broad and rounded, then abruptly contracted to form a short

cylindrical ungulate process tipped with stiff whitish hairs.

Female. Abdomen 30-32 mm. Hindwing 20-21 mm.

Very similar to the male, differs as follows:—Labrum and cheeks more

olivaceous or greenish yellow than blue: antehumeral stripes more distinct and

more liable to variation; sides of thorax yellowish or pale greenish blue,

heavily pruinosed beneath and on the lower parts of sides which are often

chalky white; legs ochreous with the two anterior pairs of femora striped

longitudinally with dark brown on the outer side; sides of abdomen greenish

yellow ; segment 1 with better defined markings, a baso-dorsal spot confluent

with a small subdorsal spot on either side, the apical area pale and unmarked ;

borders and apical ends of segments 9 and 10 narrowly blue.

Anal appendages creamy white, short pointed conical. Vulvar scale pale,

robust, extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Thetype, a female from Manilla, Philippines, is now in the

Selysian collection, ‘The allotype male, also in the same collection, was taken

at Puepoli, Burma,in June. I have specimens from many parts of India,

Burma and Ceylon which do not differ markedly from one another nor from

the types. After examining a great number, I have come to the conclusion

that the species cannot be split up, even into subspecies, beyond what I have

already done by separating dorothea from it, and also by giving subspecific

rank to examples from Sikkim, which I call szkkima. Owing to the gradual

development of melanosis, a large number of varying forms are found ranging

from pale brown with distinct markings in the teneral condition, to melanotic

forms which are quite black and exhibit no markings. Kirby’s form known as

decipiens is merely one such as the last, very heavily pruinosed. ‘The race

andamanensis Fras., from Port Blair, is, [ now think, not more than a variety

and differs only by segment 10 without markings and by the pronounced

character of the metallic stripes of thorax, which have the hinder border of the

middle lobe serrate, a character since observed in other examples. These

stripes differ rather widely according to whether the body of the stripe is thick

or very fine, the lobes being much better developed when the latter happens.

As regards the size, which, Selys mentions differs widely, I think this is

due to an error in confusing dorothea with premorsa. ‘The distribution may be

said to run from Western India, across to Assam and Burma and so throughout

Southern Asia as far as the Philippines,

Lestes preimorsa sikkima, subsp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 24 mm.

Very similarto premorsa premorsa, differing mosty by the metallic colour-

ing of vertex of head and the metallic posthumeral stripe.

Head: labium yellowish ; labrum, clypeus and cheeks olivaceous ( possibly

blue in the living state) ; back of eyes yellow with a large black spot below ;

vertex dark metallic emerald green except for a small oval spot of warm brown

on the outer side of each hinder ocellus.

Prothorax pale brown with a triangular emerald green metallic dorsal spot

and a.linear subdorsal spot similarly coloured on each side ; the whole base of

posterior lobe emerald green metallic.

Thorax with a green metallic antehumeral narrow stripe with large lateral

lobes, the medial one finely crenulate along its border; mesothorax witha

posthumeral metallic green stripe made up of an upper spot finely confluent

$44 JOORNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

with a long wedge-shaped spot, and a small inferior lower posthumeral spot

(some specimens have the upper spot discrete as well as the lower, but this is

unusual). Beneath thorax pale yellow or white and without the large

triangular black spot behind the legs seen in Sremorsa premorsa.

Wings with 11 to 12 postnodal nervures ; pterostigma blackish brown,

covering 2 cells, otherwise details as for premorsa.

Abdomen similar to premorsa premorsa, but segments 8 to 10 very broadly

yellow at the sides (possibly blue during life).

Anal appendages not markedly different but the inner expansion of

superiors ending in a more robust spine and the inferiors with a longer apical

rocess.

7 Female: Abdomen'34-36 mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Similar in most respects to the male but a much more robust insect.

Anterior femora black except for the extreme base which is yellow, other

femora black on the flexor surface only and stippled with achain of small

yellow spots,

Wings with 12 to 13 postnodal nervures ; pterostigma black, over 2 cells.

Abdomen, segment 1 pale prown, unmarked ; segment 1 with a small pale

lateral spot, segment 9 with a very large lateral yellowish spot, whilst segment

10 is almost entirely yellow.

Anal appendages short conical, yellow at apices, basal half black. Vulvar

scale black broadly marked with yellow.

Distribution. A number of specimens collected by Mr. Oscar Lindgren at

Kurseong, Sikkim, all agreeing by having the metallic posthumeral stripe,

which at once serves to distinguish it from typical pr@morsa.

Type in the author’s collection, paratypes in the Morton collection.

Lestes dorothea, Fraser (1924).

Lestes dorothea Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, pp. 484 to 486 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 40mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Head: labium whitish yellow; labrum, cheeks, bases of mandibles and

frons turquoise blue, rest of head matt black ; eyes deep sapphire blue above,

turquoise blue beneath.

Prothorax matt black. Thorax black, pruinosed white laterally, citron

yellow beneath. Marked on the dorsum with metallic green antehumeral

stripes shaped like those seen in pr@morsa premorsa, she area between these

and on the outer side paler, followed by a diffuse black stripe on the humeral

suture. A large diffuse black spot just in front of the upper part of the

postero-lateral suture, another smaller spot at the middle of the antero-lateral

suture and a third spot over the spiracle. Tergum and beneath thorax heavily

pruinosed obscuring all markings. In melanotic specimens, especially those

from Assam, all the above spots are entirely obscured and even the metallic

stripes are made out with great difficulty.

Legs greenish yellow striped laterally with black ; tibial spines long,

femoral short, 14 on the hind femora.

Wings hyaline, sometimes enfumed evenly; pterostigma black, less than

two and a half times as long as broad, covers 2 to 3 cells; 15-16 postnodal

nervures in forewings, 14-15 in the hind.

Abdomen blue or greenish blue marked with black as follows :—Segment 1

broadly black on dorsum, apical border narrowly blue, segment 2 with a

broad thistle-head shaped mark on dorsum extending from base to apex,

segments 3 to 6 with a broad dorsal stripe which expands abruptly near the

apical end of segments and then contracts as abruptly to become confluent

with a narrow apical black ring, whilst the basal end tapers to a fine point

which just meets the apical ring of the segment before, leaving a small blue

spot on either side. The apical expanded portion forms a complete broad

ring round each segment ; segment 7 with a similar stripe which falls short of

the base of segment ; segment 8 similar, with a fine basal blue ring, segments

9 and 10 entirely black, the latter pruinosed white on dorsum.

Anal appendages bluish during life, pale yellow after death, broadly black

at base and apex, running straight back, the apices turned down and inwards

at an angle of about 45 degrees ; basal half expanded on the inner side and

with a very robust inner basal spine. Inferiors much shorter, not visible from

above, widely separated, thick at base, with a short ungulate process at apex

tipped with whitish hairs,

2 ante

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 845

Female. Abdomen 36mm. Hindwing 27 mm.

Differs rather markedly from the male in its ground colour and by its

broader markings. Eyes olivaceous above and below, bluish behind ; thorax

olivaceous green, pale greenish yellow laterally; segment 9 with a large

medio-lateral blue spot on each side; segment 10 entirely blue save for the

middorsal carina which is finely black. Anal appendages small conical

pointed black,

Fic. 4. Head and thorax of (a) Lestes premorsa, Selys and (6) Lestes

élata, Selys, showing the highly characteristic markings common to each group.

Distribution. J had thought this species to be strictly confined to Coorg,

but I now think that the large melanotic species from Assam, which I had

thought might be a definite species, are actually a near race of dorothea,

characterized by their slightly smaller dimensions, greater melanosis and bright

yellow thoracic sides. Some of these latter specimens are so black, that I am

unable to discern any thoracic markings whatever, even the metallic ones

being obscured. Younger ones however show the markings of dorothea. It is

probably these specimens that Selys mixed up with true pr@morsa. In Coorg

it is to found on every tank, the pulping tanks of coffee estates being especially

favoured, and here it may be taken usually in company with true premorsa.

Its much larger size and the absence of markings on segments & and 9 in the

male, and its higher postnodal index will serve to distinguish it from pr@morsa.

Type in the British Museum, paratypes in the Indian, Pusa Museums and in

many private collections including the authors’,

Lestes elata elata, Hagen (1858).

Lestes elata, Hagen, Syn. Neur. Ceylons, No. 36, Zool. Bot. Gesellsch. Wien.

(1858) ; Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vol. xiii, p. 319 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind.

Mus. vol. xix, pp. 146, 153, 154, fig. 2 (1920) ; Fras. /ézd. vol. xxvi, p. 484

(1924) ; Laid. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, pts. 47-48, p. 357 (1924).

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Lestes elatus, Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 162 (1890) ; Id. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond.

p. 203 (1891) ; Id. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxiv, p. 565 (1893).

Male. Addomen 34-36 mm. Hindwing 23-24 mm.

Head : labium white; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks and anteclypeus

turquoise blue ; postclypeus olivaceous marked at the base on each side with a

small triangle of reddish brown narrowly bordered with black ; frons olivaceous

green ; vertex between the ocelli and bases of antennz black bordered outward-

ly bya broad band of light brown which extends obliquely forwards and

outwards as far as the blue cheeks ; a large triangular spot of coppery bronze

lying to the inner side of each eye above and narrowly edged with black ;

behind eyes and the upper surface of occiput olivaceous yellow ; eyes turquoise

blue. (Fully adult- specimens have the whole of upper surface of head matt

black and the bronzed spots obscured, whilst behind the eyes is black, heavily

pruinosed white below).

Prothorax with middorsum olivaceous with a longitudinal diffuse narrow

warm brown subdorsal stripe on each side in the middle of which is an irregular

black spot ; posterior lobe with a large black spot on each side of the middle

line (Adults have the dorsum black and the sides pruinosed white, the mark-

ings obscured).

‘Thorax in tenerals warm brown on dorsum changing to pale olivaceous and

finally yellow on the sides or almost white beneath; in adults dark reddish

brown to almost black, heavily pruinosed at the sides and quite chalky white

below and beneath. Dorsum marked with a pair of narrow antehumeral

metallic green stripes expanded outwardly abruptly above ; these stripes very

brilliant and prominent in young examples, but becoming gradually obscured

by melanosis in adults, although rarely if ever quite obscured. On the sides,

in tenerals, an upper tiny humeral spot and two or three equally small ones in

a line on the lower part of mes and met-epimeron ; these spots not sharing in

the general pruinescence of adult age and standing out prominently black

against the white pruinescence ; in addition, in pruinosed adults, a narrow

glossy stripe on the mesepimeron of the ground colour, which does not partake

of the surrounding pruinescence.

Legs palest yellow in tenerals with a black stripe on the outer side of the

femora, one on the flexor surface of the tibiae and the whole of tarsi black.

Adults ‘similar, but more pale greenish yellow.

Wings hyaline ; pterostigma black in adults, pale brown in tenerals or dark

reddish brown by transmitted light, covering 2 cells, about twice or two anda

half times as long as broad; 11 to 12 postnodals in forewings, 9 to 10 in the

hind ; petiolation begins at ac which is situated about midway between the

levels of the two antenodals.

Abdomen pale yellow at the sides in tenerals, pale bluish green in adults

marked broadly on dorsum with metallic green or bronze changing to dull

black on the terminal segments. Segment 1 unmarked in tenerals, obscurely

brownish on dorsum in adults ; segments 2 to 6 witha broad metallic stripe on

dorsum which expands abruptly nearthe apical ends of segments completely

encircling them and, on the dorsum, narrowly confluent behind with a narrow

black apical ring, whilst at the base rounded and leaving a narrow ring of the

ground colour which is pale blue in adults; segments 7 to 9 broadly dark

brown on dorsum in tenerals, black in adults and leaving on the latter segment,

a broad apical ring, yellowish in tenerals, bluish in adults. In very adult speci-

mens all the terminal segments black, unmarked, the apical halt of segment

9 and the whole of 10 white with pruinescence and very conspicuous when

flying.

Anal appendages creamy yellow broadly tipped with black in tenerals,

entirely black in adults. the apices tipped with yellow hairs; a robust inner

basal tooth followed by a wide dilatation which extends for half the length of

appendage and is finely denticulate ; apical half narrow and curved strongly

inward so that apices usually meet; finely spined outwardly ; inferiors very

short, about one-third the length of superiors, rounded at base, conical.

Female. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 24 mm.

Somewhat similar to the male, but always less melanotic and the markings

always well defined and the ground colour pale brown. Head _ similar

to the male, but the metallic markings always in evidence and bronzed or

coppery in adults ; thorax with the following lateral spots (undeveloped for the

greater part in tenerals), aspot on the upper part of each lateral suture, five

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II

seeeeeennnceoney

ANAL APPENDAGES OF DRAGONFLIES

(for explanation see end of this article)

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 847

spots on the mesepimeron, three of which are posthumeral and one elongate,

and one situate on the spiracle, two spots on the ventral border of metepimeron,

the two pairs showing up very prominently when the thorax is viewed from

beneath. Abdomen similar to the male, dorsal bands brown, non-metallic in

tenerals, dark reddish brown with coppery reflex in adults; segment 9 with

the band arrested short of the apical border and deeply bifid on dorsum ;

segment 10 and the apical part of 9 bluish, unmarked (yellowish in

tenerals).

Anal appendages creamy white in tenerals, black in adults, short, conical ;

vulvar scale dark brown, very robust, extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution. Confined to Peninsular India and Ceylon, the form found

in Burma being a distinct subspecies. It is the commonst species of

the genus found within Indian limits and may be taken throughout the

year in southern districts abounding around ponds and tanks during

the monsoon months, hiding up in scrub jungle during the drier seasons.

Very inconspicuous in the latter situations on account of its dull

melanotic colouring, but a conspicuous and pretty insect when on the wing

over tanks and paddy. I have seen it in hundreds over swamps in Mysore and

equally so over paddy lands in Bangalore. The flight is short, like most

Lestes, and when settled, it has a peculiar habit of swaying its abdomen,

the reason for which is not at all clear but may be sexual as it is confined to

the males.

I have been unable to detect any racial forms although varieties due to

age differences are common. Females are comparatively rare over water,

unless in cop, and oviposting, so that this sex must be sought for and beaten

up in scrub adjoining water where it will be found in great numbers. Distin-

guished from other species by its metallic thoracic stripes with only an upper

dilatation instead of two as in the pre@morsa group.

The above description has been made from living specimens and may

therefore be noted as considerably different from the original description of its

author; it is however a carefully compiled one and made from insects

undoubtedly conspecific with the type of elafa in the Selysian collection.

The differences arise from the fact that the original description was made from

a dried specimen which had lost its colours from decomposition. The living

insect is a much more beautiful insect than the drab creature depicted

by Selys,

The wet season brood has a remarkably short larval existence of not more than

ten weeks, as I have a note of imagos emerging in the second week of

September from eggs which had been laid in the last week of the previous June.

Lestes malabarica spec. nov.

Male. Abdomen 24-25mm. Hindwing 21 mm.

Head: labium white ; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks and anteclypeus

turquoise blue; postclypeus and vertex matt black ; occiput and behind eyes

ferruginous in tenerals, dark brown to blackish in full adults; a large

triangular spot on the inner side of each eye dark metallic green extending

forwards as far as cheeks as a dark cupreous band; eyes turquoise blue, paler

beneath.

Prothorax blackish brown in adults thinly pruinosed laterally, pale yellow in

tenerals changing to warm reddish brown on dorsum and dark brown on the

posterior lobe.

Thorax with dorsum bright metallic green in tenerals and early adults,

the middorsal carina narrowly, and an antehumeral stripe bright reddish brown,

the metallic stripe but slightly or not at all expanded in its upper part ;

the anterior half of mesepimeron in tenerals blackish brown with the rest of

the sides and beneath thorax creamy white, adults wholly black save for the

lower part of metepimeron and a medio-lateral stripe interrupted by the

spiracle which are light brown. The black portions densely pruinosed ;

beneath black overlaid by pruinescence save for an anterior ventro-latoral black

spot on each side (the posterior corresponding spots found in Z. e/ata, absent

in this species).

Legs yellow with a parallel pair of black stripes on outer sides of

femora; flexor surfaces of tibize black and, in adults, the inner sides of

femora.

Wings palely and eveniy enfumed in adults, hyaline in tenerals; pterostigma

decidedly longer and narrower than in L. elata, covering 2 cells, black in

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

adults, pale brown in tenerals ; 11 to 13 postnodal nervures in forewings,

10-12 in the hind ; petiolation ceases at ac which is situated rather nearer the

distal antenodal nervure.

Abdomen with the sides azure blue, the dorsum broadly dull metallic ;

segment 1 with apical half of dorsum metallic green in tenerals, dull bronzed in

adults, the sides broadly azure blue with an oblique black stripe running

upwards and basalwards form the apicolateral corner of segment but not meet-

ing the base; segment 2 with a broad thistle-head shaped stripe on dorsum

extending from apical border to base of segment, the sides blue ; segments

3 to 6 with a narrow basal ring of blue and a subapical interrupted ring of pale

yellow, the dorsum metallic green in tenerals, bronzed black in adults, this

band tapered abruptly at base of segments and expanded as abruptly

subapicad so as to encircle segments, finally contracted again and confluent

with a narrow apical black ring ; segment 7 to segment 10 black, the last two,

in tenerals, with large subdorsal pale blue to pale brown spots ; adults with the

dorsum of segments 9 and 10 pruinosed white. a

Anal appendages : superiors differing widely from those of Z. elata in that

they are bent sharply inwards at the junction of apical and middle thirds at

nearly a right angle; apices bent strongly downwards as seen in profile ;

a subbasal robust spine longer than that seen in Z. elafa on the inner side of

appendage, followed by a broad thin expansion minutely denticulate on the

inner side, after which the appendage is abruptly angulated inward ; outer bor-

der near apex coarsely spined but no tuft of hairs at apex asin L. elata.

Inferior appendages also differing from those of ‘L. elata; seen from the

side, about half. the length of superiors, broad and rounded at base, then

narrowly constricted as a short unguate process resembling that seen in

pbremorsa but broader and without the apical pencil of hairs. Superiors

white tipped with black at apex and broadly black at base in tenerals,

wholely black in adults; inferiors white at base, apical process glossy

black.

Female. Abdomen 32-33 mm. Hindwing 22-23°5 mm.

Very similar to the male, but the ground colour more greenish than blue

and decidely yellowish in tenerals. The metallic antehumeral stripes dilated

above as in LZ. elata; the sides of thorax presenting only 5 black spots

Or points, the medial posthumeral one being metallic green and very

small,

Wings hyaline but evenly enfumed in adults, 11-13 postnodal nervures in

forewings, 10-11 in the hind; pterostigma dark reddish brown to nearly black

according to age of specimen.

Abdomen with dorsum bright green metallic to cupreous in tenerals but dull

cupreous in adults as far as segment 6, then dull matt black; segment 10

entirely yellow, segment 9 laterally, and for its apical half and the sides of

segment 8, yellow. (In adults these markings change to blue and finally matt

black).

Anal appendages short conical yellow in tenerals, bluish in adults. Adults

have a dense pruinosity beneath thorax and prothorax but rarely exhibit any on

the sides or terminal segments of abdomen.

Distribution. South Malabar and Cochin. An annual migration is seen

northwards to North Malabar just previous to the S. W. monsoon, but there is

no evidence that the species ever establishes itself as there are no suitable

breeding places after the paddy lands have dried up. South Malabar and

Cochin, on the other hand, abound with suitable tanks and ponds in which the

species breeds in great abundance and almost completely crowds out L. elate

and premorsa. It is to be distinguished from the former by the shape of the

superior and inferior anal appendages and also by the absence of the conspi- .

cuous hinder ventro-lateral black spot on thorax ; from the tormer, the shape

of the metallic humeral stripes will at once serve to distinguish it. Type in

the Fraser collection, paratypes in the Laidlaw and Morton collections.

Paratypes will be placed in the collections of the Indian, Pusa and British

Museums.

Lestes angularis, sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 22 mm,

Head: labium pale ochreous; labrum olivaceous ; base of mandibles and

cheeks bluish ; epistome, frons and vertex matt black marked with a small

tawny triangular spot on the outer side of each hinder ocellus ; a large trian-

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES ee, 849

gular area to the inner side of each eye dark metallic green; behind eyes black.

(Probably the labrum is blue during life)

Prothorax matt black, pruinosed on the sides.

Thorax with the middorsal carina narrowly dark ochreous, the alar sinus and

dorsum as far out as the humeral suture matt black marked by a narrow

antehumeral metallic green stripe of even width, on each side ; mesepimeron

black marked by a U-shaped spot anteriorly and an interrupted stripe

posteriorly ochreous ; metepimeron black save for the posterior border which

is narrowly ochreous ; beneath black.

Legs yellow, femora striped longitudinally with black on inner and outer

sides ; tibize blackish on flexor surface.

Wings hyaline ; pterostigma dark reddish brown, broad, about twice as long

as broad, inner and outer ends oblique; 11 postnodal nervures to forewings,

9 to 11 to the hind ; a¢ meeting a6 at hinder border of wing ; ac situated about

midway between the two antenodal nervures.

Abdomen yellow or bluish at the sides and beneath, metallic green on

dorsum from segments 1 to 7, matt black from segment 8 tothe end ; dark

metallic bands on segments 3 to 7 dilated subapicad so as to encircle the

segments completely, then narrowed to become confluent with fine terminal

black rings, whilst basad, the bands fall short of the base to leave narrow blue

basal annules; segment 10 deeply notched.

Anal appendages ; superiors tawny tipped broadly with black, the base with

a robust inner spine which is immediately followed by a dilatation which

extends for a little beyond the middle of appendage, at which point the latter

is bent abruptly inward at a right angle; apices blunt, coarsely spined on the

outer side ; inferior appendages very short conical processes barely extending

as far as basal spine of superiors, dark reddish brown in colour.

Female. Abdomen 32mm. MHindwing 22 mm.

Ground colour of head and body generally paler, that of head dark reddish

brown on frons and vertex with smaller black areas, the triangular metallic

spots much more conspicuous, the tawny spots on outer sides of ocelli larger

and finally the occiput and upper part of back of eyes pale ochreous.

Prothorax pale ochreous with an irregular black dorsal spot shaped like a

bull’s head with diverging horns.

Thorax bright ochreous, the middorsal carina and the shape of the metallic

antehumeral stripes as for the male; two small black spots on anterior part of

mesepimeron.

Legs marked as for the male but brighter ochreous.

Wings similar to the male, 11 postnodal nervures in forewings, 10 in the

hind ; pterostigma dark yellow between black nervures, more than twice as

long as broad.

Abdomen with segment 1 pale ochreous, unmarked ; segment 10 and apical

half of segment 9 pale blue, this colour extending broadly on the sides of

latter segment, Anal appendages ochreous, short, conical.

Distribution. Lower Burma. Type male from Minbu, now inthe Pusa

collection, collected 8. viii, 14.

Closely resembles ZL. elata from which it differs by the angulation of the

superior appendages and the antehumeral metallic stripes of even width

throughout. In the latter respect it resembles Z. viridula, as indeed also by

the angulation of appendages, but the Jatter species has no black markings and

has no metallic markings on head.

Lestes viridula, Rambur (1842).

Lestes viridula Ramb., Hist. Nat. Ins. Névrop. pp. 252-253 (1842) ; Selys,

Syn. Agrion, p. 38 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xix, p. 153 (1923) ;

Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, p. 487 (1924).

Lestes viridulus Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 163 (1890).

Male: Abdomen 34-35 mm. Hindwing 23-24 mm.

Head: labium palest yellow; labrum, clypeus, frons, vertex and occiput

pale brown deepening to chocolate brown on vertex and occiput ; bases of

mandibles and cheeks palest brown tinted with golden yellow ; behind eyes

pale yellow ; eyes brown above, golden yellow below.

Prothorax uniform pale khaki brown, unmarked.

Thorax pale khaki brown or fawn paling to creamy white low down on sides

and beneath, which latter is pruinosed white ; dorsum of thorax withtwo very

850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

narrow conspicuous metallic green stripes running closely parallel to the

middorsal carina, the area between them warm,reddish brown ; no spots on

thorax,

Legs pale yellow with black spines.

Wings hyaline: pterostizma khaki brown, very narrow, four times as long

as broad, covering 2 cells; ac meeting a6 at hinder border of wing at a level

rather nearer the distal antenodal nervure at which leve! petiolation begins ;

11 to 12 postnodal nervures to forewings, 9 to 12 in the hind.

Abdomen pale yellow at the sides and almost white beneath; warm reddish

brown on dorsum with a cupreous reflex, paler of segments i 9 and 10, the

latter very pale brown or yellow; all segmental joints ringed ‘narrowly with

blackish brown ; segments 3 to 6 with diffuse rather obscure dark brown sub-

apical rings ; segment 9 with ashort dark brown carinal stripe on its basal

half.

Anal appendages yellow tipped with black ; superiors rather longer than

segment 10, broad at base where there is a very robust sub-basal spine,

after which the usual expansion occurs broadening to about the middle of

appendage and finely denticulate along its inner border. At the termination of

this dilatation the appendage bent abruptly in at an obtuse angle, and,

as viewed from the side, rather strongly downwards ; coarsely spined on outer

side of angulation. Inferiors half the length of superiors, broad and rounded

at base, then truncate and blunt at apex, directed straight back somewhat

like the same appendage in przmorsa but without the stiff pencil of hairs

at the apex.

Female. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 24 mm.

(This sex does not appear to have ever been described, as it was unknown

to Selys.)

Coloured exactly as in the male except segment 8 which has a narrow

blackish brown middorsal spot on carina extending nearly to apex of segment,

and a broader and more conspicuous middorsal mark on segment 9 on the

basal three-fourths of segment ; segment 10 very pale brown.

Wings very similar to the male but pterostigma is distinctly longer and

narrower ; I2 to 13 postnodal nervures to forewings, 11 to 12 in the hind.

Legs with a longitudinal dark brown stripe on all femora not quite extending

to base of limb and more conspicuous on the two anterior pairs.

Anal appendages palest brown, short conical pointed; vulvar scale very

robust, extending nearly to end of abdomen, darkish brown.

Distribution, Confined to Peninsular India, especially to the Deccan and

Western India. It is commonest during the dry seasons and is to be sought for

among long dry grass, the colour of which it simulates closely. Usually,

where found, quite ccmmon; ina colony found in South Coorg, I took a score

of couples in as many minutes. The type comes from Bombay and isin the

Rambur collection or Paris Museum: I have found it myself quite common

on Elephanta Island, Bombay. Easily distinguished from al! others by its

uniform pale brown colour combined with a pair of dorsal thoracic green

metallic stripes of uniform width.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II

Right lateral view of anal appendages of Wegalestes irma Fras.

The same of Megalestes major Selys.

Dorsal view of anal appendages of Wegalestes irma Fras.

The same of Megalestes major Selys.

Dorsal view of anal appendages of Lestes elata Selys.

The same of Lestes malubarica sp. nov.

The same of Lestes viridula Ramb.

The same of Lestes anguluris sp. nov.

The same of Lestes praemorsa Selys.

10. Left lateral view of anal appendages of Lestes premorsa Selys.

11. Dorsal view of anal appendages of Lestes dorothea Fras,

12. The same of Lestes patricia Fras.

90 NID Gym Or

FROM CAMERA LUCIDA STUDIES DRAWN TO THE SAME SCALE

Fic. 4. Wings of Lestes premorsa Selys.

(Zo be continued.)

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PEATE Woe

Poinciana regia.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES!

Eee DEADTER, S.J.PHD, F:L.S. AND W.'S. MILEARD, F.Z.S.

ParT Il.—(With two coloured plates and two black and

white plates and five text figures).

(Continued trom page 635 of this volume.)

THE GUL MOHUR

Popular Names: Gul Mohur, Goolmohr tree, Gold Mohur, Gold

Mohr, Royal Gul Mohor, Flamboyante.

Poinciana regia, Bojer Bot. Mag. t. 2284 (Cesalpiniacee) (After

M. de Poinci, Governor of the Antilles in the 17th century).

One of the compensations of the hot weather in India is the

profusion of beautiful flowering trees and perhaps one of the most

conspicuous from April to June is the Gold Mohur. In Madagascar,

the tree is called ‘ Flamboyante’ and by some the ‘Flame of the

Forest’, a name which appears to be given to several trees in this

country, including the Coral tree (Avythrina indica), described in

part I of this serial, but we consider, in India, the name is

particularly and only applicable to the Palas or Dhak tree (Butea

trondosa).

Description: A large deciduous tree, growing from 40—50 feet

in height with spreading branches and very handsome feathery

leaves. The foliage is particularly beautiful when the tree is young

gy) and the airy elegance of its leaves more

os Al in evidence. The leaves may attain a

length of two feet. The leaf is composed

pe AA FaN\ of from 11-18 pinnze or minor leaves

aT w arranged in pairs along the midrib. The

Sah OE r f

es % ge (A pinne bear from 20-30 pairs, of small

Gp oblong aaa each measuring from

4-2 by 74-4 inch. The tree sheds its

leaves between February and March and

during this period, which immediately

precedes its flowering season, it stands

gaunt and bare save for the long, sabre-

like seed pods, hanging from its leafless

branches. The young leaves appear

towards the end of May or early in June,

and by the time the rains are well established, the tree is once again

* Part I of this series appeared under the title of ‘Conspicuous Flowering

Trees of India’; it has since been decided to issue the serial under the present

title.

852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

covered with its feathery foliage. The flowers appear with the onset

of the hot weather, a few at first, then more and yet more till by

mid-May the tree is a vivid and brilliant mass of scarlet blooms.

The flowers. are arranged in immense racemes at the ends of

the branches. Individually examined, each flower is seen to be

composed_of 4 scarlet petals, while the fifth, the standard petal,

is slightly larger in size and much variegatedin colour. Itis yellow

or white and usually streaked with red. The

flowers vary considerably in intensity of colour-

ing. A whole range of tones from orange-

vermillion to deep scarlet is exhibited. The

deep scarlet form is particularly handsome.

Each petal appears as a rounded spoon-shaped

blade with a delicately crinkled margin. lts

base is long and narrow, technically described

as clawed. The petals emerge from between

5 fleshy scarlet-faced sepals which constitute

the calyx. The stamens protrude in a cluster

of 10 red filaments, surrounding a_ tender

green style. The whole flower measures about

4 inches across.

Flowers during the hot weather.

Fruit: The pods are green and flaccid when young. ‘They

harden with age, turna deep brown and remain for along time on

the tree. They measure from 1-2 feet in iength. The seeds are

oblong and transversally mottled.

Distribution: A native of Madagascar introduced within the

last 100 years. :

Uses: Largely used as an ornamentai tree in the warmer parts

of India, Burma, Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula.

Gardening : Usually grown from seed, also raised from cuttings.

The form with deep scariet flowers is so handsome that it deserves

wider propagation. As the seeds may not come true to colour, it

would be advisable to make cuttings of this variety, of which there

are a good number in and around Bombay. The Gul Mohur is a

fast growing tree. It has spreading superficial roots which kill out.

other plants. The shallow root system unfortunately renders it

liable to be blown down during storms.

The Gul Mohur is often confused withthe Peacock Flower or

Barbadoes Pride (C@salpinia pulcherrima) better known as Poinciana

pulcherrima and often referred to in this country as the Gold Mohur

Shrub. This plant is a shrub or at most only a small tree, with

strongly over-lapping calyx segments in the bud, much smaller

flowers and very long protruding stamens (Stewart).

THE WHITE GuL MoHuR

Popular names: White Gold Mohur; Nirangi (Kan.), Sunkeswar

(Tel.), Pandenaryan (Tam.), Sandesra (Mar.).

Poinciana elata, Linn. Cent. Pl. ii (1756) 16.

Description : An erect tree growing 20-30 feet in height with a

tolerably smooth ash-coloured bark. The leaves are similar in

JourRN. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soa. Pruate III.

~o ; Photo by C. McCann.

The Gul Mohur (Poinciana regia) in flower.

Photo by C. McCann.

The Gul Mohur (Poinciana regia) in fruit.

| . DET pny by

BomMBAY NAT Hist. DOC t LATE A. .

Butea frondosa.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN 17REES 853

character but smaller than those of P. xeg7a, being from 4-8” long.

The main or mid-rib of the leaf carries a smaller number of

minor ribs or pinne, there are from 4-8 pairs arranged opposite.

The leaflets, almost stalkless, are closely set in from 10-20 pairs

along the ribs. Their shape is linear-oblong, somewhat pointed at

the apex. They are quite smooth and readily shed. The flowers grow

atthe end of the branches in racemes. There are not many flowers

in each cluster. The stalks of the lowest flowers are longest, thus

all the flowers forming the cluster come up to the same level

(corymbiform). ‘The pedicels or stalks of the flowers are downy

(pubescent). The calyx, #-1” long, is leathery and, like the

stalk, covered with a silky down externally. The sepals or

segments of the calyx are oblong, very narrow and_ sharp-

pointed. ‘The petals are white at first and then change to yellow.

The upper petal is usually smaller and of a deeper colour than

the others. The petals do not project much beyond the calyx; in

shape they are almost round (sub-orbicular) and very much curled

at the margins. The stamens are downy, dark coloured, from 2—4”

long, and thickened at the base. The pods measure from 5-7” by

3 to 4’’. They are smooth, narrowed at both ends and marked with

a net-work of veins. The seeds number 4-8.

Flowering Season: August-March (Brandis); June-September

(Cooke); in the hot season or early rains (Troup). Therefore

practically the whole year. Troup calls it a practically evergreen

thee.

Distribution : Abyssinia, Arabia,in India perhaps indigenous in

the Porebunder State. Cultivated in many parts of India.

Gardening : Capable of growing in poor dry soil, even in

crevices of rocks, where, however, it is stunted. Often cultivated

for ornament. It grows fast and is easily raised from seed.

THE FLAME OF THE FOREST

Populay Names: Fiame of the Forest, Butea gum, Bengal Kino,

Bastard Teak; Palas, Dhak, Kakria, Chalcha (Hindi), Muttuga

(Kan.), Palas, Paras (Mar.), Parasul(Tam.), Modugu (Tel.), Pauk

(Burm.).

Butea frondosa, Konig ex Roxburgh Asiatic Res. iii (1792) 469.

(Called so after the Ear! of Bute).

This is the tree we consider the true ‘Fiame of the Forest’.

In parts of the country where these trees abound, stich as the

forests of the Western Ghats and Central India, their massed crowns

of bright orange flowers, seen in the glitter of the sunlight suggest

the semblance to a forest in flames. So brilliant, so vivid is their

colouring !

Descripiton: An erect tree growing from 20 to 40 feet in height

with a crooked trunk and irregular branches. Its bark is ash-colour

and rough though the younger portions of the tree are downy.

The leaf is trifoliate. It is composed or made up of three leaflets,

leathery in texture. The old leaves are hairless above and finely

silky below ; this silky covering gives the leaves a peculiar greyish

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ET

appearance when seen from a distance. The net-work of veins

stands out very conspicuously beneath the leaf. The terminal leaflet

is a blunt oval in shape. It is described as

obovate, or rounded at the apex and narrowing

to a wedge at its base. It measures from 4-8”

in length and is about as broad as long. The

lateral leaflets are broader at the base and more

rounded. They measure from 4—6 by 3-4 inches.

The main stalk of the leaf is quite 4 to 6” in

length, those of the leaflets are about a quarter of

an inch.

Grouped in threes along a velvety, dark olive

green stalk, the handsome flowers grow in great

profusion in stiff racemes, about 6” long. The

individual stalks of the flowers are about twice as long as the

calyx, which is deep velvety, olive green externally and clothed

with silken hairs within. The rich dark

tones of the stalks and the calices present

a striking contrast to the flaming orange

colouring of the petals. The outer or

under surfaces of the petals take on a

salmon pink tone due to a delicate

covering of silvery hairs. Five petals

are apparent. A standard petal, about

an inch broad, two smaller wing petals

and a much curved, beak shaped keel

which is really formed by the fusion of

two petals. The stamens are practically

enclosed within the keel. There are 10

of them, 9 united in a bunch and one free.

The pod when young is pale green. When ripe, it fades to a®pale

yellowish brown or grey. It carries a silvery white sheen. It is

extremely flat and thin except at the apex where a slight thickening

indicates the position of its single seed. A thickening is also seen

along the margins.

The leaves begin to fall at the end of November

or during December. By the end of January some

trees are leafless ornearly so. Others getain their

leaves, especially on the lower branches, during the

flowering season, up to the end of March. New

leaves appear in April or early May and are of a

delicate fresh-green colour.

Flowering Season:—TYhe flower buds are blackish

and appear on the bare branches in January, and from

the end of that month up to the end of March, the trees

announce the approach of the hot weather by bursting

into a blaze of flaming orange flowers, presenting a

gorgeous sight. When in flower, the tree is either

entirely leafless or there are some leaves onthe lower

branches. The flowers cover chiefly the upper part of the tree.

Flowering continues, according to locality, up to the end of March

or even to the end of April. The time of flowering is greatly

‘gouvivedde [v1suey ‘TouURIG SUMO VW

‘(vsopuosf pajng) 4se10q ey} JO SWILLA eT, ‘(vsopuosf DaING) JSLOY OY} JO ULL] UY,

UUnjOW ‘0 fq oj0Yd ‘uumoonM ‘O fiq 010Ud

“AL SLv1g

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 855

influenced by seasonal conditions. In dry seasons the flowers appear

earlier than usual.

The pale green flat pods develop very quickly and in April the

leafless trees, covered with green pods, give the impression of

being in full foliage.

Distribution > Common throughout the greater part of India and

Burma. Inthe outer Himalayas it ascends to about 3,000 feet, in

Southern India to 4,000 feet. Inthe most arid regions it is rare or

absent. In open grass lands the tree is very typical and is often

found gregarious. |

Gardening . ‘The long pod has only one seed near the top. On

germination the seed remains in the pod which opens at the tip and

allows the young shoot and root to emerge. The cotleydons

remain attached to the seedling for a considerable time. Growthis

greatly stimulated by weeding and irrigation and Troup is of

opinion that the former is even more important than the latter.

The thick long tap-root is often devoured by pigs, rats and porcupines.

The roots have a wonderful power of recovery and any part not

destroyed by animals will send up new shoots.

Uses: A ruby coloured gum exudes from the tree either

naturally or from artificial scars. The gum isused both asa dye

andatan. It it also used medicinally as a substitute for true Kino-

gum, yielded by the Indian Kino tree (Pterocarpus marsupium) and is

sold as such under the name of Bengal Kino. From the inner

bark a strong fibreis obtained which is used for rough cordage

and for caulking boats. A clear bright oil extracted in small

quantities from the seed possesses anthelmintic and purgative

properties. The leaves serve as plates and are also used for

making umbrellas. ‘They are used as manure and given as fodder

to buffaloes. An infusion of the flowers dyes cotton, previously

prepared with alum, a bright yellow, which may be changed by an

alkali into deep orange. ‘The Lac insect is frequently found on the

smaller branches. The quantity of lac produced on Autea is said to

be greater than on any other tree. The wood resembles teak in

appearance. It is not very durable above ground, but it is said to

be much more serviceable under water, hence its use for well curbs,

piles and water scoops of wells. Itis also used for gunpowder

charcoal (Talbot). The flowers are offered by the Ho to their

God, Desauli Bonga.

Varieties: In volume vi, p. 107, of the Society’s Journal,

Mr. H. T. Ommaney of the Bombay Civil Service, records a variety

of Butea frondosa which he observed at Ghodra in the Panch Mahals.

Instead of the customary dazzling blaze of orange, the flowers were

a pale yellow. The base of the petals were primrose-yellow

shading to a creamy tint on the edges and on the reverse

sides. Col. C. E. Luard describes a variety seen by him in Manpur

Pargana, Central India Agency which produced golden yellow

flowers. He described their colouring as similar to that of the sun

flower. (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxiv, p. 305). A yellow

variety is also known from Amraoti, Berars. Seeds of this variety

sent to Mr. W. S. Millard in Bombay were planted, one tree is now

growing in the Ladies’ Gymkhana, Malabar Hill.

856 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIETY, Vel. agi

Tor CLIMBING PALAS

Popular Names: Climbing Palas; Palasvel (Mar.), Pauknwe

(Burm.), Morud (Kol.), Nari-murup (Santali), Dorang (Kharw.).

Butea superba, Roxb. Cor. Pl. t. 22.

A gigantic woody climber with a stem as thick as a man’s leg,

with very large long pointed leaflets. The leaflets are much larger

than those of BZ. frondosa, usually 12-18” in length attaining quite 20”

in young plants. The climber is crowded, when leafless, with

gorgeous orange scarlet flowers. The flowers again are much

larger than those of B. frondosa and are borne on stalks three times

the length of the calyx.

Flowers : The climber flowers between March and April. The

pods ripen in June and Juiy and the leaves are shed between

February and May. ‘The pods are like those of B. frondosa.

Uses : The economic properties are similar to those of B. frondosa.

Distribution +» Central and Southern India, Burma.

(Zo be continued.)

LIFE-HISTORY NOTES ON LAMPROSEMA INDICATA

(PYRALIDA‘), A CATERPILLAR PEST OF CHRYSANTHEMUMS.

M. C. CHERIAN, B.A., B.SC., D.I.C.,

Madras Agricultural Department.

INTRODUCTION :—About three miles from Dindigal Railway Station in

Madura District lies the village of Vellodu where some of the ryots have taken

to the cultivation of Chrysanthemums on a smallscale and derive a fair amount

of profit by supplying flowers to the neighbouring markets. The soilisa

sandy loam and is well suited to the cultivation of these plants. Three varie-

ties grown here are (1) the big yellow, (2) the big white and (3) the small yellow,

the last one being the country variety. Root suckers from the previous crop

are transplanted in early June. Flowering, in the case of the first two varie-

ties, begins from October and continues to the end of November, while in the

last it is late by about a month.

Last year the ryots of the village applied to the Government Entomologist,

Coimbatore, for help against the ravages of the Chrysanthemum caterpillar.

An officer was deputed to study the pest and suggest remedial measures

against it. The present paper aims at giving a short account of the life-history

and habits of this pest studied at the Insectary at Coimbatore and also the best

method of destroying it.

NATURE, EXTENT AND TIME OF DAMAGE :—The pest generally appears about

the time of flowering. The caterpillars generally only attack the leaves, but in

some cases they have been known to destroy tie flowers also. In certain

years the pest is reported to occur in very large numbers and bring about a

complete defoliation.

LIFE-HISTORY :—Adult moths are yellowish in colour with wavy markings on

the wings. They measure about 20 mm. in length. Eggs are generally laid

on the under surface of the leaves two to three days after emergence. Nine

females laid 2,966 eggs, with an average of 330 per moth, the maximum

number being 499 (vzde TablesI and II). Eggs are pale white in colour and

measure 1 mm. long and 4 mm. broad.

The newly hatched larve are about 14 mm. long and + mm. broad and pale

white in colour. They generally feed in small patches, leaving the epidermis

intact. After the first moult they assume a green colour and are 33-4 mm.

long andimm. broad. ‘Two horizontal stripes are seen on either side of

the caterpillar. After the second moult they are 6 mm. long and 1 mm. broad

and two white dorsal stripes and two others on each side are visible. After

the third moult they measure 8 mm. long and besides the four stripes two

more appear, these being not so prominent as the other four. After the fourth

and final moult they measure 12-13 mm. long. Just before pupation they

assume an yellowish colour and measure 14mm. in length. From Table III

it will be noticed that the first instar takes three days, second two days, third

two days, and fourth two days. They undergo four moultsin all. Just be-

fore pupation the larvee spin adjacent leaves together and build the cocoons

therein. In cases where leaves happen to touch the ground, cocoons are built

between the leaves and the soil. Cocooning takes about two days. ‘The pupal

period lasts six days.

LONGEVITY OF ADULT Motus :—The whole life cycle covers 23 to 30 days

(Table IV). One moth lived 23 days being fed with jaggery water and this

is the maximum recorded for this species of moth. Four other moths lived 17,

16, 13 and 11 days respectively. (See Table V).

REMEDIAL MrasurES :—Lead ars‘nate and Paris Green (Copper aceto-

arsenite), two stomach poisons, were tried against these caterpillars. The former

858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII]

was sprayed at astrength of % oz. in one gallon of water and the latter dusted

in the proportion of one part of Paris Green to five parts of lime. It was found

that the lead arsenate spray gave better results than Paris Green though both

of them were effective. Since lead arsenate does not burn foliage as Paris

Green sometimes does, it was recommended for use by the ryots.

PARASITES :—A small wasp belonging to the Family Hlasmide—Elasmus

indicus—was found to parasitise the caterpillars though not found in sufficient-

ly large numbers to check the pest.

TABLE I

Legg laying Records.

Date | Pair A, | Pair B. | Pair C. Pair D.

20-10-27 | Emerged Emerged | Emerged Emerged.

21-10-27 6l eggs laid.| No egg. | No egg. 85 eggs laid.

22-10-27 | 206 eggs. No egg. | 179 eggs. 96 eggs.

24-10-27 8 eggs. No egg. | 48 eggs 27 eggs.

3 died

25-10-27 | 67 eggs. No egg. 79 eggs. 84 eggs.

26-10-27 | 2 died. 139 eggs. l egg. 42 eggs. g escaped.

27-10-27 re 5 eggs. 44 eggs 25 eggs.

28-10-27 27 3d and 30 eggs 7 eggs.

@ died.

29-10-27 19 eggs 2 eggs

30-10-27 8 eggs Prdied

31-10-27 13 eggs =

2-11-27 Q died. ee

5-11-27 | g died woe

342 eggs. 171 eggs. 421 eggs. 368 eggs.

TABLE II

Egg-laying Records.

Date. | Pair A, | Pair B. Pair C. Pair D. Pair;

14-11-28 | Emerged. Emerged.| Emerged. ix

15-11-28 | 68 eggs. No egg. 92 ess, Emerged. a

16-11-27 | 137 eggs No egg. | 138 eggs. No egg. Emerged.

17-11-27 | 90 eggsdidied.| 105 eggs. | 57 eggsddied.| No egg, No egg.

18-11-27 | 78 eggs. 70 eggs. | 69 eggs. No egg. No egg.

19-11~27 | 45 eggs. €2 eggs. | 62 eggs. 4 eggs. 2 eggs.

20-11-27 | 23 eggs. 40 eggs. | 9 died. No egg. 12 eggs.

21-11-27 | 22 eggs. 33 eggs. EAs 4 eggs. 17 eggs.

22-11-27 | 19 eggs. 15 eggs. No egg. 10 eggs.

23-11-27 9 eggs. 2 eggs, No egg. 10 eggs.

24-11-27 8 eggs. died. 61 egesg¢died. | 12 eggs.

25-11-27 | 2 died. “ae 25 eggs. 21 eggs.

26-11-27 se 101 eggs. 9 eggs.

27-11-27 : 10 eggs. 45 eggs.

28-11-27 : No eggs. l egg.

30-11-27 : died o No egg,

1-12-27 ee No egg.

2-12-27 Q died.

499 eggs, 327 eggs. | 418 eggs. 205 eggs. 215 eggs.

NOTES ON LAMPROSEMA INDICATA (PYRALIDZ:)

TABLE III

Life-history Records.

859

Date. 2X | B C | D | E | F | G

22-10-27) Egg =| Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg Egg

found found found found found found found

laid. iaid. laid. laid. laid. laid. laid.

25-10-27 | Hatched.'Hatched. Hatched. Hatched, Hatched.|Hatched. Hatched.

1M ee ee OM TY ee Ile ieee oe |i 4

1-11-27 III ,, BE ge ky 5. PO 2 ee PE 5) TIL 5,

3-11-27 | IV_,, DViseti pov aot eva aL IEW Eo Vo

5-11-27 | Yellow Yellow Cocoon- | Yellow

colour. colour. ing. | colour,

ing. ingen. ie: |) ing: pupated.| colour.| ing,

7-11-27 | Not | Not Pupated.| Not Pupated.) Not ‘Pupated.

pupated. |pupated. pupated. ipupated.

8-11-27 aaa a aa Pupated. Pupated.

15-11-27 Emerged |Emerged Emerged |

16-11-27 [Emerged |Emerged Emerged

18-11-27 HKimerged

TABLE IV

Life-history Records.

Adults found enierged.

— Eggs found laid.

I 21-10-27

II 24—10—27

Ill 25-10-27

IV 26-10-27

V 15—11-27

VI 16-11-27

VII 17-11--27

VIII 19-11-27

13,14,15,16 & 18-11-27

19.20 & 21-11-27.

13 14-12-27

14,

15 & 16-12-27

20-11-27.

21-11-27.

15 & 16-12-27

17-12-27

Total life-cycle.

23,24,25,26,28 days.

26,27 ,28 days.

26 days.

28,29 days.

28 29,30 days.

28,2Y days.

28 days.

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

TABLE V

Longevity vecords of adult moth.

. | When emerged.

20-10-27

14-11-27

15-11-27

1f-11-27

15--11—27

15-11-27

16-11-27

18-11-27

bo && 28-10-27

When died.

