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THE .

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL ddr SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXIX

NOS. 3&4

Price a Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1938

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page

Contents of Nos. 3 and 4 of

List of Contributors

List of Plates ...

Index to Illustrations

Errata eee

Index to Species

Vol xX

To follow. frontis-

* piece in this order.

To go at the end of

two numbers.

ghee

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

P, M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C.. J.P.

& C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XXXIX

Nos. 3 & 4

Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 27 Black and White Plates,

28 Text-figures, and 2 maps.

Dates of Publication

Part 3. (Pages 43] to 658) ... 25th September 1937.

»o 4 Coy 659 to 831) ... 15th December 1937.

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT, Esq., (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1938

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX1IX,

Ne. 3

Tur GAME FISHES oF INDIA. PAarTII. By Dr. S. L. Hora,

INSCMUHERG He, Hob Sin Ey7.Gcy HoRvA-saB., E.Nele (772 o77e

coloured plate of the Bachhwa or Butchwa Eutropiichthys

vacha (Hamilton) and eight text-figures.)......0....c.ccc00s

THe VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS.

Part XVI. By H. Whistler, m.B.0.U., assisted by N. B.

PGiimeate wMEIBY Ort a tee enntes oc oe raves cciins oes Iesctreualeaseanor ae:

Tur SNAKES OF DEoLaAti. Part III. By A.G. L. Fraser,

IM.D. (With four plates)... :

Fisu oF DEOLALI. Part I. By Dr. 3 L. one D.SC., F.R.S.E.,

Hales e755, ERAS By EeNad... and. KK." 5: Niece: M.Sc.

(With two plates)... s Be Ri tire Cer eeaeee’.

THE BIRDS OF BOA AND Ronen TEE, Go II.’ By Salim

Ali and Humayun Abdulali. (W<2th three plates).........+6

NOTES ON THE COMMON LAND CRAB. [Paratelphusa (Bary-

telphusa) guerint| OF SALSETTEISLAND. By C. McCann,

eI 71/0 LOO PUCLES aaa s tant tulesunencins Soke nissinesdsaevaece ees

NoTES ON SOME INDIAN Birvs. By E. H. N. Lowther,

M.B.O.U., F.Z.8. (With tive plates)... a eye

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM eee By Pee

Garthwaite, B.F.S., assisted by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, M.a,,

M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.. ;

THE MEDICINAL AND Pom onone Caipionsc OF piece ‘By i

BoC ais, 7S.3.. Lneceeaees

THE Oeenonoeuc OF Sei aa hea Ores AND 7 COOHTN. at Vile

By Salim Ali, with notes by H. Whistler, m.B.0.U.........

BIRD LIFE ON A SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK. By F. N. Betts

CULL HO DIAICS) once ane

REVIEWS :—

Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. By W.W.A. Phillips.

A Guide to collecting Butterflies of India. By Lit. Col.

HD: Peile.: , ee

A Beast Book ‘ee fe Doves ee aad eee pers

NOTE ON THE BURMA WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT.......0. cee

AN APPEAL. WANTED STAG BEETLES. By J. G. Arrow...

1938

e 2

PAGE

431

447

464

502

929

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XG

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

lie

XVI.

2 OVADL

XV 1,

XIX.

xx.

Association between a Leopard and a Tigress.

By Brigadier-General R. G. Burton............

Two wary Tigers and two others. By R. C

Morris, F.R:G:S. B.ZiS oe ee

Strange behaviour of a Tigress. By E. P. Gee....

Measurements of Tigers in the Naga Hills,

Assam; iBy GH, Li aMarshalle ec ee

Mange on Wild, Dogs. By. Res@eMloquis=. 2-2.

Notes on Hardwicke’s Hedgehog (emzechinus

coliavis (Gray and Hardw.). By C. McCann.

Solitary Bull Bison (Bibos gaurus, Pe By

R. C. Biddulph ..

Whistling sound tage by seat CH. gaurus

Sim). By C. eeebiddulpiw.. OR Nene.

Colouration of the Bison’s Snout and Tongue. By

RC. Morris.. ; sn Tue aE cee ae

Replacement of aoe toh ean cae Nie ake:

Chandrabhanvsinhgt... ca... BATE ee Pe er tes

An Elephant 170 years old. By Guy Dollman.

Whale-bone Whale stranded on the Travancore

Coast’ By RY; Roduvale:

Unclean Animals. By A. A. Dabber

Close seasons for Big Game —Are they benencrale

By 3h: C.-Morris:. 5 hak. c SANE ee Berra cee

Occurrence of ihe. eae “Gieraee Bari

(Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensts Sykes)

in Northern Burma. By J. K. Stanford, I.c.s...

The Egg-laying of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo

(Cuculus canorus bakeri ie By. 0: R.

Livesey... ; ars ee

Cuckoo ae “By [. R. Lives CA RRA

A Note on the distribution and nidification of the

Northern Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker

[| Lezopicus mahrattensis a ae (Blyth)] in

Sind. By K.R. Eates, F.z.S., M.B.O.U..

The distribution and nidigescen of ie eee

Horned Owl [uo bubo bengalensis (Frankl.)]

in.oind.. By K. Ri -Hatesyrzs., MeBoyus.

Occurrence of the Chinese o Vesser “Kestrel

(Cerchnets naumannt pekinensts Swinh.)

Northern Burma. By [email protected]

PAGE

610

614

615

616

617 -

617

618

618°

619

620

621

623

626

628

631

633-

DuSC.eh- Roo E., E..S., E.Z65.5 Ps ReAGS: Bi,

coloured plate

CONTENT SSOP VOLOME XXXIX

XXI. Notes on Birds of Prey in the Madras Presidency.

By ©. HH. Biddulph...

XXII. Unusual site for the nest oe ie White Scare enger

Vulture [Meophron percnopterus gingintanus

Gath By Cel. Biddulph...

XXIII. Behaviour of Jerdon’s Little Reed PIGteE

(Charadrius dubius jerdont Legge) with young.

by, Re ates), 8.7.5.4. 6. B.O.Ue.

XXIV. Intergradation of the races of ie Ger bil! ed

Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha Forster). By R.

EE. Parsons.: :

RXV. Occurrence ot Mallard (Anas Bi Dire cope

at Hoshangabad. By J. Miles Stapylton.......

XXVI. The Nukhta or Comb Duck (Sarkidzornis

melanotos Pennant) in Assam. By W. M.

LeMarchand .. eee

OV die sOccurtence of OG Greate Crea Suave (Potinks

cristaius Linn.) at Maymyo, Upper Burma.

By P. F. Garthwaite, F.Z.S:. cnn

XXVIII. Birds and Ants. By T. Baaacalen F fetchér. ca aee

XXIX. A Bloodsucker (Calofes versicolor) attacking an

adult bird, ~ by C,H. Biddulph... ee

XXX. The Butterfly (Ahznopalpa polynice Hep DaN TE in

the N.-E. Frontier, Assam. By R. E.

Parsons.. een een me rae

XXXII. Curious Beierioun cae a Wasp.. By Ce JH,

Biddulph... Dae aC eee ee

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ee Nenu OF THE

BOMBAY NATUR AD HISTORY, OOCIBUY sie) 252c0hs saccsestetnadesss oes

No. 4

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part. III. By Dr. S.L. Hora,

F.N.I. (With one

of the Garua Bachcha or Gaurchcha

Clupisoma garua (Hamilton) and nine text-tigs.)...

THE BirRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

Ali and Humayun Abdulali.

Rare li. hy cain

CVG One PIALE ew ises

FisH oF DEoxLati. Part II. By A. G. L. Fraser, 1.m.s. re

one plate)... ; : ie

THE Meee AND Peace (ee OF kook

Oe Cans Sey Hel Seeders ceveosgnes ney hoaeed wan

PAGE

634

635

Gog

640

641

644

659

679

689

mle

vi CONTENT S(OR VOLUME ZOEXL XS

THE NAMES OF TWO INDIAN VIPERS. By Malcolm Smith,

M.R.C.S.. ‘ :

GAME eee IN THE Oana ice AND THE Soune

CoIMBATORE District. By J. Williams (W7th one plate).

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE Aphididae OF POONA.

By V.-G. Deshpande, mm: Age Gsom.) Ph. b.4 (din:

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA oF [RAQ. By Waiter P.

IKENNEDY.. es Gis ie

MARRIAGE eee AND Sotone Book ore. OF THE COHN

Brack ANT [Camponotus (Tanemyrmex) compressus Latr.

By P: N.istishna AyyariCW 77h-3 fer t-12007eS) ke

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF AGAMID, LIZARD FROM

Upprpr BurwA.. by, Malcolm Simiths eR cise es

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN. By

Lt.-Col. J. W. Thomson-Glover..

MoSssES COLLECTED IN ASSAM. By H. N. irae MeAS Hales:

(With one plate)...

SOME DATA ON THE renee Blain Mee. Progen

and Orthoptera of North Afghanistan. By Leo. Mist-

shenko. (With six text-figures)... sssaih Weyer ates

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND How TO NAME THEM. ae

Edward G. Nichols.. ooh etd: eRe water,

SOME BIRDS OF ie enee AND Wits Tobey. ne M. Afzal

Husain, M.A. (Cantab.), 1.A.s. and Hem Raj Bhalla, B.sc.

(Nota) : cee eee eee

NOTES ON Cpe ey Data) Ens Cs Charles

McCannwr hese GH20/tat7ce172) ies) ss ark eee ihe een eee

REVIEW :—

some Beautiful Indian Trees. (By the-late Rev. E.

Blatter, S.J., Ph.D.,4F-1.S. and W.5. Millard...2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Smoking a Panther to death. By the Chief of

Ichalkaranji .. :

y Ale The Size%or the Tune Cat as Pak attinis

By, *P2Geer Nae

Ill. The Alleged Wild ibyee Be Mt. ee ‘Burma use

R: ‘1: Pocock; mars

IV. Curious behaviour of icon n (Biles LAUrUs : +H. ay

By C..Gs7 Pocgoods

726

812

83]

843

849

os le

PGI

DONE

XIV.

XV.

XVI.

XVII.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIX

Abnormal Elephant Tusks (Alephas maximus).

by GD Millar. ((W771h one plate)... .....-

Abnormal Horn-growth in the Muntjac (Wuntiacus

waciialisy: by §. HW. Peppe.. (W2k a

photo)... cn oninte eet sSuitew baile Metaa daha Sete

The use of hice or Reet Rene in oe

protection of Crops. By R.C. Morris.........

Some notes onthe Fauna of Malaya. By H. E.

Burgess.. eee aa ditecetinnn tT asharehne as

Some inter oe neeeeae of Birds in the os

By H. W. Waite, M.B.O.U..

Migratory movements of three ilk eu ena

in the Tanjore and South Arcot Districts. By

C. H. Biddulph: sees

Curious behaviour of ie age ca (ce uS MaC-

rorhynchus) and the White-backed Vulture

(Gyps bengalensis). By C. McCann .

The Distribution of the White- red. “Bulbul

[ Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould)] in the

Swamps near the Vaitarna River. By

C. McCann. seen

The Southern ipa Rouen or Razin: ay (Gees

benghalensts tndica (Linn.)| killing a small

Snake. By C.H. Biddulph...

Breeding of the Little Indian None (OipaE UL

gus astaticus astatitcus) in the Chingleput

District. (W7th a plate). By Alice D. Barnes.

On the Breeding of the Oystercatcher (Haemato-

pus ostralegus subsp.) and other birds in the

Bengal Sunderbunds. By J. K. Stanford......

Early and Late Snipe. By Brigadier G. de La

P. Beresford, M.Cc.. te

The Breeding of the Little Con Biter! Ue ee

striatus eee in Salsette Island. By C.

McCann. ,

Occurrence of ‘iis. Bite Coe On eee is) i in

South Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian-

Adams, I.A..

Sexual Divoronien in hiss ape: shelled inereice

(Hestmdarciegais), “ey CaM eCaninn cs... 5.244)

Occurrence of Psammophis condanarus ? in Berar

ye dOl SHED DEANS ye ake sh sess ss ox-naeey loans

vii

PAGE

854

862

864

865

867

868

869

viii CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIX

XXI. Sexual Dimorphism in the Seasnake (Lisézra cyano-

cineca “Wad: eB yin, ay ie C amin a ee eee

XXII. Breeding Season of the Jew’s Nosed Seasnake

[Anhydrina valakadyen nae in Bombay

Waters. . by .@ McCann BR ee a ater

XXIII. Freak Seedling of the Crepe at i Mrs.

Margaret Rath (W217 iphoto) scenes tee

XXIV. Some observations on Botanical Nomenclature.

By CEG. Pischers. da REE Oa ae eet

XXV. The Plowerine of ua aie. By nl Pd i ape Le,

Willa niS eater concent. ;

[PROCEEDINGS OF A MEETING OF MEMBERS OF THE

BomMBpay NATURAL HIsTORY SOCIETY HELD ON THE 25TH

Avucust 1937

bee teeret gon eee ere troe reer ee eee eee eee eee seer eeeF ease ter teeseseeaeeeertee

877

880

Pub pe PTC AL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XXXIX

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN;3 See

ALI, SALIM.

Atl, SALImM and ABDULALI,

Humayun; The Birds of

Bombay and Selsette. Part II

(With three plates)

Part III (With one

plate) a re

Atl, SALIM and WHISTLER,

Hucu; The Ornithology of

Travancore and Cochin

Part VIII . we

ARROW, GILBERT, J.; An

Appeal: Wanted Stag Beetles.

AYVAR;, PP.’ N. KRISHNA;

Marriage Flight and Colony

Founding of the Common

Black Ant | Camponotus

(Tanemyrmex) compressus |

(With two tert-figures)

BARNES, ALICE D.; Breeding

of the Little Indian Nightjar

(Caprimulgus astaticus

astaticus) in the Chingleput

District (With a plate)

BERESFORD, BRIGADIER, G.

de La P., M:c.; Early and

late Snipe

Berrs,, LH, N, ;* Bird ‘Life on a

Southern agrees Tank (With

two plates)

BHALLA, HEM R&J, B.Sc. ; Sse

Husain, M. AFZAL.

BIDDULPH, C. H.; Whistling

sound made by Bison (&iéos

gaurus) 5g oe

; Notes on

Birds of Prey in the Madras

Presidency

Noy - — 0.

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE

920

679

569

609

865

868

594

617

634

BIDDULPH C. H.: Unusual

site for the nest of the White

Scavenger Vulture (eophron

bercnopterus ginginianus)

A Blood-

sucker (Calotes versicolor)

attacking an adult bird

; Curious be-

haviour of a Wasp =

; Migratory

movements of three well-

known Birds in the ‘T'anjore

and South Arcot Districts

; The Southern

Indian Roller or Blue Jay

(Coracias beng halensis indica)

killing a small snake ;

BuRGEsSS, H. E.; Some Notes

on the Fauna of Malaya

Burman Wild Life Pretection

Act, Note on

BURTON, BRIGADIER- enna

R.G.; Association between a

Leopard and a Tigress

ey ee eee

—— ——_—__

CAIUSA J. Eo; Sale, BLS. 2 Phe

Medicinal and Poisonous

Campions of India oes

—— -——__ —___—__—_-——- ; The

Medicinal and Poisonous

Crowfoots of India oe

CHANDRABHANUSINHIJI } Re-

placement of Horns in

Nilgai

DESHPANDE, V. G.; A Brel:

minary account of the

ApHIpDID A of Poona

Dixon, H..=N:, “McA., F.0;S.;

Mosses collected in Assam

(With a plate)

PAGE

635

640

641

610

961

618

740

769

DoLUMAN, Guy; An Elephant

170 years old

DUNBAR-BRANDER,

Unclean Animals Ne

WATE “Ko Rr ZS 4 MBO...

A note on the Distribution

and Nidification of the

Northern Yellow-Fronted Pied

Woodpecker (Leiopicus

mahrattensis blanfordi) in

Sind

A. A:

—— ; The Distribution

and Nidification of the Rock-

Horred Owl (4x60 bubo

bengalensis) in Sind

; Behaviour of

Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover

(Charadrius dubius jerdont)

with young ame sie

Epitors; Measurements of

Tigers in the Naga Hills,

Assam

; Replacement

Horns in Nilgai ia

oo ; Intergradation of

the Races of the Spot-billed

Duck (Anas poecilorhyn-

cha) a ae eee

FiscHEeR, C. E C.; Some

Observations on Botanical

Nomenclature ae a

FLETCHER, T. BAINBRIDGE;

Birds and Ants

FRASER, A. G. L

Snakes of Deolali.

(With four plates) ..

—_—.-

eo AAT ies) Oe Bl aes

Part lit

; Fish of

eolali (With one pla/e)

GARTHWAITE, P. F., B.F.S., and

TICEHURSD, DRC. Be MA.,

M.R.C.S., M.BO.U.; Notes

on some Birds recorded

from Burma (With a

VLE PN aes bas aa

GARTHWAITE, P. F.;: Occur-

rence of the Great Crested

Grebe (FPodiceps cristatus

cristatus) at Maymyo, Upper

“Burme ae re

GEE, E. P. ; Strange behavicur

of a Tigress

PAGE

619

620

628

631

636

615 |

618

638

874

640

464

689

902

640

614

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

GEE, 1../P2; The “size: ‘or the

Jungle" “Cat. “(Helis “chaus

afftinis) Be

HORA, “SUNDER LAE eb sSes.

RRS. ., EL iSe, BZ S35

F.R.A.SjB., F-Na. 3 CheiGame

Fishes of India, Part II (With

one plate and eight text-

figures)

Part HI (With one

plate and nine text-figures)...

and

Misra, K. S., M.Sse.; Fish

of Deolali. Part I (With two

plates) sie

Husain, M. AFZAL, M.A.,1.A.S.

and BHALLA, HEM RAJ, B.Sc.

Some Birds of Lyallpur and

their Food eee

ICHALKARANJI, CHIEF OF;

Smoking a Panther to death.

KENNEDY, WALTER P.; Some

additions to the Fauna of

Iraq oo en

KINNEAR, N. 5.) ~M-B-0.U.;

See WHISTLER, HUGH.

LE MARCHAND, W. M.; The

Nukhta or (Comb -Duck

(Sarkidiornis melanotos) in

Assam a ae

LIVESEY, lenge he oo

laying of the Khasia Hills

eee

Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus

baker?) ate aa

—- ee ACK .O,0

Incidents

LOWTHER),E) Ho IN: M.B:0:0..;

F.z.S. ; Notes on some Indian

Birds,. Part sll sNiehtyans

(With five plates)

McCann, CHARLES, F.L.S.;

Notes on the Common Land

Crab (Paratelphusa barytel-

phusa guerint (M.-Eds.) of

Salsette (With two plates)

: Notes

on Hardwicke’s Hedgehog

(Hemiechinus collaris)

: Notes

on Calotes versicolor (With

three plates)

PAGE

850

431

659

502

831

859

745

639

543

531

616

843

Lise On GON Iiel BO LOTES

PAGE

MCCANN, CHARLES, °H.L.S.(5

Curious behaviour of the

Jungle Crow (Corzus macro-

rhynchus)and the White-backed

Vulture (Gyps bengalensts)...

—_—-—-— ; The

Distribution of the White-

eared Bulbul (Molpastes

leucogenys leucotis) in the

Swamps near the Vaitarna river

——_— —— —__--—. ——_; The

breeding of the Little Green

Bittern (futorides — striatus

javanicus) in Salsette Island.

——; Sexual

Dimorphism in the Star-

shelled Tortoise (7Zestudo

elegans)

——— ee

; Sexual

Dimorphism in the Seasnake

(Distira cyanocincta)

————-— ; Breeding

season of the Jew’s nosed

Seasnake (Auhydrina vala-

kadyen) in Bombay waters ...

MARSHALL, G. H. L. ; Measure-

ments of Tigers in the Naga

Hills, Assam : ee

\irvar, G. 1D. L.; Abnormal

Elephant Tusks (lephas

maximus) (With a plate)

Misra, K. S8., M.Sc.; See

Hora, SUNDER LAL.

MISTSHENKO, LEO; Some

Data on the Fauna.

Blattodea, Mantodea, Phas-

modea and Orthoptera of

North Afghanistan (With six

teat-figures) fs

Morris, R. C.; Two wary

Tigers and two others

---——— --—---; Mange on

Wild Dogs ve as

— : Solitary

Bull Bison (4760s gaurus) ...

— ; Colouration

of the Bison’s Snout and

tongue

; Close season

for Big-Game—are they

beneficial ? .

864

869

870

872.

872

854 —

796

610

615

617

618

MORRIS) OR, C..3 [ne ase of

Firework or Rocket cartridges

in the protection of crops

NICHOLS, EDWARD G.; The

Kodaikanal Birds and how to

name them rr fen

PARSONS, R. E.; Intergrada-

tion of the Races of the

Spot-billed = Duck (Anas

pxctlorhyncha) ane ae

——-—-— ; The Butterfl

(Rhinopalpa polynice burmana)

in the N.-E. Frontier, Assam

PEPPE, F. H. ; Abnormal Horn-

Growth in the Muntjac

(Muntiacus vaginalis) (With

a photo) so oe

PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Major

EK. G.: Occurrence of the

Bittern (Lotaurus s. stellaris)

in South Mysore we

Pococe,, KR. 1.5 &.8.S.>¢ “Phe

Alleged Wild Dog of Mt.

Popa, Burma ; ves

PopDuUVAL, R. V.; Whale-bone

Whale stranded on _ the

Travancore Coast .. “

RatH, MRS. MARGARET ;

Freak Seedling of the Grape

Fruit (With a photo)

REVIEWS :—

Manual of the Mammals of

Ceylon ae me

A Guide to Collecting Butter-

flies of India See

A Beast Book for the Pocket.

Some Beautiful Indian Trees.

SHEBBEARE, E. O.; Occur

rence of Psammophis conda-

narus ? in Berar nee

SMITH, MALCOLM, M.R.CS.;

The names of two Indian

Vipers oe re

——_— -———-—— ; Description

of a new species of Agamid

Lizard from Upper Burma .,

STANFORD, | J. Ky. 1s Cc. S.;

Occurrence of the Rufous

Short-toed Lark (Calandrella

brachydactyla dukhunensis)

in Northern Burma

PAGE

855

638

641

854

870

851

620

UEsys)

623

xii LIST (OF GCONTRIBOCTORS

PAGE

STANFORD, Jia a ST CS es

Occurrence of the Chinese

Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis

naumannt pekinensis) in

Northern Burma ... cP 008

: . Ons -the

breeding of the Oystercatcher

(Hematopus ostralegus) and

other birds in the Bengal

Sunderbunds oe es oY

STAPYLTON, J. MILES; Occur-

rence of Mallard (Anas

blatyrhyncha) at

Hoshangabad be. ee ie, O60

THOMSON-GLOVER, LT.-COL.

J. W.; Butterflies and moths

from Chinese Turkestan ... 796

Toocoon, C. G. ; Curious beha-

viour of Bison (4760s gaurus). 852

PAGE

WAITE, (Es) Wu MBO. ue

Some interesting records of

Birds in the Punjab eo Ul

WHISTLER, HuGH; See ALI,

SALIM.

WHISTLER, HUGH, ~M:B.0.U.

and KINNEAR, IN? 7B;

MB. AO. The + Vermay

scientific “Survey of * “the

Eastern Gi at's barn +

XVI iss 22 447

WiILLiAmMs, J... Game Birdsaor

the Anamalai Hills and the

South Coimbatore District

(With one plate)... stan OE

WiIEETAMS,: "Jee. ae ithe

Flowering of Strodbilan-

thes a a. Ore,

LIST OPP AT TS

VOLUME XXxXIix

Nos. 3 and 4

The Game Fishes of India

Plate Eutropiichthys vacha

The Snakes of Deolali

Plate VI. Eryx conicus

Plate VII. Nerodia piscator

Plate VII. Vipera russelli

Plate IX. Fchis carinata

The Fish of Deolali

Plate I. (1) View of secticn of North Nallah in which Bavi-

lus bendelesis is found, Bhil name J/hor. (2)

View of pool in course of North Nallah. (3)

Pool between railway bridge in a section of

the North Nallah stream. (4) Junction of the

North Nallah with Darna River aes

Plate II, (1) View of section of the Narsullah wadi running

through Barnes High School. (2) Rocky

section of lower stretch of Narsullah wadi

near Village of Bagoor. (3) Darna River near

Goti Railway station (G.I.P.). (4) Stretch of

Darna River between villages of Swensuri and

Beladgacn ..

The Birds of Bombay and Salsette.

Plate V. (1) Nest and chicks of the Indian Robin (Saxico-

loides fulicata) in a derelict tin. (2) Nest of

the Tailor-Bird (Orthotomus sutorius) in leat

of monsoon plant : ae

Plate VI. (1) The White-spotted Fantail Pieatehes (Leuco-

circa pectoralis). (2) Nest of White-spotted

Fantail Flycatcher with chicks about 10 days

old ae a a is

Plate VII. (1) The Ashy Wren Warbler (Prinia socialis) cn

Coral flowers. (2) The Black Drongo

(Dicrurus Le ee) attending on grazing

cattle

Plate IY (1) Asfemale of the common Tana Geb (ee

phusa (B.) guerini. (2) Castles of the com-

mon Land Crab alongside rocks

Plate Il. (1) A castle cf the common Land Crab in an

unused field at the end of the rains. (2)

Several castles of the common Land Crab in a

held at the close of the monsoon es

PAGE

431

466

468

492

495

504

507

522

526

529

O31

536

xiv LIST OF PLATES

Plate I. Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus)

Plate Il. Jungle Nightjar (Caprimulgus indicus)

Plate Ill. (1) Camouflage: Common Indian Nightjar précd-

ing. (2) Young Common Indian Nightjar...

Plate IV. (1) Franklin’s Nightjar (Caprimulgus Cates

(2) Eggs of Franklin’s Nightjar

Plate V. Indian Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus asia-

11CUS) es ben 4a Se

Bird-Life on a Southern Indian Tank.

Plate I. (1) White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensts) .

(2) Little Cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger)

Plate II. (1) Nest of striated Weaver-Bird (Ploceus manyar).

‘helmet * stage

(2) Nest and eggs of Dabchick (Podiceps ruficollis

capensis) see a

Game Fishes of India :—

Plate Clupisoma garua

Birds of Bombay and Salsette :—

Plate VU. (A) Nest and eggs of the Streaked Fantail-Warbler

(Cisticola 7. cursitans) at Church Gate Recla-

mation

(A) Nest of Cisticola 7. cursitans at Church Gate

Reclamation ‘ine ARC

Fish of Deolali—

Plate III. Photos showing the transparency of the Fish

Ambassis ranga khown to Bhil fishermen by the

name of Bing. The Swim bladder and vertebral

column being clearly defined te

Game Birds in the Anaimalai Hills and the South Coimbatore District.

Plate (A) The Grass Hills—Kornelar Valley.

(B) A field of Tea running down to a Snipe Swamp

Mosses collected in Assam.

Plate Assam Mosses

Notes on Calotes versicolor.

Pilate I. A large male De ve

Plate II. Dissections showing condition of the Aeon tive

organs in June

Plate Ill. Showing eggs: hatching ea eats natehed

Elephas maximus.

Plate Abnormnl Elephant Tusks

Caprimulgus asiaticus.

Plate Chicks of the Common Indian Nightjar

PAGE

543

546

547

680

694

NDOT OTELUOST RATIONS

VOLUME XXXIx

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE

Acanthocladium baculiferum, Pl Pl. 3. Eggs—hatching and

fir, 20 Part of stem and leaf. 769 newly hatched

At thiopsar cristatellus, Distr:- Camponots Ccompressus

bution Map. ... 557 Text-fig. 1. Winged male ...

— fuscus. Texeno. 2, Queen in vireta

Distribution Map. ... 557 state and on _ shedding

_—— grandis, her wings after copu-

Distribution Map. .. ooe lation

Ambassis vanga, Photos, show- Caprimuleus eer i2l

ing transparency of the al — chicks .,

fish known to Bhil fisher- —— indicus, Pl.

men as Bing sie 694.) ——— macrourus P|,

Anaimalai Hills and the Soren = — Pl.

Coimbatore District :— Cisticola 7, cursitans

Pl. (@) The Grass Hills, Pl. (a) Nest and eggs (6)

Kornelar Valley Nest oe ee

(6) A field of Tea run- Clupisoma garua, Pl.

ning down to a Text-fig 1. Upper denween

Snipe swamp... 733 and air-bladder

Abtychella borit, Pl. fig. 17 Text-fig. 2. Lateral view of

Leaf ap 769 | head and anterior part of

Bombay and Salsette, pice of body cf the three species of

Ply (a) Saaecolordes fil7- Clupisona ann ee

cata (Nest and Text-fig 3. Ventral surface

chicks) of head and anterior part of

(6) Orthotomus sutort- the body of the three species

as (Nest of) B22 of Clupisoma

Pl. vi. (a) Leucocirca pectora- Text-fig. 4. Dissection of fe

Lise visceral organs

(6) Leucocirca pectora- —-—— —— montana

dis (Nest of) 526 Text-fig. 7. Lateral view ...

Pl. vii. Prinia soctalts. 929 Text-fig 8. Upper dentition

The Black Drongo (Dicrurus of two Specimens

macrocercus) (attending on Text-fig. 9. Air-bladder ee

grazing cattle) 229 associated skeletal elements

Brothera capillifolia, Pl. fig. il — prateri

deciduous leaf 769 Text-fig.6. Upper dentition

Calotes versicolor and air-bladder

Pist. a larcve male . 843 | Conophyma bey-bienkot

Pl. 2. Dissections showmeg Text-fig, 4 ase

condition cf the reproduc- —- kittaryt

tive organs in June 846 Text-fig. 5 ee aa a

Nove B jo nv.

PAGE

689

659

665

666

670

674

675

676

672

805

808

Xvi INDEX TOALLOUSP RATIONS

Conophyma predtetshenskyt

Text-fig. 3

Daltonia gemmipara, Pl. fig. 14

Leaf and gemmae. ...

Daltonia perlaxiretis, Pl. fig.

13. Leaf and upper margi-

nal cells

Deolali, Fish of :—

Plias (1) View of section” of

North “Nalah. in

which Barilius

was found

(2) View of pcol in

course of North

Nallah

(3) Pool between rail-

way bridge in a

section of the

North Nallah

stream

(4) Junction of the

North Nallah with

Darna River

Pl. ii. (1) View of section of

the Nawsud lah

wadi, running

through Barnes

High School.

(2) Rocky section of

lower stretch of

Narsullah wadi,

neat vilacecof

Bagoor.

(3) Darna River, near

Goti Railway

Station (G. 1, PB.)

(4) Stretch of Darna

River halfway

between villages

Swensuri and

Beladgaon

Echis carvinata, Pl. ix ...

Elephas maximus

Pl. Abnormal ‘Tusks

Eryx conicus, Pl. vi

Text fig. 1

Eutropiichthys goong waree, fig.

A. Head

Text fig. 4. fig. A. neaiont

Text-fig,

ob fig, C. Head

PAGE

805

769

507

494

Text-fig. 4, fig.

dentition

Eutropiichthys vacha Pl,

Next-hior Be head a. sae

Text-icw2 eA. Badentition =.

Text-fic. 3; Air bladder and

associated skeletel parts ...

Vext-fic. “aoe s 3b. sUpper

dentition

Pext dic 29 nessa, 2. Talent

views . aes

Text-fic. 6. HOS eee B. ential

surface of head and anterior

part of body ..

Text-fig, 7. racer view one a

young specimen

Text-fic, 8. figs.

mentary canal

Text-fig. 5. Lateral view 6

head and anterior part of

the body

Felis chaus affinis

Text-fig. :

Gomphomastax morosus

Text-fig. 6

Grape Fruit

Freak Seedling in flower ...

Hageniella assamica

Pio. AG mieat

tsopterygtoides

Pl. fig. 18. Leaf and Alar

Cells 2.

Halcyon sinyrnensts

Ven avers 3 :

Handeliobryum assamicum

Plots. 122 eat

Jegerinopsis integrifolia

Pl tie G28 lane

Leivodontium complanatum

Pl. fig. “16,.Plant,; Leaves,

Alar cells and Capsule ...

Lindigia astatica

Plofic. 11 eeiane

Macromtitrium rigbhbyanum

Pl. fe.5. Capsule

Muntiacus vaginalis

Text-fig. Abnormal! Horn ...

Nerodia pjscator, Pl. vii.

C;) Uppes

EY eB lt

Ortholimnobtum borit

Plo fg.15. Plane Weat and

Capsule : nee

PAGE

436

431

433

434

440

440 —

444

671

. > o/-

INDE XE TOMLLUSTRATLIONS

Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa)

LUerinNt

PI. I. (a) A Female of

(6) Castles of

Pl. II. (a) Castle of

(6) Several castles of.

Phalacrocorax niger

Pyne. 2

Ploceus manyar

Nest of. Pl. fig. 1

Podiceps ruficollis capensis

Nest of. Phisfigz. 2 ine

Pseudosymblepharis patlidens

Pl. fig 3. leaf and peristome

Pterobryopsis auriculata

Piyhg. 10. Leat

PAGE

531

Xvii

PAGE

Ptychomitrium rhacomttrioides

Pl. fig. 4. basal areolation. 769

Symphysodontella borit

Ph fig. 7 Lieat 769

——-——. pilifolia

Pine, 6. Weat 769

——— -—— tortitolia

Pl. fig. 9. Stem Leaf 769

Svrrhopodon pilultfer

Pl. fig. 2. Leaf 769

Tropidauchen mirame

Text-figs 801, 803

uUvarouvt

Text-figs 801, 803

Vipera russelli, Pl. viii 492

Page Line

459 15 from top

553 ) 7

553 26 from bottom

553 23 oF

556 15 Be

Dos 28 ~

623 5 from top

633 2 from bottom

638 last line

648

ERRATA

Vol. XXXIX, No#3

For

Rainey

‘Tennasserjim

Hsaipaw

Shah

hides

remvoed

Dates

Sumpralum

harringtont

13 and 14 from top Yunan

Vol. XXXIX, No. 4

Read

Stoney

Tenasserim

Hsipaw

Shan

skins

removed

Oates

Sumprabum

zonorhyncha

Yunnan

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM

H. N.: DIXON; MA... F-L.S:

(Published in Journal, Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXXIX, No. 4

Line

8 from bottom

7 18

12 from bottom

13 from bottom

14 from bottom

13 es

20 from bottom

18 from bottom

»)

pp. 769-795.)

CORRIGENDA

For

reinwardtii

leana

Exodictyoa blumii

bowringii

hampei

rigbyanum

Maromitrium turgidum

wallichii

walkeri

thomsoni

halleriana

gammieana

borii

urvilleanum

montagueanum

Montagueanum

Giammella

ambylostega

Brotherela

(Griff.) Mitt.

Read

Reinwardtii

Leana

Exodictyon Blumii

Bowringii

Hampei

Rigbyanum

Macromitrium turgidum

Wallichii

Walkeri

Thomsoni

Halleriana

Gammieana

Borii

Urvilleanum

Montagneanum

Do.

Gammiella

amblyostega

Brotherella

Card. & Dix.

NOV =5 1938

INDEX OF

PAGE

Abies alba 875

— pi cea sete 875

Acanthocladium paeuneeei on 791

—-- penicillatum ... 791

—————_-——- tanytrichum ... 791

Acanthoedactylus fraseri 748

Acanthopneuste nitidus nitidus 835

Accipiter virgatus affinis 840

Acheta africana ... 798

Acidalia cumulata 765

Aconitum balfourii 7L6

- —_-——— chasmantum... FAS

ae Aemorniz0m 716

——-_—— elwesi... 718

—--— falconeri TAG.

———_-_— ferox 77

— -—— fe re puyliany 716

—-— laciniatum Fld

—— -—— lethale 718

—-——— luridum 7s

——-—— palmatum 716

——--—— spicatum Py)

—-—-— violaceum tbe. Talo

Acrida deserti 795, 798

grandis 798

Acridella nasuta ... wee 79S

Acridotheres ginginianus 557, 687

tristis tristis 686, 836

Acrobryopsis denticulata 783

Acrocephalus agricolus ... 680

- dumetorum 679, 818

- stentoreus brunnescens. 679

Acronicta karghalika 762

Acrotylus insubricus 800

Acteea spicata — 718

Actinothuidium Hookene 787

Adonis zstivalis 719

4Erobryum speciosum 784

4Egypius monachus ae, 839

4ithiopsar cristatellus Srevigsanis wg. Sos

-— ———_ cristatellus SRY)

———-——_ fuscus Park S yap)

—-—_— mahrattensis 687

_—_—-— torquatus ... 595, 556

SPECIES

PAGE

AEthiopsar grandis ve ss es O59

-—— Serascatns as 000

ee — javanicus... ee 07,

—- - griseus fuscus _... a Cos

———---—— — griseus... ee Oo

—__ - ——— -—mahrattensis ... 821

—- javanicus ... ae me Os

Agama agilis ... he ar ww. 748

— caucasica ie ots we = 748

———-: persica ... ae ant .. = 748

Ailanthus ... foe a css Os 0

Aiolopus oxianus see veg so A00

thalassinus... 6s “me Loy

Alauda arvensis japonica des ss) DUG

- gulgula australis a sw o23

= — weigoldi ea ooo

Alburnoides bipunctatus eee . 746

Alburnus mossulensis ... wes we = 746

Alcedo atthis taprobana sas w. 826

bengalensis oe e =. 096

Alcemerops athertoni ... die ee OOk

Alectoris greeca pallescens _... eon) OAL

Aleucantes aksuensis ... i63 .. 764

—catocalis... ae .. 764

————-— caticasica ... ae soe 2 704

—_————~— hybleeoides ... ‘as .. 764

—— saisani sek ies .. 764

Alseonax latirostris ses ee ey

Amandava amandava ... ee oe O22

Amaurornis chinensis ... es 2507 090

——— fuscus bakeri 2s oa a7 4

Subsp. ... wa Ove

phoenicurus phoenicurus. 575

Ambassis baculis oe a 505, 517

-- —nama ... ne 504, 505, 517

——-——- ranga .... 504, 505, 508, 510, 512,

913, 514, 515, 517, 693, 703

Amphipyra tragopoginis nigrescens... 768

turcomana. 763

Anacridium egyptium ... ane .. 809

Anas acuta — ae ans .. 461

—-caryophyllacea ... ace .. 458

—-clypeata ... se ate ae 401

——-coromandeliana ... sips we = 458

xx INDEX OF SPECIES

PACE PAGE

Anas crecca ie ek ie .. 461] Arachnothera longirostris ae Yee EOS

——- ferina eae i eee .. 462 | Arctia rueckbelii ... — en Bo WASY=

—-—- ferruginea... es ee .. 460 | Ardea asha We oe Ae we 495

——- indica wae a Sis ae 459 ciconia “.. nee a v2 ea

——- javanica ... aa ae sa, Oo cinerea cinerea ... ie Gann isleis)

—- marila ae ee ne .. 462 | ———— —-——-- rectirostris ie ie 453

—- penelope... ae ey ... 460 cinnamomea _... ae we 456

——- platyrhyncha aes se 639, 738 episcopus ... ze ne . 452

—- pcecilorhyncha ... Pe 460, 638 | - flavicollis ... ae s chen Om

—_—- ——_-———_——_ peecilorhyncha... 738] - Canzettc mee i ie = 454

——~- querquedula ae ws: wie 461 erayi ap Ss = sae 4095

—-- rufa... see on S33 nes OZ intermedia ae ne we = 454

——- rufina ses ae ae sigh a2 javanica... ee a, isms “200

-—— Sttepera as. re sing ase, 200") melanolopha _... s Rp we 66

Anastomus oscitans ae sc 452, 587 || == smodesta =... <P ae eta a4

Anemone narcissiflora ... ee .. 20 | ——— nycticorax st. a 2 9 256

—- obtusiloba... ae ea aneU Oscitans -..2. aa oe we AZ

Ancistrodon hypnale_... ace eo) purpurea manilensis ... 453, 588

—— millardi... ae se 6/308) ————- simensis aa: aes om w1» 8456

- ———- nepa ee on be 7a0 stellaris ... ae Eee sot Oe

Anguilla anguilla soe — 517, 693 | Ardeola grayii... os ..-455, 589, 842

Anhinga melanogaster ... one 449, 586 | Arenaria interpres interpres ... Hepa mcsis)

Anisogamia tameriana ... ae siet fOr -—— serpyllifolia ... ha Shae, (Ohby4

Anomobryum cymbifolium ... .. 779) Argusianus argus doc ibe a sy)

Anser indicus... soe eee 459, 591 Argya caudata caudata ae ier 833

= tnelanotos a me .. 458} Argynnis adippejainadeva... 2 aor

Anthocharis cardamines oe w. 709 | -—-—— tianchanica ... on MON

Anthreptes hypogrammica _... .. 908 | ——-—— aglaia ... ae ae i. acol

-——— macularia macularia ... 558 | ——=—=—heeemone™ ©. oer a. £60

——- nuchalis ... «. ss 908 | 2 lathoniaiseeacs 2.) saaee7oll

Anthus hodgsoni .. one nee ae O2de| = Oem a me a BGI

- - nilghiriensis ee aa =. 623 | === — palesaisis a es cc: ON

- richardi rufulus cee ves O08) | ee Oma mee ifs iso OM

——- rufulus malayensis ... .... 823 | —_-—__ __- sipora ... ee en (sy)

-similis ... , ae ... 823 | Armene pusilla ... Se sae 797

- spinoletta porelti: me ... 9098; Artamusfuscus ... ie ve 528, 818

—___—-——--—_ japonicus ....... 558 | Aspidoparia morar ... 505, 506, 515,

Apathya cappadocica urmicana... —- 748 518, 693

Aphis gossypii... — ae .. 7/42 | Aspius vorax =. a tee ne = AAO

- maidis ... eee ae .. 742 | Astur badius aaee amen ee 829, 840

——malve ... oe tee .. 743) Atagen ariel ee oe oe sae PASO

—— medicaginis wee ww. ae 743 | Athene bramaindica ... as S39

—— nerii Fy ae a .. 742 | Athetis congesta ... a ee ol OeAGS

sacchari ... a ae .. /42 1 Atrichum obtusulum ... Ac. else eeeAgoa

Apopestes phantasma ... oe - pallidum... ne wae

eo pecinum centralasize .. 764) Attigen aquilus ... ie se teat aeOO

Aporia crategi ... sai ie .. 758 | Autophila cataphanes ... se jen, AMOS

Aptychella borii . ee a ae pole i subligaminosa. 764

— pleas a ae . _ 400 1 Baorus vacha Fc re ten Ac SIS)

Aquila nipalensis nipaleas's ... .. 840 | Balenoptera indica... oe a. 020

Aquilegia vulgaris... ys = 720! Baltiashawii .. 9 see 759

INDEX OF SPECIES “gxi

PAGE

Barathtfa brassicez canescens ... ee AOE,

Barbella enervis ... ge a We eet:

Barbula indica ... ; pion da HO

Barbus amphibius 510, 511, 512, 515,517

chola 506, 508, 693

————. chrysopoma ies aa es il)

oo KETSin 746

pee khudree .. 505, 506, Snlal Sayaeents):

54 515.16, 317,013,

519, 693, 699

oe kolus” 505, 506, 507, 508, 510,

Gl one. O13, oid O10;

Sil7,, Old, 319,005

eee luteus =. ins sas .. 746

—___ melanostigma ... Silla sale)

ee parrah sae 918

—— pinnauratus sep Lleol, O15

—— sarana 52, 5 1S) old, O10;

SilSieo LO 00S

= — supquincunciatus fas 746

——- ticto .. 504, 505, 506, 507, 508,

SiO; 5d 513, 014; 515;

516, 517, 518, 690, 693,

; 699, 702, 710

sp. n, 506, 508

. 504, 505, 506, 507,

508, 510, 511, 513,

Barilius bendelisis

514,515, 916; 917,

518, 519, 693, 694,

703

Bartramia halleriana ae 780

— leptodonta ... £38 ee 780

Belone s~. ‘os id ee ee 747

Bibos gaurus... oes ss. O17, 018, 892

Blepharidia grumi sas oe eee oe)

Blepharis mendica ae te ae ee ASI

Blepharopsis mendica nudica ei o7

Botaurus s. stellaris ae 457, 870

Botys flavalis... ae a 00

Brachymenium exile ... me ae Lo)

= —— nepalense Mew is)

a walkeri a. . 779

Brachypternus ee yeneae

lensis é er oor

Brachypteryx major mbiyennn 815

Brachythecium buchanani ... ooo

Brothera capillifolia ont en he

———leana ... Ye ie 8 ee

Brotherella Bein loeieeas aie oe 492

-—— erythrocaulis pals bee. woe

=——--— falcata ae Ae ge eed Oe

PAGE

Brotherella filiformis ... sot te 792

Bryum argenteum 779

- cellulare 779

- nitens = a 779

- SOLpRYLOnCHTON ot Team ke

Bubo bubo bengalensis ee Oo

Bubulcus ibis coromandus 454, 589

Bufo melanostictus 539

— viridis re a .. 747

Bulinus truncatus : 745

Bungarus caeruleus ae ; 486

Burhinus cedicnemus indicus . 9/6

Butastur teesa 840

Buthus australis 745

——-- crassicauda o re es)

_ eupeus 745

Butorides striatus javanicus .. 455. 589, 869

Calandrella brachydactyla dukhun-

ensis ; jie 20

Callichrous Bisnaeala ceel 506, O17, 661,

693

—— ——- pabc ede see eo SOL

Callimorpha principalis ied ores,

Calliope callicpe os oe eee

Calliptamus italicus ‘aliens m8 . 809

eae — siculus deserticola 2. 809

Callipterus trifolii dee we . FAl

Callophis trimaculatus .. 490

Caloplusia alaica © ach: ws 64

Calotes jerdoni ia w. = B47

---—— — versicolor .». 039, 640, 843

Caltha palustris ane se oor ec

Calymperes burmense aoe se 070

— - hampei eet se 2/0

Calyptothecium urviJeanum 784

__—— -— sp. tan son) -/ 04

Camponotus (Tanzemyrmex) compres-

sus eae ar xe aes ee!)

Campylodontium flavescens ... ioe 790

Campylopus letus 775

Cancroma coromanda 454

Capella gallinago gallinago D050, 732,

737, 830

— nemoricola S80, f30

- stenura 2300; 750, (37

Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus 543, 865

ieee eee indicus ...0413, 827, 866

———_——. macrourus 943

aes monticolus ae ae 7043

Carcharias lamia ae ae * 746

Carcharodus alcece 768

Xxil

PAGE |

Cardepia irrisor ie 763

Cardium edule . 745

Carpodacus erythrinus poctatne ee eee

Casarca ferruginea 460, 738

Catharacta skua lonnbergi D7

Catokala puerpera orientalis 764

—_ ——_ —_—— pudica 764

——-—— remissa indecorata ... 764 |

Celerio centralasize 762

—— gallii 762

—_——. zygophylii 762

Centropus sinensis parroti 825

sinensis 838

Cerastium vulgatum : ee O02

Ceratodon purpureus var. AEC TR

Cerchneis naumanni pekinensis se G03

Ceryle leucomelanura ... oe 598

Cheetomitriopsis glaucocarpa 786

Cheetoprocta odata 767

Chalcophaps indica 736

Chaptia cznea malayensis 539, 818

Charadrius dubius curonicus ... 581

—- dubius oi. 842

— jerdoni 581, 636

Chaulelasmus streperus see ica P00

Chela clupeoides oe 004,505, 506, 508;

INDEX OF SPECIES

510, 512, 513, 515,

518, 519, 693, 694

phulo 2137 517,018

Chettusia gregaria 982

Chionostomum rostratum dg2

Chlidonias leucopareia indica 578

Chrotogonus homalodemus 804

Chrysocladium horridum ee 13

Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus cherso-

nesus 825

—_—_— sul-

taneus... 862

Chrysophanus kasyapa 767

- phleas oe ion 4a OF,

—-- phoenicurus marge-

lanica 761

—- solskyi fulminans 761

Ciconia ciconia 451

— javanica 452

Cidaria distincta ae : 765

— (supethecia) real 765 |

Cimicifuga foetida 722

Cinnyris minima 824

Circaétus ferox 635

Cirrepedesmus feeenene viii 582

PAGE

Cirrepedesmus mongolus atrifrons 582

Cirrhina reba ... : 517, 693

Cisticola exilis ee oce analy 819

———— _ juncidis cursitans 680

Clamator jacobinus jacobinus 838

Clapodium assurgens 787

-——---——— nervosum 787

Clastobryum subphanulum 720

Cleistostoma ambiguuin 780

Clematis gouriana h2o

———— graveolens 723

—— —— napaulensis 723

—-— smilacifclia 123

——-—— triloba 723

Clemmys caspica See kiss)

Clupisoma argentata 662

————--- garua

eas "432, 659, 661, 666,

667, 673

—_-——_. montana

—— prateri vee a 671, 673

673

Clytie syriaca pallida ... 764

Coenonympha ea shite 760

- — sunbecca 760

Colias cocandica foo

croceus (edusina) gee 766

—— epgene eis ane asst OO

—— hyale aus 759, 766

—_— —- var. pailian 759

- romanovi : 759

Collocalia fuciphaga anicolons 827

Coluber helena 478

— nepa oi foo (ol

Columba elphinstonii ... aes 735, 829

———— livia intermedia cts 829, 840

Conchylis stolickzana wae ess) 00

Conocephalus buxtoni as BA ISIS

Conophyma bey-bienkoi fe 806, 807

——- ikonnikovi aos os) 1 BOUG

—_-——_ kittaryi re 02 OOS

——---__—_— predtetshenskyi ... 804, 805,

806

—-- sokolowi 807

Conozoa rogenhoferi 799

Copsychus saularis ener 816

——-—_- ——-- saularis 922

Coptis teeta ces. ew

Coracias benghalensis eae unica 838

ees indica 865

Corvus frugilegus tschusii 832

——— laurencei Rae dss 832

——— macrorhynchus oa sas. S04

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Corvus splendens splendens 832

Coturnix coromandelicus 572

841

Criniger flaveolus flaveolus 554

——— gularis... : oa 554

——— tephrogenys griseiceps 553

Crocopus pheenicopterus chlorogaster 735

—_——- ——_——— pheenicop-

terus . 840

Crossochilus latius 441, 513, 518, 693

Crytoplectron erythrorhynchum 572, 830

Ctenidium lychnites be 794

Cucubalus bacciferus 563

Cuculus canorus bakeri 623

Culicicapa ceylonensis ie UOT

Cursorius coromandelicus coroman-

delicus 976

————- cursor cursor 842

Cyaniris argiolus ceelestina 767

Cyanops asiatica asiatica 560

— davisoni .. 960

Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis ... 521

——- -—-—-- sulecica ... 834

Cyathophorum intermedium ... 786

Cyperus imbricatus ‘ean OLO

Dafila acuta 461, 739

Daltonia gemmipara 786

— marginata 785

— perlaxiretis 786

Danais chrysippus 766

- limniace 766

Danio zquipinnatus

: 504, “505, 566, 907,

508, 511, 513, 514,

515, 516, 517, 518

fraseri

Daption capense

Decticus albifrons

Delphinium brunonianum

ceeruleum

denudatum

elatum

Demiegretta asha

Dendrocitta rufa rufa ...

Dendrocyathophorum paradoxum

Dendrocyegna fulva

javanica ...

Depressaria stigmella

Derycoris albidula

Dianthus anatolicus

~— caryophyllus

459, 591, 597, 738

S05, 906, 690; 693,

695, 702

2... 450

798

725

724

oe 23.

455, 589

833

786

459

766

804

563

Dianthus chinensis

Diaphanodon blandus

——-——_-———— thuidioides

Diczum concolor

Dicranella divaricata

—--—-——-. heteromalla

—— leptoneura

Dicranodontium asperulum

— decipiens

— dimorphum ...

Dicranum assamicum

— - kashmirense

— ——— lorifolium

Dicranura przewalskii

Dicrurus ceerulescens

-—-_— — longicaudatus

Xx iii

PAGE

——— macrccercus macrocercus ...

Diexis gussakovskyi

Dipsadomorphus beddomei

—— trigonatus

Discogr athus rufus

peninsularis ...

Dissemurus paradiseus natn bati cus.

Dissoura episcopa episcopa ...

— episcopus

Distira cyanocincta

Ditrichum homomallum

Deciostaurus maroccanus

tartarus

Drymaria cordata

Dryophis mycterizans ...

Ducula badia cuprea ee

Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis ..

Duroniella kalmyka

Echis carinata AG

Ectropothecium buiter. pore fee

—————— cyperoides

———— --—- —— dealbatum

—~—— —— ramuligerum

Egretta alba modesta |

- garzetta garzetta

- intermedia intermedia

Elanus ceeruleus vociferus

Elephas indicus ...

— maximus

Emberiza aureola

—— —-— icterica

Empusa pennicornis... we ‘

Enhydrina valakadyen ...

Entodon flavescens

—— luridus tes = -

734,

457,

454,

9°

563

780°

780

824

774

775

774

762

530

529

835

529

804

496

482

746

530

587

452

872

773

799

564

484

829

591

799

495

793

588

829

619

854

861

837

797

872

789

Xxiv

PAGE |

Entodon plicatus 790

Epacromia tergestina ... ‘ 799

Epinephele davendra (ouietalies) 766

-—— hilaris - 760

_ -—— narica 760

—— naricina we) 60

-—_——-——— pulchella 760, 766

; -——__——-——neoza soa 66

Erastria trabealis (sulphuralis) 763

Erebia. mani 759

Eremias brevirostris 748

Eremiaphila arabica (eh

Eremocharis afghana 800

Erolia minuta minuta ... 584

—-—— testacea 585

Erpodium magniferze ei 780

Erythrodontium jaculeum .... 790

Eryx conicus 466

Euchloe chloridice 759)

Euchloris prasinaira 764

Eudorea granitalis 765

-— transversalis 765

Eudotrichella elegans ss 781

Eudynamis seolopaceus ecolopaceues 838

Eumyias albicaudata 817

———-— thalassina thalassina Cys)

Eunapius granosus 801

Euproctis karghalica 762

—— lactea 762

Eurhynchium dumosum 788

Eurystomus orientalis ... 8G

Eustrotia olivana-bankia argentula ... 763

Eutropiichthys burmanicus 436, 438,

= —— goongwaree 433

a murius 435

—~—-——_———- vacha ... .. 431, 434, 436

437, 438, 440, 659

Euxoa exclamationis serena ... 762

_ fatidica 762

issykula elects 762

oberthuri ... 762

segetum 762

Exodictyoa blumii dio

Fabronia assamica 787

Falco chiquera chiquera 840

—- jugger aes jee fee 840

——- tinnunculus objuregatus ... 828

Felis chaus affinis 850

Fissidens anomalus _... no 773

-— areolatus 773

-=———-— bryoides 772.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Fissidens leptopelma 773

—-—-— nobilis. Ree eS

—__- — Beir merci BOT ee

-— Remmecn talents 772

Floribundaria floribunda --- 783

Foreauella orthothecia ... 792

Francolinus francolinus asie .

841

——— pondicerianus miter posic

tus ce RA oli

=. somdlee: ,

r-anus eee? Ae

Franklinia buchanani 681, 835

: —— gracilis gracilis... see O87

Fregata andrewsi 449, 581

- ariel cae 50

Puliea-atrasatra 2. a4 596, 842

Funaria hygrometrica ah 778

-- wallichi 778

Galeodes arabs 746

——-——.bacilifer 746

Galerida cristata chendoola 837

———— malabarica 824

Gallicrex cinerea 575

Gallinula chloropus 596

——— —— ——_ indicus 575

Galloperdix spadicea “= 734

—— — stewarti ... B 830

Gallus sonneratii 569, 733, 830

Gampsorhynchus rufulus rufulus 953

Garckea phascoides 773

504, 507, 508, 510, 511,

512, 513, 514, 515, 516,

517, 518, 519, 693, 700

Garra mullya

Garrulax delesserti 814

——-—— leucolophus belanggeri De

--— -——_-—_-- hardwickii SEY

Garua butchwa ... 442

Gecinulus grantia Sena ee 959

Gelcchelidon nilotica nilotica... 578, 579, 842

Geokichla citrina cyanotus ee

Geometra dispartita 765

Giammella pterogonioides 792

Girardinus feeciloides 746

Glareola lactea 977

W508) 510, 511, 512,

513, 514, 516, 517, 519,

693, 702, 703

Glossogobius giuris

Glottis nebularia : Peaster

Glyptothorax lonah ang 693, 701

Gnophos ambiguata 765

——- stolickzaria 765

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Gnophos tarentidee - 765

———— thera kashgara me LOS

Gomphomastax morosus 809, 810

-— opacus 810

Gonepteryx rhamni 799

Gonista sagitta as ee / J0

Gorsakius ee aeiophus melanolo- —

| phus : 456, 590

Gracula grisea 557

— religiosa reed 685

Gratidia adelungi (SHE

Graucalus javens's macei 528

Gryllotalpa africana 798

Gryllulus bucharicus 798

—— -—— chinensis 798

—-— tartarus 798

Gryllus bimaculatus 798

- capensis . a aS

Gymnorhis Peano oie pe neocolies 836

Gyps bengalensis 864

himalayensis ood

—— indicus 827

Hematopus ostralegus eae alnae 867

ae -— ostralegus 581

Hageniella assamica... 790

--—- isopterygivides Pe rol

Halcyon smyrnensis 539, 594, 598

-- ——— fusca 826

— smyrnensis 839

Haliaétus leucogaster 634

Haliastur indus : a 828

Handeliobryum assamicum ... 785

Haplocladium subulaceum 787

Harpactes oreskios uniformis .. 560

Helicirtus moseri moseri 800

Heliothis dipsacea 763

-— fusca ... isa Ae 763

—-—— -— obsoleta 763

Hemicircus canente canente 559

Hemiechinus collaris 616

Hemiprocne coronata 827

Hemipus picatus 818

Hemiscorpion lepturus 746

Hemistola dispartita 765

Herse convolvuli aeee 3/02

Hesperia cashmirensis ... Fen 10S

— tessellatum 761

— (Pyrgus) alpina 75)

Heterogamia roseni 797

Heterogamodes roseni ... 75,

Heteropneustes fossilis ... 508, 661

Hieraétus fasciatus

Hierococcyx varius

Hierodula robusta

-———~-— transcaucasica

Himantociadium plumula

scabrisetum

Hippolais rama ... oes

—— —--rama.

-— —-scita

Hirundo javanica domicola

— rustica rustica

-—-——-— smithi filifera

Holosteum umbellatum

Homaliodendron flabellatum

longisetum...

montagueanum

—_———_—-— — scalpellifolium

Homceosoma venosella

Hookeria acutifolia

Hyalorrhipis turcmena ...

XXV

PAGE

Hydrocissa malabarica meveerice a

Hydrocorax niger

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hydrophis lapemidoides

Hydroprogne caspia caspia

Hyla arborea savignyi

Hyophila involuta

Hypnum binervosum me

Hypophthalmus goongwaree ...

Hypothymis azurea styani

Hyteenidia striata gularis

Ibis leucocephalus

—-- papillosa ee ane

Ictinaétus malayensis penn er

Ilerda sena 7

Indicapus sylvaticus cer

Tole icterica a

——-- virescens Prope

—-- ——-—— virescens ...

Iranella eremiaphila

Iris oratoria polystictica

—- splendida

Isopterygium albescens

- ——— pallidum

textori

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

——_———--— sinensis sinensis

Iynx torquilla torquilla

Jeegerinopsis integrifolia

Japalura kaulbacki

Kabulia afghana

456,

828

838

797

784

819

682

681

822

837

564

785

765

786

800

862

448

739

748

579

747

776

793

435

526

573

452

451

828

767

826

815

554

800

797

793

599

590

837

781

755

809

Xxvi

PAGE

Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti ace Wee.

Kittacincla malabarica malabarica ... 522

Kripa coelesyriensis 809

504, 505, 51,

Labeo boggut

5135-517 ,.019, O99

——--- calbasu 510

——-- dero a bi wha 44]

——-- percellus ... 510 oll2, 016;

O17, O18, O19 095,200

Lalage sykesi 528

Lanius excubitor ieee 834

= isabellinus 527

———— schach caniceps 818

— erythronotus 927, 834

= vittatus 526, 834

Lapemis curtus 748

Larus brunnicephalus 578

——-- fuscus taimyrensis 578

-——-- ichthyaétus 577

-- ridibundus 578

Larvivora cyane : 954

eiodontium complanatum 794

Leiopicus mahrattensis : 628

Lepidocephalichthys guntea ... 505, 506,

507, 508, 509, 513, 514,

515, 516, 517, 518, 693, 700

Leptidice sinapis 759

Leptocoma asiatica asiatica: 2. 837

Leptohymenium tenue ... 794

Leptopternis gracilis . 800

Leptop‘ilus javanicus 452, 587

Leptorbynchus diadema 748

Leuciscus spp. 746

Leucobryum bowringii i

javense 775

Leucochloe daplidice 7959, 766

Leucocirca pectoralis pectoralis 526

Leucodon secundus 780

Leucophanes Geromiepnanonice 779

Leucopolius alexandrinus alexandri-

nus 580

-_—— leggei 981

Limicola falcinella falcinella .. 585

Limneza tenera euphratica 745

Lindigia asiatica ; 783

Lobipluvia malabarica... 5Oe

Lobivanellus indicus indicus ... 582, 842

Locusta danica Po as 799

- migratoria Penton 799

Luscinia obscura 555

Lyceena cleobis 761

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Lycena cristophi 761

- damone iphigenides 761

- devanica... 761

- eros 761

- galathea ... 761

—- -—-—_ (chitralica) race. Joy

- icarus: 761, 767

——- thetis 761

- - omphisa ... 767

- - orbitulus... : 761

——- -- (astorica) 767

——— —- pheretiades 761

peScuta ee arses BA ae se L07*

- stolickzana 767

Lychnis coronaria san, BOOS

Lycodon aulicus ses aes 464, 473

Lymnocryptes minima ... 586

Mabuia carinata ... 395

-~ septemtzeniata ... side vos) ES

Machlolophus xanthogenys travan-

coreensis 813

Macroglossum stellatarum 762

Macromitrium calymperoideum 777

-———— - hamatum 777

——_ — nepalense 777

a ramentosum 778

—— ———— rigbyanum LT,

————— —— sulcatum 778

— turgidum 778

Macropisthodon plumbicolor 471

Macrosiphonella sanborni 741

Macrosiphum pisi Be 741

Macrothamnium macrocarpum 794

—. -- submacrocarpum 794

Mantis religiosa 797

Mareca penelope 460

Mastacembelus armatus 516

— ———- sp. 747

Meiothecium microcarpum 792

Melanopsis nodosa 745

Melichhoferia assamica... 778

Meliteea didyma aia 760

-- saxatilis... 760

Merops orientalis orientalis 839

- - superciliosus javanicus 839

Metaporia leucodice 758

Meteoriopsis reclinata ... 784

---——. squarrosa ... 784

Meteorium buchanani re mae) 7/038}

Metopidius indicus ae 29/04 097 ool

Metrioptera tameriana ge

798

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Microcephalophis gracilis 748

Microdus assimilis 773

——- brasiliensis 773

Micropus affinis nipalensis 826

——_—-——- melba bakeri 826

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa... SiS

Miglyptes jugularis a 09

Milvus migrans govinda 828, 840

Mioscertus varentzzowi 799

—___— -——. wagneri ae 799

—__-—___- —__——_rogenhoferi 799

Mizonocara uvarovi TRE,

Mnium heterophyllum... dis

——--— levinerve 779

——--— lycopodioides ... 779

——-—- punctatum 719

——-—- rostratum 179

——-—- succulentum 779

-——-—- thomsoni AIS

Molpastes cafer a : 815

——- - hemorrhous qnccnnenae, 833

——-——-- leucogenys leucogenys 833

—---——-- —__—_-—-- leucotis 864

Monticola cinclorhyncha PS

———_—-- solitaria pandoo 524,555

Motacilla alba dukhunensis 837

—_———-- cinerea caspica 822

—-—_——_ - maderaspatensis 822

Mugil abu 747

--—-- dussumieri 747

Munia malacca Bs 821

——— melanocephala ... 599

——-— punctulata lineoventer... 557

——_—— ——_———_ subundulata 55/7

Muntiacus vaginalis 854

Muscicapula tickellize 817

——_——_——. ——-——- tickelllze 525

Mycteria asiatica 452

Myelois griseella 765

———-- undulosella 765

' Mylicbatis aquila dae ut 740

Myophonus horsfieldi ...024, 539, 816

Mystus cavasius. 508, 510, 512, 515, 517, 518

OLD O93% 201, 703

Myzus persicee 741

Naia naia var, ceca 488

——-tripudians ... tee ASE ae 1488

Nangra viridescens pao 693). 201.

Napothera brevicaudatus venningi ... 553

Neckera himalayana cde

Neckropsis gracilenta .., ales » «=—«s 84

XXVIi

PAGE

Nemachilus botius 505, 506, 507, 508, 513,

514, 515, 516, 517, 693, 700

———-—- denisonii .... 504, 505, 507, 508,

513, 516, 693, 700

-——— —_—_- evezardi 508, 509, 513, 516

Nemoria dispartita 765

Neophron percnopterus 828

—— --——- ginginianus ., 635

Neoris stolickzana 5 wee 768

2 ee (shadulla) 762

Neritina macrii ce ge 745

Nerodia piscator... 467

Netta rufina 462

Nettapus eoromanaelenne 458, S915 597, 738

Nettion crecca crecca 461, 592, 738

Nigella sativa ses tee Rae 725

Notopterus notopterus ... 505, 516, 693

Notostaurus albicornis albicornis IS

Numenius arquata 583

——-—_— pheeopus 583

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticcrax 456, 5990,

842

Nyroca ferina ferina 462

———- fuligula fuligula 462

-———- marila was 402

———- rufa rufa 462, 592

Oceanodroma sp. 450

Ochromela nigrorufa 817

Octoblepharum albidum 7795

Cidaleus senegalensis 799

Cidipoda wagneri 79

(Enanthe deserti atrogularis yall

—_—-———-- isabellina 834

——~-~—- opistholeuca ... 834

—~ picata.. 833

Céineis hora verdanda a ex -/59

CHnopopelia tranquebarica tranque-

banicar.: 841

Oligodon arnensis oe 480

—__—-—_—- teniolatus Spero: 481

Ophicephalus gachua 504, 505, 507, 508, 513,

515, 516, 577, 693, 701, 703, 709

—_-——-——-- leucopunctatus ... O17,

ee MALUIUS 906, 508, 693, 701,

703, 709

Oreocincla dauma neilghiriensis 816

Oreoweisia iaxifolia 774

Orgyia trigotephras prisca 762

Oriolus oriolus kundoo ,..084, 835, 862

684

788

———- xanthornus maderaspatana ...

Ortholimnobium borii ... oe oe

XXVili

PAGE

Orthomnion trichomitrium 780

Orthomniopsis japonica 780

Orthotomus sutorius guzerata... 680

—- —- sutorius... 835

Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata 815

Otus bakkamcena marathe 839

Ourapteryx ebuleata 765

Oxicesta marmorea 764

Oxya fuscovittata ; 804

Oxyrrhynchium mulleri var, minus... 788

—- reparioides 788

Oxythespis wagneri (ASM)

Pachycalamus zarudnyi 748

Pachypterus punctatus ... 436

Peeonia emodi 726

Pangasius cultratus 660

Papilio machaon... 758

Papillaria fuscescens 782

Paraclipus vulnifera 539

Parapsilorhynchus sp. 2. 504, “507, 508, 509,

516, 519.

Pararge maera schakra 766

— menava. A i225). 700

Parateiphusa (Bee elon rena 531, 542

<<< ———_——_———--_ jacque-

montii... 542

——_ —_- - mecanni... 542

- hydrodromus 540

Parnara mathias... ee a ee) 2/05

Parnassius actius 758

—-- apolo sibiricus 758

——_-——— charltonius ... 766

————— delphius 758

——— - —— —---— riieyi 766

——__-——- ——- ——_ staudingeri 758

———_ ———. discobolus ... 758

____-——— epaphus cashimizens’ S 766

———-—— loxias : 758

—— simo gylippus 758

Parus major planorum... 833

Passer domesticus indicus 836

Pastor griseus or an 07

roseus -- 685, 835, 862

Pavo cristatus . -. 569, 841, 857

Pelecanus onocrotalus ... a cr 447

——- philippensis ... 586

————- plotus... 449

————_- roses... 447

-——_———- sinensis 448

Perdicula asiatica ~ 572

we ceylonensis 9/72

INDEX OF SPECIES

Perdicula asiatica vidali

Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris...

—_—_-----——. flammeus ...

-—_—_——__-—— peregrinus peregrinus

——~—---———. speciosus speciosus

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis ...

~ fuscicollis

——_——- niger

Philomachus pugnax

Philonotis angusta

—— longicollis

Phoenicopterus ruber

——-— roseus

Phoenicurus ochruros

= ninventis

Photoscotosia amplicata

—__——_——- miniosata

——-——--- oberthuri

Phragmaticola aédon

Phrynocephalus scutellatus

Phyllodactylus elisze

Phyllodromica irinze

Phylicscopus affinis ae

colybitus tristis ...

griseolus ...

Phylloscopus magnirostris

nitidus nitidus

- viridanus..

eccipitalis

trochiloides ludlowi

Phytometra confusa (gutta)

-—-- festuca (festata) ...

Picea abies ane Ss

Picus erythropygius nigrigenis

——-viridanus ...

——- xanthopygeeus

Pieris brassicee

——-— canidia

——- napi

——- rapze ‘

Pilotrichopsis dentata ...

Pimelodus murius

vacha...

Piprisoma agile modestum

Plagiothecium neckeroideum ...

Platalea leucorodia

Platypterna mistshenkoi

Plegadis falcinellus

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus

Podiceps capensis capensis

—_cristatus cristatus

——

». 432

448, 586,

682, 820

683,

559,

759, 766

435

992, 595

we 640

PAGE

830

835

527, 818

528

862

448

597

842

780

739

457

RYAN

834

768

765

819

748

747

797

594,

835

682

829

820

764

875

559

825

766

7959

(ENS)

780

435

, 436

558

793

450

799

451

582

INDEX OF SPECIES Ex1X

PAGE

Podiceps ruficollis capensis 462

Pogonatum contortum ... 795

—-—-- microstomum TSS)

——_——- papillosulum 795

- ——- proliferum ... 795

Polia furca 763

—- furcula 763

—- mista 763

——- spiniacece een 763

Polyceema fameriana 761

Polycarpeza corymbosa 965

Polycarpon indicum ad ie | OOO

Polygonia egea interposita ... 760, 767

Polyodontophis collaris... aise 498

———— subpunctatus ... 470

Polyommatus beeticus ... 767

Polyphaga camelorum ... 796

— obscura TSM

—— saussurei 796

Polyspilota zeruginosa ... 797

— striata 197.

Pomatia salomonica 745

Pomatorhinus hors fieldii ag antes 814

- olivaceus ripponi 552

——- — schisticeps mearsi 952

- ————— nuchalis 552

Pongelion .. i Ol Oo

Porphyrio poioccenaIue! po i i0ce-

phalus 7 575, 596

Porzana pusilla pusilla... 574

Prinia inornata franklinii 821

———— inornata ae 050

Socialis socialis ... ae 683, 821

Procellaria capensis 450

Proetropiichthys taakree »»- 005, 506, 693

Psammophis condanarus ce OLL

Pseudeutropius garua ... i 667, 671

—_——_——--- goongaree 2 7 436

Pseudibis papillosa ies oe 451, 739

Pseudogyps bengalensis 827

Pseudoleskeopsis decurvata 787

Pseudosymblepharis pallidens 776

Psittacula eupatria nepalensis 838

—— krameri manillensis 838

Pterobryopsis auriculata 782

Pterocles exustus ellioti 569

——_——-———- erlangeri 841

Pterodroma macroptera 450

Pteropangasius cultratus 660

Pteronemobius hydenii concolor 798

Ptilonotis gammieana, ... 780

PAGE

Ptilophora kashgara _... aa Rae 2102

Ptyas mucosus ... aie en Aso

Ptychomitrium iacomilneides ee 170

Puffinus chlororhynchus as we 400

-- persicus... eel oe 450, 587

Pylaisia aurea... ad ine . 790

Pylaisiopsis speciosa... me sou -/90

Pyrameis cardui... se sie er Aor,

—_-——_-- - (japonica) ... ere 400

Pyrgomorpha conica ... a . 804

Pyrrhulauda grisea a5 is ue O87,

Python molurus ... * nas a. 465

Querquedula querquedula AGI, 092, 750

Rallus eurizonoides amauroptera .... 574

Rana esculenta ie ae ... 747

—--~ ridibunda ae oe eae AT,

—- susana we .. 449

——- tigrina =e _ a4

Ranunculus arvensis... ae ue 28

—_—— — fulcatus.... 3:3 oe 429

————- lingua oo bie Ma a0

—_————— muricatus a .. 729

—————-- pensylvanicus ... ee ees.

——_———_ sceleratus ite Ge s/e3

— - trichophyllus es Wed

Rasbora daniconius Ze a, 506, 507,

905,009) S10, 51d S12 513;

514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 693

—~—-—— labiosa are See 504, 505,

507, 508, 509, 513, 516, 517,

518, 519, 693, 696, 702, 709

Rhabdophis stolatus _... PP iw, 469

Rhacomitrium javanicum ae a AHS

Rhinopalpa polynice burmana ws . O41

Rhipidura aureola aureola_ ... see One

Rhizogonium spiniforme os ep. 700

Rhodobryum giganteum fea Sa co

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea ... Le. 496

Rhodophila ferrea ferrea ir .. oo4

-——_——_—- haringtoni ae Dod

Rhyacia (Agrotis) dichagyris desnece 763

——— defuncta ant ste «. (03

———— degniata defuncta ... OO

—— spaelotis undulans ... fee TOG

—~— —— squalorum oe fs we) 708

Rhynchostegiella assamica .., a 80

—_—— — scabriseta ... asc y FOO

—_—— - —- percomplanata ... 788

Rhynchostegium duthiei ane uae) 09

—— herbaceum ... Se OO)

—— ——__-——._ hookeri as » 1/89

XxX

Rhynchostegium pellucidum

Rivetina baetica

PAGE

789

797

Rostratula benghalensis ee rieay 576, 737

Rohtee belangeri

660

305, 506; 513,693

—-—-—- cotio

——-- duvaucelli ; 51S

- vigorsii 213; 519;5693

Saponaria vaccaria sis OS

Sarkidiornis melanotos ... 458, 639

Satyrus anthe enervata 766

-- padma 766

———--- parisatis 766

-_—— -- saraswati 766

---——-- telephassa was, 006

———-- (Erebia) turanica eunda 760

—-——.-- (Eumenis) briseis 760

sa —— heidenreichii 760

————— -—-— moiszechii (baldiva) 760

—_——-- (Karanasa) huebneri... . 760

Saxicola caprata atrata 920, 816

a caprata 833

————— torquata indica 529

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 834

——_——- ptymatura 522

Schilbe garua 666

Schilbeichthys garua 667

Schoenicola platyura 819

Scintharista wagneri ann i ES)

Scolopax rusticola rusticola ... 585, 733, 830

Scolopendra morsitans ... 745

Seicercus cantator 555

Sematophyllum caespitosum ... 192

Serilophus lunatus 558

——- rubropygius 558

Silene apetala 567

——-- conoidea 567

——-- cucubalus 566

—-- gallica 567

Silurus boalis 661

- canio 661

= Cheehta, "sc. 661

- cochinchinensis 661

- duda oe. O61

—-—- garua 661, 666

———- pabda 661

————= pabo 661

-- - singio 661

- wytaadensis 661

Siphia parva subsp. 524

Siphocoryne avenae 742

Pere aneene

——

742

INDEX OF SPECIES

Sitta frontalis

Sizera

Sparus berda

Spatula clypeata...

Spergula arvensis

Sphagnum acutifolioides

Sphingonotus afghanicus

- longipennis

- nebulosus discolor

—- obscuratus brunneri

- octofasciatus

- savignyi

Splachnobryum assamicum

Stachyridopsis rufifrons rufifrons

Stauronotus maroccanus

Stellaria aquatica

——_——. media

————— uliginosa

Stenustigma curva

Stercorarius antarcticus

Stereophyllum anceps ...

Sterna albifrons saundersi

hirundo szdsp.

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis

--—— decaocta decaocta

Strobilanthes kunthianus

—_— spp.

Strumiger desertorum persa

Sturnia malabarica blythii

——_———_- malabarica

Sturnus vulgaris humii.

Sula dactylatra a enone

—— fiber ae

—— leucogaster plotus ...

Sylvia curruca affinis

hortensis jerdoni

Symblepharis helictophylia

reinwardtii

Symphyodon scabriset us

Symphysodontella borii

~——_ -——__ - —— pilifolia

-—- ——--——-——- subulata

—__—_—__——_ -—— tortifolia

Synchloe callidice

Syngrapha circumflexa

Sypheotides indica

Syrrhopodon pilulifer “s

Taeniocampa semiophora chiklika

Tantalus falcinellus :

———— leucocephalus -

829,

-—— senegalensis combateders

INDEX

PAGE

Tantalus melanocephalus Ress sve 451

Tarache fructuosa af AAS ee a 1048

Tataricus ferrugineus ... aus ee 080

Taxithelium kerianum ea ee 102

laeviusculum ... ae Oe

Tayloria indica ; ie Pat ie:

———— subglabra var. spinosa ee LO

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi ... 525, 862

Temenuchus pagodarum ae an, O86

Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondi-

cerianus ve 527, 305

Terminalia belerica ... ae .. 874

———-——-catappa_... oe en OV

—— ———- moluccana ... ae 874, 876

Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi .. 834

Testudo elegans si ns 870 |

Thalasseus bengalensis ponealeneign: 580

—————. bergiedwardsi ... me 079.

—____-—_-_——. velox ats i Ey

Thalictrum foliolosum he Perce.

—- minus ae he ee

m@inereiceryx viridis ... Mie ea OLO

Therioaphis ononidis ... ae w= AL

Thisoecetrinus pterostichus ... ma 009

Thisoecetrus adspersus ae .. 809

———_-——_ littoralis asiaticus .. 809

Threskiornis melanocephala 451, 587, 739

Thrinchus campanulatus Rs .. 800

Thuidiella squarrosulo oe 7 o7

Thuidium asperulisetum a ee ey

= —bifarium ... = cen

———— brctheri he ae er O7

— cymbifolium ae Seu Od

——-—_—— meyenianum aes ase LO.

—-—w—— orientale... oe ses 707,

—— subpeilucens aks Pen a hoy

Toxoptera aurantii see a sae et 4S

Trachypodopsis auriculata ... Wil Me kok

—- himantophylla se VO

Trachypus bicolor ee ns eet OO

-—— pendulus .., aise ae LOU

Trematodon assamica ... = eS

Trichosteleum boschii ... aa 5 TRY

——— hamatum ae He 20792

‘Trichostomum cylindricum ... =o 476

Trimeresurus albolabris bos ae 430

eramineus sae S. 430

f= —-—— occidentalis ae we 130)

—— popeiorum is Gee AO

“= —— stejnegeri ut ae fa

Tringa glareola ope sah oe «= dL

OF SPECIES

XXX1

PAGE

Tringa hypoleucos .. 384

- ochropus 583, 842

- stagnatilis 584

- subarquata 585

- totanus 584

Trionyx euphraticus 749

Triturus vittatus.. 747

Trochalopteron moron fenebant era OU

Tropidauchen cultricolle 801, 802

- —- miramee 802, 804

oe - paramonovi .. 804

—- - uvarovi ... 801, 802

-sp.n. 801

Tropidonotus stolatus ... a 469

Turdoides terricolor terricolor 833

Turdus atrogularis 834

- ginginianus ; 557

- simillimus BOuecaltoni 816

—= mahrattensis 023

Turnix dussumieri 841

——-— suscitator leggei o/3

-————— — taigoor 573

- sylvatica dussumieri ... J73

~—-— - tanki tanki 573

Typhlops braminus .. 464

Tyto alba javanica ss, O09

Upupa epops ceylonensis 826

——— orientatls A 839

Uretheisa pulchella a. 708

Uroloncha malabarica , 821, 836

—- punctulata Neoventer 821

Uromastrix loricatus 748

Vanessa antiopa yadanula 760

— cashmirensis 767

— urticee aepdcon

—-——— urtice rizana se £00

— xanthomelas ... 767

Vesicularia reticulata 794

Vipera russelli say 492

Vivia innominata malayorum : 560

Wallago attu eee LZ. O18, 661, 693

Webera cruda 779

— -- elongata 779

-- flexuosa as fo

-_—— -- humicola we 9729

Xenorhynchus asiaticus 452

Xerophila vestalis 745

Zamenis fasciolatus 476

Zizera maha ae: re wae 767

Zosterops palpebrosa nilgiriensis 824

Zygodon brevisetus ee 774

were

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3 te . A - . = anak cay Det so oe 4 » Syne Ree et P

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GONTENDS OF. VOLOME XX XIX, No. 3.

PAGE

THE GAME FisHeEs oF [NpIa. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E.,

F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. (With one coloured plate and 8

tear-figures).. “Phe: Bachhwa OF Butch War ....cssecssvcsceussesses cossceevasces 431

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GuHaTs. Part XVI.

By H. Whistler, M.B.0.U., assisted by N. B. Kinnear, M.B.O.U......... 447

THe SNAKES OF DEoraLrl. Part III. By A. G. L. Fraser, 1.M.p.

EEE TOUT, DUCTS) oe cajctetinniaon sais vals vmetieensio FORGO UO Nee sues easine’ oeaen nsec eine: 464

Fiso oF DEOLALI. Part I. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.N.I.,

and K.S. Misra, M.sc. (W2th two plates)...... Beta ienicntn ieee eas oueteav ea tak 502

THeE BrrRDS oF BOMBAY AND SALSErte. Part II. By Salim Ali and

Ricameaycne A baulalt. = (W222 1276 PLALES..) .acsv02s: .oesesenccaseoncneseses South. @ O20

NoTES ON THE COMMON LAND CRAB Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa)

guerinit OF SALSETTE ISLAND. By C. McCann, F.L.sS. (With two

DUALS ie acacia kveeaicecegeies BEo ele Sr nec sRes sees Va sciaiccidainlte odiciaaielefouesiawume nial s taswe das 531

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN Birps. By E. H. N. Lowther, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

(CEI AZENL ID CX DLALOSN asaiacs doseiioas SeeivedeSs acs seseanesiiduisse vesieceh avs cdcsaiioesadasacabesas 543

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA. By P. F. Garthwaite,

B.F.S., assisted by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U....... 552

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CAMPIONS OF INDIA. By J. F.

AIS Siliccee oration wetrenishesceeas <eetcotes'c Sieavcvescsaveetwaueseese es sivustesccabebe tot 561

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN. Part VIII. By

Salim Ali, with notes by H. Whistler, M.B.0.U....cccccccseccaccoscecsscseseae 569

BIRD LIFE ON A SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK. B.F.N. Betts. (With two

DLOUCS) seeares uotinge Satncacheacas eiidsetabes sansessee dios jas Gaiase re re ee 594

REVIEWS :—

Manual of the Mammals of Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips....... 603

A Guide to collecting Butterflies of India. By Lt.-Col. H. Db,

ES erat terale Sates wicca alorctelaly Said, Sais fs ale alo heres herins-e-oloroic e aivic er daissin snslaarelay eororeriaualomocaa ite ~ 603

A Beast Book for the Pocket. By Edmund Sanders................ 605

NOTE ON THE BURMA WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT............ 606

AN APPEAL— Wanted Stag Beetles. By G. J. Arrow.......c.c000..0005 c000e » 609

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Association between a Leopard and a Tigress. By Brigadier-

General R. G. Burton...... Bi aseone tees Be usasie dere ieucts sac eakee: 610

II.—Two wary Tigers and two others. By R.C. Morris, F.R.G.s.,

Bey ZS ceteris oe aie slatale cusaiace ereseia's i sistaintacs piste evsietslwaiaiane bad Seidate stele edpaceee ol eeesce 610

III.—Strange behaviour of atigress. By E. P. Gee................... 614

IV.—Measurements of tigers in the Naga Hills, Assam. By

Gives WANA Wal as feces caine tiene ghaclciaueiiehabedenetessdacendie a2 615

Vi Vance: ci Wild: Moose By +R. ©) MOLrIS.<.devscceses'estaeescedsacees 615

VI.—Notes on Hardwicke’s Hedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris

Gray ane Hiardw:). By G. McCann oie: os encvtiandis cass savin 616

Vil.—Solitary Bull Bison (4760s gaurus H. Sm.). By R. C.

VAG tet SB ia oeecetete cata sere ee ee ciana dae cae oh sb A4 dacatibolgblodiiees ahieeeida.avids 617

VII,—Whistling sound made by Bison (4260s gaurus H. Sm.).

LV cll ESUCUCMUDO Lip at se sachs dcteoc¥essds casts acctbrivecnsdeduati esti 617

CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXIX, No. 3

IX.—Colouration of the Bison’s snout and tongue. By R. C.

INIORGIS cedeseccscece saa doaitcaaes soe ciciepeatuenennceseen « capreecccer agen maser

X.—Replacement of horns in Nilgai. By M. K. S. Chandra-

YEAST 1. os. sagas acemtecteeseciedaccte beat ecm noacaneter cere ateme mee

XI.—An Elephant 170 years old. By Guy Dollman.......... fereeeeees

XII.—Whale-bone Whale stranded on the Travancore Coast. By

RR. V. Podeuval. ...wecc..00ss te elena Se teat dae cae Seid Gear isiaes saree :

XUI.—Unclean animals. By A. A. Dunbar Brander............cccece ee

XIV.—Close seasons for Big Game—Are they beneficial? By R.C.

BVI TIS ca co « ccce siescias sacs g-06 Somes aa Cees goinaue ae <eeiavctaeneaeeee te

XV.—Occurrence of the Rufous short-toed Lark (Calandretla bra-

chydactyla dukhunensis Sykes) in Northern Burma. By

J. Ke sbaniond, FsGrSacdcoass suncpraatintbloame nicest ee tee mee cee

XVI.—The Egg-laying of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus cano-

rus bukers Fartert). By T. RR. Livesey... cocesccosscenenree

XW .—Curkvo inemenrts.. - By TR. Dsivesey-..0.....:.2 css: sevecesiers sce

XVIII.—A Note on the distribution and nidification of the Northern

yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker [ Letopicus mahrattensis

dlanfordi (Blyth)] in Sind. By K. R. Eates. F.z.s.,

SuMESB OND) sacccnsins slecaties sesbap teen gtemercnacts tance Sia etiaaqtsina aes ah aitee

XIX.—The Distribution and Nidification of the Rock Horned Owl

(Bubo bubo bengalensis Frankl.) in Sind. By K. R.

Hates FZ .S.,. MeBR.O0Uscc.. 5. tse easeesscceese dasleseelstenisey Cestorsens

XX.—Occurrence of the Chinese Lesser Kestrel (Cerchneis nau-

manni pekinensts Swinh.) in Northern Burma. By J. K.

Stariford, TICsS, .<..5.4 sab aceeweaedesbadehi see rahe ceceemecnecaeen en ceenee

XXI.—Notes on Birds of Prey in the Madras Presidency. ByC. H.

[email protected]: weiheoSeie Hs Wepcenitan asi Sout ciate asian ain ness sean

XXII.—Unusual site for the nest of the White Scavenger Vulture

[Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Lath.)j| By C. H.

TSICVCEUMEN 555. 5055 ce enidecaateccovaseeaciseuee eden senate eeneice ene.

XXIII.—Behaviour of Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius

dubius jerdont Legge) with young. By K. R. Eates,

BSZ.S.g MB. O.U .Seversivnde un seatests sdemtacetetseesen ssceeciedcceaseaae

XXIV.—Intergradation of the races of the Spot-Billed Duck (Anas

pocilorhyncha Forster). By R. E. Parsons....... 2. ..c00 0s

XXV.—Occurrence of Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha Linn,) at Hosh-

angabad. By J. Miles Stapyitom:..cccecccs 1. hs tener se econaee

XXVI.—The Nukhta or Comb Duck (Sarkidiornis melanotos Penn-

ant) in Assam. By W. M. LeMarchand............ .....cecee0

XXVII.—Occurrence of the Great-crested Grebe (fodiceps cristatus

cristatus L.) at Maymyo, meee Burma. By P. F.

Gardthhywalte; ABR SICS .caccasgecm'assaeleadenaciaussiereins aaa ee ean a ees eee

XXVII{I.—Birds and Ants. By T. Bainbrigge Fletcher...

XXIX.—A Bloodsucker (Ca/otes berstee attaching an adult bird.

By C. H. Biddulph... Sera tettcmil oo e cieiot kod etctclaer neater

XXX.—The Butterfly (Rhinopalba bee jue in the N. ‘EB.

Frontier, Assam. Iy ah.. Th. PATSONS ae: suecaastion -s3sc00 050s

XXXI.—Curious behaviour of a wasp. By C. H. Biddulph...............

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SS OCU aio ia ssasicXo ae daaben Caen ae Oe ee ee @OCOC ee. Oe Gees

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'VWMHDLNG YO VMHHOVE, SHL

‘90S ‘“LSITT “IVN ‘Wog ‘wnof

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

SEPTEMBER 1937. VoL. XXX EX, INO: 2

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA?

SUNDER LAL HORA, D.Sc., F:R.S.E., F.L.S., F-Z.S., F.R.AvS.B., F.N,I.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plate and eight text-figures).

Continued from page 210 of Vol. xxxix.

I].—‘THe BacHHwa or ButcHwa’.?

EUTROPIICHTHYS VACHA (HAMILTON).

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ae “as a at = a 431

Taxonomy

Nomenclature and Systematic Position... a chs 432

Synonymy and Description ee =e ve ee 436

Measurements, Distribution and Variation ue ies 435

Bionomics and Fishing Notes sis oe ate ee 442

Acknowledgments fet ae oe a me 445

List of References ee ee ate ae Pe 445

INTRODUCTION.

There are two types of Catfishes which are termed Butchwa

among anglers. In Bengal, where both species are found in abun-

dance, the name Bdachcha is invariably applied to Eutropuchthys

vacha (Ham.), an elegant fish with a large mouth, as in the

‘Indian Trout’ (15).° The other species, known as Garua or Garua

——

1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

2 Also known as Batchwa, Batchtia, Vdchd and Bachcha.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

eT a

_ % the.

oat ? a

t ¥ +),

432. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1X

Bachcha, has a much smaller mouth and, though belonging to

the same family Schilbeidae, is included in a separate genus,

Clupisoma Swainson. It may be noted that in all books on angling

in India the accounts of these two types of Butchwa are greatly

confused. It is proposed, therefore, to give a description of the

true Bdchchaé in this article, and to reserve the treatment of

Clupisoma garua (Hamilton) for the next.

TAXONOMY.

Nomenclature and Systematic Position.

The species was originally described by Hamilton (13) as

Pimelodus vacha and was included by him among a heterogeneous

assemblage of Catfishes. Swainson (21) assigned it to the genus

Pachypterus and named it P. punctatus, while Cuvier and Valen-

ciennes (4) considered it to be a Bagrus. Bleeker (2) also

regarded it as a Bagrus in the first instance, but later he (3)

defined its precise limits and proposed for its reception a new

genus Eutropiuchthys in his group Pangasii. The genus was

defined as:

‘Cirri 8, nasales 2, supramaxillares 2, inframaxillares 4. Dentes maxillis

pluriseriati. Dentes vomerini vel palatini nulli. Oculi superi. Rictus sub oculo

productus.’

This diagnosis appears to have been based on Hamilton’s

original description and figure, for it is stated therein ‘In both are

crowded numerous sharp teeth, of which there are none on the

palate.’ Giinther (11), without examining any specimen of

Hamilton’s species, accepted Bleeker’s genus; but Day (5) pointed

out that in EF. vacha there are

‘villiform teeth in a trianguiar spot on the vomer, and in a large pyriform

shape on the palate; the whole of these with those on the upper jaw are

so closely set together that it may give the appearance on a_ superficial

examination that there are ‘‘no teeth on the palate’? as remarked by Dr.

Gunther.’

Day (6) was also the first to describe the air-bladder of E.

vacha as

‘narrow, tubiform, placed transversely across the body of the anterior

vertebrae, and all but its central portion enclosed in bone, either expanded

extremity being within a bony capsule.’

Though in the original definition of Eutropiichthys no mention

is made of the teeth on the palate and of the nature of the

air-bladder, these form the chief diagnostfe features of the genus

which may be defined as follows:

The body is elongate and compressed. The head is covered

with soft skin. The snout is pointed; usually it is sharp but in

some specimens it is slightly blunt. There is a narrow median

fontanel on the head, commencing slightly behind the posterior

nostrils and extending almost to the termination of the occipital

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 433

process. The mouth is wide and ascending ; it reaches below the

orbit or may slightly extend beyond the posterior margin of the orbit.

The upper jaw is slightly longer. The nostrils are wide apart.

The eyes are lateral and are provided with broad adipose lids.

_ Text-fig. 1. Lateral view of head and anterior part of body of the three

species of Kutropiichthys Bleeker.

4, E. goongwaree (Sykes), x13; b. E. vacha (Ham.) X13; c. E.

murius (Ham). X13.

There are eight barbels, one pair nasal, one pair maxillary and

two pairs mandibular.

The jaws are provided with several rows of sharp, villiform

teeth; the toothbands are produced backwards at the sides. The

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

teeth (fig. 2) on the palate form a continuous vomero-palatine band

which is also produced at the sides. The band is sometimes inter-

rupted in the middle and sometimes it is so close to the maxillary

band that the two appear to be contiguous. The rayed dorsal fin

is short, with one spine and seven rays. The adipose dorsal is

also short and is situated far behind. The pectoral fin is provided

WAAAY,

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RAM ata

Vi LTAL

eet

ANG

bry) a

4, x

Text-fig. 2. Dentition of two specimens of Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.).

a. Long-snouted specimen from Chittagong, 251 mm. in length without

caudal. X13; b. Blunt-snouted specimen, probably from Burma (A.S.B. Cat.

No. 484), 192 mm. in length without caudal. X2.

with a spine, while the pelvic fin has only six rays. The anal

fin is long, but is separated from the caudal by a considerable

distance; it has usually 47-50 rays. The caudal fin is deeply

forked.

The gill-openings are wide; the gill-membranes being separated

by a deep notch and not confluent with the skin of the isthmus.

The branchiostegal rays vary from 5 to II.

The air-bladder (fig. 3) is greatly reduced, tubular and

transverse; it lies closely applied to the ventral surface of the

anterior vertebrae and forms a circular loop incomplete anteriorly ;

it is not enclosed by bone but is supported on the. dorsal surface

by the bony extensions of the transverse processes of the anterior

vertebrae.

The characters italicised above are the most important diag-

nostic features of the genus, and have afforded me a clue to

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 435

refer two more species—Pimelodus murius Hamilton (13, p. 195)

and Hypophthalmus goongwaree Sykes (22, p. 369) to the genus

Text-fig. 3. Air-bladder and associated skeletal parts in Kutroptichthys

vacha (Ham.). Length of specimen 152 mm. without the caudal. x5

Eutropiuchthys. The three species may be distinguished by the

following key:

A. Vomero-palatine band interrupted in middle (fig.

4, a); cleft of mouth extending to below first

third of eye; nasal barbel extending to base

of dorsal; eye 23 in length of head (fig. 1, a). E. goongwaree (Sykes).

B. Vomero-palatine band complete in middle.

a. Vomero-palatine band wider than maxillary

band (fig. 4, b); branchiostegals 11; cleft

of mouth nearly extending to hind border

of orbit; nasal barbel rarely extending to

hind border of head or slightly beyond ;

eye 3-42 in length of head (fig. 1, 6b) ... E. vacha (Ham.).

b. Vomero-palatine band narrower than or just as

wide as maxillary band (fig. 4, c); branchi-

ostegals 5; cleft of mouth extending to

front edge of eye; nasal barbel extending

to short distance behind posterior edge

of eye; eye 3-32 in length of head (fig. 1, c) E. murius (Ham.).

Both E. goongwaree and E. murius were referred to the

genus Pseudeutropius Bleeker by Ginther (II) and Day (8, 9);

though their authors had indicated their close similarity to Hamilton’s

Pimelodus vacha. It is outside the scope of this work to discuss

in detail the relationships of the three species. It may, however,

be indicated that from the point of view of an angler their specific

characteristics should make very little difference. E. goongwaree

is found in the rivers of the Deccan, and was originally described

from the Mota Mola river near Poona. E. murius is known from

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

the ‘Rivers of Sind, Orissa, the Jumna and rivers of Bengal and

Assam’. FE. vacha is still more widely distributed .and besides

northern India it is found in Burma and Siam.

AS SS

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Text-fig. 4. Upper dentition of the three species cf Eutropiichthys Bleeker.

a. E. goongwaree (Sykes). X32; b. E.

: vacha {(Ham.). x1s5 2c. E,

(Ham.). “x53:

MUTIUS

The genus Eutropuchthys is included in the family Schilbeidae

(19), of which Pangasiidae may be regarded as a synonym. This

family occurs in Indo-China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula and the

Archipelago, Burma, India and the tropical parts of Africa.

The Schilbeidae are a family of the Sub-order Siluroidea of the

Order Ostariophysi. They are popularly known as Catfishes, on

account of their long barbels.

Synonymy and Description.

Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton).

1822. Pimelodus vacha, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 196, 378; pl. xix,

fig. 64.

1839. Pachypterus punctatus, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Fish. etc., ii, p. 306.

1839. Bagrus vacha, Cuvier and Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., xiv, p. 392.

1854. Bagrus vacha, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, pp. 56, 112.

1862. Eutropiichthys vacha, Bleeker, Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, xiv, p. 398.

1863. Eutropiichthys vacha, Bleeker, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., i, p. 107.

1864. LEutropiichthys vacha, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 38.

1869. Eutropiichthys vacha, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

(dentition).

1869. Eutropiichthys vacha, Guiinther, Zool.

1871. Eutropiichthys vacha, Day,

bladder).

1873. Eutropiichthys vacha, Day,

and Burma, p. 270.

.1877, Eutropiichthys Burmanicus, Day, ibid., p. 490.

1877. Eutropiichthys vacha, Day, Fish. India, p. 490, pl. civ, fig. 6.

1877, Eutropiichthys vacha, Beavan, Freshw. Fish. India, p. 131.

1880. Pseudeutropius goongaree, Vinciguerra (nec Sykes), Ann. Mus. Civ.

Stor. Nat. Genova, xviii, p. 91.

p- 306

Rec., p. 134 (dentition).

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 713 (air-

Rep. Freshw. Fish. Fisheries, India

1889. Eutropiichthys vacha, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., i, p. 128, fig. 55.

1889. Eutropiichthys burmanicus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., i, p. 128.

1890.

Eutropiichthys vacha, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus., Civ, Stor. Nat. Genova

(2) et, ate Ae

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 437

1894. Eutropiichthys vacha, Bridge and Haddon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.

London (B), clxxxiv, p. 201 (air-bladder and_ skeleton).

1929. Eutropiichthys vacha, Prashad and Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., Xxxi,

P.. 1753 figs. 2 and 3.

Vernacular names.—Vacha (Dinajpur, Goalpara, Calcutta); Tunti, Kangon

and Caingun (Lakshmipur); Katla (Purniah); Bachoya (Bhagalpur); Sugwa-

bachoya (Patna); Butchua and Nandi butchua (Orissa); Chel-lee (Sind); Nee-

much (N. W. Sub-Himalaya); Nga-myen-kouban, Katha-boung and Nga-myee

ying (Burma); Nga-glaung (Myitkyina District, Upper Burma).

Text-fig. 5. Lateral view of a Siamese and a -Calcutta specimen of

Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) of about the same length. x 3,,

a. Siamese example; b. Calcutta example.

Betis Diet) 7 (One. 3-4) At=52 5 PS ri re-165 Vi65: CC. 17;

The length of head is contained from 54 to 52 times in the

total length and 41! to 5 times in the length without the caudal.

The height of the body is very variable in specimens from different

localities; in a specimen from Siam the body is very narrow, but it

gradually becomes deeper in specimens jas Burma, Chittagong,

Calcutta and the Panjab. The depth of the body is contained

from 44 to 5 times in the total length without the caudal. The

snout is invariably pointed, but in very rare cases it is slightly

rounded. There is a single, narrow and long fontanel on the head.

The occipital process is long and pointed; it is nearly 3 times as

long as wide. The eye is large, lateral in position and is

situated above the cleft of the mouth; it is provided with broad

adipose lids. The diameter of eye is contained from 3 to 44 times

in the length of the head; 1 to 14 times in the length of the

snout and ],}, to 1 in the interorbital distance. The gape of the

mouth extends to below the posterior margin of the orbit, and is

equal to half the length of the head. The upper jaw is slightly

longer. There are eight barbels of varying lengths; as a rule, they

are longer in young specimens than in adults. In Burmese

and Siamese specimens the barbels are relatively longer. As a

rule, none of the barbels ts longer than the head, but in young

specimens and in some Burmese examples they are considerably

longer. The two pairs of mandibular barbels are situated almost

438) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL] HIST. SOCIE Tay WV ola

in a row. The teeth are sharp and villiform; those on the jaws

form broad bands which are produced backwards at the sides. The

vomero-palatine band is considerably broader than the maxillary

band and is pyriform in shape; this band is sometimes so close

to the maxillary band that the two are indistinguishable from

each other.

In Indian specimens the dorsal fin commences slightly in

advance of the ventrals, while in Burmese and Siamese examples

it is either opposite or slightly behind the origin of the

ventrals. The dorsal spine is weak and faintly serrated along its

posterior edge; it is almost as long as the head, excluding the

snout. The pectoral fins extend beyond the origin of the ventrals ;

the pectoral spine is roughened externally and serrated internally ;

the rugosity of the outer surface is more pronounced in Burmese

specimens. This spine is as long as the dorsal spine or slightly

longer. The anal fin is considerably higher anteriorly than towards

its posterior end. The caudal fin is deeply forked with both the

lobes pointed.

The body is silvery with the back greyish—a neutral tint of

cobalt blue. There are patches of vermilion of different shades on

the jaws, upper and lower margin of the orbit, gill-cover, base

and rays of the pectoral fin and along the ventral edge of the

body. The anal fin has a light neutral tint, while the caudal has

a much deeper neutral tint with the dorsal and the ventral edges

light. The anterior half of the dorsal fin and the whole of the

adipose dorsal are of the same colour as that of the back.

Measurements, Distribution and Variation. |

Day (8) gives the distribution of Eutropuchthys vacha as ‘From

the Punjab through the large rivers of Sind, Bengal, Orissa, and

variety E. Burmanicus in Burma’. Quite recently Suvatti (20)

extended its range to Siam. The Mahanadi river in India probably

forms its southernmost limit as it has not so far been recorded

from the Deccan.

The Burmese specimens were separated by Day into a distinct

variety burmanicus which he characterised as follows:

‘Variety Eutropiichthys Burmanicus has A. 4/55, and its nasal barbels

almost reach to the dorsal fin; the maxillary to the middle of the pectoral

spine, whilst all the others are longer than the head. The pectoral spine is

serrated externally, and reaches the anal fin.’

Day does not mention the precise locality in Burma from where

he obtained his specimen or specimens of E. burmanicus. Vinci-

guerra (24), who examined several examples of E. vacha from

Mandalay, Bhamo and Bassein did not find any examples of Day’s

variety. Similarly, Prashad and Mukerji (18) who studied Burmese

material did not come across this variety. In the collection of the

Indian Museum there is a specimen from Burma (Dup. Cat., No.

39) purchased from Day, which has longer barbels (fig. 1, b) and

the anal fin, but does not quite show the characters of E. bur-

manicus. There are two other specimens fom Mandalay (Dupt.

Cat., Nos. 161, 246) which have long barbels, but in them the

snout is somewhat blunt. In view of the above the precise

439

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440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

systematic position of this variety becomes very doubtful, and it

seems probable that there are some errors in the description.

Prashad and Mukerji (18) observed that

‘in addition to Day’s E. burmanicus there are two more or less distinct

forms of EK. vacha and which can _ be easily distinguished by their different

facies. In the first form the snout is very sharp and pointed and the barbels

are short, while in the second form the snout is blunt and more or less

rounded and the barbels, though shorter than those. of EK. burmanicus, are

considerably longer.’

H Heitd Hi ! B 4 Soa

Text-fig. 6. Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of a long-

snouted and a blunt-snouted specimens of Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.).

a. Long-snouted specimen from Chittagong Nat. size; b. Blunt-snouted

specimen (A.S.B. Cat. 484). x1}.

In the old collection of the Indian Museum there are specimens

(A.S.B. Cat., Nos. 484, 486 and Dup. Cat., Nos. 161, 246) which

have a blunt snout and somewhat longer barbels. The locality

of the first two specimens is not given, but presumably they also

came from Burma. Prashad and Mukerji figure a specimen with

a blunt snout and give ‘Punjab’ as its locality. I have not been

able to trace such a specimen in the collection, but it seems probable

that they figured one of the old A.S.B. specimens.

oor?

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Text-fig. 7. Lateral view of a young specimen, 36 mm. in length without

caudal, of Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) from Mirzapore, United Provinces. X2.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 441

There are three very young specimens from Mirzapore, United

Provinces, which throw considerable light on the variations

discussed above. In them the barbels are very long, the snout is

somewhat blunt and the mouth is not so extensive; the outer

margin of the pectoral spine is distinctly roughened. These

features show that some of the Burmese specimens, characterised

by longer barbels and a blunt snout, have preserved the juvenile

characters of the species to a certain extent.

The study of a large number of specimens has also shown that

in several respects the Siamese and Burmese specimens represent

a distinct race, and in this connection attention may be directed

to the forms of Crossochilus latius (Ham.) and Labeo dero (Ham.)

that have been differentiated by Mukerji (17) and Hora (14). It

would thus appear that though there is a general similarity between

the fauna of India and Burma, the two have remained isolated

from each other for a sufficiently long period to have evolved into

distinct races. In the case of Eutroptichthys vacha I have collected

a considerable amount of material from the river Hooghly, but

only a few specimens are available for study from Siam and Burma

on the one hand, and from the north-western parts of India on

the other. It is not possible, therefore, to recognise here any

distinct races or subspecies of Eutroptichthys vacha.

In order to indicate the probable differences between the Burmese

and Indian specimens I give below a table of measurements of

two equal-sized specimens, one from Siam and the the other from

Calcutta (fig. 5).

Measurements in millimetres.

. Pulta,

oleh Calcutta

Total length ... i ae am 310°0 3100

Length of caudal £o8 58°0 56:0

Leneth of head 69:0 97°0

Width of head ole, S12

Height of head 40-90 40:0

Diameter of eye 14°0 13°5

Length of snout 19:0 nes)

Interorbital distance 19°0 20:0

Width of body 20°0 29°0

Height of body 52-0 56 0

Length of nasal barbels .. 28°0 seal)

Length of maxillary barbels A 30°0 215

Length of outer mandibular barbel.. 28°0 21°0

Length of inner mandibular barbel | 20.0 Zan)

Length of pectoral spine ... 47°0 46°0

Least height of caudal peduncle 19-0 24:0

A comparison of the measurements distinctly shows that in

the Siamese specimen the head, the pectoral spine and the caudal

fin are longer, the barbels are relatively much longer and_ the

eye is larger; but the body is very slender, both in height and in

width,

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

There are in the collection before me two other specimens of

equal length, one from the Myitkyina District, Upper Burma and

the other from Beas in the Punjab. A table of their measurements

is given below.

Measurements in millimetres.

— Myitkyina | Beas

tet teats 4 = seed

Total length excluding caudal me ne 920°0 920°

Length of head se eee ae 46-0 44:0

Height of head asic ere cee 84-0 35:0

Width of head ae aire see 25:0 27°0

Width of body ast ets aoe 18°0 24-0

Height of body sas ae a 49:0 53:0

Diameter of eye re es oes 12-0 1:5

Interorbital width ees fate et 17'0 18:0

Length of snout cae el 2 16:0 16:0

Length of nasal barbel on ae aa 29:0 18:0

Length of maxillary barbe!... Fars We 31°5 20:0

Length of outer mandibular barbel _... a 22:0 19°3

Length of inner mandibular barbel __... P:. 24°0 22:0

Length of pectoral spine... es oe 40-0 38°0

Least height of caudal peduncle aos an 19:0 21:0

Here again, we find the same differences between the Punjab

specimens and the Burmese specimens as are noticed above between

the Siam and the Pulta specimens. Further, it has to be noted

that in the Siamese and Burmese examples the ventral fins are

situated opposite the dorsal, whereas in the Indian specimens the

dorsal is in advance of the ventrals.

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

Thomas (23), who was chiefly familiar with the South Indian

forms, makes no reference to Eutropiuchthys vacha, though he

gives an account of Garua Butchwa. Lacy (16) gives a general

account of Butchwa and indicates that it ‘belongs to two genera,

Eutropiichthys, Pseudeutropius’. I think, however, that he is

mainly dealing with the latter and not with the true Bachcha, for

Eutropiichthys is not so common in the Punjab rivers as Clupisoma.

Dhu (10) also gives short notes on Batchwa or Butchwa but he

makes no distinction between Eutropiichthys and Pseudeutropius

(including Clupisoma) and recognises ‘several species of Butchwa

in India, P. garua (and P. murius the cherki) being probably the

best known’. The following quotation from Dhu will show the

great confusion that centres round the application of the name

Butchwa:

‘There are some seven species of this fish in India. Lately a certain

amount of controversy seems to have arisen as to what name Pseudeutropius

Garua—undoubtedly the most sporting member of the family—should go by.

T. P. Luscombe—of the Tackle makers of that name at Allahabad—, whose

knowledge of Indian angling is very extensive, calls ‘‘Garua’’ the Baikiri and

‘““Vacha’’ the Butchwa. And he states:—‘‘Garua”’ is a surface feeder—good

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 44.3

eating—and generally of a blue and white colour with a large gaping mouth

with an upward slant. ‘‘Vacha’’ is a bottom feeder of a light sea green in

colour, has four barbels on mouth, which is rather small and round, and

not a nice fish to eat.’-—Here we have more than one Richmond in the field!

I do not know on what authority Luscombe fixes the names. I have referred

the matter to more than one reputed ichthyologist, but can get no one to

take the responsibility of making a definite statement on the subject! Day,

our greatest authority on Indian fish, gives as vernacular names :—‘‘Butchwa’”’

and=<*Nandi Butchwa’”’ for -E. Vacha, and.calls P. Garua. ‘*Poonia Butchwa’’.

That the two fish may be caught in the same waters, and that confusion is

liable to arise, the notes on Narora, of Captain Tate, bear out. However

until the matter is- definitely settled, I let the name stand, as the Butchwa is

so familiar a name to many anglers in this country, and so long as fishermen

realise that other low class relations may lay claim to the title of Butchwa

or Baikiri, they are sufficiently safeguarded in describing their catches.

‘He is a game little fish running up to 2 Ibs. in weight, who will tale

either fly (lake trout size) or small spoon.

‘He is only to be found in the rivers of Northern India. One excellent

thing about him is that he will take in coloured water, in fact the time to

fish for them is between March and November, when Mahseer fishing is out

of the question. They have small teeth which cut one’s gut occasionally, so

examine your snoods from time to time.’

From an angler’s point of view it seems highly desirable to

clear the confusion about the popular nomenclature of the species,

and for this purpose we cannot do better than to refer to the

original sources. Hamilton (13) who introduced Eutroptichthys

vacha in scientific literature for the first time has left behind

extensive manuscript notes on the fish and fisheries of the districts

he visited. These notes were published by Day (7) and therein we

find the following particulars about this fish.

Dinajpur District, p. 29—‘Vacha, Pimelode, a fish about the size of a

herring, and considered as very good by the natives.’

Rangpur District, p. 44—‘The Vacha of Godalpdra, Calcutta and Dinajpur ;

the Kangon of Lakshmipur.’

Purniah District, p. 60>—Katla. This must be carefully distinguished from

the Katal of the Bengalis, at Calcutta, usually called Katla, which is a

species of Cyprin, very common in Ganges and Mahdnandéa, but scarcely ever

found in the Kusi.’

Bhagalpur District, p. 76—‘The Bachoya is another Pimelode, called Vacha

in Bengal, and Katlaé at Nathpur.’

Patna District, p. 88—‘The Pimelodes called Bachoya at Monghir, at Patna

is called Stigwdb&choya.’

In his description of the species Hamilton (13) notes:

‘The Vacha is common in all the larger fresh water rivers of the Gangetic

provinces, grows to about a foot in length, and is an excellent fish for the

table.’ The mouth is described as ‘very large, and descends, with a little

obliquity, from the extremities of the head below the eyes.’

The above observations leave no doubt about the identity of

Butchwa, and from the nature of its mouth it can be readily

distinguished from Garua.

Day also notes that it is good eating. According to Beavan

(1), ‘It rises readily to a fly, and affords good sport.’

Dhu (10) in his account of fishing at Narora (pp. 482-491) makes

several references to Butchwa. Writing of pools below the falls

he says (p. 484):

‘There, too, morning and evening when the Butchwa are on the feed,

which will soon be apparent by the water seeming to boil as they chase

444 f{OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

and scatter the fry, very good bags may be made by using a fly-spoon or

a fly (lake trout or small salmon size). If the near or far gates are shut

down, and you can get along the top of the fall, and mount on to one of

the aforementioned piers, this is an excellent place to fish from, and very

pretty sport may be had with the Butchwa and trout, especially the latter,

using a light rod and fly-spoon . . . And catching Butchwa and Barilius

bola thus side by side, one is able to make a very fair comparison of the

two fish, and there is no doubt that weight for weight the trout puts up

the finer fight. But from an edible point of view he is a very bad second.

Using a lake trout size fly is really the best sport, as the fish take it

greedily, and thus lightly hooked made a great fight of it.’

In the form of its body and the large ascending mouth Bdachcha

corresponds with the ‘Indian Trout’, and from the above it seems

that it can be fished with the type of tackle ordinarily Hse for

fishing Barilius bola (Ham.).

Text-fig. 8. Alimentary canal of Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) X13.

a. The whole of the alimentary canal; b.- The stomach cut open to

show the nature of its internal wall.

It is a very voracious fish and mainly feeds on other smaller

fish or insects. Its alimentary canal is short and the stomach is

very capacious. The walls of the stomach are raised into

longitudinal folds.

In the river Hooghly boat-loads of Bachchi and Garua were

found about 40 miles: above Calcutta. -The two species occurred

in almost equal numbers, and both were found by ‘experience to

be good eating. It seems that in nature the two species do not

compete for food; the former feeds near the surface while’ the

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 445

latter feeds near the bottom. From the abundance of both types

of fish in the Kachha settling tanks of the Calcutta Corporation

Water Works at Pulta it seems certain that the fish can. be accli-

matised to lakes, large tanks and bheels. The food is so plentiful

in the Corporation tanks that the largest specimen I have seen,

about 16 inches in total length, was captured from there. These

tanks get a continuous supply of fry of all kinds from the water

of the river that is pumped into them, but in ordinary tanks

Eutropichthys may prove very destructive to other smaller fish,

and, therefore, its culture cannot be recommended.

Ordinarily Bachcha grows to about a foot in length and attains

a weight of about a couple of pounds. Prashad and Mukerji

(18) state that ‘It is said to inhabit the deeper parts and to grow

to a- weight of about jo Ibs.’ It seems unlikely, however, that

the fish attains this weight in Burma. The largest specimen they

had was about 13 inches in total length.

~ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly made a grant

towards the cost of illustrations and for this I have to offer my

sincere thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. S. Misra,

M.sc., my assistant in the Zoological Survey of India, has helped

me in the preparation of the tables of measurements and for this

I am very grateful to him. The illustrations were prepared by

Babu B. Bagchi, with his usual skill and care.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Beavan, R. Handbook of the Freshwater Fishes of India, p. 131

(London, 1877).

2. Bleeker, P. ‘Nalezingen op de ichthyologische fauna van Bengalen en

Hindostan’. Verh. Bat. Gen., vol. xxv, pp. 56, 112 (1853).

3. Bleeker, P. ‘Notice sur les genres Parasilurus, Eutropichthys,’ Pseudeu-

tropius et Pseudopangasius.’ Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, vol. xiv, p. 398 (1862).

4. Cuvier, M. and Valenciennes, M.A. Histoire Naturelle des Poissons, vol.

Xiv, p. 392 (1839).

Day, F. ‘On the Fishes of Orissa’. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 306

6. Day, F. ‘On the Freshwater Siluroids of India and Burma’. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, p. 713 (1871).

. Day, F. ‘The Fish and Fisheries of Bengal’. In Hunter’s A Statistical

Account of Bengal, vol. xx (London, 1877).

8. Day, F. Fishes of India. (London, 1878).

9. Day, F. ‘Fishes’ in Fauna of British India, vol. i (London, 18809).

10. Dhu, S. The Angler in India or the Mighty Mahseer, pp. 13, 63

(Allahabad, 1923).

11. Gitnther, A. C. L. Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, vol. v,

p. 38 (London, 1864).

re Gunther, A. C. lL. “Pisces’ in Zool. Rec., p. 134 (1860).

13. Hamilton, F. An Account of the Fishes Found in the River Ganges

and its Branches, pp. 196, 378 (Edinburgh, 1822).

14. Hora, S. L. ‘On a Further Collection of Fish from the Naga Hills’.

Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxviii, pp. 320-324 (1936).

15. Hora, S. L. ‘The Game Fishes of India’. I. ‘The Indian Trout’.

Barilius (Opsarius) bola Hamilton. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxix,

Bec tac, CH. The Andi

16. acy, G. : e Anglers’ Handbook for India, 4th ed., 122

(Calcutta, Beh 2 j Eye oes ecard

446 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

17. Mukerji, D. D. ‘Report on Burmese Fishes Collected by Lt.-Col. R.

W. Burton from the Tributary Streams of the Mali Hka River of the Myit-

kyina District? (Upper Burma). Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvii,

pp- 48-59, (1934).

18. Prashad, B. and Mukerji, D. D. ‘The Fish of the Indawgyi Lake and

the Streams of the Myitkyina District’? (Upper Burma). Rec. Ind. Mus., vol.

XXXi, PP. 175-177 (1929).

19. Regan, C. T. ‘The Classification of the Teleostean Fishes of the Order

Ostariophysi’. II. Siluroidea. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (8), vol. viii, p. 553

(1911).

20. Suvatti, C. Index to Fishes of Siam, p. 81 (1936).

21. Swainson, W. On the Natural History and Classification of Fishes,

Amphibians and Reptiles, vol. ii, pp. 189, 306 (1839).

22. Sykes, W. H. ‘On the Fishes of the Dukhun’. Trans. Zool. Soc. London,

vol. ii, p. 369 (1841).

23. Thomas, H. A. Rod in India, 3rd ed. (London, 1897).

24. Vinciguerra, D. ‘Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e Regioni

Vicine’. Pesci. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova (2), vol. ix, pp. 71-3 (1890).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Lateral view of a Chittagong specimen of Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton).

Xca. #.

The specimen and a rough colour sketch were supplied by the late Babu

A. C. Chowdhary, a retired artist of the Zoological Survey of India.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE

EASTERN GHATS.

(ORNITHOLOGICAL SECTION).

HucH WHISTLER, M.B.O.U., assisted by N. B. KINNEAR, M.B.O.U.

Part XVI.

(Concluded from page 263 of vol. xxxix).

Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus.

Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 132—

Caspian Sea.

There is very little evidence as to the occurrence of the Roseate Pelican

within our limits and it usually rests on a specimen from ‘Madras’ (Jerdon)

in the British Museum. This however may now be supplemented by the

sight record’ of two birds in the backwater of Vizagapatam in October 1923,

and a specimen seen and later obtained at Konda-Kerla, a lake 18 miles south

of Vizagapatam (Law, J.B.N.H.S., xxx, 483).

The student is reminded that Captain C. H. T. Grant has pointed out

that this species cannot properly be divided into two races either on_ size

or number of tail-feathers, the alleged differences being doubtless due to

age and individual variation. He has also shown that the name Pelecanus roseus

of Gmelin belongs rightly not to the Roseate Pelican but to the Spot-billed

Pelican (Bull. B.O.C., vol. lv, 1935, p. 63).

The Pelicans and the remaining birds on our list are practically unre-

presented by any fresh material in the Survey. I have therefore not made

any original investigations into the races of the species that follow and merely

accept the races and names as given in the New Fauna.

Pelecanus roseus Gmelin.

Pelecanus roseus Gmelin, Syst. Nat. vol. i, pt. 2 (1789), p. 57o—Manilla,

Luzon, Philippine Islands.

Jerdon informs us (B. of I., ili, p. 860) that he visited one colony of the

Grey or Spot-billed Pelican in the Carnatic where the birds had for ages,

according to his informants, built on low trees in the middle of a_ village,

caring little for the close and constant proximity of human _ beings. The

comment in the Old Fauna (iv, 336) that there was no late authentic account

of Pelicans breeding in India led to the appearance in the Journal of two

fresh records. In vol. xiv, p. 401 Howard Campbell described how in March

1890 in a secluded valley in the extreme east of the Cuddapah district he

had found several hundreds of nests on neem and tamarind trees in a small

village called Buchupalle. The nests all apparently contained young.

A second colony was described by C. E. Rhenius (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 806) at

Kundakolam in the Nunguneri Taluq of the extreme south of the Tinnevelly

district. On 8 June the nests all contained young, including many birds able

to fly.

—_— ———.

1 It will be remembered that the identity of the Pelicans occurring in the

Presidency is based almost entirely on sight records which can hardly be con-

sidered satisfactory.

448 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

In both these colonies the birds were breeding in association with the

Painted Stork (Ibis leucocephalus) and were strictly protected by the villagers.

The only other information I can trace about the Spot-billed Pelican in the

Presidency is a specimen from Tada, Nellore District, said to be in the Madras

Museum and Ferguson’s statement that it occurs in S. Travancore where

he once saw three flying over the parade ground in Trivandrum.’

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw).

Pelecanus sinensis Shaw, Nat. Misc., xiii (1801), pl. 529 text—China.

The Cormorant is said by Annandale’ (Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii, 328) to visit

Barkuda Island on the Chilka Lake occasionally.

Terry (apud Hume N. & E., iii, p. 271) describes the nesting of the cormorant

on a large tank some thirty or forty miles from Bellary near the Madras

railway. Some six or seven pairs were nesting on some small rocks in the

centre of the tank and had both eggs and young on 17th January.

Major Bates informs me that he could only find two pairs breeding in

the famous heronry of Veden Thangul described in Hume’s N. & E., iti, p. 238

(rectius Vedan Thangal near Pudupattu).

An account of their nests will be found in Bates’ Bird Life in India, p. 37.

In 1928 a female was brooding chicks on December 20th and these were

nearly ready to fly on January 13th. In 1929 the nests contained eggs on

December 29th and the young were still in down on February 16th.

Jerdon’s statement that he had seen it on the ‘wooded Bhowany’ at the

foot of the Nilgiris complete the records for the Presidency. No Presidency

specimens are available for examination.”

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens in Shaw’s General Zool., vol. xiii, pt. I

(1826), p. 91—Bengal.

Very large numbers of the Indian Shag are to be found on the Chilka

Lake according to Annandale (Records Ind. Mus., vol. xxii, pt. iv, No. 23

(1921), p. 328. It breeds in enormous numbers on Kalidai, the sacred island,

and the young birds are nearly fledged by the end of October.

There is a specimen from Tada, Nellore District in the Madras Museum

and according to Finn some are to be seen on the Red Hills tank near

Madras. Captain Packard found them breeding in numbers at the Vedan

Thangal tank on December 1st, on which date there were eggs (J.B.N.H.S.,

XV, 135):

Jerdon’s statement that he procured the Indian Shag in the Carnatic com-

pletes my information from the Presidency and I have seen no specimens from

there.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot).

Hydrocorax niger Vieillot, Nouv. Dist. Hist. Nat., nouv. éd., vol. viii

(1817), p. 88—East Indies = Bengal.

The Pygmy Cormorant is found on the Chilka Lake (Annandale, Records

Ind. Mus., xxii, 328). There is a specimen from Tada, Nellore District, in the

Madras Museum and Dewar says that it is abundant on most of the large

sheets of water round about Madras.

In the Vedan Thangal Heronry the Pygmy Cormorant breeds in great numbers

and a good account of it there will be found in Bates’ Bird Life in India,

* It will be remembered that in the Madras Presidency, although a certain

amount of rain falls at odd times throughout the year, it is only after the

breaking of the North-east monsoon that water collects in the numerous tanks

constructed for irrigation of the rice fields and gives the signal for the breeding

of the various Pelicans, Storks, Herons, Ibises etc. The monsoon may break

towards the end of September or not until late October or even early November.

The nidification of these birds may consequently be in very different stages

on any particular date in two consecutive years.

* In the water birds that follow I have included these records of the Chilka

Lake as it borders on the Presidency and must throw light on conditions in

the northern Circars.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 449

pp. 20-47. In a private note that he gave me Major Bates estimated that in

1928 and 1929 the Pygmy Cormorants composed about two-thirds of the total

population of the colony which was not under 5,000 birds. In 1928 most of

the nests on December 20 -contained young ones in all stages of growth,

though the largest were still in down. In 1929 on December 29th very few

eggs were even hatched.

On the western side of the Presidency William Davison thought he saw

a party flying high overhead in the evening at Manantoddy and Ferguson

states that he had seen it on the tanks and lakes in and about Nagercoil.

There are three specimens labelled ‘Madras’ without proper date in the British

Museum.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant, Indian Zool. (1769), p. 13, pl. 12—Ceylon and

Java.

According to Annandale (Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 328) the Indian Darter

is not uncommon on the Chilka Lake and Jerdon calls it not very uncommon

in the Northern Circars. Dewar includes it in his Madras list without comment

and there is a female from Madras in the British Museum collected on June

oth by Wardlaw Ramsay as well as a specimen from Chingleput in the Madras

Museum. In. the Vedan Thangal Herony Bates (Bird Life in India, p. 39)

found it scarce, only about half a dozen pairs being found there in both years.

Newly hatched young were noted on 7 February 1929. Hume says (N. & E., iii,

274) that in the country south of Madras this species lays in January or

February.

On the western side we have William Davison’s statement that he obtained

the Darter on the Pykara river about 9 miles from Ootacamund and that he

had also noticed it in the Wynaad. Mr. Betts informs me that he also saw

a single bird on the Pykara river on several occasions, spread over three years.

It was always on the same stretch of water. In Travancore, according to

Ferguson, it is common on ali the larger fresh water lakes. It is abundant

on the lake formed by the Peryar dam at 3,o00 ft. in the hills and equally

common on the Sastancotta lake in the low country. Bourdillon describes

a colony found nesting about the Athirapuzha fall of the Kodasheri river in

September.

Sula leucogaster plotus (Forster).

Pelecanus plotus Forster, Descr. Anim. (ed. Licht.), 1844, p. 278—Near

New Caledonia.

Under the name of Sula fiber Jerdon states that he received a specimen

of the Booby from the Malabar coast, but this specimen is no longer in

existence. The record may, however, be accepted as this bird has been obtained

on several occasions on the coast of Ceylon.

Sula dactylatra melanops Heuglin.

Sula melanops Heuglin Isis, 1859, p. 351, pl. x, figs. 1 and 2—Burda Rebshi,

Somali coast.

The occurrence of the Masked Booby on_ the Presidency coast rests on a

young female which was obtained by Colonel H. R. Baker at Cannanore on

19 ‘July ‘to1i ({.B.N.H.S., xxi, 272). It was found sitting on the cliff and

was killed by a servant with a stick, its occurrence being doubtless due to ‘the

heavy gales we have experienced lately.’ This specimen is now in my own

collection and I have compared it at the British Museum. It is in immature

plumage and there is no specimen in quite the same stage in the British

Museum but I think it may be correctly attributed to the above race. This

record was overlooked by the New Fauna.

Fregata andrewsi Mathews.

Fregata andrewsi Mathews, Austr. Av. Rec. vol. ij vhri

a : ‘ j ; - 11 (1914), p. 120—Christmas

Island, Indian Ocean. tee

Jerdon long ago stated (B. of. I., iii, 853) that he had received a specimen

of the Frigate-bird, ‘in young plumage’ which was shot on the Malabar coast

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

off Mangalore. He recorded it as Attigen aquilus but as he then only recognised

two species, the actual identity of his specimen remains in doubt.

In J.B.N.H.S., xxxiii, 445, Mr. Prater, however, records a specimen of

this species presented to the Society by Mr. L. A. Lampard. It was caught

in a fishing net in a rough sea at the onset of the monsoon off the coast

of Quilon, Travancore.

Fregata ariel (G. R. Gray).

Atagen ariel G. R. Gray, Genera Birds, vol. ili (1845), col. pl. 183—Raine

Island fixed as type locality by Mathews [Birds of Australia, vol. iii (1914),

p. 285].

Ferguson states that an immature specimen of the Smaller Frigate-bird

was taken at Perumathoray about 1o miles from Trivandrum and brought to

him: “alive: i(].BN.H-S., xvi, 13).

[Puffinus

There can be little doubt that various species of Petrels and Shearwaters

occur off the coasts of the Madras Presidency but there are as yet only

three records and the exact species to which they refer are as yet unknown.

The best known record is that of Jerdon Birds of India, vol. iii, p. 826—

‘Two species of Petrel have been observed by myself, of only one of which

I obtained a specimen, from the neighbourhood of Madras, where I had, on

several occasions, observed it not far from the shore, during rather rough

weather; I lost this, however, before an accurate description was taken, and

I can only say that I suspect it belongs to the Division -Kstrelatee, of

Bonaparte and = probably to the Genus Petrodroma, Bonap.: indeed, it

appeared to be very similar to P. macroptera of Dr. A. Smith, figd. in Zool.

South Africa, Birds, pl. 50. It was entirely of a dull sooty-brown colour,

palest beneath; length nearly 18 in.; wing 123; tail 5; bill at gape nearly

1% in. In the Old Fauna this was doubtfully identified as Puffinus

chlororhynchus.

Blanford in the Old Fauna (iv. 358) remembered when on his way from

Calcutta to Madras by steamer in 1867, seeing several small petrels (apparently

without white rumps) only a few yards away from the vessel. They were

probably of the genus Oceanodroma.

Finally Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 14) says that a single specimen of a

Shearwater, which he calls Puffinus persicus, was taken at Valey, 4 miles

trom Trivandrum, and brought to him alive.

Observers at the ports of the Presidency are urged to make an endeavour

to secure such specimens of these birds as may be caught by fishermen out

at sea. It must however be realised that the correct identification of these

birds is a matter of great difficulty and care should be taken to have any

specimens procured examined by a competent authority on the group. ]

Daption capense (Linnaeus).

Procellaria capensis Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 132—

Cape Seas.

The Cape Pigeon may be by courtesy included in the Presidency list as

a straggler. Hume received through Mr. H. R. P. Carter from Mr. Theobald

a specimen killed between Ceylon and the main land in the Gulf of Manaar.

It is now in the British Museum (Ibis, 1870, p. 438 and S.F., vii, 463).

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 139—Europe.

The Spoonbill appears to have been recorded only from the Eastern side

of the Presidency and even from there I have seen no specimens.

Mr. D. Hatchell found a nest with young amongst rushes in the Kolair

Lake (Birds of S. India, p. 438) and this is of special interest in view of the

statement in Nidification, iv, 435 that the nesting in reeds of this species has

not yet been recorded in India.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 451

According to Dewar the Spoonbill is not common in the neighbourhood

of Madras but there is a specimen from Pulicat in the Madras Museum.

The Spoonbill was not included in the list of species breeding at Vedan

Thangal as furnished to Hume (N. & E., iii, 238). Bates, however, in Bird Life

in India, p. 41, estimates the number of Spoonbills at the colony as not less

than 300 or 400 pairs and says that they were on the whole the latest birds

nesting, which perhaps explains their absence from the earlier account. In

1929 the majority of their eggs were only just hatching on February 7 and

in the following season (1929-1930) only two nests were found to contain

eggs by December 29th and no eggs had hatched by February 16th.

Threskiornis melanocephala (Latham).

Tantalus melanocephalus Latham, Ind. Orn., ii (1790), p. 7o9g—India.

The White Ibis is not uncommon on the Chilka Lake according to Annandale

(Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 329), but I can trace no other record of it on the

eastern side of the Presidency except at Vedan Thangal, where Hume’s

correspondent (N. & E., iii, 238) implied that it was one of the common

species in that Heronry. It was not one of the five species present when

Captain Packard visited Vedan Thangal in 1902 (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 138). How-

ever Major Bates found it in both seasons 1928-1929 and 1929-1930. The first

season he estimated that about ten pairs were present and there were eggs

in some nests on December 2oth, the young being able to clamber about the

branches of the trees by February 7th. In the season 1929-1930 the number

were estimated at about 60 or 7o pairs. Most of the nests had eggs on

December 29th, though two were found with newly hatched young. In other

words, Bates points out, nidification was at the same stage in both years with

this species, which was not the case with any other species at the colony

(Bird Life in India, p. 39).

In Travancore Ferguson says he has only seen the White Ibis in the cold

weather at Sastancotta and doubts whether it is a resident in the State. They

feed by day in the paddy fields and are difficult to approach, but generally

roost in trees on the banks of the lake.

No specimens are available for examination.

Pseudibis papillosa (Temm. and Lang.).

Ibis papillosa Temm. and Lang. Planch. color. d’ois. livr. 51 (23 October

1824), pl. 304—no locality (India).

Mr. Hatchell of the Madras Survey Deptartment reports having shot a

couple of Black Ibis out of a flock of eight at Peddangopavaram in the

Nellore District in November 1902 (Birds of S. India, p. 440). Otherwise the

bird is recorded in the Presidency only from the Wynaad where William

Davison says he found flocks frequenting the trees bordering the banks of

the river at Manantoddy in April 1881. They were exceedingly noisy and

Davison thought they were preparing to breed.

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus).

Tantalus falcinellus Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xil (1766), p. 241—Austria and

Italy.

The only records that I know of the Glossy Ibis in the Presidency are

furnished by three specimens in the British Museum, namely a male and

female from ‘Madras’ and a female from Coimbatore, October 31. All of

these are in the Hume collection.

Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus).

Ardea ciconia Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, vol. i (January 1758), p. 142—

Sweden.

There is very little information about the White Stork in the Presidency.

Law (J.B.N.H.S., xxx, p. 483) mentions seeing a group of about half a dozen

resting by a channel of the Vizagapatam backwater in October 1923.

On the western side two were obtained from a shikari by Mr. G. A. R.

Dawson of Coonoor (S.F., x, 415) in October 1870. They were said to have

452° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ISDE.” SO Clin. Vials wexex ie.

been shot from a flock of 18 which were feeding on open grassland near the

sandy vale between Ootacamund and Pykara.

Dissoura episcopus episcopus (Boddaert).

Ardea episcopus Boddaert, Table Fl. Enlum. (1783), p. 54 for Pl. Enl. 9qo6—

Coromandel coast.

The White-necked Stork occurs on the Chilka Lake according to Annandale

(Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 329). Dewar includes it in his Madras list without

comment and Colonel H. R. Baker ‘(Birds of S. India, p. 445) says he has

seen it in flocks on the shallow tanks outside Trichinopoly and in the paddy

fields near the river which runs parallel to the railway between Shoranur and

Calicut. William Davison saw a pair on a dead tree on the river bank at

Manantoddy, Wynaad. Colonel Baker shot a female on 21 December 1921

in a swamp on the top of the Sigur Ghat near Ootacamund but this appears

to be the only record for the Nilgiris. This specimen is now in my collection.

In Travancore Ferguson had information of only two specimens. One was

obtained on the banks of the river at Palode. The other was brought in

alive, taken on the bank of a tank near Nagercoil.

There is nothing to show the status of the White-necked Stork in the

Presidency.

Xenorhynchus asiaticus asiaticus (Latham).

Mycteria asiatica Latham, Ind. Orn. vol. ii (1790), p. 670o—India.

According to Annandale (Rec. Ind. Mus. xxii, 329) the Black-necked Stork

occurs on the Chilka Lake. Otherwise there is no record of its occurrence

in the Presidency beyond Dewar’s inclusion of it, without comment, in_ his

Madras list.

Leptoptilos javanicus (Horsfield).

Ciconia javanica Horsfield

p. 188—Java.

The Lesser Adjutant is confined in the Presidency to the south-west where

Ferguson says it is by no means common, but may be found about the

tanks in South Travancore. Live specimens were brought in to him for the

Zoological gardens from time to time. No doubt it was this area that Jerdon

had in mind when he said he had only seen it in Southern India on the

Malabar coast. An immature bird from ‘Madras’ (Jerdon) is in the British

Museum.

» lrans. ‘inn. Society, vol. x1, -pt.1, ,.May.-1321);

Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant).

Tantalus leucocephalus Pennant, Ind. Zool. (1769), p. 11, pl. 10—Ceylon.

The Painted Stork is recorded only from the Eastern side of the Presidency.

Ball (S. F., v, 420) says that he not infrequently. saw flocks on the Jaipur

(Jeypore) plateau. Howard Campbell found large numbers breeding with

Pelicans in a secluded valley in the extreme east of the Cuddapah district

in a small village called Buchupalle. This was in 1890 and at the end

of March all the nests contained young though he found one clutch of hard

set eggs (J.BaN-.H.S., xiv, 401).

There is some mistake about the statement (Nidification, iv, 450) that

Bates found this species breeding near Madras. He did not do so and it

has not been recorded in the Vedan Thangal Heronry.

Finally Mr. C. E. Rhenius (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 806) found another large

colony, again breeding with Pelicans, in the extreme south of the Tinnevelly

district. This was at Kundakolam in the Nunguneri Taluq. On 8 June there

were young in various stages of development.

Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert.).

Ardea oscitans Boddaert, Table Pl. Enlum, p. 55 (1783) for Pl. Enl. 932—

Pondicherry, India.

Mr. D. Hatchell states that the Open-bill is common in the Nellore

District (Birds of S. India, p. 448).

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 453

Our main information about this curious bird in the Madras district, however,

comes from the Vedan Thangal Heronry where the first account of its nesting

was published in Hume’s Rough Draft in 1873. It will be remembered that

Major Bates was able to trace by documentary evidences the existence of

this Heronry as far back as the years 1796-1798 (Bird Life in India, p. 29).

In 1903 the Heronry was again described by Captain H. N. Packard

(J.B.N.H.S., xv, p. 138) who visited it on December 1st 1902. On that date

the eggs of the Open-bill were in all stages of incubation and the adults

without exception were all in the grey plumage (a statement that suggests

that the New Fauna, vi, p. 333 is wrong in calling this the non-breeding

plumage).

Bates visited the Heronry again in the seasons 1928-1929 and_ 1929-1930.

The first winter all the Open-bills had young on December 20th, some being

sufficiently old to look capable of flight by December 29th. Numbers were

actually on the wing by January 13.

In 1929-1930 the very largest young were not as large as chickens by

December 29th. These were capable of flight by February 16th but on that

date newer arrivals in the colony were still only laying eggs. The total

number of adults at the colony this season were estimated by Baker as about

200 birds in all.

Where these birds spend the non-breeding season is not clear unless it

is in Travancore. Bates, however, on three separate occasions—viz. 5 March

1924, 29 March 1929 and the very end of April 1930—saw birds flying over

St. Thomas’ Mount and these he presumed were birds leaving the Heronry.

In Travancore, according to Ferguson, the Open-bill is very common and

large flocks may be met with on the marshy borders of all the larger tanks

and fresh water lakes. He did not, however, find any evidence of breeding.

Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen.

Ardea purpurea var. manilensis Meyen, Nova Acta Acad. Leop. Carol.,

vol. xvi, Suppl. (1834), p. 102—Philippines.

The Purple Heron is no doubt very generally distributed in the Presidency.

Mr. Hatchell reports specimens shot at Bhimadole in the Godaveri District,

at the Nagathur canal, Kurnool District, and at Dharmapuri, Salem District

(Birds of S. India, p. 450). It occurs without comment in Dewar’s Madras

list and Captain Packard (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 139) found it breeding at Vedan

Thangal on December 1st 1902. He then estimated that perhaps 8 or 10

pairs were present in the Heronry—this species usually nests in reed beds—

though they were so shy that he had great difficulty in identifying their

nests and only managed to satisfy himself in one case. None appear to

have been found by Bates on his visits to this colony.

On the western side the country is less suitable for the Purple Heron

but Hume received a specimen for identification shot somewhere about the

base of the Nilgiris (S.F., x, 416). In Bourdillon’s time it was abundant at

the Vellarney Lake 7 miles from Trivandrum whence there is a female (June

21, Bourdillon) in the British Museum. When Ferguson wrote however the

reeds had gone and with them of course this species, which however he shot

at Sastancotta. In Travancore according to Bourdillon and Ferguson, the

breeding season was in July and August (Stuart-Baker, Nidification, iv, 456).

Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould.

Ardea rectirostris Gould, P.Z.S., 1843, p. 22—New South Wales.

The Heron is common on the Chilka Lake according to Annandale (Rec.

Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) and it breeds there on some of the islands in September.

Dewar includes it in his Madras list without comment.

This species breeds at the Vedan Thangal Heronry and is mentioned there

before 1873 by Hume’s anonymous correspondent, though without any particular

details being vouchsafed. Packard evidently found it common at the Heronry

and eggs were hatching on December 1st (J.B.N.H.S., xv, 139). Bates also

found the Herons numerous and considered them the earliest of the breeders

in the colony. All—but a few stragglers—had finished and left by the end

of February in the season 1928-1929. Next season he noted that many eggs

had hatched and a few young were already feathering by December 29.

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST... SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

On the western side our only information is from Ferguson who says that

in Travancore the Heron frequents the backwaters along the coast but is

not found in the interior. A captive bird in the Public Gardens had lived

for over 17 years! There is a Travancore skin (Bourdillon: no data) in the

British Museum.

Egretta alba modesta(Gray).

Ardea modesta Gray, Zool. Misc. (19 February 1831), p. 19—India.

The Great White Heron is found on the Chilka Lake according to

Annandale (Records, Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) and Dewar includes it without

comment in his Madras list, but I do not find any other record of this

species from the Eastern side of the Presidency. The original account of

the Vedan Thangal Heronry appears under this species in Hume’s Rough Draft

(p. 614) and is copied again under it in Stuart Baker’s Nidification (iv, 459).

It will be noted, however, that the name of this species—as distinct from

other Egrets—does not actually occur in the account and Bates appears to

have found only the Little Egret at the colony.

On the western side the Great White Heron is only recorded from Travancore

whence there is a skin from Kolachul (January, Bourdillon) in the British

Museum. Ferguson says that this Heron is by no means common and very

wary. At Sastancotta it roosts in company on the trees round the lake.

Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler).

Ardea intermedia Wagler, Isis (1829), col. 659—Java.

Annandale implies that the Smaller Egret is not uncommon on the Chilla

Lake (Rec. Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) and Dewar includes it in his Madras list

without comment. Otherwise it is recorded in the Presidency only from

Travancore where Ferguson says it is fairly common about the edges of the

backwaters and lakes from Quilon northwards. It is usually seen in companies

of 3 or 4 or even more, but is not nearly so abundant in the South.

I do not know the evidence on which Stuart Baker (New Fauna, vi, 347)

says that ‘in Madras and the south they breed during December and January’.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus).

Ardea garzetta Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. xii (1766), vol. i, p. 237—‘In Oriente’

=Malalbergo, N.E. Italy.’

The Little Egret, also, is recorded from the Chilka Lake by Annandale

who implies that it is common, while it is included in Dewar’s Madras list

without comment. It is the common Egret of the Vedan Thangal Heronry

and Bates informs me that there were not less than 500 birds standing

round the margins of the tank at each of his visits. How many of these

birds actually breed in the Heronry is a problem. Packard did not include

it in his list of the breeding species. Bates considers that if the Egrets

breed at the Heronry at all they do so late in the season, as certainly only

a dozen or less were breeding there by early March 1929 while on 16 February

1930 there were only two pairs nesting, one still building, the other still

laying. They were certainly not nesting earlier in the season and he has

some doubt as to whether they had then even assumed breeding plumage.

In Travancore according to Ferguson the Little Egret is not uncommon

about the backwaters of the coast, going about solitary or in pairs.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert).

Cancroma coromanda Boddaert, Table Pl. Enl. (1783), p. 54 for Pl. Enl.

g10—Coromandel, India.

The only information that I can trace regarding the Cattle Egret on the

eastern side of the Presidency is its inclusion in Dewar’s Madras list (doubtless

on the strength of the specimen in the Madras Museum) and the statement

in the Old Fauna (iv, 389)—whose provenance I cannot trace—that the breeding

season in the Carnatic is in November and December.

7 See Grant, Bull., B.O.C., liii (1933), p. 194.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 4655

On the west Fairbank includes it in his Palni list as observed following

cattle near the base of the hills. In Travancore Ferguson says that it is far

the commonest of the White Egrets, being found in numbers in all paddy fields

throughout Travancore along the backwaters and in cultivated lands. He says

the breeding plumage is assumed about April. There are an Anjango specimen

and another (QQ 13 November, Bourdillon) from Trivandrum in the British

Museum.

Demiegretta asha (Sykes).

Ardea asha Sykes, P.Z.S., 1832 (22 November), p. 157—Dukhun.

Very little is known about the Indian Reef-Heron in the Presidency. Colonel

H. R. Baker (B. of S. India, p. 455) says that he met with it at Cannanore

and that Mr. Hatchell records obtaining a possible specimen near Ellore.

Ferguson’s collectors obtained a single specimen at Ayrentenga, on the coast

near Kayankulum in Travancore. There is an old specimen in the British

Museum, said to have been obtained by Sykes in the Tinnevelly district and

formerly in the India Museum. The status in the Presidency is therefore

quite unknown.

Ardeola grayii (Sykes).

Ardea grayii Sykes P.Z.S., 1832 (November 22), p. 158—Dukhun.

Specimen collected :—1739 28-4-30 Anantagiri 3,000 ft.

Measurements :—

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Io 70.5 Zig 78 60 mm.

The Pond-Heron is common on the Chilka [Lake according to Annandale

(Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) and LaPersonne reports, in reference to the

above specimen, that at Anantagiri they were found to frequent the hill streams.

On this side there is no other information beyond Dewar’s inclusion of , it

without comment in his Madras list.

On the west there is more to set forth. In Coorg Betts says it is widely

distributed wherever there are paddy fields, ponds or swamps. In the Wynaad

William Davison considered it common and his note on it in the Nilgiris is

of interest—‘Some years ago this species was rare on the Nilghiris, a few

occurring during the cold weather about the lake at Ootacamund, but within

the last three or four years it has become quite numerous about the marshy

banks of the lake. I counted thirty in the course of a walk one morning.

It is, however, only a cold weather visitor to the Nilghiris, disappearing as

the breeding season approaches’. According to Colonel H. R. Baker (B. of

S. India, p. 456) it still occasionally occurs in winter at Ootacamund though

I believe one of the lakes has been drained.

In the Palnis both Fairbank and Terry record it, by streams and ponds

at the base of the hills according to the former and very abundant in all

parts of the district according to the latter. As to Travancore Ferguson

states succinctly that it is one of the commonest and most familiar birds

throughout the whole country.

The breeding season in the Presidency does not appear to have been recorded.

No proper material is available from the Presidency to verify that South

Indian birds are the same as those from Northern India.

Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield).

Ardea javanica Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Society, vol. xiii, pt. i (1821 May),

p. 190—Java. |

The occurrence of the Little Green Heron has not been substantiated on

the eastern side of the Presidency beyond the fact that a local specimen

in the Madras Museum is apparently the basis for its inclusion in Dewar’s

Madras list. ,

On the west William Davison says that he met it on several occasions

in the Wynaad but it apparently does not ascend the Nilgiris. Kinloch identified

it in the Nelliampathies (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943).

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

In Travancore it is believed to be a winter visitor only. Bourdillon said

that it was to be found from November to March among the rocks of the

larger streams up to about 2,000 ft., always in dense jungle. Ferguson said

that it was common in the low country from November to April. There are

two specimens from Bourdillon in the British Museum. One has no _ precise

data. The other was collected at Merchiston on March 27th.

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus).

Ardea nycticorax Linnaeus, Syst. Nat. ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 142—South

Europe.

According to Annandale (Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) the Night Heron

is common and breeds on the Chilka Lake. Dewar records a_ considerable

colony on the Red Hills tank near Madras and these birds breed on the islands

in the middle of the tank. They were visited on 3 September and most of

the young birds were then fledged, though one or two nests still held eggs.

When Packard visited the Vedan Thangal Heronry on December rst he

found the Night Heron in thousands. Some were in very bedraggled plumage

—which he attributed to their being engaged with second broods while the

young of the first broods were still about the nests.

In the same Heronry Bates found the Night Heron one of the most abundant

species, vying only with the cormorants in numbers. Their nidification appears

to extend over a longer period than in the case of the other birds, for at his

first visit on 20 December 1928 not only did the nests contain both eggs

and young but a number of young birds were actually seen in flight. Yet

on March 7th when many Night Herons had apparently departed there were

still numbers of fresh eggs to be found.

Ferguson’s collectors found the Night Heron fairly common at Perambulam

in North Travancore and at other places round the Vembanad Lake. Otherwise

I find no records from the west beyond Willam Davison’s statement that he

heard its call on several occasions in the Wynaad.

Gorsakius melanolophus melanolophus (Raffles).

Ardea melanolopha Raffles, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. xiii, pt. 2 (November 1822),

p. 326—Sumatra.

In the Presidency the Malay Bittern is confined to the western side and

even here we do not know very much about it. There is a specimen from

Coorg (Day) in the British Museum. Col. H. R. Baker shot a fine female

on 31 October 1921 in a shola on the top of the Sigur Ghat 7,200 ft. near

Ootacamund where it appeared to be a straggler (J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 547).

This specimen is now in my own collection.

In Travancore it appears to be a resident. Bourdillon obtained a male at

Invercauld 2,500 ft. on January 3rd 1878 which is now in the British Museum.

Ferguson received two examples alive and Stewart is said to have obtained

many nests (Nidification, iv, 479). He found the breeding season to be from

the end of May to early July.

Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis (Gmelin).

Ardea sinensis Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 642—China.

According to Stuart Baker the Yellow Bittern is common and _ resident

in Travancore and Malabar but the only original record that I can trace for

this area is that by Ferguson whose collectors brought ‘several specimens

from North Travancore where it was found solitary on the banks of the

backwaters about Kottayam and Vycome’. Two males and a female from

Trivandrum (February) are in the British Museum as well as another specimen

marked Madras, February, A. G. Theobald.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin).

Ardea cinnamomea Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 643—China.

There are two specimens of the Chestnut Bittern from Coorg in the

Tweeddale collection in the British Museum. Hume _ received two _ other

specimens from the Wynaad (S.F,, x, 417). Jerdon. (Madras Journ. Lit. Sct.,

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 457

No.29, October 1840, p. 198) tells us that he saw it on the banks of the

Pykara river in the Nilgiris. In ‘Travancore, according to Ferguson, it is

common on all the lakes and_ backwaters.

For the eastern side of the Presidency I have no information beyond the

fact that Dr. Gravely kindly informs me that there is a local specimen in

the Madras Museum.

There is nothing to shew the status of the Chestnut Bittern in the

Presidency.

Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham).

Ardea flavicollis Latham, Ind. Orn., vol. ii (1790), p. 7o1—Oude, India.

The Black Bittern must be very generally distributed, I presume as a

resident, throughout the western side of the Presidency, as in addition to

Jerdon’s somewhat vague statement that he had seen it on the Malabar coast

in rice fields, there are several records. A specimen from Calicut is in the

Hume collection. Mr. Betts informs me that he came upon one in Coorg,

almost treading on it as he climbed a log in a stream bed in a dark

wooded ravine. William Davison says that he had seen it in the Wynaad

and that he had also seen a specimen killed by a native shikari close to

Ootacamund.

Fairbank stumbled on a sepcimen below Vilparti in the Palnis in 1867

under much the same circumstances as Betts. There is an Anjango_ skin

in the British Museum and Ferguson considered it not uncommon along the

backwaters in Travancore, frequenting the more thickly covered canals.

On the eastern side it is only reported from the neighbourhood of Madras

near which place Jerdon saw it. There is a local specimen in the Madras

Museum.

Botaurus stellaris (Linnaeus).

Ardea stellaris Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 144—Sweden.

The Bittern is an occasional straggler to the Presidency. There may

perhaps be some doubt about Jerdon’s statement (Madras Journ. Lit. Sct.,

No. 29 (1840), p. 198) that he had seen a specimen shot in the Nilgiris in

the hot season and it is to be noted that he does not repeat it in the

Birds of India.

There is, however, no doubt about the specimens recorded by Rhenius

(J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 247) near Cuddalore, about 120 miles south of Madras and

by Captain C. B. Harrison, I.m.s., from near Madura (J.B.N.H.S., xvii, 1037).

Both were obtained about 1907 but exact dates are not given.

Phoenicopterus ruber roseus Pallas.

Pheenicopterus roseus Pallas, Zoogr. Rosso-asiat., vol. ii (1827), p. 207—

Mouth of the R. Volga, Caspian Sea, South Russia.?

Jerdon tells us that he saw the Flamingo in the greatest abundance at

the Chilka Lake where many hundreds were gathered together. It is_ still

said to be found there, though less frequently and in smaller numbers than

formerly as the lake is now more accessible to sportsmen than in former

days (Stuart Baker, Game Birds, i, p. 4). Jerdon also says that the bird

is very abundant in the Pulicat Lake near Madras (where Dewar says they

are to be found every cold weather, he himself having seen over a_ thousand

there), between Madras and Pondicherry and_ still ftirther south towards

Tuticorin. Throughout this last district W. N. Fleming writing in 1892

(J.B.N.H.S., xii, p. 216) says the Flamingo is fairly common. One _ large

flock, he continues, of quite 300 frequented a shallow piece of water, about

three miles from Tuticorin, all the cold weather and remained until the

end of April when the water dried up. It was however still in the neighbour-

hood in July.

* For the use of this name see Grant and Mackworth-Praed, Bull, B.OC.,

vol. liv (1933), pp. 16-17.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Major Phythian Adams (B. of S. India, p. 465) says that he met with a

flock of many hundreds near Dhanushkodi at the end of March or beginning

of April 1922. They were on the lagoon beside the railway line.

There is no reason to believe that the Flamingo breeds in the Presidency

and there is no information on record regarding their arrivals or departure

beyond a very. interesting note by S. ©. Law (j.B.N.H.S.; (xxx, 226)> in

1924 Mr. Law was at Vizagapatam and on 19 August he saw about 150

Flamingoes flying past out at sea, about a mile from the coast, at 12-30

midday. They were travelling very low over the sea and flying from due

north to south. Next day a similar flock was following the same line at

the same time and on 24 August a still larger flock was noted about 3 miles

out at sea at 7-30 a.m., also flying south and quite high in the air.

Sarkidiornis melanotos Pennant.

Anser melanotos Pennant, Ind. Zoology (1769), p. 12, pl. xi—Ceylon.

The Nukta or Comb-Duck appears to be rare in the Presidency and there

is very little on record about it. Hume says (S.F., x, 417) that he believes

it occurs in the Wynaad. Theobald is quoted (apud Hume and Marshall,

ii, 91) to the effect that south of Mysore he had only seen it in the Collegal

Taluq of Coimbatore and not to the best of his belief further south. He adds

that it comes about December and leaves again in February and March but

is very rare, only 4 or 5 pairs coming each year. Mr. Hatchell records it

from the Sripuram Tank near Podanur (Birds of S. India, p. 467).

On the eastern side the only information is furnished by two specimens

in the Madras Museum supposed to have been collected at Madras and

Chingleput and the fact that Mr. R. F. Stoney kindly informs me that he

shot 4 Comb-Duck in the Godavery district in the season of 1928-29.

There are two specimens labelled ‘Madras’ in the British Museum.

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham).

Anas caryophyllacea Latham, Index Orn., vol. ii (1790), p. 866—India.

All that is known about the former status of the Pink-headed Duck in

the Presidency will be found in Game Birds, vol. iii, p.175. Here Hume

says :—It certainly occurs in the Pulicat Lake as I have a specimen shot

there [this is presumably the immature specimen marked ‘Madras’ in the

Hume collection], and Jerdon years previously had obtained a specimen in

the Madras market caught there, and another from Nellore. Again north

of Nellore it appears to occur in suitable situations in Vizagapatam and

Ganjam. ‘The locality Vizagapatam is expanded in the following footnote from

Lt.-Col. W. J. Wilson.—‘‘The Pink-headed Duck used to frequent a piece of

water near Condakirla about 27 miles south of Vizagapatam and in all

probability is still to be found there, as well as at similar places in the

Northern Circars, although I do not now remember having actually seen it

except at Condakirla . . . to the best of my recollection the Pink-headed

Duck I shot were killed in November and December. I think I saw about

15 or 20 on each occasion of my visit.” ’

The Pink-headed Duck is now so dwindling in numbers that the chance of

its occurring again in the Presidency is of the very slightest.

Nettapus coromandelianus coromandelianus (Gmelin).

Anas coromandeliana Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i, pt. ii (1789), p. 522—

Coromandel coast.

The Cotton-Teal seems to be fairly generally distributed in the Presidency

but it is not found in large numbers and I find no notes that allow one to

arrive at its status accurately. On the western side it is evidently rare. Major

Phythian Adams who has shot at Cannanore for the seasons 1925-1926 to

1935-1936 only met with it there on two occasions, viz. 2 birds on 10

December 1930 and a party of 6 on 27 November 1933. Hume says it occurs

in the Wynaad (S. F., x, 417). ‘Kinloch recorded (].5.N3fS 7e xxvinno74) a4

shot in the Nelliampathies. In Travancore Ferguson thought it was a winter

visitor and never abundant at any time, t

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 4659

In the rest of the Presidency I have records from Ganjam, Vizagapatam,

Kistna, Madras, Chingleput, Salem, Tanjore, Coimbatore, Madura, Tinnevelly

and Tuticorin. These are mostly supplied to me by Mr. R. F. Stoney whose

Game Book shows a total of 72 Cotton-Teal shot in the years 1903-1931. At

Tuticorin Mr. W. N. Fleming (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 216) calls this little duck

‘fairly common during the cold weather until the end of April’ but more

numerous at Tinnevelly.

An albinoid specimen from Madras is described by W. F. Dique (S.F.,

ix, 508).

Anser indicus (Latham).

Anas indica Latham, Index Orn., vol. ii (i790), p. 839—India.

A winter visitor. In Hume’s day the Bar-headed Goose was extremely

abundant at the Chilka Lake (Game Birds, iii, 82) and according to Annandale

(Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 329) it is still found there and remains as late

as the beginning of April. Mr. R. F. Rainey informs me that he shot 4

in the Kistna district in the season 1905-1906. Mr. Hatchell records it from

near Nellore and Cuddapah, and geese, which are probably of this species,

are reported to frequent the sea coast as far south as Pamban_ Island

(Birds of S. India, p. 471).

Mr. Albert Theobald (apud Game Birds, iii, 82) says ‘I have not seen

this Goose south of Coimbatore. I have shot them in the Collegal Taluq only ;

they come at the end of November or early in December and leave about

February or March—a few stragglers being found in April in the Agaroram

tank about 3 miles from Collegal. They are far from common, only a few,

ten to twenty, being found in a_ flock.’

W. N. Fleming, however, says it is a regular cold weather visitor to

Tuticorin (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 216) and he remarks on the considerable but un-

usual numbers that arrived in the cold weather of 1897-98 and were there

from November until the end of February. He saw one flock containing

about 50 birds and 5 birds were brought to him in one day by a ‘pot hunter’.

Finally it is necessary to recall—but not to attach too much importance

to—Jerdon’s oft quoted statement that he once saw a pair in August in a

small sequestered tank within a few miles of Cape Comorin.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield).

Anas javanica Horsfield, Trans. Linn. Soc., vol. iii, pt. 1 (May 1821).

p. 199—Java.

My information about the Whistling Teal is far from complete and _ its

status is not clear. Large flocks occur on the Chilka Lake but according

to Annandale (Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 330) they appear to leave as soon

as the rains set in and are not seen between the end of June and November.

Mr. Rainey has shot it in the Ganjam and Kistna districts and also down in

Madura, and Dewar includes it without comment in his Madras list. In Tuticorin

W. N. Fleming (Journ. B., xii, 216) calls it rarer than the Cotton-Teal but

apparently pretty plentiful in December, January and February.