Py Sanle7 \

d 24-10-27

O79 211=97

30-10-27

1219297

A227

20-11-27

29-11-27

24-11-97

25-11=27

2214-97

11212227

2-12-27

Meail-77

PCED,

DE10297

Total No. of

days alive.

Remarks.

Eggs laid by 2 -

Eggs laid by 2

FOF0Sy Oy CY OY OY FOTO FOFO

{06 WG 8 2 4USIY

“Sa. T6 uo 18 2 479

JUSIOM yysueT

‘Joysny, s,etdsayry aoleyy

‘sysn} pdooer sty pue “Oy yy ‘oerdsey[tp szofeyy

‘009 ‘ISIH{ ‘LVN AVANOG IvNanoe

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON THE BARAGUR HILLS

| BY

RANDOLPH C. MorRIS

(With a plate)

On the 3rd of February 1929, Lt. Col. G. E. Tallents, p.s.o.,

of the Lancashire Fusiliers, and Major F. S. Gillespie, R.a.M.c.,

both of Wellington, and I set out to bag three rogue elephants that

had been proscribed in the Baragur Hills, and had been marked

down in the Madeswaranmalai Reserve, in the northern part of

the hills. Our shikaries and skinners had all gone a day ahead

with instructions to engage pack bulls at Cowdally for our kit.

Arriving at Cowdally we found the bulls awaiting us, and leaving

instructions that these were to come up to Sengady Bungalow on

the hills, we carried on hoping to reach there before dark. Our

transport up to this point included a Chevrolet, carrying ourselves

and our servants, and a Ford van containing our saman. Arriving

at the foot of the Ghat four miles from Sengady we halted for the

Ford to catch us up. After waiting for some time, there being

no sign of the Ford, it was decided to motor back along the narrow

road to find out what was holding it up. We did not proceed far

before we met one of the men who had been travelling in the Ford

with the driver and learnt from him that one of the back-wheels

had collapsed and that the Ford was lying in the road three or

four miles back. It was dark by the time we reached the spot and

found that the van had luckily not turned over and that the

bolts holding the spokes at the hub had sheared off with the result

that the spokes had all come out but had not been otherwise

damaged. The van was unloaded and pushed to the side of the

road. The driver and one of the trackers, whom we had picked

up at Cowdally, were sent to the nearest village to enlist the services

of a blacksmith and in the meantime we sat down in the road and

had some grub which the servants quickly prepared for us. Luckily

the pack bulls turned up and we were able to leave for Sengady in

the Chevrolet with our trackers standing on the running boards,

leaving instructions for the servants to load up and follow with the

pack bulls by a short cut. The remaining four miles to Sengady were

not easy, the road being narrow, the surface none too good, and

the gradient steep. However, we eventually reached the thatched

Forest Rest House there without further trouble and were glad to

stretch ourselves out on the floor and soon fell asleep. Our servants

and pack bulls arrived just before dawn and breakfast was soon

served, followed by our departure for Ponnachi, which entailed a

ten mile walk. The car was left at Sengady in charge of the local

Forest subordinates. Ponnachi was reached by mid-day and the

rest of the day was spent in getting fresh khubbar of the Ponnachi

862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

rogue. An early start was made on the following morning for the

village of Marrur where locals were engaged and the thick bamboo

jungle scoured by our trackers and locals, in couples, for fresh

traces of the rogue while we sat down to await their return. After

an hour’s wait two men came back with the news that they had

marked down an elephant which was probably the rogue; at the

same time we received khubbar of an elephant in another direction

and as our head tracker had sent for us we decided to make for the

spot where he was said to be watching the elephant. This turned

out to be false news, however, as there was more than one

elephant there and we could definitely see part of the herd grazing

out in the open on the western face of Ponnachi Batta, the northern-

most hill of the Baragurs, rising nearly 5,000 ft. in elevation. While

we were watching the herd through our glasses one of their number

dislodged a boulder and it rolled down the hillside into the jungle

with terrific crashes terrifying the remainder of the herd below and

causing them to move off rapidly trumpeting shrilly. We also saw a

herd of bison passing through the thick bamboos above us, and two

of our trackers had seen a bear. We then retraced our steps and

lost no time in getting to the place where the other elephant had

been marked down only to find that he had retired into thick cover,

as the sun was now well up. Considerable time was lost by the

false khubbar we had received. We had difficulty in getting

through the extremely thick bamboo above the elephant and although

we crawled down to within a few yards of the animal the cover

was so dense that it hid it entirely from view. It was decided,

therefore, to wait for the elephant to come out of the cover late in

the afternoon, and our tiffin having arrived we retired further up

the hillside for our meal. A little later we received word that the

elephant had moved further down towards a nulla in which there

was water, and directly our meal was finished we decided to follow

it, but found to our annoyance that the elephant had evidently got

our wind and vanished. The ground was very hard and the

trackers were unable to make out the direction in which the ele-

phant had gone, and the hunt finally had to be given up.

On our return to Ponnachi Bungalow a council of war was held

and, as our time was limited, it was decided to make for Madeswar-

anmalai that night after dinner, especially as we had received news

that the other two rogues had been marked down there. After our

meal was over the pack bulls were loaded up and we started on a

tiring ten miles tramp aided by the light of four petrol lanterns.

Our pace was naturally limited to that of the pack bulls and we

did not reach the spot where we proposed to camp till 2.30 a.m.,

thoroughly tired, and glad to turn in, which we did without delay

directly our camp cots were unloaded and prepared for us out in

the open. A monthly pilgrimage to the well-known temple at

Madeswaranmalai occurs, and early next morning batches of pil-

grims arrived, having climbed the stone paved path which we had

toiled up the previous night. Our trackers had been sent out

early in the morning to pick up fresh tracks of the rogues,

and were told to meet us at a certain spot. We had barely reached

the place when word was brought to us that one of the rogues,

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON THE BARAGUR HILLS 863

a crossed tusker, had been marked down. This turned out to be

false Rhubbar, however, the man who brought us the news having

heard langurs crashing in the bamboos and had taken it for granted

that it was the elephant. However, soon after this we received

definite news that the crossed tusker had been seen and was being

watched and we were guided to the place. After a heavy climb

we arrived at the spot where the elephant had been seen and found

that it had moved on into thick cover. The wind was very

treacherous and on following the tracks of the elephant through

thick evergreen cover we were warned by a shrill trumpet and

a crash ahead of us, that the elephant had got our wind and was

getting annoyed. This brought us to a halt and we decided to

give the elephant time to move off into more open jungle. On

taking up the tracks a little later we found that the elephant had

crossed fairly open ground towards thick bamboo jungle, and on

proceeding a few yards further we again heard a crash which

caused us to leap for our rifles which had been handed to our

shikaries on reaching open ground. The rogue was now in a

patch of extremely thick cover and we decided to get to the other

side of the patch to cut it off in case the elephant intended going

straight through it. By the time we had worked our way to the

further side of the cover the elephant had cooled down a bit and

we heard it breaking bamboos quite close to us. A long wait

followed in the hope of seeing the elephant break cover in our

direction and, as it was evident that it had no intention of doing

this for some time, a local Forest subordinate offered with a few

men to try to drive it towards us. It was decided that this was

the wisest course to adopt and we stationed ourselves in the best

place we could find covering its most probable line of approach.

The men, however, started beating in the wrong direction and the

rogue, after expressing its annoyance by crashing about in the

cover for a minute or two, suddenly showed itself below us work-

ing its way through thick undergrowth across our front. Major

Gillespie who had won the toss for first shot decided to take the

ear-shot. It was a difficult shot as very little of the elephant could

be seen and it was moving off at a good pace. The elephant fell

heavily on receiving our shots (Gillespie’s shot was followed by

one from me) but got up again and disappeared from view with

a shrill trumpet and staggering from side to side. A few seconds

later we heard another trumpet and raced in that direction as hard

as we could, and came on to the upper reaches of the paved

Pilgrim’s pathway, and found ourselves at the place where it was

all too evident the elephant had crossed, for a scene of wild confusion

met our eyes, broken chatties, cloths hung up on bushes, other

articles dropped here and there, and one or two frightened pil-

grims with scratches on their arms and legs appearing from their

hiding places. It transpired that the elephant had crossed the

path just when a batch of pilgrims had been coming up it. It

had luckily heard the pilgrims and given vent to the second

trumpet that we had heard before bursting out on the path,

thus it had given time for the pilgrims to scatter, which they did

so successfully that actually only two of them saw the elephant

864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

cross, the others having disappeared into the surrounding jungle

like lightning, dropping everything they possessed. The line of

the elephant’s flight could be clearly seen as, apart from the path

it had made for itself through the cover in its onrush, there was a

broad and continuous trail of blood. Here we halted for a drink

and for our trackers to collect. It was not long, however, before,

to our surprise, we heard the elephant puffing and groaning up

on the hillside behind us, proving that it had turned back and re-

crossed the paved path. It did not take us long to get up to it,

and we found the elephant moving slowly and painfully in dense

bamboo cover and it was evident that it was hard hit. The elephant

soon moved down to the edge of a stream, and we cautiously

approached it by another paved path, one of the features of these

jungles. Suddenly the elephant got our wind and was immediately

an embodiment of devilish fury. It whipped round and came back

crashing through the bamboos to within a few yards of us and

then halted, with curled trunk, uncertain of our exact position.

The Forest Guard with us lost his head, and started wailing ‘climb

trees’. Maior Gillespie and I fired almost simultaneously and the

elephant dropped dead.

Up to now we had not had a good view of its tusks and we were,

therefore, astonished and delighted to find that the rogue carried an

enormous pair of tusks which were crossed near the tips. I

realised at once that the tusks were a record for South India and

that Major Gillespie was to be congratulated on his magnificent

trophy. | By -a_ strange) vcoincidence’ the elephant “died yan teu,

yards off the spot we had arranged to camp on for the night,

and had in fact, as could be- seen from the: broad: trail of

blood, crossed our actual camping ground. Our pack bulls and

servants arrived on the spot with our kit a few minutes later.

Had they turned up fifteen minutes earlier they would have run

straight into the wounded rogue with possibly disastrous results.

At about 11 p.m., that night, after we had turned in, two of

our trackers went down to the stream to fetch water and found

another elephant beside the dead one; needless to say they hastily

retreated. To our surprise next morning we found that the in-

truder had dragged the dead elephant from where it had fallen

further towards the stream. This was most interesting as I had

known of three cases previously of elephants shifting dead tuskers

that had been shot, evidently with the idea of helping them to

rise. Forest subordinates soon arrived on the spot to take

measurements of the tusks and fore-feet. Instructions were given

to our skinners to remove the tusks and both fore-feet and the tai!

which, however, was devoid of its much prized hairs, and we set

out after the second rogue which was supposed to be near by.

It soon became evident, however, that the firing on the previous

day had disturbed the other rogue and it had, in fact, been seen

trecking down into the deep Yereky-gorge dividing Madeswaran-

malai from Ponnachi Betta. Four trackers were sent in advance

to mark down the rogue while we followed by another route. The

temperature down in the gorge when we finally got down was very

different. The heat was intense and there was very little shade.

tai

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON. THE. BARAGUR HILLS 865

We followed. the tracks of an elephant or two until we met two

of our trackers coming back up the valley and were informed by

them that they were not the tracks of the rogue, the tracks of

which they had seen further up the valley. We retraced our steps

and later came on our other two trackers who had been up the

side of the gorge following the tracks of the rogue which had led

them back again into the main valley where for the time being the

tracks were lost. We sat down in the coolest place we could find

while the trackers looked round for fresh tracks of the rogue which

they soon found leading up the valley. We followed these tracks

till mid-day. and then proceeded to a spot where we had arranged

for the servants and camp kit to meet us, and here we had our

lunch anda rest while the trackers went on ahead. It was late

in the afternoon when word was brought to us that the tracks

had led to thick bamboo cover where the trackers thought

the elephant was probably standing. This was good news, but

we were doomed to disappointment, as, after searching’ the

whole of the head of the valley, we could find no traces of the

elephant nor: could we see where the tracks led to. We decided

to renew our search for the rogue the next morning and returned

to the river bed where we were to camp. Our water was none

too good, taken from two or three pools in the sand, and this had

to be boiled well.

’ Up to noon of the following day our hunt for the rogue proved

fruitless and we were delighted to receive news at about 2 p.m.,

that the rogue had been marked down in a deep ravine higher up

on the slopes of Madeswaranmalai and it was apparent that the

brute had not wasted its time in the hot and steamy gorge but

had climbed back to its old haunts. This necessitated a very

arduous climb in the hottest part of the day and we were con-

siderably hot and exhausted by the time we reached the spot where

our good tracker was watching the elephant, from the opposite

side of the ravine. The wind was blowing up and we had to cross

up to the head of the valley to work our way round to the other

side above the elephant so as not to give it our wind. We then

had to: work our way carefully down towards the elephant and

this was not easy as the steep slope was covered with loose stones, —

several of which we dislodged and with difficulty prevented from

rolling down the slope and thus giving ourselves away. We finally

took up a good position but the elephant was feeding in such thick

cover that although we were within a few yards of it its head could

not be seen ‘at all. There was nothing for it but to wait in the

hope that the elephant would move into a better position and we

realised with anxiety that the sun had set and that only half an

hour’s. good shooting light could be relied upon. Suddenly the

wind changed, the elephant stopped feeding, and its trunk could

be seen ‘taking the wind’. After a moment’s hesitation the ele-

phant swung round giving a magnificent view of its head. Col.

Tallents, taking careful aim, gave the elephant the right barrel

of his -577 cordite rifle followed by one from Major Gillespie.

It was obvious that both bullets found their mark in the elephant’s

brain, and that the shots from my rifle were really unnecessary

866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

as the elephant collapsed on receiving the first two bullets. I

say ‘shots’ from my rifle as although I intended to fire only one

barrel both barrels went off simultaneously on my pressing the front

trigger. The shock, both to my feelings and to my shoulder, was

considerable, as the recoil of a °450 cordite rifle with both barrels

going off at the same time, is something to be remembered. The

elephant proved to be a magnificent specimen, larger in body than

Major Gillespie’s crossed tusker. Its tusks were not so long as

those of Major Gillespie’s rogue but were very thick. News was sent

up to the skinner and we wended our way back down the bed of the

rocky ravine to the valley below. This took us two or three

hours, the going was extremely bad and tiring, the mantle of the

petrol lantern had collapsed and we had to light our way with

bamboo torches which had to be renewed every half hour. We

finally reached our camp at about 9 p.m., tired but well pleased

with our good luck.

We found that news had in the meantime come in that the third

rogue had been marked down at Ponnachi near the village of

Marrur; and it seemed likely that we would emulate the exploits

of the three elephant hunters who had killed three rogues on

Madeswaranmalai in 1926 in two days. I was a member of the

party on that memorable trip and had the luck to bag a magnificent

crossed tusker which had made a most unprovoked attack on us.

We set out early on the following morning to climb up to Ponnachi,

and although we started out in very good time it was very hot

and muggy, which made the climb up out of the gorge tiring and

uncomfortable, and we were very glad to sit down at last in the

shade near the village of Marrur at the foot of Ponnachi Betta

(hill). The villages of Ponnachi and Marrur are blessed with a

few scattered cocoanut palms and we were soon quenching our

thirst with green cocoanuts. After a rest we moved on to the vill-

age of Marrur and here we waited under the shade of a tamarind

tree for fresh news of the rogue marked down on the previous day.

It was not till 3 p.m., that our head tracker who had gone out

after the elephant with two locals returned with the news that the

elephant had left the cover it had been last seen in, and had treck-

ked down northwards along the eastern slope of Ponnachi Betta,

which towered above us, and had gone down to the Cauvery river

which, miles away, flowed down a deep valley to the North and

North-east of Ponnachi Betta. The news was disappointing,

especially to me as this was to be my elephant. We returned to

Ponnachi Bungalow and after a discussion it was decided to spend

the next day in a long tramp the whole way round Ponnachi Betta

as there was just a possibility that, by doing so, we might come

upon the rogue working its way back up the valley to the West

of Ponnachi Betta. We started ‘out early next morning and

tramped to the south-western foot of Ponnachi Betta and then

along its western slopes. For a time the going was good but the

ground later got worse as the grass was long and the slope covered

with loose stones and we frequently had to pass through tangled

masses of dead bamboos; and it was noon before we found our-

selves at the northern end of Ponnachi Betta overlooking the

A FURTHER ELEPHANT SHOOT ON THE BARAGUR HILLS 867

Cauvery river which could be seen below us like a silvery streak

on a wide expanse of sand showing that there was very little water

in the river. On our way we had seen a cow elephant and a calf

on the opposite side of the valley. We found that there were no

other elephants in the valley and it seemed likely that the cow

and the calf had got separated from the portion of the herd that

had scattered on a boulder being rolled down on them by the rest

of the herd grazing above a few days before. Working our way

to the north-eastern side of the hill we sat down for lunch while

Bommah, our head tracker, and two locals descended to the valley

at the eastern foot of the hill to take up the elephant tracks, and

we were asked to follow directly we had finished our meal as

Bommah was certain of picking up the tracks down in the valley.

Here again the going was exceedingly bad and the temperature

down the valley very different from that up the hillside, in fact

it was like a furnace and to our disgust we found that Bommah

could find no traces of the elephant whatever, and we learnt from

herdsmen who were grazing their cattle in the valley that they

were quite sure no elephant had come down the valley within

the last few days. Curses were now showered on Bommah’s head

as it was quite apparent that he had simply taken it for granted

that the elephant had descended the eastern slopes of Ponnachi

Betta, believing the assurances of the two locals who were with

him to this effect.

We now had to climb up to the top of Ponnachi Betta which

meant climbing from 1,000 feet to nearly 5,000 feet and a very

steep climb at that. There was no time to waste and we started

off on the high ascent, and the higher we climbed the further away

the summit seemed to be, and to make things more difficult and

uncomfortable for us a large part of the climb was through grass

far above our heads. Eventually we found ourselves at a spring,

not far below the ridge and here we refreshed ourselves before

tackling the last bit which finally brought us to the top of the

mountain. The panoramic view from the top of this hill was

amazing and is certainly the best I have ever seen. To the west

and south-west could be seen the Nilgiris and the Billigirirangans,

to the south of us stretched the Baragurs, the northernmost and

highest peak of which we were now on, and to the north lay

seemingly endless stretches of small valleys and foot-hills; and to

the east could be seen the long stretches of the Cauvery until it

disappeared from view round a ridge, and beyond it the plains up

to the Shevaroys, the Kwollimallais, and the Pacchaimallais, and

to the south-east endless stretches of plains. The sun had set

and we had to hurry, especially as we had no lantern with

us, and we were faced with a walk of about eight miles in darkness

back to the Ponnachi Bungalow, including a descent down the

western side of the hill along a rough and stony path. We passed

through the evergreen shola of Ponnachi from North to South and

by the time we had reached its southernmost limit it was quite

dark. By luck we found a length of dry bamboo and, using this

as a torch, we slowly made our way downhill picking up on our

way another piece of bamboo which also served as a torch when

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII.

the first one had burnt out, and this lasted us till we reached thick

bamboo jungle near the foot of the hill and here we got ample

material for torches, and eventually reached Ponnachi Bungalow

at mid-night. Early the next morning our kit was all packed up

and loaded on the pack bulls. We let the bulls get ahead of us

and then started on our eight mile tramp down to the cars: We

finally got back to the Estate late in the afternoon.

The Ponnachi rogue did not live for long after this as Mr. A.

S. Vernay and I went after it again recently, and after marching

en its tracks for two days from Ponnachi down into the valley

where we had left the cars and up to Madeswaranmalai, we finally

came up to the rogue in thickish cover, not far from where we had

come on Gillespie’s elephant. The tusker was in high grass and

was not in a good position when Vernay decided to take his shot.

The first two shots missed the brain and the elephant charged and

was brought down at the fourth shot. ;

Thus died the last elephant proscribed for the present on the

Baragur Hills. Another was shot by Lt.-Col. R. E. Wright, c.1£.,

1.M.S., of Madras, just before Christmas near Tattakerai on the

Baragur Hills, this elephant and a man-eater being the chief objects

oi our trip at the time. The tusks of this elephant weighed 40 lbs.

each, and their length each 6’ 2”,

Dimensions of Tusks.— |

Major Gillespie’s Elephant.—

Length Weight

Left Tusk 8 2! 91: Ibs.

Right Tusk Sed! 904 Ibs.

Lt. Col. Tallent’s Elephant.—

Length Weight

Left Tusk 5° 84" 554 Ibs.

Right Tusk ° Partai iips Cle 584 Ibs.

ane

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY,

THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAIN AND MT. ABU.

E. BLATTER.

The mosses mentioned in the following list were collected by

K. R. Kirtikar, G. M. Woodrow, R. M. Maxwell, G. A. Gammie,

L. J. Sedgwick and E. Blatter. All the work was done during the

last 25-30 years in an area stretching from Bombay to N. Kanara

along the Konkan and the W. Ghats and a narrow strip at the

eastern foot of the W. Ghats. Not one specimen is known from

that part of the Presidency which lies N. of Bombay. A vast field

for further investigations.

The time has not yet come for any geographical considerations

regarding the distribution of Bombay mosses. There are a few

localities fairly well explored: Khandala, Mahableshwar and

Panchgani, and a few stretches in N. Kanara; but of the rest of the

W. Ghats, the Deccan and the S$. M. Ccuntry we know practi-

cally nothing. Of the Konkan only Bombay Island and Salsette are

known to some extent. South of Bombay and right down to Goa

we are quite ignorant regarding the moss-flora.

Almost everybody could, without much trouble and difficulty,

contribute to the further exploration of the country. Removing a

handful of moss from a tree or rock and wrapping it up in a piece

of newspaper with the locality and the date written on it, does not

require much exertion. No drying and changing of paper is

needed.

For the benefit of those who are not satisfied with gathering

mosses, but are anxious to know something about them, a list of

literature on mosses of India and adjacent countries is appended.

Nearly all the specimens mentioned were named by H. N. Dixon,

some by Cardot and Brotherus.

At the end two short lists of mosses are added, one from the

High Wavy Mountain and another from Mt. Abu. All the lists

are, for practical reasons, arranged alphabetically.

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

Anectangium stracheyanum Mitt.

Locality ; Deccan ; On earth banks, Purandhar (Sedgwick).—W. Ghats :

Panchgani (Blatter 386).

Anectangium Walkeri Broth.

- Locality ; W. Ghats : On stones, Panchgani (Sedgwick),

Anomobryum brachymenioides Dix. sp. nov.

Locality: W. Ghats + Panchgani (Blatter 387).

Anomobryum cymbifoliam Broth.—Bryum filiforine Mitt.

Locality: W. Ghats > On stones and trees, Mahableshwar, Panchgani,

Lonavla, Trimbakeshwar (Sedgwick), Khandala, on the ground (Blatter),

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1U1

Archidium birmannicum Mitt.

Locality : Kanara: Karwar, rocks on hill-side (Sedgwick 6383), Jog, rock

on open hill (Sedgwick 6477).

Aulacopilum abbreviatum Mitt. ,

Locality : W. Ghats : Panchgani (Blatter 381). Newto S. India (Dixon).

Barbella rufifolia (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.

Locality: N. Kanara : Siddapur, hanging from trees (Sedgwick 6488).

Barbula comosa Dz. & Mb.

Locality : W. Ghats : On rocks, Khandala (Blatter).

Barbula consanguinea (Thw. & Mitt.) Jaeg.

Locality : Deccan: On tiles in the Ganeshkhind Botanical Garden

(Sedgewick).

Barbula consanguinea (Thw. & Mitt.) Jaeg. forma Dix.

Locality : N. Kanara: Shiggaon, bole of coconut palm, spice gardens

(Sedgwick 3487).

Barbula dharwarensis Dix.

Locality : S. M. Country: Nigadi, Dharwar District, earth-bank in

compound of rest-house (Sedgwick 5703).

Barbula indica (Hook.) Brid. forma sterilis Fleisch.

Locality : N. Kanara : Sampkhand, on a wall (Sedgwick 6432).

Brachymenium acuminaium Harv.

Locality ;: W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Blatter 372) ; Panchgani (Blatter 394).

New to S. India (Dixon).

Brachymenium exile (Dz. & Mb.) Bry. jav.

Locality : Deccan ; Earthy banks, Purandhar (Sedgwick 126).

Brachymenium longifolium Dix. sp. ov.

Locality : W. Ghats : Khandala (Blatter).

Brachymenium nepalense Hook.

Locality : W. Ghats : On walls, Lonavla (Sedgwick).

Brachymenium pectinideum Card.

Locality : W. Ghats : Khandala, on rocks and trees (Blatter).

Brachymenium turgidum Broth. & Dix.—Dixon in Revue Bryologique 35, année

(1908) 94.

Locality: W. Ghats; On timber of a bridge, Lonavla, branches of a

Euphoriia, Lonavia, on trees at Lonavla and Trimbakeshwar (Sedgwick),

Lonavla and Matheran (Kirtikar), on trees, Khandala (Blatter), Mahableshwar

(Blatter 378).—Deccan - On trees and Aupforbia bushes, abundant, Purandhar

(Sedgwick).

Brachymenium turgidum Broth. & Dix. vay. nanum Dix.

Locality : S. M. Country : Tadas, Dharwar District, on mango, Konankeri,

on bark of Jxvora parviflora, near Dharwar, on mango trees (Sedgwick 5373,

3009; Jol).

Brachymenium Walkeri Broth.

Locality : W. Ghats : On stones, Panchgani (Sedgwick).

Bryosedgwickia Kirtikarii Card & Dix.

Locality : W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Blatter 369, 370), ‘Panchgani (Blatter

382).—lV. Kanara « Castle Rock, near Goa (Gammie, Sedgwick 138).

Bryum apalodictyoides C. M,

Locality : W. Ghats :. Mahableshwar (Blatter).

Bryum argenteum L. var. australe Rehm.

Locality : N. Kanara: Shiggaon, ona wall (Sedouicl 3486) .

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 871

Bryum coronatum Schwaeg.

Locality ; Very common, almost everywhere (Sedgwick).—Konkan: Bombay

(Blatter).—Deccan ; Poona (Woodrow).—N. Kanara (Sedgwick).

Bryum Ghatense Broth. & Dix,

Locality ; W. Ghats ; On a small bridge at Lonavla and Mahableshwar,

apparently always in sunny places and associated with Funaria hygrometrica

(Sedgwick).

Bryum sahyadrense Card. & Dix.

Locality : Deccan ; In crevices of a stone wall, Purandhar (Sedgwick 134).

Bryum sp.

Locality : Konkan ; Bombay (Blatter 366).

Bryum strigosum Wils.—B. Wightii Mitt.

Locality ;: W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Woodrow, Kirtikar, Sedgwick).—

Deccan : Satara (Sedgwick 139).

Calymperes Fordii Besch.

Locality: Konkan ; On tree trunks, Andheri (Sedgwick).—N. Kanara:

Siddhapur, decayed tree trunk (Sedgwick 6486).

Calymperes Nietneri C. M. var. atro-viride Dix.

Locality ; N. Kanara: Siddhapur, on tree (Sedgwick 6482).

Calymperes tortelloides Broth. & Dix.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).

Campylopus aureus v. d. B. & Lac.

Locality ; W. Ghats: Mahableshwar, on the ground (Woodrow, Sedgwick).

Campylopus Goughii (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Locality : W. Ghats; Mahableshwar, on rotten wood of trees (Seagwick),

Panchgani (Blatter 397, forma).

Campylopus laetus (Mitt.) Jaeg.—Dzcranum laetum Mitt. Musci Ind. Or. 19.

Locality : W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Sedgwick 39).

Campylopus Sedgwickii Card. & Dix.

Locality ; W. Ghats: Mahableshwar, common on the ground in open places

(Sedgwick).

Colliocostella papillata (Mont.) Jaeg. forma purpurascens Dix.

Locality ; N. Kanara ; Sampkhand, on stone in stream (Sedgwick 6439)

Ctenidium stereodontoides, Dix.

Locality ; N. Kanara ; Sampkhand, on stones in stream (Sedgwick 6445).

Diaphanodon procumbens (C.M.) Ren. & Card.

Locality : W. Ghats - Khandala, on trees (Blatter 356),

Diaphanodon procumbens (C. M.) Ren & Card. forma flagellifera Dix.

Locality: W. Ghats ; Mahableshwar (Blatter 359, 360, 362 & 363 type form),

Panchgani (Blatter 385).—N. Kanura : (Sedgwick).

Dicranella divaricata (Mitt.) Jaeg.

Locality ; W. Ghats ; Panchgani (Blatter).

Didymodon rufescens (Hook.) Broth.

Locality ; Deccan ; On stones, Purandhar (Sedgwick).

Ectropothecium compressifolium ( Mitt.) Jae.

Locality : N. Kanara : Rocks by a small waterfall, 1,400 ft. alt., rainfall 150

in. (Sedgwick 6450).

Ectropothecium cyperoides (Hook.) Jaeg.—Sterecdon cyperoides (Hook.) Mitt.

Musci Ind. Or. 99.

Locality': N. Kanara (Sedgwick).

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Entodon plicatus C. M.

Locality : S. M. Country : Anmod, on trees (Sede nick eae .—W. Ghats.

Lingmala near Mahableshwar, on trees (Sedgwick 4664). -

Entodon plicatus C. M. var. dimorphophyllus Dix. ef P. de la V.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Sakhar Pathar near Lonavla .(Gammie

101). ;

Erpodium mangifere C. M.

Locality: Konkan: Onthe bark of a jackfruit tree, Ghatkopar (Sedg-

wick).—Deccan - Close growing on the bark of smooth trees, Satara

(Sedgwick 141).

Fissidens crenulatus Mitt. ae

Locality: W. Ghats: On earth-banks, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).

Fissidens diversifolius Mitt. Musci Ind. Or. 140.

Locality : Deccan: Onan earth-bank in the Krishna River, Walva, Satara

District (Sedgwick).—Konkan - On an earth-bank in a torrent course,

Waishakare, Thana District (Sedgwick).

These specimens were first put under Fissidens Walkeri Broth. by Dixon in

Journ. Bot. (1909) 158. The correction was made by the same writer in Rec:

Bot. Surv. Ind. vi (1914) 77.

Fissidens immutatus Dix. an

Locality: N. Kanara: Karwar, on earth-bank (Sedgwick 6380), Sirsi

earth-bank in evergreen (Sedgwick).

Fissidens karwarensis Dix. .

Locality: N. Kanara: Karwar, on stones (Sedgwick 6368), bole of

coconut palm in irrigated spice garden at Shiggaon (Sedgwick 3485.)

Fissidens macrosporus Dix. ;

Locality: N. Kanara: Gersoppa Falls, on twigs of trees in very wet

evergreen (Sedgwick 6463).

Fissidens Sedgwickii Broth. & Dix.

Locality : W. Ghats: On stones of the stream above Dhobi’s Waterfall,

Mahableshwar (Sedgwick), Panchgani (Blatter 400).—V. Kanara : Castle

Rock, on stones in forest (Sedgwick 3417).

Fissidens splachnobryoides Broth.—Dixon in Journ. Bot. vol. 47, Mae 1909.

Locality: Konkan: Thana (Sedgwick).—Deccan: On _— stones at

Trimbakeshwar, Nasik District (Sedgwick).

Fissidens subfirmus Dix.

Locality : S. M. Country: Anmod (Sedgwick 3266, 5375).

Fissidens Walkeri Broth.

Locality : S.M. Country: Anmod, earth-bank of stream . (Sedgwick

3265).—N. Kanara: Sampkhand, stone in stream (Sedgwick 6436), Sirsi,

earth-bank in evergreen (Sedgwick 6449).

Fissidens Walkeri Broth. var. elimbatus (Broth.) Dix.—F. elimbatus Broth. in

Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. i (1899), 316.

Locality : N. Kanara: Tinai Ghat, Castle Rock (Sedgwick fae

Fissidens zippelianus, Dz. & Molk.

Locality: Deccan: Poona, onawall (Sedgwick).—W. Ghats: Maha-

bleshwar (Blatter 367).—M. Kanara: Karwar, on stones (Sedgwiek 6376),

Guddahalli Hill, Karwar, on stones in stream in dense evergreen (Sedgwick,

6399), Sampkhand, stones in stream (Sedgwick 6448).

Fissidens Zollingeri Mont.

Locality : Mirjan, on rotten earth inside a tree (Sedgwick 6414).

Funaria calvescens Schid. forma (F. connitvens C. M.).

Locality : Deccan: Poona, on rocks (Blatter).

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 873

Funaria hygrometrica Sibth.

Locality; Deccan: Poona, very common (Woodrow).—W. Ghats :

Mahableshwar (Kirtikar), Lonavla, Mahableshwar, always on sunny walls

(Sedgwick).

‘Some of the gatherings approach the forms which have been called

F’, leptoda Griff and F. nepalense C. M., but these are probably inconstant

and local variations from the type.’ (Sedgwick).

Gymnostomillum vernicosum (Hook.) FI.

Locality; Konkan: On a wall, Thana (Sedgwick), on damp _ rocks,

Vehar Lake (Blatter), on chunam walls, Bombay (Kirtikar).

Hymenostomum edentulum (Mitt.) Besch.

Locality: W. Ghats: O1 stones, Panchgani (Sedgwick).—Deccan: On

banks, Purandhar (Sedgwick), Konankeri, on /xora parviflora (Sedgwick

3510).

Hymenostylium xanthocarcum (Hook.) Brid.

Locality: W. Ghats: Damp ground, Mahableshwar (Kirtikar).—Deccan :

On earth-bank, Purandhar (Sedgwick).

Hyophila involuta (Hook.) Jaeg.—Gymunostomum tnvolutum Hook.

Musc. Exot. (1820) t. 154.—Gymnostomum cylindricum Hook. in Lond. Journ.

Bot. (1840) 2.—Ayophila cylindrica Jaeg. Adumbr. I, 204.—Hyophila steno-

carpa Ren, & Card.in Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. (1899) 218.

Locality: W. Ghats: Lonavia, Mahableshwar (Kirtikar), on basalt rock,

Khandala (Blatter), Mahableshwar, Panchgani, Trimbakeshwar (Sedgwick).—

N. Kanara (Sedgwick).—Deccan ; Poona, very common (Woodrow).

Hyophila stenocarpa Ren. & Card.

Locality : W. Ghats : Khandala, on rocks (Blatter).

Hyophila subflaccida Broth. & Dix.

Locality: Konkan > On chunam walls, Andheri (Kirtikar).—Deccan ; On tiles

of a roof, Satara (Sedgwick 142).

Hyophila Walkeri Broth.

Locality : N. Kanara: Karwar, on stones (Sedgwick 6366).

Hyophilopsis entosthodonatacea Card. & Dix.

Locality: Deccan: Purandhar (Sedgwick).—W. Ghats: Panchgani, on

earthenware pot (Blatter 393).

Lepidopilum rhaphidostegium (C.M.). Broth.

Locality : N. Kanara: Gersoppa Falls, on twigs of tree in very wet evergreen

(Sedgwick 6464).

Leucoloma Renauldii Broth.

Locality: N. Kanara : Jog, stem of tree (Sedgwick 6468).

Leucoloma sarcotrichum C.M.

Locality : W. Ghats : On trees, Khandala (Blatter).

Leucoloma strictifolium Dix.

Locality: N Kanara: Sampkhand, on Calophyllum (Sedgwick 6444).

Leucoloma Walkeri Broth.

Locality: N. Kanara: Sampkhand, onstem of Calophyllum tnophyllum

(Sedgwick 6443).

Leucomium aneurediction (C.M.) Jaeg.

Localtiy: S.M. Country ; Dharwar District, growing with Vesicularia

Leviert (Sedgwick 7279 b),

874. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Levierella fabroniacea C.M.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Trimbakeshwar (Sedgewick), Panchgani

(Blatter 389).

Levierella fabroniacea var. dilatatinerve Card & Dix.

‘ Robustior, folta majora, costa valida, ad 50 # lata juxta basin, dimidiam

partem versus vaptim attenuata, nonnunguam furcata.’ Card & Dix.

Locality : W. Ghats : On wall in loose iiats growing downwards, Purandhar

(Sedgwick 132).

Macromitrium ellipticum Hampe.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Khandala (Blatter).

Macromitrium neelgheriense C.M.

Locality: W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Blatter 366).

Macromitrium subleptocarpum Dix. sf. zov.

‘MW. leptocarpo Broth. ghetenst affine ; theca autem et seta multo breviore,

minore, folisque majoribus, latioribus.’ (l)ixon).

Locality: W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Blatter 376, 379).

Macromitrium sulcatum Brid.

Locality : W. Ghats : On trees very common, Mahableshwar and Panchgani

(Sedgwick), Matheran and Mahableshwar (Kirtikar).—Deccan: Poona

(Woodrow).—lV. Kanara (Maxwell, Sedgwick).

Mercevopsis pellucida Broth. & Dix.

Locality: W. Ghats: On the roof of a cave and under stone ledges,

Panchgani (Sedgwick).

Meteoriopsis squarrosa (Hook.) Fleisch.

Locality : W. Ghats : On trees, Mahableshwar (Kirtikar and Sedgwick).

Neckera andamana C. M.

Locality : N. Kanara : On trees (Maxwell).

Neckerepsis andamana (C. M.) Fleisch.

Locality : N. Kanara : Siddhapur, on sapling (Sedgwick 6484).

Octoblepharum albidum Hedw.

Locality : Konkan : Ratnagiri (Woodrow), Matheran (Kirtikar), Khairne,

Thana, on a toddy palm (Sedgwick).—W. Ghats - Khandala, on trees

(Blatter).—M. Kanara (Sedgwick).

Orthomnium subscrispum (C. M.)

Locality : W. Ghats ; On a tree, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).

Oxyrrhynchium prelongum (Hedw.) Broth.

Locality : Deccan : Poona (Woodrow 8).

Philonotis angusta Mitt ?

Almost identical with the Ceylon species described by Fleischer under that

name and distributed in Musci Arch. Ind. no. 178.

Locality : Konkan : Kanheri Caves (Salsette) on the ground (Blatter).

Philonotis mollis (Dz. & Molk.) Bry. jav.

Locality : W. Ghats : Panchgani (Blatter 391).—WV. Kanara : Sampkhand,

on stone in a stream (Sedgwick 6435), Malamane Ghat, earth-bank

(Sedgwick 6473), Siddhapur, on bank in shade (Sedgwick).

Philonotis revoluta, v. d. B. & Lac.

Locality : W. Ghats : Mahableshwar, common (Kirtikar and Sedgwick),

Trimbakeshwar, Lonavla, Panchgani (Sedgwick),

Pilopogon Blumii (Dz. & Mb.) Broth.

Locality : Deccan ; Purandhar, on earth-banks (Sedgwick),

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 875

Pinnatella calcutteasis (C. M.) Fleisch.

Locality : W. Ghats; Mahableshwar (Kirtikar, Sedgwick, Blatter 365).—

N. Kanara: (Sedgwick).

Pinnatella limbata Dix.

Locality : N. Kanara - Sampknand, rocks in stream (Sedgwick 6437).

Pogonatum aloides P. Beauv.

Locality : W. Ghats : Mahableshwar, on banks (Woodrow, Sedgwick).—

N. Kanara ; (Sedgwick).

Pterobryopsis Maxwellii Card. & Dix.

Locality ;: W. Ghats - On trees, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).—/W. Kanara :

On trees and rocks (Maxwell), Sampkhand, rocks in stream (Sedgwick 6433,

6434), Guddahalli, Karwar, trees on exposed hill sammit (Sedgwick 6388),

Gersoppa Falls, twigs in very wet evergreen (Sedgwick 6466), Castle Rock,

on trees (Sedgewick "5516, 9518, et —S. M. Country ; Anmod, on trees

(Sedgwick 3310, 3311, 5376).

Pterobryopsis Walkeri Broth.—P. Kanxarense H. N. Dixon in Journ. Bot.

vol. 47 (1909) 163.

_ Locality : N. Kanara : On stones (Maxwell), on trees, Guddahalli Hill,

Karwar, on exposed rock (Sedgwick 5521).—W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Sedg-

wick), Knandala, on trees (Blatter), Sakhar Pathar, Lonavla (Gammie).

Rhynchostegium vagans (Harv.) Jaeg.

Locality : W. Grats : Mahableshwar (Blatter 374).

Splachnobryum indicum Hampe & C. M.

Locality ; Konkan ; On flower-pots, Thana (Sedgwick).

Stereophyllum anceps broth.

Locality: W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Blatter 373, Sedgwick 4759).—

N. Kanara : Konankeri, bark of Leora (Sedgwick 3507).

Stereophyllum Blatteri Card.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Khandala (Blatter), on bark of Thespesia

populnea, Matheran (Kirtikar).

Stereophylium ligulatum vary. Sedgwickii Broth. & Dix.

‘ Perrobustum ; caulis ad 5-8 cm. longus, vage vamosus, folia magna, ad

2:25 mm. longa, 1 mm. lata, concava, elliptica, obtusa vel subobtusa, integra vel

interdum ad summum apicem crenulata (Broth. & Dix.).

Locality: W. Ghats + On a tree, Panchgani (Sedgwick 48).

Stereophyllum liguiatum (C. M.) Jaeg.—Hypuum ligulatum C. M.—Englosso-

phyllum ligulatum, C. M.

Locality: W. Ghats : Oa trees at Mahableshwar, Panchagani, Purandhar

(Sedgwick), Panchgani (Blatter).

Stereophyllum tavoyense (Hook.) Jaeg.

Locality: Konkan: On tree, Wasind, Thana District (Sedgwick),

Symphyodon angustatus (C. M.) Jaeg.

Locality: W. Ghats: On trees, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick),

Symphyodon Perrettetii Mont. forma myuroclada Dix.

Locality : S. M. Country - Anmod, on trees (Sedgwick 3263).—N. Kanara ?

Sampkhand, on bole of Calophyllum (Sedgwick 6442).—W. Ghats:

Mahableshwar (Sedgwick 4750, 4761).

Syrrhopodon semiliber (Mitt.) Besch.

Locality: N. Kanara: Siddhapur, twigs of trees (Sedgwick 6440),

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

Taxitheliam (Axastigma) vivicolor Broth & Dix.

Locality: W. Ghats: Oa stones in the bed of a torrent, Mahableshwar

(Sedgwick).

Taxithelium nepalense (Harv.) Jaeg.

Locality : N. Kanara ; Guddahalli, Karwar (Sedgwick 6402), Sampkhand,

on stones in stream (Sedgwick 6451).—S. 47. Country’: Anmod, on stones

and trees (Sedgwick 3422, 3264).

Thuidium trachopodum (Mitt.) Bry. jav.

Locality: N. Kanara: Guddahalli Hill, Karwar, stones in stream in dense

evergreen (Sedgwick 6400), Jog, on stones in stream (Sedgwick 6470).

Trachopodiopsis bianda ( Mitt.) Fleisch.

Locality : Deccan: On trees, common, Poona (Woodrow).—W. Ghats :

Matheran and Mahableshwar (Kirtikar), Lonavla, Trimmbakeshwar, Maha-

bleshwar (Sedewick.)

Trachyphyllum inflexum (Harv.) Gepp.

Locality: N. Kanara: Shiggaon, on bole of coconut palm in irrigated

spice gardens (Sedgwick 3484), Konankeri, on bark of tree (Sedgwick 3518).

Trematodon Schmidii C, M.

Locality : W. Ghats : Panchgani (Blatter 399).

Trichostelium monostictum (Thw. & Mitt.) Broth.—Sematophyllum monostictum

Thw. & Mitt.

Locality: W. Ghats : On tree-roots, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).

Trichostelium monostictum vay. laevius Dix,

‘ Papiliae foliorum multo minores, indistincte.’ Dixon.

Locality : W. Ghats : In dense mats on the roots of trees, Mahableshwar

(Sedgwick 21).—N. Kanara: Samkhand, bark of fallen tree (Sedgwick

6441). :

Trichostomum hyalinoblastum Broth.

Locality : W. Ghats ; Panchgani (Blatter 398).

Trichostomum stenophyl!um Mitt.

Locality : W. Ghats : On trees, Mahableshwar (Sedgwick).

Urocladium alopecuroides Hook.

Locality: W. Ghats ; On trees, Khandala (Blatter).

Vesicularia Levieri Card.

Locality : S. M. Country ; Dharwar (Sedgwick 7279).

Weisia ghatensis Dix. sp. nov.

Locality : W Ghats ; Panchgani (Blatter 392).

MOSSES OF THE HIGH WAVY MOUNTAIN.

Aerolryum Willisii Fleisch. —No. 311.—Hitherto found in Ceylon only.

Barbella enervis (Thw. & Mitt.) Fleisch.—No. 307, 326.

Bryum argenteam L.—No. 330.

Bryum strigosum Wils.—No, 302, 404.

Campylopus erythroguaphalus (C. M.) Jaeg.—No. 301.

Campylopus comosus (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Bry, jav.—No. 400.

Dicranoloma leucophyllum (Hampe) Par.—No. 319.—New to India proper.—

Distribution : Ceyion, Malaya, etc.

Entodon plicatus C. M.—No. 318.

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 877

Floribundaria sparsa (Mitt.) Fleisch.—No. 306.

Himantocladium rugulosum ( Mitt.) Fleisch.—No. 323b, 324.

Homaliodendron javanicum (C. M.) Fleisch.—No. 316.

Hyophila involuta (Hook.) Jaeg.—No. 303, 308.

Leucobryum javense (Brid.) Mitt.—No. 320.—New to India proper.

Leucoloma nitens (Thw. & Mitt.) Par.—No. 312.

Macromitrium ceylanicum Mitt.—313.

Macromitrium sulcatum Brid.—No. 304, 305.

Macrethamniella pilosula (Mitt.) Fleisch.—No. 315.

Meteoriopsis squarrosa (Hook.) Fleisch.—No. 323a.

Papillaria fuscescens (Hook.) Jaeg. forma.—No. 33}.

Pogonatum Neesii (C. M.) Mitt.—No. 400.

Pterobryopsis cavifolia Dix. sp. nov.—‘ A distinct new species, but there were

only a scrap or two of it, and it is hardly in sufficieat quantity to publish ’

(Dixon).—No. 403.

Rhizogonium spiniforme (L). Brach, forma foliis angustissimis Dix. No. 322.

Symphyodon praemollis Dix. sf. w0v.—‘ This genus is not quite certain ; but it

is certainly new.’ (Dixon).—No. 321.

Thuidium cymbifolium (Dz. & Molk.) Bry. jav.—No. 332.

Trachyloma tahitense Besch.—No. 405.—New to India proper. Found in

Ceylon.

Trichostomum cylindricum Bruch.—No. 309.

Regarding this collection which I made on the High Wavy Mt. (Madura

District) in 1917, Mr. Dixon writesin epistula. ‘The mosses from the High

Wavy Mt. are interesting, not becauss there is much new, but because, for the

small number of species there is rather a large proportion which have not been

found on the Indian mainland, but have been gathered in Ceylon, which is

what one might expect from the geographical position, but which is interesting

to have demonstrated.’

MOSSES OF MT. ABU.

These mosses which I collected in 1916 and 1917, are growing in the deciduous

forests of that hill-top which reaches from between 4,000 and 5,600 feet high,

Brachymenium acuminatum Harv.—No. 347,

Brachymenium exile (Dz. & Molk.) Bry. jav.—No. 342,

Bryum, s.—No. 343, 351, 352. |

Fissidens Schmidii C. M.—No. 340.

' Funaria hygrometrica (L.) Sibth.—No. 341, 346.

-Homomallium simlaense (Mitt.) Broth.— No. 353.

Hyophila involuta (Hook.) Par.—No. 367.

Hyophila involuta (Hook.) Par, f. elata.—No. 367.

Pottia vernicosa (Hook.) Hpe.—No. 345,

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

LITERATURE.

Boswell.—Journ. Bot. xxx (1892) 98.

Bridel.—Muscologia recentiorum. 2 vol. Gothae. 1797-1819.

Bridel.—Bryologia universa. 2 vol. Lipsize. 1826-27.

Brotherus.—Contributions to the Bryological Flora of the N.W. Himalaya.

Acta Soc. Sci. Fenn. xxiv (1898).

Brotherus —Contribution to the Bryological Flora of Southern India. Rec.

Bot. Surv. India i (1899) no. 12.

Brotherus.—Contributions to the Bryological Flora of the Philippines.

Manila Journ. Sc. ii-iv (1908-13).

Cardot.—Contributions ala Flore Bryologique de Java: Mousses Réc. par |

Massart. Leide. 1897.

Dixon, H. N.—Studies in the Bryology of New Zealand. New Zealand Instit.

Bull.o (1313).

Dison, H.N.—On a Collection of Bornean Mosses made by the Rev.

C. H. Binstead. Journ. Linn. Soc. Botany vol. xliii, 291-323, plates 26, 27.

Dixon, H. N.—Mosses from the Western Ghats. In Journ. Bot. vol. 47

(1909) 157-164 ; vol. 48, 297 ; vol. 49, 137; vol. 50, 145.

Dixon, H. N.—Merceyopsis, etc. Journ. Bot. xlviii (1910).

Dixon, H. N.—Report on the Mosses collected by Mr. C. E. C. Fischer and

others from South India and Ceylon. In Rec. Bot. Surv. Ind. vi. (1914) 75-89.

Dixon, H. N.—On a collection of Mosses from the Kanara District. In

Journ. Ind. Bot. ii (1923) 174-188.

Dixon, H. N. et R. Potier de la Varde.—Contribution 4 la Flore Bryologique

de 1’Inde méridionale. In Archives de Botanique Bull. Mens. (1927) 161-184.

Dixon, H. N.—A list of Mosses from Waziristan collected by J. Fernandez.

Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxiti, No. 2 (1929).

Dozy et Molkenboer.—Musci frondosi inediti Archipelagi Indici. Leidae 1854.

Dozy et Molkenboer.—Prodromus florae bryriologicae Surinamensis. Harlem.

1854.

Dozy, Molkenboer, v. d. Bosch et v. d. Sande Lacoste.—Bryologia Javanica,

seu deser. Muscorum frondos. Archipelagi Indici. 2 vol. (64 fasc.) Lugd. Bat.

1854-70.

Duby.—Choix de Mouses nouvo ou mal connus Fasc. ii (1869).

Fleischer.—Die Musci der Flora von Buitenzorg. 4 vol. Leiden 1900-22.

Fleischer.—Neue Gattungen und Arten herausgegeben in ‘ Exsicc. Musci

Archipel. Indici, ser. vii’. Dresden, Hedw. 1905.

Fleischer. —Laubmoose von der Niederlandischen Expedition Nach Neu-

Guinea, Leiden, 1912.

Geheeb.—Neue Beitrage zur Moosflora von Neu-Guinea. Kassel. 1889.

Geheeb.—Weitere Beitrage zur Moosflora von Neu-Guinea. Stuttgart 1898.

Hampe.—Mousci in ins. Ceylon et Borneo a Beccari collecti. Nuov. Giorn.

Bot. Ital. iv (1872) 273-278.

Harvey and Hooker.—Musci Indici. List of Mosses collected by Wallich in

the East Indies. Journ. Bot. London. 1840.

Herzog, T. H.—Beitr. zur Laubmoos Flora von Ceylon. Hedwigia L (1910)

115.

Hooker, W. J. ae SE exotici. Figures and descriptions of new or little

known exotic Mosses. 2 vol. London. 1818-20.

Jeger et Sauerbeck.—Genera et index Muscorum systen. disp. 9 partes et

index. Nat. Ges. St. Gallis 1873-79.

Juratzka und Milde.—Beitrage zur Moosflora des Orients, Kleinasiens, des

westlichen Persiens und des Caucasus. Wien. 1870.

Kindberg.—Enumeratio Bryinearum exoticarum. Cum suppl. Lincop.

1888-91.

Mitten.—Musci Indiw Orientalis—Journ. Linn. Soc. i, Suppl. London.

1859.

Mitten.—On some species of Musci and Hepaticze added to the Flora of

Japan. Journ. Linn. Soc. 1865.

Mitten.—New species of Musci coilected by Thwaites in Ceylon. Journ

Linn. Soc. xiii (1872), 307-308.

Mitten.—New Musci collected in Ceylon. Journ. Linn. Soc. 1873.

Mitten.—Mosses recorded from Japan. Transact. Linn. Soc. iii (1891).

Miller, F.—Musci Frondosi Flore Australasia. Linnzea i (1859).

MOSSES OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 879

Miller, C.—Descript. Musc. Ceyl. Linneea, xxxvi (1869) 1-40.

Miller, C.—Musci Ind. nov. Linnea xxxvii (1871) 163-182.

Miller, C.—Musci Philippinenses. Linnzea xxxviii (1874) 545-549.

Miller, C.—Die Indischen Dissodon-Arten. Flora (1874).

Miller, C.—Decas. Indic. Muse. nov. Flora |xi (1878) 6.

Miller, C.—Sphagnuin nov. descript. Flora lxx (1887) 26-29.

Mitiller, C.—Three new species of the new genus Struckia. Gustrow. 1893.

Paris. Index Bryologicus seu enumeratio Muscorum, Ed. ii. 5 vol. Paris.

1904-1906.

Potier, R. de la Varde.—Musci madurenses. Revue Bryologique 1922,

1923-1924.

Potier, R. dela Varde.—Nouvelles herborisations dans le Sud de l’Inde.

Revue Bryologique. 1925.

Renauld et Cardot.—Musci exotici novi vel minus cogniti. 10 partes,

Bruxelles. Soc. Bot. 1890-1904,

Robinson, C. B—The geographical distribution of Philippine Mosses.

Journ. Sc. Manila. 1914.

Schiffner, C. Muller, Warnstorf u. a.—Bryophyta (Muscinei). In Engler-

Prantl’s Pflanzenfamilien. Leipzig. 1893-1909.

Sedewick, L.J.—A first list of Mosses from Western India. In Journ.

Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xix (1910) 938-942.

Sedgewick, L. J.—A second list of Mosses from Western India, l.c. xx (1911)

1043-1045.

Salmon.—A new Moss from Afghanistan. Journ. Bot. London. 1899.

Salmon.—On some Mosses from China and Japan. Journ. Linn. Soc. 1900.

Warnstorf —Beitr. zur Kenntniss Exot. Sphag. Hedwigia (1890) 192 ; (1891)

151,

THE LIFE OF A MEALY-BUG (MONOPHLEBUS STEBBINGT)

Major R. W. G. Hincston

(With one plate and three text figures)

This is a very notable insect. Its large size, its conspicuous

white colour, its mealy covering, its almost vegetable inertness make

it appear quite out of the ordinary. This alone ought to be sufh-

cient to justify some observations on its life.

GENERAL Hapsits

What is it like? (Fig. 1). First the female, an uninteresting

looking object. We see before us a flattened lump, ovoid, wingless,

ip2

Dp:

Spaeth Tp mf

—— |

=— i

Na Bi

Female Male

Fic. 1.—A Mraty-Buc. (Monophlebus stebbingt) x 4,

about two-thirds of an inch long. Superficially she looks devoid

oi structure. She might be just a white excrescence on the tree.

Examining her closely, we find she is segmented. Her body is

marked with transverse rings and is clothed in a white powdery

skin. From her head end small antennae jut out, and underneath

her are tag-like legs. Inert, stuck to one spot, just occasionally

crawling from one place to another, she spends her time sucking

at the sap, an apparently devitalized lump.

Now for the male. See how different he is. Here we have

an active, winged individual. He flies about, full of activity, and

might easily be mistaken for some species of moth. His body is

bright red, his wings slate blue. More conspicuous still are his

remarkable antennae, slender filaments, as long as himself, and

furnished throughout their whole length with a multitude of radiat-

ing hairs.

Many trees harbour these injurious pests. I find them in thou-

sands on the Mango and Tamarind; less numerous on the Banyan,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE LIFE OF A MEALY BUG (VWONOPHLEBUS)

MONOPHLEBUS CLUSTERED ROUND A STEM

THE LIFE OF A MEALY-BUG (MONOPALEBUS STEBBING]) 881

the Pipal, the Gular, and other kinds of wild fig.. In Central India

during May and June the trees in question are thickly infected.

Crowds of lumps embrace the stems, a sluggish multitude that to all

appearances is a lifeless heap (Plate). But what are they in reality?

A voracious ring, a deadly pest that is sucking out the life blood

from the plant. Overlapping one another as imbricated flakes, they

draw up the sap through their pointed beaks and shoot it out at

their posterior ends. Like drops of rain it falls on the foliage which

elistens as if moistened with dew. From time to time they cast

their skins. The lump first anchors itself by its beak. Then its

skin splits along the middle line from the head to about half way

down the back. Through this slit in the integument the lump

crawls out, while the cast off skins stick to the foliage as if thev

were flakes of snow.

I notice the males in March and April. They search the branches,

looking for females prepared to accept them as a mate. Of course

they come on females in abundance. In those months the trees are

literally thronged with them, especially round the bases of the

flowers or imbricated along the stalks. The male visits successive

clusters, going steadily from flake to flake, stroking each with his

antennary brushes till he comes on one prepared to mate. The

nuptials are unexciting. There is no demonstration. Even the

fulfilment of these a

vital functions causes

no enthusiasm in the

female lump. The

male just squeezes in

between the female

and the stem, and

consummation follows

in its course.

Let us see what

these lumps do in the

world. °° Their “chief

business is to suck

up sap. For hours

their beaks remain

stuck =n the» stems.

The liquid they shoot

out—the altered sap—

is a clear sweet viscid

substance, which

varnishes the under-

lying leaves. Many

other kinds of insects FIG. 2.-—MONOPHLEBUS ATTENDED BY BLACK ANTS,

come in search of it.

The social wasps are persistent visitors. Honey-bees too are

particularly fond of it and suck it up from where it varnishes the

leaves. They know well where it comes from; for they visit the

clustered lumps as if they were so many flowers. Ants have gone

one better than the bees. All the bees do is pay a visit to the lumps

and gather up the good things that fall. The ants remain with and

882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

protect the lumps. Moreover they know how to get the liquid out.

It is common to see the Black Ants, Camponotus compressus, persist-

ently milking the liquid from these bugs. Four or five ants will collect

round one of them, and commence to stroke it gently with their

antennae (Fig. 2). A drop of liquid will ooze up from its posterior,

and this the ants eagerly drink. Also the ants well know when the

bug is able to supply them with liquid. For they never stroke it when

it is on the move; only when it is absolutely motionless with its

beak stuck in the stem. It is strange that the Red Ants, Gfcop-

hylla smaragdina, take no notice of this valuable food. These ants |

well know the business of cattle-milking. They tend Lecanium,

Icerya, Aphis, but they seem always to ignore Monophlebus,

Sometimes we see a tree covered with Red Ants, and at the same

time supporting myriads of these lumps. What a harvest the latter

would have been to Black Ants. But the Red Ants pay them not

the slightest attention. Their valuable secretion accumulates in

drops and rains down on the leaves underneath.

Thus we see what these lumps do in the world. They drain out

sap and devitalize vegetation. They shoot out fluid to feed other

insects, and keep in existence a multitude of ants. Not at all a

small niche in the scheme of things for creatures that look nothing

but inanimate flakes.

Have these creatures any enemies? Certainly they have one,

Aulis vestita, a small brown ladybird-like beetle which eats into the

tissues of the bug and sucks out its yellow juice. Also a parasitic

wasp lays eggs in them. I have seen the little enemy alighting on

their backs. I doubt if they are ever attacked by birds. Though

very conspicuous, they are well protected through being filled with

a disgusting juice. Squeeze one of these lumps. Its tense skin

bursts and out comes a spurt of viscid juice, yellow, slimy, creamy,

pungent, a disgusting yolk-of-egg kind of stuff. It is this which

renders the lumps immune. I have sometimes thrown one to a

swarm of ants. They attack it, tear its integument. Out comes

the slime. The ants get smeared with it. Their jaws get clogged;

later they begin to stagger as if dosed with some narcotic drug.

Thus the lumps are protected by their narcotising contents. Any

enemies they might have will quickly learn that these are mere

bags of stupefying slime.

SPECIAL SENSES

It is worth inquiring into their senses. What can these bags

of disgusting juice know of the outside world? Can they see?

They seem to possess a trace of eyes, just the very minutest specks

fixed on the under surface of their heads. Perhaps they possess

some trace of vision, though experiment makes me believe them

to be blind. I move things about just in front of their heads. The

lumps are not in the slightest disturbed by it. They certainly do

not see the objects. I doubt if they have any perception of light.

Can they smell?- I test them with my usual series of drugs. I

spray a solution of camphor round their beaks. Nothing happens.

1 try oil of eucalyptus, a stronger smelling substance, smearing

it around and underneath their bodies. I even envelop them in a

THE LIFE OF A MEALY-BUG (MONOPHLEBUS STEBBINGI) 883

film of the oil. Nevertheless they remain undisturbed. Smell is

just as deficient as sight. And, after all, what good would it be

to them? What is the use of an olfactory sense to creatures which

live’ with their: beaks in.a stem?. Can> they hearP JI fire a

collecting-gun at six inches from a cluster. There is so much

shock in addition to sound that their stem quivers from the report.

But the lumps take not the slightest notice. Hearing is no better

than sight and smell. Can they taste? Here is something we

might expect of them. The lumps live on trees of different kinds.

The saps of these trees must have different tastes, and the lumps

may have to tell the good from the bad. I paint some quinine

solution on a stem. It flows round about their beaks. I expect

it to soak into the stem and give a bitter flavour to the sap. The

ruse is successful. After a few minutes the lumps get uneasy.

Some of them draw out their beaks and transfer themselvse to less

bitter ground. So they do seem to possess something, a moderate

sense of taste. Can they feel? Of course they can. Feeling, at

least in some primitive form, is coexistent with life itself. I stroke

them with a needle. They shrink and contract. They certainly

feel the attacks of Aulis, and are sensitive to the blandishments of

their males. Also they perceive the strokings of ants; no doubt

it gives them some pleasant sensation, for they shoot out fluid in

return. They are also sensitive to a parasitic fly which I have seen

alighting on their backs. When it touches them they raise their

abdomens and sometimes forcibly spurt out juice.

Taste and touch! These constitute all their sensual life. Such

is the equipment a creature needs in order to keep sucking juice

from a stem. No hearing, no sight, no smell! How little can

they know of the vast world of sentient living things. Here we

have something like senseless automata just growing, gorging and

‘swelling on sap. Why, they are little better than the tissues of

those plants which they so persistently devour.

Being deprived of such primitive avenues of sensation, is it not

amazing how their lives run in a steady and unerring stream? For

their lives are by no means altogether uncomplicated. These

creatures have before them definite migrations, and disaster will

follow if they make mistakes. When a certain season comes they

must ascend a tree, when another season comes they must descend

to the soil. How do they do it? Not by their senses, so much is

certain. But rather by that innate instinctive knowledge which

cuides their actions with unfailing precision.

MIGRATIONS

Let us inquire into that knowledge. But first we must see why

and where they migrate. ;

We will watch the multitude spread through a mango tree.

Throughout March they have been steadily sucking. By April thev

are gilutted to satisfaction, and the clusters then begin to break

up. Each lump crawls slowly along the branch, reaches the trunk,

climbs down it, and gets to the ground underneath. All begin

moving at about the same time. A multitude of sluggish lumps go

crawling down to earth. On reaching the ground they seem a bit

884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIL1

confused, and at first accumulate in an aimless manner around

the foot of the tree. By the end of April the descent is over. All

the white clusters have disappeared. Just a scattering of white

exuviae on the foliage tells where these pests have been.

For the rest of the year we see no more of them. Where have

they gone to? Into crevices and sheltered nooks round about the

outskirts of the tree. Then what happens? In these sheltered

nooks they lay eggs, hundreds gathered into heaps. The female

shrinks under the process. As the reddish coloured eggs pour

from her she gradually loses strength and vitality. In the end

she dies. All that remains is a shrivelled flake lying by the side

of the eggs.

The eggs hatch out at the end of the year. The youngsters

commence their life amidst the debris. There they moult, then

climb up on the low-lying vegetation and get sap wherever they

can. For two or three months they keep near the ground. Then

they feel the call to ascend and begin to stream towards the tree.

In March I see them moving to the mango. ‘This is the month

when the tree is in blossom. Sap swells its leaves and stems, and

the half-starved migrants are eager for its juice. How well fitted

are the events of Nature. The date of the migration is. ‘timed

exactly with that of the maximum of fluid in the tree. The migra-

tion is fascinating. Undeveloped, shrunk and collapsed, the

immature lumps crawl inward to the trunk. Their advance is slow

and very laborious. They cannot do much on such tag-like legs.

Obstacles. of: every. kind confront them:*> Yet! they. either ich

over or make their way round them, and in the end get to the

trunk. The males too appear amongst the migrants; they may

even offer courtship and attempt to mate. The stream, where thick,

makes a striking spectacle. We see thousands of moving flakes

ali advancing in a dogged manner straight towards the base of the

tree. They reach the trunk. Then comes the /ascents 7 Up the),

go, not without some difficulty. Some of them slip and come

tumbling to the ground. These ones, however, soon recover, and

again begin the climb. The procession continues till all are aloft.

By the end of the month the branches are thronged. Thousands

‘of beaks are buried in the sap, and the shrunken snow-flakes begin

to swell into distended lumps.

Now comes the point of interest. What guides these creatures

in- their journey to the tree? How do they find their way across

the soil direct to the sbasevof the trunk? “Oncerthey reach sthat

particular point, then the rest is easy enough. Their natural

instinct to climb upward will carry them to the topmost shoots.

But how is it that they do not go astray as they converge towards

the tree-trunk? For they do not just wander about fortuitously.

Rather they converge in undeviating lines as though each well knew

the direction it should go in. Yet how do they know it? Nou

through sight, nor hearing, nor smell. We have seen what they

are, almost vegetable flakes that can feel and have some sense of

taste. How can such creatures keep a course direct to the foot of a

particular tree. One would think that such an act demanded

mentality. Yet what mentality have these senseless lumps? No

ae)

THE LIFE OF A MEALY-BUG (MONOPHLEBUS STEBSING) 885

path, nothing to guide them, their course is through grass and

leaves and debris, a trackless and encumbered waste. Nor, like

ants, do they follow one another; each has to shape its individual

course. |

Let us try an experiment or two with them. I turn one about and

make it face backwards. It twists back to its normal course. I

put a branch before another, dig a trench before a third. They

cross the obstacles and march on. I move them about in different

directions. One I push forward about six inches, another I bring

back about the same distance. At first they are confused and lose

their bearings, but soon they get back to their original course. I

even lie down in the midst of the stream. Over me climbs the

multitude which streams on towards the tree.

How do they do it? Without sight, without smell, without land-

marks, without track, without any previous memory or experience,

they stream in from all directions and unfailingly reach the foot

of the tree. I fall back on a belief in some unknown sense, in

that capacity to feel direction which many creatures seem to possess.

How do locusts cross wide arms of the ocean? How do butter-

flies cross the Himalayan ranges? How do dung-beetles roll their

pellets in straight undeviating lines? All I can say is that they

feel their direction in some manner inexplicable to us. os

So it must be with Monophlebus. Though little more tha

senseless lumps, yet they have their full share of that inherited

knowledge, the innate, intuitive, impulsive force which we ordina-

rily call instinct. . It is this instinct of direction which guides them

to the tree-trunk, after which the instinct to climb in the vertical

brings them up to the leaves. These instincts have been born with

them, have been fixed and strengthened and rendered infallible by

inheritance through countless years. The parents of these migrants

made the same journey ; for generations the converging and ascend-

ing habit has gone on in the same routine. Of course this provides

no explanation to their guidance. But it tells us that the knowledge

iS innate and inherited. These flakes have the impulse to follow a

course. That impulse has been born with them, it is part of them-

selves, and unconsciously they obey its demands.

MIMIcs

Their migrations, we have seen, give us cause for reflection. But

there is still a more interesting point.

~ We may stand for half an hour beneath the tree and watch the

continual flow of flakes without dreaming for a moment that all

is not in order, that the flakes are not all of an identical type. But

if we stop to examine minutely we will notice small differences

amongst the flakes; and then, when we go into the matter in detail,

we shall find that we are dealing not with Monophlebus only, but

with three totally different creatures clothed in a somewhat similar

dress (Fig. 4). ;

' The first is Monophlebus. We have seen what she is. The

second is the larva of Aulis vestita, that beetle which persistently

attacks the lumps. Sometimes we may find it in considerable

numbers, perhaps one to fifty or sixty of the flakes. They craw!

886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

about sluggishly, on both tree and ground, where they intermingle

with the Monophlebus stream. Now see the resemblance between

Hemerobiid Monophlebus, Aulis vestita,

larva X4 female X4 larva X4

Fic. 3.—MONOPHLEBUS AND HER MIMICS,

larva and lump. In the field, owing to both being covered with

white powder, the resemblance is much closer than can be shown

in a sketch. Its size is that of a migrating Monophlebus; its body,

though more elongated, is somewhat the same shape; it is trans-

versely segmented, has a sinuous margin, and moves on tag-like

legs. Its body too is covered with powder, like the meal on the

Monophlebus lump. Also its movements are distinctly lump-like,

just a slow and steady crawl.

Now, why this resemblance, a clear case of mimicry, Where is

the advantage to the beetle grub in being dressed like one of these

lumps? First, is it an aggressive mimicry? Certainly we might

think so. For Aulis, both larva and adult beetle, is a persistent

enemy of these lumps. Will not the mimicry aid its depredations

by allowing it to more easily approach its prey? Not at all

Monophlebus possesses no power of resistance. Why, it cannot

even perceive its attacker. The lumps are equally open to destruc-

tion no matter in what guise the enemy should come. Hence the

mimicry is not an aggressive one. Let us turn the problem the

cther way up.

Is it a protective mimicry? Can the larva carry out its depreda-

tions with more safety because it is lost in the midst of the lumps?

‘most certainly it can. We have seen how very well protected

is Monophlebus. Pinch one, and out comes a burst of slime, a

nauseous, offensive, narcotic juice. Because of this juice scarcely

anything attacks them. Birds and lizards completely ignore them

as they wander carelessly up the bark. Even ants, which carry off

almost everything, studiously neglect this distasteful prey.

Obviously then the Aulis is protected by being mistaken for the

horrible lumps. The wolf has dressed itself in sheep’s clothing and

in this way escapes being devoured.

It is interesting to follow the fate of this mimic. It attacks

Monophlebus, eats into its interior, gluts itself on the yellow juice.

Bloated with the slime, it changes to a pupa. Then it fixes itself

to the bark, often still enveloped in its victim’s skin. But later on

THE LIFE OF A MEALY-BUG (MONOPHLEBUS STEBBING]I) 887

this covering drops off, leaving the bare pupa attached to the tree.

Now for the third inhabitant of the stream. Here we have

another example of mimicry. We discover an altogether different

creature, this time the larva of a Hemerobiid, one of those delicate

lace-wing insects that belong to the heterogeneous order, Neurop-

tera. Here then we have quite another kind of mimic, one related

to the dragon-flies and ant-lions. It walks about amongst the

lumps and cannot be easily distinguished from them. In size, shape,

annulated body, tag-like legs, powdery integument, we find a fairly

close agreement in the surface appearance of Hemerobiid and bug.

Also their movements are practically identical, and they occupy

the same haunts. This larva, however, is more slender than Aulis ;

also it has the same habit of pushing itself forward with its tail.

Hemerobiid too is out for plunder. I have seen it attacking the

winged males and sucking out their juice. Hence in its case the

mimicry is probably aggressive. The males are active. They visit

the females, and no doubt at times they visit Hemerobiid, mistaking

it for one of their opposite sex. This gives the Hemerobiid a chance

to make a grab. Again we have a wolf in sheep’s clothing; and the

males walk into the wolf’s jaws. Indeed, I expect that in this

second case the mimicry fulfils a double purpose. It is both an

aggressive and protective mimicry. For Hemerobiid, like Aulis,

must gain protection through its resemblance to this nauseous bug.

Two other points strike me in this instance of mimicry. One is

the remoteness of relationship between these creatures. Mono-

phlebus is a bug. Aulis is a beetle. Hemerobiid is a family of

Lace-Wing Flies. We could scarcely get three insects more widely

separated. Yet here we find them resembling one another, only,

of course, a superficial similarity, as it were, a kind of camouflage

for offensive or defensive ends.

The other point refers to the web of life. It is striking that the

lives of these different creatures are interwoven with respect to time.

Monophlebus becomes active at a certain time and streams up into

the tree. Now the time of its activity is dependent on the tree.

In March the stream climbs into the Mango; not till June do I see

it making for the Tamarind. Why is this? Why do these different

arboreal streams become active at different months? Because in

these months the trees are in blossom, the Mango in March, the

Tamarind in June; and it is then that they are bursting with sap.

Thus we see how the awakening of the lumps fits in with the flower-

ing of particular trees. Similarly do the mimics fit in with the

lumps. They make their appearance when the lumps are in migra-

tion. Why? Because that is the time which suits their depreda-

tions. It is then that their mimicry can be effective. It is then

that they can capture and destroy. Thus mimics and lumps and

trees are interdependent. The mimics kill the lumps; the lumps

rob the tree. But all this would fail were time not considered. The

bug must come out when the tree is swollen; the mimics must come

out when the bugs are on the move. The threads in the web of

life are well adjusted. Nature has ordained that these separate

activities should each fit in one with the other, and that each should

come into active operation at its proper place and time,

A NOTE ON THE BUTTERFLIES AND HAWK-MOTHS

OF KATHIAWAR

(With special reference to the Bhavnagar State.)

Lirut.-CoL. A. H. MOSSE, I.A.,. F.Z.S.

- Alike in the Society’s Journal and in the usual text-books, any mention of

the not inconsiderable Province of Kathiawar, as a locality for Lapzdoptera, is

conspicuous by its absence. A note on the results of some two years’ recent

collecting therein will therefore, I hope, be of interest.

As was to be expected, the butterflies found are mainly those of North

Gujarat, though perhaps the most interesting find is that of the occurrence on

the western shore of the Gulf of Cambay of the desert species Arphritis

(Aphneus) acamas hypargyros, not hitherto recorded, I believe, south of

Cutch. The Gir Jungles of Junagadh, which I have not had the opportunity

of working, may produce a few additional species, otherwise, although my

collecting has been almost entirely confined to the Bhavnagar State, in the

south-east of the Province, I do not think many additions to my list of the

regular inhabitants of Kathiawar are very probable. [ have adopted the order

and nomenclature of Evans’ recent work, As regards Moths, I have attempted

to deal only with the Sphingide.

BUTTERFLIES

PAPILIONIDZA.

1. Byasa aristolochie. Abundant, especially in July, October and February

but to be seen almost the whole year round. I have estimated the numbers

feeding, one October morning, on the flowers of antigonon along a palisade

some sixty yards in length, at not less than 400—a delightful spectacle. The

habit of this butterfly of feeding especially in the morning and evening is well

known, but it may often be seen at flowers at any time of day. I know no

other butterfly which keeps such long hours: I have not infrequently met with

it on the wing before the sun was up and again have watched it at dusk on the

blossoms of a flowering tree, loth to bring its supper to an end, long after the

hawk-moths were out. I may mention a male specimen, taken in November, in

which the white discal markings of the hind wing are centred with pink.

2. Papilio polytes. Fairly common. The vomulus form of female, while

scarcer than the folyfes form, is not infrequently found, although #. hector,

‘which it mimics, does not occur. I have bred a couple of males of the cyrus

form in which the submarginal lunules of the hind wing underside are large

and of a deep red, those in spaces 1, 2 and 4 being reproduced, though smaller,

on the wpper side. These were cold weather specimens. It is remarkable what

small eaters the larve of this species are and how slow their growth in the cold

weather, just as much so in a state of nature as in captivity. One individual,

hatched from the egg on 18th December, did not attain the pupal stage until

8th February. It sometimes feeds, like the larva of FP. demoleus, upon lime,

but the favourite food plant is the shrub known as the ‘ curry nim’ which

P. demoleus, in my experience, does not affect.

3. Papilio demoleus. Abundant, on the wing most months of the year.

4.. Pathysa nomius, In May 1928, observed at close quarters, though I did

not succeed in taking it, an undoubted specimen of this species, in a fruit

garden at Mahuva on the sea coast, some sixty miles S. by W. of Bhavnagar.

5. Zetides agamemnon. Fairly common at Mahuva but not seen in Bhavna-

gar. I have taken it at Rajkot. The tails in Kathiawar specimens are long.

NOTE ONBUTTERFLIES AND HAWK-MOTHS OF KATHIAWAR 889

PIERIDZA.

6. Delias eucharts. All over Kathiawar where there are good sized trees but

nowhere common. Frequents flowering trees, especially in February, not often

seen in the monsoon.

7. Belenois mesentina. Very common.

8. Huphina nerissa. Common, but less widely distributed than No. 7.

Marked variation between W.S. and D.S. forms,

9. Appias libythea. Local in distribution, but not rare, though nowhere

numerous. The males are given to hovering about the food plant, which I take

to be a species of caper, upon which I havealso found the larvee of B. mesentina

and Colotts fausta. The females almost invariably have the upper portion of

the abdomen red, as noted by the late Col. Macpherson of Mt. Abu specimens:

this is the colour of the abdomen itself, which is bare of scales, and fades in

preserved specimens. Inthe only female which I have bred, the colour of the

abdomen on first emergence was green ; unfortunately this specimen was acci-

dentally destroyed the same day, so I cannot say whether the green would have

changed to red.

10. Cuatopsilia crocale. Common, larvae on Cassza fistulu.

11. Catopsilia pomona. Comparatively scarce in Bhavnagar, less so at

Mahuva. I have not met with the var. catzlla.

12. Catopstilza pyranthe. Abundant, especially June to August.

13. Catopsilia florella. Common, especially in October. I have some obser-

vations to make on the question of the maintenance of specific distinction

between this and the last named species but these had better be reserved for a

separate note which will follow this one.

14. Terzas libythea. Somewhat rare. The few specimens that I have come

across have been between October and March.

15. Zertas venata. Common from end of June to September: none in the

dry season.

16. Zerias laeta. Common. Found from mid-Septe mber to early June.

I have recently, in a separate note, described my discovery of the larve of

this and the last species and discussed the probability- which*I believe to

be a definite fact—of their being seasonal variations of a single species.

17. Terias hecabe. Verycommon. In Kathiawar I find the underside mark-

ings of monsoon specimens are never rust coloured but always biackish as they

often are in the dry season also. The usual variations occasionally occur ina

diminution of and change of shape in the black markings of forewing and

absence of one or both of the cell spots on underside of forewing; one

specimen is practically devoid of any markings beneath. One male, taken at

Mahuva, has the ground coloura very pale clear yellow, almost cream colour.

18. Jxias marianne. Common. The pre-apical orange patch enters the

cell in male DSF as well as WSF specimens. In female DSF the black

bordering the orange patch on the inner side is completely interrupted between

veins 2 and 4—as in var. mo/a—and in some specimens, both D and WSF, there

is a decided yellow suffusion over the ground colour.

19. Jxias pyrene. Common at Mahuva. I have seen it at Kundla, not far

from the eastern borders of the Gir, but nowhere else in the Province. Female

always, in my experience, of the white form.

20. Colotis amata. Common. I watched a female ovipositing on the under-

side of a leaf of Salvadora persica. She took about eight minutes to lay four

eggs, then flew round the plant, returning to the same spot after three or four

minutes to make further additions to her prospective family. Have not come

across the white form of female.

21. Colotis vestalis. Local in distribution and not common,

‘22. Colotis fausta fausta. Fairly common. Normal female of a definitely

more orange colour than the pinker tint of the male. Somespecimens (female

only) approach the fz/via form in having the black apical area of the upper

forewing more or less enclosed and nearly reaching totornus. Three females

taken of the white form with more or less salmon effusion, in all these the black

apical area extends to tornus.

23. Colotts etrida. Very common, varies considerably in size.

24. Colotis danae. Common in places, but not so generally distributed as

etrida,

890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

DANAIDA.

25. Danats limniace. Fairly common.

26. Danats plexippus. Common.

27. Danais chrysippus. Abundant, to seen all the year round.

D. chrysippus var. alcippoides. 3 specimens taken in Bhavnagar.

D. chrysippus var. dorippus. 5 specimens taken in Bhavnagar and Mahuva

and one in Rajkot.

28. HAupleacore. Rare in 1927, fairly common in 1928.

SATYRIDZ,

29. YVpthima asterope mahratta. Common.

30. Melanitis leda. Common.

NYMPHALIDZ,

31. Charaxes fabius. Local. Have taken it at Bhavnagar, Mahuva and

Rajkot, imbibing exudations from the branches of certain trees—orange,

acacia and ‘ dhak’.

32. Euthalianats. Rare. I have only found it in two places in the

Bhavnagar State, frequenting dry stony stream-beds in hilly country.

33. Hypolimnas misippus. Very common.

Hypolimnas misippus var. inaria (2). Four specimens taken at

Bhavnagar and Mahuva and one at Wadhwan.

34. Hypolimnas bolina. Common. I took one interesting female ‘ defor-

mity’ in which the right forewing was considerably smaller than the left,

although in itself perfectly proportioned.

35. Precis hierta. Very common.

36. Precis orithya. Very common.

37. Precis temonias. Very common.

The larvee of hierta and lemonias are very much alike and feed on the same

plant, but the former is distinguishable by iridescent blue specks at the base of

the spines—a point which I have not seen mentioned in descriptions I have

read.

38. Precis almana. Fairly common, but much less abundant than the

three above.

39. Precis iphita. A single specimen at Kuda on the coast, twenty miles

south of Bhavnagar, seen but not taken. I fancy this must have been a wind-

blown wanderer, I have never seen another in Kathiawar or North Gujarat,

40. Vanessa cavdui. Common,

41. Argynis hyperbius hyperbius. A single male taken and another seen

in. February 1929 at Kundla, near the western border of Bhavnagar State. I

do not know if there is any previous record of this species south of Mount Abu,

until the castetsz form is met with in South India ; but I may mention that a

number of years ago I saw several females one monsoon at Sadra, thirty miles

north of Ahmedabad.

42. Atella phalanta. Met with now and then, but not common.

43. Byblia ilithyia. Common.

44. Eyrgolis ariadne. Fairly common in Bhavnagar, but much less general-

ly distributed than No. 43 although it shares the same food plant.

45. Telchinia viole. Fairly common in Bhavnagar in 1927, iess so in 1928.

It may be observed that this is certainly not a district of heavy rainfall though

Bingham appears to think this species is confined to such.

LYCANIDZA.

46. Cuastalius vosimon. A single specimen taken at Mahuva in February

1928. ;

47, Tarucus theophrastus. Very common.

48. Huchrysops cnejus. Very common, especially in the monsoon.

49. EHuchrysops contracta. Common

50 Everes parrhasius. Several specimens taken at Mahuva, rare else-

where.

51. Chilades lains Common wherever there are lime trees.

92. Zizeratrochilus putli. Fairly common.

“¥ nef he ala

pin Fak

NOTE ON BUTTERFLIES AND HAWK-MOTHS OF KATHIAWAR 891

53. Ztzeralysimon. Fairly common.

54. Zizera gatka. Very common.

55. Zizera otis. Very common.

56. Syntarucus plinitus. Common.

OY Catachrysops strabo. Rare in the monsoon, not uncommon in some

places in the dry season, but I have never seen it in any numbers.

58. Nacaduba nora. A single specimen at Rajkot in December 1927.

59. Jamides bochus. Not rare in dry season when its cheery brilliancy

attracts attention.

60. Azanus ubaldus, Common.

61. zanus jesous. Fairly common about babul trees in the Victoria Park

at Bhavnagar during the monsoon.

62. Cuvretis thetis. Five specimens of female taken at different seasons at

Mahuva. Ihave not come across a single male.

63. Apharitis acamas hypargyros. 'Two specimens taken in November 1928

and five more in March 1929 on sand dunes on the coast at Kuda near

Bhavnagar. As already remarked, thisis much farther south than any pre-

vious recerd, so far as I am aware.

64. Spindasis vulcanus. Common. Monsoon females have the tornal

orange patch of hind wing upperside extended to form a marginal band of

varying completeness.

65. Szinudasts ictis. Common at Mahuva, less so elsewhere.

66. Viracholatsocrates. Not uncommon where there are pomegranate trees,

Is attracted by lucerne.

67. Rapala melampus. Not common.

HESPERIDA

68. Hasora alexis. Found in some numbers on a flowering tree on the

eastern borders of the Gir in August 1928 ; otherwise rather rare.

69. Aadamia exclamationis. A few specimens in 1928, none seen in 1927.

70. Sarangesa sattz. One specimen taken and another seen in Bhavnagar.

71. Hesperia galba. Fairly common.

72. Suastus gremius. Not rarein dry season.

73. Udaspes folus. A single specimen at Mahuva in February 1928,

74. Padracna dara. Bhavnagar, not common.

75. Baoris mathias. Common.

76. Baorts zelleri colaca. Fairly common.

77. One species not identified. Two specimens in March 1929, Bhavnagar.

78. CQne Lycenid not identified, taken at Kuda in March 1929.

HAawkK-MOTHS

SPHINGIDZ

1. Acherontia styx. Common. The abdominal stripe which Hampson

describes as grey or grey-blue is a very definite blue in Western India speci-

mens of this and the following species. The larva, which I have found on

several plants and shrubs, notably on ‘Zz’, has, in the later stages, pronounced

blue stripes above the oblique lateral yellow ones—the latter are white in the

earlier stages—and is therefore not to be distinguished from the larva of

A. lachesis by absence of the former, as stated by Hampson. A brown form

occurs not infrequently. The egg is small for the size of the moth.

2. <Acherontia lachesis. 1 have bred a single specimen from a larva

found at Rajkot.

3. Polyptychus dentatus. Common. The colouring of the larva, described by

Hampson, occurs, but in the normal form the back is of a uniform bright green,

with no touch of pink or yellow, the sides a paler dull green, and the oblique

side stripes indistinct. An interesting feature is the prolongation of the

head to a conspicuous point above, in the intermediate stages only ; this

does not exist before the first moult and disappears again in the last stage.

4, Leucophlebia emittens. One specimen taken at Mahuva and a second

at Wadhwan. Hampson’s remark as to the dusky brown of the type speci-

men being due to discolouration is, I think, mistaken, as, in my Mahuva

specimen, the magenta pink of the Wadhwan example is replaced by a dark

brownish purple on the upperside.

892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

3. Clanis (Ambulyx) sp. In the year 1919 I bred a moth at Rajkot

which I sent to the Society with a description of the larva: this was forwarded

to Mr. Bell who pronounced it a new species akin to Clanis phalaris. I should

be interested to know what became of this specimen and whether it was

ever named? or identified. I never succeeded in obtaining another.

6. Cherocampa alecto. Not uncommon at Rajkot and Bhavnagar.

Hampson’s description of the larva is incorrect as regards Kathiawar specimens,

in that the ocelli succeeding a larger one on the fourth somite are of equal size

and do not decrease posteriorly ; the centres of these ocelli have a mauve patch .

above the green. It feeds, along with the larvee of celerio, butus and olden-

landie ona vine-like creeper with rough surfaced leaves which is common

in prickly-pear hedges ; also found on the grape-vine, as are celerio and butus.

A form of the larva occurs in which the ground colour, instead of being green,

varies from pink to brownish purple.

7. Cerocampa theylia. Very common,

8. Cerocampa celerio. Common. Vide my note on the larva in vol. xv of

the Journal, page 133: the description there given holds good in Kathiawar.

9. Cerocampa oldenlandig. Fairly common, but less so than the last two;

it does not appear to come to flowers so freely as they do. One of its food

plants is the common garden balsam.

10. Cerocampa butus. Not uncommon,

ll. Daphnis nerit. Common. I bred three abnormal specimens at Rajkot

in 1926 in which there was a marked deficiency, not of pigment, but of the

ustial coloured scales. This was specially so on the forewings which were

consequently almost devoid of the normal yreen colouring and of markings,

with the result of a dull brown and semi-transparent effect. I deduce some

hereditary defect as all three emerged on the same day from the pupae of

‘larvee taken together and presumably belonged to a single brood, while others

bred at the same time and under the same conditions were quite normal.

12. Dilephila livornica. Not uncommon at Bhavnagar, rarer at Rajkot.

13. Protoparce convolvuli. Common.

14. Pseudosphinx discistriga. Common, The larva feeds on two of the

same plants as dcherontia styx which it resembles in the early stages. But

conversely to the case of A. styx, the oblique side stripes—there is no

blue—change from yellow in the penultimate to white in the final stage; the horn

at the tail, also, though crenulate, does not curl like that of Acherontia.

15. Nephele hespera. Common.

16. JZacroglossa gyrans, Common.

17. Macroglossa belis, Mahuva, not common.

18. Cephonodes hylas. Not uncommon.

in connection with larve of the Sphingid@, has any explanation ever been

suggested of the frequent occurrence in some species of a brown form where

the norma! ground colour is green? This phenomenon is perhaps most often

found in Cherocampa, but it occurs also-in Acherontia and Protoparce and

probably others. In the Engiish C. elpenor the young green caterpillar may be

found by day on the young leaves of willow-herb at the top of the plant,

while in the later brown stages it is said usually to prefer resting near the root

by day, emerging only to feed at night. Thus its colouring would seem

to change in conformity with its habits. But this does not apply to the

Cherocampide or to Acherontia in India where the change from - green

to brown, when it occurs, may take place either at an early or a late stage,

while the adult larva does not habitually retire to the neighbourhood of the

ground by daylight. The normal larva of C. oldenlandi@, clad, in the early

stages, in velvety black with orange ocelli, is a conspicuous object on the young

balsam leaves: the inconspicuous green form is rare. In other species, such as

alecto and celerio, the green torm is the normal one. Possibly the situation of

larva at the time of moulting, in respect of light and shade, may affect

the tendency to change colour as, in captivity, a larger proportion of the

two last named species affect the brown colouring in the later stages than

appears to be the case out of doors.

41VThe specimen in question was identified at the British Musem in July 1920,

as Clanis phalaris. EDS. :

A SHORT ACTCOUNT OF THE OYSTER INDUSTRY IN <THE

ISLAND OF BOMBAY AND: SALSETTE

H. S. Rat, m.sc. (The Royal Institute of Science, Bombay)

(With five plates and three text figures)

From time immemorial oysters have been considered a delicacy

and as such they are highly prized. During the great war, it

was proved by many experiments that oyster flesh has a high

food value, as it contains a high percentage of glycogen and

nitrogenous compounds. Few articles of food are more nourishing

than the edible oyster, but its chief merit lies in its being easily

digested. Another good point is that the oyster possesses a great

stimulative property, and acts as a tonic to the consumer. The

following quotation from the Lancet, October 19, 1912 is of some

interest in this connection.

‘The oyster is a tonic of the first order, and a complete food,

most beneficial to weakened patients and those in whom appetite

is deficient.’

There are great oyster farms in France, Great Britain, the United

States of America, and other maritime countries, in which oysters

are cultivated on up-to-date scientific lines.

COMMON BOMBAY OYSTERS

Before proceeding further, it is desirable to give a few notes on

the habitat and distribution of edible oysters round about Bombay.

(Vide Plate V.) About five or six species are found along our coast,

of these the following three are important from the economic point

of view.

1. Ostrea gryphoides (Sch.).—Newton and Smith. This is

a large oyster, growing to about six to seven inches. The rate

of growth is very rapid. The oyster attains marketable size in

three or four years. It is generally found in muddy creeks, where

it is restricted to the vicinity of the low-tide area. It is sometimes

found in fairly deep waters—upto three to four fathoms. This

oyster is collected in large numbers by fishermen from various

natural beds situated along the coast and transplanted to the Mahim

Creek, where it is cultivated on a large scale. The oyster is also

sent out to the mofussil towns after satisfying Bombay demands.

Distribution.—The location of the natural beds are :—Malad, Boisar

and Satpuri Creeks, Balghar, Sanjan Kalve, Dahisar and Navapur.

2. Ostrea cucullata (Born).—It is a rock oyster, and is found in

ciusters on rocks exposed at half tides. It seldom exceeds three

inches in length. This oyster seems to be a slightly brackish water

form. This- species ranks next to O. gvryphoides (Sch.) in

894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXITI1

commercial importance. It has a very delicate flavour, and is

therefore highly esteemed. It is fished by local fishermen, for the

lccal markets exclusively.

Distribution.—It is common along the coast of Bombay and

Salsette Islands, wherever there are rocks, near the shore. A large

collection can be made from the following localities in any season

of the year. West coast, Colaba, Worli, Mahim, Danda, Malad and

Borivili Creeks, and on the east coast (in the harbour) Colaba,

Sewri, Trombay and the Thana Creek.

3. Ostrea virginiana.—lIt is a flat oyster of large size, and almost

round in shape. The external surface is laminated, and the lines

of growth are conspicuous. The muscle scar is oblong, and has

a dull white colour, and stands out clearly from the nacreous in-

terior of the valves. Its shell is generally encrusted with red

alge. It is not cultivated, but it is merely collected by fishermen

from its natural beds at Mahim. It is rather a deep water form.

Other species of oysters which are not mentioned above are rare

and smaller in size. They may, however, be interesting regarding

the study of their bionomics; but they are useless at present for

markets.

LIFE HISTORY OF THE OYSTER

To illustrate the life history of the oyster, O. cucullata is

selected since it has been exhaustively studied by the present

writer. The sexes are separate, but there are no external sexual

differences. Hermaphrodite individuals, however, are sometimes

met with. It is very prolific, for it produces a million or more of

eggs, but only a small portion of these reach the adult stage.

The active spawning season does not appear to begin before

March and generally ends in May. The ripe spermatozoa and the

ova are discharged into the surrounding sea water, where fertilisa-

tion and development take place. There is an unequal division

of the Oosperm (fertilised egg) and the smaller cells of the Oosperm

divide rapidly and form a layer which ultimately covers the large

cells completely. When the segmentation is well advanced (four

hours) the whole surface of the body is covered over by means of

cilia. About twenty hours after fertilisation there is a prominent

preoral ring of long cilia, which is known as the ‘Velum’. It is

characteristic of the trochosphere larva. The larvae swim very

actively in all directions and generally crowd near the surface of

the water. The velum which is the chief locomotary organ is well

developed in the next stage, which is known as the veliger stage.

Young oysters after their free swimming life, which may last a

week or so, are known as ‘spats’. Each spat fixes itself to any

object, suitable or unsuitable, which happens to be near at hand,

and only those survive which happen to settle on the hard and clear

surface of shells (whether of oysters, mussels or cockles, etc.), or

stones and rocks and other spat collecting material which is

collectively known as ‘cultch’. At the time of attachment it is

very small and delicate. There is a great mortality among

oysters in the spat stage. |

it a i

A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE OVSTER INDUSTRY 895

It is interesting to note that during the embryonic stages the

two valves. are of the same size and shape. They are perfectly

symmetrical. In the adult the shell of the oyster is unequal.

The animal is attached to the rock, or any other hard substance

by the left ‘valve, “whith is larger. than. the ripht,.and) forms a

stony box, in which the soft parts of the body lie. The adductor

muscle which runs across from valve to valve enables the oyster

to shut the valves of the shell against each other with a great force

by. the .comtraction: of “the -niuscle. -When- once sshuit,,“it. is ‘very

aifficult to open the valves without any injury to the animal.

ipyews ee

ct neheec

fy,

{ay

ee Prte

> ae

ING ey

tere

Fic. 1--Ostrea cucullata. Right shell and mantle removed,

Soft parts (Anatomy).—Text fig. 1.—As soon as the shells

are removed the whole animal is seen to be covered over by a

soft structure known as the mantle. The mouth is situated at the

extreme anterior end of the body, between the palps. It leads into

a long oesaphagus. The latter opens into the spacious stomach.

The digestive gland envelopes the stomach on all sides, while its

ducts open into the stomach. The intestine forms a singie loop

on the left side of the body. The rectum runs on the dorsal surface

of the adductor muscle and ends into the anus. The head region

is very rudimentary. The siphons and the foot are absent.

There are two gills, which consist of four ‘demi-branchs’, or gill

plates. They extend from the anterior to the posterior end of the

animal, and are attached partly to the visceral mass (i.e., mass

consisting of various organs of the body) and partly to the mantle

lobes of both side in such a way that the whole space enclosed by

896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

‘ the mantle lobes is divided into two chambers. The chamber in

which the gills are hanging is known as the inhalent chamber,

and that above the gills in which the anus is situated is called the

exhalent chamber. }

There is only one muscle present—the posterior adductor muscle—

which seems to be powerful enough to close the two valves of the

shell, when the animal is disturbed.

The heart is enclosed in the pericardium and is located between

the adductor muscle and the visceral mass. The ventricle is large,

and muscular. The anterior and posterior aorte are present.

There is a pair of auricles with thin walls.

The nervous system is simple. The cerebral ganglia are insigni-

ficant. A large number of nerves are given off from the visceral

ganglia, which lie close to the adductor muscle.

The reproductive organs are simple. No accessory organs are

found. The gonads when ripe cover the whole visceral mass.

The reproductive and the nephridial systems have separate genital

and renal openings to the outside. The nephridea are sac-like

crgans consisting of glandular and non-glandular tissues.

‘After about four years the oyster becomes adult, and its maximum

age is about ten years.

The food of the oyster consists of very minute organisms, animals

as well as plants, larvae, spores, diatoms, etc., which are carried

by the currents of water, set in motion by means of cilia on the

gills, and the palps. These currents flow continually into the mantle

cavity, and are driven to the anterior end of the body and finally

into the mouth.

Enemies.—In spite of the hard and thick shell which protects

the adult oyster, it has still many enemies in the different stages

of its life history. Mortality is very much greater in the larval

stages than in the adult condition owing to the various factors

which are inimical to its life.