On the western side Hume (S.F., x, 417) says he has seen it from the

Wynaad. Phythian Adams informs me that he has met it in Cannanore in

December. Ferguson says that it is common on all weedy tanks throughout

Travancore but perhaps commoner in the north than in the south. On one

piece of fresh water near Sastancottah he saw hundreds in April 1902 though

there was not a single bird in the same place in December 1903. It is

probably to this species which Mr. Sherman refers (apud Hume and Marshall,

iii, 119) where he says that it is generally seen in N. Travancore only from

October to April but that some must stay and breed as he has seen young

in August.

[Dendrocygna fulva (Gmelin).

Anas fulva Gmelin, Syst. Nat., vol. i (1839), p. §30—Nova Hispania.

Jerdon is said to have obtained the Large Whistling Teal occasionally near

Nellore but details are lacking and there appears to be no authentic information

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. XXXIX

about the occurrence of this species in the Presidency. Annandale does how-

ever, record a pair on the Chilka Lake as frequenting Barkuda Island during

the. rainy. season of 1919 (Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 330).]

Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg).

Anas ferruginea Pallas in Vroeg, Cat. d’Ois. Adumb. (1764), p. 5—Tartary.’

Sherborn remarks re the type loc. of ferruginea as follows :—No locality

cited ‘Tartarysche Gans. Anser Tataricus ferrugineus Mas’ in catalogue.

The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck is a winter visitor to the Presidency

in small numbers. It is fairly common on the Chilka Lake (Stuart Baker,

Game Birds, i, 140, Annandale, Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 330) while Mr.

R. F. Stoney kindly informs me that in the Kistna district he shot one in

the season 1905-1906 and three more in the season 1923-1924.

On the western side Major Phythian Adams informs me that he killed

a bird from the only pair he has ever seen at Cannanore on 15 November 1935.

Theobald (apud Hume and Marshall, iii, 123) says that he had shot them

in the Salem, Tinnevelly and Coimbatore districts. They come in about

November and leave about March. They are not common, seldom more than

3 or 4 in a batch. In 1869 he shot one in the Collegal Taluq as late as

June, but this must surely have been a_ pricked bird.

Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster.

Anas poecilorhincha Forster, Indische Zoologie (1781), p. 42, pl. xii, fig. 1—

Ceylon.

The status of the Spot-bill in the Presidency is not very clear. A few

pairs were noted on the Chilka Lake in April and June 1920 by Annandale

(Records Ind. Mus., xxii, 330). Mr. RK. .F- Stoney informs, me that hewhas

shot it in the Vizagapatam, Kistna, Kurnool and Tanjore districts, the total

for the seasons 1904-1905 tO 1930-1931 coming to 25 head. Dewar includes it

without comment in his Madras list. j

At Tuticorin: W.-N. Fleming (/.8.N.4.S., “xii, 216) “says that. it. —eccuts

in small numbers but apparently arrives after the cold weather as he saw none

until March while 2 were brought to him by a shikari on 12 July.

Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus).

Anas strepera Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 125—Sweden.

The Gadwall is a winter visitor in small numbers to the north-east of the

Presidency and Mr. R. F. Stoney has kindly sent me details of nine individuals

he has shot in the Vizagapatam and Kistna districts in the seasons 1903-1904

to 1930-1931. Dewar includes it in his Madras list without comment but it

must be remembered that his list of ducks was made from the specimens

in the local Museum and it is not quite certain where all of these came from.

On the western side Hume (S.F., x, 418) was almost sure that it

had been reported to him from the Wynaad.

Mareca penelope (Linnaeus).

Anas penelope Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. 1 (1758), p. 126—Sweden.

The Wigeon is a winter visitor to the Presidency but it is evidently neither

general nor common as Mr. R. F. Stoney in the details of his bags for the

seasons 1903-1904 to 1930-1931 can only tell me of two that he has shot, one

in Kistna district, season 1923-1924, and the other in Vizagapatam district

1928-1929.

In Tuticorin Fleming considered them fairly common though their stay

was short. It will be remembered, however, that this is one of the ducks

whose numbers in India vary a great deal from year to year.

* There is no copy of Vroeg Cat. d’Ois. in the British Museum but Sherborn

made a facsimile copy some years ago which was published in Smithsonian

Misc. Bull, 47, pp. 332-347.

THE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 461

Nettion crecca crecca (Linnaeus).

Anas crecca Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 126—Sweden.

The Common Teal is a winter visitor to the Presidency and it is no

doubt common and widely spread though I cannot trace much information

about it. On the eastern side Mr. R. F. Stoney informs me that he has shot

it in the districts of Ganjam, Kistna, Chingleput, Tanjore and Madura though

his Game Book only records a total of 27 for the seasons 1903-1904 to

1930-1931. Theobald (apud Hume and Marshall, iii, 207) records Teal at

Tinnevelly as being found in great abundance in the large tanks south of

Palamcottah and Fleming (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 216) calls them plentiful throughout

Tuticorin district.

On the Malabar coast the Teal seems to be virtually unknown but Ferguson

says he obtained a single specimen in South Travancore. On the Nilgiris

William Davison says that small parties occasionally drop into the lake at

Ootacamund but are not permitted to stay there long.

According to Theobald this duck usually arrives in South India at the

beginning of the north-east monsoon about November and leaves again in

March and April while he shot some in the Tinnevelly district as late as

15 May.

Dique (S.F., ix, 508) remarks that he has heard of an albino Teal, obtained

presumably at Madras.

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus).

Anas acuta Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed x, vol. i (1758), p. 126—Sweden.

The Pintail is a winter visitor to the Presidency but I have very little

information about it. In the seasons 1903-1904 to 1930-1931 covered by his

Game Book Mr. R. F. Stoney informs me that he has killed a total of 7

birds in the Kistna and Tanjore districts and Dewar includes the species in

his Madras list without comment.

At .Tuticorin .Fleming (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 216) says the Pintail is by far

the commonest duck, remaining from November to March in large flocks of

200 to 300 birds.

On the Malabar coast it is rare or wanting, but Hume says it occurs in

the Wynaad though reported rare there.

Querquedula querquedula (Linnaeus).

Anas querquedula Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 126—Sweden.

The Garganey is evidently the most numerous species of Duck which is

found in the Presidency and the fact that Mr. R. F. Stoney’s Game Book

gives a total of 144 shot in the seasons 1903-1904 to 1929-1930 furnishes an

idea of its numbers compared with other species. It occurs apparently on

every suitable piece of water from the Chilka Lake to Cape Comorin but its

principal headquarters in the winter seem to be the backwaters of Travancore

where very large flocks are to be found.

Theobald (apud Hume and Marshall, ii, p. 216) says that the Garganey

arrives in Southern India (i.e. south of Mysore) about the early part of December

and leaves by March or April, a few stragglers remaining till May or June

and this agrees roughly with what Fleming says at Tuticorin (J.B.N.H.S., xii,

216). Major Phythian Adams however says (Birds of S$. India, p. 479) that

he has found a party at Cannanore as early as 24 September 1927.

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus).

Anas clypeata Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 124—South

Sweden.

The Shoveller is not a very common winter visitor to the Presidency.

Mr. Stoney’s Game Book for the seasons 1903-1904 to 1930-1931 shows a

total of 13 birds shot in the Ganjam and Kistna districts and specimens in

the Madras Museum are said to have been procured at Madras and Chingleput.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

On the western side Hume says (S.F., x, 417) that he has received a specimen

from the Wynaad.

Netta rufina (Pallas).

Anas yufina Pallas, Reise Russ. Reichs., vol. ii (1773), p. 715—-Caspian Sea.

Mr. Stoney informs me that he killed 12 Red-crested Pochards in the

Vizagapatam district in the season of 1928-1929. There are two specimens in

the Madras Museum labelled Madras and Arkonam but I can find no other

record for the Presidency.

Nyroca ferina ferina (Linnaeus).

Anas ferina Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 126—Sweden.

The Pochard is a scarce winter visitor to the Presidency. Mr. Stoney

informs me that he shot two in the Vizagapatam district in the season 1928-1929

and one was killed at Bellary on 6 December by Colonel McMaster (Hume

and Marshall, iii, 247).

[Nyroca rufa rufa (Linnaeus).

Anas rufa Linnaeus, Fauna Suec. ed. ii (1761), p. 47—Sweden.

There is no definite record of the White-eyed Pochard in the Presidency

beyond Hume’s general statement (Game Birds, iii, 263) that it occurs in the

Northern Circars and that he has no record from south of Madras. |

[Nyroca marila (Linnaeus).

Ans marila Linnaeus, Faunna Suecica, ed. ii (1761), p. 39—Lapland.

I find difficulty in accepting the correctness of Colonel McMaster’s idea

that ‘one year, in January, he saw several birds of this species, on marshes

and salt lakes between Chicacole and Berhampore in the Northern Circars

(say 19° N. Lat.)’ (Hume and Marshall, iii, 271).]

Nyroca fuligula fuligula (Linnaeus).

Anas fuligula Linnaeus, Syst. Nat., ed. x, vol. i (1758), p. 128—Sweden.

Theobald (Hume and Marshall, iii, 278) says that he met this duck in the

northern part of Coimbatore. Otherwise the only information that I have of

it in the Presidency is furnished by the 11 birds in Mr. R. F. Stoney’s records,

shot in the seasons from 1903-1904 to 1930-1931 in the Vizagapatam, Godavery,

Kistna, Chingleput and Chittoor districts. Hume says that it has been shot

near Bellary.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori.

Podiceps capensis Salvadori, Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. (2), vol. 1 (1884), p. 262—

Shoa, East Africa.

William Davison tells us that he had found the Little Grebe in several

places in the Wynaad and that it is a permanent resident on the lake at

Octacamund where it breeds in large numbers in May and early June

(VN. & E., iii, 404)—Cardew adds early August. As Jerdon points out this lake

is artificial in origin and migrating birds must travel at a considerable height

to have found and colonised it. Fairbank says that it is also resident on

the lake at Kodaikanal in the Palnis, where Terry later found it. In Travancore

it is also resident, according to Ferguson, and breeds in August.

On the eastern side the only information that I can find about it, beyond

Davison’s inclusion of the bird in his Madras list is the fact that A. G. R.

Theobald found a nest on 19 August on a lake near Ahtoor in fhe Shevaroys

(NV. .& #., i, 404).

HE VERNAY SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 463

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and Papers referring more particularly to the birds of the Madras

Presidency.

1839-40 Jerdon, T. C. ‘Catalogue of the birds of the Feninsula of India’,

1844

1847

1876

1877

1878

1880

1883

1887

1898

1903

1903-4

1904

1905

arranged according to the modern system of classification; with

brief notes on their Habits and Geographical Distribution, and

description of new, doubtful and imperfectly described specimens.

Madras Journal of Literature and Science, x (1839), p. 60-91, pp.

234-69; xi (1840), pp. 1-38, pp. 209-39; xii (1840), pp. I-15, pp.193-227.

Jerdon, T. C. ‘Supplement to the Catalogue of Birds of the Peninsula

of India’. Madras Journal of Literature and Science, xiii, pp. 156-74.

Second Supplement, xili (1844), pp. 116-44.

Jerdon, T. C. ‘Illustrations of Indian Ornithology’, containing figures

of new, unfiguréd or interesting species of Birds, chiefly from the

south of India (Madras).

Hume, A. O. ‘A First List of the Birds of Travancore Hills’. Stray

Feathers, iv, pp. 351-405.

Hume, A. O. ‘The Laccadives and the West coast’. Stray Feathers,

iV, Pp. 413-83.

Fairbank, S. B., Rev. ‘A list of Birds collected and observed on

the Palani Hills’. Stray Feathers, v, pp. 387-410.

Hume, A. O. ‘A Second List of the Birds of South Travancore’. Stray

Feathers, vii, pp. 33-39-

Bourdillon, T. F. ‘Birds Nesting in South Travancore’. Stray

Feathers, ix, pp. 299-300.

Davison, William. ‘Notes on some Birds collected on the Nilghiris

and in parts of Wynaad and Southern Mysore’. Stray Feathers,

%5 PP 329-419-

[Terry, H. A.] ‘A Few Additional Notes on Birds on the Pulney

Hills’. Stray Feathers, x, pp. 467-480.

Ferguson, H. S. ‘Birds not Recorded from Travancore, in the ‘‘Fauna

of British India” ’. Journ., Bom. Nat. His. Soc., xii, pp. 202-203.

Packard, Capt. H. N. ‘Note on the Breeding of Certain Herons etc.

in South India’. Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xv, pp. 138-39:

Ferguson, H. S. ‘The Birds of Travancore’, with notes on_ their

nidification by Borduillon, T. F. Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

XV, Pp. 249-64; PP- 455-743 PP- 654-73; Xvi, pp. 1-18.

Dewar, Douglas. ‘Some Notes on Birds Taken at Coonoor, Nilgiris,

in May 1904’. lou Bom: Nat. Hist. Soc., xvi, pp: 153-54.

Dewar, Douglas. ‘A List of the Birds Found in and about Madras’.

Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xvi, pp. 484-98.

Annandale, N. ‘The Eaenaer on Island on the Chilka es Birds,

Records Indian Museum, vol. xxii, part iv, No. 23, pp. 323-30.

Kinloch, A. P. ‘Rough Notes on the Avifauna of the Nelliampathy

Hills’. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxvii, pp. 939-44-

Kinloch, A. P. ‘On the birds of the Nelliampathy Hills’. Journ.,

Bom. Nat. Hist.. Soc., xxix, pp. 564-65.

Betts, F. N. ‘Notes on the Birds of Coorg’. Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist.

S0C., &XXill, PP. 542-51-

Baker, Lt.-Col. H. R. and Inglis, Chas. M. The Birds of Southern

India, including Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg and

Mysore. Government Press, Madras.

Bates, Capt. R. S. P. Bird Life in India (Madras Diocesan Press).

[Chapter ii, pp. 20-47, a South Indian Heronry and Chapter v,

pp. 66-82, +The Nilgiri Hills. |

(THE END).

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI.

WITH NOTES ON THEIR COMPARATIVE OSTEOLOGY AND PECULIARITIES

OF DENTITION.

A. G.c Ly FRASER, 1.MD:

PART ST

(With q plates).

(Continued from page 290 of this volume).

SUB-ORDER: OPHIDIA

FAMILY : JYPHLOPIDAE

Species: Typhlops braminus (Daud.). The Worm Snake. There

appears to be no local name for it.

Exoskeleton.—The body is uniformly rounded throughout,

without showing any distinction between the head, body and tail.

There is a covering of cycloid scales, which give it the semblance

of a worm. The distinction of the ventral shields is_ purely

arbitrary, as they are not enlarged. The anal shield is not

differentiated. The costal scales average 20 in the count. The

snout is rounded. The tail is abbreviated and terminally spined.

Colour.—This snake dorsally shows varying shades of brown.

The brown colour tone is lghter anteriorly and ventrally; in the

anal region the colour is white.

Length.—The smallest measured 3 in. and the largest 7 in.

Eye.—This is comparatively distinct and the pupil is spherical.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. There is a heavy bone formation ante-

riorly. There are no squamosals and no ectopterygoid bones. The

pterygoid is cartilaginous and does not touch the mandible. The

maxilla is transversely placed and equipped with one tooth. The

praefrontal shows a suture with the nasals. The mandible 1s

toothless and the coronoid bone is present. The vomer and _ tur-

binals are heavily formed and convexed on the ventral aspect.

Immediately behind the eye is a depression or sulcus for the reception

of the poison gland.

Vertebrae.—There are no neural spines and the hypapophysis

is absent throughout the vertebral column. The caudal section

is very short and terminates abruptly. The cloacal vertebrae show

a rudimentary pelvis.

Glandular structures.—In the sulcus immediately behind the eye

and above the temporalis anterior muscle is a small gland.

Locomotion.—The zigzag spiral motion is not exaggerated and

is the same as the movement noted for Lycodon aulicus.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 465

Habitat.—Peninsular India, Burma, Ceylon, Mexico, South: of

the equator in Africa, Arabia to S. China and coastal islands

(Wall).*

Note:—Appears chiefly during the rains in Deolali. A young

specimen 3 in. long was secured in a garden during October. An

adult was found swimming in a receptacle of water. Another was

retrieved from the mouth of a dog. In this case the snake’s back

was found broken.

This is a typically burrowing snake.

FaMILy: BoIDé.

SuUB-FAMILY: PYTHONINAE

Species: Python molurus(Linn.). The Python or Rock Snake.

Local name.— Azgar’,

Exoskeleton.—This snake presents a massive formation. The

snout is long. The head is_ flattened dorso-ventrally and is

posteriorly broad. The jaws are heavy and the’ musculature well

developed. The neck is distinct. Anteriorly the body is compara-

tively slender; the rest of the body is massively built and heavy.

The tail is short, thick, strongly formed, and terminates abruptly.

The scales are smooth, juxtaposed and as broad as long. In

the two specimens secured the costal scales numbered 63 and 72

respectively. The ventrals numbered 244 and 250 and stretched

across the belly. The anal shield was entire. Near to the cloacal

aperture, one on either side were excrescences of a horny nature

resembling claws. These are said to be vestigial hind limbs.

Colour.—The head showed black markings. A linear brown

streak crossed the eye and another ran below it. Dorsally there

were reddish brown spots edged with black. A smaller series of

similar spots ran laterally on either side laid on a background of

yellowish brown. The belly was white.

Eye.—Small. The pupils vertical.

Endoskeleton.—The osteology and dentition of this species was

not studied. As regards the dentition, the only peculiar feature

obtaining with the python is that the praemaxilla is dentigerous.

The gland structures were not investigated.

Locomotion.—This is by movement in the straight axis of the

body.

Habitat.—Ceylon; Peninsular India, to the extreme limit. of

Sind; Himalayas—Dehra Dun to Sikkim; Assam, Burma, Siam,

S. China and the coastal islands, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago,

Java (Wall).

Note:—Secured during daylight in outlying quarries beyond

the rifle range in the cold weather months.

Length.—5 ft. 6in. and Oft. 2in. Sex not ascertained.

1 The distribution shown is that quoted in the paper ‘The Snakes of Bombay

Island and Salsette’ by S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S. (April 1926): taken from Col.

Wall’s ‘Hand list of Snakes’. This information will be repeated for all the

species. .

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

SUB-FAMILY: BOINAE.

Species: Eryx conicus (Schn.). The Earth Boa (red).

Local name.—The local inhabitants regard this snake as the

young of the Python and because of the colour resemblance call

it ‘Azgar’.

Exoskeleton.—The snout is pointed. The head is anteriorly

narrow and posteriorly broad. It is comparatively small for the

size of the body. The neck division is distinct. The anterior

third of the body is narrower than the middle and posterior third,

which is stoutly and broadly built. The tail is thick, short and

blunted. It 1s roughly 1/1oth of the body length.

The epidermis consists of juxtaposed nodular scales, which are

as broad as long and dorsally keeled. The keeling is more marked

over the caudal area. On the head the rostral and internasal

shields are well defined. The supralabials number 13. The costal

scales number 37 to 42 in the anterior third, 45 to 49 in the middle

third and 29 to 35 in the posterior third of the body. The ventral

plates number from 174 to 180. These are slightly enlarged and

do not extend across the belly, being actually half the width. The

anal shield is divided into three sections. The subcaudals are entire

throughout and number from 18 to at.

Length.—The smallest in the series measured g in. . and the

largest 2 ft. 3 in.

Colour,—A_ series of irregular dark brown or reddish brown

patches edged with black, placed on a background of buff or wheat.

The belly in the adult is white. In the young the colour tones

are lighter and the belly is pink.

Eye.—TYhis is small and the pupil is vertical.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. In the young the anterior part of the

skull for two-thirds of its length is slightly oval. In the adult it

presents a triangular shape. The posterior half is constricted in

the mastoid region. The intermaxillary is well defined and over-

laps the maxillary bone. The maxillaries are broad and long. A

suture divides the frontals and nasals. The praefrontals are small.

The parietals are ridged centrally in the long axis. Behind the

postfrontal zygoma is a depression for the lodgement of the poison

gland. The quadrate is a_ rod-like bone. The pterygoid is

posteriorly broad, ventrally grooved and touches the mandible. The

ectopterygoid is small. The articular end of the mandible is

broadly formed. The palatine bones are small.

Dentition.—There are no grooved fangs. All the teeth are solid

and recurved. The maxillary teeth number in the young 12, and

in the adult 16; the anterior are the largest and the posterior

diminish in size. The palatine teeth number 5 on either side; the

anterior ones are large. The pterygoid teeth number in the young

7, and in the adult 12; they are all small and of equal size. The

dentary part of the mandible is provided with 16 teeth; the anterior

are very large.

'Vertebrae.—The neural spines are rudimentary and show tuber-

cles on the posterior neural arches. In the caudal vertebrae the

neural sptnes present the normal squared plate-like extensions seen

JourN. BoMBAY Nat.

(For explanation of lettering on plates, see end of article.)

Hist. Soc.

Eryx comicus(Schn Eryx €ON2CUS(Schneider

Scale "IX4H=7-6¢0m

Pilatine Surface

ip Scale -9XG=7- 60m

Dorsal Surface, 4

Eryx comtcus (Schneider)

lateral view

Scale 17x42 7ECM.

ast

The Red Earth Boa (Eryx conicus).

PLATE VFI

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THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 467

in the species in which the spines are small. The hypapophysis

is well developed in the cervical vertebrae and in the thoracic

series gradually diminishes in size. It is. absent in the dorsal

vertebrae.

Ribs.—The ends are bulbous. They are small in length in the

cervical and part of the thoracic sections and increase in length

from thence until the maximum size is attained about the middle

third of the body. There is a corresponding decrease up to the

cloacal vertebrae, where are featured two rib processes fused with

the vertebrae. In the caudal vertebrae there is a single rib process

similarly ankylosed to the body of the vertebra.

Locomotion.—A slow-moving snake—the spirals in the zigzag

motion are much exaggerated, even more so than in the Russell’s

Viper.

Glandular structures.—In the depression behind the post-frontal

zygoma and above the temporal muscle, immediately behind the

eye is a small gland. The closely related Eryx jaculus (Linn.),

has a similar gland. Col. Gharpurey' (Nov. 1932), Case 7, reported

the case of a woman, who was bitten by an Eryx conicus without

ill ettects.

Habitat.—Peninsular India: South of the Himalayas, Ceylon.

Note :—This snake is aggressive. It will snap with a startling

suddenness on the least provocation. If touched it displays

resentment by leaping in the air about half an inch off the ground

with the body in a rigid contracted state. It then slithers along

the ground in a series of short, sharp, jerky side to side leaps,

maintaining the rigidity in its body. If left alone it will move

normally. It is burrowing in its habits. The tail is prehensile

and functions as a constricting finger securing a firm hold on any

object, be it a stone or stick. Our specimens were encountered

during daylight in the mornings.

FAMILY: COLUBRID.

SuB-FamMILy: COLUBRINAE (A glypha)

Species: Nerodia piscator (Schn.). The Checquered Water

Snake. )

Local name.—Pani-ki-samp.

Exoskeleton.—The snout is pointed. The head is oblong and

narrow. The neck is slightly demarcated. The anterior or cervical

portion of the body is thinner. The body is dorsally ridged and

laterally compressed and the maximum thickness is attained in the

middle third. The tail is round and tapering. The scale formation

shows head shields and large imbricated scales on the body. The

costal scales are dorsally distinctly keeled, especially in the middle

third. Laterally the keeling is less marked. The supralabials are

9 in number—the first and second touch the nasal shield, the fourth

and fifth touch the eye, the seventh and eighth touch the temporal

shields. There is only one loreal. The praeoculars number 2 and

~* “Snakes in Ahmednagar’ by Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.M.S., Journ,

Bom, Nat. Hist, Soc., vol. xxxvi, No.1, p. 272, 15-11-1932.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

the postoculars 3. The costal scales average 19, 17 or 19, 17,

in the anterior, middle and posterior third of the body, respectively.

The ventrals number from 141 to 148. The anal shield is divided

into two sections. The subcaudals are divided throughout and

number from 77 to 8g.

The naris is placed superiorly.

Length.—The smallest measured 8 in. and the largest 3 ft. 8 in.

_Colour.—Sepia tones’ on the head. The costal margin is

yellowish green. Dorsally there are irregular black and orange

mottlings on a background of dark green. Each scale in fact is

edged with black or orange. The belly is pale yellow anteriorly,

buff coloured in the middle third and faintly’ pink under the tail.

The iris is yellow and the pupil is spherical.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. The anterior part of the skull is broader

than the posterior half. The intermaxillary overrides the maxilla.

The nasal is. specifically small and the division between it and the

maxilla and praefrontal is bridged over by cartilaginous strips.

The maxillary bones are thin and long. The praefrontals are

suturally united with the frontals but do not touch the nasals.

The ectopterygoid is thin and medium-sized; its maxillary articular

end is a squared plate with the inner anterior angle projected

forward in the shape of a finger extension. The squamosals are

broad, flat and long. The quadrate is superiorly broadly spatulate

and-grooved. The articular end of the mandible is broadly formed.

The pterygoid is posteriorly broad and ventrally grooved and

touches the mandible.

Dentition.—The maxillary teeth number 17; the posterior ones

are the larger. .The palatine teeth number 8; the anterior are

larger. The pterygoid teeth number 22; they are all small and

of equal size. The dentary is provided with 24 teeth; the anterior

and middle series are the largest. On the outer or maxillary side

of the palatine and pterygoid bones, below the operative teeth in

use, is a double row of reserve teeth imbedded in the wall of the

bones. Similarly the maxillary bones on their inner aspect are

provided with a double row of reserve teeth. 3

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are well developed in the form

of squared plate-like extensions. The hypapophysis is present in

a uniform and pronounced character throughout the cervical,

thoracic and dorsal vertebrae.

Ribs.—The free ends are blunted and slightly bulbous. They

are longest in the middle third of the body, and the anterior and

posterior third parts of the body show the ribs gradually diminishing

in length. The cloacal and caudal vertebrae show the double and

single processes fused with the body of the vertebra. This is a

feature with all snakes and need not be repeated in the descriptions

of the other species to follow.

Locomotion.—The movement, both in the act of swimming in

water and the motion on land, in as far as the spiral action is

involved, appears identical. It is the same as that seen in Lycodon

aulicus,

Gland .structure.—This snake is provided with a large parotid

gland. The toxicity of its secretion was observed by Alcock and

| Journ. Bompay Nat, Hist. Soc.

Nerodia Piscalor (Schneider)

Sec / 9%4-7-6 om

€ mri fl Pt

Nerodia iscalor (Sch netder) Neroclia sealer Gchneie)

Scale l- GET bh CI™m Scale! 9x4 =7b6 C7

The Checquered Water Snake (Nevodia piscator).

PrATE Vil

~ a0 =

7 _ 7

= - a '

_ 7 Ul

ive —

| . ee -

: ~ ed =>

a i — 7

- - a

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 469

Rogers in 1901. Mme Phisalix and Caius (1916) have confirmed

this. Its venom kills birds, lizards, frogs and small mammals. Its

bite would not seriously harm man or the larger animals.

Habitat.—Peninsular India, Ceylon, Burma, Andamans, Malay

Peninsula and Archipelago, Siam, Indo-China, China, Formosa

(Wall).

Note:—The majority were secured by day on the banks of the

river ‘Darna’ and in its tributary streams. There were two gravid

females in which eggs were found—in one 26 and in the other

16 in a State of early development.

Rhabdophis stolatus ,,. e

Hye oNodis sralaeue (Linn.). The Buff-striped Keel-

back. There appears to be no local name for this snake.

Exoskeleton.—The form is proportionately slender. The snout

is obtusely rounded. The head is ovate and dorsally convexed.

The body for two-thirds of its length is of a uniform thickness.

The neck is well defined and the tail is long and tapering. The

naris is laterally placed.

Scale formation.—There are large head shields present. The

costal scales are longer than broad, imbricated and heavily keeled

throughout. The supralabials number 8; the first of these touches

the nasals; the third, fourth and fifth touch the eye, and the

sixth and seventh the temporals. As in the case of all Colubridae

the sublinguals are in two pairs. There are 1 praeocular and 3

postoculars. There is one loreal. The ventrals number from 150

to 153 and stretch completely across the belly. The anal shield

is divided into two sections. The subcaudals number from 75 to

87 and are divided throughout. The costal scales number 19, 109,

19-17, in the anterior, middle and posterior third of the body

respectively.

Colour.—The head is a very dark brown and the parietal shields

are stippled with yellow. The supralabials are orange tinted. The

infralabials and the under surface of the neck are tinged yellow.

On either side from the neck backwards in the long axis are

two buff-coloured stripes laid on a background of sepia. There

are black striations stippled with creamy yellow spots transversely

placed at intervals. These striations do not involve the buff stripes

flanking the body and they are more conspicuous anteriorly and

fade towards the tail. Dorsally over the tail the colour is brownish

yellow. The ventrals in the anterior half are spotted black. The

belly is pale yellow. The young specimens show fresher colour

tones. Spirit specimens kept for long periods change to a slate

colour.

The length was:—The largest 214 in. and the smallest 11 in.

Eye.—This is large. The iris is golden and the pupil spherical.

The nares are laterally placed.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. This is ovate in formation. The inter-

maxillary is wedged in between the maxillary bones. The nasal

bones are small. The praefrontals are suturally united with the

frontals and the division between them and the nasals is covered

ever with a cartilaginous septum. The temporal bones laterally

Species :

470° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VAIST. SOGEET Ve Vol. Xxx

bulge. The parietals posteriorly terminate in three bony spicules

piaced over the supraoccipital. The squamosals are flat, narrow

and of medium length. The quadrate is superiorly spatulate and

short. ‘The articular end of the mandible is broadly formed but

the dentary portion is slender and long. The maxillary bones are

long and thin. The pterygoids are narrow and are not ventrally

grooved. They touch the mandibies. The ectopterygoid is thin

and small. The palatines are of medium size.

Dentition.—All the teeth are solid, recurved, and comparatively

small. None are grooved or perforated. The maxillary teeth

number 19; the posterior two are large and set apart. The palatine

teeth number g and are of uniform size. The pterygoids are set

with 12 teeth of small size and of equal length. The dentary is

provided with 22 teeth, of which the anterior ones are the larger.

Only the maxillary bones appear to be provided with a row of

Teserve. teeth.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small and plate-like squares.

The hypapophysis is of nearly uniform size throughout the cervical,

thoracic, and dorsal vertebrae.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. They are short in the cervical

section and of uniform length for the greater portion of the body,

diminishing in size towards the cloacal region.

Gland structure.—This snake is provided with a parotid gland.

The experiments of Mme Phisalix and Caius have established the

toxic character of the secretion to small animals, birds, rodents,

lizards (10917).

Locomotion.—This has not been personally observed.

Habitat.—Peninsular India including the Himalayas up to

5,000 ft., Burma, Ceylon, Andamans and Nicobars, Malay Penin-

sula, Siam, China, Formosa, Philippines (Wall).

Note:-——-Appears during the rains. It is an uncommon species

in Deolali. It sestrvates during the hot weather.

Species: Polyodontophis subpunctatus (Dum. and Bibr.) Jer-

don’s Polyodont.

Local name.—None. 5

It is a rare snake in Deolali. Only one specimen was secured.

Exoskeleton.—Shows a_ slender formation throughout and a

uniform ‘roundness. The head is small and there is no distinction

between it and the neck. The tail is round and of medium tapering

length.

Scale formation.—There are head shields present. The body

scales are imbricated and as long as broad. There is no keeling

in evidence. The supralabials number 9, of which the first and

second touch the nasals; the fourth, fifth and sixth touch the eye

and the seventh and eighth the temporal shields. The costal

scales number 17, 17, 17, in the anterior, middle and _ posterior

third of the body respectively. The ventral shields number 108

and stretch completely across the belly. The anal shield is divided

into 2 sections. The subcaudals number 68 and are divided

throughout.

Length.—16 in,

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI AT)

Eye.—Small and the pupil spherical.

Colour.—The head was black anteriorly. The praefrontal shield

and the supralabials were edged with pale yellow. A yellow

streak carried backwards from behind the eye ended below the

parietal shields in a broad yellow band. The nape of the neck

was black with posteriorly a yellow frill, The anterior half of

the body showed up a pinkish brown, while the posterior was a

light brown. Every alternate scale and sometimes a_ third one

dorsally in the middle line was spotted black. There were two

parallel series of black spots on each scale laterally and also on

the ventral margin.

The endoskeleton of this specimen was not studied as the skull

and: vertebral column were badly damaged.

Gland structure..—This snake has a very small parotid gland.

The researches of Mme Phisalix and Caius have shown that the

secretion from it proved mildly toxic for small vertebrates.

Locomotion.—This was not observed.

Habitat.—Peninsular India (South of Rajputana and the Ganges

basin), Ceylon (Wall).

Note:—It was found on the verandah of a bungalow on the

2zoth February 1934.

Species: Macropisthodon plumbicolor (Cantor.). The green

Keel-back.

Local name.—‘Hara Samp’ because of its green colour, any

green snake would be so called.

Exoskeleton.—This snake is massively formed for its compar-

atively small length. The head is large and triangular in shape.

The jaws are muscularly prominent. The neck is distinct. The

anterior cervical portion is thinner than the rest of the body, which

is stoutly built especially about the middle third. The tail is of

average tapering length. .

Scale formation.—There are large head shields present. The

supralabials number 7; the first and second touch the. nasals; the

third and fourth touch the eye; and the fifth and sixth touch the

temporal shields. There is one loreal. The praeoculars number

2 and the postoculars 3. The sublingual shields are in two pairs.

The costal scales are retiform, imbricated, and show marked

keeling. The last costal rows touching the ventrals are large.

There is much variability in the count of the costal scales and this

is therefore of little practical value for purposes of identification.

On an average they number 23, 25, 19, in the anterior, middle

and posterior third of the body. The ventral plates number from

140 to 162, and stretch completely across the belly. The anal

shield is divided into 2 sections. .The subcaudals are divided

throughout and number from 37 to 47.

Colour.—In the adult the colour is a uniform dull green; in

the sub-adults there are faint black striations in some; and _ in

older specimens white striations transversely placed at one inch

intervals along the back. The very young and older immature

specimens show a broad black chevron on the head. Posterior to

this is a chrome yellow cheyron. Along the back at regular

4Ai2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol xxx

intervals sharp transverse black markings which are continued over

the tail. The belly in the adult is white; in the sub-adult slaty,

and in the young a bluey black. In the latter along the costal

margin there are black’ markings resembling the capital letter ‘I’.

Specimens stored in spirit over long periods change to a leaden

hue. It is probably because of this that the museum type specimen

originally examined led to it being designated plumbicolor.

Eye.—This is large. The iris is greenish black and the pupil

is spherical.

Length.—The smallest in the series measured 6in. and the

largest 2 ft. gin. The naris is laterally placed.

Endoskeleton.-—Skull. Dorsally viewed it is broad at the orbits

and rectangular in shape. The anterior part is shorter and broader

than the posterior. The bones are stout and strong and give to it

a heavy appearance. The nasals are medium-sized: and are

laterally broadly winged. The intermaxillary overrides the maxil-

lary bones. The frontals are broad and suturally united with the

praefrontals, which are narrow; both are widely separated from

the nasals, and linked with cartilaginous strips. The orbital

apertures are large. The squamosals are long, flat and_ thick.

The quadrate is superiorly spatulate, broadly triangular and

laterally notched; the inferior articular end is long and terminates

in a rounded head. The ectopterygoid is long and thick. The

maxillary bones are short, anteriorly slightly thick and articulate

with the ectopterygoids at almost a right angle. The maxillaries

are peculiarly formed, in that there is a fold in the bone length

forming a double convexity on its outer border. Superiorly a

process of bone articulates with the inferior border of the praefrontal.

The pterygoid is thick, posteriorly broad, ventrally grooved and

touches the mandibles. The mandibles are posteriorly broadly

built and along with the dentary show a marked convexity on the

inferior or ventral surface. The palatines are short.

Dentition.—There are no grooved or perforated fangs—all the

teeth are solid. The maxillary teeth number 13. The anterior ones

are small and of uniform size. The posterior two are very large

and recurved and present the formidable appearance seen in the

fangs of the proteroglypha. They are posteriorly ridged and

anteriorly rounded and convexed. The palatines have 4—sometimes

5—teeth of one size. The pterygoids are set with 12 teeth of

small and uniform size like that of the palatines. The dentary is

provided with 18 teeth, those in the middle are slightly larger.

V ertebrae.—The neural spines are large, squared, plate-like

extensions. The hypapophysis is well developed and of nearly

uniform size throughout the cervical, thoracic and dorsal vertebrae.

Ribs.—Comparatively thicker and longer than in other members

of the same family. The free ends are bulbous. The ribs in the

anterior third are shorter and longest in the middle third decreasing

gradually in the posterior dorsal vertebrae.

Locomotion. —Slow-moving ; the spirals are like those seen in

Lycodon aulicus.

Gland structure.—A large parotid gland. The secretion is toxic

for frogs upon which the snake solely feeds,

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 473

Habitat.—Peninsular India—except the Ganges valley up to an

elevation of 7,000 ft., Ceylon (Wall).

Note:—Appears in large numbers during the rains and is met

with in grass lands. It is meek in character and does not bite

even when extremely provoked. The neck 1s partially dilatable.

A marked feature is the power of flattening the body and this is

more emphasised when the body is touched. The body is splayed

out by muscular action, which extends the ribs laterally to such

an extent that the dorso-ventral diameter is markedly reduced.

The body then appears flush with the ground and the costal scales

become isolated islands on the underlying epidermis. This capacity

for spreading out the body aided by the green colour makes for

excellent concealment in grass lands.

In two gravid females 11 and 19 eggs were found. There

were differences in the size of the eggs, some being longer than

others. The eggs were in an early state of development and

contained only a creamy fluid.

Species: Lycodon aulicus (Linn.). The Wolf Snake.

Local name.—None.

Exoskeleton.—The head is flat, large and elongated. The snout

is squared. The neck is distinct. The body is uniformly rounded

and of proportionate thickness throughout. The tail is of average

tapering length.

Scale formation.—There are head shields present. The supra-

labials number 9; the first and second of these touch the nasals;

the third, fourth and fifth touch the eye; and the sixth and seventh

the temporal shields. The praeoculars number 2 and the postoculars

3. There is one loreal. The costal scales are retiform, longer than

broad, and show apical pits. They number 17, 17, 15, in the

anterior, middle and posterior third of the body respectively. The

ventral plates number from 200 to 225 and they stretch completely

across the belly. The anal shield is divided into 2 sections. The

subcaudals number from 4o to 76, and are divided throughout.

Length.—The smallest measured 6 in. and the longest 28} in.

Colour.—The head is brown. The supralabials are a creamy

yellow carried backwards laterally on the nape. The body is

pinkish brown and at alternate intervals there are yellowish white

bands edged and spotted with black. The scales on the costal

margin are marked in the form of the letters K and H in yellow

edged with black. These markings both on the back and _ sides

of the body disappear near the tail. The belly is white. The

naris is placed laterally in a somewhat forward position on the

snout.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. The formation is rectangular in_ its

length, the greatest width being about the orbits. The nasals

are long and large. The intermaxillary lies between the maxillary

bones and conjointly with them broadens the muzzle. The prae-

frontals are rectangular in shape, and suturally united with the

frontals, the division between the praefrontals and the nasals is

occupied by cartilaginous connections. The frontals are small.

The parietals are long and centrally ridged in the long axis. The

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

supraoccipital is ridged. The squamosals are thin, small plates of

bone. The quadrate is superiorly thinly spatulate and of average

length. The ectopterygoid is thin and small. The pterygoid is of

average width, ventrally grooved, and touches the mandible. The

mandible is posteriorly broadly formed and notched. The dentary

portion is thinly formed and long. The maxillary bone, dorsally

viewed, shows on the external border a concavity anteriorly and

a convexity posteriorly; laterally viewed it is anteriorly broad, with

a concavity ventrally and a convexity dorsally, it sweeps down-

wards, posteriorly thinning out at the articular end in relation with

the ectopterygoid. The orbital apertures are large. The palatines

are long.

Dentition.—All the teeth are solid and recurved. There are no

grooved or perforated fangs. The maxillary bones are set with

15 teeth; their arrangement is peculiar in that the teeth are divided

into two series which are separated by an intervening gap devoid

of teeth; the anterior set consists of 4 teeth, fixed in a line with

the intermaxillary, the two nearest smaller, the outer two large

and fang-like; the second series begins at a point just below the

praefrontal and the number is 11; the anterior teeth of this series

are small, the posterior ones large. The palatines are set with

12 teeth of small and uniform size. The pterygoids are also

provided with small uniform-sized teeth numbering 24. The dentary

like the maxillary shows the teeth in two series separated by a

gap. The first lot consists of 4 teeth of which the first two are

smaller than the succeeding two, which are large and fang-like,

the second lot number 18, all of them of nearly uniform size.

There are some reserve teeth imbedded in the bones on the outer

and maxillary border of the palatines and pterygoids, also on the

inner aspect of the maxillaries.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small squared plate-like

extensions. The hypapophysis is large in the cervical vertebrae

and gradually diminishes in size up to the end of the last vertebra

in the thoracic series. In the dorsal vertebrae the hypapophyses

are absent.

Gland structures.—This species has a parotid gland. In addi-

tion there is another small pyriform gland situated immediately

behind the postfrontal zygoma in the temporal region and com-

municating with the maxillary teeth by a duct passing under the

eye. The secretion from the parotid has been verified by Mme

Phisalix and Caius (1917) as producing a toxic condition in small

animals. Col. Gharpurey (1932)! reported a case No. 4 of a man

who was bitten on the face by a young specimen of this species.

Except for some local redness and swelling the man suffered no

ill effects.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. Those in the cervical region

are. slightly smaller than the ribs in the rest of the body.4,They

are of uniform size and comparatively shorter than in other species

of the same. length.

* “Cases of Snake Bite’ by Lt.-Col. G. G. Gharpurey, I.M.S., Journ,

Bonm,Nat. Hist, Sec. vol, exxxvi, wNoot. p- 274.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI A75

Habitat.—Peninsular India, Andamans, Nicobars, Malay Penin-

sula, Indo-China, China, Malay Archipelago, Philippines (Wall).

Note:—A fairly common snake in Deolali and met with all the

year round. More prevalent during the monsoon. It is_ easily

provoked and bites on the least provocation.

Species: Ptyas mucosus (Linn.). The Rat Snake.

Local name.— Dhaman’.

Exoskeleton.—The formation in this species is featured by great

length, proportionate thickness and a well developed musculature,

which suggests a specialisation intended for speed. The head is

elongated and the size is in consonance with the body length.

The neck is well defined. The body is uniformly rounded and

the largest dimension attained is about the middle third. The tail

is long and tapering.

Scale formation.—The snout is slightly pointed. There are

large head shields present. The supralabials number 8; the first

and second touch the nasals, the fourth and fifth touch the eye,

and the sixth and seventh touch the temporal shields. There are

I praeocular, 2 postoculars and 3 to 4 loreals. The costal scales are

retiform, imbricated, and longer than broad. On the dorsal aspect

the scales for about three rows are slightly keeled and show apical

facets. These facets are not seen in freshly killed specimens and

appear to be post mortem effects produced by drying. These scales

number 17 in the anterior third of the body, 17 in the middle

third, and 12 to 15 in the posterior third. The ventral plates

number from 196 to 207 and stretch completely across the belly.

The anal shield is divided into two sections. The subcaudals are

divided throughout and number from 113 to 138.

Colour.—This is variable. The average colour presentation

would be that found in specimens 5 feet in length, in which the

head shows the appearance of burnt sienna. The supralabials are

a creamy yellow and edged with black. The anterior third of

the body is uniformly the colour of the head. The middle third

is lighter in tone and shows faint creamy yellow striations at

intervals edged with black. The posterior third has the striations

in black chevron forms. The belly is a creamy yellow and each

ventral plate is edged in black. The older specimens exhibit

darker colour tones in which the black striations are more subdued

and less noticeable.

Length.—The longest specimen secured measured 8 ft. 1 in. and

the smallest 3 ft. 4 in.

Eye.—This is large. The iris is yellow and the pupil spherical.

Endoskeleton.—Skull. The bone formation is heavy and a dorsal

view shows it to be rectangular. The intermaxillary is large and

lies between the maxillary bones. The nasal bone is large and

the division between it and the praefrontals is not pronounced.

The praefrontals are large and rectangular and from the inferior

border anteriorly projected is a process of bone. The frontals are

comparatively small for the size and length of this snake. The

parietals are large plates which terminate posteriorly in a point.

The squamosals are short, flat and thick. The supraoccipital is

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiX

in the form of a bony crest. The quadrate is long, superiorly

broad in the form of a triangle and laterally notched. The

ectopterygoid is thin, broad and long and articulates with the

maxillary bones at a right angle. The pterygoids are comparatively

short, particularly broad in the posterior section, ventrally grooved,

and they touch the mandibles. The maxillary bones are propor-

tionately thin, long, and inclined downwards towards the ecto-

pterygoids. The palatines are longer than usual. The mandibles

are broadly formed posteriorly and notched. The dentary portion is

unusually short, being one-third the length of the mandible.

Dentition.—All the teeth are solid and there are no grooved

or perforated fangs in evidence. The maxillary bones are set

with 16 solid teeth; the anterior are slightly shorter than the

posterior ones. The palatines have 12 teeth and the pterygoids

20; all of these are nearly equal in length to those of the maxillary

series. The dentary has in the older snakes, six feet and over

in length, 12 and in the younger specimens up to 18 solid teeth.

The palatines in the younger snakes have 14 teeth and the

pterygoids 22 to 24. There are two rows of reserve teeth on

the inner aspect of the maxillary bone imbedded in it above the

operative set. On the outer and maxillary side of the palatines and

pterygoids above the operative teeth are two rows of reserve teeth.

Vertebrae.—Owing to the length and size of this species the

vertebrae are proportionately large. The neural spines are also large

and in the form of squared plate-like extensions, except in the

cervical series where they are finger-shaped. The hypapophyses

are particularly large in the cervical vertebrae and they gradually

diminish in size up to the last thoracic vertebrae in which they

are rudimentary. The dorsal vertebrae show no evidence of a

hypapophysis.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. They are long and thick—

the greatest length being attained in the middle third of the column.

Locomotion.—This has been shown to be an almost straight

course with a slight wavy side to side swing. It is the swiftest

moving snake of all the species in Deolali.

Gland structures.—It is equipped with a large parotid gland.

The venomous nature of the secretion was demonstrated by Alcock

and Rogers (1902) who found it produced convulsions in small

animals. Mme Phisalix? and Caius (1916) have confirmed this.

Note :—Appears in Deolali at all times of the year but in

the greatest numbers during the rains. A half-grown specimen

was found on the sloping branch of a monkey fig tree. <A gravid

female was found to contain a string of 12 eggs. It is notable

that not a single very young specimen was encountered during the

whole period of the survey.

Species: Zamenis fasciolatus (Shaw.). The Fasciolated Rat-

Snake.

Local name.—None.

+ Alcock and Rogers (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. 1Ixx, p. 1902) quoted in ‘the

Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. ‘Non-Poisonous Snakes’ by S. H. Prater, vol.

KXXVI,, INO.,2, ps) 303%

* ‘Animaux venimeux et Venins’ by Mme Phisalix, 1922. Tome IH, p. 394.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 4

It is generally believed by the local inhabitants that this snake

is a female Cobra.

Exoskeleton. It is more slender than Ptyas mucosus and

shows a proportionate rounded thickness for the length attained.

The size of the head is small. The neck is distinct and the cervical

region slender. The rest of the body is uniformly rounded and

thick. The tail is moderately tapering. There is dorsally and

centrally in the long axis of the body a furrow running from the

neck to a little short of a point above the vent.

Scale formation.—There are large head shields. The supra-

labials number 8; the first and second touch the nasals; the fourth

and fifth the eye; and the sixth and seventh the temporal shields.

The fifth supralabial is very large and reaches up to behind the

eye. There is only one loreal. There are 3 praeoculars and 2

postoculars. The costal scales are retiform, imbricated, and longer

than broad, not keeled; they numbered 22, 22, 27 (male specimen),

and 23, 23, 17 (female specimen), in the anterior, middle and

posterior third of the body. The ventral plates completely spanned

the belly and numbered 213 in the male and 223 in the female.

The anal shield is divided into two sections. The subcaudals

numbered gi in the male and 77 in the female and were divided

throughout.

Colour.—The female was of a uniform dark brown shade. The

male was a rich light brown. In both specimens the under-surface

of the neck was a creamy yellow—as also the infralabials and

supralabials. The belly was white.

Eye.—This was moderately large. The pupil spherical. The

nares were laterally placed.

Endoskeleton.—The skull is nearly ovate in formation. The

intermaxillary is small, dorsally convexed and placed between the

maxillary bones. The nasal bones are very large, dorsally con-

vexed and suturally united with the frontals and praefrontals. The

praefrontals are nearly square wedges of bone suturally united with

the frontals. The fronfals are short and narrow. The parietals

are fairly long and broad and slightly rounded on the dorsal aspect.

The squamosals are comparatively short, thin bony plates. The

quadrate is short, moderately spatulate above and laterally smooth.

The ectopterygoid is thin, flat and articulates at almost a right

angle with the maxillary bone. The pterygoid is moderately broad

behind and shows slight, if any, grooving on the ventral surface;

it touches the mandible. The maxillary bones are anteriorly broad,

posteriorly thin and_ laterally convexed. The mandibles are

posteriorly moderately broad. The dentary is slightly less than

half the length of the articular ramus. The mandible in its length

is ventrally convexed. The palatines are long.

Vertebrae.—-The neural spines are large and square plates. The

hypapophyses are well developed in the cervical region and diminish

in size in the thoracic vertebrae; in the dorsal vertebrae they are

absent. .

Ribs.—These are small in the cervical vertebrae and large and

of uniform length in the rest of the body except in the dorsal

vertebrae where they diminish in length. The free ends are pointed.

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Locomotion.—This has not been observed.

Dentition.—The maxillary teeth number 12; the anterior and

middle are slightly larger than the posterior ones. The palatine

teeth number 9; they are of uniform length. The pterygoids have

14 teeth, equal in length to those of the palatines. The dentary

shows. a peculiar arrangement; the teeth are set in three lots

numbering altogether 14; the first consists of 6 teeth of nearly

uniform length, the second of 2 teeth which are the longest, the

third of 6 teeth equal to and uniform in length with those placed

anteriorly.

Gland structures.—Is provided with a large parotid gland. The

toxicity of the secretion has not been investigated.

Habitat.—Ceylon and Peninsular India up to the base of the

Himalayas (Wall).

Note:—This is a rare snake in Deolali—only 2 specimens were

secured, a male and a female. The male measured 36 in. and

the female 47 in. The details as to a sexual association have

been earlier referred to. The female was gravid and contained

5 eggs in an early state of development.

Species: Coluber helena (Daud.). The Trinket Snake.

Local name.—None.

Exoskeleton.—The snout is obtusely rounded. The head is

elongated and flat. The neck is distinct. The body is slightly

compressed anteriorly, the rest is of uniform rounded thickness.

The tail is moderately tapering.

Scale formation.—There are large head shields present. The

supralabials number ro to 11; the first and second touch the nasals ;

the fifth, sixth and seventh touch the eye; and the eighth and

ninth the temporal shields. The costal scales are retiform, longer

than broad, and show apical facets, not keeled; they number 19-25,

22-27, .19-20, in the anterior, middle and posterior third of the

body respectively. There is only one loreal. There are 1 praeocular

and 2 postoculars. The ventral plates number from 168 to 264

and stretch completely across the belly. The anal shield is entire.

The subcaudals are divided throughout and number from 81 to’88.

The naris is laterally placed. The eye is large; iris golden, pupil

spherical.

Colour.—This snake at first sight bears a colour resemblance

to Rhabdophis stolatus and in this respect can be easily confused

with it. Anteriorly the head is a deep brown, sometimes with

a greenish tinge. The supralabials are white. Posteriorly the head

and nape are a light pinkish brown. On the nape dorsally and

also laterally are black linear streaks running in the long axis.

The anterior third of the body shows at intervals 5 to 6 series of

broad black bands interspersed with white stippling laid on a

background of light pinkish brown. A portion of the middle third

of the body is irregularly mottled white, black and brown. The

remaining portion of the body shows three series of broad lines

laid in the long axis; the intermediate dorsal band is a light brown

and those laterally placed are a very dark brown; all of these end on

the tail. The belly is white and sometimes faintly tinged with yellow.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI AG9

Length.—The smallest measured 2 ft. 8 in.—the largest 3 ft.

g in. This latter one was a gravid female.

Endoskeleton.—The anterior portion of the skull 1s twice the

length of the posterior section. It is ovate in formation. The

intermaxillary is free and placed forward in front of the maxillary.

The nasals are large and long and the division between them and

the praefrontals is very constricted. The praefrontals are speci-

fically large, thick, rectangular in form and suturally united with

the frontals; anteriorly they are extended into small processes lying

with the nasals. The frontals are long and narrow. ‘The parietals

are short in the form of a shield and the posterior portion 1s

extended into a thin, long spicule terminating in a point laid over

the supraoccipital. The squamosals are thin, flat and long. The

quadrate is superiorly broad and anteriorly rounded; inferiorly it

is a long and thin rod of bone. The posterior articular part of

the mandible is very broadly formed and notched. The dentary

section is thin and long. The ectopterygoid is short, flat and

thick. The maxillary bones are thin, narrow, long and curved

in the middle portion to form a concavity fitting the convexity of

the praefrontals which articulate with them. The pterygoid is

posteriorly broadly formed, ventrally grooved and touches the

mandible. The palatine bones are long. The postfrontal zygoma

is broad and thick. The supra and exoccipital show depressions.

Dentition.—All the teeth are solid and slightly recurved. There

are no grooved or perforated fangs. The maxillary has 13 teeth,

which are large and of uniform length. The palatine has 7 teeth

of a moderately large and uniform character. The pterygoid is

provided with 14 teeth; all of them small and of uniform size.

The dentary has 18 teeth; the anterior series are very large and

the posterior ones diminish in size. There are reserve teeth in

two rows on the inner aspect of the maxillaries and on the outer

or maxillary side of the palatines and pterygoids.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are large squared plate-like ex-

tensions. The hypapophyses are large in the cervical vertebrae

and from thence diminish in size gradually up to the last thoracic

vertebra. The dorsal vertebrae show no hypapophyses.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed In the anterior third of the

body they are shorter than in the rest of the body.

Locomotion.—A fairly active snake and moving with a fair

degree of speed. The spiral curves are like those of Lycodon

aulicus.

Gland structures.—This snake has no parotid gland. There is

a gland close to the eye behind the postfrontal zygoma in the

temporal region. Col. Gharpurey (1932)' reported the instance of

a woman who was bitten on the forearm by one of this species.

The whole forearm was swollen as far as the elbow. There were

no after-effects.

Habitat.—Peninsular India including the Himalayas, Ceylon

(Wall).

+ “Cases of Snake Bite’ by Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.M

Gi wlitst, Soc.,'-vol. xxxvi, No.1, dated 15-11-1932, p. 272:

.S., Journ. Bom.

Case No. 1.

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Note:—An uncommon species in Deolali. The few that were

met with appeared during the rains. One was found in the roof

of a building under repair.

A gravid female was found to contain 10 eggs in an early stage

of development. .

Species: Oligodon arnensis (Shaw.) The Banded Kukri Snake.

Local name.—-None.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is rounded and of a uniform

slenderness throughout. The snout is pointed. The head is small

and slightly ovate. The neck is slightly demarcated. The anterior

third of the body is more slender than the posterior two-thirds.

The tail is moderately tapering.

Scale formation.—There are head shields present. The costal

scales are juxtaposed and longer than broad. There is no keeling.

The supralabials number 7; the first and second touch the nasals,

the third and fourth touch the eye and the fifth and sixth the temporal

shields, the fourth is the largest. There are 1 praeocular and 2

postoculars. -The costal scales number 17, 17, 13-15, “iniythe

anterior, middle and posterior third of the body. The ventral

plates number 180 to 198 and stretch completely across the belly.

The anal shield is divided into 2 sections. The subcaudals are

divided throughout and number from 49 to 56.

Length.—The largest measured 1 ft. ro$ in. and the smallest 1 ft.

Colour.—The head is dark brown with a black chevron in

evidence. Posterior to this is a lighter brown. chevron and

behind this again on the nape is another broader angular band

of dark brown edged with white. From the neck to the tip of

the tail at regular intervals are dark brown and in some reddish

brown ovately broad bands edged with white and set on a _ back-

ground of grey or greeny grey. These bands diminish in width

and fade into’ perceptible lines over the tail. The belly im the

adult is white and in the young a pale yellow.

Eye.—This is small and the pupil spherical.

Endoskeleton.—Dorsally viewed the skull is triangular in front

and semi-ovate behind. The intermaxillary is moderate broad,

rounded and overlapped by the maxillary. The nasals are large

for the size of the head and the division between them and the

frontals indistinct. The praefrontals show a_ peculiarity in con-

sisting of two pieces suturally united with each other and with

the frontals. The frontal bones are broad and short. The parietals

are ovately broad and dorsally convexed. The squamosals are

fairly short, thin and flat. The quadrate is superiorly spatulate

in a somewhat irregular form and inferiorly connected with the

mandible by a slender rod of bone. The temporal region is large

and bulges laterally. The ecto-pterygoid is particularly large in

contrast with the smallness of the species. The maxillary bones

are long and broad especially in the posterior half. The pterygoids

are posteriorly broad, ventrally grooved and touch the mandibles.

The palatines are short. The articular end of the mandible 1s

lightly formed and notched. The dentary is slender and along

with the ramus forms a convexity on the ventral surface.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 481,

Dentition.—There are no grooved or perforated fangs—all the

teeth are solid. The maxillary teeth number 9; the posterior ones

are large. The palatine teeth number 6 and are small and uniform

in size. The pterygoid is set with 6 teeth, uniform and of the

same size as the palatine teeth. They end near to the point where

the ecto-pterygoid rests in an articular union. The dentary has

12 teeth, those in the middle are slightly larger.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. Those in the middle and

posterior third of the body are uniform in length. The anterior

ribs of the body are slightly smaller in length.

Locomotion.—The spiral motion ts like that of Lycodon aulicus.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small squared plates. The

hypapophyses are well formed in the cervical vertebrae. In the

thoracic vertebrae they diminish in size and are absent in the

dorsal vertebrae.

Gland structure.—This species has a very small parotid gland.

According to the experiments carried out by Mme Phisalix and

Caius (1922) the secretion from it produces death in small birds.

Habitat.—Peninsular India including the Himalayas, Ceylon

(Wall).

Note:—This species is uncommon in Deolali, appearing just

before and during the rains. Does not show any temper, and will not

attempt to bite even when extremely provoked. The longest measur-

ed 1 ft. ro in. and the smallest 1 ft. The nares are placed laterally.

Species: Oligodon taeniolatus (Jerd.) The Variegated Kukri

subgriseus

Snake.

Local name.—None.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is slender throughout. The snout

is moderately pointed. The head is large in contrast with the

body. The neck is slightly demarcated. The body is rounded

and of uniform thickness except in the middle third which is

slightly larger. The tail is short and moderately tapering.

Scale formation.—There are head shields present. “he supra-

labials number 7; the first and second touch the nasals, the third

and fourth touch the eye, and the fifth and sixth the temporal

Shields. There is one loreal. The praeoculars number 2, and the

postoculars 3. The costal scales are retiform and as long as

broad; they number 15, 15, 15, in the anterior, middle and posterior

third of the body respectively. The ventral plates stretch across

the belly and number from 175 to 200. The anal shield is divided

into 2 sections. The subcaudals are divided throughout and

number from 42 to 56.

Colour.—There is a dark brown band on the head anteriorly

and running backwards from this is a linear streak of the same

colour, which joins a dark brown chevron collar laid over the

nape and around the jaws laterally. Above the eyes are small

black linear streaks. Along the body on a background of straw

are irregular striations in dark brown or black. These recur at

regular intervals and extend over the caudal area where they are

less conspicuous. The belly is white.

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Length.—The largest measured 1 ft. 4 in. and the smallest

54 in. The naris is placed laterally.

Eye.—tThe eye is large for the smallness of this species and the

pupil is spherical.

Endoskeleton.—The skull is ovate in formation. The nasals

are fairly large in contrast with the small size of the skull and

are oval in shape. The intermaxillary is pointed and _ placed

anterior to the maxillary. The frontals are broad and overlap the

praefrontals, which are slender strips of bone placed in a per-

pendicular position over the maxillaries, and are suturally united

with the frontals. The parietals are slightly rounded and large.

The temporals bulge laterally. The squamosals are short, thin and

flat. The quadrate is moderately spatulate above, laterally notched

and long in comparison with the size of the skull. The palatines

are long. The pterygoids are narrow, slightly grooved on the

ventral aspect and touch the mandibles. The maxillary is thin

and moderately long. The articular end of the mandible is thinly

formed and longer than the dentary, which is short and _ slender.

The ectopterygoid is short and flat.

Dentition.—There are no grooved or perforated fangs. All the

teeth are solid. Only the maxillary and dentary are toothed; the

palatines and pterygoids are devoid of teeth. The maxillary teeth

number 6; all unusually large and out of all proportion to the

small-sized skull; the posterior ones are the longest. The dentary

teeth number 9, they are comparatively smaller and the anterior

are the longest. |

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small squared plates. The

hy papophyses are well formed in the cervical vertebrae and diminish

in size in the thoracic series. In the dorsal vertebrae they are

absent.

Ribs.—The ends are pointed. They are of a uniform small

length throughout the body.

Locomotion.—Like that of Lycodon aulicus.

Gland structure.—A very small parotid. The secretion, as

shown by Mme Phisalix and Caius, is toxic to small birds without,

however, killing them.

Habitat.—Peninsular India including the Himalayas, Ceylon

(Wall).

ars just before and during the rains. It is an un-

common species in Deolali. Mention has been made of a burrowing

quality it exhibits. It can be provoked to bite, but is not bad

tempered.

Sus-Famity: Drpsapinz. ‘Opisthoglypha’

Species: Dipsadomorphus trigonatus (Schn.) The Common

Cat Snake.

Local name: None.

Exoskeleton.—The snout is moderately pointed. The head is

large, flat and ovate in shape. The jaws are prominent. The

neck is slender and well defined. Anteriorly the body is slender

and gradually thickens towards the middle third. It is then of

PHE SNARES OF DEOLALI 483

uniform thickness till about the vent. The tail is long and tapering.

Dorsally the back is distinctly ridged and laterally compressed.

The ventral portion of the body is broad. A section of the body

would appear ovately triangular.

Scale formation.—There are fairly large head shields. The

supralabials number 8; the first and second touch the nasals; the

third, fourth and fifth touch the eye; and the sixth and seventh

the temporal shields, the sixth and seventh are the largest. There

is one loreal. The praeoculars number 2 and the postoculars 2.

The ventral plates stretch across the belly and number from 225

to 245. The anal shield is entire. The subcaudals are divided

throughout and number from 74 to oo. Dorsally the vertebral

scales in the long axis of the body are enlarged, particularly those

in the posterior third of the body. The costal scales are imbricated

and much longer than broad; they number 21, 21, 15, in the

anterior, middle and posterior third of the body.

Colour.—The background is a dark khaki. The head is black

with the imprint of an inverted Y upon it. From above and

behind the eye are white linear streaks. <A _ series of irregular

chevron-like and confluent white striations at intervals lie along

the back. These fade towards the tail. The belly is white and

each alternate ventral plate at its costal margin is spotted black.

Length.—The largest measured 2 ft. 9 in. and the smallest 6 in.

The naris is placed laterally. The eye is large, the iris black and

the pupil vertical.

Endoskeleton.—_The skull is ovate in shape. The intermaxillary

lies directly between the maxillary bones. The nasals are large

and triangular in shape. The frontals are short and broad. The

praefrontals are suturally united with the frontals and are broad

bony pieces arched forwards and downwards and wider at the

articular end placed upon the maxillaries. The parietals are

moderately large and the posterior termination is overlapped by

the supraoccipital, which is in the shape of a _ bisected collar.

The squamosals are thin, medium-sized, flat bones. The quadrate

is superiorly spatulate and long and rod-like inferiorly. The ecto-

pterygoid is short, flat and thick. The pterygoid is moderately

broad, ventrally grooved and touches the mandible. The mandibles

at their articular ends are moderately broad and notched. The

dentary is long, slightly thick and broader posteriorly. The

palatines are short. The maxillary bones are long and thin. They

show on the superior border an anterior convexity and _ behind

this two concave portions—the first of these 1s long and _ slightly

concave, while the second is deeply concave.

Dentition.—This snake is opisthoglyphous. The maxillary has

10 teeth; the last pair set posteriorly and apart are recurved

fangs, large and grooved on the anterior surface; those placed

in the forward position are solid and slightly shorter with the

points directed inwards. The palatine teeth number 5, they are

solid and of uniform length and smaller than the maxillary teeth.

The pterygoids have 7 teeth equal in length to the palatine series.

The dentary is set with 12 solid teeth, all fairly large, but those

placed in the forward position longest,

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WAIST... SOCIETY, (Viol xX x

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small squared plates. The

hypapophyses are well formed in the cervical vertebrae. They

decrease in size in the thoracic series and are absent in the dorsal

vertebrae.

Ribs.—In consonance with the body formation—the ribs in

the cervical section are smaller and gradually increase in length

until about the middle third of the body. There is then a pro-

portionate decrease up to the vent. The free ends are pointed.

Locomotion.—The same as in Lycodon aulicus.

Gland structure.—This species and Dryophis mycterigans of

the same sub-family are equipped with a parotid gland, which

in structure appears differently constituted from that of the

aglypha having a gland in the same position in the head. In

this snake the gland is tough, flat, shotty to the feel and of a

yellow colour, whereas the gland in the aglypha is a large, white,

lobulated mass. In addition to the parotid gland there is another

smaller bilobed gland situated in the temporal region behind the

postfrontal zygoma and close to the eye; the duct from it passes

under the eye to the maxillary bone. Alcock and Rogers (1901)

reported on the venomous properties of the saliva of this species.

It is undoubtedly toxic and lethal for lizards (Calotes versicolor).

Mme Phisalix and Caius have found it highly toxic to the mouse.

Habitat.—Peninsular India including the Himalayas, Ceylon

(Wall).

Note :—A fairly common snake in Deolali. Is in evidence

throughout the year, but appears in greater numbers during the

rains. One gravid female was found to contain 9 eggs. These

were elongated in form and showed variations in the length.

This species is bad tempered. It is very easily provoked to

bite. Once its temper is aroused it shows its rage by vforming

the anterior third of its body into a figure of eight and with the

head erected and ready to dart it waits impatiently vibrating the

tail.

Species: Dryophis mycterizans (Linn.) The Green Whip

Snake.

Local name.—Because of its green colour it is called ‘Hira

Samp’ or green snake.

There was only one specimen secured and examined.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is characteristically slender through-

out. The snout is markedly protruded into a long fine point.

The head is rounded dorsally, laterally compressed and elongated.

The anterior portion of the body is very slender and there is no

distinction or constriction denoting the neck. The rest of the body

is thicker but the slender proportions are maintained. Dorsally

the body is ridged and laterally compressed. The tail is particularly

long and whip-like and rather rounded than compressed.

Scale formation.—There are head shields of an elongated form

in Correspondence with the head formation. The rostral shield is

specifically long and pointed. The supralabials number 8; the first

touches the nasal, the fourth and fifth touch the eye (it should

be noted that the fourth is divided into three parts of which the

THRECSNAKES: OF DEOLALI 485

two uppermost touch the eye), the sixth and seventh touch the

temporal shields. There are 1 praeocular and 2 postoculars. The

costal scales in the middle and posterior third of the body are

rounded and as long as broad; those in the anterior part of the

body are imbricated and much longer than broad. The central

dorsal scales along the back are enlarged. There is no keeling

in evidence. The costal scales numbered 15, 16, 13, in the anterior,

middle and posterior third of the body. The ventral plates

stretched across the belly and numbered 185. The anal shield

is divided into 2 sections. The subcaudals were divided through-

out and numbered 1309.

Colour.—This was a foliage green throughout. Two yellow

lines ran the whole length laterally and in the long axis of the

body. The supralabials were yellowish green. The undersurface

of the neck was white and the belly green. The specimen

measured 3 ft. roin. in length.

The eye was small and the pupil horizontal. The naris was

laterally placed.

Endoskeleton.—The skull is elongated. The intermaxillary is

broad posteriorly and anteriorly projected to a fine point; it lies

between the maxillary bones. The nasals are particularly enlarged

and ovately elongated; the division between them and the frontals

and praefrontals is narrow. The praefrontals are large and _ tri-

angular in shape with the apex projected forward. The frontals

are short and narrow and suturally united with the praefrontals.

The parietals are long and the posterior end is attenuated and

laid over the supraoccipital which shows two depressions. The

squamosals are thin and long and shaped like a boomerang. The

quadrate is long and broadly curved and notched; it is anteriorly

and inferiorly concave and posteriorly and superiorly convexed.

The maxillary bones show two sections joined together by a thin

bridge of bone; the anterior section is broad and the posterior

one thin. The ectopterygoid is short, thick and flat. The palatines

are short. The pterygoid is broadly formed posteriorly, ventrally

grooved and touches the mandible. The articular end of the

mandible is broadly fashioned, winged and notched. The dentary

section is clubbed anteriorly.

Dentition.—Owing to the formation of the maxillary bone the

teeth set in it are in two lots; the anterior series number 7, of

which the posterior ones are large; the second lot number 7 and

here the last two are large, recurved and grooved on the anterior

surfaces. The palatines have 6 solid teeth; the anterior ones are

large. The pterygoid teeth number 19; those set anteriorly and

towards the middle are larger than the posterior ones. The dentary

like the maxillary because of its formation shows a_ peculiar

arrangement; the peculiarity here is a close copy of the setting

seen in the dentary of Lycodon aulicus. To the thicker or club-

bed end of the bone are fixed 4 large recurved solid teeth; the

two anteriorly set are shorter than the succeeding pair which

are well developed; there is then a gap followed by a_ second

series of smaller teeth numbering 16, of which the first 4 are

long and the rest of small and uniform length.

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST... SOCIENY, Vol. XxX

Vertebrae.—In keeping with the slender make-up of the body,

the vertebrae show a long and narrow formation, and the dorso-

ventral diameter is short. As has been previously mentioned in

this paper, the first cervical is 4 a millimetre larger than the

second. The succeeding vertebrae gradually increase in size, until

the anterior dorsal vertebrae are reached, where the maximum

depth, width and length is attained. The measurements are 5

mm. and 7 mm. dorso-ventrally and antero-posteriorly respectively,

as compared with the largest dorsal vertebra of Ptyas mucosus

which measures ri mm. in both directions. Thereafter’ the

vertebrae correspondingly gradually decrease. The neural spines

are short dorso-ventrally and very long. They are squared

plate-like extensions. The hypapophyses are well developed in the

cervical region and gradually diminish in size in the thoracic

section. In the dorsal division they are absent. The caudal

vertebrae are very numerous and structurally delicate.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. The formation is slender,

both in length and thickness. They are shorter in the cervical

section and slightly longer and of uniform length in the rest of

the body, except posteriorly in the dorsal vertebrae, where they

decrease in size.

Gland structure.—Same as in Dipsadomorphus trigonatus.

Alcock and Rogers (1902) showed the saliva to be toxic to

the mouse. Later Mme Phisalix and Caius (1918) confirmed those

results and found moreover that the saliva was also toxic to small

birds and to toads. Mr. McCann (April 1934)! graphically describes

the incident of one of those snakes feeding on a lizard and men-

tions the convulsions noted in the lizard as a result of the venom

injected. He also claims to have been bitten ‘by ‘one of them

without any ill effects ensuing.

Habitat.—Peninsular India, excluding the valley west of Patna,

Ceylon, Siam, Indo-China (Wall).

Note:—The specimen secured here is apparently a half-grown

snake, as the example quoted by Mr. Prater (1926)? (Bombay,

F. Birkett) measured 6 ft. 11 1in. It is a rate snake in Deolali

and was secured by Mr. Fenton-Bailie. The slender formation,

leaf-shaped head and green colour are adaptations admirably suited

to an arboreal existence.

SuB-FAMILyY: ELapiInaE Proteroglypha.

Species: Bungarus caeruleus (Schn.) The Common Krait.

Local name: ‘Cowrieala’ because of the colour resemblance to

a variety of sea shell.

Exoskeleton.—The formation presents a nearly uniform thick-

ness throughout. The snout is rounded. The head is large and

1 *A Whip-Snake feeding on the Lizard’, by C. McMann, F.L.S.

Bont. Nat. fist: 2:S0c..-Vol. xxxyi.. Now 1, 7226:

* “The Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette’ by S. H. Prater, C.M:Z.S.

April 1926, p. 28. Reprint from Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxx, No. },

, Journ.

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 487

of a proportionate size to the body. The neck is distinct. The

body is uniformly thick and the tail is moderately tapering.

Scale formation.—There are large head shields. The costal

scales are retiform and rounded. The dorsal scales centrally along

the back are enlarged and hexagonal, a specific character. In

young specimens ro to 12 inches long, the large scales on the

back begin at a point about two head lengths away from the

head; those in the middle third of the body are the largest. The

supralabials number 8; the first and second touch the nasals, the

third and fourth touch the eye, and the seventh and eighth the

temporal shields; in one example the fourth, fifth and sixth touched

the eye. There is no loreal. There are 1 praeocular and 2 post-

oculars. The costal scales number 15, 15, 15, in the anterior,

middle and posterior third of the body. The ventral plates are

large and stretch across the belly and number from 216 to 222.

The anal shield is entire. The subcaudals are undivided through-

out and number from 48 to 52.

Colour.—The head and background of the body are uniformly

black, but some young specimens show up as. dark’ brown.

Dorsally and centrally along the back at short regular intervals

are white spots and laterally uprising from the ventral margins

are transverse linear white rings nearly meeting the aforemen-

tioned spots; the white rings are more prominent posteriorly.

The belly is white. Specimens immersed in spirit over long periods

of time change to a bluey black.

The eye is large and the pupil spherical. The nares are

laterally placed.

Length.—The largest measured 3 ft. 1o in. and the smallest

To in.

Endoskeleton.—The skull is elongated and slightly narrow in

form. The anterior portion is heavily built and short, while the

posterior section is much longer. The intermaxillary is convexed

anteriorly and widely separated from the maxillary bones. The

nasal bones are wide and long. The frontals are thick, short and

dorsally convexed. The praefrontals are anteriorly and _ laterally

convexed; they are thick and narrow above where there are sutures

dividing them from the frontals, and broadly formed inferiorly

at their convexed articular junction with the maxillaries. The

parietals are triangular and long, terminating behind in a_ thin

point crossing and laid over the supraoccipital crest. The tem-

porals are large and bulging in character. The squamosals are

particularly slender, thin, flat and short in contrast with the general

heavy formation of the skull bones. The quadrate is very short,

thick and spatulate above. The maxillary bones are thick, short

and strongly built; they are broad in front, superiorly concave

and laterally and inferiorly convexed; on the inner ventral aspect

they are concave. The ectopterygoid is anteriorly thick and

strongly fashioned, having a spatulate form at the articular end

laid over the maxillary, posteriorly it is long and thins down to

the point articulating with the pterygoid. The pterygoid, posteri-

orly, is moderately broad, ventrally grooved and touches the

mandibles. The palatines are long. The basioccipital is ridged.

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Volo XXII

The mandibles are stoutly built, being of nearly equal thickness

throughout their length, the posterior part is notched and is

slightly broader than the anterior or dentary portion.

Dentition.—The maxillary bones have two moderately developed,

canaliculated, recurved fangs anteriorly set. The apertures of

these fangs are placed on the anterior surface a little above their

sharp points. There is then a gap in the bone, followed by a

group. of 4 solid teeth. These are small and of uniform length.

The palatine teeth number 7, they are solid and of uniform size,

but slightly smaller than the solid teeth set in the maxillary bones.

The pterygoids have 12 solid teeth, equal in size to those of the

palatines. The dentary is provided with 18 to 20 solid teeth; those

anteriorly placed are large and the teeth diminish in size from

before backwards.

Vertebrae.—The chief specific character is the winged extensions

or alae projected laterally on either side of the neural arches.

In this respect this species is unique and unlike any of the other

in Deolali. The neural spines are large squared plate-like extens-

ions. The hypapophyses are well developed throughout, but

gradually diminish in size from before backwards. Another distin-

guishing feature is the marked wing-like formation of the rib-like

processes fused with the bodies of the cloacal and caudal vertebrae,

two such in the former and one in the latter on either side of

the vertebrae.

Ribs.—These, in conformity with the rounded thickness of the

body are of nearly uniform length. They are stoutly formed and

the free ends are blunted.

Locomotion.—This has not been observed.

Habitat.—Ceylon, Peninsular India, including the Himalayas

up to 5,000 ft. (Wall).

Note:—This species probably exists in greater numbers than

were actually found. It can be considered as fairly common in

Deolali. It may be remarked that the young krait is less often

a dark brown in its colour background, hence it is that young

and sub-adult specimens of Lycodon aulicus because of a like

colour and part design presentation, are often mistaken for this

species by those who are unacquainted with the other specific

characters which . distinguish them. No specimens were found

with the alimentary canal containing an ingested meal. They are

said to feed on rats and are threfore frequently met with near

to and in human habitations. Little is known as to their habits.

Other workers have found this species to be inoffensive and not

prone to bite, even when greatly provoked. The fatalities recorded

from bites of Kraits, however, show that they in common with

most other animals have limitations placed upon their patience.

The fact that they have a potent venom provision and canaliculated

fangs in itself points to some aggressive quality.

Naia naia, var. caeca (Merr.), . s

Naia tripudians (Merr.). geticveagestee eats (Cio) i

Local name.—‘ Nag’.

Exoskeleton,—The head is flat and slightly elongated. There

Species :

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 489

is no neck division, rather this region is dilatable and in the

erected state the cervical division is indicated by an expanded

hood. The body is dorsally ridged and laterally slightly compressed ;

it is anteriorly well developed and diminishes in thickness from

before backwards. The tail is cylindrical and tapering.

Scale formation.—The costal scales are imbricated, longer than

broad and longest in the anterior part of the body. There are

large head shields. The supralabials number 7; the first, second

and third touch the nasals; the third and fourth touch the eye; and

the fifth and sixth the temporal shields; the third is the largest.

There is no loreal. The one praeocular touches the nasals, and

there are 2 postoculars. There is an important specific peculiarity

in the presence of a cuneate scale—sometimes 2—wedged in above

the fourth and fifth infralabials. The costal scales vary in the

eounts, from 19, 20, 13, to 20, 25, 16, in the anterior, middle

and posterior third of the body. Col. Wall (1928)' has emphasised

the peculiar formation of the costal scales; these show a concavity

at the posterior junction of each row and the next. The ventral

plates stretch completely across the belly and number from 188 to

199. The anal shield is entire. The subcaudals are divided

throughout and number from 52 to 65.

Colour.—Varies in shade—black, brown, straw or buff. There

are markings of black and white in the shape of spectacles

(binocellate) on the hood. The belly is white and anteriorly on the

ventral aspect of the hood there are black bands and some spots.

Length.—The longest measured 4 ft. 84 in. and the smallest 7 in.

The eve is large and the pupil spherical.

Endoskeleton.—The general presentation is a symmetry and

lightness in the formation of the head bones. Anteriorly the skull

is trefoil in shape and posteriorly it is narrow and squared. The

intermaxillarv is specifically large; it is dorsally and anteriorly

convexed and projected beyond and separated from the maxillary

bone. The nasals are large and suturally divided. The praefrontals

are thin, narrow, convexed strips of bone projected downwards

and suturally united with the frontals above; they are notched on

the anterior and inferior border on the inner side and the division

between them and the nasals is slight. The frontals are short

and broad. The parietals are equilaterally triangular with the apex

placed over the supraoccipital. The temporals are well developed

and bulge laterally. The supraoccipital is circularly ridged in the

form of a crest. The maxillary bones are broadly formed anteri-

orly, and they posteriorly thin down, they are laterally convexed

and ventrally and dorsally concave. The ectopterygoids are thin,

long, flat, narrow and laterally convex; the articular end laid on

the maxillary bone is slightly spatulate. The palatines are short.

The pterygoids are posteriorly moderately broad, ventrally grooved

and touch the mandibles. The squamosals are short, thick and

flat. The quadrate is long, broadly spatulate above, anteriorly

extended and laterally notched. The mandibles are comparatively

* *The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions etc,

etc.’ Dyce. Fi. Wall, I:M.s., K.H.S.4, ©€.M:Z.S.,. 1928, p: 26,

490° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

slender in formation; the posterior articular end is moderately

broad and notched. The dentary portion is short and slender.

Dentition.—The maxillary bones show the _ proteroglyphous

fangs, two in number, one operative and the other held in reserve,

fixed to the broadly formed anterior portion of the bone. Both

these fangs are canaliculated and the aperture for the exit of

the poison is placed anteriorly and superiorly above the fang

points. Below these fangs and on the inner and concave portions

of the maxillary bones is one small solid tooth. In the lateral

view the reserve poison fang is not visible, as it is in the recumbent

position bent in on the ventral concavity of the maxillary. The

palatines have 5 solid teeth; those anteriorly placed are larger.

The pterygoids are set with 11 to 12 solid teeth of uniform length.

The dentary has 12 solid teeth; those in the forward position are

large and recurved and the teeth diminish in size from before

backwards.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are small and nearly square

plates. The hypapophyses are well formed in the cervical section

and they gradually diminish in size until the last dorsal vertebra

in which it is considerably reduced.

Ribs.—The cervical region shows the longest ribs in the section

corresponding to the hood. From thence the ribs decrease in

length from before backwards. The free ends are pointed.

Locomotion.—A fairly fast-moving snake. There is a slightly

more wavy side to side swing than in Ptyas mucosus.

Gland structure.—This is so well known that it scarcely requires

any description. There is a large aciniform gland between the

eye and the angle of the mouth. It secretes a potent venom in

any quantity up to 1c.c. Lamb’s estimate (quoted by Col. Wall,

1928),1 of the number of bitten subjects who escape with a sub-

lethal dose is put at 30 per cent. It is one of our deadly venomous

snakes.

Habitat.—Ceylon, Peninsular India, including the Himalayas up

to 5,000 ft., Burma (Wall).

Note:—It is fairly common in Deolali. In evidence at most

times of the year, but more especially during the rains.

It is not vindictive and will not go out of its way to attack.

Its first desire is to effect escape but if molested it will face the

tormentor. It then at once assumes the defensive by erecting the

head, expanding the hood and watching one’s every movement,

awaiting an opportunity to bite and further intimidating by hissing.

It is because of this behaviour that it is easily caught and killed.

Species: Callophis trimaculatus (Daud.) The Slender Coral

Snake.

Local name.—None.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is slender throughout. The neck

is not demarcated. The body is uniformly rounded and _ slender.

The tail is short and abruptly terminates in a_ point.

"*The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions,

etc.” by “Col. 3h, . Wall, 1 Mas. SKS... "CIM. 2.5.5 a1928, P- 75-

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 491

Scale formation.—There are small head shields. The supra-

labials number 6; the first and second touch the nasals; the third

and fourth touch the eye; and the fifth and sixth the temporal

shields; the third is the largest of the series. There are one

praeocular and two postoculars. The costal scales are smooth,

as long as broad and diamond-shaped; they number 13, 13, 13,

in the anterior, middle and posterior third of the body. ‘The

ventrals stretch across the belly and number from 250 to 272.

The anal shield is divided into two sections. The subcaudals are

divided throughout and number from 26 to 32.

Colour.—Head tarry black, and speckled white as follows :—

One large white spot on each temporal shield. There are 4 white

scales behind the parietal shields. The black markings are edged

with white and laterally run in scolloped edges on to the neck

and side of upper and lower jaw. The body 1s uniformly buff

or yellowish brown. Dorsally, on the tail and a little short of

its tip, is a black irregular band edged with white. About one

inch anteriorly to this is another similar and slightly larger black

band also edged with white. The belly is a coral pink up to

the vent. The subcaudals are white with black irregular markings.

The eye is small—pupil spherical, iris black. The nares are

laterally placed.

Endoskeleton.—The skull is elongated. The anterior portion

of it is broader than the posterior section. The intermaxillary is

projected forwards and away from the maxillary. The nasals are

as large as the frontals, and both are suturally divided. The

praefrontals are thin, circular, arched strips of bone continued over

the orbit and fused with the postfrontals behind; they are suturally

divided from the frontals. The parietals are large and rounded

and show no division; the original suture is seen in young

specimens g inches long. The temporals are as long as_ the

parietals. There are no squamosal bones. There is a_ fused

irregular mass in the shape of a rounded portuberance placed

over the mastoid region which shows no distinction as between a

true, separate squamosal and mastoid eminence. Upon a smooth

surface of this projected mass the quadrate articulates. The

quadrate is superiorly spatulate and projected backwards, it is of

proportionate length with the size of the skull. The maxillary

bones are short, thick and well developed for so small a_ skull;

they are thicker anteriorly, and posteriorly thin and notched. The

anterior end of the ectopterygoid is adapted to fit the notched end

of the maxillary and is firmly wedged to it. The ectopterygoid is

thin and long and forms the base of the orbit. The turbinal bones

are thick and show a heavy formation. The palatines are short.

The pterygoids are thin, long strips of bone and of a uniform

character throughout without any ventral grooving; they touch

the mandible. The mandibles are thinly formed and the ramus

portion is roughly four times longer than the dentary section.

Dentition.—YTo the maxillary bones in their anterior portions

are set two small, recurved and canaliculated fangs. One is

operative and the other held in reserve. The reserve fang is

recumbent and bent in on the ventral aspects of the maxillary

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

bones. It is not generally seen in a lateral view. The apertures

of the fangs, as is usual with the proterogiypha, are anteriorly

and superiorly positioned above the fang points. The palatines

have three small, solid teeth, while the pterygoids are devoid of

them. The dentary has 2 solid teeth set widely apart.

Vertebrae.—The vertebrae are small and delicately formed.

There are no neural spines. The hypapophyses are proportionately

long and gradually diminish in size up to the last dorsal vertebra.

Ribs.—The free ends are pointed. They are slender in forma-

tion and of nearly uniform length throughout.

Locomotion.—The spiral curves are deep and like those depicted

for the Russell’s Viper.

Gland structures. —A small aciniform gland situated in the

temporal region, behind and away from the eye. Nothing is

known as to the poisonous properties of the venom. Although

built on very small and delicate lines this species falls into the

VThanatophidia, because of the anatomical similarity of its venom

gland and the presence of perforated fangs. The quantity of

venom secreted must necessarily be small in amount. The point

as to whether it is capable of injecting a lethal dose has not been

ascertained.

Habitat.—Ceylon, India: South Deccan, Kanara and Bengal

(Wall).

Note:—This species is uncommon in Deolali. When touched

they behave in a peculiar way by erecting and rolling up the caudal

section dorsally into a ringed formation. In doing this the coral

and black and white stained surfaces of the belly and subcaudals

become exposed. This trait is probably an intimidatory effort to

stay further molestation. What exactly they feed upon has not

been ascertained. The thinly delicate formation of the body and

the smallness of the head with few small teeth in it precludes

any capacity for seizing and swallowing larger living things than

centipedes, miullipedes and insects.

FAMILY: VIPERIDA.

SuB-FAMILY: WVIPERINZE.

Species: Vipera russelli (Shaw.) The Russell’s Viper.

Local name.—None exists—probably due to the fact it is rare

in these parts and seldom seen.

Exoskeleton.—Shows a massive formation throughout. The

head is large, flat and triangular. The muscular development

around the jaws is a marked feature. The neck is well defined.

The body is very thick and round. The tail is dumpy, stoutly

formed and abruptly terminates.

Scale formation.—The costal scales are imbricated, longer than

broad-and heavily keeled; they number 27, 29, 21, in the anterior,

middle and posterior third of the body. The supralabials number

12. There is an absence of head shields. The sublinguals are in

one pair. The ventral plates stretch across the belly and number

56 and 60. In the larger specimen the three terminal subcaudals

lurn, BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Vipera pussedli (Shaw)

Scale 3*2Z 26 C77

L aleral Vie Ww

| Vipera russelli (Shaw) Vipera russelli (SAaw)

Salel 5 x4 : Scale 3x2 =6 C77

v ty

\ |

]

pitt surface

| The Russell’s Viper (Vipera russellt).

PEA Vr

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 493

were entire. The anal shield is entire. There is no uveal pit

between the eye and the muzzle.

Colour.—The background is earthy brown with three series of

black patches. The dorsal row, running centrally along the back,

and large and leaf-shaped and confluent, those laterally situated

are smaller and ovate and lie below and between the dorsal patches,

and in places run on to the belly. All of these blotches are edged

with white. There are black linear markings over the eyes and

the snout. The rostral shield, the supralabials and the infralabials

are orange-tinted and speckled with black. The belly is white.

Eye.—tThis is large. The pupil is vertical and the iris golden.

The nares are placed slightly superiorly and laterally in a

forward position.

‘Length.—There were two specimens only. The larger measured

4 ft. 6in. and the smalled 3 ft. 8 in.

Endoskeleton.—Anteriorly the skull shows a heavy bone forma-

tion. Posteriorly it 1s dorsally narrow and deep dorso-ventrally.

The intermaxillary is small and placed in a forward position away

from and above the maxillary. The nasals are small and shaped

like the ace of. diamonds. The division between them and_ the

praefrontals is pronounced and linked over by cartilaginous con-

nections. The turbinals are heavily formed. The praefrontals are

thick, strongly built bones, dorsally and anteriorly convexed and

fused together in front of the frontals from which they are divided

by a suture. The frontals are short and broad. The parietals are

small and anteriorly convexed, centrally ridged and_ posteriorly

conically projected. The temporals are concavely depressed. The

mastoid portion of the skull is prominently ridged and_ faceted

for the articulation of the squamosals, which are thin, moderately

long and flat. The quadrate is very long, posteriorly convexed,

superiorly spatulate and laterally notched. Inferiorly it is rod-like

and curved, showing a convexity posteriorly. The maxillary bones

are massively formed and vertically fixed; in the relaxed state

they are inclined backwards with the fangs bent in against the

ectopterygoid. Superiorly, the articular surface for the reception

of the praefrontal is concavely faceted. The rotary motion of the

maxilla upon the convexed inferior border of the praefrontal projects

the fang forward to an extreme degree. Anteriorly the maxilla

shows a double convexity divided medially by a transverse con-

striction. Inferiorly it is broadly formed and shows the alveolar

bony sockets for the reception of the fangs which are ankylosed

to it. The ectopterygoid is thin, long and flat and = arched

backwards; the anterior section of it is broadly spatulate and wing-

like, the posterior part narrows down and is angular at the point

where it is laid upon the pterygoid in articulation. The pterygoid

is moderately broad, ventrally grooved and does not touch the

mandible. From the surface of the basi-sphenoid projected down-

wards and backwards is a process similar in shape to the hypapo-

physes of the vertebrae. To this process is attached the longus

colli muscle. The mandibles are long and uniformly thick. The

articular end is broadly formed, superiorly winged and_ slightly

notched. The dentary portion is moderately sized.

494. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Dentition.—TYo the maxillary bones, in the one specimen exam-

ined, are ankylosed three canaliculated recurved fangs. One is

operative and the other two are held in reserve. In the living

specimens the two reserve fangs are encased in a mucous capsule.

All of these fangs show formidable proportions and are much larger

than any of the fangs noted in the proteroglypha. There are five

solid recurved teeth set in the palatine bones. The pterygoids show

seven teeth equal in size and length to those of the palatine. The

dentary has 12 solid teeth, those anteriorly set are larger, and the

teeth diminish in size from before backwards.

Vertebrae.—The cervical series are well defined by their finger-

like neural spines. The thoracic vertebrae are differentiated by

their squared neural spines being long dorso-ventrally in contrast

with the dorsal vertebrae in which the neural spines are short

squared extensions. The hypapophyses are well developed and of

nearly uniform length throughout the first three vertebral divisions.

The pseudo rib processes fused with the bodies of the cloacal and

caudal vertebrae are long, slender, rounded rods as compared with

the Colubridae in which they are short, slightly flattened blades.

Ribs.—These are strongly fashioned. The terminal ends are

pointed. They are shorter anteriorly and increase in length. The

longest and thickest dimensions are attained in the anterior and

mid-dorsal series. From thence backwards there is a_ gradual

decrease in length and thickness.

Locomotion.—The spiral curves are deep and the movement

is slow and unwieldy. The writer killed one when in active motion

on the Dharampur-Sabathu road (Simla Hills) in 1929. It was

easy to keep up close behind the snake at not more than a walking

pace.

Glandular structures.—There is a large densely lobulated gland

on either side below and behind the eye. The venom is highly

complex and the lethal quality of it is well known.

Habitat.—Ceylon, Peninsular India excluding the Ganges valley,

Burma and Siam.

Note:—This is uncommon in Deolali. It is a hissing snake

and will bite on the least provocation. Both the specimens secured

were killed in the precincts of Barnes High School, Deolali. The

single specimen examined by dissection proved to be a female. The

other is preserved in the collection belonging to Mr. Fenton-Bailie

of Barnes School. Mr. Flynn (1932)' records that a male and

female secured by him on 25th April, 1929 were kept in a specially

constructed box. On t12th July of the same year, 79 days after,

he found the glass case swarming with young snakes. He collected

thirty-three in all, twenty-seven were fully developed and six im-

mature and dead and-adherent to portions of the egg envelope.

He remarks that the markings on the young were distinct and

differed from the parent snake, being slaty grey above and light

cream below.

1 ‘The Family of a Russell’s Viper’ by A. A. L. Flynn, V.D., C.M.Z.S.,

Journ. “Bom. Nat. Hust. Soc.,- vol. xxxvi, “Nowa; p. 271)

JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Ix

Echis carinala (Schny Echi's carsnata (Sch)

f ( Include € OS oral colup

P prf 7 im

Laleral view. ih

- Dorsal surface

: = 6-8 cm Hi. ‘Le

Seale 22 x4 = 66 o™7 column) <a ee Scale 22% 3: O-6em

Pala line

A4y- “GF _| ay

The Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinata).

THEOSNAKES: OF DEOLALI 495

Species : Echis carinata (Schn.) The Saw-scaled Viper.

Local name.—Phoorsa.

Exoskeleton.—The snout is obtuse. The head is small rounded

and with a muscular prominence around the jaws. The body is

stoutly built for so small a snake. The tail is short, thickly formed

and abruptly terminated.

Scale formation.—The scales are imbricated, longer than broad,

and heavily keeled. The supralabials number 9. There is only

one pair of sublinguals. There are no head shields, and the uveal

pit is absent. The postral is well defined. The costal scales vary

in number from 23-27, 24-27, 21-23, in the anterior, middle and

posterior third of the body. The ventral plates stretch across

the belly and number from 145 to 155. The anal shield is entire.

The subcaudals are entire. In two examples the first subcaudal

below the anal shield showed a division.

Colour.—The background is earthy brown and in young

specimens slaty. On the head there is the imprint of an arrow

head. Dorsally on the back there are a series of white ovate

spots edged with black. These white blotches are connected by

white irregular striations running dorsally and laterally and enclos-

ing patches of a darker shade. At first sight the colour and part

design presentation are very like those of Dipsadomorphus trigonatus,

The eye is large and bulging. The pupils are vertical. The

nares are placed slightly superiorly in a forward position.

Length.—The shortest measured 64 in. and the longest 19$ in.

They are said to grow up to 2 feet.

Endoskeleton.—Anteriorly the skull shows a heavy bone forma-

tion. Posteriorly it is very narrow. The orbits are large for the

small size of the skull. The intermaxillary bone is_ projected

forward and separated from the maxillary bones. The nasals are

small. The maxillaries are broad, thick, heavily formed and set

obliquely. Superiorly the maxillary bone shows a_ process. which

abuts against the praefrontal and is chiefly involved in the articula-

tion with it. The process itself posteriorly 1s concave and adapted

to rotate on the praefrontal convexity. The anterior and lateral

surfaces of the maxillary are slightly convex and slope downwards

and slightly backwards. Like in the Russell’s Viper this bone

in the relaxed state is inclined backwards; the inferior surface is

convexed and its posterior border shows an alveolar ridge to which

are ankylosed the fangs. The maxillary bones are specifically large

and well developed for so small a snake. The praefrontals are also

large and heavily formed, they are fused together in front of and

in. the adults with the frontal bones. In the younger. snakes a

suture divides them from the frontals. The frontal bones are

dorsally convexed, medium sized and in the adult, centrally ridged

by ossification, but in the young they are divided by a suture.

The parietals are also in the adult dorsally slightly convexed and

centrally ridged and in young specimens suturally divided. The

post-frontal zygomatic process juts out laterally. The temporals

are depressed by a sulcus for the muscle and lodgement of the

poison gland. The squamosals are short, broad and flat. The

quadrates are long rods of bone slightly spatulate inferiorly. The

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

ectopterygoids are anteriorly broadly winged and convexed and

adapted to fit the concave articular surfaces of the maxillaries;

posteriorly they terminate in a point laid over the pterygoids.

The pterygoid bones are vertically set narrow plates, and posteriorly

are slightly grooved on the ventral aspects and touch the mandibles.

As in the case of the Russell’s Viper, a process is projected from

the basi-sphenoid, downwards and backwards and resembles in

formation the hypapophyses of the vertebrae. The mandibles are

ventrally convexed and rounded; superiorly the ramus portion is

winged and notched. The dentary portion is short and lightly

formed.

Dentition.—TVhe number, setting and arrangement of the pro-

teroglyphous fangs and the solid teeth are identical with those

of the Russell’s Viper, except that in this snake the dentary -is

set with sixteen instead of twelve solid teeth.

Vertebrae.—As described for the Russell’s Viper, only propor-

tionately smaller.

Ribs.—As described for the Russell’s Viper.

Locomotion.—The same as for the Russell’s Viper.

Gland structure.—Conforms with that of the Russell’s Viper

and is proportionately smaller. Lethal doses of the venom produce

fatalities in man and in some cases there is a delayed action.

Habitat.—Ceylon, Peninsular India, Baluchistan, Afghanistan,

Transcaspia, Persia, Arabia and Africa—north of the Equator.

Note :—Altogether 6 specimens were encountered. Five of

these belonged to Mr. Fenton-Bailie’s collection. It 1s an uncom-

mon species in Deolali.

SPECIES EXTRANEOUS TO DEOLALI

FAMILY: COLUBRID.

Sus-FaMILy: Dr1psapvin&® ‘Opisthoglypha’.

Species: Dipsadomorphus beddomei (Fitz.)

This specimen reached Deolali in a sewn sack of potatoes.

The particular sack was issued to the British Troops Ration centre

at Munroe lines, Deolali on the 11th September, 1934. When the

sack was opened and the potatoes were rolled out on the floor

the live snake was discovered and killed. It was identified as

noted above. Further inquiry from the Officer in charge of Supplies

elicited the information that a consignment of potatoes had been

received by the Contractor from Mahableshwar (Deccan) and the

sack in question belonged to that consignment.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is slender for the length of the

specimen. The snout is obtuse. The head is oval and the neck

distinct. The cervical section is slender. The body in the middle

third ‘is thicker, laterally compressed and dorsally ridged and

posteriorly it thins out. The tail is rounded, very long and

tapering.

Scale formation.—The scales are imbricated and longer than

broad. The dorsal scales which are centrally placed in the long

axis of the body are enlarged and equal in size to those of the

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 497

Krait. These scales are particularly large in the posterior third

of the body. The costal rows of scales numbered 19, 19, 13, in

the anterior, middle and posterior third of the body respectively.

The supralabials numbered 8; the first and second touched the

nasals; the third, fourth and fifth touched the eye; and the sixth

and seventh the temporal shields. There was one loreal. The

praeoculars and postoculars numbered 2 each. There were two

pairs of sublinguals. The infralabials numbered 10. The anal

shield was entire. The subcaudals numbered 112 and were divided

throughout. The ventrals numbered 246 and stretched completely

across the belly.

Colour.—The background was a brownish khaki. The head

was brown and deeply tinged with yellow between each shield

and scale division. The supralabials, infralabials and the under-

surface of the neck were stained a deep yellow. The nape of the

neck was irregularly spotted with black. The anterior half of

the body was a brownish khaki. The belly in this section was

yellow. The posterior half of the body was a light yellowish brown

and the belly in this portion was white. There were irregular

faint striations in black along the back. About the middle third

these striations were more chevron-like in formation. The costal

margins were spotted black in two parallel series decreasing towards

the tail.

Length.—36 in. Sex :—female.

Eye.—This was fairly large and bulging. The pupil vertical.

The nares were laterally placed in a forward position near the

rostral.

Endoskeleton.—The formation, size and shape of the skull is

on the lines already described for D. trigonatus with the following

exceptions : —

The parietals end posteriorly in a point slightly overlapped

by the supraoccipital crest. The ectopterygoids are slightly

broader and jut out laterally on either side of the skull. The

maxillary is inclined downwards and not as horizontally positioned

as in D. trigonatus and the posterior section of it is not as

long as in the Deolali species. The articular ramus of the mandible

is superiorly definitely winged and notched.

Dentition.—The maxillary is anteriorly set with 12 solid teeth

of nearly equal size and length and two anteriorly grooved and

recurved fangs posteriorly, as the last in the maxillary series of

teeth. The palatines are set with 5 and the pterygoids with 8

solid teeth, all of these are equal in size and length. The dentary

has 14 solid teeth; the anterior series are long and recurved and

the teeth diminish in size from before backwards.

Vertebrae.—The formation is the same as in D. trigonatus.

Ribs.—As in D. trigonatus.

Locomotion.—This was not observed.

Habitat.—Western Ghats (Matheran to Travancore) and_ the

Ceylon Hills.

Note :—A lizard of the Gecko type (like the common wall

lizard, but darker coloured) was found in the alimentary canal of

this specimen.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

SuB-FAMILY: COLUBRINZ Aglypha

Species: Polyodontophis collaris (Bigr.).

This specimen was received from Barrackpore (Bengal). A

description of it has been included in this paper for purposes of

comparison in view of the species Polyodontophis subpunctatus

which belongs to Deolali not having been dealt with on the points

ot osteology and dentition owing to the bad mutilation of the skull

and vertebral column of the only specimen collected.

Exoskeleton.—The formation is of a uniform thickness. The

head and body are uniform and show no neck delineation. The

snout is obtuse. The body is of uniform thickness decreasing

towards the vent. The tail 1s moderately tapering.

Scale formation.—-The scales are retiform and rounded. ‘There

is no evidence of keeling. The supralabials number 10; the first and

second touch the nasal; the fourth, fifth and sixth touch the eye;

and the eighth and ninth the temporal shields. There is one loreal.

The sublinguals are in two pairs. The praeoculars and postoculars

number two each. The costal scales number 17, 17, 17, rows in

the anterior, middle and posterior third of the body respectively.

The anal shield is divided into two sections. The subcaudals

numbered 109 and were divided throughout. The ventrals

numbered 176 and stretched completely across the belly.

This specimen had been bottled m spirit for some time. “Ihe

colour now described would not be quite an accurate version of the

original living specimen. The head showed a sepia tone. There

were narrow black striations of a chevron form anteriorly on the

head. The nape of the neck showed a broad black collar and

posterior to this a frill in white. The anterior two-thirds of the

body showed in the cervical region a dark stained area merging

behind into a salmon pink. The posterior third of the body

was a blackish brown. The belly was white. Along the

costal margin there was one dotted line in black on each ventral,

which spots ended at the vent. Length:—2 feet 14 inches.

The eye was moderately large. The pupil spherical. The nares

were placed laterally.

Endoskeleton.-—lhe shape of the skull is oval in the anterior

two-thirds of its length. The posterior portion is squared. The

intermaxillary 1s small and placed between the maxillary bones.

The nasals are small and shaped like the club of a pack of cards.

The frontals are small and show no sutural division. The prae-

frontals are broadly formed and angled at its corners. The

parietals are rounded dorsally and broad, showing no_ sutural

divisions; they are divided from the frontals by a suture. The

posterior part of the parietals is rounded off and suturally divided

from the occipital segment. The maxillary bones are laterally

convexed and in their length slightly inclined downwards and then

horizontally backwards; they are thin, long and extend backwards

beyond its ectopterygoid articulation. The ectopterygoid is short,

thick and arched. The maxillary articular end is broadly and

thickly spatulate, posteriorly it thins out; the inner border is

convex and laterally on its outer aspect it is concave. The palatines

THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 499

are slender vertical plates. The pterygoid is narrow throughout,

but posteriorly slightly broader than the anterior part. It 1s not

grooved ventrally but it touches the mandible. The quadrate is

long, superiorly spatulate and shaped like an inverted foot, and

inferiorly rod-like and bulbous at the articular termination fitting

into the notch of the ramus of the mandible. The squamosals

are short, nearly straight and flat plates. The mandible is convex

ventrally. The articular ramus is broadly formed and_ notched;

laterally on the outer sides there is a depression and anteriorly

justly below the superiorly notched extension is a foramen. The

dentary portion shows a specific divergence featured by this section

being turned inward at an angle of 120 degrees. In this respect

it is quite unlike any other species in Deolah.

Dentition.—There are no grooved or perforated fangs. All the

teeth are solid and show a specific character by being peg-topped

instead of pointed as in the other species of .this family. This

species has numerous teeth. The maxillary series number 46 of

nearly uniform size and length, those anteriorly set slightly smaller.

The palatine and pterygoid teeth show no marked division

separating them from each other. Altogether they number 54; the

palatine number 12. The dentary has 18 teeth, of which the

posterior ones are the larger.

Vertebrae.—The neural spines are short and long in correspond-

ence with the specific formation of the vertebrae which are long

antero-posteriorly and short dorso-ventrally. In this respect they

differ from the vertebrae of other species in which the diameters

are nearly uniform in length. The hypapophyses are well

developed in the cervical region and projected backwards more

acutely. They diminish gradually in length until in the last

vertebra it is reduced to a slight eminence. In the dorsal section

there is a complete absence of this process. Except for these

differences the vertebrae in this snake conform in formation to

the vertebrae of other species.

Locomotion.—This has not been observed.

Gland structure.—A soft white parotid gland. The secretion,

as shown by Mme Phisalix and Caius, is toxic to small birds

without, however, killing them.

Habitat.—Himalayas, Bengal, Assam, and Burma.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Apart from the study of the osteological peculiarities made

directly from prepared endoskeletons, radiography was_ utilised

as an additional aid. I am therefore very much indebted and

grateful to Major J. A. Crawford, R.A.M.c., who was during the

period the Senior Medical Officer in this station, for his kindness

in not only allowing the use of the X-Ray apparatus of that

department attached to the British Military Hospital, but also for

editing the manuscript copy of this paper and for the encourage-

ment given. My thanks are due to Messrs. C. P. Coshan and

D. J. Nayler, 1.m.p. for the skilled aid accorded in securing the

radiographs. I have also to thank the following gentlemen for

500. FOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIS Tn SOCTEDY. Vol. Ox

their help and attention paid at various times, either by sending

in specimens or allowing the inspection and examination of collec-

tions in. their possession: Major J.-Um Ri Douglas, R.1-4.s.c4> Cape

J. A..- Batterbury, « 1.a.S.c., ~S<sto. Rao’ Sahib “A. 1G. ‘Gokhaler

Mr. A. E. Millard, and Mr. Fenton-Bailie, the last named of whom

has been particularly kind in giving me not only many duplicates

from his collection, but also readily depleting it of the only specimen

of Dryophis mycterizans which it possessed, in order that the

osteology of the Deolali series should be as complete as possible.

For his generosity 1 am deeply obliged.

EXPLANATION OF LETTERING ON PLATES.

ana,—Anterior neural arch. aps,—Anapophysis. ac,—Acetabulum centrum. ar,—

Articular ramus, ar,R,—Articular surface for rib. bo,—Basi-occipital. bs,—Basi-

sphenoid. cr,—Cervical-rib. cor,—Coronoid. c,—Centrum. cv,—Cervical vertebra.

ca,—Columella auris: d,—Dentary. eo,—Exoccipital. epg,—Ecto-pterygoid (or

transpalatine). ec,—Epiphysis centrum. f,—Frontal. fm.—Foramen magnum. fo,

—Fenestra ovalis. fr,—Fenestra rotunda. fvn,—Foramen for 5th nerve. hs,—

Hypapophysis. hp,—Hzemal process. im,—Intermaxillary (praemaxilla). irp,—

Inferior rib process. 1f,—Lachrymal- foramen. me,—Mandible. m,—Maxillary.

md,—Mastoid. mp,—Metapophysis. ns,—Neural spine. no,a,—Neural arch alae.

of,—Optic foramen. oa,—Orbital aperture. odp,—Odontoid process. od,—Odontoid.

og,—Orbital groove. pl,—-Palatine. pg,—Pterygoid. prf,—Praefrontal. pf.—Post-

frontal. pc,—Periotic. przs,—Praezygapophysis. ptzs,—Postzygapophysis. pna,—

Posterior neural arch. p.—Parietal. q,—Quadrate (tympanic). rfg,—Reserve fang.

s,—Squamosal. sg, or gs,—Gland sulcus. sp.—Sphenoid. so,—Supra-occipital.

srp,—Superior rib process. tu,—Turibnal. tp,—Transverse process. t,—Temporal.

v,—Vomer.

LITERATURE REFERENCES.

Abbot, J. F. (1914). ‘General Biology’, pp. 199-241.

Boulenger, G. A. (1893-96). ‘A Catalogue of Snakes in the British Museum’,

Vol, 4° (pps 170-71 5 -tbid., “vol, “ja p- 265;

Corkill, N. L:-(1932). “The Snakes of Iraq’, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc:

vol, xxxvi, No.4, (p.'570.-

Darwin, Charles (1859-60). ‘The Origin of Species by means of Natura!

Selection’ (1917 reprint of first edition).

Fayrer, F. (1872). ‘The Thanatophidia of India’.

Flynn, A. A. L. (1932). ‘The Family of a Russell’s Viper’, Journ. Bom.

Nat. dist. \Soc., vol. xxxv, INO. .p2271-

Fairley, N, Hamilton (1934). ‘Snake Bite: its Mechanism and Modern

Treatment’. From the report in the Tropical Diseases Bulletin, vol. 32, No. 5

of May 1935, ‘Venomous Snakes and Snake Venoms’ II, pp. 372-73, a paper

read at a meeting of the Royal Society of Medicine (June 1934). Proc. Roy.

Soc. Med., 1934, June, vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 1083-91. (Sec. Trop. Dis. and

Parasit., pp. 45-53.)

Gharpurey, K. G. (1932). ‘Snakes in Ahmednagar’, Journ. Bom. Nat.

Hist. Soc., -vol. xxxvi, (No: 1.

Gharpurey, K. G. (1932). ‘Cases of Snake Bite’, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc., vol. xxxvi, .No. 15> pp. 272-74:

Goodrich, E. S. (1918). ‘The Evolution of Living Organisms’, pp. 27-60.

Hora, S. L. (1933). ‘Respiration in Fishes’, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Socis vol. xxxaly NO. @) 2p. cer.

Lindberg, K. (1932). ‘Snakes on the Barsi Light Railway (Deccan)’, Journ,

Bom. Nat. Hust. Soc., vol. xxxv,.No.23, p. 600.

Manson-Bahr, P. H. (1921). ‘Manson’s Tropical Diseases’, p. 874

MacBride, E. W. (1918). ‘Zoology’, pp. 73-81.

McCann, C. (1934). ‘A Whip Snake feeding on the Lizard’, Journ, Bom,

Not Hist. Sock; Volek kxvii, op, 226;

. THE SNAKES OF DEOLALI 501

Nicholson, H. A. (1887). ‘Manual of Zoology’, 7th Edition, p. 43.

Phisalix, M. (1922). Animaux venimeux et Venins, Tome II.

Prater, S. H. (1926). ‘The Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette’, p. 3.

Eaten; 9. 11. (1933).- “ihe-.Social Life-of::Snakes’- fourn. Bom. Nati

lgsts Soc., vol. xxxvi, No. 2, pp. 469-73.

Prater, ©. H- (1933). Non Poisonous Snakes’, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Soc. vol. xxxvi, No. 2, p. 393-

Rowland, J, W. (1933). ‘Occurrence of the Russell’s Viper in Lower Sind’,

fom Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvi, No. 3, p. 758.

Smith, Malcolm, A. (1934). ‘The Classification of Snakes in accordance with

their Dentition and the Evolution of the Poison Fang’. From the report in

the Tropical Diseases Bulletin; vide Fairley, N. Hamilton.

Strover, C. H. (1933). ‘The Saw Scaled Viper (Echis carinata) about in

Water, fourn, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc, vol: xxxvi, No. 3.

Wall, F. (1923). ‘How to Identify the Snakes of India’.

Wall, F. (1928). ‘The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British India

Dominions (including Ceylon), etc.” pp. 5, 26, 59-61, 75.

Whistler, H, (1932). ‘The Study of Indian Birds’, Part IX, Journ. Bom.

Witte East. Soc., vol. xxxv, No. 3.

FISH OF DEOLALI.

SUNDER Lat Hora, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.N.I., Assistant Superintendent,

and K. S. Misra, m.sc., Assistant, Zoological Survey of India,

Calcutta.

ParT I.

(With two plates),

INTRODUCTION AND List OF MATERIAL.

(Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India).

In 1935, the Zoological Survey of India received a small col-

lection of fish from Deolali made by Dr. -A. -G. L:* Fraser atthe

request of Mr. S. H. Prater. This material comprised seven species,

of which two proved to be new to science.! As the headwaters

of the Godaveri were so far a terra incognita for ichthyologists,

a request was made to Dr. Fraser through Mr. Prater to make

a comprehensive collection of fish at Deolali and its environs. The

result has been most satisfactory. Dr. Fraser collected fishes for

one year—June 1935 to May 1936—and obtained 4,463 specimens

from several localities. The material is in an excellent state of

preservation while the ecological factors governing fish life in

various types of habitats are vividly described by Dr. Fraser in

the descriptions of the localities where the collections were made.

To ‘suit’ the’ convenience of the editors of the “Journal @nitaic

proposed to publish the account of the fish of Deolali in four parts.

The first part, as is indicated in the title above, deals with the

descriptions of the localities and the material obtained from each

locality is listed separately. The second part will contain descrip-

tions of two new species belonging to the genera Parapsilorhynchus

and Barbus and notes on other species. In the third part Dr.

A. G. L. Fraser will, in a series of notes, record his observations,

both under natural and artificial conditions, on the biology and

ecology of the fishes collected by him. In the final part one of

us will discuss the geographical relationships of the fish fauna of

Deolali, with special reference to its affinities with that of the

Deccan.

A complete set of the material, containing type-specimens, is

deposited in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, while

a representative series of examples is also preserved in the col-

lections of the Bombay Natural History Society and of the British

Museum of Natural History in London.

SE EEE EE SE Eee

* Hora, S. L. and Mukerji, D. D.—Notes on Fishes tn the Indian Museum,

xxv. On two new species of Cyprinid Fishes from Deolali, Nasik District,

Bombay Presidency. Rec, Ind, Mus., xxxvii, pp. 375-80 (1935).

FISH OF DEOLAET 503

We take this opportunity to offer our sincerest thanks to Dr.

Fraser for the great trouble he must have taken in the collection

and preservation of this enormous material, and for his lucid notes

regarding the habitats of the various species. We have also to

record our indebtedness to Mr. S. H. Prater for his kind interest

in the matter and for affording us an opportunity to investigate

this interesting material. The Bombay Natural History Society

very kindly agreed to our retaining a complete set of the material

for the collection of the Zoological Survey of India and further

made a grant towards illustrations and other incidental expenses ;

for all this we are very thankful to the authorities of the Society.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND PHYSICAL FEATURES OF DEOLALI.

Dr. Fraser' in his account of the snakes of Deolali gives a

description of the geographical location, meteorology and physical

features of the station but to facilitate reference some of the salient

features are reiterated here. Devlali or Deolali is a small military

cantonment in the Nasik District of the Bombay Presidency.

Deolali is about 4 miles south-east of Nasik and the military

cantonment ‘is situated about three and a half miles to the south-

west, on land formerly included in the villages of Bhagur and

Sewnsuri and unconnected with Devlali.’?

List MATERIAL WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF LOCALITIES:

I. North Nallah pool, 3 miles west of its junction with the

Darna river (Dairy Pool). Deolali, 27-6-1935.

The pool is an artificially created one, being formed by a masonry dam

and built up stone embankments. It is 4o feet wide and 50 feet long with

a depth of from 2 to 5 feet. Its bed is well sanded and its sides in the

shallow parts are. flagged with stone. It is used for washing cattle belonging

to the Military Dairy farm and buffaloes are left to wallow in it for long

hours, especially during the hot months of April and May. The pool itself

is free from vegetation and its banks are sparsely grown with grass. At

this time of the year, owing to the rains, the water in it is muddy and

1 Fraser, A. G. L. ‘The Snakes of Deolali’. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist.

Sec:, XXXIX, pp. 59, 6o (1936).

* Cambell, J. M.—Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, xvi, Nasik, p. 431

(Bombay: 1883).

The height above the mean sea level is from 1,800 to 2,300 ft. The

average rainfall is 30 in. The monsoon months are June, July, August and

part of September. The hottest months of the year are March, April and

May, with the maximum shade temperature between too and 110° F. Dry

and Wet bulb registrations show a marked humidity during October.

The topography of the country in the environs is undulating in character.

On the south side lie the Thal Ghat extensions running east and west. The

land is for most part under cultivation, and is intersected by deep tributary

‘Nallahs’ draining into the river ‘Darna’, which meanders through east of

the Cantonment in a north-easterly direction to a point some 10 miles east of

Nasik City, where at ‘Darna Sangava’ it joins the sacred river Godaveri.

(Braser,: loc, cit.).

504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAGBUW RAL HIST SOCIE LY. Vole ww

the volume and flow of water over the dam is greater than during the

dry weather when it dwindles to a trickle.

i. Barilius bendelists Ham. aA a ae .. 3 Specimens:

ii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji. : ae es ... 25 specimens.

iil. Parapsilorhynchus (New species) I specimen.

iv. Nemachilus dentsoni Day. 2 specimens.

v. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. I specimen.

Z. Section of North Nallah, 1,800 yards from its junction with

the Darna river. Deolali, 30-6-1935.

The bed of the Nallah is shelving; and centrally there is a channel about 25

feet wide and from 2 to 3 feet in depth. The sloping banks are covered with

varied flora, growing both in the water and on the banks. There is a fair

volume of water flowing through this section of the nallah at all times of

the year because of the proximity -of the Deolali Bazaar, which lies a little

to the west on its north bank and the waste water from the Bazaar runs

into the nallah.

i. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji a a ay fies ... 14 Specimens.

3. North Nallah, at a point 800 yards west of its junction with

the Darna river. Deolali, 4-7-1935.

This part of the nallah is. a narrow rocky defile. The banks are high

and the sides precipitous, and the channel itself is difficult of access. There

is no vegetation in it, but its high banks are grass grown. The depth of the

water in this channel was barely 2 feet at the time the fish were taken, but

this was just after abatement of the storm water, when the depth must have

been at the least 3 feet. The current of the water flowing through it is strong.

The sides of the defile, particuiarly the bases of the banks, are undermined.

The rocky bed of the channel itself is eroded and shelved. It is 15 to 20 feet

in ‘width. There is also “some silt in-jthe *bed:

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) I specimen.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) dais ... 3 Speeiinens:

iii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ie ae ws --. 3 Specimens,

iv. Garra mullya (Sykes) 5 specimens.

v. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 2 specimens.

4, North Nallah, 50 yards west of its junction with the Darna

river. Deolali, 14-7-1935.

Here the nallah broadens out and the banks are shelving and slope down

to the river. The width of the stream is from 40 to 50 feet. Its depth is about

2 feet at the sides to over 6 feet in the centre. The bed is silted and the

flow of water is fairly strong at all times of the year. There is an exuberant

growth of vegetation both on the banks and in mid-stream which is full of

weeds. Bhil fishermen tell me there are no big fish in this section as it is

too open. The few fishes secured by me here are all significantly enough

small fry.

i. Chela clupeotdes (Bloch) oat ee a -.. 0 Specimens:

ii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji ee I specimen.

iii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) : I specimen.

iv. Parapsilorhynchus (New species) a) oF BL specimen.

v. Ambassis nama (Ham.) ae 5h e: --- 3 specimens.

vi. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) I specimen.

5. The Waldi river, at a point 2 miles east of its junction

with the Darna river up to the village of Chedi; 7-11-1935.

The Waldi river is a tributary of the Darna. The fishes were caught

at a point near to the bridge on the Deolali-Nasik road. The village of

Deolali is on the north bank, and a few hamlets on the south bank constitute

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FISH OF DEOLALI 505

a village called Edhgaon. At the time the spot was visited the river was

swollen with muddy flood water, turbulently rushing through. It was im-

practicable to effectively use a net. A spot was selected where it was possible

to cast a net from the bank and the fish were really taken from the surface

currents. The river here is 50 yards wide and was easily 20 feet deep as

a result of the storm waters. The bed in this section is rocky. Owing to

the villages in the close proximity the vegetation is scanty and the higher

earthy banks are grass-grown. In the dry weather there is less water, but

the flow is strong at all times. The river has its origin in the hills at

Anjem and Dhammia at an altitude of 4,295 feet above sea level. It is fed

from springs at various points along its course and there is a fair volume of

water running through at all times of the year. It is roughly 22 miles in

extent not taking into account the meanderings. It joins the river Darna

one mile west of the village Cheri and about 2 miles east of the village of

Deolali.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. “ise seh ay ... 46 specimens.

ii. Danio frasert Hora oe asi te ... II specimens.

iii. Barbus khudree Sykes ae wt ae ... 2 Specimens.

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ar a ... QI Specimens.

v. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) as or a ... 3 Specimens.

vi. Nemachilus dentsonii Day ae a ae ... I specimen.

vii. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. on 7 a ... I specimen.

6. The Darna river, at the ferry point near Bagoor village.

Deolali; 25-7-1935.

The fish were caught at a time when the river was swollen with flood

water. The banks are grass grown and there are a fair number of gum

acacia (babul) trees in the near precincts. The width of the river here is

80 to 100 yards (approximate). The depth near the banks is from 2 to 3 feet.

Midstream it must be 30 feet. The Darna river is a tributary of the Godaveri

and joins it some 10 miles east of Nasik City at a village called Darna

Sangava. It has its source in the hills around Igatpuri (Thall Ghats). It is

fed from springs and the waters from Lake Beale, which is 3 miles from

Aswali Railway Station (G.I.P.R.). This river flows in a_ north-easterly

direction and is one and a half miles east of Deolali Cantonment.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) 7 specimens.

ii. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 74 specimens.

iii. Chela phulo (Ham.) 13 specimens.

iv. Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) 21 specimens.

v. Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland) I specimen.

vi. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji me ae me 2 Specimens.

vii. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.)_... nes ae «, 14 Specimens.

viii. Barbus khudree Sykes 3 specimens.

ix. Barbus kolus Sykes 14 specimens.

x. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 28 specimens.

xi. Barbus (new species) I specimen.

xii. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 2 specimens.

xiii. Rohtee cotto (Ham.) nes 6 specimens.

xiv. Leptdocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) I Specimen.

xv. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xvi. Nemachilus denisoni Day a's a te Lespecimen,

xvii. Proeutroptichthys taakree (Sykes) a — ... 18 specimens.

xviii. Ambassis baculis (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xix. Ambassis nama (Ham.) I specimen.

xx. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 36 specimens.

7. Swimming pool of Barnes High School, Deolali in «the

course of Narsullah Wadi, a tributary of the Darna river. Deolali,

28-7-1935.

This channel has the features of the ‘North Nallah’. It is fed by springs

and during the rains rushes with storm water. In the dry weather the

0106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

volume and flow are poor. The flora on its banks and in the stream itself

is identical with that found in the North Nallah. The channel runs on the

southern boundary of Deolali Cantonment and is roughly 2 miles south of it.’

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ws ee aor .+. 41 specimens.

ii. Danio fraseri Hora “38 ee at .-» II specimens.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ee ee aoe -. 27, Specimens:

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) see oe ba ... IQ specimens.

8. The Darna river, at a point midway between the villages

of Sewnsuri and Beladgaon; 8-8-1935.

The river flows nearly due north from Sewnsuri onward past Beladgaon.

At the halfway point there is a stretch of about two furlongs extent where the

bed widens out and here the river is approximately 80 yards broad. About

35 yards of this width at the side of the west bank is a pebbled beach.

The river itself in this section flows in three separate streams of some 1o

15 and 20 yards width respectively. In between are some islands which

are grown with sedge and tall rushes. These islands appear to be shingle

in the form of dried silt and are alluvial in character. The main volume and

force of the water are exerted directly on the east bank, where the depth at

this season is easily 12 feet or more and in the dry season would be from

8 to 1o feet. The two lesser streams are ankle deep at the sides and knee

deep in the middle. The beds of the stream are pebbled and sanded, and in

parts rocky. The force and volume of water are good at all times of the

year; but the river is more swollen and muddy now due to the rains. The

relative height of the banks to the bed is 25 feet. Cultivated fields adjoin

the banks. The height above sea level is 1,800 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) . 41 specimens

ii. Barilius bendelists Ham. 40 specimens.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) I specimen.

iv. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.) 3 specimens.

v. Barbus chola (Ham.) 3 specimens.

vi. Barbus khudree Sykes 2 specimens.

vii. Barbus kolus Sykes 3 specimens.

vill. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 9g specimens.

ix. Barbus (new. species) 2 specimens.

x. Rohtee cotio (Ham.) I specimen.

xi. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) I specimen.

xii. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xiii. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch) I specimen.

xiv. Proeutropiichthys taakree (Sykes) 2 specimens.

xv. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. I specimen.

§. The Waldi river, near the village of Pimpalgaon Khamb;

17-8-1935.-

The Waldi river flows from west to east. The heights of the banks in

relation to the bed of the river are approximately fifty feet. The depth in

the section explored is roughly from one foot on the south bank to 8 feet

midstream and 12 feet at the river’s edge directly against the north bank,

where the main volume and force of the water are exerted. The width here

is 50 to 60 feet. The volume and flow of water are full and strong at all

times of the year, but at the time of the visit the river was moderately swollen

with muddy storm waters. The bed is also rocky and sanded and silted in

parts. In this particular section it is free from vegetation. The opposite bank

is precipitous and for a little more than half its height consists ot basalt

rock. The rounded and irregular earthy strata on the top fifty feet above

are covered with grass and heavily wooded with ‘babul’ and ‘mango’ trees.

The height above sea level is 1,900 feet.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. a 2 specimens.

ii. Danio aequtpinnatus (McClell. ) I specimen.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) set: 1. Hispecimen:

iv, Barbus khudree Sykes ie a ee ... 45 Specimens.

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v. Barbus kolus Sykes Bie ary seis: +. I Specimen.

vi.. Barbus ticto (Ham.) in me ss ... 67 specimens.

vii. Garra mullya (Sykes) fee ses nee ... I specimen.

viii. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) és “iat ar “.- 3 Specimens.

ix. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. ... eo Sis ae 2 SSPeClmens.

10. Lower section of Narsullah Wadi, near the village of

Bagoor; 25-8-1935.

Here the stream broadens out and flows over a rocky bed before reaching

a broad cutting between earthy banks. The width of the channel in this

section is some 30 yards. The north bank maintains a relative height of

30 feet above the water line of the stream, even at its junction with the

Darna and continues in an easterly direction as the north bank of the

Darna, which in this locality flows due east. The south bank of the Narsullah

Wadi slopes down from a height of 20 feet and ends flush with the north-

west bank of the Darna as the latter at the point of junction has a_ bend

in the course, deflecting it to the east. The depth of the section explored

is from 2 feet at the sides to 8 feet midstream. The bed of the stream here

is silted up. The upper and higher reach is rocky. The banks are grass-

grown and the edges of the stream are fringed with rushes and some weeds.

The volume of water is full and strong at all times of the year. At this

season the stream is moderately swollen with muddy flood water.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ae re en sss 27 Specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) ia fs ... II specimens.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ... re ee ... I specimen.

iv. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji = = oe ... 31 specimens.

v. Barbus ticto (Ham.) oes or ue .«_ 222 Specimens.

vi. Garra mullya (Sykes) dud es wo 1 2especimnens.

vii. Parapsilorhynchus (New species) 7 specimens.

viii. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) a I specimen.

ix. Nemachilus denisonit Day _... — RG wel specimen.

x. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. 5 specimens.

Il. Pool of a tributary ‘Nallah’ of the Darna river, near the

troth mile of the railway track on the Deolali to Igatpuri line;

20-8-1935.

The actual site of the pool in this ‘Nallah’ is some 200 yards from the

railway bridge. This pool has been naturally formed by the stream running

into a natural depression in the ground. Practically the whole of this is

rock and the outfall has been bunded up by a natural dam of rock over

which the water falls and continues its course in an easterly direction to

join the Darna. The relative height of the banks which are rock overlaid

by an earthy stratum is about 25 feet. The bed of the pool is silted up over

its rocky base. The width of the pool is 20 feet and its length is roughly

70 feet. The depth of water is from 2 to 33 feet. The earthy stratum is grown

with grasses and the highland in the vicinity is given over to cultivation.

The height above the sea level near this point is 1,852 feet. The total

extent of this tributary nallah is roughly 23 miles. It takes its origin

from springs which are located about half a mile or more due west

of the railway bridge and flows all the year though the volume is very poor

during the dry months. At this season it is flowing strongly with muddy

storm water drainage.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. eae ies ee -+. 3 Specimens.

ii. Rasbora dantconius (Ham.) ii “es < es) /L. Specimen.

12. The Darna river, near to the village of Sewnsuri; 8-9-1935.

The part explored was from the west bank against the village of ‘Sewnsuri’.

The greater part of this bank is rocky and shelving. The village is super-

imposed and built upon the part rocky base and part earthy layer which

uprises from the sheiving riverside, and is roughly 40 feet above the river.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

A road from the village leads down to the river and opens directly on to

the very wide and shelving rocky plinth. The village population is about

1,000. Lhe inhabitants use the river for all purposes. Their cattle are also

bathed in the river. A local industry of preparing raw hides is carried on

in this village. The fresh skins are scraped and cleaned at the river side

and then dried. The scrapings from the hides pollute the river and_ the

portion of the bank where the work is done is therefore very insanitary.

The shelving plinth is free from vegetation and is roughly 80 yards long and

30 yards or more broad. In the south corner of the plinth is a small temple

with a shrine, the base of which is just over the water line. The villagers

throw food stuff into the river and- feed the fish. They do “nee

object to fishes being caught; they invite you even on the temple site and

in a friendly spirit show you the likely spots where big fish are to be had.

The width of the river is about 4o feet and the depth is from 3 to 4 feet on

the west bank, from 4 to 5 feet midstream and one foot on the east bank

where there is a sanded beach. The opposite bank is from tio to 15 feet

high and is grown with grasses and bordered with fields under cultivation.

The bed of the river on the side of the west bank is practically all rock.

Midstream it is sanded and silted. The volume of water is good at all times

of the year. Now the river is moderately swollen and muddy with storm

water. The height above the sea level is approximatey 1,820 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) ba = _ -.» | - 1, Speemmenr

ii. Barilius bendelists Ham. - ee oe ..« 6 Specimens:

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ee tes Sag I specimen.

iv. Barbus chola (Ham.) “ies Sars ae v3 Specimens

v. Barbus kolus Skyes ae ie nas -. ” I Specimen

vi. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ae vee we ... 123 Specimens:

vii. Barbus (new species) Ris sfc sas 4 specimens.

viii. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) _ ... me + 1O Specimens:

ix. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) — ... oe — -. Ii Specimens:

x. Nemachilus denisoni Day sig rs 1 12 Specimens:

xi. Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) nssk sa) =. 2 Specimens:

xii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) was 2 | I SPECIINEn:

xiii. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. ‘ee sa so — O“SPeCiMenis:

xiv. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. - sis .. 2 Specimens:

xv. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) oh: oe Bas .. . Specimens:

xvi. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) I specimen.

13. Middle section of the Narsullah Wadi meandering through

the Barnes High School Estate; 12-9-1935.

For the description of the locality see No. to.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. a ve 2.5. 9) Speciinens:

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) a3 sim ... 23 Specimens.

ili. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji ay aid see ... 112 specimens;

iv. Garra mullya (Sykes) By se eae J+ 13 Specimens:

v. Parapsilorhynchus (new species) ee de ... 18 specimens.

vi. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) ... fe == 32 Specimens:

vil. Nemachilus denisonti Day ... eo ee «-« 60 Specimens:

viii. Nemachilus evezardi Day ons one s.- | 4 Specimens:

14. Pool at the source of the Narsullah Wadi; 12-9-1935.

The upper section of the ‘Narsullah Wadi’ courses down through narrow

shallow channels from 4 to 5 feet wide and is barely ankle deep except in the

two or three pools in its whole extent where the water is knee deep. It is fed

from a series of three springs which issue and originate at the bases of

two tors, the chief one of which is named ‘Siva Donghai’; 23527;

feet above the sea level. This region is a stony waste except in certain

parts which are sparsely grown with grass. For roughly a mile~in’ this

section the bed of the stream is rocky and sanded. Thereafter the terrain

becomes earthy black soil and the banks are bordered with fields under

cultivation. At this season ‘bajri’ and: ‘groundnut’ are in evidence. The

fishes in. this batch were taken from a rocky pool fed from the three springs

FISH OF DEOLALI 509

in its close vicinity at the foot of the tors. The banks are in part earthy

and are grown with grasses and the flora usually found on the banks of

rivers and streams in this area. The pool is 12 by 1o feet wide and knee deep.

The bed is rocky. The altitude of the pool would be roughly 2,100 feet above

sea_ level.

i. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ve Las vo .. 42Specimens.

li. Parapsilorhynchus (new species) a et ».» 37 Specimens.

iii. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) See ae: +. I Specimen:

iv. Nemachilus evezardi Day = es oh pee 2 Specimens.

15. Quarry Tank, at the end of Dhondy Road, Deolali Can-

tonment; I9-9-1935.

These fishes were taken from a quarry accumulation of water brought

about by blasting operations carried out sometime in the past. As a _ result

of these operations either a spring or some sub-soil source of water supply.

has been tapped and the ooze from below has made the area into a permanently

filled tank. Obviously because of its potentialities for breeding mosquitoes

this tank has been stocked with fish. No information is available as to when

the tank became thus artificially formed; nor is the year known when the fishes

were put into it. At present the water in it is not used for any purpose and

is left neglected except for the regular visits paid to it by the Anti-Malarial

Squad who examine it for the presence of mosquito larvae. These however

appear not to be able to thrive in it owing to the presence of the fishes. The

water accumulation as it now exists presents the form of nearly a square

about 40 by 50 feet. Its depth would be about 25 feet from the surface

of the banks. The depth of the water is well over 12 feet. It consists of

practically solid basalt rock save for the earthy strata upon the banks. At

the south end a section of the bank slopes down to the water edge and

has a base of rock overlaid by a surface layer of earth. The rest of the

bank is steeply upright from the surface of the water and is grass-grown.

The water in it is dirty looking with a scum and algae floating on its surface.

It is now teeming with a new species of Rasbora which do not appear to have

suffered by the change in environment from that of a running stream to a

still water tank. The nearest stream is the ‘North Nallah’ which is three

furlongs distant from this tank. I mention this fact in order to support

the statement that the tank must have been stocked with this species, as

there is no connection between it and the North Nalla unless it be a subterranean

one. I have failed to discover any other species in it.

i. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji ae a6 on ... 74 Specimens.

i6. The Aounda river, west of the road bridge between Aswali

Ratlway Station and Lake Beale; 29-9-1935.

The road bridge mentioned is one mile and a furlong from Lake Beale

and the ‘Aounda’ river courses under it and meanders on due east until it

joins the river ‘Darna’ below the dam. The ‘Aounda’ river has its origin in

the heights south of ‘Anjem’. These heights are the southerly ranges

extending in an easterly direction towards ‘Ambli’ at an average height of 4,000

feet above the sea level. The springs and the drainage from the northern

face of these heights help to swell the ‘Waldi’ river, while those on the

southern aspects feed the river ‘Aounda’, flowing from it in a_ southerly

direction until it meets the ‘Kharki’ nallah some ten miles south of its origin.

About four miles north above the point of junction with the ‘Kharki’ nallah,

near to a village called ‘Raju’ the ‘Aounda’ is joined by two other tributary

nallahs, namely, the ‘Choni’ and ‘Kohki’ nallahs, all of which flow south

and are perennial streams adding to its volume. The river ‘Aounda’, in its

extent, is roughly 25 miles in all up to its junction with the river ‘Darna’.

From the junction with the ‘Kharki’ nallah the course is irregular. It flows

scuth-east for a mile or so and then turns north for 3 to 4. miles, afte?

which it meanders in a south-easterly direction and finally due east up to

the junction with the ‘Darna’. In the stretch explored, west of the road

bridge referred to, the river .flows from west to east. Here are the remains of

a former road bridge which at some remote period must have been washed away

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

by a flood, as there are breaches in its length and the masonry bases of the

piles supporting the former structure are now submerged. The existing masonry

remains uprise from the river banks on either side to a height of ten feet. These

show evidence of considerable erosion. West of this ruined bridge is a large

expanse of water about one hundred yards long and 60 feet broad with a

varying depth of 2 feet at the sides to 4 feet midstream. The fishes in this

batch were taken from this section. The north bank is earthy and grown with

vegetation and heavily wooded with ‘babul’ (gum acacia). The relative height

of this bank to the bed of the river is about 25 feet. The south bank in

its total extent is shelved with basalt rock sloping to the river’s edge. Above

this rocky plinth there is an earthy stratum rising to a height varying from 15

to 20 feet. This bank is bordered by fields under cultivation. The bed of the

river is rocky and sanded for the greater portion of its width except for

the shallows of the north bank which is silted up. The river was moderately

swollen with muddy storm water at the time of the visit. The volume and

flow were full and strong in midstream. The altitude is roughly 1,800 teet

above sea level.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 2 specimens.

ii. Barilius bendelisis Ham. I specimen.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

iv. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) I specimen.

v. Barbus chrysopoma C. & V. I specimen.

vi. Barbus kolus Sykes I specimen.

vii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) I specimen.

vill. Garra mullya (Sykes) 6 specimens.

ix. Labeo calbasu (Ham.) Ge I specimen.

x. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) sit he ape .. § Specimens.

xi. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) I specimen.

xii. Ambassia ranga (Ham.) “6 - ans specimen.

xiil. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) uae ae ae ... 3 Specimens:

17. The Aounda river, + mile west of Lake Beale Dam;

6-10-1935.

The stretch of water is some 120 yards long and of a uniform width of

nearly 60 feet. The river in this section flows in a_ slightly north-easterly

direction. The depth is from 2 feet at the sides to roughly 6 feet midstream.

There is a good volume of water flowing through with a_ strong centrally

running current. The water was slightly turbid with mud. The south-east

bank is in part an earth embankment 12 to 18 feet high and is grown with

long grass and a few ‘babul’ trees. It is bordered with cultivated fields.

The continuity of this bank then gives place to rocky plinths which slope to

the water edge and in parts are precipitous up to a height of 5 to 10 feet.

The opposite bank is for the whole length of this section a sanded beach 40

feet wide; and more inland to this it is earthy and grown with grasses and

heavily wooded with acacia (babul). The bed: of the river on the side

of the north-west bank is sanded and the south-east bank is silted up in

parts and where the rocky plinth begins it is composed of rock and_ sand.

Midstream it is silted. There are no villages in this locality. The altitude

above the sea level is 1,800 feet.

i. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) ee ae ies ... J specimen.

ii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) ee _ ae + | 4 Specimens:

18. Pool at the head of a nallah draining into the Aounda

river; 6-10-1935.

The length of this ‘Nallah’ stream is not more than two furlongs

and the spring and the pool formed by it are just below the road

running from Lake Beale Dam to ‘Aswali’ railway station (G.I.P.R.). The

stream begins here and in its course is of a varying width but never more

than 8 feet in its broadest section. It is ankle deep in some parts and

in other sections barely a few inches. The bed of the ‘Nallah’ has a

steep gradient and is practically rock throughout its whole length except near

FISH OF DEOLALI 511

to its junction with the ‘Aounda’ river. It runs through cultivated fields of

‘bajri’?. The height of the pool above the river Aounda is at least 50 feet.

The volume and flow are poor. The bed of the pool is rock and its depth is

2 feet. The width and breadth is to by 12 feet.

i. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) tre es oe Lo SPeclineit:

ii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ed die ... 27 Specimens.

iii. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) si sre ... 18 specimens.

19. Section of the Aounda river, 5 miles west of Lake Beale

Dam; 15-10-1935.

The river here bends from under the railway track, which is bridged

over, and curving northward reaches after a 5 furlongs run the site from

which the fish were collected. The direction of the river at this point is due

north. The volume of the water was great and at the time of the visit the

river was swollen with muddy storm waters, with the force of the current

directed against the west bank. The east bank is a pebbled stretch of a length

of go and a breadth of 20 feet. From this beach to a height of to feet is

an earth embankment overgrown with grass and bordered by fields under

cultivation (bajri crop). The opposite bank is all shelving rock. In the high

sections of this rocky base are some sparsely grown patches of grass. The

bed of the river is pebbled throughout. The depth of the water is from

2 feet at the sides to 4 feet midstream. The largest fish in this batch weighing

when caught 1 lb. and 2 oz. was taken near the edge of the west bank. Here

the bed is rocky and sanded, but at the water’s edge there was a growth

of rushes, which was localised to a small patch where there is a gathering

of silt.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham.

2 specimens.

ii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

iii. Barbus khudree Sykes I specimen.

iv. Barbus kolus Sykes I specimen.

v. Barbus melanostigma Day 3 Specimens.

vi. Barbus pinnauratus Day 4 specimens.

vii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) I specimen.

viii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 3 Specimens.

ix. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 2 specimens.

x. Nangra viridescens (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xi. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) I specimen.

20. & 21. West side sloping rocky channel which conducts

the released waters from Lake Beale via the Dam directly into

the river Darna at the point of its junction with the Aounda river;

15-10-1935.

Lake Beale, (named after the Engineer who built the dam) is 17 miles

long and 2 miles broad in its widest section. The dam was built across the

course of the river ‘Darna’ in 1912 and converted a large area of the

depression through which the ‘Darna’ river originally coursed into a lake. The

dam is about one mile in extent and on an average 4o feet in height. The

depth of water in the lake against the dam is from 8 to 10 feet. Krom the dam

the waters rush over a wide and steep rocky bed interspersed with large

boulders of basalt rock and become divided into two streams; one on _ the

west side and the other on the east side of the wide rocky bed. The fishes

were caught in the west channel which is 30 feet wide and about 2 furlongs

in extent. Owing to the steep gradient of the rocky bed the waters swirl

down in a roaring torrent. When there is an increased volume of water

flowing through this channel from the lake it is dangerous for a man_ to

negotiate a passage through it. Bhil fishermen however manage to do so

only at a certain point, where a section of this channel, about midway in its

length, levels out for 10 feet or more and here in this patch the fishermen

cast their nets regularly every evening with the certainty of securing fishes

of large size weighing up to 3 lb. The gates of the dam are opened regularly

during the monsoon months and occasionally during the dry months and at

512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

the time of the visit the water flowing through the channel was in great

volume owing to some of the gates on the west side of the dam _ having

been opened. In the level patch referred to above, the depth of the water

depends upon the volume rushing through it. It may be knee deep or at

its greatest height about 3 feet or more. At the end of the 2 furlongs

run the channels below the dam, which constitute the river ‘Darna’, are joined

by the river ‘Aounda’ and this junction creates a wide expanse of water

seething and foaming with swirling currents rushing over beds of pure rock

without evidence of any vegetation on its banks. The altitude of the dam

is 1,875. feet and the levels of the junction of the two rivers would be

1,800 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) ses sd ie .. 10 specimens.

ii. Barbus khudree Sykes I specimen.

iii. Barbus kolus Sykes 3 specimens.

iv. Barbus sarana (Ham.) 2 specimens.

v. Wallago attu (Bloch) I specimen.

vi. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 5 specimens.

vii. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) 3 specimens.

22. The Darna river at. its junction with the Aounda river at

the point where the rocky channel conducting waters from Lake

Beale levels out with the Darna river; 20-10-1935.

The wide expanse of waters at the junction of the two rivers mentioned

is roughly 120 yards broad and about 2 furlongs in extent. It is an area

composed mostly of rock. The north bank is in part a sanded beach giving

place to sloping rocks and interspersed with large boulders. The river ‘Aounda’

section is less agitated by the currents and becomes turbulent when joined

by the furious waters from the ‘Darna’ river channels which conduct the

released waters from Lake Beale. The average depth is 3 feet but midstream

in the wide expanse it is from 6 to 8 feet in certain parts. There is no

vegetation on the banks.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 6 specimens.

ii. Chela phulo (Ham.) 3 specimens.

iil. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) I specimen.

iv. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) 7 specimens.

v. Barbus pinnauratus Day I specimen.

vi. Barbus sarana (Ham.) 2 specimens.

vii. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) I specimen.

viii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 2 specimens.

ix.: Labeo porcellus (Heckel) 2 specimens.

x. Rohtee duvaucelii (C. & V.) I specimen.

xi. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xii. Ambassis nama (Ham.) 4 specimens.

xiii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) 104 Specimens.

xiv. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) 5 specimens.

23. The Godaveri river, 1 mile east of the Indore road bridge

east of Nasik city; 29-10-1935.

The river in this section flows due east, and it is moderately swollen

with storm waters and the force of the current is directed against the north

bank owing to a slight bend in the run. The north bank rises 25 feet above

the water level and it is composed of a rocky base of about 10 feet with an

earthy layer of 15 feet above. The south bank is on an average 20 feet

above a sanded beach which is 30 yards broad. The width of the river is

roughly 110 feet. I am told that when the river is in flood the expanse of

the river is then 200 feet and nearly reaches the top of both the north and

south banks. At the time of the visit the waters had receded and the sanded

beach referred to above had become exposed. The land in the precints of

both the banks is grown with fruit orchards—grape vineyards, guava, plantains,

and -citrons.. On the banks there are many tamarind and babul trees.. The

FISH OF DEOLALI

bed of the river is pebbled and silted up. The depth is on an

513

average 2

feet on the south bank edges, midstream it must be 3 to 4 feet and 6 feet

towards the north bank edge. The height above sea level is 1,300 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 13 specimens.

ii. Chela phulo (Ham.) 8 specimens.

iii. Barilius bendelisis Ham. : 7 specimens.

iv. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 4 specimens.

v. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 3 Specimens.

vi. Barbus khudree Sykes 7 specimens.

vii. Barbus kolus Sykes 2 specimens.

vill. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 5 specimens.

ix. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

x. Garra mullya (Sykes) 16 specimens.

xi. Labeo boggut (Sykes) I specimen.

xii. Rohtee cotio (Ham.) I specimen.

xiii. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) I specimen.

xiv. Nemachilus evezardi Day. ; I5 specimens.

xv. Glyptothorax lunah (Sykes) ... I specimen.

xvi. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. I specimen.

xvii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) Ma I specimen.

xviii. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) g specimens.

24. North Nallah stream, from pools below the Deolali Can-

tonment Bazaar; 31-10-1935.

For description, see the account of locality No. 1.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 105 specimens.

ii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji 27 specimens.

iii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 2 specimens.

iv. Garra mullya (Sykes) 2 specimens.

v. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) Ig specimens.

vi. Nemachilus denisonii Day ... I specimen.

vii. Nemachilus evezardi Day 2 specimens.

25. Middle section of the Narsullah Wadi running through

Barnes High School estate; 1-11-1935.

For description, see the account of locality No. 1o.

i. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji 118 specimens.

li. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 3 Specimens.

iii. Garra mullya (Sykes) cas I specimen.

iv. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) 17 specimens.

26. Section of the Darna river at its junction with the Waldi

river up to the village of Chedi; 7-11-1935.

The river has subsided but still flows

are particularly forceful near the bridge.

average, midstream,

force of the current is against the south bank. Both the banks

and shelving down to sandy beaches about 30 feet wide on either

north bank leading down

pebbled beach (approximately 30 yards),

but is now dry. The bed of the river

silted up.

the depth of the run

which during the rains is

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) I

“ii. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 6

iii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji I

iv. Barbus khudree Sykes I

v. Barbus sarana (Ham.) I

vi. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 16

Garra mullya (Sykes)

with very strong currents

about 3 feet with shallows of one foot at the sides.

which

on an

The

are earthy

side. The

from the village of Chedi has a more extensive

submerged

is pebbled throughout and in parts is

specimen.

specimens.

specimen.

specimens.

514 JOURNAL; BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

vill. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) ne Ass one ..» 4 Specimens.

ix. Ambassis rvanga (Ham.) ack aie aes ».. . 6 Specimens:

x. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) se cee .-» 3 Specimens.

27. The Waldi river near the villages of Deolali and Edhgaon;

I 4-11-1935.

The Waldi river here flows from west to east and the villages of Edhgaon

and Deolali lie on the south and north bank respectively. The banks and

the bed of the river are composed of basalt rock throughout. The flow and

volume of water in the river are strong and good. The depth is from 2 feet

at the sides to 3 feet midstream. The width is from 4o to 50 feet. The height

above sea level is about 1,850 feet. The height of the banks from the

bed of the river is about 30 feet.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. wine bis ---. 25 Specimens:

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (MeCtell.) att ae u. )) 2, (Specimens:

ili. Barbus khudree Sykes 3 specimens.

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) a als ‘ ... II specimens.

v. Garra mullya (Sykes) das See a ... 41 Specimens.

vi. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) a ae Bs 6 2 Specimens:

28. The Godaveri river, one mile east of the Indore Road

Bridge east of Nasik city; 8-12-1935.

Since the last visit (vide locality No. 22) the river has considerably sub-

sided and the pebbled beach is exposed and is covered with a layer of silt.

This beach inclines down from the south bank to the water’s edge and in

extent would be 150 feet broad and roo yards or more in length. The force

of the very sluggish flow is against the north bank and there is a large

amount of green algae in evidence, fragments are seen floating in the surface

scum and the water generally is very filthy looking and ashen in colour.

The depth of the water in its deepest part against the north bank is 33 feet

and in the shallows of the edge against the south beach it is barely a foot

in depth. The beach referred to above is being ploughed up and in parts of

it cucumber and water melons seeds are being sown. All the specimens of

the species Barbus ticto—Bhil name ‘Tiptoo’—taken on this day in this section

of the river showed a scarlet pigmentation of the body scales and the caudal

and dorsal fins were similarly stained. They have lost this colouration in

spirits.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 3 specimens.

ii. Garra mullya (Sykes): I specimen.

iil. Barbus khudree Sykes 7 specimens.

iv. Barbus kolus Sykes 7e 5 specimens.

v. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ne sds ee +. 27 Specimens:

29. Pool in the course of the North Nallah; 14-12-1935.

This pool is a small one about 30 by 4o feet and from 2 to 3 feet in depth.

The bed is all rocky and so are the banks on either side. There is no

vegetation in the locality. It is roughly one mile and a half from the junction

of the ‘North Nallah’ with the Darna river. It is 1,830 feet above sea level.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. oa ae -. 9 Specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) se ee ... 26 specimens.

iii. Rasbora dantconius (Ham.) aos car .-» § Specimens.

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) oe sae Ba ... 141 Specimens.

v. Garra mullya (Sykes) ee P .» I specimen.

vi. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham. ) as a ... 2 specimens.

30. The Darna river, 1 mile from Ghote Railway Station,

26-12-1935.

Here the river Darna is about 50 yards wide. The current is strong

midstream and the relative heights of the banks above the water’s level are

10 to 15 feet. The banks are grown with the usual and varied flora. The

FISH OF. DEOLALT 515

bed of the river is silted up and appears to be earthy. The depth midstream

is about 6 feet and 2 feet at the sides. The height above sea level is roughly

1,950 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) ah wi aa 2a Specimen:

ii. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) eee 2s ... 13 Specimens.

iii. Barbus sarana (Ham.) se ae sion ... 2 Specimens.

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 3 Specimens.

v. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) 3 Specimens.

vi. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) see 7 specimens.

31. The Darna river, one furlong from Ghote Railway Station ;

28-12-1935.

Here the river is about 60 yards wide and curves northwards parallel with

the railway track. It is about a furlong from the Railway Station. The

banks are rocky in the greater part of this section and the bed at the river

edge is composed of rocky plinths, parts of which are silted. The current is

strong midstream and the depth must be at least eight feet. At the edge

of the river on the west bank the depth is from 2 to 3 feet and it suddenly

deepens towards the middle. The height above sea level would be about

1,900 feet.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) rn wie a: ...° 3 Specimens.

ii Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) fan ihe ... 6 specimens.

iii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)_... see es ... 8 specimens.

iv. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) ... Lise Bs ... 8 specimens.

v. Barbus pinnauratus Day ss is 28% vo 2 Specimen,

vi. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ee se is ... 18 specimens.

vii. Garra mullya (Sykes) sas ey wr 122. Specimens.

viii. Rohtee duvaucelii (C. & Vv.) “ae me ... IT specimen.

ix. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) ... _ ae --- 3 Specimens.

x. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) ze ay rr ... 22 specimens.

xi. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. ee ie ... 2 Specimens.

xii. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) oe ae se «» — 9 Specimens.

32. Section of the North Nallah which runs by _ Deolali

Cantonment Bazaar; 2-1-1936.

All these fishes were caught in a section of the ‘North Nallah’ which runs

by the Deolali Cantonment Bazaar. Here the ‘water is strongly alkaline to

litmus paper. The depth of water in the stream is from 4 to 2 feet and the

bed is silted over a rocky base. There is much washing of clothes done at

this point and the water is soapy and foul smelling as it tends to stagnate

owing to a sluggish surface flow. In the silt, particularly at the edges of the

stream, worms can be found at all times of the year. It was observed that

Barilius bendelisis partly buried themselves in the silt in order to hide and

escape our efforts to catch them and it was found easier to simply lift the

silt and then pick out the fishes buried in it. It was then also discovered

that worms were present in the silt.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. she aie oe ... 64 Specimens.

33. Lower section of Narsullah Wadi, near to Bagoor village;

8-1-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. to.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 6 specimens.

li. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.). 5 specimens.

iil. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 7 specimens.

iv. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.) I specimen.

v. Barbus khudree Sykes . 2 specimens.

vi. Barbus ticto (Ham.) . 33 specimens.

vii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 4 specimens.

vill. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) I specimen.

ix. Ophicephalus gachua Ham, .., a 7 me specimens.

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

34. Pool in the course of the North Nallah; 10-1-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 28.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 3 specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) _ oS Be ..., 2 Specimens:

iii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji Ae ae ee 1. 13 Specimens

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) xed me ..« 12 Specimens.

v. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) ie Eee .-» | 1, specimens

vi. Nemachilus denisonii Day be iG oes -i9 re SpPeCciment

vii. Nemachilus evezardi Day 8 specimens.

35. One furlong run above the 10 feet Dam in the middle

section of the Narsullah Wadi; 19-1-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 10

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 2 specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) one a: . i Specimens

ili. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) _... oe a ... 21 specimens.

iv. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji is bie a =e QO; Specumenics

v. Barbus ticto (Ham.) se a ay ... 75 Specimens:

vi. Garra mullya (Sykes) : ae cial ... II specimens.

vii. Parapsilorhynchus (New species) Eee ve ... 19 specimens.

viii. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) see ..+ 3 Specimens:

ix. Nemachilus evezardi Day es aise Ss ... -4 Specimens:

x. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. I specimen.

36. The Darna river, near the village of Sewnsuri; 30-1-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 12

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. 6 specimens.

ii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) I specimen.

iii. Barbus khudree Sykes 8 specimens.

iv. Barbus kolus Sykes I specimen.

v.. Barbus ticto (Ham.) site oe = ... 28 specimens,

vi. Garra mullya (Sykes) ce aie ee “. T1=specimens:

vii. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) oe 3.7 De speoimen:

viii. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) 2 specimens.

ix. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) I specimen.

3/7. The Darna river, near the village Sewnsuri; 30-1-1936.

The fish were caught at the sides of the river in a portion of it which

was but a few inches deep and where there was no current. The bed was

a silt-covered sanded section and water was strongly alkaline to litmus paper

while the temperature of the water in this particular spot at 3 p.m. was

86 degrees F. All of these specimens appear to be very young examples of

Barilius bendelisis. Bhil name—‘Jhor’.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ee ms ... 2% Specimens:

38. The Darna river, in the run south of Lahavit Railway

Station; 4-2-1936.

The width of the river here is some 60 feet. The river flows from south-

west to north-east. The banks are earthy and the height above the water

level is 3 feet. The south bank is bordered with fields under cultivation. while

the north bank is wooded with Babul trees. The bed of the river is silted up

over an earthy base and it is rankly overgrown with water weeds which

at the edges of the river are 4 feet in length. The depth midstream must

be 12. feet and at the edges 5 feet. The stretch itself is a straight run

of about 23 furlongs length and the current is particularly strong midstream.

The height above sea level is 1,820 feet.

i. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) ie - .. | 2 Specimens:

ii. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.) sins ‘ae --- I Specimen,

FISH OF DEOLALI oo 517

iii. Anguilla anguilla (Ham.) I specimen.

iv. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) I specimen.

v. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 4 specimens.

vi. Barbus kolus Sykes I specimen.

vii. Barbus sarana (Ham.) 2 specimens.

viii. Cirrhina reba (Ham.) I specimen.

ix. Labeo boggut (Sykes) 3 Specimens.

x. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) : I specimen.

xi. Ophicephalus leucopunctatus Sykes I specimen.

39. Pool in the course of North Nallah, below the Deolali

Cantonment bazaar; 10-2-1936.

For description, see the account of locality No. 1

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ..89 specimens.

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) ies ae Bee la Specimen

iii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji en me a8 -. 7O Specimens.

iv. Barbus ticto (Ham.) . I specimen.

v. Garra mullya (Sykes) = - es 2 specimens.

vi. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) sae Aa ... 4 Specimens.

vii. Nemachilus denisonit Day 2 specimens.

40. East channel, below Lake Beale Dam; 24-2-1936.

The east channel courses down at a steep gradient but midway there is

a section of the run which levels out for about 50 yards and here there is

a good growth of the usual flora on the banks and the area is wooded with

Babul trees. This stretch was explored at a time when the sluice gates

were open and the channel was rushing and roaring with the torrents. The

bed here is composed of rock throughout and the depth varies from 2 to 4

feet. The volume and force of the current was full and very strong. The

width of the channel is from 6 feet to 40 feet in the level area. The

total length of the channel from the sluice gates to where the waters once

again level out at a point some 200 yards below the junction of the. west

channel with the Aounda river is roughly 3 furlongs. The gradient is less

steep than that of the west channel and the whole of it is practically rock

throughout. The distance between the west and east channels corresponds to

the length of Lake Beale Dam itself. In between are some small rills and

collections of water which are of no importance and the whole of the area

consists of basalt rock plinths and boulders of large size.

For other particulars see the notes connected with locality No. 20.

i. Chela phulo (Ham.) 7 specimens.

ii. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) 8 specimens.

iii. Barbus amphibius (C. & V.) I specimen.

iv. Barbus khudree Sykes : 2 specimens.

v. Barbus kolus Sykes I specimen.

vi. Barbus ticto (Ham.) 7 specimens.

vii. Cirrhina reba (Ham.) 16 specimens.

viii. Garra mullya (Sykes) 7 specimens.

ix. Labeo boggut (Sykes) Aan 5 Specimens.

x. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) I specimen.

xi. Nemachilus botius (Ham.) I Specimen.

xii. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch) 3 Specimens.

xiii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) I specimen.

xiv. Ophicephalus gachua Ham. I specimen.

xv. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. I specimen.

xvi. Ambassis baculis (Ham.) 2 specimens.

xvii. Ambassis nama (Ham.) . 6 specimens.

Xvill. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) : . 24 specimens.

xix. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) is} ae . 37 Specimens.

ol8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY \NATURALWHIST. SOCIETY, Wool: XXX

41. The Darna river, between the village of Sewnsuri and

Deladgaon ; 7-3-1936.

On the day of the visit there was only one main stream and this flowed

directly by the east bank. The current was strong and full but with a less

volume of water. The width was also slightly less.

i. Chela clupeotdes (Bloch) oe nie mls ... II Specimens.

ii. Barilius bendelisis Ham. Has i -.- O7 Specimens:

ili. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) ne a .. . 2° Specimens:

iv. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.) ae a ... 24 Specimens.

v. Barbus khudree Sykes eye a a8 -.. 45 Specimens.

vi. Barbus kolus Sykes alk as a ... 5 Specimens.

vii. Barbus sarana (Ham.) : ae me ..' 2 Specimens.

viii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) ne nie Set ws.» 3 Specimens:

ix. Crossochilus latius (Ham.) se tee ag -... 3 Specimens:

x. Garra mullya_ (Sykes) ae ee ae .-- 93 Specimens.

xi. Labeo boggut (Sykes) a fe nee ... 28 specimens.

42. The Darna river between the villages of Sewnsuri. and

Beladgaon; 18-3-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 8.

i. Chela phulo (Ham.)

ii. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ‘ 8

iii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell.) 8

iv. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.) I specimen.

v. Aspidoparia morar (Ham.) He whe ... 2 Specimens:

vi. Barbus khudree Sykes it be see ... 6 Specimens.

specimens.

vil. Barbus sarana (Ham.) specimens.

viii. Garra mullya (Sykes) specimens.

ix. Labeo boggut (Sykes) specimens.

43, Pool in the course of the North Nallah; 29-3-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 29.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. a < ... 23° Specimens,

ii. Danio aequipinnatus (McClell. te or .. 2) Specimens:

iii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) sn ue ... 12) Specimens:

44, Pool in the course of the North Nallah; 15-4-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 29.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. eh nen ais a... “5 Specimens:

it. Rasbora danicomus (Fatm.)° .... ae sia ss, 1 < Specimen.

iii. Barbus ticto (Ham.) Bae a“ set ... 126 specimens.

iv. Garra mullya (Sykes) oon 2 eas .-. 4 Specimens.

45. Pool in the course of the North Nallah; 20-5-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 29.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. ae ae rF ... 19 Specimens.

ii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji ae 4 a, ... 31 specimens.

ili. Garra mullya (Sykes) ue oee ae ... JO Specimens.

iv. Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.) I specimen.

46. The Darna river, near Lahavit; 28-4-1936.

Tor description, see account of locality No. 38.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. I specimen.

ii. Barbus khudree Sykes I specimen.

iii. Barbus kolus Sykes 6 specimens.

iv. Barbus parrah (Day) I specimen.

v. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) 5 specimens.

vi. Rohtee vigorsii Sykes 3 specimens.

vii. Wallago attu (Bloch) I specimen.

viii. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) 5 specimens.

FISH OF DEOLALI 519

47, The Darna river, between the village of Sewnsuri and

Beladgaon; 29-4-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 8.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. aes ‘o, 3. specimens.

ii. Barbus khudree Sykes re te Sek «3 Specimens.

iii. Barbus kolus Sykes sia a aa <9 LO Specimens.

iv. Barbus melanostigma Day I

v. Barbus sarana (Ham.) 3 Specimens.

vi. Garra mullya (Sykes) oe se i. Lespecimen.

vii. Labeo porcellus (Heckel). sae be 363 ... 4 specimens.

vill. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) I specimen.

specimen.

48. The Darna river, near Lahavit Railway Station; 3-5-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 38.

i. Barbus khudree Sykes 3 Specimens.

ii. Barbus kolus Sykes 4 specimens.

iii. Barbus sarana (Ham. I specimen.

iv. Labeo porcellus (Heckel). 3 specimens.

v. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) I specimen.

49. The Darna river, near Lahavit Railway Station; 10-5-1936.

For description, see account of locality No. 38.

i. Chela clupeoides (Bloch) 2 specimens.

li. Barbus kolus Sykes 8 specimens.

iii. Barbus sarana (Ham.) I specimen.

iv. Labeo porcellus (Heckel) 3 Specimens.

v. Rohtee vigorsii Sykes I specimen.

vi. Mystus cavasius (Ham.) 22 specimens.

90. Section of the North Nallah, below the Deolali Cantonment

bazaar; 20-5-1936.

On this date this section of the ‘North Nallah’ contained a small amount

of water confined to a channel which was 5 feet in width and was eight

inches deep. There was no flow and the continuity of the channel had dried

up below it for about go yards. The water was stagnant and foul smelling

and strongly alkaline to litmus paper and the temperature of the water at

2p.m. was 96° .F.

i. Barilius bendelisis Ham. oo es ak ... 74 Specimens.

ii. Rasbora labiosa Mukerji ne a on ... 2 specimens.

iii. Parapsilorhynchus (new species) sie ane --- I specimen.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

SAtim Att and Humayun ABDULALI.

ParT IT.

(With three plates).

(Continued from page 103 of this volume).

The Pied Bush-Chat ; Saxicola caprata atrata Blyth.

Field identification: Size about that of a Sparrow. The male is jet black

with white patches on the shoulders, particularly conspicuous in flight. The

abdomen and base of tail both above and below are also white. The female

is a soberly coloured brown bird with a patch of rusty reddish at the base of

tail above, especially noticeable when on the wing. Frequents bare stony

and sparse scrub country in the neighbourhood of cultivation and habitations.

Specimens: Khandala birds examined by Whistler vide J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii,

p. 284.

EHA, both in The Common Birds of Bombay and in Nests & Eggs (ii, 42)

says that the Pied Bush-chat is to be found ‘across the Harbour’ and that it

‘retires to the hills to breed’. Though not actually observed in Salsette, S. A.

has a record of a pair seen on the out-skirts of a babool jungle near Kihim,

on 317th September.

The atrata form is a common resident in the Ghats but as a bird seen

at Nandur-Madhmeshwar, Niphad (Nasik) during Christmas 1933 was almost

certainly of the bicolor form, it is probable that the low country records for

the cold weather refer largely to this northern migratory race.

Breeding: It breeds commonly in the Ghats from April to early June

at Khandala, Panchgani and in the neighbouring country. We have also

observed pairs at Arthur Hill Lake (Bhandardara) near Ghoti in May.

The nest is the usual pad of grass, hair, etc. placed under a stone or

in a hoof-hole, in open or sparsely wooded country. Both parents assist

in feeding the young. During the breeding season the male has a pretty

song of several notes.

The Indian Stone-Chat : Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth).

Field identification: Size same as last—about that of a Sparrow. Males

have a black head and a conspicuous white collar. The breast is reddish-brown

and there is a white shoulder patch as in the foregoing. The female is plain

brown and not unlike the female of the Pied Bush-chat except that it lacks

the red patch at base of tail. Frequents cultivation and out-skirts, and open

sparsely scrubbed country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. Q ? 30-1-21 Santa Cruz (B.C.E.); @ 5-2-24 Andhéri

(S.H.P.); G 25-1-13 Santa ‘Croz (N.B.K.): St XxX. Civ 157 Andhénie yoriesce

234 Andhéri 22-3-35 (H.A.).

This is a fairly common winter visitor—the two specimens 157 (7

November) and 234 (22 March) being our extreme dates—frequenting open

incultivated areas in the low country. Its habits are not unlike those of the

Pied Bush-chat except that it appears to prefer a stone to a bush as a look-out

post. Across the harbour it is also commonly met with while snipe-shooting

as it does not appear to mind the wet, provided there is a_ sufficiency of

sea-holly, or bunds to keep its feet dry. Sp. 157 collected in open waste

land had fed on small beetles, and the general habitat of the bird leads

one to believe that these must comprise a considerable proportion of its diet.

Breeding: Br. Navarro of St. Xavier’s College, to whom we are indebted

for many specimens and valuable information from Khandala and_ elsewhere,

(THR BIRDS OF, BOMBAY AND (SALSELTE ' d21

reports this bird as nesting at Khandala. He has procured the eggs, but. in

the absence of breeding specimens this will have to be confirmed.

The Wheatear : (Enanthe deserti atrogularis Blyth.

Field identification : Size slightly larger than that of a Sparrow. A pale sandy

coloured bird with black wings and tail. Chin, throat and foreneck also black:

A white shoulder patch and the pale whitish rump very conspicuous in flight.

Iemale duller and brownish where male black. Inhabits open barren waste

land with stones and sparse stunted thorn bushes. |

Specimens; B.N.1.S. :- 27-2-24 ° Pali ill}? Bandta (S.sA.); 12-11-12; ~¢

moog. santa Cruz (N.B.K.).° St. Xavier's... Col.: 21. Andheri - 3-1-3333

163, Andhéri 10-11-33 (H.A.).

In spite of the statement in the New Fauna to the effect that this bird is

a winter visitor to the plains of North-West India only, it appears to be

a sparse but regular visitor to our area. 12 November and 27 February are

our earliest and latest dates. It frequents the same type of country as the last

species, but does not venture into marshy land. It is also more _ terrestrial

than the stone-chat, running on the ground for longer distances, and_ not

returning as regularly to a favoured perch. Wheatears are active little birds ;

they wag their tails in the manner of wagtails. As a rule they are silent,

but we have heard a male utter a loud ‘cht-tt-tt’.

The Redstart : Phanicurus ochruros subsp.

Field identification: Size about that of a Sparrow. Male black with

orange-chestnut underparts from breast downwards. Tail and rump also this

colour, particularly conspicuous in flight. Female plain brown with underparts

and’ tail similar to but paler than in male. The tail is constantly shivered,

Frequents’ open stony country and mango orchards.

Specimens: -B.N.H.S.: .21-1-24 Andhéri. (S.H.P.).

This is another regular winter visitor to our area though not occurring

in any large numbers. Our earliest record is on 10 October and dast on

1§ March. At Panchgani, in the Ghats, the birds were extremely common

as late (as 26 March ‘10234. It frequents rocky, scrub-covered hillsides and

broken country. It is also occasionally found in mango groves and_ such

shady places where there is no under-growth.

Redstarts are seldom quiet. The body is continually dipped jerkily, and

the tail flirted for no apparent reason, showing the flash of chestnut-red

that gives them their name. Though redstarts find their food on the ground, they

habitually fly into trees in the manner of tree-pipits when disturbed.

The Bluethroat: Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis Sarudny.

Field identification : Size somewhat smaller than that of a Sparrow. A pale

brown bird with the appearance and bearing of the Indian Robin. Just before

it leaves us in the hot weather the male acquires a blue throat. The tail

and rump are orange chestnut and particularly conspicuous in flight. Inhabits

the neighbourhood of swamps and well irrigated fields.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 26-12-1900 (EHA). St. Xavier’s Col. : 222 January

Andhéri.

Noted: Santa Cruz, Gddhbunder, Powai Lake, Rewas, etc.

This bird, a fairly common winter visitor to our area, is unlikely to be

seen except by those who are optimistic enough to pursue snipe in the

neighbourhood of Bombay. A terrific skulker,.it revels in the security of

dense growths of. sea-holly (Acanthus), in salt and brackish marshes by _ tidal

creeks, and jin the coarse Polygonon and Cyperaceae that border fresh water

pools and streams.

_. The earliest bird was noted by us on 15 November; the last on 5 March.

[The Rubythroat : Calliope calliope Pallas.

_ This is an East-Asiatic form that winters in eastern India, and also

occasionally in Central India (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, p.72).. The only record from

our area is that of Jerdon who mentions a specimen that ‘took refuge on

board ship a little south of Bombay’. |

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

The Indian Robin : Saxicoloides fulicata ptymatura (Vieillot).

Local name: Kala dumnat.

Field identification: Size about that of a Sparrow. Male shiny black with

white patches on the shoulders, often visible only in flight. A bright chestnut

patch under the tail conspicuous on account of the bird’s habit of holding its

tail erect or cocked-up. Female dark brown with no white wing patches but

with a paler chestnut patch under the tail. Usually pairs in open country

near villages and cultivation.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. Several; St. X: C€. 29. :Andhéri 3-8-33 (HiA:)!

Resident. This is one of the most familiar. birds of the low country,

frequenting cultivated fields, fallow land in the vicinity of villages, scrub

jungle and scrub-covered hills, quarries, ruins, and similar places. It is a

tame and confiding bird, usually found in pairs, busily occupied in picking

up insects from the ground. They occasionally perch on bushes but are

essentially of terrestrial habits.

Breeding: The breeding season is from the end of March to the middle

of June, the birds possibly being double-brooded. 2 or 3 eggs are laid in

nests which are placed in holes, in cuttings, earth-banks, under stones, and

in the roots of up-turned palmyra palms. In our area we have never come

across a nest in a_ hollow tree-trunk or anywhere above ground-level, as

so commonly seen elsewhere. A larger or smaller piece of snake-slough, is

invariably included in the make-up of a nest. One nest examined was composed

entirely of human hair. The birds build in the same locality year after year,

but resent observation and will desert a nest if the least interest is shown in it.

The Magpie Robin: Copsychus saularis saulfaris Linn.

Local name: Dominga; Dhyal.

Field identification: Size about that of a Bulbul. Back, head and _ breast

black, wings and tail parti-coloured black and white, lower plumage white.

In the female the black of the male is replaced by brown or ashy-brown. A

familiar black-and-white songster usually seen with the tail cocked-up as in

the Robin. Frequents gardens and the neighbourhood of habitations.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. Several from suburbs. St. X. C.: 5 Gorégaon 19-8-33

H.A.).

saan This is another common bird of the low country, found in

gardens and orchards, and in general replaces the last species where there

are more trees than scrub. It is often found in heavy forest, and though a

tree-dweller picks a considerable portion of its food off the ground. We have

seen it eating snails and earth-worms. This last item is of interest as we

have read somewhere that earth-worms are immune from the attacks of birds.

This is one of our finest songsters and it is also an excellent mimic. We

have for instance heard it tmitate a ‘did-he-do-it’ to perfection.

Breeding: The males start singing from exposed perches about the middle

of February, and the breeding season extends from March (Barnes) to June.

The nest, a mere pad of fine twigs or leaf-stalks is placed in rafters, wells,

hollow pipes, tree-stumps, wood-pecker holes, and holes in rotten palms.

The usual clutch is of 5 eggs though occasionally only three are laid. The

laying season coincides to some extent with the onset of the monsoon, and

many nests are flooded out. The same site is used year after year.

On 7-5-30 H. A. found a nest in a date palm, containing the remains

of a newly-hatched chick, which had apparently been killed and eaten by

large black ants (Camponotus sp.). The birds laid again in the same nest and

on the 2oth there were § eggs.

The Indian Shama : Kittacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoli).

Field identification: Size about that of a Bulbul. A black bird with a

longish black-and-white tail and a white patch at the base of it above. Lower

plumage from breast downwards bright chestnut. In the female the black is

replaced by slaty-brown and the lower parts are considerably paler. A beautiful

songster frequenting thick jungle, and more often heard than seen.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. juv. 9-9-28 (S. A. ).

Noted: Karnala; Kankéshwar; Godhbunder.

This handsome bird, presumably a resident, is by no means common in our

area. It keeps to the heavily forested portions of Salsette and the neighbour-

ing Ghat country, frequenting dense under-growth, where it is not easily seen,

‘punois Sulyonoy UI} JOI[aIOp

ysouuye *yueTd UoOsuOtH Fo Fea Ul e ul (ygpIUN{ SsapiojoIIXVS)

(smisojns snumojoyjAQ) pllg IO[Te T, 9y4 JO ISAN uIqOY UPIpUy 9} JO SyoTYyO pue 4sSoN

MY MuvS

‘ y #3 SS.

= —— Sanam

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 523

Breeding: Our only record is a juvenile bird collected by S.A. on the

Thana-Godhbunder Road on g September 1928.

The Black-capped Blackbird: Turdus simillimus mahrattensis Whistler.

Field identification: Size of a Myna. A plain greyish-brown thrush with a

black cap. The female is duller and has the cap less pronounced. The bill

is pale orange and conspicuous. Singly in wooded country; on the ground

or in trees.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 10-3-24 Pali Hill; 21-3-24 Chembur (S.A.)

Noted: Andhéri, Powai, Bandra, Kihim, Uran, Roha.

The Black-capped Blackbird wanders into our area from the Ghats during

the non-breeding season i.e. from October to March. It is one of the regular

habitués at the parties that gather on the blossoms of Erythrina and Bombax,

and as such is commonest in the deciduous forest that covers the hillsides

round Tulsi Lake and farther north. Stray birds, are however not uncommonly

met with in the low country, at Andheri and Bandra. The song is not unlike

a dhyal’s but louder and richer. It is also an excellent mimic, with an

exceptionally fine rendering of the plaintive cuckoo. It takes its food both on

the ground and among the trees. On the ground it may be seen hopping about

busily turning over dead leaves in the usual thrush-manner, in search of grubs

and caterpillars. The stomach of a specimen contained the young petals and

pollen grains of Erythrina stricta. Small parties may also be seen picking up

the figs of the banyan, and during the cold weather they have been observed

feeding largely on the berries of Lantana camara (Kihim). The fruit of the

Jamun (Eugenia jambolana) is largely eaten.

Breeding: It does not breed in our area except possibly on Tungar Hill,

just across Bassein Creek, where the bird was common in evergreen patches in

early April. In the Ghats, at Khandala, Panchgani, etc., it breeds in great

numbers during the rains (June to August).

The White-throated Ground Thrush: Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and

Selby).

Field identification: Size of a Myna. Orange-chestnut bird with bluish grey

wings and tail which in the female are more brownish-olive. A white patch

on the quills conspicuous in flight. Usually singly and shy in and about

overgrown nullahs etc. in forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 6-6-06 Kalyan (J. Brand) ¢ 25-3-29 Tulsi Lake

rn): o St. X..C.: 12 Gorégaon 7-8-33 (H.A.).

Noted: Powai, Borivli, Chembur, etc.

This is another of the shy forest birds of our area which though not

really rare are seldom seen except by those who leave the road and venture

into the more remote regions. It is, as its name suggests, mainly a ground-

haunting species, being found where there are plenty of leaves to turn over,

and the degree of moistness necessary for a sufficiency of worms and insects.

It also feeds on_ berries.

Breeding: Br. Navarro took a nest with c/4 at Powai on 28 July,

in a fork in a Bridelia tree about 10 feet from the ground. The nest is a rather

shallow cup-shaped structure—reminiscent of a babbler’s nest—of twigs, roots,

etc. and for a thrush, with a very small quantity of mud used in its construction.

On 20 June a bird was flushed off an empty nest on the Thana-Godhbunder

Road. It breeds commonly at Khandalla during the rains.

The Blue-headed Rock Thrush; Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors).

Field identification: Size of a Myna. ‘Male easily recognized by the blue

head and throat, chestnut rump and lower plumage and white patch in the

wings ; female brown with a scaled appearance and a rather conspicuous dark eye’

(Whistler).

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: dG 25-3-29 Tulsi Lake. (S.A).

Noted: Powai; Khandala; Matheran (Sparrow Coll.); Panchgani (Fr.

Blatter); Poona, Mahableshwar (Butler).

This Rock-thrush appears to be a rare passage migrant in Salsette, our

only records being the specimen and another noted on 23 February. On

the adjoining Ghats, however, it appears to be commoner both as a passage

migrant and as a regular winter visitant.

524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXLK

The Blue Rock Thrush : Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes).

Field identification: Size between Myna and Bulbul. A uniform leaden

blue bird with brown wings. Female duller and brownish. Seen solitary on

boulders and about quarries, etc.

Specimen: St. X. Col.: 220 Andhéri January 1935 (Caria ae

Noted: Bombay: Warden Road, St. Xavier’s College Compound, B.B. &

C.I. Loco shed at Parel; Adjacent Mainland: Karnala ; Alibag.

A fairly common winter visitor to our area, usually found singly on rocky

hillsides, and occasionally in the low country, from about the middle of October

to April. S.A. records one as a frequent visitor to a bird-bath in the Collector’s

garden at Alibag in March 1930. Aitken noticed it on rocks on the sea-shore.

It has a habit of sitting bolt upright on the bridge of a roof, or cornice or some

similar situation, and occasionally bowing and flirting its tail.

At Karnala it was observed eating the figs of a species of Ficus. - It

has also been observed making aerial sallies after insects in the manner of-a

flycatcher.

The Malabar Whistliag Thrush: \Jyophonus horsfieldii Vigors.

Local Name: Gogi (Marathi).

Field identification: Size between Myna and House Crow. Deep blue-black

plumage glistening in certain lights. Forehead and shoulders bright cobalt blue.

Sexes alike. Singly or pairs on rocky hill streams.

No specimen collected.

Noted: Kaneri Caves, Shendur, Trombay Hill; Apsoli (Alibag); Parsik.

Apparently much persecuted, both for its beautiful plumage, and for its

young which have a ready demand as cage birds. A few pairs still manage

to survive in the hills and jungle in the immediate vicinity of the Kaneri

Caves, and in the northernmost parts of Salsette. We have also noted and

heard it among the water-courses in the Trombay Hills during the rains. It is

common among the hills across the creek, north of Salsette, and in the Ghats at

Khandala and Panchgani. Its loud, rich, wandering whistle, startlingly human,

has earned it the name of the Whistling School-boy. Others call it the ‘Byculla

loafer’. In the remoter hilis, north of our area, round Wada and Suriamal,

there is hardly a hill-stream that has not its pair of Whistling School-boys,

and there is no doubt that if the general practice of taking the young of

this bird were put a stop to, they would soon become more numerous in Salsette.

It is usually observed either singly or in pairs. Like other members of this

and allied. families it constantly jerks its tail and spreads it fanwise. It

has been suggested that this habit has developed among birds inhabiting

wet and slippery rocks, to help them in maintaining their balance on precarious

footholds. Having observed this apparently superfluous movement of the tail

(or wing) in -widely differing forms, we are inclined to suggest that its. true

purpose is to dislodge lurking insects. The School-boy has also been noticed

swallowing entire drupes of Jasminum malabaricum from a shrub over-hanging

a rocky nullah. A stone was seen to be disgorged later.

Breeding: The Whistling Thrush breeds at the Kaneri Caves, where H. A.

has found several old nests and seen them building on 30 June 1935. Across

the harbour, he has found a disused nest at Apsoli. At Khandala_ and

Panchgani they breed commonly from early June to late September. The

nest is a large cup-shaped structure of mud, held together with rootlets and

moss. There is also usually a slight lining of moss. It is most often placed

in a niche in a rock either by the side of or overhanging a running hill-

stream, the rock to which the nest is attached being often wet with spray.

A favourite site at Khandala is inside the numerous tunnels through which

the , pipe-lines run. The nest is then in entire darkness. The same _ nest

is built upon year after year, growing in size until considerable dimensions

are achieved. At Panchgani, S.A. discovered several nests down wells. The

period of incubation is 16 days. The usual clutch is of 4 eggs.

The Red-breasted Flycatcher: Siphia parva subsp.

Field identification: Smaller than a Sparrow. A plain brown fly-catcher with

a black and white tail. The tail is often jerked up or held robin-wise with

wings drooping on either side. The sexes are alike but in summer the throat

and breast of the male become orange-chestnut.. Seen singly in mango

orchards, etc. ;

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 595

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 3. 15-1-24 Andhéri (S.H.P.); @ 16-2-24: Pali Hill

(S.A.)-

Noted: Bandra, Chembur, Thana.

This pretty bird appears to be a scarce but regular winter visitor to

the mango orchards and such other shady places in our district. It makes

short sallies after insects, and sometimes also hovers before a flower or sprig

in search of them. Occasionally one may hop on to the ground from = an

over-hanging perch, and with a couple of jerks of its cocked tail, snap up an

insect near the ground and flit back to its perch. It is in regular attendance

at the flowers of Bombax malabaricum, for the insects that crowd to the nectar.

Tickeli’s Blue Flycatcher: Muscicapula tickellie tickellie (Blyth).

Field identification : Somewhat smaller than the Sparrow. ‘A dark blue bird

with the throat and breast reddish and the rest of the lower parts white.

No white line over the eye’ (Whistler). The female is duller all round.

Usually singly, in scrub and secondly jungle.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 7-6-25 Trombay Hill (S.A.); ¢ 16-1-24 Andhéri

(Sel-P.) St. X. Col.: 19° Powai- 17-11-32 (H.A.).

Noted: Malabar Hill, Chembur, Goddhbunder, Andhéri, Kihim, Karnala, etc.

This cheery little bird is common in the better wooded and forested parts

of the island from October to May. While it is certain that some at least

remain in our area during the monsoon, it is obvious that the majority go

away to breed. We have no record of a nest in our area; the nearest is

from Poona where Betham took nests in August (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 78).

The Verditer Flycatcher : Kumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson).

Field identification: Size of a Sparrow. Male bluish-green, female duller.

Specimens: The British Museum has the following specimens:

2 66 1-11-75 Matheran (Hume Coll.); Q 4-2-72 Matheran (Capt. Lloyd): ¢

15-2-18 Khandala (Gosse).

There is one in the St. X. Col. Collection obtained at Khandala in November.

Noted: Karnala; Shendur (Salsette); Iihim.

This is probably a regular winter visitor or passage migrant to the more

remote and secluded valleys in our island. At Shendur, on 3-1-35, several

birds- were seen, and at Karnala on 16-2-36 it was quite common in a forest

association comprised of Hypothymis, Tchitrea, .&githina, various Phylloscopi,

and Chaptia. Like all the smaller flycatchers, it has the habit of sitting bolt

upright and remaining in that position for some time.

The Indian Brown Flycatcher ; Alseonax latirostris (Raffles).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than Sparrow. Similar in appear-

ance to female of NRed-breasted Flycatcher, but distinguishable from it by

absence of white in tail feathers. Solitary, in wooded country.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 140, 142 Kihim 23-10-33; 188 Bombay

“ORR

Noted: Andhéri, Marol, Borivli, Trombay Hills, ete.

Common on passage during October and again in March. A_ few are

winter visitors. It frequents gardens and mango groves and open deciduous

forest. In habits it is very like the last species.

The Paradise Flycatcher : Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.)

Field identification: Size about that of a Bulbul. The adult male snow

white with 2 long ribbons in ta#l and metallic black head. [Female and young

male chestnut brown above, without tail ribbons, with black head and_ greyish-

white underparts. Singly or pairs in gardens and light deciduous forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. dG 1-2-26 Malad (E. Henricks); ¢Q 27-1-29 Chembur ;

S$ 3-3-29 Tulsi Lake (S.A.); St. X. Col. 181 Powai 9-3-33-

Noted: Andhéri, Khandala, Kihim, Kankéshwar, Panchgani, Gddhbunder.

A common winter visitor from about the middle of October to early May.

Some also on passage. This delightful bird is a frequenter of shady groves

and gardens and over-grown nullahs, and is also met with in all the well-wooded

parts of Salsette, though nowhere in great numbers. Its graceful and agile

movements—especially those of an adult male, with its ribbons trailing in the

air as it makes the usual flycatcher sallies after. insects—are particularly

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiX

fascinating to watch. In spite of the striking colours of the adult male it is

remarkable how inconspicuous the bird can become when sitting motionless

with the sunlight falling in patches through the foliage. |

Breeding: We have no record of its breeding in our area though it may

possibly do so in the Ghats about Khandala.

The Black=-naped Blue Flycatcher: Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub).

lield identification : Size about that of a Sparrow. Male, a brilliant blue with

whitish underparts. A black patch on hind crown and a black crescent on

throat. Female browner with a dull bluish wash confined to head and _ neck.

Ilits about among foliage of trees in forest, and often erects and opens

tail fanwise.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. Q 28-11-27 Mulund {S.A.); ¢ Malabar Hill (P. M. D.

Sanderson); St. X. Coll. 141 Kihim 21-10-33 (H.A.).

Noted: Chembur, Andhéri, Borivli, Godhbunder, Pawai Lake, Tungar Hill,

ISarnala, Roha.

Common in the cold weather; and a few remain behind to breed. This

bird inhabits the same type of country as the Paradise Flycatcher and where

one is found the other may be confidently looked for. Its voice and_ notes

when flitting about or launching sallies after insects bear a close resemblance

to some of those uttered by Leptocoma asiatica and .Ethopyga vigorsi, a sort

of harsh interrogative ‘chi-whi?’

Breeding: On 8-5-35 a pair was discovered building in the tiny fork of

a mango 30 feet frown the ground in a garden at Kihim. The nest was,

however, deserted owing no doubt to the unwelcome attention of crows. Br.

Navarro took a c/3 at Khandala in June.

The White-spotted Fantail Flycatcher : Leucocirca pectoralis pectoralis Jerdon.

Local name: Nachan.

Field identification: Size about that of a Sparrow. Active sprightly blackish

brown bird, spotted white about the breast and with a white eyebrow. The

tail is spread fanwise and held erect.

Specimens: St.. Xavier’s College: 182 Andhéri 30-3-34 (H.A.).

A pair or two of these Flycatchers will be found in every garden both in

the city and the suburbs. Even in the lesser inhabited parts of the island

it occurs wherever there are shady open glades such as mango. topes. They

feed largely on the little Jassid hoppers that are so abundant on the bark

of mango trees.

Within the forest itself it is less common than Muscicapula tickellie or

Hypothymis. It is occasionally met with in mangroves by creeks etc.

Breeding: The nesting season lasts from March to August. Nests may be

found wherever the birds occur: in gardens in the suburbs as well as those in

the heart of the city. Lime and chikoo trees are especially favoured as nesting

sites. The nest is a neat cup of fibres about 2 inches across, plastered over

with cobwebs. It is very similar to an Iora’s in appearance, but whereas the

Iora’s is rounded off at the bottom the Flycatcher’s invariably has a bunch

of strips hanging untidily underneath. It is usually placed 5 to 10 feet above

the ground. The eggs almost invariably number three. The owners are bold

in defence of their nests and furiously attack crows and other birds, even

cats and human beings, intruding into their proximity.

In spite of this, however, the mortality in eggs and young is enormous,

Crows, Crow-pheasants and Bloodsucker lizards being mainly responsible.

The Bay=backed Shrike: Lanius vittatus Valenciennes.

Field identification: Size about that of a Bulbul. ‘Common in cultivation;

a smail bird with a longish tail, broad grey and white head with heavy

black marking, maroon back and black and white tail, the markings sharply

defined and conspicuous; perches in exposed situations.’ (Whistler).

Specimens: St. X. College: 113 Juhu 10-10-33; 153 Jahi 27-10-33 (H.A.).

Though common in the Deccan the Bay-backed Shrike only straggles into

the Konkan from October to March. We have only observed it amongst the

Babool trees on the islands in the mud-flats and in the open fallow country at

Kihim.

Breeding: It is known to breed at Khandala (N. & E., i, 314).

‘pjo sAep OF ynoqe syoryo YIM "\Supsojaag v941909NA T)

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THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 527

The Rufous-backed Shrike: Lanius schach erythronotus Vigors.

Local name: Potia.

Field identification: Larger than the Bulbul with a longer graduated tail.

Head grey with thick black stripe through the eye. General colour grey with

pale rufous-washed underparts, rufous rump and dark wings and tail. Singly,

in open country.

Specimen: B.N.H.S.: Several from Pali Hill, Santa Cruz, Andhéri, Kurla,

etc. St. X. College 95 Borivli 28-9-33 (H.A.).

This bird arrives in considerable numbers regularly during the first week

of September (one record 13 August, Kihim!) and stays till April (latest date

1gth). When well ‘in’ this shrike is a prominent feature on the suburban

countryside. It is particularly fond of country where scrub jungle, date palms

and paddy cultivation abound. The neighbourhood of the Pawai Lake, where

a large portion of Bombay’s toddy supply comes from, is specially favoured.

It takes up its position on a date leaf or some other exposed situation and

utters harsh ‘screams’ as if in distress, somewhat after the style of the Myna’s

alarm calls. At times it also produces a rambling song not unlike a Dhyal’s,

but the notes are on the whole harsher, the volume less, and it is altogether

more prolonged. It is a clever and convincing mimic and imitates the calls

of a large number of species to perfection. While with us these Shrikes are

mostiy seen as solitary birds each appearing to establish its own feeding territory

or sphere of influence. Irom its coign of vantage it pounces upon any grass-

hopper, lizard and the like that happens to show itself on the ground. We have

seen one catch an earthworm and impale it on a karonda thorn.

Breeding: Br. Navarro took c/2 at Khandala in April (of this race or

caniceps?).

The Pale Brown Shrike: Lanius isabellinus Hempr. & Ehrenb.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 14-12-99 Esplanade, Bombay (J. M. Mason); St.

mM College 225 CG 13-2-35 Andhéri (H.A.).

The occurrence of this bird in our area is exceptional. It was shot in

Euphorbia and Babool scrub bordering the mud-flats at Andhéri. Only one

previous record exists from the famine year of 1899 when a large number of

unusual species were driven south by the drought.

The Common Wood-Shrike : Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin).

Field identification: Size of a Bulbul. ‘A grey bird with a pale eye-brow and

a dark band through the eye, and white outer feathers in the tail’ (Whistler).

In trees in lightiy wooded country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: From Vihar Lake, Trombay Hills, Pali Hill, Andhéri,

Kandivli etc., St. X. College 217 Vihar 29-12-24 (H.A.).

Noted: Pali Hill, Santa Cruz, Kandivli, Trombay Hill, Kihim.

Resident. It affects lightly wooded country specially teak and other

deciduous forest, and parties of 4 or 5 birds often follow one another from

tree to tree. The birds creep about the branches like Ioras and snap up

insects like flycatchers. They occasionally venture into gardens in the suburbs.

They have several pleasant whistling notes ‘wheet-wheet’ followed by a quick

interrogative ‘whi-whi-whi-whi’?

Breeding: H.A. took a nest with 3 fresh eggs on 21 April. The nest was

a small cup of fibres plastered over with cobwebs placed in a horizontal fork

of a Bombax branch near the tip. The nest matches its surroundings beauti-

fully and would be difficult to locate but for the movements of the owners.

Br. Navarro took a c/3 at Khandala in May.

The Orange Minivet: Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster).

; Field identification: A_ brightly coloured bird like the next, but slightly

arger.

Specimen: St. X. College 215 Hills north of Borivli 30-12-34 (H.A.).

The specimen is the only record we have from Salsette. Another was

seen at Tungar near Bassein on 2-4-34, and it appears to be commoner in

the hills northward on the mainland. ~

Breeding: On 7-6-37 Br. Navarro took c/2 at -Khandala. On 27-6-37 a

female was observed collecting lichens off a tall tree in forest about 20 miles

north of Bhiwandi along the Wada road.

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

The Little Minivet ; Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus Linn.

Field identification: Slightly smaller and slenderer than a Sparrow, with

a longish tail. Male with blackish-grey head and breast, grey back, orange

crimson underparts and the same colour in wings and at base of tail above.

In the female the red portions of the male are yellowish and she is duller

coloured on the whole. Flocks flitting about in trees in gardens and light

forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: From Bombay City, Andhéri, Trombay, Malad ete.

St, X. College 27 3, 28 Q 6-8-33 Marol (H.A.).

Noted: Andhéri, Malad, Pali Hill, Chembtr, Bombay, Kihim.

Resident and fairly common throughout our area. Parties of from 4 to 8

birds may be seen tollowing one another from tree-top to tree-top, keeping

up a low musical cheep. In the cold weather flocks composed entirely of

males may be seen. It is partial to mango orchards and well-wooded gardens.

Parties may usually be seen on the Silk cotton tree in flower in company

with birds of many species.

Breeding: The pair shot on 6 August were evidently nesting. The testes

of the male measured 6X4 mm. and the oviduct of the female was greatly

distended indicating that she had laid. On 4-6-34 a female was _ observed

feeding a full-fledged young out of nest.

The Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike : Lalage sykesi Strickland.

Field identification: Size Bulbul. Male ashy-grey with blackish wings and

tail and black head. Female has the head grey and the underparts barred

black and white. Singly or pairs in mango orchards and wooded country.

specimens: B.N.H.S.: From Chembur, Andhéri, Tulsi Lake. St. X. College

218 24-1-35.

Noted: Andhéri, Talsi Lake, Kihim, Chembur, Gorégaon (in mangroves)

Borivli, Khandala, Panchgani.

Resident, and not uncommon. Though never seen within city limits this

Cuckoo-Shrike may be met with in the suburbs almost everywhere. It frequents

deciduous forest and mango orchards. The ‘Lake District’ is specially favoured

and here it is partial to young date scrub. It goes about singly or in pairs. The

male has a pretty, clear whistle consisting of several notes and ending in a

quick-repeated ‘pit-pit-pit’?’ which we have only heard in the hot weather and

the rains.

The stomach of a specimen contained remains of insects and their eggs and

a large green caterpillar.

Breeding: EHA took a nest with 3 eggs ‘not far from Bombay’ in June.

Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., iv, 90) found it breeding at Vasind on the mainland in

July.

The Large Cuckoo Shrike: Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson).

Field identification: Size somewhat smaller and slenderer than a_ Pigeon.

A grey bird with a broad dark eyestreak. Whitish underneath. Quills and

tail black. Eyestreak in female less conspicuous and lower plumage barred

grey and white. Singly or pairs in trees in wooded country.

Specimen: B.N.H.S. 14-3-26 Goddhbunder (S.A.).

Noted: Chembur, Marol, Juhu, Borivli, Panvel, Kihim, Karnala, Tungar.

EHA states in his Common Birds of Bombay that it is common, but we

have found it decidedly uncommon and nowhere plentiful except at Tungar

near Bassein. It frequents well-wooded country such as that about Godhbunder

and the lakes, usually moving about in pairs which continually call to each

other in a peculiar musical scream.

Breeding: No records from our neighbourhood are available and we are

not certain about the status of this bird in Salsette though apparently it is

a_ resident.

The Ashy Swallow-Shrike : Avtamus fuscus Vieillot.

Field identification: Size about Bulbul. Squatter and with shorter tail.

Very swallow-like on the wing, but heavier. General colour dull-grey with a

pale patch on rump. Bill heavy and somewhat sparrow-like. In open country

with palmyra palms.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: SQ 17-11-27 Chembur -(S.A.); St. X.- Colleges 7m

Gorégaon 8-9-33 (H.A).

The Ashy Swallow-Shrike is common in the palmyra country in Salsette.

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As many as 30 birds may be seen huddled together on a single palm leaf

or on a telegraph wire. ‘They roost at night in the same manner on palmyra

palms. They may often be seen hawking together in loosely scattered parties

with their heads to the wind like many birds that find their food in the same

way, e.g. terns, swallows and swifts. They also make sallies from a_ perch

to which they return after circling round like bee-eaters. Another method is to

swoop down like a Kestrel on some insect on the ground and bear it away

in their bill.

The food consists of insects. Butterflies are largely taken. One bird had

swallowed a large Pentatomid bug.

Breeding: The nesting of this species seems inseparable from the palmyra

palm (Borassus). The season is from the middle of March to June. The nest

is a rough platform of palmyra fibres placed at the base of the leaf. The

usual clutch appears to be of 3 eggs. Like King-crows they are pugnacious

when nesting and will attack birds much larger than themselves.

Barnes found them breeding in palmyra palms on Elephanta Island in May.

Swallow-shrikes seem to undertake sudden migrations of a few miles, dis-

appearing from favourite localities and reappearing after some time.

The King-Crow: or Black Drongo : Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis Ticehurst.

Local name: Ghosia.

Field identification: Size about Bulbul. Glossy jet black with long forked

tail. Familiar species present everywhere by cultivation and grazing cattle.

Specimens: St. X. College: 33 Marol 6-8-33; 104 Andhéri 4-10-33; Andheri

6-12-34; 213 Vehar 29-11-34 (H.A.).

Noted: Bandra, Mahim, Chembur, etc. etc.

This is one of the commonest birds of the low country, and in fact is met

with wherever the trees are not too close together to hinder its style of attaclk.

Telegraph wires along a railway are favourite resorts, and if a census of birds

were taken from a railway carriage the king-crow would easily top the list.

King-Crows have no connection with crows, except that they are their

inveterate enemies during the breeding season. The crow has only to approach

the neighbourhood of a drongo’s nest to be mobbed. He is set upon and

buffeted by the owners, whose superior agility enables them to dig bealsfuls

of feathers out of the intruder’s back. This is we believe the only bird that

scores over the crow in open warfare. And the crow knows it and holds the

drongo in respect.

Drongos ride on the backs of cattle and buffaloes as they graze, and pick

off the insects disturbed by the animals’ feet. The cattle egrets stalk along-

side to the same purpose. Fires, again, drive out insects from their hiding

places, and you have but to fire a patch of grass or scrub to bring the drongos

of the neighbourhood scurrying to it.

At Karnala an individual was seen busily hawking the large _ rock-bee

(Apis dorsata) which were present in large numbers.

Drongos carry their food as well as their nesting material in their beaks,

but a luckless grass-hopper that escaped from the bill was seen to be promptly

re-captured in the claws.

Breeding: The duets which are a sure indication of the approach of the

breeding season, begin in February, and the courtship is a prolonged affair.

We have not seen eggs laid before May and June. The nest is usually

placed at some distance from the ground, 15 to 30 feet as a rule. The

tree chosen is often thorny like Erythrina, Bombax or Bridelia retusa. Mango

and Neem trees are also patronised. The nest, a loose cup of fibres and fine

twigs, is half-slung, half-wedged into a horizontal fork, often near the extreme

tip of a branch.

The eggs, often visible through the flimsy bottom, are usually three in

number, though we have seen nests with 4 and 2 eggs. The same site or

tree is used in successive years.

The birds are bold and aggressive in defence of their nest, and make

determined onslaughts on would-be egg-collectors. Large birds and mammals in

the vicinity are constantly chivvied. The alarm note is long-drawn ‘phiu-phiu’.

The Indian Grey Drongo: Dicrurus longicaudatus (Jerdon).

Field identification: Size and appearance as above, but slimmer and with

the underparts duller and distinctive. Keeps to wooded country and hills in

Salsette and not seen near open cultivation,

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

‘ Specimens: B.N.H.S. 4-12-34 Marol (C. McC.) and others. St. Xavier’s

College: 200, 209 Bassein, December °34; 212 Vehar 29-11-34 (H.A.).

We had not suspected the occurrence of this bird. in our area until one

was accidentally obtained in mistake for the black drongo. Since then, how-

ever, we have seen numerous examples and the records go to show that it

must be a fairly regular winter visitor to Salsette, especially in December and

January. The earliest record is a specimen in the Society’s collection obtained

by E. Henricks at Bandra on 22-10-28.

The habits are similar to those of the previous species except that it

does not appear to venture out usually into open country and cultivation and

is more confined to the well-wooded portions of the island.

The White-bellied Drongo : Dicrurus caerulescens (Linn.).°

Field identification: Size and appearance as of the black Drongo, but

glossy indigo in colour instead of black, with the belly and under tail white.

Specimens: B.N.H.S. OG 11-12-99 Kalyan (J. Brand); 171-27 Bhandup

(McCann).

Noted: Tulsi Lake Environs, Kihim and Parol Para (Alibag Taluka).

Resident, but rare, in the hills of North Salsette. It is confined to well-

wooded country. It is a noisy bird and our impression is that its notes are

more musical than those of the Black Drongo. It is an accomplished mimic

besides. We have, among other species, heard it imitate the Iora and _ the

Tailor Bird to perfection. In the case of the former, not only were the

whistles reproduced, but also the occasional ‘chr-r-r’ with which these are

punctuated.

We have not found it breeding within our area or its immediate neighbour-

hood, though it doubtless does so.

The Bronzed Drongo: Chaptia aenea malayensis Blyth.

The Fauna gives the distribution of this Drongo as ‘The whole of Western

India, from South Travancore to Bombay’. Butler records it as far north

as Khandala. One of us (H.A.) has observed it at Tungar near Bassein (on

the mainland); on 16-2-36 a specimen was shot under Funnel Hill, Panvel

(IXolaba District) in heavy forest where it appeared to be fairly common.

The Racket-tailed Drongo: Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham).

Field identification: Size about that of a Myna, glossy black with a long

tail. The bare shafts of the two outermost tail feathers are prolonged for about

12 inches beyond the tail proper and end in ‘rackets’. A well-developed crest

from forehead lying backwards over the crown. Sexes alike. Singly or

scattered pairs and parties in forest.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: @ 22-1-24 Andhéri (S. H. Prater); d 20-10-28

Thana Hills (McCann). St. Xavier’s College: 40 23-7-33 Kaneri; 60 3-9-33

Jogéshwari (H.A.).

Noted: Powai, Vehar, Tulsi, G6dhbunder, Borivli Hills; several places in

the Kolaba District.

Resident and common in the better wooded portions of Salsette. It has

a large repertoire of loud metallic notes and it is an excellent mimic besides.

We have heard it reproduce to perfection the calls of the Shikra and of

Spilornis cheela.

Breeding: We have observed a bird building in Salsette on 3 May and

have records of nests and eggs on 17 and 30 June, 2 July and 18 August.

On the last date full-fledged young were noted being fed out of nest. The

best time for eggs seems to be June and July. The nest is a fairly deep cup

of rootlets and palm fibres with little cobwebbing on the outside and without

extra lining, placed in the fork of a branch or at the base of the leaf stalks

of a palmyra palm, between 30 and s0 feet up. Two or three is the number

of eggs we have usually found.

(To be continued).

JourN. BomsBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE

A female of the common Land Crab. [Paratelphusa (B.) guerini (M.—Eds.)]

Castles of the common Land Crab. [P. (B.) guerini (M.—Eds.)| alongside rocks.

Photos by Author.

NOTES ON THE COMMON LAND CRAB PARATELPHUSA

(BARYTELPHUSA) GUERINI (M.-Eps.) OF SALSETTE

ISLAND.

CHARLES McCann, F.L.S.

(With two plates).

At the Second Entomological Meeting held at Pusa in 1917

Mr. Bainbrigge Fletcher, Director of the Entomological Research

Institute, Pusa, referring to the destruction of paddy crops by

land crabs, remarked: ‘Crabs have come into notoriety lately,

especially in Madras, as paddy pests. In Bihar we have only had

one report of crabs attacking paddy, but about five or six years

ago we had a report from Karachi of damage by crabs in fields

of young paddy. Recently they have come into prominence in

Madras and Burma and there seems to be no doubt that crabs

do some damage to rice plants.’

The Island of Salsette is infested with land crabs; but no

utilitarian motive prompted me to investigate their habits. What

really roused my curiosity was the appalling number of dead crabs

lying about the fields and byways, in season and out of season. I

wished to determine the probable cause of their death. But, as is

usually the case in such enquiries, one point led to another and

the net result was a collection of interesting notes which had

little to do with the death-causing factor among crabs.

In this paper I deal with one single species, Paratelphusa

guerini, and unless otherwise mentioned all my remarks are confined

to it.

COLOUR.

Adult: At the time of their appearance, at the onset of the

rains, these crabs display a wide range of colour. Some are a dirty

white, others are purplish brown, and many are mottled with a

mixture of both tints. Why this difference of colour? At first, I

was under the impression it might be a sexual character, but an

examination of several dozen soon dispelled this idea. The colour

variation was common to both sexes. A second explanation

suggested itself; that this colouring might possibly afford some

particular advantage to the species, but a solution to this problem

would have to be sought in its mode of life or its environment.

The variation may or may not have some adaptive significance.

Only observations in the field would suggest a solution to this

interesting problem.

The crabs appear with the rains. Before the burst of the

monsoon the ground is littered with dead leaves of almost every

hue. Upon this variegated surface the crabs live. When disturbed

S32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, (Vol. Xx xix

they either run a short distance and stop, or remain perfectly still,

alert and on the defensive, with the pincers outspread ready to

nip. When on the move, the crabs where possible avoid open

ground and scurry under the leaves. Anyone who has seen them

in such environment cannot but conclude that the colouring,

varied though it be, is protective. It is in perfect harmony with

the variegated environment. The hues of the crabs blend remark-

ably with the colours of the fallen leaves among which they live

and take shelter. This, I suggest, may be the explanation of

the variation. [{However, in open fields (agricultural land) the

yellowish white ‘type’ appears to be predominant and at a distance

may resemble a piece of quartz.) But with the weeks of rain the

carpet of leaves loses its variegated colours; the leaves decompose

and become black, and with the change of scene the purplish brown

and mottled crabs ‘disappear’, leaving only the yellowish white

ones. What became of the darker coloured crabs which were so

common at the onset of the rains? Do they lose their richer

tones and become yellowish? Are the darker ranges of colour but

a temporary phase? This, I believe, is what happens. Purplish

brown crabs which I kept in captivity lost their richer hues after

a while and became pale yellow. There is presumably a definite

bleaching process at work and this seems to me to be the only

plausible explanation of the ‘disappearance’ of the crabs exhibiting

the deeper ranges of colour. The yellow crabs are now fairly

conspicuous objects against the dark humus of the ground or rocks.

The protective colouring has been discarded. A factor which was

till then apparently significant to the species in the struggle

for existence is now no longer of importance. For, by the time

the crabs have assumed this phase of colouring their existence is

no longer essential to the continuance of the species. On emer-

gence, the females, laden with young, are in need of protection but

by the time their colouration has faded and all the crabs are

uniformly yellow the young have been shed—they have accomplished

their chief duty in life.

There is perhaps one serious objection to the theory of protective

adaptation, namely, the colouration of the males, which as we shall

observe later, have no need for such _ protection. However,

the colouring may be due to some deep-seated physiological

character which is common to both sexes and is beyond the scope

of this paper. Nevertheless the colour protective adaptation is again

supported by the colouring of the young.

Young: Young crabs, while still in the care of the mother are

earthy brown in general tone with a slight tinge of flesh pink on the

pincers. The carapace is really translucent and the brown colour

is mainly due to the colouration of the internal organs showing

through. As the young crabs are generally deposited in or find

their way to flowing water, where they live and- develop, the

brown colouring makes it almost impossible to see them against

earth. As growth proceeds, and this is fairly rapid, the crablings

become lighter and lighter in colour eventually becoming yellowish

white (some are pale reddish brown). This change from brown to

vellow appears to be mainly due to the deposition of calcareous

NOTES ON COMMON LAND CRABS OF SALSETTE ISLAND 533

matter within the shell (exoskeleton). Accordingly the shell becomes

more opaque and in old crabs is heavily calcified throughout—a sure

sign of old age! The carapace of crabs of the season are usually

semi-translucent and the contents of the crab frequently show

through making that region darker than its surroundings. By

the end of the rains, after several months, the adult stage is

reached,

BREEDING.

There appears to be little definite knowledge regarding the

breeding habits of these crabs. In volume iv, p. 190 of the

Cambridge Natural History Series dealing with the Crustacea and

Arachnids, the author writes:—‘The fresh-water crab Thelphusa

fluviatilis, common in the South of Europe and on the North coast

of Africa, belongs to the Cyclometopa, and is interesting from its

direct mode of development without metamorphosis.’ There is no

doubt that we have the same direct development in guerini which

belongs to a closely allied genus. The actual period at which

mating takes place is still unknown.

On emergence the primary concern of the crab is the continu-

ance of the species. However, as the females are laden with

fully developed young, breeding evidently took place much earlier.

When the crabs appear after the break of the rains, the females

appear to be predominant in certain localities while in others there

seem to be mostly males. The majority, if not all, the females

are laden with young scarcely half a centimeter across the carapace.

The number of young carried by each female seems to depend

largely on her size. The young are held in a compact mass by

the abdominal segments and the pleopods—metamorphosed swim-

mierets.

Disturb one of these females; she will either scuttle away

to safety, dropping several of her young as she goes, or she will

stand on the defensive. This ‘premature’ shedding of her young

probably results from excitement on the part of the parent as

she tightens her hold on the mass of young, thereby pressing some

out. Generally the young remain with the mother for several

days before she ‘sheds’ them or they leave on their own accord,

when ready to fend for themselves. Nevertheless, crablings are

quite capable of supporting themselves at a very early age.

As we have already observed, the adult females emerge from

their burrows with their young fully developed. In all my wander-

ings I have never observed crabs in copula. The questions naturally

arise, When do they copulate? and, When are the eggs deposited

and hatched? The answers to these qustions are yet awaited. One

thing is certain, and that is, that the eggs are laid and hatched

when the crabs are underground.

According to Mr. Wagle (Dept. Agric. Bom., Bull. No. 118 of

1924, Land Crabs as Agricultural Pests in Western India, p. 20),

the burrows are interconnected, ‘If the openings of a burrow are

further traced it is seen that most of them are connected super-

ficially within a foot or two of the soil surface, though ramifications

at a depth of four or five feet are not uncommon, A few only

034. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY. Volk) XXX RoR

go deep down and each one of these burrows harbours a crab,

probably the off-spring of the same mother liberated in the same

burrow in connection with the mother burrow.’ However, in none

of his diagrams does Mr. Wagle indicate that there are any such

interconnecting passages. If the burrows are thus interconnected,

the crabs are able to visit each other during the period of sesti-

vation, so that it is really immaterial whether several crabs sestivate

together in one chamber or alone in separate chambers—the sexes

would have access to one another.

Considering the data we have before us, it is possible and even

probable that copulation generally takes place within the burrows.

Whether crabs are active within their burrows throughout the

dry weather is yet another point which needs investigation.

GROWTH.

Crablings : As already indicated, the females emerge laden with

young. The young are but miniatures of the adults. After a brief

period of maternal care the young are ‘shed’ and have to fend

for themselves. The country is teaming with them. The number

of young produced by a single female appears to be dependent

on her size, small females having fewer young than larger ones.

The greatest number I have recorded from a single individual was

252—what a family! Each youngster at this stage measures a

little over 5 mm. across the carapace. Should the young at this

age fall away from the parent they frequently climb back into the

mass and remain with her, if unable to do so, they are quite able

to fend for themselves.

During the early period of their lives crablings spend far more

time in water than do the adults, feeding on the bottom of small

Streams.

Moult: At the time of moult crabs usually secrete themselves

under stones, in holes or remain submerged in water. I have

repeatedly found crabs soon after they had moulted and once had

the pleasure of seeing one ‘walk out of its old self’. The carapace

splits horizontally across the ‘face’ of the crab and opens like the

lid of a box. The creature then gradually and laboriously draws

itself’ out of its ‘old skin’ and then sinks down to rest till its

coat of mail hardens once more. On emergence from the old shell

the animal is generally perfectly white (sometimes tinged with

pink), soft and defenceless. It is limp and unable to walk; it lies

almost motionless till it has hardened again. If the crab be

bruised at this period a milky exudation takes place. The harden-

ing process is slow.

SENSES.

Sight: Sight is well developed.

Smell: The sense of smell is apparently very keen. Experi- .

ments by way of drawing a piece of meat tied to a string through

water which was then removed, clearly indicated that the crabs

were able subsequently to follow the trail quite easily. Again meat

juice dropped in the water immediately attracted the crabs. They

NOTES ON COMMON LAND CRABS OF SALSETTE ISLAND 535

would grope about with their pincers in the line taken by the flow

of the juice.

Sounds: At first it might appear strange that a crab is able

to produce any kind of sound at all. Nevertheless, it is capable

of making quite an audible hissing noise on occasions. This is

effected by rapidly ‘blinking’ the eyes in and out of their sockets.

At first, when I heard this sound, I thought that my ears deceived

me, but when I listened more closely and watched the animal I

soon discovered how it was made. The lower margins of the eye

sockets are provided with a fringe of stiff hairs. This undoubtedly

forms a natural brush for cleaning the eye itself—an automatic

cleaning apparatus! When this fringe is dry and the eye is rapidly

moved across it, it produces a soft hissing sound. The sound I

have noticed only when ‘dry’ crabs are freshly caught. Having

once discovered this 1 paid a little more attention to it. It seems

to be a habit of the crab to produce this sound when closely

approached and when caught. This noise is apart from the usual

bubbling noise made in the process of respiration.

HABITS.

Burrows : The burrows are at first made large enough to admit

the crab sideways and to allow of the free play of the pincers. As

the crab grows it enlarges the burrow accordingly. The burrows

are made either in the fields themselves or more often in the bunds,

but the site of the burrow is dependent on the amount of water

present. When the fields are flooded the crabs seek higher ground,

such as the bunds, for if the burrows were continually under water

the animals would be drowned. Towards the end of the rains,

when the water level in the soil falls, the crabs return to the fields

to make their holes and build their final castles. Away from paddy

fields, they burrow into the banks of streams just above the usual

water level. Final burrows are generally excavated in the bed of

the streams. Unfortunately, lack of time and opportunity have

prevented me from making a systematic study of the course of the

burrows. According to Mr. Wagle (l.c.) the crabs dig down deeper

and deeper as the level of the water falls. The course is irregular

and the burrows are interconnected by side tunnels.

Life under ground : Towards the close of the rains the crabs are

to be seen actively excavating burrows, collecting leaves, grasses and

other food which is conveyed into the burrow. This they continue

till the land surface is almost quite dry. When sufficient storage

has been accomplished they retire till the break of the next monsoon.

Once the dry period has set in all crabs retire irrespectively

whether they are near perennial water or not, though crabs so

favourably situated do go down a little later. Within the burrow

now lies the secret of the crab’s early life-history which still awaits

solution.

‘Castles’: Crabs build small or large castles throughout the

rains but the final castles, which are generally larger, are built

when they are about to go below the surface. The time when

building commences would vary with weather conditions and

locality. The building of the castle is an effort to get rid of some

5386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -XXXiX

of the earth within the burrow which is piled up at the entrance,

but this is perhaps not the only reason. It possibly affords a

certain amount of protection to the burrow by keeping off would-be

intruders. Fallow fields and low lying land are favourite sites for

the final burrow.

The walls of the castles are composed of pellets of mud brought

up when still wet. The pellets are heaped up on each other and

eventually form a compact mass. ‘These pellets appear like excreted

earth or a fine mixture of mud with some secretion. The castles

are frequently conical in shape and may. occasionally rise a foot or

more above the surrounding ground, but they usually vary between

2 and 8 inches in height. When the castle is complete, the entrance

of the burrow is plugged up from within and the crab enters on

its long period of life under ground.

Why these castles are constructed is problematic. As already

suggested it may be to keep off intruders. At the time when the

crab is about to estivate there are numerous other animals which

are also looking for a suitable retreat. Some are unable to excavate

their own burrow; others prefer to find a convenient ready made

burrow rather than dig one, and find a crab hole convenient.

If the entrance of the crab’s burrow were flush with the ground

the entrance with its fresh plug of mud would be easily accessible.

But as the entrance is raised and the walls of the castle solid they

act as a bluff which is mistaken for a clod of earth!

When the crabs first appear the females are a lot more cautious

than the males and are less frequently seen in the open. When

sufficient rain has fallen to make puddles and cause the streams

to flow, the females laden with young congregate on the banks

and in the water. During this period the females spend much

time submerged on account of their young and it is also at this

period that the young leave the parent. In such localities there

is always a sufficiency of hiding. On the slightest alarm they

hurry away.

During showers and under the cover of darkness the adults

wander about much, but when the sky is cloudy or sunny they

make for the water.

As the monsoon advances the adult crabs tend to decrease in

numbers very rapidly and considerably. The younger generation

now take their place. Where do the old crabs go: or wha

happens to them? Do they die out or retire into their burrows

once more? These are questions that started me off on these

investigations. Some may volunteer the opinion that the crabs

disappear in the vegetation. This I am not prepared to accept

as young crabs are all about. That they do not retire to their

burrow is certain for they would be drowned, as they are not able

to stand submergence indefinitely. From personal experience, I

am of the opinion that these crabs live but one year and that they

die in the open during the monsoon or soon after.

When within the burrows, the chelae are generally carried

adpressed to the body, but in case of attack the chela nearest to

the intruder is placed at the entrance ready for action. Once a

crab seizes an intruder it will not let go easily. This frequently

PEATE It

JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

ze).

(M.—Eds.)]

guerini

(Match box for comparative si

[Paratelphusa (B.)

an unused field at the end of the rains.

A castle of the common Land Crab.

| in a field

S.)

[P. (B.) guerini (M.

at the close of the monsoon.

Several castles of the common Land Crab.

Photos by Author

NOTES ON COMMON LAND CRABS OF SALSETTE ISLAND 537

leads to the loss of the chela or the capture of the crab. This

habit is common to most crabs and is frequently made use as a

ruse to capture them. People who catch crabs by this method

tie a piece of meat to the end of a stick. The stick is thrust down

the burrow. The crab in time seizes the bait and is gradually

drawn out of its hole. The hole is then blocked with the free

hand or foot and the crab is caught. Nevertheless this habit of

the crab though it may frequently lead to its death at the hands of

men is also a means of securing much of its animal food.

Whether these crabs are nocturnal or diurnal or both, is a

difficult matter to decide. This would depend much on weather

conditions. The crabs are about both day and night during

the short period of their activity on the surface. When the

weather is cloudy and rain is continuous they may be seen

about at any time of the day or night. However, I am inclined

to believe that they are more nocturnal as they appear to be

much more numerous and active under the cover of darkness.

At night they wander farther from their burrows. Apart from the

fact that the crabs do not like direct sunlight which desiccates

their gills, they probably find a certain amount of protection from

their enemies at night.

Another point that needs consideration is that their period of

activity is during the monsoon when the sky is overcast with

dense clouds, so it is not surprising to find them about during

the day. When the sun appears between showers and it gets

really hot, the crabs retire to a goodly extent, if not into their

burrows, into water or shade.

Though these crabs cannot remain submerged for many hours

at a stretch, they are as well at home in water as on land; but

they are not able to swim. They merely crawl along the bottom.

During the monsoon, when the air is damp, they are able to

remain on land for weeks without showing any ill effects. This

indicates that they are well adapted to terrestrial life.

When the crab respires on land bubbles appear continuously at

the mouth, but when in shallowy water, the mouth parts are lifted

above the surface from time to time and then submerged; at

the time a series of bubbles arise from near the base of the last

pair of legs. This action is continuous.

These crabs do not appear to be pugnacious. They frequently

live together in the same hole (during the rains) and inhabit the

same pools feeding within close range of another. However, I

have frequently observed a crab resent the entrance of a particular

individual into its burrow whereas another went in unmolested.

Whether this behaviour indicates a certain social grouping or

whether it is just a submission of a weaker to a stronger one is

hard to say. Occasionally there are fights but these contests take

on more the form of sham-fights—there is much display of arms

but actual damage is seldom done, as one of the combatants usually

runs away. Young crabs, as is a common rule in Nature, have

a certain amount of respect and fear for their elders. Whether

these crabs are really cannibalistic, in so much as they kill and eat

one another, is difficult to say; but, it is certain that they

5388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol... XXXIX

frequently eat their dead, picking the soft parts out of the shells.

On the whole they appear quite peaceable among themselves. This

is borne out by the fact that several may be kept in the same

container, if not too crowded, without difficulty.

Generally the sexes may be distinguished by the fact that the

males usually carry larger chelae of which one, either right or left,

(though generally the left) is larger than the other. Another point

which is worthy of note is that on dissection I found that the fat

bodies in the females are bright yellowish orange whereas in the

males they are dull and not yellow.

Food: Like most crabs, this land crab is omnivorous and it

is an excellent scavenger and controller of injurious pests, as we

shall notice when we review its menu. Little escapes its attentions.

Fresh and decomposing vegetable and animal matter are all

included in its diet. Leaves, algae, fruit, insects, amphibia,

reptiles dead or alive, are all welcome. Much of the meat is caught

at the entrance of the burrows and shelters. Unwary fish are

caught as they swim by the submerged crabs. These food

observations are not mere generalizations but are based on either

experiment or experience in the field.

Once 1 saw a two-feet-long Checkered Water Snake (Tropido-

notus piscator) wriggling violently with its head held fast under

a stone as though it had been pinned. The behaviour was

curious. I pulled at the tail of the snake to find it firmly

held. On removal of the stone I discovered that a large crab

had the head of the snake in its pincers! Probably the

snake went under the stone for shelter or in quest of food, but

the crab had forestalled it. When the stone was removed the

snake struggled frantically with the crab still holding on. Eventually

the crab lost its chela but it still remained affixed to the head of

the snake. On another occasion I witnessed a crab dragging a much

larger corpse of the same species of snake across an expanse of

rock. The back had been partially eaten. I watched the proceed-

ings till the snake disappeared into the crab’s burrow. I have

frequently witnessed crabs taking things home.

Earth-worms form a good portion of their diet. These they

usually catch when abroad at night or when the worms come out

during the day. I have frequently seen crabs catch living frogs,

lizards, beetles, moths, grasshoppers and other insects. Carcases

of any sort when near or in water are frequently covered with crabs.

If one watches a crab feed on wet rocks or at the bottom of

a stream, it will be noticed that it is continually ferreting about

for some invisible object which is conveyed to the mouth. The

pincers are going to and fro from the rock to the mouth and vice

versa. They appear to be groping for algae. Crabs are seldom

guilty of a breach of etiquette—they never overfill the mouth!

Particles of food are usually minute. The food is dissected by the

pincers into minute bits before it is conveyed to the mouth; but

one may occasionally see a crab hold up a large piece at its mouth

and get its strong jaws into action.

If a crab had to rely entirely on its pincers for its food, those

that have lost them would die of starvation. This thought puzzled

NOTES ON COMMON LAND CRABS OF SALSETTE ISLAND — 539

me for a time, but a pincerless crab solved the problem for me

by a practical demonstration. It lowered its mouth to a piece of

meat and worked at it with its jaws. This of course was a rare

occasion as crabs are usually very careful of their pincers. While

on the subject of missing pincers, it might be mentioned that

missing limbs are not replaced.

Enemies : Apart from man, these creatures have a wide circle of

natural enemies: mammals, birds, reptiles and amphibians all take

a fair toll. In addition to these animals which prey on crabs for

food, there are parasites.

Mammals: among the mammals jackals, civets, mungooses and

rats exercise a fair check. Otters live largely on crabs. (Though

I strongly suspect the presence of otter in Salsette, I have never

been able to confirm this. My suspicions are based on droppings.)

Birds: Birds take a heavy toll of young and old crabs. The

Malabar Whistling Thrush (Myophonus horsfieldii) is perhaps the

foremost. This bird catches the crabs, batters them against the

rocks till the carapace is broken and feeds on the soft part, but

young crabs are often swallowed whole. The White-breasted

Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) is another in the vanguard.

Crows, herons, egrets, kites and probably a host of other birds

also feed on this crab.

Reptiles‘: Among the reptiles, the Bloodsucker (Calotes

versicolor) and Skinks (Mabuia carinata) are not averse to taking

small crabs that they can overpower and conveniently swallow.

So far I have no evidence of any snake eating a crab.

Amphibians: In the ranks of the amphibians are found the

greatest enemies of the crabs. The bull-frog (Rana tigrina) and

the common toad (Bufo melanostictus) account for a very large

number of young of all sizes and the bull-frog will swallow almost

full-grown specimens. The skipper (R. cyanophlictis) undoubtedly

feeds on small crabs, but for this species I have no actual

evidence.

The calcareous shells are not digested but are passed in fragments

in the excreta.

Parasites: Crabs also suffer from several parasites, both internal

and external. In Salsette I have found the leech (Paraclipus

vulnifera Harding) a serious pest on this crab. It attacks the soft

parts at the joints of the limbs and the gills and the lining of the

gill chamber. The largest number removed from a single crab was

27, some were attached to the joints but the majority were in the

gill chamber. In spite of the accumulation of leeches the crab did

not appear to be greatly inconvenienced. Leeches infest the

crabs mostly towards the end of the rains. The gill chambers

seem to be the breeding ground and when the crab moves about

in water the leeches, both young and old, come out of the

chambers and wander about the carapace. I am of the opinion

that the leeches also use the gill chambers during the dry season

as a convenient harbour to tide over this period.

* Since writing the article I caught a young Varanus bengalensis and

found that its stomach contained almost exclusively young crabs.

540. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX XIX

This particular species of leech has only once been reported

from South India affecting another species of the same genus of

crab, P. hydrodromus.

Raoit:Sahib:aY. Ramachandra Rao, in ‘A note on Pavratef

phusa hydrodromus Herbert, The Fresh-water Crab of South

India’:.(Proc.- 5th..Ent. Meet., Pusa, “1923,°-p. 138) Swrites ee

bronchial chambers of these crabs are found to be infested by a

species of leech. Leeches are generally suckers of blood and 4m

this case they are very probably true parasites on the crab,

attacking the membrane of the bronchial chamber and the gills

and sucking the body juices. Generally three or four may be

found in each crab, but in one case fourteen large leeches, besides

two or three young ones were noted in a single crab. It is however

doubtful if the leech, even if present in large numbers, will form

any efficient check -on thescrab.

Legend or Observation? In India there is a current belief that

the jackal catches crabs by thrusting its tail down the burrow of

the crab. The crab seizes the tail and is then pulled out of its

hole and devoured. Curiously enough there is a very similar story

told by Olaus Maginus, a Scandinavian Bishop, who lived in the

sixteenth century, about the fox. This good church dignitary has

been responsible for the most fantastic ‘unnatural’ history stories.

He says: ‘Sometimes fearing the multitude of wasps, he counter-~

feits and hides himself, his tail hanging out and when he sees that

they are all busy, and entangled in his tail, he comes forth, and

rubs them against a stone or tree and kills them and eats them.

The same trick, almost, he useth, when he lyes in wait for crabs

and small fish, running about the bank, and he lets down his

tail into the water, they admire it, and run to it, and are taken in

his fur and pulled out.’

Land Crabs and Agriculture: From an agricultural aspect land

crabs in general (and the genus Paratelphusa in particular) are

considered serious pests to paddy crops in certain districts. I

have already quoted Mr. Fletcher’s remarks in this connection.

Mr. Ramakrishna Ayyar referring to the same subject in the

Madras Presidency said:

; It has been observed that damage may be very serious in areas

where single seedling transplantation of paddy is done. It appears that the

crabs have been attacking paddy for several years but the damage was

noticed before the practice of transplantation was to put in bunches of several

seedlings.’ ‘ »

It is strange that single transplantation was still continued and

the old method not adhered to when damage to single seedlings

proved devastating! In Salsette, bunches of seedlings are trans-

planted, never single seedlings. Careful watching of the paddy

fields has shown me conclusively that the damage to paddy crops

is negligible in the island. The only period at which I have noticed

P. guerini nipping leaf blades is before the transplanting of the

seedlings. This is generally done by the crabs inhabiting the field

of seedlings, but there is no invasion of the field. However the

damage is not severe. After transplanting the damage is negligible.

A little leaf-collecting is done when the animals are about

NOTES ON COMMON LAND CRABS OF SALSETTE ISLAND 541

to retire under ground. At the time when the crabs attack the

paddy seedlings they also attack vegetable seedling along with

other vegetation. During the rains the crabs move about freely

among the fields without doing any ‘serious’ damage, they are

more in quest of animal food.

Mr... Ghosh. (Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet., Pusa, 1919;. -p. 680-87)

published a note entitled ‘A Note on Crabs as Pests of Rice’.

There is an account of the crabs of Bengal which are said to

attack paddy. As our species does not occur in Bengal this paper

does not concern us directly, but is nevertheless interesting. The

arguments brought forward convicting crabs of damage to paddy

are not convincing and the damage, taken as a whole, appears

negligible. Experiments conducted in metal cylinders likewise do

not prove any definite point against the crabs. In fact, referring

to the north of the river Gandaki, Barail, Mr. Ghosh (l.c., p. 685)

observes :

‘On the south side there are large rice growing tracts in which no

damage by crabs is reported, though crabs are common at a distance of only

about two miles from the fields on the opposite side of the river. These

fields do not allow water to accumulate in the way the Barail fields do.’

This appears to indicate that the rivers may form a_ natural

barrier to land crabs. Finally Mr. Ghosh observes :

‘In the writer’s experience crabs have not been observed to cause

damage on any scale although plants have been observed to be cut and the

crop thinned in patches. It could not be made out why plants were cut in

this manner. They certainly did not afford food to the crabs. If the crabs

had eaten the plants or had been obliged to cut them in order to get their

food, it was clear from the enormously large number present in the Barail

fields that severe damage would have resulted and probably the rice growing

would have been impossible there.’

Further (I.c., p. 687) the same author writes:

‘In North Bihar crabs cannot be considered a pest of rice in the strict

sense of the term.’

Reviewing the literature at my disposal, the only real damage

crabs are responsible for is: the riddling of the bunds between

adjacent fields with their burrows, thereby weakening the bunds,

and in time causing them to collapse, letting the water out of

mie uiclds. Mr. Shroff (Proc. 2nd: Ent. Meet., Pusa, 10917,

p. 156) writes, ‘These crabs burrow into the Kazins (bunds) and

allow water to percolate through, thus causing paddy fields to

dry up in some places.’ After much watching, I have arrived at

this conclusion also, in Salsette Island. The actual destruction of

plants is very negligible. If crabs were in the habit of destroying

paddy crops, Mr. Ghosh rightly remarks that paddy growing

would be impossible. This would be the case in Salsette, as the

island is infested with crabs.

Preventive measures: The suggestion of preventive measures

against crabs seems, therefore, rather premature.

Economics: Paratelphusa guerin, as far as I am aware, is of

no economic value. In Salsette it is not used as food or for any

other purpose by the local people.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY~NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiX

Medicinal value: ‘According to the Ayurvedic system of treat-

ment, crabs are wholesome diet for patients having pulmonary

complaints including consumption.’ Ghosh (Proc. 3rd Ent. Meet.,

Pusa, V0l.<1i,)"ps 635),

Advantages of crabs: Land crabs have rightly or wrongly come

in for a good deal of abuse; but I am firmly convinced that the

abuse is on the whole unjustifiable, particularly in the case of

Paratelphusa guerini. In accordance with the time honoured

saying, ‘There is bad in the best of us and good in the worst

of us’ there is also some good to be found in crabs. Let us now

strike a balance sheet.

As already observed, they are excellent scavengers, removing

much decomposing material from the surface. Like earth-worms,

they are responsible for much turning over and aerating of the

soil. Perhaps their most important use is to be found in the value

of their exoskeletons. Their shells supply the land with a large

amount of calcareous material, very necessary in lands used for

the cultivation of paddy. The last but by no means the least

point in favour of crabs, is that they catch a lot of insects many

of which are injurious to paddy.

Considering these good qualities of the crab and that the case

of serious damage to paddy has not been conclusively proved

against them, are we justified in exterminating them? The balance

is in favour of the crab, therefore let us look on them in a more

kindly light. Their destruction without actual and sound reasons

may result in more serious injury to the paddy crops.

Species of land crabs in Salsette :

(1) ‘Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) guerini M.-Eps.

This is the commonest crab in the fields and hills of Salsette.

(2) Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) jacquemonti (Rathbun).

This is the largest of the land crabs in the area. In general

colour it is reddish brown or purplish. It generally inhabits the

beds of streams, living among the boulders and rocks. It is far

more aquatic than guerini. It is occasionally found in fields. In

habit it appears to be somewhat more nocturnal than gwuerini.

This species is much sought after by the local people as an article

of diet and is sold in the bazaar.

3. Paratelphusa (Barytelphusa) mccanni Chopra and Das.

Four were discovered among the specimens I sent to the Indian

Museum for identification. It is much like P. guerini.

4. Gecarcinucus (Gecarcinucus) jacquemontit M.-Eps.

This species is distinguished from P. guerini by its more

convex shell and closer set, small eyes. The shape of the pincers

is also distinctive. It may occasionally be found in fields but

is to be considered rare. In several seasons I have only found

four or five and these appear to be very local.

—————

* I am much indebted to Dr. B. N. Chopra for kindly going through and

identifying the material and also for naming the new species after me.

Peay td.

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NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDs.

E. H. N. LOWTHER, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

I1.—NIGHTJARS.

(With five plates).

Those who have never seen a Nightjar at rest but only know

it as a long-winged bird with an erratic mght shown up sometimes

by the headlights of a car have no conception of the sombre beauty

ot its plumage. Their livery is a symphony of quiet browns and

greys, each feather exquisitely pencilled with black, white or buff

markings. Nightjars unfortunately only come to lite, so to speak,

at dusk. This alone makes it sulficiently difficult to study the bird

in the field. Accurate observation in India is however, made harder

still owing to the occurrence of several species of nightyars, all

of them much alike in colouring so that even the expert has difficulty

in identifying them correctly. No wonder then that until recently,

comparatively little was known of the habits, status or even calls

of the genus as a whole. My own knowledge is restricted to four

species and my observations practically confined to three seasons

work, when 1 was stationed in the Manbhum district where,

however, I was able to devote considerable time to their study.

The four species referred to are :—

The Indian Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus)

The Indian Jungle Nightjar (C. indicus) ,

Franklin’s Nightjar (C. monticolus)

The Common Indian Nightjar (C. asiaticus),.

All are resident throughout Chota Nagpur: resident in the sense

that they breed in every district and are to be met with during

the twelve months, though the Long-tailed species and the Jungle

Nightjar are seldom seen between October and February. At one

time I was of opinion that these two species occurred here only

during the breeding season and it was not until the winter of 1935-6,

when I paid several visits to the nesting haunts of these birds that I

satisfied myself that both the Long-tailed Nightjar and the Jungle

Nightjar are to be found regularly, though uncommonly in Chota

Nagpur, during the non-nesting months also. It is clear, therefore,

that these two species are subject to a general migratory move-

ment, and though Franklin’s Nightjar and the Common Indian

Nightjar both occur regularly and even fairly frequently during the

cold weather months, there can be no doubt that they too migrate;

but not in such numbers: as do the two first-named species. The

fact remains that from February to October the Common Nightjar

and Franklin’s Nightjar occur in considerable numbers and_ the

other two less frequently, though sufficiently often to be classed

as common. The Common Indian Nightjar is the smallest and the

544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Long-taiied species the largest of the nightjars of which I write.

Franklin’s Nightjar and the Jungle Nightjar are intermediate in

size and of approximately equal measurements. They are about

10; in. in length, the Common Nightjar 9} in. and the Long-tailed

Nightjar—known of yore as Horsfield’s Nightjar—is some three

inches longer than this.

These different species of nightjars have their particular haunts.

The Common Indian Nightjar occurs in gardens, in the open, on

the edge of cultivation, and even in thin scrub. Its favourite

nesting site is under a palas (Butea frondosa) sapling, in a field

strewn with small stones and bordered by light jungle. Franklin’s

nightjar, on the other hand, | have always found nesting on the

hitocks and lower slopes of the higher hills, amongst the medium-

sized stones which are a feature ot its breeding haunts. The site

chosen may be quite open or in the vicinity of scrub, which is

another characteristic of these hillocks. The bird is really a denizen

of the very fringes of forest.

the Jungle Nightjar, as its name implies, takes up its quarters

more inside the torest, often well within. The jungle, however,

must be light in character and of a deciduous nature. In my

experience the Jungle Nightjar is not met with in deep forest.

ine Long-tailed Nigntjar, on the other hand usually frequents both

thick bush and fairly heavy deciduous and bamboo jungle. It —

especially favours the banks or the shady, creeper-festooned beds

of nalas carpeted with dead leaves.

The calls used in the breeding season by these four species of

nightjars are distinctive and though it is not possible to identity

the birds correctly in the field, it is really quite easy to recognise

the species by its call: and let me say at once that the music of the

nightjars is well-worth listening to, worth going a long way to

hear. It is heard chiefly when dusk deepens into darkness,

‘And all the air a Solemn Stillness holds.’

In the hope that I may be able to convey to the reader some

of the joy and thrill I have experienced in listening to Nightjar music,

{ will quote from my notes written while I was under its spell :—

‘It has been a wickedly hot day but now it is pleasantly cool

with a gentle breeze blowing. I am seated on a high railway

embankment in wild and jungly country. In front of me is a broken

open space about three hundred yards long by one hundred yards

wide with an outcrop of biack rock and just a few bushes and

mhowa and sal trees; beyond there is rather heavier scrub and

deciduous jungle with a nala running through it. The water from

the nala—when there is any !—passes through a culvert under the

embankment where I am seated. Beyond this again, high hills,

thickly forested—Jumra to be exact. To right and left of the open

space hillocks covered with scrub. Altogether an ideal spot from

which to listen to the different nightjars’ calls.

It is 5.50. A Peacock has just called from the jungle in

front, and a Red Jungle-fowl crowed lustily. Close by a male

Robin is singing his jolly jingle.

5.55 and I am startled by a nightjar on my right calling

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 545

chwees on three occasions—startled because I did not expect to

hear any nightjar quite so soon. A loud and very penetrating note.

Ihe bird was clearly on the wing though I could not spot it.

franklin’s Nightjar. Now it is sient and gangmen pass behind

me on their way home, their day’s work done. Follow several

large parrakeets to roost in a small tope of trees a mile away,

screaming stridently.

6.5. Che sun has. gone down behind the small hill on the

left. More jungle-fowl crowing, tollowed by the screams of a

large flight of green parrakeets and the cachinnating crescendo

cries of a brain-tever bird. A green barbet also calis trom the

jungle in front. Dusk is falling fast and the green of the living

trees contrasts beautifully with the purple—so it appears in this

light—ot their sere and leafless neignbours. The silence becomes

more intense; but a robin breaks it with its rasping note, and pea-

fowl mee-ows in the distance. <A single bulbul tinkles tunefully.

6.15. Chwees again from the low hilly ground on my right.

A smail party of green bee-eaters fly across uttering their familiar

notes and a green pigeon coos soothingly from somewhere on my

left. Now a ‘did-you-do-it’ pings piercingly and then flying ott

gives vent to its usual notes. Obviously some marauding creature

nas startled it. |

6.20. Any minute now I expect to be entertained by the music

of the massed bands of the Brigade of Nightjars. Instead a

king crow whippoo-whees near at hand followed by the green

pigeon cooing again but in a much softer key.

Follows a deep silence broken only by the soughing of the

wind in the trees.

6.25. Tuck - tuck - tuck

Tuck - tuck - tuck - tuck

Tuck - tuck - tuck - tuck - tuck

in the distance, so faint that I can only just hear it. At first it

sounds rather like a creaking door being opened and then it some-

what recalls a pebble skimming over ice. Faster and faster come

the notes, and though halting in its call at first it now seems as

though the bird wili never stop. The Jungle Nightjar.

A grey partridge issues its challenge but the predominating

call is still that of peafowl although a crow-pheasant is also

whoop - whoop - whooping and a stone plover delights me with its

wild wailing note.

Chwees again, from two different places. One author of these

notes flies across, circles and then settles on a largish black stone,

spreading its tail a great deal and shuffling from side to side

before settling down comfortably. Under the impression that the

bird is brooding her young I search for these, but in vain.

Took - took - tookirr-r-r-r.

Took - took - took - tookirr-r-r-r-v, the real pebble over ice this

time, right in front of me. The Common Indian Nightjar.

Another takes up the refrain and now all three species are calling

together from different points of the compass and I don’t know

which one to tune into so as to give some idea in words of the

different calls.

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Chwees flies overhead, calling all the time. I watch it settle

on the ground, but then it becomes silent. '

The ommon Nightjar is going at it hard, but from the ground.

Two, often three, and occasionally four tooks before the final

LV V-V-1-1.

And now, what I love most of all to hear, the hammer-note.

Like a carpenter striking wood, and the strokes are good and

hearty and do not stop. Chonk-chonk-chonk, deliberate and loud

and with a richness of tone that defies description. This is the

call of the Long-tailed Nightjar. It seems to be calling from a

tree—certainly not while flying.

A Franklin’s nightjar has settled on the very top of a mhowa

tree, on an almost perpendicular branch, beautifully silhouetted

against the clear sky. It is calling chwees repeatedly. Another,

also calling, flies within ten feet of my head and although it flip-

flaps from side to side and swerves in the usual nightjar-manner,

no sound from its wings can I hear.,

6.50, and I can hardly see. Nightjars of all four species

calling on every side, Franklin’s and the common nightjar pre-

dominating. The brain-fever bird still shrieking and any amount

of peafowl caterwauling. Unexpectedly a golden-backed wood-

pecker shrieks, and there is a ring of terror in its notes as though

some large owl has seized it.

6.55. The common nightjar’s music is dying down _ but

Franklin’s nightjar is more in evidence. Only for a short while,

however, for now the jungle nightjar’s tuck - tuck - tuck - tuck -

tuck suddenly comes into prominence, followed soon after by the

somewhat slower tuckoo - tuckoo - tuckoo of the same species. All

the notes of this species seem to be uttered from the ground and

the number of tucks varies greatly; one bird has just tucked fifty

times or more, calling so fast that it was impossible to count

correctly. It sounded much like a horse galloping on a hard road.

{s the tuckoo note a mating call? there is something warm-blooded,

amorous about it which suggests this.

7.10. It is quite dark now and the different nightjars whose

notes have each in turn predominated have all stopped calling. The

jungle fires on the Jumra range, and on Lugu, behind me, now

show up clearly, and the feeling comes over me that it 1s no longer

safe to be out unarmed, that it is time I got back nearer to

civilisation. And so the torch is switched on—to lighten our

darkness—and I pick my faltering way back to my saloon, my

heart overflowing with joy from all I have just heard and seen.’

Of course, other notes are also used, perhaps more generally

than is imagined. For instance, a common Indian nightjar early

one morning after calling in the normal manner treated me for

quite ten minutes to a delightfully sweet and musical variation

took - took - terro - oi - ick. This was in my garden at Dhanbad and

since then I have occasionally heard it elsewhere. Again, visits

just before dusk to the nesting haunts of long-tailed nightjars have

proved to my satisfaction that when this species first leaves its

diurnal resting place—and even before—the call commences with

a croak rather like a frog’s. The note is, however, low and sounds

Jungle Nightjar ( Caprimulgus

indicus).

PLATE we

Photo by Author,

Journ. BomsBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE IIq!

Camouflage: Common Indian Nightjar brooding, (C. macrourus ).

Young Common Indian Nightjar.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 547

far off. After a short while it changes straight into the usual

call which at first is repeated only two or three times. Following

a pause the bird chonks for two or three minutes with usually

three chonks to each series and then repeats its note just once’ or -

twice for a brief period. Thereafter it usually breaks into sustained

calling. It sounds just as though the bird were tuning up and

had at last found the right pitch. The Long-tailed Nightjar also

occasionally utters another note, a particularly sweet wog which

must be heard really to be appreciated.

I have never seen a jungle nightjar calling so am unable to

say definitely whether this species calls from the ground, a post,

or tree. Judging from the direction of the sound, when I have

heard the-note at close quarters, I am of opinion it calls only

from the ground. Franklin’s nightjar calls just as frequently while

flying as from the ground, or from a post or even tree-top. The

Long-tailed Nightjar, on the other hand, utters its normal call

only from the ground or a tree, or from a branch low down or

one high up. I have heard it use the croaking note when on

the wing pursuing another of its species; but this note is generally

used while sitting on the ground amidst masses of dead leaves,

before taking its first fllght of an evening. Sometimes it is uttered

from the branch of some stunted tree or thick creeper in the jungle

immediately after the day-time roost is left and before it starts

calling chonk. The Common Indian Nightjar differs from the

three preceding species in calling apparently only from the ground,

a boulder or even a low post, but never, I think, from a tree.

Nightjars start calling about the beginning of February and

continue to do so regularly till the middle or end of July, that

is to say, during the main breeding season. Thereafter their notes

are less in evidence although I have known the Common Indian

Nightjar call sporadically till 7th October. This symphony, as

I remarked earlier, is to be heard chiefly as dusk is turning to

darkness. The different cries are, however, very much in evidence

again for an hour or more before dawn breaks and throughout

the night when the moon is at her zenith.

Anyone who has examined a nightjar in the flesh must have

noticed the very long middle claw, the inner edge of which is

serrated and has a comb-like appearance. The use of this pectin-

ated claw still remains a mystery. Long years ago, Gilbert White

was of opinion that it helped the bird to deliver food into its

enormous mouth, an assertion which as yet has no evidence to

support it. Others consider its function is to comb from the

stiff bristles of its gape the wings of moths and beetles upon

which it feeds. There are objections to this theory. Flycatchers

possess similar bristles about the gape, but do not have pectinated

claws to clean them, and other species have such a claw but no

bristles to wipe. Nevertheless, the explanation is one which has

fairly general support. My own contribution to the problem is,

I fear, scanty. I have only once seen a Nightjar bring its foot

up to its mouth. The impression I then obtained was that the

bird was using its claw to remove something from the side of

the mouth—it was certainly not to put anything in,

548. [OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE (HIST. SOCIETLY,. Vol. XX

Whistler has stated on more than one occasion that Nightjars

cannot travel on foot and asserts that the long central toe prevents

progression over the ground. Such a handicap possibly discourages

the birds from travelling any great distance in this manner, but

it most emphatically does not prevent a nightjar from movement

over ground. As a matter of fact, nightjars begin to hop, and

even ‘to tun, at a ‘very ‘early age.° On 14th july tees). alone

tailed nightjar, I was photographing, settled on a branch of a

tree not far from which were her two chicks, the younger not

yet forty-eight hours old. Flying down to the ground, she used

the croaking note I have already described. Receiving no response

from her chicks, she ran four or five feet towards them, her wings

erect, their tips nearly meeting over her back. Again she called,

and this time both young ones left the spot where they had been

born and travelling a distance of quite ten feet finally reached their

parent, under whom they took shelter. The larger chick covered

the distance by running and hopping, holding up its wings when

running in exactly the same manner as the parent bird had

done. The smaller chick progressed by hops alone, a couple of

inches or so at a time. I have also seen young common Indian

nightjars, about a week old, hop in precisely the same manner for

double this distance. Again, I once alarmed a Franklin’s nightjar

which could almost fly. The bird ran in several short bursts with

wings upraised while I attempted to catch it.

If young nightjars hop and run well, their parents are even

more proficient in progressing over the ground. Nightjars usually

alight straight on to their nests. Not uncommonly, however, they

settle on the ground some distance away. This may be anything

from five to fifteen feet. I once watched from the hide a

Franklin’s nightjar work its way back to the nest from a distance

of over fifteen yards. On such occasions the bird progresses either

by a series of short runs, with wings carried almost vertically

over the body, when it looks for all the world like a sprinter

breasting the tape, or the wings may not be lifted.at all;.or the

bird walks a short distance, halts for a space and resumes the

journey in a similar manner. The gait then is most peculiar—it

is either a waddle. like a rook’s or a shuffle, as though the bird

were wearing a hobbied skirt.

Just as the sight of a Did-You-Do-It’s nest containing eggs

always thrills me, so too I never tire of watching yet another

nightjar sitting on her eggs. How wonderfully the plumage of

the bird blends with its surroundings. Let it sit upon a carpet

of dead leaves, under a tiny sapling, or in the open surrounded

by a few stones, and a stick or. two—it does not seem to be a

bird at all but part of the ground on which it rests. The illusion

is made more perfect by the manner in which the bird rests with

* Since I wrote this my attention has been drawn to The British Bird

Book, vol. 2, p. 374, where, referring to the Nightjar, appears tke following

statement :— i

‘Both young and old, it may be added, run easily.’

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Eggs of Franklin’s Nightjar.

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |}

Indian Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus ).

Indian Long-tailed Nightjar.

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 549

its eyes closed or almost so. Again and again have I shown a

nightjar covering her eggs to some friend; always—even when

we have been within a few feet of the bird—he or she has taken

some time to spot it; and great always has been their wonderment

at seeing this perfect example of protective coloration.

The photography of nightjars as a rule presents no difficulties ;

indeed, the use of the hide may generally be dispensed with in

the case of the Common Indian Nightjar. Frequently, I have

worked my way up slowly to one of these birds as she covered

either eggs or young, less than a foot at a time, my head under

the focussing cloth and the camera screwed to the tripod, and

have so taken all the photographs I wanted. It is, however,

terribly hot work and the perspiration has poured down my face

until I have literally been blinded and have had to remove my

glasses constantly so as to be able to focus correctly. When so

occupied, when the tripod will not remain where it is put, when

the focussing cloth sags or a high wind causes it constantly to

obstruct the view, one’s temper runs short, and the language I

have then used—well, what else would one expect! In _ spite,

however, of the noise I have then made; in spite also of the camera

and tripod falling down within four feet of the sitting bird, either

due to my own clumsiness or a gale blowing it over, I have twice

known a common Indian nightjar continue to incubate, with eyes

still closed, as though nothing untoward had occurred !

I have also photographed Franklin’s nightjar without using

the hide. This, however, has been exceptional. Usually the bird’s

courage fails it when the photographer is about fifteen feet away,

which, of course, is not within camera range. This is probably

due to the fact that in Chota Nagpur the species is greatly harassed

by the aborigines who kill the bird on every possible occasion. The

modus operandi being to approach it stealthily from behind and

hit it with a slender V-shaped branch on the end of which the

foliage still remains. Once alarmed, this species cannot be stalked

and recourse will then have to be made to the hiding tent which

should be erected some distance away and only moved closer to

the nest as the sitting bird becomes used to it. Even when the

would-be photographer is safely enclosed—is in purdah, as an

Indian friend once expressed it—a considerable interval will most

certainly elapse before a natural portrait can be secured, due either

to the bird sitting unnaturally—eyes wide open and bolt upright—

the skin under the chin vibrating at an alarming rate. a sure

sign that the bird is frightened or suspicious.

There is one feature of an incubating Franklin’s Nightjar that

at once distinguishes it from the other species with which this

article deals—this is the buff-coloured V which extends roughly

from the shoulders to half way down the back. It is strange that

no observer should have drawn attention to this marking which

is partly brought out in the accompanying plate.

I have found remarkably few nests of the Jungle Nightjar

considering the numbers of this species which are to be heard

throughout the Chota Nagpur Division. Whether this has been

due to my keeping one eye open to the possibilities of a Russell’s

900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE AIST: ‘SOCIETY, Vol. KXXIX

Viper—habitat Manbhum, if the famous ‘Tiger’ Knowles is to be

believed—or whether my failure was attributable to inertia brought

on by the terrific heat, to which advancing years made me more

susceptible than was the case a decade previously, I cannot say.

The fact remains that I always found this species very quick to

leave its eggs, once it knew they had been spotted, and equally

Joth to return to them. There can be no doubt that, here again,

this is due to the manner in which the aborigines harass and

destroy this species when incubating. Two cases immediately

come to mind of scattered feathers and broken shells where only

the day before I had gazed with admiration and joy on a Jungle

Nightjar incubating its two eggs.

I did not succeed in finding the eggs of the Long-tailed Nightjar

until the summer of 1935; this was entirely due to my searching

for them previously in scrub or thin jungle. When, however, I

started looking for them in deeper forest round about the nala

beds, I was immediately successful. The eggs of this bird are

appreciably larger than those of the other nightjars and are in

addition differently coloured, their ground colour being of a creamy

hue in contrast to the salmon-pink of the other species.

The New Fauna’ states that the Long-tailed Nightjar is ‘an

exceptionally confiding, tame bird’. This may be the case in

Assam, but it was not long before I was disillusioned with regard

to residents in the Manbhum district. Why they should be so

very shy here is beyond my ken because, when breeding, the

species is free from the attentions of the local savage who, I

discovered in due course, is not aware that nightjars breed in

such heavy jungle. Be the reason what it may I was soon to

learn that in these parts albononotus invariably leaves its eggs or.

callow young when the intruder is fifteen feet or more distant

from its treasures, and, although it will then return to them, he

can be certain that the third time he goes to investigate affairs

he will find the eggs lying deserted in the so-called nest, or the

young removed—may be they are enticed away—so that it is

almost hopeless to expect to see them again. Such shyness on

the bird’s part seemed to put its photography beyond the realms

of possibility. However, it is an occasion such as this which

brings out the best in the really keen bird photographer and

observation indicated that success could only come my way if I

refrained from flushing a bird off its eggs a second time, observing

it instead from a distance through the glasses until I was satisfied

that the young had made their appearance. Pursuing these tactics

IT eventually—after several failures—succeeded in photographing the

Long-tailed Nightjar at home when her eggs were actually hatch-

ing. The jungle, however, was heavy and the light consequently

poor, necessitating, of course, the use of a large stop so that

the resultant pictures lack that detail I should like to see. I

believe that this particular bird would have permitted me to expose

all twelve plates on her that morning. Alas! when pulling the

roller-blind chord preparatory to taking the third photograph the

* Vol. iv, p: 365:

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 551

Thornton-Pickard shutter broke and, as usual on such occasions,

there was nothing I could do to remedy matters for the nonce.

I therefore dismantled the hiding tent and camera just where they

stood, the bird making no attempt to leave the eggs. Then did

I ask myself on whose unlucky countenance had I gazed when I

first awakened that morning; and when I put the same question

to my shikari he supplied the reason for our bad luck. When he

came out of his hut that morning he had happened on an old woman

who always brought him ill fortune; he had intended to tell me

earlier about this dreadful calamity but finally decided to keep

silent on the point lest I should rate him for a superstitious old

fool. But now he was convinced; and so on, until I bade him

shut up. Of course, when I returned four days later, it was to

find that the young ones had been removed, where I knew not.

I have succeeded in photographing only one other long-tailed

nightjar. Here again the conditions were just the same as before,

except that in this instance the photographs I succeeded in taking

of the parent bird covering its young will not permit of reproduction

owing to the way in which sunshine and shadow alternate on the

bird’s back. Fortune however favoured me, as during the next

two days when the young were very small, the long-tailed nightjar

almost invariably alighted on a branch a few feet from the nest

thus enabling me to take a number of pictures showing the bird’s

long wings and white markings on the primaries, one of these is

reproduced herewith.

In suitable places the Manbhum district is a veritable paradise

for nightjars. How common the genus is may perhaps be gathered

from the following statement of fact. When first I made Sukroo’s

acquaintance I was anxious to obtain some photos of a Nightjar

—did he know the bird and had he ever found its eggs? Yes,

he was familiar with the chuckoo and had often found its eggs

and young. Thinking to put him on his mettle I wagered him

a rupee that he could not find me twelve nightjars’ nests that

day. Although I felt rather guilty of betting on what I considered

was a certainty—if there is such a thing—TI nevertheless lost the

bet!

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA.

P. F. GARTHWAITE, B.F.S.

assisted by

Dr. -C. B= TICEHURST; M.ALy MR. C)S.. (ML B.O.U:

The following notes refer to birds collected by the writer in

various localities in Burma from 1932 to 1935. In every case

the identification has been made or verified by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst,

M.A., M.B.O.U., to whom the writer is greatly indebted for constant

help. The nomenclature adopted is based on that of the Fauna

of British India, 2nd Edition (referred to hereafter as F.B.I.) and

the notes made are only those which it is thought expand the

present scope of the F.B.J., particularly as regards distribution.

The attached map shows the position of localities from which birds

referred to were collected. All these birds were collected in the

plains or foothills below 2,000 ft. Dr. C. B. Ticehurst is responsible |

for the identification and systematic notes, and his contribution is

added in brackets.

[ Garrulax leucolophus hardwickii.

Garrulax leucolophus belangeri. The Burmese White-crested Laughing Thrush.

In the Bulletin of the B.O.C. (vol. xlvi, p.113) I described Garrulax

leucolophus hardwickii from the Naga Hills and gave as its rough distribution

Assam and N. Burma. This form was added in the addenda of the F.B.I.

(vol. viii, p. 599) but the distribution given there was Garhwal and N.-W.

Himalayas. We are now in a _ position to detail the ranges of these two

forms more accurately than has been done before.

G. 1. hardwickit in Burma occupies the Kachin Hills in the North, and

even occurs there as low as too ft.: the small ranges of Gangaw and Mingin

in the Katha and Shwebo Districts; Mogok 4,400 ft.; has been recorded

(as leucolophus) on the borders of N. Shan States and Yunnan (Malipa) ;

the Chin Hills and the outliers between the main range and the Chindwin

river (Pondaung Range); Arakan Yomas. . '

G. 1. belangeri.—From Tavoy in Tenasserim northwards in lower hills

300-1,000 ft. or plains i.e., S. Shan States where it is said to go not higher

than 2,800 ft.; Pegu, Rangoon, Bassein, Tharrawaddy, Prome, Toungoo, Pyin-

mana, it extends north along the foothills east of the Irrawaddy in the

Maymyo Mogok divisions to 23° N., the higher hills here being inhabited by

hardwickii. |

{Pomatorhinus schisticeps nuchalis. Tweeddale’s Scimitar Babbler.

Pomatorhinus schisticeps mearsi. Grant’s Slaty-headed Scimitar Babbler.

Pomatorhinus olivaceus ripponi. Harington’s Shan Scimitar Babbler.

These three birds call for some comment for various reasons.

Firstly, the F.B.I. puts nuchalis as a species but I think it may well

be a race of schisticeps for the following reasons :—

From Arakan, Chin Hills east to the Irrawaddy river the form is un-

doubtedly mearsi, but a bird from Chaungzon Shwebo is exactly intermediate ;

it has the white streaks in the side of the breast of mearsi, but in size

is nuchalis; on the east side of the Irrawaddy nuchalis is the representative.

Secondly, it is tempting to put olivaceus ripponi as a further race of

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA 553

schisticeps and this has been done by some authors. The chief differences

are the smaller size, shorter bill and lack of chestnut feathers in the flanks.

In favour of this is the fact that birds from Maymyo are intermediate in

the question of the flank feathers, that is to say the chestnut colour is not

nearly so marked as in typical nuchalis and indeed some are quite like

rippont in this respect but in size are nuchalis. But against this arrangement

we certainly have nuchalis and rippont in Mogok district and apparently at

Bampon and Kalaw and probably elsewhere in Southern Shan States. Moreover

olivaceus olivaceus occurs together with nuchalrs at Thongyat, N. Tennasserim.

It must be noted that the birds from Mogok were obtained at different

elevations 300 and 3,700 and so the possibility that one (olivaceus) is a

bird of higher elevation must not be lost sight of; where the two forms

have elsewhere been obtained in the same locality details are not sufficient

to say whether there was an altitudinal difference or not.

It is a point which collectors would do well to take note of.

Thirdly, many of the measurements given in F.B.I. are not correct. I

have measured every bird in the British Museum and many more besides and

I find the following measurements.

Mearsi. Wing 102-112 mm., tail 105-116 mm., bill from skull 34.5-38 mm.

Nuchalis. Wing 88-102 mm., tail 92-103 mm., bill 27-32 mm.

In F.B.I., the wing measurements as given 87-91 can only apply to the

smallest: the tail, as given, 210-220 mm. and corrected in vol. xiii, to 110-120

is very wide of the mark.

Rippont. Wing 82.5-90 mm., tail 88-97 mm., bill 23.5-26 mm. |

Gampsorhynchus rufulus rufulus (232). The White-headed Shrilke-Babbler.

One specimen, May 1935, Nanhlaing Reserve, Shwebo Forest Division.

Three specimens, January 1936, Namma Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division.

The bird shot in the Shwebo Division had legs fleshy white, of a bluish

tinge, a characteristic according to the F.B.I. of the Southern G. r. torquatus

whose distribution is given as ‘The Toungoo Hills and Karenni to Tenasserim’,

while the distribution of the Northern race is given as ‘Chin Hills and Arakan’. |

Both localities from which this bird was collected are heavily wooded,

containing evergreen forest in the foothills, with hills rising above 4,000 ft.

behind them.

(This race has been recorded by Harington from the Jade Mines, Myitkyina

District, and from the foothills of the Henzada Yomas by Mr. Stanford.)

Napothera brevicaudatus venningi. Venning’s Wren-Babbler.

One specimen from Gokteik, Hsaipaw North Shan States.

(Although this distribution in the F.B.I. is given as South Shan States,

Burma and Yunnan, there are no specimens in the British Museum, nor are

there any records from any part of Burma except the South Shah _ States.)

Stachyridopsis rufifrons rufifrons (279). Hume’s Babbler.

Five specimens, March 1935, Thogale, South Toungoo Forest Division.

Two specimens, August 1935, Nanhlaing Reserve, Shwebo Forest Division.

One specimen, November 1935, Thogale; one Monhnit, Pyinmana, December

1935:

The birds obtained in March at Thogale appeared to be breeding, as

nesting material was observed to be taken by them, but no nests were

found. The F.B.I. gives the distribution as ‘Shan States of Tenasserim’

but these records prove a more westerly range. Thogale is on the eastern

slopes of the Pegu Yomas where there is abundant evergreen vegetation.

[Though this is probably not a rare bird, yet very few specimens have

hitherto been obtained. The distribution is far from being worked out at

present, but it certainly occurs also on the west of the Pegu Yomas (whence

came the type in Lat. 19) and Mr. Smith has obtained it there also in the

Yetho Yomas, Tharrawaddy Forest Division. ]

Criniger tephrogenys griseiceps (382). Hume’s White-throated Bulbul.

Seven birds from the Thogale locality, South Toungoo Forest Division, and

two from the Kaing Reserve, Pyinmana Division.

Both localities are humid, well-wooded, with abundant ever-green forest,

and the bird is found in small parties in the densest undergrowth.

(In the Journal, vol. xxxvi, 925, I pointed out that Oates obtained five

specimens of this bird in the E. Pegu Hills in the seventies of last century

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

and that no one since had met with it. It is, therefore, of considerable

interest to find that Mr. Garthwaite has re-discovered this bird in the same

range as Oates originally found it. Oates said it occurred as far north as

the latitude of Thayetmyo. Mr. Garthwaite has extended it a little farther

north to the Kaing Reserve in Pyinmana Division. The distributions of

Criniger species and races in Burma need far more attention before their

distributions and relationships can be satisfactorily made out. The parts which

need most attention are the hills on east side of the Sittang river and southwards

to the Amherst District.)

Criniger flaveolus flaveolus (380). The Indian White-throated Bulbul.

One specimen, August 1934, Nanhlaing Reserve, Shwebo Forest Division.

One specimen, May 1935, Pile Reserve, West Katha Forest Division.

One specimen, January 1936, Sinkan Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division.

These three skins agreed with none of the descriptions in the F.B.I., of

birds said to occur in Burma, and were identified by Dr. Ticehurst as this

race, for which Burma is not included in the distribution given in the F.B.I.

[I have already (Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist., Soc., xXxxvi, pp. 423-4) pointed

out that Criniger gularis (Horsf.) is preoccupied and cannot be used for the

Indian bird which I have previously recorded from Arakan and the Katha

District. ]

fole virescens virescens. The Olive Bulbul.

lole virescens propinqua.

Various specimens of this species from Kaing Reserve, Pyinmana, Satchaung,

S. Toungoo, Gwethe Reserve, N. Toungoo, Pile, Katha, Gangaw, Maymyo;

Simaw Reserve Bhamo.

[The type of Iole virescens virescens came from Arakan, and these birds

from N. and S. Toungoo Divisions and from Pyinmana are virescens or

nearest that form; the birds from Katha, Maymyo and Bhamo are clearly

not the same race; they are larger and have darker, cinnamon undertail

coverts and I place them with propinqua which has already been recorded

from the Myitkyina District (Ibis 1935, p. 249). The bird from Gangaw is

also nearest to propinqua.

Bingham obtained this form in Mong Kong, Shan States (specimen examined

in British Museum).

With a widely distributed species such as this there must naturally be

intergrades between virescens and propinqua in Burma. |

Larvivora cyane (483). The Siberian Blue Chat.

Five specimens from Gangaw, Yaw Forest Division in February 1934.

One specimen from Thogale, South Toungoo Forest Division in March 1935.

One specimen from Gwethe Reserve, North Toungoo Forest Division in

November 1935.

One specimen from Kaing Reserve, Pyinmana Forest Division in December

1935:

Gangaw is on the east bank of the Myittha river at the foot of the Chin

Hills, which rise up from the west bank.

- This migrant has previously only rarely been recorded from Burma, but

these collections show that it is widely spread over the country in the winter

months. It was found in Bamboo jungle, scratching about in dead_ leaves

on the ground, and often met with on sandy paths.

(Though the distribution in the F.B.J. is given as ‘Burma’ it has only

been recorded from Pegu once; Thandaung, Toungoo once; and Southern

Shan States -once. In Tenasserim it was recorded as common by Davison

and Bingham.)

Rhodephila ferrea ferrea. The Western Dark Grey Bush-chat.

Specimens from Maymyo, Pyinmana and S. Toungoo in winter.

[In the Journal. (vol. xxxvii, p. 357) Mr. Kinnear says he can see no

difference in winter plumage between ferrea and haringtoni. With this I

agree; all the \Burmese birds I have seen seem quite the same as Himalayan

ones. Hartert in his description of haringtoni stressed the shortness of the

tail, the measurements for which he gives as 57-61.5 mm. Kinnear gives for

ferrea 59-65 mm. Seventeen males from Burma in winter measure :—Tail

59-68 mm.—and I must therefore place them with the typical race. ]

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA 5

Luscinia obscura.

Shot in January 1936 in the Simaw Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division about

500 ft. above sea level. The bird was seen in thick undergrowth on_ the

side of a stream, and the tail was unfortunately damaged in shooting. The

locality is at the foot of the high mountains which run into the Sinlum range.

Only the one bird was seen.

[This is a remarkable addition to the Burmese Fauna. Very little is

known about this species which breeds in S.-W. Kansu and in the Tsin-ling

Range. In the former place Beresouski discovered it originally and Owstroi’s

Japanese collectors found it in the latter, and beyond a few (?) specimens in

Russian Museums there appear to be four adult males only in the Tring

collection. To the kindness of Dr. Mayr of the American Museum of Natural

History the satisfactory determination of this specimen is due, as there is

no specimen of Luscinia obscura in the British Museum. He informs me

that as the females in this genus have the upper parts brown and that as

in this specimen the upper parts are slate-blue, as in the adult males, he

considers it to be a male in the first year, and in a plumage which is unknown.

This is very likely to be so, assuming of course that there is no distinctive

breeding dress. The adult male in summer has a black chin throat and

breast, whether this is retained in winter is not known. }

The following is a description of this bird.

Luscinia (larvivora) obscura. Presumed male in first winter.

Upper parts near dusky slate blue (Ridgway xliii, m) lores and malar

streak black; earcoverts and indistinct supercilium ochraceous grey; chin and

centre of belly whitish; rest of under parts with axillaries and under-wing

dull pale ochraceous with indication of ‘scalloping’ due to faint dark edges ;

flanks tinged with olivaceous; thighs blackish; wings black edged with colour

of mantle on tertiaries and coverts. Tail missing.

Wing 69.5, tail ?, bill 16 from skull, tarsus 27.

Second primary between seventh and eighth.

Dr. Mayr informs me that the measurements and structure of wing and

bill closely correspond with males from the Tsinling Mountains, and suggests

-that the black malar streak foreshadows the black shield of the adult. He

further points out that one of the adult males in the ‘Tring collection has

one ochraceous feather in the black shield similar to those on the breast of

this specimen. ]

Monticola solitarius pandoo. The Indian Blue Rock-Thrush.

I obtained several Blue Rock Thrushes at Gangaw in the winter and one

from Pyinmana, which have been identified as belonging to this race.

[The I’.B.I. says possibly this form winters in North Burma. Mr. Stanford

has already recorded it from Myitkyina and Mr. Garthwaite’s specimens now

show that it is much more widely spread. |

Seicercus cantator (895). Tickell’s Flycatcher Warbler.

Two specimens from Baw Reserve, Maymyo Forest Division, December 1934.

One specimen from Kaing Reserve, Pyinmana Forest Division, December 1934.

One specimen from Simaw Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division, January 1936.

Previous records of this bird are rare and its distribution in Burma _ is

given in the F.B.J. as ‘Chin Hills’ and ‘Karen Hills’. These three records

are, however, widespread, and are all from the foothills below 1,o00 ft.

(Beyond the statement in the F.B.J. that this occurs in the Chin Hills I

know of no record thence. Oates in the Birds of British Burma gave near

Toungoo in the Karen Hills, where Wardlaw-Ramsay had met it, and nowhere

else. In the British Museum the only Burmese specimen is one of Wardlaw-

Ramsay’s from this locality and Walden describes it as a new bird, Abrornis

chrysea, This species doubtless has been and is largely overlooked. Burmese

birds do not appear to be any different to those from Sikkim.)

Aithiopsar nee The Jungle Myna. One specimen from Katha.

Athiopsar fuscus. Four specimens from Pyinmana.

The F.B.I. gives the distribution of fuscus as the whole of Burma to

Rangoon and of fuscus torquatus as Peninsula of Burma and Siam.

As regards fuscus I) do not think this distribution can be correct. The

farthest north in Burma from which I have seen specimens is from Pyinmana

but there are records from Myingyan, yet the districts round Shwebo, Maymyo

558 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HISI. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIx

and Myitkyina in Upper Burma have been intensively worked by Messrs.

Stanford, Smith and Garthwaite for some years now without a single specimen

being obtained. ‘There are eight records of it from the Chin Huils, Arakan

and Southern Shan States but there are no specimens thence in the British

Museum. The distribution leaves one in doubt as to which form is found in

N. Tenasserim where the bird is evidently very common. I have examined

a number of birds from Tenasserim and 1! cannot see that they differ from

those from the rest of Burma or from those of Northern India.

Series from Sikkim Bengal, wing 120-127.5 mm.

series from ‘Tenasserim, wing 120-126 mm.

Series from Malay Peninsula, wing, 118-134 mm.

Series from Burma (lower), wing 120-128, 130, 133 mm.

Lhe Malay bird (torquatus) was described trom Pahang and is said to

be smaller. 1 do not feei convinced that there is any colour difterence between

torquatus and fuscus and on a series only 5 out of 13 are a trifle smaller

than Indian birds. It has no place in the burmese avitauna.

Fuscus extends from India through Dacca, Tipperah and Mymensing to

E. Assam (but not to Manipur) and then it is seemingiy distributed through

Arakan (Hopwood) and the plains of Lower Burma trom Pyinmana_ south

and throughout Tenasserim (but not in the hills between Tavoy and Siam)

to the Malay Peninsula.

The F.B.J. divides grandis into two forms grandis grandis from the S.-W.

Burma and E. Burma, South Shan States and Karenni South to Tenasserim

and grandis infuscatus from N. Burma and Arakan, Manipur, Eastern Assam

and Assam, south of the Brahmaputra. I have examined all the material in

the British Museum and this does not bear out the distribution as given

above. There are no specimens from Assam, and from Manipur only trom

the south and south-east; there are no specimens from S.-W. Burma. I find

that in Burma it occurs in the North in Myitkyina, Bhamo, Katha, Mogok,

Maymyo, Upper and Lower Chindwin Districts as far as Mingin; in Karenni

and Southern Shan States; from Tenasserim there are two specimens said

to have been taken on the ‘Tenasserim river, that is in the hills which

divide Lavoy from Siam. Hume particularly stressed that they were said to

have been taken there; the labels are not those of the original collector and

Davison never met with the species in Tenasserim, nor did Willoughby Lowe.

So the fixation of the type locality for grandis as Tenasserim was not a

very happy one. Outside burma it extends through Siam to French Indo-China.

Birds trom Upper Burma, including the Chindwin whence came the type

of infuscatus, do not seem to me to be different to those from the Tenasserim

river and Siam. The differences relied on are partly due to individual variation

and partly due to wear.

{ regard infuscatus as a synonym of grandis.

Series measured, wing 128-146 mm.

The question then arises—what is the relation between grandis and fuscus.

From the distribution of these two which I have given above it appears that

grandis and fuscus do not occur anywhere together. It is true there are

eight records of fuscus in the Chin Hills and Shan States and of grandis in

N. Tenasserim at I<awkariyet (where only fuscus has been obtained) but until

specimens are forthcoming to prove that the two forms occur together I

think we must accept the tact that, so far as is known, they do not do so.

As bearing on this point a series of hides obtained in the foothills of the

Maymyo District 300-500 ft. by Messrs. Smith and Garthwaite are instructive.

One specimen is indistinguishable from grandis, two are nearer grandis than

they are fuscus and two [ can only consider to be intergrades between grandts

and fuscus; these have the dark mark at the base of the lower mandible

indicated, but not perhaps quite so marked as in fuscus, the colour of the

upper and underparts are dark for fuscus and pale for grandis, the upper

parts being distinctly paler than the crown (in grandis crown and upper parts

concolourous); in size they might pass for grandis and are large for fuscus

wing 130-36. In this connection too, it may be noted that the largest fuscus

of any came from Pyinmana, wing 128, 130, 133—larger than any others I

have measured, but in every other character these birds are typical fuscus.

Between Pyinmana and Maymyo there are no specimens available of any form.

The evidence, then, so far as I have been able to gather it, is that

fuscus and grandis do not occur in the same area and that in the foothills

7] RUSGUS

FE. GRANDIS

SS Fe. CRISTATELLUS SS

Map to show roughly the distribution of A‘thiopsar cristatellus, grandis

and fuscus. To show overlap of cristatellus and grandis and meeting ground

of grandis and fuscus.

NOTES ON. SOME -BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA

between .Mandalay and Maymyo there is some evidence of intergradation

between the two; the two must, therefore, be considered to be conspecific.

A further question arises as to whether cristatellus is conspecific with

fuscus and grands. Besides the rather duller plumage cristatellus differs

trom grandis in having the under-tail coverts black with narrow white tips

and narrower white tips to the tail. I may here remark that in N. Burma

grandis sometimes has the undertail coverts partly black, but always’ with

broad white tips and broad white tips to the tail. Cristatellus occurs through-

out South China to Szechwan and is represented in French Indo-China by

a slightly smaller form (brevipennis). From the rather extensive material in

the British Museum and trom M. Delacour’s record (Les oiseaux de 1’ Indochine

frangaise) it appears that cristatellus is the bird of Vonkin and the sea bird

of Annam south to Phan Rang. The rest of Indo-China and Siam, west to

the Shan States and Karenni is inhabited by grandis. But grandis also occurs

in at least two places in Tonkin (Long Son and Laichan) side by side with

cristatellus and also on the Annam coast in the neighbourhood of Vinh,

Guantu and flue’. Birds trom these places are clearly one or the other

of these forms and no intergrades have been found. Moreovey Delacour

indicates rather different habits, and so although there is another whole

geographical replacement between cristatellus and grandis tlie evidence at

present is that they behave as species which replace one another.

Furthermore, in N.-W. Yunnan both occur. Rothschild (Nov. Zool., xxxiii,

p- 339) records grandis from Muanghu and from the hills N.-W. of Tengyueh

(Momien) and cristatellus from the latter place and from Malipa in N. Hsenwi,

N. Shan States, close to the Yunnan boundary, on the authority of Bangs

(Andrews-Heller coll.) Presumably this bird from Malipa has been correctly

identified and so cristatellus should be included in the Burmese avifauna,

though it is omitted in the F.B.J. In the rest of Yunnan (Lichiang Range,

Yoaknan, Hsiao and Mengtze) cristatellus only is recorded.

There seem to have been several mistakes made in the names of the

Jungle Mynah, which date back to Horsfield and Moore’s Catalogue 1858.

Che first name proposed was Pastor griseus Horsfield (Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii,

p. 154, 1820) for the Javan Crested Mynah. This name in the above Catalogue

was set aside because Daudin in 1800 (Orn. ii, p. 286) used Gracula grisea as

a new name for Latham’s Turdus ginginianus (Acridotheres ginginianus). Moore

was correct in doing this because he put the Jungle Mynahs in the same

genus, Acridotheres, as the Common and Bank Mynahs. If, however, as Oates

did in 1889, the Jungle Mynahs are remvoed to the genus <dtthiopsar then

Pastor griseus is not preoccupied by Gracula grisea and becomes the oldest

name, for the bird usually known as A‘thiopsar javanicus. <Atthiopsar grandis

grandis, I.B.I, could not be the correct name since grandis (1858) is only a

race of javanicus (1850); the name used should have been A’ thiopsar javanicus

grandis; for this reason, too, Chasen’s Avthiopsar grandis javanicus is equally

incorrect (Hand-list of Malaysian Birds.)

The eastern forms then will stand as

AETHIOPSAR GRISEUS GRISEUS (Horsf.) Trans. Linn. Soc., xiii, p. 154. 1820—

Java.

AETHIOPSAR GRISEUS GRANDIS (Horsfield and Moore) Cat. B. Mus. East India

@oy.,-p. 537. 1858 Sumatra (in error=Tenasserim).

AETHIOPSAR GRISEUS FUSsCUS (Wagler) Syst. Av. Pastor sp., 6, 1827 India—

E. Bengal.

and

AETHIOPSAR CRISTATELLUS CRISTATELLUS

AETHIOPSAR CRISTATELLUS BREVIPENNIS Hartert Nov. Zool., xxii, p. 250. 19g10—

Hainan.

Munia punctulata lineoventer, The Spotted Munia.

Specimens from Maymyo and Katha. :

[In the F.B.J. the type locality of punctulata is given as Calcutta.

Linnaeus’ name is based on Edwards’ pl. 40 of the Natural History and Edwards

said it came from the West Indies where it was sold for a Gowry (Cowry).

From this it seems unlikely that the bird came from Calcutta and Edwards’

plate does not represent the Indian bird. However, Gmelin in 1789 fixed on

Java as the type locality and this can be accepted. The Indian bird should

be called Munia punctulata lineoventer Hodgs. A race subundulata was described

from Manipur but many Assam and Burmese birds are indistinguishable from

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST) SOCIETY; Vol. w xxi

Indian ones and all seem to be nearer lineoventer than to topela (Amoy).

There is a good deal of individual variation to be seen in birds from Burma

and no doubt the form here is an emotable intergrade which hardly merits

recognition. |

{Anthus spinoletta coutellii. Lhe Egyptian Water Pipit

Anthus spinoletta japonicus. The Japanese Water Pipit.

Alauda arvensis japonica. Ihe Japanese Sky-Lark.

in the I.B.J. it is recorded that there is a specimen of Anthus coutellii

from Burma in the British Museum. I have searched in vain for this specimen

and from the distribution of this form it is exceedingly unlikely to occur

in Burma. Under japonicus it is recorded in the F.B.J. that Oates identified

two birds trapped in their nests on Mount Victoria as being of this race, and

that .the skins cannot now be traced. Further, Burma is included in the

winter range of this bird. I can find no evidence for that statement. There

are no specimens of japonicus from Burma in the British Museum.

Under Alauda arvensis japonica Oates is credited with having identified

t bird of this form which had been shot off its nest on Mount Victoria. This

specimen Mr. Baker considered to be coelivox.

{t will be observed that Oates is said to have identified breeding birds

of Anthus japonicus and of Alauda japonica from Mount Victoria. I feel

quite sure that a muddle has occurred; the specimens of Anthus japonicus

are not forthcoming, but in the British Museum there are two specimens of

an Alauda taken by Col. Rippon on Mount Victoria on 19-4-04 and 25-3-04

which he identified as arvensis. On the labels arvensis was scratched out

and japonicus inserted by Oates. I believe these specimens to have done duty

for the records of both species.

[Phese skylarks from Mount Victoria I certainly think are not japonica,

nor coelivox, but are Alauda gulgula weigoldi which occurs in Szechwan,

S.-E. Tibet and N. Yunnan. It is more rusty and darker than coelivox.]

Anthreptes macularia macularia (1288). The Banded Sunbird.

One specimen in January 1936 from Simaw Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division.

The bird was shot on the bank of a stream in thick evergreen jungle.

The distribution is given in the F.B.J. as ‘Western Burma from Akyab to

Tenasserim’; but this record and also one of H. C. Smith from the Maymyo

Forest Division shows that it occurs in North Eastern Burma.

[This is the bird at one time known as Anthreptes hypogrammica and A.

nuchalis. Though the distribution in the F.B.J. is as given above it does not

seem to be based on records or specimens. In the British Museum there

are a few specimens from South Tenasserim only and I cannot find that it

has been recorded by anyone since Oates wrote the Birds of British Burma;

these two specimens form a notable extension of range. They match well

with birds from Malay Peninsula whence came the type of macularia of

which nuchalis is a synonym; the Sumatran and Bornean form is hypogrammica. |

Piprisoma agile modestum. The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Two from Thogale, 5. Toungoo in March and April.

(The distribution given in the F.B.J. ‘hilly country of Burma to Tenasserim,

Shan. States’ is, so far as recorded specimens go, too sweeping. They show

that this bird occurs in Pegu and Southern Shan States and _ throughout

Tenasserim, and there are no records or specimens from elsewhere in Burma.)

Serilophus rubropygius. (1334). Hodgson’s Broadbill.

Three specimens from Nanhlaing Reserve, Shwebo Forest Division and

one specimen from Hkaungton Reserve, Kaukkwe river, Bhamo Forest Division

are referred by Dr. Ticehurst to this species, which, according to the

F.B.I. does not occur in Burma. They were shot in evergreen forest in

the foothills, the Shwebo birds in August and the Bhamo bird in January.

(The distribution of the two species Serilophus rubropygius and lunatus,

are not fully known. Rubropygius extends from Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan to

Manipur and Eastern Assam. It has been recorded in Arakan in Kyaukpandaung

and in the Chin Hills. It occurs in the Myitkyina district and we now

have it on the Kaukkwe river and in Shwebo Forest Division, both localities

west of the Irrawaddy.

NOTES ON SOME BIRDS RECORDED FROM BURMA 559

Lunatus has a more southerly distribution from Tavoy north through

Tenasserim to the Pegu Yomas, Karen Hills, Karenni, E. Shan States as

far north as Mann State and the border of N. Hsenwi and Yunnan. Mr.

Garthwaite has now extended the range to Hkaungton R.I*., Bhamo Division

on the west side of the Irrawaddy. it has been recorded in the Chin Hills

otherwise the ranges do not overlap, but as they appeared very near to each

other in Bhamo and | have seen no sign of intergradation I regard them

as representative species.

The juvenile ot rubropygtus obtained by Mr. Garthwaite is like the adult

but the chestnut of the rump extends tarther up on to the mantle and

the grey of the head and hind neck is faintly washed with this colour also;

underparts not so pure a grey; greater wing coverts tipped with white;

the silvery white marks of the female on the side of the neck are indicated

but they are not so broad and clear.

I can see no evidence of moult of wings and tail at the post-juvenile

moult, but the greater wing coverts must be moulted as no winter birds

have these with white tips.)

Picus xanthopygaeus (1339). Phe Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

One specimen from Gangaw; one from Kywetnapa, Maymyo; and one

from Gada, Shwebo. The distribution in the F.b.J. is given as the Chin Hills.

[I have already pointed out that this bird is far more widely distributed

in Burma (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 932). Mr. Garthwaite has ‘now provided three

further districts.

In viridanus the mandibular streak is black with white tips, in xantho-

pygaeus it is dark olive with whitish tips and therefore is not so conspicuous ;

in viridanus the dark markings on the underparts are heavier and_ there

is a pronounced ochraceous wash on the breast. In addition the lateral under-

tail coverts are dark with narrow whitish bars or horse shoe marks, whereas

in xanthophygaeus these feathers are whitish with narrow dark bars or horse

shoes. |

Picus erythropygius nigrigenis (1352). The Red-rumped Green Woodpecker.

One specimen shot in the Baw Reserve, 500 ft. in the Maymyo Forest

Division. The jungle here is of the moist type at the foot of the very steep,

hot dry slopes, rising up to the Shan plateau. This Woodpecker was one of

a pack of three or four of the same species, which was also observed on

other occasions in the same locality. They kept to the higher trees, and

were not seen near the ground.

The distribution of this bird in the I.b.J. is given as ‘Karenni and South

Toungoo to Tenasserim’ so that this record extends the known range

considerably.

[The habit of going about in flocks was noted many years ago by

Wardlaw-Ramsay. |

Gecinulus grantia grantia (13560). The Fale-headed Woodpecker.

Three specimens of this bird were obtained from the Nanhlaing Reserve,

Shwebo Forest Division, two from Pile Reserve, West I<atha Forest Division,

and one from the Namma Reserve, Bhamo Forest Division. The F.B.I. records

the occurrence only in the Chin Hills in Burma, but it is evidently common

in the foothills of North Eastern Burma.

(Previously recorded outside the Chin Hills by Harington at Bhamo and

by Mr. Stanford in the lower hills north of Myitkyina.)

Miglyptes jugularis (1387). The Black and Buff Woodpecker.

One specimen of this rare Woodpecker was obtained in March at Thogale,

South Toungoo Forest Division.

Hemicircus canente canente. The Heart-spotted Woodpecker.

Specimens from Kaing R. F., Pyinmana; Gwethe, N. Toungoo.

[Though the F.B.J. gives the distribution as through Burma to Malay etc.,

I can find no evidence that it occurs in Burma north of 20° N. All the

records and specimens in the British Museum come from the Arakan Yomas

to Pyinmana and South through Toungoo, Pegu, Bassein and Tenasserim

(where it must be a very common bird). It appears, however, to be much

commoner on the east side of Burma than the west. |

)

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Vivia innominata malayorum. The Malay Speckled Piculet.

Specimens from Maymyo, Pile, Katha; Chaungzon, Shwebo, Namma R. F.

Bhamo.

(This Piculet is evidently more widespread than has hitherto been recorded.

The distribution in Burma so far as known is N. Yenasserim; Karen Hills,

Loi Long and Na Noi in the S. Shan States; Shwebo, Katha, Maymyo and

Bhamo Forest Division and Myitkyina District.)

Cyanops asiatica asiatica. The Blue-throat Barbet.

Specimens from Maymyo, Katha, Shwebo, Pyinmana, Toungoo Divisions.

[As explained in the F.B.I. some birds from Eastern Burma are inter-

mediate between asiatica and davisont.

Birds from Arakan, Chindwin, N. Burma and the western part of the

Shan States are asiatica; from Pegu, Toungoo and the Karen Hills most

are asiatica but in some there is a tendency towards davisoni in that the

band on the crown instead of being black is black mixed with blue; from

N. Tenasserim all have the band blue (not black as stated in the F.B.I.,

iv, p. 118) and are davisoni. |

Harpactes oreskios uniformis (1588). Robinson’s Yellow-breasted Trogon.

Two specimens from Thogale, South Toungoo Division.

One specimen from Gwethe Reserve, North Toungoo Division.

One specimen from Kaing Reserve, Pyinmana Forest Division.

This bird is recorded in the F.B.J. as occurring in Tenasserim only: these

records, therefore, extend its northward range greatly. Young birds were seen

in the Thogale locality in June, so that it is likely that the bird breeds there.

(Blyth and others have recorded this bird from Arakan, Oates from Pegu,

Ramsay from the Karen Hills, Dr. Schanensei from Kengtung State, S. Shan

States.)

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CAMPIONS OF INDIA.

J. B.- Cals, S-J.,>F-L:S

The CARYOPHYLLACEAE are herbs, rarely undershrubs. They

mostly inhabit the extra-tropical regions of the northern hemisphere,

extending to the Arctic regions and to the tops of the highest Alps.

They are rarer in the southern hemisphere, and still more so in

the tropics, where they are almost confined to the mountains.

They form 80 genera with about 1,300 cosmopolitan species.

The medicinal and poisonous campions and pinks of the world

belong to 23 genera:—AGROSTEMMA (Mediterranean region); ALSINE

(northern hemisphere); ARENARIA (northern temperate regions) ;

Buronia (Mediterranean region); CERASTIUM (northern temperate

regions); CucuBaLus (northern temperate regions); DIANTHUS

(Europe, Asia, Africa; mostly Mediterranean); DryMmartia (tropical

and southern temperate regions); GyYPSOPHILA (Europe, Asia; es-

pecially eastern Mediterranean); HERNIARIA (Mediterranean; Europe,

South Africa); HoLosTEum (northern temperate regions); LyCHNIs

(northern temperate regions); MELANDRIUM (northern hemisphere ;

South Africa, South America); POLLIcHIA (tropical and South

Africa); PoLycaRPAEA (cosmopolitan); POLYCARPON (cosmopolitan) ;

SaciIna (northern temperate regions); SAPONARIA (northern temper-

ate regions, chiefly Mediterranean); SILENE (northern temperate

regions, chiefly Mediterranean); SPERGULA (temperate regions) ;

SPERGULARIA (cosmopolitan); STELLARIA (cosmopolitan); Trssa

(cosmopolitan).

The medicinal and poisonous campions of India belong to 13

genera :—ARENARIA, CERASTIUM, CUCUBALUS, DIANTHUS, DRYMARIA,

HOLOSTEUM, LYCHNIS, POLYCARPAEA, POLYCARPON, SAPONARIA,

SILENE, SPERGULA, STELLARIA.

A. Calyx gamosepalous, 4-5 lobed. Petals clawed and

stamens inserted on an elongate gynophore (rarely

sessible). Styles free. Stipules absent.

I. Capsule dehiscent; styles 2. Seeds pelate; hilum

facial; embryo straight. .

Calyx bracteate, striate ... sia .. DIANTHUS.

II. Capsule bursting by short or long valves. Hilum

lateral; embryo annular.

1. Calyx veined. Capsule shortly 4-valved ;

styles 2 vee ae ... SAPONARIA,

2. Calyx 10-co-nerved. Capsule — partially

celled, shortly 3-6-valved; styles 3 ol SS ILENE.

3. Calyx 1o-nerved. Fruit fleshy; styles 3... CucuBALus.

4. Calyx 1o-nerved. Capsule shortly 4-5- or

8-10-valved; styles 5. oe s+. ULycunis.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

B. Sepals free, or connate at the base only. Petals sub-

sessile and stamens inserted on an annular disk,

rarely perigynous. Styles free.

I. Stipules absent. Sepals free. Stamens hypogynous.

1. Petals jagged. Capsule cylindric or conic,

6-valved. Styles 3. Seeds many,

compressed x a ... HOLOSTEUM.

2. Petals notched or entire. Capsule cylindric

or conic, 8-10-valved. Styles 3- 2) St

the sepals. Seeds many CERASTIUM.

3. Petals bifid, Capsule globose ei or

oblong. Styles 3-5. Seeds few or many. STELLARIA.

4. Petals entire or lacerate. Capsule globose

ovoid or oblong. Styles usually 2-3.

Seeds many me at ... ARENARIA.

II. Stipules scarious. Sepals free.

Petals entire, Styles 3 or 5. Capsules 3- or ;

5-valved ae Ses see .ss SPERGULA.

C. Sepals free. Petals subsessile and stamens inserted on

an annular disk. Styles 2-3, combined. Stipules

scarious, rarely obsolete.

I. Sepals not keeled. Petals 2-6-fid. a ie DryMarIA.

II. Sepals keeled. Petals entire, Style 3-fid’.... .... ... POLYCARPON.

III. Sepals scarious, not keeled. Stigma 3-toothed ....POLYCARPAEA.

ARENARIA.

The genus consists of about - roo species, all natives of cold

and temperate regions.

Arenaria Serpyllifolia Linn. is found in the subtropical and

temperate Himalaya from Nepal to Kashmir, in Rohilkhand and

the Punjab at 10,000-11,000 ft., in Western Tibet at 11,000-13,000 ft.

It extends to iGghanle ean temperate Europe and Asia.

The herb has long been used in China for bladder diseases.

It is considered very valuable for calculus troubles and acute and

chronic cystitis.

Chinese: Li Ke Ts’ao—English: Liloyd’s Sandwort, Sandwort; Thyme-

leaved Sandwort—.

CERASTIUM.

The genus numbers about roo species, all natives of temperate

and cold regions.

C. arvense Linn. is used medicinally in Europe.

Cerastium vulgatum Linn. occurs throughout the temperate and

subalpine regions of India and Ceylon, ascending to 15,000 ft.

in Sikkim and Western Tibet. It extends to temperate Northern

Europe and Asia.

The plant is used in Spain as a mild refrigerant.

English: Chickenweed, Mouse-ear, Mouse-ear Chickweed, Murion=«.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CAMPIONS OF INDIA _ 563

CUCUBALUS.

The one species of this genus, C. bacciferus Linn., occurs in

the temperate Himalaya from Kashmir at 5,000-8,000 ft. to Sikkim

at 8,000-12,000 ft.; in the Khasia Hills, at the Boya Pani at

5,000 ft. It is distributed westwards to South Europe, to Central

Asia and to West Siberia.

A decoction of the herb is used in Spain to check haemorrhage.

English: Berry-bearing Campion, Bladder Campion—; French: Behen

baccifére, Coulichon—; Spanish: Oreja de vecino, Pamphlina de bayas, Purga

cabras—.

DIANTHUS.

The genus includes about 250 species, natives of the northern

temperate zone exclusive of Western North America; one of Siberia

extending into Arctic America.

D. armeria Linn., D. barbatus Linn., D. carthusianorum Linn.,

D. caryophyllus Linn., D. plumarius, D. sylvestris Wulf. are used

medicinally in Europe; D. superbus Linn. in China; D. crenatus

Thunb., D. scaber Thunb. in South Africa.

1. Leaves very narrow, rigid, slender, mid-rib very

thick, margin much thickened, finely toothed .... D. anatolicus.

2. Leaves channelled above, eyes with smooth

margins, linear es ve ae ... D. caryophyllus.

3. Leaves broad and nearly flat or slightly trough-

shaped, 3-5-nerved fe ee me Po. chinensts.

1. Dianthus anatolicus Boiss. is found in the Western

Himalaya, Western Tibet, Kashmir, and extends to Armenia.

It is used as an antiperiodic in intermittent fevers.

Persian: Kantariyun—-.

2. Dianthus caryophyllus Linn. is generally supposed to be

a native of the Mediterranean. It occurs in Baltistan, the Punjab

and Kashmir at 7,000-8,000 ft., extending westwards to Europe.

The flowers are used medicinally in Spain and North America;

they are considered cardiotonic, diaphoretic and alexiteric. They

are nervine and antispasmodic.

The whole plant is used as a vermifuge in China.

Annam: Cu mach—; Catalan: Clavellina—; English: Carnation Pink,

Clove Pink, Wild Carnation—; French: CEillet commun, CEillet des fleuristes,

CHilllet giroflée CEillet des jardins, CEkillet A ratafia—; Roumanian: Garoafa— ;

Russian: Gvasdika—; Spanish: Clavelina comun—.

3. Dianthus chinensis Linn. is a native of China and Japan

cultivated in Indian gardens.

A broth of the fresh new leaves is given in infantile diarrhoea.

The old dried leaves are pounded and used in diseases of the eve

to clear the eyesight.

The dried flowering plants are used in China as a diuretic,

anthelmintic, and abortifacient,

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

In Indo-China the dried flowers and buds are given as a diuretic

for indigestion and in difficult labour; they are also prescribed in

kidney troubles.

In Malaya the herb is used as a remedy for gonorrhoea.

English: China Pink—; French: (é£illet de Chine, Ckhillet de la régence,

(Eillet rouge—; Indo-China: Thach truc, Truc tu hoa—; Portuguese : Cravina—.

DRYMARiZA.

The genus includes about 4o species; one in tropical Asia and

Africa, one in Australia, the rest in America.

D. cordata Willd. and D. glandulosa Bartl. are used as cooling

medicines in French Guiana.

Drymaria cordata Willd. is found in tropical and sub-tropical

India and Ceylon, extending westwards to the Punjab and ascending

the Himalaya to 7,000 ft. in Sikkim. It occurs in the Malay

Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Papua, tropical Africa and America.

In French Guiana it is eaten as a salad for its cooling properties.

French Guiana: Mignonnette—.

HoOLOSTEUM.

The genus consists of 6 species inhabiting the northern temperate

regions.

Holosteum umbellatum Linn. is found in Kashmir, and in

cultivated fields in the Quetta valley; it extends to western Asia,

North Africa and Europe.

It is reputed to have refreshing and slightly demulcent

properties.

English: Umbellate Chickweed—.

LYcHNIS.

The genus is made up of to species, natives of Arctic and

Temperate northern regions, and of the Andes of South America.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—L. chalcedonica

Linn:, LL. coronaria Desr.; i. dioica: Linn.,° L. flos-cucul inne

L. githago Lam.—; in China—L. grandiflora Jacq.—; in Indo-

China—L. fulgens Fisch., L. Senno Sieb. and Zucc.—; in South

Africa—L. githago Lam.—; in North America—L. alba Mill.—.

Lychnis coronaria Desr. is abundant in Kashmir: Gadsar,

roadsides and dry places; near Shirazia Bagh, on top of hill in

rocky and grassy soil; Dachigan Rukh; below Gulmarg, wooded

hill-side at 8,oo00 ft. It extends to West Asia and South Europe.

An extract or. a.decoction of the root. is. used. in- Spain for

infraction of the lymph glands of the mesentery, and for diseases

of the lungs and the liver.

Catalan: Pessiganassos—; French: Coquelourde—; Spanish: Candelaria,

Claveles Janudos, Coronaria purpurea, Guantes de reina, Rosa de Grecia—,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CAMPIONS OF INDIA _ 565

POLYCARPAEA.

This genus consists of 30 cosmopolitan species.

P, arenaria Gagnep. is used medicinally in Indo-China,

P. corymbosa Lam. in Malaya and Transvaal, P. linearifolia DC.

in Nigeria.

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam. is a cosmopolitan herb. It is

found in the Western Peninsula and Ceylon, Central and North-

Western India, Sind, ascending the Western Himalaya to 7,000 ft. ;

it also occurs in Burma and the Malay Peninsula.

The herb is useful in strangury, urinary calculi, boils, inflam-

matory swellings, and ulcers. Its ash mixed with pepper is applied

externally to boils and ulcers (Ayurveda).

The pounded leaves are used as poultice, warm or cold, over

boils and inflammatory swellings.

In Pudukotah the herb is administered both externally and

internally as a remedy for the bites of venomous reptiles. In

Porebunder the pounded leaves are used for bites from animals,

and given with molasses in the form of a pill in jaundice.

In Malaya the drug is found in the shops as flowering heads,

arising from silvery cymes, with portions of the stem and tomentose

leaves, and is used as a demulcent and astringent.

Whether administered internally or applied externally the herb

is useless in the treatment of snake-bite (Mhaskar and Catus).

Chinese: Pai T’ou Weng—; Hausa: Bakin suda—; Malaya: Pak thow

yoong—; Porebunder: Okharad—; Rajputana: Zutaniakhand—; Sanskrit :

Bhisatta, Okharadi, Tadagamritikodbhava—; Santal: Janhenanjur—; Tamil:

Nilaisedachi— ; Telugu: Bommasari, Rajuma—.

POLYCARPON.

A small genus of 7 species, distributed throughout all the warm

and temperate climates of the world.

Polycarpon indicum Merrill is found in the hotter parts of

India in fields and waste places; in Indo-China and tropical Africa.

In Indo-China an infusion of the roasted leaves is given for

cough following upon a fever, more particularly measles.

Indo-China: La coc man—.

SAPONARIA.

The genus includes 20 species, chiefly Mediterranean and

Western Asiatic.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—S. ocymoides

Linn., S. officinalis Linn., S. Vaccaria Linn.—; in China and

Indo-China—S. Vaccaria Linn.—; on the Pacific Coast: S. offi-

cinalis Linn.

The root of S. officinalis Linn. is official in France. A_ toxic

glucoside, saporubin, has been extracted from it.

Saponaria Vaccaria Linn. is a cosmopolitan weed of cultivation

found throughout India.

p66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEST.WSOCIERY,. Vol. 1X xa

The Yunani practitioners use the plant for enlargement of the

spleen, dysmenorrhoea, and ulcers; the leaves are commonly given

for scabies and itch.

The mucilaginous sap of the plant is considered to have febrifuge

and tonic properties in long continued fevers of a low type.

In Indo-China the plant is used as a mild depurative. In China

it is used in furunculosis and scabies.

The leaves and roots contain from 8 to 15 per cent of saponin.

The seeds contain a sapotoxin, and are somewhat toxie to

stock.

Arabic: Gafis, Gleylé—; Bengal: Sabuni—; Brahui: Karari—; Chinese:

Wang Pu Liu Hsing—; Egypt: Ful-el-’arab—; English: Cockle, Cow Basil—;

French: Blé de vache, Copatte, Saponaire a vaches, Saponaire des vaches—;

German: Wilder Weid, Kuhkraut—; Hindi: Musna—; Hova: Savonimbary— ;

Indo-China: Vuong bat luu hanh—; Ivaq: Kharaz bint-al-fallah, Ziwan—;

Italian: Cetino, Mezzettino—; Malta: Cow Basil, Cow-herb, Cetino, Mazzet-

tino—; Mosul: Ziwan—; Persian: Gafis, Guligafis—; Santali: Musna—; Sind:

Musna—; South Africa: China Cockle, Cockle, Cow basil, Cow foot, Glond,

Soapwort, Spring cockle—; Spanish: Teta de vaca—; Uriya: Tilothi—.

’

SILENE.

A genus of 320 species, natives of temperate Europe and Asia,

chiefly Mediterranean.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—S. apetala Willd.,

S. cerastoides Linn., S. conoidea Linn., S. Cucubalus Wibel,

S. gallica Linn., S. hirsuta Lag., S. maperta Linn:, S. sialica Perse

S. nicaeensis. All., S..nocturna Linn., S.. nutans Linn., S. otttes, Sue

S. rupestris Linn., S. saxifraga Linn., S. viscosa Pers.—; in Indo-

China—S. macrosolen Steud.—; S. Burchellii

Otth.; S. capensis Otth.—; in North America—sS. laciniata Cav,

S.' noctifiorva Linn., 3S. stellata Ait., Ssvireimica, Linn.

A. Perennial.

Petals imbricate in bud. Calyx inflated, 20-nerved,

reticulately veined sn oe =. . Cucubalus:

B. Annuals.

Petals contorted in aestivation. Calyx not recticu-

lately veined.

I. Calyx 20-, 30-, or 6o-nerved, in -fruit conical

from a broad base. Petals pink ... Vet oe CONOLdea.

II. Calyx 1o-nerved. Flowers in unilateral racemes.

1. Face of the seeds smooth, rather concave,

back deeply grooved with two wavy

wings. Petals absent or minute, ee

red : S. apetala,

. Face of the seeds flat we an ear- orate

depression, back not Pore Petals

red or white a ee He - 5. gallica:

1. Silene Cucubalus Wibel is found | in the temperate Himalaya

at 5,000-11,500 ft., from Nepal to the Indus. It is distributed over

temperate Asia, Europe and North Africa.

In Spain the plant is considered emollient, and it is used in

baths or as a fumigant; the juice is prescribed in ophthalmia.

Baleares: Trons—; Catalan: Botets, Colitxos, Culissos, Cuniells, Curibells,

Esclafidors—; English: Bladder Campion, Inflated Catchfly, White Ben, White

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CAMPIONS OF INDIA _ 567

Bottle—; French: Behen blanc, Behen commun—; German: Klatschnelke,

‘Leimkraut, Schaummohn—; Italian: Behen bianco, Bubbolini, Crepa terra— ;

Maltese: Kaskeiza—; Spanish: Alcanducea, Cascabelillo de Canarias, Collejas,

Conejera, Polemonio pratense—.

2. Silene conoidea Linn. occurs in Kashmir and Baluchistan;

from Kumaon to the Indus and from Oudh to the Punjab; in West

Tibet at Ladakh. It extends westwards to the Atlantic Ocean.

The plant is used therapeutically in Spain as a substitute for

S. Cucubalus.

Harboi Hills: Dardiri—; Kalat: Gardi—; Kharan: Guto—; Spanish:

Claveletas de barranco—.

3. Silene apetala Willd. is found in Peshawar; it extends

through Afghanistan and Persia to South Europe and North Africa.

In Spain the juice is used in eye troubles; the plant is used

in baths or as a fomentation for its emollient properties.

4. Silena gallica Linn. is found in Garhwal and in_ the

Carnatic; it 1s common everywhere in the Mediterranean region.

The plant is used in Spain as a substitute for S. Cucubalus.

Spanish : Carmentilla—.

SPERGULA.

A very small genus of 3 European and Asiatic species.

Spergula arvensis Linn. is found in cultivated fields in various

cool parts of India and throughout the northern hemisphere.

It is used as a diuretic in Colombia.

Bogotéd: <Abrojito—; Dutch: Spurrie—; English: Beggar-weed, Bottle

Brush, Cowquake, Dodder, Dother, Farmer’s Ruin, Franke, Granyagh, Lousy

Grass, Make-beggar, Mountain Flax, Pick Pocket, Pick Purse, Poverty Weed,

Sandweed, Spurrey, Spurry, Toad Flax, Yarr, Yarrel, Yawr, Yur—; French:

Espargoule, Espargoute, Espargoutte, Spargoule, Spargoute, Spergoute. Spergule,

Sperjule—; German: Spergel—; Roumanian: Granat—; Russian: Taritsa—;

Spanish: Espergula—.

STELLARIA.

A genus of about too species, dispersed over the whole world,

but most abundant in cold and temperate regions.

A. Annual.

Sepals free to the base. Petals shorter than the

calyx or absent. Stamens 3-10, hypogynous. Styles

3. Capsule with 4-6 entire valves S. media.

B. Perennials.

I. Sepals free to the base. Petals with diverging

lobes. Stamens hypogynous. Styles 5. Capsule

with 5 bifid valves S. aquatica.

II. Sepals more or less connate at the base into an

obconic tube. Petals minute or absent. Stamens

10, perigynous. Styles 3. Capsule with 6

entire valves S. uliginosa.

1. Stellaria media Linn. is found in cultivated and waste

places, roadsides and edges of streams throughout the Punjab and

temperate regions of India, ascending in the Himalya to 12,000 ft,

568. JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, \SOCIETY, | Vols Xx Xow

and in Western Tibet to 14,500 ft.; in the Mediterranean basin,

throughout Europe and northern Asia, and carried out as a weed

to all the temperate and colder regions of the globe.

The plant is employed in plaster for broken bones and swellings,

as it is supposed to be binding and cooling.

The herb is used in Spain as a vulnerary, astringent and

resolvent. On the Pacific Coast it is reputed refrigerant, demulcent

and alterative.

Catalan: Burrissol, Murrons, Murrons blanchs, Murrons de canari, Pica-

gallina, Picapoll—; Dutch: Muur—; Egypt: Gezaze—; English: Chickweed,

Common chickweed—; French: Alsiné, Alsiné des oiseaux, Mouron blanc,

Mouron des oiseaux, Mouron d’hiver, Morsgeline, Morsgeline—; German: Augen-

trostgras— ; Italian: Budellina, Centonchio, Centoncolo, Morgellina, Paperina—;

Malta: Common Chickweed, Budellina, Centocchio, Paperina, Harira bajda—;

) ) I ) J

Pacific Coast: Alsine, Chickenweed, Common Chickweed, Satin-flower, Tongue-

grass, White-bird, Winter-weed—; Roumanian: Limba vrabiei—; Russian:

Makritsa—; Spanish: Pamplina, Pamplina de canarios, Pajarera, Yerba

gallina, Yerba pajarera

2. Stellaria aquatica Scop. occurs in the temperate Himalaya

from Nepal to Marri, at 4,o00-8,o00 ft. It extends to Northern

and Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa.

In Indo-China a decoction of the leaves is given as a galacta-

gogue to nursing mothers suffering from want of milk.

In China the plant is used for the treatment of fistulae.

Chinese: Fan Lu—; English: Chickweed, Great Chickweed, Water :Chick-

weed—; French: Stellaire aquatique—; Indo-China: Phon lau—; Malta; Water

Starwort, Budellina d’ acqua

3. Stellaria uliginosa Murr. is found in wet places of the

temperate and alpine regions at 4,000-10,000 ft.; in the temperate

and alpine Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, here up to 16,000

ft.; in the Khasia Hills at 5,000-6,000 ft. It is generally distributed

over the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere.

A decoction of the leaves is used as a galactagogue in Indo-

China. |

English: Bog Stitchwort—; Indo-China: Tuoc thiet thao—.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN.

SAuim ALI.

With Notes by Hucu WHuIstT Ler.

Part VIII.

(Concluded from page 342 of this volume).

ORDER] VP iBROCEE? BS.

FAMILY: PTEROCLIDA.

[Pterocles exustus eliio!i Bogdanow. The Common Indian Sandgrouse.

Not met with by the Surveys, neither recorded from Travancore by

Bourdillon or Ferguson.

In the Fauna (v, 272) as well as Nidification (v, 185) it is stated that the

Common Sandgrouse is found ‘in the open parts of Travancore’. Mr. Stuart

Baker further writes (Game Birds of India, ii, 297) that he has_ received

its eggs from Travancore. The dry low country about Cape Comorin and

Aramboli, where the Ring Dove and the Little Brown Dove were found,

certainly appears suited to the requirements of this species, but a confirmation

of its occurrence and breeding in Travancore is nevertheless desirable. |

ORDER: GALLINA-.

SUB-ORDER : ALECTOROPODES.

FAMILY: PHASIANIDZ.

SuB-FAMILY: PAVONINA.

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. The Common Peafowl.

Not met with by the Surveys.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 3) the Peafowl was at one time

common at the foot of the hills in South Travancore, though no longer so

at the time of his writing (1904). He also came across it in the hills about

Peermade.

I was informed by the Forest Range Officer of Wadakkancheri that 4

or 5 years previously he had shot peafowl at a place called Mylatampara

(meaning ‘Peacock-dancing rock’) in Cochin, near Mulloorkara Railway

Station, and that there were some still to be found in this locality. The

species, however, seems at present to be very rare in a wild state in

Travancore and Cochin.

In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 409) observed it at the northern

base. He wrote this as long ago as 1868 or thereabouts, and no more

recent information is available.

Breeding: There is nothing recorded concerning our area.

SUB-FAMILY: PHASIANINA.

Gallus sonneratii Temminck. The Grey Jungle Fowl.

Specimen collected: 491 @ 26-3-33 Tenmalai soo ft.

Elsewhere noted and/or shot at: Maraiyir (3,500 ft.); Santhanpdra (3,500

ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.); Peermade (3,200 ft.); Rajampara (1,350 ft.); Ten-

io ane ft.); Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri

3,000 It.).

5/0 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol:. XxX aia

Colours of bare parts: Adult ¢@. Iris dusky chrome yellow; bill yellowish

flesh colour, dark horny brown on culmen; comb and wattles bright crimson;

legs and feet yellowish and pale magenta; claws horny brown; spurs darker

brown.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

4 dd 33:5735 223-243 314-375 69-73-5 mm.

4°99 32-33 187-201 99-115 60-63 mm.

I have seen 8 additional Travancore specimens, but none have any proper

data—H. W.]

The Grey Jungle-fowl is very common in the forested tracts of Travancore

and Cochin, both hill and plain. It was noted as most abundant in the

foothills country, but was also met with up to an elevation of about 4,500 ft.

About Thattakad, with its secondary scrub jungle and mixed deciduous and

evergreen forest, with abandoned overgrown rubber plantations here and_ there

and scattered toungya clearings and cultivation, these birds seemed to have

struck optimum conditions and were, indeed, more numerous than I have ever

seen them elsewhere in India. The crowing of the cocks was to be heard

on every side, chiefly in the mornings and evenings. Here the cocks usually

had one bout of interim all-round crowing every morning between 2 and

3-30 a.m. when it was still pitch dark. Cocks from far and near vied in

answering one another. After this there was silence again for two hours

or so until it was light enough for the birds to bestir themselves. The

crowing is usually, but not invariably, preceded by a loud flapping of the

Wings against their sides.

In the vicinity of the camp shed at Thattakad there was ploughing in

progress in a fallow field, and parties of jungle-fowl were usually to be seen

following the plough or feeding unconcernedly within a few yards of the small

boy and his bullocks.

In the Nelliampathy Hills, jungle-fowl were mostly met with at the edge

of tea and coffee plantations and in the secondary jungle surrounding them.

Kinloch (].B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943) indeed found them very common everywhere

in these hills, especially when the Strobilanthes and bamboos were in_ seed.

In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v. 4009) observed this jungle-fowl at

5.000 ft. elevation, but owing to being much hunted it was already. in his

time, rare on the hills. Terry (S.F., x, 479) observed a few in the large

sholas, but found it commoner in the thick scrub jungle on the lower slopes

and in valleys. This was the case 50 to 60 years ago and as its persecution

had already then commenced, it would be interesting to learn of its present

status.

It does not occur in Ceylon.

Breeding: The testes of the specimen (26 March) measured 29X11 mm.

and the bird was undoubtedly breeding. On 3 February (Thattakad) a brood

of 4-5 chicks, apparently about 6 weeks old, were observed with their mother.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 3) the breeding season in South

Travancore is February and March. Stewart and Bourdillon (Nidification,

iv, 200) took eggs in Travancore between March and July; in the Nelliampathy

Hills Kinloch found eggs from February to October.

From the evidence it appears that there is no hard and fast breeding

season in Travancore and Cochin, and it perhaps varies with local conditions.

The greater part of the breeding, however, certainly takes place between

February and July. The normal clutch is said to consist of 3-5 eggs. Ferguson

once found a nest containing seven.

SuB-FAMILY: PERDICINA.

Galloperdix spadicea stewarti Stuart Baker. The Travancore Red Spur-fowl.

Specimens collected: 376 -% 28-2-32 Kumili 3,000 ft.; 479 do, 480 9

juv., 21-3-33 Rajampara 1,350 ft.; 658 d, 25-4-33 near Muathikizhi, 3,500 ft.—

Ashambt Hills.

Elsewhere noted and/or shot at: Maraiytr (3,500 ft.); Thattakad (200 ft.);

Periyar Lake Environs (ca. 3,000 ft.); Tenmalai (500 ft.); Aramboli (250 ft.);

Kariarkttti (1,600 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Padagiri (3,000 ft.),

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 571

Colours of bare parts: Adult: Iris yellowish-brown or orange-brown ;_ bill

basal half bright pink, terminal half pale horny brown; orbital skin bright

rose pink; legs and feet salmon pink or orange-coral; mouth pink; claws

and spurs pale horny brown. Juventle (No. 480) Iris olive brown; rest as in

adult, but much paler everywhere.

[Additional specimens examined :

Brit. Mus. Coll.: g 21-2-14, g¢ imm. 23-2-14, Od -7-19, Q@ -8-19 Aneichardi

(Stewart). Also some Fry specimens without proper data.)

Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

6 adult go 22-25-5 153-164 116-136 49-55 mm.

1 Q 20 148 118 seo TURIN.

The male evidently assumes adult plumage at the post-juvenal moult. H. W.]

The Spur-fowl is a cmomon resident species in Travancore and Cochin,

principally in the foothills country where clothed with deciduous and mixed

scrub or secondary jungle, but also at higher elevations—up to 3,500 feet

at least—in suitable tacies. It has a preference for dry scrub-covered hillsides

with rocky outcrops and the ravines at their base. Pairs and family parties

of 3 to 6 birds were usually met with. Often when suddenly come upon

it flies up into the branches of overhanging or nearby trees.

Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943) deseribes the Spur-fowl as very common

everywhere in the Nelliampathy Hills. In the FPalnis, Fairbank (S.F., v, 409)

saw only one, but Terry (S.F., x, 479) found it common at Pittur. -No

specimens from Cochin or the Palni Hills are available for examination however,

hence the subspecies is only probable.

It is not found in Ceylon.

Breeding: The adult specimens collected by the Survey showed no gonadal

development, but No. 480 (21 March) was a young bird—one of a brood of

2 or 3 accompanied by parents—undergoing complete post-juvenal moult.

On 17 April (Aramboli) an adult accompanied by at least 3 downy chicks was

observed.

Nidification (iv, 228) states that Stewart and Bourdillon obtained many

clutches of eggs of this Spur-fowl in Travancore at between 1 and 3 thousand

feet elevation. The season is said to be irregular, from January to the end

of March or early April, and a few birds are said to breed again in September

and October. ;

Galloperdix lunulata Valenciennes. The Painted Spur-fowl.

No specimen procured, and not previously recorded from Travancore or

Cochin.

At Aramboli (21 April) I observed an adult accompanied by 4 (or 5?) half-

grown chicks in sparse scrub and thorn country on the side of a_ boulder

strewn hillock. As I had an unobstructed view of this family party through

field glasses, I feel satisfied about the correctness of my identification.

Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis (Linn.). The Blue-breasted Quail.

Not met with by the Surveys.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 4) this little quail occurs on

the grasslands at Peermade. He believes that it breeds in Travancore although

the evidence cited seems far from satisfactory. Stuart Baker (Fauna, v, 370)

even calls it ‘a common breeding bird in Travancore and the Malabar coast

to Bombay * On what authority this statement is based is not known,

but I cannot think that it is wholly accurate.

_ Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). The Common or Grey Quail.

No specimen procured. A single bird, presumably this species, was flushed

on a grassy hillside at Peermade, ca. 3,500 ft. elevation (22 February).

Ferguson’s statement (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 4) that according to his information

it is not uncommon on the grasslands at Peermade where it is known as the

‘drummer’, refers in all probability to the Bustard Quail. The Common Quail

does not drum or ‘purr’ as far as I am aware to deserve this epithet.

No Travancore or Cochin specimens are available for racial attribution.

572° [OURNAL; (BOMBAY (NATURAL HISh, SOCIETY, MV ol uae

Coturaix coromandelicus (Gmelin). The Black-breasted or Rain Quail.

Not met with by the Surveys, neither recorded by Ferguson and others

from Travancore or Cochin. Mr. Whistler points out, however, (J.B.N.H.S.,

XXXV1l1, 685) that there are 2 6 ¢ in the British Museum collected in Travancore,

apparently near Trivandrum, by Surgeon-General Fry.

Perdicula asiatica subsp.? The Jungle Bush Quail.

Specimens not procured.