(2) The whole bed may be destroyed by an undue amount of

fine mud and sand in suspension in the water. It chokes up the

gills and kills the animal.

(b) The monsoon floods cause great destruction owing to the

lowering of the salinity of the sea water on account of inflow |

of much fresh water into the sea.

on the shell.

(d) Pea-crab. ee ance to live in harmless association with

but seems to have some evil effect on the oyster. This is seen in

the change in colour of digestive glands and the size of the body.

(e) Boring molluscs (Murex sp.), drill holes in the shell and

suck up the soft parts.

(f) Cliona (sponge) makes holes in the shells so that worms

and other small invertebrates can get through the shell and feed

on the soft parts of the body.

(g) Predatory fishes and crabs eat spat.

(h) Star-fishes. They kill the adult oysters with ease.

(i) Various stages of the larve of the oyster are swallowed by

fish wandering in the littoral zone.

iil

PLATE I

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

BOMBAY OYSTER INDUSTRY

ar.

ie _offerent bramehigh

Internal organs (Soft parts )

one}

Fic, 2.—ANaTOMY OF Ostrea gryphoides (SCH.)

A’ SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE OYSTER INDUSTRY §97

PRESENT METHODS OF OYSTER CULTURE

1. Oyster farms.—None of the Western methods in farming

oysters are to be seen in this part of the country. It is not definitely

known when the oysters began to be farmed in the Mahim Creek.

There are many such farms round about the Islands of Bombay

and Salsette, but the Mahim farm seems to be the most prosperous.

The oysters found there are large, well-shaped, and in excellent

condition. The areas of the various farms are small. All of them

are well above the line of the low-tide. The ground selected for

farming is hard. It is composed of clay and sand covered over

with a thin layer of mud.

The method employed at present at Mahim is as follows :—

Young oysters, more or less an inch in diameter, are collectec

from the open sea and other exposed places. They are then planted

in certain selected spots which are easily accessible in all tide

conditions. These transplanted oysters are generally cleaned once

or twice a month at the low tide and replanted in order to prevent

mortality from various enemies. Under these conditions they grow

rapidly and within four or five years they measure about four to

six inches in diameter.

3. Cultch.—No attempt has yet been made by fishermen on this

coast to employ any suitable cultch. The spats are found on the

natural cultch in the form of shells of oysters dead or living or

stray pieces of stones, bricks, or tiles, etc. The putting out of

the cultch marks the highest stage yet attained in oyster culture,

and different methods ‘for distributing cultch are employed in

different countries. At Arachan (France) tiles covered with a thin

layer of Jime mixed with sand are used as cultch, while in Japan

bamboo sticks are employed for the same purpose.

4. Fishing for Markets.—The oyster farms are exposed at full

low tide. Oysters which are found below the

low-tide mark, are collected by diving and

breaking off the oysters from the beds by

means of an instrument locally called a ‘koodal’

(dhexts fio...)

5. Extracting oysters from within the

shells.—After collecting the oysters their shells

are opened by breaking them and the soft

parts are scooped out by means of an ‘oyster

knife’ (Text fig. 3). They are stored in an

earthern pot containing sea water and their

soft parts are then sold in the local markets.

Thousands of shelled oysters are despatched

to clubs, hotels and private individuals in pyo 2.—The foodal.

Bombay or outside. Sometimes to save

freight and ensure proper icing, the soft parts of the oysters are

packed in tins before despatch.

Local demand varies from 1,000 to 2,000 dozens of oysters per

month. Many more thousand dozens would be sold if scientific

methods were followed. At present there is a suspicion amone

the public that enteric fevers are caused by oysters. .

898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

6. Irishing seasons.—The. oysters are fished from November to

March when they become plump and white and are in a good

marketable condition. During the whole season 3,000

to 6,000 dozens oysters are fished. The price varies

from annas eight to twelve per dozen. The total

earning from all the oyster farms in Bombay approxi-

mates Rs. 2,000 to 3,000 per annum.

The fishermen stop fishing oysters from the farms,

because they are not in demand in the off season between

April and October. They are not fit for the market,

due to the spawning season (April and May); while

in the monsoon season (June to October) the oysters

are in a poor condition and their soft parts are watery.

As to the number of people employed in the industry

it is not easy to give exact figures, since no licenses

are issued to men engaged in the oyster industry.

7. By-products.—The empty shells of the oyster

are used for making lime. They are crushed and put

in a kiln, where they are burnt. The burnt fragments

are then powdered. This product is much valued,

purposes. The empty shells are rather cheap and are

sold at the rate of four to six annas a maund.

Sug gestions.—Oyster farming can never be very

extensive in Bombay and Salsette Islands, as suitable

erounds for oyster farms are not available. The natural oyster beds

can however be easily made to yield more revenue than under the

present methods. Those engaged in the industry do not know

the value of farming oysters on scientific principles. The selection

of the ground, the specific gravity of the water, and the time and

method of distributing cultch, etc.

In order to encourage the oyster industry in the Bombay Presi-

dency, certain creeks, and backwaters, which are now known to

yield an excellent quantity of oysters should be closed for fishing

by the public and regulations and by-laws should be introduced

to prevent over-fishing. The Bombay Government should extend

to other parts its ‘Section 37 of Land Revenue Code (Bombay Act

V of 1879) which exercises the rights of proprietorship over the

eyster beds in the Sind Creeks’.

The following steps might be taken to put the Bombay oyster

industry on a proper footing :—

1. Licensing of fishermen employed in oyster fishing.

2. Observing a close season (mid-March to May) when the

oysters spawn.

3. Forbidding the fishing of oysters under three inches.

4. Accurate information regarding the edible oyster, their food

value, and the distributing agencies, etc.

5. Survey of oyster beds in different parts of the Presidency.

because it makes an excellent lime for building -

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate II.

Oyster rock at Mahim at half tide (O. cucullata).

Exposed Oyster field at Mahim at low tide (O. gryphoides and O. cucullata).

JOURN. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

Taking out Oysters at Mahim Creek.

SONG

Spat collectors. Cluster of

Puate III.

Ostrea cucullata.

JoURN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuaTE LY.

Sucked Oysters.

Oysters ready for market.

PLATE V

ist. Soc.

Journ., Bombay Nat

- ( i

FAT

Bue: Bey CHS

NN?

==eb

—a-

= 3

ft,

rita

Ostrea cucullale Ge Boru)

6sirea Sp x

ELEPHANTA

MALBAR & PT

Vic. TERMNS

(BALLARD PIER

uURAN

DER

COLAB

EA POLLO BUN

$ON OF OYSTERS

Ww)

WU)

ce)

BOMBAY OYSTER INDUSTRY

THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS

B. BLATINR,: SiJe., Phi D;,. E.k,S.

PART. I

In 1899 Sir Dietrich Brandis published ‘ Biological Notes on

Indian Bamboos’ (/ud. Forester, vol. xxv, No. 1, p. 1). He says

in the beginning: ‘Indian Foresters, who have had the good

fortune of witnessing the flowering and seeding of some of the

gregariously and periodically flowering Bamboos, will probably

agree with me in thinking that a series of remarkable phenomena

on a grand scale takes place before our eyes, opening up a multi-

tude of interesting questions, many of which still await solution.’

Since then many data and observations have been added to those

which were at his disposal thirty years ago and they have been utilized

by Troup in his Silviculture of Indian Trees in 1921. Hestateda

number of problems more lucidly than Brandis was able to do in

his time.

In making another attempt to throw some light on the numerous

probiems, we first give as complete a list as possible of the flower-

ing times of the various species of Bamboos, including also extra-

Indian and even American species. Though quite a number of

data will be of no use for the present investigation, they may some

day prove helpful to future workers. _

For practical purposes, the genera as well as the species under

the genera have been arranged in alphabetical order.

When starting this list, it was found necessary to revise and to

bring up to date the Indian Bamboos. This revision is appearing

in the /zdian Forester.

900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. DOC IE

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901

THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS

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Arundinazia aristata Gamble ...

” baviensis Balansa

a callosa Munro |

“4 densiflora Munro

i elegans Kurz

falcata Nees

falcata var.glomerata

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& Hook.

floribunda Thw. -..

gracilis Blanchard

grifithiana Munro

Hindsii Munro

Hookeriana

Munro

Notes

Gregarious.

Life-cycle 28-30 years. (Troup).

‘ Flowers irregularly at times, grega-

riously over large areas, while a few

clumps may be found in flower almost

every year.'(Brandis). Flowers ‘perio-

dically at long intervals.’ (Parker)

General flowerin

About the same time in several other

places in England (Bean).—' Flowers

both sporadically and gregariously.

(Troup).

Gregarious.

X 0A ‘ALAIDOS “LSIH TRYOLEN AV EWOT ‘TENAQOL 006

TTIXX

Flowered freely ee

Gregarious.

4 Y

Wem Gere Authority Locality of flowering

1868 | Kurz . | Singalila Range, above

| 10,000 ft.

1869 Clarke ... | Yakla, 11,000 ft.

1890 | Gainmie .. | Phalut, 10,000 ft.

1895 Bean -. | Sikkim re

1900 Brandis .. | Over a small area of

| _Singalila Range

1886 | H. de L. co | Tonkin

1885 Clarke .-- | Shillong coil]

1890 Trimen .- | Horton plains, 7,200 ft.

| (Ceylon)

Annually Brandis . | Assam, Burma

1853, Troup | Simla

1866-1867 Bean .. | Europe

1876 Gamble | Kulu

1878 Brandis Jaunsar

1879 Gamble .. | N. W. Himalaya or

1881 | Brandis | Manglad Valley, 6,000 f

1881 | » Chakrata, 6,000 ft.

1884 Bean Kew

1886 Broun Jaunsar

1908 ‘Troup Kew

1916 iN Simla (cultivated)

1936 ” Jaunsar eC

Almost annually | Bean Kew (native of India)...

— es — — — —_—

1879 | H.deL. India

| 1821 | Wallich Nepal

1546, Ex Stapf Pindari Glacier

| |

1875, 1876 Camus | Europe and Algeria

1876 Clarke Sikkim

1877 Bean Holland House (Eng-

| land)

1893 1894 ay Kew

1900 Brandis Darjeeling

1908, 1909 H. de L. Europe

1853 Thwaites Ceylon, 5,000 ft.

1830, 1850, 1890 | H. de. L. Europe (native of the

Himalaya?)

1835 Griffith Assam

1910 H. de L. ... | Europe

.| 1877, 1880, 1886 » E. Asia

1910 0) Europe

1848 Hook. f. Sikkim and Brit.

Bhutan

1885 Pantling ... | Choongtang, 5,600 ft....

1892 Gammie ... | Gheet Velley, 6,000 ft.

(Bhutan)

1898 H. de L. Kew a

1899 Bean ..| Kew and Glasnevin ...

ee | Although the general flowering may

Flowers almost every year at Kew on a

certain number of culms, but the

plant as a whole does not suffer. (Bean).

i {Seeds of this flowering brought to

Europe in 1846, offspring flowered in

1875, 1876.

Nearly all the plants flowered and died

in 1876.

General flowering.

‘ Flowers gregariously’. (Brandis).

Old culms, not the entire plant flowered.

occur in one particular year, it is

heralded by the flowering of a few

forerunners the previous year and

| followed by that of laggards the next.

(Bean).

SOOINFY FO ONINAMOTH DHL

All the Kew plants died. At Glasnevin

some died, others recovered. (Bean).

106

902 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

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RING OF BAMBOOS

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| Year of flower-

Name | ing | Authority | Locality of flowering | Notes S

a i ie... | Pais = $

Arundinaria Hookeriana 1903 | Brandis «| Sikkim and Brit. iss

Munro Bhutan | SS

wD humillima Pilger 1902 | H. de L. 280 KR

A intermedia Munro 1848 | Hook f. ... | Sikkim aanil| x

1868 | Anderson cen 1D " b&

1879 | Gamble an A Isolated flowering clumps occasionally Ss

| met with. &

1889 | H.K. ae | 2

1899 | Bean .| Kew o00 | Died after Howering. (Bean). SS

1907 | Camus ... | Europe cro 5

1910 | H. de L. ool Ibe) s

rH khasiaua Munro... 1850 | Hooker ... | Khasia Hills -| NS

1889 | Masters C0 A | is

1905 Camus ... | France (cultivated) 2

Ay macrosperma 1803 H. deL. ... | N. America i

Michx, | i} | S

Between | Bean ond 0 api} = | = a oe etat ea

| 1872 and 1878 | | a

x Maling Gamble ...| 1904 | Osmaston «.|Mt. Tonglo, 9,000 ft. | sevens S

| (Sikkim) |

| @

7 Maximovscatt 1896 | Bean ... | Kew, Bamboo Garden... | Flowered all over the plant and died 8

ort. | 1897.

1897, 1898, 1899, | Mitford ... | Batsford ... | Very likely partial flowering plants did 8

1900 | not die. (Mitford). =

ee nitida Mitford ... 1900 | Wilson «| W. Hupeh, China cou | or A

on) Pantlingi Gamble 1895 | Pantling ... | Brit. Bhutan, 11,000 ft Ss

a polystachya Kurz 1868, 1876 Gamble Sikkim, Khasia Hills... om

wn Prainii Gamble ... 1886 Prain Naga Hills, 7,870 ft. ... *

1889 Mann Jaintia Hills, 3,500 ft. is

1891 Rollo . | Naga Hills, 5,400 ft. a

29 racemosa Munro) 1857 Thomson ... | Sikkim S

emend. =e

— SS - —_ — —__ a a ——— —<<—§—

1887 King’s coll. .-- | Singalila (Sikkim)

1890 Ap «| Phalut, 10,000 ft.

| (Sikkim)

1892 Gammie .--| Phalut, 11,500 ft. cose

(Sikkim)

oy Sat Balansa ass 1887 H. de L. «| Tonkin

oo Simoni A, & C,Riy. 1876 Riviére 06 ove cece

1892 Bean ...| Kew (native of China) Odd culms flowered and died, plants

not affected. (Bean). :

1893-1902 | ,, | Kew 22) cape iaog Sip a : 3

1903 99 Soll Kew, Temperate House. ENGL, culm flowered, seeded and died. wS

° (Bean).

1904-1905 aH aa Kew, Bamboo Garden.... Every cuim flowered, and died. (Bean) 2

1903, 1910 H. de L. «.. | Europe at 5

a Simoni var. varie- 1877 Bot. Mag. .. | Kew Not known whether partial or general. SI

‘ata H.f. | t

g 1902, 1903, 1904, | Camus ... Europe 3

1905.

an spathiflora Trin.... 1821 Wallich .. | NW. Himalaya con See sporadically and gregariously. S

roup).

1881 Brandis ... | Jaunsar ... Flowers probably every 10 years. iS)

| (Brandis). 3

1882 Brandis, Fischer » General flowering. Ny

1892 Gamble .. | Deoban S

1893 a Tehri-Garhwal Ss

AT Trianz Munro ... 1856 H. de L. New Granada J

. variabilis Mak. ... 1897 x Japan a3 S

“6 variabilis var, 1906, 1910 a ... | Europe (native of | < 4

Fortunei. Japan) |

a Walkeriana Munro} 1861, 1888 Gamble ... | Ceylon .. ‘ Probably flowers frequently.’(Gamble).

oe) Wightiana Nees... Annually s) ... | Nilgiris, S. India, | Does not die after flowering.

Ceylon |

Bambusa arundinacea Willd. ... 1804 Beddome W. Coast of India y ane | Gregarious.

1812 Gamble Orissa |

1836 | Sleeman Dehra Dun | Gregarious.

1839 Brandis , ... | Near Jubbulpore cnet) PF ess 2

err ees — — ———————————— —— —————OOOeOeOeOeOeOSOSOSeeses

cmsaccciecntei dioica

904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: DEXKGTT

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Name hoes | Authority | Locality of flowering | Notes <

a , = agen eS S

Bambusa arundinacea Willd.... 1864 | Gamble ... | N. Kanara no|} sere =

1865 lento y | Balaghst District | 2

| (C. Prov.) | ns

1866 Brandis ...| Malabar, S. Kanara, | Gregarious. -

| Wynaad, Coorg | b

1868 Beddome W, Coast of India +] seve is)

1869 Brandis ... | Sacpuras | Gregarious. =

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| (Nicholls) . Ss

1870 | Bourdillon ... |S, Travancore =

1874 | Gamble «. | Malda Bip Ry

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1884, mainly | Dharwar | Ss

1878 | y

1879-1880 Bourdillon ... | N. Travancore ono fn

1880 | Wood | Oudh

1881 | Brandis ... | Dehra Dun, planted Gregarious. z

1851 | Gamble .. | Dehra Dun Gregarious, planted trees only. 17)

1881 | Brandis ... | Basudeo (Kumaon) Gregarious. =

| 1881 ay . | Head-waters of Noyil} ah tA

| | (Coimbatore) is)

1882 Nicholls .. Narsinghpur 2 clumps in flower. Q

1882 Bourdillon .. | W. Coast of India Gregarious. 8

1885 Nicholls ... | Narsinghpur 9 S

1889 | Gamble ... | Kurnool 02911] Si

1890 Brandis see =

1893 | Gamble xn ao iy

1894 | McIntosh ... | Cuddapah an S

1896 | Troup ...| Walayar forest, Coim- | Gregarious, ~

| batore | 5

1896 Brandis .. | Rajpipla State 4) s

1900 Troup ... | Dehra Dun, planted ” 7

— eae ee a ee eee ESE

About 1905 to | Troup «.|Kanara, Belgaum, nH

1918, chiefly | Dharwar

1912

1910 i ... | Throughout the Dangs. an

1912-1915 Ag «| Wynaad, Kollegal,|Gregarious, began on plateau tracts of

a Coimbatore Wynaad and spread southwards to

Kollegal and Coimbatore.

1913 _ ... | Bihar and Orissa ... | Gregarious.

1913-1915 a --- | Coorg ... |Gregarious. ‘ Isolated flowering clumps

are found occasionally, but asarule \

allclumps in one flowering district &

| come into flower simultaneously, a &

| few clumps flowering in the previous 4,

| and some in the succeeding year.’ &

| (Brandis). Brandis calculates that S

i general flowering takes place in Ss

periods of about 30 years. Troupof <<

B 32-34 years. =

1876 Mann --- | Goalpura pss °

1881 Wood ... | Gorackpore 3

4 1889 Pani Ram Das ... | Kamrup oD Sy

», burmanica Gamble ... 1890 Oliver «| Katha Distr. (Upper ey

Amer Burma) =

», @riffithiana Munro... 1837 Griffith +»|Mogaung river (Upper}| iss &

e Burma) S

» khasianaMunro 1850 Hook. & Thoms. | Jasper Hill, Mahadeb... =

4 1885 Clarke -.. | Jaintiapur can

» lineata Munro Ss Annually Brandis +. | In several Bot. Gardens |‘ Constantly found in flower in the Bot.

Gardens at Calcutta and Peradeniya,’

Gamble).

»» Mana Roxb, Aad 1893 H, deL. .. | Japan; Kew as ral oie below 700 m. in the

»» mana yar. Alphonse} 1908, 1910 ” + | France Mate eu ncgemts):

KarriM. Se Wy Re eens

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906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

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Name wear He tie Authority Locality of flowering Notes e

Y Ss

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Bambusa nana var. gracillima... 1911 |H.deL. ... | Europe Gc | ape ag, Rete s

” nutans Wall. cor 1840 Falconer .. | Dehra Dun ... |‘ Seeins to flower only at long intervals.’ nN

(Gamble). Sw

1886 H.deL. on tee wereee =

1893 Gamble ... | Dehra Dun ... | Flowers ‘ periodically at long intervals.’ b&

(Parker). 2

3 1894 " say ” oe . $

», Oliyeriana Gamble... 1893-1894 Oliver ... | Upper Burma ... | Apparently the wering Was general.

(Oliver). =

» pallida Munro os 1850 Hook. & Thoms. | Eastern Bengal 2

1890 Pani Ram Das... | Kamrup, Assam on 0 pare Ny

» polymorpha Munro ... 1852 Troup .-. | Upper Zamayi forest ... | ‘ Flowers gregariously and periodically,

7 dies after seeding.’ (Brandis). S

1854 M’Clelland —... | Pegu oe . >

1856, 1857, Brandis ...| Pegu Yoma ... |‘ Plowers at long intervals, and the &

1858 5 flowering is remarkably gregarious.’ S

(Troup). Rl

1859 ...| W. side of the Pegu |General flowering. GB

Yoma S

1860 a ...|W. side of the Pegu it) n fe

Yoma in the northern 3

portion 5

1862 OF .. | Zamayi forests, Burma 5

1871 Kurz | Thaukyegat forests C S

| 1899 Troup «| Pegu ...|3 clumps reported tohave flowered. <

(Troup).

| 1903 m ...| Tharrawady forests ... | 2 flowering clumps. >

1913 ‘4 ...|Mimbu, Thayetmyo, | Sporadic. =

| Prome *

1914 a .. | Prome ... | Flowered over an area of about 3 squaie s

miles; this is the first record of any- 3

thing approaching gregarious flower-

ing for about 55 years. (Troup). S

ig a ee eS See eee

1918 rf .-. | W. side of Pegu Yoma | There have been signs of an approach-

| ing general flowering ; if this materi-

alizes, the life-cycle of the bamboo may

| be placed at about 60 years or a little

| more. (Troup).

” RidleyiGamble _... 1890 Ridley ... | Singapore an |

Oni teres Hamilton =, 1809 Hamilton ... | Gongachora So ||

0 Tulda Roxb. 2 1859 H. de L, 0 || 2 = Scone |

About 1865 | Trou ... | Tharrawadd | Gregarions.

1867, 1868. | Kurz? | inert eee oe >

1872 Clarke oca||. 0 on “oo 70 Se

1876 Lister .. | Chittagong a ‘

1880 Brandis ... | Burma fy =

1884 Clarke ... | Lower Bengal ri 5

1886 Ellis ... | Chittagong ap =

1889 Manno «| Assam ny S

1892 Oliver - POUT) | ne mere >

1903-1905 Troup ...| Tharrawaddy -.. | Gregarious. ‘ Fairly extensive flowering 5

in single clumps or groups of varying

extent.’ (Troup). 5

n Tulda Roxb. fee 1908 Troup .-. | Prome ... | Gregarious. fa

1910 _ iC | sythet : 5 =

1911 r ... | Gangaw » =

1913 a --- | Toungoo, Zigon, Ran- m g

goon &

1914 0 ...|S. Toungoo, Pegu, Fh)

Prome Zigoa, Tharra-

waddy, Rangoon,

Henzada, Yaw

1915 a ... | N. Toungoo, Shwegyu, Ae

Prome, Zigon

205

a a

SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1

908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS1

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33 vulgaris Schrad.

Cephalostachyum capitatum

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A fuchsianum

Gamble

0) latifolium

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‘ At times flowers gregari-

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Pee Authority Locality of flowering Notes

1916 Troup | S. Shan States Gregarious,

| ously, while at other times single

clumps are in flower.’

Single clumps, if badly treated by

over-cutting or partly uprooted, will

often produce flowers without any

general flowering.

1851 Hook. f. --. | Chittagong a

1863 Thwaites .-. | Ceylon

1879 Chester ... | Chittagong

1890 King .. | Bot. Gard, Calcutta

1892 Ridley -| Singapore Garden

1830 Griffith . | Khasia Hills Seems to flower at very frequent inter-

vals. ‘ Perhaps the real reason is that

like Dendrocalamus strictus, it flowers

sporadically and then now and again,

has years of wholesale seeding, as

| happened in my own observation in

1874, when large tracts in the Chel and

Neora valleys in Brit. Bhutan covered

| with this species died off.’ (Gamble).

1835 Griffith .-. | Khasia Hills

1848 ? Hook. & Thoms. | Sikkim

1850 0 », «| Khasia Hills

1866 T. Anderson Sikkim ‘

1869 C. B. Clarke oi a

1871, 1872 a) nH Khasia Hills

1874 Gammie Sikkim

1874 a Brit. Bhutan

1878 G. King Sikkim

1892 Gammie “H

1875 Lister Daphla Hills

1877 ?

1880

1889

1892

1835

1879

1882

1835

1872

1878

1885-1886

1859

1862

1865

1875-1876

1880

1887-1888

1894-1895

1899-1900

1900-1907

1902-1903

1906-1908

1906-1909

1907-1910

1908-1909

1911-1912

Fuchs

Gamble

Gammie

Griffith

Gamble

G. Watt

Griffith

C. B. Clarke

G. Mann

C. B. Clarke

Brandis

Troup

Brandis

Troup

Brit. Bouian

Manipur

Assam

”

Burma

‘Tharrawaddy

Burma

Tharrawaddy

tha and Katha

Shwegyin

1906-7)

Henzada

Bassein

Pegu, Shwegyin

Prome and Tharraw ad-

Pyinmana (Burma) i

Upper Chindwin, Myit-

Pyinmana aa

Toungoo (Gwethe an

Kabaung reserves in

Gregarious. E

Extensive gregarious flowering.

Gregarious.

”

Gregarious. Commenced in Upper

Chindwin and spread in a wave south-

ward and eastwards. Auktaw and Pile

reserves, Katha in 1905-1906. (Troup).

Gregarious.

”

(IIXXX ‘19A 'ALFIIOS ISTH TEANLEN AVINWOP ‘'TENANOL 806

SOOINKA JO ONINAMOTA THT,

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910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiI11

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Name | Year eee Authority Locality of flowering Notes =

= a a nee S

Cephalastachyum pegracile | 1912-1913 Troup ..|Toungoo, Rangoon, | Gregarious. =

Munro | Thayetmyo, and x

Mimbtu forest divisions é

| 1913-1914 - ... | Parts of Zigon, Tharra- 5 3

waddy, Rangoon, &

| Upper Chindwin, 1S)

| Myittha, Mu, Yaw, S

| and Katha forest divi- &

sions fa

1914-1915 vit «.|Parts of Zigon, A oy

Shwegyin, and Mansi | <

forest divisions ee

1915-1916 " «| Myaunglebin, Pegu, we 3

| W. Salween, and S. >

| Shan States forest my

| divisions S

| 1916-1917 Nyaunglebin, Pegu,|Gregarious, ‘May be found alniost Ra

W. Salween, and any year sporadically but not general-

| Mansi forest divisions ly producing good seed on such a

occasion,’ (Gamble). ‘Flowers *

frequently, at times gregariously over a

large areas.’ (Brandis). ‘ Partial <

flowering every year.’ (H. de L.) N

Chusquea abietifolia Griseb. .. 1884 H. de L. .. | Kew cote &

1857 “i a s

pallida Munro ce 1844 =A =

Dendrocalamus Brandisii Kurz} 1862 Brandis «. | Burma ... |‘ Flowers sporadically as well as grega- =

tiously.’ (Troup). rn

1871 Kyiz on ‘ Flowers frequently.’ (Brandis). iss

1880 Brandis on ie

1890 Oliver ... | Ruby Mines Dist. y

1894 in PALI " oo ~

——_ a oe OO EE

F | ious.

1914 Troup on chauasyin forests or Gecaicast Saialto. flower sporadical-

1916 , e0| PHETSEET NIA x ly and not to die off after flowering,

but Oliver says that flowering clumps

which be has observed showed every

appearance of being about to die.’

(Gamble).

hamo

calostachyus 1868 J. Anderson... Bone eras)

Kurz Yunan (S)

1875 ” U Raretal Ro

collettianus 1892 Abdul Huk-~— ... | Upper &

; Gamble ala >

BY flagellifer 1879 Beddome aa orate (M y ey sani 8

Munro Villagers in the Irrawa -

, giganteus 1860-1861 Gamble ees | Bele Csi COE St aired the age of flowering at40years. 3

Munro Offsets flower later than the parents. S

(Troup). <

1888 Gamb e ait ” S

1892 ” urma °

1893 H. Jackson ...| S. Shan States S|

1897 Gamble Burma nS

1899 Brandis 1) Sikki egarious. nS

* Hamiltonii 1894 Gamble % See Debra Dun | Greg =

Nees & Arn. India Ope ae eee &

1907 Het GONE ie N. parts of the Khasia | Gregarious. S

1912 Troup wee Hills a

Ruby Mines Dist. ”

1H) a (Upper Burma) __

1911 Ruby Mines Dist. 4”

2 (Upper Burma) __

1914 ~|Ruby Mines Dist. ”

a (Upper Burma)

1916 Myittha forest division ”

et (Upper Burma) &

eee ee eee

912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

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RENT ing Authority Locality of flowering Notes

Dendrocalamus Hamiltonii 1917 Trou Myitkyi -

Nees & Arn. P Barina) (U p per| Gregarious.

‘Periodically at long intervals.’ (Par-

ker). ‘ Flowers 5 every ae

(Hook. f.). ‘Flowers sporadically and

at times gregariously,’ (Brandis)

” hirtellus Ridley 1915 Ridle Malay Peni

» Hookeri Munro 1850 Hook. f. a Khasa a

: 1881 £.E. Fernandez.. | Naini Tal re

Dp latiflorus Munro 1894 G. King Laikaw (S. Shan pots

1 if e States)

, ongil mbriatus| 1891 Gainble Mergui Dist. (‘Tenas-

Gamble serim)

he STALE 1862 D. B. Zamayi Pegu ‘ Flowers frequently.’ (Brandis).

EE Kurz, oo ” ‘Often found flowering sporadically.’

(Troup).

1875 ... |Tharawadi, Pegu

1876 Lister ... | Chittagong

ae geste 09 & Gregarious.

1885 R, Ellis ia

1887 Troup Tharrawaddy Dist. Gregarious.

(Burma)

1891 Carter Burma

1912 Troup Parts of the Minh la, Gregarious. a

Mokka and Kandin-

bilin forests and else-

| where

1913 .. |Toungoo Dist

p macroculmis 18’ 4 | s 0 »

H. de L 2 Hone 0 = [each mee Ree

eee EEE See eee rad

ve membranaceus 1827 Wallich “0Martaban, ~~ sj) eee

Munro a |

1857 Brandis Yonzalin Valley |

1862 ” ”

1871 Kurz | In the Yomas

1879 Beddome ‘Tenasserim

1890 Oliver | Wuntho and Pinhwe

| forests é

About 1912 Troup .. | Ruby Mines Dist. Gregarious.

1915 9 | Shwegyin 1"

hy patellaris Gamble 1890 Sri Gopal NagayHiliss 00 es) naan

Banerji

ae sikkimensis 1885 Gamble Nilgiris, cultivated

Gamble 7

1916 Troup Kalimpong Gregarious.

4H strictus Nees 1865 Gamble Central Provinces 1

About 1865 | Troup ‘Tharrawaddy (iene) a

1870 Brandis Garhwal ve

1872-1876 ‘Troup Garhwal outer Himal. re

tract

1879 Gamble Garhwal ”

1880 Troup Oudh n3

1883-1886 A. F. Broun Saharanpur Siwaliks ... ”

1887 Gamble Kurnool (Madras Pres.) i

1888 Troup ... | Tharrawaddy (Burma) ”

| 1890 Gamble .. | Golgonda Hills (Madras fn

Pres.)

1891 OD North Arcot one ”

1894 Troup Coimbatore (Pollachi o

range)

1895 Ay .| Tharrawaddy (Burma) D

1897 an Coimbatore (part of y

Walayar forest.)

1899 A Seoni (C. P.) ”

1300 D Balaghat (C. P.)

Year of flower-

‘PA 'ALAIIOS “LSIH TVANLEN AFINOG ‘TENANOLS Z6

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Name Ae Authority Locality of flowering Notes

Dendrocalamus strictus Nees... 1900-1901 Troup S. Chanda (C. P.) ... | Gregarious.

i 1901 m Thana (Bombay Pres.) a0

1902 Bruce Ruby Mines Dist. 5 a

1906 Troup Thayetmyo (Burma) ... me

1907-1908 | H. deL. Europe ots

1908 Troup Nimar (C. P.) Partial

1908 sp Henzada (Burma) Gregarious,

1908-1913 is Garhwal outer Himal. w

tract

1909 a Henzada (Burma)... nT

1911 * Bundelkhand (U. P.) ag

1911-1912 - Ruby Mines (Burma) 70

1912-1913 on Tharrawaddy (Burma) A

1911-1913 | ,, Mu forest division i

| (Burma)

1914 Burma Gregarious. ‘Commonly flowers sporadi-

o strictus var.

sericea Gam-

ble

Dinochloa andamanica Kurz ...

Gigantochloa compressa Parker

Kurzii Gamble ...

a5 latispiculata

Gamble

an ligulata Gamble

9 macrostachya

Kurz}

0 Scortechini

Gamble

ri Wrayi Gamble ...

Glaziophyton mirabile Franchet

Melocalamus compactifiorus

Benth. & Hook.

Melocanna bambusoides Trin.

1858, 1871?

1858

1874

1875

1925-1926

1927

1878

1892

1886

1891

1862

1811

1863-1866

1889

1892

Sieber

A. L. Home

Kurz

Parker

Kurz

Ridley .

Alwis ase

Ridley

Brandis

Kurz fp

Schlich, Gamble

Scortechini

L. Wray

H. de L.

| Kurz

Brandis

Gamble

Troup

Thomson, Kurz ...

Mt. Parasnath

Andamans

Nicobars

‘Tenasserim

| Perak

| Malacca

..| Kwala Pahan (Malay

Pen.

Sittang Hills

Arakan

Chittagong

Malay Pen.

Upper Perak

Perak co

? (Native of Brazil) ...

Martaban, Karen Hills

Chittagong ons

Chittagong, Arakan,

Bot. G. Caleutta

Garo and Khasia Hills...

Assam on

cally, in isolated clumps or in small

groups, almost every year; it also

flowers gregariously over large tracts

at long intervals, the gregarious flower-

ing usually taking some years to

complete, and often progressing in a

definite direction in successive years.

Actually it is often difficult to distin-

guish between sporadic flowering on a

plentiful scale and gregarious flower-

ing, there being all stages between

the two. In the Garhwal outer

Himalayan tract the interval between

the last two recorded general flower-

ings was between 36 and 40 years (i.e.,

1872-1876 and 1908-1913). (Troup).

According to Smythies the interval in

the Chanda Distr. is about 30 years.

Life-cycle between 30 and 40 years.

(Troup).

Gregariously in Pp ches. -

| A very few clumps in flower.

| orreea

« Flowers frequently.’ (Brandis).

Gregarious.

”

WIXXX ‘1A ‘ALZIIOS “LSIH TEAOLEN AVINWOP ‘TENANOL FIG

SOOINF' JO ONTYAMOTA AHL

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Pe a sess

916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

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SS —— ————————— ————————— ——————————————————————SSseseseFes

Name aeee Authority | Locality of flowering Notes

| ] =

Melocanna bambusoides Trin. 1900, 1902. | Troup Garo and Khasia Hills... | Gregarious.

12) 1904, oA Chittagong, Arakan Apparently over restricted areas,

1908-1912 | hi Chittagong ... | Extensive flowering.

1909-1910 H. de L. (Calcuttaye Boteea Gard *y|/samme nn nme Seon

| (cultivated) |

| 1910-1913. | Troup .. | Arakan ‘Extensive flowering, spreading in

| 1912-1913 to the east side of the Yoma

| into the Prome, Henzada, and Bassein

| | districts.’ (Troup).

1910-1911 i Sylhet (Assam ) | Gregarious.

1911-1912 Garo Hills, Cachar, | 4)

Sylhet, Lushai Hills |

(Assam)

1912-1913 00 = Bamonpokri plantation |

| (Kurseong)

1915-1916 Wi 95 Arakan us ..|Gregarious. Period according to

| Gamble about 30 years, according to

| Kurz 30-35 years, according to Troup

about 4S years. ‘ The data at present

available are not sufficient to justify

| | any definite conclusions.’

Merostachys capitata Hook. ...| 1867, 1873, 1878 | H. de L. «. | Brazil . noo

nid Clausseni Munro... 1878 + on 1g ine |

iy Fischeriana RUBE: 1842 oH coll BY

Wn Kunthiana Poir. . 1905 = co ”

¥ Neesii Rupr. ay 1840 nn) es A

ay petiolata Denstedt 1874 os a3 a4

tacemiflora Fourn. 1841 “)

Neohowzeaua Dullooa A. Camus| 1880 Fuchs Brit. Bhutan |

1889 Gammie r) cen

1892 Oliver Katha Distr. (Upper |

Burma) !

— ee a eee eagle ee

| 1892-1893 Gamble .. | Momeik State (Burma)

1894 Oliver .|Ruby Mines Distr.

| (Burma)

F Helferi Gamble ... 1889 Mann Garo Hills (Assam)

1922 Dickins Toungoo Distr.(Burma) |

5) stricta Parker 1925-1926 Parker ‘Venasserim ... | Gregarious.

1927 a) ay A few clumps in flower.

tavoyana Gamble 1919 C. G. Rogers |Sinyat. Hillin Tavoy...}| 9 2 saseee

Ochlandra Beddomei Gamble.. 1875-1876 Brandis Sisbara Ghat Died after flowering. ‘Had not been

known to flower for 20 years.’

| (Brandis).

a Brandisii Gamble ... 1835 Wight ol Tinnevelly Ghats bee

1882 Brandis ” coe

) Rheedei Benth. & one | Flowers annually, not dying down after

Hook, f. sad flowering. (Bourdillon).

PT wadleyi Gamble a a8eeF J. Feilding Singapore mn eee A isi, (DH

» Stridula Thw. nnua a6 lowers annually and regularly. (Tri-

Zi | men). Does not dies down after

flowering. (Brandis).

a Talboti Brandis 1896 Brandis . | Throughout N. Kanara | Had not been seen in flower an many

years in that district. (Brandis).

ay travancorica Benth.. 1868 Beddome w Believed e die down after flowering.’

(Brandis).

1875 Bourdillon ‘Travancore ite Howets oben aes 7 years and

dies down.’ (Bourdillon).

1882 Brandis ... | Tinnevelly Ghats co"! Blowers) annually.’ Bourdillon ex

H. de L.

Greet 7 1905 Camus «| Travancore | eee

ys Pullei Gamble ... 05 “eo “os Flowers rarely (H. de. L.)

Oxytenanthera abyssinica 1865 H. deL. ... | Trop. Africa

Munro 1918-1919 Henkel ... | Southern Rhodesia Gregarious) all e old Plants! died:

1924-1925 i on een « The life-cycle appears to be about

i a years. Plants se earaaacedl from

| branches of the rhizome flower and

| die at the same time as the parent

plant.’ (Henkel).

TIIXXX "190A ‘ALAIIOS “LSIH TRYOLEN AFIWOPd ‘TRNANOS N6

SOOINFY SO ONTAAMOTA TDHL

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

918

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—— —— — —— —— — ———————— —— _—

Name Year eee Authority Locality of flowering | Notes Gs

Oxytenanthera al be ciliata! 1857 Mason ... | Toungoo Hills (Burma) | ‘ Irregularly flowering.’ (Brandis). S

unro =

1871 Kurz "...| Thaungyin and Pegu | ‘ Often flowers sporadically.’ (Troup). x

Yomas | &

1880 ° Brandis .. | Houndraw valley, i

Toungnyo S

1891 Oliver ... | Pyinmana (Burma) | S

1892 McHarg ... | Tenasserim | 8

1900, 1901 Camus ... | Burma BS

1909 H.de L. ... | Europe Md

1911 Troup ... | Pyinmana (Burma) Gregarious. =

1912 " ... | Lhayetmyo (Burma) 4 x

1913 ” ... | Toungoo (Burma) ... ~” NS

1914 | kane ... | S. Toungoo, Shwegyin, an Ss

| Rangoon ro

1916 a ..|N. Toungoo, Thaun- ” RS

gyin forests

1917 * Zigon, ‘Tharrawaddy, a z

W. Salween G

” Borzii Mattei.,. 1909 H. de L, «.. | Eritrea on ontidd 5]

” Bourdilloni 1889 Bourdillon oc on ‘ Flowers at long intervals.’ (Brandis). L

Gamble 3

aT nigrociliata 1849 Falconer ... | Tenasserim '... |‘ Often flowers sporadically,’ (Troup). Q

Munro 8

1875 A.L. Home _... | Andamans S

1879 King Moulmein cre, SS

Yi} parvifolia Bran- 1880 Brandis ... | Yonzalin Valley %

dis (Burma) y

Ritcheyi Blatter, 1852 Ritchie .-. | Kala Nuddi oF

1870 Brandis Satara Ghats ~

1884 Talbot N. Kanara *

1889 r e FS

1892 R.S. Fagan ... | Mahableshwar 305 S

a a ,

1892 A. D. Wilkins ... | Anmednagar

A sinuata Gamble 1885 Gamble Serum ban (Malay Pen. )

” Stocksii Munro) 1884 Talbot -. | Kumpta river (N.

Kanara)

1889 ¥) == RELY ALS (Nay E21 8) | ESS =

Thwaitesii 1847 Wight ... | Nilgiris ... | Very frequentlyinflower. Gamble is not

Munro sure that it dies down after flowering.

1851 V7 Nilgiris % concns

1865 Beddome Anamalais

1870 Clarke . | Coonoor S

1871 Beddome ... | Anamalais rt

1878 King ... | Ochterlony Valley &

1883 Gamble -. | Various places dy

1889 o 203 b

Phyllostachys aurea Carriére .. 1876 Bean ae Florence 8

1904 H. de L. ... | Belgium (native of China 3S

and Japan) &

1905 Bean .. | British Isles re

rn) bambusoides S. & Z. 1843(?) Siebold .. | Japan =

1900, 1904 | Makino pil fee : 9

3 bambusoides var. 1903, 1904 Camus ... | Kew (native of China)... 3°

Castilloni “ v

” congesta Rendle ... 1878 H.deL. China by

” Faberi Rendle ci 1888 ry ” ae see ee aS

an flexuosa A. & C. Riv. 1876 Riviere Bivata: rue Hamma | Brought from China in 1864 Ss

Igiers

BY, mitis Riviére ore 1856 H. deL. Algeria (native of China) S

Ba nana Rendle a4 1887 Rendle China a

Ay Nevinii Hance <0 1876 H. de L.

i nidularia Munro... 1875 Camus OG

1887 H. de L. ...| Florence (native of

Japan)

” puberula Mak. a] 1889, 1900 ~ ... | Japan

1898 Bean ... | Sussex

1900, 1906 H. de L. ... | Europe (native of Japan)

1900 * | Bean ... | Near Bristol oO

ir)

920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1/11

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683I-Z88T

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PS8I “SS8T

6881

CSSI-Z88T

PSST ‘SSST

0681

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ST6T

86ST

=) (ehecarrs)

SISUSUIIS ‘n

| IQmVy WeAl[O skyoe\sosIAy

“e

-ppeg TuSIM

TUITE)

olUNIX

Tun}wnuelv mnAYoeE souls,

ajquiex) enue} Gs Pe

s[quey)

TWINTOF1}B] as

Ad[Ply sueseyo “

ZINny

adnpepoAyoviq

| olUuny

{

(a9

Year of flower-

Name ing Authority

Phyllostachys puberula Mak .,. | 1902, 1903-1905 | Bean

BS) puberula var. Bory- 1903 »

ana H.deL.

1904 ”

“ puberula var. fulva 1905 BS

H.deL.

ot) puberula var. nana 1904 H.de L.

H. deL.

1901 ;

~s puberula var. nigro- 1900 Bean

punctata H. deL.

1903 H. de L.

5 pubescens H. de L, 1900 a

Stauntonii Munro . 1898 Staunton

Pseudostackyum polymorphum| 1857 Thomson

Munro

1891 Gammie

Sasa albo-marginata Mak 1886 H. de. L,

», auricoma E. G. Camus ... Annually Bean

», japonica Mak. 1867, 1868 Camus

1872, 1874 Bean

1877, 1880, 1886,} Camus

1898

», Spiculosa Mak. cod 1895-1894 H. de L.

Schizostachyum aciculare 1885 Alwys

Gamble

A Blumei Nees... 1889 Ridley

Locality of flowering |

Kew

Exeter, native of China

Kew

Japan

Japan, England,

over Europe

all

Kew and all over seurops|

Japan

China

Algeria, Paris, Mar-

seilles (native of Japan)

England and Florence

Japan

Rupayoong (Malay

Pen.)

Singapore

ao ee Sela ee eee ee

brachycladum |

Kurz

BS elegans Ridley,

latifolium

Gamble

tenue Gamble

Munro

any |

1) Griffithii '

Munro |

i Wightii Bedd

Thyrsostachys Oliveri Gamble |

a” siamensis

Gamble

1898 H. de L.

1915 Ridley

1891

1891 »)

1864 Thwaites

1890 ‘Trimen

1883, 1884 Gamble

1887-1859 Bourdillon

1889 | Mann

1883, 1884. | Gamble

1857 Bourdillon

1887-1889 | n

1891 | Gamble

1902-1905 Troup

iyWaty hy |e

1914 Wace

1916 an

1916 es

1917 a

1892 Gamble

1893 Brandis

Malay Peninsula

Pahang (Malay Pen. Nn

» ” Coa

Ceylon C,P. |

Ohiya Valley (Ceylon )

‘Travancore |

Assam

Sispara Ghat

Caleutta Bot. Gard.

» ”

(Za be continued.)

4 | Flowers frequently.

Notes

In Temperate House in 1902, in open air

1903-1905, All plants died.

Entire plant died, with the exception of

asmall portion. (Bean).

During the next few years after 1900

other plants flowered at Kew and many

otbergardens. (Bean).

(Brandis).

Only few culms flower and die; plants

not affected.

Offsets of a parent plant

into Europe in 1850.

introduced

Peermaad

‘Travancore Flowered and died off.

Upper Burma Gregarious.

Ruby Mines . | Sporadic.

‘Thabeitkyin subdivision Gregarious.

of the Ruby Mines ”

Dist.

Ruby Mines, Mandalay, | ay

and Meiktila Districts

S. Shan States mn

Henzada-Maubin Sporadic.

Mandalay Dist. . |Gregarious,

Flowers periodically. (Brandis).

A few flowers on thin wiry branchlets.

is)

‘S

ane

SOOINF FO ONIMAMOTA FHL

Te6

THE HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL

SURVEY OF INDIA

INTRODUCTION

By’ Lt.-Col. R. ~B.. SEYMOUR? SEWELE, -I.MiS.. oMoA., oF A.sen)

EeieSoy PF eZese

It has been suggested by Sir Reginald Spence, Honorary

Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, that an article on

the purpose and progress of the Zoological Survey of India might

be of interest to the members of the Bombay Natural History

Society, and might lead to a closer co-operation of the Society and

iis members with the Zoological Survey of India and its various

officers and that by such close co-operation the usefulness both

of the Society and-of the Survey might* be increased. dn, the

following paper, therefore, I and my officers in the Survey have

attempted, somewhat briefly, to bring before the members of the

Bombay Natural History Society what we are attempting to do

for India and what the members of the Bombay Natural History

Society can do for us.

‘History of the Zoological Survey of India.—In order to trace

the origin and history of the Zoological Survey of India it is

necessary to go back nearly a hundred years, when serious zoo-

logical investigations were first undertaken in this country. At

that time the only Society of any importance in India was the

Asiatic Society of Bengal. This Society had been founded by

Sir William Jones in 1784, but for nearly fifty years the study of

zoology was not encouraged. It was at the instance of Brian

Hodgson that investigation into the fauna of this country was

seriously commenced, the first area to be investigated, and by

Brian Hodgson himself, being the neighbouring territory of Nepal.

It was in 1841 that Edward Blyth was appointed Curator of the

Asiatic Society’s Museum and he immediately commenced to make

collections and to describe the vertebrate fauna of the Indian

Iempire. From this time on, a number of enthusiastic zoologists,

whose names are too many to mention here, continued to carry

en this work and gradually the collections of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal increased and there was added to our knowledge a large

number of new species, the ‘types’ of which were deposited in the

Asiatic Society’s Museum. The increase of the Society’s col-

lections resulted, in a few years, in such a congestion of the

available and limited space in the Society’s building that in 1856

the Society submitted a memorial to the Government of India urging

the Government to establish an Imperial Museum in Calcutta, and

offering their very valuable collection as a nucleus. Six years

jater, in 1862, the Government of India agreed to the proposal

and the erection of the Indian Museum was commenced, but it

THE HISTORY OF Li PEL OOLROCIOAI SURVEY OF-LNDIA 923

was not till 1875 that the Museum building in Chowringhee was

completed and the Asiatic Society’s collections were transferred

to their new home. At the commencement of the Indian Museum,

the collections of the Zoological and Anthropological Section con-

sisted almost entirely of the collections that had been made by

the Asiatic Society of Bengal and which were handed over by the

Society to the Museum to form a nucleus around and to which

further additions could be made. At the same time in 1875 the

Marine Survey of India was inaugurated and, again owing to the

representations made by the Asiatic Society of ‘Bengal, the post

of Surgeon-Naturalist to the Marine Survey of India was created.