Noted at: Chalakadi, Wadakkancheri (400 ft.) in deciduous scrub-and-bush

country.

ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 4) says that the Bush-Quail is found about Cape

Comorin but nowhere else in Travancore within his knowledge. The species

must be rare since the Survey did not once come across it either in the

locality named by him or about Aramboli—another likely spot. The latter,

moreover, adjoins the dry Madras district of Tinnevelly whence according to

Ferguson numbers are brought alive to Trivandrum for sale.

VYhe race P. a. ceylonensis Whistler occurs in Ceylon.

Breeding: ‘In Travancore Stewart found them breeding from January to

March, most eggs being laid in February’ (Nidification, iv, 240). <A full clutch

is said to consist of from 4 to 8 eggs, most often 5 or 6.

Crvpteplectron erythrorhynchum (Sykes). The Painted Bush-Quail.

Specimens collected: 184 9, 185 G 29-1-33 Santhanpara 3,500 ft.; 3339

22-2-33 Peermade 3,200 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Kumili and Periyar Lake Environs (ca 3,000 ft.).

Colours of bare parts: Iris yellowish-brown; bill coral pink, brownish at

tip of both mandibles; legs and feet coral pink; claws dusky.

[Additional specimens seen:

Brit. Mus. Coll. @Q -4-97 Devicolum, Travancore (Ferguson). Also some

other Travancore specimens without data.

Sparrow Coll.: G 27-3-14 Cardamom Hills.

Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

36d 14.5-16 81-87 40-44 23-25 mm.

go 145-1055 81.5-92.5 43-5745 24.5 mm.—H. W.]

The Painted Bush-Quail is a common species on the hills of North

Travancore. The Survey did not come across it below an elevation of about

2,500 ft., or south of about Kumili, How much further south it extends

is not known. Ferguson (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 4) records it only from the

Cardamom Hills and the High Range. H. J. Elwes (Ibis 1870, pp. 526-28)

records it as extremely abundant in the long grass on the Cardamom Hills.

Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxix, 565) found it very common on the Lily Downs of

the Cochin. Nelliampathies at about 4,700 ft.

Coveys, usually of 6-10 birds, were commonly flushed among tall coarse

grass on open hillsides, especially by the edge of sholas. In the mornings

and evenings the birds came out into opener patches to feed, and were

then frequently to be seen dusting themselves on paths etc. in suitable facies.

In the Palni Hills this Bush-Quail is fairly common in places, according

to Terry (S.f., x, 479); and Fairbank “(S.2.,, .v, 409) obtaimed “it ineatine

Kodaikanal, ca 7,000 ft.

It does not occur in Ceylon.

Breeding: The gonads of the specimens were inactive. On 7 March a pair

of adults accompanied by 4 or 5 chicks—about the size of a Munia, and able

to fly--were flushed in secondary scrub and bamboo brushwood on the edge of

Feriyar Lake.

Nidification (iv, 243) mentions that in Travancore Bourdillon obtained eggs

in January, February, July to September, and again In December, which

suggests that the season is not well-defined. The normal clutch is said to be

of 4-6 eggs.

Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Southern Grey Partridge.

Specimen not obtained.

The Surveys only came across the Grey Partridge—in small numbers—in

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 5

“I

oo.

the dry, open scrub and cultivated country around Cape Comorin; nowhere

else in Travancore or Cochin. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 4) also records it

from this same area and says that it is not found elsewhere in Travancore.

In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 409) observed it at Feriakulam. . It

occurs in the dry country in Ceylon.

Breeding: No specific information concerning its breeding in our area

is available. According to the Fauna (v, 420) it apparently has two seasons

in South India, one from February to May and the second August to October.

ORDER: HEMIPODII.

FAMILY: “TURNICIDZ.

Turnix suscitator [taigoor (Sykes)]. The Common Bustard Quail.

Specimen not obtained.

The Travancore Survey has only 2 records of the Bustard Quail: (1) Kumili,

3,000 ft., 1-3-33—A pair in tall grass in deciduous country—Periyar Lake

Environs, and (2) Aramboli, 17-4-33—heard drumming. It was not met with

in Cochin.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5) describes it as ‘Not uncommon in_ scrub

jungle in the low country’ (of Travancore). This is a statement that I am

unable to confirm. In my experience the species was definitely rare.

Mr. Whistler points out (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvili, 689) that in the British

Museum Collection there is a female collected by Nair on 15 February 1899

at Padmanabhapuram which cannot be distinguished from the Cinghalese race

T. s. legget. He mentions at the same time that there is great individual

variation in these Bustard Quails and that only a collection of fresh material

will enable the difficulty as regards races to be settled. Regarding the

locality, Padmanabhapuram, Mr. N. G. Pillai informs me that there is a place

of that name in South Travancore noted chiefly for an old palace with a

remarkable series of mural paintings. The identity of the collector, Nair,

however cannot be unearthed. He was apparently not a collector of the

Trivandrum Museum.

(Turnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm. and Lang). The Little Button Quail.

Not met with by the Surveys, nor apparently by Ferguson or Bourdillon.

Nidification (iv, 286) records, however, that Stewart twice found it breeding

in Travancore. As no specimens were apparently taken, further evidence is

desirable before the species can be admitted to the Travancore list. ]

Turnix tanki tanki Blyth. The Indian Button Quail.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson himself never came across this quail in Travancore, neither were

there in his time (nor are there now) any skins in the Trivandrum Museum

collection. He included the species in his Travancore list (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5)

in the belief that it had been recorded hence previously. He was _ evidently

referring to the skin sent by Bourdillon from South Travancore to Hume.

(Hume and Marshal, Game Birds of India, ii, 187).

In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 479) claims to have shot one of these

quails, but the skin was not preserved and there has been no _ confirmation

of its occurrence since. It has not been recorded from Ceylon.

Breeding: According to Nidification (iv, 287) Bourdillon found the Indian

Button Quail breeding in South Travancore where he took eggs on 3 January.

ORDER: GRALLAE.

SUB-ORDER: FULICARIZ.

FAMILY: RALLID.

a Hypotacnidia striata gularis (Horsfield). The Indian Blue-breasted Banded

ail.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5); ‘These birds may be found scattered

about in marshy thickets near the coast. From the contents of their stomach,

heetles appear to be their chief food’,

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

I have seen no Travancore specimens and there appear to be none in

the British Museum except a pair in the Hume Collection from the ‘West

coast of Madras’ which Mr. Whistler thinks may perhaps mean Travancore.

In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 480) shot a female on 4 April. Dhis

specimen is now in Dr. C. B. Ticehurst’s collection (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, 690).

It occurs in Ceylon.

Breeding: While presumably a resident species, nothing has been recorded

about its breeding in Travancore or Cochin.

Porzana pusilla pusilla (Fallas). The Eastern Baillon’s Crake.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5) records that a single specimen was brought

to him alive in December. According to him it is apparently a rare bird

in Travancore.

Mr. Whistler has examined a Travancore specimen in the British Museum

Collection labelled: o 18-11-1878 Charki, Trivandrum’ (Bourdillon).

lt has mot been recorded from the Palni Hills, but it occurs in Ceylon

evidently as a winter visitor.

Breeding: While the majority of birds in the peninsula are winter visitors

only, some apparently remain behind to breed in the plains. There are no

undoubted records of its breeding in Travancore or Cochin, but Ferguson

mentions that the bird brought to him had evidently bred there as it was

reported to have had a young one with it. In the absence of confirmation this

record seems doubtful.

Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera (Jerdon). The Banded Crake.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5) procured a single specimen of this crake

in 1875 in some paddy fields enar the foot of the hills in South Travancore

at about 4oo ft. elevation. There is, according to Mr. Whistler, one Travancore

specimen labelled ‘Mynall’ with no other data in the British Museum (Hume

Collection), and a second, also without data, collected by Fry. It occurs

in Ceylon.

Breeding: No information available for Travancore or Cochin.

Amaurornis fuscus subsp? The Ruddy Crake.

Specimen collected: 421 ¢ 7-3-33 Kumili 3,oooft.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris reddish-orange; bill horny slate; legs and feet

dusky coral; claws horny brown. :

[The specimen, ¢, measures: Bill 22.5; Wing 101; Tail 50; Tarsus 35 mm.

Additional specimen seen: Brit. Mus. Coll.: o? no data (Travancore)

(Bourdillon).

As explained in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, 692) I

do not recognise the race A. f. gzeylonicus. South Indian and Cinghalese

birds are quite inseparable from the typical race of the Philippines. Southern

birds measure: Wing g0.5-98.5 mm. North Indian birds (A. f. bakeri) have

wings 100.5-109 mm. As the series from the South is inadequate and_ not

properly sexed, these measurements may not be fully representative so I

hesitate to draw the obvious deduction that the Survey specimen is a migrant

of A. f. bakeri. Southern birds may possibly on occasion reach 101 mm.

—H. W.]

The specimen was one of a pair in brushwood by a swamp on the margin

of Periyar Lake. No others were seen.

According to Ferguson (j.B.N.H.S., xvi, 5)°the Ruddy Crake is fairly

common in Travancore. I cannot say, however, whether this statement is

based merely on the fact that there were 6 specimens (3 from Kottayam) in

the Trivandrum Museum during his time, or on more substantial grounds.

It occurs in Ceylon, but as regards the Ceylonese race see Mr. Whistler’s

vemarks, supra.

Breeding: Nidification (iv, 300) records that Stewart only once _ took

a nest of this Crake in Travancore, but gives no other particulars. -

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 575

Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus (Pennant). The White-breasted Waterhen.

Specimen collected: 420 @Q 7-3-33 Kumili (Periyar Lake) 3,000 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam Backwaters (Vembanad

Lake, Munro Island, etc.). Aramboli (250 ft.); Karapadanna (ca. S.L.).

Colours of bare parts: Iris orange-brown; bill pale sage green, brownish

on culmen; legs and feet dusky chrome yellow; claws horny-brown.

[The specimen measures: Bill 34.5, Wing 158, Tail 61.5, Tarsus 55 mm. No

other Travancore specimens seen.—H. W.

The White-breasted Water-hen is fairly common in Travancore and Cochin

wherever there are paddy fields and swampy land whose marginal vegetation

it habitually frequents. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) apparently believed it to

be restricted to the low country.

It is usually seen singly or in pairs, skulking about amongst brushwood

and Pandanus scrub on the edges of streams, tanks, paddy-fields and water

channels. At the middie of April it was heard calling, chiefly at night and

in the early mornings. The well-known call—indicative of the breeding season—

is a monotonous, metallic coot-coot-coot (not unlike that of the Coppersmith)

repeated in quick succession for quite 10 or 15 minutes at a_ stretch. A

range of weird and raucous croaks and chuckles usually precedes the ‘cooting’.

The call is uttered from the centre or near the top of a bush into which

the bird has clambered.

The same race occurs also in Ceylon.

Breeding: The ovary of the specimen (7 March) was undeveloped. No

specific records are available, but Ferguson says that in Travancore it breeds

in April.

Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth. The Indian Moorhen.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson writes (].B.N.H.S., xvi, 6): ‘The Moorhen is by no means common

in Travancore; the Museum possesses only a_ single specimen’. No further

information is available concerning the species in Travancore or Cochin.

Gallicrex cinerea (Gmelin). The Kora or Water-Cock.

Specimen collected: 1047 og 30-12-35 Kartpadanna ca. S.L.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris hazel brown; upper mandible brownish olive-

green, lower mandible pale olive yellow; forehead dusky clive; legs and _ feet

olive green; claws horny brown.

[The specimen measures: Bill 43, Wing 215, Tail 83 mm.

Additional specimens seen: Brit. Mus. Coll.: 2 Q@@2 no data Anjango

a We]

The specimen—in non-breeding plumage—-was solitary amongst bushes and

brushwood bordering a kutcha pond at the edge of paddy cultivation. Ferguson

({.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) describes the Water-Cock as not uncommon (in Travancore}

in and about rice cultivation in the low country.

It occurs in Ceylon.

Breeding: Nothing recorded for Travancore or Cochin.

Porphyrio poliocephalus’ policcephalus (Latham). The Indian Purple Moor-

hen.

The Surveys did not come across this species, but it was accurately described

to me and reported to be common about inundated paddy fields and around

the backwaters at Kottayam and lKartpadanna.

According to Ferguson (j.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) it is common on all the

larger lakes (in Travancore) wherever there are reeds and rushes.

It is found in Ceylon.

Breeding: Ferguson says that in Travancore it breeds in July and August.

SUB-ORDER: JACANA.

FaMILy: J ACANID2.

Metopidius indicus (Latham). The Bronze-winged Jacana.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Cape Comorin (ca. S.L.); Nemm§ara (300 ft.),

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

[Travancore specimens seen : ;

Brit. Mus. Coll.: G 5-2-1879 Vellarney Lake (Bourdillon); one without

data collected by Surgeon-General Fry.—H. W.]

This species appears to be rather uncommon in Travancore and Cochin.

It was met with occasionally, either singly or in twos or threes, on lotus

covered tanks.

Ferguson (J:B.N.H.S., xvi, 7) however, says that it may -be omet) with

throughout Travancore in suitable localities where there are lakes or tanks

well covered with weeds and water lilies.

Breeding: Bourdillon obtained eggs in Travancore in August (Nidification,

iv,, 820). ;

Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). The Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (].B.N.H.S., xvi, 7) found flocks common in Travancore, especially

about Nagercoil, keeping to the floating weeds well away from the banks.

Breeding: No information is available concerning its nidification in our

area.

SUB-ORDER: ROSTRATULZ.

FAMILY: ROSTRATULIDZ.

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linn.). The Painted Snipe.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 11) describes the Painted Snipe as fairly common

throughout the low country wherever there are rushy marshes, and he also

found it in paddy-fields. Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii, 124) says that in

Travancore it seems to be found up to 3,000 ft. and that he has had eggs

sent him for identification taken at that elevation.

It occurs in Ceylon.

Breeding: In Travancore Ferguson had eggs brought to him in December

and young birds in February. Nothing further seems to be recorded.

SUB-ORDER * '‘ODIDES.

FAMILY: OTIDIDZ.

Sypheotides indica (Miller), The Lesser Florican or Likh.

Ferguson (J/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) writes that in 1876 a specimen was _ shot

in some rushes in Trivandrum. I believe this is the only record for Travancore

and its occurrence here must certainly be considered very exceptional.

ORDER: CHARADRIIFORMES.

SUB-ORDER: OTI-LIMICOLA.

FAMILY: CEDICNEMIDA.

Burhinus oedicnemus Indicus (Salvadori). The Indian Stone-Plover.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) came across and shot these birds more than

once when snipe-shooting at Veli—4q miles from Trivandrum. The soil in

this locality was sandy and clothed with shrubs and cocoanut palms. ‘The

plovers were sometimes in small parties of 3 or 4, otherwise solitary.

Breeding: It is said (zbid.) to breed in Travancore in August.

SUB-ORDER: LARO-LIMICOLZ.

FAMILY: GLAREOLIDZ.

SuB-FAMILY: CURSORIIN-E.

CursoriuSs Coromandelicus ceromandelicus (Gmelin). The Indian Courser.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 6) writes: ‘My collector shot: 2 of these’ 8 miles

south of Quilon on some sandy plains in June 1902. Four more were sub-

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 577

sequently obtained 12 miles south of Quilon. Among them was a_ young

bird in quite immature plumage, so that I believe they must breed here. I

have not found this bird in any other locality, and do not think it is likely

to be seen further north.’

According to Stewart (apud Nidification, iv, 345) this Courser is common

in the deforested areas of Travancore. We have no information concerning,

its occurrence or status in Cochin.

Breeding: Stewart (ibid) took many eggs in Travancore in bare ploughed

fields, and gives the season here as May to July.

SUB-FAMILY : GLAREOLINE.

Glareola lactea Temminck. The Small Indian Pratincole or Sand-Plover.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson’s collectors obtained specimens from Velyani, near Alwaye. They

were met with in flocks of a dozen or more individuals frequenting open flats

on either side of the Alwaye river up to Malayattur.

No other information from Travancore or Cochin is available.

FAMILY: STERCORARIIDZ.

Catharacta skua lonnbergi Mathews. The Great Skua.

Specimen: 861 0? 20-9-33 Poojappura ca. 150 ft.—Trivandrum © Ienvirons.

The specimen was captured by fishermen in an exhausted condition on a

large sheet of water—about 10 acres in extent—near the Waramanai_ river.

It was solitary.

[Measurements: Bill 69, Wing 430, Tail 156, Tarsus 80 mm.

This specimen appears to provide the first record of this species for India.

It was carefully identified for me at the British Museum by Mr. Hamilton

when he was working at this puzzling group.

It will however be recalled that there are 5 records of Great Skuas_ for

Ceylon, and there can be little doubt that if sufficient observers were present

this species—speaking in the wide sense and without regard to the varying

opinions as to the number of species and subspecies into which it may be

divided—would be found to be a more or less regular straggler to the seas

round Ceylon and South India. The known records appear to be as follows:

(1) A specimen brought alive to Legge in October 1875 with its wing

clipped, said to have been caught a few weeks previously on the brackish

canal which threads the lagoons between Negombo and Chilaw. Named = as

Stercorarius antarcticus (Legge, Birds of Ceylon, p. 1050).

(2) A specimen obtained by the lighthouse keeper at Foul Point, Trin-

comalee, caught in an exhausted state on the beach in a storm during the

north-east monsoon between 1877 and 1885. This is in the Colombo Museum

and was identified some years ago at the British Museum as S. antarcticus.

(3) A specimen shot, apparently between Chilaw and Negombo, in October

1885 and now in the Colombo Museum. Identified as S$. antarcticus antarcticus

(loc. cit.)

(4) A specimen obtained at Kalutara, 25 miles south of Colombo, on 22

September 1907 and now in the Colombo Museum. Identified as S. a. antarcticus

(loc. cit.).

(5) A specimen seen at sea by Nicholl off the south-east of Ceylon in

5°23!Nx84°45/ E (Ticehurst, J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, 482).

It is not unlikely that an examination of the above specimens, in the

light of recent research on this group, would result in some modification of

the identifications.—H. W. ]

FAMILY: LaARIDZ.

Larus ichthyaétus Pallas. The Great Black-backed Gull.

Specimens collected: 300 Q ad. 17-2-33, 307 ¢ ad., 308 oO imm.. 18-2-33

Vembanad Backwaters, Kottayam.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Adult Iris hazel brown; fine circumorbital- ring

(eyelids) coral red; basal 2/3 of bill bright yellow, followed by a bright reddish-

orange patch and then by a subterminal band of blackish-brown. Tips* paler

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

yellow ; gape and mouth bright orange; legs and feet bright yellow; claws horny

black. Immature Fine circumorbital ring (eyelids) blackish-brown; basal 2/3

of bill greenish-yellow or sulphur yellow, tip reddish orange; legs and feet

greenish-yellow or sulphur yellow; rest as in adult.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

locas 76 481 197 7 loth etait

1 9 ad. 70.5 440 174 69 mm.

1d imm. O75 482 189 75 mm.—H. W.]

The Great Black-backed Gull was noted in fair numbers and as the com-

monest species of gull on the Vembanad Backwaters during the period the

Survey worked this area—in February. The birds were observed singly and

in small loose flocks following fishing boats. On one occasion a gathering

of 50 or more was noted in association with Caspian Terns on a mudbank

in an inundated field by the margin of the backwaters. From the bill and

gullet of No. 300 were recovered g sword-fishes (Hemirhamphus xanthopterus

C.V.) each from 190-200 mm. long and weighing aggregately about 1 Ib.

From the gullet of No. 307 also 10 of these fishes were obtained, and _ it

would appear that the food of this gull here consists largely of this species.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 11) this gull reaches the Travancore

coast on winter immigration not much earlier than January. During this

month in 1903, his collectors shot 5 specimens at Kayankolam Bar.

Larus ridibundus Linn. The Black-headed Gull.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted (?) at: Vembanad Lake near Alleppy, Cochin Harbour.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 11) writes that this gull was found by his

collectors to be fairly common about Kayankolam Bar in January 1903, but

apparently no specimens were procured by them.

Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon. The Brown-headed Gull.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted (? this or ridtbundus or both) near Alleppey and in Cochin Harbour

in January and February. At the latter place they were observed in association

with Gelochelidon nilotica feeding on floating garbage and human_ ordure

from the town.

Ferguson (J/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) secured a specimen on the sandy banks

of a shallow lake close to the sea near Cape Comorin in December (1go1).

He found numbers of these gulls surrounding fishermen drawing their nets.

Larus fuscus taimyrensis Buturlin. The Eastern Herring Gull.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson’s collectors obtained a single specimen at Kayankolam in January

1903 (J.B:N.H.S., xvi, 12) which was recorded as Larus affinis and therefore

presumably belonged to the above race.

FAMILY: STERNIDA.

Chlidonias leucopareia indica (Stephens). The Indian Whiskered Tern.

Specimen collected: 306 ¢ ad. 18-2-33 Vembanad Backwaters, K6ttayam.

Elsewhere noted at: Karupadanna (unconfirmed).

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark greyish-brown; bill dark reddish-brown ;

legs and feet dark coral brown; soles brighter coral; claws black.

[Measurements : Bill 35.5; Wing 222; Central tail 67; Outer tail 79; Tarsus

21.5 mm. As shown in the E. Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxix, 247) Ceylon

birds treated as C. I. legger in the Fauna, are not separable from Indian

specimens. The bird is not of course known to breed in Ceylon which is

evidently visited by our North Indian breeding birds.—H. W.]

I only came across this tern—in fair numbers—in the backwaters where

they were commonly seen following fishing boats or perched on stakes and

dykes, close to the sea. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) describes it as

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 579

abundant in North Travancore in the winter months, frequenting the coast,

the backwaters and paddy fields.

It is a common (winter) visitor to Ceylon.

Hydroprogne caspia caspia (Pall.) The Caspian Tern.

Specimens collected: 309 Q ad., 310 Q ad. 18-2-33 Vembanad Backwaters,

Kottayam.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill bright orange-scarlet, duskier

near tips; mouth orange-scarlet, gullet paler; legs, feet and claws black.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

23/9; O'ad. 76-77 390-398 136-138 45 mm.—H. W.]

Several of these large terns were observed in association with Great Black-

headed Gulls on a mudflat in the midst of inundated backwater paddy fields,

not far from Alleppey. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) found it in fair

numbers at Kayankolam Bar in January 1903.

It is a fairly common visitor to the north coast of Ceylon during the

North-East Monsoon, and a few remain behind to breed.

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin). The Gull-billed Tern.

Specimens collected: 1037 Gd ad., 1038 Q ad. 29-12-33 Kartipadanna

(Backwaters). .

Elsewhere noted: Cochin Harbour.

Colours of bare parts: © (1037); Iris dark brown; bill, legs, feet and

claws brownish-black; mouth orange-pink, @Q (1038) legs and feet orange-

brown, rest as above.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

I od: 49-5 R22 125 35-5 mm.

1 Q Ages 316 g2 33 mm.—H. W.]

Small flocks of the Gull-billed Tern were observed about the inundated

paddy cultivation and cocoanut fibre pans along the backwaters. In Cochin

Harbour, several were seen flying about in company with gulls, feeding on

the floating human ordure washed out from the town. The stomachs of the

specimens contained remains of shrimps and other crustaceans.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) describes this tern as fairly common in

winter about the backwaters of North Travancore, and also frequenting the

coast at Manakolam Bar.

It is common in Ceylon during the North-east Monsoon, but a few may

be seen throughout the year.

Thalasseus bergii velox (Cretzsch.) The Red Sea Large Crested Tern.

Specimens collected: 1007 ¢ add., 1008 @ imm. 25-12-33, 1036 @ imm.

29-12-33 Karupadanna Backwaters.

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: 1007 & 1008; Iris dark brown; bill greenish lemon

yellow; legs, feet and claws brownish-black. 1036: Iris shot damaged; bill

creamy greenish-yellow; legs and feet greenish yellow, irregularly blotched with

black; claws horny brown.

[As shown in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xxxix, 248) I am

not able to recognise the supposed Ceylon race T. b. edwardst.

Measurements : ;

Bill. Wing. Central Tail. Outer Tail. Tarsus.

reg ad. 72.5 342 (worn) 89 180 31 mm.

Pectin. . 67 339 85 136 28 mm.

IQ imm. 67.5 348 (worn) 9gI 167 31. mm.—H. W.]

These terns— in fair numbers—were observed singly, perched on fishing

stakes etc. in the backwaters, close to the sea,

980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST “SOCIETY: Vol. XX xa

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) found numbers at Kayankolam Bar (ca.

g° 10! NX 76° 30/ E) and further north in December and January (1903-4).

It is common in Ceylon and breeds in the Gulf of Manaar.

Thalasseus bengalensis bengalensis (Lesson). The Indian Lesser Crested Tern.

Specimens collected: 301 ¢ ad. 17-2-33 Wembanad Backwaters, Kéttayam;

1049 G ad. 31-12-33 Kartpadanna Backwaters.

IXlsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill chrome yellow; palate same;

gullet pale flesh colour; legs and feet brownish-black; soles yellow; claws

blackish-brown.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Central Tail. Outer Tail. Tarsus.

266 ad) 63 280-6 (worn) 65-71 130-40 25-26 mm.—H. W.]

Several of these terns were observed following fishing boats or perched

on fishing stakes in the backwaters, close to the sea, frequently in association

with T. bergii and Gelochelidon nilotica.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 12) it is the commonest and most

abundant of the terns in Travancore, frequenting the backwaters and_ coast

from Quilon northwards.

It is common all round the coast of Ceylon in the North-east Monsoon.

Sterna hirundo Subsp.?. The Common Tern.

Specimens not obtained.

Several noted flying up and down the Ponnani River at Shorantr on the

northern boundary of Cochin—2g9-11-33. Nowhere else (This or S. aurantiaca

Gray ?).

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 13) who seems to have taken a

few immature specimens, this tern is an occasional winter visitor to the

coast of South Travancore. He had not met with it in North Travancore at all.

Sterna albifrons saundersi Hume. The Black-shafted Ternlet.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson records a single specimen shot on the coast of North Travancore

in’ January ‘1903.

SUB-ORDER:. LIMICOL.

FAMILY: CHARADRIIDZA.

SuB-FaMILy: © PRE-CHARADRIINE.

Arenaria interpres interpres (Linn.). The Turnstone.

Specimens collected: 525 9, 526 ¢,. 527. 9 7-4-33 Cape.Comorin, S:l. 5.

Elsewhere not noted.

- Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill dark horny brown; legs and_ feet

bright reddish orange; claws horny black.

{[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Lots. 26 152 60 25-5 mm.

299 25-26 154-8 61.5-64 24.5-26 mm.—H. W.]

A. flock of about 15 birds was seen amongst rocks on the sea-shore,

feeding on barnacles (?) and minute crustaceans. The specimens were under-

going heavy body moult into breeding plumage. Their wing- and_ tail-quills

were fresh. They were very fat and evidently preparing to emigrate shortly.

The Turnstone has apparently not been recorded from Travancore previously,

although it is a fairly common winter visitor to Ceylon.

Leucopolius alexandrinus alexandrinus (Linn.). The Kentish Plover.

Specimens collected; 703 G 21-7-33 Beach, Trivandrum; 1000 Q imm.,

1010 2 imm. (?), ro1t 9 ad. 25-12-33 Kartipadanna, ca. S.L,

Elsewhere not noted,

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 581

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill blackish-brown, paler at chin ;

legs brownish-grey ; feet greyish-brown; claws horny black. (No. 703 ‘Iris dark

brown; bill slaty; legs and feet light straw; claws slaty’ (Pillai).

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Aaul Tarsus

Cee 20-21 106-114.5 42.5-49 27.5-28 mm.

The 3 females, Nos. 1009-1011, undoubtedly belong to the typical race

from which they can be distinguished neither in colour nor in size. They

were doubtless winter visitors to Travancore. No. 703 on the other hand

is a smaller bird (Bill 18; Wing 150; Tail 46.5; Tarsus 27.5) and would

appear to be a juvenile of a local breeding form. The Kentish Plover has

not yet been otherwise recorded as breeding in Travancore, but if it does

breed there I have little doubt that the breeding form will prove to be

L. a. legget as in Ceylon.—H. W.]

Small flocks of the Kentish Plover were observed on a sand-bar separating

the backwaters from the sea. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) found this species

to be fairly numerous at Neendakaray on the coast near Quilon, in January.

The smaller race, L. a. leggei, breeds in Ceylon.

Haematopus ostralegus ostralegus Linn. The Oyster-Catcher.

Not met with by the Surveys. According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9)

this is a more or less rare winter visitor to the Travancore coast, found

generally in small flocks of half-a dozen or so, feeding on crustaceans mostly.

SuB-FAMILY: CHARADRIINA.

Charadrius dubius [jerdeni (Legge).] Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover.

Specimens collected: 512 Q 5-4-33 Vellayani. Lake, Trivandrum Environs ;

549 Q 9-4-33. Cape Comorin ca. $.L.; 699: gd imm. 21-7-33, 766 ..imm.

1-8-33, Beach, Trivandrum; 1006 Q 25-12-33 Karupadanna ca. S.L.

Elsewhere noted at: Kumili, by margin of Periyar Like (ca. 3,000 ft.).

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; ring round eye (eyelids) yellow; bill

horny black, yellow at chin; legs and feet dusky greenish-yellow in No. 1006

(pale yellowish-flesh with pinkish tinge); claws horny black.

[Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Tee ad 18.5 1 utrs 58 25° Tm:

eG, [Ve 15 108 moult 25) Mn.

2 0-9 ad. 15-17.5 T14 55-57 23-24 mm.

1 Q juv. 18 119 59 25, iin ~

I find considerable difficulty in identifying these birds for the reason that

I have not been able—for lack of material—to decide whether C. d. jerdoni

is a good race, and if so what are its limits of variation in size and colour.

There is only one unsexed Ceylon bird in the British Museum (Bill 18; wing

iy i1tMN.);

There is much variation throughout India in the size of Little Ringed

Plovers and I am far from satisfied that jerdoni is separable from curonicus.

Should it be so separable, the probability is that the Travancore birds should

be attributed to the former race as they were evidently on their breeding

ground, but it will be noted that their measurements, agreeing with the single

Ceylon specimen, fall within. the limits commonly attributed to curontcus.

ae Wd

These little plovers were met with in pairs or small parties about the

margins of tanks and streams, and on marshy grassland by paddy fields etc.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) did not believe it to be a resident species in

Travancore, but I think it is more than likely that some at any rate breed

here. Mr. Pillai found the birds fairly common about the Trivandrum beach

during July and August. Both the specimens obtained by him then were

juvenile with imperfectly ossified skulls and undergoing complete post-juvenal

moult.

No specific instance of its breeding in Travancore or Cochin has_ hitherto

been recorded, however.

582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HUST. SOCTETV. Volt X xa

Cirrepedesinus mongolus atrifrons(Wagler). The Pamirs Lesser Sand-Plover.

Specimens collected :: 5239, 524° O--7-4-33 'Cape ‘Comorin “ca. “Seal:

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill black; mouth pinkish-grey; legs

greenish-grey ; feet and claws blackish-brown.

| Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail: Tarsus.

2 9-9 242225 126.5-127 40-46.5 33 mm.

Additional specimen seen. Van der Sleem Coll.: o 7-9-1926 Travancore,

west of Parasala.—H. W.]

A flock of about 25- birds was met with on the sea-shore. They flew

in close formation, turning and twisting on the wing in orderly fashion, all

together and as one bird. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) describes this Sand-

Plover as a winter visitor to the Travancore coast, but sometimes found

inland, one specimen even being obtained on the High Range at 6,000 ft.

elevation!

Cirrepedesmus leschenaultii (Lesson). The Large Sand-Plover.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) says; ‘A rare ‘winter visitor to the) coasi

A single specimen was shot at Neendakaray near Quilon.’

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin). The Eastern Golden Plover.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted (unconfirmed) at: Kottayam. A flock of 4 birds flying across the

Vembanad Lake, 15-2-1933.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) says: ‘Flocks of these plovers may be met

with commonly in North and Central Travancore, about Cherayankie, Parur

and Vycome in winter, frequenting swampy flats and in paddy fields.’

SUB-FAMILY: WVANELLINZE.

Chettusia gregaria (Pallas). The Sociable Lapwing.

Not met with by the Surveys.

In January 1900, Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 8) shot 2 specimens from a

flock of 5, feeding. in some paddy fields near. Trivandrum. He thought that

the failure of the monsoon in the north the season before and the consequent

drought may have driven the birds so far south of their accustomed winter

range in India.

Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert). The Indian Red-wattled Lapwing.

Specimen collected: (not sexed) 9-12-33 Nemmara 300 ft. (Preserved in

alcohol for morphological study).

Elsewhere noted : Thattakad (200 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Karapadanna

Ca. Su.

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; eyelids and wattles cherry red; bill

terminal 1/3 black, basal 2/3 cherry red; legs and feet greenish-yellow; claws

horny black.

The Red-wattled Lapwing was commonly, but not abundantly, met with

in the low country of Travancore and Cochin—in pairs or small (family?)

parties, by streams, tanks and swampy fields etc.

In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 480) heard this lapwing calling overhead

at night at Pittur, but never saw it.

Breeding: The season in Travancore according to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S.,

xvi, 7).1s- March.

Lobipluvia malabarica (Boddaert). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Specimens collected: 587 9, 588 J 13-4-33 Cape Comorin ca. S.L.; 769

Q 2-8-33 Golf Links, Trivandrum.

Elsewhere noted at: Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Kariipadanna ca. S.L.

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark khaki; bill terminal 2/3 brownish-black,

basal 1/3 greenish yellow; circumorbital ring (eyelids), gape and .wattles

greenish- or sulphur-yellow ; legs and feet greenish-yellow ; claws brownish-black,

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 583

[Additional specimens seen: Brit. Mus. Coll. : 3 20-6-77 Trivandrum (Hume

Coll.) ; 0-1-73 Kolachul (Bourdillon).

Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

Bee Gad. 26-28 186-188 72-735 59-5-63 mm.

2 99 ad. 27.5-29 185-196 75.5-78 58-60 mm.

feo uv. ae 17 78 ... mm.—H. W.|]

This lapwing is also fairly common in the low country of both Travancore

and Cochin. Nidification (iv, 401) describes it as ‘extraordinarily common’

(in Travancore), which is perhaps an overstatement of the case. The birds

were observed in pairs or small parties of 4 or 5, frequenting open fallow

land and ploughed and stubble fields—altogether drier facies than the foregoing.

It is a resident species in Ceylon.

Breeding: Specimen No. 587 (13 April) had a mature ovary with some of

the follicles measuring 4 mm. in diameter. The testes of the male measured

about 6X4 mm. and were evidently enlarging. Both these birds were in

fresh plumage and doubtless preparing to breed. In the August specimen the

ovary was in a quiescent state.

Bourdillon Nidification, iv, 401) found’ this lapwing breeding in Travancore

from 3 March to 13 August: Stewart from 4 April to 6 August. The full

clutch of eggs is said to be 4, but sometimes only 3 are laid.

A remarkable case of colour adaptation of eggs to environment, revealed

by J. Stewart in Travancore, has been described by Mr. Stuart Baker in

the Society’s Journal (xxxv, 250). Stewart, it seems, took numerous clutches

of the eggs of this bird on red laterite as well as on adjoining black soil.

Practically every clutch found on laterite soil was erythristic and every clutch

on the black soil normally coloured.

FAMILY: SCOLOPACID.

SUB-FAMILY: ‘TRINGINZA.

Numenius arquata (Linn.) subsp.? The Curlew.

Not met with by the Surveys.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9) the Curlew is found on the

Travancore coast in winter, but not in any great numbers.

Numenius pheopus (Linn.) subsp.? The Whimbrel.

Not met with by the Surveys.

In Travancore, Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9) that it may be found

in suitable places along the coast in fair numbers from October to April,

usually as a solitary bird.

Tringa ochropus Linn. The Green Sandpiper.

Specimens collected: 174 @ 28-1-33 Santhanpara 3,000 ft. (Cardamom Hills).

Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (5,000 ft.); Ktmili (3,000 ft.); Vellayani Lake,

Trivandrum Environs; Nemmara (300 ft.).

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill greenish-brown, duskier near tip,

greener near base; legs and feet greyish sage green; claws horny brown.

[| Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

jr 20.5 143 59 34 mm.—H. W.]

The Green Sandpiper was met with by the Surveys singly and sparingly,

by streams, tanks and puddles, both in the low country and the hills—up to

about 5,000 ft. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9) shot an example at a swamp

on the High Range at an elevation of 6,000 ft. in January. Like all other

sandpipers, it is of course only a winter visitor to our area, as it is to Ceylon.

A specimen ringed by the Russians in the environs of the city of Kazan

(55°48/N X49°26/E) in June 1929 was recovered near Kéttayam in September

1933. The distance between these two points is 3,500 miles.

In the Palni Hills, Terry (S.F., x, 480) shot one in the Pittur Valley as

late as 4 May. ik

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,* Vol, -XxX XIX

Tringa glareola Linn. The Wood Sandpiper.

Specimen collected: 1046 ¢ 30-12-33 Karupadanna ca. S.L.

Iklsewhere noted at: Cape Comorin, Nemmara (300 ft.).

Colours of bare parts: Iris dark brown; bill basal half olive-brown;

terminal half blackish-brown ; legs and feet olive green; claws horny-brown.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

19 34 127 49 36.5 mm.—H. W.]

Wood-Sandpipers were met with in the low country of Travancore and

Cochin in small loose fiocks—-on one occasion of over 20 birds—on swampy

or inundated ploughed fields by irrigation tanks and along the backwaters.

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9) that this is by far the commonest

of the sandpipers (in Travancore) and may be found in abundance in the

wet paddy fields from August to May, either solitary or in flocks.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein). The Marsh Sandpiper.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 9) states that his collectors found flocks on the

seashore at Manakolam Bar and at North Parur in Travancore, presumably

in winter.

Tringa hypoleucos Linn. The Common Sandpiper.

Specimen collected: 489 Q 24-3-33 Tenmalai ca. 500 ft.

Elsewhere noted at: Munnar (on Munnar stream 5,000 ft.); Thattalad (on

Periyar river, 200 ft.); Kottayam (backwaters); Camp Deramalai (at Uppukulam

tank among grassy hiltops, 4,o00 ft.); Periyar Lake margin (ca. 3,000 ft.);

Vellayani Lake, Trivandrum Environs; Cape Comorin; Aramboli (250 ft:);

Kuariarkutti (1,600 ft. on Parambikolam river); Wadakkancheri (400 'It.),

Nemmara (300 ft.); Ernakulam (backwaters).

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill greenish-brown, duskier near tip,

greener near base; legs and feet greyish sage-green; claws horny brown.

| Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus. ;

t 0 20 ine 56 24 mm.—H. W.]

In winter, the Common Sandpiper is widely distributed but not abundant

in Travancore and Cochin. It was met with solitary as a rule on streams,

tanks, puddles, the rocky sea-shore and by the backwaters. According to

Ierguson it is common in Travancore from September to May.

It is a winter visitor also to Ceylon.

Tringa totanus (Linn.). The Redshank.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Karupadanna along the backwaters where it was uncommon.

Occasional solitary birds were observed feeding on mudbanks etc. and_ their

familiar call uttered in flight, Tew-tew-tew was frequently heard. at night.

A single specimen was shot by Ferguson’s collectors at Neendakaray (near

Quilon) in January 1903 (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 10).

Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus). The Greenshank.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Kartipadanna, usually solitary, on mudbanks in the back-

waters. Uncommon. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 10) says that he did not

meet with this species in South Travancore, but that his collectors saw

flocks on the sides of the rivers and in marshes in North Travancore. They

obtained specimens at Yettamane, Shertally and Vycome.

SuB-FAMILY EROLIINZE.

Erolia minuta [minuta (Leisler)]. The Little Stint.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., .xvi, 10)° describes it as ‘A fairly common visitor

to the coast of North Travancore in winter, but not found inland. It often

THE’ ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 585

associates with Tringa .subarquata [=Erolia testacea]. It forms larger flocks,

as a rule, than other stints.’

Erolia testacea (Pallas). The Curlew-Stint or Pigmy Sandpiper.

Not met with by the Surveys.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 10) ‘This fine stint is found

from October to April on the coast of North Travancore, especially about

Manakolam Bar. When it associates with T. minuta, only a few individuals

are found, but it forms flocks of from 8 to 12 when alone.’

Limicola falcinella falcinel!a (Pontopp.). The Broad-billed Sandpiper.

Not met with by the Surveys.

A single specimen was obtained by Ferguson’s collectors at Manalolam Bar

mjanuary 1903 (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, ro).

SuB-FAMILY: SCOLOPACINA.

Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linn. The Woodcock.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 10) ‘Occasional specimens of this bird

may be met with in grassland bordered by forest’ in South Travancore at

elevations of about 4,o00 ft. in winter. On the High Range in similar localities

before the forest was cut down for tea and coffee cultivation it used to be

fairly common at this period.’

In the Nelliampathy Hills, Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvii, 943) describes the

Woodcock as very rare and presumably a passage migrant at the end of

September and the beginning of October, and again early in March.

In the Palnis, Fairbank (S.F., v, 408) flushed one in the Kodaikanal

in 1867, and records another shot in the same _ locality subsequently. He

says that they are rare on those hills.

Capella nemoricola (Hodgson). The Wood Snipe.

Not met with by the Surveys.

In Ferguson’s time, the Trivandrum Museum contained a single specimen

shot on the High Range. of Travancore -(].B.N.H.S.,- xvi, 10).

Capella gallinago gallinago (Linn.). The Common or Fantail Snipe.

Specimen not collected.

Noted (unconfirmed) at: Maraiytir (3,000 ft.); Kottayam (Munro Island,

Vembanad Backwaters); Trivandrum Environs (Vellayani Lake); Karapadanna.

The birds were met with in swampy stubble paddy fields along the back-

waters and inland. My impression is that it is less common and abundant

in Travancore and Cochin than the Pintail Snipe. According to Ferguson

(].B.N.H.S., xvi; 11) this species forms about 4 or 1/3 of the bag in a

day’s snipe-shooting. In North Travancore he was told the proportion is

higher. He says that it arrives in Travancore later than the Pintail and

leaves earlier.

In the Palni Hills, both Fairbank and Terry found this snipe in small

numbers in the cold season at the western end of the Kodaikanal Lake and

in other swampy places. Terry shot 4 birds on 3 April, and the last seen

by him was on 4 May. :

Capella stenura (Bonaparte). The Pintail Snipe.

Specimens collected: 114 Q 19-1-33 Munnar 5,000 ft. (Kanan Devan TITills) ;

294 9G -17-2-33 Munro Island (Vembanad Backwaters); 414 Q 7-3-33 Kumili

3,000 ft. (Periyar Lake margin).

Elsewhere noted at: Camp Deramalai (‘Single at Uppukulam tank among

grassy hilltops 4,o00 ft.’); Cape Comorin; Karupadanna.

Colours of bare parts: Iris brown; bill horny brown, darker at tip, pale

greenish at chin and hbase of lower mandible; legs and feet greyish green;

claws dark brown.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

3. 9.9 66.5-73.5 132-137 48-51 33-35.5 mm.—H. W.]

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY.” Vol. x xX num

The Pintail Snipe is a common and fairly abundant winter visitor to

Travancore and Cochin. It was met with principally in and about marshy

stubble fields along the backwaters, but in smaller numbers wherever there

was any grassy marsh—in the low country as well as on the hills. The

birds were plentiful on Munro Island (Vembanad Lake) among the cut paddy

fields and by the grass-fringed cocoanut irrigation trenches, and _ afforded

good sport. Ferguson. says (J/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 11) that in Travancore a few

stragglers arrive early in September and that a few belated individuals may be

found at the end of April. The last date on which one was shot by the

Travancore Survey was to April (Cape Comorin). The bird was then under-

going heavy body moult. The specimen of 17 February was also in heavy body

moult, while that of 7 March was moulting its rectrices. The Pintail Snipe

is an abundant winter visitor to Ceylon.

Lymnocryptes minima Brunnich. The Jack Snipe.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 11): ‘A few specimens of this’ fine

snipe used generally to be found solitary from year to year on _ certain

damp rushy ground in Trivandrum; since this has been taken into cultivation,

I have not met with any more.’

According to Fairbank (S.F., v, 410) the Jack Snipe visits the Palni Hills

in the cold weather in small numbers, being found at the west of the

Kodaikanal Lake and in other swampy places.

ORDER: STEGANOPODES:

FAMILY: PELECANIDZ.

Pelecanns philippensis Gmelin. The Spotted-billed Pelican.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson did not secure a specimen, but says (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 13) that

this Pelican occurs in South Travancore and that he once saw 3 flying over

the parade ground in Trivandrum.

FaMILY: PHALACROCORACID.

SUB-FAMILY : PHALACROCORACINA.

Phalacrocorax niger Vieillot. The Little Cormorant.

Specimen not collected.

Noted only on the Ponnani river at Shoranar (North Cochin)—a_ flock of

over 30 birds sunning themselves, wings outspread, on a sandbank in_ the

afternoon.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 13) observed this cormorant on the tanks and

lakes in and about Nagercoil in South Travancore.

It is doubtless a resident species in our area, but nothing appears to

be recorded about its breeding here.

SuB-FAMILY: ANHINGINZ.

Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Indian Darter or Snake-Bird.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.—Periyar river); Kumili (3,000 ft.—Periyar

Lake); Kiuriarkutti (1,600 ft.—Parambikolam river).

The Darter is a fairly common but not abundant resident species in

Travancore and Cochin. It was usually met with solitary or in twos and

threes on rivers and tanks. On the Periyar Lake, the exposed tops of the

submerged tree-trunks seemed to provide favourite perches for these birds

for sunning themselves, and as look-out posts.

Breeding: Ferguson points out (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 13) that in Travancore

it breeds in September as in Northern India, and not in February as it does

in Madras and Ceylon. T. F. Bourdillon found a colony nesting on smal!

trees on an island in the Kodasheri river above the Athirapuzha fall in

September. The nests then contained fresh and hard-set eggs in all stages,

as well as half-fledged young.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 587

FAMILY: FREGATIDZ.

Fregata andrewsi Mathews. The Christmas Island Frigate-Bird.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 13): ‘A young bird of this species taken

at Perumathoray, about 1o miles from Trivandrum, was brought to me alive.’

Another specimen obtained at Quilon was sent to the Bombay Natural

History Society in July 1928 by Mr. L. A. Lampard. It was caught in a

fishing net in a rough sea at the onset of the monsoon (J.B.N.H.S., xxxiii. 445).

It would appear, therefore, that it is not unusual for these birds to be blown

ashore periodically by the violent gales of the south-west monsoon.

ORDER: TUBINARES.

Puffinus persicus Hume. The Persian Shearwater.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 14) states that a specimen taken at Valey

(Veli) four miles from Trivandrum, was brought to him alive. Unfortunately

no date is given.

ORDER: HERODIONES.

FAMILY: IBIDIDZ.

Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 14) came across the White Ibis only during

the cold weather at Sastancottah, and was doubtful about the bird being

a resident in Travancore. He says the birds were feeding by day in the

paddy fields and roosting in trees on the bank of the lake, and that they

were wary and difficult to approach.

SUB-ORDER: CICONIE.

Dissoura episcopa epiScopa (Boddaert). The White-necked Stork.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Wadakkancheri (400 ft.); Shorantr (Ponnani

river).

These storks were observed on a few occasions in pairs or small parties

of 4 or 5, in the neighbourhood of water either soaring in circles at great

height or feeding on sandbanks etc. in association with egrets.

ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 14) mentions a specimen in the Trivandrum

Museum from Palode, and another brought alive to him from Nagercoil.

Leptoptilus javanicus (Horsfield). The Smaller Adjutant.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Kuriarkuitti (1,600 ft.—Annemalai Hills, Cochin). A’ pair on

an open marshy patch amidst mixed deciduous and bamboo jungle (15 and

18 November 1933); very shy.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 14) this Adjutant is by no means

common in Travancore, but may be found about the tanks in S. Travancore

whence live specimens were brought to the Trivandrum Zoo from time to time.

Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). The Open-bill.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 15) describes the Open-billed Stork as very

common in Travancore, where large flocks may be met with on the marshy

borders of all the larger tanks and fresh-water lakes, sharing the trees for

roosting with flocks of Darters.

Curiously enough the Surveys altogether failed to come across the species

in Travancore or Cochin.

Breeding: Ferguson did not take eggs, but he believed that the breeding

season in Travancore was in June. No confirmation is available.

588 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

SUB-ORDER: ARDEZ.

FAMILY: ARDEIDZ.

Ardea purpurea manillensis Meyen. The Eastern Purple Heron.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted in small numbers, usually solitary, on the reedy margins of the

backwaters at Kottayam (VYembanad) and = Kartpadanna.

Long ago F. W. Bourdillon found the Purple Heron abundant at the

Vellayanit Lake, 7 miles from Trivandrum, but even in 1904 Ferguson pointed

out (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 15) that since the reeds had been removed none were

to be seen there. He saw and shot specimens at Sastanc6ttah.

Breeding : In Travancore, Stewart and Bourdillon obtained fresh eggs between

July and September (Nidification, iv, 456).

Ardea cinerea cinerea Linn. The Common Grey Heron.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at Kartpadanna, Cochin State. A solitary bird (29 December) on

a reed-covered islet in the backwaters.

In Travancore, according to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 15) the Grey Heron

frequents the backwaters along the entire coast, but is not found in’ the

interior. He mentions a specimen that had been living in the Trivandrum

Zoo for over 17 years.

Egretta alba [modesta (Gray).| The Eastern Large Egret.

Specimen not obtained. -

Noted only at Karupadanna (Cochin). A solitary bird on a_ reed-covered

mudbank in the backwaters.

Ferguson (/.B.N.H.S., “xvi, 15) writes that the Large Egret. is by @n@

means common in Travancore, and usually met with singly in inundated paddy

fields. At Sastancottah he found them roosting gregariously on trees round

the lake in association with Ibises and Snake-birds. He remarks that here

the Egrets arrived long after the other birds had settled down for the night.

Breeding: No records relating specifically to our area are available.

Egretta intermedia iatermedia (Wagler). The Indian Smaller Egret.

Specimen collected: 1025 3 27-12-33 Karupadanna (backwaters).

Elsewhere noted at: Kottayam (Munro Island, Vembanad Lake); Shoranur

(on Ponnani river); Nemmara (300 ft.—by tanks and inundated paddy fields).

Colours of bare parts: Iris yellowish cream; bill lemon yellow, dusky at

tip; lores and infra-orbital skin greenish-yellow; legs, feet and claws black.

| Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail, Tarsus.

Id 94 302 1208 111.5 mm.—H. W.]

The Smaller Egret is a fairly common but not abundant species about

the backwaters of Cochin and Travancore. It also frequents tanks and_in-

undated paddy cultivation inland. Solitary birds, pairs or small parties of 3 or

4 were usually seen. At Nemmara I found them to be much _ persecuted

by local ‘sportsmen’ armed with muzzle-loaders, and this is probably the case

all over since the birds everywhere were inordinately wary.

This egret is a resident in Ceylon.

Breeding: Nothing appears to be published concerning its nidification in

Travancore or Cochin, though it is doubtless a resident species.

Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little Egret.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Kottayam and Kartpadanna (backwaters). Shorantr (on Ponnani

river).

The Surveys found the Littl Egret somewhat commoner than the two

foregoing, but on the whole far from abundant. It was usually seen in pairs

or small parties—on one occasion a flock of 6 or 7.

Breeding: Nothing appears to be recorded from our area.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 589

Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.). The Cattle Egret.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted sparingly along the railway line from Shoranur to Chalakudi and

in the low country of Cochin generally. Strangely enough I have no _ record

of it from -Travancore where Ferguson says (jJ.B.N.H.S., xvi, 16) ‘this is

the commonest of the white egrets and may be found in numbers in all

paddy fields throughout Travancore, along the backwaters and in cultivated

land’. It would be worth investigating if the persecution I have referred to

under E, intermedia may not have something to do with the discrepancy

between Ferguson’s account and my own recent experience of its status

in Travancore.

Fairbank (S.F., v, 410) records this egret from the base of the Palni Hills.

Breeding: Nothing recorded except Ferguson’s statement that it assumes

the breeding plumage about April. The birds must therefore evidently breed

in Travancore at the commencement of the rains, as they do in most other

areas of their distribution.

Demiegretta asha (Sykes). The Indian Reet Heron.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at Kartpadanna, Ernakulam (backwaters).

Not common. Single birds were observed occasionally, perched on low

fishing stakes and the posts marking the navigable channels in the backwaters.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 16) records that a single specimen was obtained

by the Trivandrum Museum collectors at Ayrentenga, on the coast near

Kayankolum.

Breeding: Apparently not been recorded in Travancore or Cochin.

Ardeoia grayii (Skyes). The Indian Pond Heron.

Specimens collected: 7oo Q ad. 21-7-33, 775 G juv. 3-8-33 . Beach,

Trivandrum.

Elsewhere noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.); Kottayam (ca. S.L.); Kumili and

Periyar Lake Environs (ca. 3,000 ft.); Cape Comorin; along the railway -line

from Sorantr to Ernakulam; Wuriarkutti (1,600 ft.—along Parambikolam

river); Waddakkancheri (400 ft.); Ponnani river; Nemmara (300 ft.); MKaru-

padanna (ca. S.L.).

Colours of bare parts: Adult (7oo): ‘Iris yellow; bill marine blue at base,

yellow at middle, black at tip; mouth chocolate brown; legs and feet pink ;

claws horny brown. Immature (775): Iris bright yellow; bill upper mandible

blackish green, black at tip; commissure yellow; lower mandible greenish-

yellow with a dark patch on either side near the tip; gape greenish-yellow ;

mouth bluish-flesh ; legs and feet yellowish green; claws plumbeous.’ (Pillai).

[ Measurements :

Bill. ; Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

tO ad. 62 189 62 54 mm.

Ter. Juv. me 187 62 es

These two specimens are smaller than northern birds, but more require

to be examined from Ceylon and South India before the possibility of there

being 2 races can be settled.—H. W.]

The Pond Heron or Paddy Bird is a very common _ resident ‘species

throughout the low country of Travancore and Cochin and was also met

with more sparingly in suitable localities up to at least 3,000 ft. elevation.

It is found singly or in loose parties in the neighbourhood of streams, tanks,

puddles and flooded paddy fields, both along the backwaters and farther inland.

In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 410) saw it by streams and ponds

at the base.

Breeding: Mr. Pillai found the ovary of No. 700 (21 July) to be fully

mature with the largest follicle measuring 12 mm. in diameter. The bird

was undoubtedly breeding.

Nothing more seems to have been recorded in this area.

Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield). The Indian Little Green Bittern.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at: Thattakad (200 ft.—Single on drift log in narrow wooded channel

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXXIX

in Periyar river); Kuriarkutti (1,600 ft.—Single among bushes on_ bank,

overhanging Parambikolam river).

This Bittern is doubtless a resident species in our area, but its status

is apparently somewhat indeterminate. In Travancore F. W._ Bourdillon

described it as a winter visitor, silent and solitary, and found from November

to March among the rocks of the larger streams up to about 2,000 ft. eleva-

tion. Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 16) found it common in the low country

from November to April, but he did not meet with it at any other time of

the year.

Breeding: In Travancore or Cochin, unrecorded.

Nycticorax mycticorax mycticorax (Linn.). The Night Heron.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Shoranur (North Cochin boundary)—a small colony roosting

among vegetation overhanging the steep outscoured banks of the Ponnani river,

and flying out at dusk to feed.

Ferguson’s collectors found this species fairly common at Perambulum in

North Travancore and at other places round the Vembanad Lake where they

are apparently protected by the inhabitants.

Breeding in Travancore or Cochin, unrecorded.

Gorsakius melano'ophus melanolophus Raffles. The Malay Bittern.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson mentions (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 17) that F. W. Bourdillon obtained a

specimen of the Malay Bittern on the hills at about 2,500 ft. elevation in 1878

and that subsequently he received 2 live specimens. Stewart seems to have

found it common in Travancore (Fauna, vi, 362).

It has not been recorded from actually within the Cochin State, but it

must doubtless occur there. Kinloch (jJ.B.N.H.S., xxix, 294) obtained a

specimen and found it common in the Nelliampathy valley. He also saw this

Bittern at the foot of the Palghat Hills.

Breeding: Nidification (iv, 479) records that Stewart took many nests of

the Malay Bittern in Travancore from the end of May to early Juiy.

Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The Yellow Bittern.

Specimen collected: 417 ¢ 7-3-33 Kumili 3,000 ft. (Periyar Lake).

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris bright golden yellow; culmen horny brown,

commissure and lower mandible pale yellowish-flesh ; naked skin at gape under

and around eyes pale greenish yellow; mouth pink; legs and feet greenish

yellow ; claws horny brown.

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

68 139 Az. 51.5 mm.—H. W.]

The specimen was one of a pair among decaying bamboo root-clumps ana

brushwood in a swamp on the margin of Periyar Lake. When wounded,

the bird got within a bamboo clump and stretching its neck and bill per-

pendicularly skywards, assumed the so-called ‘On guard’ attitude, standing

perfectly motionless and making itself extraordinarily inconspicuous amongst

the culms at 5 yards range!

Ferguson’s collectors obtained several specimens of this Bittern in North

Travancore where they reported it as being found solitary on the banks of

the backwaters about Kottayam and Vaikom (/.B.N.H.S., xvi, 17).

Breeding: The testes of the specimen were in a quiescent state. Nothing

recorded specifically for Travancore or Cochin.

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin). The Chestnut Bittern.

Specimen collected: 302 ¢ 17-2-33 Kottayam (Munro Island, Vembanad

Lake).

Elsewhere not noted.

Colours of bare parts: Iris bright golden yellow with a small crescent-

shaped brown patch pehind and half-encircling pupil; culmen horny brown;

commissure and lower mandible greenish-yellow; mouth pink; legs and feet

yellowish-green ; claws horny brown.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 591

[ Measurements :

Bill. Wing. Tail. Tarsus.

ie: 58 155 47 53-5 mm.—H. W.]

The specimen, a solitary bird, was flushed from amongst rank grass and

decaying brushwood in a marshy patch in cocoanut and paddy cultivation.

According to Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 17) this little bittern is common

throughout Travancore on all the lakes and backwaters, frequenting the canals

cut through the ground laid out for the cultivation of young cocoanut palms.

It is a resident species in Ceylon.

Breeding: The testes of the specimen were quiescent. No records of its

nidification in Travancore or Cochin are available.

Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Lath.). The Black Bittern.

Not met with by the Surveys.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 17) describes the Black Bittern as not un-

common along the backwaters in Travancore, frequenting the dense vegetation

and screw-pine tangles on the banks of canals. He found it of crepuscular

habits. Stuart Baker (Fauna, vi, 369 and WNidification, iv, 484) writes (on

the same authority?) that it is comparatively common in Malabar and Travancore.

In the Palni Hills, Fairbank (S.F., v, 410) says he twice came upon a

Black Bittern when collecting ferns in the early part of 1867 below Vilpati.

As no specimen was obtained by him and as he recognised the bird merely

from the figure he had seen in Jerdon’s Illustrations of Indian Ornithology,

Pl. 16, this record must be accepted for what it is worth.

Breeding: Unrecorded from Travancore or Cochin.

ORDER: ANSERES.

FAMILY: ANATIDZ.

SuUB-FAMILY : CHENONETTINA.

Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal.

Not met with by the Surveys.

In Travancore, Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 18) believed the Cotton Teal

to be a winter visitor only, and never abundant.

A. M. Kinloch (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 674) saw four specimens which were

shot near Kollengode, just outside Cochin boundary, at the end of 1918. He

was informed that the species was not uncommon there.

Breeding: No record for this appears to be published.

SuUB-FAMILY: ANSERINZ.

Anser indicus Latham. The Bar-headed Goose.

According to Stuart Baker (Fauna, vi, 406) this Goose has been obtained

in the Nelliampathy (Hills or Valley?) by Kinloch. No other information is

available.

SuB-FAMILY: ANATINA.

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.) The Lesser or Common Whistling Teal.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Kottayam (February): ‘A fair number amongst enormous

flocks (several thousand) of mixed species, floating in masses on Vembanad

Lake near Munro Island during daytime and feeding in the surrounding

paddy fields at night. Much persecuted by gunners, and extremely wary.’

Ferguson writes (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 18): ‘The Whistling Teal is common

on all weedy tanks and lakes throughout Travancore. On one such _ piece

of fresh water near Sastancdttah, I saw hundreds in April 1902; but in

December 1903, in°the same place, not a single one was to be found. It

is, perhaps, commoner in the North than in the South.’

Breeding: Nothing recorded from our area.

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA? HIS? SOCIE TW) cl ex need

Nettion crecca crecca (Linn.). The Common Teal.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Kottayam. A few amongst the masses resting on the surface

of Vembanad Lake (February). Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 18) shot a single

specimen of this teal in South Travancore. It is of course only a winter

visitor.

Querquedula querquedula (Linn.). The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted only at Kottayam. The majority of massed wildfowl resting on

the Vembanad Lake were undoubtedly this species. Here they were much

harassed by local sportsmen and were, in consequence, excessively shy. The

birds had studied to a nicety the art of keeping just out of shot-gun range.

When approached closer, and unless fired at, those at the outer margin of the

mass merely ‘hopped’ a few yards deeper into it, and so on continuously!

Our motor boat passed 2 or 3 putrefying birds of this species floating on

the water in the neighbourhood which had doubtless died of shot wounds.

Ferguson (J.B.N.H.S., xvi, 18) says: Large flocks may be met with on

the backwaters in North Travancore in winter.

Among the flocks, I think there were also a certain number of Gadwall

(Chaulelasmus streperus), but owing to the distance this could not be definitely

verified even with powerful field glasses.

SUB-FAMILY: NYROCINZA.

Nyroca rufa rufa Linn. The White-eyed Pochard.

Specimen not obtained.

Noted at Kottayam. I am almost certain that a large number of birds

comprising the masses of wildfowl on Vembanad Lake (February) were of

this species. Strangely enough it has not been previously recorded from

Travancore or Cochin.

ORDER:-> PYGOPODES.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. The Indian Little Grebe.

Specimen collected: 550 Q 9-4-33 Cape Comorin ca. S.L.

Elsewhere noted at Nagercoil.

Colours of bare parts: ‘Iris yellow; bill black above, green at gape, dull

yellow on lower mandible, tip white; legs and feet black with greenish

webs; claws whitish.’ (Humayun Abdulali).

[Measurements: Bill 23, Wing 96, Tail 23, Tarsus 32 mm.—H.W.]

Pairs or small parties of the Little Grebe were observed on village tanks

in South Travancore. They were not common.

Breeding: According to Ferguson ~(j/.B.N.H.S., (xvi; 18)e.it)- breedsamna

Travancore in August.

LITERATURE.

1. Bourdillon, F.—Second list of Birds from Travancore.’ S.F., vii, 33-39.

2. ‘Bourdillon, F.—‘On~ the breeding of Birds in Travancore’. S;.j im

299-300.

3. Bourdillon, F.—On Gorsachius melanolophus in Travancore’. S.F., vii

524.

: 4. Bourdillon, F.—‘Nest of Harpactes fasciatus’. S.F., vii, 172.

5. Bourdillon, T. F.—‘Nesting of the Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle’ [Travan-

Core |e PBN eS xvii Og.

6. Davison, W.—‘Letter on Birds of Anamullai Hills and Travancore’.

Ibis, 1888, p. 146.

7, Davison, W.—‘Letter on Travancore Birds’. Ibis., 1886, pp. 203-5.

8. Elwes, H. J.—‘Letter on the birds of the Cardamum Hills’. Ibis. 1870,

pp. 526-28.

g. Fairbank, S. B.—‘A list of Birds collected and observed in the Palni

Hills.” S8.,: Vv, 0387-410.

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF TRAVANCORE AND COCHIN 593

1o. Ferguson, H. S. and Bourdillon, T. F.— The Birds of Travancore with

notes on their Nidification’. J.B.N.H.S., xv, 249-64, 455-74, 654-73; xvi, 1-18.

11. Foulkes, R.—‘The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet (Collocalia fuciphaga) in

fies ulney Hills’... J.B:N.H.S., xv, 727.

12. Giles, G. W.—‘Common Snipe (Gallinago coelestis) in Travancore in

en pOulon] . f.B.N.A.S., xix, ‘

13. Hume, A. O.—‘A First list of the Birds of the Travancore Hills’.

Sadie, Vy; 351-405.

14. Kinloch, A. M.— Nesting of the Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle’ [Nelliam-

pathies]); /-B.N.H.S., Xvil, 1027.

15. Kinloch, A. M.—The Cotton Teal in Malabar [Nelliampathies]’.

We DaNicdd 0," XXV1, 674.

16. Kinloch, A. P.—*Rough Notes on the Avifauna of the Nelliampathy

alts’: J.B.N.H.S., xxvii. 939-44.

17. Kinloch, A. P.—‘Occurrence of the Pied Ground Thrush (Geocichla

wardt) in the Nelliampathy Haliss. Ci. BON dd. S., Xxvit, | 944).

18. Kinloch, A. P.—'The Avifauna of the Nelliampathy Malis’, | JVB ANS.

XXV1ll, 279.

1g. Kinloch, A. P.—‘Habits of the Southern Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus

horsfieldi travancoriensis [Nelliampathies]’. J.B.N.H.S., xxviii,

20. Kinloch, A. P.—'Nidification of the Southern Red- whiekered Bulbul

(Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata)’ [Nelliampathies]. J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 545.

21. Kinloch, A. P.—‘Woodpeckers roosting’. J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 546.

22. Kinloch, A. P.—‘The White-throated Ground Thrush (Geocichla cyano-

notus) as a mimic [Nelliampathies]. J.B.N.H.S., xxviii, 805.

23. Kinloch, A. P.—‘Further notes on the Avifauna of the Nelliampaihy

Hills’. [Thriponax hodgsoni: Dendrocitta leucogastra: Dissemurus paradiseus |’.

WeB AN i.Ss, XX1X, 204.

24. Kinloch, A. P.—‘'On the Birds of the Nelliampathy Hills’. J.B.N.H.S.,

xxix, 564.

25. Kinloch, A. P.—‘The Nidification of the Malabar Great Black Wood-

pecker | Nelliampathies|’. j.B.N.1.S., xxix, 561

26. Prater, S. H.—Occurrence of the Xmas Island Frigate Bird (Fregata

andrewsi) on the West Coast of India [Quilon]’. J.B.N.H.S., xxxili, 445.

27. Stewart, J.—'Notes on the nesting of the Brown-necked Spine-tailed

Swift (Chetura indica) and the White-rumped Spine-tailed Swift, Chaetura

sylvatica’ [Travancore]. ].B.N.H.S., xxii, 393.

28. Terry, H. A.—A Few Additional Notes on Birds on the Pulney Hills’.

Stray Feathers, x, 467-80.

[THE Enp].

BIRD LIFE ON A SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK.

Boe N 3 BEDS:

(With two plates).

Waterfowl make a small showing in the list of Coorg birds

owing to lack of conditions to suit them in the hilly country

which comprises most of the area of this little province. Natural

lakes there are none and the artificial tanks which are such a

feature of the landscape in the plains are few and small and

confined to the narrow strip of dry, low-lying country between the

hills and the river Cauvery which here forms the Mysore boundary.

There is one however of considerable size which has long been

a favourite haunt of mine. It lies between two low ranges of hills

running north and south at a distance of a couple of miles, the

furthest outposts of the Ghats. The more westerly of these, which

is the higher, is buried from foot to summit in unbroken jungle

except where the dominating peak of Jainkalbetta thrusts a bald

head above the trees, while its counterpart 1s a mere ridge of rocky

outcrop hardly a hundred feet high, sparsely grown with thorny

scrub and a few stunted trees which have managed to gain a

foothold in pockets of soil among the black stones. A_ shallow

vale separates the two, mostly open maidan interspersed with

patches of scrub, merging at its upper end into the jungle and

at the lower cut off from the tank by a belt of trees, bamboos,

date palms and tall banyans and tamarinds, the lantana growing

thick about their bases making an almost impenetrable barrier

except where the cattle tracks pierce their way.

My first visit was on an afternoon in July. There was a lull

in the monsoon and though the main ranges on the western horizon

were veiled in mist, here on the edge of the dry zone the clouds

had thinned to allow a watery sun to gleam through, and a few

miles further east the sky was clear. The maidan was vivid with

the green of young grass, cropped to a short sward by the hungry

grazing of herds of scrubby cattle, which even in this season of

plenty looked gaunt and half-starved. The lantana growing in

great clumps lent, pestilential weed though it is, much to the

beauty of the scene as it was in full flower, and the masses of

bloom smothering the bushes made broad splashes of orange and

pink. The tank was at its fullest. It is a rough crescent half

a mile in length with a high bund all along the concave face.

Two-thirds of the way along the opposite shore the regularity is

broken by an arm of swampy ground where once a feeder ran

in but this has long since silted up though it is still moist enough

to provide luxurious wallows for pig and buffaloes. Indeed the

whole tank is much smaller than it must have been at one time

for even in the wettest seasons a broad strip of rough herbage

lies between. the belt of trees and the water. The tip of one

nr we, ae 5 —sNS

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BIRD LIFE ON A SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK 595

horn runs right up to the jungle of the western range and here

the elephants come down to drink in the hot weather when water

is scarce, leaving the shore pock-marked with their enormous

footprints. This end where the water is shallowest is all over-

grown with beds of bulrushes but as it gets deeper these thin

out and grow in smaller patches and the sheets of lotuses and

other weeds which spread beyond them disappear within. a few

yards leaving several acres of open water.

Bird life is abundant and undisturbed except by an occasional

fisherman for though the cattle water here, the paddy fields below

the bund have been abandoned for many years and the nearest

village is several miles away.

By far the most numerous of the waterfowl proper are the

dabchicks. At least a dozen pairs have a permanent home on the

lake and in July breeding is in full swing. I have found as many

as six nests with eggs in one day and must have missed numbers

more in the heart of the reed thickets. Most are built just inside

the outer edge of the bulrush beds but occasionally they are out

in full view in the middle of the open water anchored to a patch

of floating weeds. They are all much the same; floating plat-

forms of rotten waterweed about a foot in diameter. The eggs

are covered as soon as the first one is laid with a heap of weed

which is replaced whenever the bird leaves the nest. She is

extraordinarily quick at doing this and only once have I managed

to flush one before she had time to hide her eggs. A few deft

movements of her bill and she dives over the edge leaving only

a ring of ripples to betray her connection with what looks like

a casual accumulation of rubbish. She comes up ata safe distance

and tries to create a distraction by frantic splashings and flappings.

During much of the day the eggs are left to themselves, the

heat generated by the decaying materials of the nest being quite

sufficient to keep them from getting chilled.

When incubation has started, the dabchicks are quiet birds, but

earlier in the month, while courtship is going on, the lake resounds

with their long trilling calls as the pairs dive and come up face

to face and rub bills or chase each other half flying, half swimming

across the water. Once on the wing, they fly strongly, but except

at this season or when changing quarters, seldom do so. In their

breeding plumage they are almost handsome, the dark chestnut

of the throat and sides of the neck contrasting with the sombre

brown of the rest of the upper plumage. At the best of times

however their broad, rounded, almost tailless sterns give them

a barge-like appearance as if built more for utility than for show

or speed.

Most of the first broods are hatched off by the beginning of

August. Although the normal clutch is three or four, even oc-

casionally five, it is rare to see more than two of the little stripey

chicks with the mother. The male seems to take but little interest

in them. Though perfectly capable of diving when alarmed, the

young at first do not feed themselves but swim round anxiously

while their mother disappears under water and brings them up

scraps of weed and little fishes. Within a few weeks they are

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY .2Viola XOX

full grown and independent, only their dull colouring distinguishing

them from their parents who are by now busy with a second family.

Moorhens are not numerous in the rainy season though one or

two pairs breed every year, building substantial nests of dead

reeds among the bulrushes. They are the aristocrats of a plebeian

family; quiet, well-conducted birds soberly but smartly clad in

dark grey with touches of white set off by a scarlet frontlet. They

are excellent swimmers, though no great divers and spend most

of their time on the water paddling jerkily among the lily pads,

sitting high and gracefully, stern cocked and constantly flirted to

display the gleaming white of the undertail coverts. An occasional

loud ‘karuck’ announces their presence but except during the

squabbles of the courting season they are far from noisy.

The Purple Coots on the other hand are thorough vulgarians.

For all their gaudy plumage of purplish blue they have a coarse,

ugly appearance and a temper to match. Each bird has his private

domain, invasion being strongly resented, and the peace of the

lake is constantly disturbed by their noisy brawls. They favour

the reed beds or where the lilies grow thick enough to support

their weight for they do not swim more than they can help and

usually take wing to cross an open stretch of water, flying low

and heavily with legs trailing. They love to scramble to the top

of a clump of reeds, which bow and bend ominously beneath them,

to bask complacently in the sunshine, quite careless of the

insecurity of their perch. Their numbers vary greatly; in some

years there may be twenty or thirty and in others none at all.

They may be seen at all seasons but I have never found them

breeding on the lake.

Common coots are only occasional winter visitors and the only

other conspicuous members of the Rail family are the White-

breasted Moorhens. They are inveterate skulkers and it is their

voices that give them away. They only leave the sanctuary of

the thickest reed beds to feed along the shore when they are

quite certain that the coast is clear and at the first alarm scuttle

back into cover or fly up into a thick tree, for they are more arboreal

than most of their relatives and often nest at considerable heights

above the ground. From their lurking places they send forth

weird and uncanny bellowings and caterwaulings quite unlike any

other bird notes.

A pair of these were the actors in one of the most delightful

vignettes of wild life that it has been my luck to witness. I was

sitting by a small waterhole in the heart of the jungle when the

silence was rent by a hair-raising clamour as of some large beast

in dire extremity. Presently out from under the bamboos marched

a little procession, a white-breasted moorhen followed by three

newly hatched chicks like balls of black swansdown, while bringing

up the rear came the other parent. The old birds stalked cautiously

along keenly on the alert for danger, tails stiffly cocked to show

the bright chestnut underneath, a flag to guide the little ones as

they scrambled valiantly through the rough grass. They were

shepherded into the security of another bamboo clump, whence after

loud celebration of their safe arrival, one of the parents ventured

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Il

Nest and eggs of Dabchick (Podiceps ruficollis capensis).

Photos by Author.

Bile De Elie ON “AS SOULE ITN YIN DIAN “TANK 597

forth to forage on the margin of the pond to return triumphantly

with a large worm in its beak.

The Bronze-winged Jacanas are very conspicuous members of

the population, with their bright plumage and voices second only

in power to the white-breasetd moorhens’. They must mate for

life as they are always to be seen in pairs. They are admirable

examples of specialised development, their toes and claws being

enormously lengthened, enabling them to run swiftly and easily

over the floating lily leaves, where other birds of their size would

sink or flounder awkwardly. Seen thus or swimming buoyantly

across the lanes of deep water they are strikingly handsome remind-

ing one of those strange, brilliant birds to be seen on a Chinese

screen. On the wing they do not show to advantage though they

fly freely and well; their stumpy tails and long legs with the

enormous feet trailing behind them give them a singularly unbalanced

appearance. Like most of the waterfowl they are monsoon breeders

and in early July are in the full ardour of courtship. The males

bow and strut before their mates calling excitedly, drooping their

wings and elevating and exhibiting the bright maroon feathers of

the rump.

The ducks are confined to the two resident species, the Cotton

Teal and the Lesser Whistling Teal. A small flock of the former

are usually to be seen feeding among the floating weedbeds on the

edge of the open water, keeping up a continual conversation in

low, gabbling tones. Though they can dive like dabchicks when

wounded they seem to be entirely surface feeders and I have never

even seen them up-ending in shallow water after the fashion of

domestic ducks and most of the wild, non-diving species. They

must surely breed in the big trees round the tank but I have not

been able to find a nest nor have I seen any young on the water

and even in the rains when the drakes are in full plumage they

are usually accompanied by their mates. At this time of year the

drakes look very white and on a dull day show up as brilliantly

as gulls at a distance where the ducks are quite invisible. They

are great home-lovers and at a duckshoot are the last to leave,

flying round and round low over the water long after the Grey

and Whistling Teal have departed.

One or two pairs of the latter frequent the tank throughout the

year but their numbers vary and I have yet to discover them breed-

ing in the vicinity. They are much warier than the Cotton Teal

and have a perennially anxious air. At the first hint of danger

up go their long necks and they paddle hastily out to the middle

of the open water. A couple of shots is enough to set them

circling to gain height and be off to the next water. On the wing

they are like no other duck with their slow unhurried wingbeats

and peculiar mewing cries which they seem never to utter at other

times. ,

In the monsoon, the Heron tribe are conspicuous by their ab-

sence but ever since I have known the tank there has been one

solitary Small Cormorant whose favourite perch is a dead log

sticking up in the middle of the water. There he spends hours

together basking and hanging out his wings to dry in the

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

intervals of his fishing. His right to his favourite seat is seldom

disputed but on one occasion when a Snakebird paid the tank a

visit he had to give way to his larger relative albeit with a very

bad grace and the moment the latter departed he was back again.

Kingfishers are always in evidence and one or two pairs

of the White-breasted and Common Indian Kingfishers are

resident. The former obtain as much of their food on land as

on the water and are fond of taking up a stance on a tall bamboo

on the edge of the jungle where they can keep watch for lizards

and large grasshoppers in the short grass of the dried-up margin.

Pied Kingfishers often come in from the Cauvery which flows only

three miles away but do not linger long. Their hunting methods

are those of the trout fisherman rather than the bottom angler,

for unlike most of the family they go to seek their prey instead

of waiting for it to come to them. The Pied Kingfisher rivals

the kestrel in mastery of the art of hovering. The little Indian

kingfisher does this sometimes but with the former bird it is the

normal habit. It quarters the water systematically, coming up

into the wind at every few yards and hanging on rapidly moving

wings, head sunk between the shoulders and bill pointing down-

wards as-it scans the surface below. If there is anything worth

a closer examination it drops a few feet vertically with a jerk

as though let down on an invisible string, hovers again for a

second to make sure and then turns over and plunges headlong

with half-closed wings. A small object like a tadpole may be

swallowed in the air but anything larger is carried off to a perch

and hammered into subjection in the usual way before being

devoured.

While one or two colonies of bayas breed annually in the date

palms in the tree belt separating the tank from the maidan, it

was only this year, 1936, that I found their near relatives, the

Streaked Weavers, in residence. They are common enough on the

Mysore tanks and it is probable that the poor monsoons of the

last three years which have left many of these practically dry,

have driven them beyond their usual beat. The bayas like to

build over water if they can but their nests are always in trees

and may be found well away on dry land provided there are paddy

or ragi crops at hand to provide building material. The Streaked

Weavers are more particular, and in this part of India at any rate,

nest exclusively in reeds in standing water. Breeding starts early |

in July as soon as the reeds have reached their full height. The

cocks are the first on the scene and at once begin building. They

appear to assume breeding plumage very irregularly, many of

those hard at work showing but little of the golden cap of full

dress though whether this is assumed afterwards I am unable to

say. The hens arrive later and only begin to take interest in

the nest when it is nearing completion. Streaked Weavers’ nests

are much smaller than those of the baya and are not suspended

on a long neck while the entrance tunnel is seldom prolonged for

more than six inches. A start is made by binding twenty or

thirty reeds together about a foot from their tips, and on this

foundation is woven a very strongly twisted loop of grass or rather

BIRD LIFE ON A SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK 599

strips of reed about 1/16th of an inch in width. These are ripped

off the bulrush leaves and apart from mud are the sole materials ~

used. Work proceeds in very definite stages, there being often

a pause of several days between each, for it 1s common to see

part of the nest withered brown while the new section is. still

fresh and green. The second stage is to weave a dome on one

side of the loop leaving the bottom open. At this point the nest

resembles a helmet with chin strap, very neatly finished off with

no loose ends hanging about. Weaving is temporarily. suspended

while a band of mud half. an inch wide is plastered all along the

nape of the helmet. Until the mud is dry no more is done and

many nests for some reason or other get no further than this

being either simply abandoned or else cut down and dropped into

the water below by their dissatisfied builders. All being well

however the bottom of the dome is next filled in forming an

egg-shaped purse, the loop making the entrance. It is only after

the eggs are laid that the tunnel is built onto the latter and is

lengthened sporadically until the young hatch.

-- When I first saw the colony it was confined to six or seven

nests in one small patch of reeds but by the end of August it

had extended to almost every reedbed in the tank and there must

have been thirty or forty occupied nests, never however more than

half a dozen close together, and many more in an_ incomplete

State.

An interesting feature was the association of black-headed munias

with the weavers. The shores of the tank are a favourite resort

of this family of small, brightly coloured finches. At one time or

another I have seen all the six species which occur in this area

feeding in mixed flocks in the herbage round the water’s edge.

The black-headed munias, in their rich chesnut, black and white

are much more water-loving than the rest. A few have always

nested in the bulrushes. As soon as the weavers arrived and started

breeding one or two pairs of the munias took to haunting each

group of nests, hopping about among their larger relatives, and

even settling on the nests themselves I never saw them go inside nor

had they laid eggs in any that I examined so that there seems to be

no question of parasitism, but it was certain that as the weavers

increased in numbers so did the munias until there were far more

than I have ever seen there before. The Weavers took no notice

of them whatever and apart from this consort at the nesting site

the two species had little in common, the Munias feeding separately

or joining flocks of other munia species. About three weeks after

the first weaver’s nest was completed, the munias started breeding

Operations on their own, making their roughly-built, untidy balls

of rushes and grass low down in the reeds only a foot or so

above the water, sometimes in the middle of a weaver colony

but usually in a separate clump a few yards away. As with most

munias the nests are lined with green grass stems, the flowering

heads projecting in a frill round the entrance. It seems likely that

the true weavers must have evolved their elaborate nests from

something very like these primitive structures, gradually learning

to split the coarse reed leayes into narrow strips more easily

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

workable and developing the fringe round the doorway into a

completely enlosed tunnel.

A visit to the tank in February or March finds a very different

scene and its bird population has quite altered in character. It

is at the end of the dry season before the first showers and the

sun is daily increasing in strength. The maidan is sere and

brown where it has not been blackened by forest fires. The jungle

is a bright yellow from the dead leaves which still hang on the

bamboos but most of the trees stand gaunt and bare. The only

relief from the prevailing black and yellow are the _ brilliant

splashes of scarlet where the Flame of the Forest is in flower.

The belt of trees near the water however is still green and all

the bird life of the neighbourhood seems concentrated in their

shade. The tank has shrunk to half its size and the reeds stand

up withered and dead where the water has receded beyond them.

Here and there small islets and mudbanks appear, the favourite

basking places of turtles and an occasional small crocodile. The

waterfowl have now no family cares and lead an idle life. Times

are hard for the larger beasts of the jungle but for them food

is plentiful and easily obtained. The dabchicks are in their dull

winter plumage but as noisy as ever. The moorhens’ numbers

have been increased by migrants and sometimes a small flock of

Coots pay a fleeting visit. The migrant duck and teal seldom

come here; they prefer the larger tanks. The heron family @ame

in force. Pond herons by the dozen parade the water’s edge, frog-

hunting, almost invisible in their drab plumage until they take flight

when their white wings flash out from beneath the long concealing

coverts in startling fashion. The egrets on the other hand make

no attempt at disguise, the dazzling purity of their dress shining

from afar. Cattle egrets in small flocks wander about among the

erazing buffaloes picking at the ticks and flies that infest them

while the other species keep to the water, standing knee-deep,

motionless except for an occasional dart of the bill as they spear

a fish. In what is left of the reedbeds skulk chestnut bitterns

and little green herons. They are difficult to flush and when

they do take wing it is only to flop back into cover a few yards

on. The reeds, too, often hold a Purple Heron, whose snakey

neck is craned above the tops at the sound of approaching footsteps

to be followed by a threshing of great wings as he hoists his bulk

awkwardly from the ground until, free of entanglement, he tucks

up his long shanks, coils his neck back on his shoulders, and

wends his stately way to the far end of the lake with a croak

of protest at being thus startled out of his accustomed dignity.

Rarely an Open-Bill Stork comes in from the Cauvery -and stalks

proudly among the lesser fry or stands contemplative on one leg

on the topmost branch of a dead tree.

There are other less harmless visitors. The waterfowl care

little for the Brahminy Kite, the most brightly coloured of all the

birds of prey, as he soars and swoops on effortless pinion overhead,

for he is a coward and a scavenger though ready enough to make

off with a wounded bird. The Marsh Harrier who comes down

from the north for the winter meets with more respect. When

BIRD EILEE ON A, SOUTHERN INDIAN TANK 601

his slim, long winged shape comes winging low over the reedbeds,

quartering the ground with the persistency of a setter, the dab-

chicks dive hastily and the moorhens and cotton teal scutter into

covert or freeze immobile where they sit. Worse still is the

Shahin Falcon who has a hungry brood clamouring for food in

their eyrie on the crags of Jainkalbetta. On her approach a death-

like silence falls on the scene and woe betide the foolish teal or

coot who happens to be in the air when she appears. The tank

lies within the beat of a pair of grey-headed fishing eagles but

their eyrie is on another stretch of water seven or eight miles

away. Serpent eagles are common in the neighbouring jungles in

so far as the larger birds of prey can ever be said to be common

and find the shores where numerous ratsnakes and monitor lizards

come out to bask a profitable hunting ground. I have never seen

these birds tackle a really large snake though doubtless they are

quite capable of doing so and they are by no means too proud to

make a meal off the vulgar Bullfrog when nothing better offers.

The great Wader order is well represented in the dry weather

by a number of winter visitors, the only resident species being the

red-wattled lapwing. One or two pairs of these handsome, long-

legged plover breed round the shores of the tank and lay their

first eggs about the beginning of April. While they have eggs

they are very inconspicuous and leave the vicinity unobtrusively

at the approach of a human being, but during most of the year

they are the self-appointed watchmen of the community, being

the first to spot any possible danger and warning all the other

birds with their clamorous, ‘Did he do it, Dick did he do it.’

When they have young their anxiety and noisiness are intensified.

Screaming dementedly they swoop round the head of an intruder

or flutter helplessly along the ground, playing the old broken wing

game and continue their demonstrations until he is well off the

premises.

Pintail snipe in small numbers lie up for the day in the reed-

beds, and seldom show themselves till dusk but the green

Sandpipers are much bolder and more numerous. They trip

daintily along the waters’s edge, pausing now and then to bob

on a stone, or skim lightly across an arm of the tank, flying

low over the water, each sharp wing stroke followed by a long

glide, displaying the white rump which is their distinguishing

feature. Unlike snipe they demand actual standing water for a

feeding ground, mere damp marshland is not enough for them.

They wade boldly and will often swim across a channel of deep

water too narrow to be worth the trouble of taking to the air.

They are unsociable birds usually solitary and rarely to be seen

more than two together. The smaller wood sandpipers on the

other hand while they do not gather in regular well-drilled flocks

as do so many of the smaller waders in winter like the company

of their kind and form loose associations of twenty or thirty

whose members while feeding and moving independently keep in

fairly close contact.

At this time of the year bee-eaters are much in evidence and

this is the only spot in Coorg where I have come across the

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCTETY, Volz Xie

Blue-tailed Bee-eater. This species is common on the West Coast

where it is almost a seabird, hawking far out over the estuaries and

backwaters often at a considerable distance from land, but in the

interior it is very local. Much more numerous is the little Common

Bee-eater. Even in the rains a few may be seen round the tank

but these are all immature birds. The old ones migrate during

the summer months probably eastwards beyond the range of the

monsoon. Both these species and sometimes the Chesnut Headed

Bee-eater, distinguishable by its lack of the prolonged, needle-like

central pair of tail feathers, breed on the tank shores, for, unlike

the Kingfishers they do not require a vertical bank in which to

burrow but are content to sink their shafts in almost level ground

provided the soil is sandy and easily workable. Eggs are laid in

April and a month later it is a pretty sight to see the young

families perched in rows on the bamboo fronds twittering excitedly

as their parents bring them the bees and dragon flies that they

hunt so adroitly.

While the birds that I have mentioned are the most conspicuous

frequenters of Halagote and its surroundings, they are of course

not a tithe of the numbers that may be seen there especially in

the dry weather when other water is scarce. At various times,

practically every species that occurs in the neighbourhood may be

seen there, and the probability of meeting something new and

unexpected lends excitement to each visit.

REVIEWS.

MANUAL OF THE MAMMALS OF CEYLON by W. W. A. Puirtips,

F.Z.S., M.B.O.U., Ceylon, The Director of the Colombo Museum; Dulau & Co.,

imamdon. _ Price Rs. 10, in England 15s.

All sportsmen, naturalists and zoologists interested in the Fauna of British

India will welcome this admirable and much-needed volume on the Mammals

of Ceylon. The collecting of the species necessary for it and the observations

of their habits in the field have occupied for many years most of the leisure

hours Mr. Phillips could spare from other duties. During that period dating

back to the conclusion of the Great War he published from time to time many

papers on interesting specimens he secured and he kept in continual touch

with Messrs. Thomas, Hinton and Wroughton in the British Museum, sending

them specimens for identification and description and enriching the national

collection with many freshly collected skins of which it was greatly in need.

The Fauna of Ceylon has an interest all its own wrapt up in its past

geological history and its former connection with Peninsular India and subsequent

severance from it. Very appropriately Mr. Phillips leads off with its story

in his introduction. Here too its physical features are described and these are

illustrated by a coloured map showing the dry and wet zones, the central hill

ranges, river systems, etc. and also the recently established Game-reserves. The

main portion of the volume dealing with the characters and habits of. the

different kinds of the mammals is handled in the most approved style.

It opens with the Monkeys and closes with the Pangolins and _ nearly

one-third of it is taken up by the Rodents. Analytical keys presenting the

most striking and obvious differences between the various groups are supplied

for their ready identification and all the principal species are illustrated by

excellent photographs of the living animal, sometimes depicted in its natural

haunts. In addition there are well-drawn figures of heads introduced into the

text to show features that escape the camera and, although cranial characters

are not especially dealt with in the volume, very good drawings of the skull

of the most important types have been wisely inserted. At the end of the

volume there is a useful bibiliography, followed by indices of the English,

Sinhalese, Tamil and scientific names of the animals.

We cordially congratulate Mr. Phillips on the general excellence of this

Manual and are grateful to him for it. It will for many years be regarded

as the standard work on Ceylonese Mammals.

Rais Pe

A GUIDE TO COLLECTING BUTTERFLIES OF INDIA. By Lt.-Cot.

H. D. Petre. Published by John Bale Sons & Danielsson, London. Price 41-5.

Size 88x52x13. Pages xiii-312: 25 plates (1 in colour).

The book commences with a coloured plate preceding the preface by

Mr. N. D. Riley, Keeper of Entomology in the British Museum and _ lately

Assistant Keeper of their butterflies. Then follows a brief introduction by

the author: a comprehensive list of contents arranged alphabetically: a list of

references and abbreviations: two pages of corrigenda: a ‘Guide to Collecting

Butterflies of India’ (19 pages): brief descriptions of over 600 forms of

butterflies (203 pages): lists of species from various localities (60 pages): a

full index of specific and generic names: and the uncoloured plates (255 figures

in all).

In the preface, Mr. Riley explains that the object of the -author is to

provide a handy volume, not aiming at completeness, but rather at an introduc-

tion to the study of such of the butterflies of India as are ordinarily met

with. The book certainly fulfils its object: the guide is simple and complete

and the plates are excellent. The remarks made below are not written in

a spirit of adverse criticism, but with the object of suggesting improvements

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xx

for embodiment in a subsequent edition, which will, it is hoped, be required

soon, since a handbook more or less of this type is a real necessity for

collectors in India. The price of the volume seems unduly high, when compared

with that of other similar works, but this we understand is not the author’s

fault.

The long list of corrigenda is unfortunate and, it is feared, not complete:

for instance ‘Oclodes’ on page 222 should be ‘Ochlodes’ and it is to be noted

that this name is not included in the index.

The excellent ‘Guide’ calls for very few remarks. On page 1, the distinguish-

ing features of the various Families would have been better arranged in the form

of a key. The statement on page 4 that common ancestry is an important

factor in the case of Mullerian mimicry is contradictory: probably the author

had in mind a Mullerian association of closely allied species. On page 6,

something might have been said regarding the symbiosis between ants and

Lycaenid larvae. Instances should have been given in support of the assertions

on page g that androconial scales vary with the season and that some Lycaenids

are tailed at one season and not in another: none are known to the reviewer.

The statement on page 9 regarding tibial spurs is incorrect, though correct on

page 20. In speaking of tails on page 12, mention might have been made

of the apparent protection they afford to Lycaenids, where they emanate from

eye-like ocelli, inducing an enemy to regard the posterior end of a_ butterfly

as the insect’s head. Migration finds no place in the ‘Guide’.

The selection of butterflies for inclusion in the main portion of the book

was doubtless a difficult matter, but the results are decidedly ‘patchy’. Of

the 381 species dealt with the majority are such as were personally known

to the author, who collected principally at Mussoorie, Peshawar, Bannu,

Miranshah and Fatehgarh. Consequently for the plains of N. India. the West

Himalayan hill stations and the N.-W. Frontier Province most of the species

that occur have found a place and the author’s observations regarding them

are of interest. Odd species from Ceylon, S. India and the higher Himalayas

are included, but Darjiling and Assam have been left out in the cold, and

the book will be of very little use to collectors in these places. Rare species

such as Everes mooret, Euchloé belemia, Vanessa atalanta and Argynnis clara

have been included, while such common species as Papilio crino, Cepora nadina,

Nacaduba dubiosa, Arhopala centaurus, Udaspes folus, the Notocryptas and

Pelopidas guttatus and bevani have been omitted. Mycalesis neavisala (page

84) is not a species. On page 47 a new name, tochica, has been coined for

the Tochi form of Pieris rapae, but the description is very scanty.

The genus Papilio has been divided into subgenera, a system, which, if

required at all, should have been adopted elsewhere. The author has made an

effort to bring the nomenclature up to date, but does not emphasise the changes

sufficiently : for instance collectors in India will have a shock when _ they

realise that such an old friend as Belenots mesentina is now aclled Glycestha

aurota. Opinions on specific identity, such as are expressed on pages 65-69

and 171 regarding the species of Colias and Lycaenopsis kollari are out of

place in a work of this nature.

The descriptions for the most part have been given under the title of ‘Key’:

most of them have been taken from keys arranged as keys, but when substi-

tuted for descriptions they are apt to be confusing. For instance the beginner

will find it difficult to distinguish the species of Lampides (page 184): bochus

and celeno are keyed as having the fourth transverse band from the base

ending on vein 3, but the corresponding position is not given for cleodus

and alecto, while in the case of the latter species the key only deals with

the difference between the subspecies. For Lampides the plates will help towards

the solution, but for the next genus, Nacaduba, there are no figures and it

is feared that the beginner will be quite helpless.

For the next edition it is suggested that subspecies should be omitted

altogether and more species included. At least one species of each genus should

be figured and the descriptions of the species confined to divergences from the

figures. In this connection it may be noted that three species, looking almost

exactly alike, of the genus Aulocera, are figured, while there are no figures

at all of Prionerts.

The local lists will prove useful. Rhe. Philippe’s lists for Lahore and Simla

might have found a place, while the lists for Cachar, Manipur, the Naga

Hills, Chin Hills and Ceylon, might well have been omitted as the majority

of species therefrom are not dealt with in the book.

REVIEWS 605

There is no index for trivial names and the inclusion in the index of

names from local lists seems unnecessary.

The plates have been drawn by the author and are excellent for the purpose.

Figure 85 represents loha and not padma. Figure 107 looks more like seroca

than selenophora. Figure 171 of lohita more nearly resembles syama. Figure

226 of maha lacks the diagnostic spot in the forewing cell. Figure 200 huegelit

is repeated as figure 213. Figure 247 probably represents subochracea, and

not mathias, which has a dark brand.

To sum up, the ‘Guide’ is excellent and the plates are very good: the

descriptive portion of the work would have been better had the included species

been more carefully selected.

VWs (bi GE.

March 4, 1937.

A BEAST BOOK FOR THE FOCKET. By Edmund Sandars. Pp. 378.

London: Oxford University Press; 1937. Price 7s. 6d.

This excellent book deals with the Mammals, Reptiles, and Amphibians of

the British Isles.

‘After preliminary articles on each Class, Order, or other group the plan

of the book is to treat each species separately, giving: (1) the English name ;

(2) the scientific name; (3) the habitat; (4) a general description of the visible

form, indicating the characters which distinguish it from other species; (5) a

general idea of the teeth; (6) of the limbs, and (7) of any notable peculiarity

of internal structure; (8) its life history, the young, their number and develop-

ment; (9) its yearly life as affected by the seasons; (10) its daily life, including

manners and behaviour; (11) food; (12) gait, on land, in air or water, and

(13) its voice. A heading ‘‘Varieties’’ is added for the record of albinism or

similar oddities and for such local races as have been distinguished as sub-species.’

‘In the case of a domestic animal the heading ‘‘Habit’’ is replaced by

a reference to its “‘origin’’, so far as anything is known, and to its ‘‘uses”’

to Man,: while the heading ‘‘varieties’’ covers the ‘“‘breeds’’.’

The book contains some 215 illustrations distributed on 96 coloured plates,

and nearly 200 line drawings interspersed in the text. The latter are surprisingly

good; and the small maps showing the distribution and the numerical density

of each species are particularly welcome.

The notes on the teeth and the gait are excellent; and many will delight

in the sketches exhibiting the ‘paces’ of animals, their tracks and their footprints.

For the scientific names the author follows the so-called Trinomial System

of nomenclature; but by an ingenious device of squaring and cubing he avoids

repeating the same word twice or thrice. Thus Meles*® stands for Meles meles

meles, Mustela putorius* for Mustela putorius putorius, and Vulpes* crucigera

for Vulpes vulpes crucigera.

The only jarring sound is that of the Preface, written in a tone so apologetic

as to become irritating. Quoth the author: ‘My work has been to collect,

compress and as the French say, to ‘‘vulgarize’’,’ . .. Why drag the French

in when the Oxford Dictionary has: Vulgarize 2. trans. To make common

or popular; to reduce to the level of something usual or ordinary, 1709, and

Popularize c. To present (a technical subject, etc.) in a popular form, 1836.

jek. GC;

NOTE

ON THE BURMA WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT.

During the August Session of the Burma Legislative Council

the Burma Wild Life Protection Act of 1936 was, after considera-

tion, referred to a Select Committee, and after some _ revision,

passed without opposition. The Act extends to the whole of

Burma. Under Section 28 the Government has power to draw

up-rules under the Act.

Its prescriptions allow of the declaration as a sanctuary of any

eee land which is at the disposal of Government, and,

subject to the consent of the owner and to such

conditions as may be determined by mutual agreement, any land

which is private property. Within a sanctuary no person is

permitted—

(a) to hunt without the special permission of the Local Govern-

ment which is only granted for scientific purposes, or to preserve

the balance of animals, or

(b) to drive, stampede or wilfully disturb any animal. (Sections

3 and 4.)

Section 5 lays down that no person shall hunt, drive, stampede

or wilfully disturb any animal or remove any animal

Reserved or part or product thereof from a _ reserved forest

poterts except under a license.

Outside sanctuaries and reserved forests certain animals are

Other land declared : —

(a) Completely protected—rhinoceros, tapir, argus pheasant

and masked finfoot,

(b) Protected—elephants, bison, saing, thamin, serow and

goral, or

(a) Completely protected animals can only be hunted under

conditions of a special license issued by the Local Government for

scientific purposes and no person may possess, sell or buy them alive

or dead, or any part or product of, them with the following ex-

ception. Any physician or druggist may possess or sell, or any

person may possess for private medical purposes rhinoceros blood

Or any preparation thereof. This exception is a blot on an other-

wise excellent Act, but it was essential for the reason that so

many people in Burma have an implicit faith in the efficacy of

rhinoceros blood for medical purposes. Had this exception been

omitted, the Bill would probably not have been passed. In the

past, although possession and sale of rhinoceros blood has been

illegal, it has rarely been possible to prosecute the small country

physician or the private person who may have possessed small

quantities for medical purposes. It is doubtful whether much, if

any, of the product known as rhinoceros blood is genuine. The

prohibition against hunting and killing, or possessing or selling of

ON THE BURMA WILD LIFE PROTECTION ACT 607

parts and products of rhinoceros is, with this exception, absolute

and it is hoped that the new Act will render poaching more difficult

than it has been up to date, especially as it will probably be

applied, at any rate so far as rhinoceros are concerned, to Back-

ward Tracts which were outside the area to which the provisions

of the old Game Laws applied.

(b) Protected animals may only be hunted under license.

Without a license it is illegal knowingly to possess or sell or buy

such animals alive or dead, or their parts or products. An

important addition to the list of protected animals as compared

with the previous Game Rules is thamin, the brow-antlered deer,

the numbers of which have been very seriously depleted in recent

years.

and barking deer are protected from the 15th June to the 3oth

September and all game birds from the 15th March to the 3oth

September. The possession or sale of such during respective close

seasons is prohibited.

An entirely new section prohibits the capture, possession,

purchase or sale of live snipe, wild duck, teal and wild geese

during the whole year. This is an important section designed to

prevent the cruelty entailed by keeping these birds alive. No

attempt has been made to protect in a similar manner partridges,

quail and jungle fowl as cruelty can less well be substantiated.

Power to add any other animal by notification to the list of

animals protected in any of the above categories has been vested

in Government.

Section 10 prohibits hunting, by use of poison, pitfalls, machans,

hides, pits, or artificial light for animals other than carnivora.

It prohibits the shooting of animals other than carnivora from the

back of an elephant or any kind of wheeled vehicle or aircraft,

and the use of elephant or wheeled vehicle or aircraft to drive,

stampede or disturb any animals other than carnivora. Hunting

within 200 yards of an inhabited Buddhist monastery or religious

edifice for which trustees have been appointed, the use of explosives

for fishing in reserved forests and hunting with dogs except in the

case of carnivora, hares and birds, are likewise forbidden.

Section 11 regulates the export and import of animals.

The term ‘animal’ includes all birds, mammals and _ reptiles

other than snakes found in a wild state in Burma, and in reserved

forests, fish. Outside reserved forests fish come under the pro-

visions of the Burma Fisheries Act for which reason it was not

possible to regulate fishing outside reserved forests under the Wild

levte Protection Act.

The Act provides for penalties and gives powers to Forest

Officers and Game Wardens to compound offences. Various other

powers are given to Police Officers, Forest Officers and Game

Wardens under the Act. Exemption is granted to the trustees of

the Victoria Memorial Park, Rangoon (Zoological Gardens) for

the acquisition, possession, sale, exchange, import and export of

any animals. The keeping in captivity of animals and birds other

than completely protected or protected animals for purposes of

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

display, educational purposes or in public parks and gardens is

permitted.

The above précis of the Burma& Wild Life Protection Act of

1936 may be of interest outside Burma. It has been generally

approved in Burma and met very little opposition. The one

drawback, to the Act, is that it permits possession and _ sale of

rhinoceros blood in certain circumstances, but the fact that such a

comprehensive Act has been passed through a modern Legislative

Council is a considerable achievement and a noteworthy example

of the attitude of the general public in Burma and more especially

of the politicians, to wild hfe protection.

AN APPEAL

Wanted Stag Eeetles.

I am engaged in preparing a volume upon the Stag-beetles

(Lucanidae) for the Fauna of British India series and should be

very glad to get into communication with any collectors who might

be able to assist. The large males of several Indian species are

well known, but there are numerous other kinds which are very

inadequately known and females are difficult to identify. I shall

be happy to name and return, if desired, any specimens sent to

me. Very careful packing is necessary when sending specimens

by post.

GILBERT iB ARROW,

Author of several volumes

in the Fauna of British India Series.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

I.—ASSOCIATION BETWEEN A LEOPARD AND A TIGRESS.

While tigers and leopards may sometimes be turned out of a

somewhat small patch of cover, no such association as that instanced

in Iftikhar Ali Khan’s interesting note has been previously recorded.

There seems to be no sufficient reason why there should not be

hybrids between tiger and leopard. Mr. F. C. Hicks, in his book

Forty Years Among the Wild Animals of India, states that he

shot ‘an undoubted hybrid between a tiger and a panther,’ described

as follows:—‘Its head and neck were purely those of a panther,

but with a body, shoulders, and neck-ruff unmistakably of a tiger,

the black stripes being broad and long, though somewhat blurred

and breaking off here and there into blurred rosettes, the stripes

of the tiger being most predominant on the body.’ The animal

was an old male, measuring a little over eight feet in length.

Unfortunately this unique specimen disappeared in the confusion

and illness caused by Mr. Hicks being mauled by a wild beast.

In The Field of. 18th January, 1908, the skin of an abnormally-

marked leopard, which may have been such a hybrid, is thus

described :—‘Although the markings present some approximation

to the jaguar type, the head and back are ornamented by an

altogether peculiar kind of meshed network of broad buff lines,

the first mesh which occupies the head being much larger than all

the others.’ The markings are stated to bear no approximation

to the tiger type, and it is remarked that tigers are seldom found

in the district of the Deccan from which this animal came. But

tigers have lines, and meshed markings on the head. In hybrids

1 believe the more primitive type is biologically predominant, so

a hybrid tiger-leopard would perhaps be more approximate to the

leopard. The fact that tigers are seldom found in the district

favours the hybrid theory, for the two species would be more

likely to mate where one is seldom found, and where it could find

no mate of its own species.

CHARLTON KINGs,: Ro Ge BURTON.

GLOs. ENGLAND. Brigadier-General.

Junuary 29, 1936.

Il.—TWO WARY TIGERS AND TWO OTHERS.

Receiving news of a kill late one afternoon I hastily had a

machan put up over the victim, a well-conditioned cow. The tiger

had made a good meal and the cow’s head had been chewed off.

Although the ground was too hard for tracks to be seen there

was every indication that the kill was that of a tiger. When at

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 611

about 7 p.m. a panther rolled up I thought that the kill was

possibly the work of two panthers and laid the feline out. Four

cases have occurred in this district of two panthers at a time being

bagged on a kill, and I now waited for its mate to turn up. Sure

enough I soon heard an animal approaching but on its arrival

near my tree I was convinced by the heavy tread that it was a

tiger. The tiger, as it turned out to be, made the usual detour

around and then approached the kill on the side the panther was

lying dead. It was now almost dark, but I could tell exactly what

was happening: the tiger stopped, evidently spotting the intruder,

hesitated but for a moment, then landed on the panther with a

mighty leap, and as the latter showed no signs of life started to

drag; and here I made my mistake. I should have allowed the

tiger to make a meal of the panther, if that was its intention,

and then to return to its original kill. The tiger dragged the

panther through long grass and for a moment I distinctly saw a

whitish patch appear, which I took to be the tiger’s chest, and

fired. The tiger bounded away with a roar and did not return again

to the kill. On the following morning I found traces of blood and

spent three days tracking the tiger with no result.

A fortnight later another kill occurred and on arriving at the

spot the first thing I noticed was the head of the kill lying to one

side, and all around tracks of a big tiger. My Shikari, strictly

against orders, had moved the kill slightly to present a better

target to the machan. The tiger turned up at about 7 p.m. and,

evidently realising the kill had been moved, for one hour stood

suspiciously to one side and then slowly walked away and never

returned.

A week later another kill occurred, here again the head had

been severed and the tracks of obviously the same tiger were close

by. The kill was in very thick cover and it was necessary to cut

away a few branches to enable the kill to be seen from the machan.

This too made the tiger, which arrived on the scene just after dark,

suspicious, and it abandoned the kill as before. These three kills

were on the hills.

Subsequently frequent kills occurred on the plateau off the hills

and in every case the head of the kill was bitten off, earning for

the tiger by now the sobriquet ‘head biter’. Never would the

tiger return to its kill the second night, and the killing went

on freely for nearly two years. I once thought I had him: I was

sitting up over a kill with its head half chewed off. The weather

was wretched and at midnight deciding the tiger would, as usual,

not return I lay down on the machan. At 5 o’clock in the morning

I was awakened by a slight noise on the kill and rose to a

sitting position very slowly. I could hear something eating very

quietly, and very unlike the noise made by a tiger on its kill.

It was a tiger however, an enormous brute, and made the welkin

ring with his roars on receiving my shot. To my surprise I

found he was tailless. He was duly carried to the road three miles

away, tied to the luggage rack of my car, and the huge tailless

creature caused great excitement amongst my employees. If he

had possessed a tail he would have measured quite ro ft.

612; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Voli XX xix

Soon after this other kills occurred down below with their

heads severed and I realised that the head-biter had not been

brought to book after all.

Three months later two cows were killed near my cattle kraals

and there was every indication that the victims were those of the

head-biter. The manager of the next Estate and I sat up with

the same fruitless result. On the following afternoon I received

news that a buffalo had been killed out in the open on a hill

above the cattle sheds and reached the spot .in quick: time; a

was pleased to see that the tiger had neither eaten nor dragged

the kill; here was a chance anyhow. I lay down on a rock not

far from the kill with a roll of bedding in front of me as I was

determined to spend the night there if necessary. At 6 p.m. just

as the light was getting poor the tiger walked out of a large

shola and strode rapidly across the open maidan; [ fired as it

reached its prey. The tiger leapt into the air with a roar and

crashed out of sight into long grass and then into a small shola

where I heard it struggling, followed by silence. As it was

dark very soon after this, nothing further could be done. We found

it dead next morning, and no heads have been bitten off tiger

kills since! It measured 9g ft.

A month later a large tiger started killing on the hills, and by

not returning to his kills on the second night he showed himself to

be not less wary than the head-biter. Fruitless nights were spent

on machans and I felt there was not much chance of bagging the

animal, over a kill at any rate.

News came in early one morning that a cow that had strayed

from its pen had been killed. As the kill had evidently occurred

just before daylight, and the tiger had eaten very little, this seem-

ed more promising. I was in the machan at 4 p.m. and at

6 o’clock I heard the tiger nearby. He was the embodiment of

caution and having taken one hour to make up his mind to ap-

proach the kill and then did so very slowly and cautiously. Instead

of feeding, the tiger lay down a yard or two to one side in thick

Strobilanthes, and for nearly another hour complete silence reigned

while he listened intently for the slightest unusual sound. Partial-

ly satisfied he then got up, walked round the kill through the

Strobilanthes two or three times growling softly, and _ finally

commenced to feed. Immediately my torch shone on the kill the

tiger was away in a bound, and this was repeated half an hour

later when he made another attempt to feed. The tiger then went

away giving tongue angrily and I did not expect to see him again.

However at 5:30 in the morning the tiger returned probably

very hungry. The tactics he now adopted were to rush the kill,

seize a mouthful, and jump to one side into the Strobilanthes where

he could eat in safety. This exasperating state of affairs conti-

nued till 6 a.m. when it was still dark inside the dense evergreen

shola. It was a problem whether to await the coming of daylight

or to take the risk of using the torch as the tiger approached the

kill for one of his snatch and grabs, and I decided on the latter

course as it was uncertain that he would carry on the game until

there was light enough to shoot, Awaiting my chance I switched

MISCELEANEOUS NOTES 613

the torch on the tiger as he was just about to tear a large hunk

of meat from the kill and fired, badly wounding him; but before

I could fire my second barrel he got away crashing up against

mye tree in his rush. A. few moments: later I; heard, the tiger

gasping in the jungle to my right and then silence.

When it was quite light I called up my men and very quietly

followed the tracks (there was very little blood) through the

Strobilanthes which showed clearly the tiger’s line of retreat. The

Strobilanthes got thicker as we went slowly forward until we

eventually came to a rock where, sensing that we were close to

the tiger, I put my men up trees. I was sure I had heard some-

thing though what it was I could not tell. After ten minutes of

intense silence we _ distinctly heard him breathing heavily in a

hollow to our front. The tiger located, I could now form a plan

of action: returning on our tracks with my men I sent for a herd

of cattle from a nearby pen. The Sholagas were instructed to

drive the cattle to the edge of the hollow where the tiger lay,

below where we had stopped, to suddenly give vent to almighty

yells and shouts to stampede the cattle into the hollow and _ to

shin up trees immediately. I was to cut off the tiger’s retreat

(outside the shola) in the open grassland, beyond where he was

lying up. The plan worked well: I heard the cattle being driven

into the shola, then a frightful uproar, and the cattle crashed

down into the hollow snorting and bellowing as they scented the

tiger or rather where he had been. From where I was sitting

on a rock the ground sloped gently down towards the shola, and

then steeply to the shola’s edge. Suddenly I heard langurs, sitting

on trees in the jungle behind me, giving vent to the particular

call they reserve for felines, and looking round the thought struck

me that I was too late, that the tiger had crossed over the grass

maidan into the jungle beyond before my arrival. I did not realise

that the langurs perched on tree tops, could see the tiger walk

out of the shola I was covering, before coming into my view,

until a growl brought me round again in quick time to find that

he had advanced to within a few yards of me: I slew him in the

nick of time, a large brute, 9 ft. 6 in. My first shot had wounded

the tiger in the stomach, and he would have been a nasty customer

to deal with had I not killed him when I did.

In September last year my brother-in-law wounded a tiger over

a kill he and I were sitting over. The machan was _ placed

at an awkward angle, and it was a long shot. Early on the

following morning we were on the tracks and soon realised that

we were to deal with a tiger with a smashed foreleg. The tracks

led out of a deep ravine, in which the kill had occurred, up on

to a stony flat sparsely dotted with patches of thick scrub, and

here it was most difficult to pick up the tracks with any certainty

as the ground was dry and hard. Eventually an excellent tracker

we had with us, discovered that the tiger had passed through a

small patch of scrub in which he had lain down, and from here

on the tiger appeared to have rested in nearly every bit of cover

in his path. In the meantime a herd of cattle that had been

sent for arrived on the scene and the tracking continued with the

614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XXxXix

herd spread out ahead. The cattle had just reached a largish

area of dense cover lying in a hollow when they were stampeded

in all directions by a terrific roar. Here the trailing of a wounded

feline with the aid of cattle was put to good purpose: the tiger

was located, and it was no longer a case of odds on the tiger if

he charged. Advancing cautiously we found he had moved out of

the cover and over a rise into another hollow where he was un-

doubtedly lying up. Having placed ourselves in suitable positions

our trackers threw a stone into the cover, this was greeted

with a long-drawn snarl; and at the next stone the tiger charged

giving vent to a series of coughing roars. Although handicapped

with a broken foreleg and the rising ground he came at a great

pace and was within a yard or two of us as he broke cover. Receiv-

ing our simultaneous shots he rolled over but was up at once and

made a gallant attempt to get at us again; but our second barrels

did their work and the tiger crashed headlong down the slope and

lay dead, a fine massive brute, 9 ft. in length.

HONNAMETTI,

ATTIKAN P.O., via Mysore. R. €. MORRIS:

November 28, 1936.

IIIL—_STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGRESS.

The following account of a ‘leopard’ on a neighbouring tea

garden may interest your readers. The animal first appeared about

Christmas time, and for two months stayed in the vicinity, killing

at least five calves and one pig, all in houses. On one occasion

after killing a calf in a house and taking it out, the marauder was

chased away, but returned at 2 a.m. and was fired at and missed.

Vet it returned again to take away the kill before daylight.

During a space of ten days this animal appeared four nights

in the manager’s bungalow compound, and endeavoured to break

into the hen-house. Once it appeared at the steps of the back

verandah. One night while in the compound two shots were fired

at it, both missed.

Reports of those who had seen the animal agreed that it was

a leopard with a tiger’s face. Thereupon my friend devised a

portable all-iron goat trap to catch this extraordinary creature

Almost immediately the animal was caught on March oth and turned

out to be a tigress, 8 ft. 31in., nearly dry of milk. Cubs were

supposed to have been heard of in the district.

She was in an emaciated condition, and covered with ticks, some

the size of a 3-penny piece. Is it not unusual for a tigress, even

though starving and with cubs, to take to the habits of a house-

invading leopard? Presuming she had not the strength to kill a

buffalo or large bullock, there were thousands of cows and calves

throughout the whole district on the fringes of the jungle—an easy

prey to the cattle-lifting tiger.

BaDLipaR P.O., ASSAM.

April 11, 1937. Eb: GEE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 615

IV.— MEASUREMENTS OF TIGERS IN THE NAGA HILLS,

ASSAM.

Since 1927, I have kept a careful record of the lengths between

pegs of tigers shot on this and on eleven other neighbouring Estates.

Total 59—Tigers 27, Tigresses 32. The average length of 18 full

grown males is 8 ft., 7 in., and of 25 females 7 ft. g in., only one

tiger exceeded g ft., this taped 9 ft. 6 in., and was quite exceptional.

I have only three accurately recorded weights. Two large males

weighed 330 and 344 Ibs. respectively, and a small tigress 218 Ibs.

It would appear that the tigers of this particular district, are

definitely smaller animals than those recorded from other parts

of India. I would add that the majority are game killers inhabiting

the dense evergreen jungles at the foot of the Naga Hills, which

tends to support the views of the old Shikaris, that the game

killer is a smaller more active beast.

TowKok TEA ESTATE,

SonaRI P.O., G. He UC- MARSHALL,

SIBSAGOR, ASSAM.

March 18, 1937.

[Mr. Marshall’s measurements of Tigers shot in the vicinity

of Naga Hills are of much interest and suggest the need of

similar data from different parts of India. We have Sir John

Hewett’s record of Tigers shot by him (Rowland Wards’ Records,

1928 edn.) in Garhwal and Naini Tal. Eight males ranged between

to ft. 4 in. to 10 ft. 54 in. While 7 females were between g ft. to

9 ft. 3 in. Compared with the measurements given by Mr. Marshall

it would appear that tigers in Garhwal are much larger than

those from the Naga Hills. Unfortunately Sir John’s records from

Naini Tal and Garhwal all relate to large animals and we do not

know whether any smaller animals were shot by him in this area

and have therefore no means of arriving at conclusion regarding

the average size of tigers in Garhwal. It is generally assumed

that tigers from South India are on the average smaller than

those from Central and Northern India. Average measurements

arrived at from records such as Mr. Marshall has kept, if obtained

from different provinces, will alone help us to arrive at definite

conclusions regarding the size attained by tigers in different parts

of the country.—Eps. |.

V.—MANGE ON WILD DOGS.

I recently shot two wild dogs, a male and a bitch, which were

as badly affected with mange as I have seen on any pie dog.

The dogs were feeding ravenously on a three-days-old tiger kill,

and seemed to be quite active.

With the exception of the head, which was blotchy, and the

ridge of the back the dogs were almost devoid of hair including

616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

the tail. The short pig-like tail, free of the brush or hair, and the

pink and mangy fleshy appearance of the flanks and stomach gave

the dogs quite a revolting appearance.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysorg, R. C. MORRIS.

February 6, 1937.

VI.—NOTES ON HARDWICKE’S HEDGEHOG

(HEMIECHINUS COLLARIS GRAY & HARDW.,).

During a visit to the Great Rann of Kutch, in October 1935,

I collected about ten living specimens of Hemiechinus collaris at

Kawra, Pachum Island. This hedgehog is quite plentiful around

the village.

Most of the specimens, I discovered later, were pregnant

females. From Kawra to Bhuj, a distance of some fifty miles over

roughish tracks, the hedgehogs travelled in a sac on the floor of

the car. On arrival at Bhuj they were transferred to a packing

case pending my departure for Bombay. To my surprise, the next

morning after our arrival at Bhuj, I discovered that the females had

discharged their respective foetuses. No two of the _ fcetuses

appeared to be of the same term. The only reason I could discover

for these wholesale abortions was probably the car drive!

An interesting point emerges from this incident. According to

Dobson (vide F.B.I., Mammalia, p. 214) the number of young at

a birth never exceeds four. But what is the ‘normal’ number?

From the premature births referred to above and the disparity of

age observed in the foetuses, it would appear that only one at

a birth is the ‘normal’! If there were more than one, surely

there would have been some foetuses of the same age, and again

the number of foetuses would have exceeded the number of hedge-

hogs in the box! This was not the case.

Hedgehogs appear to be most numerous in the neighbourhood

of villages. The reason for this probably being the nature of their

diet. They live on almost any refuse. Small mammals, birds,

batrachians and reptiles also form part of the menu. In captivity

they drink milk readily. These animals soon become quite tame

even when caught old. They fight much when several are kept

in the same cage. The usual point of attack is the legs and some-

times the face. A hedgehog will catch the leg of an opponent and

immediately curl up and the leg is usually bitten off—the antagonist

is killed eventually piecemeal. Under stress of excitement or pain

the call is very kittef-like.

BomBay NatTurRaAL History SoOci£Ty,

BomBay. C. McCANN.

October 24, 1936,

———————————————

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 617

VII.—SOLITARY BULL BISON (BIBOS GAURUS H. Sm.).

I have more than once expressed the opinion that old solitary

bull bisons have not necessarily been turned out of the head by

younger bulls, a widely-held belief. This has also received support in

connection with the African buffalo. My theory is that in the

majority of cases the bull arrives at an age when he leaves the herd

of his own accord; and in his solitary life he develops in strength.

When he wishes to rejoin a herd temporarily during the breeding

season he does so, and has no difficulty whatsoever in becoming

me master of the herd for 12-14 hours, before retiring from the

proximity of the herd daily. In other words he joins the herd at

about 5 or 6 p.m., remains till 7 or 8 a.m. in the morning, and

then walks away to a secluded place.

A case in point: a herd of 4o bisons near here; a fine old

solitary, with horns worn down to about half their original length,

an immense bull, takes possession of the herd daily in the manner

indicated during main breeding season. The other herd bulls fight

with each other, but leave the old fellow severely alone; he is

obviously more powerful than they are. The breeding season over,

the solitary leaves the herd for another nine or ten months.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysore. R. C. MORRIS.

wlanuary 6, 1937.

VUI.—WHISTLING SOUND MADE BY BISON (BIBOS

GAURUS H. 5m).

On page 151 of his book, Wild Animals in Central India, Dunbar

Brander refers to the whistling of bisons as one of the most peculiar

sounds made by them and associates it with breeding.

While shooting in the Cochin State Forests in the early part

of December 1935 this whistling was heard by me on two different

occasions. On hearing it the first time I thought it was made by

some big bird and the tracker on being asked said it was made

by a bull bison.

Immediately following on the whistling sound, bellowing and

crashing in the undergrowth were heard and on going in the

direction of the sound, we realised that two bisons were fighting.

The wind being unfavourable the fight was interrupted, one bull

being seen as he turned round to look at us, while the rest could

be heard crashing away into the jungle.

The second occasion on which whistling was heard was at about

seven in the morning, the sound being repeated two or three times.

Iwas unable to come up with this herd.

I feel sure that this whistling sound has to do with the breeding

season as most of the bull bison have joined the herds by November

618) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

in these forests. I saw a bison bull jump a cow early in Novembe

1934 in the same locality.

TANJORE, C. HoH. BIDDUEPREF

February 9, 1937.

IX.—COLOURATION OF THE BISON’S SNOUT AND

TONGUE

With reference to Mr. C. H. Biddulph’s note, in Journal, vol

XXXIX, Pp. 165, On variation in colouration of the exposed part of

two bull bisons’ snout and tongue: it is not at all uncommon to

see the snout of mature bulls pinkish in colour: though rarely so

in the case of cows. One bull, a solitary, I recollect seeing some

years ago, had a snout that was almost red! The colour of the

tongue varies from white, greyish-white, to grey.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysore. R. C. MORRIS.

S.- india

February 4, 1937.

X.—REPLACEMENT OF HORNS IN NILGAI.

I was very interested indeed in Mr. Hall’s notes on ‘The Growth

of Horns in Nilghai’.

So far I have shot well over a hundred of these ungainly

antelopes. As far as my observations go they are as follows.

I don’t think the Nilghai sheds its horns in such a way as

deer do, nor do I think the horn is shed revealing new

ones of small size at the base. At least they do not do it on

our side of the world. In all I have seen six or seven Nilghai

shed their horns. All these had average size horns. But it was

the outer covering that was peeling off the horn and the inside

horn was of the same length as the one that was chipping off

in pieces. Sometimes the outer covering takes quite a time to

come off. First the outer horn cracks along the length of the

horn and then due to friction made by the Nilghai rubbing its

head against a tree the horn starts falling in small bits revealing

a beautiful shining black horn inside.

So far I have not seen such shedding of horns in small males.

It is always the big full-grown bull that sheds. In my opinion they

must be shedding at very long intervals.

Any way I should very much like to know more about it.

Ranjit ViLAs PALACE,

W ANKANER, CHANDRABHANUSINHIJI

April 5, 1937.

[As indicated in the Editor’s comment to Mr. Hall’s note

(J].B.N.H.S., vol. xxxix, No. 1, p. 172), horn replacement, when

it takes place among Bovines is not effected by the shedding of

the horns, but by a process of exfoliation, the older horn pealing

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 619

off gradually till the fully developed new horn underneath is bared.

The above note confirms the view that such horn replacement takes

place in the Nilgai. An interesting point is that the replace-

ment in nilgai is effected not during adolescence but in

maturity.—Ebs. |.

XI.—AN ELEPHANT 170 YEARS OLD.

(From The Times, London).

In connexion with the longevity of animals, concerning which

some correspondence appeared in The Times a few weeks ago, my

attention has been drawn by Dr. P. E. Pieris, Trade Commissioner

for Ceylon, to a record of a remarkably long-lived Asiatic elephant.

In a translation of Joao Ribeiro’s ‘Ceilao’ by Dr. Pieris (third edition,

1925) mention is made of a famous elephant, Ortela by name, which

was probably a fully adult animal prior to the siege of Colombo

in 1656, since we are told that the animal at this time had ‘offspring

and descendants.’ The same specimen is referred to by Emerson

Tennent in his ‘Natural History of Ceylon’ (1861) as still being

alive when the British flag was hoisted in Colombo in 1796. This

elephant is reported by Tennent to have been found in the stables

by the Dutch on the expulsion of the Portuguese in 1656 and

served under them during the entire period of their occupation,

more than 140 years. During the siege of Colombo, Ortela was

the only elephant out of 15 animals which was not eaten by the

defenders, and it is said that it did much useful work in bringing

up trees to repair the breaches in the city walls.

From the evidence available it would appear that an elephant’s

age is determined by its teeth, and that as soon as the last molar

tooth is in position on each side of the jaws a period is set to

the animal’s existence. Elephants’ grinders succeed each other by

horizontal, not vertical succession, moving forward in the arc of

a circle and pushing the old teeth out in front. There are six

cheek teeth developed on each side of both jaws, three being the

so-called ‘milk molars’ and three the permanent molars. Not more

than one, or parts of two or sometimes three teeth, are in wear at

one and the same time, the elephant being very economical regarding

the use of its teeth. Each successive tooth with the exception of

the fourth, or first permanent molar, is more complex than _ its

predecessor, the number of ridges increasing according to the

following formula: 4, 8, 12, 12, 16, 25; this formula applies only

to the Asiatic elephant, the African beast having its teeth arranged

on a more simple plan, the ridges not being so numerous (3, 6, 7,

7, 8, 10-12). Doubtless when the animal’s diet is free of grit or

sand the teeth will last longer than when these impurities are

present, but under the most advantageous circumstances an elephant

living for 170 years or so is a fact which is very astonishing.

British Museum (Naturat History),

CROMWELL Roap. GUY DOLLMAN.

April 21, 1937.

620. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. xx

XII.—WHALE-BONE WHALE STRANDED ON THE

TRAVANCORE COAST:

A whale was stranded on the sea-side at Pulluvila about 12

miles south of Trivandrum on the morning of 4th February 1937.

The animal had been dead a few days; for when I inspected it

on the following day the flesh was in an advanced state of dis-

integration, and some of the bones, blubber and the guts were

exposed. It measured 45 ft. in length and the girth at the fore

limbs (fins) has been estimated at ro ft. Other measurements

evidently could not be obtained. The baleen plates had decayed

and the jaw bones were exposed. From what could be seen of

the specimen, I am of opinion that it belongs to the Balznoptera

sp. probably Balenoptera indica. While preparing the skeleton

for acquisition to the local Museum a few bones of the left fin

have been found to be shattered.

Instances of whales set ashore by the sea have been rare on

the Travancore coast. In February 1902 a False Killer (Pseudorca

crassidens) was stranded at Trivandrum and a big Baleen. Whale

was reported to be found at Rajakkamangalam also on the South

Travancore Coast in about January 1904. None else have recently

been recorded. It is noteworthy that in all these instances the time

has been between January and March.

GOVERNMENT MUSEUM,

TRIVANDRUM, TRAVANCORE STATE. Ro V“PODUVAES

‘February 15, 1937. Officer-in-Charge.

XITI.—UNCLEAN ANIMALS.

Hares once given the opportunity, without doubt are filthy feeders.

The ordinary jungle animal living remote from villages is quite

fit for human consumption. The same applies to the wild pig:

there is little that is offensive in his diet and flesh and I have often

eaten him.

But when human excreta is readily available it is their ‘habit’

to eat it; just as rabbits make a ‘habit’ of dealing with corpses

when similarly placed.

During the famines in the Central Provinces, a temporary

population of some 5 to 10,000 persons would be collected on a

construction camp—say the bund of a tank. This population lived

in the adjoining fields. Hares in numbers used to collect round

these camps and apart from often having seen them eating excreta,

their breath testified in an ‘overwhelming’ manner to their habits.

It may be of interest to mention that the ancient Jews recognised

the uncleanly habits of hares in laying down the law as to what

shall be ‘clean’ and ‘unclean’ flesh. They tried to base this on

certain general laws of nature, which would have general applica-

tion. In attempting to do this they got wrong in their Natural

History, although they were sound in their hygiene, which was the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 621

purport of the prohibitions. ‘And the Hare, because he cheweth

the cud, but divideth not the hoof—he is unclean to you’ (Lev.

x, 6).

It is beleved that Mohammadans generally follow the same law,

also Armenians and Laplanders: and it was forbidden food to

ancient Britons on religious grounds: a very common device of

enforcing a law which might otherwise be ineffective.

{ have never known the Painted Partridge behave in any way

which would make him suspect: I can hardly say the same of

the Black Partridge, but my experience of him is not sufficient to

have any weight. The Grey Partridge on the other hand used to

collect round famine camps, and can often be seen round villages

busy with excreta, and his breath is often unspeakable.

Both varieties of Jungle fowl are also suspect, sometimes

quite definitely ‘guilty’: but not nearly so to the same extent as

the grey partridge.

While on this subject I would warn your readers to vet any

peacock they propose to eat. I have often turned out a lump of

pure human excreta as big as a tennis ball, out of a peacock’s

crop: it is advisable, if near a village, invariably to smell the

breath.

IVYBANK,

BISHOPMILL, ELGIn N.B.,

SCOTLAND. A. A. DUNBAR-BRANDER.

January 12, 1937;

XIV.—CLOSE SEASONS FOR BIG GAME—ARE THEY

BENEFICIAL?

It may be taken that a close season in respect of game animals

and birds is imposed in order to ensure their being undisturbed

during either the breeding season or when the young are being

born.

There is no doubt that in the case of birds a close season is

very necessary; but under present conditions it is becoming

increasingly apparent that in India, except for a few areas very

strictly protected, wholesale poaching of, game of both sexes is such

a serious menace that a close season now defeats its own object

by allowing the poacher unhindered scope for his pernicious

activities.

Further, in an examination of the close season (15th June to

15th October) as applying to South India it is found that the

imposition of a close season to cover big game in general is of

little value.

Sambhur :

Breeding season mainly November-December—Open season.

Young born, August-September (also June-July)—Close season.

622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiXx

Chital:

Breeding season chiefly, April-May—Open season (though

breeding occurs, and young born, throughout the year, ac-

cording to age).

Young born chiefly, November-December—Open season.

Muntjac (Jungle Sheep) :

Breeding season: October-November—Open SSeS,

Young born, April-May—Open season.

Chausinga (Four-horned Antelope) :

Breeding season July-August—Close season.

Young born, January-February—Open season.

Bison:

Breeding season mainly, November-March—Open season (July-

August to a lesser extent). |

Young born mainly, August-December—Partly Open season

(April-May also to a lesser extent).

dipser:

Breeding season chiefly, April-May (also October-November)—

Open season.

Young born chiefly, February-March (also August-September) :

Open season.

Panther:

Breeding season mainly, December-January (also May-June):

Open season.

Young born mainly March-April (also September): Open season.

Bear:

Breeding season chiefly, April-May—Open season.

Young born chiefly, December-January—Open season (also

August to a lesser extent).

Blackbuck :

Breeding season chiefly, April-May—Open season.

Young born, September-October—Close season.

Where lies, in the majority of cases, the protection a close

season is supposed to afford? Under the circumstances, and in

view of the fact that during the close season a very large number

of animals are slaughtered by poachers who cannot then be

disturbed by sportsmen in the jungles, I consider that a general close

season in respect of big game should be abolished in South India.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O., Via Mysore. R. C. MORRIS;

October 31, 1936.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 623

XV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE RUFOUS SHORT-TOED LARK

(CALANDRELLA BRACHYDACTYLA DUKHUNENSIS

SYKES) IN NORTHERN BURMA.

The Fauna (2nd Edition) states that this Lark ‘occurs in

Burma’, but apart from one specimen obtained by Dates near

Pegu on April 25, 1880, no one seems to have observed or obtained

it, and it has not yet been recorded from Yunnan. On April 6,

1936, I shot a single bird out of a flock of 20 or 30, which was

feeding on a bare patch of stubble close to Myitkyina. The flock

remained circling over the plain for the next half hour but when

they eventually alighted, I was unable to find them again owing

to the presence of a Peregrine Falcon. The weather at the time

was unusual, very cold with occasional heavy rain-storms and

possibly these birds were driven down from the higher hills. La

Touche however noticed this species on passage in Eastern China

between April rith and roth; I am quite certain that these are

the first Short-toed Larks I have ever come across in Burma.

I am indebted to Mr. N. B. Kinnear for identifying this specimen

which is now in the British Museum, with the other Burma

specimen.

Lonpon. ]. K. STANFORD, 1.c.s.

January 16, 1937.

XVI.—THE EGG-LAYING OF THE KHASIA HILLS CUCKOO

(CUCULUS CANORUS BAKERI HARTERT).

We record an extract from an article by Mr. T. R. Livesey

contributed to the Times of India Annual, 1937 in which the author

gives his personal observation of a cuckoo depositing her egg in

an inaccessible nest at Taunggyi, S. Shan States, Burma, on the

24th April 1936. The cuckoo concerned is the Eastern Cuckoo

(C. canorus bakeri) and the selected fosterer was the Burmese Stone

Chat (Saxicola caprata burmanica). The article in an amended

form is reproduced by courtesy of Mr. Francis Lowe, Editor of the

Times of India,

Mr. Livesey describes the incident as follows :—

‘On April 22, at about 4 p.m., a cuckoo came flying slowly

to the corner of the stubble field, some 60 yards from my cottage.

It settled on the ground within 20 yards of me and began looking

about. <A pair of Stone Chats were in attendance and in much

alarm. The cuckoo flew off, but shortly after returned and pitched

in the field at about the same place. To watch it better I. went

in and got my field-glasses. The cuckoo had its mouth open

and its throat feathers puffed out, and was panting like a domestic

fowl on a hot day. The reddish marking on the neck showed it

to be a hen bird. She began to move about as if searching for

something, so I suspected a chat’s nest there. After she had flown

away I went and looked. Sure enough there was the chat’s nest

four yards from the fence. It was somewhat conspicuous, as ‘the

624. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

hole under a clod of earth in which it was wedged was the only

hole in that vicinity. I could see it from some distance.

_‘The nest was of the usual type so common in the Shan

States, wedged in a cavity under a clod of earth. The edge of

the nest was visible, but one could not insert one’s hand _ to

touch the eggs, as the top of the clod overhung it. The entrance

to the nest was about two and a half inches long, by about one

and a half inches in height. By stooping down I could just see

the three eggs it contained. They appeared to be fresh, and as

the cuckoo had not laid, I thought there might be a chance of

her returning to do so. I therefore had a ‘hide’ quickly erected

on the other side of the fence. In it I was completely invisible,

with a clear and uninterrupted view of the chat’s nest five yards

in front of me, and with its entrance hole facing me.

‘I had not been in my hide more than a few minutes when

the cuckoo flew back over the field. A few minutes later she flew

towards me, but turned off out of sight again. For the next half

hour nothing of note happened, and then suddenly I saw her flying

straight at the nest. This time she pitched about three paces

beyond the nest. She then began to move about in the stubble

among the clods of earth, every now and again mounting a clod

to see better. She was searching diligently for the nest! On

she came till she was within three feet of the nest, and I thought

that the Cuckoo’s Secret was mine! Through my glasses set at

+5 I could see every feather on her, and the edge of the chat’s

nest was as clearly seen as if it was but at arm’s length away.

But the cup was dashed from my lips! :

‘She appeared to fail to find the nest. The entrance hole was

facing my way. Did she, or did she not know exactly where the

nest was? This is a very interesting point. To my disappoint-

ment she passed off at a tangent down the field and out of

sight. Fortunately she had not seen me. I waited till it was too

dark to see but she did not return. Next day, April 23, I hung

about from three o’clock in the afternoon till five, when not seeing

anything of the cuckoo, I went off for a walk. The chat’s nest

now contained four eggs. I did not enter the ‘‘hide’’ at all but

left my deck chair in it in case I should need to wait next day.

‘Next day, April 24, the chat’s nest had five eggs in it. I

kept a good lookout for the cuckoo most of the day. It was

cloudy and hot, and sounds of distant thunder came from the

north. I had almost given up hopes of seeing the cuckoo when

I suddenly saw her sail up into the one big tree by the house.

It was about 5 p.m. but of course full daylight. I got my glasses

on to her. She seemed to be the same hen bird. I left her sitting

in the tree and hastened into my ‘‘hide’’. The chats were close to

me and not suspicious. The cock chat broke into his short song

and the hen fluttered down and entered her nest. I sat back in

the chair and adjusted the glasses to +5, which gave perfect

definition of the nest at five yards’ distance. It looked as if I

could put my hand on it!

‘Suddenly the cock chat sounded his alarm note and on the

instant the hen flew off the nest and up on to the fence over my

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 625

head. Both chats became much alarmed and I suspected the

presence of the cuckoo. Then down swooped the cuckoo with

both chats in hot pursuit, but she passed beyond the nest and

carried on out of sight. A few minutes later on she flew past

again, but this time over the nest-—again pursued by the angry

chats. These were moments of tense excitement for all of us!

Then she came again, and this time she pitched as she had done

before, some three yards beyond the nest. Again she climbed up

on the clods of earth searching in all directions for the nest.

Both chats were wildly excited, and kept stooping at her in attempts

io buffet her, which she resented by opening her beak and making

faces at them—at the same time raising her crown feathers. A

few drops of rain began to fall. The sun was obscured by cloud.

This time she seemed to know where the nest was, for she came

on direct to it.

‘Just as Cuckoo’s Secret was about to be revealed to

me and my heart was thumping with excitement—of course—the

Gurkha mali came up to put a mat on the hide—to put the lid on

it! I drove him away.

‘The cuckoo was still there! Hotly mobbed by both chats,

she waddled up to the nest and thrust her head into it and as

she did so, her tail, which was closed, was tilted up in the air.

Her head was in the nest for but two, or three seconds, and

then she withdrew her head and her body passed from a horizontal

to an upright and vertical position as she spread out her wings

on either side of her and depressed her tail, wide-spread now, in

the act of laying her egg. As she laid a spasm shook her body

with a quiver and this was distinctly noticeable in the region of

the rump, and lower back down to the root of the tail. My

impression was of a butterfly quivering with a pin stuck through

it. It was without possible doubt the very act of laying. It only

lasted about three seconds. While she was laying her head was

concealed from me but she appeared from her attitude to be looking

down watching herself lay. At that moment the infuriated hen chat

landed high on the cuckoo’s back between her shoulders and clung

savagely on with spread wings to the parasite! The cuckoo held

her position only for about three seconds, as I have said,

and then she jumped backwards with a sudden movement,

throwing off the chat, and flew off. Her egg was left in full view

about three inches outside the chat’s nest! She had tried her best

but had failed to get it in the nest! She had not been hurried,

disturbed or frightened in any way. The cuckoo had gone.

‘I got out of the ‘‘hide’’ and went to examine the nest and

the cuckoo’s egg lying outside it. Her egg was warm and quite

ary with a lovely matt bloom to it, undoubtedly straight from the

oviduct. It was of the usual yellowish-pink marked type thlat

appears to have been evolved to resemble the eggs of the stone

chat. It was marked with a cap of markings but at the ‘‘wrong’’

—pointed—end of the egg. Her egg was on the small side, and

it is possible that she was in her first season and not yet experienced

in depositing her eggs.

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

‘There were now only four chat’s eggs in the nest, so the

cuckoo must have removed one of the chat’s eggs, but her move-

ments had been so quick that I had not been able to see whether

she had swallowed or. flown off with it in her bill. My

impression was that she had no egg in her bill when’ she

flew off. The chat’s nest had been slightly disturbed by the

pressure she had exerted against the entrance in trying to lay her

egg into it. Some particles of earth had fallen in on to the chat’s

eggs. It was at once a great triumph actually to have seen the

cuckoo lay before me like this, but at the same time somewhat

of a disappointment, as her eggs had fallen outside the nest—a

catastrophe that may occur perhaps only once in a hundred times.

As the chat’s nest was one that a cuckoo could not possibly get

onto to sit upon, I half expected to see the cuckoo lay outside

the nest and then pick up her egg and place it in the nest with her

bill—a method she is suspected to use when such difficulties are

present. What I saw however was the unexpected.

‘I am inclined to think that I saw the cuckoo lay her egg in

the usual way when confronted with an inaccessible nest. Another

observation I made this year confirms it.

‘But on the whole, I think it is unlikely that the cuckoo has

more than one way of getting her eggs into an inaccessible nest,

and that the way I have described will eventually be established

as the cuckoos’ normal and usual way of meeting the difficulty.’

TAUNGGYI, BURMA. T. R.OLIVESEY

February. 28, 1937.

XVII.—CUCKOO INCIDENTS.

Those interested in the cuckoo will have read with the greatest

interest the account of a cuckoo laying at an inaccessible nest as

‘recorded by Mr. A. E. Jones and his wife near Simla.

I think that there was nothing abnormal in the behaviour of

the cuckoo. What happened bears out my own observations. The

cuckoo apparently decided to lay at an inaccessible Stone Chat’s

nest—and after the usual preliminary flight, or flights, to the

vicinity of the nest as a preparation to laying—spread out its wings

and tail, and tried to lay, or squirt, its egg into the Chat’s nest:

but owing to the inaccessibility of the nest the cuckoo only got

its ege on to the edge of the nest.

The observation unfortunately was a chance one, and Mr. Jones

does not make it clear exactly how far he was from the nest when

the laying took place—nor does he say if he had field-glasses to

observe it with.

The incident was very much the same as the one described

by me as fhe second incident in my article ‘The Cuckoo’s Secret’,

published in the last Times of India Annual and recorded above, in

which I saw, at about forty yards distance, a rough-and-tumble

scrap between a cuckoo, two chats and a pipit at a pipit at a

pipit’s nest. In that case however the cuckoo got its egg safely

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 627

into the pipit’s nest, but it had not apparently sat on the nest to

lay as is delicate Home was undamaged.

But observations by chance are not good enough to be of real

value. We must, like Mr. Edgar Chance, sit up over the nest in

a hide at a few feet distance from the nest and coolly await the

coming of the cuckoo, with the aid of camera and glasses. Then

there is a good chance of observing exactly what takes place.

From my experience the spread-eagle position of the cuckoo,

with wings and tail expanded and the tail depressed, even crushed

onto the ground—is the laying position at inaccessible nests and

I have no doubt the cuckoo that Mr. Jones saw, assumed this

position when she actually laid at the nest entrance though it may

have escaped his observation at the time.

As to the possible regurgitation of the egg, I agree that such

a feat was not performed in this particular instance. The

regurgitation theory was killed by Mr. Edgar Chance’s work as

long ago as 1921, and I understand that that theory 1s not regarded

seriously any longer. If anyone suspects that cuckoos regurgitate

their eggs, they have only to shoot a cuckoo that is coming to

lay and they can then see for themselves whether the egg is in

the throat or in the oviduct. In this connection it may be mentioned

that cuckoos are apparently in the habit of removing the fosterer’s

egg first—and laying afterwards. That would be an awkward

preliminary to regurgitation !

Also the condition of the cuckoo’s egg shows it to have come

straight from the right end of the bird. Again in regurgitation

there would be no need to depress and spread out the tail—au

contraire—nor would the spasm of laying be observed in the lower

back of the cuckoo and in the region of the cloaca.

In Mr. Jones’ summing up Nos. 1, 2 and 3, are very true, I

think, and interesting. It seems to me that the attitude of the

intended dupes before being victimised may well be very different

from their attitude when the act of parasitism is being actually

carried out. In the preliminary association of the cuckoo and the

intended fosterers, it may be that the cuckoo exerts some hypnotic

influence over the latter. The curious ‘stuck’ look on the cuckoo’s

face as she sits side by side with the fosterers for some considerable

time is most striking and strongly suggestive of hypnotism.

As to the attitude of the fosterer when it finds a cuckoo’s egg

just outside its nest that can be ascertained by setting up hides

Over various nests and playing tricks on them with Bulbul’s eggs,

or sparrow’s eggs. I do not think that birds take the least notice

of eggs other than their own—no matter where they are situated.

I have found cuckoo’s eggs lying outside chat’s nests—quite close

to the nest entrance, and apparently just as laid by the cuckoo.

In these cases the chats did nothing to remove them apparently.

Birds can have no inherited appreciation of any other eggs

but their own. Only in the case of the parasitic cuckoos do. we

find a bird that inherits an appreciation of another bird’s eggs.

In their case it is a necessity, I maintain, in the evolution of their

parasitic habits.

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Finally it 1s noteworthy that cuckoos coming to lay are given

to ruffling up their throat feathers—opening their mouths and

panting. In other notes I suggested that the large and orange gape

of the cuckoo operated as a warning when it is disturbed as a

fledgling. This warning note may well continue into adult life

to save it from the attention of hawks, etc., and be again employed

in its combat with the intended fosterers when it comes to lay.

That is my explanation of the cuckoo’s habit of opening its eel.

at the onslaught of the dupes.

It has been said that if a cuckoo were to squirt her egg into an

inaccessible nest from a distance of several inches that her egg

falling onto the fosterer’s eggs would break them. I have just

carried out two experiments in this connection. The first was to

‘shoot’ a cuckoo’s egg into a nest of chat’s eggs from a distance

of four inches by propelling it between thumb and forefinger as

a boy ‘shoots’ a marble. I had four chat’s eggs in the nest. I

found that when the cuckoo’s egg landed fairly on a chat’s egg

that it broke it, that is to say, it broke one egg about three times

out of four or five shots.

My next experiment was to find out whether the chats removed

such cracked or broken eggs from their nests. I went round and

broke a single egg in several chats’ nests and then visited them

again shortly afterwards. I found that such damaged eggs had

been removed—got rid of. I think that these two experiments

show how it is that we do not find.the eggs of the fosterer damaged

in any way by the cuckoo having squirted her egg in onto them

from a distance. Her egg does in many cases break one of the

fosterer’s eggs, but that the fosterer very soon gets rid of the

damaged egg.

TauNccy!, BURMA. T. R. LIVESENe

February 28, 1937.

XVIII.—A NOTE ON THE DISTRIBUTION AND

NIDIFICATION OF THE NORTHERN YELLOW-FRONTED

PIED WOODPECKER [LEIOPICUS MAHRATTENSIS

BLANFORDI (BLYTH)] IN SIND.

The Northern Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker is a permanent

resident and not uncommon in Cutch, Kathiawar, North Gujerat

and Mount Abu.

In Sind it is scarce and only locally common.

Blanford met with a pair at Umarkot on the Eastern border

of.the Nara Valley in the Thar Parkar district, and his collector

obtained another from Kotri. Murray secured a single specimen

from Sehwan, while Butler saw several skins from Hyderabad.

Scrope Doig believed that it bred in the Eastern Nara in

April. Blanford as mentioned above, met with it at Umarkot,

and when there in March 1936 myself, I was reliably informed

that it was not uncommon further south, round about Nabisar,

Char and Samaro.

———

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 629

Hume surmised, from descriptions given him, that it occurred

in the Khirthar. Ticehurst however remarks that he is certain

this is not the case. I might mention here, that I failed to meet

with it around the hills at Tirith Laki, below Sehwan, and also

further south in the Surjana hills.

I first met with it at Khebar, Hyderabad district, in March

1929, where I came across a pair feeding in a babul huri.

A few days later a single bird, a female, was seen feeding

on a roadside kandi tree between Saidabad and the Kot of Pir

Jhandowallo. ir

In Upper Sind, I failed to meet with it in the Sukkur, Upper

Sind Frontier and Larkana districts, though I spent four summers

in Sukkur and one in Jacobabad.

On the 18th March 1934 I again came. across it, meeting a

bedraggled female feeding on a roadside babul between Daro and

Laikpur on the Pinyari canal east of the Indus, in the Karachi

district.

The general condition of the bird and the presence of a marked

incubation patch clearly indicated that the bird was a_ brooding

female. The nest however could not be located.

At Jhok, a few miles south east, on the 22nd of the same

month, I found a nest containing three callow young, in a road-

side babul tree.

The nest was about 15 feet high and the entrance, which had

obviously been cut by the birds themselves, 13 inches in diameter.

The young were being fed by both parents. Grubs and _ insects

were evidently plentiful as the adult birds were seldom away from

the nest for a period longer than 15 minutes.

A pair of Rose-ringed Paroquets (Paleaornis torquata) had a

nest on the same tree and, one of them, the male, who perched

On one occasion rather close to the woodpeckers’ nest was fiercely

attacked and driven off by the male woodpecker.

At Mirpur Bathoro, about 8 miles south of Jhok, I found five

nests between the 23rd and 27th of March 1934.

The nests which were all on babul trees and_ situated from

20 to 30 feet high, contained either young or eggs, or were in

the making, both sexes sharing the labour of wood cutting.

At Musani and Jati, further south, between the 3rd and 7th

April I again met with it along the banks of the Pinyari, Gadap,

Gungroo and Sher Khan canals, and found several nests, either

in the making or containing young or well incubated eggs. All

nests, which were from 20 to 30 feet high, were in babul trees,

and as a rule were cut in a partially decayed branch or trunk.

West of the Indus, I have met with this woodpecker at Ghora

Bari and Mirpur Sakro, in the Karachi district.

At the former place I came cross a pair on the roth December

1934 feeding on babul trees on'the banks of the Nasir canal near

Sanwalpur and at the latter, a pair was met with feeding on babul

trees on the banks of the Jaro canal on the 15th of the same month.

On the goth October 1935, a pair was met with feeding on

roadside babul and kandi trees near Sakrand, on the borders of

the Nawabshah and Hyderabad districts.

630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL. BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xx xdme

In December the same year however, I was encamped at Sakrand

for 9 days but failed to locate it again.

At Mirpurkhas, Thar Parkar district, on the 22nd March 1936

I came across a pair feeding on babul and kandi growing alongside

the Jodhpur Railway embankment, but was unable to follow up

my find as I was under transfer to Karachi and left Mirpurkhas

the day following.

This woodpecker is very partial to dry open country, away

from which it is seldom met with.

In such tracts east of the Indus, drained during the Abkalani

season by the Pinyari canal and its many distributaries, in the

Karachi district, it is common and a permanent resident, elsewhere

I am inclined to believe that it occurs only as a straggler, except

perhaps in the Thar Parkar district, where it may breed in the

drier parts of the Nara valley, and in the lower portion of the

Hyderabad district adjoining the Jati and Mirpur Bathoro talukas

of the Karachi district, where it is abundant

It is common in Cutch, whence it probably extended to

Sind, following in main, from about Lakhpat, the courses up

stream of the Pinyari and Eastern Nara canals.

Like other members of the family it mates for life and hunts

in couples.

When the young are able to fly the family keeps together for

a considerable time and the young are apparently driven off by

the parent birds only on the approach of the mating season, which

begins early in March.

The habit both sexes have of giving voice to fairly loud ‘chucks’

when feeding, gives the position of the birds away and once a

bird is thus located its mate will invariably be found in the vicinity.

The birds apparently ‘chuck’ to each other to avoid being too

widely separated, as no matter what direction a feeding bird takes,

it is followed up by the other. At times the second bird arrives

at a tree before the departure of the first, but following the leader

systematically from tree to tree is not a hard and fast rule.

Invariably a general direction is taken, the birds keeping to

separate trees and only occasionally meeting.

At Mirpur Sakro in December 1934 I noticed that a pair which

had evidently bred in a babul tree in the compound of the Rest

House the season previous, used to return daily at dusk and roost

for the night in their old nest hole.

The entrance of the nest, which is always neatly cut,

is invariably about the size of a rupee and though old nests are

at times reoccupied, the birds as a rule prefer to cut out fresh

nest holes each breeding season, as I came across many old nests,

the majority in babul trees, a few in kandi and old lai, during

my rambles along the banks of the Pinyari canal and its distri-

butaries in the Mirpur Bathoro and Jati talukas of the Karachi

district.

As a rule nests were cut in partly decayed trunks or branches.

I never found a tenanted nest in a wholly dead tree.

Around Jhok, Mirpur Bathoro and Jati in the Karachi district

this woodpecker more or less replaces the Sind Pied Woodpecker

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 631

(Dryobates scindeanus) as I never met with both species in the

same locality except at Mir Khano, where I came across a single

pair of the latter, apparently stragglers, as I failed to find it again,

though I met with quite a number of the former in the same

locality and further south as far as Sando Bunder, a few miles

below Mughal Bin, the headquarters of the Jati taluka.

In Sind, as elsewhere, the full clutch of eggs laid appears to

be three. I never found more than three eggs or young in a

mest, | .

Eggs taken in Sind are inseparable from those taken in the

United Provinces.

IXARACHI. i (ROSE ATES, FZ. Ss, M.B-O.U;

September 6, 1937.

XIX.-—THE DISTRIBUTION AND NIDIFICATION OF THE

ROCK HORNED OWL [BUBO BUBO BENGALENSIS

(FRANKL.)] IN SIND.

The Rock Horned Owl though rare in the plains of Sind is

not uncommon in the Kohistan or hilly tracts of the Province.

It is partial to arid, hilly localities, where there are numerous

ravines and deep, dry watercourses. In such places I have not

only met with it, but found it breeding in the Karachi, Sukkur

and Thar Parkar districts. J. M. S. Culbertson found a _ nest

containing four fresh eggs, late in December, at Badin in the

Hyderabad district. The nest was a depression in the ground at

the foot of a mango tree by the side of a canal. An exceptional

situation for the nest of this owl, which is not as a rule found

near water.

Only on one occasion have I come across it in the plains of

Sind. This was in the Mirpur Mathelo taluka of the Sukkur

district, where, on the 26th February 1930 I found a pair nesting

in an old Kubh near Ghari Chakar.

The nest was placed in a window-like recess about 12 feet

high, inside the Kubh and contained, besides a single egg on

hatching point, some clods of earth, a few bits of dirty rag and

a small stick or two. The female sat very close and only left

her nest after a small clod of earth had been thrown at her. The

male flew out of the Kubh as I entered. He had apparently been

seated in a recess similar to the one in which the nest was situated,

as the ground below was littered with castings and the feathers

of a Roller and a Ring Dove. The pellets, when broken up, were

found to consist chiefly of the bones of small rodents. Below the

nest I found, besides castings and feathers, some pieces of egg

shell, which from their size and texture were unmistakably of this

owl. Apparently the other eggs, only one was in the nest, had

been displaced by the brooding female and had rolled out of the

nest, as the recess was not more than about a foot in depth

horizontally.

632> JOURNAL, BOMBAY > NATURAL “HIST? SOCIETY, Vol. Xx xan

On the 18th March 1924 I found a nest containing two well

incubated eggs, in a hole in the side of a deep, dry watercourse,

in the hills west of Jungshahi in the Karachi district. The eggs

were placed on the bare sand. The female sat close and was

flushed off her nest by. my approach and that of a Jokhio tracker,

while we were following the spoor of a ‘chink’ along the bed of

the dry nulla. The male was found perched on a Khor tree growing

out of a clump of Thuar in a small ravine hardby.. On the ground

below were many pellets consisting chiefly of the bones of small

rodents.

Again, on the 26th March 1931 in the Rohri Kohistan, near

the ruins of the ancient city of Aror, in Sukkur district, I found

a nest in the side of small ravine, overgrown with Thuar (cactus)

and Ixhor, a species of Acacia which grows on stony hills in Sind.

The nest contained two well grown young, one very much bigger

than the other. Both parents were found in the same nulla, the

female being flushed off her nest. The usual castings littered the

ground below the nest and the Khor tree on which the male was

seated. The pellets which were the usual, long, cylindrical ovals,

about the size and shape of the egg of a Common Grouse,

consisted, as those found on former occasions, chiefly of the bones

of small rodents. Skull and maxillary bones with teeth intact being

as before, very much in evidence. The nest, a hole about 2 feet

deep and 18 inches in diameter was quite bare of any kind of

lining and the entrance, which was below a large boulder, was

partly concealed by a clump of dried, coarse grass.

As I approached the nest the young owls backed into their

home, hissing alarm and making loud, snapping noises with their

beaks. I took them to Sukkur, where they had the run of a

back verandah and became very tame. About two months later

however they suddenly sickened and died after a fortnight or so.

I was unfortunately unable to provide them with sufficient in

the way of natural diet. Sparrows and mice they swallowed whole

and made no bones about it. Though they greedily ate chopped,

raw meat I am afraid that it eventually killed them, as when on

this foreign diet, in the absence of birds, beetles, squirrels and

mice, they made no castings for days and this disarrangement of

Nature’s working was, I am sure, the root cause of all their trouble.

I was indeed sorry to lose Babbar and Takar, as I had named

them. They made most interesting pets. More of them anon,

as I hope some day to perpetuate their memory in an article

devoted wholly to them.

On the 27th February 1936 I again found a nest, this time

containing 3 young and an addled egg, in some sand bhits, about

6 miles north-east of Umarkot, in the Thar Parkar district. The

nest, a hole about 2 feet deep and 18 inches in diameter, in the

sloping side of a nulla, was partly concealed by a dried clump of

Khip growing immediately above the entrance, and devoid of any

kind of lining. The three young birds were all of different sizes.

The biggest was quite three times the size of the smallest. The

two older birds, one of whom was able to stand and walk and

had its quill feathers sprouting, objected strongly to being handled

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 633

and expressed their alarm and resentment, in the manner peculiar

to owls, by making hissing noises and sharply snapping’ their

powerful beaks. The youngest in fine down was just able to

squat and balance itself precariously with the aid of its beak.

The female sat very close and permitted me to approach within

about 15 feet before she flew off. The nest inspite of containing

3 young was scrupulously clean. I found the male seated stolidly

in a stocky Khumbat tree growing out of a dense clump of Thuar

in a small ravine nearby, a bifurcation of the same nulla.

The feathers and feet of a Ring Dove were found at the entrance

of the nest. Below, were the usual castings which consisted mainly

of the head and jaw bones of small rodents. :

Old castings littered the ground below a Khumbat tree, a

species of Acacia which grows on sand bhits in the Thar desert,

about 20 yards higher up the nulla, the presence of which told

a tale and resulted in the discovery of the nest.

I was informed by Tharis that this owl is not uncommon in

the sand bhits of Thar Parkar and a Kolhi tracker, who was with

me at the time, told me that he knew of a ravine in some bhits

about 8 miles south-east of Umarkot where a pair of these owls

had had their home for years.

The ravine where the nest was found was about 12 miles, as

the crow flies, from the nearest fresh water.

Since this owl has been found resident and breeding in Northern,

Central and Southern Sind, both east and west of the Indus, it

must also occur in the hills bordering the west of the Province,

such as the hills around Pir Mangho, Khar, Surjana, Lakhi and

the Khirthar range, besides isolated chains and groups scattered

about.the Province, such as the Makli ridge and the hills around

Khadeji, Jhirruck, Pir Patho and Bram Hyderi, where there is

suitable habitat for this owl.

Most places where the Rock Horned Owl is likely to be found

are unfortunately off the beaten track of the touring official and

the lack of water, food supplies, transport, fodder anid communica-

tions, not to mention the intense heat, at times, even during the

winter months are, in main, reasons why. so little is known about

this owl in Sind, as its domains are seldom encroached upon,

except by ardent Shikaris after game, who have neither the time

nor the inclination to bother about owls, even if they are ‘horned’.