The duties of the Marine Survey included the investigation of the

marine and specially the deep-sea fauna of the Indian waters;

and it was laid down that these collections were the property of

the Asiatic Society of Bengal until they had been worked out and

named, and when this had been done, they were to be handed over

to the Indian Museum. Between 1875 and 1916 the Zoologicai

and Anthropological Section of the Indian Museum steadily ex-

panded and by the care and activity of successive Superintendents

and Assistant Superintendents, notably Dr. J. Anderson, Mr. J.

Wood-Mason, Lt.-Col. A. W. Alcock and finally Dr. N. Annandale

and his colleagues, a magnificent collection of animals in many

of the larger groups was got together and a number of descriptive

catalogues were prepared and published. During the same period

“« number of very important collections made by enthusiastic and

distinguished amateurs, notably those by Dr. Francis Day of Indian

Pishes,, Mr.. Lode Niceville of Buttertlies, Dudgeon and ‘Green of

Moths, van de Poll of Passalid Beetles, and Godwin-Austin of

Molluscs, were offered for sale and were purchased by the Trustees

with funds supplied for the purpose by the Government of India.

The number of officers attached to the Zoological and Anthro-

pological Section of the Museum rose during these years from one

tc four and in 1916 as a result of representations made to. the

Government of India by the Trustees of the Indian Museum and

by Dr. N. Annandale, Superintendent of the Museum and Officer-

in-charge of the Zoological and Anthropological Section, this Sec-

tion of the Museum was converted into*the Zoological Survey of

India and was placed on an equality with the Geological and Botani-

cal Surveys. At this period the British Empire was in the throes

of the great war and the services of the baby Survey were

immediately offered to the Government of India. One of the novel

features of the war was the realization by the military and especially

by the medical authorities of the importance of the study of zoo-

logy and the employment of professional zoologists as a means

towards the prevention of disease by sanitation or towards its

limitation by recognized methods of quarantine, etc.; and, as

a result of this recognition, a number of zoological specialists

were employed in connection with the forces. But it was

not until 1918, and only then largely as a result of representations

made by the then Director-General of the Indian Medical Service,

Surgeon-General Edwards, 1.m.s., that the Government availed

themselves of the services of the Zoological Survey of India in

924 JOURNAT., BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII

order to carry out investigations regarding the possibility of the

introduction of diseases hitherto unknown in this country, and more

particularly of Schistosomiasis, by the troops returning from infected

areas overseas. Another result of the war was an influx into

the Museum of a number of collections made by officers who were

interested in Zoology, either as amateurs or as professionals, in

regions overseas to which these officers had proceeded on active

service. Special attention was drawn to these valuable donations

in the first report on the Zoological Survey of India for the year

1916-17, in which it was pointed out that a noteworthy feature of

the donations received during this year was the large area from

which they had come, ‘from Egypt to Japan and from Siam to

Arabia.’ Commencing with this first request by the Government

for the assistance of the Zoological Survey of India, co-operation

between the Survey and the various Governments, either Imperial

or Provincial, or with other official and non-official bodies has

steadily increased and I may perhaps be allowed to refer here to

the assistance that was rendered to the Bombay Natural History

Society by the Zoological Survey of India during the course of

the Mammal Survey that was conducted by the Society. In more

recent years the Zoological Survey of India has been and is being

more and more frequently consulted and asked for advice regard-

ing such widely divergent subjects as (1) the organization of sea-

fisheries by the Government of Madras, (2) brackish-water fisheries

by the Government of Bihar and Orissa, (3) fresh-water fisheries

by the Governments of the United Provinces and Burma, (4) the

protection of lizards by the Government of Bengal, (5) the oyster

fisheries in the Sunderbans by the Government of Bengal, and

(6) the distribution of certain mammals, particularly those useful

in medical research work, by the Calcutta School of Tropical Medi-

cine. When asked to give advice on problems so divergent as

these, it is particularly impressed on the officers of the Zoological

Survey of India that, however expert we may be in certain groups

of the Animal Kingdom and however extended our knowledge in

the taxonomy of these groups, our knowledge of the habits of the

vast majority of the animals inhabiting this country is still hope-

lessly incomplete and it is particularly along this line of research

that enthusiastic amateurs such as the members of the Bombay

Natural History Society, and particularly those members whose

profession and occupation entail residence in the mofussil or in

the wilds and jungies of India, can be of inestimable value.

At its inception the Zoological Survey of India consisted of only

four officers, and Dr. Annandale in his first report on the Survey

in 1917 wrote ‘to any school-boy it must be clear that four men

cannot conduct a real survey of the Indian Empire’. Since its

inauguration the Survey has steadily increased in the number of

its gazetted officers and at the present time ‘we are seven’, though

even now we are still two short of our cadre as sanctioned by the

Secretary of State; but it is hoped that in the near future these

two vacancies will be filled and the strength of the Survey even

further increased. Until this is done the actual regional survey-

work of the department must be confined to comparatively smal}!

PHE HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 925

areas. The first actual surveys undertaken by the department con-

sisted in a study of small areas such as the Inlé Lake, Chilka

Lake, the mouth of the Mutlah River, the Siju Cave, etc. During

the latter part of the war and as a part of our investigations regard-

ing the possible introduction of Schistosomiasis into India, we were

able to carry out investigations into the fauna of Seistan.

ine S26qats, the *request. of the. Pasteur Institute; Rangoon,

and again. in connection with the possible introcuction of

Schistosomiasis into Burma, we carried out a survey, especially

of the Mollusc fauna, of the Northern Shan States. But in these

instances it must be borne in mind that, however intensive a study

may be made of an area during a period of a few weeks or a month

or two, our knowledve of the fauna of that area must still remain

hopelessly incomplete and it is only by repeated investigations at

different periods of the year that we can hope to obtain anything

like a complete knowledge. With the increase in the strength of

the department we have in recent years become rather more

ambitious and at the present time we are attempting a survey of

the Nerbudda River. During the last three years parties have

been despatched and collections have been carefully made, commenc-

ing in the region of the headwaters of the river system at Amar-

kantak and its vicinity in the Rewa State, and gradually progressing

further and further down the various tributaries until at the present

time we have reached the neighbourhood of Itarsi. No one, how-

ever, realizes more clearly than we do that the collections made

by successive parties can only give a partial picture of the fauna,

since this of necessity must change very considerably from seasor

to season and possibly from year to year in accordance with the

various changes in climatic conditions during each season of the

year and with the intensity in successive years of the monsoon

rainfall, and it would be of the very greatest help to us if members

cf the Society who may happen either to live in this area, or may

be visiting it, would make additional collections for us and send

them to us wth full details as to the locality in which they were

made, the time of the year and the general conditions existing at

fhe «time:

The first essential of any survey, such as we are attempting

to carry out, is the correct identification of the various animals

that may be collected, and of necessity every officer in the Zoo-

logical Survey of India has first and foremost to become a taxono-

mist. With only six Zoologists on the staff, the seventh being

an Anthropologist, it is impossible for us to cover the whole of

the Animal Kingdom, but for many years past the officers of the

Zoological and Anthropological Section of the Indian Museum or

cf the Zoological Survey of India have each of them taken up the

study of one or two larger groups and in these groups we can

claim to be experts. This specialisation has enabled us in the

past to carry out taxonomic surveys of a number of different groups,

the results of which have been published either as separate

‘catalogues’ or as ‘memoirs’, a complete list of which is issued

by the Government Central Publication Branch, 8 Hastings Street,

Calcutta, and is far too long to be included here, but among others

926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

one may mention those of the Crustacea by Alcock, the fresh-

water Sponges and Polyzoa by Annandale, the Stomatopoda by

Kemp, the Passalid Beetles by Gravely and the Nemocera by

Brunetti, and a special volume of the ‘Records’ on Biting Flies.

We have been in the past, and hope to be equally in the future,

fortunate enough to enlist the assistance of a number of specialists

in other countries and in this way we have built up in the Museum

a magnificent collection of authentically-named specimens, among

which are a very large number of ‘types’. In order to be certain

of the correct identification of a specimen it has frequently been

necessary to compare it with those obtained in other parts of the

world and consequently collections from overseas are often of the

very greatest importance and assistance to us. While, therefore,

any member of the Society can be of the greatest help to us by

making collections, no matter how small, in regions outside India

and sending them to us for examination, we on the other hand can

be of assistance to others by naming for them the collections that

they have made; and we are only too willing to undertake, so far

as we possibly can with our limited staff and limited available time,

to work out such collections and, if desired, return them to the

sender, the only stipulation that we make in such cases being that

we are allowed to retain duplicates for our own collection and,

where the collections contain new species, to publish the description

and retain the ‘type’. specimens. If, on the other hand, the owner

is willing to part with his collection for a financial consideration,

we are always willing to offer a fair price asked for the complete

collection, if small, or for individual specimens. In the case of

large collections, our finances will not permit of such purchase

out of our annual bud-vet, but in the case of really valuable collections

the Government of India have been in the past and doubtless in the

future will be prepared to consider the question of the purchase

ef such for the Zoological Survey of India.

THE PUBLIC GALLERIES

By? Bs PRASHAD,-(D.SC..-. F-R<S HE), oh ASO weak Ses keZese

In the introductory chapter Col. Sewell has given a short summary

of the history of the origin and development of the Zoological

Survey of India, but since the Zoological Survey owes its

development as a research institution to the establishment of

the museum, and as one of the paramount duties of the Survey

is the proper maintenance and develooment of the Zoological and

Ethnological public galleries of the Imperial Museum, it will be

useful to recapitulate here briefly the history of the development

of these galleries.

In the original scheme for the foundation of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal there was no mention of the establishment of a museum,

but non-resident, mofussil members sent in curiosities of various

kinds to the Society from time to time, and with the increase in

their numbers, the Society seriously considered the question of

having a suitable house for their preservation and exhibition in

THE HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA. 927

1796. No practical results, however, ensued from these delibera-.

tions till the building of the Society was completed in 1808. In

1814 the first advance in this direction was made as a result of

a letter from Dr. N. Wallich. Dr. Wallich, who was a Danish

Botanist of great repute and was working in the Calcutta Botanical

Gardens, had extensive private collections of Natural History objects

etc., and he not only proposed to present to the Society duplicates

from his collections but also offered his services free for looking

after the Society’s museum. The proposal was carefully con-

sidered and it was decided to establish in the Society’s building

a museum containing exhibits of all kinds from all over the East,

and Dr. Wallich was appointed the first honorary Curator. During

Dr. Wallich’s period of Curatorship, owing to his being a Natural-

ist, very great attention was paid to the development of the Natural

History Section of the Museum, and this continued to be the case

under his successors, Pearson and McClelland, both of whom were

medical men and were specially interested in the Natural History

of India. Later, paid Curators were employed, but owing to the

meagre salary of the post no really qualified man could be obtained

till 1841. W5uth increased grants from the Court of Directors of

the East India Company in 1841 Dr. Edward Blyth was selected

from London and sent to Calcutta to take charge of the office of

the Curator of the Society’s museum. Dr. Blyth was an exception-

ally well qualified and a very enthusiastic Zoologist, and as a

result of his devoted labours and the interest he was able to arouse

in Natural History in the members of the Asiatic Society, the

collections in this section of the museum soon outgrew the

resources of the Society. Without going into details about the

protracted negotiations that went on between the Board of Directors

of the East India Company and later the Secretary of State for

India and the Council of the Society in reference to the establish-

ment of an Imperial Museum in Calcutta, it is enough to note that

the Indian Museum was definitely established as an imperial insti-

tution and all the collections from the Asiatic Society’s building

were transferred to the new building of the Indian Museum in

Chowringhee in 1875. In this connection it is of special interest

to record that at this time the Natural History Section was con-

sidered the most important section of the Museum and had under

its charge not only the show galleries containing Natural History

exhibits but archaeological and other miscellaneous exhibits as well.

Dr. John Anderson, a professor of Natural History from Edin-

burg, was now appointed the first Curator of the Museum and

later the designation of his post was changed to that of Superinten-

dent of the Museum. It will thus be seen that in the earlier years

the development of the Museum was intimately bound up with that

of the Natural History Section of the Museum. The various

Superintendents paid special attention to collections of Natural

History specimens, and these were arranged and displayed in large

public galleries according to the ideas then in vogue, but as was

very well expressed by the late Dr. Annandale ‘the question of

the utilization of the Museum collections for the purpose of display

and popular education in the Indian Museum was not unfortunately

928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIT

developed to the same extent as the scientific utilization of these

collections. Superintendents of the Indian Museum were ‘faced

throughout its history as a Government institution by the fact that

the funds at their disposal have not been adequate both to encourage

zoological research and to display to the public its results in a

manner worthy of an Imperial Museum. They have deliberately

chosen the alternative that seemed to them, in the peculiar circum-

stances prevalent in India, the better of the two, and have frankly

claimed that the chief function of the zoological section must be

to act as a centre of investigation. The peculiar difficulties that

exist in India in respect to the public galleries of «a zoological

museum are both physical and educational. On the one hand we

have the tropical light, and a comparatively great range of temper-

ature; on the other, both the illiterate condition of the vast majority

of the visitors and the eagerness with which students learn the

statements on labels by rote. The last is a difficulty that is

apparently by no means easy for a museum curator in Europe to

appreciate, but is a very real one in Bengal, if not also in other

countries.

At the present day there are under the Zoological Survey six

zoological galleries of the Museum, two for Mammals, one for

Birds, Reptiles and Batrachia, one for Fish, one for Invertebrates,

one for Insects and Arachnids and one Ethnological gallery. The

collections in these galleries are representative of the various

classes of animals found in Asia and more particularly in India,

but in order to make the survey of the Animal Kingdom complete

several foreign animals are also exhibited. The public galleries,

as noted above, are unfortunately not in a condition of which an

Imperial Museum can be proud, but attempts are being made to

remodel the galleries and replace the antiquated specimens by more

up-to-date exhibits. For lack of funds the Victorian idea of

exhibiting specimens in a museum gallery, which was adopted

when the galleries were originally designed and arranged, has not,

except in a few cases, been materially changed. The new Inverte-

brate gallery, however, and to a certain extent the Insect gallery,

are models of what a public gallery in a museum should be, but

even in these galleries nature-study groups of different classes of

animals in their natural surroundings are a great desideratum. It

is hoped that the deficiencies will be filled up as funds and the

necessary technical help become available.

THE LIBRARY

By .Bs/ PRASHAD,3"D.SC; 4 EURYS. Bu, UP SASS°B se BS) aS:

An up-to-date reference library is a very necessary adjunct to

any zoological department, for, as is well known, systematic

zoology is absolutely impossible without books. In Calcutta we

are fortunate in having a zoological library which is probably as

complete as that in any English or foreign University or Museum.

The collection of books in this library, which was transferred to

the Zoological Survey of India from the Natural History Section

THE HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 929

'of the Indian Museum in 1916, had been got together by the un-

ceasing efforts of the officers of the department for over fifty years,

ana consisted of roughly 12,000 volumes. Since that date, in normal

cases, roughly 600 volumes have been-added every year, while on

two occasions, as a result of special grants for the purchase of

books from the Government of India, a large number of older

works and many of the more recent standard publications have

been purchased. On a rough estimate the number of books in the

library today is over 20,000 volumes.

In the earlier years owing to the lack of funds the Museum

library was deficient in several of the older publications which had

already become classics and were, therefore, rare and very costly,

and in the complete series of several periodical publications. This

was due, at least in part, to the policy followed on the institution

of the Indian Museum, when for lack of sufficient funds it was

decided not to re-duplicate those publications which were available

in other libraries in Calcutta. Many of the costly earlier publications

were, therefore, not purchased for the Museum library, and the

available funds were utilised for purchasing such works as were

not available in any other library in the town. It may also be

mentioned that most of the rarer earlier publications mentioned

above are available in Calcutta in the libraries of the Asiatic

Society of Bengal or of the Geological Survey of India. From

the beginning of the twentieth century however and more parti-

cularly with the appointment of the late Dr. N. Annandale as the

Superintendent of the Museum in 1907 the necessity of having more

complete collections in the departmental library was brought home

to the Trustees of the Indian Museum and through this body to

the Education Department of the Government of India. The grants

for the library were thereafter materially increased and the Museum

library as a result has grown at a rapid rate. Further with the

starting of the two special serial publications of the Natural History

Section of the Indian Museum,—viz. the Records and the Memoirs

of the Indian Museum, which with the institution of the Zoological

Survey of India became the publications of the Survey Department—

it was possible to greatly extend the exchange of publications with

institutions and other bodies which publish zoological periodicals.

As a result, the library of the Zoological Survey of India to-day

receives every year about 200 serial publications, and of these only

a small number are obtained by purchase. Within recent years

as a result of the special grants mentioned above, it has also been

vossible to fill up many lacune in the serial works and purchase

several standard works of reference, which were wanting in the

departmental library, and of which unfortunately no copies are

available in any other library in Calcutta. |

In the earlier years and even up to the foundation of the Zoo-

logical Survey of India, the library of the Natural History Section

of the Indian Museum in accordance with the statutory limitations

was not a lending library and none of the library books could be

removed out of the Museum building. With the foundation of

the Zoological Survey of India, however, the Government of India

suggested the desirability of throwing open this valuable library

930 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

to approved workers all over the country. Since this change of

policy a very important activity of the library is the lending of

books to workers all over the country and thereby enabling them

to carry out research which, except in special centres, was hitherto

impossible. Even though the number of workers in India is not

very large at the present day still a fair number of books are sent

on loan all the year round from the departmental library to workers

in all parts of India. In addition requests are often received for

the loan of books from Ceylon and other countries in Asia.

Naturally these requests cannot be complied with, but as far as

possible typed copies of the necessary references with photographs

of plates are supplied.

The library of the Zoological Survey of India is particularly rich

in certain sections especially Crustacea, Fishes, Molluscs, several!

groups of Invertebrates, various classes of Insects, etc., in which ~

groups workers have carried out researches in the Museum and

in the Zoological Survey. In these cases all the necessary literature

has been accumulated and kept up-to-date, while in other groups

like Mammals and Birds, there are unfortunate gaps and the library

in these sections is not so well supplied as it should be. Attempts

are, however, made from time to time and as funds become available

to procure the missing publications and other works of general

importance. |

The library also contains a very rich collection of the reports

of the different scientific expeditions all over the world and has a

good collection of anthropological literature.

Unfortunately there is no up-to-date printed catalogue of the

books in the library, but a list of the serials available will be found

in Dr. S. W. Kemp’s ‘Catalogue of the Scientific Periodicals ‘in

Calcutta Libraries’ published by the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

The library is open to students and those interested in Zoology

during office hours.

at {

bas !

(To be continued)

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN THE TAVOY

DISTRICT (BURMA)

W. S. Woop

The Tavoy District (stretching from Ataran on the north to

the Mergui border on the south, and with Siam as its eastern

frontier, contains many types of country from the open paddy-

lands of the Tavoy river-valley, through the deciduous forests

and bamboo jungle to the vast evergreen forests that densely

clothe the hill slopes. It offers an unsurpassed field for the butter-

fiy collector.

On a bright morning in the month of October an equally

enthusiastic fellow collector and myself have decided on a whole

day’s outing. We make an early start from Tayvoy Town by

motor-car and, a fair road permitting, reach the Hermyingyi

Inspection Bungalow by 8 a.m., and as we propose to walk

over the watershed lying between the Kamounghla and Pauktaing

streams, send the car back to meet us at the Wagon Bungalow,

on the other side of the divide.

As we leave the car and cross a flat we ‘flush’ a swarm of Crow-

butterflies (Huploca) breakfasting off the flowers of a small shrub

and soon our nets are busy. There are so many and in such variety,

that it is difficult to select individuals from the bevy who with

their peculiar slow and jerky flight circle round us. By far the

most numerous is mulciber, in lesser numbers we_ observe

diocietiana, harrisi, klugiu, limborgi, godarti, and _ there

is one bremeri, who, directly he is spotted in the crowd appears

to become aware of our felonious intentions and, leaving his

fellows, makes a bee-line over the shingle on the margin of the

stream, and we after him. His jerky flight, though perhaps decep-

tive, does not make for speed, and just as he reaches the stream—

across which lies safety—my net engulfs him and he is duly

added to those of his fellow feasters. I look back to see my com-

panion blandly contemplating nature from a sitting posture having

in his rapid progress stepped on a round stone and gracefully

subsided earthwards. I come and help him to rise and display

to him bremeri now safely housed in his paper envelope.

A peculiar feature of these congregations of Euploeas is that

they are entirely composed of males; the ladies of the genus

apparently do not grace the feast with their presence, or perhaps

it is only the convivial bachelor parties that we stumble across.

Our way lies along a bridle-path which serves the tin-mines.

We proceed on our way, picking up a few of the early-flying

Hesperids, and reach a small brook on the margin of which

grows a species of Calladium; a small drab-coloured butterfly

932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

rises at our approach and we give it a passing glance. Probably

itis only a Common Bushbrown (Mycalesis perseus) of which we

have seen many, but no perseus ever had those rufous coloured

fasclae crossing its wings on the underside and this is something

new to us. Warily we stalk it with nets outstretched. Just as my

companion is within striking distance, another butterfly of the same

kind flies past and away goes our quarry in chase of him and

both of them enter an impenetrable brake of thorny canes further

up the slope of the hill. Sadly we gaze after the vanished prize

and proceed to regain the path, when to our great joy, having chased

his rival away, the small butterfly rapidly returns and my companion

with a hasty sweep of the net secures him. An examination

assures us that it is a Mycalesis, as evidenced by the swolien

base of vein twelve on the forewing, and a male judging from

the secondary sex-mark on the hind wing, but of a_ species

unknown to us. We afterwards had it identified as the Malayan

Bushbrown (Mycalesis fuscum). We linger in the spot hoping

the rival will return: and return he does, settling on the identical

Calladium leaf formerly occupied by the first bully. He also is

safely added to the collecting case and a wait of a few minutes

secures us two more specimens, all males. I daresay most buttet-

fly hunters have noticed how individual males of certain species

of butterflies appear to consider a particular patch of ground their

own special domain and insistently chase away any rival male who

ventures within their territory. I have never been able definitely

to ascertain whether it is actual fear of the ‘top-dog’ that drives

the rival away or whether the chase that invariably ensues is

merely a mock combat more in the nature of a friendly game.

The sun is getting up above the forest trees. A howl, as of

a lost soul in torment, from the hill-top above, tells us that a

Gibbon has decided to hold a long-distance conversation with one

ot his kind across the valley, and soon the crescendo wails of this

raucous duologue are in full swing. My companion dubs them ‘the

stomach-ache monkeys’. There is reason for the appellation,

the imagination can easily grasp the idea that such doleful howls

could only emanate from one tormented by the pains of a particularly

virulent colic. Gibbons hold these long-distance conversations.

Each individual in turn emits a string of successive howls, crescendo

for three-quarters of its duration then falling away to diminuendo.

To the casual listener every such oration of howls appears identical

with its forerunners but close attention proves that the intonation

always varies in a very slight degree and it may be that the trained

ape-ear can interpret these slight intonations into words bearing

a definite meaning. Thus, what to us appears nothing more than

a particularly horrid noise may possibly be a very important political

debate in the ape world.

We proceed on our way; the path, following the line of least

resistance, runs along the base of a valley and parallel with a stream;

in the bed of which many moist sandy patches occur beloved by

certain species of butterflies who on a hot day appear to have

acquired that East-of-Suez thirst immortalised by Kipling. Over

one of these patches of sand we see a butterfly hovering, which

eT) oe ee. ae

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’ S RAMBLE IN. TAVOY (BURMA) 933

from a casual glance, appears to be nothing more than an extra

large male Euplea mulciber; but it is not quite a Euploa in its

manner of flight and we are ‘not satisfied and decide to investigate

cioser. The butterfly has by now settled on the patch of sand

but rises at our approach and a closer view shows us _ that

it, is indeed a prize worthy of capture, being no other than

a male of that rarity Chilasa paradoxa telearchus, the Great Blue

Mime which mimics Euploea mulciber so closely as to deceive any

insect-eating bird looking for a tasty morsel. Telearchus

evidently does not trust us and flies away up-stream, but that juicy

patch of sand contains temptations not to be resisted, and he soon

returns, when a quick sweep of the net, from behind him, for ever

puts Tait out of the reach of all temptations. What a beauty he is!

with his long tapering and iridescent purple forewing. As we

safely esconce him in the collecting case a large white buttery

flies rapidly by us upstream; my companion remarks that to him it

looked like a Great Orange Tip (Hebomoia glaucippe) but lacking

the apical orange patch to the forewing. As we are discussing the

possibility of this, back comes the subject of discussion and swiftly

circling us flutters down on the same succulent sandy patch which

proved the undoing of telearchus. He moves in short jerks over

the sand and his hind-wings alternately rasp one another-—no

Hebomoia this but a particularly fine Jewelled Nawab (Eribeea

delphis). My companion craftily stalks him and when within striking

distance imperceptibly moves his net close to the ground nearer

and nearer—but no—delphis is not too busily engaged not to note

the creeping net and, just as hopes of a successful ‘dab’ run high,

the patch of sand ienows him no more and there he is high above

sitting on a leaf and head downwards, contemplating us, and those

rasping hind-wings seem to tell of his sardonic joy at our

discomfiture. We tentatively reach up a net towards him only to

find that it is at least five feet too short and those rasping hind-

wings move faster as if to emphasise his ‘gloat’ at our further

discomfiture. This is intolerable. While my companion stays to

watch him, I go off in search of a stick to tie to the net-handle.

I find one and by the tying it to the net-pole with our handkerchiefs

we construct an instrument for the outwitting of delphis sitting

there enjoying his ‘gloat’. True the splice is not very firm, but with

careful manipulation the improvisation might serve and slowly and

with bated breath the net is raised closer and there sits our Nawab,

ail unwitting of the destiny approaching him. Now is the time to

strike! I take a firmer grip of the stick and slowly back-swing for

the stroke—and the improvised splice collapses ! eo there goes

delphis to a higher leaf. He is well out of reach of any improvisa-

tion now and those mocking hind-wings of his rasp faster as head

downward he surveys us from his new perch of safety. We look

around for missiles wherewith to make him move and find them in the

small pebbles of the stream bed. For the next five minutes we are

engaged in bowling ‘full-tosses’, ‘donkey-drops’ and ‘googlies’ at

him. Delphis enjoys it all but never moves and we are just consider-

ing the advisability of hurling larger stones with some force at him,

when he suddenly drops, rapidly circles us, and is away up-stream

934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII11

before we can realize that he has gone. Will he return? We bear

in mind the succulence of that sandy patch and decide to wait,

trying to immobilize ourselves into the semblance of stone monu-

ments. Yes, there he comes, and we freeze harder; my companion

craftily takes cover by sitting down within reach of that sandy

patch. My suggestion that | should further camouflage him by

heaping sand over him is somewhat coldly received. Kulepis, by

this time, has paid another visit up-stream and is back again and

flutters round us, even investigating for a brief moment my

companion’s nose, but immobile we wait; not till he settles down

again on his patch of sand can he be undone and presently from

his perch on my companion’s hat he hops down. Probably he has

decided that we are harmless stones after all, and soon is engrossed

in sucking moisture, or whatever it is he gets, from the sand. A

quick clap of the net-mouth on the ground and he is inside, his

quick eye has seen a small aperture where the cane of the net

rests on a small pebble, and already he is half out of the aperture.

1 hurl myself flat and just in time close the aperture with my hat,

niadly he flutters in the net, eluding our efforts to ‘nip’ him and

suddenly the net appears empty, there is certainly no struggling

insect there. Has he after all discovered some means of escape and

vanished into thin air? We peer through the net. Ha! there he

is the cunning rascal, sitting immobile on the sand within the’

net-mouth in the hope that we will raise the net incautiously to

peer inside when away he will go like a streak of light. Further

manipulation adds him safely to the collecting case, and the satis-

faction of successfully ‘bagging’ him is supreme. We linger by

the sand patch for a short while but nothing of further interest

visits it and we regain the path and proceed.

The bridle-path now assumes a steeper gradient and is flanked,

on its lower side, by some of the giant forest trees. On the mast-

like bole of one of these, a man’s height from the ground, a

brilliant verditer-green snake, about six feet in length and of the

thickness of a one inch hose, is observed. His shining scales glisten

in the sun as sinuously he glides up the bole of the tree. ‘A

particularly fine specimen of a harmless tree-snake’ I observe, and

playfully poke him gently with the butt-end of the net pole; he

is around in a flash, and assumes a fighting attitude striking

viciously at the still-extended net pole. Not being snake men we

hastily retire with an abject apology for the intrusion and wishing

him good-luck and good hunting, proceed.

With such meetings who can say that that spice of all sport—-

the element of danger—is absent in butterfly hunting?

By the way why is it that most popular pictorial representations

of snakes on trees invariably show the reptile wound round the

trunk or branch of the tree in the form of a spiral spring? I have

seen many different species of snakes ascending trees and I do

not recoilect once having observed this spiral mode of ascension.

On the contrary the reptile appears to climb by getting a grip

on the bark of the tree with the scales on its belly, or it glides from

bough to bough (if these are within reach) bridging even a wide

eap with its body. I lave even. observed. a tree-snake to: rest

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN TAVOY (BURMA) 935

easily on a single thin bowen and at right angles to it, with only a

kink of its body slightly depressed to maintain equilibrium ; in

a case like this one would imagine that a spiral or two would be

advantageous for security of hold, but the reptile made no attempt

at a hold in this manner and moved off along the limb in the

ordinary way one sees a snake progress on the ground. In the

Coffee plantations in Southern India, I have observed the pit-viper

perched on a Coffee-bush with a spiral or two of his tail around

a branch but never in’ the manner of the full-spiral as popularly

depicted in pictures illustrating the story of the Garden of Eden

and the downfall of Mother Eve.

We saunter up the bridle-path and are presently passed ‘by

a Chinaman—a tin-miner probably; seeing the net in our hands he

stops to watch us. I slyly suggest to my companion, who has just

taken a specimen of an undoubtedly extra nauseous-tasting White

Tiger (Danais melanippus), that for John’s benefit he extract the fly

and pretend to eat it, and he being somewhat of a sleight-of-hand

artiste the idea is successfully conveyed. A wonderment slowly dawns

on the Celestial’s somewhat flat features, and seeing the success of

the experiment, I grab another passing Danais and with every

manifestation of the enjoyment of a tasty tit-bit pretend to swallow

it. John is convinced. To him there is nothing outré in the

idea, for is the diet not in keeping with the ‘slugs and snails and

puppy dog’s tails’ which find a place on his menu card? And with

the radiance of a new discovery illumining his features he trudges

off and turns a corner. I suggest to my companion that around

that corner I would not mind betting we should find John Chinaman

trying to catch butterflies for a meal, and on turning the corner

sure enough there he is industriously endeavouring to catch with

his hat some wildly whirling Danais and Fuploeas; he somewhat

sheepishly desists when he -sees us and moves off towards the

mine, but I dare say that Chinaman, at some future date, tried

cut the diet; let us hope that his first experimental efforts did not

have as a victim some member of the nauseous-tasting protected

group. Who knows, perhaps that very quality may have com-

mended itself to a Chinaman’s palate! |

Proceeding we soon reach the mining-camp composed of a

collection of huts and wooden barracks and housing a medley of

nationalities—Ooriyas from Orissa, Chinamen from Yunnan and from

Canton and Peking, a sprinkling of Tamils from Cocanada way,

Ghurkhas from Nepal, Sonthals and even burly Pathans from the

North-West Frontier Provinces of India, Burmese, Talaings, all

attracted by the lure of easy-money and perhaps what to them

is a fortune to be made from tribute-work on the tin-mines. Facing

the camp Nature is a wreck. The contrast is appalling. Evergreen

forest side by side with a desert where the bones of Nature lie

strewn over a veritable Golgotha, these mark the site of the tin-

workings. We shudder and hurry on and out into the forest

again, and presently come to a point where the path crosses a

stream. Here, perhaps for some projected tin-working, the large

forest has been cleared and a secondary shrubby growth has sprung

up. The rays of the sun are just pleasantly warming this glade.

936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

it forms a rendezvous for many species of butterflies. The first of

these to attract our attention are some small brilliantly blue and

green Lycenide and we soon gather in a.few specimens. They

prove to be mostly the gaudy-coloured males of the Common Gem

(Poritia hewitsoni) and in lesser numbers the Green Gem (Poritia

pieurata) and Narrow-banded bBrilliants (Simiskina pediada);

handsome little fellows they all are with their brilliantly coloured

blue and green wings. Here also comes that John Gilpin of the

butterfly world the White Dragontail (Leptocircus currius)—apt

name—and his cousin the Green Dragontail (Leptocircus meges),

with their quaintly pointed and ridiculously extended hind wings

fluttering behind like coat-tails flying in the breeze. We gather

in a few of these as also a variety of Euthalias who have

arrived to warm themselves in this sunny glade before setting out

in search of food, or the courting of some fair lady butterfly. A

large, apparently drab-coloured, erratic-flying, butterfly comes

through the glade, now up at the tip top of a tree, the next second

dcown at its base, a swift turn to the right, and as I move in that

direction to intercept it, as swift a turn in the opposite direction

out of reach. Then, just as we think it is going away it arrests

its flight with the suddenness of a thunder-clap and sinks on a leaf

with wings outstretched, we catch a gleam of brilliant peacock

green and breathe in unison ‘Papilio palinurus’ that most elusive

and beautiful of the Tenasserim Papilios—the Burmese Banded

Peacock. A eareful stalk, a gradual approach of the net and a swift

upward catch and we have him, but alas! one of his delicate

spatulate-shaped tails suffers somewhat and hangs limply down.

Nevertheless this can be mended, and he is far too valuable a prize

to forego, so we carefully enclose him in his paper envelope and

consign him to the collecting case with a sense of satisfaction.

The glade promises good sport and we decide to stop awhile.

A sudden exclamation from my companion makes me turn towards

him and I see him vainly attempting to catch a butterfly which

appears to be bent on investigating his face at close quarters. Its

rapid flight in small circles round him makes it impossible for him

to catch it with his long-handled net, and I go to his rescue, but

my effort at a catch only results in knocking off his pince-nez and

as we search for these in the long weeds the butterfly is away

and across the glade. We recognize the would-be investigator as

the Banded Swallowtail (Papilio demolion) one of the most erratic-

flying of that large family. Demolion comes to rest on some red

flowers growing on a tree across the glade surrounded by a belt of

some creeping plant. I sprint across the glade and into the belt of

creepers, with painful results. A large colony of red-ants have

decided on these creepers as a favourable autumn residence and turn

out en masse to repel the invader. The whole world seems full of

red ants, and as I frantically endeavour to brush off the angry insects

more and more of them come up to the attack and a strategic retreat

is clearly indicated; once free of the entanglement of the creepers it is

possible to brush off the insects, but stray ones, overlooked, make

their presence unexpectedly and painfully felt for some time after-

wards. My companion’s laughter at the antics engendered by my

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN TAVOY (BURMA) 937

efforts to get rid of the ants did not tend to make the experience any

less painful. I am of opinion that demolion was perfectly aware of

these ants and with diabolical intent lured me into the trap. The

Burmese name for these red ants is ‘Kha-gyin’ literally meaning

bitter-acid, and a paste made from pounded ants and their eggs

sometimes finds a place in the Burmese menu. In some localities

this is considered a great luxury. I have heard it stated by

Burmans, with what truth I cannot say, that these ants are some-

times utilised by Burmese hunters, or ‘Moksohs’, as a means of

‘cooking’ flesh when the necessary articles to cook with are absent.

The method followed is to find a red ants’ nest, to break this

open and place small pieces of the flesh inside, the ants attack the

meat and by the injection of the acid resulting from their bites

the meat becomes similar to cooked meat and edible. Probably

this is a little wide of the mark and possibly the only effect of the

injection of acid tends to preserve the flesh and enable it to keep

longer than it otherwise would have done.

Demolion by this time has gone but, knowing his habits of

flying on a regular beat, we decide to wait; he returns and flutters

round the identical bunch of flowers with its red ant guard. |

suggest to my companion that he has a good chance of taking

demolion here but remembering the ants he withers me with a

look. We watch him and presently, with his peculiar up and down

flight, he makes straight for us, this time, however, a net engulfs

him and he is consigned to the collecting case.

Our attention is suddenly arrested by the appearance of a large

butterfly sailing majestically high overhead—to all appearances

it looks like a very large specimen of Euploea diocletiana—- With

a slowly circling motion the butterfly suddenly sails down towards

the stream on the edge of the glade and disappears from sight

behind the bushes fringing the bank. We proceed to investigate

and find he has settled on a pebbly bank and, with wings folded

and upraised, is now greedily sucking up the moisture; closer

investigation shows us that this is no Euploea diocletiana, but a

male of that beautiful rarity Chilasa paradoxa, var. danisepa; a wary

stalk ends successfully and we are soon admiring his tapered white-

patched and iridescently blue wings. The female of this species

appears to be very rare in the Tavoy District. In the course of

sixteen years of collecting, I have succeeded in securing only one

specimen, and that a damaged one. Males are fairly plentiful in

favourable localities, chiefly in the month of October, but I have

observed stray specimens of this butterfly right through the hot

weather till the break of the Monsoon. The closely allied race

the Great Blue Mime (Chilasa paradoxa telearchus) on the contrary,

appears in fairly large numbers also in October but apparently

disappears entirely from December onwards and my record contains

no entry of a specimen taken later than the commencement of

December. It would be interesting to know whether this holds good

in other localities, such as Assam, where these two species occur

together.

The bridle-path leads steadily upward now, along the side of

a steep hill-side where palms, canes and tree-ferns abound, Jn

938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol..XXXIM1

such. places the Lycenide delight and we are able to add a. vast

number of these magnificent little butterflies to our collecting case.

Of the sub-family Arhopaline a.large number of species have

been recorded from the Tavoy District, and here in this shady

patch of forest we took a number of that superb species the Lilac

Oak-blue (Amblypodia camdeo varro) and also the White-spotted

Oak-blue (Amblypodia albopunctata) and subfasciata. The patches

of light, formed by the sun-rays filtering through the dense foliage,

make a favourite resting place for that dainty Lycenid the White

Imperial (Neomyrina hiemalis). This small butterfly ordinarily

rests on the underside of a leaf and we found that to catch it success-

fully one required to strike with the net from above the leaf form-

ing its shelter. It is so quick in its action of getting away, if struck

at from below, that the effort usually ends in no catch. When

warming itself in the sun, however, the butterfly invariably chooses

the upper side of a leaf, sitting with wings fully expanded and

showing all its beauty of pure white background, touched_ with

metallic blue at the apices of the forewings, and its blue tinted body.

Reversing the process of catching it when at rest on the underside

of a leaf we strike at it upwards and are able to take a number

of both males and females. Flying low in amongst the thorniest

canes we observe a butterfly undoubtedly of the Papilionide but

of unfamiliar aspect; it is an impossibility to get anywhere near

it in its present position, and it appears to be quite content to

flutter around inside the brake. We however decide to wait and

presently our patience is rewarded and the butterfly emerges on

to the bridle-path to fall an easy victim to my companion’s net.

An examination soon shows us that it is something new to us, we

know no Papilio with a bright yellow body, a crimson spot in the

centre of each hindwing and a narrow-necked spatulate tail. We

afterwards were able to identify it as Byasa neptunus, the Yellow-

bodied Clubtail. Here also we are able to collect quite a large

number of Banded Yomen (Cirrochroa orissa). This butterfly

is seldom seen in open country and unlike the other members

ot the genus Cirrochroa it does not appear to frequent patches

of moisture along stream-beds, even where such streams meander

through evergreen forest stretches. Instead the butterfly

appears to delight in heavy forest, keeping particularly to the

tops of the ridges. It is a strange fact that Lieut.-Col. C. T.

Bingham in his Fauna of British India—Butterflies, Vol. I, omits

all record of this butterfly; it is a strikingly marked species and,

except that it superficially resembles the Rustic (Cupha erymanthis),

should not escape the notice of a keen observer. Can it be that this

butterfly has only just recently become established in the Tavoy

District? This is possible, as from my observations on the local

distribution of the Orange Emigrant (Catopsilia scylla) in the

Tavoy District I have observed that within the space of the last

sixteen years this butterfly has steadily enlarged its area of

distribution. The Fauna of British India records the habitat for

Catopstlia scylla as ‘within our limits the extreme south of

Tennasserim’; this record is apparently up to date of publica-

tidn cof. Vol. 1]. ei; 1907,0-am “the “year 1912 sh toundiataat

\A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN TAVOY (BURMA) 939

C. scylla could not be taken much further north than Pyinbyugy:

in the Tavoy District, since then the butterfly appears to have

slowly but steadily increased its range northwards, till, in the

present year, it may be observed in fairly strong numbers as far

north in the district as Kaleinaung, and it is quite probable that

in the course of a very few years’ time its occurrence may be recorded

from as far north as Ye and even Moulmein. Perhaps it is the

activities of the Public Works Department which are accountable

for the spread of this butterfly in the Tavoy District, for it is most

commonly found frequenting the flowers of the small roadside weeds

which also steadily follow in the wake of the road-maker.

The bridle-path now runs along the ridge of the hill and the

going is easier. As we go we flush a bevy of both the males and

temales of Archdukes (Adolias dirtea), who, along with the common

Fauns (Faunis arcesilaus), and a single Great Marquis (Euthalia

dunya) have been feeding off the juices of the fallen fruit of a jungle

tree. As dunya is by far the most desirable of the crowd after him

we go and as he rests with outspread wings on a near-by bush the

successful ‘bag’ of him appears to be but a matter of time. It proves

to be a matter of time, and a very long time. Of all the wary

butterflies who seem to be able to read the stalker’s thoughts and

gauge his intentions dunya heads the list easily. He appears to know

the range of any net perfectly and just as perfectly times his

departure. When everything is set to make a catch, you think you

have him, but you are just that one-fifth of a second too late. Dunya

has timed that to a nicety, and departed in the nick of time to another

bush, not too far away but just sufficiently near to tempt you to

prolong the chase. He seems to delight in the game of discomfiture.

of the would-be catcher and as we know by experience can go on

playing it by the hour. We creep through thorny cane-brakes,

where long streamers of hook-like thorns seem to seek out the

‘tenderest portions of our anatomy to hold us back by; half a dozen

times we think we have him but all. with no success till suddenly

we receive support from an unexpected quarter. As dunya flies

from us a Racket-tailed Drongo suddenly makes. a swoop at an

‘insect near where he flies. The snap of the Drongo’s beak is too

much for the Marquis, he loops the loop, loses his head, and flies

headlong in our direction where, as he passes, a swift sweep of the

net has him. |

The path now crosses the Hteinthit Choung which at this season

of the year is but a pleasant babbling brook. In the monsoon ‘it

becomes a raging giant as is evidenced, by the number and size

of the ‘pot-holes’ its waters have excavated in its bed of solid

granite. In the bed of this stream we are lucky enough to snap

up a fine specimen of the largest Pantoporia, namely the Great

Sergeant (Pantoporia larymna). <A stiff climb now leads up to 4

height of 1,500 feet above sea-level on the western solpe of Kala

Taung where utilising a disused mine road we commence the descent

‘to Wagon on the other side of the watershed. On the way down

Swe pass a clearing which marks the site of a miners’ former camp

“and here we observe a number of Papilios flying backwards and

‘forwards high over the clearing. They make an occasional down-

940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI1

ward swoop at some low passing butterfly. Taking advantage

of this proclivity we are able to lure them down within net reach

by throwing up small pieces of moss and twigs as the butterflies

pass high overhead. At these they swoop in their descent and so

enable us to secure a number of that beautiful species the Burmese

Batwing (Byasa zgaleucus) and obtain in a short while a remarkable

scries of the males of this butterfly with markings ranging between

specimens where the white area on the hind-wing is restricted to a

sirgle white spot, to others, at the other end of the series, where the

white area on the hind-wing is large and conspicuous. |

We descend, and on reaching the flats lying alongside the Thabyu

Chaung our attention is attracted to a congregation of large birds

ol falcon-like appearance slowly circling round a near-by tree.

At first sight we are unable to account for the presence in such large

numbers of the birds but a movement in the tree itself shows more

of the birds vigorously attacking a hive of the large wild-bee. The

hive, a large one about six feet long, hangs from the underside of

a thick bough and the birds’ method of attack is to cling te the

comb with their claws and with continuously flapping wings to

tear open the comb with their beaks; no doubt to feast off the

honey within. We noticed that the birds so employed apparently

were not unduly incommoded by the defence of the angry bees.

Individuals were observed to cling to the hive for quite a prolonged

time, though in some instances we did observe a bird leave the

hive rather hurriedly and as it flew away to ruffle its feathers and

give its body a vigorous shake as if to dislodge bees which perhaps

had found an entry between the feathers. Even when large portions

of the honey-comb became detached and fell to the ground some

of the birds followed these down and proceeded to feast off the

honey contained.

We much regretted the absence of a gun, if only to even things

up on the side of the bees, and also to obtain a skin or two for

identification. The birds were so numerous and their attack so

vigorous that in the short space of half an hour or so there was

no vestige of a hive left. Not having sufficient knowledge of

ornithology we were unable to say whether the birds were Honey-

buzzards. ,

We proceed on our way and soon after reach the Dak Bungalow

at Wagon where we find that the motor car and tiffin await us.

This despatched we do not tarry long here for on our way back

to Tavoy we propose to visit a small isolated peak near Pagaye

village. On the summit of this peak, we know from past experience,

certain rare species can usually be caught late in the afternoon.

The car soon swings us back along the road towards Tavoy and

leaving the car in Pagaye village we climb the peak. Its rounded

summit is ringed by trees. With bamboo jungle lying on the west

slope of the hill and evergreen forest covering the eastern slope,

it forms a favourite rendezvous for all manner of butterflies who

seem to take advantage of the declining sun’s rays for a final

warming up before seeking shelter for the night. To-day we are

in luck, for as we reach the summit, we are able to collect a number

of rare Spotted Flashes (Rapala subguttata), and a short wait enables

A BUTTERFLY HUNTER’S RAMBLE IN TAVOY (BURMA) QAI

us to gather in some specimens of those uncommon Hesperids

the Flats, Odina decoratus and Odina hieroglyphica ortygia; here

also for a final warming up comes the Elegant Emperor (Eulaceura

osteria) and we gleefully gather in some four or five male specimens

of this Tennasserim butterfly.. In the Tavoy District this butterfly

ts decidedly uncommon and in many years’ collecting I have rarely

met it elsewhere than on this small peak near Pagaye village.

Lycenids of all species visit this peak and the Green Oakblue,

(amblypodia eumolphus) flashes his green iridiscence from every leaf

which affords a point of vantage for getting the sun’s rays, and

here and there a ruby-coloured flash proclaims the presence of

the males of a Cardinal (Thamala marciana miniata) while round

the ring of trees the Common Clubtail (Byasa coon doubledayi) glides

aloft. Of the lesser fry quite a number fall to our nets and, weil

satisfied with the sense of a day well spent among beautiful sur-

roundings, we retrace our steps and, joining the car, are speedily

whirled into Tavoy Town, and the subsequent examination of the

day’s catch forms not the least interesting portion of the day’s

experiences.

In the foregoing I have tried to describe—very inadequately I

fear—only one of many pleasant rambles in the Tavoy District where

the main object has been the collecting of butterflies, but during

which the observation of the doings of birds, beasts, reptiles and

insects generally, has proved of just as much interest to the writer.

THE PRESENT STATE OF THE GAME AND WILD LIFE IN

CEYLON

We. WeAc PHIRIIPS= Zs:

(With five plates by G. M. Crasss)

The last decade has seen a great change in the state of the Game

and general Wild Life of Ceylon. Since the days preceding the

War the conditions governing the survival of much of our Fauna

have altered materially—an alteration, in most cases, greatly to the

detriment of our larger species. |

The days of peace and the gradual return of prosperity brought

te Ceylon a great influx of cheap guns, together with motor cars

and motor buses, and it is chiefly to these agencies that we may

trace the rapid diminution of the larger forms ot our once abundant

wild life. : |

In the days when transport was by the old slow bullock cart, and

the comparatively few guns were in the hands of responsible persons,

the low country jungles, of the greater part of the Island, teemed

with Game and Wild Life of all descriptions. Both in the sanctu-

aries and reserves, and out of them, deer were plentiful and the

other larger members of our fauna were as numerous in the jungle

districts as one could wish; the roads through these jungles were

full of interest to the sportsman, the naturalist and the traveller

alike. Game laws existed and were enforced as much as was

necessary.

Nowadays, however, with good roads, quick transport and guns

in the hands of almost everyone, coupled with the lax enforcement

of the game laws, much of the country is almost completely denuded

of the larger forms of wild life and the jungle roads have lost, in

oreat part, their. chier interest:

In the unreserved jungles of many districts deplorable conditions

prevail; these jungles, which would in the natural course of events

teem with deer, have been so plundered by that arch-enemy of game

and game protectors, the meat and hide poacher, that few now

remain of the once large and numerous herds of deer. Almost all

have been shot down, during the dry and rainless months—the

The modus operandi of the dried meat scoundrels is to treck

away, during the dry season, into the more remote jungles—in many

cases accompanied by carts to carry their impedimenta and to bring

cut the dried flesh—to erect ‘machans’ or platforms over the remain-

ing waterholes, to slaughter the deer both by day and by night as

they come to drink, to cut the flesh into strips, to dry it, or smoke

it, on low grids over slow fires and to bring the dried flesh out for

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate I,

Ceylon Jackals (Camis lanka) drinking at a water-hole.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PuateE IT,

Wild Buffaloes in the Menik Ganga

* zi 0 lle

Gigs

EQRRASF

1 COON EYE II

ENS

Wild Buffalo (Bubalis bubalis bubalis) at a water-hole.