Kan EAE Ss He Z.Ss, MaB.O.U.

KARACHI.

November 26, 1936

XX:-—OCCURRENCE.OF THE CHINESE LESSER KESTREL

(CERCHNEIS NAUMANNI PEKINENSIS SWINH.) IN

NORTHERN BURMA.

In 1935 Mr. A. K- Thompson, Burma Frontier Service, sent me

the unsexed skin of a Kestrel obtained in the Sumpralum Subdivision

of the Myitkyina district. This proved, as I expected, to be

634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Cerchneis naumanni pekinensis, and the skin which has been

identified by Mr. N. B. Kinnear, is now in the British Museum.

The only previous known occurrence of this Kestrel in Burma

was recorded by me in the Journal (November 15, 1932) when I

obtained two males in April out of a large gathering in South Pegu.

LONDON JO K. STANFORD, t.cis:

February 6, 1937.

XXIL—-NOTES ON BIRDS OF PREY IN THE MADRAS

PRESIDENCY.

Haliactus leucogaster (Gmel.) The White-bellied Sea-Eagle.

In volume xxxviil, No. 3, mention is made of this bird in

the account of the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats

and the uncertainty regarding its distribution along the coast line

of the Madras Presidency.

I have recorded the presence of this bird on Rameswaram Island

and the Pamban Pass during all the months of 1930 excepting April,

the greatest number being seen from September to November. I

was unable to find any evidence of the bird nesting on the Island.

Further records have been kept by me from 1933 to 1935 of

a pair which have nested at Cuddalore, the information collected

is reproduced in the form of notes for easy reference.

28-11-33. Nest on a pipal tree about a mile inland and at a

height of about 4o feet from the ground.. One egg,

fresh, white in colour stained with dirty yellowish and

brown streaks which do not wash off. Size

2.73) X2.00 @

The birds were watched until 15-12-33 but did not

lay again. The whole nest including a large part of

the tree being blown down by a severe cyclone on

that date.

22-11-34. The same pair it is presumed built a new nest,

again on a pipal tree, about 200 yards away from

the former one. This nest was about 30 feet from

the ground and was not quite as large as the previous

one. One egg, fresh, similar to the previous one,

size 2.84" x 2.05".

15-2-35. Nest examined again as both parent birds were

seen in the vicinity continually from 22-11-34. The

nest contained one fledgling about the size of a

country fowl. Remains of fish were seen on the

ground below the nest, also a fresh sea snake about

18 inches in length. The parent birds merely flew

round and did not attempt to attack the man who

climbed the tree. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 635

15-11-35. Both birds seen at the nest which was being re-

conditioned by them.

8-12-35. One bird seen sitting low on the nest. It was

presumed the egg had been laid. One young one

hatched and seen sitting in or on the edge of the

nest during January 1936. This young one was

seen during February sitting on or near the nest and

was by that time practically the size of the parent

birds. The colouring was not nearly so clear or

defined as in the parent birds.

Both eggs taken are with me and are available for the museum

collection if of interest.

Circaétus ferox (Gmelin). The Short-toed Eagle.

In the account of the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern

Ghats, Part xiii, in Volume xxxvili, No. 3, of the Journal

mention is made of only one record being available of this bird’s

nest being taken by Stewart in Travancore. Nothing further

appears to be known of its habits in the Madras Presidency and in

order to remedy the omission this note is submitted of my

observations of the bird, its nest and the single egg obtained by

me on 11-1-34 near Vallam Ridge at Tanjore. The nest, which

was unusually small for the bird, was situated at about 12 feet

from the ground on a thick and very thorny babool tree in scrub

jungle. The materials used in the construction consisted of small

dried twigs, the inside lining being of thinner twigs and some

green mango leaves which had dried after being placed in the

nest.

The bird under observation, one only having been seen, was

a close sitter and although some stones were thrown at the nest

that day it was found the bird merely raised itself in the nest and

then settled down. The following day when the egg was taken the

bird only left the nest when the men commenced chopping away the

thorny twigs to enable them to climb the tree.

The single egg, which measures 3.00” x 2.28”, was pure white

and devoid of any gloss.

TANJORE. CrH. BIDDULPH,

February 9, 1937. |

XXII.—UNUSUAL SITE FOR THE NEST OF THE WHITE

SCAVENGER VULTURE |[NEOPHRON PERCNOPTERUS

GINGINIANUS (LATH.)].

A Scavenger Vulture was observed carrying nesting material

early in February 1934 and.on being watched the partly built nest

was found on a termite hill situated in the waterspread of an

irrigation tank. The termite hill was about five feet in height and

was divided into two or three points at the top, the nest being

situated between these points.

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ISI SOCIEDYj 27 ol. exon

The site was quite exposed from every direction and the ground

ti the vicinity was not so wet as to prevent an easy approach to

the nest.

The first egg, which was laid on 22-3-34, was taken immediately

as it was feared that cowboys would destroy the nest and eggs.

The egg which measured 2.80” x 2.00” was a very fine example of

the reddish-white type profusely blotched with red brown.

Although the nest was watched for weeks no further eggs were

laid, nor did the birds lay in the same nest in 1935. A pair of

these birds did nest on a banyan tree on the tank bund nearby

and I took two fresh eggs on 22-2-35-

The date is interesting as it is exactly a_year later and @

wonder if it may not be the same birds as nested in the tank

bed in 1934?

These two eggs were faintly marked with fine red brown spots

and measured: 2.50)" 2700 and 2462, x 2.¢0!:

TANJORE. C. -H. BIDDULPH:

February 6; 19037.

XXIITI.—BEHAVIOUR OF JERDON’S LITTLE RINGED

PLOVER. (CHARADRIUS DUBIUS. JERDONI LEGGE) WOE

YOUNG.

On the 21st March 1925 while working the banks of the Gogra

river near Magarsee, Fyzabad district, I came across a pair of

these birds on an unfrequented sand bank about 50 yards from the

main stream.

The female on sighting me became very restless and tried her

utmost to lead me away by running off in a direction directly

opposite to that in which her nest was later located. As J

approached the spot where both birds had originally been seen

she became more and more agitated. Suddenly with a ‘cheep’

‘cheep ‘che—ep’, She took to wing playing the part of the

proverbial damsel in distress exceedingly well. She fluttered along

the ground, her tail spread, fanwise, downwards, shamming a

broken wing, fluttering low, hesitating, shambling, pausing every

few seconds to see if I was following her. I did follow her for

a while, to see how far she would take me from her nest. She

took me on gaily, keeping about 20 yards ahead the whole time,

increasing or slackening her speed according to mine in order to

keep her lead. After proceeding thus for about 100 yards I stopped.

She continued her antics for a while, but finding that I was not

following her, she stopped and after a moment or two, suddenly

flew up with a sharp cry, took a swift half circle to my left, settled

about roo yards away and ran in a bee-line to a spot where

lumps of dried blue-bull droppings were lying about and sat down

quietly, settling herself in the sand. Her mate, who had run off

in a different direction, uttering short, sharp cries, now stood and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 637

viewed the proceedings from a small sand ridge about 80 yards

away, uttering an occasional, woeful ‘cheep’.

I rooted my eyes to the spot where the female had settled

herself, she was now quite invisible to the naked eye, and made

straight for the place. As I approached I noticed her slipping

off in a crouching position, just a momentary glimpse through the

corner of my eye, as I dared not take my eyes off the exact spot

where she had settled, and there I found on the edge of a small

sandy depression, in the midst of scattered lumps of dried Nilgai

droppings, a slight scraping, in which lay crouched two nestlings

in down and an addled egg. The nest was devoid of any kind

of lining. The tiny chips of drift wood or bits of dried grass or

roots at times found in the nest of this Plover were quite absent.

The mottled nestlings lying with necks outstretched against a

sandy-clay background were an ideal example of protective colour-

ing and blended so well with their surroundings that a_ close

inspection alone could distinguish them.

The young chicks, which could not have been more than a few

hours old, as the egg shells were still in the nest, remained

perfectly passive, permitting me to remove the addled egg and

broken egg shells without making the slightest movement. They

appeared to freeze instinctively and remained without any visible

movement even when touched lightly with the tips of my fingers.

The parents remained some distance away, about 60 yards,

making short agitated runs and uttering plaintive cheeps. I then

moved away in an opposite direction to the parent birds, sat down

in the sand about 4o yards away from the nest and waited

developments.

The female was the first to approach her chicks, she settled

about 10 yards from them and after a little hesitation made straight

for them, uttering short, plaintive cheeps. The male meanwhile

once again became very excited and did his utmost to lead me

away from the nest by running off in an opposite direction and

playing the broken wing game to perfection. I however paid not

the slightest heed to his frantic efforts to entice me away and

continued closely to watch his mate through prismatics. She went

right up to her chicks but in place of settling over them as

expected, she uttered low, twittering cries and to my surprise and

interest, both chicks found their legs and tottered unsteadily after

her, answering her calls with feeble ‘peeps’ and doing their little

utmost to keep up with her. She led them a few yards from the

nest and sat down with them in some sprouting tamarisk about

four to ten inches in height, and there settled herself. Though

now out of sight, I could still hear the faint ‘peep-peep’ of her

chicks, which gradually died down to an occasional ‘peep’ and

finally to complete silence.

The male meanwhile recovered his normal balance and _ after

preening himself for a while began to feed on the sand_ bank,

moving away from the spot where his mate had taken and con-

cealed their chicks. I moved closer to the concealed female and

when about twenty yards off noticed her slink away crouchingly

through the sprouting tamarisk and take to wing about ten yards

G38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XO

from her concealed young. She repeated her broken wing tactics,

which were taken up by the male, who became more excited on

this occasion than his mate, almost throwing himself into con-

vulsions in his frantic efforts to attract my active - attention,

fluttering and rolling in a direction opposite to that taken by his

mate. I went up to the patch of cover and found both chicks

again frozen into immobility, lying side by side in the shelter of

the sprouting tamarisk, necks stretched out, flush with the ground,

eyes open, without the slightest movement, a part of the sand

on which they lay as immobile as stone, and, so I left them. I

once again moved away, but this time a good hundred yards and

watched the scene through binoculars. The male soon joined his

mate, alighting a few feet from her. She then moved off and

after a moment or two flew directly to her chicks, and appeared

to settle down. Shortly after she came out into the open and

began feeding quietly a few yards from her mate, apparently

satisfied that the strange human had come and gone in peace,

and so I left them and their charming wee chicks.

K..R. EATES,-:Z.S.; M-BeOnge

ICSARACHI,

November 26, 1936.

XXIV.—INTERGRADATION OF THE RACES OF THE

SPOT-BILLED DUCK (ANAS POECILORHYNCHA FORSTER).

By separate parcel post I send the skin of a duck which I

recently shot. Could you very kindly tell me what species the

duck is. It was shot on 25th November 1936 on a backwater of

the Somkong river at the western end of the Pasighat subdivision

of the Sadiya Frontier. The duck was in company with some

Mallard and Gadwall and appeared to be the only one of its species

in the flock from which I shot it.

PASIGHAT, R. E. PARSONS,

N. E.. FRonTIER, Astt. Political Officer.

ASSAM.

December 10 1936.

[The duck obtained by Mr. Parsons is a spot-billed duck (Anas

poecilorhyncha) but as it could not be exactly identified with the

typical form, or with the Burmese race (Ad. p. haringtont) or with

Eastern form (A. p. gonorhyncha), we submitted it to Stuart Baker

who writes: ‘The skin of Anas poecilorhyncha which you have

forwarded to me is a most interesting one. It is exactly inter-

mediate between A. p. zonorhyncha and A. p. haringtoni. Like

the former, it has no posterior wing-bar but, like the latter it has

a green speculum (as also in poecilorhyncha) and not purple-blue as

in haringtont.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 639

As specimens of A. p. haringtoni have been obtained in Assam

which were quite true to type 1 should prefer to cali this particular

specimen an aberrant haringtoni rather than an aberrant zono-

rhyncha, though either term would apply equally truly.

I obtained specimens of this duck in the Dibrugarh District

(J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxii, p. 850) as did others, while Stevens shot

a fair number in North Lakhimpur (:bid vol. xxi, p. 743).

The great point of interest in this individual is the way it

shows how geographical races tend to vary in the direction of

those nearest to them in geographical distribution.’—Ebs. |

XXV.—OCCURRENCE OF MALLARD (ANAS

PLATYRHYNCHA LINN.) AT HOSHANGABAD.

On January 8th 1937 I saw seven mallard (Anas platyrhyncha)

on a jheel in the Hoshangabad district of the Central Provinces

and watched the birds through binoculars and eventually shot one,

a drake. There were 2 drakes and 5 ducks. I understand that

the mallard is a rare visitor to the Central Provinces. The

abnormally cold weather of January 1937 perhaps accounted for

this unusual migration.

HOSHANGABAD, J. MILES STAPYLTON.

February 6, 1937.

AXVI.—THE NUKHTA OR COMB DUCK (SARKIDIORNIS

MELANOITOS PENNANT) IN ASSAM.

On the 11th instant I came across three of these birds, they were

separated from each other, only one being within range, which I

promptly bagged, a young drake. The other two went off after

my shot. On looking up Stuart Baker’s book on ‘Indian Ducks’

I find he mentions these birds having been found in Cachar,

Sylhet and the North Lushai Hillis, but makes no mention of Assam

itself.

On referring this particular instance to Mr. John Higgins, our

Commissioner and a well-known authority in Assam on_ such

feathered game, he writes to say ‘I have never heard of a Nukhta

in the Assam Valley. I saw two that had been shot on the Loktah

lake in Manipur in cold weather 1g11-12-, ete.’

I shall be glad to hear through readers of your Journal, in

Assam whether they have seen or heard of this duck being shot.

NacacnooLig TEA Estate, W. M. LE MARCHAND.

OakLANDs, P.O., DrsprucaRu, T.O.

igebruary 19, 1937:

640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXiX

AXVII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT-CRESTED GREBE

(PODICEPS CRISTATUS CRISTATUS L.) AT MAYMYO,

UPPER BURMA.

A single bird was seen on the lake at Maymyo, 3,500 ft., in

Upper Burma, on the 8th March 1937. It stayed for four days,

sitting most of the time in a patch of reeds growing up out of

the water in the middle of the lake. It was first spotted by

Major Sullivan of the Burma Rifles, who pointed out the bird to

me. Records of this bird are few enough to make it worthy of

mention. Previous records in Burma are listed by Stanford

(i bisy April19e5, p27).

Maymyo, P. F, GARTHWAITE, srs

Marcel 14,31637.

XXVIII.—BIRDS AND ANTS.

I can give another example of the action referred to in Note xxv

on pages 624-631 of vol. xxviii. When in Shillong on 15th June

1924 I was in the bungalow and in the evening watched a Drongo,

which flew down onto the ground on the path outside the window,

and was picking up ants. It picked up an ant in its beak and then

applied its beak to the root of its tail (and occasionally also beneath

its wings, so far as I could see) and then swallowed the ant. It

repeated this performance for quite five minutes.

RODBOROUGH Fort, T. BAINBRIGGE FLETCHER.

SPROUL, Glos.

January 17, 1937.

XXIX.—A BLOODSUCKER (CALOTES VERSICOLOR)

ATTACKING AN ADULT- BIRD.

Such an attack was recently observed by me and as the

circumstance was considered unusual it was decided that it may

be worth recording.

While walking along an irrigation channel bund one evening

the noise made by two larks and their behaviour caused me _ to

stop and watch what was a serious battle between them. One

bird slightly depressing its wings and moving its head up and

down advanced towards the other, which on its part backed away

although in the same attitude and just as prepared to fight.

Unobserved by me the bloodsucker, which was a largish male,

suddenly darted out from some small bushes when the larks met

and were rolling about together, having as it seemed their beaks

locked. He grabbed one of the birds by the primaries, but almost

immediately lost his grip as the bird fluttered away.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 641

The bloodsucker moved away about a yard and settled down

within sight of both the larks which within a minute or two

resumed the fight, apparently quite indifferent to the fact that their

attacker was so near.

The fight between the birds was very shortly after interrupted

by some urchins coming up to see what I was watching.

Instances are known of bloodsuckers visiting nests of small

birds and eating the eggs and nestlings and it may even be possible

for them to catch and kill fledglings of the smaller species of

birds, but in this instance it would appear that the bloodsucker

actually attempted to secure a fully grown bird and it is wondered

what he would have done with it even had he succeeded in killing it.

‘TANJORE. C. H. BIDDULPH.

February 9, 1937.

[Swallowed it.—Ebs. |

XXX.—-THE BUTTERFLY (RHINOPALPA POLYNICE

BURMANA) IN THE N.-E. FRONTIER, ASSAM.

It may be of interest to readers of the Journal to know that—

although it is reputed to be rare and is stated to be so in

in Brigadier W. H. Evans’ book The Identification of Indian

Butterflies—the butterfly Rhinopalpa polynice burmana is, I have

happened to discover, most exceedingly common in a narrow strip

of country about ten miles long by about two miles wide near

here. I have not succeeded in finding the larvae; but from June

to September during breaks in the monsoon, when it is fine ana

warm, this strip of country literally swarms with this butterfly and

a dozen perfect specimens can very often be netted almost without

moving one’s feet. I do not know if the fact that it is so common

is in any way extraordinary; but I write in case it is. I recently

sent a specimen of this species to the Society and you very kindly

confirmed my identification.

ki Es PARSONS,

PasIGHAT, N.-E. FRONTIER, ASSAM. Assistant Political Officer.

March 7, 1937.

XXXI.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF A WASP.

While at work recently in a railway carriage provided for my

use I noticed a small wasp enter one of the half-open windows

carrying a ball of clay with which it proceeded to work on an

ege cell on one of the venetian shutters. By the side of this cell

and about an inch away from it was a crescent-shaped mass of

clay, presumably the beginning of a second cell.

Later when locking at the venetian shutter to see how the wasp

kad progressed I noticed that it had made similar attempts at

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

cell construction on three other shutters on the same side of the

carriage. ‘Ihe cells in each case were similarly situated (i.e.) on

the left side of the shutter and on the fourth cross piece from

the top in three shutters and on the second from the top in the

fourth. It was also observed that it was at work on two cells

at the same time on three shutters, while in the fourth it had

just commenced on one cell.

The carriage had been on a siding for some days with all the

venetian shutters up and in consequence being practically dark it

would appear that the wasp had entered through some opening

each time and had worked, but practically every time on a

different shutter.

On occupying the carriage all the shutters were kept half open

and in the bright light the wasp had concentrated on the same

shutter and had completed one cell by the afternoon but had not

commenced filling it with caterpillars or spiders when the carriage

had to be moved and in consequence a very interesting observation

was interrupted.

The points that strike one in the above are:—

(1) The fact that the wasp had not noticed that it was working

on four shutters simultaneously.

(2) That it had at times come to shutters on which there

were no signs of its previous work and this fact had not been

noticed.

(3) The way in which it had located the two cells is practically

the same spot on each shutter (i.e.) on the left side and on the

fourth cross piece in three cases.

(4) The fact that having got three pairs of cells exactly

similar in location it had made a mistake with the fourth.

(5) That it had never gone to any of the windows on the

opposite side of the carriage.

(6) That it was working on two cells on each of three windows

at the same time, the cells being not more than an inch to am

inch and a half apart.

(7) The fact that once it had the carriage reasonably lighted

it did not work on any of the cells on the three remaining windows.

I regret not having secured the wasp for identification, but

at the same time this is considered of little importance as my note

is not an attempt to impute such behaviour as peculiar to a parti-

cular species of wasp, but rather to point to the idiosyncrasy of

the wasp under reference. |

Further observations :—

On 21-10-36 my carriage was again at Kumbakonam, having

been there for three days on the same siding. On inspection of

the windows it was found that there were then seventeen partly

built cells on the first shutter, eighteen on the second. shutter

eleven on the third shutter; all situated on the last four cross

pieces of the venetian shutters. The fourth shutter had three

partly. built cells, two being on the last two cross pieces and

one on the fifth cross piece from the bottom.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 643

All the above cells were on the same shutters as were used

previously and had been built by the wasp in three days. The

time interval between the two observations being approximately six

weeks.

It would appear that the fact that the same carriage was

used and exactly the same four shutters, that it was the same

wasp, but what does not seem clear is how the wasp after a lapse

of six weeks was still alive and in the condition to construct so

many egg cells.

TANJORE. (OOM le hae sJUBYDIONE mick

February 9, 1937.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the

Prince of Wales’ Museum (New Wing) on Thursday the 18th March

1937 at 6-15 p.m. The Hon’ble Sir Robert Bell, x.c.s:1), Giri

I.C.S., was in the chair.

AGENDA.

1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, Honorary Secretary, announced the election of

the following 68 new members since the last Annual Meeting.

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, Calcutta; Mr. Noel Exshaw, France; Mr. E. J.

Langleson, Bombay; Mr. H. I. Burgess, Coonoor; Mr. Mg. Tun Yin, Rangoon;

Mr. M. R. Gokarn, Kalyan; Miss Winifred H. Baker, Lahore; Mr. M. G.

Champion, Roorkee; Capt. G. McElligot, Bombay; Mr. U. B. H. Dunbar,

Burma; Mr. Jal. N. D. Tata, Bombay; Mr. P. M. Hubbard, Dera Gazi Khan;

Mr. Ralph Sasson, Calcutta; Capt. G. K. Graham, Miranshah; H. H. The

Maharaja of Mayurbhanj, Baripada; Mr. L. N. Bhagvat, Bombay; H. H.

The Heir-Apparent of Malerkotla, Punjab; Mr. Tun Kyan, Burma; Mr. G. A.

Hodson, Burma; The Librarian, Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard

. College, U.S.A.; Mr. W. McF. Russell, Bombay; Mr. R. G. Griffith, Calcutta;

The Belgaum Club, Belgaum; The Chief Saheb of Miraj, Jr., Miraj; Miss

Meherbai P. M. Dalal, Bombay; Mr. H. A. Maxwell, Rangoon; H. H. The

Raja Saheb of Akalkot, Akalkot; Mr. J. N. Corbett, Ceylon; Mr. C. S. Iron,

Coorg; Mr. D. F. F. Chisholm, Calcutta; Miss Perin P. M. Dalal, Bombay;

Mr. R. A. Bailey, Jubbulpore; The Principal, Shri Shivaji Preparatory Military

School, Poona; The Mahableshwar Club, Mahableshwar; H. E. Sir John

Hubback, k.c.s.I., I.c.s., Governor of Orissa; Rev. E. G. Nichols, Madura;

Dr. F. E. R. Laborda, Calcutta; Mr. C. H. Biddulph, Tanjore; Mr. V. Negi

Powell, Bandiqui; Mr. A. A. Marr, Calcutta; Mr. H. E. Richardson, Tibet;

Kumar Amar Singh, Gaya; Mr. A. E. G. Davy, Ferozepore; Mr. A. C. Cotton;

Sholayar; H. E. The Most Hon’ble Marquess of Linlithgow, Viceroy of India;

Mr. Rolf Benkert, Bombay; Mr. G. Ahmed Khan, Aurangabad; Mr. P. W.

Craker, Asansol; Mr. A. I. R. Stevenson, Shillong; Capt. S. W. A. Love,

Shillong ; Capt. A. V. Morton, Bombay; Major H. G. Rossel, Meerut; H. H.

The Maharana of Lunawada; Mr. S. D. Bamjee, Asansol; Major C. L. B.

Duke, Dehra Dun; Mr. G. Warren, Assam; Mrs. Victor Noel-Paton, Bombay ;

Mr. R. D. Sethna, Poona; Mr. C. G. Demetriadi, Calcutta; Mr. G: -Digre

Millar, Assam; Mr. J. A. M. Symns, Burma; Dr. B. M. Joly, Agra; Capt.

C. I. Boyle, Agra; Mr. D. G. Meston, Assam; Mr. W. B. Cooke, Valparai ;

Dr. B. A. Lamprell, Assam; Mr. J. Thackeray, Assam; Capt. H. F. Walker,

Bombay.

The following proposal was accepted :—

Vice-President.—Rt. Rev. R. D. Acland, Lord Bishop of Bombay, in

place of the Hon’ble Sir Robert Bell, k.c.S.1., C.1.E., I.C.S.

Executive Committee.—Mr. A. Forrington, Mr. C. G. Freke, c.1.£., I.c.s.,

Mr. D. G. Hill, Lt.-Col.. C. G. Toogood, p.s.o., Dr:.S. A. Whlkinsony

M.R.C.S., E.R,C-P;

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

OFFICE BEARERS—1I9Q37.

Patron.—His Excellency the Viceroy of India.

Vice-Patrons.—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.S.1., G.c.L£.; H. H. The

Maharaja of Jodhpur, k.c.s.1., K.c.v.o.; H. H. The Maharaja of Rewa,

K.c.s.1.; H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar; H, H, The Maharaja _ of

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 645

Mrayancore,- G,c.1.k,* H. H: The Nawab of Junagadh, k.c.s.1.; Mr. F. V.

Evans, Liverpool; Sir David Ezra, KtT., F.z.s., Calcutta; Mr. A. S. Vernay,

New York and London; Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, 1.mM.s. (Retd.).

President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, G.C.1.E., M.c.

Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.I., G.c.1.E.; Rev.

Fr. J. F. Caius, s.j.; Rt. Rev. R. D. Acland, Lord Bishop of Bombay.

Executive Committee.—Mr. H. D. Ash, Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha, Sir Alwyn

7a, Kr., F-R.G.S., F.Z.s., Mr. A. Forrington, Mr. C. G. Freke, c.1-£., 1.c.s.,

Niraj. is. Greaves, +J; P.; Mr. D. G. Hill, Lt-Cok S.S. Sokhey, -1.m.s.,

feteCol. ©, G. Poogood, p:s:o:, Dr S. A.” Wilkinson,‘ M.Réc:S:,- L:R.c.P., Mr.

P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s. (Honorary Secretary), Mr. H. M. McGusty

(Honorary Treasurer).

Advisory Comnuttee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.Sc., M.A., 1.F.S., Dehra Dun;

e-Col; KR. W. Burton, 1.a. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Mr. C. H. Donald, F-.z.s.,

Punjab; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E., M.B.O.U.,

F.z.s., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.Ss., F.Z.S., Mysore; Major E. G.

Phythian Adams, F.z.s., 1A. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad, D.sc.,

@alcutta, Mr. H. C. Smith, tr.s., Burma; Mr. F. Wadia, Poona; and Mr.

J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1936.

ADMINISTRATION

President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Lord Brabourne, G.c.1.E., M.c.

Vice-Presidents—H. H. The Maharao of Kutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.z., The

ton bie Sit Robert Bell, K.cis.i.,. 6.1.5, 1.¢:8;, Rev...Fr: J. -F. Caius, _s.3.

Executive Committee.—Right Revd. R. D. Acland, Bishop of Bombay, Mr.

meni. = Ash Mr: Parrokh EE. Bharucha, Rev, Fr. J. EF. Catus,, s.j., Sif

mwa tizta, KT) FR.G:S.,.'.Z.s., Mr. ©. G. Freke,-ci.e., 1.c.s., Mr. j. B:

(Greaves, M.L.c., Mr. H. McGusty, Lt.-Col. S..S. Sokhey, 1m.s., Mr. A.

Forrington (Honorary Treasurer), Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.z.s., Honorary

Secretary, Bombay.

Advisory Committee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, p.sc., M.A., 1.F.S.. Dehra Dun;

Mites. Isc bell, C.Iek... IES. (Retd.), Karwar; Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton; 1A,

(Retd.), Coonoor; Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s.,. Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely,

p.sc., Madras; Mr. S. F. Hopwood, 1I.F.s., Rangoon; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.z.,

M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.s., F.z.S., Coimbatore;

Major E. G. Phythian Adams, F.z.s., 1.4. (Retd.), Nilgiris; Dr. Baini Prashad,

D-sc., Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1.F.s., Burma; and Mr. J. -H. Williams,

Coimbatore.

STatfi.—-o. El. ~Pratet, M.t.Acy J:P., ©.M.Z.s. (Curator); C. McCann, 8&.L.s:

(Assistant Curator).

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR

THE YEAR. 1926.

The Society’s Journal.—The Thirty-eighth Volume of the Journal

was completed and Part I of Volume XXXIX was issued during

the year.

MAMMALS.

Foxes of British India.—Papers on Mammals include Pocock’s

revision of the genus Vulpes. Blanford in his Mammalia recognised

5 species of Foxes as occurring in India. Pocock reduces the

number to 4. The author considers that the Fox of the Himalayas

and the Desert Fox are not distinct species but merely local races

of the Common Fox of Europe (Vulpes vulpes). To the Himalayan

Fox (Vulpes alopex of Blanford), he assigns the name Vulbes

vulpes montana Pearson and to the Desert Fox (V. leucopus), the

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCKET Y, Vol x Xie

name Vulpes vulpes pusilla. A third race of the European Fox

found in our limits is Blanford’s Fox (V. v. griffithii) which ranges

from Afghanistan as far east as Murree. The remaining three

species of foxes found in Indian limits are the Indian Fox (Vulpes

bengalensis), the small Afghan Fox (Vulpes cana) and the Tibetan

Desert Fox (Vulpes ferrilatus). Of these three species the Indian

Fox is the only fox indigenous to this country. Like the forms

of the European Fox inhabiting the Himalayas and North Western

India, the others are immigrants from the North and West which

have not penetrated far into India proper.

The Blue Bear.—Among the contributions to the Society’s

Museum received during the year is the skin of the rare Blue Bear

(Ursus arctos pruinosus), which was presented by Capt. R. K. M.

Battye. The animal was said to have been killed near Hor in

Eastern Tibet. A description of the specimen was published by

Mr. Prater in Volume XXXVIII, No. 3. It is the skin of @am

immature animal and in general coloration resembles the skin of

an immature male from the Minshan Mountains, U. Kansu,

presented to the British Museum by Capt. Fenwick Owen and

described by Pocock (Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxyji@

800).

Leopard and Tigress.—A number of interesting notes on

Mammals were contributed by members during the year. Among

them is a note by Iftkihar Ali Khan, Heir Apparent of Malerkotla

State recording a curious association between a leopard and a

tigress, which as suggested by the editors, may have _ been

brought about by the mating of these two animals. The larger

Felidae have frequently interbred in captivity. Opportunities for

such interbreeding under natural conditions must be rare. but the

facts of the case as recorded suggest the possibility.

Horn replacement in Nilgai and Black Buck.-~Mr. Hall’s note

on horn replacement in Nilgai and Black Buck appears to confirm

the observations of Buffon and Ogilby on the subject of horn

replacement in certain bovines and antelopes. The theory is that

a new horn grows within the sheath of the older horn which is

displaced, cracks and peals off. Mr. Hall’s note elicited confirm-

atory evidence from a number of correspondents. The whole

question raises an interesting point for further observation.

The degeneration of tusks in the Asiatic Elephant.—Correspond-

ence which passed between Sir Frank Colyer and Mr. R. C. Morris

brings into prominence the fact that the tusk in Indian Elephants

is a degenerate organ and suggests that the trend of evolution in

these animals 1s towards the development of a tuskless form. This

is a condition almost established in the Elephant in Ceylon, while

a similar tendency in the Indian Elephant is revealed in the number

of males which fail to develop tusks and the number of elephants

born with a single tusk or which develop one tusk only after

shedding the milk ‘tushes’. It is apparent that the two existing

species of elephants—the African and Indian are merging into a

number of forms. There is the long-trunked Sumatran. elephant,

the hairy Malaysian mountain form, and the tuskless Ceylon

Elephant. Jn the African Elephant, divergence from type seems

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 647

to centre in the form and size of the ears. It is probable however

that under existing conditions, both the Indian and African species

will become extinct before enough time has elapsed for any striking

new forms to be established,

BIRDS.

Birds of the Madras Presidency.—Messrs. Whistler and Kinnear

continue their papers on the Avifauna of the Madras Presidency,

based on the collections made during the Vernay Scientific Survey

of the Eastern Ghats. Parts xiii and xiv were published during

the year. They cover the Birds of Prey, Pigeons and Doves, Game

Birds and Waders. Two new races are described -among the Birds

of Prey—The Ceylon Crested Goshawk (Astur trivirgatus layardi),

distinguished from the South Indian form by its smaller size and

markings, and a West Himalayan form of the Besra Sparrow

Hawk (Accipiter virgatus kashmiriensis) distinguished from the

east Himalayan race by its paler colouration. Two new races of

the Jungle Bush Quail (Perdicula asiatica asiatica) are recognised

and described. P. a. ceylonensis, is a richly coloured Island race

from Ceylon and P. a vidali, found along the Malabar coast, differs

from the typical form in the deep reddish tinge of its whole upper

plumage. The authors disagree with the view put forward in the

New Fauna that the Rock Bush Quail (P. argoondah) is a race

of the Jungle Bush Quail (P. asiatica). They revert to the view

held by Blanford and Oates that the birds represent two distinct

species. Since the publication of his review of the various races

@f Scimitar Babbler (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxv, p. 72) Mr. Whistler

has been able to examine a series of skins of this species from the

Billigirirangan Hills which confirms his view that the birds of the

Lower Eastern Ghats are distinct both from the typical race and

from the race found in Travancore. The new Eastern Ghats race

he describes under the name P. horsfieldi maderaspatensis.

Birds of Travancore.—Parts iv, v and vi of Mr. Salim Ali’s

Ornithology of Travancore were published. The author’s interest-

ing ecological notes on the species listed by him enhance con-

siderably the value of his contribution. New forms described in

his reports, which are written with the collaboration of Mr. Whistler

are:—The Travancore Weaver Bird (Ploceus p. travancoreensis),

Waite’s Pipit (Anthus rufulus waiter), a pale sandy coloured race

from the desert and drier areas of North Western India, and the

Punjab Sky-Lark (Alauda gulgula punjaubi), which differs from

the typical form in its markedly paler coloration. The recognition

of these northern races is based on the study of material made

available as a result of various surveys organised by the Society

since the publication of the New Fauna.

Birds of Bombay and Salsette.—Since the publication of EHA’s

classic book on the Common Birds of Bombay, a_ considerable

advance has been made in our knowledge of the classification and

distribution of Indian Birds. Messrs. Salim A. Ali and Humayun

Abdulali have undertaken the production of an up-to-date list of

the Birds of Bombay and Salsette. The list which contains notes

on field identification and habits of species is being issued as part

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Volo XX wie

of the series of pamphlets on the Fauna of Bombay and Salsette,

published by the Prince of Wales’ Museum. The work will

provide a useful guide to students interested in the bird life of

Bombay and its suburbs. |

Other articles on birds include Major Bates’ account of his

collecting trip in the Kishenganga Valley, a little known area

ornithologically and two contributions on the Indian Crested Swift,

one by E. H. N. Lowther and the other by J. K. Stanford and

H. C. Smith. Mr. Lowther’s paper is illustrated by a series of

unique photos taken by the author.

Additions to the Indian Avifauna.—In his notes on Rare Birds

from Burma, Mr. Stanford records obtaining a specimen of the

Brown Suthora on the Myitkyina-Yunan Border. According to

Dr. Ticehurst, the specimen conforms to the Yunan race—Suthora

unicolor canastes and, as such, is a new form to the Indian

avifauna. Mr. C. E. Milner shot a Shrenk’s Bittern (Ixobrychus

eurythmus) on the Moulmein-Kyaikmaran Road in the Ambherst

District, Tenasserim. The species has never been previously

recorded from Indian limits. To the two previous records of the

occurrence of the Long-tailed Duck (C. hyemalis) in India we have

now to add a third: a female obtained by Mr. Lambrick at Drig

im oind in December 1935.

Wanted information about Cuckoos.—We should like to draw

attention to Mr. Stuart Baker’s appeal for information about

Cuckoos. There are many problems connected with the parasitic

habits of these birds which await solution. Apart from the question

of the cuckoo’s method of depositing her eggs in inaccessible nests,

there is the question of the method of ejection of the fosterer’s

egg. To what extent is this habit prevalent among Indian Cuckoos?

Again, how do the fosterers solve the problem of rearing, when

more than one cuckoo is raised in the nest? All these are interest-

ing questions which can only be answered by careful recording

of the life story of individual birds from egg to fledgling.

Another interesting point connected with cuckoos is raised by

Mr. Livesey in his article on Cuckoo Problems. How has the

approximation in colour and markings between the eggs of the

cuckoo and her selected fosterer been brought about? Mr.

Livesey looks elsewhere for a solution than the one offered by the

theory of Natural Selection. He holds that design has played a

considerable part in effecting this similarity, which he believes is

the cumulative effect of a desire to produce a particular colour of

egg held by a particular line of cuckoos for countless generation.

REPTILES.

Snakes of DeolaliimPapers on reptiles include a paper on the

Snakes of Deolali by Mr. A. G. Fraser, 1.mM.p. Mr. Fraser is to

be congratulated on the very intensive study he has made of the

snakes of his district. His paper is a model to students engaged

in field research. The author’s objective is not only to provide a

list of the snakes in his area but to study the various factors

affecting the lives of snakes within the environment. His whole

approach to the study is original and his notes on the osteological

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 649

characters of snakes collected by him are particularly interesting

and open up a fresh field for investigation.

The nesting of the King Cobra.—Messrs. H. C. Smith and

F. J. Mustill’s notes on the nest and eggs of the King Cobra

is perhaps the first detailed description of the nest of this snake.

It was generally known that the eggs of a hamadryad are laid

in a heap of leaves, but the observations of the two writers indicate

that the nest is more than a mere accumulation of leaves. It

is a compact cup-like mass whose structure suggests a deliberate

effort at nest building. Another interesting point revealed is that

the snake does not sit directly upon the eggs but on a layer of

leaves with which it covers the eggs. What we have still to

discover is how the King Cobra builds this structure.

FISHES.

The Fishes of Travancore form the subject of a paper by

Dr C. ©. John. The author provides. a systematic list of the

fishes of Travancore based on collections made in 1932-1933. He

discusses method of capture, the factors injurious to the develop-

ment of Fisheries in the State and recommends the introduction

of Legislative measures to control existing methods of trapping

and netting which have tended considerably to decrease the

available supply.

Messrs. G. E. Shaw and E. O. Shebbeare describe a new

species of fish of the genus Glyptothorax obtained in the Darjeeling

District which they have named G. horae in honour of Dr. Hora

of the Indian Museum.

INSECTS AND INVERTEBRATES.

The wasps of the genus Ischnogaster, remarkable for their

unique nests are believed to form a link between the Solitary

and Social Wasps because of their structural characters and _ their

nesting habits. The larger species are as a rule solitary, their

nests are built by a single pair. The smaller species live in a

many-celled ‘social’ nest constructed by the community. Mr. T. R.

Bell proposes a revision of the genus, wherein species of social

habit are retained in the genus Ischnogaster and a new genus

Paravespa is created for the solitary species, based on the distinctive

structure of the mandibles in these wasps and in their peculiar

nesting habits. Under the new genus Paravespa, Bell includes

the species eximia from Ceylon and a new species P. eva, which

is described by him. It is the only representative of the genus

found in India proper. Ischnogaster is thereby now limited in

its range to the Eastern Himalayas, Assam and the Indo-Chinese

and Malayan countries.

Dragonflies.—Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser describes two new species

of Oriental Dragonflies: Prothorthemis intermedia and Idionyx

laidlawt.

Caddis-Flies.—Part iv of Martin Mosely’s monograph on Indian

Trichoptera was published during the year. Further publication

of this important work was suspended owing to reconsideration of

650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, excdec

the question of meeting the heavy cost of illustrations for these

articles. The Society has made an application for a grant to meet

this cost. Failing such financial assistance, the only alternative

would be to extend the number of parts so as to spread the cost

of illustrating the serial over a number of years. Mr. Mosely’s

work will probably remain for many years the standard work on

Indian Trichoptera and it would be a pity to detract from the

value to students of this most excellent work by curtailment of

the plates and diagrams now being issued.

Butterflies.—Mr. D. F. Sanders’ paper on the Butterflies of

Secunderabad supplements the list of species recorded from this

area by Col. Logan Home in volume xxxvii, No. 4 of the Society’s

Journal.

Lace Bugs.—A new species of Tingitid Monanthia cheriani is

described by C. J. Drake from material collected by Mr. M. C.

Cherian in Coimbatore.

South Indian Coccidae.—Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar sup-

plements his previous papers on South Indian Coccids, as a result

of subsequent collections made by him. His new list contains 6

new species described by Green elsewhere and 7 species recorded

for the first time from South India.

BOTANY.

Revd. Father Caius continues his papers on Medicinal and

Poisonous Plants of India. Papers published by him during

the year dealt with Medicinal and Poisonous Grasses, Orchids and

Aroids of this country.

Flowering of Strobilanthes.—Very little is known about the

periodical. flowering of numerous species of Strobilanthes. Mr.

P. V. Mayuranathan supplements Mrs. Robinson’s useful contri-

bution on the subject published in volume xxxvii of the Journal

with a few further records. The planting community and others

can do much to help in establishing the periodicity of the flowering

in these plants by recording the time when the different species

come into flower. Specimens in flower can be sent either to the

Society or to Mr. P. V. Mayuranathan of the Government

Museum, Madras for identification.

Beautiful Indian Trees.—With the publication of the article on

the Padauk in the December issue of the Journal, the serial on

Beautiful Indian Trees was completed. Thirty flowering trees of

India have been described and illustrated in colour as well as in

black and white. The thanks of the Society are due to the authors,

the late Rev. Father Blatter and Mr. W. S. Millard, whose articles

have given attraction to the Journal. They have now provided a

popular and well-illustrated work on the trees which add so much

to the beauty of our roads and gardens. This serial will be issued

in book form about the middle of this year. By printing an extra

number of plates when the articles were issued in the Journal,

the Society has been able to keep the cost of the book at a

remarkably low figure. The published price is Rs. 15 and

Members may obtain copies from the Society at Rs. 10. Orders

are now being registered.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 651

Shooting and Fishing.—Vhe Journals issued during the year

contained a number of articles on shooting and fishing. Among

them is the interesting account by Mr. R. C. Morris of his quest

for a specimen of the Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros in the jungles

of Perak for the American Museum of Natural History. The

failure of the expedition helps to emphasise the fact that, as in

Burma, the species is practically extinct in the jungles of Malaya,

where it was once reported to be common.

Mr J. E. Hall gives an account of hunting Wild Buffalo in the

jungles of the Kosi River. Sportsmen of small means (which in

these days implies the average shikari)—but blest with abundant

energy—will be interested in Mr. Hall’s account of a shooting trip

in the C. P. which was written to show how much can be ac-

complished with hard work and the minimum of expenditure.

Mr. W. S. Thom gives an account of the Malay Tapir from

his store of reminiscences covering many years of hunting in the

jungles of Burma.

Contributors to the fournal.—The Committee take _ this

opportunity of thanking all those who have contributed articles or

notes to the Journal. The Journal is a vital link between the

Society and its members and this can only be strengthened by

adding to the interest and attraction of the publication. In writing

for the Journal members help not only in furthering the work of

the Society but in sustaining and increasing its membership.

Donations.—Donations amounting to Rs. 9,945-15 were received

during the year from:

H. H. The Maharaja of Travancore

H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavanagar

H. H. The Nawab of Junagadh

H. H. The Maharawal of Dungarpur

The Chief Saheb of Miraj, Jr.

Mr. F. V. Evans.

The donations have been credited to the Journal Fund to

cover extra expenditure on the Journal. The Committee take the

Opportunity of expressing the sincere thanks of the Society to all

those who have so generously contributed to this Fund.

THE MUSEUM.

The rearrangement of the Natural History Section in the New

Wing was taken up during the year. The new galleries have been

designed especially to provide for the requirements of a modern

Natural History Museum. Each gallery has its complement of

large diorama groups built in a_ series of alcoves—-while the

systematic collections are arranged in cases along the walls of

the gallery. The whole arrangement is pleasing and attractive

and avoids the heaviness and artificiality which comes from over-

crowding the floors with show cases and the cases with exhibits.

Suitable colour schemes have been adopted in each gallery to

secure harmony between the cases, their backgrounds and the walls.

A feature of the New Museum is the 13 large diorama groups,

ba2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

8 of which were completed during the year. In the Bird Gallery

three groups illustrate:—-A nesting colony of Flamingos in the

Rann of Cutch, the Griffon Vulture nesting on the cliffs near

Bombay, and a Lammergeyer’s eyrie in the Simla Hills. Each

group is a faithful reproduction of the nesting site based on

photos, paintings and material coliected on the spot. In the groups

in the Mammati Gallery our objective has been not only to show

some of the larger wild animals of the country in their natural

habitat but also to give the visitor an idea of the varying nature

of the country. Bison are shown in the shola-covered hills of

South India, Blackbuck in the plains of Deccan, Tiger in the ever-

green forests of Assam, Spotted Deer in the deciduous jungles

of the C.P. and the Kashmir Stag in a Himalayan Forest. In

the Reptile and Fish Gallery there is a submarine group of sharks

and groups illustrating Loggerhead Turtles coming ashore to lay

and a Malay Python in the setting of a Malay Jungle. A 20!

cast of this snake was made during the year and a perfect model

produced. The Evans’ collection of Marine and Fresh Water

Fishes consisting of casts prepared from material collected in

Bombay and other parts of India is shown in the gallery: and

we take this opportunity of expressing our thanks to Mr. F. V.

Evans who bore the entire cost of preparing these exhibits. A

feature of the Fish Section is the fine murals which adorn the

walls of the gallery. They are the work of Mr. A. Valleé whose

services we were fortunate to secure. Our acknowldgment and

thanks are also due to Col. Gharpurey who contributed Rs. 5,000

towards the cost of preparing and exhibiting the collection of

reptiles. Among the snakes shown is a beautiful cast of the King

Cobra, prepared from a live specimen presented by the Mysore

Government. |

Another phase of the work done during the year was the

collecting of animals for mounting in these groups and also of

various. accessories for reproduction in them. Permission was

obtained from the Madras Government for securing a female bison

and calf to be set up with the fine male now: exhibited); Phe

specimens were obtained for the Museum by Mr. R. C. Morris

to whom our thanks are due.

In March 1936, with the assistance of Mr. S. A. Vahid, I.F-s.,

Divisional Forest Officer, Khandwa, C.P., skins and the entire

skeletons of a male and female Sambar were obtained. In the

same month, the Maharaja of Bhavnagar kindly presented a set

of male, female and young of the Blackbuck. While the Heir

Apparent of Bikaner provided similar material for a group of

Chinkara. Our thanks are also due to the Kashmir Durbar for

presenting the entire skin and skeletons of a pair of Kashmir Stag

which were obtained for us by the Game Warden.

The labelling of the exhibits in the entire Museum is_ being

carried out in cellophane and glass. The method has proved quite

successful. The labels are attractive and overcome the need for

constant replacement which was an obvious disadvantage with

paper labels which soon fade and are subject to mottling and

discolouration,

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 653

It will be seen from the above report that the year was one of

great activity calling for an exceptional effort on the part of the

staff to which they responded with their usual enthusiasm.

REVENUE ACCOUNT.

This account shows a small deficit of Rs. 835-10-5 which can

be regarded as distinctly satisfactory as compared with figures

for the previous three years :—

Year. Deficit.

1933 oa ae xs maeiNSia2.45 1 9 Su.

1934 -e oo ea oe ee cA O47 oi 59

1935 hs a a Sak Sy 55055 482: 20

1936 ae — ac ‘iat 55 835 IO 5

Actual receipts during 1936 amounted to Rs. 30,230-15-3 as

compared with Rs. 26,847-7-11 in 1935. Subscriptions showed an

increase of Rs. 1,597-0-10. The balance being made up by sales

of Society’s publications, a small profit of Rs. 239-0-8 on the

Taxidermy Department and Rs. 706-14-6 due by members _ for

outside work undertaken by the Society.

Expenditure shows a decrease of Rs. 1,486-10-3. This was

effected by a drastic reduction in the cost of producing the

Journals. )

SALARIES.

It will be noticed that the salary bill in 1936 amounted to

Rs. 18,225-12-o as compared with Rs. 16,188-8-3 in 1935. In 1935

the services of Mr. McCann and two others were loaned to the

Chindwin Expedition for about three months, during which time

their salaries were paid by the expedition.

MEMBERSHIP.

During the year 1936, 58 new members and 2 Life Members

joined the Society and 67 members resigned. One has to expect

these resignations as senior officers, Civil Servants and others

retire and every effort is made to retain their interests after they

leave India. The Society offers to send the Journal to retired

members, postage paid, for an annual subscription of one guinea.

The total number of members on the roll of the Society

(excluding 192 Life Members) was as follows :—

Bice DeCem pen OR 5 fa. scr <4 .as- 973

Best) CCeMmpet lO 3Or 2 ae on.. an. 964

GENERAL.

A satisfactory feature of 1936 was the response to the appeal

for donations to the funds of the Society. The total sum collected

was Rs. 13,769-3-0 which amount has been placed to the credit

of the Special Journal Fund which now stands at Rs. 11,089-8-6

as compared with Rs. 3,823-4-0 at the end of the previous year.

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIx

STAFF,

The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the good

work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year.

P. M. D. SANDERSON,

Honorary Secretary.

SNAKE VENOM.

A cinema film showing methods of extracting Snake venom at

the Haftkine Institute, was shown by Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, 1.™.s.

Lt.-Col. Sokhey, speaking on the subject of snake venoms,

described how perfectly they were adapted to their biological

function of immobilising living and active prey and ‘ite

subsequent digestion when swallowed whole. This end was

achieved by the extraordinarily potent and very varied toxic

properties of the venoms. These may be described as (a) action

on the peripheral nervous system, producing muscular paralysis

leading to death from failure of muscles of breathing, (b) direct

action on the circulatory system, producing death from failure of

heart, (c) action of the blood itself leading to clotting of blood in

the vessels or to an entirely opposite action. There is also

destruction of red blood cells, (d) action on the walls of the blood

vessels leading to extensive bleeding in the tissues and (e) digestive

action on the tissue due to ferments in the venom.

All these properties are not equally well developed in the venom

of all snakes. Some of these toxic properties are more highly

developed in the venom of some snakes, while others in the venom

of other snakes. Of the Indian poisonous snakes the toxic action

on the nervous system is most highly developed in the case of

the Cobra, while the action on- the circulatory system is most

marked in the venom of the Russell’s Viper. He then described

the train of symptoms which result in human beings after a snake

bites,

Next he took up the question of medicinal uses of venoms.

Cobra venom has proved to be of some value in relieving pain in

inoperable cancer. The hope that this venom would inhibit the

growth of cancer has not been fulfilled. The venom of Russell’s

Viper is a very powerful agent in stopping intractable bleeding.

It has proved of great value in stopping bleeding in cases of

haemophilia and in case of operations on tonsils and teeth extrac-

tion. Scientific investigation has not supported the claim that

snake venom is of any value in the treatment of epilepsy.

THE CHILDREN OF THE JUNGLE.

Mr. S. Jepson showed his film depicting the life and customs

of Bhils, Gonds and other jungle tribes.

In a few introductory remarks Mr. Jepson explained that the

film was a self-imposed holiday task shot in-a fortnight in the

jungle, though it took much longer to prepare and to edit after-

wards. There were many amusing moments with these original

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 655

actors and actresses—including the selection of a bride for the

wedding ceremony. The film was a documentary one, half dealing

with the lives of Bhils and other forest tribes showing how they

could be independent of cultivation, etc. The other half dealt

with very amusing Bhil wedding customs. On returning to

Bombay and after editing, the film had a running commentary

superimposed on the sound track, in a local studio.

‘As you will presently observe for yourself,’ said Mr. Jepson

humorously, “I know nothing whatever about film making, and

the whole thing was in the nature of an experiment.’

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18, CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS, FOR THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

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SONI ENTS OF VOLUME XXXIX, No. 7.

PAGE

mee GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part III. By Dr. S. L. Hora, D. Sc.,

_F.R.S.E., F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. (With one coloured plate

and 9 text-figures). Garua Bachcha or Gaurchcha............. ins otc 659

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. Part III. By Salim Ali ard

Peni NOG MalU. "CHIU ONE DIGIC). lik lees deeciven:scseseplacadee ailees 679

BeIsH OF DEOLALI. Part II. By A. G. L. Fraser, 1.m.s. (With one

a Pe fone Oana ics hss 8S ese a oie ni soa e oho iaes Guses beeeatacsse ee? > OSD

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA. By J. F.

SA NBIS). GAR Sa TS Be eae REI ame OR eer anor ne 2

THe NAMES OF TWO INDIAN VIPERS. By Malcolm Smith, M.R.C.S........ 730

GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS AND THE SOUTH COIMBATORE

Mime win) Ue Wiilidatis. (1/20 ONE PIALE) vveieciciccauerss divas satare Toe

'A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE APHIDIDAE OF Poona. By V. G.

Deshpande, mM. Ag. (Bom.), ph. D. (Edin.)...... er re ere 740

SomE ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA OF IRAQ. By Walter P. Kennredy...... 745

MARRIAGE FLIGHT AND COLONY FOUNDING OF THE COMMON BLACK

ANT Camponotus (Tanaemyrmer) compressus LATR. By P. N.

Messiaen) | WELLS LONE-TULUFES in vac sun das esanvce (usa iasvgucdeoyestins 750

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF AGAMID LIZARD FROM UPPER

Emreara,, Joy Malcolm Smith,;MiR.C.Si...0.5 casiesscseslsihenieshcevpase. crows 755

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN. By Lt. Col.

PP NO mMSOM—GlOVET. C805 oy Glin wad. stents taneee sc ccieudelel desteld varossbeeagar 756

MossESs COLLECTED IN ASSAM. By | yy, NE eee M.A., F.L.S. (With

Ge LUGE) se BB SOA ORE BAO Oey Sy A ee APT SR ee eee 769

SomE DATA ON THE FAUNA: BLATTODEA, MANTODEA, PHASMODEA ‘

AND ORTHOPTERA OF NORTH AFGHANISTAN. By Leo Mistshenko,

MEE ZiEH. 6 2 E-L72 UTES). cccsus~: sdesinsds socnstessvondacarceoeeuchevsstonnevses Uee 796

* THE KopAIKANAL BrRDS AND How To NamME THEM. By Edward G.

Meet GREE ae MONG <i cle ee aes saes dete SG Uecde uty ocaalcndes opsbes vdieoaincevenslwael 812

SoME BIRDS OF LYALLPUR AND THEIR Foop. By M. Afzal Husain,

M.A. (Cantab.), 1.4.s. and Hem Raj Bhalla, B. sc. (Agri.)............. 831

Notes ON Calotes versicolor (DAUDIN) JERDON. By Charles McCann,

Fees... (W/tth 3 Plates)... - ee ee Tr Ane 4 A ven eeC Be enue, eos 843

REVIEW :—

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By the late Rev. E. Blatter, s.J.,

PD OKEE Sx nO W alter mn Millard.cos ce. 5c. boon. eecdes sec keccececwecrcececsves 849

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Smoking a Panther to Death. By the Chief of Ichalkaranji. 850

II.—The Size of the Jungle Cat (felis chaus affinis). By E. P.

(Ge Create corns goes Damien) ciate ciatentrc ow ae ehneae 59 OGG | FEW s/he bn eed eatee oa 850

l].—The Alleged Wild Dog of Mt. Popa, Burma. By R. I.

PAO COCKPS He a or ar stint ee ccna ak Mobs v5 be ee bbsad he 24s Av eeuocgh obine ere BOL

IV.—Curious Behaviour of Bison (4760s gaurus H. Sm.) By C.

ery NOOR OO Cea ty hse sdtse a3 4552 Rach MeGmes ss iadnbinteseedte ches netews'ols 852.

V.—Abnormal Elephant Tusks (Alephas inaximus). By G.D. L.

Millar: (With a. plate) .i....0.- Ree sees nas ot iran awe totece: vee: 854

li CONTENTS OF Vol. XXX1IX, No. 4

PAGE

VI —Abnormal Horn Growth in the Muntjac( Muntiacus vagi-

nalis). By F. H. Peppe. (With a photo) .....cccecseee .. 854

VII.—The Use of Firework or Rocket Cartridges in the Protection

ofCrops. “ByVR. Ca Morris essere orese geese: tan 855

VIII.—Some Notes on the Fauna of Malaya. By H. E. ee 856 |

IX.—Some Interesting Records of Birds in the Punjab. By H .W.

Waite BeOsUisi2 ices een oc teens eas Dela G cattie ottegte 861

X.—Migratory Movements of three well-known Birds in the

Tanjore and South Arcot Districts. By C. H. Biddulph. 862

XI.—Curious Behaviour of the Jungle Crow (Coréus macro-

rhynchus) and the White-backed Vulture (Gyps benga-

Lensts).; By © sic Ca min ns ie, caccastie sec sees eet eee aera toee 864

XI.—The Distribution of the White-eared Bulbul [Wolpastes leuco-

genys leucotis (Gould)] in the Swamps near the Vaitarna

Rivers; By #Gu Mc Cattien sme. anccateceuacee mnecere tere sees 864

XUI.—The Southern Indian Roller or Blue Jay [Coracias benghal-

ensis indica (Linn.)] killing a Small Snake. “By C. H.

BiddUlp hts aacciwscteeth vnscanccaneee ceeeans: taea-ha ete en ie ten eeenereeee 865

XIV.— Breeding of the Little Ixdian Nightjar( Cub aT asiaticus

astaticus) in the Chingleput District. (With a plate.)

By Alice 1. Barnes: cikshe earcer seceeetdccoracsta seen ane taare eee 865

XV.—On the Breeding of the Oe Hipnibe

ostralegus Subsp.) and other Birds in the Bengal

Sunderbunds. ...By.J: ..K Stantord -..cco. aac eee 867

XVI.—Early and Late Pree By ae Goode La P. Berestord:

Mi. iC. peeees ae PrP E Men he 868

XVII.—The Bresite ofthe Little Green “Bittern 3 (Butoniss strta-

tus javanicus) in Salsette Island. By C. McCann......... 869 -

XVIII.—Occurrence of the Bittern (Botaurus s. stellaris) in South

Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian-Adams, 1.4.......... 870

XIX.—Sexual Dimorphism in the Star-shelled Tortoise (Zestudo

elesans). By -C. Meant, ot eerde se: nein ene ere e 870

XX.—Occurrence of Psammophis condanarus? in Berar. By

iH. (Ok (Sep DGarenraiccnct-escecnnes ie eee eee, eee eee ee eee 871

“4 XXI.—Sexual Dimorphism in the Seasnake rc Distira Bea fe

(Daud) By -C. McCann. sic uelvces satan te eee eeeeee 872

X XII.—Breeding Season of the Jew’s Nosed Seasrake Eahvapeee

valakadyen (Boie)] in Bombay Waters, By C. McCann. 872

XXIII.—Freak Seedling of the Grape Fruit. By Mrs. Margaret Rath.

CWE SA-SPHhOlLO) hse voce an eves Sap ewas ie ta taser ear eee eee eae 873

XXIV.—Some Observations on Botanical Nomenclature. By C.E.C

PUSCHED Me cosets eee ase iae Neatea ee cee Ae See Nr ee MMA oy 874

XXV.—The Flowering of Strobilanthes. By J. H. L. Williams...... 877

PROCEEDINGS OF A MEETING OF MEMBERS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL

FIISTORY SOCIETY.HELD ON THE, 25TH AUGUST, 1937.2... 0c. .cccs-ccseen 880

Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.

RteroRtenons

reaganuechen,

ORs

Me,

THE GARUA BACHCHA OR GAURCHCHA.

Clupisoma garua (Hamilton).

JOURNAL

| OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

DECEMBER 1937. Ole Ned No. 4

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIAt.

SUNDER AL. HORA, DeSC., FUR:S.E.; FiLiSs). FoZ.S., F-R-A:S.B., F.N.1.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one plate and nine text-figures).

Continued from page 446 of Vol. xxxix.

. II].—Garua BACHCHA OR GAURCHCH2’.

CLUPISOMA GARUA (HAMILTON) and two allied species,

CONTENTS.

PAGE

Introduction ae Bet as seh a 659

Nomenclature and Systematic Position ae is eae 661

Synonymy and Description ae es a ou 666

Bionomics, and Fishing Notes ed ea oe Ae 670

Description of two new species oe ao or a 671

Acknowledgments ee = ae oes bee 677

List of References ane ve gis iia 3 677

Explanation of Plate = ah ake i oo 678

INTRODUCTION.

ime the last article (21)? reference was made to the fact that

among anglers two Indian catfishes go by the name of Bachcha-—

Eutropiuchthys vacha (Ham.) and Clupisoma garua (Ham.). Both

the forms belong to the family Schilbeidae and are superficially

* Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

660 f/OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1X

very much alike. In my treatment of the true Bachchaé, I gave

the distinguishing features of the two species and a reference was

made to their habits and habitats. In the present article it is

proposed to give a full scientific account of Garua Bdchcha or

Gaurchchaé and of its allied forms.

In the case of E. vacha it was shown that specimens of

the species from Siam and Burma differed from Indian examples

in proportions, etc., to a marked degree, but for want of sufficient

material it was not possible to separate them into a distinct

species. Similar differences have been observed in the case of the

Burmese examples of Clupisoma garua (Ham.) and besides it has

been found that in the specimens from Burma the entire abdominal

edge is sharp and keeled. It has, therefore, been considered

advisable to separate them into a new species which is’ described

below (vide infra p. 671). To create a new genus on the nature

of the abdominal edge would have rather confused the true

relationships of the two forms. In this connection attention may

be directed to the fact that in the species of Rohtee Sykes two

similar types of abdominal edges are found (14), and it is re-

markable that fk. belangeri (Cuv. & Val.), in which the abdominal

edge is keeled throughout, is essentially a Burmese species.

Further it may also be noted that a species of Pangasius from

Siam, P. cultratus Smith, is provided with ‘a fleshy keel on the

belly, extending from below the pectorals to the vent’. Fowler

(11) has established a new genus Pteropangasius for its reception

on this character alone. In all the three instances noted above it

is remarkable that the forms with the keeled abdomen are found

towards the east whence, according to my belief, the *aquatic

fauna migrated and spread towards the west (19). Further the

keeled condition of the abdomen is probably a primitive feature, -

in so far as it is characteristic of the majority of the Isospondylous

fishes and of the primitive Cyprinoids (subfamily: Abramidinae).

In the Eastern Himalayas, Messrs. G. E. Shaw and E. O.

Shebbeare found another species in which the abdominal edge is

rounded throughout, the barbels are considerably shorter, the air-

bladder is greatly reduced, and there are certain differences in

proportions from C. garua and the form found in Burma. Here

again, though according to some authorities it may be desirable

to separate it into a new genus I have considered it advisable

for the time being, in view of the paucity of the material and

of our very limited knowledge of these forms, to retain it in the

genus Clupisoma and to describe it as a new species (vide infra,

p. 673). Thus the three. species here included in Clupisoma re:

present three very distinct types and in my opinion form an

evolutionary series in which the Burmese form is probably the

most primitive and the Eastern Himalayan form the most highly

specialised in certain respects, and primitive in certain other

LESDeCCus:

As the colouration undergoes rapid changes when a fish is

taken out of water, it is usually difficult to form a correct idea

of the natural colours of large fishes; the so-called coloured

drawings of such species can at best represent the colours of fresh

HE GAME FISHES OF INDIA | 661

Specimens. My’ drawings of the ‘Indian Trout’ (Barilius bola Ham.

20) and of Vacha |Eutropichthys vacha (Ham.) 21] are no ex-

ception in this respect. In the drawings of Garua Bdchcha

reproduced here an attempt has been made to show the changes in

colouration undergone by the fish when taken out of water. The

topmost drawing represents the colouration of the specimen im-

mediately after its removal from water, the middle figure shows

the fish after it had been out of water for about one hour and

the bottom figure shows the colour after about two hours of the

removal of the fish from the water. Gradually a uniform neutral

tint begins to predominate and the colour becomes similar to that

shown in my drawing of Eutropuchthys vacha (21). For all

practical purposes, anglers are concerned with the colouration of

the fresh ‘specimens and not of the living fish and from this point

of view the illustrations already reproduced or to be reproduced

in connection with the articles to follow will be found useful.

Efforts will, however, be made to describe the colouration of

living specimens wherever possible. It may further be indicated

that colour is liable to change with the surroundings, so in the

case of fishes, at any rate, it does not form a reliable SHI:

for distinguishing species.

NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION,

The Garua Bachchaé or Gaurchcha@ was discovered for science

by Hamilton (13), who named it Silurus garua. His interpretation

of the genus Silurus Linn. seems to have been very vague, as,

according to the modern standards, none of his species of Silurus

is now referred to that genus. In Indian waters there are only

two species of Silurus (17), S. wynaadensis Day and S. cochin-

chinensis Cuv. & Val. The following table shows the present-day

systematic position of Hamilton’s species of Silurus :—

Genus Heteropneustes Miller (16).

1. Silurus singio Hamilton [=Heteropneustes fossilis (Bl.)].

Genus Callichrous Hamilton (18).

2. Silurus pabda Hamilton | =Callichrous bimaculalus a ile

3. Silurus canto Hamilton | =Callichrous bimaculatus ee

4. Stlurus duda Hamilton [=Callichrous bimaculatus NBL ne

5. Silurus chechra Hamilton [=Callichrous bimaculatus (B1.)].

6. Silurus pabo Hamilton (Callichrous pabo Ham.).

Genus Wallago Bleeker (19).

7. Silurus boalis Hamilton. [= Wallago attu (BI.)].

Genus Clupisoma Swainson (22)-

8. Silurus garua Hamilton. [Clupisoma garua (Ham.)].

In the first seven species, the dorsal fin is not provided with

a bony, pungent spine and in this respect they agree with the

typical members of the genus Silurus. In Hamilton’s S. garua

the first ray of the back fin ‘is a prickle, indented behind, and

terminated by a substance like whale bone’ (13, p. 187). On this

character, among others, Gaurchcha is to be regarded a member

of the same family, Schilbeidae, as the true vacha described in

the earlier article (21). |

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Swainson (22) was the first to separate Garua from Hamilton’s

other allied species and constitute for it a separate genus Clupisoma

which he defined as follows :—

‘Herring-shaped; head and body compressed, of nearly equal breadth;

eyes very large; teeth in both jaws and on the palate granulated and crowded;

caudal tin large, forked; dorsal fin placed almost above the pectoral; vent

nearly central.’

Swainson had no specimen of the species for examination but

based his diagnosis of Clupisoma on Hamilton’s description and

figures of Silurus garua. At the same time, he proposed a new

specific name—argentata-—for this species. Cuvier and Valencien-

nes (6), Bleeker (1) and Blyth (4), however, assigned Hamilton’s

species to Schilbe Cuvier, an African genus closely allied to the

Indian representatives of the family Schilbeidae. In the African

genera of the family, however, the two pairs of mandibular barbels

are situated at different levels, while in the Indian fishes they

are placed in a single row. In 1858, Bleeker (2) separated the

Indian species generically from the allied African forms and placed

Hamilton’s Silurus garua into a new genus, Schilbeichthys, which

was briefly characterised as follows :—

‘Pinna dorsalis hymenophora sinifera. Cirri 8. Dentes vomero-palatini in

thurmus 4 dispositi.’

At the time of creating this genus Bleeker seems to have been

aware of Swainson’s Clupisoma, for he included C. argentata

Swainson under the synonymy of his Schilbeichthys garua. Later,

Bleeker (3) recognised Swainson’s genus and merged his Schil-

beichthys into its synonymy. The genus was included in the

family Siluriformes and defined as:

‘Dentes vomero-palatini in vittam quadripartitam dispositi. Nares magnae

patulae approximatae, anteriores non tubulatae. Maxilla inferior superiore

brevior. (B.7% (Dia 7. 7b 3) Tie UG,

Evidently not being aware of Clupisoma Swainson, Giinther

(12) adopted the generic name Schilbeichthys and emended its

definition as follows:

‘One short dorsal fin with a pungent spine; no adipose fin; the anal

fin terminates at some distance from the caudal, which is forked. Barbels

eight, as in Ailia. Vomerine and palatine teeth present. Nostrils close

together, at the end of the snout, very wide, the posterior twice as wide

as the anterior. Head covered with skin. The upper profile is nearly straight ;

neck not elevated; upper jaw longer than the lower; orbit with a _ broad

anterior and posterior adipose eyelid, behind the cleft of the mouth. Ventral

composed of six rays.’

Only one species—Sch. garua--was included by Gunther in

this genus.

Day (7) disagreed with all previous workers and assigned

Hamilton’s garua to Pseudeutropius Bleeker. In doing so_ he

remarked:

‘This species forms the type of the genus Schilbeichthys, Bleeker, which

differs from the Pseudeutropius chiefly in having no second or adipose dorsal fin.

‘I have taken a large number of the young of this species from 4 to

g inches in length, and find that the adipose dorsal, though small, is distinct

in the fry; but as the size of the specimens increases up to 6 or 7 inches

it has either almost or entirely disappeared, and is invariably absent in the

adult.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 663

‘I therefore consider the species to be a Pseudeutropius; for the difference

which exists in the nostrils between it and some others of the genus is

insufficient for more than a_ specific division.’

The above case for the inclusion of Hamilton’s Silurus garua

in Pseudeutropius is not based on any sound reasoning as will be

shown in a subsequent communication elsewhere. It is, however,

true that the adipose fin is present in the fry of garua and is

gradually absorbed as the fish grows older. In_ his’ original

diagnosis of Schilbeichthys (vide supra, p. 662), Bleeker referred to

dentition as the most important character for the definition of his

genus, but later he took into consideration the character of the

nostrils also. These features, coupled with the herring-like form

of the fish and the peculiar form and structure of the air-bladder,

are sufficiently distinctive to separate Hamilton’s garua generically

from the allied forms included by Day under Pseudeutropius

Bleeker. It may here be mentioned that Day’s Pseudeutropius is

a composite genus.

In Clupisoma garua, as a rule, the vomero-palatine teeth form

a broad, semilunar band (text-fig. 1a) which may sometimes be

interrupted in the middle. There is a specimen in the Indian

Museum from Assam (No. 468; text-fig. 1b) in which the

dentition is abnormal; the vomero-palatine bands are interrupted

in the middle and le obliquely across the palate. The palatine

Text-fig. 1.—-Upper dentition and air-bladder of Clupisoma garua (Ham.).

a. Normal dentition of a specimen, 246 mm. in length without caudal.

x23; b. Abnormal dentition of the specimen No. 468, 126 mm. in

length without caudal. x43; c. Air-bladder of a young specimen,

95 mm. in length without caudal. x 33.

teeth are not produced backwards to form a semilunar band, as

is usually the case in this species.

The structure of the air-bladder was at first described by Day

(8) who stated that:

‘Air-vessel in P. garua, H. B., small and somewhat heart-shaped, it is

closely attached to the bodies of the anterior vertebrae; its external fibrous

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

covering is of moderate length . . . P. garua, in which the adipose dorsal

is so small, and altogether absorbed in the adult, has the smallest air-vessel

amongst the larger species which I have examined.’

Bridge and Haddon (3) have, however, described the structure

in much greater detail and J have figured it here (text-fig. 1c)

to show its form in a young specimen 95 mm. in length without

the caudal. With growth the bladder becomes more solid and is

still further reduced, but its form remains more or less the same.

In the other two species similar variations of the tooth-bands

and of the air-bladder are found. These are discussed below under

the accounts of the new species.

From the above it is clear that the chief diagnostic features of

the genus Clupisoma are (1) the form of the body, (ii) the nature

of the tooth-bands, (ii) the form and nature of the air-bladder

and (iv) the large size of the posterior nostrils. The genus may

now be redefined as follows :—

The body is elongated and compressed; it is almost herring-

shaped. The whole of the abdominal edge or the part between the

pelvic fins and the vent may be keeled. The head and body are

covered with soft skin. The head is oval, blunt and of moderate

size. A median fontanel on head extends between the eyes@ze

the nostrils. The occipital process is narrow and long; it extends

almost to the basal bone of the dorsal fin. The eyes are large,

ventro-lateral in position and provided with broad adipose lids;

these lids are better developed along the anterior and _ posterior

borders of the eye. The eyes are situated behind the cleft of the

maguth. The mouth is subterminal, transverse and of moderate

width; it is shghtly overhung by the snout. The nostrils are very

prominent and are not situated very far apart. . The anterior

nostrils are oval and are placed along the front border of the

snout. The posterior nostrils are represented by wide, transverse

slits on the top of the head. There are eight barbels, one pair

nasal, one pair maxillary with anterior ends situated in grooves

below the eyes and two pairs mandibular with their bases not

very far from the tip of the lower jaw and forming a straight

line. The teeth are small and villiform; they form bands in the

jaws which are not produced at the sides. The vomerine and

palatine teeth are contiguous, forming either a transverse or a

semilunar band across the palate. The tooth-bands on the palate

are subject to considerable variations. The dorsal fin is situated

considerably in advance of the ventrals; it is provided with a

spine of moderate strength which is finely serrated or roughened

internally. A small adipose dorsal may be present or absent. The

pectoral spine may be strong, roughened externally and serrated

internally, or it may be soft and finely pectinated internally. The

pelvics have six rays each. The anal fin is long. The caudal fin

is deeply forked. The gill-openings are wide. The gill-membranes

are deeply notched; they are united with each other but are free

from the isthmus. The air-bladder is greatly reduced, thick-walled

and flattened; it is closely applied to the ventral surface of the

anterior vertebrae,

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 665

Text-fig. 2,—Lateral view of head and anterior part of body of the three

species of Clupisoma Swainson.

a. €lupisoma garua (Ham.). x2. Length of specimen 212 mm. without

caudal; b. Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov. xX%. Length of specimen

240 mm. without caudal; c. Clupisoma montana, sp. nov. X 3.

Length of specimen 241 mm. without caudal.

666. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,” Vol. XXXIX

Text-fig. 3.—Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of three species

of Clupisoma Swainson.

a. Clupisoma garua (Ham.). x3. Length of specimen 212 mm. without

caudal; b. Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov. x3. Length of specimen

240 mm. without caudal; c. Clupisoma montana, sp. nov. X#%.

Length of specimen 241 mm. without caudal.

The three species of Clupisoma, referred to above, may be

distinguished by the following key :—

A. Nasal barbels not extending to front margin of eye

(text-fig. 2a); abdominal edge keeled between pelvics

and vent (text-fig. 3a); pectorals not extending to

pelvics (text-figs. 2a and 3a) see i CG. garua (rams

B. Nasal barbels extending considerably beyond front

border of eye (text-figs. 2b and c); pectorals reaching

base of pelvics (text-figs. 2b, 2c; 3b, 30).

I. Abdominal edge keeled throughout (text-fig. 3b);

maxillary barbels extending beyond middle of

pectorals ; mandibular barbels extending to posterior

margin of operculum ie ae ... C. pratert, sp. move

II. Abdominal edge rounded (text-fig. 3c); maxillary

barbels not extending beyond .base of pectorals ;

mandibular barbels not extending to posterior

margin of operculum ee oF ...C. montana, sp. nov.

SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION.

Clupisoma garua (Hamilton).

1822. Silurus garua, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 156, 375, pl. xxi fig. 50.

1839. Clupisoma argentata, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Fish. etc., ii, p. 306.

1839. Schilbe garua, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poitss., xiv, p. 379;

pl. eccexiil.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 667

Hogg. ochilbe -sarua, -Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., (xxv,\-pp. 54, TT.

Meson ocrilbe sarua, Blyth, Proc. As.. Soc. Bengal, p. 283.

Mogsa Senmoercninys aruda, Bleeker, Ichth. Arch. Ind. Prod., i, Siluri,

250:

gee. Clupisoma garua, Bleeker, Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, xiv, p. 393.

msoz. Clupisoma.-garua, Bleeker,..Ned. JLijdschy. Dterk.;.: 1, ‘p. 114,

mg04. chilberchthys garua, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus:, v, p: 57-

1869. Pseudeutropius garua, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 307.

feyt. Pseudeutropius garua, ‘Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 70g (Air-

bladder).

1873. Pseudeutropius garua, Day, Rep. Freshw. Fish. Fisheries India &

Burma, p. 265.

1877. Schilbeichthys garua, Beavan, Freshw. Fish. India, p. 134.

1877. Pseudeutropius garua, Day (in part), Fish. India, p. 474, pl. cix,

1889. Pseudeutropius garua, Day (in part), Faun. Brit. India Fish., 1

1894. Schilbeichthys garua, Bridge & Haddon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soe.

London (B), clxxxiv, pp. 211-213 (Air-bladder and Weberian Ossicles).

1913. Pseudeutropius garua, Chaudhuri, Rec. Ind. Mus., vili, p. 255.

fos7.. (Glipisonia carua, Hora, Proc. Nat. Inst. “Se. Ind.,. 11; ‘p. 39 ' (dis-

position of liver and kidney).

Vernacular Names:—Garua, Gharuya and Gaurchcha (Calcutta,

Lakshmipur and Goalpara); Kocha (Tista); Punia Cathua (Ooriah) ;

Puttosi (Bengal); Buchua (Hind.); Dhon-ga-nu (Sind); Buchua,

Chel-lee and Ka-raad (Punjab); Bikree (Oudh).

Clupisoma garua is a herring-shaped fish, tapering very gradu-

ally toward both ends. The head is oval, blunt, and of moderate

size; it 1s somewhat wider than the body. The length of the head

1S contained from 4.8 to 5.6 times in the length without the caudal;

its height at the occiput is almost equal to its greatest width and

mecontained from 1.2 to 1.6 times im its length. The head is

proportionately longer and narrower in young specimens. The

eyes are large, ventro-lateral in position and situated almost in

the middle of the head. The longest axis of the pupil is vertical.

The diameter of the eye is contained from 3 to 3.8 times in the

length of the head ; from 1.2 to 1.6 times in the (ene an of the snout

and from 1.1 to 1.8 times in the interorbital width. The head is

provided with a median fontanel between the eyes which extends

to the nostrils. The occipital process is long and pointed; it is

nearly 4 times as long as wide and sometimes extends to the

basal bone of the dorsal fin. There are four pairs of barbels;

the nasal barbels usually do not extend as far as the anterior border

of the eye, the maxillary barbels reach to the base of the pelvics,

and the mandibular barbels to the base of the pectorals. In

younger specimens the barbels are proportionately longer. The

nostrils are very prominent; the posterior nostrils are large oval

slits, sometimes three times as broad as the anterior nostrils. The

mouth is fairly wide and almost anterior; the snout projects

beyond the lower jaw only slightly. The teeth are small and villi-

form; those on the palate are arranged in a semicircle. Sometimes

the vomero-palatine band is indistinctly divided into four patches

and very rarely the teeth on the palate are arranged in two short

bands disposed in a transverse row.

The dorsal fin is wholly in advance of the ventrals; its spine

is rather slender, rugose anteriorly and feebly serrated posteriorly ;

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XOX

it is almost as long as the head behind the nostrils. The adipose

dorsal is always absent in the adult, but in young specimens up

to about 100 mm. in length it is present as a minute structure.

The pectoral spine is somewhat longer and stronger than that of

the dorsal fin; it does not extend to the base of the pelvic fins;

it is roughened externally but denticulated internally. The ventral

fins are situated slightly dorsal to the ventral profile of the body.

The abdominal edge between the pelvics and the vent is keeled.

The caudal fin is deeply forked; the lower lobe is longer than

the upper.

The depth of the body is contained from 4.6 to 5.6 times in

the length without the caudal. The head is somewhat broader

than the width of the body.

According to Hamilton (13), ‘The prevailing colour is_ silver,

with green on the back. The fins are diaphanous, that on the

back and the pectorals being dotted and that of the tail being

edged with black. The head and shoulders have a golden gloss.’

During the fishing of a large settling tank at the Calcutta

Corporation’s Water-works at Pulta during August 1937, several

specimens of Clupisoma garua were obtained. As there was an

artist with me, he very kindly noted the changes in colouration

and the three illustrations in the colour plate show this point very

clearly. When the fish is just taken out of water the dorsal sur-

face is yellowish apple-green and the upper surface of the head

is French-green. The side of the head is light orange-buff with

a streak of coral red above the eyes. The sides of the body are

silvery showing metallic hues. The fins are mostly diaphanous,

but the caudal fin is light yellow in colour with a margin of light

neutral tint. About an hour afterwards, the colour along the dorsal

surface became French-green and the original yellow was. still

present in a broad, lateral patch one along each side. The side of

the head changed to yellow ochre and the streak above the eye

to madder-brown. The marking of the caudal fin became some-

what deeper. After about 2 hours the colour changed to a neutral

tint and the caudal fin became distinctly yellow. The head

developed light neutral tint and with a considerable proportion of

the yellow colour. The base of the anal fin turned light lemon-

yellow. The caudal fin became raw sienna and its margin turned

still deeper. Finally the colour of the fish changed to a silvery

neutral tint, just as was figured in the case of Eutropiichthys vacha

(Ham.) in the second article of this series.

Distribution :—The material of C. garua in the collection of

the Indian Museum is not sufficient to discuss its distribution.

Day (10) stated that the fish is ‘Found generally throughout the

larger rivers of Sind, India, Assam and Burma’. The Burmese

specimens represent a distinct species. It seems probable that the

fish does not occur in the Deccan as I have not found any record of

the species from that area. Though I recently collected a

considerable amount of material from the Hooghly river above

Calcutta, there are not many specimens from other localities in

India for study. Consequently it is not possible to give an

account of the probable variations undergone by the species.

669

OF INDIA

THE GAME FISHES

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670} JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST... SOCIERY.” Voly xXxOue

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

In his list of the fishes of the Rangpur District Hamilton (vide

Day, 9) made the following observation under Gharaya:

‘Fhis is a very common fish, but is not eaten by the higher classes,

because it is supposed to feed on excrement. It grows to three feet in length,

and although its colours are green and silver, has a very lurid ugly appearance.’

In his (13) ‘Gangetic Fishes’, however, he states:

‘The Garua is common in the fresh water rivers of the Gangetic pro-

vinces, often grows to two feet in length, and by the natives is considered

as good eating. It has little or none of that lurid appearance to which

many kindred fishes are liable.’

So far as my experience is concerned Garua Bdachcha is con-

sidered good eating throughout its range. In the Punjab Bachcha

is considered a great delicacy by the Indians and Europeans alike

and fetches a somewhat higher price. In the course of my recent

survey of the Hooghli river above Calcutta I found that both

Eutropuchthys vacha and Clupisoma garua were sold everywhere

at a somewhat higher price than the other species of fish.

Text-fig. 4.—Dissection of the visceral organs of Clupisoma garua (Ham.), to

show the nature of the alimentary canal and the disposition of the liver (L)

and the kidney (K). x13. Reproduced from Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India,

VOL, il, “Pp. 30; 21037).

An examination of the stomach contents of a number of large

specimens, over a foot in length, obtained from the Calcutta Corpora-

tion’s Water-works at Pulta on the 14th August, 1937, showed

that the fish feeds on crabs, shrimps, fish, insects, etc. A certain

amount of vegetable matter was also found in the stomach of

some specimens. The alimentary canal is one and a half times as

long as the entire length of the fish and this clearly shows that,

as compared with Eutropichthys vacha, it is probably not a very

clean feeder. The stomach is in the form of a large bag devoid

of any ridges along its walls. As I remarked in the earlier article,

probably Clupisoma feeds at the bottom whereas Eutropichthys

chases its prey in mid-water or at the surface. The nature of the

mouth opening in the two forms lends considerable support to

such a view.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 671

As anglers in writing their notes have hitherto made no

distinction between Eutroptichthys and Clupisoma I have nothing

further to add regarding the fishing of Garua Badchcha beyond

Po]

Text-fig. 5.--Lateral View of head and anterior part of body of a specimen,

260 mm. long, of Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) from the river Hooghli. x #.

what has already been given in my earlier account (21). It should,

however, now be possible for anglers to make notes on the two

species separately for the benefit of sportsmen in general.

DESCRIPTION OF TWO NEW SPECIES.

Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov.

1877. Pseudeutropius garua, Day (in part), Fish. India, p. 474.

1885. Pseudeutropius garua, Vinciguerra (in part), Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor.

mare Genova (2), ll, p. 91.

1889. Pseudeutropius garua, Day (in part), Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., i, p. 141.

1890. ? Pseudeutropius garua, Vinciguerra, Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat.

Genova (2), ix, p. 209

Day (10) appears to be the first writer who extended the range

of Clupisoma garua (Ham.) to Burma without making any com-

ments. Vinciguerra (23) examined one specimen from Burma

(Bassein) and one from Calcutta in 1885 and referred both of them

to Hamilton’s species without noting any points of difference

between the two. Later, in his (24) more comprehensive work on

the fishes of Burma, he found that his single specimen from

Mandalay agreed with his previous example from Bassein and both

of them differed from the Calcutta example. He mainly referred

to the differences in the length of barbels, pectoral spine, anal fin

and in the dentition and was doubtfully of the opinion that the

specimens from Burma may not belong to Hamilton’s species.

In the old collection of the Indian Museum there are several

specimens from Burma referred by Day to Clupisoma garua. A

careful examination of this material and its comparison with the

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

typical examples from various parts of India have shown that

Vinciguerra’s doubts were justified. Though the Burmese ex-

amples are not in a very good state of preservation, their main

—-~

Text-fig. 6.—Upper dentition and air-bladder of Clupisoma prateri. sp. nov.

a. Upper dentition of specimen, No. 6048, 131 mm. in length without

caudal. x34; b. Upper dentition of type-specimen, Dup. Cat. No.

219, 212 mm. in length without caudal. x33; ¢. Air-bladder and

associated skeletal elements of the type-specimen. X33.

features are so distinct from the Indian species that I have no

hesitation in proposing for them a new species—Clupisoma prateri,

and to associate it with the name of Mr. S. H. Prater in slight”

recognition of the valuable help he has rendered to me from time

to time in procuring fresh material of Indian fishes for my studies.

The species will be described in detail when fresh material from

Burma becomes available, but for the present I give below in a

tabular form the main points of difference between Clupisoma garua

(Ham.) and Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov.

Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov. Clupisoma garua (Ham.).

1. Nasal barbels extend considerably Nasal barbels do not reach the eye.

beyond front margin of eye;

sometimes even to the posterior

border of eye.

2. Maxillary barbels extend to about Maxillary barbels extend to base of

the middle of pelvics, and some- pelvics, or in young to middle of

times to the commencement of the pelvics.

anal fin.

Mandibular barbels extend to the Mandibular barbels extend to the base

hind border of operculum. of pectorals.

ite GAME FISHES: OF INDIA 673

Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov. Clupisoma garua (Ham.).

4. Pectorals extend considerably be- l'ectorals do not extend to base of

yond the commencement of pel- pelvics.

vics.

5. Anal with about 4o to 44 rays. Anal with about 32 rays.

6. Whole of dorsal fin considerably in Whole of the dorsal fin just in advance

advance of the pelvics. of the pelvics.

Abdominal edge keeled throughout Abdominal edge keeled between bases

in front of vent. of pelvics and vent.

Besides the ditterences enumerated above between the two

species, the relative proportions of the various parts also differ

and these can be made out by a reference to the tables of

measurements.

In the young specimens there is a small adipose fin, but it

becomes wholly absorbed during growth. The dentition is more

or less similar to that described above for Clupisoma garua and

a similar type of abnormality is found in some of the specimens.

Reference may here be made to the fact that in the specimen

examined by Vinciguerra the vomero-palatine bands are short and

are of the same nature as those illustrated here in text-figure 6b.

iocaity: Burma:

Type-specimen: Duplicate Catalogue No. 213, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Measurements in millimetres.

Total length eeoutee caudal 87:0 13370 231:0

Length of head.. 17:0 25°0 38°6

Width of head . 11°0 i515 Zor

Height of head at occiput. DiS 17°0 28:0

Width of body .. fe 7°0 12:0 18°0_

Height of body... 15°0 24°5 4G°0

Diameter of eye ay) 73 a2

Length of snout 6°0 10:0 14-0

Interorbital width : 8°0 11-0 1570

Length of pectoral spine ... 19°0 29:0 50°0

Length of dorsal spine 14:0 aa os

Length of nasal barbkel 8:0 12°5 1379

Length of maxillary barbel 38°0 58°5 87:0

Lergth of outer mandibular barbel 18°0 22°0 31:0

Length of inner macdibular barbel ... 1S°0 24°0 32°0

Least height of caudal peduncle 6°5 IE) 20-0

Commercement of dorsal from tip

of snout ae 210 38°0 64:0

Clupisoma montana, sp. nov.

Dre WG-7) Aeareia Rt) tos, V.6%, Con.

Clupisoma montana is a graceful species in which the head and

body are moderately compressed and the body is relatively less deep.

The dorsal profile is slightly arched, being highest near the com-

mencement of the rayed dorsal. The head is short and bluntly

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

pointed ;-its length is contained 5 times in the total length without

the caudal. The width of the head is contained from 1.5 to 1.6

times and the height at occiput™from 1.2 to 1.3 times im am

Text-fig. 7.—Lateral view of type-specimen of Clupisoma montana, sp. nov. x4.

length. In the middle of the dorsal surface of the head there is

a narrow groove which commences between the nostrils and the

eye and extends over the occipital process. The occipital process

is long and narrow and almost meets the basal bone of the dorsal

fin. The eyes are situated almost in the middle of the length

of the head and are placed laterally above the angle of the mouth;

they are provided with broad circular lids. The diameter of the

eye 1s contained about 4.8 times in the length of head, 1.8 times

in length of the snout and 2 times in the interorbital width.

The interorbital space is distinctly convex. The mouth is inferior

and obliquely directed upwards. The lips are thin and adhere

closely to the jaws, except at the angles of the mouth where they

form free lobes by their union. The lower jaw is somewhat sharp

and broadly pointed. The teeth are small and villiform; those of

the jaws form narrow bands which may be interrupted in the

middle; those on the palate form two oblong and somewhat curved

patches which may be continuous. The teeth on the upper jaw are

in advance of the lower jaw. The nostrils are situated wide apart;

the anterior nostrils are rounded, slightly tubular and directed

forwards; the posterior nostrils are considerably larger, more

approximated’ and situated on the top of the head. There are

eight barbels; one pair nasal, which extend beyond the anterior

margin of the eye; one pair maxillary which are’ somewhat longer

than the head and two pairs mandibulars which are close together

at a short distance behind the tip of the lower jaw and are

considerably shorter than the head. The maxillary barbels are

situated in grooves which run below the eyes. The gill-openings

are wide, but only the portion above the base of the pectoral fin

is provided with a broad membrane and it seems probable that

this portion is mostly used during respiration, as has been observed

in the case of other hill-stream fishes.

The rayed dorsal is situated above the pectorals and is almost

entirely in advance of the ventrals. Its -spine and the anterior

branched rays are considerably longer than the posterior ones.

The dorsal spine is rather feeble, smooth anteriorly and finely

serrated posteriorly. The adipose fin is small, but - distinctly

PH CAME FISHES ‘OF INDIA 675

marked; it is situated about the beginning of the last third of the

distance between the commencement of the rayed dorsal and the

base of the caudal fin. The anal fin is long with about half-a-dozen

Text-fig. 3.—Upper dentition of two specimens of Clupisoma montana,

sp. nov. X4.

anterior rays somewhat longer than the others; its base is about

one-third the length without the caudal and terminates at a con-

siderable distance from the caudal fin. The pectoral fin is long

and pointed; its spine is somewhat stronger than that of the dorsal

and is smooth externally and finely serrated internally; it extends

beyond the commencement of the ventral. The ventrals just reach

the anal opening. The caudal is deeply forked.

The depth of the body is contained from 4.5 to 4.8 times in

the length without the caudal and the least height of the caudal

peduncle 1.8 times in its length.

In the spirit specimens the head is dull white while the back

is gray which fades on the sides. The lower portion is olivaceous.

The eyes are grayish in colour.

The air-bladder is transversely ovate and greatly flattened; its

anterior portion is almost solid and the posterior part is bent in

the form of a semicircular canal suggesting an approach to the

structure found in Eutropuchthys and Ailia. Owing to the paucity

of specimens I have not been able to investigate this structure

more fully.

Locality: Teesta River, below Darjeeling.

Type-specimen: F 12472/1, Zoological Survey of India, Indian

Museum, Calcutta.

Remarks: Clupisoma montana can be readily distinguished from

C. garua by the (i), relative shortness of its barbels (ii), relative

676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIX

weakness of its dorsal and pectoral spines (iii), presence of adipose

dorsal in the adult (iv), upper dentition (v), larger number of rays

in the anal fin and (vi), structure of the air-bladder.

“4

SORE ;

SS RITTEETE TY

Text-fig. 9.—Air-bladder and = associated skeletal elements of Clupisoma

montana, sp. nov. X4.

In characters 11, v and vi the new species is more highly

specialised whereas in the other three characters it is more

primitive. It seems probable that the two species have evolved

from a common generalised form, one taking to life in mountain-

ous streams while other entered sluggish waters. The ecological

differences in their habitats probably led to the production of two

species. The generalised form is probably represented at the

present day by Clupisoma prateri, sp. nov.

Measurements in millimetres.

‘Total length without caudal 237°0 241°0

Length of head . 47°5 48:2

Depth of body 48°5 S372

Width of head 36°0 30°0

Height of head at occiput S725 36°6

Length of snout .. 1370 19:0

Diameter of CVCu.. 10°0 10°0

Interorbital width 20°0 20°0

Length of caudal peduncle .. 37°0 39°0

Least height of caudal peduncle 20:2 20°0

Longest ray of dorsal 39°0 45°0

Longest ray of anal 29°0 310

Length of pectoral we ns sis 40°0 43°0

Length of ventra fe re ies 26°0 29:0

Length of rasal barbel oe ve ee 1720 14°0

Length of maxillary barbel . a ae 2210 56°0

Length of cuter mandibular barbel _... bis 25:0 22°0

Length of inner mandibular barbel .... Ap 36°0 28°0

Ler.gth of base of anal fin...... ae se 75°0 80:0

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 677

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly made a grant

towards the cost of the illustrations and for this I offer my sincere

thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. S. Misra, m.sc.,

my assistant in the Zoological Survey of India, has helped me in

the preparation of the tables of measurements and for this I am

very grateful to him. The illustrations were prepared by Babu

B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Bleeker, P.—‘Nalezingen op de ichthyologische fauna van Bengalen en

Hindostan’. Verh. Bat. Gen., vol. xxv, p. 110 (1853).

2. Bleeker, P.—Ichthyologicae Archipelagi Indici Prodomus., vol. i, Siluri,

p. 255 (Batavia, 1858).

3. Bleeker, P.—'‘Notice sur les genres Parasilurus, Eutropiichthys, Pseudeu-

tropius et Pseudopangasius’. Versl. Akad. Amsterdam, vol. xiv, p. 393 (1862).

4. Blyth, E.—‘Report of Curator, Zoological Department, for May 1858’.

IOC His: SOC. bengal, vol, XxVil, p..283 (1858);

5. Bridge, T. W. and Haddon, A. C.—‘Contributions to the Anatomy of

Fishes.—II. The Air-bladder and Weberian Ossicles in the Siluroid Fishes’.

Wile rans. Koy... soc, London (B), vol. clxxxiv, pp. 212, 213 (1894).

6. Cuvier, M. and Valenciennes, M. A.—Huistotre naturelle des Poissons,

Vol.» XiV,. Pp. 379-, (1839).

7. Day, F.—On the Fishes of Orissa’. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 307

8. Day, F.—‘On the Freshwater Siluroids of India and Burma’. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, p. 709 (1871).

g. Day, F.—‘The Fish and Fisheries of Bengal’. In Hunter’s A Statistical

Account of Bengal, vol. xx (London, 1877).

10. Day, F.—Ilishes of India (London, 1876-8).

11. Fowler, H. W.—‘Zoological Results of the Third De Schauensee

Siamese Expedition. Part viii,—Fishes ‘obtained in 1936’. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Siete Philadelphia, vol. Ixxxix, p. 142, fig. 32 (1937).

12. Gtnther, A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the British Museum, vol. v,

p. 56 (London, 1864).

13. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and

its branches, pp. 186, 187 (Edinburgh, 1822).

14. Hora, S. L.—‘Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some observations

on those of the Naga Hills’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxii, pp. 188, 189, fig. 3

(1921).

1. Hora, S. L.—‘Siluroid Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. IV. On

the use of the generic name Wallago Bleeker’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxviii,

Pp. 207, 208, (1936).

16. Hora, S. L.—‘Siluroid Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. Fishes

of the genus Heteropneustes Miller’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxviii, pp. 208,

209 (1936).

17. Hora, S. L.—‘Siluroid Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. VII.

Fishes of the genus Silurus Linnaeus’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxviil, ‘pp. 351-6

(1936).

18. Hora, S. L.—Siluroid Fishes of India, Burma and Ceylon. VIII.

Fishes of the Genus Callichrous Hamilton’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxvili,

pp: 356-61 (1936).

19. Hora, S. L.—‘Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes

and its bearing on the probable land connections between India and_ the

adjacent Countries’. Curr. Sci. vol. v, pp. 351-6 (1937).

20. Hora, S. L.—‘The Game Fishes of India. I. ‘*The Indian Trout’?

Barilius (Opsarius) bola Hamilton’. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxix,

Pp. 199-210 (1937).

21. Hora, S. L.—The Game Fishes of India. II. ‘‘The Bachhwa_ or

Butchwa’’. Eutropiichthys vacha Hamilton’. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soe.,

Vol, xxxix, pp. 431-446 (1937).

678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

22. Swainson, W.—On the Natural History and Classification of Fishes,

Amphibians and Reptiles, vol. ii, p. 306 (1839). aa eS

23. WVinciguerra, D.—Appunti Ittiologici sulle collezioni del Museo Civico

di Genova. VI., Enumerazione di alcuni pesci raccolti alle foci del Gange e

dell’ Irrawaddi dal capitano Gerolamo Ansaldo’.. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. -Nat.

Genova (2), il, p. 91 (1885).

24. Vinciguerra, D.— Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e regioni vicine.

Pesci’. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stov. Nat. Genova (2), xix; «pp. 209-1, (1s90),

EXPLANATION OF PLATE,

Laterai view of a specimen of Clupisoma garua (Ham.) from the Settling

Tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-works at Pulta. xca. 3. ~

The three illustrations show the changes in colouration which a_ specimen

undergoes after its removal from water.

Top. Immediately after removal from water.

Middle. One hour after removal from water.

Bottom. ‘Two hours after removal from water.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND -SALSETTE.

SaLtim ALI and HuMayun ABDULALI,

Para LE

(With one plate).

(Continued from page 530 of this volume).

The Great Indian Reed Warbler: Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon).

Field identification: A large olive-brown Warbler noticeable for its vehement

call, usually found in mangrove swamps or among reeds in marshes. When

calling, the orange-red inside of the mouth is distinctive.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 6 2-4-30 Rewas (S.A.); St. Xavier’s College: 22

14-8-33 ; 236 24-4-35; Gorégaon.

Noted at Mahul, Trombay, Gorégaon, Godhbunder and Powai Lake.

This typical warbler, though surprisingly local, is not uncommon in_ suitable

localities. It is partial to mangrove swamps and our only records away from

this habitat are from the reed-beds at Powai.

The call or song is remarkably loud for the size of the bird. At times it is

ventriloquistic in character seeming to come from a_ different direction to

whence it really does. When moving about the bushes it utters a harsh ke

ke something like that of a Babbler.

Though long believed to be only a winter visitor to our area, there can

now be little doubt that some birds at least remain to breed in the thick

mangrove swamps that fringe the numerous creeks along our coast. The

specimen collected at Rewas on 2-4-30 had testes measuring 6X4 mm. (see note

in’ ].B.N.H.S., xxxv, p. 450) and their presence in these parts during every

month of the year may be regarded as further evidence.

That no nests have yet been actually obtained in our area is partly due

to the extremely difficult country the birds inhabit. There is for instance, one

two-mile patch of mangrove (Avicennia officinalis), Ceriops Candolleana, and the

spiny-leaved sea-holly (Acanthus ilicifolius) and mud, intersected by tidal creeks,

where half a dozen localised pairs may invariably to seen during July and

August. Thus located it may seem an easy matter to find their nests, since

the males persist in warbling vociferously from prominent positions. The

mangrove and the sea-holly have, however, so far* prevented our making a

closer acquaintance with nesting birds.

The song is well described by Whistler as ‘very loud and variable, hard

and metallic for the most part, but also interspersed with pleasant bars. But

the essential burden of the refrain, constantly recurring, is the loud karra

Rarra kareet kareet kareet or prit prit pritil which suddenly bursts out of

a reed-bed with astonishing vehemence’. When warbling, the throat swells

out revealing a patch of dark feather-bases.

Blyth’s Reed Warbler: Acrocephalus .dumetorum Blyth.

Field identification: A smaller replica of the Great Reed Warbler found

in bushes etc. both near and away from water. In the season when it is

with us it is seldom heard warbling.

Specimens: B.N.H.§$.: 3 22-1-11 Kheneri Island (C.A. Crump); 0? 28-11-26;

17-11-27 Chembur; 27-11-27 Tulsi Lake (S.A.); St. Xavier’s College: 30 0?

ieut-32 Powai Lake (H.A.).

Blyth’s Reed Warblers along with other migratory warblers are common

on passage in late autumn and in spring, and many individuals also spend the

winter with us. But the paucity of specimens and the difficulty of distinguish-

ing these birds in the field do not allow many notes.

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

This Warbler is, however, one of the commonest and may be met with

singly, hopping about in bushes, uttering an incessant chuck - chuck. It is

less of a marsh bird than the last species. Its song—sometimes heard just

before the birds leave for their breeding grounds in mid-March—is a_ pretty

subdued chittering warble. The last date on which we have noted it, across

the harbour, is 9th May which is of course exceptionally late.

The Paddy-field Warbler : Acrocephalus agricolus Jerdon,

Field identification: A small warbler with rufous rump found usually in

tall grass, reeds or standing paddy. a

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0 2-12-28 Géddhbunder (S.A.). Also noted at Kihim

(Alibag District).

Winter visitor. The Paddyfield Warbler is not common in Salsette, but

one or two may sometimes be put up from in amongst the patches of tall

grass in semi-marshy ground bordering the Géodhbunder creek. This, in

fact, is the only locality in our area where we have come across it. It has

the habit, when flushed, of skimming over the tops of the grass in a jerky

flight and spreading its tail as it dives into the stems every few yards. The

rufous tinge on the rump is then conspicuous.

The Tailor-Bird ; Ovthotomus sutorius guserata (Latham).

Local name: Dirzee, Phitkt.

Field identification: A tiny bird about § the size of a Sparrow. Olive

green above with a rusty crown and elongated middle feathers in the tail.

Frequents gardens and shrubberies in town and_ suburbs.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Several from ~Vihar, Pali Hill and ‘elsewhere am

the suburbs. . St. Xavier's College: 49 4 “18-8233 Bandra’ (Ae):

Noted: Bombay City and suburbs: Khetwadi, Girgaum, Bhileshwar,

Chowpati, Fort, Government House Grounds, “Walkeshwar, Warden Road,

Malabar Hill, etc., Pali Hill, Andhéri, Khar, Chembur, Borivli and elsewhere.

Mainland: Common everywhere in suitable localities.

Resident. A familiar little bird usually seen in pairs, frequenting gardens

and shrubbery everywhere in the city as well as suburbs. They frequently

enter verandahs and show little fear of man. Usually hopping about amongst

potted plants and small bushes uttering a loud, cheerful to-wit, to - wit,

to - wit, to - whee, to - whee, etc. While this is being uttered the head is raised

and a black crescent-shaped mark is visible on either side of the swelled-out

throat. They are partial to Bombax and Erythrina flowers, and in season

may be seen regularly feeding on the nectar.

Breeding: The nesting season begins in May and lasts till October. During

the monsoon not only is insect life plentiful for rearing the young, but a

great many large-leaved plants spring up, such as various species of Leea,

affording the requisite nesting sites to this and allied warblers.

The nest is placed in a funnel formed by folding over and stitching a

broad leaf along its edges. Sometimes 2 or more leaves are sewn together.

The stitching material is usually cotton or vegetable down which is cleverly

knotted at the ends to prevent the sewing getting undone. It is said that

the hen alone does the sewing, but this we have not ascertained. Within the

funnel the usual type of cup-shaped nest is fitted, composed of soft fibres

and cotton wool or vegetable down. It is usually within 2 or 3 feet of the

ground. The lowest nest we have seen was in the leaf of a teak seedling,

partly trailing-the ground; the highest about 8 feet up in a Terminalia

catappa or ‘country almond’ tree. Croton, fig and other plants growing in

pots in a garden, porch or verandah are much favoured.

In our area a clutch of 3 eggs, or occasionally 4, seems to be the normal.

We have taken both the unmarked pale blue and the red-spotted eggs here.

The Streaked Fantail Warbler : Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin).

Field identification: Size about the same as the last. A small fulvous

brown bird with black centres to the feathers of the back giving it a streaked

appearance; under parts whitish; the rufous rump and white eyebrow are rather

conspicuous. The white-tipped tail and the wandering, mounting flight accom-

panied by chip, chip, chip, as of garden shears is diagnostic. Usually frequents

areas covered with tall grass and weeds,

RN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PEALE Vil

| Nest of Cisticola j. cursitans at Church Gate Reclamation.

49t08 by ; Br. Novarro, S. J.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 681

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College 4-7-35 Churchgate, Bombay (Back Bay

Reclamation).

Noted: Godhbunder, Villé Parlé, Andhéri, Bhandtp, Kurla, Rewas, Bassein.

Resident, but shifting locally with the availability of suitable habitats. The

Streaked Fantail Warbler is a recent colonist on the unappropriated reclamation

area, between Churchgate and Colaba. It is quite common in the grass and

rank vegetation that springs up here during the monsoon. Single birds may

usually be seen up in the air, indulging in their undulating wandering flights,

uttering chip, chip, chip. This is the first indication of the presence of the

species in any locality.

Breeding : On 30 June Brother Navarro S. J. took a nest on the Churchgate

Reclamation containing a clutch of 4 eggs. On 4 July 5 nests were discovered

in the same area, 4 in the course of construction and 1 containing 1 fresh egg.

These nests were all destroyed by grass-cutters soon after. On 30 September

2 more nests with c/5 each were located, and a third nearing completion.

All the nests were built into the upright stalks of the green smooth grass

(species?) which grows in tussocks on this area. They were all witihn 6 inches

of the ground and practically invisible at a few feet distance.

The large number of Calotes lizards and rats inhabiting this area must

cause much destruction of eggs and young.

Franklin’s Wren-Warbler: Pranklinia gracilis gracilis (Franklin).

Field identification: A tiny warbler with longish, seemingly loosely attached

tail. Dusky greyish-brown above, light coloured underneath with a broad pale

ashy band across the breast. Usually seen in small flocks of. 3 to 5 in scrub

jungle with tall grass, or in mango groves and deciduous forest with rank

undergrowth.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 59 CG 19-8-33 GOrégaon 247 0? 10-12-35.

Andhéri (H.A.).

Except for one record on 22-4-34 we have only come across this bird in

Salsette during the monsoon from July to about December. In the breeding

season males make themselves conspicuous by warbling from exposed situations

such as the top of a bush or tree. The song consists of a musical or tinkling

chiwee - chiwee - chiwee, chip - chip - chip - chip commencing low and feebly, the

chips rising in scale and ending abruptly. Its status in our area is uncertain.

~It may prove to be a local migrant, but on the other hand it may conceivably

have escaped notice in the non-breeding plumage which is a sober brown

above and rather similar to that of the Indian Wren Warbler. The breast

band is almost absent.

Breeding: This warbler breeds in Salsette and on the adjacent mainland

during thte monsoon. We have the following records of nests :—

6 September (1934) Tansa Lake with c/4 fresh.

17 September (1933) Saki village (near Andhéri) with c/4 fresh.

10 October (1933) under construction.

The nest is similar to that of the Tailor-bird but usually somewhat more

globular in shape. It is built in the broad leaves of some monsoon plant

like Leea. The eggs in the above nests were white in one case, light blue

in the other, both unspotted. Frequently they are spotted and blotched with

reddish-brown.

The Rufous-fronted Warbler: [vranklinia buchanani (Blyth).

Field identification: Size same as last. In appearance very similar to

gracilis in the brown winter plumage, but with a rusty crown as in the

Tailor-bird and a distinctive white tip to the tail. No breast band.

No specimens.

This is apparently a rare straggler into our area. S.A. has only come

across it on a single occasion at Chembur (7-6-32). Its usual habitat is drier

country than that frequented by gracilis.

The Booted Tree-Warbler : Hippolais rama _ scita (Eversmann).

Field identification: Smaller and lither than Sparrow. Fulvous brown

above, sandy-buff underneath. In general appearance very similar to Blyth’s

Reed Warbler, but lacking the olive tinge in the upper plumage. Frequents

bushes and shrubbery. . .

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST: ASOCIETY> Vol. xXx xa

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 156 o Juhtt 31-10-33; 190 0, 191 4-4-34

Juhn (H.A.) B.N.H.S. Coll.: 10-2-13 Santa Cruz (N. B. Kinneat),: 3°43q9

Talsi Lake (rama or scita?) (S.A.).

Noted: Pah Hill, Chembur and throughout Salsette and commonly on the

mainland.

This tree-warbler is a very common winter visitor to our area. Our ©

earliest record is on 16 October; latest 4 April. In habits and appearance it is

so similar to Blyth’s Reed Warbler that the two are not infrequently confused

in the field. It is very probable, moreover, that the typical race of this bird,

H. r. rama—Sykes’ Tree Warbler—also occurs within our area in winter. In

the field these two races are almost impossible to tell one from the other

which confounds the confusion further !

It goes about the bushes singly, searching systematically for insects and

uttering chuck, chuck incessantly at intervals of a second or two.

The Eastern Orphean Warbler : Sylvia hortensis jerdoni (Blyth).

Field identification: Size slightly larger than Sparrow. Brownish - slaty-

grey above, whitish below with a conspicuous black cap. Tail black with some

white in it. Frequents Babul and open scrub country.

Specimen: St. Xavier’s College: 183 Juhu 13-3-34 (H.A.).

Apparently only a rare and irregular passage migrant in spring. The stomach

of our specimen contained 1 small snail, 4 seeds (sp ?) and some insect remains.

The Indian Lesser Whitethroat: Sylvia curruca affinis (Blyth).

Field identification: Size smaller than Sparrow—about the same as Blyth’s

Reed Warbler. Upper plumage earthy brown with the forehead and crown grey.

Tail brown and white, chin and throat pure white, rest of underparts buffy

or pale greyish white. Singly in scrub and _ thickets.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 162 2-11-33, 212 5-12-34 Andhéri (H.A.).

Noted: Mainland, Kihim; Bassein.

A passage migrant and winter visitor. Probably commoner than it appears

to be but overlooked or confused with the numerous other warblers of the

same size, appearance and habits that visit us at this season. The earliest

date we have recorded is 7 October.

It frequents scrub-and-bush country and hunts for insects in the same

way as the Booted Tree-Warbler uttering the same sort of chuck, chuck

at intervals.

The Willow-Warblers are all tiny birds, mostly much smaller than the

Sparrow, olive green or olive brown above, and varying shades of yellow

underneath. They are some of our most numerous winter visitors. They flit

about restlessly among the foliage of trees hunting tiny insects from the sprigs

and flowers. They may often be seen clinging upside down on the sprigs or

launching graceful little sallies after winged insects. While with us—in their

winter quarters—they are seldom in song, but the call notes of the different

species are as a rule sufficiently distinctive to furnish a clue to their identifica-

tion in the field. Indeed when once authenticated, we have found the call

notes to be in many cases the only means of identifying the different species

more or less reliably. Wherever there are trees, these little birds will be found.

We have found the following species in Bombay and Salsette, though probably

several others occur besides:

Tickell’s Willow-Warbler: Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell).

Specimen: B.N.H.S.; 7-3-26 Trombay ‘Hill, ‘Chembur (S-A.):

Olivaceous Willow-Warbler: Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth.

Field identification: Easier than most members of this group that visit us.

Earthy brown or greyish-brown above, yellow or buffy-yellow below with a

distinctive yellow eyebrow. A brown streak through the eye. Very partial

to rock-scarps, fort ruins, etc., which it clambers about, constantly flicking its .

wings and uttering a monosyllabic pink.

Specimen: St. Xavier’s College: 185 ¢ GGrégaon 19-3-34 (H-A.).

This species seems to be uncommon in our area, the specimen being our

only record for Salsette, ;

DIL BARDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 683

The Green Willow-Warbler ; Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus Blyth.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 16-10-26 Kihim (S.A.); St. Xavier’s College: 138 3

Kihim 20-10-33 (H.A.).

Tha Greenish Willow-Warbler: Phylloscopus nitidus ciridanus Blyth.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 2 19-12-08 Santa Cruz, @ 4-12-09 Andhéri (N.B.K.) ;

Si. Xavier's College:.130 G Kihim 18-10-33 (H.A.).

These two races, which are quite impossible to tell with certainty in the

field, are our commonest willow-warblers in winter. We are unable to dis-

tinguish between their call notes which are a sharp perky chi-wee repeated

at intervals of a few seconds as the birds hop about the foliage of trees in

quest of insects.

The Ashy Wren-Warbler : Prinia socialis socialis Sykes.

Field identification: Smaller than Sparrow. Ashy grey above, fulvous white

below with a loose longish graduated tail of rufous colour tipped whitish and

with a dark subterminal band. The tail is usually held partly erect and shaken

up and down. Frequents gardens and shrubbery—also scrub country.

‘Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 22-3-24 Godhbunder, 14-6-25 Trombay Hills, (S.A.),

@ 7-3-10 Gorégaon (N.B.K.), St. Xavier’s College: 171 Q Borivli 19-11-33, 24

o Powai Lake 16-7-33 (H.A.).

Noted: City: Malabar Hill, near Chowpati Band Stand, Government House

grounds—Walkeshwar, Pherozeshah Mehta Gardens, Victoria Gardens, Warden

and Pedder Roads, etc.; Salsette: Khar, Bandra, Trombay Hills, Kandivlee and

elsewhere.

Resident. The Ashy Wren-Warbler is a common and familiar bird in

Bombay and Salsette. Like the Tailor-bird—but perhaps somewhat less urbanly

—a pair or so is found in most gardens of any size where shrubs or bushy

borders occur. We have occasionally also observed it amongst mangroves.

During the monsoon months, when the birds are breeding, the males thrust

themselves ‘into prominence. ‘They constantly climb up to, some exposed situa-

tion as the top of a bush whence they pour forth their warbling feverishly.

The bird flits about, jerks its tail up and down and often flutters its wings.

Its laboured and undulating flight conveys the impression that the tail is much

too heavy for the owner to carry.

While it feeds jn the main on insects and caterpillars it is also very partial

to the nectar of Tree Cotton and Coral flowers, upon which it may usually

be seen.

We have repeatedly marked this bird producing the crackling noise of an

electric spark described for P. inornata by Whistler and for P. flaviventris in

the Fauna. We are doubtful as to the origin of this, but H.A. thinks that

it is not vocal (see Ticehurst and Stanford J.B.N.H.S., xxxiv, p. go).

Breeding: The breeding season is in the monsoon when weeds and_ rank

vegetation spring up affording suitable nest sites. The principal months are

July, August and September. We have records of many nests in Salsette

during this period. Two types of nests are found (1) of the Tailor-bird type

in sewn-up leaves (2) an oblong purse of woven fibres with supporting leaves

or grass stems partially incorporated into the structure. In our area the former

is by far the commoner. It is usually situated less than 2 feet from the ground.

The eggs, usually 3 in number, are a more or less uniform light Indian red in

ae with often a darker ring round the broad end. The texture is beautifully

glazed.

The Indian Wren-Warbler : Prinia inornata inornata Sykes.

Field identification: Similar in size and habits to the Ashy Wren-Warbler

but differing from it in being a dull earthy brown with a tinge of rufous

especially pronounced on the rump. The principal difference lies however in the

habitats of the two species. The present is more addicted to the neighbour-

hood of paddy fields and to rank grass land.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 21-3-24 Chembtr, 22-3-24, 21-12-28 Gddhbunder

(S.A.) St, Xavier’s College: 54 Q 20-8-33 Saki Village; 144 ¢ 23-10-33 Kihim,

180 ¢ juv. 25-2-34 Panvél (H.A.).

Resident. Common. The difference in the facies mainly occupied by this

and the foregoing species has been indicated above, but sometimes the two are

684. JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY. Vol. Xoxoaee

found in the same locality. We have never observed this Wren-Warbler within

city limits proper.

Its call notes and warbling are markedly different and distinctive from

those of the Ashy Wren-Warbler, but it is impossible to convey an adequate

rendering on paper.

Breeding: The breeding season perhaps commences slightly later than in

the foregoing—in August—and we have found eggs upto the end of October.

The nest is usually a woven oblong or pear-shaped purse of fibres with the

entrance on one side near the top. It is slung hammockwise between upright

grass stems and some of the adjacent blades are often cleverly bent and

incorporated into the structure. It is seldom more than 18 in. or 2 ft. from

the ground. A favourite site is the grass and weeds growing on bunds separat-

ing paddy fields. The eggs, usually 4 sometimes 5, are a pale blue in ground

colour with reddish blotches forming a ring round the broad end and_inter-

connected by fine pencillings of the same colour. The texture is smooth and

glossy.

EHA in N. & E. (i, 303) records eggs on 22 and 28 August.

The Indian Oriole; Oviolus oriolus kundoo Sykes.

Field identification: Size about that of a Myna. A bright yellow bird with

black in the wings and tail and a conspicuous black streak through the eye.

The female is usually duller and greener. Inhabits groves of trees and wooded

country, singly or in pairs.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 70 3 18-9-33 Gorégaon (H:A.).

Noted: City: Khétwadi, Grant Road, Chowpati, Byculla, Warden Road;

Salsette: Pali Hill, Chembur, Vihar, Powai and Tilsi Lake environs, Borivli,

Godhbunder and elsewhere; Elephanta Island. General on mainland.

The Indian Oriole is a common winter visitor to our area from about

September to April. We have seen an isolated example each as late as 9g

May and 7 June.

EHA (B. of B., p. 95) says these birds leave us about the beginning of

the hot season and go to drier climes inland to bring up their young, returning

in September. This no doubt is correct.

Single birds or pairs may commonly be seen in gardens in the city as

well as in the suburbs. It frequents well-wooded country, and large shady trees

such as Banyan, Peepal, Mango and. Tamarind are much _patronised.

Their usual call notes are a harsh cheeah and a rich mellow whistle

something like Pe-lo-lo. The food consists of Ficus figs, and berries of various

kinds to which are added on occasion insects and the nectar of flowers such as

Bombax and Erythrina.

Breeding: We cannot trace any record of its breeding on the mainland in

our neighbourhood or in the Ghats.

The Black-headed Oriole: Oviolus xanthornus maderaspatanus Franklin.

Field identification: Size same as last. A brilliant golden yellow bird with

jet black head, throat and upper breast. Black in wings and tail. Frequents

groves and well-wooded country singly or in pairs.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: o 23-7-33 Borivli, Salsette (H.A.).

Noted: City: Only Malabar Hill, Cumballa Hill, and Walkeshwar.

Common generally in the suburbs and Salsette.

Resident, but partly also local migrant. There is a marked increase and

decrease in its numbers at the commencement and end of the cold weather.

In habits it does not differ appreciably from the Indian Oriole, though

it seldom ventures into the low country. The harsh monosyllabic note

commonly uttered is very like the first note of the Tree-Pie and may frequently

be mistaken for it.

The adult male and female are alike in appearance and what is described

as the female plumage in the Fauna (iii, 12) is merely that of the immature bird.

Breeding: We have found nests in Salsette, on Mount Poinsur and in the

Tulsi Lake environs, on 11 and 14 July. The latter contained 1 newly hatched

young. The nest is a neat cradle of fibres, slung hammockwise in the horizontal

fork of twigs near the extremity of an outhanging branch of Mango, Bassta

or some other large tree. It is usually placed at a height of 20-30 feet from

the ground. On 2 July (1933) an adult was observed chasing off a crow from

the vicinity of a young bird lately out of nest, with unsteady flight and a

stub tail. The normal clutch consists of 3 eggs.

THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 685

It has been repeatedly observed that Orioles, along with such other mild

mannered birds as doves and babblers build in the same tree as holds a

drongo’s nest. Whether this be by accident or design, there is no dobut that

the birds thereby enjoy a certain amount of protection against marauders

like crows. The king-crow will placidly tolerate their neighbourhood but a

crow has only to show himself near the nest tree to be set upon and beaten off

by the valiant owners!

The Southern Grackle : Gracula religiosa indica (Cuvier).

Talking cr Hill Myna.

Field identification: A glossy jet black bird, slightly larger than Myna,

with yellow bill and legs and bright orange yellow patches of naked = skin

and wattles on the head. A. favourite cage bird. Usually seen as such in

the Crawford Market and with fanciers.

Straggler 2? The only occasions on which we have come across this bird

in our area are: (1) A solitary bird at Pali Hill 1-q4-24 and (2) A pair in a

tall and leafless tree in the forest by the Tulsi Lake on 29-3-31. The former

may possibly have been an escaped cage bird.

About 1924 Mr. M. Suter of Bombay in a letter to the Society wrote: ‘I

have shot recently a specimen of the Southern Hill Myna (Grackle) which

therefore seems to occur on Salsette Island’. Ordinarily this grackle is an

inhabitant of the evergreen forest tracts of S.W. India and Ceylon.

The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured Starling : Pastor roseus (Linn.).

Local names: Raan Shalé (Mahratti), Hyya, Wyha, Jowari Bird.

Field identification: Size about that of Myna. Head and crest, throat

and upper breast glossy metallic black. Wings and tail black. Rest a beauti-

ful pale rose-pink. Noisy flocks seen principally on the leafless flowering

Silk Cotton Tree.

Common in winter from about October to April but the arrival of the

main body in our midst coincides more or less with the flowering of the Silk

Cotton Tree (Bombax malabaricum) about mid-January, and their departure

with the end of the flowering season, i.e. end of March or early April.

When the Bombax is in flower Rosy Pastors are perhaps the most regular and

numerous habitués to them and during the greater part of their sojourn here

they seem to subsist almost entirely on the nectar. They are present wherever

a Bombax tree is flowering, be it actually within town limits (such as

Marine Lines, Elphinstone Circle Gardens, Cruikshank Road and_ elsewhere)

or in the suburbs and less inhabited parts of Salsette. They seem to function

as important cross-pollinating agents for this tree, collecting the pollen on their

head feathers in their attempts to reach the nectar, and transferring it on

to the mature stigma of the next flower. The flowers of the Coral Tree

(Erythrina indica) are also patronised but to a lesser extent. Ficus figs and

berries of various species are largely caten. We have found Lantana camara,

Streblus asper and Salvadora persica to be almost invariably present in the

stomachs of birds examined in our locality.

During the time they are with us, thousands of birds collect every evening

in the cocoanut palms at Juha to roost in company with Mynas.

The Rosy Pastor is a natural enemy of locusts and a useful check on

their numbers. Its breeding grounds in Russian Turkestan coincide with those

of the locusts, and it wreaks enormous destruction among the insects in every

stage of their life history. In India the birds do a certain amount of damage

to ripening Jowari crops, but on the other hand are a great help to the ryot

during times of locust invasions when they destroy enormous numbers of locusts,

many more than they actually eat.

The Grey-headed Myna: Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gmelin).

Field identification: A small trim Myna. Common. Grey above with

blackish wings. Throat and breast pale lilac-grey, rest of underparts rusty

brown, darkest under tail. Small flocks. in open secondary jungle and_ thinly

wooded country.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 39 5-2-24 Pali Hill; 19-9-26 Kandivlee (S.A.); ¢ 9

5-12-28 Bandra (E. Henricixs); St. Xavier’s College: 4 @ 9-2-33 Kihim (HEAD

Noted : City: Warden Road, Nepean Sea Road, Sualsette : Chembur, Trombay

Hills, Borivli, and elsewhere,

686. JOURNAL, BOWBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XXOgiae

The Grey-headed Myna is a resident in small numbers in Salsette but it

is largely a local migrant. There is a marked influx in its numbers in about

September which lasts till the beginning of the hot weather.

The birds are usually met with in pairs or small flocks of 6-8, often in

association with Common and Brahminy Mynas and Rosy Pastors. They

are regular attendants on Silk Cotton and Coral flowers for the nectar.

There is a great deal of squabbling and chasing about from branch to branch

and from one flower cluster to another when a flock is on the scene. Lantana -

berries and figs of the Banyan and Peepal are also largely eaten.

Breeding: We have no record of its breeding in our area.

Blyth’s Myna; Sturnia malabarica blythti (Jerdon).

Field identification: Differs from the last chiefly in having the whole head,

neck and breast white instead of silvery grey.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 5 CG 23-7-33 Tulsi Lake environs.

The discovery in our area of this race of the Grey-headed Myna is of great

interest. It is the South Indian form of the bird and not recorded previously

north of South Konkan. The specimen was solitary and apparently a straggler.

We have, however, from time to time observed individuals amongst

flocks of Grey-headed Mynas which have looked suspiciously like this bird.

It is possible that on further investigation it may prove to wander into our

area less rarely than has been supposed.

The Black-headed or Brahminy Myna: Teimenuchus pagodartim (Gmelin).

Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the Common Myna. Grey

above, rich buff or reddish-fawn below, with black wings and_ blackish tail.

Head and a long crest glossy black. The broad grey edging of the somewhat

wedge-shaped tail is conspicuous when it is spread before the bird alights.

SmaM flocks in secondary jungle and fairly wooded country, frequently in

association with Grey-headed Mynas.

Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q imm. 9-11-12 Santa Cruz (N. B. Kinnear); St.

Xavier’s College: 149 juv. Nov. 33 Kihim (H.A.).

Noted: City: Warden Road, Salsette: Pali Hill, Khar, Andhéri, Jahn.

A winter visitor to our area, arriving about September/October and leaving

March/April.

Flocks usually contain 6-12 birds either by themselves or in association

with Common and Grey-headed Mynas. When they first arrive, the flocks are

really family parties or multiples of family parties, and contain a great many

young birds in juvenile plumage. Besides their typical frowsy appearance,

the young differ from adults in having the crown and head chestnut instead

of black, and in the absence of the crest.

The birds feed on grasshoppers and other insects, frequently striding along

or hopping amongst grazing cattle. They are also very partial to Banyan

and Peepal figs and Lantana berries. We have observed them eating the figs

of Ficus vetusa and berries of Bridelia and Mimusops hexandra. Along with

others of their ilk they may commonly be seen on Bombax, Erythrina and

Butea frondosa flowers, the nectar of which seems irresistible. It has quite

a sweet song, heard on the approach of the breeding season, and is often

kept as a cage bird.

Breeding: We have no evidence that it actually breeds within our limits.

The nearest localities where we have found nests are Panchgani (4,000 ft.,

June/July) and Khandala (2,000 ft.) in the Western Ghats.

The Common Myna: Acridotheres tristis tristis Winn.

Local Name: Shalé or Salonki.

Field identification: After the crow, kite and sparrow certainly the com-

monest and most familiar bird not only of Bombay and Salsette but of practic-

ally the whole of India. A jaunty, perky, well-groomed dark brown bird with

glossy black head and neck and bright yellow bill, legs and bare skin around

the eyes. In flight a white bar is conspicuous in the open wing, and the tail

is also bordered white. We cannot imagine that any local resident old or young

is unfamiliar with this bird, but in any case the above clues, down and across,

hak BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 687

should leave no possible doubt in his mind. Usually seen in pairs or family

parties in town in suburb and the countryside.

Specimens: St. Xavier’s College: 32 ¢ Andhéri 28-7-33; 2230 ? Powai Nov.

me (H1.A.).

Noted: City: Grant Road, Bhuleshwar, Warden Road, Esplanade and other

maidans, Chowpati, Back Bay Reclamation, Willingdon Club grounds, ete.

Suburbs and adjacent mainland: ubiquitous.

Common. Resident. Very partial to water-logged ground where it digs

up worms. An unfailing attendant on grazing cattle, prancing with a sideways

gait amongst their legs, riding on or hopping about their backs and appropriating

any grasshoppers and other unfortunates disturbed by the progress.

When the grass is tall it is amusing to watch the birds springing up from

time to time to spy out their surroundings in the manner of a terrier.

The Common Myna is more or less omnivorous in its diet, and like the

House Crow will eat anything it can come by. H. A. once saw an individual

carry off a dead field-mouse. Banyan and Feepal figs, wild dates or Lantana

berries are uniformly relished and the nectar of Bombax and Erythrina is

regularly eaten.

When the winged termites emerge from the ground during the monsoon

months, Mynas are amongst the vanguard of the avian epicures that fore-

gather to the feast. They vie with the crows in the ungainliness of their

aerial antics after the insects and often dally in the chase till well after dusk.

It has a large repertoire of call notes and being such a familiar and by

no means reticent bird, one soon learns to recognise the various emotions

expressed by the calls. Alarm, agitation, pleasure, soon become so eloquent

that one can usually guess what is afoot long before the birds themselves are

visible. The harsh swearing cry of irritation combined with fear, for instance,

which is accompanied by a drooping and shivering of the closed wings when

a snake is sighted is quite unmistakable. Indeed a great many different species

of birds also readily recognise this signal and rally to the moral support

of the resentful mynas.

At Kihim we have observed that parties of Common Mynas, often augmented

by Jungle Mynas, fly out regularly to the rocks on the sea-shore exposed at

low tide. We have been unable to ascertain the true purpose of these flights,

but from the short time the birds remain there, we can only conjecture that

they do so to drink the salt water in the same way as many mammals do.

Breeding: Nest building commences in May and most eggs may be found in

June and July. By September family parties are usually out, the clamouring

young being led about and tended by the parents. Two successive broods are

not uncommon. The nests in Salsette are placed in holes in stems of date

and palmyra palms where they are more or less inaccessible, but holes and

hollows in any large tree are utilised. The nest—an untidy collection of rubbish

—is frequently built under the eaves or in the ceilings of inhabited houses in

the suburbs. Four or five eggs are usually laid of a pretty uniform blue

colour with a slight gloss.

The Bank Myna: Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham).

Field identification: Like the Common Myna but somewhat smaller and

with the general colour pale bluish grey.

A rare straggler (?). Apparently not heard of in our area since 1900.

In that year a number of unusual birds were driven far south of their

accustomed haunts in search of livelihood owing to the severe drought in

Gujerat where the Bank Myna is common (J.B.N.H.S., xiii, 398).

Ten years before this, in 1890, Barnes (J.B.N.H.S., v, 106) wrote: ‘I have

seen it in the city of Bombay busily employed in excavating holes in the

embankment of the Wodehouse Bridge near the Railway Station at Colaba;

they did not, however, breed there as the boys persecuted them too much’,

EHA did not meet with it in Bombay (B. of B., p. 127).

The Jungle Myna: -Ethiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes).

Field identification: In general appearance not unlike the Common Myna

but with a tuft of long black feathers on the forehead, at base of bill, and

no bare yellow skin round the eye.

Specimens: St, Xavier’s College: 145 0? 25-10-33 Kihim (H.A.).

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Noted: Salsette: Mulund (once), Kandivlee (once); Mainland: common at

Kihim (Alibag) and in South Konkan.

The status and local distribution of this myna in our area and the neigh-

bouring country seems curious and inexplicable. On the adjacent mainland—at

IWihim, across the harbour, and even at Parsik near Thana—both this species

and the Common Myna are equally common. The habits of the two do not

seem to differ appreciably except that the former is not so much of a house

bird. They breed at the same season, often using the self same nest holes in

alternate seasons. Yet in Salsette, except for the one record in all these years

by H. A. at Mulund and for another small flock of 5 birds observed by

S. A. at Kandivlee in a. different year, it appears to be absent! A _ similar

peculiarity in the local and patchy distribution of the Jungle Myna in Travancore

has been pointed out by Salim Ali (J.B.N.H.S., xxxviii, 504).

East of Bombay the farthest we have come across it is 8 miles from

Panvel towards Chauk village. It is common about the Tansa Lake.

Many years ago Davidson (J. v, 107) noted it as occurring in Thana and

Bombay.

Breeding: We have found the Jungle Myna nesting commonly at Kihim

in May. The nest is a mass of feathers and rubbish finished off with a piece

of snake-slough, onion peel or tissue paper! It is placed in natural hollows

principally in Casuarina, bhend (Thespesia) or Oondi (Calophyllum inophyllum)

trees 10-30 ft. from the ground. Three or four eggs similar to those of the

Common Mynas are laid. The incubation period is 16 days.

(To be continued),

FISH OF DEOLALI.

Part II.

ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS.

(With one plate).

A. G. L. FRASER, I.M.D.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Prefatory Note ate Sy ctely,

A note on the high mortality ‘incidence observed ‘amongst ‘surface and

ground fishes (excepting the Ophicephalidae) on_ their transference

from the natural environment to an aquarium ... ade ere 690

Notes on distribution and habits of certain fishes... 692

A note on the fixed practice as observed amongst certain species of fish

of regularly exercising themselves every evening by swimming about

at the surface in the rivers and also when kept in an aquarium ... 702

Temperature variations and alkalinity of the water

Temperature a we so a eee (Aula

Alkalinity a ee oe see 708

Miscellaneous Notes i

Sleeping habit of the ee aa Se ee ae oe

Malformations ses ie ets et UO)

Vernacular Names sa 709

Notes on a predaceous W ater- Beetle which kills ‘stream fishes shee *o 7G

Acknowledgments on Bite Re oF He 7 1}

PREFATORY NOTE,

The following series of aotes contains ecological and biological observations

made by Mr. A. G. L. Fraser on certain fishes of the Deolali area both

under field and laboratory conditions. The author used vernacular names in

his descriptions but I have given the corresponding scientific names of the

species throughout; in places the text has been revised so as to bring it in

conformity with the literature on the subject. Explanatory notes have been

added wherever it was found possible to give some adequate reasons for the

valuable facts observed by Mr. Fraser. Dr. Albert W. C. T. Herre happened

to be in Calcutta when I was revising these notes, and I availed myself of this

opportunity to have the matter looked over by him. He very kindly read the

revised manuscript and was able to add a note on the surface-swimming habit

of the Cyprinidae of the Far East.

The observations recorded here by Mr. A. G. L. Fraser are extremely

valuable, especially as they are based on abundant material and were carried

out during all the seasons of the year. Special attention may be directed

to the function that has been assigned to the hypertrophied lower lip of

Rasbora labiosa Mukerji and Danio fraseri Hora. From an analogy of similar

structures found in certain Amphibian tadpoles, it was presumed by Mukerji

and the writer that the structure was probably used for hanging from _ the

surface film; but Mr. Fraser has conclusively shown that the enlarged lower

lip is meant to seize and hold insects for which the fish jump several inches

out of the water. This shows how similar structures may sometimes be used

for totally different functions.

The arrangement of matter proposed in the first part had to be modified

as the descriptions of new species and notes on rare forms could not be

completed in time for inclusion in this part of the Journal. In some respects

the present arrangement seems to be more suitable.—S, L. Hora,

690 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

zt. A Nove ON THE HiGH MortTAaLity INCIDENCE OBSERVED

AMONGST SURFACE AND GROUND FISHES (IEXCEPTING THE

OPHICEPHALID) ON THEIR TRANSFERENCE FROM THE

NArURAL ENVIRONMENT TO AN AQUARIUM.

In. the experiences connected with the keeping of fishes am

an aquarium, the problem encountered and beset with difficulty

was how best to reduce the high mortality which invariably occurs

amongst any given number of fishes on their introduction into the

aquarium, A rough assessment of this mortality rate shows that

30 per cent die almost at once or within a few hours of ge

transference. A further. 30 per cent. die within 24 hours ame

Io per cent. up to 48 hours. In studying these losses with a view

to reduction of mortality, the various factors prevailing in the

water of the aquarium i.e. (1) temperature (2) alkalinity (3)

absence or presence of currents (4) mechanical aération (6)

food supply and (7) the physical character of the bed and the

surroundings, were considered in turn and, despite all practical

efforts to bring conditions in the aquarium to approach as near

as possible those of the river or streams, the mortality figures

continued fairly constant. Excluding the Ophicephalidae, which

were tenacious of life, with a death rate of only 10 per cent., the

surface fishes generally showed a higher proportion of deaths as

compared with other ground species. No matter what kind of

water was used, whether from the river, stream, well or tap, the

relatively small percentage of species which ultimately survived

were those able to live in any kind of water, provided always, that

it was slightly alkaline to litmus paper. Such fishes lived for the

five months of observation, even when, as was the case with one

batch, the water had not been changed for eleven weeks.

Of the surface fishes, roughly 30 ‘per cent. of the following

species survived the transference and showed clear indications of

a very high physical capacity for adapting themselves to the

conditions in a small improvised aquarium.

(1) Barbus ticto (Ham.).—Bhil name :—Tiptoo

(2) Rasbora labiosa Mukerji.—Bhil name :—Gayroonjee

(3) Danio frasert Hora.—Bhil name:—Gayroonjee

All these species are found in both rivers and streams in this

area. Excepting the first, the two others are normally more

numerous in the streams.

In the case of Barilius bendelisis Ham. (Bhil name:—Jhor or

plural Jhoria) the mortality in the early trials was cent per cent.

Later, it was ascertained that if salt was added to the water in

a quantity sufficient to render it strongly alkaline to litmus paper,

the death rate was reduced to go per cent. Any further additions

of salt did not improve the situation and 10 per cent. of any

given number survived and could live on if the water was brackish.

Amongst all other surface species which were recovered from

the rivers there. was a high degree of susceptibility—from 15

minutes to two hours at most—with a cent per cent. mortality

which could not be influenced under any circumstances. This I

FISH OF DEOLALI 691

think can be attributed to the absence of strong currents which

it was impossible to reproduce in a small aquarium. In this respect

the Chilwa |Chela clupeoides (Bloch)|, Bhil name—Phal or plural

Phalay and Ambassis ranga (Ham.) with the Bhil name of Bing

are notable as they were found associated together in sections of

the rivers where there were very strong swirling currents in

evidence.

The ground species, excepting the Ophicephalidae, showed

generally a 50 to 60 per cent. mortality and the fishes which best

adapted themselves in the “improvised aquarium were the follow-

ing :—

(1) Cobitidae: There were four species, viz., Lepidocephali-

chthys guntea (Ham,), Nemachilus botius (Ham.), N. denisonii Day

and N. evezardi Day. All of these lived well in the aquarium, but

one of them, L. guntea (Ham.), with the Bhil name of Mohroo

chopra, proved to be the better adapted as it lived through the

six months of observations.

(2) A ground species (Bhil—Kharandya) |Garra mullya

(Sykes) |.

(3) A Siluroid:—Bhil name, Khirkirya |Mystus cavasius

(Ham. ) |.

In the case of Garra mullya (Sykes)—Bhil name, Mallia—

there was a fifty per cent. death rate but the surviving numbers

did not live for more than 4 days in the aquarium and during

this period showed much respiratory embarrassment. They periodi-

cally and frequently rose to the surface and by muscular action

alone, maintained themselves perpendicularly suspended, but not

by their lips, for 30 to 35 seconds. While thus engaged, they

create a froth of bubbles. This species is really not a good

aquarium type. Other ground species showed a cent per cent.

mortality.

Most of the ground species were recovered from the rivers.

The Cobitidae appear to be generally distributed in both the rivers

and streams. a

The results of the observations made it clear that in a

small improvised aquarium only those species. survive’ which

are habituated to living in -still water pools of rivers and

streams or in pools where the currents are only of slight intensity.

It would appear, therefore, that if other species are to survive

in an aquarium for purposes of observation the water in it must be

so arranged that strong currents’ pass through it at all times and,

while allowing of a wide surface expanse its volume and depth must

be adequate. These conditions, plus a slight alkalinity and a bed

of a varied nature consisting of rock, sand, silt, and under water

vegetation to suit the different kinds are equally necessary. It has

not been possible for me to do this.

_—$$$$ a ee a SC fe ee

* Owing to strong currents, the water becomes well oxygenated and it. is

usually difficult to keep rapid-water forms in aquaria. By aérating aquarium

water artificially, it is, however, possible to acclimatise a certain number ‘of

these fishes to aquarium conditions.—S. L. Hora,

692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

The question as to why there should be a high mortality rate

amongst the species, of which a small percentage were able to

survive the ill-adjusted conditions in a small improvised aquarium,

is of interest. Theoretically, if conditions were so adverse as

to kill the majority none should have survived. Whether death.

of the majority was due to shock as the result of a highly nervous

complex reacting badly to the new environment is a_ possible

causative factor but not easily ascertainable; but there is no doubt

that the few surviving individuals showed a capacity and resistance

of a high and peculiar quality, apparently inherent in themselves,

for, though placed in an ill-suited environment, they were quite at

home in it. Were it not due to this high adaptive power of the

few it would not have been possible to carry out the experiments

and observations of which the records are appended.

It is possible also that the range of variability is much less

among the survivors than in those eliminated. This was found to be

the case by the American zoologist, Bumpas who measured 136

injured specimens of the common sparrow collected after a severe

storm. Out of this number 72 revived while 64. diéd: 7@a

measuring the dead birds and comparing them with the survivors

he ascertained that the former on the average were longer and

heavier than the latter and significantly also showed that the range

of variability was distinctly smaller among the living birds. In

this respect the transference of fishes from their natural environ-

ment to the aquarium can be likened to a storm. Unfortunately

I am not competent to undertake these measurements of the fishes

involved. Such measurements if they are to be reliable must be

undertaken on freshly dead specimens as_ preserved fishes are

unsuitable for obvious reasons of shrinkage. I have, however,

put up separately in two lots such batches as were observed.—(1)

Those that died almost at once or within 48 hours and (2) the

numbers which ultimately survived and would have continued to

live indefinitely had not the observations terminated for lack of

facilities. Should these fishes be measured and the comparative

study reveal physical ditferences it should furnish valuable evidence

that those individuals which depart least from the ‘ideal type’

have on the whole the best chance of surviving.!

2. NoTgEs ON DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS OF CERTAIN FISHES.

In the course of making the collection and from the expert-

ences and impressions gathered after eleven months exploration of

the tributary streams and rivers in the Deolali area the following

——$—$_—<——

1 Dr. S. L. Hora of the Zoological Survey of India, who, in collaboration

with Mr. K. S. Misra, has investigated the fish fauna _of.Deolali informs me-

that the speciniens kept in the aquariumy for a long time are very lean and

attenuated. In fact he found them so different from the normal individual

that in the preliminary sorting he regarded them as belonging to different

species. This was particularly so in the case of Lepidocephalichthys guntea

(Ham.) and Danio fraseri Hora. Such a condition was probably due to

insufficient nourishment under aquarium conditions.

features were noted as regards the distribution and some of the

FISH OF DEOLALI

habits which have been observed.

Serial

number and

number in

order of

dominance

ee (29)

DS 8)

ou (7)

a. (2)

Be ail)

6. (32)

Je. {3)

8. (30)

Se (17)

Hz <(O)

lee (6)

2. (15)

13. (1)

14. (16)

15. (24)

HG: . (4)

We. (10)

tse; (23)

HOE; (27)

20. (28)

Zu (12)

22. (13)

23. (14)

24. (18)

Zo. (22)

20. (9)

Wie (31)

20.1, (21)

Z9,, (25)

30. (20)

oil * (26)

32. (8)

Bs. (19)

In the above Table the species are shown as found

the rivers

Scientific Name

Notopterus notoptlerus (Pallas.). |

| Anguilla anguilla (Ham.)

| Chela clupeotdes (Bloch)

Barilius bendelisis (Ham.)

Danio trasert Hora

| Rasbora daniconius (Ham.)

Rasbora labiosa Mukerji

_Aspidoparia morar (Ham.)

Barbus chola (Ham.)

Barbus khudree (Sykes)

| Barbus kolus (Sykes.)

| Barbus sarana (Ham.)

Barbus ticto (Ham.)

_Cirrhina reba (Ham.)

| Crossichilus latius (Ham.)

Garra mullya (Sykes)

Labeo boggut (Sykes)

Labeo porcellus (Hackel)

Rohtee cotio (Ham.)

Rohtee vigorsit (Sykes)

Lepidocephalichthys

gu ntea

(Ham.) sie

Nemachilus botius (Ham.)

Nemachilus dentsoni: (Day.) ...

Callichrous bimaculatus

(Biceh)r 2: ae va

Wallago attu (Bloch aid Schn.)

Mystus cavasius (Ham.)

Glytothorax lonah (Sykes)

Nangra viridescens (Ham.)

Proeutropichihys taakree

a(S) Mls scr te oe

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.)...

| Ophicebhalus marulius (Ham.)

| Ambassis ranga (Ham.)

| Glossogobius giuris (Ham.)

and in

())

the tributary

Bhil Name

Chambiee ...

Abhir

Phathree,

Phal

Jhor

| Gayroonjee.

Gayroonjee.

Ambli

Bhokria

Waris

Kholis

Bhodeer

Tiptoo,

Tiplee

Arrol

Warootee ... |

Mallia, Kha- |

randya

Sandekol

Khanoos,

Ghoghir .,.

Goorda

Kuplee

Mhorroo,

Mohroo

thail,

Mohroo

chopra...

Mhorroo,

Mohroo

chickna,

Mhorroo,

Mohroo

yaree ...

Monee

Baloo

Khirkirya ia

Khordoo

Bibua

Sovar

Dhakay,

Dakiia i,

Murral

Bing

Kharbya

streams’;

— ss as

693

Present

rivers

RAK MMMM MX

nmr

their

Present

streams

(2)

order

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1X

dominance is also noted. The order of the dominance shown is

judged by the numbers taken of each species- and is possibly not

quite a true index, but it is near enough for all practical purposes.

It will be observed from the Table that, of the total of 33 species

tabulated, quite a large number found in the rivers, were’ not

found in the. streams. Nine species only of the total were

found in both the rivers and streams. Of this number only three

can be said to be truly stream species. These are Rasbora labiosa

Mukerji, Danio (Danio) fraseri Hora and a ground species with the

Bhil name ot AKharandya |Garra mullya (Sykes)|. Their presence

in the rivers can be accounted for by the fact that the monsoon

storm waters force them in. During the dry seasons of the year

their numbers in the rivers are comparatively scanty, while in the

streams they are very numerous. The remaining Six species appear

to be equally distributed in both the rivers and streams.

Chela clupeoides (Bloch).—Bhil name, Phal or Phalay.

A long, laterally compressed, silvery white fish, stained greenish

yellow dorsally. ‘he ventral surface is arched in the long axis;

dorsally it is concave, with a sharply upturned mouth. They are

recoverable only from the rivers, most often in midstream where the

currents are swirling and strongest and in sections where the bed is

rocky and sanded or part silted. They move about in shoals and

prefer stretches of the river which have a wide expanse, and are

absent from sections where there are villages upon the banks. They

have been found associated with what appear to me to be Ambassis

vanga (Ham.), (Bhil name, Bing)—a fish so pale and transparent

that when alive, the vertebral column, and anteriorly below it and

wedged above the stomach, the swim bladder and the bones in

its body are clearly defined. After death it becomes opaquely white.

With the Chilwa, it shares a preference for localities where there are

strong currents. Chilwa are particularly susceptible and do not live

for more than a few minutes in the aquarium. Ten per cent of

the Bing are capable of living: in the aquarium. They never rise

to the ‘surface at any time and do not behave as other surface

species do. They remain stationary the whole time and rarely if

ever move about keeping a position about 2 inches from the floor.

They readily devour larvae and also green algae. The mouth is

always kept open and only the lower “We is slightly raised in the

act of breathing. The Chilwa is insectivorous. I have seen them

rise to take small blue dragon flies.

Barilius bendelisis (Ham.).—Bhil name, Jhor or Jhoria.

Hora and Mukerji in the Records of the Indian Museum, vol.

XXXvil, part ii, have mentioned two species of Barils in their report

on the small collection which was first sent from Deolali. The name

Jhor is used by Bhils for both species. B. bendelisis is dark-coloured

dorsally with yellowish fins and a series of transverse jet black or

purplish black streaks running from a dorsal ridge to the mid-

poe near the lateral line. In spirits, the dark dorsal colouration

1 The material sent to us for examination does not bear out, in a few

cases, the order of dominance of the species as noted by Dr. Fraser. It is

quite possible, however, that we did not have the whole material for

examination.—S. L. Hora.

JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc; PEALE ALE

Photos showing the transparency of the fish Ambassis vanga (Ham.) known to

Bhil fishermen by the name of Bing. The swim bladder and vertebral

column are clearly defined.

FISH OF DEOLALI 695

of large specimens fades to yellow. The young show lighter

colour tones and the transverse streaks are much more pronounced.

This fish is found both in streams and rivers and favours parts

which are silted up and where there is only a mild surface current.

During dry periods of the year they .are more numerous in

the streams, especially in the sections of the ‘North Nallah’ which

run by the Deolali Cantonment Bazaar. Here there is much wash-

ing of clothes done and the water is soapy and_ foul-smelling.

Batch No. 32' in the present series is a good example of a catch

of this species only, containing both large and small specimens

taken from the locality mentioned. The water here is always

strongly alkaline to litmus paper. This is an important point as

this species is a bad aquarium type and I have mentioned

previously that a cent per cent. mortality was reduced to go per cent.

simply by adding salt in sufficient quantity to make the water in

the aquarium strongly alkaline. Curiously enough, Batch No. 37

aken on 30th January 1936 from the Darna river were all very

young specimens which were caught at the sides of the river in a

portion which was but a few inches deep and where there was no

current. The bed was a silt-covered sanded section, and here also

the water was strongly alkaline, while the temperature at 3 p.m.

was 86°F. In contrast with this, the water at a 2 ft. depth in the

current of the river was slightly alkaline and the temperature 76°F.

No big specimens of this species were caught in this locality on

that day. Confirmatory proof of the fact that only this species is

recoverable in the section of the ‘North Nallah’, referred to above

in connection with Batch No. 32, is again furnished by the catch

obtained on roth February 1936. Batch No. 39 (see also Batch

No. 50 of this series) contains this species. On this day the tem-

perature at 4 p.m. was 86°F. and the water was strongly alkaline.

These fish feed well on mosquito larvae and leap for midges when

they fly above the surface level. Batch No. 11 containing three

specimens were taken on rod and line with a worm bait on 29th

August 1935. I have since ascertained that they swallow worms

readily. Worms can be got at any time of the year from the

section of the North Nallah where this fish is found. The bed is

silted over a rocky base and the worms are to be had in the silt

and from the edges of the stream. The fish have been observed

to partly bury themselves head up in the silt and some have been

caught in this way by simply removing the silt and picking them

out from it. I have tried silt in the aquarium but this does not

help to reduce the mortality. Egg-bearing females were found in

March.

Danio (Di1i fraseri) Hora.—Bhil name, Gayroonjee.

Much of what is given below as regards the habitats of Rasbora

labiosa Mukerji equally applies to this species which is insectivorous

probably throughout its life. The colour in the living state is

silvery with a pinkish blush which is also in evidence on the fins.

The lateral striations on the long axis of the body are of a blue

ae —

* These numbers correspond with the locality numbers as given in Part I

of the present series,

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

colour which fades to just perceptible lines when the fish are kept

in the aquarium for any length of time, when they also lose the

pink blush, becoming silvery white. In spirits, the striations

become quite dark and much of their original freshness is lost.

Rasbora labiosa Mukerji.—Bhil name Gayroonjee.

This fish is easily the dominant type in the streams, where they

are very numerous. At the origin of the ‘Narsullah Wadi’ (see

bach No. 14—-12th September 1935) they were found associated with

Nemachilus denisont Day (Bhil name, Mohroo yaree, a banded

fish). During the dry months of the year comparatively few are

recoverable from the rivers, where only adult specimens measuring

from 4 to 6 inches in length are usually present. In the streams

they have been observed moving about in small shoals—of about

40 or more, consisting chiefly of the smaller fry. They are

nearly all of uniform size and appear to have been hatched out

at the same time. Very young ones 1.0 cm. in length have been

found in the shallows of sanded beds at the edges of the streams

where they can be caught by cupping one’s hand into a hollow.

This is a hardy fish and makes a good aquarium type. They are

capable of living in very foul water and were recovered from

stagnant pools and the marshy pockets of the streams which become

clogged with algae and show a heavy surface scum. Significantly

enough 8o to oo per cent., taken from the stagnant sections survived

in the aquarium, provided they were kept under identical conditions

in the same kind of foul water with algae in it. A batch was

kept for eleven weeks continuously without the water being changed

without ill effects. When placed in clear well water the majority

of them died within six hours. In contrast with this only 30 per

cent taken from clear water in the cleaner parts of the streams,

where there was a fair surface current survived in the aquarium.

During the rains they are taken in fair numbers from the rivers

into which they are washed by the monsoon flood waters.

Those in the streams are larvivorous and insectivorous. They

feed greedily on the larvae of mosquitoes and midge flies and leap

out of the water as much as ten inches high to take flying insects

above the surface film. They also feed readily on algae and

the flour of a millet grain called in the vernacular ‘Bajri’ but much

prefer adult mosquito and midge flies... The midge flies are

seen in the characteristic clouds of their nuptial flight after the

rains give over and during the cold months up to February. They

appear in numbers at eventide and also at times during the day

in flight above the streams. They are particularly in evidence

above the stagnant sections and Rasbora labiosa and Danio

fraseri then become very active leaping out for them. Several

large specimens of Rasbora labiosa were taken on rod and

line with a worm bait. One specimen, four inches in length,

kept in the aquarium preferred a diet of worms, which it readily

devoured and eschewed the larvae and imagos of the insect men-

tioned. One particularly large example of this species was netted

—

‘ Mr. Prater in a letter states ‘The midges which you sent from Deolali

were identified in the British Museum as Chironomus tripartitum Rieff.’

HIS Oe DBO LAEL 697

in the act of swallowing a Nemachilus. This evidence would go

to show that the smaller fry are insectivorous and when grown

to adult proportions become carnivorous.

In the publication ‘Notes on Fishes in the Indian Museum,

xxv. On two New Species of Cyprinid Fishes from Deolali’ etc.,

—Records of the Indian Museum, vol. xxxvii, Part II, pp. 375-80,

Hora and Mukerji emphasise the characteristic hypertrophy of the

lower lip in Rasbora labiosa Mukerji and Danio fraseri Hora.

In the absence of biological observation they found it difficult to

assign any definite function to this structure, but directed attention

to homologous structures found in certain tadpoles which are sup-

_ posed to use the hypertrophied lip as a device for hanging from

the surface film. They therefore think it is possible that the two

new surface species also use the expanded lower lip for the

mechanical process of suspending themselves from the surface film

when the waters in their habitats become too foul for the ordinary

process of respiration. With a view to ascertain whether they

behaved in this way, observations were maintained over them and

incidentally also over other surface and ground species for a period

of five months from rst November 1935. In the previous notes

under mortality incidence, no details were mentioned as to the be-

haviour of the fishes on the initial transference from their natural

environment to the aquarium. The description of this behaviour

was postponed for consideration here. The majority of the surface

fishes, inclusive of the two new species observed, as also those

of the Siluroid family and the ground fish Garra mullya (Sykes)

(Bhil names: Mallia and Kharandya) when introduced into the

aquarium and dependent upon their powers of adaptability manifest

a marked respiratory embarrassment. This they show in _ the

following way. As regards the surface species, the ill adapted

rise to the surface and by musculer action alone in the act of

swimming maintain themseves as if suspended from the surface

film. At the same time the mouth movements in the act of

breathing become considerably accelerated; the mouth itself is

opened wider and the gill covers are seen to heave to aid respiration.

All of these symptoms clearly show the dyspnoea to which they

become subjected. In this respect all the fishes behaved alike and

in no single instance was there any evidence to show that in this

distressed condition they made use of the lower lip in a mechanical

way to hang from the surface. Occasionally in the act of

swimming the dorsal aspect of the head and sometimes the upper

lip was pushed above the surface level, but never the lower lip.

“When at the ‘surface, the position of the body in relation to the

surface film forms angles of a varying degree according to the

species. In the case of Rasbora the angle formed is roughly 30,

of Danio 40, of Barilius 30, of Barbus ticto 60 and of the Siluroids

40 to 60 degrees. They continue to behave in the way described

until a moribund phase ensues when they turn over on their backs

and finally in a short space of time die. With regard to the ground

species referred to above, the behaviour is different. They do not

swim about at the surface; instead they remain clinging to the

surface by muscular effort in a perpendicular position for half a

698. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

minute or so and then sink back again, repeating the process

until moribund and unable to do so any longer. While at the

top this ground species produces a froth of bubbles. <A similar

behaviour, but in a much less active form than the exaggerated

behaviour described above, has been observed as a normal daily

feature amongst the surface fishes and is regularly resorted to by

them as an evening exercise. This form of exercise is unattended

by any mortality and will be later discussed in a separate note to

follow. As a result of these observations it may be remarked that

the hypertrophy of the lower lips and the upward projection of

the mouths in the two new Deolali species rather appear to indicate

a line of development consistent with their feeding habits. All

the evidence gathered with regard to their habits and _ habitats

clearly show that the younger forms of Rasbora labiosa, Mukerji

are definitely insectivorous, while Danio fraseri, Hora is undoubtedly

so, probably throughout its life. The rounder and longer bodies of

Ra shora labiosa are admirablv suited to leap out of the water (ten

inches) in taking mosquitoes and midge flies which they never

fail to secure once they rise. In contrast with them, Dane

fraseri is unable to rise higher than 4 or 5 inches above the surface

level possibly because of its flatter body and shorter length (the

largest caught here has not exceeded 4 inches in length); but in

this fish also the gripping quality of the lower enlarged lip is

so convincing that it leaves no doubt that it is a specialization

enabling it not only to seize insects, but also to hold them until

back in the water again where it swallows them. I have repeatedly

observed their unerring skill in catching insects both in_ the

aquarium and in the streams. A-small pocket electic torch fixed

by wires and suspended above the open end of the aquarium with

the bulb facing upwards furnishes a simple device which attracts

numerous flies at sundown and the fish are then seen to perfection

demonstrating their ability in rising and taking the flies they want.

Undesirable insects, mistakenly seized, are rejected below the

water line by a process of blowing them out from the mouth,

and in this act the protraction of the lower lip is markedly notice-

able. The stagnant pools obviously offer better breeding facilities

and attract many insects and the presence of these fishes in such

habitats is so explained. One sees a similar upward formation of

the mouth in the species of Chilwa—Chela clupeoides (Bloch) [| Bhil

name, Jhal|—which is also insectivorous, but the mouth in this

species is large and capacious and hence perhaps the need for the

development of the lower lip has not arisen as in the case of

the two new species, which are comparatively smaller than other

Cyprinoids which live on insects, and therefore need some such

specialization in a small mouth to ensure success. It may be that

certain tadpoles use the hypertrophied lower lip in a mechanical

way to aid respiration. Their breathing apparatus in the

transitional development from purely aquatic to terrestrial life

probably, at a certain advanced stage, allows for breathing in air

directly. In the case of the two new Deolali Cyprinoid fishes there

is no evidence that they at any time use their enlarged lower lips

to hang in a mechanical way from the surface film to aid respira-

PST OF SDEOLALY 699

tion. On the other hand there is convincing evidence that they

have a capacity for living in the foulest of waters without ill effects’

and the smaller forms of this species that do so are definitely

larvivorous and _ insectivorous as the stagnant habitats attract

numerous insects and ensure a varied and plentiful food supply.

The very young ones of both the new species are unable to swallow

the larger Culicine larvae but easily devour the smaller Anopheline

larvae and those of midges. These very young fishes were recover-

ed during November. Egg-bearing females were found in

February.

Barbus khudree Sykes—Bhil name, [Varris.

This fish has two pairs of barbels. It is silvery white and slightly

discoloured dorsally. It favours strong currents in the rivers. It

does not live for more than half an hour in a receptacle of water.

On this account no observations could. be made.

Barbus ticto (Ham.).—-Bhil name, Tiptoo and _ Tiplee.

This surface species appears to be the dominant type in the rivers.

They are localised in sections having villages ‘situated directly upon

the banks and here they are very numerous, particularly if the

village is a large one with a big population. They are found

only in those parts of the tributary streams which run through

largely populated areas, such as in the ‘North Nailah’ up to a point

near to Deolali Cantonment Bazaar and the ‘Narsullah Wadi’ near

to the village of Bagoor, and the section which runs through Barnes

High School estate, where they are found in relatively small

numbers. They are singularly absent in the stretches of both

the rivers and streams which meander through open country or

tracts given over to cultivation and where there is a complete

absence of human habitations. In sections of these open stretches

where there is an occasional hamlet or two, they can be got, but

only in very few numbers. They favour the shallow edges of

the rivers up to a depth of two feet, where the currents are of

slight intensity. In the streams they favour stagnant pools

or those with a slight surface flow. All the specimens of this

species taken from the Godaveri river on 8th December 1935 (batch

No. 28) and from the Narsullah Wadi on roth January 1936

(Batch No. 35) showed a markedly scarlet pigmentation of the

body scales; and the caudal, dorsal and ventral fins were similarly

stained. On the 8th December 1935, the water in the Godaveri

river was very dirty looking, ashen in colour and with green

algae, largely in evidence, floating in fragments on the surface

scum. Much of their red colouration has been lost through storage

in spirits. In other areas, an occasional scarlet stained specimen

was recovered. Normally they are silvery white and_ stained

dorsally ; with muddy coloured fins and black rays. When kept in

an aquarium they lose all the dark staining becoming: silvery white

* The surface water is, as a rule, better oxygenated, so the surface fishes

do not in reality live in very foul waters. It seems also probable that the

respiration is aided by taking in gulps of air, as most of the Cyprinoids do,

and passing them over the gills.—S. L. Hora. ;

100 J[OURNAE, BOMBAY NATURAL SalSd. SiO Cli iD Vera Viol eo Gen

with very pale fins. They do not for the first week readily feed

on the larvae of mosquitoes, but in the course of time and due to

the absence of other food, ultimately become larvivorous. They

then show much greediness. They also feed on green algae, the

dough of any flour and ground particles of roasted ‘Bajri’ grain.

Very young specimens were recovered from the streams during

November” 1935. Egg-bearing females were. found in Manel

1936.

Garra mullya(Sykes).—Bhil name, Mallia.

The mouth of this species points downwards and there is a suction

disc on the ventral aspect of the mouth. It 1s a very dark coloured

fish with black fins and the suggestion of a lateral line, as the per-

forated scales are ill defined against the dark discolouration of the

body. These lateral scales are complete. It is found in sections of

the rivers and streams which flow over beds of rock. It favours

fairly strong currents and depths. Although showing a degree of

susceptibility, the species can live for 2 to 3 days-in an aquarium.

Their behaviour in the aquarium has been described in the previous

notes under mortality rates. When lying on the floor of the

aquarium the mouth movement in the act of respiration is at a

slower rate than that of the surface fishes. They move along the

floor with a leaping and wriggling movement. I have not been

able to ascertain what they feed upon but since they favour a rocky

bed the diet may be a form of algae growing on the rocks. They

are generally distributed in both the rivers and streams. Egg-

bearing females found in March 1936.

Labeo porcellus (Heckel).—Bhil name, Khanoos.

It favours sections of the rivers where there are fairly strong

currents and the bed is rock or pebbled and part silted. It is dorsally

an elephant grey and laterally and ventrally silvery white. The

fins are dark coloured. As it does not survive when removed from

its natural environment, no observations could be made. ;

Cobitidae

Nemachilus botius (Ham.).—Bhil name, Mohroo chickna, is a

leopard spotted variety. The colouration is a yellow background

with black spots and bars and dark yellow fins. Mohroo chopra

| Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.)| is a dark coloured fish with

dorsal spots and mottling with a clear black line. It is very

thin and attenuated in form. Mohroo yaree |Nemachilus denisonu

(Day)] is a banded variety. The bands are dark and broad and

run transversely from the dorsal ridge to the ventral surface.

Mohroo thail resembles in colour chopra but the tones are much

lighter and it-is definitely stouter and heavier in formation.

The Cobitidae are found generally distributed in rivers and

streams. They favour the rocky sections and silted and sanded

beds where there is evidence of algae growing from the rocks

and sides of the rivers. The banded variety, namely Mohroo yaree,

is more numerous and associated with Rasbora labiosa Mukerji at

the heads of the streams. They hug the edges of the rivers and

the streams where the currents are not too strong.

Lepidocephalichthys not only move their lips in the act of

breathing but also rise to the surface to take in ‘air, They de

FISH OF DEOLALT 701

this about 12 to 15 times in an hour. They feed well on green

algae growths especially the variety which grows on and clings

to rocks. When kept with other surface fishes which were fed

on the larvae of mosquitoes they were observed in the act of

swallowing the larvae. -A curious trait noticed is their habit of

mouthing the bodies of surface fishes, when these latter were

resting stationary a little above the floor of the aquarium. ‘The

surface fishes do not resent this action. They are also fond of

pushing themselves up the glass surface of the panel, nibbling, as

they move, particularly when the panel is covered with a scum of

fine earthy particles and slime. These species move along the

bottom of the aquarium with a wriggling motion much like a snake

and can cling to and climb up an almost upright glass panel. In

this respect they show undoubted scansorial powers,

Mystus cavasius (Ham.).—Bhil name, /[hirkirya.

This cat fish has proved to be a good aquarium fish. They be-

have much in the same way as surface fish do and regularly exercise

themselves by swimming at the surface every evening. During

the day they rest at the bottom of the aquarium all huddl ed

together but show the greatest activity at night. They are silvery

with a greenish tinge and the fins are light in colour. They feed

readily on mosquito larvae and ‘also on worms. which they

prefer. They are able to move the eye forwards, upwards and

downwards. They are susceptible to strong sunlight and show a

photophobia and strive to conceal the head by efforts to get under

each other or, if there is algae in the water they hide in them. They

favour sections of the rivers which have a broad expanse and w here

the bed is rocky and part silted and are found at the edges at

depths up to three feet in currents of mild intensity.

Glyptothorax lonah (Sykes).—Bhil name, Khardoo.

It bears a close resemblance to the Goonch. When freshly

caught and alive, the colour was strikingly beautiful. It lived for

barely fifteen minutes and lost colour through storage in preserva-

tives. Originally the post-mortem white markings were a_ bright

red both on the body and the fins and belly and the dark back-

ground now seen was a jet black colour.

Nangra viridescens (Ham.).—Bhil name, Biboa.

When freshly caught, the colour was a rich gold with some black

dorsal markings. They lived for only a half hour and were taken

from the Aounda and Darna rivers. It is a recessive type as only a

very few were taken.

Ophicephalidae:—There are two species with the following Bhil

name :—(1) Dhakay or Dhakaray (Ophicephalus gachua Ham.) 1

a black fish with the terminal ends of the caudal fins stained a

brick red. which fades in preservatives; (2) Murral (Ophicephalus

marulius Ham.):—Dorsally and laterally greenish brown. Ven-

trally white and a well-defined ocellus superiorly placed upon the

caudal fin.

Both species make good aquarium fishes but they are unsociable

and attack and kill each other and hence cannot be left together.

Both can be kept with other species provided they are regularly

fed with worms and bits of meat (raws. If hungry they devour

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FiS@Ts SOCIETY. Vol weds

the smaller surface species. They appear to be nocturnal in habit

as they then manifest the greatest activity by endeavouring to leap

out of the aquarium. One kept in a jar by itself succeeded one

night in getting out of it. This it must have done at some time

after eleven o’clock, when the fishes in the aquarium and those in

other receptacles had been inspected by me before retiring for the

night. I found this Dhakay specimen at six o’clock next morning on

the floor to all intents apparently dead. Its skin was dry and hard as

a board and the only evidence of life it showed was the fitful move-

ment of one of the forward fins. I placed it in water and it slowly

recovered taking in all six hours before regaining its normal state.

Dhakay are found everywhere both in the rivers and streams.

The other species has been taken only from rivers and is also.

found at the junctions of the streams with the rivers. Both

species hug the edges at depths up to two feet and prefer silted

areas grown with aquatic vegetation. In the aquarium both rise

to the surface to také in air about fifteen times in an hour and

always sink back tail first to the floor. They do not normally,

when at rest, work the mouth in the act of breathing, but do

so only when exercised or under stress of excitement as. when

engaged in chasing, biting and killing each other. In the absence

of the food mentioned they readily swallow the larvae of

mosquitoes.

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).—Bhil name, Kharbiya.

Dun or olive coloured background, varying in shade with dark

spots laterally and dorsally in the nature of blotches and also on the

head.

Kharbiya have been taken from sections where the bed is rock

or sand and appear to favour strong currents. Curiously enough

they work the mouth in the act of respiration at a slightly slower

rate than that of the surface species. They are capable of living

in the aquarium for 4 to 5 days only and this inadaptability can

be attributed to the absence of currents. I have not been able

to ascertain what they feed upon. In all probability their food

consists of small crustaceans.

3. A NOTE ON THE FIXED PRACTICE AS OBSERVED AMONGST

CERTAIN SPECIES OF FISH OF REGULARLY EXERCISING

THEMSELVES EVERY EVENING BY SWIMMING ABOUT

AT THE SURFACE FILM IN THE RIVERS AND ALSO

WHEN KEPT IN AN AQUARIUM.

The following species were observed for five months. They

were kept in large-sized glass receptacles (accumulator jars) which

had a surface expanse of 22 inches and a depth of 18 inches of

water (approximately six gallons) in each. Other containers such

as slop pails (Enamel iron) of four-gallon capacity were also used.

About .a dozen. and a half fishes were kept in each of these

containers for which net covers were provided. The species are

as follows :—

(1) Barbus ticto (Ham.):—Bhil name: Tiptoo

(2) Rasbora labiosa Mukerji:—Bhil name: Gayroonjce

(3) Danio fraseri Hora:—Bhil name: Gayroonjee

FISH OF DEOLALI "03

(4) Barilius bendelisis Ham.:—Bhil name: Jhor

(5) Mystus cavasius (Ham.):—Bhil name: Ahirkirya

(o) Ambassis ranga (tlam.):—Bhil name: bing

(7) Ophicephalus marulius Ham.:—Bhil name: Murral

(8) Glossogobius giuris (HHam.):—Bhil name: JKharbiya

(9) Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.):—Bhil name: Dhakay

(10) Garia mullya (Sykes) :—Bhil name: Kharandya and Mallia

Excepting (6); (7), (8), (9) and (10), in the. aquarium, the first

five species, regularly every evening for about two hours between

4-30 and 8.30 p.m. ‘rose to the surface to exercise themselvesiin

much the same manner as has been described under the habits

or irasbora’ labiosa .Mukerji. This: form of exercises’ is » un-

attended by any mortality and the fishes do not show any

symptoms of dyspnoea. There is evidence also that other surface

fishes belonging to the family Cyprinidae carry out this practice

as a regular teature every evening in the rivers, but as most

of those taken from rivers invariably showed a high degree

of susceptibility to aquarium conditions, with a cent per cent.

mortality incidence, it was found impossible to discover how many

of the various species conformed to this practice. It may be

remarked that in a general way it is a habit prevailing amongst

the majority of surface fishes and at first, it was thought

that only such species as are purely insectivorous rise to the

surface and swim about in order to feed. This was however later

disproved by the observations which were maintained in_ the

aquarium over the five species already mentioned. All resort-

ed to the practice at the regular time even when they had

been fed to surfeitment with larvae and imago of mosquitoes and

midge flies from 2 to 4 p.m.‘ This experiment was repeated daily

for many months and the fed series showed no deviation from the

rule, as they instinctively responded to the urge at the regular time

as usual without evincing any desire for food although the

opportunities offered. The control series which were sparingly fed

combined the exercise with attempts to feed by devouring larvae

and leaping to take the insects flying above the water level. This

evidence led to the consideration that, as the exercise appeared to

be a purposive act not specifically associated with hunger, there

was some other physiological cause underlying and governing this

peculiar behaviour. What this cause may be is, of course, a matter

for conjecture. The following notes outline the line of investiga-

tions which was followed in an endeavour to find a soiution for

this enigmatical behaviour of surface fishes and from the facts

obtained by experiment and observation a working hypothesis is

offered which might possibly help other workers competent to deal

with and solve the problem.

It was thought that variations in the temperature of water at

various times of the day and evening possibly influenced the fishes

a a a

‘ My observation and experience with numerous species of Cyprinidae in

China and the Philippines is that this peculiar practice is a regular feature

in the early morning, from before 6 o’clock until 7 or 7.30 a.m. or until the

sun’s- rays strike the water. The fishes swim at the surface, opening and

closing the mouths as if sucking in air.—Albert W. C. T. Herre.

704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

to act in the way they do and so an inquiry in this direction was

instituted and extended over a period of several months. These

temperature differences will be found recorded subsequently.

It may be remarked that, in a general way, the variations

in the temperdture- of the water im the Trivers and Sinegeme

aquarium do not appear directly to influence the behaviour of the

fishes as regards their evening exercise. The surface species in-

the rivers were sometimes seen to rise and swim about at the

surface during the mornings and, on occasions, also in the after-

noons; but they do this only when a high prevailing wind ruffles

the surface and beats it into wavelets. On these occasions it

is evident that they come up to the surface actuated by a desire

to feed as the wind brings with it a supply of insects for which

they actively leap out above the surface film. They nevertheless

rise as usual in the evening and go through with their exercise’

whether a wind is blowing or not. During the dry and hot months

of the year—April for example, when the maximum shade temper-

atures swing between 98° and 106° F.—the temperature of the sur-

rounding air varies and is 5 to 20 degrees higher than the

temperature of the water in the rivers; whereas during the cold

months (December and January) the temperature conditions are

reversed and the air is then colder by about 4 to 20 degrees. In

the cold months, a constant feature recorded was that there was

a surface coolness of the water in the rivers and also in the

aquarium of one degree as compared with that in the depths below.

The temperature in the deep parts of the river was ascertained by

means of a weighted thermos flask containing a bath thermometer

and two open tubes, one running from outside through the stopper

to near the bottom of the flask for entry of water and the other

ending just under the stopper to let the air out. During the hot

weather a surface coolness of half a degree becomes apparent but

only at a time when there is a prevailing wind and only in the

sections of the river where there is a wide surface expanse with a

weak midstream current. In the absence of a wind, there is no

difference between the temperature at the surface to that in the

depths below and this is also the case in the sheltered pools and

narrow parts of the stream and rivers. In the aquarium likewise,

there is no difference between the surface temperature and that

below in the depths unless the receptacle is well ventilated and

placed in a position open to draughts of air and even then the

coolness is barely fractional. When the receptacle contains clear

well-water, subject to daily changes, the fishes rise and swim

about at the surface only once daily every evening for about two

hours. This they do apparently quite independently of the temper-

ature conditions, which in the cold weather vary from 56° to 86°

and in the hot weather from 74 to 96°F. On the other hand, if

the water in the receptacle is rendered turbid with a heavy

suspension of mud the fishes rise and swim about at the surface

and begin to show some respiratory embarrassment. A few die if

the suspension of mud is too thick. They continue to keep at the

surface for as long as the water remains muddy. When the mud

finally subsides they sink below once again, In such a water they

cee EEE

‘3

FISH OF DEOLALI 705

tend to keep towards the surface film as the supernatant fluid is

generally clearer and less difficulty in respiration is experienced.

When the evening hour arrives they begin the exercise as usual.

A striking fact which emerged from the observations is that

when the fishes in the receptacle have exercised themselves in

the manner described for an hour or so, patches of frothy bubbles

are noticed floating or clinging to the sides of the glass panel

and these frothy bubbles were absent prior to the exercise. This

is a constant feature but it could not be ascertained whether the

fishes give out these bubbles or whether they become created

mechanically by them in the act of vigorously swimming at the

surface. As the appearance of the bubbles is a phase de-

pendent upon the peculiar exercise of the fishes, there is a definite

association between the two, and for this reason it would seem

that the fishes themselves emit a gaseous discharge while in the

act of swimming and this must come from the mouth in the form

of tiny invisible particles which, when at the top, coalesce to form

the larger visible bubbles normally seen. In the aquarium these

bubbles take a very long time before being finally dissipated as

some of the floating patches remain intact until the next morning.

In the case of the batch of Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, referred to

in the previous notes, kept for eleven weeks in the same foul

water’ which was never changed, the bubbles in their receptacle

accumulated and assumed large proportions and had the character

of the frothy saliva seen issuing from the mouths of rabid dogs.

The gas, whatever it be, 1s enclosed in a viscid mucous substance

which does not burst readily.

All fishes in- the aquarium rise to the surface when symptoms

of respiratory failure ensue and this must be so because of the

absence of some of the factors of their natural environment, the

chief one of which is the amount of available oxygen in the water

in the form of dissolved air, which judging from their behaviour

appears to be present in a greater volume at the surface. It is

well known that if the air which is dissolved in water be expelled

fom it, the content of nitrogen in this expelled air is in poorer

volume in the proportion of 35.1 oxygen and 64.9 per cent. nitrogen

as compared with normal air which has 21 volumes of oxygen

and 79 of nitrogen and in all probability the lesser pressure at the

surface must also help the fishes to easily absorb both the gases.

It is possibly for this reason that the Cyprinoid fishes rise to the

surface.

[it has hitherto been casually observed to be a general habit among Indian

Cyprinoid fishes of sluggish waters, such as rivers, streams, ponds and_ pools,

to rise to the surface towards the evening and to take gulps of atmospheric

air, which is usually passed over the gills. Dr. Fraser’s observations show

that this is a regular habit among the fishes of this class. Presumably, the

passing of the air over the gills tones up the filaments to carry on aquatic

respiration for the greater part of the day and night, as Cyprinoids are

essentially aquatic breathers.

Dr. Fraser has noticed that frothy bubbles are given out by these fishes

and that these bubbles are very sticky. The air which is passed over the

gills, which are always covered with a thick slimy secretion, probably carries

away with it a certain amount of slime which converts the air-bubbles into

a frothy mass. When experimenting with the air-breathing fishes, which use

706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

their gills for aérial respiration, such as the Mastacembellidae (Trans. Nat.

Inst. Sci. India, i, p. 8, 1935), it was noticed that a big frothy mass was

produced by the air-bubbles that were given out through the gill-openings. To

my mind, Dr. Fraser’s observations clearly show that the Cyprinidae resort

to aerial respiration for a couple of hours in the evening each day.

As to why the other species of fish enumerated by Dr. Fraser in this note

do not swim near the surface in the same way as the Cyprinoids do, the

explanation is different for different species. Ambassis ranga (Ham.) is very

thin and transparent and can probably absorb oxygen all over the surface.

Ophicephalus marulius (Ham.) and O. gachua (Ham.) are provided with

special accessory respiratory chambers and are even capable of living in waters

totally deficient in oxygen. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.) is only slightly adapted

to foul-water conditions, but presumably its large gill areas are capable of

absorbing a fair amount of oxygen from the water and, unless the water

becomes very foul, the fish can extract sufficient oxygen from the water for

its needs. Further it is known that species of fish can extract oxygen from

water even when the oxygen-tension is very low for a number of normal

aquatic breathing fishes.—S. L. Hora. ]

4. TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS AND ALKALINITY OF THE WATER.

Temperature.

Temperatures were taken by means of an ordinary bath

thermometer and records were maintained over a period of seven

months from November. 1935 to May 1936 inclusive. Altogether

a total of 315 observations were made in the streams and 330. in

the rivers. These totals represent an average of 45 readings taken

during any one month, that is, of four registrations made at

6-a.m:, 2 p.m., 6 p.m. and “once at between the:‘hours. from

9 p.m. to I a.m. on 12. different days in any one month, whiels

for all practical purposes gives a rough idea of the diurnal ranges

of temperature of the water in the rivers and streams in the Deolali

area at two seasons, namely:—the cold months from November

to February and the hot season from March to May inclusive.

Only a few readings were taken at the end of the monsoon period

of 1935 and as these records are really in the nature of incomplete

data they have not been included in the totals shown above.

These records are shown in the following table :—

During the cold months :—November to February.

Streams. Rivers. Aquar:um, Air.

By Day 60 to 80°F. 65 to 86°F. 66 to 75°F. 50 to 70°F.

By Night 56 to 68°F. 62°to,72°B, Soto Oo, 40 to 60°F

During the hot months :—March to April.

Streams. Rivers. Aquarium. Air.

By Day 8) to 96°F. 76 to 86°F. 73 to 86°F. 90 to 108°F,

By Night 74 to 82°F. (210 Oe 74 to 78°F. 82 to 92°73

From the above figures it will be observed that during the

cold weather the water in the rivers is slightly warmer than that

in the streams. This warmth may be due to the presence of

very strong currents, as the temperature of water which rushes

strongly was found to be, dependant upon the strength of flow,

higher by 2 to 4 degrees Aaa the water in a still pool or that in

a stream with a mild surface flow. Conversely during the hot

FISH: OF: DEOLALI WOT

weather, the streams are warmer than the rivers. This can be

accounted for by the fact that in the dry weather there is much

fess, water in the channels of the streams and there is little or

no flow. which results in a fair degree of stagnation: -Some

portions of the stream dry up also and the collections of water

in the rocky sections of the Nallahs become heated.

Surface temperatures of water: It was found that during the

cold weather there was a surface coolness of half to one degree

as compared with the temperature below in the depths. In the

hot weather the temperature both at the surface and below was

identical except when a strong breeze was blowing: and ruffling

the water’s surface when a slight fractional coolness was noted.

Differences between the air and water temperatures during the

hot and cold seasons of the year: The peculiarities observed were

that during the cold weather the air temperature is lower than

that of the water in rivers and streams and aquarium by 4

to 20 degrees and it is higher in the hot months by 5 to 20

degrees. In this connection the few observations made during

the rainy season showed that both air and water temperatures

appeared to vary little and were fairly constant showing a diurnal

mameae of.65 to 74°F.

Reactions of fishes to extremes of water temperature: It was

found that the range of water temperature which conduced to a

normal activity amongst fishes as depicted by their behaviour was

from 65 to 80°F. Any temperature below 58°F. inactivated them

as they then tended to remain at the bottom all huddled together

and, if green algae are present in the water, they push them-

selves into its meshy texture. On the other hand a_temper-

ature above 84°F. caused them to exhibit a restlessness in the

form of an activity confined to swimming about just below the

surface film and in doing this they showed an accelerated breathing

rate, but with no signs of actual distress. At temperatures above

go°F. symptoms of acute dyspnoea became manifest. |

The following experiments were carried out with a view to

ascertain the end points of extremes of water temperature which

kill fishes and the tolerance of any acquired for heat and cold.

The same number of fishes, previously enumerated were employed

in these experiments, namely 10 species belonging to both surface

and ground types.

(1) The temperature of the water in the receptacle containing

these species was gradually lowered by placing blocks of ice around

it. By this means it was ascertained that during the cold weather

the minimum temperature which killed both surface and ground

species is 48 to 50°F. Conversely (2) also during the cold weather,

by heating the receptacle in a water bath the maximum tempera-

ture at which fishes died stood at between g2 to 94°F. On the

other hand similar experiments carried out during the hot

weather showed that the minimum, temperature at which fishes

became moribund and died was 55 to 58°F. and the maximum at

between 102 to 104°F. These experiments clearly showed that

fishes at the different seasons acquire or lose a tolerance for heat

and cold. |

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

How far the temperature variations of the water at the different

seasons influence the distribution of the species as betwen the

rivers and streams cannot be precisely determined but there is

evidence to show that the constancy of water temperatures as has

been shown to obtain in the rivers may be a factor controlling

the distribution, as the variations of the temperature in the waters

of the rivers is within the limits of tolerance for the well-being

of fishes and the majority of the species found here have their

habitat in the rivers. In this connection it may be remarked that

the other factors which play an important part in regulating the

distribution of the species are (1) Alkalinity of the waters (2) The

presence of strong currents (3) The greater volume of water and

the wide surface expanse which so far as the rivers are concerned

offer to fishes a better environment than that in the streams. I

have previously mentioned that there are only three species which

can be regarded as truly stream fishes. Two of these are surface

species and curiously enough are quite new Cyprinids described

by Hora and Mukerji in the Records of the Indian Museum,

namely :—Danio (Danio) fraser’ Hora and Rasbora labiosa Mukerji

and the other is a ground species with the Bhil name of ‘Kharan-

dya’ [Garra mullya (Sykes)|. There is enough evidence in the

collection made of these species that the adults never attain any

large dimensions. In the case of river fishes, with but few

exceptions the majority grow to a large size. Judged on this

evidence it is apparent that the stream environment is unfavourable

to fishes generally and the three species mentioned can be

regarded as classic examples of fishes which have completely

adapted themselves.

Alkalinity.

This was tested by means of red and blue litmus papers

reactions. By this test the water in the streams was found to

be more alkaline than river water. Well water was slightly less

alkaline than either river or stream water. In certain sections

of the streams and rivers, where there was an absence of currents,

the water was found to be strongly alkaline especially in those

areas which were silted up. In some parts of the rivers the

reaction was neutral. In no instance did either river or stream

water give an acid reaction.

As regards the pH values, crude water from the river tested

at the Military Laboratory, Bombay, was found to have the pH

standing at 8. Reaction alkaline, turbidity present, free ammonia

in a trace. Hardness under 4 degrees. Chlorides 2 parts chlorine

per 100,000.

In a slightly acidulated water stream fishes will live for $ to

t hour. In distilled water with a neutral reaction stream fishes

lived for 3 to 6 hours.

In tap water boiled and cooled and giving a neutral reaction

stream fishes showed no distress and lived for several weeks

without the water being changed, nor did they die when restored

to an alkaline water taken from a well.

FISH OF DEOLALI 709

Mention may be made of the fact that Barilius bendelisis (Bhil

name ‘Jhor’) was found in somewhat brackish waters. It would

appear that a slightly alkaline water suffices for the majority of

the fishes in the streams and rivers in the Deolali area.

5. MIscELLANEouS NOTES.

Sleeping habit of the Ophicephalidae,

The two species of fish known to Bhils by the names of Dhukay

(Ophicephalus gachua Ham.) and Murral (Ophicephalus marulius

Ham.) I have been told by Bhil fishermen, have the habit of

sleeping on the banks all night. They lie up in the shallows at

the edges of the river with their heads partly exposed and this

helps them to take air while asleep. There is a good deal of truth

in what they say as these species, when in captivity in the aquarium,

exhibit a nocturnal activity by endeavouring to leap out of their

receptacles and this anxiety would naturally be prompted by the

break in the continuity of the habit of resting and sleeping in the

way described by the Bhils.

Malformations.

As regards malformations in the body of fishes, there is

‘one specimen of MRasbora labiosa Mukerji (Bhil name:

Gayroonjee) which is of considerable interest as there are several

twists in its body length. This specimen when alive behaved quite

normally except. for a handicap in its swimming speed. The speed

was half that of the other normal examples of its species. Another

exhibited a tumour-like growth (much like a Goiter enlargement)

on the ventral aspect below the mouth. This is important because

I have not encountered any malformations in the many specimens

of various species taken from the rivers.

Vernacular Names,

The names by which Bhil fishermen differentiate the various

species have been cited in the previous notes. They give separate

single names to species of the Cyprinoidea, Siluroidea and

Ophicephalidae families and in certain examples for some unknown

reason assign only one group name to include two or more different

species despite the fact that they know them to be distinct types.

Only in one case that of the Loaches (Cobitidae), do they attempt to

separate out the species by employing the group or family word

conjoined with another colloquialism to denote the type. I have

collected specimens under the names as they were given to me and

in this series it will be found that the same names recur for

different species. In order to be quite sure that there was a

general uniformity amongst the Bhil fishermen in the naming of

fishes I obtained information from several fishermen residing in

villages as far apart as 20 miles and in each case the vernacular

Mames given by them agreed.

710 {OURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Note on a predaceous Water-Beetle which kills stream fishes.

Roughly 2 per cent. of fishes secured from the tributary

streams had a small aquatic beetle attached to them near the gill

aperture. By keeping ‘eleven of these beetles - separately “im

receptacles along with a dozen or more of stream fishes of the

following species: Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, Danio fraseri Hora

(Bhil names:—Gayroonjee) and Barbus ticto (Ham.)—(Bhil

name:—Tiptoo or Tiplee), it was observed that a single beetle

killed on an average a dozen of these fishes in the course of 3 to

4 days. They do this by attaching themselves to the gill aperture

towards its upper margin and the fish attacked in this way becomes

moribund and dies in a matter of 30 to 35 minutes in the case

of Barbus ticto and up to one hour for the other species men-

tioned. In the initial attachment of the beetle the fish endeavours

to rid itself of the pest by vigorously swimming about in a

frenzied manner. This exercise -soon: tires the. fish and 9ie

breathing rate becomes accelerated. It then rises to the surface

film where it continues to actively move around for 10 to 15

minutes after which the swimming pace is gradually slowed down

and at this stage it begins to wobble about and shows much

dyspnoea. During this time the beetle without releasing its hold

manages, by raising its tail above the surface level of the water,

to take air in the form of a bubble into the hind end beneath the

elytra. About 8 to ro minutes after the death of the fish them

beetle releases its hold and swims free once again. The death of

the fish is apparently brought about by the beetle draining it of

blood. The beetles do not eat away the soft parts below the gill

covers, which on examination appeared intact. Curiously enough,

three of the series of eleven beetles did not kill fishes, although

they were left with fishes for the same time period of one week

as in the case of the eight beetles which did. The reason for

removing the beetles after one week was because those which

killed fishes ceased to do so after they had accounted for a certain

number—the minimum was 9g and the maximum 14 with an average

of 12. On the cessation of the killing operations, the eight beetles

without exception made determined efforts to fly out of the

aquarium. In contrast with this behaviour those that did not

kill evinced no such desire and behaved quite normally by remain-

ing under water and rising to the surface every 2 minutes or so

to take the air required for their purpose. These eleven beetles

were subsequently killed and examined. Those that killed fishes

in the aquarium and also the number which were found attached

to fishes recovered from the streams were all females. Of the

three ‘which did not attack fishes, two were males and one a

female—the male, as is usual with aquatic Coleoptera, is dis-

tinguished by a disc-like structure placed on the forepart of the

anterior pair of legs. These beetles were not observed in co-

pulation. It may be here remarked that the original observations

began with 15 beetles, 4 of these, after killing fishes, escaped

during the night from the aquarium and were never seen again.

J have no literature on the subject of beetles and am therefore

FISH OF DEOLALI 711

unable to identify the species under reference. Altogether 4

distinct species of aquatic beetles were recovered from the tributary

streams and stagnant sections of the rivers in the Deolali area.

They all definitely belong to the Pentamera group of Coleoptera

as they all show the tarsus with five joints on each of the three

mais of legs and they .therefore: fall. into the. main family

Hydradephaga. One of these species is a black beetle and as it

swims only on the water surface and is possessed of short antennae

it therefore in all probability belongs to the sub-family Gyrinidae.

A second species also possessed of short antennae with a greenish

black hue appears to belong to the sub-family Hydrophilidae.

The remaining two fall into the sub-family Dytiscidae. One of

these is a giant species measuring 4 cm. in length. The other—

the particular species under reference in this note—is very small,

being only 1.3 cm. in length and 0.6 cm. broad. Both these

species have long antennae with eleven segments. The larger of

the two is brownish black in colour with the edge of the wing

case lined in red. The smaller beetle has a straw-coloured back-

ground with some linear black blotches on either side of the wing

cases. Specimens- of this small beetle have been sent to the

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, for identification. As

regards the giant and other water-beetles mentioned in this note,

there was no evidence to bear that they kill fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

eam: ereatly indebted to: Dr.-S. L. Hora of the Zoological

Survey of India for revising the manuscript copy of the foregoing

notes and gratefully appreciate and thank him for his courtesy

and kindness in having named after me one of the two new

Cyprinid Fishes from Deolali, described by him in the Records of

the Indian Museum, vol. xxxvii, Part ii, pp. 375-80.

My warmest thanks are due to Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society, who has helped and encouraged

me throughout with valuable suggestions and advice.

(To be continued),

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS

OF INDIA.

i. CAIUS aS tease ase

The RANUNCULACE& are annual or perennial herbs, rarely shrubs

or climbers. The family includes 4o genera with about 700 species,

distributed all over the world, abundant in temperate and cold

regions, rare in the tropics and usually at high altitudes.

This is a very important family from our point of view, as

owing to the fact that a poisonous, acrid, and narcotic principle

prevails in varying degree throughout the Order, there is scarcely

one plant which can be _regarded as harmless, while some are

deadly. However, most crowfoots lose their acrid qualities on

drying or cooking. Their roots, when perennial, contain, besides

the acrid, a bitter extractive principle, present in various propor-

tions, with a volatile oil, which render them drastic and emetic.

Their seeds are acrid; some contain both a fixed and a volatile

oil, -and are aromatic:

The various members which have been chemically examined

have been found to contain (1) alkaloids—aconitine, ajacine, aja-

conine, atisine, benzaconine, berberine, bikhaconitine, canadine,

clematine, coptine, cynoctodine, damascenine, delcosine, delphinine,

delphinoidine, delphisine, deltaline, hydrastine, indaconitine, 1so-

pyrine, japaconitine, jervine, jesaconitine, lappaconitine, lycaconitine,

myoctonine, neopelline, palmatisine, pseudaconitine, septentriona-

line, staphisagroine—; (2) volatile acrid and bitter principles—

anemonin, cimicifugin, nigellin—j; (3) acids—aconitic, anemonic,

isoferulic, valerianic—; (4) crystalline or amorphous glucosides—

adonidin, delphinin, helleborein, helleborin, paeonin—; (5) saponins,

tannins, resins, Oleoresins, sugars and _ fats.

The better known medicinal and poisonous crowfoots of the

world belong to the following 24 genera:—Aconitum (Northern

temperate regions); AcTaEa (Northern temperate regions); ADONIS

(Northern palaeotemperate regions); ANEMONE (cosmopolitan) ;

AguiLecia {Northern temperate regions); CALTHA (temperate regi-

ons); CimicrruGa (Northern temperate regions); CLEMATIS (cosmo-

politan); Ciematopsis (Nigeria, Tanganyika, Congo, Angola);

Coptis (Northern temperate and arctic regions); DELPHINIUM

(Northern temperate regions); ERANtTHIS (Northern palaeotemperate

regions); HELLEBORUS (Europe; Mediterranean region); HyprastTIs

(Japan; North America); Isopyrum (Europe, Asia, North America) ;

IKNOWLTONIA (South Africa); Myosurus (temperate regions);

NIGELLA (Europe; Mediterranean region); PAEoNIA (Europe; Asia;

western North America); Putsatitta (Central Europe; Siberia;

East Indies); RANUNCULUS (cosmopolitan); THALIcTRUM (Northern

temperate regions); TRoLtiius (Northern temperate and _ arctic

regions); ZANTHORHIZA (Atlantic North America).

[>a

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 718

The medicinal and poisonous crowfoots of India belong to the

following 14 genera:—AconiITUM, ACTAEA, ADONIS, ANEMONE,

AQUILEGIA, CALTHA, CIMICIFUGA, CLEMATIS, CopTis, DELPHINIUM,

NIGELLA, PAEONIA, RANUNCULUS, THALICTRUM.

A. Erect or climbing shrubs. Leaves opposite. Sepals

petaloid, valvate. Carpels 1-ovuled; ovule pendulous.

Fruit of many achenes

Petals o tic ae a ... CLEMATIS.

B. Herbs. Leaves radical or alternate. Sepals petaloid,

imbricate. Carpels 1-ovuled; ovule pendulous. Fruit of

many achenes

T. Petals o, flowers involucrate oe ... ANEMONE.

II. Petals 0, flowers not involucrate eae .s. THALICTRUM.

III. Petals 5-16, with no nectariferous pit ... 2. ADONIS:

C. Herbs. Leaves radica! or alternate. Sepals herbaceous,

imbricate. Carpels 1-ovuled; ovules erect. Fruit of

many achenes

Sepals 3-5, deciduous, petals usually 5

D. Herbs or undershrubs. Leaves alternate. Sepals petaloid

or herbaceous, imbricate. Carpels several, many-ovuled.

Fruit of 1 or more follicles (berried in AcTAEa)

I. Flowers regular solitary or panicled

RANUNCULUS.

a. Petals 0. Leaves undivided oi .». CALTHA.

b. Petals small, carpels long-stalked ... 2 OLR c:

c. Petals small, unguiculate. Carpels _ sessile.

Flowers pale blue we .». NIGELLA. |

d. Petals as large as the sepals, all spurred —... AQUILEGIA.

II. Flowers regular, racemed

a. Carpels solitary, berried when ripe ... ACTAEA.

b. Carpels 4-8, follicular when ripe ... CIMICIFUGA.

IiI. Flowers irregular

a. Posterior sepal spurred bps ... DELPHINIUM.

b. Posterior sepal vaulted es ... AACONITUM.

E. Herbs or undershrubs. Sepals herbaceous imbricate.

Carpels several, several-ovuled, girt by a fleshy disk.

Fruit of coriaceous few-seeded follicles ... PAEONIA.

ACONITUM,

The genus numbers rro species distributed over the northern

temperate regions of the globe.

Aconites are at once highly poisonous and most valuable

medicinal plants. The following species are used medicinally in

Europe—A. Anthora Linn., -A. Cammarum Linn., A. Lycoctonum

Linn., A. Napellus Linn., A. variegatum Linn.—; in Japan and

China—A. Fischeri Reichb., A. ‘Lycoctonum Linn., A. Napellus

Linn., A. uncinatum Linn.—; in North America—A. Fischeri

Reichb., A. Napellus Linn., A uncinatum Linn.—; in Indo-China—

A. Fischeri Reichb., A. Kusnezoffii Reichb., 4. Lycoctonum Linn.,

A. Napellus Linn.

Those aconite alkaloids which have been fully examined belong

to two well-defined groups:—(1) aconitines, which are highly

poisonous——aconitine and bikhaconitine from A. Napellus, indaconi-

tine from A. chasmanthum, japaconitine from Japanese hondo

aconite roots, pseudaconitine from A. deinorrhizum and A. Balfourii,

jesaconitine from Japanese bushi aconite roots, lappaconitine and

714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol} XX XT

lveaconitine from A. Lycoctonum— ; (2) atisines, which are not toxic |

—atisine from A. heterophyllum, palmatisine from A. palmatum. :

Nothing is known of the properties and uses of 11 species

recognized as Indian. The other 13 Indian Aconites are arranged |

according to the structure of their roots, on the authority of gay

Stapf :— | |

A. Root perennial, long, fusiform usually breaking up at i

length into cord-like anastomosing or free strands; old H

plants often with several stems from the collar joo a, An leordiume

B. Roots biennial, paired, tuberous; each tuber producing

normally one simple or rarely branched stem

I. Stem erect, rarely ascending, never twining

1. Seed-angles winged, faces smooth or almost so

(not transversely lamellate)

a. All the leaves distinctly to very long-petioled,

cordate-orbicular or reniform in outline,

deeply dissected |

i. Tubers 2-3.5° cm: lene, fracture in. the

dry state horny or cartilaginous, brown |

(at least the part outside the cambium) ;

taste slightly bitter, followed by a tingling

Sensation ; carpels 5, glabrous or nearly

so, never tomentose

ie . chasmanthum

ii. Tubers o.5-2.5 cm. long, fracture inthe

dry state almost farinaceous, pure white ;

taste indifferent or slightly sweetish, not

‘followed by any tingling sensation; car-

‘ pels densely tomentose; honey-gland

subterminal 3. A. violaceum.

b. All the leaves with the exception of the lowest

shortly petioled to sub-sessile, cordate-ovate,

coarsely crenate iet es ... 4. A. heterophyllum

2. Seeds with hyaline wavy transverse -lamellae

a. Cambium of tubers discontinuous, forming in

cross-section circular or tangentially flattened |

to horseshoe-shaped_ strands |

i. Nectary-hood very slender with a minute

lip; carpels quite glabrous; taste of

tubers intensely and pure bitter, not i

followed by any tingling sensation ... 5. A. palmatum. }

ii. Nectary-hood wide with a rather large

lip; carpels hairy; taste of tubers rather

indifferent, followed by a_ strong and

persistent tingling sensation

+ Inflorescence and carpels greyish

pubescent; leaves divided almost to

the base, ultimate divisions narrow ;

carpels usually 3 a ... 6. A. deinorrhigum.

t+ Inflorescence and carpels spreadingly

yellowish tomentose; leaves rather

less divided tham in the preceding |

species, ultimate divisions broad ;

carpels 5 . A. Balfourii.

b. Cambium of tubers continuous, forming in }

cross-section a more or less sinuous ring

~NI

i. Secondary sieve-strands of mother-tubers |

not encased in sclerenchymatic sheaths ;

lip of nectary widened from the base

upwards; leaf-segments not or slightly

divaricate

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF. INDIA 715

t Leaves divided to in the inner, to

8 or less in the outer incisions,

ultimate divisions rather broad;

carpels 5; follicles 10-18 mm. long

4] Intermediate leaf-division rhom-

boid-cuneate, sparingly and

coarsely inciso-crenate ; nectary-

hood much leaning forward,

slightly widened at the top,

scarcely gibbous; carpels glabr-

ous or nearly so; follicles 14-

18 mm. long =f ue Of. Maleonent.

74 Intermediate leaf-division mostly

ovate in outline, copiously incisc-

crenate or dentate ; nectary-hood

slightly leaning forward, dis-

tinctly, eibbous | at .the. top;

carpels villous; follicles about

10 mm. long ne ... 9. A. spicatum.

++ Leaves divided almost to the very

base, ultimate divisions narrow;

carpels mostly 3; follicles 18-25mm.

long ie or -.. 10. A. laciniatuin.

il. Secondary sieve-strands of mother-tubers

encased in sclerenchymatic — sheaths,

forming persistent fibres; lip of nectary

narrow; leaf-segments — conspicuously

divaricate a ae sean else (EPOX.

II. Stem very slender, twining

1. Flowers on recurved pedicels (up to 5 cm. long),

nodding ; helmet conic-ovate in profile _ A. Elwesit.

2. Flowers on straight or almost straight pedicels (up

to 7.5 cm. long); helmet depressed, semi-

orbicular in profile e bah on ew. Lennie,

1. Aconitum Turidum Hook. fil. & Th. is found in the Him-

alaya from Eastern Nepal to Chumbi, between 12,000 and 14,000 ft.

The root is reputed poisonous.

Bengal: Bish, Butsnabbish—; Bhoti: Tchendook—; Bombay: Butchnab—;

Darjeeling : Soorja banshi—,; Hindi: Mahoor—; Nepal: Atisingeeabish, Bilsh,

Bish, Bishnak—; Sikkim: Suya-banshi—; Telugu: Ativassa—.

2. Aconitum chasmantum Stapf inhabits the subalpine and

Alpine zone of the Western Himalaya, from Chitral and Hazara

to Kashmir, between 7,coo and 12,000 ft.

The root contains, according to Dunstan, very small proportions

of aconitine (1897). Later the roots were examined by Dunstan

and Andrews, and found to contain the crystalline alkaloid

indaconitine (1905). But an alkaloid, obtained by Bauer and

Radjhan, did not appear identical with indaconitine (1931).

Hazara: Mohri—; Jhelum: Mohri, Piun—; Kashmir: Ban-bal-nag—.

3. Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. occurs in the Alpine zone

of the Himalaya from Gilgit to Kumaon, between 10,000 and

me Goo ft,

The roots are eaten by the hillmen of Kanawar as a pleasant

tonic.

Kachung: Tilia kachang—; Kashmir: Joleser, Jokser me-hin-pat-val—;

Sutlej: Tilia kachang—,

(16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL OISda SOCTE EY. Volto news

4. Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. is common in the subalpine

and alpine zone of the Himalaya, from the Indus to Kumaon,

from’ /0,600 tons ,Go0omrt,

Ayurvedists describe the root as a bitter tonic, hot, stomachic,

and digestive. They recommend it as a remedy in _ fevers,

diarrhoea, dyspepsia and cough, and also as an aphrodisiac and

an astringent. They consider it useful in the treatment of bites

and stings from poisonous animals.

Yunanists use the drug much in he same way as the Ayurvedists.

Thus the root is a common Indian medicine employed as a mild

and bitter tonic, aphrodisiac, antiperiodic and _ tonic.

The Central Indigenous Drugs Committee (1901) while admitting

that the drug is a good bitter and tonic, declared it to be worthless

as an antiperiodic. Jkoman (1919) reported having cured a case

of acute dysentery and one of ‘chronic’ enteritis, Caius amd

Mhaskar proved experimentally that it is not an antidote to snake

venom (1931) and that it is useless in the treatment of scorpion

sting (1932).

The alkaloid atisine has been obtained from the root.

Bashahr: Patis, Patris—; Bhoti: Ais—; Bombay: Atis, Atvika——; Canarese:

Atibaje—; Cutch: Ativista—; Gujerat: Atavakhanikali, Atavishnikali, Ativakh,

Ativish—; Hindi: Atis, Atvika—; Jhelum: Chitijari, Sukhi-hari—; Kashmir:

Hongisafed, Mohandigujsafed, Mohundguji, Narmada, Nerr-mada—; Lahul:

Bonga—; Leh: Ais—; Marathi: Atavish—; Persian: Batis, Vajjeturki—;

Punjab: Bonga, Chitijari, Patis, Patris, Sukhihari—; Sanskrit: Amrita, Aruna,

Ataicha, Atisaraghni, Ativisha, Bhangura, Bhringi, Ghunavallabha, Kashmira,

Madri, Mahaushadham, Mahoshadha, Mridvi, Prativisha, Pravisha, Shishu-

bhaishyajja, Shokapaha, Shringi, Shringika, Shuklanda, Shveta, Shvetakanda,

Shvetavacha, Shyamkanda, Upvisha, Vira, Virupa, Visha, Visharupa, Vishva— =;

Tamil: Atividyam—; Telugu: Ativasa—.

5. Aconitum pailmatum D. Don is found in the alpine

Himaiaya of Nepal, Sikkim, and the adjoining part of South Tibet,

from 10,000 to 16,000 ft.

The non-poisonous root is tonic and antiperiodic; it is given

for rheumatism and diarrhoea. Mixed with pepper it is used

internally as a remedy for pains in the abdomen, diarrhoea and

vomiting, and intestinal worms; externally it is used as an

application for rheumatism.

The root contains the alkaloid palmatisine.

Bombay: Bikhma, Vakhma, Wakhma—; Gujerati: Vakhamo—,; Hindi:

Bikhma, Bishawa, Bishma, Bisma—; Sikkim: Gniong-rip-gmok, Seto-

bikhoma—.

6. Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf occurs in the alpine Himalaya

of Bashahar. ;

The root contains the poisonous alkaloid pseudaconitine.

Bashahar: Doodhiya moura, Maura, Mohra—; Gujerat: Dudhio vachha-

nag—; Hindi: Mahoor, Mahore, Maur, Maura bikh, Mora, Moura _ bikh,

Muhura—; Kashmir: Dudhia bish—; Punjab: Dudhia bish—; Ravi: Dudhia

moura—; Sutlej: Kala mohra, Mahoor, Mahore, Maur, Maura bikh, Mohra,

Mora, Moura bikh, Muhura—.

7. Aconitum Balfourii Stapf occurs in the subalpine and alpine

Himalaya from British Garhwal to Nepal.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA Zaue

The tubers contain the poisonous alkaloid pseudaconitine.

Darma:, Gobriya—; Garhwal: Banwa—; Hindi: Teliya, Teliya bachnag,

Teliya bis—; Lahore: Bachnab—; Nepal: Gobari—; Ralam: Bhanva, Dhaulia,

Dhumuriya, Fatkia, Gobaria, Gobriya, Jhirina, Kawriya, Phatkia, Phutkia,

Ratwa, Tiliya—.

8. Aconitum Falconeri Stapf inhabits the alpine and subalpine

zone of the Himalaya of Garhwal.

The root is evidently poisonous.

Hindi: Bikh, Bis, Mahoor, Mahore, Maur, Maura bikh, Meethatellia, Mora,

Moura bikh, Muhura—; Tihri Garhwal: Mohra—.

Aconitum spicatum Stapf is found in the alpine zone of the

Himalaya of Sikkim and Chumbi, between 10,009 and 12,000 ft.

This species is the principal source of the ‘Bikh’ or ‘Bish’

of the Calcutta market. The toxic principle is the alkaloid

bikhaconitine.

Bengal: Dagra, Dakra, Katbish, Kathbish—; Bombay: Bachnab—; Cana-

vese: Vasanabhi Cutch: Bachnaga—; Deccani: Lal bachnag—; Gujerati :

Shingadiovachnag, Vachnag, Vachlanag—; Hindi: Bachhnag, Bachnag, Bachnak,

Bechnak, Bikh, Bish, Bis, Kalabachhnag, Singya—; Lepcha: Ning—;

Malayalam: Valsanabhi—; Sanskrit: Sringibish, Vatsanabha—; Sikkim: Bikh,

Gniong, Gniongmot, Gniongning, Kalabikoma, Shoddukmot—; Sinhalese :

Vachanabhi—; Tamil: Navi, Sennabi, Vachanavi—; Telugu: Nabhi,

Vasanabhi—.

to. Aconitum laciniatum Stapf occurs in the subalpine and

alpine Himalaya of Sikkim and adjoining Tibet, between 10,000

and 14,000 ft.

It forms, together with A. spicatum, the article known as

‘Nepal Aconite’.

Stkkim: Kalobikhmo—.

11. Aconitum ferox Wall. is found in the alpine Himalaya of

Nepal.

The drug is chiefly employed in India in the treatment of

leprosy, fever, cholera, and rheumatism.

It is a very effective medicine in various diseases, acting as

a narcotic sedative, regarded as heating and stimulant, useful in

fever, cephalalgia, affections of the throat, dyspepsia, and rheu-

matism. It is much used as an external application, the root

being formed into a paste and spread upon the skin in neuralgia,

boils, etc. Internally it is chiefly used in the treatment of chronic

intermittent fevers.

Ayurveda prescribes that the root be specially prepared before

use. To this end the tough horny material is soaked in either

urine or milk from the cow and exposed to the sun until it becomes

so soft as to be easily pierced by a pin. The process requires

three or more days and the urine or milk has ‘to be renewed

every day. Bose (K. C.) has shown that this treatment is

attended with very important modifications of the physiological

properties :—tincture of Aconite at first slows the heart-rate, lowers

the blood pressure, and increases the peripheral circulation, later

the heart-rate is accelerated and the, blood pressure raised; after

718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY). Vol) XXxXIx

treatment of the root with cow’s urine the tincture increases the

rate and systole of the heart, the blood pressure, and the peri-

pheral circulation, and the etfects ‘persist for a very long time.

Mhaskar and Caius have confirmed those findings and demonstrated,

moreover, that if the root is treated with cow’s milk, instead of

urine, the above changes are much more pronounced.

The root, either alone or in combination with other drugs, has

been much recommended for the treatment of snake-bite and

scorpion-sting ; but Caius and Mhaskar have proved experimentally

that the drug is not an antidote to snake venom and is useless

in the treatment of scorpion-sting.

A preparation of the root is much used in all the hilly districts

in India to poison arrows. The toxic principle is the alkaloid

pseudaconitine.

Arabic: Bish—; Assam: Bish—; Bengal: Bish, Butsnabbish, Katbish—;

Bombay: Butchnab—; Canarese: Vasanabhi, Vatsanabhi—; Cutch: Buch-

naga—; Gujerat: Shingadiovachnag, Vachhanag, Vachnag—; Hindi: Bachh-

nag, Bachnak, Bis, Bish, Mahoor, Mithazahar, Singya, Singyabis, Teliyabis—;

Lepcha: Lung-ji nying, Nyine, Nying—; Malayalam: Vatsanabhi—; Marathi:

Bachnag, Vachnag—; Nepal: Atisingeeabish, Bikh, Bish, Bishnak—; Persian:

Bishnag, Zher—; Sanskrit: Aheya, Amrita, Bhugara, Brahmaputra, Darada,

Gara, Garada, Garala, Ghora, Halahala, Haridra, Jangala, Jangula, Jivana-

ghata, Kakola, Kalakuta, Kasakula, Kishala, Kshveda, Nila, Pradipana,

Pranahara, Raktashringika, Rasa, Rasayana, Shanklakeya, Shringi, Sowrasht-

rika, Tikshna, Vatsanabha, Visha—; Sinhalese: Vachanabhi—; Tamil:

Vashanavi— }_ Telugu: Ativasa, Naghi, Vasanabhi—.

12. Aconitum Elwesii Stapf is found in the alpine Himalaya

of north-eastern Sikkim.

The root is reputed poisonous.

Lepcha: Tulxschak gniong—.

13. Acconitum lethale Griff. occurs in the higher parts of the

Mishmi mountains.

The root contains the non-poisonous alkaloid palmatisine. It

is, however, believed to be the source of the celebrated ‘Bhi’ or

‘Bis’ poison of the Mishmis.

Mishmi: Bee, Bih, Bhi, Bis—.

ACTAEA.

This genus consists of ro species distributed over the northern

temperate regions.

A. alba: Mill., A. -eburnea Rydb., and A, spicata Linn; gate

used medicinally in North America by the Meskwaki, Pillager

Ojibwe, and Forest Potawatomi Indians of the State of Wisconsin.

Actaea spicata Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya from

Hazara to Bhutan. It is distributed to Northern Asia, Europe,

and North America.

The root is an active emeto-purgative, acrid, parasiticide; it is

held in repute as an expectorant and antispasmodic. It must be

administered with caution.

Canadian doctors administer the root in snake-bite; and it is

said to be attended with much success in the treatment.of nervous

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 719

diseases, rheumatic fever, chorea and lumbago. The berries were

formerly used internally for asthma and _ scrofula, and externally

for skin complaints.

The Pillager Ojibwe and the Forest Potawatomi Indians of

Wisconsin make a tea from the root, to be drunk by women after

ehildbirth; it istameantgto:. clear up the. system. - White» men: use

it for stomach troubles, and as a substitute for Cimicifuga racemosa

Nuttall. It has been used in cases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine

tenderness, sub-involution, and as a substitute for digitalis in the

treatment of fatty or irritable heart. It affords some relief for a

headache which is due to eye strain.

In some parts of Europe the powdered leaves, stems, and

flowers are used as an insecticide. The toxic principle is referred

fo as “oil of baneberry’.

Mhaskar and Caius have shown that the root is useless as an

antidote to snake-bite.

Catalan: Herba de San Cristofol—; English: Baneberry, Bugbane, Grape-

wort, Herb Christopher, Toadroot—; French: Actée, Actée en épi, Christophori-

ane, Faux hellébore noir, Herbe aux poux, Herbe de Saint Christophe—;

German: Christophskraut, Christophswurz—; Italian: Barba di capra—; North

America: Coral-and-pearl, European Baneberry, Grapewort, Herb Christopher,

Foison-berry, Red Baneberry, Red-berry Sinakeroot, Red Cohosh, Snake-berry,

Toad-root—; Ojibwe: Wickobidjibik—; Potawatomi: © Wasgobidjibikeok— ;

Spanish: Cristobalina, Yerba de San Cristobal—.

ADONIS.

The genus numbers to species inhabiting the northern palaeo-

temperate regions, chiefly southern Europe and western Asia.

A. aestivalis Linn., A. autumnalis Linn., A. microcarpa DC.,

A. vernalis Linn. are used medicinally in Europe; A. vernalis Linn.

is similarly used in North America.

The herb of A. vernalis Linn. is official in Austria, Holland,

Italy, Russia, Spain, and Switzerland. :

Adonis aestivalis Linn. extends from temperate Europe to Asia;

it is found in the Western Himalaya from Peshawar to Hazara

and Jkumaon.

The whole plant is used as a cardiotonic and diuretic in

Euope. The flowers are considered laxative, diuretic, and

lithothriptic.

Baluchi: Buchki—; Catalan: Ull de perdiu—; French: Adonide d’été,

Rougeotte— ; German: Feuerroeschen—; Languedoc: Rubissa—; Reggio: Pe

desen—; Romagna: Chiga sanev, Erba corta, Fior d’Adone, Gattapozzia— ;

Russian: Goritzvyet Krasnee—; Sardinia: Ogu de boi—; Spanish: Ojo de

perdiz—; Treviso: Gioze de sanguse, Stiantamalanni—; Wagziri: Chadangul,

Lavang—.

ANEMONE.

This cosmopolitan genus numbers 100 species.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—A. alpina Linn.,

A. coronaria Linn., A. hepatica Linn., A. narcissifora Linn.,

As nemorosa Linn., A. pratensis Linn., A. pulsatilla Linn., A.

ranunculoides Linn., A. stellata Lam., A. sylvestris Linn., A. trifolia

Linn., A. vernalis Linn.—; in North America—A. acutiloba Laws.,

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX XIX

A. cylindrica A. Gray, A. dichotoma Linn., A. parviflora Michoe.,

A.: patens Linn., A. pratensis Linn., A. “thaliciroides Linn,

virginiana Linn.—; in Japan and China—A. cernua Thunb.—; in

Indo-China—A. cernua Thunb., A. dichotoma Linn., A. hepatica

Linn., A. japonica Sieb. and Zucc., A. nikoensis Max.—; in South

Africa—A. caffra Harv., A. transvaalensis Prantl.—.

The leaves and flowers of A. nemorosa Linn. are official in

Portugal, those of A. pulsatilla Linn. in France and Portugal.

A. multifida Poir. and A. nemorosa Linn. are reputed poisonous

in America.

In Siberia the juice of A. altaica Fisch., A. narcissiflora Linn.,

A. parviflora Mich., A.. ranunculoides Linn., A. reflexa Steph. is

used to poison arrows.

Anemonin, or anemone camphor, has been obtained from

A, nemorosa, A. pratensis, A. pulsatilla, and A. transvaalensis.

1. Achenes_ strigose, rarely glabrous. Radical leaves

3-partite aa Hs me ... A. obtusiloba.

2. Achenes nearly orbicular with an incurved beak.

Leaves palmately 5-partite ars .. A. narcissiflora.

1. Anemone obtusiloba D. Don occurs in temperate and alpine

Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, between 8,o00 and 15,000 ft.

In Hazara the pounded root, which is acrid, is mixed with milk

and given internally for contusions. In Bessahir it is said to be

used as a blister, but to be apt to produce sores and scars.

Theseeds, “it; siven internally, produce vomiting and PULB Ings

The oil extracted from them is used in rheumatism.

Jaunsar: Ageli—; Kumaow: WKakriya, Ratanjota, Rattanjog—; Punjab:

Padar, Ratanjota, Rattanjog—.

2. Anemone narcissiflora Linn. is found in Kashmir. ‘It is

distributed to the Alps of Southern and Central Europe, Western

Asia, Siberia, and North-Western America.

The plant is toxic and is used as a poison in most places where

it is found growing.

AQUILEGIA.

The genus consists of 75 species occurring in the northern

temperate regions.

A. alpina Linn., A. Kitaibeli Schott, A. parviflora Ledeb., A.

pyrenaica DC., A. vulgaris Linn. are used medicinally in Europe;

A. canadensis Linn., A. formosa Fusch., A, vulgaris Linn. are

similarly used in North America.

Aquilegia vulgaris Linn. is found in the Western temperate and

subalpine Himalaya; it is distributed over temperate Europe and

Asia.

In Europe the plant and the seeds are credited with aperient,

resolvent, diuretic, and diaphoretic properties. The leaves are

generally used in lotions with good success for sore mouths and

throats. <A tincture is employed to strengthen the gums,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 721

‘Tragus saith that a dram of the seed taken in wine with a

little saffron openeth obstructions of the liver and is good for the

yellow jaundice, if the person after taking thereof be laid to sweat

well in bed. The seed also taken in wine causeth a speedy delivery

of women in childbirth; if one draught suffice not let her drink a

second, and it will be found effectual. The Spaniards used to

eat a piece of the root thereof in a morning fasting, many days

together, to help them when troubled with stone in the veins or

kidneys.’

The plant contains a cyanogenetic glucoside.

Catalan: Ausellets, Corns, Perfet amor—; Dutch: Akelei—; English: Blue

Starry, Boots-and-shoes, Capon’s-feather, Capon’s-tail, Cock’s-foot, Colombine,

Colourbine, Columbine, Cullavine, Culverkeys, Culverwort, Curranbine, Dove’s-

foot, Granny’s Night-cap, Hawk’s-feet, Hen and Chickens, Lady’s shoes, Lady’s.

slippers, Snapdragon, Sowdwort, Two faces under a hat—; French: Ancholie,

Ancholie commune, Ancholie des jardins, Ancholie sauvage, Ancholie vulgaire,

Ancolie, Bonne-femme, Clochette, Colombine, Cornette, Eglantine, Fleur-

églantine, Galantine, Gants de Notre-Dame, Gélantine, Manteau_ royal—;

German: Acklei, Adlerblue, Adlersblume, Aglei, Akelei, Falsche Glockenblume,

Glockenblume, Harlekinsblume, Jowisblume, Jupiterblume, Unsererliebenfrauen-

handschuh—; Italian: Amor mascosto, Aquilegia, Aquileia, Aquilina—; Roum-

anian: Caidarusa, Cinci coade, Clopotei cornuti—; Russian: Vadasbor— ;

Spanish: Aquileia, Aquilefa, Manto real, Pajarilla, Pajaritas—; United States:

Boots-and-shoes, Cock’s-foot, Culverwort, Dove’s-foot, European Columbine,

Garden Columbine, Granny’s-nightcap, Hawk-feet, Lady’s-shoes—.

CALTHA,

The genus numbers 20 species inhabiting the temperate regions

of the world.

Caltha palustris Linn. is found in western temperate Himalaya

from Kashmir to Nepal, between’ 8,o0o and to0,o00 ft. It occurs

in temperate Europe and North America.

Every part of the plant is strongly irritant, and cases are on

record of serious effects produced by rashly experimenting with it.

The juice is efficacious in curing warts.

Internally, the boiled young sprouts were used by the Iroquois

in rheumatism and _ neuritis.

In the Pyrenees and in Germany the young buds are pickled

like capers.

A tincture made from the whole plant when in flower may be

given in cases of anaemia, in small, well-diluted doses.

— Catalan: Flor dei mal d’ulls—; English: Bassinet, Big Watercup, Blob,

Boots, Bublican, Bull-flower, Bulls’ Eyes, Butter-blob, Carlock-cups, Chirms,

Christ’s Eyes, Claut, Colt’s Foot, Crow Cranes, Crazy, Dandelion, Drunkard,

Fire o’Gold, Golden Cup, Goldins, Golds, Gollin, Great Butter-flower, Ground

Ivy, Halcups, Horse-blobs, John Georges, Johnny Cranes, Kingcob, King Cup,

Leopard’s Foot, Mare-blebs, Mare-blob, Marsh Horsegowl, Marsh Mallow, Marsh

Marigold, May Blobs, Mayflower, Meadow Bouts, Meadow Bright, Meadow

Gowan, Moll-blob, Open Gowan, Palsywort, Publicans and Sinners,

Soldiers’ Buttons, Water-blobs, Water-bouts, Water Buttercup, Water Caltrops,

Water Dragon, Water Goggles, Water Gowan, Wild Bachelor's Buttons,

Yellow Gowan—; French: Populage, Souci d’eau, Souci des marais—; German:

Butterblume, Dotterblume, Kuhblume, Sumpfdotterblume—; [talian: Farferug-

ine—; Menomini: Wasasipu ’Kwa—; North America: American Cowslip, Cow-

slip, Cow’s Lip, Marsh Marigold—; Ojibwe : O’igite'big—; Punjab: Baringu

Mamiri— ; Spanish: Calta, Centella palustre, Yerba centella—. ee

722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

CIMICIFUGA.

This genus consists of 12 species, which inhabit northern

temperate regions.

C. foetida Linn. is used medicinally in Europe, China, and

Indo-China; C, racemosa (L.) Nuttall in North America, where the

dried rhizome and roots are official.

Cimicifuga foetida Linn. inhabits temperate Himalaya from

Kashmir to Bhutan, between. 7,000 and-12,000 ft. It is found

in Siberia and Eastern Europe.

The plant is a nerve depressant.

In Europe the root is considered a mild emeto-purgative. In

China and Indo-China it is used as an antiperiodic and sudorific,

and prescribed in rheumatic affections, dropsy, the early stage

of phthisis, and chronic bronchial diseases.

In Siberia the root is used to drive away bugs and fleas.

Annam: Thang ma—,; Chinese: Sheng Ma—; English: Bugbane—; French:

Actée fétide, Chasse-punaise, Cimicaire, Herbe aux punaises—; German:

Wanzenkraut—; Punjab: Jiunti—; Spanish: Yerba de las chinches—.

CLEMATIS.

A cosmopolitan genus numbering 220 species, rare in the

tropics.

This genus is acrid and poisonous; the leaves and fresh stems,

if bruised and applied to the skin, cause vesication; in some species

the seeds have purging properties.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—C. alpina

Mill.,. C. flammula Linn.,-C. integrifolia Tinn., :C. vecia Eamne

C. vitalba Linn., C. viticella Linn.—j; in Indo-China—C.. apuifolia

DC., C. chinensis Retz:, C. dioica Linn., Cy flomnda. Thunb sae

paniculata Thunb., C. patens Morr. and Dec., C. smilacifolia Wall.,

C. virginiana Linn., C. vitalba Linn.—; in China—C. apiifolia DC.,

C. chinensis Retz., C. paniculata Thunb., C. recta Linn.—; in North

America—C, crispa Linn., C. ligusticifolia Nutt., C, viorna Linn.,

C. virginiana Linn.—; in Jamaica—C. dioica Linn.—; in Guinea

and Nigeria—C. grandiflora DC., C. Thunbergit Steud.—; in the

islands of Mauritius and La Reunion—C, mauritiana Lam.—; in

Madagascar—C. Bojeri Hook., C. mauritiana Lam., C. saxicola

Bojer and Hills.—; in Southern Africa—C. brachiata Thunb., C.

stanleyi Hook., C. stewartiae Burtt-Davy—.

A. <Achenes with long feathery styles. Flowers in axillary

fascicles; pedicels 1-flowered ae .. 1. C. napaulensis:

B. Achenes with long feathery tails. Flowers in axillary

panicles

I. Filaments glabrous, connective of anthers not

produced

a. Glabrous Bor

b. Silky a

c. Young parts pubescent

Il. Filaments hairy, connective of another not

produced 2s ike ...: 5. C. graveolens,

C. smilacifolia.

. triloba.

C. gouriana.

—. WN Oo

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 723

1. Clematis napaulensis DC. is found in teemperate Himalaya

from Garhwal to Bhutan. In Kumaon throughout, between 4,500

and 7,000 ft., in shady moist ravines.

In Kanawar the leaves are said to act deleteriously on the skin.

Kumaon: Ghantiali, Jai, Kanguli—; Punjab: Birri, Pawanne, Wandak—.

2. Clematis triloba Heyne inhabits the Bombay Presidency:

Konkan and Deccan, Western Ghats.

It is applied externally to boils and itch, and to parasitic wormis.

It is prescribed for the treatment of snake-bite; but Mhaskar

and Caius have found every part of the plant equally useless in

the antidotal treatment of snake-bite.

Bombay: Moravela, Moriel, Morvel, Ranjae, Ranjai—; Canarese : Morhari—;

Gujerat: Morvel—; Hindi: Churahar, Dhantiali, Murhari—; Marathi: Mora-

vela,, Morbel, Ranjai—; Matheran: Morvel, Ranjat—; Porebunder: Trekhdo-

velo—; Sanskrit: Murva, Devashreni, Devi, Dhanurmala, Dhanurguna, Dridha-

sutrika, Gokarni, Laghuparnika, Madhulika, Madhurasa, Madhushreni, Madhu-

srava, Morata, Filuparni, Prithakaparni, Snigdhaparni, Snuva, Tejani—; Sind:

Maruva—.

3. Clematis smilacifolia Wall. occurs in Kumaon, the Himalaya

from Sikkim eastwards up to 5,oco ft., Assam, Ganjam, Konkan,

Kanara and Deccan of the Bombay Presidency. It extends to

Indo-China, Java, Borneo, and the Philippine Islands.

In Indo-China a decoction of the roots is used for aching of

the muscles.

Canarese: Hottuhambu—; Indo-China: Day ong lao, Khoua kau san, Linh

tien— ; Lepcha: Krang rik—; Malayalam: Vatiyampu—; Sinhalese: Narawel— ;

Telugu: Gurraputige—.

4. Clematis gouriana Roxb. is found in the Punjab hills, the

Western Himalaya up to 5,000 ft., the hilly districts throughout

India between 1,000 and 3,000 ft., and Ceylon. It is distributed

to Java and the Philippine Islands.

The leaves of the fresh stems, if bruised and applied to the skin,

cause vesication.

Bombay: Moriel, Morvel, Ranjai—; Canarese: Telejadari—; Dehra Dun:

Belkangu, Beikum, Belkun—; English: Indian Traveller’s Joy—; North-Western

Provinces: Belkangau, Belkun—; Saora: Pannedang, Pedutivva—; Uran:

Golarang—; Uriya: Boromojhanti, Idiya—; Visayan: Calupad, Tolangsang-

banug—.

5. Clematis graveolens Lindl. inhabits the Western temperate

Himalaya to Kumaon, between 6,009 and 11,000 ft., and extends

y . . . . . ?

to Baluchistan, where it 1s considered poisonous.

Baluchi: Hushokawal—.

COPTis:

This genus consists of tro species which are found in the

northern temperate and arctic regions of the world.

C. anemonaefolia Sieb. and Zucc. is used medicinally in Malaya,

Indo-China, Japan, and North America; C. teeta Wall. in India,

Malaya and China; C. trifolia Salisb. in North America.

Berberine has been isolated from C. teeta and C. trifolia.

724° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, “Xxx

The dried rhizome of the species growing in Japan is official in

the Japanese pharmacopoeia.

Coptis teeta Wall. grows in the temperate parts of the Mishmi

mountains, east of Assam.

‘The root is an. all-round, tonic and stomachic medicine. “ltvhace

been found to produce excellent effects in’ debility, convalescence

after fevers and other debilitating diseases, atonic dyspepsia, and

in mild forms of intermittent fevers.

It is used in Sind, Assam, and other parts of India for restoring

the appetite, being given in infusion; also as an appliation on

sores and for inflammation of the eyes.

It contains berberine and coptine.

Assam: Mishmeeteeta, Tita—; Bombay: Mamiran, Mishmitita—; Cantonese :

Choon lin—; Chinese: Wuang Lien—; FKnglish: Coptis, Gold Thread—;

French: Coptide— Hindi: Mamira, Mamiran, Mishmitita—; Malaya: Choon

lin—; Sind: Mahmira—; Sinhalese: Pitakarosana

DELPHINIUM.

The genus numbers 150 species, natives of temperate regions

in the northern hemisphere.

The flowers are acrid, bitter, astringent; the seeds are » emetic,

cathartic, anthelmintic, and insecticidal.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—D. ayjacis

Linn., D. consohda Linn., D. elatum Linn., D. grandifiorum Mana

D,.. hybridum Willd., D. laxiflorum. DC., D. montanum DCD:

orientale Gay., D. palmatifidum. DC., D. peregrinum Linn., DE

pubescens DC., D. Staphisagria Linn., D. triste Fisch.—; in Indo-

China—D. ajacis Linn.—; in North America—D. ajacis Linn., D.

consolida Linn., D. staphisagria Linn.—.

Deltaline has been isolated from the whole plant of D. occiden-

tale S. Wats., and delcosine from D. consolida Linn.

Ajacine, and ajaconine have been isolated from the seeds of

D. ajacis; delphinine, delphisine, delphinoidine, and staphisagroine

have been obtained aon the seeds of D. staphisagria.

D. consolida Linn. in flower is official in Portugal; the seeds

of D. staphisagria Linn. are. official in France, Holland. Sand

Portugal.

I. Spur subulate

1. Radical leaves 5-15 cm. diam., orbicular, divided

to the base or nearly so, 5-g-parted. Follicles 3. 1. D. denudatum.

2. Radical leaves 3-4 cm. diam., suborbicular, 5-7-

lobed. Follicles 5 oh cae ... 2. D. caeruleum.

3. Radical leaves 10-15 cm. diam., orbicular or reni-

form, 5-7-lobed or -parted. Follicles 3 sie 0 DS elatiunies

II. Spur inflated, conical = ... g. D. Brunonianum.

1. Delphinium denudatum Wail. occurs in the Western

temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon, between 8,oco and

T2600. tt.

Ayurveda doctors consider the bitter root as cooling, vulnerary,

and alexiteric. They recommend its use for diseases of the blood,

and for the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 725

Yunanists describe the root as a stimulant in conditions o1

debility, a brain tonic useful in insanity, an analgesic good in

tooth ache and in painful piles, an antidote to snake and scorpion

venoms. The drug promotes appetite, but it is strongly binding

and a purgative should be administered with it.

In Bashahr the root is used for tooth ache, and also as an

adulterant for aconite.

Mhaskar and Caius have shown that the root is not an antidote

to either snake or scorpion venom.

Arabic: Judwar, Mahferfin—; Bhutia: Nirbisi—; Canarese: Nirvishi—;

Gujarat: Nirvishi—; findi: Judwar, Nirbishi, Nirvisi—; Jaunsar: Main—;

Marathi: Nirvishi—; Nepal: Nilobikh—; Persian: Zadwar—; Punjab: Jud-

war—; Sanskrit: Apavisha, Avisha, Nirvisha, Vishabhava, Vishaha, Vishahantr1,

Vishavairini, Vivisha—; Simla: Manila—; Sind: Judwar—; Urdu: Jadwar—-

2. Delphinium caeruleum Jacq. is found in the alpine Him-

alaya from Kumaon to Sikkim, up to 17,000 ft. in the Eastern

Himalaya.

The root is applied to kill the maggots in the wounds of goats.

Punjab: Dakhangu, Dhakangu—.

3. Delphinium elatum Linn. spreads over the western temperate

Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon, between 10,000 and 12,000 ft.

The whole plant, but more especially the seed, is emetic,

aperient, diuretic, and anthelmintic.

This plant is found growing in Europe where the seeds are used

as insecticides, and much employed in the treatment of itch and

other skin eruptions. The flowers are astringent and used in

troubles of the eye.

The toxic principles are delphinine, delphisine, and delphinoidine.

4. Delphinium Brunonianum Royle grows in the alpine region

of Western Tibet at an altitude of 14,000 ft.

The juice of the leaves of this plant is used in Kurram to

destroy ticks in animals, chiefly when they affect sheep. In Leh

it is considered so poisonous that the dew from the leaves falling

on grass is said to poison cattle and horses.

Garhwal: WKasturi—; Kumaon: Nepari—; Ladakh: Ladara—; Pangi:

Mundwal—; Ravi: Sapfalu—; Sutle;: Laskar, Liokpa, Fanni, Ruskar, Spet,

Supalu—.

NIGELLA,

The genus includes 16 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region and Central Europe, one of them cultivated and run wild

in India.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—N. arvensis

leinn., N. damascena Linn., N. hispanica Linn., N. sativa Linn.—;

in Syria—N. orientalis Linu.—; in Algeria and the Hadramaut—-

N. arvensis Linn.—; in Malaya and North America—N. sativa

Linn.—.

Nigella sativa Linn. is found in the Punjab and Bihar, some-

times cultivated and an occasional weed of cultivation. It extends

to the Mediterranean region.

726 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY) eV ok “Xoo

The seeds when bruised are strongly scented, and they are used

in Europe as emmenagogues, diuretics, and galactagogues. They

are Carminative and are an excellent adjunct to purgative draughts.

Put among woollens, furs, etc., they prevent the attack of insects.

lnsaiie “Presidencies of Bengal and Bombay the seeds are given

to..nursing women to promote the secretion of milk. ) Inthe

Punjab they are reckoned stimulant, and are administered by

hakeems in milk for rheumatism and cough. It is said they were

at one, time used ‘in place of*pepper:

The oil expressed from the seeds is employed for the same

purposes as the seed. —

In eruptions of the skin the seeds reduced to powder and mixed

with sesamum oil are much used in India as an external application.

Koman found the seeds useful in mild cases of puerperal fever.

The seeds have been recommended for the treatment of snake-

bite and scorpion-sting; but Mhaskar and Caius have demonstrated

that they are not an antidote to snake venom, and are: they are

useless in the treatment of scorpion sting.

Afghanistan: Shewadaru, Siyahdaru—; Arabic: Habbat-us-suda, Hab-es-

souda, Kamun-e-avad, Shoonez, Shuniz—; Bengal: Kalajeera, Kalijira, Kalzira,

Mugrela— ; Bombay: Kalenjira, Kalonji—; Burma: Samonne—; Canarese:

Karejirage, Karijirigi, MKarimsiragam—; Deccan: Kulanian—; Egypt: Habb-

suda, Hubsindee, Kamnun iswid, Niyeh—; English: Black Cummin, Fennel

Flower, Nutmeg Flower, Roman Coriander, Small Fennel— ; yenehe Cumin

noir, Faux cumin, Nielle de Créte, Nielle romaine, Nigelle cultivée, Nigelle

romaine, Quatre épices, Toute épice—; German: Schwarzkuemmel, Gemeiner

Schwarzkuemmel, Roemischer Schwarzkuemmel—; Gujerati: Kalonjijirum— ;

Hebrew: Qesah—; Hindi: Kalajira, Kalonji, Mugrela—; Ivag: Habbat-soda—;

Italian: Cinnamonea, Cuminella, Erba spezie—; Kashmir: Tukmigandna— ;

Malaya: WKu sheng—; Malayalam: Karunchirakam, Karunshiragam—; Mauri-

tius: Cumin noir, Nigelle—; North America: Black Caraway, Black Cumin,

Fitch, Roman Coriander—; Persian: Shuniz, Stiahudanah, Siyahbiranj—;

Punjabi: Kalvanji—; Russian: Tchernushka—; Sansirit: Bashpika, Kalajaji,

Karava, Karavi, Krishnajiraka, Kunchi, Kunchilka, Kunjika, Musavi, Prathvika,

Prithivi, Frithu, Prithuka, Prithivi, Sthuljiraka, Sushavi, Upakunchiraka— ;

Sinhalese: Kaluduru—; Tamil: Karunjiragam—; Telugu: Nellajeelakara,

Nullajilakara

PAEONIA.

This genus numbers 15 species distributed over Europe, Asia,

and the western part of North Africa.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—P. corallina

Retz., P. .Moutan Sims, P. officinalis Linn., -P. peregrina, Nie

P, tenuifolia Linn.—; in Japan, China,.and Indo-China—P. albi-

flora Pall.. P. Moutan Sims—; ownlt Dougl.,

P. officinalis Linn.—.

Paeonia emodi Wall. is found in the Western Himalaya from.

Kashmir to Kumaon.

The tubers of this plant are highly esteemed by hakeems as

a medicine for uterine diseases, colic, bilious obstructions, dropsy,

epilepsy, convulsions and hysteria. Ud-salap is generally given to

children as a_ blood- purifier.

In Booner, the root in combination with other drugs is a favourite

remedy for bruises, sprains, etc.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 727

An infusion of the dried flowers is highly valued as a remedy

for diarrhoea.

The seeds are emetic and cathartic.

Bhutia: Bhumamadiya, Yetghas—; English : Himalayan Paeony, Paeony

Rose—; Hindi; Udsalap—; Kashmir: Mid—; North-Western Provinces:

Chandra—: Punjab: Mamekh—; Urdu: Udasaliba—.

RANUNCULUS.

The genus includes 300 species distributed all over the world,

but most numerous in temperate or cool regions,

The following species are used medicinally in Europe— R. acris

Linn., R. arvensis Linn., R. asiaticus Linn., Rs bulvosus Vann. ;

RR. falcatus Linn., R. Ficaria Linn., R. Flammula Linn., R. glacialis

Linn., R. gramineus Linn., R. hederaceus Linn., R. fangua Linn.,

Rk. monspeliacus Linn., R. muricatus Linn., R. pedatus W. & K.,

R. parviflorus Linn., R. repens Linn., R. sceleratus Linn., R. Thora

inn, KR. tvichophyllus Chaix, R. trilobus Desf.—; in China—R.

acris Linn., R. sceleratus Linn.—; in Indo-China—R. Langsdorfii

DC., R. pensylvanicus Linn. f., R. sceleratus Linn., R. ternatus

Thunb.—; in North America—R. abortivus Linn., R. NOG IB jeavalen

R. Flammula Linn., R. multifidus Pursh., R. scelevatus Linn.—; in

Madagascar—R. pinnatus Poir.—; in South capensis

@ihhunb.,. Rh. pinnatus Poir., R. pubescens Thunb.—.

A. -Water: plant. Flowers white ti a ..: I. R. trichophyllus.

B. Land plants. Flowers yellow

I.. Achenes smooth or granular, not muricate or tuber-

cled, shortly beaked

1. All leaves undivided, lanceolate, entire or remotely

toothed bale i tgs ce Qe ln enone.

2. Leaves 3-partite. Achenes many in an oblong

head, not margined ne sri ea Gauls SOClETAIUS.

3. Leaves ternatisect. Achenes smooth, glabrous,

margined ca beh ... 4. Rk. pensylvanicus.

IJ. Achenes tubercled or muricate

1. Sepals appressed to and half the length of the

petals as ee srl sce (he dha AY UCNISES:

2. Sepals reflexed, rather shorter than the petals ... 6. R. muricatus.

III. Achenes gibbous at the side with a long terminal beak. 7. R. falcatus.

1. Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix is found in the plains of

the Punjab, in the Western Himalaya from the Indus to Kumaon

ascending to considerable elevations, in Waziristan, Baluchistan and

Afghanistan whence it extends to North Africa and Europe and

spreads over the temperate parts of both hemispheres.

The amount of toxic principle is so small as to be negligible

and, in Europe, the plant is given in intermittent fevers, rheumatism,

and asthma.

English: Water Crowfoot, Water Fennel—.

2. Ranunculus Lingua Linn. occurs in Kashmir; it is found

throughout the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere.

In ‘Europe the leaves are applied as a blister to the wrists in

rheumatism.

English: Great Spearwort, Sparrow Weed, Sparrow Crowfoot—; French:

Grande douve, Renoncule lancéolée—; German: Grosser Hahnenfuss—,

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX™

3. Ranunculus sceleratus Linn. is found in Mount Abu, Sind,

Waziristan, Northern India, the warm valleys of Himalaya, and

Bengal; it extends to Siam and the temperate zone of the northern

hemisphere.

The plant is an emmenagogue and a galactagogue; it is much

used in the treatment of skin diseases.

The fresh plant is poisonous, and produces violent effect if

taken internally. The bruised leaves form an application to raise

blisters, and may also be used to keep open sores caused by

vesication, or by other means.

The leaves are still used occasionally in Europe as a vesicant.

When made into a tincture with spirit of wine, and given in small

diluted doses, the plant proves curative of stitch in the side, and

of neuralgic pains between the ribs, likewise of pleurisy without

feverishness.

In Indo-China the seeds are given as a stomachic, to destroy

foul breath, to reduce abscesses, and in kidney troubles.

The plant contains an acrid volatile oil, an inert resin, and

a narcotic principle called anemonin.

Arabic: Kafessaba—; Catalan: Gata rabiosa—; Chinese: Shih Lung Juei— $;

Danish: Puggepebe—: Dutch: Water haanewoet—; Egypt: Zaghalanta,

Zaghlul—; English: Celery-leaved Buttercup, Celery-leaved Crowfoot, Marsh

Crowfoot, Water Celery—; French: Grenouillette aquatique, Grenouillette d’

ean, Herbe sardonique, Mort aux vaches, Renoncule des marais, Renoncule

scélérate— ; German: Blasenziehender Hahnenfuss, Boese Ranunkel, Boesewicht,

Froscheppich, Giftranunkel—; Indo-China: Thach long noi—; Italian: Appio

riso, Erba sardonica, Pie corvino, Ranocchiella aquatica, Ranunculo di

palude—; Kumaon: Shim—; North America: Biting Crowfoot, Blisterwort,

Cursed Crowfoot, Marsh Crowfoot, Water Celery-—; Persian: Kabikaj—;

Portuguese: Ranunculo mataboi—; Spanish: Ranunculo malvado—; Tirhut:

Polica—.

4. Ranunculus pensylvanicus Lin. fil. is found in the Upper

Gangetic Plain, the Nepal Terai, the Khasia hills up to 6,000 ft. ;

it extends to North China, Amur-land, and North America.

The plant is used to raise blisters.

Indo-China: Tieu hoi hoi toan—.

s. Ranunculus arvensis Linn. occurs in the Western Himalaya

from Kashmir to Kumaon, in Mount Abu, in Afghanistan, extend-

ing to temperate Asia, Siberia, Europe, and North Africa.

In Europe the plant is used in intermittent fevers, gout, and

asthma.

As a fodder it frequently produces symptoms of irritant

poisoning.

The leaves are said to contain hydrocyanic acid.

Baluchi: Zardphui—; Boya: Kanjarvaliai—: Egypt: Zaghalantah—;

English: Corn Buttercup, Corn Crowfoot, Crow’s-claws, Devil-on-both-sides,

Devil’s-claws, Devil’s Coach-wheel, Devil’s Currycomb, Dill-cup, English Staves-

acre, Field Crowfoot, Goidweed, Gye, Hard-iron, Hedge-hog, Hellweed, Horse

Gold, Hungerweed, Jack-o’-both-sides, Joy, Peagle, Prickle-backs, Scratchbur,

Starveacre, Yellowcup, Urchin Crowfoot, Yellow Crees—; French: Bassinet des

champs, Picot, Piguereaux—; Malta: Devil’s Claws, Hedgehog—; Miram Shah:

Zirgulac— ; Punjab: Chambul—; Spanish: Coronilla de la Virgen, Gata rabiosa,

Yerba del amor—; Wagiri: Peri makhlak, Sarsundan—,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS CROWFOOTS OF INDIA 729

6. Ranunculus muricatus Linn. occurs in the Punjab and

Punjab Himalaya, Kashmir, Western Asia, Europe, and North

America.

In Europe the plant is used in intermittent fevers, gout, an?

asthma.

Egypt: Zaghlil—; Spanish: Abrojos a cuatro—.

7. Ranunculus falcatus Linn. occurs in Kashmir, Punjab,

Baluchistan, Western Asia, and South-eastern Europe.

The plant when pounded and applied to the skin produces

blisters.

Baluchistan: Wahwashu—; Pushtu: Karamghundai—.

THALICTRUM.

The genus consists of 80 species which inhabit the northern

hemisphere.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—T. angustifolium

Linn., T. aquilegifolium Linn., T. flavum Linn.—; in Indo-China

T. aquilegifolium Linn., T. flavum Linn., T. foliolosum DC.—; in

North America—T. polycarpum S. Wats.—; in South Africa—T.

minus Linn.—.

Achenes short, oblong, ribbed, subsessile. Leaves ter-

nately or pinnately decompound.

1. Stem 4-8 ft. glabrous. Achenes usually 2-5, small,

oblong . T. foliolosum.

2. stem 2-4 tt. erect. Achenes 5-8, oblong ee ee mints:

1. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. is found throughout the Himalaya

between 5,000 and 8,ooo ft., the Khasia hills between 4,oo0 and

6 .ooo it, , Burma, and Siam.

The root combines tonic and aperient properties, and has been

found useful in convalescence after acute diseases, in mild forms

of intermittent fevers, and in atonic dyspepsia.

The root is largely used as an anjan, or application for

ophthalmia in Afghanistan and throughout India,

In the Punjab, the root is used as a purgative and diuretic.

Arabic : Mamiranchini— ; Bengal: Gurbiani—; Bombay: Mamiran—; Hind:

Mamira, Pilijari, Pinjari, Shuprak—; Kashmir: Chaitra—; Kumaon: Barmat,

Penglajari, Pilajari—; Persian: Mamiranchini—; Punjab: Chireta, Chitramul,

Gurbiani, Keraita, Mamira, Pashmaran, Phalijari—.

2. Thalictrum minus Linn. is found in the inner valleys of the

Temperate Himalaya, and in West Tibet between 9 000 and 12,000

ft.; it is distributed to Northern Asia, Europe, Abyssinia and

Southern Africa.

An infusion of the leaf or a decoction of the root is used by

He. outos for fever,

Sosuto; Lefokotsane, Tloro-ya-ngwale—.

THE NAMES OB W.O7 INDIAN Vale RIS:

MALCOLM SMITH, M.R.C.S.

[From ithe Dept. of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History) |.

TRIMERESURUS POPEIORUM,. nom. nov.

The discovery by Mr. and Mrs. Pope that the snake generally

known as Trimeresurus gramineus, the Common Green Pit Viper

(sensu Boulenger), included four species, was due largely to their

investigation of the hemipenis. This work has not yet met with

general acceptance, but no one who has critically examined it can

doubt the correctness of their observations.

The four species distinguished by them were gramineus, stejne-

geri, albolabris and occidentalis. Two distinct types of hemipenis

were defined, namely, a short spinous type found in Steynegerit and

occidentalis, and a long, calyculate, spineless one, found in

gramineus and albolabris. The character of the hemipenis is the

only one by which gramineus (sensu Pope) can be distinguished

from stejnegeri; in all external morphological characters the snakes

resemble one another and none has been found yet by which to

distinguish the females.

T. gramineus was restricted by them to the Indo-Chinese region,

its most westerly limit being Darjeeling and the Jalpaiguri district

in the Eastern Himalayas, a region which is mainly Indo-Chinese in

its fauna. For the species which inhabits the Peninsula of India

no name was available, and they called it occidentalis. This choice

was unfortunate,, for the type locality of T. gramineus Shaw, based

on Russell’s ‘Bodroo Pam’, described and figured by him in his

Indian Serpents, p. 13, pl. ix, is Vizagapatam, and is well outside

the range of gramineus as defined by Mr. and Mrs. Pope. Russell’s

description of the colour is as follows:—‘The head and trunk and

tail of a fresh green; the last row of squamae on the belly yellow.

The scuta of a pale straw colour and some of them have a

small, green spot on each side.’ This peculiar coloration of the

ventrals, that is, the green of the dorsal scales, splashed over as

it were, on to the ventrals, is well shewn in the coloured figure

and it is found only, though not in every specimen, in the snake

which inhabits the Peninsula of India.

I feel convinced therefore that the name gramineus Shaw should

be applied to the Indian snake and T. occidentalis will become a

synonym of it. For the gramineus of Mr. and Mrs. Pope no name

is available and I have pleasure in connecting theirs with it. |

ANCISTRODON NEPA Laurenti.

In 1908 Col. Wall described a new. Viper from Ceylon under

the name of Ancistrodon millardi (J.B AEDS iy, evil: 792). mile

THE NAMES OF TWO INDIAN VIPERS 731

had been confused with A. hypnale Merrem but differed in having

more ventrals and subcaudals and in slight differences in the pro-

portions of the head shields. Later he discovered that the name

hypnale should have been applied to the snake with the high ventral

and caudal count and he therefore reversed the names (idem, xxx,

1925, p. 248). Such action however is not possible under the Rules

of Zoological Nomenclature which state that a name once published

cannot be rejected, even by its author, because of inappropriateness

(Art, 32).

A name however is already available for this snake. An

‘examination of the hemipenes of the two species shews that they

differ from one another in exactly the same way as do Trimeresurus

stejnegen. and TIT. popeiorum, the hemipenis of hypnale being

calyculate and without spines, that of the other strongly spinous.

This permits Laurenti’s name nepa (Coluber nepa, Syst. Rept., .

n708, Pp: 97) based om’ a figure’ in Seba (1, pl.19, fig. 7);. and

relegated by Boulenger with a query to the synonymy of hypnale,

to be used. Seba’s figure shews an undoubted Viper, like hypnale,

with an everted and spinous hemipenis, the very character in fact

which is needed for diagnosis. The fact that the snake was said

to have come from Madagascar need not concern us, for many of

Seba’s localities are known to be incorrect. Moreover no member

of the Viperidae is known to inhabit that Island.

GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS AND

THE SOUTE. COIMBATORE DISTRIGW

J. WILLIAMS.

(Witht one plate),

On reading some of Mr. Stuart Baker’s books on Game Birds

recently 1 found remarkably few references to the occurrence of Game

Birds in this area. I have done a lot of wandering with a shot

gun during the past thirteen years, and the occurrence of birds

which I have been able to identify may be of some use to the

Society’s records. The area over which I have shot may be divided

into two sections.

(1) THE DEVELOPED AREA OF TEA KNOWN AS THE ANAIMALAI

PLANTING DISTRICT WITH VALPARAI AS ITS CENTRE,

TOGETHER WITH THE GRASS HILL AND

SHOLAH COUNTRY ABOVE IT.

The planted area was originally dense evergreen rain forest,

some of which still exists between the estates and the Grass Hills.

Planting of tea, coffee, cardamoms, and cinchona was started about

1898, but the bulk of the estates were opened much later between

the years 1917 and 1930. The planted area is now about 30,000

acres, and is all on a plateau of undulating country between 3,000

and 4,500 ft. high. There are belts of original forest, coffee under

planted shade, and blocks of cardamoms under original forest,

throughout the district, but the bulk of the area is open tea land.

There are no paddy fields in the area at all, but throughout the

tea there are small patches of swamps and perennial streams some

of which are covered with heavy scrub, and some of which are

open. The rainfall varies between 120 and 300 inches a year for

different parts of the district. The bulk of this falls in the S.W.

monsoon between June and August, but more or less heavy showers

occur in most months of the year except January, February and

March which are very dry.

The Grass Hill country runs up to 8,000 ft. and is short grass

dotted with thick patches of stunted forest very similar to the

Nilgiri plateau. It connects us with the High Range district in

Travancore.

Game Birds are nowhere very numerous, but the following

have been shot or seen in the area.

The Fantail Snipe. [Capella gallinago (Linn.)].

This bird frequents the swamps and streams throughout the

planted area. Of recent years they have been much more numerous;

presumably they did not frequent the country at all when it was

under dense evergreen forest 30 to 4o years ago.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Grass Hills—Kornelar Valley.

A field of tea running down to a snipe swamp.

GAME BIRDS “IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS 733

They come in late in October and when they first arrive can

be found in large wisps on favourite patches of ground. I believe

that many of these birds continue their migration further afield,

but many split up and remain here until late April.

Many swamps which are apparently good ground never hold

a bird: The birds take to the tea and scrub as soon as the sun

gets hot and will not move out of it. Some of the best swamps

are in very public spots where coclies are continually passing, and

one of the best I know is within roo yards of a tea factory with

cooly lines all round it and a main road along one side. Few

of the birds in this swamp bother to leave it at. the first beat.

An average morning when birds are plentiful is a bag of 5 to 6

couple to two guns shooting between 6 and 8 a.m. This snipe

is also found occasionally in bogs on the Grass Hills. I have

seen them there in January and February.

The Pintail Snipe. [Capella stenura (Bonaparte) |.

This season I shot one of these birds in December in the tea

district. The swamp in which it was,shot was almost dry. This

is the only Pintail I have seen or heard of up here.

The Wood Snipe. (Capella nemoricola Hodgs.).

This season in December Dr. R. M. Yeo shot a Wood Snipe

whilst walking up a swamp on Pannimade Estate with me. This

is the only one that has so far been recorded up here.

The swamp was a very big one which had been drained into

main channels, all of which had bushy scrub growing over them

as an antimalarial measure. The ground between the drains was

covered with tussocky grass and low scrub. This swamp sometimes

holds Fantail Snipe, but it was at the time very dry and there

were none there.

We saw three Wood Snipe but did not at first realise what they

were, and mistook them for Water Rails on account of their very

languid flight and their curious habit of flopping into scrub cover.

After shooting one we tried to put the others up again, but in spite

of having a dog we only got one of them to move. This flew

a short way before going down again for good and never gave

a fair shot. These three birds were scattered at some distance from

each other over an area of about Io acres.

Woodcock. (Scolopax rusticola Linn.).

There are only two records of this bird having been shot up

here. The first was shot by the late Mr. Cooper on Castlecroft

Estate in the tea some years ago. This year another was shot

iy Mir. G.- B. Reade on the Grass Hills. .It was beaten out of a

small patch of sholah between 6,000 and 7,000 ft. up, and was

the only one seen.

Jungle Fowl, (Gallus sonneratii Temm.).

Grey hackle jungle fowl are common all over these hills at

all elevations. They do not seem to have a very clearly defined

breeding season. The bulk of the chicks are hatched out in April,

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIELY, Vol. xoxnes

May and June in the tea district, but I have seen chicks in the tea

in November, December and January. It is curious that, like so

many of our birds and animals in this area, the young should be

brought into the world to face the very inclement weather of our

S.W. monsoon soon after they are born. I imagine that the

reason for this is that the food supply in the form of insects, seeds,

and vegetation is most abundant in the month or two preceding

the monsoon, when all plant life wakes up under the stimulation

of warm showers following several dry months.

Spur Fowl. | Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin.) |.

The red-legged spur fowl is not common, and does not seem

either to increase or decrease in numbers. It is scattered through-

out the area.

Quail.

I have seen occasional small coveys of five or six birds in the

short grass on the lower slopes of the Grass Hills at 5,c00-6,000 ft.

I am not sure which variety this is as I have had very little

experience of quail. The bird is dark between the colour of a

grouse and a partridge. It is also bigger than the lighter coloured

bird which is so’ common in the foot-hills. .

As mentioned in my note I am not quite sure which variety of

quail this is. The following might be added to this note.

This quail is probably either the Common Quail or the Rain

Quail. Two years ago a pair of these birds nested in April in

the garden of the bungalow of Akkamallai Estate. The nest was

built under a large white lantana bush and the chicks were hatched

out successfully. Akkamallai Estate is a tea estate which runs

up to the foot of the Grass Hills and the elevation of the bungalow

is about 6,000 ft.

The Quail is I think a resident bird as I have seen them at

various times of the year, both in the dry weather and in the

S.W. monsoon which is very heavy on these hills.

Imperial Pigeon, [Ducula badia cuprea (Jerd.)].

These birds are very common all over the area, both in the tea

district and in the Grass Hills. Inthe tea district they live am

the tops of very tall tréés,; on whose fruits they feed. They ‘ane

particularly partial to the fruit of the Dammar tree (Tamil, Kungele

Maram) from which comes the Dammar gum of commerce. This

fruit is like a fair-sized blue plum, and has a thin rind with a

hard stone centre. Half a dozen of these—each fruit as big as the

bird’s own head—can be squeezed out of the crop of a dead bird.

The Imperial Pigeon has an articulated jaw which allows the beak

to gape to an incredible extent, and this explains the apparent

miracle. I have never discovered what the bird does with the stones

which are about three-quarters of the fruit, but presumably it

regurgitates them in due course. ji

These birds have very definite flight lines between their roosting

and feeding grounds every morning and evening. They stick to

these year after year, and only vary them as different patches of

GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS 735

jungle come into fruit. As a rule they fly in batches of anything

mom three or four to eight or ten birds at a time. ‘They are

generally only in range where the lines cross the top of a hill,

and if shot at too much they will come over much too high to

be touched. These flight lines are often some miles in length.

The birds start to flight in to feed soon after dawn and go out

to roost again about 9 a.m., repeating the performance again in

the evening between 4 p.m. and dusk. They have exceedingly good

eyesight and will spot a gun or any movement from a long way

off, when they will immediately zoom upwards and pass over well

out of range. Absolute stillness and some sort of protective hide

are essential for a successful shoot.

In the S.W. monsoon most of the birds from the Grass Hills

come down to lower levels, but they nest all over the hills in

patches of sholah from March to May. By the second week in

May most of the young birds are on the wing. The peculiar

acrobatic soar and dive which is supposed to be a mating display

can be seen at any time of the year. I saw some birds performing

in late May this year after the nesting season was over, and I

‘fancy it 1s just an expression of exuberance similar to the antics

of tumbler pigeons.

These birds seem -to prefer the highest trees they can find both

for feeding and roosting, but I have twice put up Imperial Pigeons

off the ground. On both occasions there were several young birds

together which had apparently been resting on the ground under

heavy jungle during the daytime. I do not think an old bird ever

comes to earth except when brought there by a gun.

Nilgiri Wood Pigeon. [Columba elphinstoni (Sykes) ].

This bird is common in the small sholahs on the Grass Hills

but is only occasionally seen lower down. It sticks to the higher

elevations all through the year. Some years ago I got into a camp

late one evening on the Grass Hills and used an old derelict

grass hut as shelter for the night. I was startled out of my sleep

at dawn the next morning by about a dozen Nilgiri pigeons which

unnoticed by me were already using the roof trusses as a roost

when I got in, and had not been disturbed by my arrival. For a

moment I thought the place was bewitched. A bilberry tree outside

was providing their food.

Whistling Green Pigeon. [Crocopus phoenicopterus chloroga-

ster (Blyth.)].

These birds are migratory and are common all through our

dryer months, sometimes in larger flocks. A few birds are

occasionally seen during our rains but they never stop long in

one place. They feed on small berries and figs of various kinds.

I have never seen or heard any of these birds on the Grass

Hills.

The plumage of the sexes is different. One bird which I believe

to be the hen is a pale yellow green all over with a few dull

bluish feathers. The other is much brighter coloured with very

pretty yellow and reddy brown wing feathers.

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY >= Vol, x XoGing

I have seen another and larger species of green pigeon in the

deciduous bamboo forest of the foot hills near the Chinnar river

at the foot of the Munnar-Udamalpet ghat. This bird was much

larger, greyer in colour, and had a louder whistling call.

Bronze Wing Dove. | Chalcophaps indica (Linn.)].

These. birds are. common all over our hills.. Unlike all Som

other* pigeons, except the common dove, they are largely ground

feeders. They are usually seen singly or in pairs strutting about

the roadsides or in light undergrowth. They are very fast on the

wing and very good eating when shot. Their favourite food in

the planted area is the small seed of a quick growing secondary

jungle tree whose Tamil name is Wattagunny. They sometimes

perch in the tree itself but prefer to pick up the fallen seed off

the ground.

They are migratory and leave us during the heavy rains but

often reappear before the monsoon has quite finished. Their

reappearance is a welcome indication that the monsoon is nearly

over.

Although outside the subject of Game Birds it is of interest

to record that there are no crows or jackals either in the Anamallai

Tea District or in the Grass Hills this side of the Travancore

boundary. An occasional crow is blown up here in a storm and

several have been released by mischievous coolies at various times.

They have hung about for a few days getting hoarser and hoarser

and have then disappeared. There are plenty within a few miles

at the foot of our ghat, and also throughout the jungle to the West

around the timber depot of Mount Stewart. I have been told that

there are jackals on the grass land in the High Range which

is all part of the same stretch as our Grass Hills without any

geographical bar to emigration. There are any number in the foot

hills and low country to the North and West.

No one has ever satisfactorily explained these two mysteries.

It is probable that there was nothing for either crows or jackals

to feed on in the days when the whole area was dense and un-

inhabited evergreen forest but the Tea District has now been

opened and well populated for a number of years.

(2) THE Low CountTRy AREA AROUND COIMBATORE, POLLACHI,

UDAMALPET, AND KOLLENGODE, AND THE FOOT HILLS OF

THE ANAIMALAI HILLS

The shooting in the low country is either tank shooting or

walking up snipe. Ground game are found in the foot hills.

Snipe are nowhere very plentiful, but with the help of a good

shikari quite good shooting can be had. There is a large acreage

of paddy round Anaimalai village to which quite a number of birds

come, but they only frequent small patches at a time and are

always moving their feeding grounds. Without the help of a

shikari to do the advance spotting it is possible to walk all day

and pick up very few birds. Similar shooting is to be had in the

paddy round Coimbatore and Podanur. The paddy which is

GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS 737

irrigated from the tanks round Udamalpet holds very few snipe

and they are only to be found here in one or two small patches.

The soil here is black cotton soil and it would seem that they

do not care for it as a feeding ground.

Snipe are usually to be found round the margins of the tanks

feeding in the morning and the evening but they leave these grounds

between 9 a.m. and 4 p.m. probably on account of the cattle which

@raze there in the daytime: One or two of: the river: beds hold

quite a number of snipe during the heat of the day. They lie up

here in patches of screw pine and rushes, on islands in the stream,

and under scrub on the banks. This shooting is hard work but

good fun.

The birds arrive in late October or the beginning of November

and stop until the end of March or the beginning of April.

Fantail Snipe. [Capella gallinago (Linn.)].

This is the commonest snipe throughout the area. Other snipe

are comparatively rare. Fifteen couple between two or three guns

shooting morning and evening is a good day’s bag.

Pintail Snipe. [Capella stenura (Bonaparte) |.

This snipe is uncommon and I have seen very few shot.

When shot at they often leave the wet land and settle on the dry

cultivation nearby.

Painted Snipe. | Rostratula benghalensis (Linn.) ].

The Painted Snipe although not common is not the rarity that

it seems to be in some places. It is not unusual to have several

of these birds in the day’s bag. They are generally found round

the edges of the tanks late in the season in February and March.

When put up they do not go very far before settling again and

are slow on the wing, for which reason they are often missed.

Contrary to the general belief they are quite good eating.

DUCKS AND OTHER TANK BIRDS.

The duck shooting on the tanks at the foot of these hills used

to be very good. In late April 1925, four guns had a bag of

some 80 head in two hours’ shooting. Since that time the shooting

has got steadily worse, and at present a lot of local knowledge and

cunning is necessary for even a poor bag. I don’t think that the

actual numbers of duck, except in the case of Cotton Teal, have

fallen off very much but they get no rest and are much more

difficult to get near. The increase of local guns is of course

responsible. On most tanks guns can be heard every morning and

evening. I had an object lesson from one of these gentlemen on

how to shoot birds on the water. He stalked a bunch of five

teal feeding at the edge of the tank. When he got within range he

flattened himself out and fired his gun parallel to and just above the

surface of the water getting four birds, all hit in the head, a

much more effective method than trying to fire down on them.

Ducks on these tanks feed most of the night and are still

feeding at dawn. If shot at between dawn and 8.30 they do not

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, xa

immediately clear off the tank. By 8.30 they have finished feeding

and are resting on the open water. If shot at then they wall

probably clear straight off to a safer spot. On a dull and stormy

day they will start to move again to their feeding grounds about

4 o’clock in the afternoon, but as a rule they do not move until

just before dusk.

At Udamalpet there is a very big tank which is nearly all open

water, with six or seven small tanks close to it. The big tank is

a safe refuge when they are disturbed and for resting on during

the day.. They flight off to feed on the smaller, tamks im ‘the

evening. The flight lines on and off the small tanks are always

the same but the birds are by no means regular in their choice

of tank for feeding. Duck start to arrive about the beginning

of November, the first to come in being the Garganey Teal and

the Spot Bill, They do not come in in any numbers until late

November or December and they stay in spite of guns and drying

tanks until late April. When they are getting ready to go they

congregate in large numbers for-a day or two in selected spots.

Garganey Teal, [Querquedula querquedula (Linn.) |.

This is by far the commonest of our ducks and makes up about

“= per cent. of a day’s bag. At one time Cotton Teal were about

as numerous but their numbers have dwindled tremendously of

TECENE. VEars,

Common Teal. [Nettion crecca crecca (Linn.)].

This teal is very uncommon. The only one I have shot was a

female in January 1936. I have seen one or two more.

Cotton Teal or Pigmy Goose (Nettapus coromandelianus Gemlin).

The Cotton Teal used to be as common as the Garganey a few

years ago but its habit of hanging round the edges of tanks has

caused its decimation by local guns of recent years. When shot

at it will often take to stream beds and irrigation channels. It

is the only one of our ducks that seems to do so.

Whistling Teal. [Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.)].

Whistling Teal used to be fairly common but I have not seen

one for some years.

Spot Bill Duck. (Anas poecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster).

This duck used to be fairly common but seems to have decreased

in numbers. of- recent years: It 1s the first of our big ducks.

arrive in November.

Mallard, (Anas platyrhyncha Linn.).

Mallard are very rare. I have only seen one, ‘and have heard

of one other being seen.

Brahminy Duck. [Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg.) |.

I have never seen one of these ducks but one was shot a year

or two ago.

GAME BIRDS IN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS 739

Pintail. |Dafila acuta (Linn.)|.

The Pintail is fairly common and seems to have increased in

numbers in recent years.

Shoveller. [Spatula clypeata (Linn.) |.

This duck is also fairly common particularly on the Udamalpet

tanks. The prejudice against it as a table bird is unjustified.

One or two other ducks have been shot on shoots that I have

at, but as I have been unable to identify them definitely I have

not included them in this list.

Geese.

Until this season no goose had been recorded from the tanks

in this area.

Last Christmas (1936) at a shoot on the Summatur tank near

Pollachi we were surprised to see a solitary goose flying up and

down the tank. We spent some time trying to get a shot at it

but it never gave any of us a chance and eventually flew off following

the river into the foot hills.

Some doubt was cast upon our tale, as is only natural, but

having seen plenty of geese elsewhere I have no doubt on the

subject. As far as it is possible to guess at its identity in the

air it was probably a Bar Headed Goose. The appearance of the

bird caused a sensation and much excitement amongst the local

inhabitants some of whom were fishing for Murrel in the rushes

just behind me. They had evidently never seen anything like it

before.

Flamingoe. (Phoenicopterus ruber Linn.).

In March 1931 I shot a Flamingo on the small tank at Dhali

near Udamalpet. Two of us were waiting on a flight line for

teal and it got out of some tall rushes close to me when my

companion fired his first shot. It was a young bird and is the

only one I have seen or heard of here. The forest guard who

ate it was very, very bilious afterwards.

White Ibis. | Threskiornis melanocephalus (Lath.) ].

This season I shot a White Ibis, one of a pair on the Anamallai

tank near Anamallai village in November. Unfortunately it was

too far gone to sample on the table when I got home.

Black Ibis. [Pseudibis papillosus (Temm.) |.

These birds are often seen hanging round any of the tanks in

the area, generally in pairs. I am told that they are very good

eating.

Pheasant-tailed Jackana, [Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.) |.

This season a pair of these curious birds were seen on the

Vallyavutty tank near Udamalpet. The tank was almost dry and

the birds were walking about in the shallow water.

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE APHIDIDAE OF POONA

V. G. DESHPANDE, M.Ag. (Bom.), Ph.p. (Edin.)

Ag. Professor of Entomology, Agricultural College, Poona

The aphididae of Poona are insects that have been very little collected

and about which very little is known. The group, even in India as a

whole, is very little studied. The lack of information is not, however due

to any lack of importance. The aphids are widely known as one of the

worst of agricuitural pests and, particularly so, on account of their excessive

and rapid power of multiplication. The life of these insects is also very

peculiar. There are dimorphic forms—alate and apterous—of which the

apterous ones are the most important from the eceonomic point of view.

The apterous females reproduce parthenogenetically and viviparously and thus

their multiplication goes on by leaps and bounds. Some of these apterous

females develop wings and _ reproduce their kind parthenogenetically and

viviparously. The alate forms are principally concerned in the spread of

infection from plant to plant while the intensity of damage depends upon

the apterous colonies. The usual period of activity of aphids is from July

to February; however, some species are found in the summer months also.

The cold of winter appears to have no effect on their breeding and growth.

There is no sexual generation observed in this part of India. Males are absent

and no eggs have been noticed.

The damage done by the aphids is principally by the withdrawal of the

sap from the shoots and leaves which consequently shrivel and wither. The

aphids are very potential pests and if not checked in time a great deal of

damage is done. They have been found to attack various crops—annuals and

perennials. The citrus trees, as soon as the new shoots are thrown out in

February and March are very seriously attacked, which results in checking

the bearing. Mango shoots are observed sometimes to be full of aphids in

February and March and a serious. attack is bound to affect the bearing

of fruits. Various vegetables and pulses are invariably attacked during the

monsoon and afterwards. Betelvine, tobacco, cotton and chillies do not also

escape the attack of aphids. In this way examples can be multiplied to show

that aphids are a universal pest. Some species are specific pest of certain

crops, while others are polyphagous and there are other species like Myzus sp.

which is said to have about 35 different hosts. In short, considering the

longer period of activity, their feeding habits, and the nature of damage caused

by them, aphids occupy an important place among the major pests of agri-

cultural crops and orchard trees and a complete knowledge of their life and

behaviour is absolutely necessary both from the academic and economic points

of view. The writer has been investigating the problem of control of the

cabbage aphids and in the course of his. studies he has collected aphids on

different plants and vegetables in order to find out the alternate hosts. This

collection was sent to Dr. P. W. Mason, Bureau of Entomology, Washington,

D.C., U.S.A. for identification and the writer acknowledges with thanks the

help rendered by him in this connection.

* Though the aphids are an important pest, knowledge about their classification

is very meagre. The only literature dealing with Indian species is The Memoir

of the Indian Museum on ‘The Aphididae of Lahore’ by Das (1918). The

identification received from Dr. Mason was generally useful in placing the

speeies in their proper places, but it must be said that many of the identifica-

tions done by the writer agree with those given by Das.

Thanks are due to Dr. K. R. Karandikar, pPh.p. for going through the

manuscript and making some useful suggestions.

The following is the preliminary account of the species collected by the

writer during the last four years :—

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE APHIDIDAE OF POONA ‘41

A. Trise: Callipterini

(1) Therioaphis ononidis Kalt.

Young ... Yellow and gray

Adult’ ae CTL AY,

Pygidium .. Gray

Cornicles wwe Wark

Host plant—Lucerne (Medicago sativa).

This species has been named by Das as Callipterus trifolii Monell. Lucerne

appears to be the only host plant in the Deccan as the species has not

been collected on any other leguminous plant. Both alate and apterous forms

can be recognised by the pale yellow or gray colour and by the two rows

of dusky spots on the back. The body with the dusky spots looks ‘mouse

like’. The attack is generally bad in summer months, but the insects have

been observed in earlier months also. The anal plate is deeply bifid forming

two long narrow lobes.

B. Tripe: Aphidini

TI. SUB-TRIBE: MacROSsIPHINA

(2) Myzus persicae Stulz.

Adult ... Greenish yellow

Young -. Pale green

Pygidium ... Greenish yellow

Cornicles ... Dark (especiially in alate forms).

Host plants—Cabbage, radish, brinjals, potato, chillies, lettuce, shepu, etc.

This species is greenish yellow in colour, large in size and is easily re-

cognised by the prominent pointed tubercles which are strongly converging,

and the small cauda. The alate females have dark patches on the back..

This is usually known as radish aphis as it appears at its earliest on this

crop in the month of August from where it spreads to other plants.

(3) Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.

Adult 2 Gteen

Young ... Green

Pygidium te) Grheen

Cornicles ... Yellowish green with the tips dark

Host plant—Sweet peas (Pisum sativum).

The genus Macrosiphum can be distinguished from the genus Myzus by

the strongly diverging frontal tubercles and the elongate cauda. This species is

invariably found on peas from October till February at Mahableshwar and

in the plains. The aphis is large in size, green in colour and spindle-shaped

in form, smooth in texture. The legs are green, the cauda and cornicles long.

These aphids, especially the adults, fall down on the soil at the slightest

touch, and are found on older leaves oftener than on young shoots.

(4) Macrostphum sp.

Adult ... Reddish brown

Young ee a ed

Pygidium Pome

Cornicles a3 Reddish brown.

Host plant—Shevanti (Chrysanthemum sp.).

This species has been identified by Dr. Mason as Macrosiphonella sanborni.

It has been observed on the Chrysanthemum plants in October and is always

confined to the young shoots which consequently get stunted.

* The term Adult in this description refers to the apterous form.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

II. SuB-TRIBE: APHIDINA

(5) Stphoceryne indobrassicae Das

Young ... Yellow and green

Adult Le UISh= Sreen

Pygidium 2 Datel

Cornicles eran

Host plants--Cabbage, knollkhol, cauliflower, mogri (a kind of radish), turnips.

This species is invariably found on cabbage. The first appearance is in

Cctober, on seedlings, as soon as the cold weather sets in. It continues to

breed till March when it disappears. It becomes a serious pest if not checked

in “time: ,

This species has been identified by Dr. Mason as Rhopalosiphum pseudo-

brassicae (Davis) Das (1) has discussed on page 173 of his Memoir the history

of the names Rhopalosiphum and Siphocoryne and the characters of Siphocoryne

given by Van der Goot and Das are as_ follows :—

(1) Frontal tubercles indistinct.

(2) Sensoria in the apterous females always absent.

(3) Cornicles clubbed in both—apterous and alate forms.

Those agree in the case of the species found in Poona and hence it has

been put under Siphocoryne.

(6) Siphocoryne avenae Fabr.

Adult ... (Winged) dark

Young .. Not found

Cornicles ... Dark brown

Host plant—Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum).

This appears in Poona in the month of November. Only alate forms are

found on leaves. Apterous forms and the young ones are not observed on plants.

(7) Aphis sacchari Zehut

Adult wet ee nik

Young ... Almond yellow and pink

Pygidium «2 Black

Cornicles arnolack

Host plants—Jowar, maize, bajri, rala, etc.

This species has been observed in Poona in the month of August on the

underside of the leaves of maize and jowar. In the colonies are found insects

of two different colours, whitish yellow and pink. These are attended on by

large black ants. The iblack sooty mould grows profusely in the honey dew

secreted by the insects and the leaves become dark in colour.

(8) Aphis maidis Fitch.

Young = Green or pale green

Pygidium ... Greyish dark

Cornicles 22) Wanl<

Host plant—Jowar.

Along with the previous species this aphis is also observed on jowar shoots

in August. This can be recognised by the colour, which is blue-green.

(9) Aphis gossypii Glover

Young ... Yellow

Adult .. Dark (Pupa—dark)

Pygidium bf Dark

Cornicles Dark

Host plants—Cotton, bhendi and_ hollyhock.

This aphis persists on cotton right from August to March. The yellow

colour sometimes changes to greenish dark, hence there is ground for confu-

sion about the proper identification, as this then resembles the next species.

A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE APHIDIDAE OF POONA 743

If the attack is very bad in the very early stage of the crop, the leaves curl

and the crop shows signs of withering.

(10) Aphis malvae Koch

Young ... Yellow, pale white

Adult ... Alate dark, apterous—greenish dark

Pygidium wo.) Dusky ,

Cornicles ae Dark

Host plants—Cucumber, pumpkin, kohla, dodka, snake gourd,

bottle gourd, parwar, tondali, karli, etc.

This species has been observed on these plants mainly in the monsoon and

also on melons in the summer months. It is sometimes a serious pest and

the crop suffers a great deal. The yellow colour of the young changes to

dark green; and the alate forms are dark coloured.

(11) Aphis medicaginis, Koch

Young .... Dark reddish brown

Adult ... Reddish brown—full grown apterous

adults with shining black spots

on the back.

Pygidium ... As the body colour—black

Cornicles ce, Black

Host plants—Wal, chavali, ghevda.

All the species collected on different leguminous crops were sent to Dr.

Mason who identified them all as Aphis rumicis. The characters of Aphis

rumicis given by Das and Theobald are :—

(1) Body dull black to dark greenish

(2) Post cornicular segments striped

(3) Forms pseudo galls

While those of A. medicaginis

(1) Body in the adult apterous female with a large shining black spot on

back.

- The colour, other characters, and particularly the habit of forming pseudo

galls on leaves so characteristic of A. rumicis, are not noticed here and

therefore A. medicaginis appears to be the correct identification. The chief

characteristic of the apterous females consists in having a shining black spot

on the back. Besides, the whitish patch on the femora and the tibia is also

a special feature. Wan der Goot proposes the name A. papilionacearum which

has been accepted by Das.

This species is sometimes a serious pest of bean which suffers a serious

set back in growth and_ bearing.

(1) Aphis nerii (Boyer de Fonscolombe).

Young ... Deep yellow

Adult .. Yellow

Pygidium to: » Yellow

Cornicles ce Wark

Host plant—Rui (Calotropis gigantea).

This species is most abundantly found on the veins and leaf stalks of Rui

from August to February. All the lower leaves are covered with honey dew

and the capnodium fungus growing on the secretion.

(13) Aphis sp.

Young ... Reddish pink

Adult ew eb inkk

Pygidium ... Dark, conspicuously long

Cornicles ... Dark brown

Host plant—Mango (Mangifera indica).

This species is found on young shoots and leaves of mango. This has

been observed in November as well as in March. The alate form is pink in

744. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIx

colour; antennae dark, legs pale white except at the femora and _ tarsi,

cornicles and cauda dark. The apterous form pink in colour, thorax waxy

white, antennae white except at the tips, cauda hirsute, cornicles dark, abdomen

punctured laterally on both the sides.

(14) Aphis sp.

Young cae Wate

Adult os re Dari

Pygidium ws Dank

Cornicles iva arc

Host plant—Safflower.

This species has been observed on safflower from November to January.

This aphis is dark in colour and infests all shoots and leaves. The multiplication

is very rapid and the honey dew secretion so profuse that the whole plant

gets covered with the sticky substance and the numerous moults of the aphids.

(15) Toxoptera aurantii Koch.

Young ... Deep yellow turning brown

Adult ... Shining dark

Pygidium i. . Dank

Cornicles fi), Oatk

Host plants—Mosambi, utaran, sour lime, grape fruit, jamburi, orange, etc.

All the species collected on different citrus plants have been identified by

Dr. Mason as Aphis citricidus. This does not appear to be correct. The genus

Aphis is distinguished from the genus Toxoptera by the branching of the

vein media in the fore wing. In Toxoptera it is once-branched, while in Aphis

it is twice-branched. The wing venation of the species found on citrus plants

in the Deccan agrees with that of Toxoptera and not with Aphis. As to the

specific name it appears to be a new one. Das states that Toxoptera aurantti

is sparsely found on citrus plants in Lahore, but in the Bombay Presidency it

is abundantly found. This has been noticed from September till March and

attacks especially the young shoots.

This species is synonymous with Ceylonia ttheacola Buckton and has been

mentioned in the Indian Museum Notes, vol. ii, No. 1 as occurring on tea

bushes.

REFERENCES.

1. Das, B.—‘The Aphididae of Lahore’, Memoirs of the Indian Museum,

vol. vi, No. 4 (1918).

2. Baker, A. C.—‘Generic Classification of the Hemipterous Family Aphi-

didae’, U.S.D.A. Bulletin, No. 826 (1921).

3. Theobald, F. V.—The Plant Lice or Aphididae of Great Britain, vol. i,

to iii (1926).

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA OF IRAQ.

WALTER P. KENNEDY.

(From the Royal College of Medicine, Baghdad, Iraq).

Between 1920 and 1922 a series of papers were published in this Journal

on the fauna of Iraq and Persia. Excellent as this work was, it was not

exhaustive, and some lacunae remained. .So when in the course of certain

other investigations a rather heterogeneous collection of specimens was gathered,

it was thought that the interesting nature of the region justified publishing

some notes, even though the information was only scanty. Some _ further

indications might at least be given for other workers in the future.

MOLLUSCA

DIOTOCARDIA. R

Neritina macrit Recluz. var. minor.

From: Kani Tili in Kurdistan, 37° 11”N. 43° 38”E.

MONOTOCARDIA.

Melanopsis nodosa, Fer.

Several localities in immediate neighbourhood of Baghdad.

BASOMMATOPHORA,

Limnaea tenera euphratica, Mousson.

Near Baghdad.

Bulinus truncatus, Aud.

Khan beni Saad, a village about 20 miles from Baghdad, _ incidentally

heavily infected with Schistosomiasis.

STYLOMMATOPHORA.

Xerophila vestalis, Parreyss.

flaruna,, 26° 577N. 44° 25”7E.

Pomatia salomonica, Naegele.

Renji Brakha, 37° 06”N. 43° 54”E.

CARDIACEA.

Cardium edule.

Lake near Kerbala.

Further notes on molluscs in Iraq will be found in a paper by Mills,

MacHattie and Chadwick. .

ARTHROPODA

Myriapopa,

Scolopendra morsitans.

Baquaba and Nasiriyah. Cases of poisoning are reported from this type.

SCORPIONIDEA,

Buthus (Prionurus) crassicauda, Olivier.

Buthus australis, Hempr. & Ehr.

\ Buthus eupeus, C. L. Koch.

746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Volx xX Xin

ITemiscorpion lepturus, Peters.

B. crassicauda and B, eupeus are probably the commonest species of scorpions

in Western Asia. They have been recorded from Afghanistan, Iran, Armenia,

Syria and Arabia. B. australis was taken at Mandali where they are much

feared as they are very toxic. Hemiscorpion (or Hemiscorpius) lepturus has

been recorded much less frequently, and only from Baghdad and the southern

parts of Iraq. I have obtained specimens from Mandali, and from

Rowanduz and Sulimania in Kurdistan. Closely allied forms from Aden and

Sokotra (Pocock, i899), Muscat (Kraeplin, 1900) and E. Iran (Birula, .1903)

have been described as separate species, but it seems likely that some or all

of. these are co-specific with H. lepturus of Peters. It is not a_ specially

dangerous type. Death from scorpion stings are not unknown in Iraq, the

victims being children or debilitated adults. Dohuk and Murgash, N. of Mosul;

Sulimania in Kurdistan; and Mandali in Diala Liwa have evil reputations in

respect of scorpions.

SOLPUGIDZ.

Galeodellus (? species).

Galeodes ? bacilifer. Both from Asher near Basrah.

Galeodes arabs.

Specimens from Basrah, Nasiriyah, Baghdad, Baquaba in Iraq, and Isfahan

in Iran. They are said to be venomous, and in Basrah and Isfahan at

least, are feared. My bearer has frequently handled them freely and_ they

have made no attempt to bite.

PISCES

SELACHII.

Carcharias lamia, Risso.

This shark was taken in a fisherman’s net just above Baghdad. Sharks

are not frequent visitors so high up the Tigris as Baghdad, but isolated ones

are heard of every year. In the river at Basrah they are more common.

Myliobatis aquila, L.

From the mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab. These eagle rays attain a very large

size in the Persian Gulf.

‘TELEOSTII.

Barbus luteus, Heckel.

From Tigris about Baghdad, and also in small unnamed streains in Kurdistan.

Barbus kersin, Heckel.

Tigris, above Baghdad.

Barbus subquincunciatus, Giunth.

Small stream at Rayy, near Teheran.

Discognathus rufus, Heckel.

Tigris at Baghdad.

Leuciscus (? species).

Tigris at Baghdad.

Girardinus faeciloides. ;

Exact provenance of this specimen unknown, but probably taken in the

vicinity of Baghdad.

Aspius vorax, Heckel.

Tigris at Baghdad.

Alburnus mossulensis, Heckel.

Unnamed stream in E. Kurdistan.

Alburnus (? species).

Tigris at Baghdad.

Alburnoides (? bipunctatus, B1.).

Small stream at Rayy, near Teheran,

whi

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA OF IRAQ 747

Mugil abu, Heckel.

Tigris at Amara and Baghdad.

Mugil dussumiert, Cuv. & Val.

Tigris at Amara-and Baghdad.

Belone (? species).

Mouth of the Shatt-el-Arab near Fao.

Sparus berda, Forsk.

Tigris at Baghdad.

Mastacembelus (? species).

Tigris at Baghdad.

This list of fishes covers a small part of the total number, and_ further

work is planned in this direction. It appears probable that there are two

or three new species in the mullets, genus Mugil, and also a very great

extention of range in one of the species which has hardly been recognised

since the time of Forskal. There has been so little work done on the fish

of this region that considerable difficulty is found in identifying the specimens.

In addition to the above, representatives of Hilsa, and Mystus from Baghdad,

and two species of Varicorhinus from Teheran and Kurdistan respectively have

been tentatively identified.

AMPHIBIA

SALAMANDRIDZ.

Triturus vittatus.

Newts are rare in Iraq. This is the only example which has been found

so far as I can trace, and it only occurs in one spot, a spring, Kuni

Sheikh Omar near Berisa village in Kurdistan, 36° 56”N. 44° 17”7E. I: am

indebted to Dr. Macfadyen for this observation.

BUFONIDA.

Bufo viridis.

Widely spread through Iraq.

HvLip&.

Hyla arborea savignyi.

Baghdad and Amara.

RANINA,

Rana _ ridibunda.

Widely spread through Iraq.

Rana vidibunda susana.

N.W. Kurdistan.

Rana esculenta.

Baghdad.

Bufo viridis is distributed from the Pyrenees to the Thibetan Himalayas,

and Rana ridibunda from Spain to Iran, and south to Egypt. Both species

are probably divisible into a number of local races, especially in the eastern

part of their range, but so little is known of them in these regions that it

is difficult to assign them subspecific names.

REPTILIA

GECKONIDZ.

Phyllodactylus elisae, Werner.

Three specimens of this rare gecko were reported by Procter in 1921 from

the Persian frontier. The present example was found near Table Mountain

near Baquba. It was thickly speckled with dark brown,

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIX

AGAMIDZ,

Agama persica, Blanf.

From Nasiriyah, being the most southernly record of this form. The speci-

men shows some differences from the typical Persian ones, but whether this

‘ indicates a subspecies difference it is not possible to determine from one

specimen.

Agama agilis, Oliv.

From the Shia Khuh in the Salt Desert to the S.S.E. of Teheran, Iran.

Agama caucasica, Eichw.

Taken about 40 miles W. of Teheran.

Phrynocephalus scutellatus, Aud. (oliveri, Gray).

From the Shia Khuh, and also near Isfahan, Iran. At the latter a road

running over a barren area had rocks and gravel on one side, and _ softer

sandy soil on the other. Phrynocephalus was plentiful on the rocky side,

but none were seen on the sandy side, where however, there were large

numbers of Mabuia septemtaeniata (Fellow’s skink). Neither type trespassed

on the domain of the other, though separated only by a narrow road.

Uromastix loricatus, Blanf.

Porter, 1921, gives one specimen from Ruz as a new record for the country.

The present specimen was brought to me by an Arab from a point he judged

about 50 miles W. of Baghdad.

LACERTID2.

Acanthodactylus fraseri, Boulenger.

This is, so far as I can discover, only the third known example of this

species, described by Boulenger in this Journal, 1¢38. It was found at Nasiriyah.

Eremias brevirostris, Blanf.

Also from Nasiriyah, this specimen tends to show a link with E. adramitana.

Apathya (Latastia) cappadocica urmicana, Lantz & Suchow.

Two specimens one from the Jebel Hamrin, the other froni the Rowanduz

road in Kurdistan.

AMPHISBAENIDZ.

Pachycalamus zarudyni, Nik.

This lizard was recorded by Boulenger in 1920, and it is noted again here

on account of its distribution, and because it is uncommon. The specimen

came from. Abatia in “the Southern Desert, 29° 337N." 44° 537E. -\Somfanmeas

is known, no examples have been encountered near Baghdad or further north.

OPHIDIA

COLUBRID.

Lytorhynchus diadema, Dum & Bibr.

The Diademed Sand Snake is not a common snake in Iraq according to

Corkill, who records three specimens from Shaiba, Falliyah, and Rutba. The

present specimen was taken at Baba Gurgur, Kirkuk, by Mr. F. R. S. Henson,

and thus extends the distribution of the species in this country.

Hydrophis lapemidoides, Gray.

From Bahrein Island in the Persian Gulf, and according to Malcolm

Smith a rare species.

Lapemis curtus, Shaw.

Also from Bahrein Island. Smith records a specimen from Muscat, but

I can find no reference to the occurrence of the type at the western end

of the Gulf.

Microcephalophis gracilis, Shaw.

Brought up in a dredger bucket at Fao, mouth of the Shatt-el-arah.

SOME ADDITIONS TO THE FAUNA OF [RAQ 749

CHELONIA

“TESTUDINZA.

Clemmys caspica.

The common tortoise of Iraq: several specimens taken from all over the

country.

TRIONYCHODEA.

Trionyx euphraticus.

Nasiriyah and the Tigris above Baghdad, the latter specimen measures

47 cms. in length, and I have seen some considerably larger. This mud

tortoise has very powerful jaws, and is reputed to inflict destructive bites

on men wading or swimming.

Some of these specimens were collected while I accompanied Mr. Henry Field

during part of an expedition to the Near East organised by the Field Museum

of Natural History, Chicago. Several types were found by Dr. Macfadyen.

Many of the identifications were made by the authorities at the British Museum.

To all of these thanks are due. The paper is published by permission of the

Director General of Health, Baghdad.

REFERENCES.

Boulenger, G. A.—‘Description of a new lizard of the genus Acanthodactylus

from Mesopotamia’. J[.B.N.H.S., xxv, 373 (1918).

Boulenger, G. A.—‘A list of lizards from Mesopotamia’. J.B.N.H.S., xxvii

1920).

Corkill, N. L.—‘Snakes and snake-bite in Iraq’. London (1932).

Mills, E. A., MacHattie, C. and Chadwick, C. R.—Schistosoma haemato-

bium and its life cycle in Iraq’. Trans. Roy. Soc. Trop. Med., xxx, 317 (1936).

Porter, Joan B.— Further lizards and snakes from Fersia and Mesopotamia’.

aa t1.S.,°XxXvili (1927).

Smith, Malcolm.—' Monograph of the sea-snakes’, Brit. Museum. (1926).

MARRIAGE FLIGHT AND COLONY FOUNDING OF

THE COMMON BLACK ANT |[CAMPONOTUS

(LANAMYRMEX) COMPRESSUS LATR.|

P. N. KRISHNA AYYAR.

(Parasitologist, Agricultural College, Coimbatore),

(With 2 text-figures).

INTRODUCTION,

One of the commonest and most abundant of South Indian

ants, the Common Black Ant, Camponotus compressus Latr., has

been the object of observation and study by the writer for some

time now; and an account of the same has been presented in a

paper published in the Bulletin of Entomological Research, London,

1935 (vol. 25). In that paper the writer recorded the locations

structure and contents of their abodes, their population and life

economy, seasonal occurrence, associations and their agricultural

importance together with a few facts in their life history and habits.

There are still some very interesting problems such as. their

marriage flights, colony founding, etc., which have not hitherto

received sufficient attention. Wheeler, one of the foremost among

Myrmecologists, says that ‘the date and form of marriage flight

in ants are really specific characters and are clearly adaptations to

the ecological conditions’. The writer intends in this brief note,

to call attention to some peculiarities in the marriage flights, colony

founding, etc., of this common species based on some _ recent

observations.

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE.

Information of a most varied and interesting nature concerning

the species has been published by various naturalists, but no

satisfactory description of mating habits and other related pheno-

mena has yet been furnished. Hence the evidence available on

the nature of the association of the sexes and the manner of colony

founding is practically non-existent. Rothney (1889) was probably

the first to call attention to this habit of C. compressus. He

merely states, however, that the sexes swarm in May or early June

and take flight as soon as the sun goes down. According to

Wroughton (1892) the marriage flight takes place in June after

the first monsoon showers, usually in the evenings or in the night.

Hingston (1923) records that he observed a number of sexual forms

flying about the lamps indicating a nuptial flight. The present

writer (1935) has written that the marriage flights fhave been

observed in the evenings between 6.30 and g p.m. as the winged

sexual forms are crepuscular. Further observations have led the

tug

MARRIAGE FLIGHT AND COLONY FOUNDING OF ANTS 7

writer to reconsider this question and revise his former statement

in as much as he observed marriage flights occurring much earlier

in the year, though the same might continue till June or even

July.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE MARRIAGE FLIGHT OF C. compressus.

The data on mating habits and colony founding are greatly

needed to throw light on the nature of association of sexes. As

seen from the brief review presented above, previous investigators

have not recorded any satisfactory description of the nuptial flight

or copulation of this species. It is generally known that the

marriage flights usually occur within definite and limited periods

in the year, and the main factors that awaken the several forms

to seek union on emergence from the nest are probably meteoro-

logical conditions. For over three or four years the writer has

been watching colonies located permanently in certain places in

order to see the initial stages of emergence of winged forms.

Hundreds of times has he vainly sought to find them in the act

of copulation. Times without number the writer has taken sexual

forms attracted to light between May and June and rarely in July.

He has also collected winged sexual forms in small numbers at

other times particularly in October after the rains.

It was only in April this year that the writer was fortunate

enough in witnessing the actual processes of emergence and mating.

During the cool, humid afternoon of the rst April 1936 at about

half past one, the writer, in the course of a stroll in the back-yard

garden of his house came upon a swarm of these ants. Many

of the ants of the colony were not, at that time, out of doors. The

day was particularly cloudy and there was slight drizzling with

no sunshine at all from daybreak. A summary of the weather

conditions as recorded in the institute for the day is furnished

below.

Pressure. Dry Bulb. Wetbulb. Maxm. Mirm. Humidity. Rainfall.

29°808 73°8 7138 57°0F 70°6F 90 0°65

The ground was very wet as there had been heavy rains the

previous evening and night. A small contingent of C. compressus

was observed issuing from a formicary through an aperture near

a masonry structure on the ground. <A few large soldiers were the

ist to emerge and initiate the exodus. These: were closely

followed by a winged virgin queen with a train of other soldiers,

workers of various grades and winged males. Their march around

their old homestead was conspicuous in various ways. The throng

looked Jike an unorganised and disorderly mass of workers of

varying grades interspersed with winged sexual forms. The

occasion seemed to be an extraordinary one since the whole company

of workers was seething with excitement. They were moving

restlessly about, passing and repassing their comrades. The virgin

winged queen avas also slowly wandering about with a_ peculiar

jerky gait. On a detailed examination, the swarm was found to

consist of one large winged virgin queen with a long and bulky

abdomen, 29 winged males and 78 workers made up of 4o large

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISt. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

soldiers, 20 workers major, 10 workers media and 8 workers minor.

The winged queen evidently happened to be the centre of attraction

and the rest appeared to recognise the ‘sanctity’ of their charge

as displayed by their extreme alertness. The workers, particularly

the soldiers, never strayed beyond a small radius round about in

the vicinity of the sexual winged forms.

For about a couple of minutes after emergence the males

seemed to be utterly oblivious to the presence of the queen. By

this time the queen was surrounded

by a group of three to four males.

There was no recourse to any kind of

courting. The males simply crowded

round her and each in its own way

clumsily attempted to mount on her

back. The queen’s reaction was to

POU Ee Sic move about with a view to avoid these

Fig. 1.—Winged male of the overtures. At last one persistent

Common Black Ant (Camponotus | Saceededea - tt t d

vpanpreeare ate) male succeeded in its attempt an

mounted on her back with its legs

encircling her body. The male’s abdomen was raised, the

abdominal tip being bent and lowered on to the _ larger

abdomen of the female and the connection was so effected. There

was no attempt at flight throughout the act. It demonstrates that

mating can take place on the ground near the nest. The actual

process of copulation lasted for nearly two to three minutes; the

queen then slowly slipped out and separated herself from the grip

of the male. Within a minute after copulation she shed her large

gauzy wings and converted herself into a dealated queen.

Fig. 2.—Qucen. Common Black Ant (C. compressus Latr.) in virgin state and

on shedding her wings after copulation.

The impregnated queen seemed to be taken extra care of by

the workers. She was closely watched, followed and_ protected

by the large soldiers. Attempts to capture the queen by the writer

were greatly resented and were frustrated many times by the

fierce fight put up by the excited and angry crowd. Every time,

the ants rushed on the intruder furiously with open and outstretch-

ed mandibles, and inflicted severe bites, infusing the wound with

a drop of formic ‘acid from the abdominal’ extremity. Whem

watchfulness did not abate even after the queen had been imprisoned

MARRIAGE FLIGHT AND COLONY FOUNDING OF ANTS 753

in a specimen tube. The tube was wrapped in tissue paper and

laid nearby while the writer was engaged in watching other

colonies. The fury of the retinue was directed to the tube and

the wrapping was torn off to some extent and every attempt to

liberate the royal prisoner were made. They remained in this

highly excited and angry mood for very nearly half an hour and

then slowly departed into the nest. But for a considerable length

of time .afterwards they continued to emerge again and again

probably in their endeavour to make a vain search for their lost

queen.

COLONY FOUNDING.

A careful search of other nests in the locality showed that

sexual forms had also emerged simultaneously in a few others.

The number of sexual forms and the proportion of workers seemed,

from a few rough computation, to vary within a wide range.

In one case, probably after terrestrial mating, the soldiers with

unlocked mandibles seized the wings of the fecundated queen and

pulled them off violently. They later on virtually dragged her

back into the parental nest. Two dealated queens attended by a

large retinue of workers were observed in one case. A few other

dealated queens were seen, accompanied by groups of workers at

some distance from original nests and these had disappeared

probably by migrating in a body to adjacent situations to start

perhaps fresh branch colonies. There was not a single case of

flight by the winged sexual forms. But at night, on the same date,

the writer was successful in collecting a few winged forms which

were attracted to ordinary lights. Evidently there had been an

actual marriage flight.

These observations afford an insight into some interesting habits

of C. compressus in regard to mating and colony founding.

Terrestrial mating may occur just outside the parental nest and

can take place early in an afternoon provided the environmental

conditions are favourable. The queen thus fecundated has the

option of either returning to the old homestead or of starting, by

short migrations, a fresh branch-nest probably aided by her retinue

of workers. As is evidenced by real marriage flights after dusk

the sexual forms of different colonies in the locality have chances

of mating on the wing, in which cases the fecundated queen can

start fresh colonies almost unaided. It may also be inferred from

the presence of more than one dealated queen in a fresh colony that

a few fecundated queens may co-operate in founding fresh colonies.

Evidence on this last method may be adduced from the following

observation on a caged queen kept in the laboratory.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES.

From one of the swarms found emerging on the 1st April 1936

a virgin winged queen after impregnation on the ground outside

the nest was from that date kept isolated in a small glass jar in

company with the lucky male and a few workers of various grades.

These were kept without any supply of food or even water. The

queen divested herself of her wings. in a few minutes. On the

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol we Xan

second day the male with the wings intact was found dead. The

workers began to die one after another and by the tenth of the

month there was no worker left alive. By this time the fecundated

queen showed a slight distention of the gaster. Very little

attention was paid to the cage because no supply of either food

or ;water-had to be made. On the 15th of the month the queea

was found to have laid a first batch of five eggs. _On the z6th

eight more eggs were laid. These were carefully looked after by

the queen mother; they were collected together, constantly licked

and transported by her between her mandibles. On the 2oth

morning two of the eggs were noted to have hatched. The next

day the two larva were observed to be of unequal size one being

comparatively much larger than the other. The larvae were

also continuously fed on saliva, licked and groomed by the parent.

On the 22nd of the month two more eggs hatched. The larger

larva began cocooning between the smooth sides of the jar on the

24th. The other grub also commenced the process of spinning on

the 27th. Meanwhile one or two more eggs had hatched. The

cocooned specimens were very much undersized and these were

carried by the mother to different parts of the jar. Though this

time she attended to her own toilet, cleaning her antennae with

her front legs and cleaning these in their turn by drawing them

up between .the . maxille. By this. time all the - unhatched

eggs and the small grubs were found missing having been con-

sumed by the mother. On the 9th May 1936 a small worker adult

was dragged out by the parent after cutting open the cocoon:

It was yellowish white !n colour to begin with, later on became

brown and assumed the dark colour on the second day. The

queen apparently looked healthy though languid and her bulk had

gradually decreased. The queen eventually died on the 15th. of

the month and the other worker failed to emerge from the cocoon.

REFERENCES.

Dornisthrorpe, H. St. J. K.—‘British ants’ (1927).

Hingston, R. W. G.—‘A naturalist in Hindustan’ (1923).

Krishna Ayyar, P. N.—Bulletin of Entomological Research, London, vol.

25 (1935):

Krishna Ayyar, .P> N:—/J.BN- HGS... vole xxxix,” p. 207 (11937).

Rothney, G. A, G.—-Trans, ‘Ent. Soc. Lond., p2355 (18890).

Rothney, G. A. G.—Trans Ent. Soc. London., :p. 211 (1895).

Wheeler, W. M.—‘Ants, their structure, etc.’ (1910).

Wroughton,, R. C.—J.B.N.H.S., vol.- vii, p. 39°. (1892).

* DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF AGAMID

LIZARD FROM UPPER BURMA.

MALCOLM SMITH, M.R.C.S.

[From the Dept. of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History).

Japalura kaulbacki, sp. nov.

Type immature male, taken in the Nam Tamai Valley, Burma-

Tibet border, at 3,500 feet altitude, by Mr. Ronald Kaulback,

after whom I have pleasure in naming it.

Length of head one and a half times its breadth; snout longer

than the orbit; forehead concave; canthus rostralis and supraciliary

edge sharp; cheeks swollen; upper head shields unequal, keeled,

the larger ones forming a A- shaped pattern on the forehead;

occiput with spinose tubercles, namely an incomplete row parallel

with the nuchal crest, and two or three more just above the

tympanum, the diameter of which is one-third that of the orbit.

Body compressed; dorsal scales unequal, moderately sized ones

intermixed with much larger ones, the latter numerous and more

strongly keeled, but not arranged in any regular pattern; the upper’

scales pointing upwards and backwards, the lower downwards and

backwards; ventrals strongly keeled, smaller than the dorsals. <A

projecting fold of skin from behind the jaw to above the shoulder.

Scales on the lower jaw and cheeks large, the largest as big as

the large dorsals. No proper gular pouch, but a sharply defined

triangular patch of skin covered with very small scales in its place.

Nuchal crest low, composed of nine lanceolate scales; dorsal crest

a mere ridge. Limbs rather weak, the hinder one reaching to

beyond the ear; third and fourth toes equal. Tail swollen at the

base, covered with large keeled scales, those of the median row

above larger than the others and forming a denticulated ridge.

Colour in formalin: dark greyish brown, lighter below; gular

patch blackish.

From snout to vent 70; tail 125 mm.

Japalura kaulbacki has affinities with J. dymondi and with the

aberrant Calotes kakhienensis, from both of which it differs in the

character of the gular scales, the enlarged dorsal scales, and in

colour pattern.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE

TURKESTAN.

ir:-Con: J. W. THOMSON-GLOVER.

The material on which this list is based is not very extensive,

and merely indicates how much work remains to be done. Much

ground has not been visited at all, and places visited were only

worked for a brief part of the Entomological season. <A glance at

Seitz’s volumes which contain the results of the work of many

Russian collectors will show how many species and varieties may

be found in this Province.

Captain G. Sherriff while touring in connection with his Con-

sular duties collected Butterflies in the Tekkes Valley and Tian

Shan Mountains in 1928.

He also sent to Bombay a collection made in the Tekkes area

in 1929. (Collected perhaps when the late Mr. F. Williamson,

1.¢.8., was on tour there.) Others from the Kaying Bashi Valley

(some 70-80 miles south of Kashgar) in 1929, and lastly from

Bostan Terrek. Specimens which reached Bombay in September

and October 19380.

I also visited the Bostan Terek Valley which les some 60 miles

W.8.-W. of Kashgar for two weeks in August 1934 and again in

July 1985. Moths were collected during 1934 and 1935 in the

Consulate Garden, Kashgar, 4,320 ft. and Bostan Terek at 6,500 ft.

and 7,500 ft. As a matter of interest I have included the Lepi-

doptera collected by Stolickza within the limits of the Province in

1873, 1874. These are shewn in brackets.

The Province adjoins Indian and Tibetan territory on the south;

but the most noticeable feature is that the forms met with are

almost entirely Palaearctic; the same is noticeable as regards birds

and plants. As might be expected vis a vis India the types found

are closest to those from the Shandur Pass in Chitral, and the

Gilgit and Hunza Valleys. <A lst of those collected on the journey

from Srinagar to Kashgar is appended. From Murkushi in Hunza

until five stages from Kashgar no butterflies or moths were seen

in October 1938.

The next most striking feature is the scarcity of butterflies

found in the plains of the South from Karashahr to Kashgar and

Yarkand. This may be due to the salt soil, and muddy water

whereby suitable food plants and flowers are lacking.

The season for entomology is limited in the plains from April

to September and in the hills the season is even shorter.

The most profitable area to search would certainly be the long

range of Tian Shan Mountains nearly 1,000 miles from West to

East and perhaps the Urumchi oases. These areas are also the

richest in flora and fauna. The identification of many of the

butterflies has been established through the help and kindness of

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN 4757

the Bombay Natural History Society and of Brigadier W. H.

Evans, these are marked with an asterisk,

In the arrangement of Families I have followed as far as

possible that given in Seitz’s volumes.

The list contains : —

Butterflies a: ee ae 65

Moths sak Ve ane 70

135

In addition I collected :—

Butterflies ay en ae 2

Which have not been identified 2 AO

IGS

Butterflies collected from Srinagar to Kashgar via Gilgit :—

Butterflies 1 eh 40

Moths ne ae eee 6

Butterflies (not identified) oe oo

Moths (not identified) ey me 0

The following is a brief description of Sinkiang or ‘The New

Province’ of China. The area comprises 445,000 square miles

lying between latitude 86° and 45° and East longitude 75° and 94°.

The area sounds large but much of the centre is occupied by

the dry and salt Tekla Makan Basin and Lop Nor with its

marshes, the former comprises trackless deserts extending for miles

while in other parts of the basin Tamarisk scrub and wild poplar

are found, but even here there is lttle habitation or life as the

water is brackish and supports chiefly horse-flies and mosquitoes.

Round the basin lie oases like Karashahr, Kuchar, Aksu, Kash-

gar, Yarkand and Khotan, wherein some 7,000 square miles only

are cultivated at elevations from 2,000 ft. to 4.500 ft.; they depend

for their existence on streams originating from the different ranges

of hills, but before long these rivers disappear and are finally lost

in the Great Desert of sand and none of them find their way to

the sea.

The external boundaries are composed of high mountain ranges.

Many peaks carry perpetual snow, the hills are frequently barren

though those more favoured provide grazing for cattle and from

7,500 ft. to 9,000 ft. juniper and fir trees are found on the

northern slopes.

758 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY, Vol. XXXix

To the South and East are the Mustagh Range, Karakoram and

Kuen Lun which form the chief boundary with India and Tibet,

and the Province of Kansu.

On the west the Pamirs and Alai Ranges. To the north a

portion of the Tian Shan. To the north-west the Ala Tau and

further north the Tarbagatai Mountains. While the Atlai Moun-

tains on the north-east border on outer Mongolia.

The main backbone of the Tian Shan separates the north of

the Province including the districts of Barkul, Kucheng, Urumchi

and Ih from the south.

From Urumchi westward the oases include grassy steppes and

the climate is generally colder in the north with an increased

rainfall in the summer.

Around Urumechi pheasant and partridge are found in ideal

cover with flowering plants in the undergrowth.

The Sacred Mountains of Bogdo Ola which rise to a snow-covered

peak of 20,000 ft. look most promising ground.

In the south the climate is dry with an annual rainfall in the

plains of 3 inches.

The temperature varies from 110° in the summer to 15° in

the winter approximating rather to the climate of Peking, while

in the north in Urumchi the cold is much more severe and may

be compared with that of Harbin and temperatures descend to

00° below zero in winter.

A. RHOPALOCERA : BUTTERFLIES

1. Family: Papinionipa.

1. Genus: Paprtio.

* P. machaon; 8-9-28 Agiass 5,400 ft.; May-June 1929 Tekkes; 25-5-30 Kaying

Bashi 11,500 ft.; August 1934 and July 1935 Bostan Terek. Not common but

caterpillar found August hatched Kashgar on 22-6-35. -

8. Genus: PaRNasstus. ,

* P, apolo sibiricus : 6-9-28 Oi Dunga (Tekkes) 6,500 ft.

* P, discobolus: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

* P, actius: 11-2-29 Kuen Lun Mts. 16,000 ft.; 14-8-84 Bostan Terek; 22-11-35

Bostan Terek. Common at foot of glacier 9,000-18,000 ft.

* P delphius: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

* P, delphius staudingeri : July 1935 Bostan Terek 11,000-13,000 ft.

* P, simo gylippos: July 1985 Bostan Terek 11,000-12,500 ft.

* P, loxias: July 1935 Bostan Terek 11,000-13,000 ft.

2 yaninivs. | PigRip An

1. Genus: APORIA.

* A. crataegi: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

2. GeENUS: METAPORIA.

* M. leucodice: May and June 1929 T'ekkes 18-8-29 Kaying Bashi 12,200 ft.

Recd. 12-9-80 Bostan Terek, 5-8-34 Bostan Terek, July 1935 Bostan Terek.

Very common in July; few in August.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN — 7759

6. GENnus: PIERis.

*P. brassice; 28-5-34 Kashgar. Common in plains June-September.

*P, rape: 5-9-28 Shotta 5,700 ft.; 80-8-29 Abad. 4,650 ft.; 8-9-28

Agiass 5,400 ft. Recd. 22-10-30 Bostan, 30-7-34 Kashgar, 6-8-34 Bostan Terek

6,000 ft. Common in plains June-September (Yangi Hissar April, Aktala

May 17th).

*P, napi: May and June Tekkes.

7. GENUS: L&rUCOCHIOE.

* L. daplidice; 5-9-28 Shotta; 8-9-28 Agiass. Recd. 22-10-80 Bostan Terek,

14-8-34 Bostan Terek. Common 5,500-6,500 ft. (Sarikol May 2nd and 8th).

9. GENUS: SYNCHLOE.

* §. callidice : 22-9-28 Koksu 8,000 ft.; 13-9-28 Karajon 7,950 - ft.;- 17-8-29

Kaying Bashi 10,200 ft.; 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; end of July 1935 Bostan Terek

(Raphani ?). Not common.

11. Genus: EvcHUOE.

* E. chloridice : 4-8-34 Bostan Terek; July 1935 Bostan Terek. Common

5,000-10,000 ft.

12. Genus: ANTHOCHARIS.

* A, cardamines: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

15. Genus: Barta.

* (B. shawii: Aktagh north of Karakcram Pass 15,590 ft.)

20. GENUS: GONEPTERYX.

* G. rhamni: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

22. GeEnus: CoLias.

* C. cocandica : 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; July 1935 Bostan Terek. Common

8,500-11,000 ft., but often difficult to catch grassy uplands. Settles on stones.

* C. hyale: 6-9-28 Tekkes; May and June 1929 Tekkes. Recd. 22-10-30

Bostan Terek 6,500 ft. The commonest butterfly in the plains Kashgar to

Urumchi.

** var. pallida : Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek, 25-5-34 Kashgar, 14-8-34 (Sanju

October 80th, Sarikol May 2nd, Yangi Hissar April).

* C. romanovi?: 8-8-34 Bostan Terek 7,000 ft. Cell spot forewing, large

insect: only one caught.

* C. epgene: Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek, 15-8-34 Bostan Terek, July 1935.

Common 9,000-10,000 ft.

23. GENUS: LEPTIDICE.

* L. sinapis: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

4. Family: Saryrip#.

12. Genus: EREBIA.

* B, mani: Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek, 25-7-85 Bostan Terek 7,000-11,000 ft.

An active insect often difficult to catch.

14. GeEnus: OENEIS.

*¢Q, hora verdanda’: May and June 1929 Tekkes

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

15. Genus: SatyrRus.

* S. (Erebia) turanica jucunda: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

* S. (Eumenis) briseis : 5-9-28 Aksu Tekkes; 5-9-28 Shotta.

*S. (Eumenis) heidenreichii : Recd. 2-9-30 Bostan Terek, 6-8-84 Bostan Terek,

July 1985 Bostan Terek. Very common 6,000-8,000 ft.

*S. (Karanasa) geyeri: Wecd. 12-9-20 Bostan Terek, 10-8-34 Bostan Terek

7,000-8,000 ft.. None met with July 1985. Some approach Regeli Alpherakyi,

Huebneri, ground light yellow.

*S. (Karanasa) huebneri : 6-9-28 Tekkes.

*S. (Eumenis) mniszechii (baldiva) ?: Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek, 10-8-34

Bostan Terek, July 1935 Bostan Terek. Common 6,000-7,500 ft.

19. Genus: EPINEPHELE.

*E.narica: 4-8-34 Bostan Terek; July 1935 Bostan Terek 6,000-7,000 ft.

E. naricina : 16-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,000-7,000 ft.

E. hilaris: But deeper red. 11-8-34 Bostan Terek. Only found in one place

9,000 ft. Not seen July 1935.

E. pulchelia : 11-8-34 Bostan Terek.

20. GENUS: COENONYMPHA.

*C. pamphilus : 6-9-28 Tekkes.

*C. sunbecca: Recd. 22-10-30 Bostan Terek, July 1935 Bostan Terek only!

Specimen seen and caught.

6. Family: NyMPHALIDA.

Subfamily: Vanessine.

Tribe. VANESSIDI.

7. Genus: PYRAMEIS.

* P, cardui (japonica ?): 5-9-28 Khan Yailak 8,500 ft.; 7-9-28 Karajon 7,950 ft. ;

23-10-83 Bostan Terek, Kasha Ka Su; 10-7-34 Kashgar; 6-8-84 Bostan Terek

6,000-7,000 ft.; 11-10-85 Kurla. Common in plains June to end of October

(11-11-78 Karghalik, also at Sanju and south of Sanju).

8. GENUS: VANESSA.

*V. urticoe rizana: 13-9-28 Karajon 7,950 ft.; 5-9-28 Khan Yailak 8,500 fe;

August 1934 Bostan Terek; July 1935 Bostan Terek. Not numerous. Cater-

pillars found (U. Ladakensis 11-10-73, Karatagh Jake on snow mid-day temper-

ature: 33°).

*V. antiopa yadanula :5-9-23 Shotta 5,700 ft.; May and June 1929 Tekkes.

9. Grnus: POoLYGONIA.

P. egea interposita ? : 20-10-35 Urumchi 38,000-4,500 ft. Common end Octo-

ber and early November, in Pheasant covers around Urumchi. Not caught,

identification uncertain.

Tribe: ARGYNNIDI.

12. Genus: MenivTaza.

*M. saxatilis : Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek.

*M,. didyma ala; May and June 1929 Tekkes.

14. Genus: ARGYNNIS.

*A.hegemone: 5-9-28 Khan Yailak; May and June 1929 Tekkes. Recd.

12-9-80 Bostan Terek, August 1934 Bostan Terek, July 1935 Bostan Terek.

BURTEREITES ANDO MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN ~ 76

* A. pales: (isis or korla?) May and June 1929. Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan

_ Terek, 11-8-384 Bostan Terek, 20-7-85 Bostan Terek 10,000-12,000 ft. Fairly

common.

* A. lathonia isewa: 5-9-28 Khan Yailak 8,500 ft.; 8-9-2838 Agiass; May and

June 1929 Tekkes.

*A. aglaia: July 1935 Bostan Terek.

* A. niobe: May and June 1929 Tekkes.

* A. adippe tianchanica : 5-9-28 Ikhan Yailak; 10-8-29 Kaying Bashi 10,200 ft. ;

12-9-80 Bostan Terek; 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; 20-7-35 Bostan Terek. Common

8,000-10,000 ft.

Argynnis sp.: Size and appearance of sakontala. Only 2 seen, chased for

an hour on thistles in stony nullah 6,500 ft. August 1934.

7. Family: Erycrnipa,

4. Genus: PoLycaEna.

*P. famerlana: 16-7-35 Bostan Terek 9,000-13,000 ft. Not very common.

8. Family: Lycmnipaz.

22. GENUS: CHRYSOPHANUS.

*C. solskyi (fulminans ?) : 12-9-80 Bostan Terek; 5-8-3834 Bostan Terek;

19-7-85 Bostan Terek. Common 6,000-7,000 ft.

*C, phoenicurus (margelanica?) : Recd. 12-9-80 Bostan Terek, 16-8-34 Bostan

Terek, 19-7-85 Bostan Terek 6,000-7,000 ft.

34. Grpnus: JLyYCAENA.

*L. cleobis: May and June 1929 Tekkes 5,400 ft.

*L. cristophi: July 19385 Bostan Terek 7,000 ft.

*L. galathea: May and June Tekkes.

*L. (Polyommatus) orbitulus ; 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; July 1935 Bostan Terek

9,000-10,000 ft. Markings heavier than astorica, strongly marked spot within

cell.

* L. pheretiades : Recd. 22-10-30 Bostan Terek; 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; 20-7-35

Bostan Terek 9,000-11,000 ft.

*L. eros: Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek; August 1984 Bostan Terek; July

1985 Bostan Terek 6,500-8,000 ft.

*L. icarus thetis: 5-9-28 Khan Yailak; May and June 1929 Tekkes. Recd.

12-930 Bostan Terek, 15-8-34 Bostan Terek, 20-7-85 Bostan Terek. A smaller

blue than found in the plains resembles yarkandensis (23-5-74 Yarkand).

*L. icarus: 25-5-34 Kashgar; 30-7-35 Kashgar. Common in the plains

May-July. Resembles kashgarensis (Polyommatus kashgarensis April 1874 Yangi

Hissar).

*L. dveanica: Recd. 12-9-30 Bostan Terek.

L. damone iphigenides ?: 9-8-34 Bostan Terek 8,000 ft.

GRYPOCERA

1. Family: HEspERrp«.

Subfamily: Hesperiine.

14. Genus: Hesperia.

*H., (Pyrgus) alpina: 15-8-34 Bostan Terek; 17-7-35 Bostan Terek 9,000-

11,500 ft. Common, smaller than Cashmirens‘s; colour violet brown rather than

grey brown.

* HH. tessellum: May and June 1929 Tekkes 5,400 ft,

(62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL. HISd SOCIETY Voli x ex

PHALAENAE : MOTHS

4. Family: Arcrups (Lithosine).

69. GeEnus: ARCTIA.

A. rueckbeili: 15-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft. On fir trees in day-time.

D>. Family: LYMANTRIIDA.