RRESENT STATE OF GAME AND WILD LIFE IN.CEYVLON ~\.943

sale in. the towns and villages. The ‘trade’ is chiefly in the hands

of the Moormen or Coast Moors; they are responsible for the

greatest slaughter that has taken place among our Game.

_ Again, owing to the activities of some of our comparatively

recently opened tanneries, the skins of many smaller animals and

some reptiles have become marketable and therefore sought after

by the village shikari and the Moorman trader. Again the jungles

have been maaded and much of the fauna shot down or disturbed

and driven to the more remote forests. It is pleasing to note

however that of late this trade in smaller skins has died down to

some extent; there is now not nearly the demand that there was

a year or so ago.

The fauna of Ceylon is distinctly limited as to the species of large

mammals found within the jungles of the Island; we may therefore

be permitted to glance at each of the larger species individually, in

order to gain a more exact idea of the present state of each.

Elephants.—The Ceylon Elephant (Elephas maximus geylanicus)

is probably as numerous today—if not more so—than fifty years ago.

This is entirely due to the strict preservation which followed on the

senseless slaughter of the middle of last century. To my mind the

elephant in Ceylon is, today, too numerous in the populated districts

and in the jungles adjoining. Much as I like to see the lordly

elephant in his native forests I fully sympathise with the villager

who has his paddy fields or his ‘chenas’ raided nightly and who often

moves through the jungle surrounding his village in fear of his life.

It is the elephant that is responsible for more than three-quarters

of the damage done to crops and property by ‘Game’ in Ceylon and,

except in isolated cases, it is he and poisonous snakes that are solely

responsible among animals for the Joss of human life. True, now-

adays, all ‘rogues’ are proclaimed as soon as they become a menace

to life or property and ‘kraals’ are held for the capture of elephants

for purposes of domestication but, even so, much damage is done

before they can be shot or captured. Such large animals are not, and

cannot be, compatible with an increasing and spreading population ;

they must give way and be confined to certain areas, such as the

game reserves and sanctuaries, where their herds can be controlled

to some extent; in the low country jungles surrounding villages and

cultivations, where they are still numerous today, they are a menace

and a nuisance.

Buffaloes.—The wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis bubalis) in Ceylon

is most probably the descendant of imported tame buffaloes that have

escaped, many generations ago, to the remoter jungles and have

established themselves there. It is distinguished from its domesti-

cated cousins only by its rather larger size, generally darker colour

and its more massive horns.

Nowadays the wild buffalo is only found in the remotest jungles,

in the reserves and in the sanctuaries. Some years ago its numbers

were so decimated by rinderpest that its extinction, as a wild animal

in Ceylon, was feared. <A wise prohibition of all shooting however

saved the species and it is once more firmly established in its

habitats. In fact, in one or two places it has increased to the detri-

ment of other species of game and it is becoming a problem as to.

044 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXJij

how it should be dealt with in the Yala Sanctuary and Palatupana

Reserve, its chief strongholds today.

It is very little poached, is difficult to capture and as the license

fee is fairly heavy, is not much shot by sportsmen; it has few

natural enemies other than disease and it is MEO as numerous

as conditions warrant.

Sambhur,—Although the Ceylon Sambhur (Rusa unicolor unicolor)

is reputed to be of the same race as that of the Indian mainland,

it seems to be rather smaller in body and carries distinctly inferior

antlers. It is found all over the Island from the slopes of the

highest mountains to the seashore. It is nowhere very numerous

and would most probably soon be wiped out were it not for the

protection that it receives. In the hills over 4,000 ft., it is strictly

preserved, for hunting with hounds and the knife. Three Hunts

divide the available country between them and, together with the

Ceylon Game Protection Society, provide watchers to prevent poach-

ing and to keep down the Sambhur’s natural enemy, the Leopard.

In the Low Country it is well preserved in the game sanctuaries

and sportsmen’s reserves, where it is still moderately numerous,

but outside these reserved jungles, which are watched by Govern-

ment and Game Protection Society’s Game Watchers, it is not at

all plentiful now-a-days. It is, unfortunately, an animal that is

particularly easily poached over waterholes and, as it is much sought

after by the poacher, on account of both its hide and its flesh, it

has for this reason become scarce in many jungle tracts.

Ceylon Spotted Deer.—The Ceylon Spotted Deer (Axis axis

ceylonensis) the Island representative of the Indian Chital, is

very much the most numerous of all the deer in Ceylon. It is con-

fined to the drier zones of the Low Country where it is found in

herds, large and small. This deer, being the most numerous,

has suffered, more than any, from the lax enforcement of the game

laws. Until comparatively recently it was very plentiful in suitable

open jungle and scrub in most part of the Low Country; there were

few places, with the exception of the dense forests, where it was not

found in reasonable numbers. Today however there are many ideal

tracts, especially towards the north, where there is scarcely a deer

left; there are few enough in the jungles surrounding the populated

districts but in the remoter areas, where few officials or sportsmen

penetrate and the poacher can carry on his slaughter unchecked

throughout the dry season, the Spotted Deer has almost ceased to

exist. It is a relief to return to the all too small reserved tracts

where, thanks to the watching done by the game watchers provided

by Government and the Game Protection Society, the numbers of

this deer have not diminished.

Hog Deer.—The Hog Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus porcinus)

probably a comparatively recent addition to the fauna of Ceylon.

There is a tradition that the species was first introduced during the

occupation of the Dutch and it would seem most probable that this

tradition is founded upon fact. The deer is only found within -a

narrow belt of country, running parallel to the coast, in the wet and

steamy tract of low country lying chiefly within the western and

southern provinces,

Poate III.

JouRN, BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc.

potted Deer on the Menik Ganga.

Wild Buffalo and Ceylon §S

wre

) and Peacock

is ceylonensis

iS AXIS Ce

at a jungle Water-hole.

Ceylon Spotted Deer (Ax

Crabbe

G. M

JouRN. BomsBay Nat. Hist. Soc, Puate LY.

Wild Elephants (Hlephas maximus zeylanicus) on the Menik Ganga.

aot Be

A Crocodile basking.

PRESENT STATE OF GAME AND WILD LIFE IN CEYLON 945

Of late years much of the country in which it lives has been

opened up into rubber estates and cinnamon gardens, with a con-

sequent serious decrease in the area suitable to the deer.

Owing to its skulking habits it still manages to preserve its

existence but in most districts it is becoming increasingly rare.

In addition to the opening up of its habitat, it is subjected to much

persecution by the local villagers who kill it for meat whenever they

get the chance. Unless some scheme for protecting the survivors

can be devised it is a matter of a few years only before the species

is exterminated in Ceylon.

Barking Deer.—The Ceylon representative of: the little Muntjac

or Barking Deer (Muntiacus malabaricus) is found locally over the

greater part of the Island and, being small, has managed to survive

in fair numbers in spite of, much poaching and shooting during the

so called close season. This small species is not much troubled

by sportsmen, except in one or two districts in the lower hills where

it is hunted. But it is the great prize of the Tamil cooly of the

- Tea Estates bordering upon the jungle. It has been more or less

_ killed out in some districts but, generally speaking, it is more or

less holding its own in spite of everything.

The foregoing are reckoned as ‘Game’ as a license is required

before they can be shot. Nominally they are all subject to a

Close Season and are protected under the Game Ordinances.

Unfortunately however, as there is no one whose special duty it is

to see that the provisions of the Game Ordinances are observed, the

enforcement of the Ordinance, as a whole, is extremely lax—hence

the serious diminution in the numbers of the deer.

Pigs.—(Sus cristatus cristatus) are not considered as game nor

are they protected by a close season or any other regulation. They

are classed as vermin on account of the damage that they do to

crops; but, even so, thanks to their wonderful fecundity and adapti-

bility, they are well able to hold their own as long as any suitable

cover, into which they may retire during daylight, remains in any

district.

They are little troubled by sportsmen—a big boar is occasionally

hunted and killed with the sambhur hounds or shot in the Low

Country, but as there is no possibility of pigsticking, anywhere in

the Island, the pig is held in but little regard by European sports-

men. On the other hand he is a useful addition to the larder of the

villager and the Tamil cooly of the Estates and it is by them, the

leopard and disease that his numbers are kept within bounds. There

is no fear of his being exterminated until all the other large fauna

has ceased to exist.

Leopards and Bears.—Likewise the Leopard (Felis pardus pardus)

and the Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus) being carnivorous and at times

dangerous to man, are reckoned as vermin and are in no way pro-

tected. Every man’s hand is against them but, owing to the large

tracts of jungle still remaining in their habitats, there is little fear

of either species becoming seriously depleted in numbers for many

years to come. Both species are commonly shot by sportsmen over

waterholes in the dry season—not a very sporting way of shooting

them, perhaps, but in this country almost the only way, owing to the

_ 26

946 JOUNNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX//1

thick jungles in which they live and in which it is most difficult

to find them. Leopards’ skins have a marketable value of. Rs. 25

to Rs. 30 each, but as the leopard is much-too cunning to part easily,

with its skin this price upon its head makes very little difference to

its numbers.

Monkeys.—With the larger species of ale life the monkeys aaee

be included. Ceylon has three species, one Macaque and two Lan-.

gurs' or Wanderoos. The Ceylon Macaque or Toque monkey

(Macaca sinica) is found in the heavy jungles throughout: the Island

and, solely owing to the fact that he is considered uneatable by all.

castes, is almost immune from persecution except in a few. cases

of wanton slaughter. With the Langurs it is otherwise; their flesh

is considered as good food by some castes and as good medicine by,

others; as a consequence both species have suffered greatly. . The:

Bear Mont <ey (Pithecus senex monticola) of the hills has been entirely

exterminated in the remaining forests in many of the hill districts

and the race has now a very “restricted range which grows smaller.

each year. Almost the same may: be said of -the- Purple-faced

Monkey. (Pithecus: senex vetulus) found only in the damp, steamy.

jungles of the South-West Low Country; great numbers have -been

shot by the Tamil coolies in the planting districts, in spite of. the

Sinhalese Buddhists who are generally fond of their Wanderoos and.

often protect them to a certain extent. In the dry zone of the Low

Country where the Madras Langur (Pithecus entellus- pallipes) is

found, the killing has not been quite so bad but many are shot down.

annually. -None of these monkeys are in any way. propectes at any

season of the year.

It must not be thought that aperteren and athens in ane Island

have sat quiet and done nothing while this decimation of the larger

fauna has gone on. It is a matter that has, and is, receiving serious

consideration in many quarters. ‘The Ceylon-Game Protection So-

ciety and the Ceylon Natural History Society, in addition to making:

other representations, have drawn up a joint memorandum, -setting

forth their combined views and urging the institution of a Game

fYepartment, and have forwarded it to Government; -the Society for

the Protection of the Fauna of the Empire has also made represen-

tations’ in the proper quarters.

Government, being now fully conversant with hea 1S ane place,

has appointed a Select Committee to examine the whole question

together’ with the existing Game Ordinances. It is very sincerely

te be hoped that the present Ordinances will be amended with-

out undue delav and that machinery will be provided for the enforce-

ment of the Game laws before any of our LETS DEG species have

been completely wiped out of existence.

I am greatly indebted to Mr. G. M. Grane the well-known Ceylon

sportsman and President ‘of the Game Protection Society for the

interesting photographs of Ceylon Game and Wild Life, which

accompany this ‘article. Mr. Crabbe is one of those who have

laid aside the rifle in favour of the camera—with marked success,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VY.

Young Grey Heron.

Young Pelicans.

GAME.PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRIS IN 1929

IG Aol

)

Major E. G. Puoyrutan-Apams, 1.a. (Retd.)

In the Journal for 20th October 1927 an article appeared on

this subject, and in view of the present interest taken in the ques-

tion of Game Preservation throughout India, it may be worth while

considering the present position in this area as compared with two

years ago.

In the concluding paragraph of my previous article I stated

that ‘The present condition of game in the area is satisfactory,

but the greatly increased number of licensed and unlicensed weapons

in the hands of patta-land shooters renders necessary stricter super-

vision than formerly, and an Act to regulate the sale of big gaime

throughout the year, with severe penalties for the use of a gun

except by a license holder in person. Unless some such steps on

the lines indicated are taken at an early date the head of game in

the area will: diminish rapidly’.

Unfortunately no action has been taken in the matter with the

result that a considerable decrease is already noticeable in the case

ot sambur, spotted-deer, and muntjac, while the position of

the Nilgiri ibex has been most adversely affected by the unfortunate

action of the Madras Government in throwing open to tea culti-

vation the previously uninhabited area known as the Kundahs

Reserve, on the cliffs of which most of the ibex are located.

Bic GAME

Sambur.—On the plateau a distinct decrease is_ noticeable,,

and it has been found necesasry to limit the bag to one stag on

the plateau and one in the low country on a Season license. In

November last a gang of Kurrumbas from the Bhavani valley had

cleared the country round Bison Swamp of all game. They were

surprised by the writer at their work but unfortunately no arrests

could be effected.

The hills west of the Pykara and Mukerti rivers are systematically

poached by gangs of twenty or more armed coolies from the

adjacent tea estates. The few Game Watchers and Forest Guards

available can do little in the face of such numbers, and consequently

arrests are seldom made. When they are, the small fines imposed

act as no deterrent, as the profits from the sale of meat are so

large. :

Nor is the poaching of sambur confined only to the lower classes.

There is unfortunately little reason to doubt that more than one

license-holder has used his license to cover indiscriminate slaughter

of hinds and undersized stags, the meat being sold in adjacent.

Badaga villages. Such. cases are exceedingly difficult to detect;

948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXU1

as all concerned have so great an interest in concealing the offence.

In the low country in addition to poaching by patta-land shooters,

sambur now suffer considerably from shooting by night from motor-

cars. This unsporting method of hunting, which cannot be too

strongly deprecated, unfortunately appears to be on the increase,

nor is it confined solely to non-license holders.

Spotted deer.—Though there has been no increase in the number

of their natural enemies the wild dogs, the deer have decreased very

noticeably at Mudumalai, Kargude and Anaikatti, and there can be

no doubt that this is due to heavy poaching by patta-land shooters

whose guns can be heard any night throughout the year.

Bison.—No decrease noticeable, poachers giving them a wide

berth.

Ibex.—lIf one considers the very small number left in the eighties,

their great increase since then is a remarkable proof of what careful

Game Preservation can effect. Their almost entire immunity from

poaching up till now has been chiefly due to their keeping to areas

tar from human habitation, but with the opening up of the Kundahs

for tea their position is bound to change for the worse. Their

cliffs are now within a few miles of cultivation, and poaching by

estate coolies which is inevitable and most difficult to control, as

has been already seen in the case of sambur, is bound to affect

them most adversely; and it is no exaggeration to say that if any

further grants of land are made in the Kundahs, the ibex will soon

be exterminated in this area.

Black buck.—The few there are appear to be holding their own,

but are certainly not on the increase.

Jungle sheep.—Round Ebband, Muntjac, locally known as Jungle

sheep, have been practically exterminated by poaching, and all over

the plateau there is a marked decrease in their numbers. The bag

aiiowed has now been reduced from six and three to four and two

on a season and monthly license respectively.

Wild dogs.——A slight decrease is noticeable owing no doubt to

the reintroduction of a reward for their destruction. The Mysore

Government now gives a reward of Rs. 50 for a bitch and Rs. 36

for a dog, and the N.G.A. has recently raised its reward from

Rs. 10 to Rs. 15, but unless the adjacent districts co-operate there

is little hope of reducing this pest to reasonable proportions. It

is much to be regretted that the representations of the N.G.A to

the Madras Government with a view to the re-introduction of the

Government reward have met with no success. If concerted action

over the whole of Southern India were taken by Government in

co-operation with the Indian States, Wild dogs, which in some

districts have now taken to killing cattle, would soon be practically

exterminated.

SMALL GAME

The proposal to import Burmese silver pheasants unfortu-

nately fell through as no one could be found in Burma who

was willing to supply eggs or birds. Jungle fowl are imported

yearly from the low country and after ringing turned down on the

plateau in areas temporarily closed for their protection, so far

rs ee ae oe

OS ny Se ee

GAME PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRIS LN 1929 949

with only fair results. The success of H.H. the Maharaja. of

Patiala with imported English pheasants shows what can be. done

under suitable conditions, and it might be worth the while of the

N.G.A. to experiment with these also.

Interests of cultivators.—In the vicinity of cultivation the inter-

rests of game preservation must necessarily, be subservient to

those of the cultivator. Deer do considerable damage to the crops,

but little compared with the wild pig which have increased greatly.

in this district owing to the continual destruction of their natural

enemy the panther. The pig live during the day in Reserve Forest

where the cultivator cannot pursue them unless in possession of

a license, and come out at night to ravage the fields. The damage

they do is immense and unless actually fired at nothing seems to

scare them away. It is suggested that where cultivation suffers

severely from this cause, on a report being made to the D.F.O., the

N.G.A. should arrange for adjacent Reserve Forests to be beaten

through and the pigs shot. If sufficient members of the N.G,A.

do not volunteer, then non-license holders should be permitted to

participate in the shoot. It must be admitted that the cultivator

has a real grievance in the matter, which it is the duty of the N.G.A.

to alleviate as far as lies in its power.

The issue of gun licenses for crop protection needs no justification,

but it 1s equally necessary that these weapons should be controlled.

Only a very small proportion is used solely for the purpose for

which intended, and much poaching goes on in adjacent Reserve

Forests throughout the year, large profits being made by the sale

of meat and skins. It has been proposed that all weapons licensed

tor crop protection should be called in during the hot weather when

there are no crops to protect but when game is easily shot over

water, etc. This precaution would no doubt be most effective in

many: parts of S. India, but it hardly applies even to the low

country of this district, where perennial streams abound. A more

effective safeguard would be to limit the length of gun barrels to,

say 12 inches, which would be ample for crop protection but of

little use for poaching.

Sale of meat.—But the chief thing is to stop the sale of meat

from which large profits are made and for the sake of which alone

this form. of poaching continues.- An Act is already in force

prohibiting the sale of game anywhere in the district out of season

i.e., from July 1 to October 31 for big game, and from March |

to August 31 for small game, but this is not sufficiént, and the

Act should be amended to cover the whole year. Game through-

out the Presidency would benefit enormously if such an Act were

made applicable to all districts. In this connection the experience

of the Ceylon Game Protection Society is of interest. Poaching

had increased to such an extent some twenty-five years ago that

the spotted deer were being rapidly exterminated. A Dried Meat

Ordinance was passed in 1908 and poaching was at once reduced

to reasonable proportions.

Protection.—As stated in the previous article, the N.G.A. decided

in 1926 to dispense with its staff of seventeen local game watchers

but who were found to be quite useless. It was hoped that by

950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXXUI1

setting aside a special sum for rewards in poaching cases, their

duties could be efficiently performed by ordinary Forest Guards.

Before the end of 1927 however, it was found that poaching was

Gefinitely on the increase, and it was decided to engage four specially

selected men of the 1l-3rd Madras Regiment (then in process of

disbandment) at Rs. 25 p.m. So far the results have not proved

very satisfactory, but there is no doubt that game watchers are

necessary. Until however a Game Warden is appointed to super-

vise and assist them, no marked improvement can be expected.

It has been shown that the most serious poaching on the plateau

is carried out by armed gangs of Kurrumbas or estate coolies.

Any attempt by a couple of unarmed game watchers to effect an

arrest under such conditions could have only one result, while in

the case of a poaching license-holder they lack authority.

In a district like the Nilgiris where so many retired officers and

others have settled, it should not be difficult to find someone who

would be willing to undertake the duties of Game and Fish Warden,

and to assist the D.F.O. (who is already greatly over-worked) in

the office work of the N.G.A. Such an appointment would have

to be Honorary as the N.G.A. could not afford to pay a suitable

salary, though it might run to a small sum, say Rs. 50 p.m., for

travelling and out-ol-pocket expenses. The grant of free shooting

and fishing licenses in addition should be sufficient to attract a

suitable candidate. Under the Rules now in force the Warden

should be appointed as a Forest Ofhcer with power to arrest

offenders. Such an appointment would be of the greatest benefit

io game and fish preservation in the area, ensuring proper control

over the watchers and an effective deterrent to poachers.

Sanctuaries.—For many years the chief game reserve of the area

has been the uninhabited tract of the Kundahs, which till 1927 was

closed to all beating and small game shooting. Though not a

sanctuary proper, the adjacent slopes covered with almost impene-

trable forest and mostly inaccessible by man served as such, and

in consequence the Kundahs were rightly considered the best

stalking ground in the Nilgiris. In 1928 the Madras Government

granted 2,300 acres of this area to Messrs. Brooke Bond for open-

ing up in tea, and further grants in the vicinity have since been

applied for. It would have been reasonable to expect that before

any such grant was sanctioned, Government would have ascertained

the views of the N.G.A. on the subject, but no such reference was

made. From the point of view of game preservation the result

of opening up this-area is bound to be most serious, and any further

grants will inevitably lead to the practical extinction of the Nilgiri

ibex and other big game in this area. Protests have been addressed

to Government by -the NiGA.) the U.P.A Sil. sand=the: Bombay,

Natural History Society, and it is to be hoped that no further grants

in this area will be made for any purpose whatsoever, and that what

remains of the Kundah Reserve Forest will be declared by Govern-

ment a permanent game reserve under the control of the N.G.A

In order adequately to protect the Nilgiri ibex and sambur on the.

plateau, the Porthimund, Pichalbettu, Mukerti, and Nilgiri Peaic.

Reserve Forests covering the Western. cliffs should also be included.

GAME PRESERVATION IN THE NILGIRIS IN 1929 5a

All these are far removed from Badaga cultivation, so that no

objection can be raised on the grounds of their affording refuge

io crop destroying animals.

Financial.—At present though the N.G.A.. gives rewards for

reporting cases of poaching, all fines inflicted are credited to Govern-

ment. This is unreasonable and should be set right by all such

sums recovered either in shooting or fishing cases being handed

over to the N.G.A. The present cost of a season license is Rs. 50

and of a monthly one Rs. 30, and in view of the comparatively

small bag allowed, there appears no justification for an increase

of fees.

Conclusion.—In order adequately to safeguard the game in the

Nilgiris, the following appear essential :—

' |. The existing Act regulating the sale of game to be amended

to cover the whole year.

2. Weapons licensed for crop protection to have short barrels.

3. Re-introduction of Government reward for wild dogs through-

out the Presidency.

4. Establishment of game reserves.

5. Appointment of a Warden.

THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOMS OF INDIAN

SCORPIONS

RV. EF SF CATUS YS. J, IESL:S.

No. 1—SAutheolus melanurus, Kessler

I received on June 25, 1929, three specimens of Bzxtheolus

melanurus, Kessler, forwarded by the Medical Officer, Shevgaon,

Ahmednagar. While attempting to extract the venom one of the

stings got firmly implanted into the forefinger of my left hand

into which the venom was discharged. I felt a sharp burning

pain for the space of a few seconds; this was followed by

throbbing and dull pain. Within two minutes from the time

of the injection all that was noticeable was an indefinite feeling

of discomfort in the region of the sting; and this persisted for

one hour and twenty minutes. The action of the venom was

entirely local.

As the amount of venom is so very small as not to yield to

any of the methods of extraction I have thought it worth while

to record this unique experience with the venom of #uxutheolus

melanurus.

I also append a few remarks which are not without interest.

Colour :-— : upper side of trunk dull black (deep green in alcohol) ;

tail black with metallic sheen (bluish green in alcohol); vesicle

deep reddish-trown; iegs lemon yellow, femora fuliginous, patellae

of first and second pairs fuliginous, distal segments quite pale;

humerus and brachium black, hand brown, fingers paler ; abdominal

sterna brown, shining, the Jast duli black with shining crests;

pectines clear yellow (witn green tinge in alcohol).

&: legs yellower; chelae uniformly brown; last abdominal

sternum very deep brown.

Trunk :-—Q: entirely covered above with close-set granules,

the two interocular ridges alone being smooth; terga with a median

crest, 3-6 faintly tricarinate, jast strongly keeled; sterna finely

granular, smooth and polished in the middle of the posterior half,

punctured at the sides, the first punctured in the middle, the last

granular with four crests.

oj: terga with a single median crest; the last sternum with

evanescent crests.

Tail :-—thick ; posteriorly incrassate; the fourth and fifth seg-

ments subequal in width and wider than the rest; the first and

second segments with ten granular keels and granular jntercari-

nal spaces; the third partially pitted, the fourth and fifth pitted;

the fifth with inferior lateral keel, but weak in front; lateral

surface pitted ; inferior surface granular in the intercarinal spaces;

vesicle small, piriform, pitted.

THE TOXICITY OF. THE VENOMS OF INDIAN SCORPIONS 953

Chelae -—Humerus with granular crests; brachium with smooth

crests; hand smooth, punctured, narrow, as broad as brachium ;

underhand half the length of the movable digit, excelling width

of hand; movable finger as long as carapace, furnished with nine

rows of teeth, the basal row long.

Legs :-—1-3 with granularly crested femora and patellae.

Pectinal teeth :-—18 in 2 and J.

Measurements in mm.—Q: total length 32; carapace 3°5; tail 20;

brachium 2°5; underhand 1:5; movable finger 3; width of hand

0-6; width of first caudal segment 2, of fourth 3.

o': total length 30; carapace 3; tail 19; brachium 2:5; under-

hand 2; movable finger 3:5; width of hand 0°8; width of first

caudal segment 2:5, of fourth 3.

Locality :—Shevgaon (Ahmednagar).

PROGRESS OF THE SOCIETY’S INVESTIGATION

Since the publication of my last list on page 680 of this Volume,

the undermentioned quantities of poison have been collected

by me from live specimens received through the co-operation of

members and the Medical Departments of the various Provincial

Governments.

Number of Weight of dry venom

scorpions in milligrams.

Butheolus melanurus ae 3 0-0

Buthus pachyurus Ls 57 25:5

5» vugetscults ee 12 2°6

are tamulus a 279 605°3

Palamnaeus bengalensts ae ro Soha

ys _fulvipes Le 48 146°7

= gravimanus fs 4 14:6

5 liurus Se el9 sags)

3 longimanus ap 5) 18°5

~ phipsont Ris 10 48:6

bs swammerdamt ... 35 483°4

- xanthopus ae + 14:5

Scorpiops asthenurus me 5 5:6

*f montanus ae 7 3:6

Isometrus europaeus (vesicles 10 79

REVIEWS

CENTENARY HISTORY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY

OF LONDON.—By P. Chalmers Mitchell, pp. i—xi,—307, with a

Statistical Chart, 32 Portraits and 9 Plans. Printed for the Society,

and sold at its House in Regent’s Park, London. 1929. Price Rs. 25.

The origin of the Zoological Society is somewhat obscure, but

according to Dr. Mitchell’s recent researches, it was not.an offshoot

from the Zoological Club of the Linnean Society, as generally

supposed, but originated in a scheme started by Sir Stamford Raffles

and Sir Humphrey Davy, neither of whom were members of the

Zoological Club, sometime previous to 1825.

Be that as it may, in July 1824 a meeting of friends of a proposed

Zoological Society met in London and drafted a prospectus for

this new Society and appointed a Committee with Sir Stamford

Raffles as Chairman.

It was not however till 1829 that the Society was incorporated

by Royal Charter, thereby acquiring a legal status, and this was the

date fixed upon by the Council as the foundation of the Society for

the purpose of the centenary which has been celebrated this year.

The arrangements for this important event consisted of a special

meeting held in the Great Hall of London University onthe afternoon

of April 29 at which the President, the Duke of Bedford, gave

an address on the History of the Society followed by an account of

the scientific work of the Society by the Secretary, and congratula-

tory addresses by delegates from many British and Foreign

Societies. In the evening a dinner was held at the Zoological

Gardens presided over by the Duke of Bedford, and H.R.H. the

Prince of Wales was the principal guést. After a number of in-

teresting speeches, an adjournment was made to the Aquarium and

Reptile House, which were specially illuminated, and in spite of the

unfortunate break in the weather, the whole proceedings were most

successful and were thoroughly enjoyed by everyone who had the

privilege to be present.

.The numbers of Fellows on the Society’s roll are over 8,000, and

as the accommodation at the dinner was restricted, a garden

party for the Fellows is being held at the Gardens inthe evening

of June 20, but at the time of writing this final of the celebrations

has not yet taken place.

As a further commemoration of the Centenary the Council of the

Society decided to issue (I) a Centenary History of the Society

written by the Secretary and (II) a new and revised edition of the

List of Vertebrate Animals. This last is being brought out in three

volumes—No. 1, Mammals by Major Staniey Flower, iate Director

of the Egyptian Zoological Gardens at Cairo and a former member

of our Society ; No. 2. Birds by Dr. George Carmichael Low and

No. 3 Reptiles, Amphibia and Fishes by Mr. G. E. Boulenger,

Director of the Aquarium, Dr. Malcolm Smith, a member of our

i oR

————————

REVIEWS 955

Society, and Mr. J. R. Norman of the British Museum respectively.

These last three volumes we hope to notice later, but only the

History is reviewed in the present article.

The prospectus issued on August 23, 1824, already referred to,

was followed by another on February 1, 1825, in which the objects

of the Society were set forth and anyone wishing to become an

original member was asked to send in his name. ‘This appeal

resulted in a first list of 151 subscribers, among which were

a number of the leading naturalists of the day, as well as the Duke

of Bedford, the Marquis of Landsdowne and many members of

parliament, including the Home Secretary and the Postmaster-

General, so that the Society may be said to have had an auspicious

start.

From a perusal of various early documents it will be seen

that the Society proposed to form a collection of living animals

to be established in the vicinity of London, to which members

should have access, and also the public on certain conditions ;

in addition a museum was to be started as well as a library and the

new Society was to stand in the same relation to Zoology as the

Horticultural Society does to Botany.

Various attempts were made to find a suitable place for the

proposed garden, but finally in 1826 the Commissioners of Woods

and Forests granted the Society 5 acres of Regents Park, situated

on the outer circle, between the old tunnel and the main gate

and here a start was made with the now world-famous Zoological

Gardens.

In chapter vi. Dr. Mitchell gives the history of the gardens from

the commencement and traces the various developments and

changes which have finally led up to the present arrangement with

the wonderful aquarium, reptile house and new tropical bird house.

The management of the Society was first vested in a Committee

and an Honorary Secretary, the first being N. A. Vigors, a well-known

ornithologist of his day. He was followed by E. T. Bennett,

William Yarrell and others till 1847, when a paid Secretary was

authorized and D. W. Mitchell was elected to the post at a salary

of 4250 per annum. Mitchell is perhaps better known as a very

accurate zoological artist who illustrated G. R. Gray’s three folio

volumes on the Genera of Birds than as Secretary to the Society,

though nevertheless he played an important part in the history

of the Society.

In 1859 Mitchell resigned to take up the appointment of Director

of the newly founded Jardin d’Acclimatation in Paris, where he

died later in the year. In his place Philip Lutley Sclater was

appointed and after a long term of office he resigned in 1902

and was succeeded by his son Mr. W. L. Sclater, at one time

in charge of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, but in the following year

Sir P. Chalmers Mitchell, the present Secretary, was appointed

to the post.

The activities of the Society may be divided into four decades:

the first, up to 1847 when the secretaryship was an honorary post

and the Society was in a transition stage; then on the appointment

of D. W. Mitchell, the second decade begins and in the words

956 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

of the present Secretary ‘there is no doubt of the value of his

(D. W. Mitchell’s) services to the Society. The scientific meetings

and publications were kept at a high standard and the number

of fellows greatly increased. The improvements at the gardens

were notable, and the number of visitors and revenue grew, the

number of animals in the gardens were added to and the publica-

tions enlarged. He persuaded the Council to change the rule

by which the public required a Fellow’s order as well as payment

to gain admission. He aroused the interest of the press in particular

animals and in events in the gardens and laid the foundation

of a period of prosperity ’.

With the appointment of Dr. Sclater, the Society may be said

to have entered on the third decade and took a new lease of life;

the membership and revenue increased, the number of animals

in the gardens were added to and the publications enlarged. During

the whole of Sclater’s time as Secretary the offices of the Society

were at Hanover Square, an arrangement which made it difficult

for the Secretary to properly supervise the gardens. Fortunately

during the greater part of this period the animals were under

an excellent superintendent, A. D. Bartlett, whose name will always

be connected with the keeping of animals in captivity. But if Sclater

did not bring any striking innovations to the gardens, he will always

be membered from the purely scientific side of the Society’s

activities. Dr. Sclater was one of the leading zoologists of his

time and had a world-wide reputation as an authority on mammals

and birds and his position as Secretary enabled him to do much

to further the study of these two groups. He was in touch with

all the leading naturalists and travellers abroad and in this way

obtained many tnteresting and new animals for the gardens and

valuable papers for the Society’s publications. It would, however,

have been better if he had resigned sooner as he was getting on in

years and the housing of the animals was not advancing with

the times.

With the appointment of Sir P. Chalmers Mitchell to the post of

Secretary, the Society entered on the fourth decade, which has been

noteworthy for many reforms both in the general management and

the entire reorganization of the gardens. The present Secretary

differs from his predecessors in that he is not only a first rate

zoologist but also a good business man as well, a combination not

often found. During his tenure of office many notable changes

have been carried out, such as the removal of the Society’s offices

from Hanover Square to the gardens, a move which, however

inconvenient to Fellows wishing to consult the library or attend the

meetings, it must be admitted, has been in the best interests of the

Society, the building of the Mappin Terraces, the Aquarium,

Reptile House, etc. Certain of these improvements were not carried

without opposition from some of the Fellows, but all have in the

end been justified.

Chapter V concerns the library and scientific publications and we

think that hardly sufficient credit has been given to Dr. Sclater for

his share in enlarging the library and developing the Proceedings.

We should have liked more details given in regard to the publica-

lee see ee

REVIEWS 957

tions and some of the more important papers mentioned, for is it

not by the Proceedings and Transactions that the Society is known

all over the world?

The difficulties of running the Zoo during the war are described

in Chapter VII, and in the two following chapters Dr. Mitchell gives

us his views on keeping tropical animals—the necessity of allowing

them plenty of fresh air and at the same time access to warmth—

and gives details of the-construction of the new Monkey and Reptile

Houses. All this is very valuable and should be carefully studied

by those in charge of zoological gardens in all parts of the world.

Under the heading ‘ Research’ we learn details of some of the

activities, behind the scenes so to speak, enquiries into the health

of animals and the use made of their bodies when they are dead, for

furthering the study of anatomy, pathology, etc. This valuable

work is carried out by the Society’s officers, the results of which are

published from time to time in the Proceedings.

The final chapter deals with Whipsnade Zoological Park and its

future developments. Sir P. Chalmers Mitchell first tells us how the

idea of the park originated ; he then goes on to describe the 480

acres, which the Society has purchased, and finally gives an idea of

how the ground is going to be developed.

Roughly speaking, this offshoot of the Zoo will be used for

showing animals in natural surroundings and all duplicates will be

transferred there. In Regents Park a large number of different

animals, single individuals or pairs, will be exhibited including

those which need special housing. such as rhinoceroses, hippopota-

muses, tropical birds, etc., whereas at Whipsnade fewer kinds but

large numbers of each will be on view. Instead of being in

cages they will be in panorama paddocks and waries trying as far as

possible to have the amimals in the suitable surroundings.

We trust no attempts will be made to introduce any animals at

full liberty, enough harm has already been done by introduction of

the Little Owl and Grey Squirrel—we want no more aliens! _

One of the most interesting features of this volume is the chart

at the beginning showing the growth of the Society, in members,

visitors and funds under the successive Secretaries. Attention too

must be drawn to the very interesting series of portraits of past and

present officers of the Society and great credit is due to the author

for making this complete.

We can recommend this volume to all those who are interested

in the Zoological Society of London, and we have no doubt that

any one connected with the administration of a Zoological garden

will find much useful information.

IN BK

2. THE COWBIRDS.—By Herbert Friedmann (Charles

C.Thomas, Publisher of Springfield, Illinois, U.S. A.; European

Agents—Bailliére, Tindall and Cox, Covent Garden, London,

£1-7-0).

_ We have received for review a copy of Mr. Friedmann’s book on

the Cowhirds, which isa monograph consisting of xvii and 421

958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII1

pages with 28 black and white plates printed from photographs

and thirteen figures in the text. It measures 94 by 6$ inches and

is unusually heavy for its size. On first picking up the book, one is

led from its binding and appearance to think that it is of the popular

gift book class, for they are of a type to which we are not accus-

tomed on this side of the Atlantic to associate with scientific works.

The first glance inside is however sufficient to dispel the illusion.

Mr. Friedmann’s book is, to quote his sub-title, a Study in the

Biology of Social Parasitism, and this explains the reason why we

are mentioning it in the Journal; tor it is not our custom to

review American Ornithological literature, whichis not as a rule of

interest to our members.

The Cowbirds form a natural group of the family J/cteride or

Hang-Nests, a family which does not occur in India but is familiar

to most of us through that well-known bird the Baltmore Oriole.

Their popular name is due to a habit of association with cattle.

The Cowbirds consist of three genera, Agelgcotdes, Molothrus and

Tangavius, which form a link between the /cteride and Fringillide

(Finches). They have however attained an importance in the study

of Ornithology exceeding that of most similar groups owing to the

fact, discovered over a century ago, that they were parasitic in

their breeding habits. It is this aspect of the Cowbirds which

leads us to draw the attention of our Members to Mr. Friedmann’s

book.

The fact that the Common Cuckoo is a parasite, laying its eggs

in other bird’s nests, was known as long ago as in the time of

Aristotle ; and this knowledge is very widespread in the world

even amongst people ignorant of all other aspects of bird life,

though curiously enough itis not commonly known to the indi-

genous races of the Himalayas where cuckoos are common. Recent

years have seen the output of a great quantity of literature connec-

ted with the parasitic habits of cuckoos, more especially with

reference to the European species, Caculus canorus and there has been

a great deal of speculation as to how the habit originated, its

effect on the Cuckoo and on the fosterers selected. In spite of

much controversy we are however still far distant from the solution

of these problems and it is evident that the attack on them to be

successful must be delivered from a number of angles. Of these

the most obvious is to discover how far parasitism of the cuckoo

type is practised by other classes of birds: and then to study its

causes and effects in those groups, correlating the results with the

study of the Cuckoos.

It was only about acentury ago that Alexander Wilson introduced

to the scientific world a fact which had been known itor some little

time to local observers that the Cowbird (JZolothrus ater) was para-

sitic on other birds, laying its eggs in their nests. Later still it

was discovered that some of the African Honey-guides (/zdicator)

and Weavers were also parasitic and only a few years ago a South

American Duck was found to be likewise parasitic. Possibly a few

other cases remain to be discovered. It is obvious that no study

of parasitism in the Cuckoos will be successful or satisfactory

unless it takes cognisance of these other distinct cases.

REVIEWS 959

It is fortunate for all students of the problem that Mr. Friedmann

decided to take up an intensive study of the Cowbird group, and -

Mr. Friedmann himself has been most fortunate in the opportunities

which he has deserved and obtained of prosecuting those studies.

We propose to detail briefly the methods which Mr. Friedmann has

followed in his studies and the results that he has attained, in the

hopes that the attention of our members may be attracted to the

existence in India, Burma and Ceylon of great opportunities of

adding to the existing bat inadequate mass of knowledge on the

problem of parasitism in the Cuckoos.

In Mr. Friedmann’s preface he states very truly that the present

state of the problem is far from satisfactory. A vast literature on

the subject has grown up—a literature none too reliable in many

places and truly scientific and accurate in but few parts. ‘ Twenty

odd centuries of speculation tempered with as few facts as it is

bolstered with as many fancies have produced a resulting mass that

is far from satisfactory as a basis from which to work . in

the total bulk of published thought the unreliable aa ee non-

scientific so far exceed the trustworthy that a survey of the

literature of this subject is of more interest than profit to the

Ornithologist.’

The European Cuckuo, he goes on to state, is the only parasitic

species which had been subjected to intense study and close scru-

tiny. Considering that the problem would not however advance

until other instances had been studied in the same intense and

careful way and that it was of the first importance in this connec-

tion to study the Cowbirds, he took up this group. For, as he lays

down as an axiom, prolonged intensive study in a limited region

offers the only way to obtain the necessary data.

In Mr. Friedmann’s study opportunity and ability have coincided

in a manner not hitherto possible in the study of parasitism. The

Cowbirds, as we shail see later, consist of a small and easily

defined group; they are confined to North and South America.

They comprise various stages of normal breeding habits and para-

sitism and some variety of sexual relationships. The commoner

species comprise a number of geographical races and in their

parasitism a great number of fosterers are involved. The group

in short offers a good epitome of the factors of the problem as a

whole and on it there is also a mass of published information

available.

Mr. Friedmann started his study of the Cowbirds at the Cornell

University and after three years work there he was aided by the

National Research Council to continue it, and a fellowship was

granted to him to enable him to continue his studies and extend them

to cover the South American forms. His book is based, therefore,

on five years of uninterrupted work at the subject, inthe course of

which he spent three breeding seasons in central New York State,

one in Argentina, and one on the Texan-Mexican border. The result

is this record of achievement and of inspiration. We propose to

Summarize the results of Mr. Friedmann’s study of the Cowbirds

and use it as a sign-post to the work that still requires to be done in

the Oriental Region on that long list of cuckoos described in vol. iv

960 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11]

of the Fauna of British India, in the hope that some of our members

may make use of the opportunities afforded them by residence in

little known areas of the Empire.

Mr. Friedmann’s method of studying the Cowbirds has been very

thorough. He has treated each species as a separate entity, but

under each species he has been careful to keep the various

subspecies separate in case geographical differences of range might

be shewn to affect the factors in any way. Each species has been

thoroughly considered under a variety of headings—range, migration,

courtship and making sexual relations, territorial relations, nests

and nest building, eggs and egg-laying, food, plumage and moults,

enemies and finally a careful synonymy with complete references.

Under these headings he has grouped all that he could find of

vaiue in the published observations on the subject and has supple-

mented or corrected this by his own work ia the field, drawing what

deductions may appear to be warranted. The labour involved in

the compilation of the annotated lists of the recorded fosterers of

each race of each Cowbird must have been enormous, to mention

one item alone.

The field work appears to have been exceptionally thorough. A

special attention was paid to the habits of each species, most

particularly under the headings of song, courtship and territory ;

and it willsoon be realized how valuable Mr. Friedmann régards the

conception of territory promulgated by Mr. Howard in his work on

British birds as one of the chief factors in the life-history and

evolution of aspecies. Numbers of specimens were also collected,

not ina haphazard manner but to elucidate the various problems

connected with the life-history of the birds and it is clear that Mr.

Friedmann is not of that vast army which throw away the bird and

keep only its feathers. The dissecting knife and the microscope

were brought into use to substantiate the observations in the field

on the breeding habits.

The main body of the book is devoted to a record of the results

of these labours. Facts were the author’s first requirement and facts

are set down at complete length together with the evidence towards

them. Then two chapters set down the deductions that are drawn

from them. The first of these two chapters attempts to determine

the phylogenetic relationships ot the existing forms of Cowbird

and it is headed. ‘The Evolution of the present Cowbirds’. In

this chapter evidence of the evolution of the Cowbirds is sought in

a brief summary of the evidence from three factors, geographical

(distribution), biological (habits) and structural (colouration). By

this method the conclusion is arrived at that the Bay-winged Cow-

bird (A gelzoides badius) is to be regarded as the most primitive form

nearest to the hypothetical ancestor of the group.

Having thus determined the most primitive of his group of Cow-

birds Mr. Friedmann then endeavours to discuss the origin and

evolution of the parasitic habit within the group, helped thereto

by the decisions he has arrived at in the earlier chapters as to the

exact degree of parasitism in each species. To obtain a better

understanding of his results, it is necessary briefly to summarize

what he has established.

REVIEWS 961

Seven species of Cowbird are known belonging to three genera—

A geleotdes, Molothrus and Tangavius. Of these two species are so

excessively rare incollections with nothing known of their breeding

habits that they may be at present disregarded. The five remain-

ing species are as follows :—

The Bay-winged Cowbird (Agelzoides badius\.—This species is not

parasitic. Definite pairs occupy the nests of other birds, sometimes

using deserted nests but usually fighting hard with the owners of the

desired nest and driving them away. Having thus procured a nest,

they proceed to establish a territory round it. Occasionally a pair

builds its own nest, but the tendency is to obtain a coveted nest by

force, and the nest chosen is usually of certain definitely preferred

species, so that there is an element of parasitism in the breeding

habits.

The Screaming Cowbird (Molothrus ruto-axillaris).— Definitely

parasitic and only in the nests of the last Cowbird. Apparently two

eggs may be laidin any one nest. In this species a territory is

established some months before the eggs are laid. The eggs and

young of the fosterer Cowbird are not harmed by the parasite, but

the young of the two species are reared side by side and are

absolutely indistinguishable to human eyes. This likeness is due

not tomimicry but to community of descent.

The Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis).—Enntirely parasitic on

a great number of Passerine birds. It shows great interest in nests,

and nest sites as such, as if retaining atavistic leanings to nest build-

ing, but is very wasteful of its eggs laying numbers in deserted nests,

in nests already crowded with Cowbird’s eggs, or on the ground.

The highest number of Cowbird's eggs discovered in one nest is 37.

Its sexual and territorial instincts are weak and easily broken.

When laying ina nest it pecks at other eggs in the nest including

Cowbird’s eggs. The fosterer’s own offspring do not survive in the

presence of the parasite.

The North American Cowbird (olothrus ater).—Parasitic ona large

number of Passerine birds but its instincts are not as debased as in

the last species. It has definite territories and does not usually

deposit more than one egg in each nest, usually removing one of

the original eggs. The fosterer’s own young do not survive in the

presence of the parasite,

The Red-eyed Cowbird (Zangavius eneus).—Parasitic chiefly on

the other /cferide but also on other Passerine birds. Habits not

fully studied.

All the Cowbirds are believed to be monogamous but occasional-

ly tending to polyandry as the males are in excess of the females,

except in the Red-eyed Cowbird in which the females are very

greatly in the majority.

Now the brief summaries given above show that there are

various stages in parasitism within the group, ranging from the

slight development in which the Bay-winged Cowbird robs other

birds of their nests to the well developed state of the Screaming

Cowbird which has arrived largely at specificity in hosts. Mr.

Friedmann gives reasons for assuming that originally all Cowbirds

were normal in their nesting habits, an assumption with which we

962 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

entirely agree, and fortifies this by his previous decision that the

Bay-winged Cowbird is nearest the parent stock. This tben

simplifies tbe problem which becomes simply one as to how they

lost their original habits and became parasitic. From here onwards |

we are on more debateable ground. Mr. Friedmann’s theory is that

parasitism in the Cowbirds is a direct result of their failure to

realize the importance of territory in bird life ; they have reversed

the natural process which is to establish a territory and then select

a nesting site within that territory. The result of this reversal is

that territory, instead of being the primary consideration, has be-

come of only secondary importance and with this reduction of its

Significance the instinct to defend it is correspondingly lessened.

We are not prepared to attach the same importance to ‘territory ’

as Mr. Howard and Mr. Friedmann, and we cannot connect it with

the next stage in his argument which is apparently that the failure

of the bird to realize the significance of its territory weakens the

protecting instincts of the female and finally those of the male.

Then, he argues, when the protective instinct is lost a lesser

comes into play, to conceal the eggs in the nests of other birds in

order to benefit (we presume) from their greater appreciation of the

necessity of ‘ territorial protection.’

We do not feel that Mr. Friedmann has settled the origin and

evolution of the parasitic habit amongst the Cowbirds, though we

admit that he has set up a wonderful record of data from Which the

problem must be surveyed. The interest of his book for us in

India lies in the fact that the evolution of the parasitic habits of the

Cowbirds and the Cuckoos has doubtless proceeded on somewhat

parallel lines, that he has shown us how to accumulate and

marshall the necessary evidence for the solution of the problem,

and that, when we have set up a similar record for our Asiatic

Cuckoos, we shall have ready before us this record of the Cowbirds

as a second corner stone from which to build the edifice at which

we aim.

In the meantime, however, to quote the final paragraph in the

book, the field zoologist canhelp to direct the steps of the physiologist

by getting a composite picture of the various stages and degrees of

parasitism exhibited by the different species of parasitic birds and

by comparing and contrasting them to understand as far as he is

able their significant points of resemblance and change. Careful,

accurate fieldwork is needed on all parasitic birds before we can

hope to advance very farin our study. So ends Mr. Friedmann,

and here we may well pause and take stock of our position as

Indian Ornithologists.

Complete parasitism is known to exist in India only in the

family of the Cuculid@. It probably is practised by that little known

Himalayan Honey-guide (/ndicator xanthonotus), whose breeding

habits are quite unknown, and remembering the parasitic habits of

certain African Weavers, we must bear in mind the habit of some

individual Munias of laying freely in each other’s nests. Our chief

preoccupation must however lie with the Cuckoos.

In the new edition of the Fauna we find 15 species of Cuckoos,

apart from subspecies, enumerated from the territories treated in

es a

REVIEWS 963

that work. These are divided into three sub-families—the Cuculine

the Hudynamine and the Phenicophaine. The first of these

contains all the parasitic cuckoos popularly so known, whilst the

last contains a selection of curious non-parasitic ground-cuckoos,

one genus of which Ceniropus, from its wide distribution, is commonly

regarded as one of the most primitive forms of cuckoo. It will be

noticed that a new subfamily Hudynamine has been made to

accommodate the well-known Koel which, in the first edition of the

Fauna, was included on structural grounds in the Phenicophaine.

The sole reason for separating the Koel from the Phownicophaine

appears to be the fact that it is arboreal and parasitic and the change

appears regrettable and artificial, tending if anything, to obscure

an interesting factor in the problem of parasitism. A Biological

factor should not be used to show philogenetic relationship.

The breeding habits of the Phanicophaine are well-known and

fall into two main types—the construction of a slight almost dove-

like nest and the construction of alarge domed nest. In both types

the eggs are incubated by the parents in the normal monogamous

way, and it is important to remember that the eggs are all of the

saine type, whitish chalky eggs very different in appearance and

proportionate size from those of the parasitic cuckoos. The

importance of this group lies in the link which it preserves with the

breeding habits of the non-parasitic cuckoos of the New World,

some of which have social breeding habits which must be kept in

mind in all studies of the parasitic cuckoos. To leave the Koel!

with this group to which it belongs morphologically is infinitely

more important to the study of the problem than to separate it on

the base of its parasitic habits. Mr. Friedmann’s clear recital of the

difference of breeding habits within the small group of Cowbirds is

alone sufficient to wipe out this arbitrary distinction.

Our knowledge of the Asiatic Cuculine cannot be considered in a

satisfactory state. Inspired by Mr. Stuart-Baker’s interest in this

group, a number of field-naturalists in different parts of India have

produced a great number of observations on the breeding habits

of the various cuckoos in their neighbourhoods and great numbers

of cuckoo’s eggs have been collected. The result has been to

clear up many points: in others, perhaps confusion has been made

worse confounded. The most casual perusal of all that has been

written about the oology of Asiatic parasitic cuckoos will clearly

show one of two things—either that much of the data collected is

erroneous or else that the problem is far more involved than was

originally suspected. Exceedingly different types of egg are credited

to the same species of cuckoo in different areas. If it is correct

that there is such variation in the eggs of one species as at present

attributed to it, we have not one but several problems to attack.

But before we attack those problems, we need to make certain that

they really exist and that there has not been some mistake.

Now we cannot help feeling that many of these problems are

based on erroneous data and that the whole problem of our Asiatic

cuckoos requires to be tackled de novo. Before we attempt to

generalize about the eggs and breeding habits of all these cuckoos,

we want to know more about the birds themselves,

964 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST; SOGIETY, Volo XxcaT

Take two of the most familiar species, the Common Cuckoo

(Cuculus canorus) and the Pied-crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus).

As to the first we do not know accurately what is its breeding range

in our area nor what races are represented. Its migrations have

not been studied in Asia and its seasonal distribution is not fully

known. Wecannot even speak with confidence as to the curious

fact that in the Western Himalayas it breeds apparently in two

distinct altitudinal zones with a wide gap between them.

With the Pied-crested Cuckoo our ignorance is even more striking.

It is one of the best known birds of India with its conspicuous

black and white plumage, its loud calls and its abundance: yet we

do not yet know the very elementary fact whether this bird spends

its life cycle in India or whether it passes half its year in Africa.

On the present state of our knowledge one might draw the conclu-

sion that it spends half the year in India, breeds there and lays a

blue egg, that it spends the rest of the year in Africa, breeds there

and lays a white egg. Such a conclusion is unacceptabie, yet it is

hardly more curious than some of the conclusions accepted with

regard to the lesser known of our Asiatic cuckoos.

In our opinion the time is ripe for a fresh survey of the

whole of the Indian cuckoos. The ideal would of course be for

India to produce its special student of the group, one who like

Mr. Friedmann could devote several years to this problem alone,

studying each species intensively in carefully selected areas and

then at the end publishing his results. This ideal is perhaps

unattainable, but much might be accomplished in other ways. Many

of the keen egg-collectors amongst our members might take up

observation of their local species of cuckoo on the lines followed

by Chance and Friedmann ; all the Ornithologists on our rolls might

furnish notes as to the distribution and status of the cuckoos in

their areas; while someone debarred from fieldwork might assist

in the careful collation and sifting of all the published records

winnowing from the mass the residue of value, small as it ulti-

mately may prove to be. Let us work out the life-histories of our

Cuckoos themselves with their distribution and migrations; then

we shall be on surer ground in dealing with their breeding habits.

When these are surely known, then can we proceed to draw our

deductions and conclusions. And when our data are ready, we shall

turn again to Mr. Friedmann’s monumental work,. assisted by his

facts about the parallel evolution of the parasitism of the cowbirds,

and in our turn assisting to throw light on the dark patches in his

argument. The Pyramids were built by the piecing together of

separate stones.

HW.

3. THE PLANT IN RELATION TO WATER:—By N. A:

Maximov. Authorized English Translation, edited with notes

by R.H. Yapp, 431 pages. George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., London,

1929. Price 21s. net.

The main purpose of the book, as the author puts it, ‘is to

give those engaged in experimental research, as well as students

REVIEWS 965

of botany and agriculture, an account of what has been and still is

being done in the elucidation of problems connected with the

drought resistance of plants’. ‘This might lead to the conclusion

that the book before us is chiefly a work of compilation. But this is

not the case. The writer is an acknowledged authority in this field

of work and we cannot expect him to be satisfied with merely

enumerating the ideas and opinions of those who have gone before

him. The greater part of his work is an historical and critical

account of the development of our knowledge of the relations

between plant and water. His constant historical references intro-

duce the reader to a considerable number of Russian Physiologists

and their valuable researches, which otherwise would be practically

unknown to all who are not familiar with the Russian language.

It is only by translations of books of this kind that most of us get

an occasional glimpse into the scientific work of the Soviet

Republics and we cannot help admiring the amount and wealth of

information that is hidden from our eyes by the barrier of

language.

In his critical discussions it is difficult to say what we should

admire more, his criticism of the resuits or of the research methods.

Both are admirable, but.we ought to be specially grateful for his

critical treatment of the more important methods which are used

in studying the various aspects of the water balance in plants.

The author thought it necessary to deal with methods in consi-

derable detail, as his book ‘ is intended to serve not only as a

manual for investigators, but also as a work of reference on ques-

tions regarding water relations for plant physiologists and ecolo-

gists, as well as for workers at agricultural experiment stations ’.

From his criticisms it becomes evident how difficuit it is to

devise physical apparatus or experiments by means of which we

can somewhat satisfactorily imitate or even measure physical

processes which are going onin the living plant. We refer only

to his treatment of the various evaporimeters and atmometers

where he comes to the conclusion that most of them are unsatis-

factory for determining transpiration.

With regard to many questions the author holds his own views

and these are often distinctly at variance with generally accepted

opinions. His discussions of xerophytism and drought resistance

form certainly the most interesting and stimulating part of his

book. His opinions must call for re-examination of the foundations

of many pet theories and hypotheses.

If it was the writer’s intention to present in due perspective a

picture of the many-sided relations of plants to water and to give

a critical survey of the factors probabiy concerned in determining

drought resistance, we must congratulate the author on what he has

achieved by clearly and concisely putting before us the most

intricate problems:of the subject. How far his views in each case

are correct, no amount of speculation will discover, the laboratory

alone can give an answer.

EK. B,

OBITUARY

OLDFIELD THOMAS

The death of Oldfield Thomas which occurred in tragic circum-

stances on June 16 last deprives the Society of a great friend. His

work on behalf of the Society’s Mammal Survey of India is well

known to all members and the long series of papers describing the

scientific results obtained by the Survey published in this Journal

will always be regarded as forming one of the landmarks of Indian

Zoology and a fitting memorial of their author.

Thomas was a son of the late Rev. J. H. Thomas, Vicar of

Hillingdon, Middlesex, and

Archdeacon of Cape Town.

He was born at Millbrook,

Bedfordshire, on February

21, 1858, and christened

Michael Rogers Oldfield.

He disliked the first two

names and (as he once

confessed to the writer

with humorous sadness)

he spent a large part of

his life vainly endeavouring

to eliminate them with the

lamentable result that he

had to sign most legal

documents twice instead

of once. He developed a

marked taste for Natural

History in early childhood,

and some two years’ resi-

dence at the Cape as a

small boy stimulated his

interest to such a degree

that he decided to become

a Naturalist. He was edu-

cated at Haileybury and, on leaving school in 1876, he obtained a

clerkship in the British Museum. During the two succeeding years

he devoted his leisure to zoological studies under Huxley at the

Royal College of Science where he soon showed conspicuous

ability. In 1878 he was transferred from the office to the depart-

ment of Zoology in the British Museum. In this department he at

first acted for a short time as clerk to the Keeper, Dr. A. Ginther,

F.R.S.; later he was placed in charge of the collection of mammals,

a position which he held until his official retirement on February 21,

1923. Itis interesting to recall the fact that Thomas was by no

——

ee ee ee

OBIZLZOARY, 967

means pleased with his appointment to the Mammal Room. At

that time he was keenly interested in Echinoderms and thought he

was going to. take charge of them. But Gtinther was an autocrat

and Thomas ‘ did’ the Mammals.

Gtinther never made a wiser decision. He was himself greatly

interested in mammals, and he thought that the keen, sharp-sighted

boy would be just the person to help him to continue the solid

contributions he was making to the systematic literature of the

Mammalia. But the skirts of a great keeper’s cloak were not

ample enough to conceal for long the enthusiastic and ambitious

Thomas. Gtnthur had intended to write the Museum Catalogue of

Marsupialia and Monetremata himself; but Thomas made so many

discoveries and worked with such energy and thoroughness that

Gtinther willingly relinquished the task to him. In 1888 the

Catalogue was published, and it remains to this day the solid

foundation of all modern systematic work on the group.

Before 1890 mammal collections consisted chiefly of spirit speci-

mens and of mounted skins stuffed with their skulls inside. ‘The

Biological Survey of the United States Department of Agriculture

had just been established under the leadership of Dr. C. Hart

Merriam, and the first reports of that Survey under the serial title

‘North American Fauna’ were just beginning to appear. Attracted

by these reports, Thomas found that Merriam was working with

long series of carefully prepared dried skins, each skin accompanied

by its own cleaned skull, and labelled with full particulars as to

locality, date of capture, sex, and flesh measurements. Corres-

pondence followed and Thomas decided to give the new methods a

trial. In the course of the next few years he perfected them.

Leaving North America in the competent hands of the Americans,

Thomas resolved that the British Museum should attempt a survey

of the mammals of the rest of the world—a big task for one

institution with very limited means and for one rather frail man to

undertake.

In 1890 Thomas married Mary Kane, daughter of Sir Andrew Clark,

the famous physician. This marriage brought Thomas considerable

means, and his wife, much interested in Natural History herself

and devoted to all that concerned her husband, readily agreed to

the use of as much as could be spared from their joint purse for the

purpose of financing collectors of mammals in various parts of the

world. They went, too, on collecting trips together into various

parts of Western Europe and to South America. Quickly Thomas

gathered round him a band of volunteer workers in the Museum ;

and by hard work and perseverance he gained the ears and the

purses of many wealthy people who were glad to benefit the national

collections and advance the cause of Science.

One of the great secrets of Thomas’s success in enlisting private

help for his collecting schemes lay in the promptitude with which

he worked out and published accounts of the material collected.

Benefactors saw immediate results. Gifted with an extremely

practical mind, Thomas was able to cut out all unessentials; in

each problem that came to him for solution, he saw at once the

point and the shortest way to it. He worked with amazing rapidity,

968 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

jumping from one matter to another without hesitation or confusion

of ideas, and he never forgot anything of real importance... A

continuous stream of papers flowed from his pen in the Aznals and

Magazine of Natural History from 1880 down to the present year,

with many contributions to the Proceedings of the Zoological Society,

and in more recent years to this Jourzal.

In 1897 Thomas had the good fortune to become acquainted with

that keen naturalist the late k. C. Wroughton, the Conservator of

Forests in the Bombay Presidency. Wroughton had collected a

number of bats in the Surat and hana Districts; these were

worked out by Thomas who described them in this Journal in 1897.

Thomas urged Wroughton not only to continue collecting mammals

but to work them out, and he gave his new friend every possible

encouragement and assistance. Wroughton took up the new task

with enthusiasm, publishing his first paper on ‘ Some Konkan Bats’

in this Journal in i899. These beginnings led to aclose personal

friendship between the two men. After his retirement from the

Forest Service, Wroughton came to work in the Mammal Room at

the Museum, and between 1905 and his death in 1921, he published

as a result a very large number of papers on Indian and African

Mammals in this and other Journals. As the work on Indian

Mammals proceeded, it became evident that the material existing in

the Museums was hopelessly insufficient to serve as a basis for

satisfactory research. Wroughton, supported and advised by

Thomas, urged the Society to undertake a Mammal Survey of

India, and with the most active help of Mr. W. S. Millard and

Mr. N. B. Kinnear, who together collected funds for and organized

the Survey in India, the Mammal Survey was started in 1911, and

produced the magnificent results with which all are familiar, and

of which any Society or Government in the world might well be

proud.

In all, Thomas described more than 2,000 species and defined

more than 200 genera of mammals. His papers are models of terse

description with nothing superfluous anywhere. Indeed, over and

over again, he might have said a little more with advantage; but

there was always another job waiting to be done, and he had said

enough for the present purpose. Always busy and somewhat

difficult to approach, people who knew him only boy his scientific

writings, regarded Thomas merely as a narrow systematist and a

“mere Museum naturalist’. No greater error was ever made; he

was at heart a field naturalist, and on his various journeys made

important collections of flies and myriopods in addition to his

mammals. But, with a big task before him, he deliberately

restrained his natural inclinations, saw clearly what he had to

do, and lived just long enough to do it. His work has built the

unrivalled National Collection of Mammals and the vast literature

relating to it. 2

In order to accomplish his life’s work, Thomas refused to entertain

any thought of official promotion, Elected an F.R.S. in 1901, he

served on the Council of the Royal Society, and for many years on

the Council of the Zoological Society of London. After his official

retirement from the Museum in 1923, he continued his old work

OBITUARY 969

as though nothing had happened. The death of his wife in May

1928 was a severe blow from which he never recovered.

The estate has been sworn for Probate at £42,613. The residue,

which will probably amount to about £12,000, has been left in trust

for the Trustees of the Godman Exploration Fund. The income to

be known as the ‘ Oldfield Thomas Collecting Fund’ is to be used

by those Trustees in their absolute discretion for the benefit and

increase of any of the Museum collections.

M. A, C. H.

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WISCELEANEOUS NOTES

I.—ALARM CALL OF LANGOORS

I see Mr. Champion, in vol. xxxiii, No. 2, p. 424, mentions

langoors as being in his experience reliable in indicating presence

of tiger and panther, and ‘R.B.’ in vol. xxxii, No. 4, mentions

that in his experience they are not to be relied on to give their

alarm call for carnivora only. I can adda further note on to this

in my own experience.

They let me down most annoyingly once by net calling at all

when a fine wounded panther must have (as shown by the blood

tracks we found too late) passed right underneath a whole troop of

them.

W. M. LOGAN-HOME,

JAMRUD, N.W.F.P., Major, IA.

April 26, 1929.

II.—FOOD OF THE SLOW LORIS (VYC7/CEBUS COUCANG)

I have had a Slow Loris (Vycticebus coucang) for a year and a few

notes on it may be of interest. Thcugh it usually sleeps rolled in

a ball, in the middle of the hot weather, it stretches itself out along

a branch, with arms and legs extended and hanging down. I have

never seen it spring at its food, the final jerk to seize an insect

may be likened to a spring, but it never leaves go of a branch

entirely. It ate almost any insect, biting their heads off first

almost invariably. One evening, I caught a bat, a Scotophilus,

I think, and put it into the cage. This was quickly caught and

partly eaten—again starting at the head. Otherwise the food given

has been almost entirely plantains and a few other fruits and rice.

I have only seen it drinking once. A very usual method of eating

is to clasp a branch with the legs and hang head downwards and

hold the food in the hands. He will feed for ten minutes at a

stretch in this position, the head being turned back over the body a

full 180° to face exactly backwards. *

TouNGOO, BURMA, J. M. D. MACKENZIE.

May 11, 1929.

[A Slow Loris which we kept in captivity lived on practically the

same diet—insects (grasshoppers) and fruit. He was however a

great tea drinker and immensely enjoyed a saucer of tea we gave

him every evening.—EDs. }

* See also Mise. Note No. XXVII. on p. 1000.

972 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXU1I

Ill.—TIGER TRACKS

Mr. F. W. Champion in his article (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

vol. xxxiii, No. 2) raises some interesting points on the Tiger’s

action and as he specially invites the views of others, I venture to

express mine. In my opinion, the normal action of a tiger walking

is exactly as Mr. Champion describes. The two legs on one side

are in motion together, and then on the other, alternately. The

hind-foot oversteps the position vacated by the fore-foot. If the

tiger is striding along, the clear space between the two pug marks

is 6”. I am taking Mr. Champion’s maximum figures-—I have

never myself actually measured the distance, but from recollection

I should say it often exceeded this. If the tiger progresses more

slowly, or with purposeful caution, the gap decreases, and in

following up pug marks along a zala one comes on places where

the tiger has been obviously ‘ interested’ or has rounded a corner

with great caution. In these circumstances one comes on places

where the hind-leg oz the same side has been placed exactly over the

spot vacated by the fore-foot. Of course this action reduces both

speed and noise. It is possible that a tiger, hungry and hunting,

might continue this action over some distance, but it is not the

tiger’s care-free, habitual action, it is controlled and purposeful

action. A wounded or sick tiger will often not step out, and the

pug marks cut each other: this is however an artificial action due

to abnormal conditions. Both legs on the same side are frequently

off the ground at the same time, and it is quite possible to follow

this with the naked eye: Mr. Champion’s photograph is of course

irrefutable evidence that this is so. No tiger that I have seen has

crossed its legs while walking or in motion, nor have I ever seen

a pug mark that in any way suggested that this had happened.

The fallacy that an animal ‘must have at least one leg on the

ground simultaneously on either side to preserve its balance’

can be disproved most easily perhaps by placing oneself prone,

resting on the right hand and right toe. The only occasion en

which I recollect having seen a tiger’s hind-leg on one side placed

adjacent to the fore-foot of the opposite side has been when the

tiger was stationary, crouched and prepared to spring. Mr.

Champion has attached perhaps too much importance to the ‘ dicta’

of Mr. Hicks, whose opinions on the natural history of the game he

hunted have never carried much weight amongst those capable of

verifying them.

Ivy Bank, Excrn, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

SCOTLAND.

April 17, 1929.

IV.—PROPORTION OF THE SEXES IN TIGERS

Out of 16 tigers accounted for in this District in the last few years

10 were tigresses and 6 were male tigers. It would be interesting

to learn whether the proportion of males to females shot, of tiger,

in other Districts is similar.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, ATTIKAN P. O., R. C. MORRIS.

Via MYSORE.

April d,°1922:

‘MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 973

V.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF TIGERS ON THE

ISLANDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE

A large tiger was shot in the vicinity of the Vehar Lake, Salse.te

on Tuesday, January 22, 1929. The animal was killed by

Mr. J. J. Sutari, to whom I am indebted for the following parti-

culars. Mr. Sutari and a party of friends were out after the usual

type of game the Salsette jungles provide, which is mainly wild

boar. They took up their positions in the vicinity of the south end

of the lake shortly after sunset and waited for something to turn up.

Towards 10 p. m. Mr. Sutari’s attention was aroused by the sounds

of some animal approaching. One can well imagine his astonish-

ment when a tiger walked out of the shadows into the moonlight.

The tiger came steadily on, when at a distance of 12 yards, Sutari

fired his 12-bore loaded with balland dropped the animal in his tracks.

The tiger in question, a straggler from the main land, probably

crossed over by swimming the Thana Creek. An animal doing so

would find immediate shelter in the jungles which cover the hilly

portions of Salsette.

Tigers appear to have been fairly plentiful in Salsette at the end

of the eighteenth century. Hector MacNeil, (Archelogia, vol. vii,

1873) tells us that in 1761 ‘ the Governor and most of the gentlemen

of Bombay used to go annually on a pleasure party to Salsette to

hunt Wild Boar and Royal Tiger both of which were found there in

great plenty.’ Records of the occurrence of tiger in these islands

during the nineteenth century are few and far between. In 1806,

two tigers were seen near General Macpherson’s bungalow at

Kurla, while a few days previously two persons were carried oft

from a village a little further north, itis presumed by the same

animals. On February 9, 1822, a tiger on Malabar Hill came down |

and quenched its thirst at Gowalia Tank and ran off up the hill

between the Hermitage and Prospect Lodge. ‘The imprint of its

feet were clearly visible the next morning (Bombay Courrier,

February 10, 1822). The. Bombay Courrier of December, - 1829,

records the sudden appearance of a tiger at Mazagon, the animal

apparently swam across the harbour and landed near the ruined

Mazagon fort. It was driven into the compound of Mr. Henshaw’s

bungalow where it’was eventually shot by the guard of the Dock-

yard and several Arabs. It measured 8’ 8”. On March 2, 1858,

the crew of the steamer Aden killed a large tiger which was

swimming across to Mazagon from the opposite shore. ‘The

animal attempted to board a small boat and was kept off with hand

pikes by the lascars. It was eventually dispatched with ‘ six balls

through its head’. (Bombay Times, March 6, 1858). In May of

the same year a tiger was killed in Mahim woods by a young

Portuguese, while on January 26, 1863, another tiger was killed

_at Mahim after mauling a Parsi cart-owner and committing other

damage. (Bombay Times, January 27, 1863). James Douglas

(Lonbay and Western India) writing about tigers in Salsette gives

an amusing narrative of a ‘traveller (was it Silk Buckingham ?)

in Salsette who was suddenly surprised by his palkee being dropped

and the coolies bolting. The palkee was closed, and he soon felt

974 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

outside the Jhilmzls something of a fee-faw-fum character. Stripes

was wide awake and the coolies, up a tree, were wide awake also.

He didn’t sleep much that night I tell you.’ In 1907, a tiger was

shot at Pir Pau, Trombay, near Sandow Castle by Mr. Mullan of

the Bombay Port Trust. This with the one cited above are the

most recent records.

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY 5. di. PRATER YC. Mcz.S:

SOCIETY,

June 22, 1929.

VI.—@l BE TIGER’S MEPHOD OF: MAKING A Kitt,

(With a photo)

I had the good fortune this year to witness, by the light of the

moon nearly at the full, the killing of a tethered buffalo by a

tigress.

The near approach of the tigress was made known to me at

10 o’clock by the sudden uprising of the buffaio from his quiet

chewing of the cud. He stared into the forest. Then the tread of

the tigress—who had given up all concealment as she knew her

prey could not now escape her—was heard among the leaves. The

head of the great feline came into the field of view of the binoculars,

her fine ruff—for she possessed an unusually large one—shining.

conspicuously in the brilliant rays of the moon. I could see every

whisker and hair on her face.

Slowly the whole of her lithe but massive form came into view,

advancing by short steps, with every muscle taut and alert for

instant action. The tethered bait, which had up to now remained

motionless, staring at the dread apparition, made asudden effort to

break loose. ‘That was the signal which launched the tigress to the

attack. There was a short scuffle, a choked beilow, and then absolute

silence as the tigress stood, the back of the buffalo’s neck in the

vise of her jaws. All] but her head was in the shadow of the tree,

but I could make out that she was straddled across the body of the

buffalo. What she did with her paws could not be made out, there

was no apparent movement but presently ] heard the crack, and

the crack, of the breaking of the vertebrze of the victim’s neck.

Now, the killing finished, the tigress opened her jaws and the

lifeless body of the victim fell with a helpless flop on to the ground.

A few moments she stood, wholly alert to her surroundings and

gazing this way and that. Then she seized the body by the hindquar-

ters to drag it away ; after several tremendous tugs she gave up the

attempt and, squatting at the tail end of the carcass, now stretched

to the full length of the wire tethering rope, commenced to tear it

open. This took but a second or two, and with great gulps she

began the hot meal she had so easily obtained.

{n ten minutes she suddenly got up and went straight off into

the forest behind her. She appeared drunk with her success, or the

rich wine with her dinner, for she made no attempt at quiet pro-

gress, barging through the jungle with a crashing of undergrowth

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 975

and leaves. All sorts of noises she made; gruntings, belchings,

and noises difficult to describe. The sound of her noisy progress

died away and all was again quiet, the absolute stillness of the

tropic night in the forest. There had been at no time—not even

before her approach to the buffalo—any indication on the part of

the numerous denizens of the jungle that the tigress was on the

move; and there was a similar silence on her departure.

It was six hours before she returned, which she did in absolute

silence and without any forest warnings. Down she sat and recom-

menced her meal]. I turned on the distant light which was directly

over her head. Of this she took no notice; but when, her exact

position clearly ascertained, the torch fixed on the rifle was flashed

in her face she lifted her head, her eyes shining like emerald lamps.

Next moment she was dead ; and the loud sigh of the breath leaving

her body came to my ears in the stillness of the night as the rever-

berations of the rifle shot died away in the distance.

A few weeks later a tiger met instantaneous death in the act of

killing a tethered bait. There was no moon; he was a most wary

and cunning beast, and to have put on the distant light when the

scuffle began might have scared him away. I could take no chances.

The torch showed him standing by the side of the ‘ doda’ with the

back of its neck in his jaws. He was facing away from me.

To the shot he fell on his side; and so instantaneous was his

death that the claws of his left forepaw remained hooked into the

right cheek of the buffalo, and the victim’s hind legs were kicking

in the death struggle after the tail of the slayer had ceased to beat

THE TIGER AND ITS KILL

976 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the ground. Only his jaws had quitted their hold, and I saw them

open and close in convulsive gasps.

All four legs of the tiger were underneath the body of the buffalo

as it fell, as can be seen in the photograph taken early in the

morning. In this case the tiger had not straddled his legs over the

kill, but stood by its side, his hind legs well under him. He was

slain before he had time to break the neck of his victim.

To have attempted to beat out this tiger would have been useless.

It could not be known where he would lie up, and the villagers were

atimid crowd. Two of my éodas this tiger had killed with impunity ;

so I was determined he should not escape. It was on the eighth

night in the machan that I slew him. That he would return

along that path in the river bed was certain; and it is just as

comfortable, and far more interesting, to sleep in a large machan

bed as in one’s camp !

R. W. BURTON,

COONOOR, Lieut.-Colonel,

June I, 1929. | L[ndian Army

(Retired. )

VIIL.—AN EXPERIENCE WITH A TIGRESS

The following experience with a tigress may interest the readers

of your Journal:

We were shooting in the Central Provinces. As no beaters were

obtainable, we spent mornings and evenings in silently stalking

along the game paths that crossed the jungle in every direction.

One afternoon about 4 o’clock we started with our shikaris as usual,

going in Indian file along asmall path flanked by high grass and

scattered bushes. After proceeding for some distance, we heard a

low humming sound in front which brought our party to a stop.

The lady member of the party told us afterwards that she took the

sound as coming from a swarm of bees which abounded in the

jungle. This, however, was a momentary illusion as the sound

quickly gathered volume and, with a loud roar, a tigress charged

out of the grass and came down the path in our direction. Ata

distance of some 12 or 15 yards she suddenly checked her rush,

stopped dead fora moment slightly sideways and evidently with

the intention of turning away. This was the opportunity for placing

a shot and the next instant, with a bound, she disappeared in the

grass again, leaving us standing on the path surprised and wonder-

ing whether we had seen the last of her.

As nothing further happened, we wisely decided to put off further

investigations till the next day when we found the tigress dead

some little distance away. We also discovered the reason for her

aggressive behaviour. In a bush near by we found the remains of a

sambhar which she must have killed the night before. She was

lying up near it with the intention of having another meal and

resenting our interference, she tried to scare us away. In other

words, the old lady was merely bluffing, she did not mean to charge

atvall,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 977

It was probably the same tigress which a few days earlier was

said to have stopped the transport of forest produce at a place

some miles away by lying up near the cart track and frightening

man and bullock by flying at anything that came her way but never

doing any damage.

BOMBAY,

pial 24, 1929. 5. HANHART.

VITI.—SENSE OF SMELL IN THE LION.

I have just been reading your Volume xxxiii, No. 2, with great

delight, especially the account of the Sal Forests and the Gonds

-with whom I have had many a happy day long years ago.

With reference to the sense of smell in the larger carnivores, I

was lying on the ground once in Somaliland close to a lion’s kill,

shielded from a dual view to some extent by a thin zareba of thorns

hastily put together about three feet high. A lion came down to the

kill in full daylight and stood looking at it about 25 yards off. I

was just going to rise toa sitting position when I heard a deep

breath just above my head and saw the yellow side of another lion

not 6 feet from me approaching from my rear. This lion came and

lay down at the kill not 3 feet from my own feet. I could not see

if it was a lion oralioness. I knew the first one was a lion—so J

raised myself up very quietly and fired at No. 1 over the back of

No. 2. I killed No. land No. 2 dashed off but came back later

when it was quite dark and I killed it also; both of these were lions.

But their sense of smell must have been very deficient.

Perhaps you will think the above worth putting in your Miscel-

laneous Notes. It may also interest you to feel how we old Anglo-

Indians appreciate your efforts. I was one of the very early

members of the Society—and with Phipson—‘ Eha ’—Newnham—

G. Anderson used to go out pig hunting czvca 1885-1886—as far as

I know, Phipson who lives within 12 miles of me and I are the only

- ones of the party left.

SHAPLEY HILL, HARRY -D, OLIVIER;

WINCHFIELD, Colonel.

BASINGSTOKE.

May, 1929.

IX.—WOUNDED PANTHER RETURNING TO ‘KILL’.

In regard to my note dated June 7, 1928, ve - wounded tiger return-

ing to kills, a case recently occurred in these parts of a panther

receiving a mortal wound and yet returning to its kill without,

however, feeding. The present Forest Range Officer of Kollegal,

Mr. A. R. Nair, was sitting up for panther over a live bait (goat),

and was rewarded by seeing a fine panther jump out of the surround-

ing bushes and leap on the goat. He fired and the panther dashed

978 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

off. He was very surprised, as he felt certain that he had scored a

hit, when he saw the panther half a minute later again approach the

kill. The panther was obviously uneasy, and having looked all

round, turned quickly again into the scrub without actually touching

the kill, and a few. seconds later commenced to groan. After a

further wait, Mr. Nair got down from tne tree, and as he dis-

covered that the bullet had entered the ground and there were no

traces of blood, he concluded that the panther had been missed.

The following morning search revealed the panther lying dead

within a chain of the machan, with a builet wound right through its

stomach. Mr. Nair was using a 12-bore gun with spherical ball, and

the bullet had passed clean through the animal. Whether the

panther had, after being hit, returned to attack his antagonist, or

had not realized for some moments what had happened to it cannot

of course be known, but I am inclined to the view that the latter

was the case. Mr. Nair realized, when he found the animal dead,

that he had done a dangerous thing in descending from the machan

with the panther lying up so close. He informed me that the

panther measured 6’10”.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R.C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN P.O.,

VIA MYSORE,

Abril 1, 1929.

X.—PANTHER CLIMBING UP TO A MACHAN.

It is not often, when sitting up over a kill, that one has a panther

ascend to one’s machan, so an experience of this occurrence will be

of interest.

The incident took place in the same tree from which Captain

Graham of the Rifle Brigade shot a wary tigress over a live doda in

1927 (Journ. Bi IN: fi. Ss, VOU. XxXKil. Deed):

The tethered buffalo calf was killed by a large male panther. In

the evening he made his approach known by much grunting. I saw

him come out of the bamboo jungle on to the cart road at side of

which was the kill, lying at the foot of a tree ten yards away from

the machan tree. As he stepped into the open, he Jooked up the

river bed and evidently sighted an intruder, as he returned into

cover. Then there was much panther talk, and I realized—as I

suspected must be the case, for panthers when alone never demons-

trate in this way, that he had a companion ; indeed he had two of his

female relations with him. All sorts of noises went on; gruntings,

rushes through the bamboos, and frolics galore.

None of the animals showed up at the kill, and it was nearly dark

when there was a thud at the foot of the trunk of my tree, which

shook at the impact, another thud against the other trunk of the

same tree, and in a moment of time after the first thud I saw the

bullet head of a panther as it lay crouched on a bough, five feet

above and to the left of my head, and looking down at me,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 979

A bullet from the °470 blew it off its perch on to the ground below

the machan. A female, full grown, old (as could be seen by the

teeth and the almost invisible sutures of the skull), weight 70 lbs.

The other female came later to the kill and was missed; next

evening I shot the male.

Investigation next morning showed that in her frolics she had

climbed into the tree above the kill perhaps to escape the too

pressing attentions of her male companion and from there she must

have seen some movement of mine in the machan. So down she

came to investigate, possibly thinking there was a lungoor in the

tree. The machan was absclutely screened on all sides, and from

below, by green branches.

The lightning rapidity with which she ascended the tree to height

of over 20 feet; the ceriainty with which she selected the only

branch suitable to her purpose; and the ease with which she

crouched on that, a bough not more than 4” in diameter, was most

astonishing.

I have heard panthers hunting lungoors in trees on a moonlight

night, and can now more readily realize how frequently these

animals must fall victims to their hereditary foe.

The incident here related took place in March, 1928.

I have spent many nights in a machan but only in last March did

I hear the peculiar noise made by a porcupine during his nightly

wanderings.

It was a loud in-iaking and expulsion of breath, such as one can

make through one’s nostrils. I was sitting up over a kill, and the

cart track was dusty and quite clear of tracks because it had been

swept with branches ; so there was no doubt as to what animal had

made the noise which had puzzled me during the silent watches of

the night.

COONOOR, R. W. BURTON;

June 1, 1929. Lieut.-Colonel, Indian Army (Rettred).

XIL—ROGUE ELEPHANTS WITH MALFORMED TUSKS.

(With a photo).

The people inhabiting the jungly tract at the northern part of the

Khasi Hills, known as Bhois, mainly depend upon rice cultivation

for their existence. This they generally cultivate by the system

known as ‘ Jhum cultivation,’ i.e., burning a patch of jungle and

then sowing paddy. ‘They also cultivate other side lines, such as

pumpkins, chillies, cotton, Indian corn, etc., but their chief and in

fact their only cereal is rice.

These tracts are frequented by large numbers of wild animals of

all sorts and as they include such destructive creatures, as wild pigs,

deer, sambhar, and finally wild elephants, the cultivators frequently

suffer great losses from their ravages.

The smaller creatures such as pigs, deer, etc., can be frightened

off by various stratagems and even a herd of elephants may be

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

made to leave early by means of fires, torches, etc., but when

a solitary wild male elephant visits such cultivations, then the matter

assumes quite an-

other aspect. Not

only will such an

animale taise =. 10

notice -of. -all” “ate

tempts to drive him

away but he will

frequently chase the

people about and

any one caught by

him meets with a

sure death.

During the course.

Of my foursmasta

members Of eth e

Agricultura] De-

partment of the

District, I frequent-

ly came across the

depredations com-

mitted by the rogue

elephants and was

fortunate enough to

bag some of them

On various occa-

sions. Sofar as I

was aware, male

elephants consisted

MALFORMED TUSKS OF ROGUE ELEPHANT of» “tuskers @7and

non-tuskers or

Muknas, there being many types of tusks amongst the former class,

but recently I shot a rogue tusker, which had most peculiar tusks

(vide photo). One of the tusks (the right) was short and straight

with a fleshy exuberant along the length of the tusk, as would be

seen from the photo and quite unlike any other tusks I have seen.

Apparently this tusk is in the nature of a freak as it did not appear

to have been broken off.

This beast was roaming about in the neighbourhood of a village

named Mathan in the Mylliem State and was easily polished off by

a temple shot from my Vicker s 404 magazine rifle.

SHILLONG, Lk RADE:

May, 1929.

XII.—NOTES ON BERDMORE’S SQUIRREL

(MENETES BERDMORE!)

Blanford (Fauna of British India) does not contain much infor-

mation about the habits of Menetes (Sciurus) berdmoret, of which

there are several specimens in the collection I have sent to be

worked out. It is chiefly a ground squirrel, but does ascend

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 981

small trees occasionally, and creeps about in bamboo clumps and

rubbish—habits rather like a Tupaia. Itis not common here, and

most of my specimens come from near cultivation; two have

however come from hill jungle containing secondary growth

from cultivation. It extends up to 4,500 ft. here.

— On May 7, 1929, my man found a nest containing two young ones,

apparently.a fortnight or three weeks old. I have kept them alive,

and they take milk, and fruit to eat. ‘Fheir movements are sharp

and jerky, or else very slow, like other small squirrels I have had,

and they shew the same desire to creep into crevices in one’s

clothing.

The nest was situated in a hole in a bank, and made of bamboo

leaves, moss, grass and fibre.

TTOUNGOO, BURMA, J. M. D. MACKENZIE.

May 11, 1929.

XIIL—ELEPHANT MISTAKEN FOR A TIGER!

A strange Shikar episode

The following is one of the strangest episodes in shikar I have

ever been connected with and an accident which, previous to

the happening, I would have thought fairly impossible to occur.

R. B: W. was out after tiger at Bailur, and two Azl/s having

occurred the same day he sat up over one of them with, however,

no success. ‘The tiger did not return. On the following day I joined

him at Bailur and having decided to sit up over the second kill

together, we were comfortably seated on the machan by 5 p.m.

The tiger by the way had not returned the previous night to this

kill either. At about 6 a howling gale sprung up. The machan

was built partly on bamboos and partly on a semi-decayed old

fig tree and we had considerable misgivings as to whether it would

hold together with the strain imposed upon it in the heavy wind.

We decided, however, to stick it out til midnight if possible.

At 10°30 the wind was so bad that we decided to get down half an

hour later if the tiger had not by then put in an appearance. R.E. W.

felt very sleepy, having sat up the previous night, and asked me

to keep watch while he dosed for the remaining half hour. At 10°45

I heard a loud crack at the kill and woke him up. We listened and

again heard a crack, this time well to the left of the kill. I

whispered that the tiger had come and had evidently dragged

the kill, breaking the rope, off to the left. We then heard what

we took to be a dragging noise across our front and then towards

us through the bamboos, and finally under the machan with frequent

pauses, and then there was a sudden jar and the machan shook

violently. Whispering to R. E. W. that the kill had evidently been

caught in the bamboos for a moment and that the tiger had tugged

it free, I suggested the advisability of our kneeling and facing

the rear of our machan as the noise was definitely behind us.

This done, R. BE. W. decided to switch on his torch as it was

his last chance of seeing the tiger. At first nothing could be seen

through the foliage all round and below us and then R. EB. W. said

982 JOURNAL, BOMBAY.NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT/1

he could see something long and brown moving up a slope and

that he was sure it was the tiger’s back. He fired and for a

moment there was complete silence, followed by agroan and a thud.

We were convinced that he had laid the tiger low with one shot,

and I was in the middle of congratulating him when we heard

a hard knock, like horn on stone, which puzzled me considerably

and, turning on my torch, I searched about and to my. horror

saw the tips of a pair of tusks! I could hardly believe my eyes

and, dumbfounded, said to R. EB. W. ‘Good. heavens, it is an

elephant ;’ to which he replied ‘ Rubbish!’ He, however, brought

his light to bear on the spot on which mine was directed and

we could both then see the tusks and trunk of a half grown elephant.

We were aghast—the inconceivable had happened—we had com-

mitted the offence of shooting an unproscribed tusker without

even the excuse of self-defence! The elephant was obviously

unable to rise, but apart from that was very much alive. We could

not see where R. E. W.’s shot had hit it, and presumed it to have

been on the knee. We adjudged the elephant to be about 6 ft. in

height, a ‘dutcha’ in fact with extraordinary tusks for its age

(the tusks turned out to be 4 ft. in length when extracted later).

The tips of its tusks were only about 6 ft. from our rope ladder and

as I attempted to get down it lashed out with its trunk upon which

I ascended hurriedly again! There was a possibility that the

elephant was only temporarily disabled, and that it would, if left,

manage to get up and go off. We waited for an hour and as the

elephant’s efforts to rise were still ineffectual, we decided to get

down from the machan jumping clear of the elephant when near

the bottom of the ladder. I got down first descending cautiously

and leapt to the ground well out of the elephant’s reach, while

R. E. W. covered the elephant with his rifle. He then let down

both our rifles and soon joined me, | having covered the elephant

during his descent. We found the bottom rung of the iadder

broken and it was evident that the elephant had pulled it when

under the machan, and this had caused the machan to shake

as it did. Safely down, we shone our torches on the elephant

and found that its forelegs were anyhow not disabled, nor could

we see any wound onits head or body. There was, therefore,

still a faint chance that the elephant would be able to recover

his legs and make off little the worse, and devoutly praying that

this would be the case, we left the unhappy scene of action and

found our way back to the shikar huts where our Sholaga shikaries

were putting up for the night. On hearing our story they were

intensely amused and declared that we had mistaken the elephant

for some other animal! as there was no elephant in the vicinity,

no tracks had been seen of any elephant for three months, and

there was no way for an elephant to approach the place except

through a valley near by which was crowded with cattle and cattie-

pens. On receiving our assurances, however, that there was

no mistake about it they became very glum and it was a silent party

that made its way back then, well after midnight, to the Bailur

Bungalow. There was just one thing we had to congratulate our-

selves over: it was very fortunate for us that the elephant had

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 983

made its presence known when it did; had it come along a quarter

of an hour or twenty minutes later, after we had got down from the

machan, we might have walked straight into it with disastrous

results. Early on the following morning we got hold of the local

Forester and took hira with us to the spot. The elephant was still

literally alive and kicking, and we wanted to finish him off, but

the Forester implored us to obtain the D. F. O’s permission first.

The Forester evidently thought that it would be hard to get

Government to believe it possible for an elephant to be mistaken

for a tiger, even though at night, and naively said, ‘ Why not say

the elephant came and attacked the machan and you fired to save

your lives, Sir?’!! This certainly would seem to be a more

plausible yarn, but we decided that it was always best to stick

to the truth. There is no doubt that the high wind, coupled with

the fact that the elephant was a young one and had to push and

push his way through the bamboos and thick undergrowth, had

helped us to believe, without a shadow of a doubt, that the tiger

was dragging the kill.

We covered a large part of the Kollegal Taluk in our car look-

ing for the D. F. O. and discovered finally that he was on tour on

the Baragurs; and as we were short of petrol and it was then too

late to follow him further, we decided to take on ourselves the res-

ponsibility of finishing the elephant off and this we did. Altogether

a remarkable chain of ill-luck had led to the elephant’s final

destruction: firstly, if R. E. W. had sat up over this kill on the first

night instead of over the other, he would not have seen the

elephant. Secondly, it was most extraordinary that the elephant

should have approached the kill and broken a bamboo actually at

the kill, which was the first noise I heard. Upto then the roaring

gale had covered the noise of its approach. Lastly, it is strange

that its next movements should have taken it right under our

machan. If it had not stopped behind our machan R. E. W. would

certainly not have had time to fire atit. The poor little brute’s

death was most premature: if it had lived it would undoubtedly

have grown into a very fine tusker, but, as the Forester remarked

on viewing the elephant, ‘ this animal was undoubtedly fated todie

young, and moreover to come here to die’!

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., RANDOLPH C. MORRIS.

Via MvSsore,

SUNE TTD 1929:

XIV.—BODY MEASUREMENTS OF A GAUR (B8/BOS

GAURUS)

(With a photo)

On a short visit to Travancore in April this year I was fortunate

enough to bag a bull‘ bison’ ; an animal, which, for many years, I

have been anxious to secure.

The bull was a youngish beast in his prime, as can be seen

from the accompanying photo which shows his head fairly clearly,

984 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXTII

He was almost jet black on his fore-quarters but very dark chocolate

further back on the body.

BULL GAUR (Bibos gaurus)

The appended list of measurements—which I took with a steel

tape, with the assistance of my host, Mr. C.P. Gouldsbury of

Guderale Estate, Mattupatti P.O.—may be of interest to your

readers, as the shoulder height is very much below that usually

given for a bull of this species.

The ascertainment of body measurements of Ceylon game

animals has been a hobby of mine for many years ; and I may state

that I have found my trophies almost invariably to tape less at the

shoulder than the measurements given in the few books dealing

with this subject in respect of Ceylon fauna. As regards Ceylon

sambur and spotted deer, stags for example, Ihave found 48 in. and

31 in. respectively to be about the maximum shoulder height—

measurements taken after death with fore-leg held as nearly as I

could judge in the natural standing position.

To return to my bison, however, it will be realized that stretch-

ing or depression of the fore-leg muscles of a beast of this species

is only possible for an inch or two; and as I was using a 5 ft. steel

tape—which proved more than long enough for this measurement

—I can guarantee the accuracy of my figures. I mention this fact

as Ihave been told since then that I ‘ musthave made a mistake’

that the bull ‘ must have been a dwarf’, etc. !

I give a full list of measurements which I took, as they may

prove of assistance to others, who have had experience of this beast,

in judging the general size of the animal.

I shall be very interested to have any comments thereon, more

particularly as to the shoulder height.

(1) Horns, sweep ee a Se eatase

(2) %: length, right horn Ss a OO RERE.

(3) Fe es 3 lent 27, Oa

(4) ,, Widest outside oe Boa

(3) 4, - inside ... ay Ii

(6) | <5, stip tortip io eccn)

See ay

SS EPPA Se met

teense foes

Gy PSOE HE Sy

ae te

eept meee

eee

Pao

ceo te

beam 7 cat eas Sok ne

ELEN

asa}

seen +

SE eer

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

UMANS I

=f BIHAR

SAUGeR a

DAN ON a

BHOPAL Sunsenree:

STATE |

We RAL

pid

% ae TPMANG A 92°

SAtik of of ttt Prva + rare On , Ohm

; 3 Me Amnon ae

GS ea waded thet 2S

DISTRIBUTION OF MOUSE DEER

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 985

(7) Horns, girth, right horn LOGE ns:

(8) Mem ert) .), rare ONG

(9) enern of head and body eal Cojitiliig ae yaks

(10) ie tail (including 5 inches

tuft) ES ala eee ol Ma

(11) Height at shoulder is Sena cee bee

(12) r of body only at shoulder Day de ee

(13) Girth behind shoulder ei ames ete ot cd tale ae

(14) Girth of neck, 1 ft. from horns Sey Ss

(15) : ae a Te pore

(16) ,, round centre of face Mf aay ee ne pe A

G7). Length: of ear ee SE th

(18) Length of hind foot (to hock) goat ciel een

(19) i .. (hoof) aes

(20) ‘3 fore foot (hoof) OF +3}

(21) Circumference round fore foot

(hoof)... aoe ae ae oat Me hs eee

(22). -Circumierence «round hind: foot

(hoot) <_..: eT al asks oe

(23) Circumference round shin sie See

Measurements of length and height were taken in a straight line

or between uprights. This bull had, practically speaking, no dew-

lap:

RONDURA GROUP,

GINIGATHENA, I. L. CAMERON.

CEYLON, |

May 20, 1929.

XV.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE MOUSE-DEER

(MOSCHIOLA MEMINNA)

(With a map)

The records of the occurrence of the Mouse Deer (Moschiola

meminna) in Upper India are so vague and contradictory that I have

made an effort to arrive at a more accurate knowledge of their dis-

tribution.

Hodgson includes this animal in his list of Nepal mammals, and

Blyth refers to a Nepalese specimen in his catalogue; but these

notes have never since been confirmed, and, as aresult of my present

investigation, appear to be inaccurate. I can obtain no authentic

record of a single specimen ever having been obtained anywhere

in tne United Provinces, and it seems very unlikely that there

should be such a big gapin their distribution as that between the

north of the Central Provinces and Nepal.

Lt.-Col. Stockley in his recent book Aig Game Shooting in the

Indian Emptre states on page 19, ‘A morning walk in the

Siwaliks may produce anything from a tiger to a mouse deer.’