5. GeEnus: OraeyIA.

O. trigotephras prisca: 7-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.; 27-6-36 Kashgar.

25. GENUS: HEUPROCTIS.

E. karghalica: 8-6-34 Kashgar, very common. 7-7-3835 Kashgar (25-9-74

Karghalik).

E. lactea?: (29-5-74.)

13. Family: SavTuRNIIDA.

10. Genus: NEoRIs.

(N. stoliczkana) (shadulla): (1870 Shadulla R. B. Shaw.)

16. Family: . SPHINGID2.

2. GeEnus: HERSE.

H. convolvuli: 7-4-384 Kashgar. Common April-September.

36. GENUS: MaAcROGLOSSUM.

M. stellatarum: 3-11-33 Kashgar; 5-8-34 Bostan Terek. Common Kashgar

garden,

38. GENUS: CELERIO.

C. centralasie: 7-5-34 Kashgar; 5-5-3834 Kashgar. Common.

C. gallii: 1-6-35 hatched Kashgar from caterpillar, August 19384 ex-Bostan

Terek.

C. zygophylli, 23-5-36 Kashgar.

17. Family: NovTopontTIp@.

5. GENUS: DICRANURA.

D. przewalskii: 18-5-34 Kashgar; 2-6-85 Kashgar.

33. GENUS: PTILOPHORA.

(P. kashgara: 3-3-74 Yangi Hissar.)

NOCTUIFORMES

1. Family: AGARISTIDA.

14. Genus: ACRONICTA.

(A. karghalika ; 29-5-74 Karghalik.)

20. Grnus: Evuxoa.

E. fatidica: 28-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft.

E. segetum : (29-5-74 Karghalik.)

E. oberthuri ; 12-6-34 Kashgar.

E. exclamationis serena: 18-5-34 Kashgar; 3-5-3835 Kashgar.

E. issykula multicuspis : 11-6-34 Kashgar.

| BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN 763

21. Genus: RaHyacta.

| squalorum : 10-8-34 Bostan Terek.

(Agrotis) dichagyris despecta: 15-6-84 Kashgar; 7-8-34 Bostan Terek

ft. Specimen from Kashgar is larger and darker,

. Spelotis undulans : 2-6-74 Akmasjid; 5-6-74 Chiklik,

. defuncta : 6-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

. degniata defuncta: 2-8-36 Kashgar.

AANA SCD B®

Subfamily: Hadenine.

1. Genus: BARATHRA.

B. brassice canescens: 18-5-34 Kashgar. (80-5-74 Karghalik.)

6. GeEnus: Portia.

.furcula; 6-8-384 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

.furca: 16-7-83 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft.

. mista: 8-6-34 Kashgar.

TTS

spiniacee: keechiini : 7-58-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

91. Grnus: CARDEPIA.

C. irrisor : 18-5-34 Kashgar.

Subfamily: Cuculliane.

4. GENUS: STENOSTIGMA.

S. curva: 15-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft. Pinkish tinge on grey of forewing.

50. GENUS: BLEPHARIDIA.

B. grumi: 15-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

Subfamily: <Amphipyrine,

3. GENUS: AMPHIPYRA.

A. tragopoginis turcomana : 10-85-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

71. Genus: ATHETIS.

A. congesta : 11-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

Subfamily: Heliothidine.

12. Genus: HELIOTHIS.

H. dipsacea: 15-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft. (28-5-74 Posgam, April 1874

Yangsi Hissar).

H. odsoleta: = 8-7-36 Kashgar.

H. fusca: 27-6-36 Kashgar.

esubfamily: Hrastrine.

29. Genus: EUSTROTIA.

(E. olivana-bankia argentula: May 1874 Ak Masjid.)

37. GENUS: HERASTRIA.

E. trabealis: (—sulphuratis) : 18-6-34 Kashgar. Common (sulphuralis

Yarkand).

464 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.” SOCIETY. * Voli =x cnx

38. GENUS: TARACHE.

T. fructuosa: 17-5-34 Kashgar. (April 1874 Yangi Hissar.)

Subfamily: Catocaline.

2. GENUS: CATOCALA.

C. puerpera orientalis: 20-6-34 Kashgar; 15-6-35 Kashgar. Common. |

C. puerpera pudica: 28-6-34 Kashgar; 5-9-34 Kashgar; 14-8-34 Bostan Terek

6,500 ft. Common Kashgar.

C. remissa indecorata: 20-6-34 Kashgar; 15-6-35 Kashgar,

33. GENUS: CLYTIE.

C. syriaca pallida : 2-6-35 Kashgar. |

Subfamily: Phytometrine.

1. Genus: CALOPLUSIA.

C. alaica: 21-7-385 Bostan Terek 11,000 ft. Day-time. |

3. GENUS: SYNGRAPHA. |

S. circumflexa : 12-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft. ’

4. GeENUS: PHYTOMETRA.

P. confusa (gutta): 8-5-34 Kashgar; 31-8-34 Kashgar. Common.

P. Festuca (festata) 9-7-36 Kashgar.

Subfamily: Noctuine.

20. Grnus: APOPESTRS.

A. spectrum centralasiae: 5-10-35 Maralbashi.

(A. phantasma: 12-11-73 Yarkand.)

21. GENUS: AUTOPHIDA. |

A. cataphanes: 7-4-34 Kashgar; 7-8-34 Kashgar; 5-10-85 Maralbashi. |

A. cataphanes subligaminosa: 7-8-34 Bostan Terek.

58. Genus: ALEUCANTIS.

A. catocalis ; 15-7-35 Bostan Terek 11,000 ft. Day-time.

A. saisani : 7-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

A. caucasica: 27-5-34 Kashgar.

A. hyblaeoides: 15-5-34 Kashgar. (8-6-74 Chiklik.) |

A. aksuensis: 8-7-36 Kashgar.

OXICESTA

(O. marmorea : 16-5-74 Sasak Taka.)

TAENIOCAMPA

(—semiophora) chiklika : (6-6-74 Chiklik). .

GEOMETRAE

38. Subfamily: HEMITHEINE.

98. GrEnus: EuvUcHLORIS. |

E. prasinaira ; 7-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.; 20-7-85 Bostan Terek

7,500 ft,

31. HEMISTOLA.

H. dispartita—Geometra dispartita—Nemoria dispartita :

31-5-74 Bostan Terek.

4, Subfamily: Acidaliine.

12. GENUS: ACIDALIA.

A. cumulata : 25-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft.

5. Subfamily: Larentiine.

47. GENUS: PHOTOSCOTOSIA.

P. oberthuri: 15-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

59. GENUS: CIDARIA.

C. distincta : 18-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft.

C. (—supethecia) truncata (—caturata): 3-6-74 Chikhk.

6. Subfamily: Geometrine.

62. GENUS: OURAPTERYX.

O. ebuleata : 1-6-3835 Kashgar; 20-7-35 Bostan Terek 7,500 ft.

137. GENUS: GNOPHOS.

G. ambiguata: 6-8-34 Bostan Terek 6,500 ft.

G. stolickzaria : (2-6-74 Ak Masjid).

G. tarentidae : 15-7-85 Bostan Terek.

G. thera kashgara ; 3-6-74 Chiklik 14,480 ft.

Family: Scoparips®,

GENUS: HUDOREA.

E. granitalis : (6-6-74 Chiklik).

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN

(65

E. transversalis ; (18-5-74 Igiz Yar 5,600 ft.) (April 1874 Yangi Hissar

4,320 ft.).

PYRALES.,

Botype.

Botys.

B. flavalis: (April 1874 Yangi Hissar; 2-5-74 Sar:kol; 28-5-74 Posgam).

CRAMBICES.

PHYCIDE.

HoOMOEOSOMA.

H. venosella : (2-6-74 Ak Masjid 8,870 ft.).

MYEtLo!s.

M. undulosella : (17-5-34 Aktala 7,342 ft.; 2-6-74 Ak Masjid 8,870 ft.).

M. griseella: (5-6-74 8.-E. of Chiklik).

TORTRICES.

CoNCHYLIS.

C. stolickzana: (5-6-74 S.-E. Chiklik).

766

TINEINES.

GELECHID.

DEPRRESSARIA.

D. stigmella: (8-3-74 Yangi Hissar).

RHOPALOCERA : BUTTERFLIES

Srinagar to Border of Sinkiang

1. Family: PaprmLionipé,

8. GENUS: PARNASSIUS.

P. epaphus cashmirensis ; 15-9-83 Burzil 15,000 ft.

P. delphlus riieyi? ; 15-9-383 Burzil 15,000 ft.

P. charltonius ; 15-9-83 Burzil 15,000 ft.

6. Genus: Preris.

P. brassice ; 20-9-83 Bunji.

P. canidia : 11-9-33 Tragbal.

P. rape : 20-9-33 Bunji.

7. GeENuUS: JLEUCOCHLOE.

L. daplidice : 28-9-33 Nomal.

22. GrEnus: Colts.

C. hyale: 19-9-33 Poshwari.

C. croceus (edusina) : 14-59-33 Burzil Chowki.

8. Family: DANAIDA.

1. Genus: DANAIS.

D. chrysippus ; 25-9-33 Gilgit.

D. limniace :; 27-9-33 Gilgit.

4. Family: Saryrip2#.

15. GEnus: SaTyRus.

. saraswati: 10-9-33 Tragbal.

.padma: 10-9-33 Tragbal.

_ anthe enervata: 17-9-33 Astor.

. telephassa : 19-9-33 Doyan.

. parisatis: 29-9-33 Chalt.

NnOnmAmMmMnnn

17. Genus: PARARGE.

P. maera schakra: 10-9-33 Tragbal.

P. menava: 18-9-838 Dashkan.

19. Genus: EPINEPHELE.

E. pulchella: 16-9-33 Gudai.

E. pulchella neoza ?: 29-9-33 Chalt.

E. davendra (chitralica) : 29-9-33 Chalt,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voli 2X xine

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS FROM CHINESE TURKESTAN

6. Family: NyMpHALID.

7. Genus: PYRAMEIS.

P. cardui : ~29-9-33 Chalt.

8. GENUS: VANESSA.

V. urticae : 10-9-33 Tragbal.

V. cashmirensis : 11-9-33 Tragbal.

V.xanthomelas: 11-9-83 Tragbal. 16-9-33 Gudai,

9. Grnus: POoLyGonlIA.

P. egea interposita: 1-9-3833 Tragbal. 29-9-33 Chalt.

Family: ARGYNNIDA&.

14. Grnus: ARGYNNIS.

A. pales Sipora: 15-9-33 Burazil.

A. adippe jainadeva : 15-9-33 Burzil.

8. Family: Lycmnipz.

18. Genus: ILERDA.

I. sena: 29-9-33 Chalt

22. GENUS: CHRYSOPHANUS.

C. phleas: 13-9-83 Gurais.

C. kasyapa: 14-9-33 Burzil Chowki.

26. GENUS: POLYOMMATUS.

P. beticus : 12-9-33 Poshwari.

31. Gernus: ZIZERA.

(Z. maha) : 28-9-33 Nomal.

(Sizera ?) : 20-9-33 Bunji.

34. Grnus: Lycaena.

. galathea (chitralica) : 10-9-33 Tragbal.

_orbitulus (astorica) : 10-9-33 Tragbal.

. omphisa : 10-9-33 Tragbal. 13-9-33 Tragbal.

. Stolickzana : 15-9-33 Burzil.

. icarus : 10-9-33. Tragbal.

.sarta; 15-9-33 Burzil.

Ge le es eee

35. GENUS: CYANIRIS.

C. argiolus coeiestina : 10-9-33 Tragbal.

46. Grnus: CHAETOPROCTA.

C. odata : 12-9-33 Poshwari.

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

GRYPOCERA

1. Family: HspErRipaz.

SuB-FAMILY: HESPERIINZA,

13, GENUS: CARCHARODUS.

C. alceae: 18-9-33 Kagarbal.

14. Gurnus: HESPERIA. |

H. cashmirensis : 15-9-83 Burzil.

39. Grnus: PARNARA.

P. mathias ; 23-9-33 Gilgit.

PHALAENAE : MOTHS

4. > Pamily; 2 /Ancriupay,

38. Sup-FamMity: Hypsina.

33. GENUS: UTETHEISA.

U, pulchella: 21-9-33 Safed Parri.

SuB-FAMILY: CALLIMORPHINA.

71. Genus: CALLIMORPHA. |

C. principalis : 16-9-33 Gudai.

13. Family: Satrurnipa.

10. Genus: NEorRIS.

N. stoiickzana ; 14-9-33 Burzil Chowki. Marking of stolickzana. Colour like

huttont.

Family: NoctrulrorMEs.

Sus-FaMiLy: AMPHIPYRINZ.

3. GENUS: AMPHIPYRA.

A. tragopoginis nigrescens 12-9-33 Poshwari. |

Family: GEOMETR2.

5. Susp-Famity: LaAReENvTUNz.

47. GENUS: PHOTOSCOTOSIA.

Ph. miniosata : 14-9-33 Gurais.

Ph. amplicata: 14-9-33 Gurais.

Journ. Bomsay Nar. Hist. Soc.

A | ahi q

WWM

al,

Ney

\3a. me

Sa.

H.N.Dixon del. John Bale. Sons & Curnow, Lt? London.

ASSAM MOSSES.

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM.

in NES DIXON,. Mea) Fo1,'S;

(With a plate).

The following contribution to the bryology of Assam is based

on collections made by Dr. N. L. Bor between 1933 and 1936.

Our main knowledge of the mosses of Assam is derived from

the collections made by Griffith, published by himself and more

completely worked out by Mitten in the Musci Indiae orientalis.

In 1914 I published a ‘Report on the Mosses of the Abor Expedi-

tion, 1911-12’, in Records of the Bot. Survey of India, vi, pp. 57-73.

With the exception of one or two scattered references to individual

plants in literature this appears to exhaust our sources of informa-

tion as to the bryology of this region. The present addition ts

therefore exceptionally welcome, the more so because the Assam

flora is a specially interesting one, phytogeographically, and because

the collections indicate a rich bryological flora—over 40 species

new to science are included, and one new genus in addition to

Dendrocyathophorum already described. Such genera as Orthom-

niopsis, Jaegerinopsis, Lindigia, Handeliobryum, Hageniella, Leio-

dontium, need only to be mentioned to indicate the exceptional

interest of the collections.

The types of the new species are in my herbarium.

The topographical notes that follow have been kindly contributed

by Dr. Bor.

The area in which a large part of these mosses were collected

is known as the Balipara Frontier Tract: bounded on the south

by the district of Darrang in Assam, -to the north by Tibet, to

the west by Bhutan, and to the east by the Sadiya Frontier Tract.

The geographical limits are 94° 15” and 92° 15” East longitude,

and 26° 45” and 28° North latitude.

The area in the plains at the foot of the hills is directly

administered by a Political Officer stationed at Charduar. The hills,

however, are under the loose political control of the same officer

who tours among the numerous tribes during the cold weather

cnly, as the presence of numerous streams and rivers prevents

access during the rains. The area is divided into two sections by

the Bhorelli river which issues from the hills and flows into the

Brahmaputra. ,

The area is of exceptional interest in that it has not, up to

the present time, been explored botanically and it was not

unexpected that many new plants would be found. During the

writer’s tenure of the post of Political Officer large collections of

phanerogams have been made with the object of compiling a

flora of the Aka Hills. That work will be produced by the

Botanical Survey of India by the writer in collaboration with

770. JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol Xoo

Mr. K. C. Biswas, M.A., at present curator of the herbarium in the

Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta.

The hills are a jumbled mass of mountains, the general trend

of the ridges being east and west, but there are numerous spurs,

roughly north and south, from the main ridges.

The Aka Hills lie just to the west of the Bhorelli and are

distinguished by a mountain, Piri, which reaches an altitude of

10,727 ft. To the: east ‘of the -Bhorelli he: the) Dafla” Hills aaa

greatest elevation being 7,000 ft. The slopes are very steep and

unstable and are prone to fall away in large slips.

Naturally littl is known of the rainfall in the hills as -the

nearest rain gauge is 20 miles away in the plains. This gauge is

at Charduar and records an average rainfall of 100 ins. To arrive

at some idea of the rainfall in the hills four stations were selected

on the Piri mountain. At each of these places kerosene tins each

containing a film of oil were placed in May in trees out of the

reach of elephants, and the contents were measured at the end

of the rains.

The four stations selected were Doimara, 1,000 ft., Pestiferous

Camp, 4,200 ft., Piri La, 9,5co ft. and Rupgya,. 5,c0o0 tt aaiine

rainfall recorded from May to October was

Doimara_ 198 in.

Pestiferous Camp 210 in.

Pirt bae246 in.

Rupgya 43 in.

Nothing was done in the Dafla Hills.

It will thus be seen that the southern face of the Piri mountain

gets a much larger rainfall than that recorded elsewhere in the

plains of Darrang and what is more, that the mountain practically

gets all the rain there is. Rupgya is situated to the north of

the Piri and gets a very small rainfall. The above figures, it will

be observed, are only for a portion of the year:and do not

include the precipitation, known as the chota bursat which is

often considerable, which falls in December and January. This

precipitation takes the form of snow on Piri and in the valley

beyond.

Frost is unknown in the plains but during the winter months

the ground is frozen hard on Piri and snow lies on the northern

slopes. |

In April the weather is usually very dry and desiccating winds

dry up the vegetation to the north of Piri and jungle fires are

common. In the Dafla Hills which are clothed with evergreen

forest and on the south side of Piri the undergrowth never dries

up and jungle fires do not take place.

The monsoon approaching from the S.W. strikes Piri and

deposits most of the rain on the southern face; only a small

amount passes over into the Tenga valley.

Further to. the east the monsoon sweeps up the Bhorelli gorge

and over the Dafla Hills. The rainfall is everywhere high in this

area and evergreen forest 1s predominant.

The geology of the ranges is interesting. The outer ranges

are formed of the Lipam sandstones which explains at once their

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM rial

steepness and their tendency to slip. On the higher ranges

Himalayan schist and granite are found and in the Tenga Valley

limestone is common.

. The vegetation in the Dafla Hills and on the southern face

of the Piri is similar so far as equal altitudes are compared.

Piri, of course, is much loftier and exhibits a distinctive vegetation

of its own between 7,000 ft. and tI0,o00 ft.

With such a high rainfall and the continual mist on the hills

it is to be expected that epiphytes such as lichens, mosses, orchids

and the like flourish. The trees on the higher ranges are practically

clothed with mosses and lichen, exceptions being those trees which

shed their bark, such as the rhododendrons and conifers.

The shady valleys of the lower hills with their sandstone clifts

are favourite habitats of mosses. On the Piri at 10,727 ft. the

soil is waterlogged for a considerable portion of the year and is

covered with mosses, conspicuous among them being Sphagnum.

To give a detailed description of the flora of these hills would

be out of place here: suffice it to say that the southern side of

Piri is clothed with evergreen forest, the number of species

decreasing as higher altitudes are reached. Oaks and maples make

their appearance at 6,000 ft. and pass on upwards into rhodo-

dendron, hemlock and silver fir. The Tenga Valley with its low

rainfall has a distinctive vegetation of its own. Oak and pine

(P. excelsa) are predominant with poplar in the valleys. Cypress

is confined to limestone. |

THE NacA HILtzs.

The Naga Hills district of Assam lies between the parallels

een and 26.47 mort latitude and 93° 17' and 04° 52) east

longitude. To the north it is bounded by the district of Selsagar ;

on the south by the native state of Manipur; on the west by

the north Cachar Hills, Nowgong and Selsagar, and to the east

by a tract of mountainous country between Assam and Burma

which is, for the most part, unexplored.

The district consists of a strip of country, the long axis of

which runs N.E. and S.W. about 140 miles long and varying in

width from 10-32 miles. Apart from a narrow border of plains on

the N.W. the whole district consists of a series of ridges, roughly

parallel to the long axis, of an average height of 5,000 ft. The

main mountainous mass, however, is much higher and consists of

two lofty ridges, averaging 8,000 ft., which join just south of

Kohima (4,700 ft.), the headquarters of the district. The highest

point is Japwo which is 9,898 ft. high. From Japwo the terrain

falls steeply, almost vertical in places, but it is connected to the

north with Pulebudza (7,000 ft.) by a ridge of the same average

height as the latter. From Pulebudza the ridge falls steeply by

Kohima.

In the Naga Hills all the slopes of the hills below 5,000 ft.

are cultivated. The main ridge, therefore, has not been touched

and is wooded to the summit, wherever the slopes are not too

steep to carry forest. As is usual in hill forest the vegetation is

zoned. From 5,000 ft. to 8,000 ft. the main species are oaks,

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

birch, sycamores and species of Magnoliaceae forming a high forest

ef about 80 ft. Above 8,ooo ft. rhododendrons and birch are the

commonest trees. The canopy is rather open and the trees hardly

reach 30 ft. Large stretches of Arundinaria are also common about

9,500 ft.

The rainfall at Kohima (4,700 ft.) reaches 7oin., the great

bulk of which falls between the months of May and September.

No data are available, or the amount of precipitation on the high

ridges, but there is no doubt that it is far higher than that of

Kohima. The high peaks of the main ridges are smothered in

mist during the rains and very frequently during the cold weather.

Frost is usual on Japwo during the cold weather, but snow is

of comparatively rare occurrence. During the months of March

and April, the climate is dry and fires have been known to occur

on Japwo. These fires run through the mossy covering of the

sandstone of which the ridges are composed. When the moss is

burnt off the bare rock is exposed and the trees die, suggesting it

is the mossy covering that conserves the water and enables them

fOUexist,

At the higher elevations mosses and lichens are very conspicuous

and long streamers of them hang from the branches and clothe

the stems. of the -trees:

SPHAGNACES.

Sphagnum acutifolioides Warnst.—In forest, above 3,000 m. alt., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (9). In abundant fruit. Pseudopodia rather unusually

long, generally a little above 1 cm.

FISSIDENTACEZ.

Fissidens semperfalcatus Dix. (Journ. Siam Soc., Nat. Hist. Suppl., x, 2).

Moist soil, 150 m., Dharibati, Aka Hills; November 1934 (208). Elsewhere

only known from Siam.

Fissidens rubricaulis Dix. sp. nov.

(Semilimbidium). Humicola. Sat robustus, dense caespitosus, laete viridis,

caulibus vetustioribus rubris, 4-5 mm. longis, foliis plurijugis, eis caulium

sterilium plumosis. Folia laxiuscula, sicca leniter flexuosa, e basi multo latiore

oblongo-lanceolata, late acuta, haud acuminata; lamina vaginans _perlata,

valde aperta, supra medium folium attingens, limbidio sat bene evoluto, saepe

supra laminam versus apicem folii producta. Costa apud basin validiuscula,

superne angustata, concolor, infra apicem soluta. Lamina dorsalis ad _ basin

‘costae vel paullo supra desinens. Margines integerrimi. Cellulae superiores per-

distinctae, pellucidae, laevissimae, minutate, circa 6-7” latae sat regulariter

hexagonae, parietibus tenuibus. Folia caulis sterilis breviora, limbidio multo

debiliore.

Dioicus. Seta 5-6 mm. Theca erecta, e collo distincto elliptica, sicca

suburceolata ; operculum rubrum, curvirostellatum ; peristomium pallide rubrum,

dentium crura spiraliter incrassata et papillosa. Spori saepe ovales, magna,

35-55 #é, laevissimi.

Hab. Balipara Frontier Tract, 100-300 m., November-December 1933 (55),

type. Ibidem (58).

A very marked species, distinct among the Semilimbidia in the habit, the

pellucid, smooth, minute cells, entire margin and large spores. The stems

in. the young state are pale, but when old become red, and are then from

the lax arrangement of the leaves very conspicuous, recalling the African F.

purpureo-caulis C.M,

Fissidens bryoides Hedw.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,700 m.; November 1934 (253).

Seta terminal, 1 cm., hence not F. longisetus Griff.

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 773

Fissidens leptopelma Dix. sp. nov.

(Crispidium). Conferte gregarius, humicola, viridis. Caulis flabellatus, circa

5 mm. longus aeque ac latus. Folia 5-6 juga, madida complanata, sicea

rigide falcato-decurva, circa 3 mm. longa, linearilanceolata, e medio folio

angustata, peranguste acuminata, acuta. Lamina vaginans minusquam dimidiam

partem folii aequans, ad marginem folii oblique desinens; lamina dorsalis ad

basin folii sensim decrescens; omnes elimbatae, marginibus minutissime regu-

lariter crenulatis. Costa sat angusta, pallida, concolor, summo apice soluta.

Cellulae superiores minutae, hexagonae, dense alte unipapillosae; inferiores

laxiores, pellucidae. ,

Dioicus. Flos ¢ terminalis, conspicuus. Seta terminalis, circa 1 cm., pallida,

pertenuis (Superne 50-60 / lata), apice curvato, unde theca cernua vel hori-

zontalis, perminuta, deoperculata circa .75 mm. longa; peristomii dentes longi,

crura flexuosa, dense trabeculata, trabeculis intus alte lamellatis. Operculum

haud visum,

Hab. Balipara Frontier Tract, 100-300 m.; November-December 1933 (42).

Quite distinct from any of its allies in the long and narrow, very longly

and narrowly pointed leaves, as well as in the very attenuated seta.

Fissidens nebilis Griff—On rock in deep shade, Balipara Frontier Tract

300 m., November 1934 (215). A form with the leaf point. more acute than

usual, less toothed, sometimes subentire.

Fissidens anomalus Mont.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,500 m.; November 1934 (258b,

262b)..- Cc. if,

Fissidens areolatus Griff.—Piri, Aka Hills; November 1934 (239, 240) c. fr.

I have it also from Shillong, coll. Mrs. Stokoe, November 1912.

GRIMMIACE.®.

Rhacomitrium jayanicum Doz. & Molk.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 3,000 m., October,

December 1935 (299, 341). c, ft.

DICRANACE.

Trematodon assamicus Broth.—Charduar ; 1934 (76). A fine plant with setae

3-4 cm. long, which agrees well with the description of Brotherus’ species.

Garckea phascoides (Hook.) C.M.—Balipara Frontier Tract, circa 200 m. ;

November-December 1934 (64).

Ditrichum homomallum (Hedw.) Hampe.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,300 m.; November

1934 (257). As far as I am aware, this species has not been recorded from

Asia_ hitherto.

Ceratodon purpureus Hedw. var. stenocarpus (Bry. eur.)—Japwo, Naga Hills,

2,400 m.; October 1935 (316).

Microdus brasiliensis (Duby) Thér.—Shillong, 1,500 m.; September 1934

(168, 192),

Microdus assamicus Dix. sp. nov.

Humilis, caespitosus, soc. cum Dicranella heteromalla crescens; caules pauca

mm. alti, foliis ad apicem agglomeratis, falcatis, e basi brevissima dilatata

setaceis, 2.5-3 mm. longis, integerrimis nisi ad summum apicem saepe 2-3-

denticulatis; costa tenuis, lata, male definita, subulam implens. Cellulae

basilares laxisimae, hyalinae, late rectangulares, parietibus tenuissimis; supra

basin raptim angustatae, angustissime lineares, a _ cellulis costae aegre dis-

tinguendae.

Seta tenuissima, pallidissima, valde flexuosa, saepe fere cygenea; theca

minuta, pallida, deoperculata vix 1 mm. longa, ovalis, leptodermica, laevis ;

exothecii cellulae irregulares, fortiter incrassatae, parietibus valve curvatis ;

ad orificium rubrae. Peristomii dentes pallide rubri, e basi latiore saepe

perforata aut integri aut plerumque in crura duo saepius inaequalfa filiformia

fissi, sat breves, haud striolati, apud basin tantum leniter trabeculati, supra

integri, haud nodosi, laeves. Operculum haud visum,

Hab.. Pankim La, Abor Hills, 300-2,900 m., 1934 (145).

774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XXX1X

The position of this little moss is somewhat indeterminate; the peristome

teeth are usually divided, as in Dicranella, but are small, irregular, and

smooth, not striolate, as in Microdus, while the very flexuose, sometimes almost

cygneous seta suggests an approach to Microcampylopus.

Dicranelia heteromalla (Hedw.) Schimp.—In forest, 2,900-3-300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (24, 33). A rather marked form, which may be worthy

of a varietal name. The leaves are very strongly serrulate, with short cells

almost to the base; the base itself is short, and the basal cells short and

wide. The fruit seems normal.

Dicranella divaricata (Mitt.) Jaeg.—Shillong, 1,500 m.; September 1934

(192) pip. ).

Dicranella leptoneura Dix. sp. ‘nov.

Humilis; laxe caespitosa, lutescens. Caulis pauca mm. altus, sublaxifolius,

saepe rufescens; folia divaricata, apicalia subsquarrosa, flexuosa, longiora;.

caulina circa 3 mm. apicalia circa 5 mm. longa, e basi latiore concava sensim

in subulam longam flexuosam integerrimam angustata. Costa ad basin circa

quartam latitudinem occupans, pertenuis, saepe vix distinguenda, superne sub-

ulam fere omnino implens, sectione 2-3-stratosa, e cellulis subaequalibus instru-

cta. Cellulae omnes lineares, angustae, elongatae, basilares parum _latiores.

Planta ¢ similis, flore intense fusco, turgido, subgloboso, Planta ¢ et fructus

valde juvenilis tantum visa.

Hab. Balipara [Trontier Tract, 100-300 m., November-December 1933 (48).

In spite of the absence of mature fruit this may safely be pronounced

distinct in view of the narrow, elongate cells throughout the leaf, and the

extremely tenuous nerve, sometimes so thin in the basal part as scarcely to

be distinguishable. The leaf subula is more attenuated than in D. divaricata.

Oreoweisia laxifolia (Hook.) Par.—Forest, 2,900-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933 (40). Ibidem, 3,050 m., November 1934 (261e),

Symblepharis reinwardtii (Doz. & Molk.) Mitt.—In forest, Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933 (3, 20). Him Parbat, 2,000 m.; March 1934 (84). Pankim La,

Abor Hills; 1934 (140). Japwe, Naga Hills, 2,700-3,00 m.; December 1935

(330). ; ?

Symblepharis helictophytla Mont,—Naga Hills; 1935 (270).

Dicranum lorifolium Mitt.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,000 m., December 1935

(331). I have several other gatherings from Assam in my herbarium.

Dicranum kashmirense Broth.—Pankim La, Abor Hills, 1934 (144).

Dicranum assamicum Dix. sp. nov.

(Pseudochorisodontium) Robustum. Caespites densi, nitentes; caules ad. 8

cm. alti, regulariter foliosi; folia falcata, homomalla, supra argute dentata,

eis D. scoparii subsimilia, sed tenuiora, vix chlorophyllosa; costa multo tenuiore,

cellulis minoribus, pellucidis, parietibus ubique valde porosis,

Perichaetia cylindrica, bracteis internis convolutis, apice rotundato, abrupte

cuspidato vel breviter aristato. Seta circa 2 cm. alta. Theca majuscula, erecta,

symmetrica, aequalis, fusca, cylindrico-fusiformis, laevis. Opereum; _ paullo

brevius, rectum. Peristomium magnum, bene evolutum, purpureum ; dentes pallo

irregulares, laeves, subpellucidi, fortiter lamellati. Spori variabiles, usque ad

JESS oa Be

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,000 m.; 7 December 1935 (333).

‘D: himalayanum Mitt. has the leaves entire, the peristome papillose; the

teeth here are almost entirely. smooth (I have seen faint traces of vertical

striolation in the upper part of one or two).

Brothera leana (Sull.) C.M.—Shillong, 1,830 m.; September 1934 (184

p-p.). With dense apical tufts of small brownish brood-bodies.

Brothera capillifolia Dix. sp nov. (Plate I, fig. 1). 5

Multo laxiore et elatiore quam B. Leana; caules 2 cm. alti, laxiuscule,

saepe interrupte foliosi; inferne. radiculis albidis intertexti. Folia sericea,

patentia, falcata, valde decidua, e basi perbrevi, perpetlucida, convoluto-concava,

dimorpha; aut subsensim in. subulam setaceam plusminusve argute conferte

denticulatam, aut abrupte in -subulam. longissimam . (duplo fere longam) tenuis-

MOSSES COLLECTED IN? ASSAM 775

simam, capillaceam, integram vel subintegram angustata. Cellulae basilares

laxissimae, magnae, parietibus tenuibus, ad margines multo angustiores, supra

perangustae, parvae, pellucidae, elongatae. Costa ad basin perlata, spongiosa,

e stratis 3-4 cellularum inanium, pellucidarum, magnarum, parietibus pertenuibus

instructa, superne angustata, male definita, e cellulis angustissimis composita,

Hab. In forest, 2,900-3,000 m., Piri, Aka Hills; October 1933. (5).

Fossibly the type of a new genus, but sufficiently near B. Leana in the

nerve structure, particularly in the lower part of the leaf, to be placed there,

at least temporarily. The foliation is peculiar, the normal cauline leaves ‘appear

to be comparatively short, setaceous, but not very longly so (3-4 mm.), chloro-

phyllose, and frequently closely denticulate to near the base; at certain points

on the stem the leaves, densely crowded, are entirely different, less or not

chlorophyllose, deciduous, entire, very rapidly narrowed from the base to a

much longer, much finer, entire, capillary subula; these may attain to even

1 cm. in length. The leaf base is minute, spongy, so concave as to appear

when detached almost solid and bulbiform, pale, slightly reddened at the line

of insertion.

Campylopus letus (Mitt.) Jaeg.—Shillong, 1,800 m., September 1934 (191).

Dicranodontium dimorphum Mitt,—Piri, Aka Hills, 3,000 m.; November 1934

(261d). Naga Hills; 1935 (274). Japwo, Naga Hills; 2,750-3,;000 m., December

1935 (342) c. fr.

Several of the Indian species described by Mitten are difficult to separate

from one another, the fruit even when present does not always give much

assistance. No. 261 has the subula more toothed than usual, but in other

respects seems to agree. No. 274 is a rather marked plant, having conspicuous

purple auricles, and a strong nerve; it is a much more robust plant than

D, didymodon (Mitt.) and D. caespitosum (Mitt.). An unpublished Himalayan

species cf Brotherus has equally conspicuous auricles, but has a flat subula

and very much narrower nerve. No. 342 is in fruit in nice condition; I believe

the fruit has not been recorded. The seta is about 1 cm. high, very thin,

pale, when dry erect and flexuose, the capsule small, dark, erect, elliptic

from a tapering base, symmetric, smooth, the lid straight, rather shorter

than the capsule.

_ Dicranodontium asperulum (Mitt.) Broth.—Naga Hills; 1935 (269). A form

with remarkably white leaf bases, as well as white tomentum.

Dicranodontium decipiens (Mitt.)—Cheswezuma, Naga Hills, 2,100 m.; December

1935 (324). A difficult plant. It appears to belong to Dicranodontium. Reimers

issued it in Max Fleischer, M. Fr, Archip. Ind. et Polyn., No. 561, as

‘Dicranodontium decipiens (Mitt.) Mitt.’, but I have been unable to trace

the publication where Mitten placed it under the present genus.

LEUCOBRYACE.

Leucobryum javense (Brid.) Mitt.—Kanjara, Naga Hills, 2,000 m.:; November

1935 (363).

Leucobryum bowringii Mitt. var. sericeum (Broth.) Dix.—Péstiferous Camp,

1,200 m., Piri, Aka Hills ; November 1934 (227). The nerve is almost homostrosic,

only a single cell here and there, both dorsal and ventral, being transversely

divided, very near the base of the leaf.

Leucophanes octoblepharoides Brid.—Balipara Frontier ‘Tract; November-

December 1933 (63).

Octoblepharum albiduw = Hedw.—Near Charduar : 1934 (184).

Exodictyoa blumii (C.M.) Fleisch.—Forest, 3,000-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933 (21b). New to Northern India. Distr. Java; Philippines; Borneo ;

Malay Penins. :

CALYMPERACE.

Syrrhopodon pilulifer Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 2).

Thyridium. Corticola. Subrobustus, saturate olivaceo-viridis, ramis circa 3

mm. longis; folia sicca leniter rigide incurvo-hamata, 2.5-3 mm, longa, e

776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

basi. brevi erecta vix latiore late oblongo-lanceolata, breviter acutata, latiuscule

cuspidata, marginibus vix undulatis, integris vel subintegris; costa validiuscula,

stricta, dorso laevis. Limbus cartilagineus inferne latus, usque ad 20-seriatus,

sat longe infra apicem solutus. Cellulae perminutae, parietibus tenuibus,

laevissimae. Cancellina brevis. lata, e cellulis parvis composita. Corpuscula

parva, numerosa (circa 30-40 #4 lata), sphaerica, pluricellularia, fusca, in pagina

et costae ventri inveniuntur.

Seta circa 5 mm., theca minuta, erecta, vix nitida.

Hab. Balipara Frontier Tract, 100-300 m.; November-December 1933 (46),

The much broader, entire border, smooth cells, and absence of secund-leaved

stoloniferous branches separate this from S. flavus and S. Vrieset, and (except

for the last character) from S. cuspidatus.

The minute spherical bodies on the upper surface of the leaf appear to

be of the nature of gemmae; if algoid there would be no reason for their

being confined to this region of the leaf. . Apical tufts of small, fusiform gemmae

are also present at the tip of most leaves.

Calymperes burmense Hampe.—In forest, 3,000-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933 (2). This agrees well with Hampe’s type. It appears to be

a rare species, only found hitherto in Burma,

Calymperes hampei Doz. & Molk.—Charduar; August 1934 (173).

POTTIACEZ.

Trichostomum cylindricum Bruch—Pulebudze, 2,350 m., Naga Hills; August

1935 (294a). Japwo, circa 2,750 m., Naga Hills; December 1935 (330 p.p. ).

Both +e. dr:

Pseudosymblepharis pallidens Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 3).

Gracilescens, elata, habitu Symblepharidis helictophyllae Mont. Folia laxiu-

scula, patentia, superne comosa; sicca crispata, 3-4 mm. longa, e basi erecta,

subvaginante, sensim angustata, lineari-lanceolata, sensim anguste acuminata,

acuta, marginibus planis, intergris seu crenulato-papillosis. Costa ad-basin sat

valida, superne attenuata, pellucida, infra apicem soluta. Cellulae superiores

subquadratae, vel subrotundatae, distinctae, parietibus firmis, subincrassatis,

papillosae, basilares longiores, breviter rectangulares, infimae paucae laxiores,

pellucidae, parietibus tenuioribus.

Dioica. Folia perichaetialia caulins subsimilia.—Seta 1 cm., tenuis, ’erecta,

pallida. Theca parva, cum operculo 3.5 mm. longa, anguste elliptica, paullo

asymmetrica, operculum pallide tenuirostre, thecae longitudinem fere aequans,

cellulis laxiusculis, seriebus rectis, haud obliquis. Annulus latus, persistens, sed

facile dilabilis. Exothecii cellulae elongate rectangulari-hexagonae, parietibus

tenuissimis. Spori parvi. Peristomium perpallidum, dentes ad basin cohae-

rentes, inde in crura divisa valde irregularia et inaequalia, saepe anastomosantia,

vel ramificantia, vix nodosa, dense humiliter papillosa.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,450 m.; October 1935 (322).

The leaves are shorter and wider than in most of the species. They are

very similar to those of P. pervaginata (Broth.) Broth., but much less dilated

below.

Hyophila’ involuta (Hook.) Jaeg.—Several gatherings.

Barbula gregaria (Mitt.) Jaeg.—In forest, Piri, Aka Hills, 3,000-3,300 m. ;

October 1933 (11).

Barbula indica Brid.—One or two gatherings, on the lower ground.

ORTHOTRICHACE.

Ptychomitrium rhacomitrioides Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 4).

Robustum, caespitosum; caules ad 8 cm. alti, erecti vel adscendentes, parce

ramosi, interrupte foliosi, olivacei. Folia patenti-squarrosa, sicca _ fortiter

crispata, magna, 5-6 mm. longa, e basi longa, lata, vaginante, plicata, sub-

sensim in laminam recurvam, latam, canaliculatam, fortiter regulariter runci-

natam subabrupte terminatam angustata. Costa inferne valida, supra angustior,

cum apice evanida. Margines supra basin~ angustissime recurvi. Cellulae

supremae subisodiametricae, seriatae, incrassatae, perdistinctae, parietibus leniter

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 777

sinuosis; versus basin sensim elongatae, breviter rectangulares, parietibus valde

sinuosis; inde multo longiores, 4-61, fortiter sinuosae, omnino Rhacomitri-

oideae; infimae abrupte mutatae, per totam latitudinem pulchre aurantiacae,

laxae, magnae, 2-stratosae, inanes, parietibus rectis, tenuibus.

Autoicum. Fructus terminales, sed saepe ad annum sequentem persistentes,

2-5 aggregati; folia perichaetialia vix distincti; seta circa 8 mm. longa, erecta,

pallida, ad ‘basin et vaginluam rubra. Theca leptodermica, in collum defluens,

operculata circa 4 mm. longa, cylindrica; operculum rectum, aciculare; calyptra

straminea, nitida, basi laciniata leniter plicata. Peristomium generis, dentes

aurantiaci, praelongi, crura stricte tenuissime capillaria, praealte, tenuissime

papillosa. Spori minuti. :

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,000 m,, 7 December 1935 (343), type.

Ibidem (330). Above Dharmsala, Punjab, India, circa 2,750 m.; 17 June 1929;

coll. R. R. Stewart (10309A).

A very striking plant, especially in the remarkable areolation; the cells

at insertion are a deep orange, at least 2-stratose; lax, thin-walled and pellucid,

forming deep pseudo-auricles resembling those of Dicranum but reaching quite

across the leaf; above these all the cells are absolutely Rhacomitrioid, and

only in the part of the lamina above the base take on a more normal

Ptychomitrioid form, but even then retaining, sometimes to the apex, traces

of the sinuosity of the walls. The Himalayan plant was first seen, and I

referred it without hesitation to Holomitrium, no calyptra being present, and

the peristome being all more or less destroyed (It was this plant to which

I referred in Annales Bryology., vi, 21, as having a similar areolation to a

new species of Symblepharis from Mt. Cameroon). The Ptychomitrioid calyptra

of the Assam plant revealed its true position.

Zygodon brevisetus Wils.—Chingku, Naga Hills, 2,500 m.; November 1935

(354). Very near Z. intermedius Bry. eur., but apparently distinct.

Macromitrium nepalense (Hook. & Grev.) Schwaegrichen—Ngorruara, on dead

log, goo m., Naga Hills; November 1935 (349).

Macromitrium calymperoideum Mitt.—Balipara Frontier Tract, below 300 m. ;

November-December 1933 (49). Common on trees in plains, near Charduar ;

August 1934 (74, 178).

Macromitrium hamatum Dix. sp. nov.

Belongs to the group of Leiostoma having leaves with broad, strongly

inflexed or hamate leaf apices, and smooth basal cells, to which M. nepalense

and M. assamicum belong, It differs from these however in having the leaves

not spirally twisted when dry, but strongly incurved and crispate. In this it

is nearer to M. calymperoideum, which differs slightly but distinctly in the

shorter, broader, more obtusely pointed leaves, with the cells short and very little

altered to base. M. inflexifolium Dix. from Siam has quite different upper

cells. The leaves here are longer and more tapering than in any of the

allied species, widely but quite acutely pointed.

M.z calymperoideo Mitt. affine. Differt foliis longioribus, angustioribus, ad

apicem anguistatis, acutis vel apiculatis, cellulis basilaribus pellucidis, infimis,

praecipue marginalibus elongatis, linearibus, juxtacostalibus paucis laxis, in-

anibus. Cellulae superiores minutae, 5-7 / laeves vel humillime mamillosae.

Calyptra pilosa. Fructus immaturus solum_ visus.

Hab. On tree trunk, 1,680 m., Pedi, Naga Hills; 1 August 1935 (284 bis).

Macromitrium rigbyanum Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 5).

Sat robustum. Rami _ variabiles, plerumque longiusculi, densifolii. _ Folia

sicca valde crispata, angusta, lingulata, sensim anguste acuminata, acuta;

costa cum apice soluta vel brevissime excurrens. Cellulae circa 8 /“ distinctae,

humiliter papillosae, marginales regulariter minute crenulatae, infra sensim

elongatae, basilares lineares, angustae, laeves, paucae juxtacostales ‘calym-

peroideae’. Bracteae prichaetii angust acuminatae, stricte breviter aristatae.

Seta circa 6 mm, longa. Calyptra pilosa. Operculum aciculare. Theca e collo

brevi breviter cylindrica, laevis, fusca, apud orem vix angustata, ibidem purpurea,

subnitida, microstoma. Peristomium bene evolutum, e dentibus flavidis dense

papillosis in membranam vel per paria plusminusve cohaerentibus instructum,

Spori variabiles, magni, usque ad 27 /&

778 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIEPRY,= Vol. Soon

Hab. Kurseong, Himalayas, 1926; coll. Fr. Rigby, comm. Rev. G. Foreau

(592), type. Assam, Him. Parbat, 2,000 m., 21 March, 1934; coll. N. L. Bor

(89). Ibidem, Peak, Charduar, 1,850 m.; 1934 (167). Pankim La, Abor Hills,

300-2,900 m. ; 1934 (148). On rock, Dzulake, Naga Hills, 1,850 m.; 31 August

1934 (280 bis).

A very distinct plant, not in habit or leaf structure, but in the capsule.

This is cylindrical or barrel shaped, scarcely tapering to the mouth but with

a purplish cushion of much smaller, incrassate exothecial cells surrounding the

mouth and extending for an appreciable distance down. It is similar to that

of M, bathydontum, described by Cardot from Corea.

Maromitrium turgidum Dix.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,400 m.; October 1935

(303). Ibidem, 3,000 m.; November 1935 (310).

Nov. var. laeve Dix. Cellulae basilares laeves.

Dafla Hills, 1,200 m., March 1934 (90) Tako Senyak, 1,200 m.; March

1934 (113). Paora, Naga Hills, on tree trunk, 2,150 m,, September 1935

(283 bis).

In the original plant from Siam the basal cells were more or less markedly

tuberculate, As this is usually considered a crucial character, I have thought

it best to describe the smooth-celled plant as a variety. The character is

however not a constant one, as in one or two of the Assam gatherings I

have found the basal cells indiscriminately smooth or tuberculate on the same

specimen.

Macromitrium sulcatum Brid.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,000 m. ; December

1935 (338).

Macromitrium ramentosum Mitt.—Tako Senyak, Dafla Hills, 1,200 m.; March

1934 (103). Hitherto only known from Ceylon.

FUNARIACE.

Funaria wallichii (Mitt.) Broth,—Shillong; September 1934 (200).

Funaria hygrometrica Hedw. (F. leptopoda Griff.)—Several gatherings.

SPLACHNACE.

Splachnobryum assamicum Dix. sp. nov.

S. Oorschotii forsan affine; multo gracilius, laxifolium, foliis siccis valde

flexuosis, convolutis. Folia madida patula, 1.5 mm. longa, perconcava, saepe

subconvoluta, e basi oblonga latiore sensim lingulata, plerumque_ rotundato-

obtusa, marginibus planis vel recurvis, integerrimis. Costa tenuis, summo

apice soluta. Rete perpellucidum, e cellulis parvis, rectangularibus, parietibus

tenuissimis instructum. Cellulae superne sensim abbreviatae, irregulares,

rhomboideo-hexagonae, ad apicem subisodiametricae.

Dioicum; planta ¢ femineae subsimilis, floribus axillaribus numerosis

magnis, turgidis, antheridiis magnis, congestis. Seta circa 6 mm. _ longa,

tenuissima, intense rubra. Theca minuta, 1 mm. longa, subcylindrica; peri-

stcmium haud visum.

Hab. On brickwork, Charduar, 2 August 1934 (176), type. On sandy soil,

700 m., Charduar; 13 July 1934 (162).

A strongly marked species in the narrow, lingulate leaves, deeply channelled,

with nerve reaching close to the apex,

Tavloria indica Mitt.—Piri Camp, 2,300 m., Aka Hills; November 1934 (265).

Naga Hills; 1935 (268, 284).

Tayloria subglabra (Griff.) Mitt.—Pulebudze, Naga Hills, 1,700 m.; 8 August

1935 (291). nov. var. Spinosa. Folia fortiter, irregulariter Jentata, fere laciniata.

A form with the leaves much larger and more spreading, and the toothing

much coarse than usual in this species, but I think must be considered a

variety only. The calyptra agrees. Takuja, Naga Hills, 1,700 m.; November

1935 (346).

BRYACEZ.

Mielichhoferia assamica Dix. sp, nov.

E robustissimis generis. Caespitosa, viridis. Caulis 5 cm. altus, densifolius.

Folia sicca madidaque patentia, sicca leniter contracta, parum mutata, 2-2.25 cm.

a 4

MOSSES COLLECTED:- IN ASSAM (hs)

longa, versus basin 4 mm. lata, fere e basi ad apicem sensim angustata,

acuminata, peracuta; marginibus planis, ubique minutissime denticulatis.

Costa tenuiuscula, cum apice evanida. Cellulae peilucidae, angustissimae,

minutae, lineares, obtusae, parietibus tenuibus, strictis; basilares parum

latiores.

Cetera ignota.

Hab. On sand, Bhorelli river bed, 300 m., Bhalukpung, Aka Hills; 2

November 1934 (211),

The largest species I know. An unpublished Himalayan species, now in

the press, M. Badhwariti Dix., resembles it in size, but has much wider cells

and sharper toothing.

Webera elongata Hedw.—In forest, 2,900-3,300 m.; Piri, Aka Hills, October

1933 (14, 41). Japwo, Naga Hills, 3,000 m.; October 1933 (300).

Webera cruda (Hedw.) Bruch—In forest, 2,900-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933 (28).

Webera flexuosa (Hook.) Mitt.—In forest, 2,900-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills;

October 1933): (17):

Webera humicola Dix. & Varde—Lozaphohemi, Naga _ Hills, 1,220 m.;

November 1934 (304). Described in 1927 from the Palni Hills, South India,

and not known elsewhere.

Brachymenium exile (Doz. & Molk.) Bry. jav.—Zehwera, Naga Hills, 1,800

m.; August 1935 (281b).

Brachymenium walkeri Broth.—Shillong, 2,000 m.; September 1934 (193).

I cannot separate this from the Coorg plant,

Brachymenium nepalense Hook.—Zehwera, Naga Hills, 2,100 m., September

1935 (288).

Anomobryum cymbifoliam (Lindb.) Broth.—Shillong, 1,500 m.; September 1934

(188). On rock, 1,700 m. Zehwera, Naga Hills; August 1935 (279 bis). Tree

trunk, 1,700 m., Pedi, Naga Hills; September 1935 (285). All c. fr.

Bryum cellulare Hook,—Bhalukpung, Bhorelli river bed, 300 m.; November

To34, (214). Sterile.

Bryum argenteum Hedw.—Several gatherings.

Bryum porphyroneuron C.M.—Shillong, 1,400 m.; July 1934 (164). Fruit

immature, but probably belongs here.

Bryum nitens Hook.—Shillong, 1,400 m.; September 1934 (182), c. fr,

Rhodobryum giganteum (Hook.) Par.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,750 m.; November

1934 (245).

MNIACE2.

Mnium heterophyllum (Hook.) Schwaegr.—Pankim La, Abor Hills, 1934 (118).

Mnium lycopodioides (Hook.) Schwaegr.—In forest, 2,900-3,300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (16).

Minium thomsoni Schimp.—Piri, Aka Hills, 3,000 m.; November 1934 (262,

267f). In fine fruiting condition. The capsule has a distinct collum, and

is large; the lid is longly rostellate, almost rostrate.

Mnium levinerve Card.—In forest, 2,700-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills; October

19334 (1;435),.ceic. and ¢ plant.

Mniym rostratum Schrad. var. coriaceum (Griff.) Dix.—Pankim La, Abor

Hills; 1934 (129, 136, 142). Shillong, 1,200 m.; September 1934 (201). And

other gatherings. Mostly c. fr. This keeps its characters very constantly, and

is, I am persuaded, deserving of varietal rank,

Mnium succulentum Mitt.—Piri, Aka Hills, 3,300 m.; November 1934 (267c).

Mnium punctatum Hedw. var. reflexifolium Kabiersch—In forest, -2,’700-

3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills; October 1933 (27), c. fr. This seems a well marked

variety.

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Orthomnion trichomitrium =Wils.—Him Parbat, 2,000 m.; March 1934 (87).

Tako Senyak,.-1,200 m.; March 1934 (106). Both ec. fr.

Orthomniopsis japonica Broth.—Pestiferous Camp, 1,375 m.; Piri, Aka Hills;

November 1934 (229), ¢. fr.—An exceedingly interesting discovery, At the

time of collecting it was known only from two localities in Japan. Since

then, however, it has been found in New Guinea, and also in the Philippines.

RHIZOGONIACE.

Rhizogonium spiniforme (Hedw.) Bruch—In several gatherings.

BARTRAMIACE.

Bartramia halleriana Hedw.—In several localities; Aka Hills, Abor Hills, and

Naga Hills.

Bartramia leptodonta Mitt.—Piri, 3,000 m., Aka Hills; November 1934 (267g).

Philonotis gammieana) Broth.—Tree trunk, 1,700 m,, Piri, Naga Hills;

September 1935 (286).

Philonotis angusta Mitt.—Charduar, 1934 (77). Aka Hills, 300 m.; November-

December 1933 (44). Piri, Aka Hills; October 1933 (22). All c. fr.

Philonotis longicollis (Hampe) Mitt.—Naga Hills; 1935 (276) c. fr.

ERPODIACEZ.

Erpodium mangiferae C.M.—On mango tree, Charduar; July 1934 (163).

HEDWIGIACE.

Cleistostoma ambiguum (Hook.) Brid.—Piri, Aka Hills; November 1934 (230).

CRYPHAEACE.

Pilotrichopsis dentata (Mitt.) Besch.—In forest, 2,700-3,300 m. Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (23b). c. fr. A rather lax, slender form; but the species

shows considerable variation, and I think it may be safely placed here. New

to Assam. Distrib. China, Japan, Philippines.

LEUCODONTACE2.

Leucoden secundus (Harv.) Mitt.—Pankim La, Abor Hills; 1934 (151).

TRACHYPODACE.

Diaphanodon blandus (Harv.) Ren. & Card.—Piri, Aka Hills, 3,000 m. ;

November 1934 (255, 261f). c. fr,

Diaphanodon thuidioides Ren. & Card.—Pankim La, Abor Hills; 1934 (138b).

c. fr. Only known from the Central Himalayas and Yunnan, hitherto.

Trachypus bicolor Hornsch. & Reinw,—In several localities, mostly fruiting.

One from Piri has the leaves strongly and prettily falcate.

Trachypus pendulus Dix. sp. nov.

Gracilis, atroviridis, habitu Diaphanodontis thuidioidis sed paullo robustior.

Caulis pendulus, flexuosus, pinnatim ramosus, ramis circa 1 cm. longis, in-

aequalibus, caudiformibus. Folia patula, sicca suberecta, plicata, e basi late

fortiter auriculata oblongo-lanceolata, leniter asymmetrica, acumine torto, late

loriformi, distanter denticulato. Costa tenuis, versus medium folium_ soluta,

Cellulae lineares, pellucidae, tenerrime pluripapillosae, saepe fere laeves,

basilares paullo latiores, pellucidiores.

Fructus ignotus.

Hab. Pankim La, Abor Hills, 300-2,745 m.; 1934 (1384).

Mixed with a rather robust form of Diaphanodon thuidioides, and not easy

at once to separate, but the leaves with twisted apex, and long, pluripapillose

cells clearly distinguish it under the microscope. The papillae are very slightly

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 781

developed, however, for the genus. It also resembles to some extent Duthiella

Wallichii, but the auriculate base, pellucid cells, and finely denticulate margins

are very different.

Trachypodopsis auriculata (Mitt.) Fleisch.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,700-3,300 m. ;

October 1933: (26), c.. fr,

Trachypodopsis himantophylla (C.M.) Fleisch.—In several distinct localities,

mostly at moderately high altitudes, sometimes fruiting. It is quite a marked

plant, but I doubt whether it is more than a var. of T, crispatula,

PTEROBRYACE.

Jegerinopsis integrifolia Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 6).

Pendula videtur, Caulis flexuosus, 10 cm. vel ultra longus, valde com-

planatus, parce, distanter ramosus, ramis divaricatis, inaequalibus (perbrevibus

vel 1 cm. longis), complanatis, interrupte foliosis. Folia complanata, nunc

laxa, nunc conferta, horride squarosa, usque ad 4 mm. longa vel _ paullo

ultra, juniora viridia, seniora fusco-aurantiaca, e basi amplexicauli valde

auriculata late ovata, subraptim in subulam strictam loriformem acutissimam

integerrimam contracta. Costa brevis, debilis, nonnunquam bina, vel obsoleta.

Cellulae angustissimae, lineares, incrassatae, basilares valde incrassatae, parie-

tibus. porosis, apud auriculas magnas pulchre aurantiacae.

Fructus unicus visus. Perichaetium longum, bracteis longe convolutis,

superne subula abrupte reflexa, stricta, integra, robusta. Seta circa 4 mm.,

laevis, erecta. Calyptra, operculum, ignota. Peristomium flavidum, dentes

lanceolati, hic illic conjuncti, laeves, saepe perforati, marginibus irregularibus ;

dorsaliter dissepimentis latis, intus sat alte, dense lamellati; fragmenta

praeperistomii ad basin visa. Endostomium ut videtur rudimentarium.

Hab. Pankim La, Abor Hills, 300-2,750 m.; 1934 (138c).

The generic position of this plant is not quite certain. In the long,

straggling, loosely branched stems, with complanate, very squarrose leaves, it

is much like species of Jaegerinopsis, with’ which the leaf structure and genéral

fruiting characters agree; the peristome is rather different from that character-

istic of the genus, the teeth being longer and narrower, not short, broad and

obtuse as is the case with the species where fruit is known. The _ presence

of a praeperistome is in favour of Jaegerinopsis, but otherwise the teeth are

more like those of Hildebrandtiella as figured by Brotherus.

A rather marked feature of the growth is the interrupted nature of the

branches. The leaves may be normally large for some distance, then suddenly

much smaller for a space; and sometimes a length of the stem or branch

has only very minute, distant, spreading or squarrose leaves.

Endotrichella elegans (Doz. & Molk.) Fleisch. Dafla Hills, 1,375 m.; March

1634 (91), ¢, fr.

Symphysodontella subulata Broth.—Tako Senyak, 1,400-m.; March 1934 (93b),

c. fr. I believe the fruit has not been seen before. Perichaetial. bracts erect,

convolute, few, acuminate; capsule exserted, seta 3-4 mm., roughish; capsule

small, deoperculate scarcely more than 1 mm. long, erect, brown, turgidly

elliptic; peristome almost lost, teeth pale, yellow, apparently like. those of

S. cylindracea. Only two old capsules seen. Only known from the Philippines.

Symphysodontella borii Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 7).

Sat robusta. Caulis secundarius indistincte dendroideus, vage pinnatim

ramosus, ramis leniter curvatis, cuspidatis, nitidis, interdum _ subflagellaceis.

Folia irregulariter disposita, nunc patentia, nunc erecta, sicca vix mutata,

ecostata, 2-2.5 mm. longa e basi angustata ovato-lanceolata, concava, in acumen

strictum, subulatum, cutissimum integerrimum angustata. Cellulae angustis-

simae, conflatae, parietibus tenuissimis, basilares vix mutatae, ad insertionem

aurantiacae, alares magnae, numerosae, rotundatae, scalariformes, auriculas

magnas, pulchre aurantiacas, decurrentes instruentes. Bracteae perichaetii

lanceolato-subulatae, sat longae, erecto-patentes, robuste acuminatae, integrae.

Seta 1-2 cm. vel paullo ultra, tenuis, stricta, laevis; theca parva, circa 2 mm.

alta, ovalis, erecta, microstoma; exothecii cellulae laxae, hexagonae, parietibus

tenuibus, firmis, versus orifictum seriebus multis sensim minores. Calyptra

cucullata, laevis, Operculum haud yisum, Peristomium pallide aurantiacum ;

782 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL *H1S2{ SOCEE i Va. Vola ow.

dentes anguste lanceolati, stricti, hic illic cohaerentes, interrupte tenerrime

albide marginati, laeves, parum lamellati aut nodosi. Endostomium nullum.

Hab. Tako Senyak, Dafla Hills, 1,400 m.; 19 March 1934 (93), type.

Dafla Hills, 1,200 m.; 20 March 1934 (gob).

The habit and the very strikingly auricled leaves are somewhat inconsistent

with Symphysodontella, but the fruiting characters and general leaf structure

agree well, and there is certainly no other genus in which it can be placed.

The distinct alar cells of S. tortifolia: described below confirm this.

Symphysodontella pilifolia Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 8).

Caulis secundarius subdendroideus, circa 6 cm. altus, supra irregulariter

distanter pinnatim ramosus, ramis_ flexuosis, attenuatis, parce breviter

ramulosis; sordide viridis, paullo nitida. Folia stipitis inferiora parva,

squamiformia, superiora ut caulina 2-2.5 mm. longa, e basi auriculata late

ovalia, cochleariformia, apice subito in pilum longum capillare flexuosum_ in-

tegrum contracta, integra seu ad basin pili minute denticulata; costa bina,

irregularis. Cellulae angustissimae, inferne vix mutatae, ad insertionem

seribus circa duabus latiores pulchre aurantiacae; alares nullae. Folia ramea

similia sed angustiora, sensim ‘piliformia.

Fructus ignotus.

Hab. Pankim La, Abor Hills; 1934 (116b).

Perhaps nearest to S. involuta, but quite distinct from all the species in

the broad, cochleariform leaves abruptly piliferous, The nerve is sometimes

single, with or without a short basal branch, sometimes with two subequal

almost parallel branches, reaching to near mid-leaf.

Only a single stem was found.

Symphysodonte!la tortifolia Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 9).

Robusta. Olivaceo-viridis. Caules secundarii dendroidei, rigidi, circa 8 cm.

alti, caule lignoso, infar nudo vel foliis squamiformibus adpressis memberanaceis

obtecto; supra densissime (nonnunquam laxius) ramosi, ramis_ iterumque

conferte ramulosis strictis, nitidiusculis, breviter cuspidatis, frondem — sub-

complanatam oblongam vel flabellaceam formantibus. Folia ramea_ patentia,

stricta, e basi lata, cordata, auriculata, ovato-lanceolata, concava, raptim in

subulam loriformem robustam valde tortam, fortiter argute distanter denticulatam

angustata, Costa unica validiuscula, longe supra medium folium prolongata.

Cellulae eis S. pilifoliae similes, sed alares numerosae, laxiusculae, aurantiacae,

auriculas parvas sed notatas instruentes.

Fructus ignotus. Propagula viridia, articulata, brevia, fusiformia, inter folia

(? axillaria) inveniuntur.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,900 m.; 7 December 1935 (339).

A remarkable species in the robust, regularly spirally twisted, sharply

toothed acumen; the twisting may attain 1} complete turns. The alar cells

are conspicuous by their orange colour, but are much smaller and form

smaller auricles than in S. Borit; they tend however to confirm the position

of that species in the present genus.

It is remarkable that four species, three of them new, of this small genus

of not more than fifteen or sixteen species, should occur in the limited area

from which the present collections were made, and suggests that Assam must

be considered the head-quarters of the genus. The Philippine Islands are the

only region elsewhere known to contain as many as three species.

Pterobryopsis auriculata Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 10).

E robustioribus generis, P. scabriusculae (Mitt.) affinis et similis. Caulis

secundarius 10-15 cm. longus, nunc sparse nunc conferte pinnatim ramosus,

ramis parce brevissime ramulosis; omnes turgidi, densifolii, obtusi, vix nitidi.

Folia patula, circa 2 mm. longa, latissime ovata, cochleariformia, supra cucullata.

abrupte late breviter cuspidata, acuta, integra, ad basin auriculis pulchris

haud magnis bene notatis praedita; costa unica tenuissima, circa dimidiam

partem folii attingens. Cellulae lineari-rhomboideae, tenerrimae, laeves, basilares

minime latiores, intra auriculas paucae lavae, hyalinae.

Fructus ignotus. .

Hab. Bark of ‘tree, 100 m., Charduar; 16 October 1934 (205), type.

Manalur, Lower Palnis, Madura, 18 June 1926, coll. G, Foreau (370).

A SS RS NA

MOSSES COLLECTED IN. ASSAM’ 783

Nearest perhaps to P. scabriuscula (Mitt.), but quite distinct in the auri-

culate base. P. conchophylla (Ren, & Card.) is a much smaller plant with

numerous alar cells. P. madurensis (Card. & Varde) with a considerable re-

semblance in habit has much less developed auricles and very numerous alar

cells.

METEORIACE,

Papillaria fuscescens (Hook.) Jaeg.—Several gatherings,

Meteorium Buchanani (Brid.) Fleisch.—Chingku, Naga _ Hills, 2,500 m.;

November 1935 (355). A form with the long hair points of M. Miquelianum,

but with non-plicate leaves.

Aerobryopsis denticulata Dix. sp. nov.

Pendula, extensa, mollis, viridis, habitu specierum Barbellae, e.g. B, spiculata

(Mitt.); ramis percomplanatis, nunc sparsim, nunc confertius, aequaliter pin-

natis. Folia caulina et ramealia subsimilia, late divaricata, e basi contracta

cordata, breviter decurrente, amplexicauli, cordato-ovata, acuminata, acumine

longo, tenui, saepe torto, argute denticulato. Margines plani, nullo modo

undulati, ubique argute, fortiter denticulati. Costa tenuissima, circa medium

folium attingens, interdum obsoleta. Cellulae praelongae, angustae, saepius,

uni—, interdum pluri-papillosae, papillis parvis; basilares subsimiles, alares

perpaucae laxiores.

Fructus ignotus.

Hab. Satoi, Naga Hills, 2,150 m.; 4 December 1935 (367).

Distinct in its slender, complanate, Barbelloid habit, the nonundulate, sharply

toothed margins, and long, narrow cells. In foliation it is. perhaps nearest to

A. striatula, but the marginal toothing and areolation are quite distinct.

Floribundaria floribunda (Doz. & Molk.) Fleisch.—Piri, Aka Hills; November

1934 (241), c. fr. Pestiferous Camp, 1,200 m., Piri, Aka Hills; November 1934

(221). This last is a peculiar form, very slender and delicate in habit, with

irregular, not regularly seriate papillae, but with obscure cells, and very

weak nerve. It may be F. pseudo-floribunda Fleisch, which however seems

to me a poorly marked species.

Chrysocladium horridum Dix, sp. nov.

Habitus, color et magnitudo C: phaei (Mitt.); ab tla et affinibus differt

toto coelo foliorum structura, cellulis nullo modo obscuris, nec opacis, sublaevibus

vel 3-4-papillosis, papillis nunc altis, spiculosis, nunc minutissimis vel -nullis.

Folia superne marginibus undulatis, densissime acutissime denticulatis; cellulae

alares distinctae, laxae, aurantiacae, alas parvas sed bene notatas instruentes.

Sterilis tantum nota.

Hab. Naga Hills, 1935 (272), type. Japwo, Naga Hills; 7 December 1935

(332).

Quite distinct from C. phaeum and the allied species in the pellucid, neither

obscure nor opaque cells, sometimes highly 3-4-papillose, sometimes quite, smooth.

An unpublished species from Yunnan is in some respects very like it, but

has different foliation, and the cells, though sparsely papillose as here are

very opaque and obscure with the primordial -utricle, which is not at all

the case in the present plant.

Barbella enervis (Thw. & Mitt.) Fieisch.—Pestiferous Camp, 1,500 m., Piri,

Aka Hills; November 1934 (226).

Lindigia asiatica Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 11).

E robustioribus generis. Sordide viridis. Caulis circa 8 cm. longus,

flexuosus, compalanate pinnatim irregulariter: ramosus, ramis usque ad 2 cm.

longis, complanatis, 4-5 mm. latis. Folia divaricata, subsquarrosa, complanata,

3 mm. longa, e basi subcordata sensim attenuata, acumine stricto, tenui-

acuminato, aciculari; margines plani, ubique argute denticulati. Costa ad basin

sat valida, supra tenuis, circa 2/3 folii attingens. Cellulae latiuscule lineari-

rhomboideae, laeves, parietibus tenuibus; ubique subsimiles, ad _ insertionem

tantum laxiores.

Ditissime fructificans. Fructus ad ramos situs, perichaetia parva, bracteis

breviter acuminatis; seta vix ultra 1 mm. longa, crassiuscula, laevis.. Theca

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

erecta, fusca, ovalis, 1 mm. longa, sicca macrostoma; operculum acute conico-

curvirostellatum. Exothecii cellulae seriebus verticalibus, rectangulares, parieti-

bus rectis, sat crassis. Peristomium pro thecae magnitudinem magnum; dentes

usque ad .5 mm. longi, pallidi, madidi pulchre leniter recurvati, lanceolati,

e basi angustati, angustissime acuminati, tenues, vix lamellati, ubique tenere

regulariter papillosi, linea media leniter angulata, scutulis irregularibus, saepe

subquadratis. Processus e membrana brevissima vel nulla filiformes, tenerrimi,

breviores, sublaeves, hic illic rimosi. Spori 26-20 laeves.

Hab. Him Parbat, 2,000 m.; 21 March 1934 (81). No doubt corticolous.

A prettily fruiting, graceful plant. In habit not unlike the above described

Jaegerinopsis integrifolia (see Plate), though with less rigidly divaricate leaves;

but the resemblance ends there. It is the first species of the genus to be

found in Asia, and a very distinct one. Of the other nine species one is

from Tropical Africa, one from Madagascar, the remainder from tropical or

sub-tropical America.

C. Miller has divided the genus into two sections; Eulindigia with com-

paratively short stems and short, simple branches, linear-rhomboid cells, a

very short seta, striolate peristome teeth and long-beaked lid, while Genucaulis

has a very long stem, with long ramulose branches, elliptico-rhomboid cells,

seta 4-7 mm., papillose teeth, and a short-beaked lid, The present plant has

the. vegetative characters and short seta of Eulindigia, the lid and _ papillose

teeth of Genucaulis. It seems impossible, therefore to maintain this arange-

ment, and it would be better to drop it, or to make the division depend

on the character of the peristome teeth alone.

Meteoriopsis squarrosa (Hook.) Fleisch.—Shillong, 1,800 m. ; September 1934

(202). With very young fruit.

Meteoriopsis reclinata (C.M.) Fleisch.—In several gatherings.

Aerobryum speciosum Doz. & Molk.—Pestiferous Camp, 1,200 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; November 1934 (219). Hanging from branches, Bompur La, Aka Hills,

1,800 m.; November 1934 (234). The latter a fine plant, with stems a foot long,

and nicely in fruit.

NECKERACE.

Culyptothecium urvilleanum (C.M.) Broth.—Him Parbat, 2,000 m.; March

1934 (107). Hanging from branches, Bompur La, Aka Hills, 1,800 m.;

November 1934 (238). Both represent a rather slender form. I have elsewhere

(Journ. of Bot., 1937, p- 121) given reasons for considering the Indo-Malayan

C. philippinense Broth. to be identical with the Pacific species.

Calyptothecium sp.— Rubber tree, Charduar ; November 1934 (207). A distinct

species which is very near to C. mysorense Broth. ined. (Bryoth. E. Levier,

5,905), but differs in some slight respects, and I hesitate therefore to record

it with certainty as that species.

Neckera himalayana Mitt.—(Syn. N. longe-exserta Hampe). Japwo, Naga

Hills, 2,900 m.; October 1935 (320), c. fr. I have compared Hampe’s type

with Mitten’s, they are exactly the same thing. The seta is remarkably long

for the genus.

Neckcropsis gracilenta (Bry. jav.) Fleisch.—Gomarai, near Shillong, on bark

of tree; August 1934 (174). New to Assam.

Himantociadium plumula (Nees) Fleisch.—Him Parbat, 1,800 m.; March

1934 (101).

Himantocladium scabrisetum Dix. sp. nov.

Strips rigida, habitu H. flaccidi aut H. cyclophylli. Saturate viridis. Rami

haud flagellacei. Folia stricta, sicca vix mutata, rigide divaricata, caulina (nec

ramea) transverse undulata, e basi latiore concava, breviter late oblonga, apice

triangulari-rotundato, parce argute denticulato. Costa tenuissima, circa dimidiam

folii partem attingens, saepe brevior, nonnunquam obsoleta. Cellulae medianae

lineari-rhomboideae, superiores rhomboideae. Folia ramea angustiora, minora.

Dioicum videtur. Perichaetium longum, bracteis strictis, erectis, superne

longe ligulatis, subacutis, integris. Seta circa 1 cm., scabra, ad basin laevis ;

¢rassiuscula. Theca e collo brevi turgide elliptica, deoperculata 2.5 mm. longa.

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 785

Peristomium pallidum, dentes teneri, vix lamellati, grossiuscule aequaliter

papillosi; processus e membrana basilari perbrevi subaequilongi, perangusti,

aciculares, dense alte papillosi. Operculum haud visum,

Hab. Naga Hills; 1935 (278).

So far as is known, this is the only species of the genus with scabrous

seta. It also differs from its allies in the very thin, faint short nerve; the

upper cells also are more elongate than in most species. H. strictum Dix.

from Siam is the most closely allied, and may indeed be conspecific, but the

fruit has not been found. It is still more rigid than the present plant, with

the leaves rarely transversely undulate, sometimes longitudinally plicate, and

with a rather longer and stronger nerve; but the differences are not very

great.

Homaliodendron montagueanum (C.M.) Fleisch.—Him Parbat, 1,800 m.; March

1934 (107), c, fr. I name this on account of the almost simple or very

slightly branched stems; but it scarcely differs from H. javanicum or H.

flabellatum (with which it was growing) in any other respects.

Homaliodendr on flabellatum (Dicks.) Fleisch.—Tako Senyak, Dafla Hills, 1,200

m.; March 1934 (105b), c. fr.

Homaliodendron scalpellifolium (Mitt.) Fleisch—Pankim La, Abor Hills, 1934

(127), c. fr. Shillong, 1,200 m.; September 1934 (187), ¢G plant, Piri, Aka

Hills, 2,750 m.; November 1934 (249, 251), c.fr. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,500 m. ;

October 1935 (315), c. fr.

Homaliodendron longisetum Dix. sp. nov.

Robustum, Caulis primarius repens, dense tomentosus. Caulis secundarius

inferne simplex, elongatus, foliis stipitis infernis squamiformibus, — parvis,

recurvis, acuminatis, supernis foliaceis, membranaceis, laxis, patentibus, acutis,

integris. Caulis superne complanate dendroideus, flabellatus, ramis ad 2 cm.

altis, nunc parce distanter pinnatis, nunc plus minusve dense bipinnatis. Folia

percomplanata, eis H. javanici similia, sed costa multo validiore, longiore, saepe

paullo infra apicem soluta. Cellulae rhomboideo-ellipticae, parietibus tenuibus.

Perichaetii bracteae breves, breviter late acuminatae, denticulatae. Fructus

saepe numerosi. Seta 1.25-1.5 cm. longa, tenuis, inferne laevis, parte superiore

sat alte papillosa. Theca pallide fusca, elliptica, leniter gibbosa, deoperculata

circa 3 mm, longa; operculum longe curvirostre. Peristomium generis, albida.

Calyptra nuda.

Hab. In forest, 2,g00-3,200 m., Piri, Aka Hills; October 1933 (7, I) type.

Ibidem, 2,300 m., 17 November (246).

One of the most distinct eae in the long, rather stout nerve, the seta

elongate as in no other species, and papillose in the upper part. The fronds

are sometimes laxly and slightly branched, as in H. Montagueanum, sometimes

(in the same gathering and even on the same stem) ‘densely bipinnate, as in

H. flabellatum, showing the slight value that can be attributed to this as a

character.

Handeliobryum assamicum Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 12).

Ab H. setschwanico et H. himalayano Broth. differt foliis versus apicem

grosse et inaequaliter obtuse sinuato-denticulatis.

Hab. Rocks in stream, Piri, Aka Hills, 2,700 m.; 17 November 1934

(247).

An interesting link in the distribution of this recently known, striking

and peculiar genus, between the Himalayan and Chinese localities. The two

described species only differ from one another in habit; they are described

as having the leaf apex entire or with a few minute denticulations; here they

are constantly obtusely, rather coarsely, though not strongly sinuate-denticulate.

It is obviously a more or less aquatic plant,

HOOKERIACE.

Daltonia marginata Griff.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,600 m.; November 1934 (243a).

Mitten describes the calyptra as reaching to the middle of the capsule, but

I find it, in Griffith’s plant, as here, scarcely reaching below the lid. Griffith

is the author of the specific name, not Mitten as Brotherus has it.

786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Daltonia perlaxiretis Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 13).

Robusta, elata, usque ad 2 cm. alta, caespitosa. D.. reticulatae C.M. ceylonensi

affinis, differt limbo folii angustiore, cellulis multo laxioribus, valde pellucidis,

seta longiore, theca angustiore. Folia 3 mm. longa et paullo ultra, fusiformia,

leniter (infra fortiter) carinata, longe, tenuissime cuspidata, limbus superne

2-3-seriatus; cellulae superiores hexagonae, 14-20 . latae, inferne multo laxi-

ores, omnes perpellucidae, parietibus tenuissimis. Costa sat longe sub apice

desinens. Seta laevis, circa 8 mm. sub collo leniter geniculata, unde theca

inclinata.. Theca e collo distincto breviter cylindrica, atro-viridis. Operculum

longiuscule acuate rostratum. Peristomium pulchre albidum; dentes densissime,

altissime tenuissime papillosi, imperforati; processus simillimi sed angustiores.

Hab: Piri, “Aka Hills, 500° m.< a7 (November 1934 =(264)):

A very pretty little plant, in neat tufts, richly fruiting, with bluish green

capsules in strong contrast to the large, white, persistent calyptra. The capsules

are unusually narrow, and are inclined or even horizontal owing to the geniculation

of the seta below the distinct collum. In D. reticulata the cells are about

8-14 # wide, the capsule wider, the seta shorter.

Daltonia gemmipara Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 14). \

Species valde abnormalis, corticola vel in aliis muscis epiphtytica, saturate

viridis, caespitosa, gracilis, mollis, siccis foliis valde crispatis. Caules dense

intricati, circa 1 cm. alti, crassi, rufi; folia conferta, flexuosa, saepe subfalcata,

circa 2 mm. longa, flexuosa vel subsigmoidea, e basi latiore ligulata, obtusa,

profunde sed late carinato-canaliculata; costa lata, carinam implens, superne

parum angustata, sub summo apice soluta. Margines folii superne _ late

fortiter revoluti, unde folium revolute subtubulosum fit. Limbus superne sat

angustus. Cellulae superiores hexagono-rectangulares, irregulares, perchlorosae,

parietibus tenuibus ; inferne sensim laxiores. Folia suprema falcata, saepe apice

in penicillium chlorophyllosum vel hyalinum expanso, e filis articulatis tener~

rimis densissime confertis instructum.

Fructus ignotus.

'Hab. Pulebudze, Naga Hills, 1,850 m.; on rotten wood mixed with other

mosses and often’ growing on them ; August 1935 (293C¢).

' A very remarkable plant. “The highly chlorophyllose, more or less rectangular

cells are unusual; but not unknown in the genus. The leaves are ligulate

from. a slightly wider base, and in the upper part more or less tubular, but

from the widely revolute, not involute margins; the nerve is rather wide

throughout, occupying a deep channel in mid-leaf. The upper leaves are often

gemmiparous, in this case being falcate at the tip, and the rather obtuse

apex emits a small, dense felt of extremely delicate, but wide, articulate threads,

forming a penicillate or flabellate head, between .25 and ,5 mm. in length.

I have found very small, fusiform, prelate gemmae on these, but am

doubtful if these were in situ; it is more probable that the threads themselves

are immature, and would later develope into articulate, detachable gemmae.

Hookeria acutifolia £Hook.—In forest, Piri, Aka Hills, 2,700-3,300 m. ;

1934 (39), ¢. fr.

Chaetomitriopsis glaucocarpa (Reinw.) Fleisch.—Pankim La, Abor Hills, 1934

(127, 431,791 40)) ce oir-

HYPOPTERYGIACE.

Gyattiophacuti facetnelitues Mitt.—-Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of Aka le:

under 300 m.; November-December 1933 (50b). Only a scrap.

Dendrocyathophorum paradoxum (Broth.) Dix.—Him Parbat, 2,000 m.; March

1934 (95). I have already pointed out in some Notes in Journ. of Bot., 1937,

p- 125, that this plant, described as a new genus and species by me in Journ.

of Bot., 1936, p. 7, was found to be identical with the Japanese moss,

Hypopterygium paradoxum Broth. Its generic distinction, between Hypoptery-

gium and Cyathophorum, is unquestioned, and its name must be as above.

It is a similar instance of geographical distribution to that . of Orthomniopsis

japonica, given above.

MOSSES COLLECTED IN- ASSAM 787

F ABRONIACE.

Fabronia assamica Dix, sp. nov.

E minutissimis generis. Folia paullo latiora quam in F. secunda, brevius

pilifera, minute denticulata, cellulis multo brevioribus, plerumque 3-4 x 1. Costa

pertenuis, saepe obsoleta. Theca perminuta, operculata vix .75 mm. longa.

Operculum conicum.

Hab. Shillong, 1,700 m.; 1 September 1934 (186).

Nearest to F. secunda in the narrow leaves, but more delicate, with laxer,

smaller leaves, much shorter cells, and very minute capsule. The lid is bluntly

conical when moist, but becomes apiculate when dry, F. minuta Mitt. has

much denser foliation and much wider leaves.

LESKEACEZ.

Pseudoleskeopsis decurvata (Mitt.) Broth.—Somma, 100 m.; March 1934 .(79).—

This has the basal sinus of the leaf nearer to that of P. decurvata than

P. orbiculata, as figured by Thériot, but I must confess I find this character

rather ill defined and elusive; and I am inclined to doubt the value of several

of the species described in this genus. The nerve of the perichaetial leaf

here is long, but not nearly percurrent. The margin is mostly plane, but

sometimes recurved on one side.

THUIDIACEZ.

Haplocladium subulaceum (Mitt.) Broth.—Naga Hills; 1935 (280).

Claopodium mervosum (Havr.) Fleisch.—Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of Aka

Hills, below 300 m.; November-December 1933 (50, 61).

Claopodium assurgens (Sull. & Lesq.) Card.—Tree trunk, Dulungmukh,

200 m.; February 1934 (71).

Thuidium bifarium Bry. jav. var. pertenue Lac.—Bark of tree, Aka Hills,

300 m.; November 1934 (216), A well marked variety, which may be,. as

Fleischer describes it, a distinct species. It is characterized, for one thing,

by a roughish seta. It has only been recorded from Celebes.

Thuidium Brotheri Salm.—Pankim La, Abor Hills; 1934 (120, 130, 134).

I am very doubtful whether this be distinct from T. asperulisetum.

Thuidium asperulisetum Ren. & Card.—Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of Aka

Hills, under 300 m.; November-December 1933 (43 p-p.). Pulebudze, Naga

Hills, 600 m.; Aug. 1935 (293).

Thuidium Meyenianum -(Hampe) Jaeg.—Charduar, 1934 (75).

Thuidium subpellucens Dix. sp. nov. | |

Thuidiella | 7. squarrosulo Ren. & Card. affine; differt praecipue cellulis

haud opacis, valde pellucidis, et costa dorso laevi. Bipinnatum. Saturate viride.

Seta laevis, theca inclinata, curvata.

Hab. Piri, Aka Hills, 2,750 m.; 17 November 1934 (244).

Very similar to T. squarrosulum in the habit, squarrose stem leaves, folia-

tion and fruit, but differing entirely in the cells, which though bearing the

same high central papilla are very pellucid, instead of being opaque and

obscure; the nerve also, while prominent at the back, is less so, and smooth,

while there it is markedly roughened or denticulate.

Thuidium orientale Mitt.—Bhalukpung, 300 m., Aka Hills; November 1934

(213). : : .

Thuidium cymbifolium (Doz. & Molk.) Bry. jav.—Several gatherings.

Actinothuidium Hookeri (Mitt.). Broth.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,000- Mm. ;

December 1935 (335).

AMBLYSTEGIACE®.

Ortholimnobium Dix. gen. nov. Amblystegiarum. .

Humilis. Caulis. vage ramosus. Folia subcomplanata, latissime cordata,

ecostata, alis decurrentibus .parvis, laxis, .pellucidis. Seta breviuscula. . Theca

7388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

erecta, symmetrica, elliptica, leptodermica; exothecii cellulae laxae, hexagonae.

Peristomium albidum, dentes_ pellucidi, inferne transverse, medio oblique vel

verticaliter striolati, superne leniter papillosi; intus sat alte lamellati. Processus

subaequilongi, perpellucidi, laeves vel sublaeves, rimosi, ad dentes plus minusve

adhaerentes ; membrana basilaris humillima. Cilia O. Spori parvi. Operculum

acute conicum.

Ortholimnobium Borii Dix. sp. unicum. (Pl. I, fig. 15).

Laxe caespitosum, gracilescens pallide viride, subnitidum, Caulis vage

ramosus, vix radiculosus; rami valde irregulares, teneri, molles, usque ad 2 cm.

longi, complanati, saepe attenuati. Folia laxiuscula, 1 mm. longa, I mm.

lata, latissime cordata, breviter acute cuspidata, integerrima; costa nulla vel

raro brevissima, bina; cellulae perangustae, lineares, pellucidae, parietibus

tenuibus, subconflatis; basilares medianae paullo laxiores, ad angulos decur-

rentes abrupte dilatatae, hyalinae, tenerae, late rectangulares, auriculas decur-

rentes optime notatas instruentes.

Dioicum videtur. Flores cauligeni, interdum ramigeni. Perichaetia minu-

scula, bracteae erectae, appressae, brevissime late cuspidatae. Seta circa 1.25 cm.

longa, . laevis,. rubra; theca’ ‘circa, 2 mm. longa, erecta, taro, “indistimete

inaequalis. Spori circa 15 ae

Hab. Piri, Aka Hulls* 2)300 “m1: ; Gige November= 1934 (252):

The affinities of this plant are not quite certain, but vegetatively it appears

not unlike some Hygrohypna, and I think should be placed near that genus.

The structure of the teeth is rather peculiar. The dorsal plates are very finely

but distinctly transversely striolate, to about the middle of the teeth; a few

plates then are irregularly striolate, obliquely or vertically; and the upper

part of the teeth is faintly papillose or almost smooth. The widely cordate

leaves, almost or quite as broad ‘as long, will enable the plant to be recognized

at once from anything likely to be confused with it.

BRACHYTHECIACEZ.

Brachythecium Buchanani (Hook.) Jaeg.—Kanyang, 1,700 m.; Naga Hills;

November 1935 (365).

Oxyrrhynchium riparioides (Hedw.) Jenn.—Shillong, 1,800 m.; September

1934 (202 p.p.). :

Oxyrrhynchium Mulleri (I.ac.) Broto.—In forest, 3,000-3,300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (6).

Nov. var. minus Dix. Omnibus partibus, praecipue foliis, minus. Folia

Vix 1.25 mm. longa.

Piri, Aka Hills, 2,900 m.;. November 1934 (250), type of var. Rocks in

stream,. 2.750 m., Piri; November 71934, (259):

So slender and different from the ordinary plant that I had at one time

decided to describe it as a new species; there is really, however, so far as

I have been able to ascertain, nothing but the size to distinguish it from

O. Miilleri, and the presence of that species in the near vicinity tends to

confirm this. Both plants were in fruit, which seems to show no difference

from the type, except that the seta is a little shorter.

Eurhynchium dumosum (Mitt.) Jaeg.—In forest, 2,900-3,300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (1). Shillong, 1,800 m.; September 1934 (20 p.p.).

Rhynchostegiella scabriseta (Schwaegr.) Broth.—Pankim La, Abor Hills; 1934

(141).

Rhynchostegiella assamica Card. & Dix.—Charduar, 200 m.; February 1934

(67).

Rhynchostegiella percomplanata Dix. sp. nov.

R. aciculae Broth. & Par. affinis, sed multo major, valde complanata, ramis

ad 1 cm. longis, pulchre plumosis. Folia 2.5 mm. longa, lanceolata, acuminata,

vel integra, vel plus minusve distincte denticulata. Cellulae lineari-rhodmboideae,

elongatae, perangustae, basilares 2-3-seriatim multo laxiores, hyalinae.

Perichaetium parvum, _ bracteis brevibus, patulis, stricte acuminatis, denti-

culatis. Seta circa 1.25 cm. alta, laevis.

Hab. Bark of tree, 200 m., Piri, Aka Hills; 13 November 1934 (210).

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 789

Very near to R.acicula, but much more robust, and with leaves nearly

always—and often sharply—denticulate. It belongs to the group of which

Hypnum menadense Bry. jav. may be considered the type, which seem equally

at home in this genus or in Rhynchostegium.

Rhynchostegium herbaceum (Mitt.) Jaeg.—Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of.

Aka Hills; Novemsber-December 1933 (53). Pestiferous Camp, Piri, Aka Hills,

1,200 m.; (228, 222). Wokka Hill, Naga Hills,:1,850 m.; October. 1935 (289).

Khiivubhu, Naga Hills, 1,500 m.; November 1935 (344). All in fruit.

Rhynchosiegium Hookeri Jaeg.—Pestiferous Camp, Piri, Aka Hills, 1,200 m. ;

November 1934 (220).

Rhynchostegium Duthiei C.M. MS. sp. nov.

Sat robustum, haud nitidum. Rami densi, suberecti, haud complanati, sicci

curvati, subobtusi, Folia imbricata, saepe leniter secunda, 2 mm. longa, cordato-

ovata, breviter acute acuminata, apice semitorto, denticulato. Costa sat angusta,

sub acumine soluta. Cellulae angustissimae, basilares omnes laxiores.

Autoicum. Ferichaetia majuscula, bracteis superne stricte late acuminatis,

denticulatis, patulis. Seta circa 1.5 cm. alta, laevis, rubra; theca turgidiuscule

elliptica, curvata, gibbosa, fusco-aurantiaca. Operculum longirostre.

Hab. Arnigadh, 1,675 m., Mussoorie, N.W. Himalaya, leg. W. Gollan,

13;.December 1895; det. Brotherus (E. Levier-Bryoth. exot.,. No. 72), type.

Simla;, March 1902, jeg. Mrs: Roper, Herb. H. N. Dixon (66, 76). Ibidem,

1g2z4y vies: Dr. (Ghose; 1924,. Herb. Ht. N. Dixon (99). Moist places, 33350 m.,

Bias Valley, Kulu, N.W. Himalaya, 9 September 1928; leg. Badhwar (i091).

Piri, 2,900-3,300 m., Aka Hills, Assam, October 1933, leg. N.-L. Bor- (31).

This species, distributed by Levier in the Bryotheca Exotica, has not been

published. It is distinguished by its non-complanate, often secund leaves, rather

wide and short, and half-twisted at apex, by the branches curved when dry,

and the very narrow upper cells; it is in fact of more Eurhynchioid habit

than most species. The Assam plant is more robust, with larger leaves, longer

seta, and shorter lid, but I think belongs here. .

Rhynochostegium pellucidum Dix. sp. nov.

Gracile; saturate viride; inter alios muscos repens. Caulis prostratus, ad

6 cm. longus, pinnatus, ramis brevibus. Folia laxiuscula, vix complanata, sicca

parum contracta, flexuosa, vix nitida, parva, circa 1.5 mm. longa, lanceolata,

tenui-acuminata, minute denticulata, costa tenuissima, brevis, vix medium folium

attingens. Cellulae lineari-rhomboideae, pellucidae, infra sensim laxiores, basi-

lares laxae, alares majusculae, rectangulares, hyalinae.

Fructus ignotus..

Hab. On dead branch, 1,850 m., Pulebudze, Naga Hills, 8 August 1935

(2936).

A delicate plant with narrow leaves, and of a distinct habit; its position

is a little doubtful. In leaf form it is not unlike Rhynchostegiella percomplanata

described above, but the habit, and the position of the leaves when dry, are

quite different, and it has not the characters of a Rhynchostegiella.

SYMPHYODONTACE&.

Symphyodon Scabrisetus = Dix.—In forest, —2,700-3,300 m., Piri Aka Hills;

October 1933 (13). Tako Senyak, Dafla Hills, 1,400 m.; March 1934 (102).

ENTODONTACE:,

Entodon flavescens (Schwaegr.) Jaeg.—Chingku, Naga _ Hills, 2,600 th.

November 1935 (352).

Entodon luridus Griff.—Pankim La, Abor Hills; i934 (126). This is E.

luvidus according to Brotherus’ arrangements; I have not seen Griffith's plant,

which, indeed, appears not to exist.

Entodon ovicarpus Dix. sp. nov.

? Erythropus. Late expansus, sordide viridis, vix nitidus. Rami haud

complanati, turgidi, subjulacei, obtusi. Folia conferta, e basi paullo contracta

ovata, breviter, raptim, acute vel subobtuse cuspidata, perconcava, fere cochley

°790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Pec

ariformia, subintegra; cellulae angustiusculae, alares magnae, subhyalinae, haud

partem majorem latitudinis folii occupantes.

Bracteae perichaetii longe, flexuose acuminati. Seta vix 1 cm. longa,

(matura) pallide rubra, crassiuscula. Theca turgide ovata, deoperculata 2.5 mm.

longa; exothecii cellulae iaxae, hexagonae, fere isodiametricae, parietibus

tenuibus. Peristomium fusco-rubrum, dentes breves, marginati, infra horizont-

aliter, supra verticaliter striolati. Processus rudimentarii. Operculum haud

visum.

Hab. Pankim La, Abor Hills, inter 300 et 2,900 m.; 1934 (132).

Quite distinct in the subjulaceous, obtuse branches, short seta, ovoid capsule,

lax exothecium cells, and rudimentary processes. It is not certain to which

of the two divisions of the genus it belongs as the fruit is in all cases

overripe, and the seta when younger may have been either yellow or red.

Entodon plicatus C.M.—Newly, 300 m., January 1934 (72). Dafla Hills,

March 1934 (108).

Erythrodontium julaceum (Hook.) Par.—Several gatherings.

Pylaisia aurea (Hook.) Broth.—Shillong, 1,800 m.; September 1934 (184).

Pylaisiopsis speciosa (Wils.) Broth.—Naga Hills: 1935 (283). I believe this

has not been collected since its first discovery by Hooker. It quite sustains the

peculiar characters as given by Brotherus. The outer teeth of the peristome

are as shown by him in his figure, but the abrupt transition from the lower

half to the subula is even more strongly marked, forming indeed a distinct

square shoulder. The processes when mature are split from top to bottom,

and each half curves away from the other and outwards in a graceful and

striking manner. The spores are very large, but I have not found them

nearly equalling the measurements given by Brotherus. It is a remarkable

plant.

Campylodontium flavescens (Hook.) Bry. jav.—Him Parbat, 2,000; March

1934 (92). 3

Stereophyllum anceps (Bry. jav.) Broth.—On Ficus elastica, Charduar; June

1934 (161).

SEMATOPHYLLACEA.

Clastobrytim subplafiulum Broth.—Piri, Aka Hills, 2,500-3,300 m.; November

1934 (243b, 254, 261), c. fr. These specimens differ somewhat from one another

and from the type, but they must clearly all be referred to the same species.

The propagula when present are very densely crowded, and may be very finely

papillose. The plant is bi-tripinnate in its branching.

Aptychella Borii Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 17).

Pro genere sat robusta, viridis. Caulis prostratus, radiculosus, laxe ramosus ;

rami prope apicem saepe fila articulata axillaria hyalina densissime fasciculata

laevia emittentes. Folia complanatula, 2-2.5 mm. longa, concava, ovata,

breviter acute cuspidata, plerumque integra, subecostata. Cellulate laeves,

angustissimae, basilares saepe aurantiacae, ad angulos numerosae,_ laxae,

hyalinae, alas bene notatas, teneras, decurrentes formantes. ;

Fructus ignotus.

Hab. Pulebudze, Naga Hills, 1,850 m.; 8 August 1935 (293d). Nearest to

A. heteroclada Fleisch., but deep green, more rigid, the leaves with shorter

points, and the brood-filaments colourless. j

_ Aptychella planula (Mitt.) Fleisch.—Chingku, Naga Hills, 2,500 m.; November

1935 (358), ¢. fr.

_ Hageniella assamica Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 19).

Densissime caespitosa viridis, vix nitida, ramis brevibus, leniter curvatis,

densifoliis, brevissime cuspidatis. Folia conferta, saepe secunda, subfalcata,

minuta, caulina circa 1 mm. longa, e basi contracta late ovata cochleariformia,

raptim ‘tenuissime acuminata, subpilifera, enervia; ramea minora, magis sensim

brevius acuminata. Cellulae parvae, perangustae, subrhomboideae, _ pellucidae;

dorso nunc laeves, nunc sat fortiter sed tenere papillosae; alares sat numerosae,

i - . MOSSES COLLECTED IN.ASSAM ero

perdistinctae, hyalinae, majusculae, vix vesiculosae, alte ad margines adscend-

entes; basilares flavidae.

Dioicum videtur. Perichaetii bracteae erecto-patentes ; e basi lata, convoluta,

raptim in acumen longum, acutissimum, arcte, fortiter denticulatum contractae.

Seta 1-1.25 cm. longa, tenuis, laevis. Theca horizontalis, elliptica, parva,

deoperculata9 2 mm. longa, fusco-purpurea, sicca sub ore constricta;

exothecii cellulae laxae, subisodiametricae, parietibus valde flexuosis. Operculum

rostellatum. Peristomium flavidum, dentes ad basin conjuncti, inferne dense

striolati, superne sublaeves; intus fortiter lamellati; endostomium plus minusve

papillosum, processus latiusculi, rimosi, variabiles. Cilia ? Spori circa 22 4,

laete virides.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750 m.; October 1935 (305).

A rather larger plant than H. sikkimensis, of quite different colour, with

longer, subpiliferous points to the stem leaves, longer capsule, very different

perichaetium, and more regularly developed peristome.

Hageniella isopterygioides Dxi. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 18).

Dense caespitosa, humilis, nitida. Caulis ramosus et ramulosus, rami

percomplanati, haud curvati. Folia parva, complanata, divaricata, eis 4H.

sikkimensis forma subsimilia, sed longius acuminata; cellulae omnino laeves,

alares utrinque 3-4, magnae, subvesiculosae, hyalinae vel flavae, supra-alares

paucae, hyalinae, majusculae. Perichaetii bracteae eis H. assamicae_ similes

sed breviores, argute, distanter denticulatae. Seta circa 1 cm. longa, inferne

intense rubra, theca erecta, plerumque omnino symmetrica, structura ei H.

assamicae similis. Peristomium simile, sed processus magis regulares, angu-

stiores, dentibus aequilongi, rimosi. Cilia O.

Hab. Chingku, Naga Hills, 2,650 m.; 5 November 1935 (356).

That this is a Hageniella is not quite certain, the capsule being erect

and symmetrical, the leaves complanate, glossy, and quite smooth. On _ the

other hand the structure of the capsule and the peristome are exactly the

same as in the last species, which is certainly a Hageniella, and the cell

structure, apart from the papillae, quite similar. It seems hardly desirable to

create a new genus for it, on account of the above differences, while in

other respects so closely allied.

There is a curious resemblance between this plant and Leiodontium com-

planatum described below, in habit, leaf form, size, and capsule; so much so

that they: might easily be confused. The principal difference, and of course

an important one, in the leaf, is the Sematophylloid alar cells in the present

plant; but the Leiodontium also has differentiated alar cells of something the

same form, though on a much smaller scale, and less vesiculose. The peristome

is remarkably similar in both, until examined with a high power, when. the

teeth of the Leiodontium (which moreover are rather irregular) aré seen to

be smooth, not striolate. The capsule there also is wider and more ovoid,

with rather smaller exothecium cells.

Hageniella it will be remembered was created by Brotherus for a Sikkim

species, and the same author added a second species later from Hawaii. It is

interesting that two further species should have been collected from Assam.

Acanthocladium penicillatum (Mitt.) Broth.—In forest, 2,700-3,300 m., Piri,

Aka Hills; October 1933 (36). Pankim La, Abor Hills, 1934 (147). Bompur

La, Piri, Aka Hills, 1,800 m., on tree trunk, November 1934 (237).. Piri,

2,500 m.; April 1934 (242, 267). Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,700 m.; October-

November 1935 (298, 308). Nearly all in fruit. Forming flat, dense patches.

closely interwoven.

Acanthocladium tanytrichum (Mont.) Broth.—Bompur La, Piri, Aka Hills,

1,800 m.; November 1934 (237). Piri, 3,000 m.; November 1934 (267d). Both

are somewhat off-type.

Acanthocladium baculiferum Dix. sp. nov. (PI. I, fig. 20).

Caulis prostratus, densissime pinnatus atque fasciculato-ramosus, ramis

erectis, iterumque ramulosus, ramulis parvifoliis, strictis, gracilibus, baculi-

formibus. Folia caulina parva, e basi vix contracta, oblongo-ovata, concava,

breviter acutata, integra, ecostata. Cellulae parvae, angustissimae, lineares,

parietibus incrassatis; basilares flavidae, perincrassatae, alares utrinque circa

3, magnae, vesiculosae, aurantiacae, supra-alares sat numerosae, parvae, sub-

792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

quadratae, hyalinae. Folia ramea breviora, latiora, saepe subdenticulata;

ramulina erecta, conferta, angustiora, minora, integra. Cetera ignota.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750 m.; 27 November 1935 (309).

A peculiar plant, possibly belonging to Acroporium, but recognizable at

once by the densely pinnate and fastigiate branching, with very numerous

slender rod-like branchlets; by the short, broad leaves, only rarely with a few

obtuse apical teeth.

Giammella pterogonioides (Griff.) Broth.—Shillong, 1,600 m.; September 1934

(199), c. fr. The peristome is a little longer than as figured by Brotherus,

and this is also the case with specimens at Kew. The lowest alar cells

are sometimes short, but sometimes distinctly elongate.

Chionostomum rostratum (Griff.) C.M.—Shillong, 1,600 m.; September 1934

(189, 195).

Foreauella orthothecia (Schwaegr.) Dix. & Varde (Foreauella indica Dix. &

varde; Hypnum orthothecium Schwaegr. On Litora Bhassiana, Satai, 200 m. ;

August ‘1934 (179), c. fr.

For the synonymy of this plant see Journ. of Bot., 1937, p. 129.

Brotherella erythrocaulis (Mitt.) Fleisch.—Pankim La, Abor Hiils, 1934 (135).

Brotheretla ambylostega (Mitt.) Broth.—In forest, 2,700-3,300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills; October 1933 (32). Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,300 m.; December 1935

(335).

Brotherella filiformis Dix. sp. nov.

Gracilis, habitu fere Hypni cupressiformis var. filiformis; arcte, late caes-

pitosa, pallide viridis. Caulis dense pinnatus, ramis parallelibus, filiformibus,

strictiusculis. Folia parva, vix I mm. longa, regulariter falcato-decurva, e basi

ovali concava, raptim angustissime acuminata, acumine basi subaequilongo,

falcato, subpilifero, denticulato. Costa subnulla. Margines plani, vel apud basin

leniter _ explicati. Cellulae perpellucidae, angustae, basilares flavae, alares

paucae, vesiculosae, hyalinae, flavidae, majusculae.

Bracteae perichaetii suberectae, acymine elongato, subulato, leniter flexuoso,

argute denticulato. Seta circa 1 cm. longa, infra thecam arcuata, unde theca

inclinata, deoperculata circa 2 mm. longa, e collo brevi curvato subcylindrica,

leniter curvata, fusca, infra orificium leniter contracta. Operculum acute

rostellatum.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750 m.; October 1935 (304), type. Ibidem (302).

Ibidem, 2,600 m.; 27 October .(321). Purobami, Naga Hills, 2,300 m.; 28

October 1935 (360), forma robustior.

Very near to B. lepida (Mitt.), but differing in the more slender habit,

straight, narrow branches, more falcate, smaller leaves very abruptly narrowed

to a longer, subpiliferous subula. B. Harveyana (Mitt.) has less falcate leaves

and quite symmetrical, not curved capsule.

Brotherela falcata (Doz. & Molk.) Fleisch.—Piri, Aka Hills, 3,000 m.;

November 1934 (261c).

Meiothecium microcarpum (Harv.) Mitt.—On bark, Charduar; August 1934

(a7).

Sematophyllum caespitosum (Sw.) Mitt.—Shillong, 1,400 m.; 1934 (166).

Trichosteleum hamatum (Doz. & Molk.) Jaeg—On a rock, Bompur La, Aka

Hills, 1,850 m.; November 1934 (231). A pale green form, with leaves less

strongly falcate than usual, and coarse papillae; the seta very rough in the

upper half.

Trichosteleum Boschii (Doz. & Molk.) Jaeg.—Fallen tree, Dharibati, 100 m. ;

November 1934 (209). A rather striking form, the leaves with quite short

points. The papillae are high, not conical but cylindric, often especially so

on the perichaetial bracts. The capsule is slightly mamillose.

Taxithelium kerianum (Broth.) Broth.—Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of Aka

Hills; November-December 1933 (65).

Taxithelium laeviusculam Dix. sp. nov.

Dense, late, humillime caespitosum, laete virens, nitidum, gracile. Caulis

brevis, pinnatus, ramis brevibus, complanatis. Folia complanata, patentia,

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 793

leniter decurvo-falcata, .e basi parum_ contracta, asymmetrica, lanceolata,

breviter acuminata. Margines plani vel hic illic angustissime recurvi, superne

denticulati. Cellulae angustae, lineari-rhomboideae, plerumque laeves, raro

perindistincte humillime seriato-papillosae; basilares seriebus circa 2 laxae,

hyalinae, alares vix distinctae. Costa bina, plerumque bene evoluta, circa

tertiam partem folii attingens.

Autoicum. Perichaetium majusculum, bracteis patulis, tenui-acuminatis, denti-

culatis. Seta circa 1 cm. longa, infra intense purpurea, stiperne arcuata.

Theca parva, curvata (immatura), operculum conicum, apiculatum.

Hab: Wim Parbat, 2,000 m.; 21 March 1934 (97).

Except for the very faint seriate papillae which occur at times, this might

be an Isopterygium. The habit, however, is like that of some Taxithelia,

and I place it here, though with some hesitation. I. lignicola (Mitt.) is like it,

but has nerveless, entire leaves.

HyYPNACEZ.

Plagiothecium mneckeroideum Bry. eur.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750 m.;

November 1935 (306), c. fr.

Isopterygium Textori (Lac.) Jaeg.—In forest, 1,700-3,300 m., Piri, Aka

Hills, October 1933 (38).

Isopterygium albescens (Schwaegr.) Jaeg. In forest, 1,700-3,300 m., Piri,

Aka. Hinliss “October 1933..(25).

Isopterygium pallidum (Mitt.) Jaeg—On Ficus elastica, Charduar; July,

1934 (177).

Hypaum binervosum Dix. sp. nov.

Sat robustum, dense, late caespitosum, pulchre aureum. Caulis sat regulariter

pinnatus, ramis 3-4 mm. longis. Folia regulariter aequaliter disposita, fortiter

circinata, circa 1.5 mm. longa, ad insertionem haud contracta, oblongo-lance-

olata, longe tenui-acuminata, integra, marginibus planis. Costa plerumque

duplex, cruribus duobus parallelis, validiusculis, alte in lamina _ prolongatis.

Cellulae angustissimae, ad basin parum laxiores, tantum infra insertionem serie

transversali majores, hyalinae; alares O.

Dioicum. Perichaetium conspicuum, vagina longa, magna; bracteae membra-

naceae, albidae, tenerae, e basi erecta breviter loriformiter reflexae, leniter

denticulatae. Seta intense purpurea, 1 cm. alta (immatura), calyptra alba

nitidiuscula. Theca haud visa.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750-3,300 m.; 7 December 1935 (329).

A very pretty species in the golden colouring and the very regular, circi-

nate foliation, as well as in the nerves, usually composed of two parallel

branches, not united at the base, and often reaching quite high in the leaf

base. ,

Ectropothecium buitenzorgii (Bél.) Jaeg.—Tako Senyak, Dafla Hills, 1,400

Tile; larch: rosa, (iro), .« C.. if. |

Ectropothecium cyperoides (Hook.) Jaeg.—Naga Hills; 1935 (279).

Ectropothecium dealbatum (Hornsch. & Reinw.) Jaeg.—Balipara Frontier Tract,

foot of Aka Hills; November-December 1933 (47, 62), c. fr.

Ectropothecium ramuligerum Dix. sp. nov.

E. Zollingeri (Bry. jav.) affine. Atro-viridis, late humillime expansum, haud

nitidum. Caulis vage ramosus, ramis percomplanatis, tenuibus, inaequalibus,

attenuatis, saepe ramulos microphyllos plus minusve elongatos sparsos emit-

tentibus. Cellulae angustae, subconflatae, basilares paullo laxiores, breviores,

sensim in alares parvas, breviter rectangulares vix notatas transeuntes. Folia

sat laxa, complanata, asymmetrica, lanceolata, leniter cultriformia, breviter

acute acuminata, denticulata, subecostata.

Autoicum. Bracteae perichaetii paucae, sat parvae, breviter late acuminatae,

subdenticulatae. Seta circa 1 cm. vel paullo ultra, atropurpurea, laevis, apice

arcuato. Theca subpendula, e collo subaequilongo oblonga, atrofusca, sub ore

contracta. :

Hab. Balipara Frontier Tract, foot of Aka Hills, 100-300 m.; November-

December 1933 (43),

794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Allied to E. Zollingeri, but autoicous, with more narrowly acuminate, denti-

culate leaves, and small perichaetium. The microphyllous ramuli seem

characteristic.

In the autoicous inflorescence it is near Glossadelphus amboinensis Fleischer,

but from the description that is a smaller plant, with oval, acute, not acuminate

leaves, and a longer seta.

Vesicularia reticulata (Doz. & Molk.) Broth.—In forest, 1,700-3,300 m., Piri,

Aka Hills ; October 1933 (15). Satai, on a bank; August 1934 (175): Khtivubhu,

Naga Hills, 1,500 m.; November 1935 (345).

HyLOCOMIACE&.

Ctenidium lychnites (Mitt.) Broth.

1935 (301).

Leptohymenium tenue (Hook.) Schwaegr.—Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,700-3,300 m. ;

December 1935 (325, 327). Ibidem, 2,700 m.; October 1935 (319). A form

with narrow capsules, branches very little curved when dry, deep orange brown

leaves, rather widely spreading when dry.

Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,750 m.; October

Macrothamnium submacrocarpum (Hampe) Fleisch.—Several gatherings.

Macrothamnium macrocarpum (Reinw. & Hornsch.) Fleisch.—Several gather-

ings.

Leiodontium complanatum Dix. sp. nov. (Pl. I, fig. 16).

Pusillum. Corticola, dense caespitosum, humile, pallide viride, haud _ nitens,

Caulis conferte, complanate, stricte pinnatim brevissime ramosts; rami paucos

mm. longi, saepe iterum ramulosi; interdum inter folia superiora fila articulata

sat numerosa axillaria, inaequalia, laevia emittentes; gemmae fuscae sphaericae

circa 50 # latae, laeves, indivisae, brevissime stipitatae, singulae in foliorum

axillis paucae inveniuntur. Folia ovata vel ovato-lanceolata, minuta, .3-.4 mm.

longa, breviter, subacute vel obtuse acutata, ecostata, minute crenulata, vel

denticulata; cellulae breviter rhomboideae, variabiles, 3 1-61, marginales

breviores, alares “sat numerosae, subquadratae, alas parvas sed: bene notatas

saepe coloratas instruentes.

Bracteae perichaetii breves, late acutatae, nunc subintegrae nunc argute

denticulatae. Seta 1 cm. longa, tenuissima; theca erecta, elliptica, minuta,

1 mm. longa; operculum oblique rostellatum ; exothecii cellulae laxae, hexagonae,

longitudinaliter seriatae, parietibus tenuibus. Annulus O. Spori 13-2c #,

saturate virides. Peristomium pallidum; dentes ad basin arcte conjuncti,

laeves, pellucidi, sed solidi, lamellis intus valde prominentibus. Endostomium

imperfectum, processus ad dentes adhaerentes.

Hab. Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,400 m.; October 1935 (314), type. Chingku,

Naga Hills, 2,450 m.; 5 November 1935 (359).

No. 359 has a slightly different habit, with rather more narrowly pointed

leaves, but is otherwise identical.

It is unusual to find a moss bearing two distinct forms of gemmae and at

the same time fruiting.

The genus was founded by Brotherus in 1929 for two species of moss

collected by Handel-Mazzetti in N. W. Yiinnan. The present plant is smaller

and very different in the complanate habit, and the leaf form and_ structure,

but the fruiting characters are identical, except that the outer teeth are

not perforate here, and the inner are very poorly developed. Brotherus describes

the alar cells not differentiated in L. gracile, but I find them frequently in

the Yunnan plant showing a small but distinct group of laxer, hyaline alar

cells, sometimes reaching an appreciable distance up the margin.

I have referred to the curious resemblance between this plant and Hageniella

isopterygioides under that species.

The Genus Leiodontium is allied to Microctenidium Fleisch.

POLYTRICHACE.

Atrichum obtusulum C.M.—Paona, Naga Hills, 2,150 m.; September 1935

(282). Japwo, Naga Hills, 2,450 m.; October 1935 (317).

MOSSES COLLECTED IN ASSAM 795

Atrichum pallidum Ren. & Card.—In forest, 2,700-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills ;

October 1933 (34).

Pogonatum contortum (Menz.) Lesq. nov. var. robustum Dix. Omnibus partibus

majus. Folia 1.25-1.5 cm. longa, dense, argute dentata; folii basis longior,

cellulis magis elongatiss Seta longior, theca major, longior, 8 mm. longa.

Hab. In forest, 2,700-3,300 m., Piri, Aka Hills; October 1933 (8).

This extends the distribution of the species westwards considerably.

Pogonatnm proliferum (Mitt.) Jaeg

(350).

Pogonatum papillosulum(Griff.) Mitt.—Chingku, Naga Hills, 2,600 m. ; November

to December 1933 (60). Shillong, 1,400 m.;- September 1934 (170, 181, 197).

EOL, 197)

Pogonotum microstomum (R. Br.) Brid.—Dozeppe, Naga Hills; August 1935

(295).

On Ficus elastica, Chardura; July, 1935

| EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

1. Brothera capillifolia. a, deciduous leaf, x5.

2. Syrrhopodon pilulifer. a, leaf, X20.

3. Pseudosymblepharis pallidens. a, leaf, X20, b, peristome, X20.

4. Ptychomitrium rhacomitriotdes. a, basal areolation, X 4o.

5. Macromitrium Rigbyanum. a, capsule, X3.

6. Jaegerinopsis intergrifolia. a plant, x1. b, leaf, X10.

7. Symphysodontella Borii. a, leaf, X10.

8. Symphysodontella pilifolia. a, leaf, X10.

9g. Symphysodontella tortifolia. a, stem leaf, X10. b, leaf apex, X20.

10. Pterobryopsis auriculata. a, leaf, xX 1o.

ii. landicia sasiatica.- a, “plant, ><1.\.b,. leaf, <x 10:

12. Handeliobryum assamicum. a, leaf, X10.

13. Daltonia perlaxiretis. a, leaf, x10. b, upper marginal cells, X 100.

14. Daltonia gemmipara. a, -leaf, x10. b, gemmae, X Io.

15. Orvtholimnobium Bortt. a, plant, x1. b, leaf, x10. c, capsule, X12.

16. Leiodontium complanatum. a, plant, X2. b, leaves, X20. c, alar

cells, x80. d, capsule, x12.

17. Aptychella Borw. a; leat, X10.

18. Hageniella isopterygioides. a, leaf, X20. b, alar cells, X8o.

19. Hageniella assamica. a, leaf, X20.

20. Acanthocladium baculiferum. a, part of stem, X1. bh, leaf, xX1a,

SOME DATA ON THE FAUNA: BLATTODEA,

MANTODEA, PHASMODEA AND ORTHOPTERA

-OF NORTH AFGHANISTAN.

Leo MISTSHENKO.

Leningrad.

(With 6 text-figures).

The present paper is the result of a study of the collections

made in North Afghanistan by N. N. Umnov in 1930 and by

V. A. Maximov in the years 1930-31.

The records of Blattodea, Mantodea and Orthoptera of

Afghanistan, up to the present time published by several authors,

have been included into the paper in order to elucidate the fauna

of the country which is still very little studied.

The present list comprises: 6 Blattodea; 10 Mantodea; 1

Phasmodea and 57 Orthoptera, the last order containing: 3

Tettigonioidea 6 Gryllodea and 48 Acridodea. As compared with

what was known from literature, our knowledge is now more

complete. Several species are recorded for the first time, namely:

2 Blattodea, 4 Mantodea, 1 Phasmodea and 36 Orthoptera {3

Tettigonioidea, 4 Gryllodea, 29 Acridodea. Among the members of

the last suborder five species new to science have been found.

The holotypes and allotypes of these new species are preserved

at the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Leningrad.

The author feels it his pleasant duty to express his sincere

thanks to Dr. B. P. Uvarov, who kindly sent me for study valuable

material and for his kind assistance in the preparation of my

paper; to Dr’ Es. i. Miran; curatorn.on Orthoptera in the

Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences in Leningrad, for

her permission to examine the small but very interesting collection

of N. N. Umnov; to Dr. S. A. Predtetshensky, senior entomologist

of the Institute for Plant Protection in Leningrad for his valuable

directions and for the communication of his unpublished records;

to Mr. V. A. Maximov, who has kindly placed at the author’s

disposal his collection.

BLATTODEA

*1. Polyphaga saussurei (Dohrn), 1888.*

Gurimar, 19-8-1930, 1 ¢, 2 QQ, 4 larvae (Maximov).

2. Polyphaga camelorum Kirby, 1903.

Kirby (1889) has recorded this species from Hari-Rud valley under the

name Polyphaga sp. and Chopard (1929) has recorded it from Badghis.

* Species marked with a small asterisk are recorded from Afghanistan for

the first time.

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN 797

‘3. Polyphaga obscura Chopard, 1929.

This species has been described by Chopard (1929) from Paghman near

Kabul.

4. Anisogamia tamerlana Saussure, 1893.

Recorded from Afghanistan by Brancsik (1897).

5. Heterogamodes roseni (Brancsik), 1897.

This species has been described by Brancisk (1897) from Afghanistan, without

exact indication of locality, under the name Heterogamia roseni Branc.

*6. Phyllodromica irinae (Bey-Bienko), 1932.

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931. 1 @ (Maximov).

MANTODEA

7. Eremiaphila arabica Saussure, 1871.

Kirby (1894) has recorded this species from between Khusan and Quetta.

*8. Armene pusilla (Eversmann), 1854.

Gurimar, 19-8-1930, 1 @ (Maximov).

9. Hierodula transcaucasica Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1878.

Gurimar, 19-8-1930, 1 Q (Maximov).

Recorded by Kirby (1889) from Afghanistan under the name Hierodula

robusta Saussure?

10. Mantis religiosa (Linnaeus), 1758.

Kirby (189) has recorded this species from Afghanistan, without exact

indication of locality.

*I1. Oxythespis wagneri (Kittary), 1849.

Kazan, 14-8-1930, 1 ¢, 2 292 (Maximov).

*12. Iris oratoria polystictica (Fischer de Waldheim), 1846.

Ak-Tepe, 17-71931, 3 6d, 1 Q (Maximov).

13. Iris splendida Uvarov, 1922

This species has been described by Uvarov (1922) from Afghanistan, without

exact indication of locality.

14. Rivetina baetica (Rambur), 1839.

Gurimar, 19-8-1930, t 6, 2 QQ; Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 5 $3 (Maximov).

Kirby (189) has recorded this species from Hari-Rud valley under the

name Polyspilota striata Stoll, while Jacobson and Bianchi (1902-1905) put it

under the name Polyspilota eruginosa Goeze.

*15, Empusa pennicornis (Pallas), 1773.

Man-guzar, 16-8-1930, 3 99; Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 1 @ (Maximov).

16. Blepharopsis mendica nuda Giglio-Tos, 1917.

Kirby (1889) has recorded this species from Afghanistan, without exact

indication of locality, under the name Belpharis mendica Fabricius.

PHASMODEA

17. Gratidia adelungi Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1908.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 1 Q (Maximov).

QO (nova). Body large, nearly smooth.

Head elongated, with indistinct longitudinal keels, with two very distinct

acute projections between eyes; median keel distinct, reaching to the occiput.

Occiput with two tubercles. Eyes round. Antennae moderately thick, 17

jointed, a little longer than head and pronotum together.

Pronotum anteriorly feebly constricted, short, its length nearly 1.5 times

as long as maximum width; its surface with distinct longitudinal folds, behind

the middle with distinct transverse depression. Mesonotum long, anteriorly

somewhat narrowed. Metanotum considerably shorter than mesonotum, parallel-

sided. Mesonotum and metanotum with distinct median keel, their surface

finely and very densely punctured, with sparse granulae.

Sternum finely and densely punctured, with indistinct granulae. Abaomen

with distinct median keel, finely and densely punctured and with indistinct

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS? “SOCIETY; Vol. XXxXtX

granulae, on each side with indistinct lateral keels. Apex of the .subgenita!

plate shortly-triangular.

General coloration brownish-white.

Length of the body sae 89°5 mm.

», of the antennz aoe eet

», of the pronotum PAA i

., of the mesonotum ee T7501 ee

., Of the metanotum Se De emer

», of the anterior femora Wieser

», of the middle femora oa 25e &

» of the hind femora met 24 Ue:

ORTHOPTERA

Tettigonioidea

*18. Conocephalus buxtoni Chopard, 1921.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 2 gd, 1 Q (Maximov).

*19. Metrioptera tamerlana (Saussure), 1874.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 9 dd, 7 QQ (Maximov).

*20. Decticus albifrons (Fabricius), 1775.

Ak-Tepe, 27, vil., 6d, § 9 @; Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931,

1 Q (Maximov).

Gryliodea

21. Gryliotalpa africana (P. Beauvois), 1805.

Kirby (1889) has recorded this species from Hari-Rud valley under the

name Acheta africana FP. Beauv.

22. Gryllus bimaculatus (De Geer), 1773.

Ak-Tepe 27-7-1931, 2 QQ (Maximov).

Kirby (1889) has recorded probably this species from between Khusan and

Ouetta under the name Gryllus capensis Fabr.

*23. Gryllulus tartarus (Saussure), 1874.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1631, 11 6d 13 9Q@ (Maximov).

*24. Gryllulus chinensis (Weber), 18o0r-

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 3 Od, 1 @ (Maximov).

*25. Gryllulus bucharicus (Bey-Bienko), 1933.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 2 36, (Maximov).

*26. Pteronemobius heydenii concolor (Walker), 1871.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 1 6, 4 QQ (Maximov).

Acridodea

27. Acrida deserti Uvarov, 1916. .

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1030, 7 God3 4. 2 9 3) Ak-Tépe,27-7-1921, 5. Gidjyat- e

(Maximov).

Tarbinsky (1926) has recorded this insect for Mazar-i-Sherif under the

name Acrida turrita deserti Uvarov, but Miram (1935) regards it as a good

species.

28. Acridella nasuta (Linnaeus), 1758.

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1930, 2 ¢¢, 1 9. (Maximov).

Probably this species has been recorded by Kirby (1889), under the name

Acrida grandis Klug? from between Khusan and Quetta.

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ELC...OF AF@HANISTAN 799

*29. Gonista sagitta (Uvarov), 1912.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 1 @ (Maximov).

*30. Platypterna mistshenkoi Bey-Bienko, 1936.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 2 ¢@o6, 1 @ (Maximov).

*3t. Duroniella kalmyka (Adelung), 1906.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 9 gd, 7 @Q (Maximov).

32. Dociostaurus maroccanus (Thunberg), 1815.

Kazan,.11-8-1930; 1 ¢,.3 9 2 ; Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 7 60,3 99 (Maximov):

Kirby (1889) has recorded this species from Badghis, under the name

Stauronotus maroccanus Thunb.

*33. Dociostaurus tartarus (Stshelkanovtzev), 1909.

Guriamar, 19-81930, 1 ¢, 1.9; Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 1 6, 6 QQ (Maximov).

*34. Notostaurus albicornis albicornis (I:versmann), 1847.

Kara-bel, 28-6-1930, 2 ¢ 6 (Umnov); Gurimar, 19-8-1930, 1 @ (Maximov).

_ All species belong to the typical race but are characterized by smaller

dimensions of the body:

Length of the body : 10°5—12°8 mm

3 Jo: the pronotum <i. Apr eae

»» of the elytra A sae oO 71,

», of the hind femora ae 7‘1— 83 ,,

,, of the hind tibiz S9— 7'1 ,,

*35. Mizonocara uvarovi Bey Bienko, 1933.

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 1 o (Maximov).

*36 Aiolopus affinis (T/ Bolivar), 1902.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 4 gd, 2 22 (Maximov),

37. Aiolopus thalassinus (Fabricius), 1781. :

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 17 ¢6¢, 7 9 Q (Maximov).

Redtenbacher (1900) has recorded this species from Afghanistan, without

exact indication of locality, under the name Epacromia tergestina Charp.

*38. Aiolopus oxianus Uvarov, 1926. .

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 5 3d, 1 Q (Maximov).

39. Locusta migratoria migratoria (Linnaeus), 1758, _ ph. solitaria.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 6 Od, 7 @Q, glv, 3liv

(Maximov).

Kirby (1889) has recorded this species from Afghanistan (from between

Khusan and Quetta) under the name Locusta danica Linn.

*40. (Edaleus senegalensis (Irauss), 1877.

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1930, 3 Oc, 4.9.9 (Maximov).

*41. Mioscirtus wagneri(Eversmann), 1859.

1859. (Edipoda wagneri Eversmann,~ Bull, Soc. Imp. Nat. Mosc., vol.

xxxil. No. 1, pp. 145-6, pl. I, fig. 3 [Type @;- steppe between

Volga and Ural]

1884. S[cintharista] wagneri Saussure, Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Gen.,

VOla XXXViiia NOs. Os Ppz 124-20 10. 3.

188. Cfonozoa] rogenhoferi Saussure, Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Gen.,

vol. xxx. No. 1, pp. 60-61, no. 5, fig. 4 [type 9 ; Baghdad].

1896. Muoscirtus varentzzowi, Zubowsky, Hor. Soc. Fent. iR0Oss:. vol. xxx.

pp. 186-7, no. 12, [type 9; Kopet-Dagh. Firjuza].

1922. Mioscirlus wagneri rogenhoferi Uvarov, Journ. Bom. Nat. His. Soc.

VoOlee XxXxiite, NOw 3, pezon, mo; 20;

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1930, 14,, 06, 15 @@ (Maximov).

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

The above synonymy has been established by S. A. Predtetshensky in his

as yet unpublished work on Acridodea of Badghis.

The comparative dimensions of the Afghan and the Lower Volga specimens

are given in the following table:

L. Volga specimens

(after

Predtetshensky)

3S 7 bd oe

Length of the body 14:5-15-0 mm |22-5-28-5 mm|12-0-16-0 mm 17-0-25-0 mm

;, . of the pronotum: |°3"1-°3°2 ,, |. 4°4="5:9) |} 52°6 = St2 3 50s

,, of the elytra 113°5-17°0 ,, |21°0-28'0 ,, |11°4-15'1 ,, |16°8-22°0 ,,

yy. UCL (athe: cbind

femora 8'8- 96 ,,./11:8-15-4 ,, | 7°8-"9°0 ,; |10°5-12°8";,

», Of the hind tibiz.| 8°0- 88 ,, |11°0-14°6 ,, ian Fes

*42. Acrotylus insubricus (Scopoli), 1786.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 3 dd (Maximov).

*43. Sphingonotus savignyi Saussure, 1884.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 2 QQ (Maximov).

44. Sphingonotus afghanicus Mistshenko, 1936.

This species has been described by Mistshenko (1936) from Barazendan.

*45. Sphingonotus nebulosus discolor Uvarov, 1933.

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 2 6d, 1 @ (Maximov).

46. Sphingonotus longipennis Saussure, 1884.

Recorded from Afghanistan (Parachinor, Kuran) by Uvarov (1925).

*47, Sphingonotus obscuratus brunneri Saussure, 1884.

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1031, 1°46, 1 “9- (Maximov).

48. Sphingonotus octo‘asciatus (Serville), 1830.

Recorded from Afghanistan by Kirby (1889) under the name Spingonotus

kittaryi Saussure?, without exact indication of locality.

*49. Helioscirtus moseri moseri Saussuré, 1884.

Ak-Fepe,; -27-7-1931, 3.616, 1%@ (Maximov),

*50. Leptopternis gracilis (Eversmann), 1847.

Kazan, 11-85-1930, 5 o6d6, 2 Q@Q (Maximov).

51. Hyatorrhipis turcmena Uvarov, 1926.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 2 QQ (Maximov).

Jacobson and Bianchi (1902-5) recorded from Afghanistan also Hyalorrhipis

clausi Kittary, Dr. Aitchison being referred to as collector, but there is

no such record in Kirby’s report (1889) on his collection and Dr. B. FP. Uvarov

informs me that there are no specimens in Aitchison’s material in the British

Museum.

52. Iranella eremiaphila Uvarov, 1922.

Recorded by Uvarov (1933) from Afghanistan, without exact indication

of locality.

53. Strumiger desertorum persa Uvarov, 1933.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 1 Q (Maximov).

A species recorded by Kirby (1889) with a mark of interrogation from

Hari-Rud valley, under the name Thrinchus campanulatus F.-W. is a_ species

of Thrinchus in poor condition and cannot be determined according to Dr.

B. P. Uvarov who has examined it.

54. Eremocharis afghana Ramme, 1928.

This species has been described by Ramme (1928) from Kabul.

[LS

ee SS

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN 80i

55. Tropidauchen sp. n.

Recorded by Kirby (1889) from Badghis and the Hari-Rud valley under

the name Eunapius granosus Stal, and Uvarov (1922) put it under the name

Tropidauchen cultricolle Saussure, while actually it represents an undescribed

species as 1 am able to tell after the examination of the specimens kindly

sentaco merby Mr. Bb. Py Uvarov:

*56. Tropidauchen wuvarovi sp. n. (Figs. 1 U and 2 U).

Q (holotype). Body strongly rugulose.

Head very rough with sharp granulae, in the posterior part rugulose.

Eyes shortly-oval, feebly prominent sidewards; vertical diameter of the eye

a little larger than its horizontal diameter. and nearly half the length of

the interocular space. Face vertical. Frontal ridge very narrow, strongly

depressed, under the median ocellum constricted, at the clypeus triangularly

expanded and somewhat obliterated; seen in profile wavy, strongly prominent

at the antennal bases; its margins thick. Vertex broad, octagonal, strongly

depressed, granular, with two very sharp smali tubercles at the middle:

median keel in the posterior part sharp; its margins sharp and_ straight.

Antennae thick, 15-jointed, far from reaching the posterior margin of the

pronotum.

Fig.—-1 U. Tropidauchen uvarovi, sp. n., type, @, xl. 8.

M. 7. mivamae, sp. n., type, 2, X18.

Pronotum strongly rugulose with very sharp granulae at the middle; on

each side of the median keel with two oblique and very sharp granular

holes; seen in profile feebly arched, at the posterior margin slightly excised:

posterior angle obtuse, at the middle excised. Lateral lobes of the pronotum

strongly rugulose and granular, with three indistinct transverse sulci; anterior

margin a little wavy, anterior lower angle obtuse, feebly rounded; posterior

margin strongly sinuous, oblique; posterior lower angle obtuse, feebly rounded ;

Icwer margin obliquely ascending, wavy.

Mesonotum and metanotum strongly rugulose and granular, with a median

keel.

802. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Sternum sparsely and finely punctured; its length almost 1.5 times as

long as maximum width; interspace between lobes of the mesosternum about

1.5 times as wide as long. Processus of the prosternum wedge-shaped, excised

in front.

Hind femur sharply-granular, its length 2.9 times as long as maximum

width; upper margin with 8 sharp teeth and 1-2 small teeth between them ;

lower margin smooth, strongly wavy. Hind tibia a little shorter than the

hind femur, with g spines on the outer and 8 spines on the inner side.

Abdomen with a sharp median keel, seen in profile forming rectangular

teeth on the first segments of the abdomen and _ with triangularly-blunted

teeth on the posterior margin of each other segment. Valvae of the ovipositor

with blunted points; lower valvae with one large and several small teeth

on the outer margin. Posterior margin of the subgenital pfate rounded,

prominent.

General coloration grayish-whitish. Apical part of the antennae brownish.

Tibiae of the front and middle legs orange-reddish. Hind femora yellow inside ;

lower margin yellow; middle of the apex black both outside and_ inside.

Hind tibiae red inside, vellow-orange outside; spines yellow with black apex ;

tarsi red inside, orange outside.

S (allotype.) Like the female, but considerably smaller. Vertical diameter

of the eye equals to two-thirds the interocular space. Interspace between

lobes of the mesosternum 1.25 times as wide as long. Hind tibiae with

9 spines on both sides.

Coloration like the female.

‘holotype Glallotype 3 paratypes 2? paratypeso J

Length of the body .. | 92°5 mm | 35°6 mm 53°5-67°5mm/|29°8-36:5mm

y, - “ofthe pronottmr tc, |, asa ee O74, L3H 1o'S al S22— eae

Re of the hind femora , | 20°0 ,, 15:0° -,5...120°0=22:5 1320-14: Sie

of the hind tibiz ... | 19:0 ,, 14°90 ,, |19°0-21°5 ,,; |\12°0-13:8",,

>»?

Patria. North Afghanistan: settl Norbeck, 16-22 vi, 3 QQ (including the

holotype), 2 dod; valley Ailjak, 26-6-1930, 1 @, 2 goo (Umnov); Abdan,

26-8-1930, 2 oo (Maximov).

This new species is near to Tropidauchen cultricolle Saussure (1881), described

by that author from Ashkhabad (Turkmenistan), but differs from it by the

following characters :

Tropidauchen uvarovi sp_n. Tropidauchen cultricolle Saussure.

Q, od. Vertex very broad, octagonal. OG 2. Vertex broad. woval.

Antennae 14-15-jointed. Antennae 17-jointed.

Pronotum slightly covering the head, Pronotum strongly covering the

not reaching the vertex. | head, reaching to the vertex.

Hind tibiae red inside. oe Hind tibiae blue inside.

This species the author dedicates with profound respect to Dr. B. P. Uvarov.

one of the best specialists in Orthoptera.

*57. Tropidauchen mirame sp. n. (Figs. 1 M and 2 M).

Q (Holotype). Body somewhat rough. »

Head in the posterior part slightly rugulose, sparsely punctured, nearly

smooth. yes shortly-oval, slightly prominent sidewards; vertical diameter of

the eye a little larger than the horizontal diameter and equals to two-thirds

of the interocular space. Face vertical. Frontal ridge narrow, strongly

depressed, nearly parallel-sided, triangularly-divergent at the clypeus and some-

what obliterated; seen in profile wavy, strongly prominent at the antennal

bases; its margins thick. Vertex narrow, long, oval, strongly depressed,

granular; median keel in the posterior part of the vertex distinct. Antennae

thick, 18-jointed, not reaching. the posterior margin of the pronotum.

Pronotum slightly rugulose, but sharply granular at the middle; on each

side of the median keel with two oblique sharply-granular folds; seen in

profile feebly arched, somewhat wavy; posterior angle obtuse, at the middle

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN 803

excised. Lateral lobes of the pronotum slightly rugulose, but sharply granular,

with three indistinct transverse sulci,-at the middle with a longitudinal’ smooth

fold; anterior margin wavy, vertical, anterior lower angle obtusé, feebly

rounded ; posterior margin wavy, oblique, posterior lower angle obtuse, rounded ;

lower. margin obliquely ascending, wavy.

Mesonotum and metanotum slightly rugulose and sharply granular, with a

median keel.

Fig. 2.—U. Tropidauchen uvarovi, sp. n., .allotype, <,

vertex.—M.° T. miramae, sp. n., allotype, ¢.

Sternum sparsely and finely punctured; its length nearly 1.5 times as

long as maximum width; interspace between lobes of the mesosternum scarcely

wider than long. Frocessus of the prosternum. narrow, awedge-shaped ;- its

apex feebly excised.

Hind femur smooth, its length 3.3 times as long as maximum width; upper

margin with 9 small teeth; lower margin smooth, wavy. Hind tibia a little

shorter than hind femur, with g spines on both sides.

Abdomen with a sharp median keel, seen in profile forming small triangularly-

blunted teeth at the postreior margin of each segment. Valvae of the ovipositor

with blunted. points. Lower valvae of the ovipositor with a sharp projection

on the outer margin. Posterior margin of the subgenital plate feebly triangularly-

prominent.

General coloration brownish-olive. Head ~ whitish. Apical part of the

antennae brown. Margins of the pronotum and of its lateral lobes and

longitudinal fold of the lobes, whitish. Abdomen below yellowish-white. Hind

femur inside yellow; its lower margin and upper margin inside black-blue ;

middle of apex outside and inside, black. Hind tibiae yellow (in some paratypes

violet-rosy); spines yellow with black apex.

3 (allotype). Like the female, but considerably smaller. Antennae reaching

the posterior margin of the pronotum.

Coloration like the female.

holotype 9 allotype 4 pa Eee apes 8 paratypeséd

Length of the body ee | 00° Simm 4 S5:0mm- |5

je Ok the pronotum: -..) 15°8 j, | 105 .,, 1

ofthe hind-temora .-) 217,52, | 1675.4, 122°

923!

Po2ot the. bind: tibiae as. 1. 20%7, ,, TS5e

Patrias North <Atghanistan: pass: Irghailyk, 14. vi. 1 “9, 2° 6c <asettl.

Morbek. 16-25. vi, 4 Q@ (including the holotype), 2 ¢o¢ 3; Mazar-i-Sherifr 24,

vi, 1° ¢ 3 valley Ailjak, 26-6-1g30, 2 ¢¢ (Umnov); pass Ab-dugh, 28-8-1930, 91

@ (Maximov). foe Le

804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1X

This new species is near to Tropidauchen paramonovi Dirsh (1927), described

by that author from Firuza (Kopet-Dagh, Turkmenistan), but differs from

it by the following characters :

Tropidauchen miramae sp. n. Tropidauchen paramonovi Dirsh. .

2, 3d. Body more slender. @, &. Body more robust.

Vertex more narrowed. Vertex more broadened.

Pronotum sharply granular. Pronotum feebly granular.

Processus of the prosternum narrow. Frrocessus of the prosternum broad.

Hind femur slender; its length 3.3 Hind femur robust; its length 2.9

times its maximum width. times its maximum iat

This speeies the author dedicates to Dr. Emilia F. Miram, curator of

Orthoptera in the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Leningrad,

in acknow:edgment of her assistance in the work.

58. Chrotogonus homalodemus (Blanchard), 1836.

This species has been recorded by Kirby (1889) with a question mark from

between Khusan and Quetta.

59. Pyrgomorpha conica (Olivier), 1791.

Gurimar, 9-7-1930, 1 ¢, 1° @ »(Umnov); Mouth of the river Kunduz-

Daria, 29-7-1931, I ¢, 2 QQ (Maximov).

Kirby (1889) has recorded apparently this species from Badghis, as

Pyrgomorpha_ bispinosa Walscer.

*60. Derycoris albidula (Serville), 1839.

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1930, 2 dd, 2 9Q (Maximov).

*61. Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall), 13835.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 8 dd, 20 @Q, 17 larvae

(Maximov).

*62. Diexis Suasakovery! Miram (in, litt.).

63. Conophyma predtetshenskyi Sp. 0: (Figs. 3A, 5B; €, Dandy):

3 (holotype). Body of medium size, robust and smooth. |

Head not elevated above the level of the pronotum, very sparsely and

finely punctured. Eyes nearly round, small, slightly prominent sidewards ;

vertical diameter of the eye equal to interocular space. lace sloping. Frontal

ridge scarcely depressed, smooth, nearly parallel-sided, not reaching ~the clypeus ;

seen in profile feebly prominent at the antennal bases; its margins scarcely

distinct. Fastigium of the vertex strongly sloping, almost vertical, vertex

scarcely depressed, very finely and densely . punctured; its margins scarcely

distinct; median keel very weak; maximum width of the vertex about two

times that of frontal ridge between antennae. Temporal foveolae indistinct.

Occiput slightly sloping, finely and densely punctured. Antennae thin, 19-20-

jointed, considerably longer than head and pronotum_ together.

Pronotum in prozona nearly smooth, with three transverse sulci; two anterior

sulci: shallow, not intersecting the median keel; median keel sharp and _inter-

sected only by the third, deep transverse sulcus; lateral keels interrupted and

form double set of keels.on each side; first keels reach only the first transverse

sulcus, convergent; second kee's begin on the lateral lobes near the first

transverse sulcus and gradually ascending reach the second transverse sulcus,

within this area second keels are parallel to the first keels, while further

passing along the margin of the pronotum they become~-parallel to the median

keel, reaching to the -third transverse sulcus; metazona very short, densely

punctured, with hardly marked median keels, its length about one-third that

of the prozona; posterior margin straight, very feebly triangularly-excised at

the middle. Lateral lobes of the pronotum trapezoidal, somewhat narrowed

towards the lower margin, with three transverse sulci, feebly punctured, anterior

and posterior margins undulating; lower margin strongly wavy, | obliquely-

ascending; anterior lower angle obtuse, rounded; posterior lower angle «90°,

broadly-rounded. cedar

Mesonotum and metanotum smooth; metanotum with a distinct median and

lateral keels. - 5;

., Sternum_ sparsely iad Sees, Buneeaned! its maximum saat aioe equal

to length; interspace between lobes of the mesosternum about 1.5 times as

wide as long.

_SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. .OF .AFGHANISTAN 805

Front. and middle femora somewhat swollen. Hind femur thick; its length

3-3. times its maximum width. Hind tibia a little shorter than hind femur,

with g spines on the outer and 8-9 spines on the inner side. :

D. |

Vig. 3.—Conophyma predtetshenskyi' Sp. 1.

A, Dorsal view of the pronotum -of type ¢; B. Dorsal. view of the

anal plate of type ¢; C. Lateral view of the apex of abdomen of

type ¢; D. Dorsal view of the pronotum of allotype 9; E. Lateral

view of the apex of abdomen of allotype QQ; x7.5.

Abdomen, seen from above, with a median keel; lobes of the last abdominal

tergite broad and short, widely separated. Anal plate nearly square, apical

part slightly narrowed, posterior angles reunded, posteror margin with a large

triangular projection at the middle; its surface at the median longitudinal

sulcus convex and with a very sharp triangular projection \at each posterior

angle. Cercus straight, strongly conical, pointed at the apex}~its length about

1.75 times the length of the anal plate.

Head, pronotum and abdomen, seen from above nearly black. Antennae,

front and middle legs, hind femora, sternum, head and abdomen, seen from

below—dirty-yellow. Hind tibiae orange. —

Q (allotype). Like the male, somewhat larger. Vertical diameter of the

eye somewhat less than the interocular space. Frontal ridge obliterate at the

clypeus, more depressed than in the male. Vertex with distinct median keel,

more depressed than in the male and with distinct elevated margins. Front

and middle femora: slightly swollen. Hind tibia with 8-9 spines on the outer

and on the inner side. Upper and lower valvae of the ovipositor with acute

points and a distinct projection on the outer margin. Subgenital plate con-

siderably longer than wide; its posterior .angles broadly-rounded ; posterior

margin with a rather’ long narrow triangular sharply, pointed projection at the

middle. , ;

Coloration like the male. Head, pronotum and abdomen, seen from above,

datk “brownish ‘with black spots.

holotype allotype paratypes paratypes

Length of the body. 14°2 mm| 16°5 mm [13 0-14°8 mm 15°5-18°5 mm

,, of the pronotum. BeBe oy Oa ee, | 2ee236 oy ies Sa ee ys

,, of the hind femora.}| 7°5 ,, 7 CO +5, 70-00! 55 (128°2=-920" 5,

,, of the hind tibie. GiDe%,, G6) 4.) | 6°0= 770). jade 7 2= SO a,

peep hn SS i SiS Sh

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1X

Patria.

North Afghanistan: Dzhanbulak, 13. vi, 3 ¢ od (including the holo-

type), 2 9 9.; pass .Irghailyk; 13. wi, 3-6 6, 1 9 ; settl: Norbek~ 225 vin eeu

Mazar-i-Sherif, 24-6-1930, 1 ¢, 1 Q@ (Umnov); pass Ab-dugh, 20-8-1930, 1 Cy

3 36 (Maximov).

This species is near to Conophyma ikonnikovi Uvarov (1925), described by

that author.from Southern Bokhara (at present Tadjikistan), but differs from

it by the following characters :

Conophyma predtetshenskyi sp. n.

3. Lobes of the last abdominal

tergite widely separated.

Anal plate nearly square, slightly

narrowed to the apex; posterior angles

obtuse; its surface at the posterior

angles convex, with a sharp triangular

projection at each posterior angle.

Cerci straight, conical; their length

almost 1.75 the length of the anal plate.

Corophyma ikonnikovi Uvarov.

od. Lobes of the last abdominal

tergite very feebly separated, almost

contiguous,

Anal plate not square, strongly

dilated to the apex; posterior angles

acute; its surface trough-like, without

triangular projection at the posterior

angles.

Cerci at the bases constricted, in

the apical third, from within, swollen,

then strongly pointed; their length

almost two. times the length of the

anal plate.

This species the author dedicats to his first teacher Dr. S. A. Predtetshensky.

*64. Conophyma bey-bienkoi sp. n. (Figs. 4A, B, C, D and EF).

3 (holotype).

round, slightly prominent sidewards ;

Bedy of medium size, robust and smooth.

Head not elevated above the level of the pronotum, smooth.

Eyes nearly

vertical diameter of the eye equal to

Fig. 4.—Conophyma bey-bienkoi sp. n.

A. Dorsal view of the pronotum of type ¢; B. Dorsal view of the

anal plate of type ¢; C. Lateral view of the apex of abdomen of

type 3; D. Dorsal view of the pronotum of allotype Q; E. Lateral

view of the paex of abdomen of allotype 9; xX7-5.

horizontal diameter and nearly

equal to

interocular space. Face sloping.

Frontal ridge slightly depressed, under the median ocellum subconstricted, then

dilated and nearly reaching the clypeus; seen in profile feebly prominent at

the antennal bases; its margins thick. Fastigium of the vertex strongly sloping,

frontal ridge between antennae. Temporal foveolae indistinct. Occiput feebly

elevated; median keel absent; maximum width about two times that of the

Pee

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN « 807

frontal ridge between antennae. Temporal foveolae indistinct. ~Occiput feebly

sloping, punctured. Antennae thin, 19-jointed, somewhat longer than head and

pronotum together.

Fronotum smooth in the prozona; lateral keels distinct, feebly concave ;

metazona punctured, its length one-third that of the prozona; median keel

in the prozona sharp, intersecting first transverse sulcus, in the metazona

indistinct ; posterior margin straight very feebly excised in the middle. (Lateral

lobes of the pronotum trapezoidal, narrowed towards the lower margin, in the

posterior part punctured, with three transverse sulci; interspaces between first

and second, as well as second and third transverse sulci at the lateral keels

of the pronotum slightly rough; anterior and posterior margins undulating ;

lower margin strongly wavy, obliquely-ascending ; anterior lower angle obtuse,

rounded ; posterior Jower angle a little larger than 90°, broadly-rounded.

Mesonotum and metanotum smooth; metanotum with a distinct median and

lateral keels.

Sternum very sparsely punctured; its maximum width equal to its length;

interspace between lobes of the mesosternum 1.25 times as wide as long.

Front and middle femora swollen. Hind femur thick; its length 3.3 times

the maximum width. Hind tibia a little shorter than hind femur, with 9

spines on both sides.

Abdomen, seen from above, with a median keel; lobes of the last abdominal

tergite short, broad, widely separated. Anal plate nearly square; lateral margins

somewhat excised; posterior angles very sharp, rounded; posterior margin

somewhat excised, with a slight triangular projection at the middle; its surface

at the middle convex. Cerci conical, pointed at the apex, straight, a_ little

longer than the anal plate. .

Head, pronotum and abdomen, seen from above, brownish-blackish with

brown spots. Antennae, front and middle legs, hind femora, sternum, head

and abdomen, seen from below, tawny. Apical part of the hind tibiae and

basal part of the hind femora from within orange-reddish.

Q (allotype). Like the male, but larger. Subgenital plate considerably

longer than wide, posterior angles broadly-rounded, posterior margin with a

rather long triangular projection at the middle. Upper and lower valvae of

the ovipositor with acute points and projection on the outer margin. Coloration

like the male.

‘holotype | allotype 2|paratypes ad paratypes 2°

””

Length of the body .- | 13°Omm. | 155mm _ (12°8-14-0mm/16°5-19°8mm

» ofthe pronotum ... BS sone || Feel tye els ela | 36- i ee

,, of the hind femora HO gq Neo? +. i (685=7'3..,, | 8°5= 9°0" 5,

of the hind tibie ... | 65 ,, 72 ,, | 55-68 ,, | 75-80 ,,

Patria. North Afghanistan: pass Irghailyk, 13. vi, 4 dd, 5 9 Q 3; Mabar-i-

Sherif, 24. vi, 1 ¢@; valley Ailjak, 26-6-1930, 2 $d (including the holotype),

4 9Q (Umnov); pass Ab-dugh, 20-8-1930, 2 ¢¢ (Maximov).

This species is near to Conophyma sokolowt Zubovsky (1898), described by

that author from environs Tashkent (Uzbekistan), but differs from it by the

following characters :

Conophyma bey-bienkoi sp. a. Cononhyma sokolowi Zubovsky.

3. Median keel of the pronotum do. Median keel of the pronotum

slight. : sharp.

Anal plate nearly square; lateral Anal plate square; lateral margins

margins excised; posterior angles very | straight; posterior angles feebly ex-

sharp, rounded, prominent sidewards; | pressed, broadly rounded, not prominent

posterior margin excised. |. sidewards ; posterior margin convex.

_ This species the author dedicates to Dr. G. J. Bey-Bienko, the author of

numerous valuable and very interesting papers on Orthoptera, Dermaptera and

Blattodea,

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

-*65. Conophyma kittaryi Tarbinsky, 1931 (Figs. 5A and B). | |

Dzhanbulak, 13-:vi;- 2° ¢-¢ ; valley. Ailjak, 14, vi, 2 @@Q3 settl. Norbek,

22. vi, 5 O66, 1 GY; Kara-bel, 28-6-1930, 1 $ (Umnov); Gurimar, 19-8-1930,

2 66, 3.22 (Maximov). . .

‘O (nova). Body large, robust, smooth.

Head somewhat elevated above the level of the pronotum, smooth. . Eyes

néarly-round, slightly prominent sidewards ; vertical diameter equal to horizontal

diameter of “the eye and nearly equal to interocular space. Face moderately

sloping: Frontal ridge slightly depressed at the median ocellum, almost paraliel-

sided, obliterate at the clypeus; seen in profile flat, not prominent at the

antennal bases; its margins thick. Fastigium of the vertex forming an. angle:

of about 45°; vertex broad, not depressed at all, slightly convex; margins

scarcely visible; median keel absent; maximum width about 2.25 times that

of the-frontal ridge between antennae. Temporal foveolae indistinct. Occiput

slightly sloping. Antennae thin, not reaching the posterior margin of the

pronotum, 20-22 jointed.

Pronotum smooth, feebly convex, punctured, with three weak transverse

sulci, only the last sulcus intersecting median keel; median keel distinct ; lateral!

keels slight, but distinct, interrupted and forming double set of keels on

each side; first keels somewhat converging and reach only the first transverse

sulcus; second keels begin near the first transverse sulcus and are divergent ;

metazona very shert, punctured, its Jength about one-third that of the prozona;

posterior margin straight, indistinctly excised in the middle. Lateral lobes

of the pronotum punctured, feebly trapezoidal, somewhat narrowed at the lower

margin, with three deep transverse sulci, interspaces between them rough;

anterior margin feebly wavy, anterior lower angle. obtuse, .feebly rounded

posterior margin almost straight, posterior lower angle obtuse, broadly-rounded ;

lower margin slightly obliquely-ascending, at the middle convex.

= “A. pees

_Fig. 5.—Conophyma kittaryi Tarbinsky; 9.

A. Dorsal view of the pronotum.

B.- Lateral view .of the apex:.of. abdomen; X7.5.

- Mesonotum and metanotum. smooth, with a distinct median keel.

~Sternum = sparsely and finely punctured, its maximum width nearly equal

to length; width of interspace between lobes of the mesosternum a little larger

than its;,Jength.». . be oe a

Front and middle femora feebly swollen. Hind femur short; its length

3.3. times its maximum width. Hind tibia a little shorter than hind femur,

with 8-9 spines on the outer and 9-10: spines on the inner side.

“Abdomen, seen from above, with a distinct median keel. Subgenital plate

nearly square. Walvae of the ovipositor with acute points; lower valvae with

‘a small. projection on the outer margin. | Pinee ;

General coloration blackish-brown, with two dirty-yellow longitudinal stripes,

angularly-inflexed’:on the pronotum and almost. parallel-sided on ‘the abdomen.

‘Lateral lobes of the pronotum in the upper middle black, in the lower middle

dirty-yellow, Antennae, head and legs—yellow-brownish. Sternum and. abdomen,

“SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN - 809

seen from below—dirty-yellow. Hind femur from within and below yellow,

its upper margin with two darkish fasciae. Hind tibiae orange.

Length of the body _... sie EAMG

15-23) onan 17°5-19°5 mm

Ae pronotum bid 41-45 ,, 3°3- 4:0 ,,

5 hind femora ae 10-0 21022" 5 8°5-10°0,,

- hind tibize es S SOrO= Ors a8 70-85

*66. Calliptamus italicus italicus (linnaeus), 1758.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931,11 gd, 5 Q9@ (Maximov).

Foe

*67. Calliptamus siculus deserticola (Vosseler), 1902.

Gurimar, 19-8-1930, 2 3d; 7 993 Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 8-dd3 5 9

(Maximov).

*68. Kripa coelesyriensis (Giglio-Tos), 1893.

Ak-Tepe, 27-7-1931, 3 dd, 1 Q (Maximov).

69. Anacridium aegyptium (Linnaeus), 1764.

Recorded by Kirby (1889) from Badghis and Hari-Rud valley, under the

name Acridium aegyptium (Linnaeus).

*70. Thisoecetrinus pterostichus (Fischer de Waldheim), 1846.

Mouth of the river Kunduz-Daria, 29-7-1931, 2 gd, 1 Q (Maximov).

71. Thisoecetrus littoralis asiaticus Uvarov, 1933.

Kazan, 11-8-1930, 1 dG (Maximov).

Recorded by Kirby (1889) from Afghanistan (between Khusan and Quetta),

under the name Euprepocnemis littoralis (Rambur).

*72. Thisoecetrus adspersus Redtenbacher, 1889.

Man-Guzar, 16-8-1930, 1 ¢, 4 @@ (Maximov).

73. Kabulia afghana Ramme, 10928.

This species has been described by Ramme (1928) from Kabul.

*74, Gomphomastax morosus sp. n. (Figs. 6A, B, C and D).

Q (holotype). Body slender, rugulose.

Head rather large, elevated above the level of the pronotum, strongly

rugulose. Eyes irregularly-oval, moderately ‘prominent sidewards;. the largest

diameter of the eye a little less than the interocular space and 1.5 times the

smallest diameter. Face very strongly sloping. Frontal ridge narrow, strongly

depressed, almost parallel-sided, at vertex feebly triangularly dilated and

reaching to the clypeus; seen in profile “wavy, slightly prominent at~ the

antennal bases; margins thin. Vertex convex, strongly rugulose, forming an

acute angle with frontal ridge, margins scarcely visible; median keel distinct.

Occiput feebly sloping, rugulose, with distinct median keel. Antennae thick

and short, 12-jointed, a little longer than the length of the front femora,

not reaching the posterior margin’ of the pronotum.

Pronotum rugulose; median keel. slight, but distinct; -posterior margin

Straight, at the median keel feebly triangularly-excised ; lateral keels indistinct.

Lateral lobes of the pronotum oblong, their length being larger than the

height, rugulose; about the middle with a sharp transverse sulcus and distitct

keel passed diagonally from the posterior upper angle to the anterior lower

angle; anterior margin straight, anterior lower angle somewhat more than

go°, broadly-rounded ; posterior margin slightly wavy, posterior lower angle

nearly go°, feebly rounded; lower margin slightly wavy and a little obliquely-

ascending. oe ee

Mesonotum and metanotum slightly rugulose, with distinct median and

lateral keels.

Sternum very finely and densely punctured, nearly square, with rounded

angles and a border at the margins; anterior margin prominent; posterior

margin triangularly-excised ; interspace between lobes of the mesosternum abou

3-5 times as long as its length, —

810 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Arolia between claws of the tarsi small, reaching to the middle of claws.

Abdomen, seen from above, with an indistinct median keel. WValvae of the

Ovipositor with acute points; outer margin of the upper valvae with some

irregular teeth; outer margin of the lower valvae with 4 large teeth. Fosterior

margin of the subgenital plate with 3 projections; the middle projection is

longer, sharply-angular ; two lateral projections obtusely rounded.

General coloration yellowish-brown with blackish design. Apical part of the

antennae blackish.

Fig. 6.—Gomphomastax morosus sp. n. type 9.

A. Dorsal view of the subgenital plate; B, Lateral view of the ovipositor.

C. Dorsal view of the antenna; D. Dorsal view of the pronotum

of allotpye G3 X12.5.

3 (allotype). Like the female, smaller. The largest diameter of the eye

a little longer than the interocular space. Antennae thin, considerably longer

than head and pronotum together, somewhat thickened at the apex. Hind

femur very slender; their length nearly 6 times larger than the maximum

width. Hind tibia considerably longer than hind femur, with 22 spines on

the outer and 17 spines on the inner side. First joint of the hind tarsus

with 4 spines on the outer and 5 spines on the inner margin. Subgenital

plate, seen in profile, shortly triangular. Cerci rather long, straight, - cylindrical,

obtuse, with sparse hairs.

Coloration like the female.

holotype 2 allotype ¢.

Length of the body - ae - 20°S'mim 13°5 mm

,, of the antenne - RAUSE os oe

,, of the pronotum nae Te Sea i 1B ee

, of the hind femora are eee Tee ie lg

De me

», Of the hind tibize aa vaietere

... Patria. North. Afghanistan: pass Irghailyk, 14-6-1930, 1 Q (holotype), 1 ¢

(Umnov). |

This new species is near to Gomphomastax opacus Krauss in Zubovsky

(1898a), described by that author from Podgorny and Sasanovka (Kirghizstan),

but. differs from it by the following characters :

Gomphomastax morosus sp. n. Gomphomastax opacus Krauss.

Upper valvae of the ovipositor at Upper valvae of the ovipositor at

apex of the outer margin with distinct; apex of the outer margin without

large excision. excision.

Literature cited

Bey-Bienko, G. ‘On central Asiatic species of the genus Hololampra Sauss

6and. 7. : ;

‘Bey-Bienko, G. ‘Records and descriptions of some Orthoptera from U.S.S.R.’

Bol, Soc. Esp. Hist.” Nat., xxsili, 1933, pp- 323-25; 337-41, figs: 8, 14.5, =

SOME DATA ON BLATTODEA, ETC. OF AFGHANISTAN 811

Brancsik, C. ‘Series Orthopterorum novarum.’ Soc. Hist. Nat. Trencsén.,

vols. xXix-xx, 1897, p. 59.

Chopard, L. ‘Report on the Orthoptera af Mesopotamia and Persia.’

Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1921, pp. 53-4, figs. 18-20.

Chopard, L. ‘Les Polphagiens de la faune_ paléarctique (Orth, Blatt.).

Fos., V, 1929, pp. 245, 251-55, 314.

Dirsh, V. ‘Studies on Orthoptera from Turkestan and Persia.’ Bol. Soc.

Espo litsi. NGt., XXVii; 1627, p..296:

Jacobson, J. and Bianchi, V. ‘Prjamokrylye i lozhnosettshatokrylye Rossiiskoi

Iemperii.’ St. Petersburg, 1902-1905.

Kirby, W. in: Aitchison, M. III. ‘The Zoology of the Afghan Delimitation

Commission. Trans. Lin. Soc., London, Second Series, vol. v, Zoology, 1889,

Pp: 137-140.