The Siwaliks are the outer range of low hills which form the

boundary between the great Himalayan Range and the Gangetic

Plain of the United Provinces. I have lived in the forests of this

986 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

tract for many years and I am in intimate touch with other Forest

Officers. I have also access to the Forest Records of animals

which have been shot for many years past, and I am in a position

to make the definite statement that no mouse deer has been

recorded as shot for many years by anyone, andno Forest Officer— _

and Forest Officers live in their jungles for the greater part of the

year—believes that mouse-deer exist in the Siwaliks. I therefore

conclude that this statement by Col. Stockley must be a slip of the

pen.

Again the same author in the same book, page 165, gives the

distribution of mouse deer as ‘ Peninsular India as far north as

Khandesh, southern United Provinces, and Orissa.’ Firstly, it is

to be noted that the Siwaliks are in the northern United Provinces

and are not mentioned here, so that Col. Stockley’s statements on

pages 165 and 19 do not agree. Then as regards the southern

United Provinces. The forests in the south of the United Provinces

occur in the south-west near Jhansi and Banda (Bandelkhand) and

in the south-east at Mirazapur. With regard to Bandelkhand, the

two Forest Officers in the United Provinces (Messrs. Whitehead and

Benskin, both now Conservators) with the greatest experience of

Bandelkhand—an experience extending over many years—assure

me that mouse deer are quite unknown there. The jungle tribes

have no name for them, and there are no records of any having

been shot in the whole of Bandelkhand. As regards the Mirzapur

forests, there was a suspicion that the species might occur in the

Dudhi forests at the very south of the Province, sol asked Mr.

Bhattia, the Divisional Forest Officer of Mirzapur, to make a

thorough enquiry for me. ‘This he very kindly did, with the result

that mouse deer are reported not to occur anywhere in Mirzapur

District, and to be quite unknown to the jungle tribes living there.

In these circumstances, there appears to be considerable doubt as

to the existence of mouse deer anywhere in the United Provinces,

and I would ask Col. Stockley to publish his evidence for stating

that they do occur there.

As regards areas adjacent to the United Provinces, the Political

Agents of Rewah State, Gwalior, and Bhopal are of the opinion

that the species does not occur in their respective states. The most

northerly places where the animal is definitely known to occur are

the Mandla and Hoshangabad forests of the Central Provinces and

Palamau in Bihar, all: of which are south of latitude: :24°. a1

therefore arrive at the conclusion that 24° latitude is approximately

the northern limit of this species, and I would ask all readers of the

Journal who may be interested in the subject to send in any

records they may have which may confirm or contradict this conclu-

sion. I add a rough sketch map of the United Provinces and

environs to make the position clearer.

In conclusion I would like to take this opportunity of thanking

all the Political Agents and Forest Officers who have so kindly

supplied me with material for this investigation.

LANSDOWNE, F. W. CHAMPION,

April 21, 1929, « Indian Forest Service.

‘

ee aS et ed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 987

XVI.—HOW THE FEMALE DUGONG CARRIES HER YOUNG

In my paper on the Dugong (Journ. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., Vol.

xxxill, No. 1, p. 96.) a reference was made to the manner in

which the mother dugong carries her young. Langvel (Der

Zoologische Garten Ann., p. 37, 1896) states that the baby dugong

supports itself on the back of its mother. According to Petit

Wei) PULUS AG hese. INOty.Patis;s No. 25; 1927), this. was. also. the

opinion of the Malagassy fishermen. It was pointed out that even

if the baby dugong was abie to take refuge under the breast of its

mother, it was not apparent how it could be embraced by the

comparatively short flippers of the parent. I have been endeavour-

ing to collect further information on this point and have since

received a letter from Mr. M. C. C. Bonnington, Divisional Forest

Officer, South Andamans, who writes, ‘The Andamanese _har-

pooned a female dugong on the 8th of March carrying a fully

formed young. They inform me that females with young are

found chiefly during the south-west monsoon.* ‘They also tell me

that the mother carries its young when travelling firmly held to her

breast with her flippers, but that it plays about near the mother

when the latter is feeding.’ Mr. Shunker Narayan Pillay, with

whom I have also corresponded, was told by the fishermen of

Rameswaram that the baby dugong is held so firmly between the

flippers by the mother that three strong men were unable to

extricate one from her grasp. Mr. Pillay tells me that between

November 1928 and 1929, five dugongs were caught at Rameswaram

in the fishermen’s nets. The animals, as I have stated previously,

are highly esteemed as an article of diet by the Mahomedans of

the neighbourhood. Mr. Pillay states that no part is wasted, even

the viscera are washed and dried and are eaten, seasoned with salt,

pepper and turmeric. According to Mr. Bonnington, dugongs are

still found in the Andamans in herds up to 20 and Col. M. L. Ferrar,

Chief Commissioner, Andamans, writing in this connection states

that owing to the practical extinction of the Andamanese -and the

absence of any successors to these gua dugong hunters, there should

be plenty of dugongs in those waters.

BousBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Sales RAN EE Re

June 6, 1929. C.M.Z.S.

XVII.—THE SAWN-OFF SHOT GUN—THE WATCH-

MAN’S GUN.

The question of the preservation of Game and the general Fauna

of India and Ceylon is becoming more acute each year. The last

few years have seen a marked change in the status of most species

that are of any economic value to man, either as food or because of

* Mr. S. Wesche-Dart tells me that he observed a pair of du&ongs with

a young one in the Andamans in the month of December.

988 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

their hides, skins or feathers. In many cases the once common

animal has been so exploited and its ranks so decimated that unless

some measure of protection or preservation can be accorded it, and

that soon, anumber of species will very shortly be verging upon

complete extermination in many places.

This matter is already receiving attentionin many quarters and is

exercising the minds of sportsmen and naturalists alike.

One excellent suggestion that has been put forward, to help meet

the situation, is the institution of a close season forall animals and

birds—a period of so many months of the year during which no

shooting of any sort would be permitted. Undoubtedly such a close

season is very desirable from all points of view, especially as in

many cases that chief damage done to a species is caused by killing

in the nesting or breeding season.

But it is always urged that such a close season, although admitted-

ly much wanted, cannot be instituted by our Governments, because

it is essential that the villager should be allowed to carry a gun to

protect his crops, and in the jungle districts, himself; and this being

so, it would be quite impossible to prevent him shooting for food

or gain with the gun that he would be permitted to carry.

This argument is sound: butit has been suggested to me that it

may be met by the sawn-off shot-gun ; a gun cut down until only 12

inches or less of the barrel remains.

A gun of this description would be perfectly efficient for the

scaring away, from growing crops, of either birds or animals; and

at close range would be as good as, if not better than, an ordinary

gun, in the event of an attack by a dangerous animal; but it would

be little use for shooting in the jungle.

A watcher on his permit, issued free, would be permitted to own

and carry such a gun at any time, but he would not be allowed under

any circumstances, to carry a full-barrelled gun during the close

season—nor to own one without a special licence—so often the

plea for a gun for protecting crops is but an excuse to procure one

for the purposes of poaching.

The short-barrelled gun, in addition to its other advantages,

would be cheaper to buy, once the demand arose and manufacturers

started turning them out.

I shall be interested to hear what you and other members think of

this suggestion: is it feasible ?

DELTOTE GROUP,

GALAHA, W. W. A. PHILLIPS.

CEYLON.

August 2), 1923:

[In an article on Game Preservation in India (Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc... V.ol. xxxit, .No.22;2p. 359) the, Editors, im discussing

the question of gun licences, reeommended the suitability for crop

protection purposes of a gun with several inches of the barrel

removed. Eps.]

Bie» bi) Ag, ee Hee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. 989

XVILIL—OCCURRENCE OF THE TRUMPETER BULLFINCH

(BUCANETES GITHAGINEA CRASSTROSTRIS) IN THE

PUNJAB SALT RANGE.

I met with some small parties of this Finch at the foot of the Salt

Range, near the salt mine at Warcha in the Shahpur District, in the

middle of January of this year. They were ona steep, bare, and

stony hill-side and kept up an incessant twittering, but for which

they would probably have escaped my notice, so perfectly did their

plumage match the surroundings.

Two males were secured and sent to Mr. H. Whistler, who kindly

identified them.

SARGODHA, H. W. WAITE,

PUNJAB, Indian Police.

March 30, 1929.

XIX.—MIGRATION NOTES FROM KASHGAR, CHINESE

TURKESTAN.

Most duck appear to have migrated North now, but on April 8,

I saw a good many teal on one of the rivers close to Kashgar.

On February 26 and 27 I saw many flights of pintail on the

Yarkand and Tisuaf rivers between Yarkand and Karghalik, but

there were none by March 26.

Duck first appear to come to Kashgar about the middle of

September. At that time they go to the open marshes and lakes

round about. In mid-November there were very many duck on such

places, including mallard, pintail, golden eye, teal and red-crested

pochard. As these lakes gradually get frozen over, the duck come

into the rivers near Kashgar which are fed by warm springs and do

not freeze.

Practically all the duck that stay on the river during December

and January are mallard. The following totals of game shot last

winter will show the proportions during December and January.

: White-

Gad- Golden Mer- «.; Wid-

Mallard. LE Teal. eye. ganser. Snipe. geon. pea

December. ... 53 1 a Z il 1 oe 1

Jantiary <4." 9 610 ae 7 10 3 12 Z

On January 31, out cf 102 birds shot 101 were mallard.

By the middle of February the duck have mostly returned to the

marshes and lakes, and the majority seem to leave the district about

the end of February and beginning of March.

990 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIEIMM. Vor XXXII

The following are dates of arrival of birds noticed this spring.

Tern c4th February Yarkand.

Wagtail 6th March Khotan.

Hoopoe 14th March Khotan.

Swift. 27th March. Yarkand.

BRITISH CONSULATE GENERAL, G. SHERRIFF,

KASHGAR, Caplets

April 15, 1929.

XX.—MORTALITY AMONGST HOOPOE NESTLINGS.

lenclose a photograph showing a hoopoe approaching its nest,

made in a disused motor car piton my verandah, with food for its

young ones andmate. The mother bird used to fly up and receive

the food from the cock who made small circles round the hole to

attract the bird below. She did this until the young birds were big

enough to receive the food themselves, when both parents shared

the labour of feeding their chicks. The parent birds entered the

nest through a hole in the plank. For feeding they did not descend

usually but delivered the ‘goods’ through the hole. Entering the

hole for them was quite a business but getting out was really hard

work. I have seen the parent birds make three or four efforts

before succeeding in squeezing through the hole. Their action was

like that of a man in the same predicament, using his elbows and

shoulders to lever himself through. There were four young birds,

three grew large, but one was minute and eventually died from

inanition, I conclude. Is this not rather unusual ?

RAWAL PINDI, H. M. GRIFFITHS.

June 11. 1929,

[The hoopoes referred to by Mr. Griffiths appear to have been

more than usually successful with their brood. Col. R. M. Betham

(Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xii, p. 688) commenting on

the mortality amongst nestling birds mentions that in the case of

bulbuls and hoopoes which lay several eggs, rarely more than one

young appears to be successfully reared! Mr. Douglas Dewar

(Birds at the Nest) makes the same observation. In the book to

which we refer he further states that the starvation of at least one

young one in the average brood seems to be the rule rather than

the exception among birds. The parent birds while they may bring

sufficient food to provide for the entire brood in seasons when food

is exceptionally abundant do not appear to be able to secure

adequate nourishment in average or unfavourable seasons. When

this happens at least one of the young is starved. ‘The weak perish

while the fittest survive. Which is all for the good of species.

With hoopoes the problem of feeding is still more difficult. As

with the hornbills, the mother hoopoe never seems to leave her nest

until the young are well grown. To the cock bird falls the task of

providing food during this period not only for the chicks but also

for the mother. The chances of the whole brood surviving are

remote. Unfortunately the photo submitted by Mr. Griffiths is

unsuitable for reproduction. Eps. ]

ee ee ee ee ee

ee a

;

NMISCELIEANLOUS: NOLES 991

XXIL—NIDIFICATION OF BINGHAM’S WHITE-HEADED

BUEBOL (CHRASOPAIEA LAOMPSONT)

In the 2nd edition of the Fauna of Brilish India (Bird,) Mr.

Stuart Baker notes the nidification of Cerasophila thompson? as

unknown. Last-year, I saw quite a number of the birds: at

Thandaung, 4,500 ft. in the Karen Hills, 20 miles north-east of

Toungoo. Solitary pairs were seen as low as 3,000 ft., while the

bird is not by any means rare on the top. It appears to like open

spaces, and flies about in the tea garden, perching on dead trees,

and often crosses the roads and valleys between hills at a con-

siderable height. Its white head makes it very obvious and it may

seem commoner than it is.

Last year, I failed to get a nest, but this year I found one on

April 8, containing three fresh eggs. I saw the bird return to the

nest and identified it, but could not get a shot, and left my man to

secure it. He put it off the nest when he went back from where he

had been waiting for me and subsequently shot it. The measure-

ments differ from Bingham’s, being :—Length 8” (7°8”), Wing 3-4”

(Cr8e and: 72) ad atl 33 3(3° Scand. 3:05”), Tarsus’ 95 (0:7), Bill trom

gape °85” (-85”). Personal idiosyncrasies in taking measurements

may have something to do with this ; I hope to get more specimens,

and get them carefully compared. ‘The above measurements in

millimetres are 203, 86, 79, 24 and 22mm.

The nest was asurprise. It was placed ina hole in a bank(a

cutting for a path) about 3 ft. above the path, and consisted of small

bright yellow grass seed stems orrachi of ‘ Paung’ (? Saccharum

arundinaceunt), from which the seed had all been stripped off and a

very few pieces of larger grass and bamboo leaves across the outer

lip. It was rather a flimsy affair, and came to pieces soon after

being taken out. A shallow cup, say 31” x 14” with no trace ofa

dome.

The eggs were of the ordinary, fairly, bright-coloured bulbul

type; I think they could be matched from any big series of

Molpastes, or Microscelis. They are blunt at the small end and not

very glossy ; the ground colour is a pale pink, fairly densely speck-

led all over with reddish brown which forms in one egg a cap and

in the other two a broad ring at the large end, with underlying

markings of a neutral grey. |

-They measure: 22°5, 22-5 and 23 x 17-5, 16:5 and 17 millimetres.

I have never heard of a bulbul’s nest in a bank and it is of course

possible that the one found was aberrant. But the construction—

flimsy, with a rather stronger sector at the mouth of the hole—

is distinctly that of a bird accustomed to breeding in a bank:

I thought at first that I had found a Pellorneum ignotum nest of

unusual construction, and it is possible that the nest has been found

before and passed for that of this bird.

I wrote the above on April 15, and since then I have found

4 more nests. One contained 2 young (hatched 17-4-29), one a

clutch of 3 eggs and one a clutch of 4. The fourth nest was empty

at the time of writing and was probably a second nest. In the two

nests mentioned above the eggs were too hard-set to blow. They

992 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1I1

measured :—C/3—22, 21, 22 x16, 16:5, 17. Date 16-4-29. C/4—

22°5, 23:5, 22, 921-5 X 1635, 17, 16-17. “Wate s6-4229 Thieseaas

were almost exactly iike those in the first nest found. All the nests

were in banks, facing more or less east and 2’ 8” above the path

or road. They were all similar in construction to the first nest

I took, though they were not perhaps in such a pronounced hole.

The situations were rather a fairly pronounced shelf with the back

slightly hollow. The usual spot ciiosen is one where the vegetation

is neither very thick nor entirely absent.

Mig) TT LOL Das

XXIL.-—-EFFECT OF WIND ON THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS.

(With 2 diagrams.)

1. Effect of wind on Soaring Flight.

The capacity of a kite for sailing through the air without making

the slightest motion of its wings depends altogether on the presence

of wind. It is not easy to explain the mechanism within the compass

of a short note, but I shall try to do so as briefly as possible.

When a kite soars in the true sense, that is when it circles round

and round and at each circle increases its height, it does not make

actual cireles but rather a succession of pear shaped figures. I

represent them thus.

DIRECTION OF Wino

Ere. 1:

Now the capacity to make these figure depends altogether on the

presence of wind. If the air is a perfect calm then the bird

cannot soar in the true sense. Certainly it may make a fairly long

glide, or it may make a short series of circles each of which brings it

nearer to the earth, but it cannot circle in such a way that each

circle bring it higher into the atmosphere nor continue its circlings

for an indefinite time.

The mechanism behind this is very simple but not easy to make

clear in afew words. Each circle is a pear-shaped figure and may

be divided into segments in relation to the direction of the wind,—

(1) The windward segment, or that part of the segment

traced by the bird when it is sailing against the wind.

~ ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 095

(2) The leeward segment, or that part of the circle traced

by the bird when it is sailing with the wind: represented thus.—

SHADED AREA ==

WINDWAKD SEGNENT

DOTTED AREA ==

LEEWARD SEGMENT,

DIRECTION OF WIND

Fic 2.

Now the state of the bird is altogether different in the windward

and leeward segments of its circles. When travelling on the wind-

ward segment, in other words, when facing the wind, the bird is

(2) gaining in height, (6) losing in velocity, (c) travelling a shorter

segment of its circle, (d) tilting up its under surface so as to come

at an incline against the wind.

When, onthe other hand, itis in the leeward segment, in other

words going with the wind, the bird is (a) losing in height, (4)

gaining in velocity, (c) travelling the longer segment of its circle,

(7) resting with its body horizontal in the air.

Thus we see that there is a complete contrast. The four things

which the bird does to the windward are exactly the opposite of

what it does to the leeward. Why? The explanation is very

simple, when the bird is travelling to leeward, in other words

going with the wind, its object is to develop speed. Its longer

sweep, its horizontal attitude, the presence of the wind coming up

behind it all help to increase its speed. Then when it circles round

to windward, that is when it comes up against the wind, its object

now becomes to convert that speed into an increase in height.

Hence it can make only a shorter sweep and must incline its body

against the wind so that the wind may force it upward.

Thus the kite makes useof the wind in two opposite ways. On the

leeward side of its circles the wind gives itspeed. On the windward

side of its circles the wind gives it an increase in height. The

circling of a bird is nothing else than the development of energy of

motion on the side of the segment of the circle with the wind, and

the conversion of that into energy of position on the segment of the

circle against the wind.

But all depends on the presence of wind, without which true

soaring is impossible, and by true soaring I mean continuous circl-

ing without the slightest motion of the wings and associated with

an increase in height.

Effect of wind on Hovering Flight.

Birds that poise themselves stationary at one point in the air,

kestrels, kingfishers, terns, for example, make the greatest use of

the wind in carrying out these hovering operations. Two points

are very obvious, (1) that these birds always face the wind while

994 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIL1

engaged in the act of hovering, and (2) that they hover with

greater ease and facility when the wind is strong than when it is

weak. Now why is this? Why is it an advantage to a hovering

bird to face a strong wind? Here again I think the explanation is

simple. When a bird is in the act of hovering, its wings, each time

they are lowered, are thrust in a downward and backward direction.

The downward element of the thrust helps to raise the bird, the

backward element to push it forward. It remains fixed in the air

at one spot. It must in some way counteract the forward push of

its wings, which it does by the simple mechanism of persistently

facing the wind. No bird can empoly its wings for the purpose of

just raising itself vertically ; there must always be some forward-

pushing element in the strokes. Hence it always faces the wind

and hovers more easily when the wind is strong.

Etttect of wind on flight at Extreme Altitudes.

I think that at great altitudes birds make use of the wind even

more noticeably than they do at sea-level. It is remarkable that

they can perform their aérial evolutions at altitudes where the

supporting power of the atmosphere is considerably reduced.

Soaring flight, for instance, which we have seen is dependent on

wind, is performed with perfect ease at 15,000 feet where the

supporting power of the atmosphere is reduced to one half. Also

I have seen the Lammergeyer soaring at 22,000 feet where the

supporting power is still less. Hovering we have seen is dependent

on wind, moreover I think that of all the aérial evolutions of birds,

it is the one that demands the greatest muscular effort, yet both the

kestrel and the tern hover freely where the air has only half its

supporting power. So far as ordinary flight is concerned, it has

been observed that choughs can fly perfectly well at the immense

height of 27,000 feet. Thus it is clear that the lifting power of the

airis not of such importance to the flight of birds as has hitherto

been thought. I believe that the direction and the force of the wind

are factors of far greater importance.

PaLL MALL, LONDON. R. W. G. HINGSTON,

April 1, 1929. Major.

[In vol. xxx, p. 479 of the Society’s Journal we published a note

by Capt. J. A. Chamier, Royal Air Force on the ‘ Mechanics of the

Soaring Bird’ to which Mr. C. H. Donald contributed an inter-

esting comment.

A note on ‘ Wind and the Flight of Wild Birds’ appeared in

the fzeld of January 24, 1929. The writer comments on the effect

of wind on the flight of rooks. The birds were perfectly helpless

against the wind which caught them and whirled them about. A

wedge of Pink-footed Geese, flying low, were however unaffected.

The direction of the wind, the writer believes, seems to have much

more effect on the height at which birds fly than the force of it.

MISCEELANEOUGCS NOTES SES

From limited observation, he was of opinion that in a wind veering

from north to south, following the sun geese as well as ducks fly

very high. Other winds bring them low. In an endeavour to

collect further information on this point we corresponded with

various members of the Society. The note published above is

from Major R. Hingston. We welcome comments from other

observers. EDs. ]

XXIII.—-THE SURVIVAL OF THE GAVIAL (GAVIALIS

GANGETICUS) IN BURMA

(With 3 text figures).

Mr. Barton’s note (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxiii, No. 2,

p. 450) recording a specimen of the Indian Gharial shot in Upper

Burma is most interesting. I would like to comment however

upon one of his remarks. He says ‘the fact of its being killed in

the Shweli, well over a thousand miles from the delta of the Irra-

wadi, is of great interest’. Does Mr. Barton mean that the

Indian Gharial was originally a deltaic or estuarine species and that

it gradually extended its range up the Irrawadi as far as the Shweli.

There is nothing in the past history or in our present knowledge

of the creature to suggest such a theory.

The Gavialid@ are an ancient family, and were at one time, much

more widely distributed than they are to-day. During the Tertiary

epoch they ranged over Asia, North America and Europe. Of this

great host only two species now survive, namely, Gavialis gangett-

cus, the Indian Gharial and 7omzstoma schiegeli, the Malayan Gharial.

The genus Gavialzs flourished in India during the Pliocene period.

Lydekker has described no less than five fossil forms from the

Siwalik hills and the Narbudda valley, one of which is indis-

tinguishable, as far as we can tell, from the Gavialis gangeticus

which exists to-day. In considering the distribution of this ancient

reptile therefore, probably the oldest of all the living Crocodilia,

we must remember that it dates back to a time when the geographi-

cal configuration and the river systems of the country were no

doubt very different from what they are to-day. ‘Those that we see

now are the survivors of a former wider distribution. The fact that

they have escaped notice on the Irrawadi for so long is because only

a few individuals are left there.

While on the subject of crocodiles I should be glad if any reader

of this Journal can tell me of an authentic record of the Mugger,

Crocodtlus palustr7s, in Burma. Its distribution is given by

Boulenger, in the Fauna of British India, as India, Ceylon, Burma,

the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago (Java). This I showed in

LOUD Gouri at. (17st. Soc. Stam, iv, p. 220) 1s not correct. The

fresh-water crocodile of Siam, French Indo-China and the northern

part of the Malay Peninsula (Patani) is C. szamensts, while the most

easterly record of the Mugger is from the Brahmaputra, Darrang

district, Assam (Annandale, Rec. /nd. Mus., viii, 1912, p. 38). I

do not know of any authentic statement or specimen to shew that it

996 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

exists in Burma or anywhere outside the Indian region. If it does

live in Burma it is probably north of lat. 17° N. The fresh-water

crocodile of Tenasserim, if there is one, is almost certainly C.

stamensis, Which is cominon on the Quaa Noi river, just across the

border, north of Tavoy. It is unlikely that two closely allied

species will be found living side by side.

Three species of crocodile inhabit Asia, namely C. falustris, the

Mugger, C. stamensts, the Siamese Crocodile and C. porosus, the

Estuarine Crocodile. ‘The first two are, I believe, strictly fresh-

water species, the third equally strictly estuarine and marine in its

habitat. Any records of the Indian Mugger in estuarine waters are

probably wrong identifications. Occasional individuals, parti-

cularly youngsters, may get carried downto the mouths of rivers,

but they are exceptions.

bo000002%°

(2)

fe)

fs)

fe)

A B

Fig. 1. A. Palate of Crocodilus porosus and siamensis.

B. Palate of Crocodilus palustris.

The three species are quite distinct, and if careful attention is

paid to the following characters can be readily distinguished from

one another. Externally they all look much alike until fully

grown, when the different proportions of the snout are a fair guide.

I. Four teeth in each premaxillary bone in

the adult ; premaxillo-maxillary suture

curved backwards or W-shaped; a

more or less strong ridge extending

forwards in front of each eye. (Fig. 1 a.)

Snout 12 to 2g times as long as

broad at the base; bony portions

of the dorsal scutes separated

from each other by soft skin;

post-occipital scutes usually ab-

sent (Fig. 2) — oe ... porosus,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 997

Snout 12 to 12 times as long as

broad at the base; bony portions

of the dorsal scutes in contact

with one another ina transverse

series ; one or two pairs of post-

occipital scutes (Figs. 1 a & 3) .:. sdamensts.

II. Five teeth in each maxillary bone in the

adult; premaxillo-maxillary suture

directed more or less straight across

the palate ; bony portions of the dorsal

scutes in contact with one another ina

transverse series ; snout 14 to 14 times

as long as broad at the base, without

distinct ridges (Figs. 1 B & 3) ... palustris.

The premaxillo-maxillary suture can be seen by litting up the

membrane covering the bone inside the mouth ; the outlines of the

OVO

DUO O.

Fig. 2. Dorsal armour of Crocodilus porosus. The horny external skin

has been removed.

Fig. 3. Dorsal armour of C. palustris and stamensts. 'The horny external

skin removed.

998 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

bony portions of the dorsal scutes can be seen externally or better

still by removing the horny cuticle which covers them ; or when the

skin is removed can be seen by transmitted light.

Since writing the above I have seen a note by Theobald ofa

specimen of C. palustris killed at Thayetmyo, on the Irrawadi

(J. Linn. Soc., Zool., x, 1868, p. 20). It was a full-grown specimen,

12 feet long, and had recently killed a man. He remarks that

C. palustris is evidently very rare in Burma, as it is the only

example he has ever seen.

Later in 1882 he wrote of C. palustris ‘ rare in Burma, but is found

inland about Thayetmyo, and thence up the Irrawadi’ (Burma, /ts

People and Productions, p. 335). Although in his writings Theobald

confused jpalusirzs with porosus there can be little doubt, from the

locality in which it was found, that the crocodile to which he refers

was not porosus.

LONDON, MALCOLM SMITH.

April 10, 1929. .

XXIV.—NOTE ON A FORMOSAN VIPER (TRIMERESURUS

MUCROSQUAMATUS) FROM THE NORTH-EAST

FRONTIER |

The Society recently received a fine example of a Formosan

Viper (Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus) from Mr. J. N. Saikia, Medical

Officer, Pasighat, N.-E. Frontier. The snake agrees with des-

criptions of Formosan specimens given by Boulenger in the “auza,

Brit. India, Repizl7a. The costals are 23, two head lengths behind

the head, and 25 in mid-body. Ventrals 200, Sub-caudals in 73

pairs. Length 3’ 7”. The colouration differs in that the lower

parts are yellowish grey with irregular square-shaped white

markings.

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY, 5... PRAPER;

April 15, 1929. C.M.Z.S:

XXV.—RECORD OF SYMPTOMS AND TREATMENT

OF A BITE FROM A FORMOSAN VIPER

(TRIMERESURUS MUCROSQUAMATUS)

A forest cooly was bitten by the above named viper on the inner

side of the left foot at about 3-30 Pp. M., on the evening of the

April 10, 1929. The man walked 33 miles to the hospital where he

was admitted at about 6 P.M.

He complained of pain at the site of the bite and all over the

limb and in the inguinal gland of the affected limb. The whole

limb and the gland were swollen to about twice the size of the

corresponding limb.

On examination (with a lens and naked eye as well) one puncture

mark was noticed on the inner side of the left foot about midway

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 999

between the inner maleoli and the heel. Sero-sanguineus fluid was

oozing from the puncture.

10-4-29 No generalsymptoms. Pulse A few crystals of per-

and respiration normal. manganate of potas-

Visited patient at9 p.m. No sium were rubbed

further symptoms. into the wound and

the part was band-

aged.

Caly qhactate. or xv

every four hours.

Pain and swelling almost potass. rubbed in the

the same. wound.

Serous fluid still oozing from Intra muscular injec-

puncture. tion in the buttock

of 4cc. of 2% solu-

tion of Cal. Lactate

. was given.

12-4-29 The swelling of the limb Cal. lactate gr. x.

diminished and less pain |

complained off.

13-41-29 The patient gradually im-

proved.

1624229)" Eimo, almost normal. No

pain. .

174-29 Swelling. “and. “pain “nil.

Patient discharged at own

request.

PASIGHAT,

N. E. FRONTIER, J. SAKIA,

ADVI LS 1929 Medical Ofticer.

XXVI.—MAHSEER FISHING AT TANGROTE,

JHELUM DISTRICT IN DECEMBER.

As mahseer fishing in the winter is often considered unprofitable

in Northern India the following note may be of interest to

anglers.

Fishing from December 15 to 29 my wife and myself caught

18 fish weighing 261% lbs., average weight 142 lbs.

Out of these 15 days 7 were blank, 6 indifferent, 1 good and

one A.l. On four of the blank days we did not try to fish as the

water was hopelessly clear.

The best day, the 29th more than made up for the blank ones,

for. we caught five fish, 474, 28, 2241, 16 and 11 lbs. = 125 lbs:

besides playing three or four other large fish, which were not

brought to gaff. These fish were all caught on a 31” Blue Devon.

The Pconch river, after heavy rains on the 28th was really dirty

and according to the shikaries unfishable, except possibly with a/ta.

However the first chukkar down Jungoo Pool produced a 16 lb. and

the second a 28 lb.

1000 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXUI

The fish were taking a Devon most readily all day but an extra-

ordinary fact was that all fish were hooked chukkering down

stream. Another fisherman had even a better day and caught 6

fish weighing, as far as I remember, over 140 lbs. and all, save one,

while moving down stream. This day is almost a record for-

Tangrote and certainly a record for December.

On the 28th we caught three fish 45, 16 and 7 Ibs. on a Blue

Devon. The 45 lb. one being foul hooked in the tail, put up a

remarkable fight.

Has any reader had a similar experience of only catching fish,

when chukkering one way ?

4/10TH BatucH Rect. (D.C.O.) W.H.C. JONES,

C/o GRINDLAY & Co., Captain.

54 PARLIAMENT ST., S. W. 1.

XXVII.—MEANS OF DEFENCE IN INSECTS.

The slow loris (Vycticebus coucang) referred to on a previous page

of this Journal (Miscell. Note No. II, p. 966) ate almost any insect

but I found one type of grasshopper in Maymyo which it rejected.

When it started eating one of these—after along and most unusual

delay—a short of green foam appeared and it would touch no

more.

Touncoo, BuRMA J. M.D. MACKENZIE.

May 11, 1929.

[The secretion of nauseous substances which when discharged are

offensive to the smell, taste, sight or touch cf the aggressor isa

well known means of defence amongst insects. Mr. Mackenzie does

not mention the particular species of grasshopper concerned in the

present instance. The grasshopper best known for its habit of

discharging a nauseous liquid which oozes out in the form of small

bubbles is Aularchis miliarts,a widely distributed species. The

manner in which the loris profitted by his unpleasant experience is

a good instance in proof of the effectiveness of this means of

defence amongst insects and of the immunity from attack which it

confers on such species as exhibit it. After his first trial the loris, it

will be observed, left this type of grasshopper severely alone. Eps. ]

XXVIII.—ON A NEW FORM OF HESPERID BUTTERFLY

(BAORIS CANARICA-YATEST) FROM ‘COORG.

I recently had the opportunity of examining a series of Baoris

canarica, forwarded to me through the Society by Mr. J. A. Yates.

Until recently the only specimens that I had ever seen were 2 pairs,

dated October, 1898, from Mr. T. R. Bell in Kanara. From these

I described the underside of the hindwing as: ‘witha broad, pale

central fascia caused by the greenish ochreous scales being rather

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1001

denser there; normally decreasing white spots in 2 and 3 which

do not appear above.’ Incidentally one of the 92 has a spot

in, 6 also. but =the. pale fascia; is, not -very - prominent ‘and

is pale greenish ochreous. From Rothschild, I have a , dated

August, which is like my Kanara specimens and a 2 with a broad

white (not greenish ochreous) band, having the spots in 2 and 3

only just traceable: the 2 is dated February. Both are very fresh

specimens.

Yates’s 7 dif’ and 1 9 range from January 21 to March 11,

1929, and, except for 2 obviously rubbed specimens, have the

white band strongly developed and the discal spots in 2 and 3

barely traceable: this is the same as in the 2 1 he sent melbefore,

dated January 21, 1929.

Now Moore in his original description describes the underside of

the hind-wing as having 2 discal white spots in the § and 4 in the

2 with an additional spot at the end of the cell—no mention of a

fascia: he gives the locality as Kanara. Neither Watson nor De

Nicéville had ever seen cuzarica, nor had Elwes for his Orvental

Hesperide. Swinhoe in Lefzdoptera Indica states that the

underside of the $# has a broad discal white band, mentioning no

spots and that the 2 differs in having ‘ minute discal white dots’ in

2,3 and6. He gives Karwar as the only locality. Bell in his ‘Com-

mon Butterflies’ copies Swinhoe, describes the larva but does not

give dates of capture and states that cazarica has never been caught

out of North Kanara. Hannyngton (Butterflies of Coorg) recorded

it only from the ‘ Western slopes, May and August’, I conclude

that there are 2 broods—WSF, probably May-October, as describ-

ed by myself and Moore, whose 2 was probably conjuncta and a

DSF, probably December—April with the white band. The two

broods seem very distinct and as naming broods is now fashionable,

I propose the name ‘ yates?’ tor the DSF brood since canarica

obviously refers to the WSF brood.

QUETTA, W.H. EVANS,

May: 13, 1927. Brigadier.

XXIX.—THE DISCOVERY OF GERMINATION OF

CYATHODIUM SPORES

(With a diagram)

It is now more than fifty years since the observations on the

interesting genus Cyathodium were first recorded. During the

interval that has elapsed our knowledge of the life-history of this

plant has become fuller by the contributions of a number of

botanists, amongst whom the names of Leitgeb, Stahl, Kamerling,

Lang and Kashyap may be mentioned. But so far as [am awarea

very important stage in its life-history, viz., the germination of the

' spores, has so far remained undiscovered. It may, therefore, be

not out of place to record this discovery here, and to invite attention

to certain novel and interesting features as observed by me.

1002 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIII

The most notable departure is the occurrence of a number of

germ pores. So far as the published figures in the literature which

I have been able to reach on the subject enable me to judge, in all

the hitherto recorded cases of germination of the liverwort spores,

with the exception of Zargionia mentioned below | find there isa

single germ pore from which both the germ tube and the rhizoid

make their exit. In the present case, however, the number of germ

pores varies from two to four, the latter being the largest number

so. far observed by me. From one of these pores emerges the

germ tube; from the others the rhizoids, as shown in the figures

that follow:

Germination of Cyathodium spores.

The spore also seems to possess a distinct polarity in as much

as the rhizoids take their origin generally from one-half of the

spore and the germ tube from the other half, and I have not yet

come across a Single case, although a large number of spores have

been examined, where there was a common exit for both. The

only other case of a more or less similar nature known to me is that

of Zargionza mentioned and figured by Campbell (Mosses and Ferns).

In view of this close similarity in their germinating spores, besides

other resembiances already known, it would appear that the two

genera are really closely related in spite of their widely differing

vegetative character.

_ It may be a matter of some surprise to find that the germination

of spores so far remained undiscovered in the genus. A possible

explanation may lie in the fact that most of the previous investi-

gators seem to have studied preserved material, sometimes months

after it was collected. In such circumstances I find that it is easy

to miss the germinated spores. Further I have also noi yet

succeeded in artificially inducing germination in fully ripe spores,

after a number of trials according to the weli-recognized culture

methods, although in nature one hardly fails to discover a rich crop

of spores in various stages of germination. It may be that they can

only germinate after a prolonged resting period. This will be

tested in due course.

The specimens of Cyathodium to which this note relates were

collected in the months from August to October 1928 from a kucha

drain in the Renares Hindu University grounds. It has not yet

been possible to refer them with certainty to any of the hitherto

described species! on account of a number of transitional and

certain novel characters, toth in the vegetative as weil as in the

1 Since the above was written the author has learnt from Dr. K. Goebel of

Munich that the specimens are identical with Cyathodium cavernarum.

le i) te vat i

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1003

reproductive parts. Detailed study is in progress, some of the

results of which were communicated in a paper to the Botany

Section of the Indian Science Congress held at Madras in 1929.

I shall be glad to receive suggestions and criticisms from other

botanists interested in the subject.

BENARES Hinpu UNIVERSITY, N. K. TIWARY.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

Jue 122 1929,

XXX.—SOME ORCHIDS NOT PREVIOUSLY RECORDED

FROM ‘THE GANJAM DISTRICT, MADRAS PRESIDENCY

I have interested myself personally in the orchids whichare to be

found in the Ganjam Agency and in some places in the adjacent

plains. Some of these, which have been identified for me by the

Secretary of the Agri-Horticultural Society of Calcutta, are not to

be found in Gamble’s Flora of Madras, part viii (Fischer), and it is

perhaps as well that their existence should be put on record. The

following have been identified :—

1. A4rides odoratum: also.to be found in the semi-Agency

country north of Russellkonda;

2. Vanda tessellata, v. Roxburghit: abundant also at Surada

and at Parlakimedi ;

3. Vanda parvitlora : also found at Surada in association with

the previous species ;

4. Trichoglottis or Sarcochilus: not in Gammble’s Flora, but a

fairly common orchid in this Agency ;

5. Lutsta? > commonly found on very old mohwa‘ trees

(Bassia lattfolia), awaiting exact identification till its October

flowering ;

6. Dendrobium aduncum (?): only observed once at R. Udaya-

giri (2,000 ft.) ; has flowered at Chatrapur however ;

7. Rhynchostylis retusa : also found at Parlakimedi ;

8. [Still not in flower; only in bud; will be sent for identifi-

cation shortly].

Of three or four others the identification is impossible in the

absence of a flower. Although as many as forty varieties of V.

tessellata have been recorded, two collected by me at Surada were

unknown to Mr. Lancaster; in this place the plants are found

epiphytic on tamarind trees by the roadside. Inthe Agency the

commonest host is the mango; and next to it I should say the

mohwa._ I believe there is in this and in other directions a consi-

derable opportunity for extending the record of the flora of the

district.

C. HENDERSON, tc.s,

GANJAM,

June 15, 1929.

PROCEEDINGS

A meeting of the members and their friends was held at the Prince of

Wales Museum on Tuesday, July 23, at 6.30 p.m. Prof. V. N. Hate, M.aA.,

presided.

The Honorary Secretary, Sir Reginald Spence, announced the election of

the following 22 members since the last meeting held on March 26, 1929 :—

Dr, J. -O.* Beyen,. Ceylon => Mr; Aad. Hopkinson, ga -Crs.- Kathiaw.are

Mr. D. G. Leonard, Bombay; Mr. A. E. Irvine, Ootacamund ; Mr. R. O. Miller,

Razmak ; Rev. John D. Harris, B.a., B.D., Belgaum; Mr. R. C. Hodgson,

Patna; Lt.-Col. C. S. Steele-Perkins, Calcutta ; Rear Admiral Herbert Lynes,

c.B., England; Group Captain H. LeM. Brock, D.s.o., Royal Air: Force,

Peshawar; Mr. R. B. Ewbank, c.1.k.,1.C.S., Bombay ; Mr. J. B. Twinberrow,

MC, 1.P., Boagland,;) Mr. Co Ne Silyester,~ "s.r .,-Onetta."Capts Gmina.

Hartigan, mM.c., Lansdowne, vu.p.; The Principal, Medical College, Vizaga-

patam ; Col. E. F. Norton, M.c., D.S.o., Quetta ; The Lord Ashley, Government

House, Bombay; Mr. L. O. Welch, Nasirabad ; Mr, R. White-Cooper, Mhow ;

Mr. J. S. Anderson, Bombay ;. Mr. H.°N. Rees, “Tavoy; Burma: Dti-Col:

H. G. Martin, Quetta.

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

The Honorary Secretary drew attention to the efforts the Society was making

to produce a more attractive Journal. No.3of this volume, the number just in

the hands of the members was really a‘ Bumper.’ issue. Superbly illustrated,

with noless than 5 colour plates, it contained a number of popular articles, chief

amongst which, was one which will supply a long felt want in India—the serial

on Some Beautiful Indian Trees. India is justly proud of its profusion of

beautiful flowering trees and there are many who want to know something

of the history, habits, uses and methods of cultivating these trees. The present

serial should supply this information. The authors, the Rev. E. Blatter and

Mr. W.S. Millard, propose to describe and illustrate in colour some 35 different

species of Indian trees remarkable for the beauty of their flowers. Members

are now receiving more value for their annual subscription than they have ever

done before and it is hoped that they will reciprocate by inducing others to join

the Society.

The Honorary Secretary announced that the Society hoped shortly to bring

out the 3rd Volume of the Indian Game Birds. This Volume will deal with the

Pheasants. It will be issued in the same format as the two preceding Volumes

and will be as beautifully illustrated. Members will be able to purchase the

books on especially favourable terms, another instance of the advantages of

membership.

Another activity of the Society which is of general interest is the forthcoming

ynublication of a series of charts illustrating 200 Common Indian Birds in colour,

The Charts are primarily intended for the use of schools. As an accompani-

ment to the charts, it is proposed to issue a book descriptive of the habits, etc.,

of Indian Birds, which book would have 100 coloured plates illustrating 200 birds,

as well as black and white plates illustrating habitat, nesting, etc. Advance

copies of the coloured illustrations had been received from the Society’s

printers and were shown to members.

SEED DISPERSAL

Mr. C. McCann, Assistant Curator, delivered an interesting lecture on the

subject of Seed Dispersal. The lecturer described the many ingenious devices

and the agencies whereby fruits and seeds of plants were scattered far and wide

and whereby a particular species of plant increased its territory. The

principal] agencies for Seed Dispersal were the wind, water and the intervention

of animals, the chief of which was man. Wind-borne seeds were assisted in

their aerial journeys firstly by their intrinsic lightness and by structural

PROCEEDINGS 1005

adaptations such as wings, and other appendages which supported the seed or

the fruit in its passage through the air. A familiar example was the seeds of

Silk Cotton tree which were buried in an investment of silk and which, on the

bursting of the ripe pod, were borne through the air and deposited far from the

parent plant. The seed of the Ak or milk plant (Callotropis) whose silk

provided the Kapok of Commerce was another instance. This seed is furnished

with a gossammer silken parachute which sails through the air for many miles

before dropping its seed. The lecturer illustrated yet other examples of wind-

borne seeds. The commonest example of a seed adapted for lengthy journeys

on the surface of the water was the Coconut. Its water-proof skin, its light

though perfect protective investment of fibre and shell, which secured the

kernel from all damage, enabied the fruit to be borne safely for thousands of

miles across the sea. It was due to these adaptations that the Coconut was

carried across the sea from its original home off the coast of Panama to cover the

various islands of the Pacific and establish itself finally on the shores of India and

its neighbouring Islands, Hesuggested that a similar explanation would cover

his discovery of a complete Brazil nut on Juhu Sands, Bombay. Devices of

plants to scatter their seeds were well illustrated in the fruits of the common

Garden Balsam. The seed-cases of the mature fruit curled inwards with

considerable force and thus ejected the seeds. The mysterious clicking sound

heard in the neighbourhood of Huphorbta bushes, commonly though erroneous-

ly referred to as the Cactus, were caused by the bursting of the fruit and the

consequent expulsion of the seeds. Seeds fitted with hooks and other devices

for attachment to passing animals were acommon example of plants which

relied for their dispersal on external agents. The burrs and spiked seeds of

grasses, a constant source of annoyance in a cross country walk, were familiar

instances. Through this agency the seeds were carried and deposited far from

the parent plant. Through feeding on fruits and seed, birds and animals were

also effective though unconscious agents tor seed dispersal. The presence of a

young Banyan or Fig tree growing on the wall of a building was due to some

animal or bird in the natural course of events dropping its seeds there after

feeding on the fruit.

The principal agent for seed dispersal was man. By his continuous importa-

tion of whole plants or seeds, man had assisted considerably in the wider

distribution of species often to his own detriment. The Lantana bush, imported

as a garden plant into Ceylon from America, became a perfect pest in Ceylon

and the cause of considerable annual losses to Ceylon and Indian Revenues.

The lecture was illustrated with a fine series of lantern slides and with actual

specimens of fruit and seeds.

Printed by George Kenneth at the Diocesan Press, Madras, and published by

Sir Reginald Spence for the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

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Apu, ! 1929.

Serene: RECORDS OF THE HIMALAYAN a a

SE ya a CONTENTS : tm )

' ‘THe PonorRe OF THE HIMALAYAN CLUB, by Sir Gebhirey Coches spews

isoice Dam IN 1928, by F. Ladlow. INDUS FLOODS AND) SHYOK GLACIERS, by

‘Major Kenneth | Mason, Some Aspecrs oF Brro-Lire IN KasHMir,. by’ Hugh»

| Whistler. BoTANIcaL EXPLORATION: IN THE Mrtnmt Hitrs, by F. Kingdom |.

‘Ward, THE ATTRACTION oF THE Himarava, by Dr. ide Graaff Hunter. THE ie

Urta SARYK VALLEY, by: Lieut.- -Colonel Reginald Schomberg. THe Wavy TO

THE Baspa, by. Major. LG P, Shewen. Two Hasy Passes IN -KANAWAR, by Bes if

aR. Maclagan Gorrie;, A J OURNEY THROUGH ‘Sprrr AND Rupsuu, by Mrs. K. Ss.

- Lethbridge... TRAILL’ Ss Pass, 1925, by Hugh Ruttledge. Tar Worp Hima-— Pie

‘Lava, by Sir Geoffrey ‘Corbett. HIMALAYAN EXPEDITIONS. IN MmMORIAM. AG

| | Nonces. ee Ore ae | i iN | atten <

{Crown Syoe) ey Sry! : ‘Cloth. ek ie er hy

| A "NATURAL, HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF “INDIA ¥

a By Ro A. STERNDALE, FR. G.'S..8. ZS. ia

Ht oe ie “Author of « ‘Seonee”, ‘‘ The Denizens of the Jungle”’, etc. |

ieee a WITH 132 ILLUSTRATIONS. LOM a

ike a tle A New. Edition. Thoroughly Revised.

He 4 : ae With a SS eaicioutneay Section on the Reptilia | ‘of India.

aed eae se Se agra" ‘By. FRANK. FINN, BIA. be Ze So Ra

‘To preparing ‘die present revised and, Pierictaetl edition of) Storaddie! iS hen

known work, the editor has. quoted the Author’s original’ observations verbatim |

as far as possible, and \relied on condensation and on.the omission of unnecessary °

‘matter, and of such as is only likely’ to b2 of interest to specialists, for reduction —

sens. On the volume to the compass of a practical manual for beginners. eae

Meets nied) Clb is: the: very model of. what a Depulat natural history should be. 7

Knowledge. eae ies peut ‘eka

: n amusing work with oad illustrations.’ ME i\ on! Kat cy el

aad The results ob a close sympathetic observation.’ '— Atheneum. KS a th | Re eee

a "Just Published -8vo. Paper Boards, pp. 189 were

ye ty ; [. He ’ . ieee ae

ae * INDIAN BIRDS’ NESTS |

i | By DOUGLAS DEWAR, | ay SU aie ch ie

INDIAN BIRDS’ NESTS isa companion volume to Mr. Bevan Ss vagian &

Bigs hey to the Common Birds of the Plains. The latter volume enables the |

tyro to identify, without shooting it, any common bird he sees in the plains of

‘India. Jndiam Birds’ Nests is a guide to the nests of the birds described in~ 7 ye 2

Indian Birds —some 200. species. tet. ay

Pp. XVI and 3226) .80 84 6 0a) Cloth Gilt any es Rs. 20

Beau nates BUTTERFLIES. OF INDIA uM ee earn ay cel

iA ‘By oe By lncpiileane F.E.S., with’ over 400 Mlastrations, ‘Teproduced from.

drawings bythe Author, | 97 es

eae Rrecaaan § 9 Antram, a keen Entomologist He Iie own lattises has provided just Ls es

IGE |i the kind of book the amateur scientist has been in search of. As a collector of |

butterflies: for’ over. twenty years . in India, he has accumulated. specimens and ty 3

“notes of over fout hundred species which he himself has carefully | described aad te

illustrated in this handsome volume. ‘ Loy

ey * ee are slice b. eat to * cds or scopy books on any subject.

‘Post Box No. ou

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