Kirby, W. ‘Notes cn Blattidae’ etc., with descriptions of new genera and

species in the collection of the British Museum. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 7,

vol. Xi, 1903, PP- 379, 407.

Miram, E. ‘Blattodea, Mantodea, Phasmodea and Orthoptera von Tadjikistan.’

digguee iil eG, SC. MS. Scie Aan badiele., NO. 5, 1036, ip. 227-

Mistshenko, L. ‘Revision of palaearctic species of the genus Sphingonotus

Fieber (Orth. Acrid.)’. Kos., 1936.

Ramme, W. ‘Neue afghanische und indische Acrididae (Orthi).’ Deutsch.

Ent. Zeitg., 1928, pp. 299-301, pl. vii, figs. 1-3.

Ramme, W. ‘Dermaptera und Orthoptera.’ Entomologische Ergebnisse der

deutsh-russischen Alai-Pamir-Expedition, 1928. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, Bd. 16,

1630), P« 214s

Redtenbacher, J. ‘Die Dermatopteren und Orthopteren (Ohrwurmer und

Geradflagler).’ Wien, 1900, pp. 64-65.

Saussure, H. ‘Spicilegia Entomologica.’ 2. Tribu des Pamphagiens. 1887,

“PP: 74-75:

Tarbinsky, S. ‘Some Orthoptera from Pamir and = adjacent countries.’

Ann. Mag. Nat. -Hist., Ser..9, vol. xvii, 1926, p. 86.

Tarbinsky, S. ‘Eine neue Conophyma—Art (Acrididae, Catantopinae) any

Mittel-Asien.’ Ent. Anz., xi, No. 23, pp. 459-61, figs. 1-2.

Uvarov, B. ‘Records and descriptions of Orthoptera from S.W. Asia.’

Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxvili, 1922, No. 3 pp. 357, 362, 364.

Uvarov, B. ‘Some new Alpine grasshoppers of the genus Conophyma Zub.

from Central Asia.” Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxx, 1925, No. 3, pp. 559-60.

Uvarov, B. ‘The genus Kabulia Ramme (Acrid.)’ Eos. vii, 1931, pp. 223-24,

figs. Ia, 2a.

_ Uvarov, B. ‘Notes on the genus Iris Saussure (Orthoptera, Mantidae)’.

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 10,-vol. viit, 1931, -pp: 236-37:

Uvarov, B. ‘Studies in the Trainan Orthoptera II., Some new or less

known Acrididae.’ Trav, Inst. Zool. VAcad. Sc. U.S.S.K., vol. I, livr, 3-7

(1932) 1933, pp- 189, 199, 201, 230.

Zubovsky, N. ‘Ueber einige neue turkestanische Acridiodeen.’ Hor. Soe.

Ent. Ross., Xxxii, 1898, pp. 588-591.

Zubovsky, N. ‘Zur Acridiodea—Fauna des asiatischen Russlands.’ Ann.

Maus: Zool. Ac. Imp. Sc:; mi, 1898a, p. 110.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM.

Epwarp G. NICHOLS.

Kodaikanal, in the Palni Hills, Madura District, is a good

place to study birds. One’s first impression is of a great abundance

of bird-life in the trees, shrubbery, and open spaces about every

house. After a short time, however, one notices that the same

kinds of birds are seen again and again. The number of different

species is actually not as large as in many places on the plains.

This is an advantage for the beginner, since too many different

birds seen at once would cause confusion. The reasons for the

limited number of species are not far to seek. Firstly, Kodaikanal

is too high for many birds. Some species live on the plains and

never venture into the hills at all. Some, like the sparrows and

crows, are brave enough to climb to about 5,000; ft; but not

up to 7,000. Many other birds are found only in the forests

between 2,000 and 5,000 ft. The species that prefer the hill-tops,

and those that wander up so high, are comparatively few.

Secondly, Kodikanal is too far south. Migrants from the north

drop off one by one in the more northerly latitudes of India for

the winter. Only a few reach 10° 14! north latitude, where Kodai-

kanal is located. Thirdly, Kodaikanal has little water, and so there

are few water-birds found there. Land-birds, too, would be more

numerous if there were more woodland and more farms and gardens

in place of the grassy downs which offer little shelter and in

which the bird population is fairly scanty.

There are one or two drawbacks to the study of birds at Kodai-

kanal. One is the height of some of the trees. The blue-gums

are so tall that one almost requires a telescope to see birds in

them. Curiously, very few birds seem to like blue-gums, but there

are many other big trees which tire the neck of the observer.

Another hindrance is the density of the foliage in the sholas

(jungles). This makes it hard to find a bird which moves: about

much, and one has to record many brief and imperfect observa-

tions. On the whole, however, it is a great place for birds, and

those who find the dianter Wes of field-work too great can sit on

the verandah and concentrate on a few species.

Purpose. When I first came to Kodaikanal, I longed for some

book which would help me to identify the birds I saw. I have

now, after seven seasons, named most of the common birds to

my own satisfaction, and this paper is an attempt to provide for

the beginner the help I myself needed. Of course, I wish it were

illustrated, because a picture conveys more than many words.

However, I have tried to give pictures, in broad strokes, with a

few words. Most descriptions are so full as to confuse the reader.

I have perhaps erred on the opposite side, giving only those few

markings by which the species found at Kodaikanal can be

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS -AND HOW.TO NAME THEM 813

distinguished from one another quickly and easily. For complete

descriptions, you can go to the big books,—Baker and Inglis’

Birds of Southern India (Government Press, Madras, 1930), or

the eight-volume Fauna of British India,—Birds. But it is not

necessary to know all the details of colouration when you meet

a new bird. Having learned to recognize the species by a few

distinctive marks or habits, you can fill in for yourself by observa-

tion the interesting and significant details. For some idea of the

vast amount of fascinating information there is to be learned about

each species, turn to Whistler’s Popular Handbook of Indian

Birds. Many of our species do not appear in Whistler’s book,

however.

Scope. All the species in this list have been recorded on the

Palni Hills between 6,000 and 8,ooo ft. elevation. I have limited

myself to birds that are present during the season from April to

June, since most people are in Kodaikanal then. There are only

a few migrants and winter visitors in the list. I have omitted, for

the most part, birds with which I am not personally acquainted.

There may be some serious omissions because I have not been

afield enough or. in the right places. However, I am consoled by

the knowledge that there is no such thing as a complete bird-

list for any locality, since the day after a list is published a

new bird may turn up. I have avoided as far as possible all

reference to birds of the plains, since people who study birds

in Kodaikanal. may have little or no knowledge of the plains-birds

of Madura District. The scientific ornithologist will ask for con-

firmation of some of my records by specimens. To this I reply that

I do not use a gun, nor have I had personal access to any specimens

collected at Kodaikanal. I have received some help, however, by

a study of the following published lists, which are based for the

most part on specimens collected :

‘A List of Birds Collected and Observed on the Palani Hills’,

by Rev. S. B. Fairbank, p.p., in Stray Feathers, vol. v, 387 ff.

‘A Few. Additional Notes on. Birds on the Pulney Hills’, by

Merny ming ovray “Heathers, vols x, - 407 i.

‘The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’, by Salim Ali in

this Journal, beginning in vol. xxxvii. Mr. Salim Ali collected in

the High Range within 25 miles of Kodaikanal, and he is my

authority for the names I have used, many of which are different

from those found in The Birds of Southern: India, thanks to the

recent work on nomenclature done by Mr. Hugh Whistler. .

| Di ta

1. Travancore Yeilow-cheeked Tit. Machlolophus xantho-

genys travancoreensis.

Length: 6 in., the same as the Chat.

Field-marks: A wide black line below from the bill to the tail.

Crested head. The head is black, with eyebrows and cheeks pale

yellow. © !

Haunts : Trees, usually high up. ‘They travel about in small

groups, often in company with White-eyes. Fairly common,

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL .HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Song: A high-pitched clear whistle of several emphatic notes.

Rather like a Grey-headed Flycatcher’s call.

NUTHATCHES.

2. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Sitta frontalis.

Eength: 54n0., smallerithan the Chat,

Field-marks: Deep-blue above, rusty-white below. Bill red. A

short, thick-set bird. |

Haunts: It runs about on the bark of trees, often head down.

From two to ten may be seen together, usually in thick woods.

Fairly common.

Call: A rapid series of high-pitched ‘chip’s’.

LAUGHING THRUSHES.

3. Wynaad Laughing Thrush. Garrulax delesserti.

Length: 1o1in., larger than the Myna.

Field-marks : Brown and slaty above. Cheeks and throat white.

It lacks the conspicuous white eye-brow of the next species.

Haunts: Underbush. I have only one doubtful record of it,

but the late F. Dawson thought he had seen it on its nest near

Pillar Rocks. Rare.

Call: Said to be a very noisy bird.

4. Palni Laughing Thrush. Trochalopteron jerdoni fair-

banki.

‘Length: 8.5 in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: White eye-brow, with black lines above and below

it. Olive-brown upper parts. Breast grey, abdomen rufous.

Haunts: Bushes and thick. trees, in the settlement as well as

in the wilder sholas. Discovered at Kodaikanal by Rev. S. B.

Fairbank in 1867. Abundant.

Calls: Loud shrieks of delight, whistles of surprise, or snatches

of laughter, which have a ventriloquial effect of being more distant

than they really are. Often when one bird calls, all within hearing

join, making the woods ring.

SCIMITAR BABBLERS.

5. Travancore Scimitar Babbler. Pomatorhinus — horsfieldi

travancoriensis.

Length: 8.5 in., smaller than the Myna,

Field-marks: Curved yellow bill like a scimitar. Plumage dark-

brown, with pointed white breast-patch and eye-brow.

Haunts: Woods and sholas, usually in thick foliage. It some-

times clings to the bark of trees like an enlarged Nuthatch. Not

often seen, but fairly common.

Call: Loud and wooden, resembling the tone of the Barbet, but

lower and more deliberate. The notes often are: do, do, do, do,

and then up to fa, la. As others have put it, one calls, “Wot-ho-

ho-ho’, and before this is fairly out of his mouth comes the flute-

like reply from his mate in the next bush, ‘Yes, dear,’

BULBULS.

6. South Indian Black Bulbul. Microscelis psaroides ganeesa.

Length: to in., larger than the Myna.

Field-marks : Blackish, with rather long, curved, bright-red bill.

There is a short rough crest on the head. Grey below, especially

toward the tail. The tail is longer than a Blackbird’s.

Haunts: Constantly moving about in the tree-tops in larger

sholas. Often one meets large, loose flocks. Fairly common.

Calls: Loud, harsh screams, uttered most of the time. They

would be very unpopular if they came near houses much.

7. Ceylon Red-vented Bulbul. Molpastes cufer.

Length: 8 in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: The whole head is black, with a rough crest.

Most of the plumage is grey-brown with markings like scales.

Haunts : About gardens or on bushy slopes. I have never met

it above 5,200 ft. elevation, but others have found it occasionally

at Kodaikanal.

Call: A cheerful, bubbling whistle, rather lower in pitch and

rougher than the call of the Red-whiskered.

8. Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul. Otocompsa jocosa_ fusci-

caudata.

Length: 8in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: A sharp black crest, curving forward. . Small red

moustache. White below, with a brown collar-line.

Haunts: In bushy places, often in large flocks. Abundant.

Call: A musical series of whistled notes, high-pitched and

tiakling.

39. The Yellow-browed Bulbul. Jole icterica.

Length: 8in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: A bright-yellow bird, when seen from below.

Above, olive-green, with brown wings.

Haunts: The upper branches in thick woods, where it travels

in loose companies up to 60 in number. I have not seen it in

Kodaikanal, but Fairbank wrote that it came to ‘the top’. Probably

rare at this height.

Call: A clear, mellow, double whistle, given frequently.

SHORTWINGS.

10. White-bellied Shortwing. Brachypteryx major albiventris.

Length: 6.5 in., larger than the Chat. .

Field-marks: A dark-blue bird with light-brown eyes, white

rump, and rounded wings. Compare this description with that of

the Nilgiri Flycatcher, which is very similar. Young birds are

spotted like those of the flycatchers.

Haunts: Thick undergrowth in the sholas. Most in evidence

at dusk, when they come out onto roads and paths. Discovered

in Kodaikanal by Rev. S. B. Fairbank in 1867. Fairly common.

816. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: X¥XIX

Song: Beautiful and sprightly, long-continued and varied,

uttered as the bird moves from twig to twig among the shadows.

It is thrush-like in quality, but higher in pitch.

Calls: A loud chattering, and at times a faint high whistle.

CHATS.

11. Southern Indian Stone Chat. Saxicola caprata. atrata.

Length: 6in., smaller than the House Sparrow.

Field-marks : A stubby black bird with three white patches, on

shoulders and rump. The female is brown with a pink rump.

Haunts: It perches on a bush-top in an open place, making

short dashes to the ground or up into the air for insects. Abundant.

Call: Gives it its name. The song is short but rather sweet.

ROBINS.

12. Ceylon Magpie-Rebin. Copsychus saularis ceylonensis.

Length: gin., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: A long-tailed black bird, with white belly and

white in the wings and tail, but none on the rump. :

Haunts: Orchards up to the level of Kodaikanal. Regularly;

found in the valley below the United Church.

- Song: Clear, shrill;xand -varted,. divided into short ube:

Heard most early in the morning. Fee

THRUSHES.

13. Travancore Blackbird. Turdus simillimus bourdilloni.

Length: toin., larger than the Myna.

Field-marks: All blackish, with orange bill and legs. The

female is dark-brown and grey. Many birds have yellow legs, and

seem closer to T. s. simillimus, the Nilgiri Blackbird. Whistler

thinks our Palni Hills birds are intermediate, but closer to

Bourdillon’s. . enna arr ee oe

_ Haunts: In trees. It does not come out on open lawns, as

much as its relatives; the pus Blackbird and American Robin.

Common.

Song: Loud, clear, and -varied..: cane with a. fee pauses all.

day long.

14. Nilgiri Thrush. Oreocincla dauma neilghiriensis.

Length: 9.5 in., the same as the Myna:

Field-marks: Above, brown, somewhat spotted. The wing is

barred with black. Below, white with brown spots.

Haunts: Forests, where it searches for insects among’ fallen

leaves. The only record I know for Kodaikanal is by Terry, who

shot.one ‘on its nest.on, June 7th:

Song: Said to be not so continuous as that of the Blackbird,

but with longer intervals. between brief phrases.

15. Malabar Whistling Thrush. Myophonus horsfildi

Length: 121n., as large as the Dove.

Field-marks : Black, with patches of bright blue on wings and.

forehead.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 817

Haunts: Along a water-course in a wild and wooded ravine.

Fairly common.

Song: Heard at sunset and early in the morning. The smooth-

ness and clearness of its tones, and the length and variety of the

song, are remarkable. It has forgotten its tune, but it whistles

on. Many of the tones are Jower than the human whistler can

reach, so the name ‘Whistling Schoolboy’ is not entirely appropri-

ate.

FLYCATCHERS.

16. Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher. Muscicapula tickelliae.

Length: 6.1n., the same as the Chat.

-Field-marks : Dark blue, but with the breast reddish.

Haunts: Large shady trees without undergrowth. Fairbank

observed it frequently from top to bottom of the hills, but I have

met it only in the lower hills. Rare. ; |

Song: Said to be ‘a musical little trill’, or ‘a little whistling

chirrup’.

17. Nilgiri Blue Flycatcher, Eumyias albicaudata.

ee 6.in., the same as. the Chat. Te

-Field-marks: Dark-blue nearly all over. The outer tail feathers

are white at the base. Vent. grey. Legs black. It should be

carefully compared with the Shortwing. The female is dull brown

and blue. Young speckled birds with only a few spots of-.blue

are often seen.

Haunts: In trees, near houses or in remote sholas. Common.

Song: A mild, rather sweet song of 6 or 8 notes, - often

with a glide in each note that gives it a somewhat mournful effect.

The bird is lethargic, and sings for a long time from one open

perch all through the day.

a =

18. Black and Orange Flycatcher. - Ochromela nigrovufa.

‘Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat: ae 7)

Field-marks : Head, neck, and wings black, the rest burnt-

orange. :

Haunts: In the thickest bushes of the darkest Soli: Baily

common.

Song : Rather sweet, but hoarser than that of the Gene ce

It has usually only three notes to a PES and is a little lacking

in animation.

Cail: A. series of 4..or 5 chattering ‘notes.

To: Grey- headed Flycatcher. ~Culicicapa ceylonensis.

Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat. ~

-Field- marks : "A dark-blue head (in spite of the name): -The

rest of the bird is yellow and olive. cs : |

Haunts: Found in groups or pairs in the sholas. They are

seldom still, but constantly dashing about, catching insects on the

wing. Common:

Song: A thin and high-pitched trill, somewhat metallic in

quality. It has a call of four whistled notes, sweet and clear.

There is also a variety of explosive alarm-notes.

8i8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1X

SHRIKES.

20. Southern Rufous-kacked Shrike. Lanius schach caniceps.

Length: gin., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: A black mask over the eyes. Ashy-grey above

and white below. Rump, sides, and lower back are rufous.

Haunts: It chooses an open and conspicuous perch. Common.

Call: Its nasal grating note is longer than a similar note of

the Myna’s. Its song, not a bad attempt, is less commonly heard.

21. Black-backed Pied Shrike. Hemipus picatus.

Length: 5.5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks : Head and upper parts mainly black, beneath white.

Haunts: An active bird of the tree-tops, sometimes in company

with White-eyes and Tits. Uncommon.

Song: Weak and high-pitched, but clear and varied. One form

of it see-saws back and forth between two notes.

MINIVETS.

22. Orange Minivet. Pericrocotus flammeus.

Length: 81in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: Head and upper back black, the rest bright red-

orange. The female is yellow, grey, and black.

Haunts: Always seen in small flocks in the tree-tops. Fairly

common.

Call: Some high, clear whistles draw one’s attention to the

arrival of a flock in a nearby tree. The song is a shrill, pleasant

warble, not often heard.

SWALLOW SHRIKES.

23. Ashy Swallow-Shrike. Artamus fuscus.

Length: 7 1n., larger than the Chat.

Field-marks: A short, thick-set bird, with short, pointed wings.

Bill thick and pale-blue. Plumage dark bluish-ashy.

Haunts: They may be seen, often in pairs, sitting motionless

on a high branch of a blue-gum tree, or soaring slowly in mid-air.

Uncommon. ,

Call: A soft nasal ‘yank’, which is easily remembered when

once heard.

DRONGOS.

24, Southern Bronzed Drongo. Chaptia aenea malayensis.

Length: 9g in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: Glossy blue-black, with a long forked tail.

Haunts: Open perches. JI have seen a Drongo in Kodaikanal

only once, at Pambar House garden. It was most likely this

species, which is found in the lower hills. Rare.

Song: Much sweeter than the plains bird’s.

W ARBLERS.

25. Blyth’s Reed Warbler. Acrocephalus dumetorum.

Length: 6in., the same as the Chat.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 8i9

Field-marks: Tail long and graduated. Olive-brown above.

A pale streak from top of bill to eye. Throat whitish, belly pale

buff.

Haunts: Dense undergrowth. In Travancore, this is a winter

visitor, leaving in mid-April. But Terry shot one at Putthur

(6,000 ft.) on June 26th, and saw a pair at Kukkal. So perhaps

it breeds in these hills. Rare. ~

Call: A sudden ‘chick’ or ‘chuck’ or ‘chur-r-r’, at frequent

intervals. .

Song: A slight warble, according to Wait.

26. Red-headed Fantail Warbler. Cisticola exilis erythroce-

phala.

Length: 4 in., smaller than the Chat. :

Field-marks : The top of the head is chestnut. The back has

black streaks. The under-parts are rusty.

Haunts: Open grass-lands. I have found it common only in

a few localities.

Call: A nasal ‘peeeenk’, followed by a clear whistled ‘toowhee’.

(Beavan’s Wren-Warbler, Franklinia rufescens, and the Rufous-

fronted Wren Warbler, Franklinia buchanan, are said by the

authorities not to be found as far south as Kodaikanal. I have

records that seem nearer to these than to any other species.

Perhaps further collecting on the Palni Hills will show an extension

of the known range of at least one of the Franklinias.)

27. Broad-tailed Grass Warbler. Schoenicola platyura.

Lengih: 7 in., larger than the Chat.

Field-marks: The under-parts are bright-rusty, except for a

white band down the centre. Above, red-brown. The eye-brow

is grey and inconspicuous.

Haunts: Bracken slopes, singing from a bush-top. Uncommon.

Song: A shrill and sweet trill, ending with a few warbling

notes and ‘chack’s’. It is the best song of any of our warblers’.

28. Thick-billed Warbler. Phragamaticola aédon.

enetvee 25 ile laneer tnan the Chat.

Field-marks: Above, light-brown, with a tinge of yellowish. No

white eye-brow. Tail graduated.

Haunts: Tall grass and weeds. A winter visitor only, but I

have records until May 2nd. Rare.

Call: A loud, harsh ‘chuck’ and ‘chur-r’, quickly repeated.

29. Sykes’ Tree Warbler. Hippolais rama.

Length: 5.5 in., smaller-than the Chat.

Field-marks : Tail slightly rounded. Olive-brown above, with a

faint pale eyebrow. Below, pale buff, with the throat and centre

of abdomen. nearly white.

Haunts: Thick bushes. A winter visitor staying into April.

Rare.

Call: A low wren-like chatter.

ey:

820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCETAV, “VolatX Xie

30. Tickell’s Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus affinis.

Length: 4.5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks : Deep yellow below, dull olive above. No wing-

bars. Yellow eye-brow.

Haunts: Trees, moving about constantly among the leaves. A

winter visitor staying through April. Fairly common.

Song: A brief, twittering warble.

31. Green Willow Warbler, Phylloscopus nitidus nitidus.

Length: § in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Green above, yellow below. Two wing-bars.

Yellow eye-brow.

Haunts: Trees. A winter visitor, noted as late as mid-May.

Rare.

Call: A-little “chirrup: "on chi-wee™

32. Greenish Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus.

Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: One faint wing-bar. Yellow eyebrow. Olive-

brown above, under-parts yellowish grey.

Haunts: A restless bird, found in heavy foliage. It is a winter

visitor only, and disappears about the middle of May. Fairly

common.

Song: A brief, pleasant warble of four or five notes, given

very frequently.

33. Large-billed Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus magnirostris.

Length: 5.5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks : Two wing-bars. Yellow eye-brow. Below, pale

yellow, with much grey on the breast.

Haunts: A winter visitor, in trees, staying until late in April.

Said to be common in the Travancore hills. I have only a few

doubtful records. Rare.

Song: A whistle of 2 or 3 or 4 syllables (authorities differ), almost

robin-like in tone.

34. Western Dull-green Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus

trochuiloides ludlowt.

Length 5 -in;, ‘smaller than. the Chat:

Field-marks : The eye-brow is smaller and less conspicuous than

in the preceding species.

Haunts: Some of our transient warblers in April probably

belong to this species. In trees. Rare?

Call: A sparrow-like chirp, repeated several times in succession.

35. Large-crowned Willow Warbler. Phylloscopus occipitalis.

Léngth: 5 1in.;- ‘smaller than the Chat

Field-marks: Resembles the other willow-warblers, but there

is a distihct pale line from the bill backward over the top of the

head.

Haunts: Trees. A winter visitor only. My only record is on

Apr tlit2a,

Call: A loud, sharp ‘tit-weet’.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM _ 821

36. Ashy Wren-Warbler. Prinia socialis.

lene: so5 in., smaller, than the Chat.

Field-marks: Smooth bluish-grey above. Black line through

eye. Below, pink. The most brightly-coloured of our warblers.

Haunts: Bracken slopes, where it sings from a bush-top or

in a short flight. Common.

Song: A shrill, emphatic, double note, repeated 5 or 6 times

together. In rhythm, this song is similar to that of the Tailor-

bird but its tone is less musical.

Calls: A cat-like snarl, and a nasal scolding.

37. South Indian Wren-Warbler. Prinia inornata franklinit.

Length: 6in., the same as the Chat.

Field-marks: Dull brown above, the feathers slightly darker at

their centres. Eye-brow white. Tail white-tipped.

Haunts: Bracken slopes, especially on the higher hills.

Common.

Song: An insect-like ‘tlk, tlik—’, more wheezy than the

preceding.

Call: A little ‘kink, kink,—’.

Mynas.

38. Southern Jungle Myna. Aethiopsar griseus mahyrattensis.

Length: 9.5 in., larger than the Bulbul.

Field-marks: Some erect feathers on the forehead. It lacks

the bare yellow skin around the eye of the plains bird, and is

more slaty than brown.

Haunts: About houses. Its name ‘Jungle’ is a mistake, as

far as we can see in Kodaikanal. Abundant. |

Calls: Varied and rough, less musical than those of the Common

Myna.

MUunNIAS.

39. Black-headed Munia. Munia malacca.

‘Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Black head, chestnut-red wings and back, and

white belly. Its thick, seed-crunching bill is pale blue in colour.

Haunts: Small flocks in weeds on open hillsides or in gardens.

Uncommon.

Gall was very sweet chattering.

40. White-throated Munia. Uvoloncha malabarica.

Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Plumage light-brown above, white below and on

face. The tail is blackish and wedge-shaped. Bill dull bluish.

Haunts: Bushy hillsides. Rare.

Call: A feeble ‘chee, chee, ie

41. Indian Spotted Munia. Uvoloncha punctulata lineoventer.

Wenge =, in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks : Dark red-brown head, golden-brown back. Below.

blackish, finely dotted with white.

822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Haunts: Found in small flocks in weeds, chiefly at lower eleva-

tins.) 2 Rare:

Call: A petulant ‘kitty-kitty-kitty’, according to Whistler.

42. Indian Red Munia. Amandava amandava.

Tength: 4 in., smaller*than the Chat:

Field-marks: Dark red, with some small white spots. The

female is a brown bird with only a little red on the back.

Haunts: In flocks in bushes on open hillsides. Uncommon.

Calls: A high-pitched musical twittering.

FINCHES.

43. Common Indian Rose Finch. Carpodacus erythrinus

rosealus.

Length: 6in., the same as the Chat.

Field-marks : Brown, tinged with rosy, especially on the head.

Conical bill.

Haunts: I have seen it only along the edges of sholas. A

winter visitor, until mid-April. Rare.

Song: Said to be rather pleasant.

SWALLOWS,

44, Nilgiri House Swallow. Hirundo javanica domicola.

Length: 5 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Glossy blue-black above. Tail forked, spotted

near the end with white.

Haunts: Breeds in a few houses, especially near Coaker’s

Walk. It swoops low through the air, bringing its wings back

close to its body with each stroke. Contrast the Swift’s method

of flying. Fairly common.

Calls: A musical twittering, and a variety of shrill squeals and

whistles.

W AGTAILS:

45. Large Pied Wagtaii. Motacilla maderaspatensis.

Length :.94n., smaller, than the. Mina.

Field-marks: Head, throat, and back black. Eye-brow and

lower parts white. Long tail.

Haunts : Around the lake and along water-courses. Often finds

its food on lawns., A convenient housetop is a favourite perch.

Fairly common.

Song: High-pitched, long, and clear,—one of the finest at

INwodaikanal.

46. Eastern Grey Wagtail. Motacilla cinerea caspica.

Length: 7.5 in., larger than the Chat.

Field-marks: Grey above, yellow and white below. A. con-

stantly wagging tail.

Haunts: This is a winter visitor, but until mid-May is a con-

spicuous bird, likely to be met anywhere in the settlement, on the

ground. Common.

Call: A high-pitched, strong ‘seep’.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 823

Piers:

47. Indian Tree Pipit. Anthus hodgsoni.

Henotie. 7 in., larver™= tian the Chat.

Field-marks: Streaky olive-brown above. Below, creamy and

white, with brown spots all the way from the neck to the vent.

Haunts: A winter visitor, leaving in April or early May. Found

on the ground in shady places, where it can fly into a tree for

safety. Fairly common.

Call: A faint, plaintive note.

48. The Nilgiri Pipit. Anthus nilghiriensis.

Bemeiiv-ae7 10.4. larcer thanathe Chat:

Field-marks: Streaked with black and pale olive above. Eye-

brow rufous. Lower parts tawny, the breast and sides being

streaked with black.

Haunts: Open grassy hills. I think I have seen it a few times.

Fairbank called it common, and Terry found it more common

than the Malay Pipit.

Song: A chipping song given while fluttering in the air, prob-

ably belongs to this species.

49, Rufous Rock Pipit. Anthus similis.

Length: 81in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: A narrow black moustache. Only the breast is

spotted with brown. Above, streaky dark-brown. Below, creamy,

and eyebrow of the same colour. _

Haunts: I have found it regularly on the swampy meadow near

the south-west corner of the lake, and occasionally elsewhere.

Fairly common.

Song: A feeble, high whistle, given during a circular dipping

flight, followed by a dive to the ground. Or, a few high-pitched —

“chip:s’. .

50. The Malay Pipit. Anthus rufulus malayensis.

ibenot: s6.5 1n..lareer thane the “Chat.

Field-marks: Streaked above with pale brown, dark brown, and

blackish. The eye-brow and lower parts are pale creamy. The

sides and breast are streaked with dark brown.

Haunts: In open grassy land. I have found it at the south-

west corner of the lake. Fairly common.

Song: Five to ten ‘chink’s’, uttered while flying up a short

distance.

LARKS.

51. Small Nilgiri Sky Lark. Alauda gulgula australis.

Length: 6.5 in., larger than the Chat.

Field-marks: Streaked with dark brown and rufous above.

Eye-brow and under-parts tinged with rufous. The breast is

streaked with brown. Distinguished from the Pipits by its more

crouching position, and iis habit of squatting instead of running

away when one approaches, .

824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Haunts: On the downs outside the settlement. Abundant.

Song: Long, sweet, and inspiring, given while the bird soars

higher than the eye can follow.

Call: A liquid ‘chirrup’:

52. Malabar Crested Lark. Galerida malabarica.

Lengihs in., larcerothan athe «Ghat,

Field-marks: A crest on the head; otherwise a streaky brown

bird like the Sky Lark.

Haunts: Grassy hill-tops just beyond the houses. Fairly

common,

Songs Said to resemble the Sky Lark’s. Often, a lark song is

a mere chattering or chipping, and lasts not more than a quarter

of a minute. Perhaps such songs are from this species.

Call: A rather sweet ‘tee-ur’, according to Whistler.

WHITE-EYES.

53. The Nilgiri White-eye. Zodsterops palpebrosa nilgiriensis.

Length: 4 in., smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Yellow-green above. Breast yellow, belly white.

A white eye-ring:

Haunts: Always found in trees or bushes, busily moving from

branch to branch in loose companies. Abundant.

Song: Their mild querulous notes are heard all the time. They

remind me of the call of a baby chick which is somewhat sleepy.

The song is a brief, weak trill.

SUNBIRDS.

54. The Small Sunbird. Cinnyris minima.

Length: 3.5 in., our smallest bird (with the Flowerpecker).

Field-marks : Curved bill. Head and neck dull green. Wings

dark brown. Underparts entirely deep yellow. There are other

plumages, and in them all the red back is a distinguishing mark,

but this is not easy to see.

Haunts: About flowers. Fairly common.

Song: A cloud, ringine tall:

SPIDER-HUNTERS.

55. Little Spider-hunter. Avachnothera longirostra.

Length: 6in., one-fourth of which is bill. Smaller than the

Chat.

Field-marks: An extra-long bill. Throat white, belly yellow.

Above, dull brown, grey, and olive.

Haunts: Around flowering trees. Rare.

FLOWERPECKERS.

56. Nilgiri Flowerpecker. Dicaeum concolor.

Length: 3.5 in., shares with the Small Sunbird the distinction

of being our smallest bird.

Field-marks: Very dull coloured. The upper parts are green

and brown, the lower parts whitish. Face white,

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 825

Haunts: A restless bird, seldom allowing a good view. Always

well up in trees, favouring those that have parasitic growths on

them. Abundant.

Call: A sharp ‘check’ makes identification easy.

Song: A high-pitched trill, weak and wiry.

WOODPECKERS.

57. Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker. Picus xantho-

py gaeus.

Length: 111in., smaller than the Dove.

Field-marks: The back is green and much-spotted. The male

has a large red crest, the female a black one.

Haunts: On tree-trunks and large branches. Uncommon.

Call; Its drumming is as rapid as a steam-hammer, and must

give the bird the same satisfaction that most birds get fom

singing. Its call is a single, mild, falsetto note, not often heard.

58. Maltherbe’s Golden-backed Woodpecker. Chrysocolaptes

guttacristatus chersonesus.

‘Length: 11 in., smaller than the Dove.

Field-marks : The back and wings are golden-olive, lower back

crimson. The male is red-crested, the female content with black.

The black and white lines on the side of the head are conspicuous.

Haunts: On tree-trunks. Uncommon.

Call: A harsh scream of several syllables.

BARBETS.

59. Small Green Barbet. Thereiceryx viridis.

Length: 9.5 in., the same as the Myna.

Field-marks: All green, except for a streaked brown head and

white chin. The bill is heavy and flesh-coloured.

Haunts: In thick trees, where its bright colour matches the

leaves. Abundant.

Song: Wooden in tone, loud, and frequently uttered. One form

is a long trill, followed by a_ two-syllabled ‘hook-krrr’, often

repeated. When one bird sings, others join in the chorus. The

Hoopoe’s note is softer in tone, the Scimitar’s deeper.

CuCKOOS.

60. Southern Crow-Pheasant. Cenlropus sinensis parroti.

Length: 19 in., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: All black, except for the wings, which are red-

chestnut. The eyes are red. .

Haunts: This dignified, overgrown cuckoo is found in_ thick

bushes and on the ground, often near houses. I have seen it only

once as high as Kodaikanal. Rare.

Call: A hoot of very deep tone. It is loud enough to be heard

clearly a mile or more away. Except that it does not inhale, it

reminds one of the call of the Langur Monkey.

826 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol XRRIX

KINGFISHERS,

61. Common Ceylon Kingfisher. Alcedo atthis taprobana.

Length: 641n.; the same-as the Chat:

Field-marks: Bright-blue -back, ‘Ihe. head is. dark, with “a

streak of white behind the eye. Below, chestnut. The Three-toed

Kingfisher with its orange head and rump, may also occur here.

Haunts: Lakes and streams. Uncommon.

Call: A sharp squeak.

62. Ceylon White-breasted Kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis

fusca.

Length: 10.5 in., larger than the Myna.

Field-marks: Large red bill, with an oversized head. White

breast, sharply contrasted with dark brown below and blue above.

Haunts : Usually they nest in the sand-bank near the ball-field.

Uncommon. :

Call: A loud, defiant, rattling laugh.

HoOopPoOES.

63. Ceylon Hoopoe. Upupa epops ceylonensis.

Length: 11 1n., smaller than.the Dove.

Field-marks: A remarkable rufous and black crest, which it

folds and spreads frequently, like a fan. Mostly tan-coloured, with

black and white wings. A long, curved bill.

Haunts: Never far from houses, in any opening of which it

nests. Feeds mostly on the ground. Common.

Call: A soft, wooden ‘hoop, hoop’, softer than a Barbet’s notes.

Sometimes, three ‘hoop’s’ are given together.

SwIFTS.

64. White-rumped Spinetail, Indicapus sylvaticus.

Length: 475 in., smaller than the Chat:

Field-marks : Blackish, with both rump and belly white.

Haunts: In the air all the time, usually near forests at lower

elevations. I have seen it only once near Pillar Rocks.

Call: A rapidly-repeated ‘swicky-sweezy’.

65. Indian Alpine Swift. Micropus melba bakeri.

Length: 8in., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: The lower parts are white, except for a brown

band across the breast. The upper plumage is smooth brown.

Tail forked.

Haunts: Seen singly, high in air, flying very swiftly and

soaring a good deal. The manner of flight of any swift distin-

guishes it at once from a swallow. The swift’s wings are not

brought back parallel with the body, but are held well out from

the body like the flukes of an anchor. Uncommon.

Call: Loud, shrill, and tremulous.

66. Nepal Indian House Swift. Micropus affinis nipalensis.

Length: .5 1n.; smaller than the Chat:

Field-marks: A blackish bird with a white rump.

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 827

Haunts: In large flocks high in the air, occasionally at Kodai-

kanal, more common at other places in the_ hills.

Call; A musical twittering, kept up all the time.

67. Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet. Collocalia fuciphaga unicolor.

Henetih: 5 1m, smaller than the Chat.

Field-marks: Dull brown above, with darker wings. Grey

below. The Swiftlet is a slow-flying bird, and flutters much more

than the Swallows and other Swifts.

Haunts: Seen flying over the lake or open places anywhere.

Said to nest in the ‘chimney’ at Pillar Rocks. Abundant.

Call: A shrill twittering, less musical than that of the House

Swift. Often they are silent.

68. Indian Crested Swift. Hemiprocne coronata.

Length: gin., smaller than the Myna.

Field-marks: Blue-grey above, grey and white below. The

blackish tail is very deeply forked.

Haunts: Flying. Rare.

Call: Resembles a parrot’s scream.

NIGHTJARS.

69. Indian Jungle Nightjar. Caprimulgus indicus.

Length: +1 in., smaller than the* Dove.

Field-marks : The tail has a broken band of white across near

the end. The general effect is grey-brown, much mottled.

Haunts: Near woods, at night. Terry found it common at

some places in the hills. Rare at Kodaikanal.

Call: Do-sol (lower), repeated over and over. Also, a low

‘chuck’.

OwLs.

70. Bengal Brown Fish Owl. Ketupa zevylonensis leschenaulti.

Length: 24 in., twice as large as the Dove.

Field-marks: Ear-tufts (‘horns’) present. The facial disc is not

clear.

Haunts: Sholas, at night. Rare.

Call: ‘Gloom-oh-gloom’, in a solemn bass voice.

VULTURES.

71. Indian Long-billed Vulture. Gyps indicus.

Length: 38 in., our largest bird.

Field-marks: Brown and whitish, rather patchy in appearance.

A young White Vulture will answer to this description also, but

is readily told by its size.

Haunts: Usually below the town. Rare.

72. Indian White-backed Vulture. Pseudogyps bengalensis.

Length: 35 in., three times as large as the Dove.

Field-marks: A blackish bird, with white patches on the lower

back, sides, and under-wings. Like the other vultures, its head

appears too small for its heavy body and broad wings,

828 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL” HIST. SOCIEDY wVol.. XoOa x

Haunts: Often several soaring about below the bazaar. Fairly

common.

73. Smaller White Scavenger Vulture. Neophron percnopterus

gingimanus.

Length: 24 in., twice as large as the Dove.

Field-marks : Yellowish-white, with some black in the wings.

Haunts: Chiefly below the bazaar, looking for carrion and

garbage. Fairly common.

FALCONS.

74. Indian Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus objurgatus.

Length: 13 in., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: A slender, long-tailed hawk, mainly red and blue

in colour.

Haunts: Open hillsides. It often stands in one spot in the

air, either by beating its wings rapidly or by facing the wind

almost motionless. Fairly common.

Call: A shrill laughing scream.

EAGLES.

75. Bonelli’s Eagle. Hieraétus fasciatus.

Length: 27 1in., over twice as large as the Dove.

Field-marks: Below, white with black streaks. Above, dark

brown with white splotches. Tail cross-barred below.

Haunts: This dignified bird may be met along the borders of

woods, in or out of the settlement. Uncommon.

Call: Shrill and creaking.

76. Indian Black Eagle, Ictinaétus malayensis perniger.

Length: 27 in.,; over twice as lapse as theDove-:

Field-marks : All black, except for yellow beak and legs.

Haunts: Not far from forests. I have seen a pair in the open

from Coaker’s Walk.

Call: A: shrill cry.

KITES.

77. The Brahminy Kite. Haliastur indus.

Length: 20 in., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: Head and neck white, the rest chestnut-brown.

The immature bird is splotchy, and its best mark is a prominent

white band across the under side of the wing.

Haunts: May be seen flying anywhere about the settlement,

not far from water. Uncommon.

Call: A squealing note.

78. The Common Kite. Milvus migrans govinda.

Length: 21 1n., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: Tail slightly forked. Streaky dark-brown plum-

age.

Haunts: Anywhere around the town, in the air, looking for

scraps to eat. Common.

Call: A shrill, quavering scream,

THE KODAIKANAL BIRDS AND HOW TO NAME THEM 829

BUZZARDS.

79. Black-winged Kite. Elanus caeruleus vociferus.

Length: 13 in., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: Above, grey and black. The forehead, lower

parts, and most of the tail, are white.

Haunts: They fly low over grassy hilltops, as graceful as terns

over the sea. Rare.

Call: Said to be a thin, high-pitched squeal.

Hawks,

80. Indian Shikra, Astur badius dussumieri.

Length: 13 1n., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: A small, slender, ashy-grey hawk. The wings

are short and rounded, the tail long.

Haunts: Dashes through light forest. I have only two Kodai-

knal records.

Call: A loud, shrill cry, ‘titu, titu——’.

PIGEONS.

81. Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon. Ducula badia cuprea.

Length: 171n., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks : Grey, bluish, and brown. Throat white.

Haunts: They sit quietly in heavy trees in sholas. Rare.

Call: A loud, booming ‘who, whoo’.

82. Indian Blue Rock Pigeon. Columba livia intermedia.

Length: 121n., the same as the Dove.

Field-marks: Slaty-blue, with black bars in wings and_ tail.

The tail is short and squarish. This is the ancestor of the

domestic pigeon.

Haunts: In the vicinity of rocky cliffs where they nest. Un-

common.

Call: Resembles that of the domestic bird.

83. Nilgiri Wood Pigeon. Columba elphinstonit.

Length: 161n., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks : Brown wings. On the side of the neck, a black

patch with small white spots in it. Otherwise greenish-grey.

Haunts: They sit quietly in dense trees. Uncommon.

Call: ‘Coo’s’ of very low tone, from four to eight in number.

Softer than the Crow-Pheasant’s call, they are more owl-like in

quality.

DovES.

84. Indian Spotted Dove. Sivreptopelia chinensis suratensis.

Length: 12 in., larger than the Hoopoe.

Field-marks: Head is small in proportion to the body.

The tail is longer than in the pigeons. The wings and back are

pale brown with lighter spots. Otherwise, mostly ashy-grey.

Haunts: In trees. Common.

Call: A soft, wooden ‘cuckoo, cooo, cooo, cooo’. The tone is

similar to the Hoopoe’s note, but the rhythm is distinctive,

830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL BISTASOCIELY: Vols. xXx

JUNGLE FowL.

85. Grey Jungle Fowl. Gallus sonneratii.

Length: 301in., half of which is tail. A large bird.

Field-marks: Black and brown with white spots.

Haunts: Larger jungles, mostly below Kodaikanal. Uncommon.

Call; A fowl-like crow, ‘kuk-kaa kurra kuk’.

SPUR-FOWL.

86. Travancore Red Spur-Fowl. Galloperdix spadicea stewarti.

Length: 15 in., larger than the Dove.

Field-marks: A slender, pheasant-like fowl. Dark brown and

chestnut, with a red bill.

Haunts: Larger jungles and pine plantations. Fairly common.

Call; A chuckling or cackling cry, usually of only. two syllables.

QUAIL.

87. Malabar Jungle Bush-Quail. Perdicula asiatica vidali.

Length: 6.5 in., larger than the Chat.

Field-marks: Brown, marked with chestnut and black above.

Below, cross-bars of black and white.

Haunts : On the ground, in tall grass and bushes on the downs.

Rare.

Call: A whistled ‘tiri-tiri-tiri’.

88. Painted Bush-Quail. Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum.

Lengih: “7-in. larger than. the (Chat:

Field-marks: Brown, with black and buff streaks. A white

throat bordered with black.

Haunts: Little groups of them run along the ground in thick

grass or underbrush remote from houses. They give one the

briefest sort of view when they fly off. Uncommon.

Call: A whistled ‘kirikee’, repeated several times.

W OODCOCK.

89. The Woodcock. Scolopax rusticola.

Length: 1g im. jarever than. the Dove:

Field-marks: Long bill. Stripes across the head, not length-

wise. Beautifully mottled brown, black, and white.

Haunts: A winter visitor only, staying into May. Found in

woods near water. Rare.

Call: A nasal ‘beep’ when flying about at dusk.

SNIPE.

90. Fantail Snipe. Capella gallinago.

Length: 10.5 in., larger than the Myna.

Field-marks: A thick-set bird with a long bill. Three yellowish

lines run lengthwise over the top of the head. The upper plum-

age is streaked black, white, and brown. Below, mostly white.

Haunts: Swampy places near sholas. Flies usually at dusk,

It stays as a migrant until early May. Uncommon,

Call: A nasal ‘scap’. |

SOME BIRDS OF LYALLPUR AND THEIR FOOD.

M. Arzau Husain, M.A. (Cantab.), 1.3.

AND

Hem Ras Buaua, B.se. (Agri.),

The Punjab Agricultural College, Lyallpur.

INTRODUCTION.

A number of contributions on the bird fauna of North

West India have appeared from time to time in the Journal of

the Bombay Natural History Society. Rattray (1905) and

Magrath (1909) gave an account of the birds of Murree and the

Gullis. Curree (915) studied the birds of Lahore and its vicinity.

Hugh Whistler (1915, 1917, 1920, 1927, 1928) investigated the

avian fauna of the Dalhousie hills, Gujranwala, Ambala, Ludhiana,

Fagoo (near Simla), Simla and Kulu. Jones (1920, 1921, 1927)

worked on the birds of Simla, Campbellpore-Attock and Ambala.

Hingston (1921) devoted his attention to the birds of Delhi. Briggs

and Osmaston (1928) interested themselves in the bird fauna of

Peshawar.

The recently-opened-up canal colonies have so far remained

unrepresented and this opportunity is taken to place on record

information regarding the birds of Lyallpur.

As friends and foes of the farmer the birds are second in im-

portance only to the insects, and, therefore, for an agricultural

country the study of the bird fauna is of paramount importance.

A study of the food habits of the birds commonly found in gardens

and fields at Lyallpur was taken in hand in 1926, and an area

within ten miles radius of the Punjab Agricultural College, Lyall-

pur, has been surveyed.

It is generally recognized that the capacity for damage or good

depends, largely, on the number of individuals. Every grain- or

fruit-feeding species is a potential foe and every insect feeder a

potential friend, but as long as the number of individuals is small

the value of a particular species is insignificant. Thus it is not

always possible to assign a definite status to a species.

The study of the bird fauna of Lyallpur is of added interest

when one recollects, that not long ago this tract was almost barren

and a most inhospitable spot. Here “nothing but Prosopis spicigera,

Salvadora oleoides, Capparis aphylla, Tamarix articulata grew in

any abundance, Zizyphus jujuba, Zizyphus numularia, were less

common, and Acacia arabica and Dalbergia sissu were rarities.

Grasses which grew after scanty rains provided grazing for nume-

rous herds of cattle. Cultivation was unknown over this vast arid

tract. During the last 40 years, thanks to the canals, the entire

832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

character of the locality—climatic, floral and faunal—has changed

and Lyalipur has become one of the greenest parts of the Punjab,

where innumerable trees provide roosting places, and different

crops and fruit trees provide sufficient food for different species and

enormous flocks of birds. The introduction of different types of

plants as crops and fruit, shade and ornamental trees have brought

in their particular pests and thus increased the food of the insecti-

vorous birds.

If it were possible to compare the avian fauna of 40 years ago

with what it is today, one would get most interesting facts regard-

ing the ‘Balance of Life in Nature’. Unfortunately, for want of

record, such a comparison is not possible. As a direct result of

the colonization of this arid area, undoubtedly, there has occur-

red an enormous increase in the numbers of such birds as crows,

sparrows, parrots and pigeons, which now find abundant food and

safe dwellings. This locality is still undergoing changes and a

study undertaken after a quarter of a century will perhaps prove

very interesting.

It may be stated that in addition to the birds mentioned in

this paper, various species of cranes, mallards, ducks, teals and

snipes are found in the Lyallpur District at the canal escapes at

Chaku, Beranwala, Rodukoru and Bhakat, but as these birds are

not of agricultural importance, they have not been studied.

The nomenclature adopted is that of Stuart Baker (The Fauna

op eritish Indiae. (1: Nowa es, ) indicates number of the species

in the Fauna Volumes. |

Some of the birds collected were identified by the Bombay

Natural History Society and the help received is gratefully

acknowledged.

BIRDS -OF LYALLPUR.

The following is a brief account of the birds found at Lyallpur. Most of

these were actually shot and their stomach contents examined.

Family: CoRvip#,

(1) The Punjab Raven. Corvus laurencei, Hume (F. No. 1).

Abundance.—Common in the vicinity of town as well as in the open country ;

found throughout the year; 19 birds killed during different months of the year.

Food.—Omnivorous: ripening fruits and cereals, seeds and seedlings from

the fields; kitchen refuse; animal flesh; eggs and young of birds; insects—

locusts, Chrotogonus spp., ants, gram caterpillars, cutworms, beetles, etc.

Status.--Of major importance to agriculture: on the whole “harmful.

(2) The Eastern Rook. Corvus frugilegus tschusii Hartert. (F. No. 9).

Abundance.—A winter visitor; not common; 5 birds killed 21-2-1929 (8)

and 5-12-1928 (2).

Food.—Wheat and other grains, tender shoots of gram, other vegetable

matter; insects—ants, gram caterpillars, cutworms, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture.

(3) The Common Indian House=Crow. Corvus splendens splendens Vieill.

(BS Novel)

Abundance.—Found in myriads throughout the year; numerous tall trees

provide suitable roosts. In winter (October to March) they leave their roosting

places every morning in huge flocks going towards different directions and

return in the evening. Killed every week throughout the year 1928-29.

SOME BIRDSJON LYALLPUR AND THEIR) FOOD 833

Food.—Omnivorous: all kinds of ripening crops and fruits, seeds and seed-

lings, kitchen refuse, vegetables; lizards, eggs and nestling of birds; animal

flesh; and insects—Chrotogonus spp., locust adults and hoppers, black ants,

winged white-ants, caterpillars, beetles and beetle grubs, ete.

Kxamination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 44.13 per cent, weedseeds

2.68 per cent, vegetables 7.33 per cent, cultivated fruits 6.46 per cent, wild

fruits 5.39 per cent, animal flesh etc. 8.384 per cent, injurious insects 16.15 per

cent, miscellaneous, bread etc., 9.47 per cent and pebbles 0.05 per cent.

Status.—A very important bird in agriculture: certainly a serious pest in

the canal colonies; its total extermination perhaps may not be desirable, but

its numbers must be kept down.

(4). The Indian Tree-pie. Dendrocitta rufa rufa Latham. (F. No. 26).

Abundance.—Not very common; 7 birds killed on 24, 26-4-1980, 30-6-1926,

1-7-1928 (2); 2-8-1928; 21-12-1928.

Food.—Omnivorous: cultivated crops; fruits; lizards, spiders, eggs and

nestling of birds; and insects—locust hoppers, caterpillars, beetles, etc.

amily: Paripa.

(5) The Punjab Grey-Tit. Parus major planorum Hartert (I. No. 54).

Abundance.—A rare bird; only one specimen was killed on 28-11-1929.

Food.—Ants and other hymenopterous insects.

Family: TimaLup2.

(6) The Bengal Jungle-Babbler. Turdoides terricolor terricolor Hodgs.

(EF. No. 188).

Abundance.—Fairly common; present throughout the year, seen hopping

about bushes and trunks of trees and overturning leaves in search of insects;

31 birds killed during different months of the year.

Food.—Omnivorous: grains, seeds and seedlings, weedseeds; sometimes

fruits; various insects—Chrotogonus spp., locust, eggs and hoppers, ants, cater-

pillars and beetles. Insects form the major portion of its diet.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(7) The Common Babbler. Argyu caudata caudata Dumont. (F. No. 192).

Abundance.—A familiar and common bird, seen throughout the year near

bushes and hedges; 17 birds killed during different months of the year.

Food.—Mainly insects—ants, caterpillars, beetles; also grains, seeds and seed-

lings, and weedseeds.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: PycNnonoTipé.

(8) The Punjab Red-vented Bulbul. Molpastes hamorrhous intermedius

Jerdon. (F. No. 404).

Abundance.—Common; generally seen in pairs throughout the year in gardens

and cultivated areas; 12 birds killed during different months of the year.

Food.--Ovanivorous: grains, ficus-fruit, peas; insects—locust adults and

hoppers, ants, winged white-ants, caterpillars, moths, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: on the whole beneficial.

(9) The White-cheeked Bulbul. Molpastes leucogenys leucogenys Gray.

(F. No. 405).

Abundance.--Not so common as the above, one specimen killed on 5-9-1929.

Family: TurDIDz

(10) Tne Northern Indian Stone-Chat. Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes.

(i. No. 494).

Abundance.—Not very common; only 5 birds killed on 19-38-1928, 7, 26

(2)-8-1929 and 16-9-1928.

Food.—Insects—ants, beetles, etc.

(11) The Pied Chat. Ginanthe picata Blyth. (H. No. 506).

Abundance.—Not very common, a winter visitor; only 4 birds killed on

27-8-1931, and 8, 9, 12-12-1930.

Food.—Insects, mainly Hymenoptera—ants, also caterpillars, beetles, etc.

834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

(12) Strickland’s Chat. Ginanthe opistholeuca Strickland. (F. No. 508).

Abundance.—Not very common; only 4 birds killed on 4-1-1930 and 22, 28,

30-11-1929.

Food.——Insects—mainly Hymenoptera, e.g., ants, also beetles, etc.

(18) The Isabelline Chat. Gnanthe isabellina Cretzschm. (F. No. 512).

Abundance.—Rare: only 1 specimen killed on 28-8-1930.

F'ood.—Mainly insects.

(14) The Eastern Indian Redstart. Phenicurus ochrurus rufiventris Vieill.

(fF. No. 582

Abundance.—A common bird, but only a winter visitor; 10 birds killed on

8, 6 (2)-1-1980, 26-1-1928, 9, 15-11-1980, 28-11-1929, 4-12-1930 and 6, 15-12-1929.

F'ood.—With the exception of one bird the stomach contents consisted of

inainly insects—ants and other Hymenoptera, caterpillars, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of 1ainor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(15) The Western Red-spotted Blue-throat. Cyanosylvia suecica suecica

Jiinns GE. No. 536);

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 specimen killed on 11-4-1928.

Food.—Mainly insects—ants, cutworms, caterpillars and_ beetles.

(16) The Brown-backed Indian Robin. Sazicoloides fulicata cambaiensis

Kath. “(EH ~ No. 557):

Abundance.—A common and most familiar bird; a permanent resident; 21

birds killed during all the different months of the year.

Food.—Various insects, mostly injurious—Chrotogonus spp., locust hoppers,

white-ant workers, Laphygma sp. and other caterpillars, beetles, ants and

other Hymenoptera.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(17) The Black-throated Thrush. Turdus atrogularis Temm. (F. No. 578).

Abundance.—A winter visitor; not very common; 7 birds killed on 20, 21,

25-1-1928. 21-2-1928, 28-2-1980 and 16, 18-38-1980.

Food.—Mainly insects—locust eggs and hoppers, cutworms and other cater-

pillars, beetles, etc.

Family: MuscicaPips.

(18) The Indian Paradise Flycatcher. Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi Linn.

(F. No. 688).

Abundance.—A pair was seen in the summer on 20-6-1928 and a male bird

in winter on 25-11-1981.

F’ood.—Maunly insects.

(19) The White-browed Fantail! Warbler. Rhipidura aureola aureola Less.

(F. No. 700).

Abundance.—Not very common, 6 birds were killed on 11-2-1928, 7-8-1929,

23-9-1928, 30-10-1980, and 18, 21-11-1929.

Food.—Mainly insects—Chrotogonus spp., ants and _ beetles.

Family: Lanipaz.

(20) The Indian Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor lahtora Sykes. (F. No. 706).

Abundance.—Very common; is seen sitting on trees looking for insects on

wing or on ground; 13 birds were killed during different months.

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., locust adults and hoppers, black ants and

other ITymenoptera, Agrotis caterpillars, beetles and bugs, ete.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(21) The Bay-backed Shrike. Lanius vittatus Valenc. (F. No. 710).

Abundance.—Common; 9 birds killed on 15, 20-83-1928, 5-4-1928, 22-5-1929,

3-7-1929, 17-8-1928, 26-11-1929, 14-12-1929 and 1-12-1930.

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., ants and other Hymenoptera, Neuroptera,

cutworms and other caterpillars, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(22) The Rufous-backed Shrike. Lanius schach erythronotus Vigors.

(F. No. 714).

SOME BIRDS OF LYALLPUR AND THEIR FOOD 835

Abundance.—Common; 4 birds killed on 3-1-1930, 22-3-19380, 26-11-1929 and

- 23-12-1929.

F'cod.-—Insects—locust hoppers, ants and other Hymenoptera, caterpillars,

beetles, ete.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(23) The Indian Common Wood-Shrike. Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondi-

ceriana Gmel. (F. No. 729).

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 specimen was killed on 29-11-1929.

i’ood.— Various insects--Hymenoptera, Coleoptera, ete.

Family: PrricRocorTipa.

(24) The Indian Short-billed Minivet. Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris

Vigors. (F. No. 788).

Abundance.—Not common; 6 birds killed on 8-1-1929, 17, 24-2-1928, 20-11 1929

(2) and 4-12-1928.

Food.—Buds ot kikar (Acacia arabica), spiders, various insects—Orthoptera,

ants and other Hymenoptera, caterpillars, beetles, flies, etc.

Family: Dicruripa.

(25) The Black Drongo or King Crow. Dicrurus macrocercus macrocercus

Vieili. (F. No. 766).

Abundance.—Most familiar and common bird, found throughout the year;

21 birds killed during all the different months of the year. It is seen perching

on telegraph wires, trees, poles, backs of cattle, watching for insects, or sitting

on clods in fields which are being irrigated, waiting for insects disturbed by

water. It catches flying insects as well as those on the ground.

F'ood.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., locust adults and hoppers, black ants,

white-ants, moths, cutworms, Laphygma and other caterpillars, beetles, mag-

gots, etc.

Status.—Very important bird to agriculture: positively beneficial.

Family: Sybvipa.

(26) The Indian Tailor-Bird. Orthotomus sutorius sutorius Forst. (Ff. No. 8138).

Abundance.—Not common; 6 birds killed on 14-4-1928, 15-6-1926 (8),

27-77-1926 (2).

Food.—Insects such as flies, bees, etc.

(27) The Rufous-fronted = Wren-Warbler. Franklina buchanani Blyth.

CE, No. S31).

Abundance.—Rare bird; only 2 killed on: 7-8-1929 and 4-9-1929.

Food.—Mainly harmful insects.

(28) The Brown Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus collybitus tristis Blyth. (BF.

No. 854).

Abundance.—A winter visitor; only 3 killed on 21-11-1929, 11-12-1929 and

11-12-1930.

Food.—Mainly harmful insects.

(29) The Green Willow-Warbler. Acanthopneuste nitidus nitidus Blyth.

(F.. No. 874).

Abundance.—A winter visitor; 3 birds killed on 2, 4-9-1929 and 17-12-1929.

Food.—Mainly insects—caterpillars, etc.

Family: OR1oLIDé.

(80) The Indian Oriole. Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. (F. No. 958).

Abundance.—A rare bird, seen in pairs in gardens; 5 killed on 28-6-1926, 5,

15-7-1928, 26-7-1929 and 14-8-1931.

Food.—FKicus fruits and various insects—-Chrotogonus spp. caterpillars, etc.

Family: StTuRNIDA.

(31) The Rosy Pastor or Ruse coloured Starling. Pastor roseus Linn. - (¥.

No. 972). .

Abundance.—Appears in large flocks in the month of April and disappears in

the- same month, the nestlings visit again in July and remain here upto the

first week of October; 76 birds killed during April, August and September.

836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.“SOCIETY, Vol xxix

Food.—Mostly mulberry fruits, ficus fruits, grains of chari (Andropogon sor-

ghum) and other similar crops; and various harmful insects—Chrotogonus spp.,

locust adults and hoppers, gram caterpillars and cutworms, other caterpillars,

beetles, weevil adults and grubs, dipterous pupe, etc. It is a great enemy of

locust.

Status.—Very beneficial particularly during the locust years.

(32) The Himalayan Starling. Sturnus vulgaris humiw Brooks. (F.

No.. 978).

Abundance.—Remains in flocks throughout the winter; 89 birds killed from

August to April.

Food.—Small quantities of grains, fruits; lizards and spiders; large num-

bers of harmful insects—Chrotogonus spp. all stages of locust, gram cater-

pillars and cutworms, beetles, weevil and grubs, maggots, and Chrysopa sp.

pupae. It is a great enemy of the gram caterpillars; one bird took 108 cut-

worms per meal. Practically all the birds killed had taken gram cater-

piliars and cutworms.

Status.-A most important bird to agriculture: beneficial.

(33) The Common Myna. Acridotheres tristis tristis Linn. (F. No. 996).

Abundance.—One of the most familar and common bird; present in large

numbers throughout the year; attends ploughing, hoeing, watering and other

agricultural operations, picking up insects which are disturbed. It may be seen

going round and peeping into bushes and plants for insects.

Food.—Ripening grains, seeds and seedlings, vegetables and various harm-

ful insects--Chrotogonus spp., all stages of locust, ants, winged white-ants,

adults of Amsacta sp., gram caterpillars, cutworms and other caterpillars,

beetles, weevils and weevil grubs (Hypera variabilis), etc.

Examination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 388.2 per cent; weedseeds

0.8 per cent; neutral seeds 0.1 per cent; vegetables 5.5 per cent; cultivated

fruits 4.9 per cent; wild fruits 29.4 per cent; animal matter 0.7 per cent; in-

jurious insects 20.1 per cent and pebbles 0.8 per cent.

Status.—Very important to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: PLocriwsz.

(84) The White-throated Munia. Uroloncha malabarica Linn. (F. No.

1030).

Abundance.—Not very common; 4 birds killed on 20-1-1928, 81-3-1928, and

11, 28-11-1980. It is seen sitting on the top of sarkanda (Saccharum sponta-

neum), chari (Andropogon sorghum) and bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum) plants.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds, vegetable matter; and insects—ants, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: injurious.

Family: FRINGILLID.

(85) The Yellow-throated Sparrow. Gymnoris «anthocollis xanthocollis Burton

(F. No. 1094).

Abundance.—Not very common; 6 birds killed on 16-2-1928, 4-4-1928 (2),

27-4-1981, 8-5-1928 and 27-8-1929.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds, vegetable matter; and insects—ants, beetles, etc.

(36) The Indian House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus indicus Jard. & Selby.

(E. No. 1096);

Abundance.—A permanent resident, found in abundance throughout the

year. Attacks in very large flocks the ripening cereals—wheat, chari (Andro-

pegon sorghum), bajra (Pennisetum typhoideum), and rice (Oryza sativa) etc.;

262 birds ‘killed throughout the different months of the year.

Food.—Ripening crops and fruits, tender shoots, flowers, vegetables, weed-

seeds; in the breeding season insects mostly caterpillars, also ants in small

numbers, locust hoppers.

Hramination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 738.1 per cent; weedseeds

4.2 per cent; vegetables 0.4 per cent; insects 2.6 per cent; and pebbles 19.7

per cent. :

Status.—A very important bird to agriculture: very injurious.

SOME BIRDS OF LYALLPUR AND THEIR FOOD 837

(87) The Red-headed Bunting. Himberiza icterica Eversm. (FE. No. 1184).

Abundance.—Not common; 2 birds killed on 11-4-1928 and 11-12-1930.

Food.—Grains and seeds.

Family: HIRuNDINIDA.

(88) The Common Swailow. Hirundo rustica rustica Linn. (EH. No. 1152).

Abundance.—Rare: one bird killed on 25-12-1929.

Food.—Insects.

(39) The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow. Hirundo smithi filifera Stephens.

CHE No. 15%):

Abundance.—Rare bird; was seen on 27-7-1981.

Food.—Insects.

Family: Moraciuima.

(40) The Indian White Wagtail. Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. (fF.

No. 1166).

Abundance.—Common and remains from September to first week of May;

21 birds killed on 2, 18, 22-1-1928, 2-5-1928, 18 (2), 19-10-1928, 5, 8, 18,

19-11-1928, 21-11-1929, 19, 25, 26, 29-11-1930 and 14, 16-12-1929.

Food.—Mostly insects—Chrotogonus spp., ants and other Hymenoptera,

gram caterpillars, cutworms and other caterpillars, adults and grubs of

Hypera variabilis. Few birds took grass seeds, grains and weedseeds.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(41) The Indian Pipit. Anthus richardi rufulus Vieill. (EF. No. 1195).

Abundance.—Not very common; 5 birds killed on 20, 27-3-1928, 26-38-1980,

5-4-1928 and 23-12-1929.

Food.—Mainly insects—Orthoptera, locust hoppers, Vespide, gram cater-

pillars and cutworms, beetles, weevils and dipterous pupz.

Status.—Of some importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: ALAUDID&.

(42) Franklin’s Crested Lark. Galerida cristata chendoola Franklin. (F.

No. 1287).

Abundance.—Not very common; 5 birds killed on 20, 27-3-1928, 26-3-19380,

17-11-1930, 7-12-1928 and. 20-12-1929.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds. and insects—locust hoppers, ants, cutworms, etc.

(43) The Ashy-Crowned Finch-Lark. Pyrrhulauda grisea Scop. (F. No.

1245).

Abundance.—Rare; one bird killed on 25-8-1931.

Food.—Omnivorous, feeds mostly on grains.

Family: NEcTARINUDZA.

(44) The Indian Purple Sunbird. Leptocoma asiatica asiatica Lath.

(fF. No. 1278).

Abundance.—A summer visitor, commonly seen on flowers; 6 birds. killed

on 29-38-1928 (2), 19-4-1928 and 5, 24, 28-5-1928.

Food.—Mostly honey and insects, also spiders.

Family: Picipa.

(45) The Northern Golden-backed Woodpecker. Brachypternus bengha-

lensis benghalensis Linn. (F. No. 1394).

Abundance.—A familiar bird, commonly seen climbing on trees; 12 birds

killed on 10, 12-38-1928, 10-4-1930, 14, 28-6-1926, 12-7-1928, 19-8-1926 (2),

1-8-1928, 26, 27-11-1929 and 10-12-1928.

Food.—-Insects—mostly black ants, Chrotogonus spp., grasshoppers, cater-

pillars, moths, beetles, bugs, etc.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(46) The European Wryneck. Jynzx torquilla torquilla Linn. (I. No. 1428).

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 bird was killed on 26-8-1929.,

Fqod.—Insects.

8388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Family: CucuLipa.

(47) The Common Hawk-Cuckoo. Hierococcyx varius Vahl. (F. No. 1458).

Abundance.—Rare; only 38 birds were shot on 9-4-1928, 24-4-19380 and

8-7-1928.

Food.—Insects, many harmful species such as locust hoppers, grasshoppers,

winged white-ants, enormous quantity of cutworms, other caterpillars, etc.

(48) The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Clamator jacobinus jacobinus Bodd. (F.

No. 1472).

Abundance.—Rare; only 8 birds killed on 27-6-1929, 1-7-1928 and 22-8-1929.

F'ood.—Grasshoppers, winged white-ants and other insects.

(49) The Indian Koel. Hudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus Linn. (F. No.

1475).

Abundance.—Arrives in the first week of March and remains upto early

October; 7 birds killed on 17, 18, 25, 80-6-1926, 24-7-1926, 6-7-1928 and

9-8-1926.

Food.—Mostly ficus fruits and sometimes Ber (Zizyphus jujuba) and other

fruits.

Status.—Of some importance as an enemy of crow’s eggs.

(50) The Common Crow Pheasant or Couzal. Centropus sinensis sinensis

Stephen. (HF. No. 1490).

Abundance.—Not very common; lives in clumps of bamboos and in thick

sugar-cane fields; 4 birds killed on 27-3-1928, 80-5-1929 and 380-6-1926 (2).

Food.—Mainly insects, including some noxious species—Chrotogonus Spp.,

Hymenoptera, gram caterp.liars, cutworms, maggots, etc.; a'so lizards, snakes,

mice, bats and eggs of birds.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: Psrrracipm.

(51) The Large Indian Paroguet. Psittacula eupatria nepalensis .Hodgs.

(Ff. No. 1497).

Abundance.—A very common bird, moves about in large parties towards

cultivated area in the morning; returns before noon: again leaves in the after-

noon and returns in the evening to spend the night at the roosting place.

Food.—A gregarious feeder; attacks various ripening crops specially wheat,

maize, chari (Andropogon sorghum), toria (Brassica campestris), paddy (Oryza

sativa) etc. and also attacks all kinds of fruits particularly citrus, guavas,

figs, etc. It also takes vegetables and weedseeds. Its feeding habits are

extremely wasteful as it cuts off much more than it can consume.

Examination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 52 per cent, weedseeds 2.7 per

cent; neutral seeds 11.4 per cent, vegetables 4.8 per cent, cultivated fruits

19.3 per cent; wild fruits 9.791 per cent and pebbles 0.009 per cent.

Status.—Of great importance to agriculture and horticulture: extremely

harmful.

(52) The Rose-tinged Paroquet. Psittacula krameri manillensis Bechst.

(F. No. 1500). a

Abundance.—Same as above.

Food.—Same as above.

Status.—Of great importance to agriculture: extremely harmful.

Family: Coraciipa.

(53) The Indien Roller Coracias benghalensis benghalensis Linn. (F. No.

1517). .

Abundance.—Very common throughout the year; 19 birds killed during

diferent months. It is seen perching on trees, telegraph wires, poles, and

sometimes on the backs of cattle, and dashes for insects in air or on ground,

picks up its victim and returns to the perch to eat.

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., crickets, locust adults and hoppers, enor-

mous number of winged white-ants, black ants and other ETO, bere.

also lizards, frogs and mice. ee

Status. —Very important to agriculture: beneficial.

SOME. BIRDS OF LYALLPUR AND THEIR FOOD 839

Family: MEROpPIDz.

(54) The Common Indian Bee-eater. Merops orientalis orientalis Lath.

(KF. No. 1528).

Abundance.—A common bird, arrives in the last week of February and

remains here for breeding uptill October; 9 birds killed on 22, 24-2-1928, &,

27-5-1928, 14, 15-6-1926, "16-6-1931, 6-9-1929 and 7-9-1931.

- Food. Mainly insects—ants, bees, other Hymenoptera, dragon Aneet moths,

beetles, etc.

(55) The Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Mecrops superciliosus javanicus Horsf. (F.

No. 1526).

Abundance.—Not very common; only 2 birds were killed on 14-7-1931 (2).

Food.—Dragon flies and some other insects.

Family: ALCEDINIDA.

(56) The White-breasted Kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis Linn.

(EF. No. 1550).

Abundance.—Common throughout the year; 17 birds killed during different

months.

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., grasshoppers, gryllids, caterpillars, beetles,

aquatic bugs, etc.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: Upupipa.

(57) The Indian Hoopoe. Upupa epops orientalis Stuart Baker. (F. No.

581).

Abundance.—Common and is generally seen throughout the year haunting

grassy and cultivated fields; 21 birds killed during different months.

F'ood.—Mainly insects—Forficulide, Chrotogonus. spp., locust hoppers, ants,

gram caterpillars, cutworms and other caterpillars, beetles and beetle grubs, ete.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: Tyronipa.

(58) The Indian Barn-Ow!. Tyto alba javanica Gmelin. (F. No. 1636).

Abundance.—Not very common; only 8 birds killed on 9-4-1928, 26-4-1929,

and 3-6-1926.

Food.—Mice and insects.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: Astonipa@.

(59) The Central Indian Collared Scops-Owl. Otus bakkamena marathe

Ticehurst. (F. No. 1667).

Abundance.—Rare; only 2 birds killed on 11-5-19381 (Q).

Food.—Mice; beetles and other insects.

ane The Northern Spotted Owlet. Athene brama indica Frankl. (F. No.

Abundance.—Common throughout the year; 25 birds killed during different

months.

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., gryllids, locust adults and hoppers, winged

white-ants, ants, caterpillars, moths, beetles, maggots, etc. Its favourite food

is beetles and it also takes mice.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: AGyprpam.

(61) The Cinercous Vulture. Agypius monachus Linn. (F. No. 1705).

Abundance.—Common throughout the year; one was killed on 26-38-1928.

Food.—Flesh of carrion. )

Status.—Scavenger.

(62) The Himalayan Griffon. Gyps himalayensis Hume. (F. No. 1709).

Abundance.—Not common; only 1 was killed on 9-1-1930.

Food.—Carrion; dung; and insects such as_ locust hoppers,

Status.—Scavenger,

340 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, (Volz Xxx

Family: Fauconipa.

(63) The Laggar Falcon. Falco jugger Gray. (F. No. 1721).

Abundance.—Rare; only 3 birds killed on 5-1-1929, 29-3-1928, and 11-4-1929.

Food.—Pigeons and other birds; locust and other insects.

Status.—Enemy of birds.

(64) The Red-headed Merlin. Falco chiquera chiquera Dauden. (F. No.

1730).

Abundance.—Rare; only 2 specimens killed on 4-1-1929 and 16-3-1928.

Food.—birds; locusts, other insects.

Status.—Enemy of birds.

(65) The Eastern Steppe-Eagle. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis Hodgs. (F.

No. 1748).

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 specimen was killed on 9-1-1929.

Food.—Small mammals, birds and reptiles.

(66) The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle. Butastur teesa Frankl. (Ff. No. 1774).

Abundance.—Not very common; only 3 birds killed on 26-3-1928, 4-5-1928

and 14-6-1929.

Food.—Mice; various harmful insects—~Chrotogonus spp.. rice grasshopper,

eryllids, caterpillars, beetles, etc.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture.

(67) The Common Pariah Kite. Muilvus migrans govinda Sykes. (F. No.

1787).

Abundance.—Very common throughout the year; 3 birds killed on 4-1-1929,

15-38-1930 and 15-4-1980.

Food.-—Kitchen and animal refuse, mice, lizards, small birds, chickens;

various insects such as locust adults and hoppers. .

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: injurious to poultry.

(68) The Indian Shikra. Astur badius dussumieri Temm. (F. No. 1808).

Abundance.—Not very common; 6 birds killed on 28-4-1980, 26-6-1926,

30-7-1926, 2, 9-8-1926 and 10-11-1926.

Food.—Pigeons and other birds, mice, rats, lizards; and imsects such as

mantids, locust hoppers and adults, grasshoppers, winged white ants, etc.

(69) The Northern Besra Sparrow-Hawk. Accipiter virgatus affinis Hodgs.

(F. No. 1814).

Abundance.—Not very common; 38 birds killed on 14-1-1929, 19-3-1980 and

28-4-1930.

Food.—Birds, lizards and insects such as locust.

Family: CoLuMBID”.

(70) The Bengal Green Pigeon. Crocopus phonicopterus phenicopterus

Lath. (F. No. 1826).

Abundance.—Rare bird; only a few birds were seen in King’s garden on

10-9-1931, but could not be killed.

Food.—Mostly ficus fruits.

(71) The Indian Blue Rock-Pigeon. Columba livia intermedia Strick.

(FE. No. 1856).

Abundance.—A very common bird, congregates in very large flocks and

roosts in buildings—dwelling houses, mosques, temples and offices; leaves roost-

ing places in the morning and returns before noon and again leaves in the

afternoon and returns in the evening. On its return it visits tanks to drink

water.

Food.—Takes food as gleanings, picks up seeds of crops especially wheat

and maize, germinating crops, weedseeds and pebbles.

Examination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 66.15 per cent; weedseeds 30

per cent and pebbles 3.85 per cent.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: very injurious.

(72) The Indian Spotted Dove. Streptopelia chinensis suratensis Gmel. (F.

No. 1878).

Abundance.—A rare bird; two pairs seen since 1926 and 1 bird killed on

20-1-1929.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds and fruits,

SOME BIRDS: OF EVALEPUR AND THEIR. FOOD 841

(73) The Indian Little Brown Dove. Streptopelia senegalensis cambaiensis

Gmelin. (F. No. 1877).

Abundance.—Common, found throughout the year; 14 birds killed during

different months.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds, seeds sown, germinating crops and_ pebbles.

Status.—Of minor importanec to agriculture: injurious.

(74) The Indian Ring-Dove. Streptopelia decaocta decaocta Frivalszky. (I.

No. 1879).

Abundance.—Very common throughout the year. At the time of thrashing

of toria (Brassica. campestris) seen in abundance in such fields.

Food.—Grains as gleanings, seeds sown and germinating crops, pebbles

Only two or three birds took one insect each.

Examination of Stomach Contents.—Cropseeds 64.97 per cent; weedseeds

30.58 per cent; vegetable matter 1.18 per cent; insects 0.06 per cent and

pebbles 3.21 per cent.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: injurious.

(75) The Indian Red Turtle-Dove. Cnopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica

Henry. (Ff. No. 18s).

Abundance.—A summer visitor; 6 birds killed on 7-5-1981 (2), 16-6-1931,

19-8-1928 (2) and 8-8-1929.

Food.—Same as above.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: injurious,

Family: PreRochipe.

(76) The Common Indian Sand-Grouse. Pterocles exustus erlangeri Neum.

(F. No. 1898).

Abundance.—A rare bird; a few were seen on barren land near Narwala in

August, 1929.

Food.—Guara (Cyamopsis psoralioides) seeds and other grains.

Family: PHASIANIDz.

(77) The Common Peafowl. Pavo cristatus Linn. (F. No. 1897).

Abundance.—Introduced; eggs brought from Hoshiarpur; only 1 or 2 birds

seen in the King’s garden.

Food.—Grains, vegetables, fruits; insects such as locust hoppers, cater-

pillars, beetles, etc.; also takes frogs, lizards and snakes.

(78) The Common or Grey Quail. Coturnix coturnix coturnix Linn. (F. No.

1950).

Abundance.—Visits in very large numbers in April and August to September ;

16 birds killed on 14-3-1927 (2), 14-4-1928, 3-9-1929 (8) and 11 (5), 18 (5),-9-1981.

Food.—Grains, weedseeds, insects—ants, caterpillars, Hypera variabilis grubs,

beetles, aphids, etc.

(79) The Northern Chukar. Alectoris greca pallescens Hume. (F. No. 1974).

Abundance.—Not found in open country, but kept as a cage. bird.

Food.—Omnivorous.

(80) The Indian Black Partridge. Francolinus francolinus asi@ Bonap. (F.

No. 1976).

Abundance.—Not found in the open country, but is a favourite cage bird.

Food.-—Grains, weedseeds; and various insects such as locust hoppers, etc.

(81) The Northern Grey Partridge. Francolinus pondicerianus interpositus

Hartert. (F. No. 1984).

Abundance.—Rare; 10 birds killed on 27-38-1930, 2-4-1980 (2), 12, 26-6-1926

and 4 (2), 17, 21, 24-7-1928.

Food.—-Grains, seeds, weedseeds, vegetable matter; and insects—locust

hoppers, ants, winged white-ants and workers, beetle grubs, etc.

Status.—Of major importance to agriculture: beneficial.

Family: TURNICID.

(82) The Little Button-Quail. Turnix dussumierit Temm. (EF. No, 2003).

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 bird was shot on 14-4-1928,

Food.—Grains, weedseeds and insects,

842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

Family: RALLipz.

(83) The Coot. Fulica atra atra Linn. (F. No. 2029).

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 specimen was shot on 16-2-1928.

Food.—Germinating crops and insects.

Family: GLAREOLIDE.

(84) The Cream-Coloured Courser. Cursorius cursor cursor Latham. (F. No.

2051).

Abundance.—Rare; 6 specimens shot on 18-2-1980 and 4 (2), 8 (8)-12-1929.

Food.—Ants and other Hymenoptera, gram caterpillars and other cater-

pillars, beetles, etc.

Family: STERNIDZ.

(85) The Gull-billed Tern. Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica Gmelin. (I. No.

2072).

Abundance.—Rare; .2 specimens killed on 11-8-1931 (2).

Food.—Frogs, Crustacea and insects.

Family: CHARADRIIDA.

(86) The Chinese Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius dubius dubius Scop.

(F. No. 2118).

Abundance.—Rare; 2 birds killed on 19-8-1930 (2).

Food.-—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., Hypera variabilis grubs, beetles, etc.

(87) The Indian Red-watiled Lapwing. Lobivanellus indicus indicus Bodd.

(F. No. 2125).

Abundance.—Not common, although a permanent resident; 6 birds killed

on 11-1-1928, 15-3-1928, 13-8-1928 (2), 27-10-1926 and 8-12-1928.

Food.—Insects—ants, caterpillars, beetles, etc. Two birds took green vege-

table matter.

(88) The Yellow-waitled Lapwing. Lobipluvia malabarica Bodd. (F. No. 2128).

Abundance.—Rare and was seen in August, 1928.

Food.—Insects.

Family: Sconopacipa.

(89) The Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochrophus Linn. (F. No. 2143).

Abundance.—Not very common, is seen near tanks; 7 birds killed on 7 (2)

19 (2)-8-1926, 28, 29-8-1928 and 5-11-1926.

Food.—Mosquitoe larvae and other un-identifiable insects.

(90) The Ruff and Reeve. Philomachus pugqnaz Linn. (F. No. 2152).

Abundance.—A rare bird; only 8 specimens killed on 18-8-1928 (2) and

29-11-1929.

F'ood.—Insects—H ymenoptera, beetles and mosquitoe larvae and pupae, etc.

Family: ARDEIDZ.

(91) The Cattle Egret. Bubulcus ibis coromandus Bodd. (F. No. 2226).

Abundance.—Rare bird, was seen in flocks twice or thrice attending cattle;

4 birds killed on 29-7-1928 (2) and 7-9-1929 (2).

Food.—Insects—Chrotogonus spp., grasshoppers, beetles, etc. Two birds

took lizards and one bird took one frog.

Status.—Of minor importance to agriculture: beneficial.

(92) The Indian Pond-Heron. Ardeola grayii Sykes. (F. No. 2229). .

Abundance.—Common near ponds and watered fields, permanent resident;

8 birds killed on 18-1-1928, 10, 16-2-1928, 19-6-1926, 7-8-1926, ‘18-8-1931,

16-10-1928 and 7-11-1930.

Food.—Insects—-Chrotogonus spp., grasshoppers, crickets, earwigs, Hymen-

Hae (e.g., ants), caterpillars, beetles, etc.; and also took spider, fish and

rog.

(93) The Night Heron. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax Linn. (F. No.

2233) .

Abundance.—Rare; only 1 specimen was shot on 29-8-1929,

Food.—Fish, frogs, Crustacea and insects.

A 7

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JourRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo:

The Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor).

A large male.

PLATE I.

C. McCann.

NOTES ON CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUDIN) JERDON.

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With 3 plates).

The BLOODSUCKER is so common an inhabitant of almost every

garden in India, that it is frequently referred to as the ‘garden

lizard’. How it ever came by the name of Bloodsucker is difficult

to say, for it could not ‘suck’ even if it would; and the choice

of this name is certainly more unfortunate than that of ‘chameleon’

which is commonly used for this lizard by the Europeans in Indo-

China. This Calotes is not the Chameleon, but it is rightfully

entitled to its specific designation versicolor or ‘colour-changing’,

because it can change its colour to some extent under ordinary

circumstances, and does change it very much during the breeding

season.

As a rule the Bloodsucker, either male or female, is by no

means conspicuous. Not that it remains in hiding, for it takes

keen delight in warmth and light and may be seen in the open

basking in the morning sun, on the alert for some unwary prey.

Light brown or greyish, with or without a greenish tinge and

indistinct dark spots or streaks, its colour easily blends with the

varied hues of the surroundings, while the general outline and the

peculiar favourite attitude assumed when at rest further contribute

to render the animal invisible to all but experienced eyes.

During the cold season bloodsuckers seek shelter in hollow

trunks or holes in the ground, or enter houses where they hide

behind furniture and curtains. They only emerge from their retreat

during the hottest part of the day to bask in the sun and indulge

in short spell of exercise. As the weather becomes genial and

warmer they come out more often, until finally they settle down

for good in the open where they spend the summer months.

The breeding season is heralded by a remarkable change of

colour. While the female is satisfied with a slight maidenly

blush, the male dons the most extraordinary polychromous attire,

the head, the shoulders, a portion behind the shoulders, and a

part of the forelegs become brilliant crimson or bright scarlet;

black patches appear on either side of the throat, at the angle of

the jaw, and the shoulder.

Thus grotesquely, some say gorgeously, painted the male sits

Oni-a tence. post. or on the trunk of a tree surveying the

neighbourhood. By now its manners are as loud as its dress, and

its sole intent is to seek a quarrel. It will from time to

time distend its gular membrane and jerk its head and shoulders

up and down, as an acrobat practising the ‘dunds’ by way of

exercise. But this is not a mere physical exercise, it is to all

intents and purposes a provocation, a challenge to all the males

844 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

in the vicinity. And as every male is now urged by the same

pugnacious spirit many fights take place with much ‘all-in’ wrestling

and biting.

Two males about to fight will first charge each other from

a distance as did the warriors of old. They then gradually

approach and finally rush at one another for the grip. On meeting,

both stand on the hind legs and tail, hold each other with the

forelegs and endeavour to bite.. Toes ‘or “a. portion of the: taul

are often bitten off in the encounter; and a number of scratches

and wounds on various parts of the body certify to the vigour of

the combat. However, even with lizards, there is such a thing

as shamming; and, very often the fight stops abruptly as one

of the duellists believes that flight 1s safer than fury and runs

away before much damage has been done. The victor asserts his

territorial rights and becomes the uncontested monarch of all he

surveys.

Sexual variation:—Except for the remarkable difference of

colour during the breeding season this lizard exhibits little sexual

variation. It may, however, be noted that the adult male is

appreciably larger than the female, that in the adult male the

base of the tail is markédly swollen, and that owing to the

presence of larger muscles the lower jaw of the male forms a

characteristic curve while that of the female runs in an almost

straight line.

Sexual activity:—The breeding season starts in April and ends

in September. Mating is frequent from the second half of April

to the. end of june andthe early pant to. july.

[| Annandale (1900) has given an account of the courtship of

this lizard. He says that ‘The males are very pugnacious and

change colour as they fight. At the time of courtship a curious

performance is gone through by the male, the female remaining

concealed in the foliage hard by. He chooses some convenient

and conspicuous station and advances slowly towards the female.

His colour then is pale yellowish flesh-colour, with a conspicuous

dark spot on the gular pouch, which is extended to its utmost.

He stands upright, raising the fore-part of the body as high as

possible and nodding his head solemnly up and down. As _ he

does so, the mouth is rapidly and repeatedly opened and _ shut.

When he is driven away, caught or killed, the dark spot dis-

appears entirely from the neck. If one male is captured another

takes. his: placesin a few “hours..%(F Bids (hepiiha), v2nd: sede

pe 192: |

Dr. Annandale’s mention of the total disappearance of the dark

spot on the gular pouch needs explanation. There are two such

black spots, one on either side of the neck; they are usually

clearly defined, and particularly so during the breeding season.

When the gular pouch is distended these spots are very conspicuous,

often showing a narrow white ring around; but, and this is the

point to be emphasized, on contraction of the pouch—as is the case

with fear and death—they disappear into the folds of the neck

and become invisible. This is evidently what Dr. Annandale

meant; for he must have been aware of the existence of pigmented

NOTES ON CALOTES VERSICOLORY (DAUDIN) JERDON 845

cells and of the persistence of the pigment, even after death. As

a matter of fact the old spirit specimens found in the collections

of the Bombay Natural History Society still show the spots.

As for the bowings and noddings of the head they may be

observed at all times and can be produced by other emotions

as well as by sexual excitement. If disturbed, bloodsuckers will

bow and nod their heads exactly as when courting. Personally

I believe it is a threatening attitude which serves the animal for

purposes both offensive and defensive. On the other hand

Father Caius is of the opinion that this bowing and nodding is

primarily due to the peculiar anatomical structure of the fore-limbs

which makes it impossible for the lizard to erect its head and the

fore-part of its body for any length of time.

Pairing takes place either on the ground or on the vertical

trunk of some tree. At the time of mating the male grips the

female with his jaws by the ridge at the back of her neck and,

while tightening his embrace, shoots his tail and the posterior

end of his body under her. Within a second copulation is over

and the animals have separated.

I am indebted to Mr. Salim Ali for the following account of

a pairing which occurred at Kihim on the 12th June 1930.—‘After

copulation the male ran off some distance and climbed half way

up a post; while the female crawled away slowly in aimless

fashion, her gait being strikingly similar to that of a walking

chameleon. She retained her colour (bright orange-red with two

blue-black patches under the neck where the fore-limbs join the

body). Not so the male who turned quite pale and only retained

the blue-black patches, though in a very much attenuated hue.

The female kept crawling about for some twenty minutes, when

she was seen to put. her nose to the ground as if scenting, and

then scratching the earth with only one forepaw at a time. As she

was thus engaged the male popped up from behind a stone near

by; he was still pale, but as he closed upon her his colours became

gradually more vivid and were again quite intense by the time he

grabbed ‘her by the neck. She now dragged him to the trunk

of a neighbouring mango tree and pulled him up some two feet

above the ground, when she surrendered for the second time.

After separating the pair remained on the trunk, a few inches

apart; the male almost colourless, the female as bright as ever.

In another twenty minutes the animals copulated for the third

time; the male, completely colourless by now, ran some way up

the tree; and the female climbed down to the ground, crawled

about for a bit—when she again put her nose down and halted

at the place where she had previously pawed, and finally ran

half-way up the pole where the male had taken up his position

after the first act.’

Egg-laying:—In gardens, the favourite sites for the deposition

of eggs are flower beds, flower pots and manure heaps, where the

earth is easily scratched out. Away from gardens, any spot where

the earth is soft is selected as a suitable site. The ‘nest’ may

be just a trough or a hole from 2 to 7 inches deep, though shallow

holes are more frequently selected. When laid in a trough, the

846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST: SOCIELY,. VolzuXkXIX

eggs are loosely packed; but if in a hole, they are tightly rammed,

and this often results in the alteration of their shape. I have

repeatedly unearthed eggs, but have never seen actual deposition

in progress. However, my neighbour, Mrs. C. Mason, who

witnessed a Bloodsucker laying her eggs, described it as follows:

‘The lizard came down from the garden wall, went straight to a

flower bed, scooped a hole in the earth 3-4 inches deep with her

forelegs. She then sat on the edge of the scoop and dropped the

eges®in one by one. After a few eges had, been taid, lo wear

closer to watch the proceedings, but the lizard took fright and ran

away leaving the eggs uncovered. I counted six eggs and with-

drew to a point from which I could observe without being seen.

Soon, the lizard returned and completed her egg-laying. When

she had finished, she covered over the eggs with earth, smoothed

the surface out so as to defy detection and went away. The time

taken by the lizard was two hours (including the disturbance)

—from -12.30 to 2.30 p.m.’ Mrs. Mason marked the spot with a

stone and told me about the occurrence the same evening. A

week later I dug up the spot only to find the shells left, as ants

had eaten the contents. The incident referred to above occurred

on the 23rd July (1937). Prior to this, I found 17 eggs in almost

the identical spot, on the 24th June.

Eggs:—The eggs are small ellipsoid bodies with a soft chalky

white shell. They are not stuck together as is often the case with

reptile eggs. When freshly taken from the ‘nest’ the shape may

vary somewhat from the ellipsoid but this is due to pressure as

they are frequently tightly packed, but when allowed to stand for

a while they become elliptic once more. Eggs from different

clutches vary considerably in size but those of the same clutch

are fairly regular. On the 22nd August (1937), I dug out two

clutches, one of 21 eggs and another of ‘18.4 ihe® average

measurements of the former were 16.8x 12.6 mm. (largest 19x 13

mm., smallest 15x12 mm:), and of “the latter) 12:4 873 nme

(largest 13.5x9 mm., smallest 11.5x9 mm.). These measure-

ments are not in accordance with those recorded by Asana

(10-11 x 5.4 mm.) nor with those mentioned by Dr. Malcolm Smith

in the F.B.I., Reptilia, 2nd. ed:, vol. i, p. 193° (14-55 5mm. Home,

by 8-9 mm. broad). However, this only shows the great. variation

in size and I am in full agreement with Dr. Smith’s remark ‘the

age and size of the parent are important factors in egg-production’.

Eggs kept under observation increased 2-3 mm. in size just before

the young hatched out. Eggs on being placed in preservatives

shrink considerably. ;

Again, with regard to the number of eggs deposited at a time

theré seems to: be a conflict of opinion. The largest number ‘of

eggs. 1 have found in a clutch is 23. Above 1 referred totwo

clutches, one of 21 and the other jof-18) 7 Oni the, ard). Auenice

(1937) I obtained another clutch of 14 in my garden and a couple

of days later a clutch of 15. So’ far 1 have! meveriicome: oan

clutch of less than 8. Dr.) Smith (loc. ett) writes “1 have never

known them to be buried more than a couple of inches below the

earth, and the number deposited may vary from 4 to 12.’ I am

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JourN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PLATE III.

Photo: C. McCann.

The Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor) showing eggs:—hatching and newly hatched. (Scale im

millimetres),

NOTES ON CALOTES VERSICOLOR (DAUDIN) JERDON _ 847

inclined to believe that a single female lays more than the recorded

number of eggs in one season, as dissected females show many

more eggs in the ovaries; but all these eggs do not mature at

once, and consequently are not laid at the same time. Perhaps

the first clutch is the largest and subsequent clutches are smaller.

Ony the: 14th Octoger +(1937) 1 obtained 3 further clutches of

largish eggs with embryos of various age. The freshest had

embryos about one-third incubated. However this point needs

further observation.

Incubation:—On the 24th June (1937) Mrs. Mason saw a

Bloodsucker covering up her eggs in a flower bed and informed

meeor ite. 1 dug up. 17 eggs from the’ spot: and’ kept them -to

hatch out. On the 31st July (37 days) two young hatched out.

The next day (38 days) the greater number hatched and the day

after (39 days) all were out, with the exception of one egg which

was bad... Phis gives ‘us: a period of 37-39 days. Prot. Asana,

in his interesting article on the Natural History of Calotes versi-

color, writes ‘The majority of the eggs that have been thus treated

in our laboratory hatched after of period of not less than 42 nor

more than 45 days.’ There is a difference of a week between the

two observations, but this appears to me a trivial point as climatic

conditions probably influence the period of incubation.

When hatching, the young lizard cuts several irregular and

oblique slits in the thin shell at one pole. F. E. W. Venning in

an interesting note published in vol. xxi, p. 690 [Some notes on

the hatching of the agamoid Lizard (Calotes jerdoni)| states that

he observed an egg-tooth in the case of the species described.

Replying: to Venning’s note Dr. Annandale (xxi, .p. 1099} The

Rupture of the Egg-shell in the Genus Calotes writes ‘but I can

find no trace of an egg-tooth in my specimens (Calotes nigrilabris),

and indeed, it is hard to see how a structure of that nature could

produce the oblique slits and triangular flaps so clearly shown in

his (Venning’s) figures. My own opinon is that the slits are

produced by the long claws of the forefoot.’

ite Waves examined. “several ~embryos..of-@Calotes wersicolor at

different stages, including the young lizards about to cut the shell

and@eaiecans ind mo trace ot an eeg-tooth. Whe shells are split

open by the claws as suggested by Dr. Annandale. It seems

curious that in two species of the same genus no egg-tooth has

been observed while in C. jerdoni it has been seen (above).

Method of artificial hatching:—On several occasions I have

hatched out Bloodsuckers’ eggs with varying degrees of success.

My failures I attribute to inadequate methods. After several

experiments I have found the following method most efficient also

for snake eggs and on the whole have had almost cent per cent.

success with it. It is this:—Place the eggs on a bed of damp

(not wet) earth in a Petric dish; place the dish in an ordinary

glass desiccator, the bottom of which is_half-filled with water.

Now put on the lid leaving it slightly open to allow air to circulate.

Leave the whole in a convenient place till hatching is complete.

Thisemethod prevents. the eggs from drying—the: chief cause of

failures—they remain perfectly terse. It is also a convenient

848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

way as the eggs can be watched without distributing them too

much.

Newly hatched young:—As soon as the shell is split and the

hatchling is able to put its head out it does so. In this position

it remains for a considerable time. It will now and then open its

eyes and shut them again as though in sleep. From time to time

it wriggles in the shell and the surplus embryonic fluid oozes out.

Eventually it leaves the shell with the remains of the ‘naval cord’

still adhering. This is soon rubbed of. On emergence the little

lizards are extremely active. A, day before the: hzard was 7duey!

opened an egg and measured it. This specimen measured 72 mm.

Another after hatching» measured 76 mm. Of -icourse, these

measurements are only given to show the approximate size of the

young after hatching and probably the young from differently

sized eggs would also vary a bit. At birth, the young lizards are

yellow in tone with a metallic lustre and with two longitudinal

stripes on either side of the crest and with several darker transverse

markings. The young maintain these patterns for a considerable

period, but the intensity and brilliancy of the markings depend

greatly on environment.

Food:—The Bloodsucker is mainly insectivorous, but to this

it adds birds’ eggs and nestlings during the seasons. For this

statement I have had ample-.evidence. In vol. xxxix, p. 640, Mr.

C. H. Biddulph records a Bloodsucker catching a lark. Small

lizards and small frogs that it can overpower are also eaten.

Earthworms and tiny crabs are also taken.

Enemies:—The enemy cycle of the Bloodsucker is a wide one.

Among the mammals cats, even domestic cats, often eat them.

Mungooses prey largely on these lizards when the latter are on

the ground or in small bushes. I have frequently seen the Common

Mungoose (Herpestes mungo) catching them. Among the birds,

the Bloodsucker has a host of enemies. The smaller birds of prey

feed largely on them. Crows, egrets and herons, even the domestic

fowls feed on them. The Bull-frog will take those that it can

overpower. Snakes, particularly arboreal species, feed largely on

these lizards.

Ants and earthworms destroy the eggs.

Parasites :-—I have occasionally found ticks between the scales,

but perhaps the most harmful parasites are internal. On dissection

I have frequently taken Nematodes between 2-3 inches long from

the stomach and smaller species from the rectum. In some

instances these have been many in a single individual. From the

lungs I have taken what appeared to be the maggots of flies.

In one case I found one such larva in each lung. The maggots

were large measuring about an inch and a quarter when dead.

The nasal passage is often choked by the presence of fly larve.

Agricultural :—From an agricultural aspect, the Bloodsucker is

a most useful animal, destroying numerous insect pests.

REVIEW

I. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES, By The Late Rev. E. Blatter,

S.J., Ph.D., F.U.S. and Walter S. Millard. Illustrated with 31 coloured and 37

black and white plates. Price Rs. 15. Published by The Bombay Natural

History Society, 6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

A series of articles on Beautiful Flowering Trees which appeared originally

in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society elicited at the time a

more than ordinary interest in a large circle of appreciative readers. Not all

of these were botanists and men of science; many, in fact most of them, were

just ordinary people fond of gardening, perhaps, and with an eye for nature’s

many-coloured beflowered garb, and for these the articles had a special appeal

inasmuch as they were enabled to know more intimately what they already

admired, without being first submerged in a sea of scientific technicalities and

impressively unintelligible names.

These articles, revised and partly rewritten are now published in book

form under the title of Some Beautiful Indian Trees. This title calls for

a word of explanation. The beautiful trees which adorn so many of the

pages in this book are not all of them indigenous to India, in fact the

majority of them have been introduced at one time or another from outside,

but, whatever their origin, they are now commonly to be found in this country

and they share one common characteristic: they are every one of them beautiful.

Nor are their names insignificant: consider the Noble Ambherstia, the Gul

Mohur, the Flame of the Forest, the Rusty Shield Bearer, the Scarlet Bell Tree:

what a wealth of colour and variety these names conjure up! Then there

are others less ‘flamboyant’, suggestive rather of a frail aesthetic beauty: the

Sacred Barna, the Lignum Vitae, the Sacred Asoka Tree which, according to

Hindu mythology, is the symbol of love and dedicated to Karma.

The book contains 31 coloured illustrations and 37 black and white plates,

each one a tribute to the painstaking efforts of artists and photographers alike.

The coloured plates are all reproductions from hand-painted water colours and

are remarkable alike for beauty of colouring and the minute attention to

detail which is evident throughout. Here you will find the complete life-story

of 39 beautiful trees told in plain, simple language with hints for the gardener

and particulars of each tree’s domestic uses, medicinal properties, and sacred

significance. The average reader will find here more information, and_ that

more easily digestible, than he would probably expect, and one cannot but

admire the team work which has made the publication of this attractive book

possible. Artists, scientists and others have given of their time and knowledge

unstintingly, and it is gratifying to know that all but two of them have lived

to see the task completed. Of these two, Sister Mary Chiona was _ responsible

for ten of the original water colours, and Fr. Blatter with his profound

knowledge of Botany made this book itself possible. In acknowledgment of

their unselfish collaboration the book is, very fittingly, dedicated to them.

jeyko GC;

“MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—SMOKING A PANTHER TO DEATH.

1 was interested to read in the last issue of the Journal the

account of the smoking of a tiger to death. I had a similar ex-

perience, years ago, in one of my Shikar trips when a panther was

unwittingly smoked to death.

The year and the date I cannot exactly remember and at

present I cannot refer to my diaries; but it was about 37 years ago

when I was staying at the hill fort of Sinhgar near Poona for the

summer. There are in the jungle near about small panthers and

other wild animals. One day, when we were out shooting, a small

panther was observed in the beat and was tracked by its pug-

marks to a small cave. In order to dislodge him, we smoked

the cave at one end, the guns being posted at the other. As the

panther did not come out, it was thought that the animal had lodged

itself near the opposite opening of the tunnel, which also was

smoked. After a little while a gasping sound was heard from

within. The expert tracker with us said that it was the death-

gasp of the panther. We wanted to go in to see what had happen-

ed, but the son of the shikari, who was watching the proceedings

from the top of a tree became suddenly possessed by the local

deity and ordered the people to desist from entering the cave until

the next morning. It was sound practical advice which we obeyed.

No watch was kept at the cave. We did not believe the story

of the shikari, but next day, to our surprise, the villagers, in

the company of one of the guns, went into the cave and dragged

out the carcase which they brought to the fort where I was staying

then. If I remember rightly the above incident was reported in

the local Poona English papers of the day.

Camp MADHAVGIRI, .

AJRA, CHIEF OF ICHALKARAN TT:

May 11, 1O37

Il.—THE SIZE OF THE JUNGLE CAT (FELIS CHAUS

AFFINIS),

In the Society’s Journal, vol. xxxvu, No: 4, under the heading

of ‘The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire’, I observe that the

Jungle Cat is recorded as being ‘Head and body about 2 ft. in

length; tail g in.’ During the last few months J have shot three

of these cats near my bungalow, where they have been in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BBA:

habit of raiding my ducks and pheasants. | (ceive, the, measure-

ments herewith:

Hebe IStive Male. Head and body 2 ft. 6 in. Wau 10. “in.

May 26th. Male. Head and body 2 ft. 1? in. Tail 104 in.

June 10th. Male. Head and body 2 ft. 6; in. Aaiielae eine

I would be very interested to hear if the size of these cats is at

all unusual, and if the last mentioned one is anything approaching

The, Jungle Cat (Fels chaus affints).

a record. The measurements were taken as soon as the animals

were shot, and from peg to peg.

I do not think the Jungle Cat is particularly common in Assam,

but there are quite a number about in this district at present.

Several others I have shot at and missed, mostly at dusk or after

dark; and twice I have had kittens brought in from the jungle

about three weeks old, at the end of hemcacy and beginning of

February.

ASSAM, Eee. GHEE.

july 11, 1937.

ithe SEL EGED WILD. DOG OF MT. POPA, BURMA,

Early in 1936 in a paper on the Asiatic Wild Dogs (Proc.

Zool. Soc., 1936, p. 33), I incidentally remarked that ‘curiously

enough next to nothing is known of the character of the Dholes

852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.” SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

of Burma, where the collectors for the Mammal Survey . . . failed

to secure a single specimen’. This statement, based on the absence

of specimens in the British Museum, produced a letter from Mr.

Shortridge to Mr. Millard saying that he secured one on Mt.

Popa: and asking ‘what ‘had’ become of it. True enough the

specimen was entered by Wroughton as Cuon rutilans, with the

collector’s number attached, in the MS. list of the collection from

Mt. Popa, and cited under that name with Shortridge’s note about

it, im Wroughton’s report:(/. BEN. AS. vol. -xxii. ps 47.1, 16ms)> = lm

this note the animal was described as an adult 9, with only 10

mammae and weighing 19 lbs., which was run down and killed by a

village dog, a fate which Shortridge surmised would never befall

its larger ally, the typical Wild Dog of India.

I was particularly anxious to see this specimen, not only on

account of the small number of mammae which in the Wild Dog

vary from 6 to 8 pairs, but also to secure the flesh measurements

of what was evidently from its weight an unusually small Wild

Dog, which might prove to be a distinguishable form restricted

to Mt. Popa, a volcano rising from a dry area unsuitable as a

habitat for the ordinary Wild Dog. But the specimen could

nowhere be found either in the British or Bombay Museums. But

the mystery of its disappearance is now solved. The skull, with

the locality and number attached, turned up in the British Museum.

It is the skull of an old, small domestic dog, with a short muzzle

and high crown, measuring .only just over 6 inches in length,

about as long as a Jackal’s, much shorter than the skull of the

Wild Dog and quite unlike it in all the characters which dis-

tinguish the skulls of Cuon and Canis. It had been put aside,

unregistered, as of no zoological interest. Possibly Oldfield

Thomas detected the error in its identification after the issue of

Wroughton’s report, but neither he nor Wroughton published the

correction of it that was called for. In doing this I should like

to add that Shortridge and Wroughton are by no means the first

zoologists who have failed to distinguish ‘dingo-like’, feral dog's

(Canis) from the oriental Wild Dog (Cuon).

ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT,

British Museum. Re I POCOCKk

IV.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF BISON (BIBOS

GAUIU S VERS:

It was the month of May in the Kanara Forests of the Bombay

Presidency.

I had started at dawn to try and procure a good bull bison.

Soon after arrival in the forest my ‘shikari’ and myself came on

a shootable head which I shot at 5.40 a.m.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 853

I continued my walk in order to get to know the country

and look for other spoor such as tiger, panther, bison, or

elephant. Several bison tracks had been seen and the fresh pug

marks of a tiger. I decided to return home at about 7.30 a.m.,

and was walking down the track, on which the tiger pug marks

were, towards the main motor road about half a mile away, when

I heard a barking-deer bark in a frightened way. Shortly after-

wards I heard a tiger roar exactly in the same way he does when

turned by a stop in a beat—it sounded deeper although it was

some distance away from me. Thinking that he may have been

disturbed off a kill I pushed through some thick Bamboo forest

to have a look and see. On arriving at a teak and bamboo planta-

tion from where the noise seemed to have come I turned up a

little incline along a ride at the edge of the plantation. I had not

gone 30 yards when coming down the incline at right angles to

me I saw a tiger moving at a fast walk. When twenty yards

away he stopped and I bowled him over. Within a few seconds

a tigress appeared over the brow of the hill and came down at

an amble stopping exactly where the tiger had stopped and looked

at her mate making a noise like a cat mewing. She dropped

to my second shot. I had to go up and give the tiger another

shot as he was still kicking but could not move. The sounds

of the third shot had scarcely died away when I heard a noise in

the plantation and shortly afterwards a young bull bison walked

out on to the ride quite near the tigress and started sniffing the

carcase. Being alraid that he might damage the skin with his

horns and hooves I shook a young teak sapling to frighten him

away. He looked up, took not the slightest notice and went on

sniffing. A little later another bison came and joined the first

and only moved off. when the ‘shikari’ and myself clapped and

shouted at them—even then they only walked very slowly into

the thick forest. JI was unable to find any signs of a fight

between the tiger and bison or of the tigers having killed. The

two bisons snorted at me again when I was having a search for

evidence of this strange occurrence. I would lke to know if

anybody can explain the reason of the bisons’ attitude. Usually

they are very shy animals—the breaking of a twig or a whill

of human scent send them charging away—-but on this occasion

after three shots from a 450 H.V. rifle a bison walks out and

smells the carcase of a dead tiger. It sounds incredible.

Mr. Hiley the Chief Conservator of Forests, Bombay Presi-

dency, informs me that he has never heard of or seen the like

before in all his service in India.

The bison were so close that I could see they had not been

mauled or attacked by the tigers and no kill was found.

GOVERNMENT HOUSE,

BomBay, C. G2 lOOGOOD:

Miyagi, 1937;

854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

V.—ABNORMAL ELEPHANT *TUSKS (ELEPHAS

MAXIMUS).

(With a plate).

I send you two photographs of a solitary elephant carrying

tusks of a most unusual shape and symmetry. The awkward

position in which he wore his tusks is really responsible for his

death. This elephant had been doing extensive damage to crops

in the Borelli River .area, in the” Uezpur < district..of “Assam. “1

was able to follow up that night’s tracks and after about 6

miles came upon him, wallowing in a small bheel 200 yards ahead

of where I stood. As I was deliberating the best method of

approaching him, he winded us and made off full tilt. I had

a very good Miri tracker with me, and after pushing on his

trail for an hour or so I thought it was going to be an all-day

job, when the tusker foolishly changed his direction and plunged

into ‘Geruka’ jungle. We listened carefully and could then hear

him breaking through about a quarter of a mile ahead. We left

his tracks and ran as fast as was possible in soft mud along

the edge of the Geruka patch to head him off, and we arrived

at the other end just as the tusker was emerging into the tree

jungle at the spot we were standing. He came out directly facing

us, and one barrel from my .470 fetched his brain. Had this

elephant kept to tree jungle he would probably have put many

miles between us before pulling up.

I shall be interested to hear if any other of your readers has

seen an Indian elephant with tusks similarly pointing to the

heavens. |

THE KAcHARI GAon TEA Co.,- LtTD.,

TEZPUR, ASSAM. G. Do is MILLAR:

August 14, 10937.

VI.—ABNORMAL HORN GROWTH IN THE MUNTJAC

(MUNTIACUS VAGINALIS).

(With a photo),

I enclose a photograph of a Kakur head with two coronets on

one pedicle. The lower part of the horn is smooth and nearly black

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by G. D. L. Millar.

Abnormal Elephant Tusks.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 855

Abnormal horn of the Muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis).

with no covering of skin and as such distinct from the pedicle. The

animal had a very dark hide.

DuHaALrpuR P. O., HERBERTPUR,

DisTRIcT DEHRA-DUN, U.P., Vii PERE.

May 21, 1937. -

VII.—THE USE OF FIREWORK OR ROCKET

CARTRIDGES IN- THE PROTECTION OF CROPS.

I have recently experimented with excellent results on the use of

12-bore firework or rocket cartridges, in bolting elephants out of

ryots’ crops; the most suitable cartridge being the type bursting

with a brilliant flash and loud report at the end of flight. The

elephants stampede out in panic, and are chary of returning to

the same field that night. The cartridges are at present expensive,

about Rs. 17 per too, German made; with an increased demand

the makers should be able to produce them at half the price

and of the kind required, instead of an assortment of types in

packets as now sold. I venture to think that this may go a long

way to solving the vexed problem of the issue of gun licenses for

crop-protection, the majority of which now cover weapons used

chiefly for poaching. If the license prohibited the holder from

purchasing cartridges other than firework or rocket dealers would

not be able to supply anything else. The effect on crop-raiding

animals other than elephants would [ am sure be the same, The

856.- JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAD (VaIS Ts SOCIETY ioln exe

gun is aimed directly at, or a little above, the crop-raider, accord-

ing to distance.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN* P.Q;, Re Ce MORRIS:

December 3, 1936.

VIII.—SOME NOTES ON THE FAUNA OF MALAYA.

In my article ‘Marly Days in-Malaya’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxxvi, 241)

I mentioned that certain beasts and birds of India did not exist

in that country, and among these are the hyena, the jackal, the

vulture, the common kite, and the grey-necked crow. For the

ereater part the fauna of the two countries is the same, but it is

noticed that in some there is a slight difference in colouring, and

that in others the habits are not alike. Environment is respon-

sible for this, and while a darker or a lighter shade in colour is

due to habitat, the greater shyness noticeable may be accounted

for by the fact that it is only in recent years that certain denizens

of the forest have become acquainted with Man.

A few notes bearing on this might be of interest, and at the

same time I take the opportunity to record a few incidents

omitted previously, and to make observation as to the seeming

paucity of wild hfe in those jungles, which impression is only

corrected by a visit to one of the museums. The several museums

in Malaya contain stuffed specimens of a great variety of birds

which I have never seen in their wild state. JI lived in the

jungles for many years, and it was not that I was ignorant about

the birds being there, or that I did not look for them. It just

happened that they would not be seen. We know that pea-

fowl and the Argus pheasant are there, and in some districts

I was in they were all around me. I heard them, and looked

for them, but never saw one. It is not difficult to understand,

that, in forests carrying heavy undergrowth, walking up ground

birds is next to impossible, and as any attempt to do so is noticed

by them the chances of their coming back to oblige is very remote.

It is possible that certain of the wild life which I have stated

does not exist there, is known and reported on by naturalists, and

if this is the case it gives proof to my contention that these birds

and beasts are more shy of man than they are here.

Common birds lke shrikes, the weaver birds, the orioles,

wagtails, the woodpeckers, the kingfishers, the green _ barbets,

hocpoes, nightjars, and various pigeons and doves are in some

instances Malayan forms of those occurring in India, but the

jungle cock is not the jungle cock of the Nilgiris, the robin is not

the same, and the buzzard appears to live differently. Mynas in

Malaya are essentially jungle birds and are never seen near

human habitations. Among the wild beasts, the tiger has a

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 857

hking for dogs, and this I believe is not the case in India, and

I give instances of the carnivorous tendencies of the common wild

pig of the country. I include a few birds which perhaps do not

call for comparison, but notes on which may be of interest.

PEA-FOWL AND ARGUS PHEASANT.

The wild pea-fowl of South India is a shy bird, but it comes

out to feed on crops, and can be seen in the jungle. I doubt if

any sportsman in Malaya has ever shot one, and I have not met

any one who has even seen one. One does not hear of them doing

damage to crops, or that they ever come near villages, and old

Malays will tell you that they ean only be obtained by traps.

Like the pea-fowl the Argus pheasant is very seldom seen, and

I know of none having been shot. I lived for two years at a

place called Kendong on the borders of Malacca, where, judging

by the calls I heard in all directions every morning, they must

have been fairly numerous, and yet I never set eyes on one. I

endeavoured on many occasions with much patient stalking to try

and bag one, but without success. [| sometimes got so near that

the piercing call ‘pee-ow’ was most deafening, but the moment

I bobbed up the bird disappeared. It was on one of these occa-

sions that I saw a black panther tracking the same bird, and it

speaks well for my stalking that I saw the beast before he saw

me, but for a second only, and in that second both he and the

pheasant were gone. I have heard tell of the cock bird’s court-

ship dance and the circle on the ground he prepares for this,

but it has not been my good fortune ever to see one of these

erounds. I imagine the only means of getting a pheasant would

be to sit up all night in a tree and wait for the performance next

morning, but it would have to be a seat in a forked branch, as

I am sure the erecting of a machan would drive the bird away

into the next county.

SAMBHAR,

The Malayan sambhar is very destructive to young rubber

trees, and before proper methods of fencing were adopted many

thousands of pounds worth of damage was done by this ae

Strange to say he seemed to have no lking for seedlings, Jor

plants up to two and three years old, and since for aa Aiea

no fencing was found to be necessary, planters were lulled into

a sense a security from loss by damage from animals, and it

was quite suddenly that many estates w voke up to the fact that

the sambhar had discovered that the bark of four- and five-year old

trees was just what he wanted. Rubber planting was undertaken

on a large scale from about the year 1906, and at the end of

1910, when rubber was selling at twelve shillings the pound, any-

thing from five to ten millions of trees had reached the age as

food for deer. Damage was done on practically all the estates

I: knew in Negri Sembilan and Johore, and also in Malacca, and

at a low estimate I would put the number of trees destroyed, in

the first few years following on 1910, at 50,000; and the value

of a tree at that time was £2.

808 jOURNAL, BOMBAY WNATURAL usd SOGIE RY, VolmewOoes

Planters and Directors of Rubber Companies who might chance

on these notes would possibly think this a much exaggerated

statement, but thirty years is a long stretch and memories are

short lived, and I would ask them to refer back to old reports,

where they might read that in a certain field twenty or thirty

trees were wiped out in a night, or that during the month a

hundred trees were’ lost. These figures when spread over a period

of years, and occurring on not one but several estates, might

easily mount up to considerably more than the figure of fifty

thousand which I give, and which is only one per cent of five

million trees. Many thousands of pounds were spent on fences,

and once again a lesson was taught. Barbed wire fences erected

to a height of five feet appeared to be satisfactory for a few weeks

or perhaps a few months. The deer were suspicious of the fence

but they soon found out that they could jump it. Fences bordered

the jungle and there was no space for a running jump and this

meant they could leap over from a standing position. Higher

fences were required and the remedy was to interlace the wire

with saplings to a height of eight to ten feet, and this meant more

expense. It was noticed that when the tapping of trees was

commenced no new damage was done. It was not that the bark

had become harder and grown unsuited to the deer’s taste, since

un-tapped trees in the same field were still subject to attack. The

reason for this seems unexplainable.

I have never attempted to shoot a stag on the Nilgiris, but

for the fun of the game I have stalked and got within range on a

number of occasions. If driving is done, shooting is still more easy,

as on these hills the stag breaks cover to cross open country, and

as the woods are small a close shot can be had. Conditions are

very different in Malaya, and a sportsman who bags a sambhar

is a man who accomplishes something really difficult. Stalking

is impossible, and driving has to be done, but before a drive is

organized a tracker is sent in advance to locate the stag and then

to return and report. He knows to within fifty yards or so where

the stag is lying up, and by no means can you expect it to break

in country affording a clear view. The shooting has to be done

in the jungle, and a shot at a running stag under these conditions

is not easy. A clever shikari will drive him to the most open

“space available, but this might only mean that it is not so dense

as the area from which he breaks, and you may be sure when

he does reach this spot he bounds off faster than ever and makes

the proposition an exceedingly difficult one for the man behind

the gun. It is not always that the stag is seen, and my ex-

perience is that he is very seldom seen. One animal bagged over

a series of a dozen shoots is a fair average.

I should like to put in a word here about the Malay as a

tracker. I am told there are no better trackers than the jungle

people of India, and while not wishing to make any comparison,

I must say this for the Malay that he is clever at the game, is

reliable and keen, and possesses the useful trait of truthfulness,

and in this last respect can give points to the average professional

shikari of the Nilgiris, ane ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 859

On the Nilgiris I have more than once been asked to believe

that the marks made in the sand by a man who had run ahead

were the pug marks of a panther which had only just moved off,

and once I was shewn a cow which had died a natural death, and

which after death had been scratched about with a knife, and

was told that a panther had done this. A Malay would never

make himself out to be so great a fool, and he would be ashamed

to tell such. hes,

Witp Cats AND CIVETS.

There is a large variety of cats in the Malayan jungles, two

of which I have seen on the Nilgiris, viz. a large jungle cat

and a smaller spotted cat. On these hills I have also seen a

small species of civet. In Malaya we have this small civet, and

a very large one which measures four feet and over from nose

to tail.t I did not take accurate measurements of one that I shot,

but I estimated its length at fully fifty inches, and its weight

at twenty-five pounds. It was in tall grass, and when I fired

I thought I had brought down a panther. There are two cats

which are uncommon there, and which perhaps. might not be

generally known in this country. Description must necessarily be

difficult to one who has not taken up the study of Natural His-

tory, and I hope my endeavour at doing so will enable naturalists

to identify them. The first to mention is an animal as big as

the jungle cat, but of different colour and markings, with a long

tail and not the stumpy tail of the other. Its colour can be best

described as dark mahogany, and it has a black tip to its tail.

It is one of the most handsome cats I have seen, and having seen

and secured only one, I regret the skin is not with me now. It

was in my bungalow for many years, and as it may possibly be

still there I have written about it. The other cat is yellow, or

of a bright gold colour.? It is long in the body and has a long

tail, but is considerably smaller than the big civet mentioned.

I saw a pair walk across a stream over a fallen tree, and with

the sun shining on them they looked extremely pretty. It will

be interesting to know if these two cats are found in India. I

must recount here an incident which, although it might sound

like a Fairy Tale, is given exactly as it happened. My dog ‘Bob’

had killed quite a number of small civets which came after the

fruit we had growing round about the house. I used to let him

out early in the mornings, and very often he caught and killed

one of these animals which was late in getting back to the jungle.

One morning he did not rush out as he usually did, and in fact

would not move out of the house. He did not appear to be

sick, but no enticement on my part would induce him to come

1 The civets referred to are probably the Malay form of the Small Indian

Civet (V. indica klossi) while the larger civet is probably the Burmese Civet

(M. megaspila).—EDs.

* This may have been a small specimen of the Golden Cat (P. temminchi).

—Eps,

860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY UNATURAIS “HIST. 2SOCIETY.® VolsuGmaee

beyond the doorway, where he stood and sniffed the air in a

nervous way. I thought he must have sensed a tiger so I took

him inside to wait till the day grew brighter. An hour or so

after this my ear-driver, who knew about Bob’s skill as a killer,

casually mentioned that it was unfortunate the dog had not been

let out at his usual early hour as he might have killed several

civets that day. He went on to say that he had seen about

forty of them moving about in a body till sunrise. The man

was very definite about this, and although, after much question-

ine he reduced the number from forty to twenty, I felt there

was no doubt but that the civets were there in force and that

Bob knew this and was afraid of their numbers, or even had the

idea that they were there to do him in. There is the possibility

that there was a tiger about as well and that the civets were.

hanging about till it had gone.

I am reminded of something amusing that happened far up |

a river called the Palong. A naval officer friend was in camp

with me, and in one of the villages on the river we saw two cats

of a bright pink colour. Stewart, my camp mate, wanted to

buy them and in his best Malay offered a fairly big price, but

the honest old people whom he spoke to, laughed and told him

that the cats were white ones, and that they had been dyed.

Macacs.

There is a monkey in Malaya which Malays call ‘Broh’, and

which looks like a small edition of the South African baboon.

In its jungle haunts it is a fearsome beast and sometimes attacks

men, but when caught young is easily tamed and is made use

of to gather coconuts.

There is usually one ‘Broh’ in each. village which has been

taught to climb the coconut palm and drop the nuts which his

keeper makes him to distinguish by jerking his leading rope in a

peculiar way.

About twenty-five years ago one of these animals, a large male,

took up his quarters in a small area of reserved forest which

was practically in the heart of the town of Kuala Lumpur. He

was a danger to people, and bit several before he was rounded up

and killed.

WILD Pia.

Like the rest of hig kind, the wild pig of Malaya is a glutton.

It is known that he eats carrion, and in the pioneer days in

Perak, before the Authorities had had time to lay down Burial

Laws, or perhaps before they had the means to enforce such

laws, certain nationalities, careless in this respect, dug shallow

graves from which pigs had no trouble to exhume the dead bodies.

Cases were being constantly reported by construction engineers.

As a carnivorous animal he is not so well known, but when I

mentioned the following incident to a District Officer, a Mr.

Fieming, he told me he had on two or three occasions seen a

MISCELLANEOUS. .NOTES 861

wild boar attack and eat sheep and goats. The incident I record

is rather different, and is astonishing from the point of view that

the happening was so sudden and so unexpected on the part of

the victims. I met a Mr. Rae out for a walk with his two terriers,

and presently ahead of us we spied a herd of pig. The dogs

saw them at the same time and immediately gave chase. Warn-

ing Mr. Rae that his dogs would be hurt unless they were called

off, I followed him as he ran ahead to do this. We were in a

railway cutting, and by the time we had got round a curve the

pig had made their get away into the jungle and there was no

sign of the dogs. There were also no sounds to be heard, and we

were at a loss to know where to search, but while discussing our

next move I happened to pick up a dog’s collar, and in another

minute or two we discovered one other, both of which were recog-

nized.as belonging to the two dogs. The collars were found in

the open but there were no bones about, and the presumption

is that the dogs were surrounded and completely devoured. I

hope, if Mr. Rae should happen to come across this note, he will

kindly write to confirm the incident.

Coonoor, 8. INpIA,

October 2, 1985. H. FE. BURGESS.

IX.—SOME INTERESTING RECORDS OF BIRDS

UNG UE PUN | ab:

During the past three years my Shtkari and I between us have

secured specimens of the following birds in the South-East of the

Punjab. These have been examined by Mr. Hugh Whistler, who

has kindly furnished me with the particulars of previous records

given below:—

1. Metopidius indicus (Lath.). Bronze-winged Jacana.

A juvenile ¢ obtained at Karnal on 5th September, 1934.

There appears to be no previous Punjab record.

2, Emberiza aureola (Pall.). Yellow-breasted Bunting.

Q shot at Jagadri in the Ambala District on 5th March, 1935.

An adult ¢ was obtained in the same locailty by A. E. Jones

On 22nd February, 1920 (/.BUN..S., xxx, 1003).

3. Eurystomus orientalis (L.). Broad-billed Roller.

3g shot in the sal forest at Kalesar in the Ambala District on

tgoth May, 1935. No previous Punjab record has been traced.

4. Alcemerops athertoni (Jard. & Selby). Blue-bearded Bee-

Cater

Q obtained from a small flock in the Kalesar forest on 23rd

February, 1936. Stewart (Zoologist, 1886) records one shot at

Koteghar on October 2oth,

862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST.) SOCIETY, Vole XXX

5. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus sultanmeus (Hodgs.). Hodg-

@ obtained on 24th and ¢ on 26th February, 1936 in the

Kalesar forest. This appears to be the first record for the Punjab.

6. Pericrocotus speciosus speciosus (Lath.). Indian Scarlet

Minivet.

A pair obtained from a mixed flock of this and P. brevirostris

in thé Kalesar forest on 3rd December,”1936. "| have only ence

procured a pair north of Bilaspur; it does not seem to be found

in the interior of the hills’ (Stoliczka, J.A.S.B., 1868). A @ was

obtained at Garampani and ¢ Q at Pulga in the Kulu Sub-division

of the Kangra District in May (Mission Babault, p. 158).

. Hydrocissa malabarica malabarica Gmelin. Large Indian

Pied Hornbill.

@ shot in the Kalesar forest on 2nd December, 1936. “In

my father’s game-book there is a note about “‘black and white

Hornbills’’?’ found at Morni on 28th November, 1886. This can

only refer to this species, which occurs in Dr. Scott’s list under

the locality Siwaliks’ (Whistler, J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 176).

RAWALPINDI,

PUNJAB, H. W. WAITE, M.B.o.v.

NAY ee LOR. Indian Police.

X.—MIGRATORY MOVEMENTS OF THREE WELL KNOWN

BIRDS IN THE TANJORE AND SOUTH

ARCOT {DISPRICTS:

The three birds under reference are ‘The Indian Paradise

Flycatcher’, ‘The Rosy Pastor’ and ‘The Indian Oriole’.

Two of these birds are local migrants, while the Rosy Pastor

is a true migrant in the Tanjore and South Arcot Districts.

Observations have been recorded in the case of the Paradise

Flycatcher during four years and in the case of the other two birds

for three years, the results showing that the Paradise Flycatcher

is found during the period October to April, being absent for

approximately five months in the year. The Rosy Pastor is found

during the same period, but as the two departure dates are 13-4-35

and 19-2-36 it may be assumed that they stayed longer than usual

in 1935 or left earlier than usual in 10936.

The Indian Oriole is also found during the period October to

April, the date 22-5-36 is unusually late and is the last date on

which a female was seen in the South Arcot District. All other

orioles had left before this date in the Tanjore District,

€

NOTE

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864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

XJ.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF THE JUNGLE CROW

(CORVUS MACRORHYNCHUS) AND THE WHITE-

BACKED VULTURE (GYPS BENGALENSIS).

On the 30th May (1937) I came upon the remnants of a White-

backed Vulture’s (G. bengalensis) nest with a fully fledged young

one in it. During the absence of the parent the young bird

perched on neighbouring branches, made short flights and then

returned to its perch near the nest. As soon as the parent bird

arrived the young would flop into its nest, or rather what was

left of it, and behave like a true nestling, flapping its wings and

making all possible noises and movements in pleading to be fed.

The adult bird always alighted near the nest. Its arrival was the

signal for a pair of enterprising Jungle Crows immediately to be in

attendance, to snatch the crumbs that fell, as I then thought. But

the crows behaved quite differently—theirs was not the role of

Lazarus. As soon as the adult vulture regurgitated some food for

her young the crows would either sit on the young vulture’s back

or fly to its mouth and try to snatch a morsel. The old bird

attempted from time to time to drive the crows away but they

moved out of reach to return again the next instant.

When the adult vulture departed the crows left the nest and

the young bird again took up its perch on its favourite branch;

but on the return of the parent the same manceuvres were repeated.

BomBay NATURAL History SOcIETy,

May 31, 1937:

BomBay. C. McCANN.

XII.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHITE-EARED

BULBUL |MOLPASTES. LEUCOGENYS "LEUCOTTsS

(GOULD)| IN THE SWAMPS NEAR TEE

VAITARNA RIVER.

Messrs. Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali in their paper on

‘The Birds of -Bombay and -Salsette (/.6. N75. xxix, ap aon)

with reference to the status of the White-eared Bulbul (Molpastes

leucogenys leucotis) suggest that the occurrence of this bird, within

the area dealt with in their paper, is perhaps due to escaped birds

breeding within the area, or to an immigration from further north.

If anything, the second suggestion appears to be more likely. On

the 2oth March this year (1937) while walking along the swamps

between Virar and the Vaitarna River, I observed the bird to be

fairly plentiful. It ‘associated’ with M. cafer cafer and Otocompsa

f. fusciaudata and roosted in the swamps. The bird appeared to

be definitely established in the locality. Later, I have observed the

bird in the swamps at Ghorbunder, Salsette Island.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 865

There seems to be little doubt, as the authors suggest, that

this bird appears to be associated with the distribution of Salvadora

persica.

BOMBAY NATURAL HIsToRY SOCIETY,

BOMBAY. : C, McCANN.

WWE 27) TOS7,.

Polit brit SOUTER N- INDIAN “KOLLER? OR BLUE, JAY

[CORACIAS BENGHALENSIS INDICA (LINN.)|

KILLING: A SMALL SNAKE.

Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern India refer to the

Roller killing and eating mice and small reptiles and in the Journal

of the Society, No. xxxix, p.179 there is an interesting note

regarding this bird killing ond eating a large scorpion.

While out on the 3rd December this year I noticed a Roller

suddenly fly up from an aloe hedge with a small live snake 8 or

g inches in length in its beak. The snake was held just behind

the head and was twisting about trying to get a grip on some

portion of the bird. The Roller was uttering its harsh cry all

the while and although the snake’s struggles almost caused it to

release its hold it eventually made for a palmyrah palm where it

is presumed it killed the snake.

I have seen a Crow-Pheasant sitting on a rail along the railway

track engaged in killing a large black scorpion and it is presumed

it was going to eat it as I did not see the whole operation due

to the bird becoming alarmed and flying away with the scorpion

in its beak.

TANJORE,

February 9, 1937. CF H -BIDDULPH,

SIV. (BREEDING OF THE LITTLE INDIAN NIGHTJAR

(CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS ASIATICUS) IN

Tire cCHinGceePpy il DISTRICE,

(With a plate),

I see in the report of the ‘Vernay Ornithological Survey of the

Basten) Ghats” (vol. xxxvit, No. 1, August 1935, p. 39) that

‘nothing has been recorded about the breeding season’ of the Little

Indian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus in the Presidency

of Madras. It may therefore be of interest to record that on July

Tith,;.1937, my husband and I disturbed a nightjar in an exposed

spot in-the scrub jungle near the foot of the Tambaram Hiils

(100-200 ft.), and, after some search, discovered a single egg, on

866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

the ground among the stones and rocks. It was brownish-pink

much mottled with darker red, and somewhat lighter than the sur-

rounding stones. We were not able to return to this place until

August Ist; we then found that the egg had disappeared from the

spot where we had seen*it on July 11th, but after careful search

we found the nightjar some yards lower down the hillside, crouched

low with its chin on the rump of the chick. Not even when we

bent over ‘them to examine them did either move; in “oie up

the hill to the place where we had previously seen the egg, we

must almost have trodden on them, but not the slightest movement

had attracted our attention.

On August 5th we went again, hoping to photograph the two,

but they had again moved, and while we were searching among

the stones, from somewhere close behind us the nightjar flew up

and past us, followed immediately by the young one; they took

shelter among the rocks and thorny bushes of the hillside, where

we could not find them.

We believe this nightjar to be Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus ;

the bird with the ‘tuk tuk tuk tukeroo’ call.is abundant in the

scrub jungle of this district (16 miles S.W. of Madras City) as

in our garden, and has been seen and heard by us in every month

of the year, during the five years in which we have been resident

here; and as we not infrequently flush nightjars under the bushes

in the day time, we have been able to compare them with the

descriptions in Birds of Southern India by Baker and Inglis, and

in Whistler, and there seems little doubt that these birds are

C.22G. aAsiaticus.

The moving of the nesting position has also been observed by

us in what, we believe to be C. indicus indicus. On April 28th

1935, we discovered a nightjar and two eggs among the rocks

and stones on a hillside on the Ootacamund Downs (about 8,000

ft.); when revisiting the place a few days later, we found that

the eggs had been moved several feet, and on May r11th, we

found the young birds in still another spot. An interesting feature

was the difference in the behaviour of the parent bird before and

after the hatching of the young. Each time when disturbed by

us when sitting on the eggs, the bird flew straight up and swiftly

away to a considerable distance; but after the chicks were hatched

it flew slowly along the ground, flapping and dragging a wing as

though wounded, and settled at only a short distance from its

young.

We found a nightjar and two young on the Bikkepatti Ridge

(about 6,500 ft.) on the N.W. edge of the Nilgiris on May 5th

1932; this we also believe to be C. i. indicus. In this case also,

the parent bird tried to distract our attention by much flapping

along the ground. The two chicks kept their eyes tightly shut,

and were so motionless and matched the stony ground so completely,

that in our search for them we were actually looking at them for

some time without realising their presence.

I enclose a photograph we took of the Ootacamund nightjar

chicks. It will be seen in the photograph that the feathers where

the chick is in contact with the ground when squatting are fluffy.

40Y9I AQ 0704d

(snsypisy snspnutrzdv7) relZystN UeIpuy UOWWOD oy Jo syory)

‘00S ‘ISIH “LVN AvVaWwog ‘Nunof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 867

This makes the outline of the bird obscure, and is no doubt an

important factor in the camouflage.

MapRAS: CHRISTIAN COLLEGE,

TAMBARAM, ALICE D. BARNES.

CHINGLEPUT DISTRICT,

Seplemover A,’ 1937.

AV.—ON THE BREEDING OF THE OYSTERCATCHER

(HAEMATOPUS OSTRALEGUS SUBSP.) AND OTHER

BIRDS IN THE BENGAL SUNDERBUNDS.

It seems high time that the rather terse statement in the second

edition of the Fauna (vol. vi, 167) in regard to the Oystercatcher

was amplified. Writing of the Chinese race (Haematopus ostralegus

vsculans) Mr. Baker says: ‘An Oystercatcher, probably of this

race, has been obtained with its eggs, breeding on an island in

the Sunderbunds, but the skin has not been available for com-

parison.’ This is repeated, almost word for word, by the same

author in the Waders and Semi-Sporting Birds of India. The

actual facts may perhaps now be placed on record.

In the Easter Holidays of April 1922, I had the good fortune

to be the guest of Mr. L. R. Fawcus, t.c.s., then Collector of

Khulna in Bengal. We spent then about too miles south of

Khulna on the sea-shore, an area in which owing: to the almost

complete absence of fresh water, Man is, or was then, conspicuous

by his absence, and which was a paradise for birds of all kinds,

spotted deer, pig, etc. On April 21st we saw a pair of Oyster-

catchers on a long narrow strip with scattered stones along it.

The next day (April 22nd) they were in the same place and we

had little difficulty in watching the hen bird on to her nest which’

contained fresh eggs. These eggs we took and they were later

given by Mr. Fawcus to Mr. Stuart Baker. The birds nested again

near the same place and on a subsequent visit Mr. Fawcus saw

the young ones. In the cold weather of 1933-34, he again saw

a pair there but, as he only had a rifle, was unable to secure a

specimen.

On the Easter Sunday, we rather foolishly tried to plod out

across the mud of the bay to an island some three or four miles

out at sea, over which we could see a great cloud of Terns hover-

ing. This trip might well have ended disastrously, as, for the

greater part of the journey, the mud was over our knees, and it

was impossible to take more than six laborious steps at a time.

Eventually after some hours we managed to struggle back to

land and later just managed to reach the island at high-tide in

a row-boat. We found it covered with a very large breeding colony

of Gull-billed Terns (Gelochelidon nilotica) whose eggs—many quite

fresh—were all over the island. They were remarkably tame and

shewed little fear of our party. There were also two colonies,

each of 30-40 pairs of the Large Crested Tern (Thalasseus bergit

868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WHIST™ SOCIETY, Vol xox

subsp.). Unlike those of the Gull-billed Tern, these nests were

almost touching each other, bare hollows in the sand each: con-

taining one egg. The close-packed snowy mass of sitting birds

was a most beautiful sight, and well worth the difficulty we had

had in reaching them. [Equally remarkable was the varied colour-

ing of the eggs. I took one series of 18 eggs from adjoining

nests, each diiterent from the next and. rangins in’ colour from

heather-purple to almost pure white, but an accident unfortunately

destroyed a number of these before they reached the South

Kensington Museum in 1923.

On the same island, we found a nest of Esacus recurvirostris,

the Great Stone Plover, with one of the eggs just chipping. This

bird went back on to her eggs while I sat within fitteen yards

of her, being doubtless anxious to shield the egys from the. fierce

midday sun. She sat there on them panting with her mandibles

open.

When on leave in 1923) 1 mem Mr. FF. CroRS jourdainyand

Mr. Stuart Baker at the South Kensington Museum and told them

the above facts. The eggs of the Oystercatcher and some other

eggs were eventually given by Mr. Fawcus to Mr. Baker, with

full data as to their origin. It was not however possible to

obtain skins to decide the geographical races of the birds

mentioned.

Since this trip, which I owe to Mr. Fawcus’ kindness, I have

kept a close lookout for the Oystercatcher in Burma _ without

success. It is not likely to occur in ‘North Burma’ (Fauna) where

there is no sea-coast but may well occur from Arakan South and

East to the Tenasserim coast. Mr. S. F. Hopwood tells me he

saw Oystercatchers near China Bakir (Hanthawaddy) about 1927

((.B.ON.HS., xxxvi, 4. April)1935) sand. Mrs, Crs Whiner shon

one on the Bassein coast in 1914.

It is improbable that they breed, except very locally, on the

Burma coast. I have searched several areas for them in vain.

WINCHESTER, 1. Ky STANT ORD:

May 3, 1937. Indian Civil Service.

XVI—EARLY AND LATE SNIPE.

I find from my game book from entries of 30 years that the

earliest I have shot snipe in India is rst September at Loralai and

also on the same day of the month at Peshawar. I have seen snipe

in Baluchistan, but not shot any, on 20th August. In Southern

India, Hyderabad, I have generally got my first snipe early in

October and once, this year, the zoth September. Other guns

got snipe early in September this year at Hyderabad.

In Northern India and Baluchistan I have shot snipe up till

the end of March with an occasional bird in April and a good

bag at Parachinar in the Kurram Valley in April.

In Hyderabad I have shot snipe every year as late as the first

week of April and this year got 34 couple of full snipe at Bijapur

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 869

im Bastar otatevon 18th April. Last year in South Chanda, C.P.,

not far from Bijapur I saw several snipes on 17th April.

All the April snipes I have shot and seen in’ Hyderabad and

Chanda have been in wooded cover near permanent springs or

in the soakage behind the embankments of big tanks. These

snipes are very dark in colour, sluggish in flight and inclined to

lie very close especially in undergrowth. When flushed they utter

a cry quite different from the ordinary ‘scrape’ of a snipe.

The number seem very late and this year also the early snipe

gives the impression that they are family units and that the birds

remain in India all the summer, possibly breeding here. It would

be very easy to get someone to observe the tank at Bijapur, because

the snipe there are well known to the local people and are found

along and below the embankment between the two halves of the

village.

H.Q. 4TH (SEC’BAD) CAVALRY Gade ta P, BERESFORD mec.

BRIGADE, Brigadier.

BoOLARUM.

EDL! 2G GUO 37.

XVII.—THE BREEDING OF THE LITTLE GREEN

BITTERN (BUTORIDES STRIATUS JAVANICUS)

IN “SALSETTE ISLAND.

On the 30th May (1937) I found a nest containing three young

of the Little Green Heron Bittern (Butorides striatus javanicus) at

Ghorbunder. The nest, a rude construction of loosely-put-together

twigs, was situated in the thin branches of a mango tree some

thirty feet from the ground. The tree was some distance from

the water’s edge of the creek.

The three young showed a remarkable range in size, but this

was particularly true of the smallest, which was almost half the size

of the other two—probably a weakling. On approaching the nest

the ‘youngest’ bird remained sitting in the nest while the other

two walked out of it on to the thinnest branch for safety and

were captured with some difficulty. Besides being able to walk

with ease along the thin branches, I noticed that they used with

good effect their necks as ‘hook’ to aid them. in climbing. The

neck would be hooked over a branch and the legs then brought

up and with a little flapping they would lift themselves on the

new perch.

The young were partially in down but the quills of the feathers

were in evidence all over. The down is a dark smoky grey all over

except round the belly where it is almost white.

The parent bird (male) returned shortly after being disturbed

and was secured. On examining the gullet, which seemed swollen,

at was found to contain 2 specimens of Belone strongylura V. Hass,

84 and 64 inches long respectively and the head of a Syagnaid.

870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATWRAE AHIST! SOCIETY, Vol x xoux

This ‘bird is a. local» resident, but as far°as I am: aware ithe mest

has not been recorded from the area.

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

BomBay, C. McCANN.

VEG OTs ORT.

XVIII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BITTERN (BOTAURUS S.

STELEARIS) IN - SOUTH MYSORE:

While shooting round the edge of a tank near Nanjangud,

about 12 miles south of Mysore City, on 12 December 1936, I

flushed a Bittern from the reeds and shot it.

As this bird is stated in F.B.J., 2nd edition to range only so

far as Bangalore, its’ occurrence neatly. 100, miles, stills iugther

south may be worth recording.

Identification was kindly confirmed by Mr. Hugh Whistier to

whom a wing was sent.

KALHATTI ES! Go PEAY EVAN ADAMS:

NILGIRIS, Major I.A. (Retired).

April 2A 1937.

XIX.—SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE STAR-SHELLED

TORTOISE (TESTUDO ELEGANS).

Apart from the characteristic concavity observed in the males

of most Chelonians, and the frequent disparity in size often

observed between the sexes, little seems to have been recorded

regarding the sexual characters. Recently the Society received two

pairs of the Star-shelled Tortoise (Testudo elegans) from H .H. The

Maharaja of Bhavnagar. A careful examination of the specimens

showed clearly marked sexual differences.

Carapace: In the females the colouring of the shell is much

brighter and more pronounced, the humping of the dorsal shields

(in particular) is much more pronounced, and the posterior and

anterior marginal shields are far more serrated and the points

more acute.

Legs: The forelegs in the females carry large and more conical

scales (almost free in the upper #) and the hind feet are armed

with much longer claws, probably a provision for excavating the

egg chamber at the time of deposition.

Tail: In. females. the tail 1s\ reduced: to a) niere’ short. conteal

stump whereas in the males it 1s much more elongated and if

straightened will protrude almost a couple of inches beyond the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Ok

shell. Normally, however, the tail is carried adpressed to the shell,

curled up behind: either of the hind legs.

The above details apply to adult specimens,

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

BomBay, C, McCANN.

Ameust-A, 1037.

XX.—OCCURRENCE OF PSAMMOPHIS CONDANARUS ?

IN BERAR.

A snake found at Chikalda (Berar) at about 3,500 ft. in the

Melghat hills by E. Berchten in June 1937 seems to come nearest

to the above. It agrees with the descriptions of this species by

Wall (How to Identify the Snakes of India, 1923) and Boulenger

(F.B.I., Reptilia & Batrachia, 1890) except on the following

points:—It disagrees with Wall in having 15 instead of 17 rows

at 2 head-lengths behind head and only ist (not rst and second)

supralabials touching the nasal. The localities given by Wall are

‘Cutch, Punjab, Sind, Ganges basin and Burma’.

It disagrees with Boulenger mainly in colour (rather markedly)

and in the distribution which he gives as ‘This species has hitherto

only been recorded from the Punjab, Cutch, the North-West

Provinces, Simla, Bengal, the Kurnool district, and Pegu’.

The following is a general description of the specimen sent.

iencthmio, ime. @ostals T5317; 12; Ventrals 173 >sub-caudals 74;

Anal divided; one rather long loreal. Scaling of the tree-snake

type without apical pits or ventral keel.

Colour: The head is* pale olive brown above with a darker

line from the snout, passing through the eye and fading on the

nape; the upper and lower lips, chin and throat are pure shining

white, each infralabial and some of the adjacent scales of the

throat having a rusty speck (marking a pit?) in the centre of

each. The upper parts of the body are pale olive brown above

fading a little on the flanks. There is a dark brown median

stripe edged sharply with black formed as follows:—The vertebral

row and one row on either side of it dark brown, the next row

on either side has each scale dark brown on its inner edge, black

in the middle and pale olive, like the rest of the upper surface,

on its outer edge. The belly is yellow each ventral having a

rusty line: mear each end. These lines are shorter in front but

become almost continuous from about mid-body onwards. The

iris 1s pale yellow and the pupil round.

FOREST OFFICE,

NAGPUR, G. Ps. i Oy SHEBBEARE:

JUNCAIOs (1627.

[The specimen referred to above was submitted to Dr. Malcolm

Smith for verification and we give below his reply.

872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HISTo SOCIETY.” Vol, Xxx

‘Many thanks for the interesting snake. I identify it provi-

sionally as Psammophis condanarus, which is more variable in

colour than is usually supposed.’—Eps. ].

XXIL—SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN THE SEASNAKE

[DISTIRA CYANOCINCTA (DAUD.)].

On the 3rd May this year, Mr. J. B. Greaves, sent the Society

a pair of live Distira cyanocincta which he had found in copulation

at Mervi-malad, near Bombay. While examining the specimens I

noticed that they exhibited certain differences which may be

recorded as possible sexual characters.

(a) The colour banding of the body in the male was markedly

stronger, and the rings were more complete than in the female.

(b) The low jaw in the male was very distinctly coloured burnt

sienna fading out a little beyond the base of the head. The

colouration was not present in the female.

the amaie;

(d) The tail in the male was markedly thicker than in the

female.

(e) In the male the scales of the body and particularly those

on the head, were strongly keeled, much more so than in the

female. The scales of the female were much smoother and more

shiny, particularly the head scales.

Later, on consulting Col. Wall’s A Popular Treatise on the

Common Indian Snakes (J].B.N.H.S., xxvi, p. 436) I have found

the following remark :—‘The very distinctive keels and their serra-

tions are much more conspicuous in males where they are sometimes

most pronounced and even spinous on the belly. In females and

young though somewhat obscure they are usually discernible if

looked for.’

With regard to the time of the year when this species breeds

in India, Col. Wall has no information owing to the specimens

he examined. having .no date. However, for Siam he records a

gravid female, from the Chantabum river, as having been captured

in March (1916). This specimen contained embryos to--10} inches

long. In the present instance the female measured 3 ft. 9 in. long

and contained approximately 30 eggs of various sizes, the largest

of which measured 1 x# in.

BomBay NATURAL History SOCcIETY,

BOMBAY. . C. McCANN.

May 20,- 1937.

XXII.—BREEDING SEASON OF THE JEW’S NOSED

SEASNAKE [ENHYDRINA VALAKADYEN (BOIE)|

IN BOMBAY WATERS.

On the 15th March this year (1937) a large female of the Jew’s

Nosed Seasnake (Enhydrina valakadyen) was caught in the fisher-

men’s net at Mora, Uran Island. On dissection the specimen was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 873

found to contain eleven eggs, with embryos measuring approxi-

mately 42.5 mm.

Col. Wall in his paper A Popular Treatise on the Common Indian

Snakes (j.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 805) states that the breeding period

varies from 12th November till February in Cannanore, and that

young measuring 124-17 inches were obtained from Madras in June.

The Bombay specimens would thus breed a little later than those

in South India.

Bompay Natura, History SOCIETY,

BomBay. C. McCANN.

May 27, 1937.

XXITI.—FREAK SEEDLING OF THE GRAPE FRUIT.

(With a photo).

Seedling of Grape Fruit in Flower.

A Grape Fruit seedling two months old, in flower. This 1s

considered very uncommon with this particular variety of Citrus

plants as they are not known to flower before the seventh year.

Noe srr Colvin: ROAD;

ALLAHABAD, Mrs. MARGARET RATH.

874 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. KXXXIX

XXIV.—SOME OBSERVATIONS ON BOTANICAL

NOMENCLATURE.

Alteration in the botanical names by which plants are known

is so frequent a cause of complaint, especially by applied botanists,

that is to say horticulturists, agriculturists, foresters, etc., that

some explanation for the reasons underlying such changes seems

desirable.

In the early days of plant classification the names used were

vague and often consisted of several words giving a brief descrip-

tion of the plant. For instance: the common Elder was termed

Sambucus caule arboreo ramoso floribus umbellatis by Royen in

1740. At that period too, and for many years after, there was

comparatively little communication between botanists and but little

literature and small opportunity for comparing plants handled by

the several workers. Everyone had to depend almost entirely on

the published descriptions. As few species were then known it

was considered that brief indication of the general relationship

and one or two individual characters sufficed, with the result that

the descriptions were usually meagre and have proved often very in-

adequate for the determination of the plant without seeing the

very specimen from which the description was made. Given these

premises it will readily be apprehended that quite frequently the

same species was separately named and described by different

workers under different names, and, on the other hand, different

workers identified entirely different plants with some other named

and described by another scientist. An example of these sources

of error will be found in the genus Terminalia. Linnaeus described

one species under the name of Terminalia Catappa; at a somewhat

later date Lamark described the same species as T. moluccana ;

later still Roxburgh, believing that he had the same species as

Lamark’s, identified with it one of the varieties of JT. belerica;

-finally Wallich inscribed the same name on a sheet of his

Herbarium Catalogue. Thus we have three separate species to

which the name T. moluccana has been applied.

The first great step towards an orderly nomenclature was taken

by the Swede “Carl von Limne,; who, in 1753, propounded) the

binomial system under which every species of plant bears two

names only: the first is that of the genus to which it belongs and

therefore indicates its general affinity, and the second is its indi-

vidual or specific epithet. This was an obvious advantage in every

direction, especially in brevity for now the common Elder becomes

Sambucus nigra of Linnaeus.

Nevertheless, this system in itself does not dispel the confusion

occasioned by the factors explained above, a confusion that assumed

such alarming proportions that it was found necessary to discuss

the situation at the International Botanical Congress held in Paris

in 1867. A set of rules drawn up by Alphonse de Candolle was

adopted under the title: ‘Lois de la nomenclature de botanique.’

Experience showed, however, that these rules were not ‘fool-proof’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 875

but lent themselves to diverse interpretations in part. Consequent-

ly, at the second International Congress at Vienna in 1905 they

were further discussed and certain modifications were accepted and

incorporated in the International Rules of Nomenclature. Addi-

tions and modifications have been effected at subsequent meetings

of the Congress, including the last that took place at Amsterdam

in 1935. The resolutions carried on this last occasion are still

being investigated and formulated by the appropriate committees

and their publication may be expected by the end of 1936 or

soon after.

The following are some of the more important points in the

rules as they now stand:

1. The name of any species must consist of a combination

of a generic name followed by a specific epithet. They may be

followed by the name of a further subdivision, e.g. a varietal

name. . .

2. The same name cannot be applied to distinct genera, nor

the same epithet to two distinct species in the same genus.

3. No name is accepted unless it is effectively published:

that is to say, that it has been made known generally to botanists

by publication in some accessible work and is accompanied by a

description of the group or by detailed figures. Therefore, mere

names unaccompanied by a description or only in manuscript or

not generally accessible to botanists, are not valid.

4. When choice has to be made between two _ validly

published names applied to the same plant, the rule of priority

comes into play and the earlier published name must be accepted,

subject to the exceptions noted later.

5. Priority is based on the year of publication of Linnaeus’s

fundamental work Species Plantarum in 1753. Names published

earlier than that need not be taken into account.

6. <A validly published name, even though illegitimate under

the rules, is not available for a different plant. Thus: Picea Abies

is the correct name under the rules for the common Spruce. Abies

Picea was the combination applied to the same species by Miller

in 1768; but for this fact this last combination would be the

correct name for the silver fir for which it cannot be used under

the rules as it is preoccupied, and the silver fir must bear the

name Abies alba Mill.

7. Recognising that changes in generic names are to be

avoided as far as possible, especially where well-known names are

concerned, it was decided to establish a list of ‘nomina conser-

vanda’ which preserves certain generic names as against obscure

though more correct ones if priority were strictly adhered to, e.g.

the genus Ailanthus of Desfontaines (1789) is conserved in pre-

ference to Pongelion of Adanson (1763). This rule does not apply

to specific names, which cannot be conserved.

8. The name of the author of a generic name or a specific

combination should be written (often abbreviated) after the name.

When a species is transferred from one genus to another the

specific epithet is retained and the name of the original author

should appear in brackets followed by that of the transferer,

876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voly 2OodX

Thus, the first name given to the common Spruce by Linnaeus

was Pinus Abies. Subsequently the plant was transferred to the

genus Picea by Karsten and became Picea Abies (Linn.) Karst.

This citation of the author is essentially an abbreviated

reference to the place of publication and also indicates approximately

the date of publication. Further, it is very necessary in cases

where more than one species has been given one and the same

name as with Terminalia moluccana mentioned earlier.

The above epitome is, of course, far from exhaustive; a full

discussion would take far too much space. I would refer anyone

anxious for a fuller account to an excellent resume: by Miss o\E Ie

Green which appeared in vol. 10, No. 1 of the’ Empive Porestry

Journal in 1931. Indeed, I have had this publication under con-

stant reference while compiling this note and have, in places,

copied the wording and used the illustrations.

We may now consider the main reasons which make a change

of name imperative.

1. If the same name is given to two different species the one

described and validly published at the earlier date retains the

name and the other must have a new name. This has occurred

in the case: of genera as well as’ of -species, “An “example ol the

former lies in Bassia. In 1766 Alliont bestowed that name on

an Australian genus of the Chenopodiaceae. Koenig suggested

the same name for a genus of the family Sapotaceae and this

was accepted and published by the younger Linnaeus in 1771. As

two genera cannot bear the same name and Allioni was the first

to publish it, Bassia must remain the name for the genus in the

Chenopodiaceae and the later genus must take the next available

name given to it which is Madhuca, by which name the Indian

trees previously grouped under the name Bassia must now be

known.

2, When a species has been misidentified with a _ validly

described species and is discovered to be something different, it

must receive another name.. I have already cited as an instance

the case of Terminalia moluccana.

3. When a genus is subdivided into two. or more genera,

one of the divisions will retain the original name and the others

will be provided with fresh generic names. As a case in point

I may cite the large genus Eugenia from which the genera Syzy-

gium, Jambosa and Meteoromyrtus have been segregated. The

original specific epithets must be retained in the new genera unless

the combination has already been used, as was indicated in the

case of Abies Picea.

4. When the true identity of an effectively published plant,

which was uncertain for one reason or another, is established and

it 1s found to be identical with another plant described at a later

date, the first published name must stand. Thus, Cyperus

imbricatus of Retzius being insufficiently described was considered

to be unidentifiable and was omitted from the Flora of British India.

The original specimen on which Retzius founded this species came

to light and it was then found to be identical with the sedge

described at a much later date by Vahl under the name C. radiatus,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 877

This latter binomial must relapse into synonymy and Retzius’s

name stands as the correct name for the species.

Those engaged on the economic application of botanical

knowledge have represented that they have neither the time nor

the facilities for keeping abreast with nomenclatural research and

often are unable to ascertain the correct name that should be

applied to some important species owing to the changes enforced

by the rules. This difficulty was admitted at the Congress at

Amsterdam in 1935. Accordingly, it was resolved to draw up a

list of the important economic and ornamental plants named _ in

accordance with the International Rules, which list shall remain

in force for the usage of such applied botanists for a period of

ten years. A special committee was appointed to consider all the

species for which claim for inclusion has been put forward and

it is hoped that the list will be ready for publication before

long.

KEw.

Ce B.C, FISCHER.

XXV.—THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES.

I am afraid this note is somewhat belated and contains very

imperfect information, but I have just been re-reading Mrs.

Robinson’s article published in vol. xxxvii, No. 1 of 15-8-35 and

think it may contain some scraps of information which may be of

interest.

At least four species of Strobilanthes flowered profusely in

every sholah on these hills between the months of August 1936

and April 1937, in fact almost every Strobilanthes plant growing

under our heavy evergreen forest seems to have flowered and

died during this period. The sholahs on our grass hills, where

the undergrowth was almost entirely Strobilanthes, now present

an extraordinary appearance in being bare of undergrowth where

a short time ago they were dense. The bison who browse freely

on Strobilanthes leaves must find their feeding somewhat

restricted. In the dry months of the year from December to

March the bison often do not visit the dry grass for quite long

periods but stay inside any sholah which is large and thick enough,

browsing on Strobilanthes and other shrubs.

I am afraid I do not know enough about the genus to identify

each species positively, but you may be able to identify some of

them from the following descriptions. I would emphasise that

every plant I have seen flowering in this period has been growing

either in, or on the edge, of evergreen forest. The big flowering

of S. Kunthianus which I reported in.1934 all took place on the

open grass land and I saw none of it flowering in the open this

year; in fact the seedlings from this flowering are only just

beginning to show up in any quantity.

878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIX

The following are the distinct forms I noted in this present

flowering.

(1) A dense growing shrub with small thin bright green smooth

leaves, growing up to 8 ft. high on fairly thin stems which tend

to bend over under the weight of leaves and flowers. The flowers

are carried on the stems in bunches and at first glance the clusters

of buds look exactly like large ears of oats or Brome Grass. The

buds and flowers are sticky to the touch although the leaves are

smooth. The flower is small. It is often white and occasionally

tinged with a delicate blue.

The plant is very common on the edges of all the jungle belts

here, 3,600 ft. and is equally common at“6,000 ft.) 1t itheives

in any place where the jungle is thin and it can get a bit light,

but does not do well where the jungle is thick. It was the first

to appear in flower and the last to finish. JI can remember having

seen this in flower before shortly after I came here in 1924, but

have no record of the date although I think it was probably 1925-6.

(2) A big sturdy shrub which grows thickly to about 7-8 ft.

in our swamps and anywhere on the edges of jungle where there

is moisture, such as round the edges of rock outcrops.

The stems are sturdy and thick; the leaves are big and broad,

very prettily tinged with dark red underneath, and are rough

and hairy. The florescence is a compact dark brown cone about

3 to 4 inches long very like a polished fir cone to look at and

about the same thickness. Each flower in the cone opens

individually and barely shows up as a very dark blue with orange

red stamens. The flower stem is so short that when open each

flower only just protrudes from the cone and except for the orange

colour of the stamens might not be noticed at all.

Like the first I have seen this flowering before and at the same

time about 1925-6. -

(3) A plant very similar in general appearance to the last with

broad hairy dark green leaves but no under tinge or red. This

grows well under heavy shade as well as on lighter patches and

the stems are often thick enough to use for walking sticks. The

flower is a mauvy blue. It is common in sholah at all elevations

but particularly so in the stunted jungle at the open grass level

6-8,o00 ft. I have not seen it flowering before, and as far as

I can remember since 1925, the sholahs on the grass hills where

it has now flowered and died have always had a plentiful supply

of this undergrowth.

(4) A plant with much smaller dark green rough leaves and of

a much denser shrubby appearance growing up to about 5-8 ft.

high. The flower is a delicate mauvy blue. This also prefers

the lighter edges of jungle and rock out-crops. I think this is

probably Kunthianus, the increased growth of the bush being due

to its growing under shelter and not in the open. I have not

seen this flowering before.

I am sorry that this note is not more exact and that I did not

collect specimens, but it is probably worth while recording for the

future reference of anyone in 1947-8. It is of interest that the

S.W. monsoon of 1935 was very much more open and sunny than